WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 16070 EOK 07/71
OCEANOGRAPHY OF THE NEARSHORE
COASTAL WATERS OF THE PACIFIC
NORTHWEST RELATING TO POSSIBLE
POLLUTION
VOLUME I
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY • WATER QUALITY OFFICE
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes
the results and progress in the control and abatement
of pollution in our Nation's waters. They provide a
central source of information on the research , develop-
ment, and demonstration activities in the Water Quality
Office, Environmental Protection Agency, through inhouse
research and grants and contracts with Federal, State,
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial
organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Head, Project Reports
System, Office of Research and Development, Water Quality
Office, Environmental Protection Agency, Room 1108,
Washington, D. C. 20242.
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OCEANOGRAPHY OF THE NEARSHORE COASTAL WATERS OF THE PACIFIC
NORTHWEST RELATING TO POSSIBLE POLLUTION
'Volume I
by
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
for the
WATER QUALITY OFFICE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Grant No. 16070 EOK
July,, 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Washington, D.0.20402 - Price $6.24
Stock Number 6M1-0140
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Water
Quality Office, EPA, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
11
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ABSTRACT
This study is limited to the coastal zone of the Pacific Northwest
from high tide to ten kilometers from shore, and does not include
estuaries and bays. The literature has been reviewed in 21 chapters
including chapters on geology, hydrology, winds, temperature
and salinity, heat budget, waves, coastal currents, carbon dioxide
and pH, oxygen, nutrients, and biology. Special chapters deal
with field studies on thermal discharges, heat dispersion models,
pulp and paper industrial wastes, trace metals, radiochemistry,
pesticides and'chlorine, thermal ecology, and biology of 20 selected
species. A summary chapter is entitled "The nearshore coastal
ecosystem: an overview. " The bibliography contains more than
3100 entries, most from the open literature, but some from
unpublished reports.
A separate volume includes the following appendices: 1. Wind
Data; 2. Temperature and Salinity Data; 3. Wave Data; 4. Trace
Metals (including trace metal toxicities); 5. Pesticide Toxicities;
6. Oxygen, Nutrient, and pH Data; 7- Radionuclides; and 8. An
Annotated Checklist of Plants and Animals (including more than
4400 species).
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16070EOK
under the sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1
PART I. PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS 5
Chapter ?.. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE PACIFIC
NORTHWEST COAST 7
Chapter 3. GEOLOGY 13
Geology and Geomorphology 13
Sediments 14
Sediment Motion 14
Seismology 16
Sources of Information 20
Nearshore Topography 20
Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY 25
Chapter 5. WINDS 29
General 29
Winds Measured from Shore Stations 31
Offshore Wind Observations 34
Corrected Geostrophic Winds 38
Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY 47
Shore Station and Lightship Observations 47
Offshore Temperature and Salinity Observations 55
Sea Surface Temperature from Infrared Surveys 58
Conclusions 59
Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET 64
Introduction 64
Empirical Methods 64
Discussion of Results 67
Direct Measurements 70
Summary 73
Chapter 8. WAVES 74
Introduction 74
Measured or Observed Waves 75
Hindcasted Waves 79
Wave Steepness 84
Chapter 9. COASTAL CURRENTS 87
Introduction 87
Main Ocean Currents 87
Total Currents at Pacific Northwest Lightships 88
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TABLE OF CONTENTS continued
Page
Grays Harbor, Washington 89
Depoe Bay, Oregon 91
Newport, Oregon 95
Coos Bay, Oregon 97
Trinidad Head to Eel River, California 97
Bottom Currents 98
Current Flow under the Influence of Coastal Upwelling 99
Analytical Approach to Tidal Currents 103
Longshore Currents 109
Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES 111
Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR
THE PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTION , 119
Introduction 119
Environmental Effects 120
Analytical Models 122
Parti. Initial Dilution 123
Part II. Surface Dispersion and Interface Exchange 127
Part III. Dye Diffusion Studies ' 133
PART II. CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS 135
Chapter 12. CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH 137
Conclusions 138
Chapter 13. OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS 139
Generalized Features 139
Chapter 14. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES. 143
Kraft Process 143
Sulfite Process 145
Groundwood Process 150
Fates of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 150
Summary 151
Chapter 15. TRACE METALS IN THE NEARSHORE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT 152
Chemical Form 152
Natural Inputs 156
Industrial Inputs 167
Removal Processes 167
Advective Removal 168
Biological Removal 168
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS continued
Page
Geochemical Removal 169
Allowable Residual Level 175
Summary 183
MERCURY 184
Summary 186
COPPER 187
Summary 188
LEAD 189
Summary 189
ZINC 190
Summary 190
Chapter 16. RADIOCHEMISTR Y 191
A. Naturally-occur ring radionuclides 191
B. Fission product radionuclides from weapons tests 195
C. Neutron-induced radionuclides 200
Future Radioactivity Levels in Coastal Waters 209
Summary 212
Chapter 17. OTHER POLLUTANTS 213
PESTICIDES 213
Introduction 213
Pesticide Residues in the Pacific Northwest 213
Toxicities of Pesticides to Marine Organisms 214
Behavior of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
in the Marine Environment 216
Summary . 217
CHLORINE 218
Summary 219
PAR Till. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS 221
Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS 223
Taxonomic Studies 225
Bibliographies 226
Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NORTHWEST
SPECIES 228
Temperature 228
Other Factors 245
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TABLE OF CONTENTS continued
Page
Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST
SPECIES OR SPECIES GROUPS 246
Phytoplankton 247
Clupea harengus pallasi (Pacific herring) 251
Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner perch) 253
Cancer magister (Dungeness crab) 255
Engraulis mordax (Northern anchovy) 259
Eopsetta jordani (Petrale sole, brill) 262
Hippoglossus stenolepis (Pacific halibut) 263
Macrocystis spp. (Giant kelps) 266
Merluccius productus (Pacific hake) 269
Microstomus pacificus (Dover sole) 272
Mytilus calif or nianus (Sea mussel) 273
Oncorhynchus spp. (Pacific salmon, five species) 277
Ophiodon elongatus (Ling cod) 283
Parophrys vetulus (English sole) 285
Pandalus jordani (Pink shrimp) 288
Sardinops sagax (Pacific sardine) 291
Sebastodes alutus (Pacific ocean perch) 294
Siliqua pa tula (Razor clam) 296
Thallichthys pacificus (Columbia River smelt) 300
Trachurus symmetricus (Jack mackerel) 301
PART IV. INTEGRATED ECOLOGY 305
Chapter 21. THE NEARSHORE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:
AN OVERVIEW 307
BIBLIOGRAPHY 319
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 Map of the Study Area 3
2-1 Pacific Northwest Coast. Cape Flattery,
Washington, to Cape Perpetua, Ore. 9
2-2 Pacific Northwest Coast. Heceta Head,
Ore. to Pt. Delgada, Calif. 10
3-1 Surface distribution of sediment types 11
3-2 Sediment overburden 11
3-3 Sedimentary facies of the Oregon continental
shelf 15
3-4 Movement of bottom sand due to waves 17
3-5 Relationship between grain size and foreshore
slope 18
3-6 Map of tectonic flux for the Western United
States. Log flux indices represent combined
intensity and frequency of quakes 19
3-7 Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various
locations in Washington and northern
Oregon. Water depth is indicated at 1/2,
1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore 21
3-8 Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various
locations in southern Oregon and northern
California. Water depth is indicated at 1/2,
1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore 22
4-1 Mean monthly flow of the Columbia River
extrapolated to the river mouth for 1953-
1967 26
4-2 Combined mean flow of the Chehalis , Satsop,
and Wynoochee Rivers measured at the
lowest gaging station on each river for the
period 1960-1968 27
4-3 Average streamflow of Pacific Northwest
coastal rivers versus river basin drainage
area 28
5-1 Wind roses for winter and summer conditions
for western Oregon 33
5-2 Location of lightships off the Pacific
Northwest coast 36
5-3 Average direction and velocity of monthly
winds for 1961-1963 39
IX
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LIST OF FIGURES continued
Figure Page
5-4 Average direction and velocity of
January winds for 1961-1963 40
5-5 Average direction and velocity of
February winds for 1961-1963 40
5-6 Average direction and velocity of
March winds for 1961-1963 41
5-7 Average direction and velocity of
April winds for 1961-1963 41
5-8 Average direction and velocity of
May winds for 1961-1963 42
5-9 Average direction and velocity of
June winds for 1961-1963 42
5-10 Average direction and velocity of
July winds for 1961-1963 43
5-11 Average direction and velocity of
August winds for 1961-1963 43
5-12 Average direction and velocity of
September winds for 1961-1963 44
5-13 Average direction and velocity of
October winds for 1961-1963 44
5-14 Average direction and velocity of
November winds for 1961-1963 45
5-15 Average direction and velocity of
December winds for 1961-1963 45
6-1 Location of shore stations and lightships
along the Pacific Northwest coast 46
6-2 Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded
at three lightships along the Pacific
Northwest coast 53
6-3 Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded
at four northern Oregon shore stations 53
6-4 Mean monthly surface temperatures
measured at shore stations in Coos Bay area 54
6-5 Mean monthly surface temperatures
measured at shore stations south of Cape
Blanco 54
6-6 Example of a typical infrared survey conducted
by the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 60
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LIST OF FIGURES continued
Figure Page
6-7 Temperature contours from a typical infrared
survey conducted by Oregon State University's
Sea Grant project "Albacore Central" 61
6-8 Segment of a typical infrared survey conducted
by Oregon State University's Sea Grant
project, "Albacore Central" (July 1969) 62
7-1 Variation of annual heat exchange from
1953 to 1962 for the region 40 to 50 N. Lat.
and from the coastline to 130 W. Long. 68
7-2 Monthly mean values of net heat transferred
across the air-sea interface for the area from
the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles
offshore 69
7-3 Monthly mean values of net solar radiation
incident upon the area from the Oregon
coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore 71
7-4 Monthly mean values of net back radiation
for the area from the Oregon coastline to
60 nautical miles offshore 71
7-5 Monthly mean values of evaporative flux for
the area from the Oregon coastline to 60
nautical miles offshore 72
7-6 Monthly mean values of sensible heat conducted
across the air-sea interface for the area
from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical
miles offshore 72
8-1 Location of deep -water hindcast stations 80
8-2 Relative frequency and direction of deep-
water waves with steepness value of
H0/L0 = 0. 015 to 0. 025 86
9-1 Progressive vector diagrams of currents,
Depoe Bay array, 15 August-24 September
1966 92
9-2 Histograms of current speed, direction, and
velocity components measured 5 miles off
Depoe Bay at 20 meters depth 93
9-3 , Histograms of current speed, direction, and
velocity components measured 5 miles off
Depoe Bay at 60 meters depth 94
XI
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LIST OF FIGURES continued
Figure Page
9-4 Vertical profiles of current speed 5, 10,
and 15 miles off Depoe Bay, 23-24 September
1966 96
9-5 The mean current of the frontal zone in the
coastal upwelling region off central
Oregon 100
9-6 Inferred onshore-offshore flow over the
continental shelf off Depoe Bay, Oregon
during the summer upwelling season 102
9-7 Relationship of V^t/U versus D for various
angles 9 1 06
9-8 Sketch of tidal prism defining terms used
in equation 9-6 1 08
10-1 General pattern of infrared survey flight
tracks 112
10-2 Off-shore temperatures 113
10-3 Isothermal map of surface water produced
by computer conversion of electrical signal
from scanner 115
10-4 San Onofre sea surface isotherms,
21 February 1969 117
10-5 Temperature-depth cross sections,
21 February 1969 118
11-1 Schematic representation of jet mixing 119
11-2 Effects of environmental conditions 121
11-3 Zone configurations of a jet for the case of
a stagnant, homogeneous environment 123
11-4 Relationship of temperature rise ratio to
non-dimensional surface area ratio for
selected values of 3 , a dimensionless
coefficient governing the rate of heat
decay at the surface 130
13-1 Study area, showing sections from which
dissolved oxygen, nutrient, and pH data
were taken 140
13-2 Data for Section 3, Newport, Oregon, to
the Columbia River. 141
15-1 Schematic of a simple two-reservoir system 171
15-2 Nomograph representing approximate
partitioning of a metal between dissolved
and suspended particulate reservoirs 174
xii
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LIST OF FIGURES continued
Figure Page
15-3 Median mortality-time versus concentration
of metal expressed in toxic units for young
salmon 181
16-1 Atmospheric nuclear tests prior to the 1963
moratorium 197
16-2 Operations of nuclear reactors at the Hanford
Atomic Products, Washington 204
Xlll
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4-1 River discharge data for the Pacific
Northwest 24
5-1 Monthly averages of wind direction and
scalar speed (mph) at selected shore
stations 30
5-2 Frequency and velocity of winds at three
stations on the Washington-Oregon coast 32
5-3 Resultant wind speed (knots) and direction
by month measured from lightships off the
Pacific Northwest coast. 37
6-1 List of Shore Stations and Lightships in
Geographical Order 48
6-2 Average monthly temperature (°C) and
salinity (%o) of the surf measured at
selected sites on the Pacific Northwest
c oa s t 49
6-3 Average monthly surface temperature (°C)
and salinity (%0) from three lightships off
the Pacific Northwest coast 52
6-4 Mean monthly surface temperatures (°C)
and salinities (%0) for selected offshore
areas (1-10 km from the coast) 57
7-1 Ten-year average monthly values (langleys)
for the major heat budget terms for a region
where coastal .upwelling is seasonally present 65
8-1 Dimensions and periods of waves observed
at Columbia River Light Vessel 76
8-2 Observed wave direction 76
8-3 Monthly wave averages, Newport, Oregon,
September 1968-August 1969 78
8-4 Hindcast deep water wave heights (Ho) for
the Oregon and Washington coast 82
8-5 Hindcast wave periods (T0) for the Oregon
and Washington coast 83
8-6 Relative frequency of waves with given
steepness (H /LQ) values from various
directions 85
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LIST OF TABLES continued
Table Page
9-1 Average speed of current due to winds of
various strength 90
9-2 Average deviation of current to Right or Left
of wind direction 90
9-3 Mean current measured off Depoe Bay,
15 August-24 September, 1966 based on
a 10-minute sampling rate 91
9-4 Summary of observations of surface current
direction for January-June , 1959-1961,
between Trinidad Head and Cape Mendocino 97
9-5 Effective eddy viscosity coefficient as a
function of wind speed 104
9-6 Time of higher high water (HHW) and tidal
height for four periods in 1969 for Farallon
Island, California and Cape Alava,
Washington 105
9-7 Average net tidal currents for the Pacific
North-west Coastline computed from tidal
prism analysis 108
14-1 Pulp and paper mills in our area with
marine outfalls 144
14-2 Kraft pulp mill effluents 144
14-3 Toxicity of KME to marine organisms 146
14-4 The toxicity of spent sulfite liquor to marine
organisms 148
15-1 Predominant physico-chemical forms of
trace elements in sea water compiled from
the literature 153
15-2 Direct comparisons of nearshore and oceanic
values for trace metals 158
15-3 Probable values of trace metals in oceanic
and nearshore waters 159
15-4 Concentration of trace metals by plankton 163
15-5 Comparison of trace element concentrations
in rivers and in sea water 165
15-6 Response of marine organisms of the Pacific
Northwest to various concentrations of
trace elements 176
xv
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LIST OF TABLES continued
Table Page
19-1 Summary of Physical Data on Phytoplankton
and Algae 230
19-2 Physical Data on Invertebrates 234
19-3 Summary of Physical Data on Fish 242
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. The coast of the Pacific Northwest may be characterized as
a series of steep, often unstable cliffs interspersed between
broad sandy beaches. Rocky headlands and outcroppings
are common, but the surface sediments of the nearshore
zone are primarily sand. The shelf off Washington slopes
more gently than that off Oregon and Northern California.
No canyons or troughs extend into the nearshore zone
and there is. relatively little seismic activity compared to
the remainder of the Pacific coast.
2. Maximum runoff from the major rivers of the area (excluding
the Columbia) occurs in winter and spring as a result of
heavy seasonal rainfall. Discharge of the Columbia River
is greatest in June coinciding with runoff of snowmelt in
Canada. Only the Columbia River appears to appreciably
modify Pacific Ocean coastal waters.
3. Coastal winds are largely determined by the geographic
position and intensity of the North Pacific high and the
Aleutian low pressure areas. In the winter high velocity
•winds resulting from gales usually blow from the south or
southwest. More often the winter winds prevail from the
east. In spring the winds shift clockwise and by summer are
predominantly from the northwest and west. In all seasons
the coastal mountains tend to deflect the winds along the
trend of the coast.
4. With few exceptions time series of temperature-salinity
data are available only from intertidal stations or from
lightships. Few measurements have been made in the area
from shore to 1 0 km offshore. Surface temperatures range
from an average summer high of 17. 7 °C to an average winter
low of 7. 6°C. Summer temperatures, which are influenced by
upwelling, average about 5°C warmer than winter values.
The Columbia River plume reduces surface salinity in near-
shore waters off Washington in the winter. Upwelling tends
to increase the salinities of nearshore waters in summer.
5. A heat budget may be used to describe the exchange of energy
between the ocean and the atmosphere. Net heat exchanged
xvi i
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from year to year may vary considerably as the result of
fluctuations in cloud cover, sea surface temperature,
upwelling, and evaporation.
6. The wave climate of the Pacific Northwest coastal region
has largely been determined by hindcasting based on climatological
data. The predominant wave direction throughout the year
is from the west to northwest. Waves with greatest heights
and longest periods occur in the winter. Highest waves
come from the southsoutheast to southwest sector. Periods
of calms occur about equally in all seasons.
7. Coastal surface currents respond primarily to the local
wind regime and thus can be expected to flow northward in
winter and southward in summer. However, headlands,
reefs, and irregularities in bottom contours produce complex
series of interacting eddies which have received virtually
no attention in the near shore zone. Despite the lack of
current measurements in this area, it is the near shore
surface circulation which will determine the distributions of
contaminants released into the region.
8. Field studies of condenser cooling discharges from coastal
power generating plants indicate that the physical effects
are localized. The thermal plume usually takes the form
of a surface lens about 2 to 4 m thick. The maximum distance
warmed water has been observed from a coastal outfall is
roughly 4 km.
9. Numerical models describing the dispersion of heated
effluents from surface and subsurface outfalls may be useful
in predicting the distributions of contaminants in the nearshore
region. Although a number of simplifying assumptions are
necessary and large capacity computers are required, such
models offer promise for the solution of complex dispersion
problems. Hydraulic models also may prove invaluable in
the solution of various difficult problems.
i
10. Carbon dioxide concentrations and pH in sea-water are closely
related. High concentrations of CC>2 (to 5Z5 parts per million)
in the nearshore zone may result from upwelling. Uptake of
CC>2 by photosynthetic organisms may reduce its concentration
to as low as 155 parts per million. Surface pH values are generally
near 8. 1.
XVlll
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11. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the nearshore zone from
surface to 20 m is usually homogeneous from October to
April. During May to September dissolved oxygen values at
20 m are more strongly influenced by upwelling than at the
surface. In the absence of upwelling, representative nutrient
concentrations in surface waters are: PCs. . . 0. 7 (j.g-atom/1;
NO3. . . 5 (Jig-atom/l; SiO . . . 10 fig-atom/I.
12. Pulp and paper mill effluents introduced into Pacific Northwest
coastal waters may differ widely in their chemical characteristics.
For this reason, the ecological effect of each outfall must
be individually evaluated.
13. Relatively few measurements of the concentrations of toxic
metals have been carried out in nearshore waters. Even
less is known regarding physical and chemical forms of the
metals. Apart from planktonic organisms, which may
concentrate them greatly, metals may be lost from seawater
by sorption, flocculation, ion exchange, precipitation, and
co-precipitation.
14. Radionuclides in Pacific Northwest marine waters may be
naturally-occurring, fission fragments from fallout of
nuclear weapons tests, or neutron induced from weapons or
from the Hanford plutonium production reactors on the
Columbia River. Radioactivity from Hanford has drastically
decreased in recent years with the serial shutdown of the
plutonium production reactors. Atmospheric nuclear tests
by France and Mainland China continue to cause fallout
radioactivity in the coastal zone.
15. Concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons, used in forestry
and agriculture in the Pacific Northwest, are generally low
in marine organisms. Chlorine, which is sometimes used in
water cooling systems as an antifouling agent, may have
harmful short-term effects on planktonic organisms. i
16. By far, the largest body of information on plants and animals
of the outer coastal region is taxonomic. Relatively little
is known regarding the ecological requirements of most species.
xix
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17. Some temperature data are available for 129 species of the
more than four thousand organisms known from the Pacific
Northwest coast. For most this amounts to a. single temperature
recorded at the time of collection. Temperature optima,
ranges, and lethal limits are seldom known for more than
one or a few life history stages, usually the adult.
18. Detailed biological information, such as life history, feeding
habits, predators, and population dynamics, is most often
available for fishes and invertebrates of direct commercial
value to man. Comprehensive summaries of biological
data for twenty selected species (or species groups) are
included in Chapter 20. In addition, an annotated checklist
including more than 750 plant species and 3,600 animal species
is appended.
19. To begin to understand the nearshore coastal region it is
necessary to view it as a system of interacting physical,
chemical, and biological components. Contaminants, such
as toxic chemicals or heated water, can be thought of as
added environmental stresses which may alter the ecosystem
drastically.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was made possible by a demonstration grant from the
Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant No. 16070EOK) and
administered by the Regional Office of that organization in Portland,
Oregon. Special thanks goes to Dr. Robert W. Zeller, FWQA, who
served as project officer for this grant.
We wish to thank Dr. John V. Byrne and our colleagues in the
Department of Oceanography at Oregon State University for their
cooperation and advice; especially Drs. June G. Pattullo, William
H. Quinn, and Norman Cutshall who read portions of the manuscript.
Thanks also to the Oregon State University Library staff for
providing space and countless hours of assistance, and to the
librarian of the Federal Water Quality Administration, Pacific
Northwest Water Laboratory.
We also thank the many colleagues from other departments on
this campus, from other colleges and universities, and from
federal and state agencies who gave freely of their time and
contributed significantly to the project.
A number of students helped with this research and their names have
been included as authors in the sections where they contributed.
Finally our special thanks to Mrs. Suelynn Williams who typed
the entire report.
xxi
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Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
The major problem facing mankind today is control of his rapidly
increasing number and his rapidly increasing appetite for energy
and raw materials. Since no politically or socially acceptable
solutions have yet been found, it behooves us to prepare for
expected population growth in a way which will compromise neither
the quality of human life nor the quality of our environment.
One of the critical problems stemming from a population growth
rate of greater than one percent per year is the unprecedented
demand for electrical power. Power consumption is increasing
by ten percent annually. The demands of the Pacific Northwest
are presently met by a hydroelectric system which has already
been developed to approximately one-half of its ultimate capacity.
Expansion of the hydro-power system is essentially limited to the
addition of generators to existing powerhouses. Future power
demands will be met by the addition of thermal power plants
to the hydroelectric system and are expected in 30 years to replace
the latter as the source of basic power. The large number of
projected power plants (approximately 30 of 1,000 megawatts or
more capacity) carries with it the inherent threat of thermal
additions to the environment.
The new thermal plants will either be fossil fueled or nuclear fueled.
Initially, several of the new thermal plants may be fossil fueled,
but the general lack of coal, oil, and gas in the Pacific Northwest
and the expense of transporting fuels from other regions will limit
their expansion. In addition to fuel limitations, there are the
problems of air quality protection involving sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter. Since these problems are seldom critical
with nuclear fueled plants, it appears that nuclear powered steam
electric plants will be the most probable source of new power for
the Pacific Northwest.
The location of future power plants will be determined by both
economic and environmental factors. Thermal power plants
inherently waste large amounts of heat to the environment.
Inland siting is often hampered by a lack of economically feasible
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sites for cooling ponds or lakes. Placement on rivers -will decrease
out of consideration of the important cold water fisheries in the
Pacific Northwest and a lack of rivers with large year-round
discharges. The biological importance of most estuaries and their
limited flushing characteristics makes them undesirable sites.
In addition, water quality in estuaries is highly variable.
However, open coastal sites have the advantage of access to large
volumes of water for cooling and dispersion, resulting in a
potentially greater capacity for assimilation of industrial effluent
without significant environmental damage. Coastal sites have
therefore been earmarked as probable locations for a significant
portion of the future power expansion in the Pacific Northwest.
The advantages that make coastal siting of power plants favorable
also pertain to other potential uses such as discharges of municipal
and industrial wastes, pulp mill effluents, and offshore mining
residues. The ocean, however, cannot be considered as an
inexhaustible sink into which man can continuously dump his -wastes.
A balance must be achieved between the input of waste material
and the ability of the ocean to assimilate it. Irreparable damage
may result if this balance is not achieved.
To answer the environmental questions posed by use of the nearshore
area for industrial outfalls, a coastal pollution group was formed
within the Departments of Oceanography and Civil Engineering,
Oregon State University. Supported by a grant from the Federal
Water Quality Administration, this group has been charged to
collect, organize, and analyze all oceanographic data which would
aid in the evaluation of sites for industrial outfalls on the open
coast of the Pacific Northwest. As a first step, a survey of the
literature was needed to determine our present knowledge of this
region and to help establish priorities for future research.
The area of concern in this literature survey is the nearshore coastal
zone extending seaward 10 kilometers from the shoreline from
Cape Mendocino in Northern California to Cape Flattery, Washington
(Figure 1 -1). Data relevant to the physical oceanography, geology,
meteorology, chemistry, radioecology, and biology of this area were
sought. Primary sources of data were the published literature,
university theses, and unpublished data obtained directly from research
laboratories. Detailed information concerning sources of data is
presented in each chapter. Subject areas not researched are also
indicated, as are data which, upon critical analysis, were found to
be unsuitable for inclusion.
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-
CAPE
^LATTERY
, GRAYS
HARBOR
'WASHINGTON
JASTORIA ^
TILLAMOOK \
HEAD \
i TILLAMOOK
(NEWPORT
OREGON
• COOS BAY
CAPE BLANCO
42'
I
T. ST. GEORGE
(EUREKA I
\CAPE MENDOCINO
V CALIFORNIA
21 I
Figure 1 -1 Map of the Study Area
3
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This report, the final product of the project, represents the
intensive cooperative efforts of physical oceanographers , chemists,
geologists, biologists, and ocean engineers. The large volume of
information collected has made it necessary to assemble the data
in two volumes. Volume 1 is an analysis and detailed discussion
of the collected information and contains a comprehensive
bibliography of the literature pertaining to the nearshore regions
of the Pacific Northwest. References are listed by author and
bibliographic number. Part I of Volume 1 presents a discussion
of the physical and geological factors which are known for the
region of study. Part II summarizes the knowledge of the chemistry
and radiochemistry of the region, and Part III considers the biological
aspects with emphasis on temperature relations and attempts to
establish some preliminary priorities. Part IV is an attempt to
describe the coastal ecosystem by integrating the physical, chemical,
geological, and biological information into a general overview. Volume 2
contains the appendices. Most of the physical and chemical data
were suitable for inclusion in Volume 1 , while it was necessary
to include much of the biological information in the species checklist
in the appendices.
The senior authors assume responsibility for the entire work, but
since many individuals cooperated in this review, the names of the
persons who worked on each section are included as chapter or
subchapter authors. Without their able and conscientious assistance
this task could not have been completed.
This report, then, is primarily a reference from which available
information for this region can be abstracted on a regional or
site basis. Information can also be obtained on physical parameters
or on biological or chemical species or on any combination thereof.
Perhaps more important than the presentation and summary of the
available information is the indication of what information is
not known or is not available.
-------
PART I. PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Page
Chapter 2. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
COAST by Burton W. Adams 7
Chapter 3. GEOLOGY by Robert H. Bourke, J. Paul Dauphine,
and Burton W. Adams 13
Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY by Bard Glenne and Burton W. Adams 25
Chapter 5. WINDS by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne 29
Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY by Robert H. Bourke
and Bard Glenne 47
Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET by Robert H. Bourke 64
Chapter 8. WAVES by Robert H. Bourke 74
Chapter 9. COASTAL CURRENTS by Robert H. Bourke and
and Bard Glenne 87
Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES by
Robert H. Bourke and Burton W. Adams 111
Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR THE
PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE DISTRI-
BUTION by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne 119
-------
Chapter 2. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE
PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST
by Burton W. Adams
The following Coast and Geodetic Survey Charts pertain to the area
covered by this report. They may be purchased from the Director,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Environmental Services Admininstration,
Rockville, Maryland 20852 or Officer in Charge U.S. Naval Ocean-
ographic Distribution Office, Clearfield, Utah. These charts are listed
in two general catalogs: (1) Nautical Chart Catalog No. 2(1211) of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and (2) Catalog of Nautical Charts
and Publications, No. 1-N Region 0 (1216). Locations of regions described
in this report are indicated on Figures 2-1 and 2-2.
AREA CHARTS #
A. San Francisco to Cape Flattery
1. Monterey Bay to Coos Bay
a. Pt. Arena to Trinidad Head
(1) Cape Mendocino & Vicinity
(2) Humbolt Bay
(3) Trinidad Harbor
b. Trinidad Head to Cape Blanco
(1) St. George Reef & Cresent City
(2) Pyramid Pt. to Cape Sebastian
(3) Cape Sebastian to Humbug Mt.
(4) Port Orford to Cape Blanco
2. Cape Blanco to Cape Flattery
a. Cape Blanco to Yaquina Head
(1) Coquille River Entrance
(2) Coos Bay
(3) Umpqua River to Reeds port
(4) Siuslaw River
(5) Yaquina Bay &t River
(6) Approachs to Yaquina Bay
b. Yaquina Head to Columbia River
(1) Tillamook Bay
(2) Nehalem River
(3) Columbia River to Harrington Pt.
C. &G. S.
u
u
u
5052
5021
5602
5795
5832
5846
5702
5895
5896
5951
5952
5022
5802
5971
5984
6004
6023
6055
6056
5902
6112
6122
6151
-------
AREA CHARTS #
c. Columbia River to Destruction Island C. &G. S. 6002
(1) Willapa Bay " 6185
(2) Grays Harbor " 6195
d. Destruction Island to Amphitrite Pt.
(Vancouver Is. ) " 6102
(1) Cape Flattery " 6265
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runXrrrTI 1 nrr^ITI r in_l_q I T 1.LL1 n I pn 1J-L' '^] rrn
Figure 2-1. Pacific Northwest Coast. Cape Flattery, Wash, to Cape Perpetua,. Ore.
-------
L. \
-------
Figure 3-2. Sediment overburden. Numbers in circles
idicate exact sediment thickness
ind
measurable f
Contour
th
in fathoms
0-50 foot interval.
(from Kulm, 1730).
Figure 3-1. Surface distribution of sediment types.
Sediment classification according to
Shepard (1954). Contours in fathoms
(from Kulm, 1730).
11
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Chapter 3. GEOLOGY
by Robert H. Bourke, J. Paul Daunhine , and Burton W. Adams
Geology and Ge omorphology
The geology of the nearshore region of the Pacific Northwest has not
been studied in much detail. Inference must be drawn from the
larger volume of geologic data gathered along coasts and beaches
and from the marine surveys which have generally been conducted
farther offshore than 2 to 3 miles. The geology of the Pacific
Coast was discussed by Palmer (1741 ); the west coast of North
America by Menard (1734); selected areas of the Pacific Northwest
by Byrne (1714); and the coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington
by Cooper (1716). A continuing study of the continental margin
off Oregon is being conducted by the Department of Oceanography
at Oregon State University. A detailed report for the southern
Oregon coast has been compiled by Kulm (1730) and for the entire
Oregon coast by Kulm and Fowler (1768). Major bathymetric
features off the coasts of Oregon and "Washington have been
described by McManus (1765). Humboldt State College (1140) has
documented the nearshore geology of the northern California region
between Trinidad Head and the Eel River.
The coastal region of the Pacific Northwest may be described as
erosional tectonic with uplifted submarine banks and coastal terraces.
Numerous steep and often unstable cliffs are interspersed between
sandy beaches. Rock outcrops are frequent in the vicinity of head-
lands and some river mouths (Figures 3-1 and 3-2). In southern
Oregon typical areas of rock exposure are Cape Blanco, Cape Arago,
and off the mouths of the Umpqua, Coquille and Rogue Rivers. Off
the Washington coast, extensive gravel deposits have been found
off Grays Harbor, the Quinault River, Ozette Lake, and Cape
Flattery (Venkatarathnam, 1769). Site investigations for
structures located on headlands or other cliff-like areas should
consider possible slumping or slope failures (North and Byrne,
1739). General geologic features are shown and described on
geological maps for Washington, Oregon, and California. Examples
of these are:
(a) Geologic map of Oregon west of the 121st meridian (Peck, 1742)
(b) Geologic map of Washington (Huntting, e_t al_. , 1724) and
(c) Geology of Northern California (Bailey, 1759).
13
-------
Sediments
Surface sediments of the nearshore zone are primarily sands consisting
of detrital quartz and feldspar. This sand zone extends from the
shoreline out to a water depth of approximately 50 fathoms (300 feet)
off the northern and central Oregon coast (Figure 3-3). South of
the Umpqua River the sand forms a narrow belt along the coast in
generally shallower water (30 fathoms or less) (Figure 3-1). Off
the Washington coast the sand zone extends at least to a depth of
30 fathoms (1769). Off southern Oregon sediment thickness varies
between zero and 90 feet (MacKay, 1733) (Figure 3-2). The
onshore-offshore transport rate of sand is greatest during winter
where, in areas subject to high wave attack, beaches may lose
from 5 to 15 feet of sediment thickness. The longshore seasonal
transport is generally to the north in winter and to the south in
summer. Net longshore transport is believed to be north, but may
vary with location (Kulm, e_t al. , 1761). Ripples in the bottom
sediment have been found at water depths of 80 meters in winter and
30 meters in summer (Neudeck, 1762). The transport and distribution
of sediments from the Columbia River has been investigated by
Ballard (1707) and Gross and Nelson (1722).
Sediment Motion
When a progressive wave advances into shoaling water, a depth is
reached where the oscillatory fluid motion on the bottom is of
sufficient magnitude to initiate sediment motion. This sediment
motion may be significant to construction in the nearshore region.
Observations indicate that offshore gravity forces dominate over
onshore hydrodynamic forces during the winter. Therefore, in the
winter, beach sand is generally transported offshore. Under summer
wave conditions the net onshore hydrodynamic force is greater than
the offshore gravity force and the sand moves onshore.
Few observations have been made in the oceans to determine at
what depth significant sand motion is initiated (see Inman, 1227)
although considerable work has been done in laboratory wave tanks
(Ippen, 1144). At present, the correlation between laboratory
work and ocean observations is uncertain.
14
-------
UMPQUA
;Vv1 BASAL SAND
MIXED SAND a MUD
MODERN MUD
GLAUCONITE
ROCK
/TILLAMOOK
BAY
YAQUINA
BAY
Figure 3-3. Sedimentary facies of the Oregon continental shelf
(from Kulm and Fowler, 1768).
15
-------
Inman (1Z27) indicated that the alignment of characteristic sediments
parallel to the shoreline is caused by onshore/off shore sand move-
ment, not littoral drift. Ippen and Eagle son (1144) have shown that
the depth of established equilibrium motion (the deepest depth a
characteristic sand particle remains in motion through a complete
wave cycle) can be calculated for a characteristic beach slope,
sand size, and wave. Figure 3-4 depicts depths of equilibrium
motion for a beach with a slope of 0. 015 and a sand diameter of
0. 24 mm (D ) for varying wave conditions.
A second approach to determine the depth at which sand movement
is initiated for given wave conditions is to use small amplitude wave
theory and Hjulstrom's curve (Figure 2. 2 in 1121) for threshold
velocities for different sand sizes. Figure 3-4 also shows solutions
to the equation for threshold particle velocity on the bottom due to
various wave conditions for a sand size of 0. 24 mm (Glenne, 1228).
The 0. 24 mm sand size and 0. 015 beach slope are representative
of the Oregon coast.
Sorting of sediment sizes on the foreshore slope of a beach (landward
of the breaker) is shown in Figure 3-5 from C. E. R. C. TR -4 (1121).
The larger sized grains are associated with steeper beaches (a
result of the higher orbital velocity of the water particles), but
this relationship is also influenced by water level variability,
wave exposure, and ground water level. Median grain size has
been shown to be a satisfactory parameter for generally evaluating
the transportability of littoral material.
Seismology
The coastal area of the Pacific Northwest is relatively aseismic
compared to the remainder of the Pacific Coast. Hence, it may
be considered a preferential siting area. The lack of major
seismic activity is seen in the plot of tectonic flux (Figure 3-6)--
an integration of earthquake intensity and number of quakes. Shear
zones have been postulated through Cape Blanco and at Coquille
Point, but these have not been active since post-Miocene (Dott, 1760).
Byerly (1710) and Menard (1734) have discussed earthquakes and
faulting, respectively, along the Pacific Coast. Ryall, e_t al. (1770)
have studied the seismicity, tectonism, and surface faulting of the
Western United States. A discussion of Oregon earthquakes may be
16
-------
CO
S
H
fin
W
Q
O
O
ffl
240
220
200
180
160
£
3 14°
w
CQ
120
100
80
60
40
20
Depth of established equilibrium motion for 050 = 0. 24 mm
Bottom depths at which mean threshold velocities
occur for DI;O - 0. 24 mm
Sand Diameter (D^Q) = 0. 24 mm
Beach Slope = 0. 015
S. G. = 2.65
I I
I L
46 8 10 12
DEEP WATER WAVE HEIGHT (FT)
14
16
Figure 3-4. Movement of bottom sand due to waves.
-------
oo
0 ---- - Median Diameter Lake Michigan
• - Median Diameter Atlantic Coast (compiled U.S.C-E. data)
Median Diameter Pacific Coast
r.io
1:20
1:30
i:50
Foreshore Slope
r.so
Figure 3-5. Relationship between grain size and foreshore slope (from C. E. R. C. , TR-4, 1121).
-------
/>,--- — -- -J?.-Q- I :_.—J-4-L-.
LJ
[~[ 9.0-9.9
[~] 8.0-8.9
Figure 3-6. Map of tectonic flux for the Western United States
(from Ryall, e_t aL , 1770). Log flux indices represent
combined intensity and frequency of quakes.
19
-------
found in Berg and Baker (1708). Faults and shear zones of
the continental shelf off Washington have been investigated by
Grim and Bennett (1771).
Sources of Information
The following list of departments and bureaus are the major
repositories of geologic data and information. These sources should
be investigated for pertinent available data before commencing
geologic surveys.
(a) State
1. Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, State
of Oregon
2. Washington Department of Conservation, Division of
Water Resources
3. Washington Department of Conservation, Division of
Mines and Geology
4. California Division of Mines and Geology
(b)
1. U. S. Geological Survey
2. U. S. Bureau of Mines
3. U. S. Bureau of Reclamation
4. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
5. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Nearshore Topography
The nearshore topography of the study area can be illustrated by
profiles of the bottom contour constructed at selected intervals along
the coast from the shoreline out to a distance of three miles.
Profiles or transects were drawn parallel to latitude lines and
were located with reference to significant estuaries, population
centers, broad flat beaches, headlands, and other coastal features.
The profiles shown in Figures 3-7 and 3-8 are of transects three
nautical miles in length and are subdivided into three increments--
shoreline to 0. 5 mile, 0. 5 to 1. 5 miles, and 1.5 to 3. 0 miles. The
average bottom slope for each increment and the depth of water at
0.5, 1.5, and 3 miles offshore are shown.
20
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I24°W
T:IX»\CAPE FLATTERY
BEACH
GRAYS HARBOR
Figure 3-7-
Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various locations
in Washington and northern Oregon. Water depth is
indicated at 1/2, 1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore.
21
-------
44eNJ—
ALSEA BAY
14*25'
SIUSLAW RIVER
'44*00'
43°4l'
UMPOUA RIVEti
'ROGUE RIVER
42"24'
< I". • •
42°N(—
40eNf—
KLAMATH RIVER
HUMBOLT BAY
RIVER
CAPE MENDOCINO
I24°W
Figure 3-8. Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various locations
in southern Oregon and northern California. Water
depth is indicated at 1/2, 1 1 /2, and 3 miles offshore.
22
-------
The bottom slope of the first half mile increment is significantly
greater than the slope farther offshore. From Cape Mendocino
northward to Tillamook Head the slope is relatively steep ranging
from 1:35 to 1:100 (1. 75° to 0. 5°); farther northward the slope is
less, ranging from 1:100 to 1:200. At distances greater than
one-half mile the slope is generally less, varying between 1:100
to 1:600 with the steeper slopes occurring south of Tillamook Head.
At a distance of one-half mile offshore the depth of water varies
between 15 feet and 40 feet with a mean depth slightly greater than
30 feet. Three miles offshore in the northern portion the water
depth rarely exceeds 100 feet. From Tillamook Head to the southern
boundary the depth of water varies from 100 feet to 300 feet.
Several exceptions to the above mean conditions exist, notably
around headlands. Here, offshore reefs and haystack rocks
abound and bottom contours become quite irregular. In many
of these cases high cliffs terminate abruptly at the water's edge
eliminating the formation of any beach.
At Newport, Oregon, from Yaquina Head to approximately a mile
south of the entrance jetties a submerged reef runs parallel to
the coastline about a mile offshore. This reef alters the nearshore
surface circulation pattern creating eddies of variable strength
and direction. Similar situations will also exist in the proximity of
other offshore rocky areas.
There are no known canyons or troughs that extend to within three
miles of the coast. The heads of the Astoria and Eel River canyons
terminate farther offshore, 15 miles and five mile s, respectively.
23
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Table 4-1. River discharge data for the Pacific Northwest.
IV
River
Drainage area
for total basin -(mi2)
Drainage area -(mi )
Percent of total basin gaged
Observation period
Avg. monthly flow CFS OCT
NOV
DEC
JAN
FEE
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
Mean streamflow (cfs)
Avg. min. daily flow (cfs)
Avg. max. daily flow (cfs)
Columbia
259,000
*
*
1953-67
140, 000
192, 000
246, 000
263,000
266, 000
239,000
279, 000
390, 000
538,000
338,000
178,000
131,000
266, 000
Chehalis
2,012
1, 172
88
1960-68
3, 300
11, 200
15, 900
19, 800
13, 000
10, 700
6, 700
3, 300
1, 800
1, 100
800
700
7, 600
500
65, 000
Umpqua
4, 560
3,683
80
1953-67
2,000
7,300
16, 600
18, 300
16, 100
13,200
9, 700
7, 300
4, 000
1, 700
1,300
1,200
8, 200
900
125,000
1 Rogue
5, 160
*
#
1933-55
2, 600
6, 600
11,900
16, 200
15, 600
12, 300
10, 600
8, 000
5, 000
2,000
1, 300
1, 200
7, 800
1 Klamath
15, 800
12, 100
78
1958-67
5,400
11, 100
24, 500
25, 900
30, 600
2-1, 600
26, 100
19, 700
10,600
4, 000
2, 900
3,000
17, 200
2, 400
165, 000
Eel
3, 630
3, 113
86
1958-67
1, 400
5, 000
17,000
18, 000
19, 500
12, 700
10, 300
3,900
1, 100
300
200
100
7, 100
100
164, 000
Coos
415
*
5'*
1930-61
550
2, 400
4, 500
5, 300
5, 500
4, 000
2, 100
1, 200
530
180
90
90
2, 200
ICoquille
1,058
*
*
1930-61
850
3, 550
6, 600
8, 050
8, 250
6, 050
3, 150
1, 800
750
300
140
130
3, 300
1 Siuslaw
773
*
*
1937-63
CO
- h "O
S R ^
n o bo
il P. S3
H « £
PU
3, 150
*Data extrapolated to river mouth.
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Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY
by Bard Glenne and Burton W. Adams
Although the hydrology may effect many factors in the environment
the discussion in this chapter will be limited to streamflow data.
The effects of streamflow on temperature and salinity will be
dealt with in Chapter 6 and on sediment transport in Chapters
3, 15, and 21.
Streamflow data for the nine major rivers discharging between
Cape Flattery and Cape Mendocino are shown in Table 4-1. The
data were taken from the records of the lowest gaging station on each
river with the exception of the Siuslaw River which was estimated
from precipitation records (1167) since no gaging stations were
installed until 1967. Streamflow data for the Columbia, Rogue, Coos,
and Coquille rivers have been extrapolated to the mouths of the rivers.
Streamflow data are available from the annual "Water Resources Data,"
published for each state by the U. S. Geological Survey (1213, 1214,
1215). The Northwest Water Resources Data Center (1163) publishes
weekly and monthly streamflow summaries for selected stations in the
Pacific Northwest. The Oregon State Water Resources Board has
published river basin studies for the coastal basins of which the
Rogue River (1165), North Coast (1223), Mid-Coast (11 67), and South
Coast (1168) basin studies were used.
The Columbia and Klamath Rivers show an annual bimodal flow
discharge. This is a result of heavy autumn and winter precipitation
west of the Cascade Range and spring snowmelt waters. Figure 4-1
shows the average monthly flow for the Columbia River showing the
winter rainfall peak and the spring snowmelt peak.
The streamflow for the other rivers shows single peaks in winter
due to heavy precipitation on the Coast Range during this season.
Figure 4-2 depicts the streamflow for the Chehalis River which is
representative of the flow pattern of these coastal rivers. A log-log
plot of average coastal river streamflows versus river basin drainage
area (Figure 4-3) permits estimation of streamflow for similar type
rivers based upon a knowledge of the river drainage area.
To summarize, the discharge patterns of the coastal rivers emptying
into the Pacific Ocean from Northern California, Oregon, and Washington
show broad peaks during the winter and spring months. During summer
and fall the discharge rates of these streams are much below their
annual average (80 to 96 percent less).
25
-------
JUN
— 5
MAY
4
JUL
APR
JAN
FEE
DEC
MAR
MEAN
NOV
— 2
AUG
OCT
SEP
— 1
Figure 4-1.
Mean monthly flow of the Columbia River extrapolated to the
river mouth for 1953-1967. ( CFS x 105)
26
-------
JAN
— 20
DEC
— 18
— 16
FEE
NOV
OCT
MAR
MEAN
— 14
— 12
— 10
APR
MAY
— 6
— 4
JUN
I JUL
AUG SEP
— 0
Figure 4-2. Combined mean flow of the Chehalis, Satsop, and
Wynoochee Bivers measured at the lowest gaging
station on each river for the period 1960-1968.
(CFS x 103)
27
-------
o
o
o
W
W
O
rt
Q
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
COOS
• COQUILLE
. NEHALEM
SIUSLAW
ROGUE
UMPQUA
• EEL
CHEHALIS
5 6 7 8 9 10
AVERAGE STREAMFLOW - (1000 cfs)
Figure 4-3. Average streamflow of Pacific Northwest coastal rivers versus river
basin drainage area.
28
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Chapter 5. WINDS
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne
General
The Washington, Oregon, and Northern California coasts are
located approximately in the center of the zone of prevailing wester-
lies with local winds varying from northwest to southwest throughout
most of the year.
The seasonal cycle ofwinds on the Pacific Northwest Coast is largely
determined by the circulation about the North Pacific high pressure
area and the Aleutian low pressure area. During summer the
North Pacific high reaches its greatest development (approximately
1025 millibars) and is centered about 30-40°N and 150°W; the
Aleutian low is weak during this period (Budinger, et al. , 1113).
The interaction of these pressure zones favors the development of
summer winds generally from northwest to north over the nearshore
and coastal areas of Oregon and Washington.
During winter the North Pacific high weakens and its center shifts
about 10° southward while the Aleutian low intensifies (1113).
The resulting winds, frequently of gale force, approach the Wash-
ington-Oregon coast from the southwest.
Extra-tropical cyclones occur most frequently in winter and
generally approach the coast from a westerly direction (National
Marine Consultants, 1159). Depending upon the location of the storm
center as it impinges on the coast, the winds may be from northwest
to southwest. These winds generate most of the large waves that
reach the coast.
The barrier presented by the mountains of the Coast Range influence
the general wind pattern, deflecting the winds so that they tend to
align with the trend of the coast (Cooper, 1124). In regions where
the mountains are low the deflecting effect is minimal and normal
oceanic wind conditions prevail.
29
-------
Table 5-1. Monthly averages of wind direction i
Period of Record Jan.
a. Source of Data
b. Bibliographic Reference No.
Quillayute, Washington
a. Weather Bureau
b. (IZ07)
Modi pa, Washington
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1155]
1966-1969
Average Direction SE
Avg. Scalar Speed 8. 4
1937-19-47 Average Direction E
ind >calar ipeed (mph) at ielected chore eUttons.
Fgb. Mar. Ap^. Maj June July
SE SSE S SW WSW W
7.3 7.7 7. S 6.8 6.3 6.3
NW NW
Aug. Sept.
W SSW S
6. Z 5.6 7.1
NW NW
Nov. Dec.
SE
7.1
SE
8.4
U)
o
Hoquiam. Washington
a. Weather Bureau
b. (I ISM
Lone Tree, Pt. Brown, Washington
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1193) and (1219)
North Head. Cape Disappointment,
Washington
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1193) and (1218)
Astoria. Oregon
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1206)
Tillamiook, Oregon
», Weather Bureau
b. (1155)
Newport, Orepon
a. Weather Bureau
b. {J1 5 5)
Cap« Arago Light Station, Oregon
a. U.S. Army Corps of Engr*.
b. (1197) and (IZ19)
North Bend, Oregon
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1155)
Brooklngs, Oregon
a. Weather Bureau
b, (1155)
1953-1958 Average Direction ESE
Avg. Scalar Speed 11.4
12 years Average Direction SE
44 years Average Direction E
Avg. Scalar Speed 15.9
11 years Average Direction E
Avg. Scalar Speed 8.9
1950-1959
1937-1942
ESE ESE W W W W
11.4 11.2 10.3 9.6 9.5 9.1
NW NW NW NW NW
SK SE NW NW NW N
14.6 14.1 13.8 13.2 12.8 12.0
ESE SE WNW NW NW NW
8.7 8.7 8.5 8.2 8.2 8.5
W ESE ESE
8.3 8.0 9.4
NW
11.2 11.7 12.8
ESE ESE
1 0. 9 11.8
NW
7.7
1943-1945 Average Direction S SSW NW SSW NW NW NW
SE
7.2
NW
SE
7.6
1935-1942 Average Direction E
NNW NNW NNW NNW NNW
1915-1925 Average Direction SE SW SW NW NW NW
NW NW
NW
Average Direction SE
Avg. Scalar Speed 9.4
SE SE NNW NNW NNW NNW
8.4 9.0 9.2 10.0 9.7 11.7
Average Direction NE NE NE NW NW NW
NNW NNW SE
9.8 7.7 6.8
NW N
SE E
15.5 16.2
SE ESE
8.5 8.8.
SE SE
7.2 8.3
NE NE
Eureka, California
a. Weather Bureau
b. (1140)
Average Direction SE
Avg. Scalar Speed 7. 0
SE N N N N NW
7.2 • 7.6 8.0 7.9 7.4 6.8
NW
5.7
N N
5.5 S. 6
SE SE
5.9 6.4
-------
Winds Measured from Shore Stations
Wind speed and direction have long been measured at various
locations along the coast (prior to 1900 at some of the larger towns).
However, very little of the data has been analyzed or published.
For example, weather stations are found in most of the coastal
towns, but data from only two locations are published; at Quillayute
in northern Washington (U. S. Department of Commerce, 1207), and
at Astoria, Oregon (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1208). For
these two stations the resultant wind speed and direction (vector sum
of all observations taken each month) and the mean scalar speed for
each month have been published since 1967. Prior to 1967 the data
listed were the prevailing wind direction, frequency, and the mean
scalar speed.
At each of the U. S. Coast Guard Stations the climatological data
are recorded every four hours. Only the immediate past year's
and present year's logs are kept at the stations; the records for
previous years are sent to the Coast Guard Archives, Washington,
D.C. These records have not been machine punched nor analyzed
and have not been used in this report.
In addition to the above two sources of wind data, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers has completed wind analyses for several
harbors and bays in the study area (1196 - 1 201). Most of these
reports are from data taken prior to 1930.
In March 1969 the Weather Facility at the Marine Science Center
in Newport, Oregon, installed a recording anemometer on the end
of the south jetty of Yaquina Bay. Data from this source should
prove quite reliable since the location of the anemometer provides
data relatively free of land effects.
Average wind conditions as measured at various coastal sites within
the study area are presented in Tables 5-1 and 5-2. Wind roses
for winter and summer conditions (January and July, respectively)
for Oregon are shown in Figure 5-1.
Winds have been monitored at the Quillayute weather station since
July 1966. Prior to July 1966 all meteorological observations -were
made at the weather station on Tatoosh Island. The wind pattern
for the northern Washington coast differs from that along the southern
Washington, Oregon, and northern California coasts in that at
Quallayute summer winds are from the west, whereas, for the
latter areas summer winds are consistently from the north or
northwest.
31
-------
Table 5-2.
Frequency and velocity of winds at three stations on the
Washington-Oregon coast
July and January
North Head, Washington
Lot. 46°18'
Frequency
4 iit.p.h.
and over
J6 m.p.h.
and over
An.
velocity
•m.p.h.
New par.
, Oregon La!. 44°3S'
1936-1912
Frequency
4 m.p.h.
and over
}6 ni.p.h.
and over
Ai<.^
velocity
ni.p.li.
North Bctii, Oregon 43°25'
1931-1942
Freq
4 m.p.h.
and ova'
tcncy
16 m.p.h.
and over
Av:
velocity
m.p.h.
July
N.
N.-N.E.
N.E.
E.-N.E.
E.
E.-S.E.
S.E.
S.-S.E.
S.
S.-S.W.
S.W.
\V.-S.\V.
W.
W.-N.W.
N.W.
N.-N.W.
781
15
11
10
1
44
36
269
39
129
24
127
20
437
323
410
3
7
10
114
14
11
1
9
2
155
171
15.4
8.4
5.6
5.5
10.0
9.2
13.6
14.7
13.4
10.1
7.8
8.1
9.0
13.1
15.9
389
6
2
2
34
11
35
9
60
48
117
34
55
27
'160
212
135
1
5
1
15
60
11.9
4.9
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.8
3.6
5.4
6.4
7.9
6.2
6.7
4.7
5.6
7.9
12.6
351
36
37
2
6
2
52
20
24
19
39
19
16
12
330
172
130
2
1
70
45
12.6
7.8
5.2
3.3
3.1
3.5
4.5
5.3
4.3
7.1
5.7
7.5
4.8
7.6
10.1
11.3
January
N.
N.-N.E.
N.E.
E.-N.E.
E.
E.-S.E.
S.E.
S.-S.E.
S.
S.-S.W.
S.W.
W.-S.W.
W.
W.-N.W.
N.W.
N.-N.W.
84
6
61
6
501
183
383
36
313
23
125
6
127
8
118
13
22
2
3
194
110
152
23
263
23
87
4
69
5
68
9
11.8
-7.6
6.0
9.1
13.0
16.6
14.3
19.2
27.8
27.7
19.9
15.1
16.0
16.3
16.8
18.8
33
6
17
97
415
160
235
25
122
46
75
28
76
17
32
6
3
6
2
2
4
59
23
20
10
7
1
5
7.3
6.4
5.7
7.2
7.3
8.5
6.7
10.5
14.1
16.1
11.2
13.1
8.7
8.1
9.5
9.7
28
4
52
5
19
12
614
149
114
28
93
7
12
3
66
11
1
5
2
15
5
23
1
1
9
5.4
6.2
6.1
6.0
4.8
4.4
7.2
7.3
8.9
12.1
11.2
9.9
.7.2
5.8
8.9
5.3
(from Cooper, 1124)
32
-------
uo
bO
NORTH.
BEND (!)
«.. PORTLAND (2)
•44§Y—=>
SZ-«T III «-4« (SI S4-4J
© "'
\ SEXTON SUMMIT (I)
MEDFORD (2)
-}&. BROOKIN6S (I)
T
Figure 5-1. Wind roses for winter and summer conditions for western Oregon.
a. Wind roses for January.
b. Wind roses for July.
(from U. S. Dept. of Commerce-Weather Bureau, 1210)
-------
For the three stations near the Columbia River--Lone Tree, North
Head, and Astoria--summer winds are predominantly from the N-NW
quadrant paralleling the coast; the highest velocity winds are also
from this sector (Table 5-2). During winter the winds are pre-
dominantly offshore — from east or southeast. These winds are,
however, of moderate speed. The higher velocity winds (16 mph
or more, Table 5-2) arrive from the south or southwest, but do not
occur as frequently as the moderate easterly winds. High velocity
winds from the east also occur in this region during the winter as a
result of the concentration of the wind stream in the Columbia River
gorge (1124). In general, wind speeds are greater in winter than
summer with the exception of the high velocity summer winds from
the north.
Winds measured at Newport and Coos Bay, Oregon, and at Eureka,
California, exhibit the similar pattern of north or northwest winds
in summer and southeast winds in winter. The winds here tend to
follow the general trend of the coastline. Spring and fall are transi-
tion seasons during which the wind swings from south to north and
vice versa; the weather during these periods is usually clear.
Offshore Wind Observations
Observations of offshore winds taken near the vicinity of a marine
outfall are one of the necessary parameters required to describe
the distribution pattern of a surface pollutant. The winds not only
blow the pollutant along the ocean surface, but create wind-driven
currents which carry the "body" of the pollutant away from the source.
Wind speeds measured at shore stations, e.g. , Weather Bureau and Coast
Guard Stations, are generally not representative of conditions
found one-half to five miles offshore due to the varying topography
along the coast. Unfortunately, observations made one to five miles
offshore are very few and widely scattered.
Wind speed and direction measured aboard merchant, naval, and
research vessels in transit are deposited in the National Oceanographic
Data Center (NODC). Analysis of these data to obtain average monthly
wind conditions showed that the few observations taken within the
study area were too widely distributed in space and time to be of any
statistical value.
The geostrophic wind can be computed from twice-daily atmospheric
pressure charts prepared by the U. S. Weather Bureau. Corrections
34
-------
can be applied to the geostrophic wind to obtain the approximate
surface wind condition for a height of 10 meters above the sea surface.
An analysis of offshore wind conditions using this method is described
in a technical report of the Department of Oceanography of the
University of Washington (Duxbury, et_ aL , 1128).
Perhaps the most reliable and representative of actual surface wind
conditions recorded are those measured from lightships stationed
about five miles offshore. These data are stored at the National
Weather Records Center in Asheville, N. C. If specifically requested,
the data are machine punched and put on magnetic tape for future
analysis.
On a broader scale, the Climatological and Oceanographic Atlas for
Mariners, Volume II, North Pacific Ocean (U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
1209) shows monthly wind roses for a point located at 41°00'N,
126 °00'W. Only general seasonal trends can be elicited from this
Atlas.
In the future, valuable wind information will be provided by telemetry
from buoys such as Oregon State University's Totem. These
buoys should provide long and continuous records allowing statistical
analysis of short-term fluctuations as well as long-term averages.
Since the early 1950's wind observations have been recorded every
six hours from the three lightships located in the project area.
These are the Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape Mendocino in northern
California, the Columbia River Lightship, and the Umatilla Lightship
off Cape Alava in northern Washington (Figure 5-2). The data
analysis to obtain average monthly wind conditions was performed
for this project by the National Weather Records Center. Table 5-3
lists by month the average resultant wind direction and speed, the
average scalar speed and the number of observations during the
period of record for each lightship. In addition, Appendix 1 is a
listing of the above information for each year within the period of
record.
Offshore winds in the northern section of the area (Umatilla Lightship
data) shift from SSE in fall and winter to W in early summer and then
reverse the cycle. This same pattern is observed in the central
and southern sections except that during summer the winds continue
their clockwise swing and arrive from the NW and N, respectively.
This annual wind shift is also verified by Figure 5-3 which was
derived from geostrophic calculations. These winds, measured
35
-------
Columbia River
46. Lightship
WASHINGTON
STORIA
TILLAMOOK \
> HEAD V^
TILLAMOOK
EWPORT
44*
OREGON
^COOS BAY
I CAPE BLANCO
[ft ST. GEORGE
Blunts Reef
Lightship
40*
(EUREKA
\CAPE MENDOCINO
CALIFORNIA_
I
Figure 5-2. Locatibn of lightships off the Pacific
Northwest coast.
36
-------
Table 5-3. Resultant wind speed (knots) and direction by month
measured from, lightships off the Pacific Northwest coast.
Blunts Reef Lightship
1954-1966 (13 yrs)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Resultant
Direction
131
091
023
357
355
351
356
359
002
015
113
134
SE
E
NNE
N
N
N
N
N
N
NNE
ESE
SE
Resultant
Speed
4
2
2
8
10
12
14
13
9
5
3
4
Scalar
Speed
18
19
18
18
18
15
16
16'
14
13
16
17
Number
Observations
1609
1465
1591
1523
1481
1554
1491
1548
1536
1470
1554
1594
Columbia River Lightship
1953-1966 (14 yrs)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
"Nov
Dec
Resultant
Direction
155
174
192
233
279
291
317
305
298
159
157
163
SSE
S
ssw
sw
w
WNW
NW
NW
WNW
SSE
SSE
SSE
Resultant
Speed
9
6
5
4
4
4
6
4
1
4
6
8
Scalar
Speed
18
16
15
13
12
10
10
10
11
14
17
17
Number
Observations
1715
1560
1727
1546
1627
1680
1613
1732
1588
1512
1507
1608
Umatilla Lightship
196l-1965'(5 yrs)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Resultant
Direction
182
167
210
208
265
266
238
206
179
167
161
168
S
SSE
SW
SW
W
W
WSW
SW
S
SSE
SSE
SSE
Resultant
Speed
7
4
3
5
5
5
4
2
2
' 8
9
9-
Scalar
Speed
18
16
14
15
13
12
10
7
8
13
16
17
Number
Observations
557
675
693
713
745
719
860
925
900
923
898
930
37
-------
5 miles off the coast, show that even at this distance offshore the
influence of the continental topography is still marked.
Corrected Geostrophic Winds
Duxbury, Morse, and McGary (1128) have computed the resultant
surface wind from atmospheric pressure charts for eight grid points
shown in Figure 5-3. The geostrophic wind velocity aloft was
determined and then corrected by rotating the wind vector 15° to
the left of its downwind direction and reducing the speed by 30% to
obtain a surface wind applicable to a standard height of 10 meters
above the sea surface. These winds were then averaged by month
for the period 1961-1963 for three offshore grid areas (Figure 5-3).
Seasonal trends and latitudinal variations are readily apparent.
Winter winds are predominantly from the southwest, while summer
winds are northwest in the northern areas and from the north in the
southern part. The wind direction changes quite smoothly over a
180° arc between summer and winter and back to summer. Resultant
wind speeds during the autumn and spring transition periods are
relatively low due to the wide variability in wind direction during
these seasons.
Wind roses for each month, centered at the midpoint of the grid
from which the wind values were determined, are shown in Figures
5-4 to 5-15. The percentage of each month the wind came from the
direction indicated is represented by the length of the bar. The
concentric circles indicate both 5-knot speed increments and
monthly frequency of occurrence in 5% intervals. The small numbers
indicate the frequency of occurrence within each 5-knot increment;
the sum over any particular direction indicates the frequency with
which the wind came from the direction shown. The bar graph
associated with each rose shows the monthly frequency of wind
speed in 5-knot increments without regard to direction. The increase
in wind strength during winter followed by the decrease in strength
in summer is readily observed for the northern and central areas.
Winds in the southern area remain relatively strong in both summer
and winter. The close agreement of the "corrected geostrophic
winds" with those winds observed at the lightships substantiates
earlier reports that geostrophic winds may be used in areas where
actual wind observations are meager.
38
-------
WIND SPEED IN KNOTS
• GRID POINTS
I I I
44° —
42'
Figure 5-3. Average direction and velocity of monthly winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, et al. , 1128)
39
-------
Fig. 5-4. Average direction and velocity of
January winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, et aJU , 1128)
Fig. 5-5. Average direction and velocity of
February winds for 1961-1963.
-------
Fig. 5-6. Average direction and velocity of
March winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, et al. , 1128)
130'
128'
126°
130°
42°
Fig. 5-7. Average direction and velocity of
April winds for 1961-1963.
-------
42'
Fig. 5-8. Average direction and velocity of
May winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, et al. , 1128)
Fig. 5-9. Average direction and velocity of
June winds for 1961-1963.
-------
18°— -1
130"
128°
0 10 20 30 40 50
WIND SPEED, KT
0 10 20 30 40 50
WIND SPEED, KT
I
-1 ~^^^^^^M~r~m
0 10 20 3010 50
WIND SPEED, KT
126°
Fig. 5-10. Average direction and velocity of
July winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, et_ al. , 1128)
Fig. 5-11. Average direction and velocity of
August winds for 1961-1963.
-------
Fig. 5-12. Average direction and velocity of
September winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, jet^ at. , 11Z8)
Fig. 5-13. Average direction and velocity of
October winds for 1961-1963.
-------
un
Fig.5-14, Average direction and velocity of
November winds for 1961-1963.
(from Duxbury, ei_ aL , 1128)
Fig.5-15. Average direction and velocity of
December winds for 1961-1963.
-------
48°—
42°—
40° —
U ma I ill a
Lightship--
"^ytt-.-W) ^Y-v-
•.y^C""1*- /-s--.
$r*™*$»
Long Beach
WASHINGTON
Columbia River ;^p%;^
Lightship ~~~~~~
Cape
Arago
i
Crescent
City
Blunts Reef '3
Lightship
I28C
126°
| Dcpoe Bay
-Newport
Marine Science Center
OREGON
— Charleston.
-.Port Or ford
CALIFORNIA
Figure 6-1. Location of shore stations and light-
ships along the Pacific Northwest coast.
46
-------
Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne
Shore Station and Lightship Observations
Temperature and salinity observations are limited to mostly
surface observations. Only data from the National Oceanographic
Data Center contained subsurface observations and these were
extremely limited. Hence, the emphasis of this chapter must be
on the surface temperature and salinity of the area.
Observations of surface temperature and salinity have been made
at selected shore stations and from three lightships along the Pacific
Northwest Coast. Daily observations have been reported from the
Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape Mendocino since 1923 and from
Crescent City, California since 1934 (U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
1205). The Department of Oceanography at Oregon State University
began reporting weekly observations from shore stations along the
Oregon Coast in 1961 (OSU, Dept. of Ocean., 1169). Since 1964
all observations from reporting stations have been made daily (OSU,
Dept. of Ocean. , 1170). Data from the Umatilla Lightship are
listed in a similar publication of the Scripps Institute of Oceanog-
raphy, (1187). The location of each reporting station is shown in
Figure 6-1 and Table 6-1.
Additional temperature and salinity samples have been collected from
other sites along the Pacific Northwest Coast. Some of these data
have been published (Burt, et_al_. , 1115; Conor, 1135; Neal, et al. ,
1160; Pearson and Holt, 1175; Skeesick, 1189) and some exist as-
unpublished laboratory reports (Frolander, 1133; Snow, 1190).
The majority of these observations were taken during a single
season or month in conjunction with research concerning the ecology
of organisms living in the surf zone. These records were not con-
sidered sufficiently long to establish annual trends and were not
included in the analyses to follow.
Tables 6-2 and 6-3 list by month the average mean, average maxi-
mum, and average minimum surface temperature and salinity and
the total number of observations for each reporting station computed
over the period of record. Salinities were determined from hydrome-
ter readings; the few stations reporting salinities in excess of 34.5%o
are probably in error (1170).
Figures 6-2 through 6-5 are graphs of the monthly mean temperatures
for the three lightship stations and for several shore stations along
the Oregon-California coastline. At all locations there is a 4 to
47
-------
Table 6-1. List of Shore Stations and Lightships in Geographical Order
oo
Station Name
Washington
Umatilla Lightship
Long Beach
Oregon
Columoia River Lightship
Seaside Aquarium
Arch Cape
Depoe Bay Aquar-urn.
Newport Marine '-jcieuce Center
Charleston
Cape Arago Light Station
Port Orford
California
Crescent City
Blunts Reef Lightship
Position
48°10. O'N, 124°50.0'W
46°23. O'N, 124°04. O'W
46°11. 2'N, 124°11. O'W
45°59.7'N, 123°55. 6'W
45°48. O'N, 123°58.0'W
44°49.4'N, 124°04. O'W
44-37. 2'N, 124°01. 5'W
43"21. O'N, 124°19.0'W
43°20.3'N, 124°22. 5'W
42°44. 6'N, 124°30. 6'W
41 °44.6'N, 124-11.7'W
40°26. O'N, 124°30. O'W
Location
Off Cape Alava
In surf on sand beach, 10th Street approach
Mouth of Columbia River
At pump outlet into Aquarium settling tank from
surf inlet pipe
In surf on a sand beach
At pump outlet into Aquarium settling tank from
surf inlet pipe
At pump outlet into Laboratory from bottom of
Yaquina Bay
From surface of bay
Off the rocks below the Light Station
Off east side of Port Orford River
USCGS Tide Guage Station, Crescent City
Off Cape Mendocino
-------
Station and
Period of Record
Long Beach, Washington
1962-1963
Seaside Aquarium
1966-1969
Arch Cape
1960-1963
(1961 dominates
salinity data)
Table 6-2. Average monthly temperature (°C) and salinity (%o) of the surf measured at
selected sites on the Pacific Northwest coast. Salinities enclosed by ( )
indicate average computed from fewer observations than listed in total.
T
T
Monthly Avgs. !t
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. O',,s.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Tot*: No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum.
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg, Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg, Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Jan.
9.44
10.65
8.42
72
28. 14
29.81
26. 09
69
9. 35
10.20
8. 11
44
30.68
31.45
28.87
8
Feb.
9.27
9.95
8.73
54
28.23
30.34
25.65
55
9. 85
10.27
9.07
37
30. 51
31.64
30. 00
7
Mar.
9.78
10. 55
8.89
79
28.39
30.36
24.48
77
9.33
10.70
8.21
51
30.22
31.70
27. 65
25
Apr.
8.10
8.40
7.80
2
26.02
26.46
25. 58
2
11. 05
12. 03
9.97
66
28. 52
30.41
24. 67
66
10. 55
11.99
9.37
41
29. 12
32.43
26.65
38
May
10.58
12. 50
7.50
5
21.98
25. 07
18.40
5
12. 32
14.33
10. 59
64
29. 11
31.69
24.83
64
12. 29
13.61
10. 62
41
28.70
31.46
26. 52
44
June
11.55
14. 30
9.40
4
30. 62
31.88
29. 23
3
15. 04
16.97
12.97
78
26.83
30.92
21.65
78
12. 80
15.20
10. 19
42
31. 30
33.62
27.75
32
July
14.86
15.81
13. 61
12
25. 65
27.36
24.46
6
1 5. 08
17. 68
12. 14
79
28.98
32.70
23.22
79
14. 18
17. 56
9.85
67
31.52
33.45
28.77
40
Aug.
15. 06
17. 07
13.71
15
29.20
33. 08
24.71
6
14. 63
16.61
12. 17
72
31. 19
32.48
29.48
72
12.76
15.88
9.77
72
32.76
33.89
30.99
40
Sept.
13.47
14.38
12.43
4
28. 54
30. 00
27.15
4
15. 26
16. 12
14.22
45
30.41
31. 64
27.56
45
12. 15
14.78
9.65
83
32.46
33.41
31.44
42
Oct.
12.96
15. 10
11.90
5
28.93
30. 62
27.25
5
13.73
15.30
12.25
46
29.79
30.85
27.95
46
11. 84
12.74
9. 15
41
32.31
33.35
30.93
36
Nov.
11.10
11.90
10.10
4
27.36
30. 14
24.38
4
12.49
13.77
11.16
50
30. 15
30. 52
28. 25
50
10. 57
12.03
8.82
37
31.53
32.96
29.75
29
Dec.
9.00
9.60
8.40
2
27.36
29.14
25. 58
2
10. 82
12.07
9.58
44
28.95
29.79
27.75
44
9.43
10.10
8.73
66
30.13
31. 57
26.98
41
-------
Table 6. 2. continued
Depoe Bay Aquarium
1965-1969
(July and August
salinity averages
based on one year
only)
Newport Marine Science
Center
1965-1969
Un
O
Charleston
1966-1969
Cape Arago Light Station
1963-1966
T
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
Total No. Obs.
s
T
s
T
s
T
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Avg.
Avg.
Avg.
Total
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
No. Obs.
Jan.
9.23
9.94
8.48
82
30.90
31.93
29. 53
82
9.33
10. 27
8. 55
74
29.40
31.69
25.83
85
9.37
10.80
7.70
64
30.07
31.88
25.32
64
9.52
10. 54
7.61
41
30.86
32. 61
27.74
39
Feb.
9. 28
9.84
8.65
69
31.33
32. 11
30.42
'69.
9.44
10.74
8.63
64
30. 06
31.78
24.94
75
9. 89
11. 28
8.81
35
29.28
31. 56
27.26
34
9.55
10. 20
8.90
25
32.48
33. 58
31.36
25
Mar.
9.33
10.05
8.28
74
31. 04
32.31
29.67
74
9.75
10. 32
8.96
65'
30. 00
31.93
26.75
64
10. 64
12. 04
9.51
42
30. 20
31.44
27.58
42
9.81
11.93
8.24
68
'32. 17
(33. 20)
30.69
67
Apr.
10.35
11:31
9. 50
80
31.40
32.57
31. 05
59
10. 27
11. 21
9.42
64
31.28
32.89
29.39
77
11.17
12.38
9.71
46
30. 65
31. '79
27.55
46
10.45
11. '98
9.55
84
32. 05
(32.87)
29.96
84'
May
10.66
11.84
9.67
60
32.31
33. 10
31.33
40
12.38
13. 61
9. 68
78
31.98
33. 59
29.49
81
11. 60
13.81
9.98
55
31.60
(33.16)
28.78
54
11.37
12.95
9.95
91
31.72
(32.82)
28.72
73
June
13. 10
15. 14
11.47
49
32. 08
33.82
30.41
48
13. 39
13. 82
12.30
78
31.87
33. 16
28.61
79
13. 05
15.71
11. 57
65
32. 19
(33.48)
30.26
65
12.47
14.47
11.05
85
32.90
(33.70)
31.73
85
July
12. 06
13.43
11.00
23
31.97
33.00
30.10
3
12. 60
15.46
9. 57
54
32.59
33.73
29.86
58
12.92
15.33
10. 54
76
32. 57
(33.42)
31.21
71
12.74
15. 04
10.30
88
33.32
>34. 00
32. 10
88
Aug.
15.81
16.84
14.25
44
30.33
30.99
28. 28
23
12.30
14.92
9.90
66
33.31
33.74
32. 51
77
12.43
13.96
10.45
44
32. 83
33.42
31.93
33
13. 29
16. 08
10.81
88
33. 53
>34. 00
32.36
88
Sept.
14.48
15.90
13. 05
55
32.32
33.00
31.00
32
13.38
15.30
10. 63
43
32.83
33.41
31.97
63
13.66
1 5. 70
11.35
45
32. 58
33. 51
30.93
47
13. 00
15. 13
10.49
64
33.35
>34. 00
32.43
64
Oct. Nov. Dec.
12.83
13.70
11.61
48
11.28
12. 26
10. 06
58
9.96
10.89
8.87
85
32.82 32.38 31.51
33.83 33.19 33.00
31.91 31.70 30.16
40 58 85
11.53 11.96 10.94
13.54 13.75 11.97
10.76 10.85 9.63
43 68 70
32.59 31.27 29.54
33.15 32.48 31.41
31.73 29.75 26.07
65 70 70
12.41 11.20 10.26
14.62 12.68 11.50
10.74 9.47 9.06
64 41 63
31.58 30.56 29.91
32.90 32.75 32.07
30.27 27.54 27.05
57 41 63
12.75 12.34 10.96
14.02 13.44 12.72
11.32 11.20 9.00
84 67 52
32.84 32.53 31.78
(33.55) (32.96) 32.98
32.14 31.35 29.59
84 67 52
-------
Table 6-2. continued
Port Orford
1964-1969
Crescent City, California
1934-1964
1963-1969
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Jan.
y.76
10.73
8.32
99
31.68
32. 68
29.97
99
9.7
11.0
8. 1
28.30
31.99
22.90
106
Feb.
10. 24
11.05
9.75
101
31.73
32.75
30.26
98
10.0
11. 2
8.4
28.98
(32.07)
23. 05
102
Mar.
9.85
10.89
8.93
126
32. 08
(33. 10)
30.17
126
10. 2
11.6
8.7
29.69
(32.63)
23.55
90
Apr.
9.88
11.00
8. 62
107
32.36
(32.62)
31.20
107
10.8
12. 2
9. 5
28. 84
32.35
22.14
81
May
9.89
11. 29
8.48
113
33.34
(33.76)
32. 20
113
11.7
13.4
10. 0
30.40
33.75
25. 00
51
June
10.89
12.76
9.33
90
33.61
>34. 00
32.60
89
12. 5
14.7
10. 6
31.77
(33.71)
29. 08
71
July
10.90
13.96
9. 14
110
33.71
>34. 00
33. 02
110
13. 5
15.3
11.4
32. 54
(32.77)
30.42
60
Aug.
11. 58
14. 10
9.40
97
33.71
>34. 00
32.99
96
14. 2
15.8
12.3
32.33
33. 08
31.28
61
Sept.
12. 35
14.41
10. 43
-90
33. 30
(33.49)
32. 83
90
13. 5
15. 2
11.7
32.75
33. 62
31. 56
99
Oct.
11.83
12.87
10.89
70
32.94
(33.42)
32. 20
80
12. 1
13.6
10.8
32. 60
33.33
31.71
96
Nov.
11.12
11.52
10.45
25
32.59
33. 27
31.83
25
11. 1
12. 5
9. 5
30.90
32.74
28.01
96
Dec,
10.71
11.58
9.71
76
31. 20
32. 20
30. 02
75
10.3
11.6
8.7
29.64
32.31
25.49
55
-------
Table 6-3. Average monthly surface temperature (°C) and salinity (%o) from three
lightships off the Pacific Northwest coast. Salinities enclosed by ( )
indicate average computed from fewer observations than listed in total.
Station and
Period of Record
Umatilla'Reef Lightship
1966-1969
Columbia River Lightship
1965-1969
Blunts Reef Lightship
1923-1964
1966-1968
Monthly Avgs. 8t
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
No data.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.
Jan.
9.11
10.40
7.97
93
9.30
10.61
7.55
77
27.99
(33.20)
19.29
55
11.0
12. 1
10.1
33.16
33.68
32.23
62
Feb.
8.16
9.10
7.49
57
8.82
10.63
7.53
118
26.90
32.11
21.23
55
10.8
11.8
9.9
33.08
33.62
32.12
57
Mar.
8.49
9. 11
7.68
65
9.20
10.06
8.03
112
26.69
32.04
17.02
95
10.4
11.6
9.1
32.86
33. 52
31 . 39
89
9.26
11. 68
7.62
73
10.10
11.37
9.22
109
24.17
29.72
16.18
78
10.2
11.4
8.9
33.26
(33. .-4)
32. 10
84
May
1 0. 29
13. 07
8.85
88
11. 50
13.07
12.39
123
25.18
29.43
19.95
96
10.3
12. 0
9.1
33.73
> 34. 00
33.07
90
June
12.40
15. 50
12.82
119
13.64
15.56
11.41
151
22.76
29.88
14.80
107
10.3
12. 2
8.9
33.75
> 34. 00
33.36
89
July
12. 67
14. 60
11. 22
94
14. 56
16. 50
12.71
152
23.07
26.90
12.55
10.2
11.9
8.9
33.84
> 34. 00
33.24
92
Aug.
12. 56
14. 58
10. 18
88
14.91
17. 07
12.65
117
27.27
30.60
21.48
81
10.8
12.7
9.4
33. 59
> 34. 00
32.91
86
Sept.
14.05
16.39
11.79
83
14.92
16.48
12.89
93
31. 15
(33.50)
23.00
58
11.3
13.3
9.9
33.42
33.89
33.02
88
Oct.
12.00
14.11
10.64
80
13.83
15. 17
12.29
89
30.35
(33.43)
21.36
63
11.6
13.6
10.1
33.52
33.87
32.98
93
Nov.
1 0.97
12. 04
9. 53
80
12. 14
13.46
10. 56
112
27.80
30.48
24. 12
94
11.7
13.3
10.1
33.20
33.73
32.70
89
Dec.
9.40
11.03
8.42
78
10.00
11.89
7.90
103
22.72
30.94
13. 18
53
11.5
12.9
10.1
33.06
33.49
32.55
55
-------
JF
Figure 6-2.
MAMJJASOND
Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded at three
lightships along the Pacific Northwest Coast. Monthly
means were computed from daily observations taken
over the periods listed in Table 6-3. Note that the annual
range for the southernmost lightship is much less than
that of the more northerly stations.
I6r-
I
fc
M
A
M
N
Figure 6-3. Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded at four
northern Oregon shore stations. Monthly means were
computed from daily observations taken over the periods
listed in Table 6-2. The high summer temperatures
reflect the influx of the warm Columbia River discharge.
53
-------
M A M J
J A S 0 N D
Figure 6-4. Mean monthly surface temperatures measured at shore
stations in Coos Bay area. Monthly means were com-
puted from daily observations over a four year period
(Table 6-2).
14
K 12
I
b 10
J L
M A M J
J A S 0 N D
Figure 6-5. Mean monthly surface temperatures measured at shore
stations south of Cape Blanco. Monthly means were com-
puted from daily observations taken over the periods
listed in Table 6-2. Note that the intense upwelling
characteristic of the Cape Blanco area is reflected in
the low summer temperatures at Port Orford.
54
-------
5 C° increase in temperature during the summer months. The
northern stations experience a larger range in annual temperatures
than do the southern stations (Tables 6-2 and 6-3). Maximum tem-
peratures are usually achieved during August or September. The
surface waters are coldest from December through March.
The range between average maximum and minimum monthly tem-
peratures is larger during summer than winter. Summer tempera-
tures can be expected to fluctuate approximately 2. 5 to 3.0 C°
about the monthly mean temperature; during winter this fluctuation
is approximately 0. 5 to 1. 0 C° .
The surface temperatures observed during summer from the
Columbia River Lightship, 5 miles offshore, are influenced by the
river discharge temperature as indicated by the anomalously high
average mean and average maximum temperatures of 14. 9°C and
17. 1 °C, respectively. The three northerly stations on the Oregon
Coast also had average maximum temperatures in excess of 17°C;
at the southerly stations maximum temperatures were usually 14 to
15 °C. The high summer temperature of the Columbia River discharge
undoubtedly caused the higher temperatures observed at these north-
ern stations. This corroborates the findings of Pattullo and Denner
(1173) based on a shorter observation period.
The temperature patterns observed from the Blunts Reef Lightship
off Cape Mendocino and at Port Orford just south of Cape Blanco are
unlike those observed at other stations. These stations are located
in regions of extremely active upwelling. During periods of upwelling
(June-September) the near surface waters of these regions can be
expected to be relatively cool and quite saline. Average minimum
temperatures are low, 8 to 9 °C, and surface salinities often exceed
34%o. The increase in summer temperatures observed at the other
stations does not occur. Maximum temperatures occur in October
and November, two months after the other stations have reached their
maximums. The range in temperature at these two stations is
small, approximately 1 C° in winter and 2 C° in summer.
Off shore Temperature and Salinity Observations
Temperature and salinity observations from vessels at sea are on
file at the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). These
data are filed by 10° Marsden square numbers (Schuyler, 1225);
number 157 encompasses the region of the study area. Data from
^one degree squares 40°to 48°N latitude and 124° to 125°W longitude
within Marsden square 157 were obtained from NODC. Since this report
55
-------
is concerned with the data observed within 10 miles (18 km) of the coast
(the distance between 124 W and 1Z5°W longitude is about 48 miles),
a computer program was written to exclude all data observed more
than 10 miles from shore. About 25 percent of the original data was
found shoreward of this 10-mile boundary. After arranging the data
by month and latitude, it was apparent that an extreme paucity of
data existed and that most observations were clustered about the
major coastal towns or off prominent headlands. More than 50 percent
of the observations were from the vicinity of the Columbia River
mouth.
Monthly means of temperature and salinity, maximum and minimum
values, and number of observations have been computed for the
standard depths of 0, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters for the clustered
data areas. Table 6-4 is a listing of average surface conditions.
Similar statistics for the remaining depths are listed in Appendix 2
of Volume II.
Care should be exercised when using the data in Table 6-4 since:
1. Very few observations were available to compute a mean-
ingful average. Frequently only 1 to 3 observations were used to
compute the monthly averages.
2. The observations for a given month are not necessarily from
the same year, but may have been taken over a span of 10 years.
3. The data represent average surface conditions over an area
about 5 miles wide. Airborne infrared surveys have shown tem-
peratures to increase with distance from the coast in this 5-mile
wide zone.
With the above in mind, the following observations seem significant
regarding the offshore temperature and salinity distribution:
1. a. For the Coos Bay, Brcokings, and Trinidad Head offshore
areas, coldest temperatures (7-9 °C) occur in June. Salinities are
also high in June (>33.6%0) indicating strong upwelling.
b. Maximum temperatures at the above three offshore stations
are reached in September and October (12-13°C). Salinities remain
high throughout the summer (>33. 0%o).
56
-------
Table 6-4. Mean monthly surface temperatures ( °C) and salinities (%o) for
selected offshore areas (1-10 km from the coast). Data are
from that on file at NODC. Note the very few number of
observations available for computation of monthly averages.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
Juno July
Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.
40-49' to 40-51 '
Trinidad Head Area
41 -03' to 41 -04'
42-00'
43-20' to 43-21 '
Yaquina Head Area
44°38' to 44-41 '
Tillamook Bay Area
45-30' to 45-46'
45-58' to 46-05'
Columbia River Mouth Area
46-07' to 46-22'
Long Beach to Ocean Park Area
46-22' to 46-36'
Pacific Beach Area
47-00' to 47°19'
No. of Obs. 10 3 5 6
M Sail it 3? 76 3n 16 In 1 n
No. of Obs. 10 3 5 6
Mean Temp -* 1 0 93
No. of Obs. 1
No. of Obs. 1
No. of Obs. 1
No. of Obs.
No. of Obs. 1 7 1
Mean Salinity 32 36 31 95 30 93
No. of Obs. 1 7 1
Mean Temp. 9.68 9.45 10.55 10.52
No. of Obs. 6747
Mean Salinity 32.17 31.03 31.13 31.03
No. of Obs. 6 47
Mean Temp. 10. 26 816 10 29 9 42
No. of Obs. 1111
Mean Salinity 32 00 27 41 31 08 25 84
No. of Obs. 1111
No. of Obs. 352
Mean Salinity 24 76 27 74 27 36
No. of Obs. 352
Mean Temp. 8.93 7.61 8.94 9.67
No. of Obs. 5. 37 28 11
Mean Salinity 27.74 20.16 24.30 22.09
No. of Obs. 4 37 27 11
Mean Temp. 8.17 8.00 8.85 9.18
No. of Obs. 3686
Mean Salinity 27.92 26.29 27.37 27.40
No. of Obs. 3686
Mean Temp. 9.28 8.24 9.26 9.49
No. of Obs. • 1 2 3 1
Mean Salinity 28.26 27.67 27.23 25.65
No. of Obs. 123-1
11. It. !£.£! !£.ou
3 13 3
3 12 3
9 47 ! 3 66
3 10
33 93 33 3 5
3
1 1 66 6 50 11 08
5 1 1
5 1 1
1 1 3
32.17 33.58 33.23
1 1 3
10.75 11.47 9.65
6 7 11
32.05 32.13 33.06
6 7 11
1325 1201 8 44
4 6 1
3018 30 06 33 16
3 6 1
1 11 1
1 11 1
12.02 13.62 14.68
10 110 2
21.65 16.57 25.40
9 117 2
12.97 13.49
3 15
30.24 21.87
3 15
13.99 10.30
4 1
27. 19 33.43
4 1
776
33 33 33 65 33 32
776
1 2 63 1332 12 42
2 8 1
33 56 33 35
8 1
1 1 48 ' 2 66 I 1 05
1 1 1
3385 33 53 33 00
1 1 1
1 1 05 ' 3 24 f 3 46
223
33.46 33.02 32.83
223
11. 80 12.97 1 2. 15
6510
33.14 32.71 32.53
6510
1276 1418 1533
243
31 76 31 87 31 82
243
1456 14 86 1 5 88
374
28 80 27 35 31 38
374
14.41 13.84 14.24
51 155 10
25.21 27.80 28.08
51 156 10
13.58 13.90 14.91
495
30.71 29.80 29.37
495
15.00 M.70
3 1
30.97 30.09
3 1
7
30 67
8
971
1
3272
1
1 0 79 1 0 44
2 3
32.68 31.67
2 3
11.94 10.41
9 7
32.14 31.66
10 7
11 71
2
3153
2
1 0 41
1
3216
1
10.26 9.84
9 5
29.21 25.86
9 6
10.60 8.84
5 2
30.64 26.10
5 2
6.92
1
26.98
1
57
-------
c. For the Yaquina Head and Tillamook Bay offshore areas,
low temperatures (8-9°C) and high salinities (>33.0%0) are observed
in July. Upwelling is dominant during July. Maximum tempera-
tures (13-15 °C) occur in September and October after the cessation
of upwelling.
d. Maximum temperatures at shore stations in these 5 areas
occur two months earlier--in August and September.
2. a. At Seaside and for the Long Beach-Ocean Park areas, sur-
face temperatures remain relatively high throughout the summer
(14-15° C). Salinities rarely exceed 30. 00%o. In June, the Columbia
River flood is reflected in extremely low surface salinities (21-24%<
700
b. Upwelling then, as measured by low temperatures and
high salinities, does not appear to be a dominant factor in these two
areas.
3. a. Examination of subsurface temperatures (Appendix 2 )
indicates that isothermal conditions (constant temperature with
increasing depth) exist from November through March-April. This
may permit surface temperatures to be inferred from subsurface
temperature recorders during the winter months when it may be
difficult to obtain continuous surface temperatures. A weak thermocline
less than 2°C) exists during the summer at a depth of less than 20 meters
Continuous temperature measurements are available from thermo-
graph records made 3 to 10 miles off the central Oregon coast near
Depoe Bay and Yaquina Head. Observational periods include May
and June, 1967; April through September, 1968; and July through
September, 1969. Analysis of the 1967-1968 data is completed and
will be published (Pillsbury e_t al. , 1177).
Sea Surface Temperature from Infrared Surveys
The airborne infrared radiometer (radiation thermometer) has
proven useful for mapping mesoscale distributions of sea surface
temperature. Large scale features such as upwelling fronts or the
plume from the Columbia River are readily apparent.
Since August 1963 the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of the Interior; in
-------
cooperation with the U. S. Coast Guard has conducted monthly infrared
radiometer surveys for three Pacific coast areas. The recently modi-
fied northern flight pattern (the only area within the limits of this-
study) extends from Cape Elizabeth, Washington, to Newport, Oregon,
and offshore to the 6000 foot (1000 fathoms) contour (approximately
60 miles offshore). Figure 6-6 is an example of the monthly tempera-
ture pattern constructed from one such survey.
During the summer of 1969 the Department of Oceanography, Oregon
State University in conjunction with OSU's Sea Grant project, "Albacore
Central, " conducted daily infrared radiometer surveys, along the
Oregon Coast to approximately 30 miles offshore. Temperature
contours from a typical flight are shown in Figure 6-7.
Temperature profiles constructed from airborne infrared surveys
within 5 miles of the coast are quite subjective. Figure 6-8 shows
profiles from a segment of a typical survey conducted by OSU. The
horizontal temperature gradient changes rapidly and unpredictably
within the first 5 to 10 miles off the coast. Discontinuities marking
temperature fronts are present and can be corroborated by abrupt
changes in water color. In order to construct representative sea
surface temperature contours with some degree of confidence, closer
spacing of the flight track is required than that shown in Figure 6-8.
Conclusions
1. An abundant source of surface temperature and salinity data
is available from coastal shore stations and the three offshore light-
ships. Few measurements have been made, however, inside of this
five mile wide zone.
2. Surface temperatures range from an average high of 17.7°C
to an average low of 7. 6°C. More variability is observed in summer
than in winter. Summer temperatures fluctuate within a 4 to 6 C° band
while winter temperatures are constrained within a 1 to 2 C° band.
3. Summer temperatures are about 5 C° warmer than winter
temperatures. Mean summer temperatures peak in August and September
(12 to 14 °C); average maximum temperatures, however, peak in July
and August (15. 5 to 17. 5°C). Winter mean temperatures are uniformly
low (about 9. 5°C) during the period December through March. Average
minimum temperatures (7. 5 to 8. 3°C) generally occur in January.
59
-------
from lo'rared Radiation Thermometer
SURVEY FOR
AUGUST 1967
FLIGHT 8-3-67 1013 - 1513 POT
PACIFIC COAST CONTINENTAL
SHELF TEMPERATURE SURVEY
Tiburon Morine Loboroto'y
U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and
in cooperation with
The U.S. Coast Guard
half—Inshore, celling 1100', wind J
3 kti., visibility 10 ai.; offshore.
celling 1800', vlnd ^ 5 he*., visibi-
lity 10 ml.
Figure 6-6. Example of a typical infrared survey conducted by
the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Note that insufficient
data prevents drawing temperature contours within
10 km of the coast.
60
-------
jCOOS BAY
CAPE ARAGO
— 46°N
— 45"N
— 44'N
— 43°N
Figure 6-7. Temperature contours from a typical infrared
survey conducted by Oregon State University's
Sea Grant project "Albacore Central." Note
closer spacing of flight track provides capability
to construct contours closer to shore than
that shown in Figure 6-6.
61
-------
. •
^TILLAMOOK
Figure 6-8. Segment of a typical infrared survey conducted by Oregon
State University's Sea Grant project, "Albacore Central"
(July 1969). Note that construction of temperature
contours is highly subjective even for this relatively
narrow strip. (Compiled by Burton W. Adams)
62
-------
4. Summer temperatures in the northern portion of the area
(from Willapa Bay, Washington, to Tillamook Bay, Oregon) are
2 or 3 C° warmer than temperatures observed at the more southerly
stations. This is undoubtedly due to the warming influence of the
Columbia River.
5. In areas where coastal upwelling is intense, summer
temperatures are suppressed below those of the more northerly
stations. Average minimum temperatures of 9. 5 to 1 0. 5°Care
observed in upwelling regions whereas minimum temperatures of
12 to 14° are found in regions of little or no upwelling.
6. Due to extensive wind mixing of these shallow waters in
winter, isothermal conditions exist from November through March-
April.
7- Surface salinities are higher in summer (approximately
33. 5%o) than in winter (approximately 32%o). Coastal upwelling tends
to keep salinities elevated during the summer while winter rains
and high river run-off tend to lower surface salinities.
8. Where coastal upwelling is prevalent, salinities in excess
of 33. 8%o are frequently observed. However, during periods of weak
or inactive upwelling, surface salinities may be reduced to 32. 5
to 33%0.
9. In winter the discharge from the Columbia River flows
north close to the Washington coastline. Mean salinities observed
along the southern Washington coast are low (25 to 28%o) with
maximum salinities rarely exceeding 30%o. During periods of peak
discharge (June) salinities below 20%oare not uncommon. During summer
when the Columbia River plume flows offshore to the southwest, its
freshening influence is still felt along the southern Washington coast.
Surface salinities average about 30%o occasionally reaching 33%o in
July and August.
63
-------
Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET
by Robert H. Bourke
Introduction
Rather than describe the climatology of the nearshore region,
it was felt that a heat budget approach would be more informative.
A heat budget study for the coastal area of the Pacific Northwest has
been completed by Lane (1150). He investigated the area from 40 to
50° North Latitude and from the coastline to 130° West Longitude.
A further subdivision narrowed this area to include only the region
within 60 nautical miles of the coastline. This subdivided region was
established to provide a comparison between a coastal upwelling
region and one free from the effects of upwelling. Measured values
of sea surface temperature, wet and dry bulb air temperature, wind
velocity, solar radiation, and cloud cover were used to compute the
terms in the heat budget equation. The data used by Lane were
from records of naval vessels for the period 1952-1962. These re-
cords are on file at the National Weather Records Center in Asheville,
N. C. Each heat budget term was averaged month by month over
a ten-year period (Table 7-1). The monthly variation of the total net
heat exchange across the air-sea boundary was computed from the
simplified heat budget equation: Q = Q - Q Q Q 7-1
t s b h e
where Q is net heat transfer; considered positive when the sea rer
ceives heat energy,
Q is net short wave solar radiation incident on the sea
surface,
Qn is heat loss due to effective back radiation,
b
Q is heat conduction; considered positive when there is a
net exchange of heat from the sea to the atmosphere,
Q is heat loss due to evaporation.
O
All terms are measured in langleys (calories/cm ).
Empirical Methods
Direct measurement of terms in the heat budget equation (equation
7-1) is presently limited to laboratory experiments with the possible
64
-------
Table 7-1. Ten-year average monthly values (langleys) for the major heat budget terms for
a region where coastal upwelling is seasonally present. The Qf- overall includes
this region as well as areas farther offshore not affected by coastal upwelling.
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Qb
82
70
70
73
63
72
51
63
75
113
80
95
Qh
38
30
41
-10
- 5
- 7
-22
-15
-42
10
24
- 6
Q
e
225
200
167
118
129
150
93
100
110
185
155
106
Q 3 net
116
140
264
423
486
528
419
447
386
272
126
105
Qt
-229
-160
- 14
242
299
313
297
299
243
- 36
-133
- 90
Qt n
overall
-191
-100
20
198
277
304
366
274
119
- 89
-205
-203
(modified from Lane, 1150)
-------
exception of the radiative terms. In practice, empirical methods are
used to compute the heat budget terms. Spatial and temporal measure
ments of ,,sea surface temperature, wet and dry bulb air temperature,
wind velocity, solar radiation, and cloud coverage are observed
from which diurnal, monthly, or annual means are computed. A
variety of empirical relationships have been established for the com-
putation of each heat budget term utilizing the above measurements.
A discussion of the methods employed by Lane follows.
Monthly mean values of the total daily solar radiation incident on the
surface of the earth, Q , were obtained from the U. S. Weather
Bureau at Astoria, Oregon. These monthly means were corrected
for latitude and cloud cover. The percent of the incident solar radia-
tion reflected from the sea surface, i.e. , the albedo, was determined
by slightly modifying and averaging the albedos as determined by
Burt (1116, 1117). The net solar radiation -was calculated as the
difference between the incident and reflected values. Monthly means
of net solar radiation are listed in Table 7-1 and plotted in Figure 7-3.
The effective back radiation or the net loss of heat due to long wave
radiation from the sea surface is a function of the surface water
termperature and several atmospheric characteristics (temperature,
vapor pressure, and cloud coverage). Lane used the relationship
developed, by Anderson e_t al. (1226) to compute
Q, = 1.141 K 4 - K 4[(0.74 + 0.025 Ce~°'°584h) +
D S cL
(0. 0049 - 0. 00054 C e~°' ° h) e ] 10"? ly/day 7-2
3.
where K and K are, respectively, absolute sea surface and air
temperatures in °K,
C is cloud cover in tenths, and
h is height of the clouds above sea level in meters.
The heat loss due to evaporation, Q , is primarily a function of the
wind speed, V (m/sec), and the difference between the saturation
vapor pressure and ambient vapor pressure, (es - ea).
A number of equations have been developed, but none are able to
predict the evaporation from the oceans with great confidence or
accuracy. The equation chosen by Lane originated with Sverdrup
66
-------
(1191) and is of the form:
Q =6. 13 V (e -e ) ly/day 7-3
G S3,
The conduction of sensible heat from the sea surface to the atmosphere
occurs when the sea is warmer than the overlying air. Convective
cells are created due to the instability within the air column resulting
in cooling of the sea surface. If the air is warmer than the sea, a
condition of stability is approached resulting in negligible exchange
of heat. In general, the conduction process favors the removal of
heat from the sea. The standard technique for estimating Q is by
use of the Bowen ratio, i. e. , R = Q /Q . Once the heat loss due to
evaporation has been determined, Q can be found by
0.61(K -K )Qe
Qh = : : ly/day 7-4
n (e - e )
s a
where the terms are the same as those previously defined.
A comprehensive review of the heat budget including evaluation of the
numerous empirical relationships, methods of data analysis, and
techniques and equipment for obtaining the required meteorological
variables may be found in several reports of which Edinger and Geyer
(1229), Raphael (1180) and a TVA report (1131 ) are the most complete.
Average monthly values of the heat budget terms for the Pacific North-
west may also be determined from the heat budget Atlas edited by
Budyko (1114).
Discussion of Results
Over the ten-year period of investigation the total net heat transfer
varied considerably from one year to the next. The range was appre-
ciable, varying from over 42,000 langleys gained by the sea in 1956 to
almost 2,000 langleys lost by the sea in 1959 (Figure 7-1). Lane was
able to show that annual fluctuations in both solar radiation and evapor-
ation were the major contributors to the observed net heat differences.
From January through March the net heat transfer was negative indi-
cating a release of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere (Figure 7-2).
During March through May the direction of exchange reversed result-
ing in a warming of the ocean. During the summer the warming pro-
cess continued at a relatively constant rate. However, farther off-
shore beyond the upwelling zone, the mid-summer atmospheric
warming of the ocean decreased due to high surface temperatures
67
-------
40.000
30,000
•£ 20,000
a)
6C
•
a
10,000
-10,000
j_
I
I
53 54 55 56 57 58 59
Year (19--)
60
61
62
Figure 7-1. Variation of annual heat exchange (Qt) from 1953 to
1962 for the region 40 to 50 N. Lat. and from the
coastline to 130 W. Long. Note the extreme fluctua-
tions in heat gained and lost by the region of the sea
in 1956 and 1959, respectively (from Lane, 1150).
68
-------
400
300
200
100
Tl
-------
caused by warm Columbia River water and high values of cloud cover
which reduced the incident solar radiation. By October the net heat
exchange again reversed and the ocean continued to release heat at
an increasing rate through December and January.
Net solar radiation and heat loss due to evaporation are the most
significant factors affecting the total net heat exchange. The net
solar radiation reaches its maximum during the summer months.
April through September experience more than twice the insolation
of the winter months (Figure 7-3). The heat loss due to evaporation
is almost double that due to back radiation (Figures 7-4 and 7-5).
However, during the summer months when upwelling is prevalent,
the evaporative heat loss is suppressed from its winter maximum.
The water transfer to the atmosphere during summer is less by
approximately two inches per month compared to that in regions be-
yond the zone of upwelling. Cooling of the surface waters in summer
due to upwelling also results in the conduction term, Qfo, being nega-
tive, i. e. , a net conduction of heat to the sea (Figure 7-6). This lowering
of the surface water temperature also results in a reduction of the
effective back radiation during the summer months.
Direct Measurements
Direct measurements of net radiation and the evaporative and con-
ductive heat fluxes will provide better knowledge of the heat transfer
process across the air-sea interface. With increased understanding
of the heat transfer process, the reliability of the empirical relation-
ships should be improved. However, direct measurement of the heat
budget terms is still limited to laboratory experiments with the
exception of the radiative terms.
Solar radiation incident on the sea surface is usually measured with
a pyrheliometer. Determination of the effective back radiation term is
from empirical methods. The net radiation, both long and short wave,
incident on the sea surface, however, can be measured with a net radi-
ometer. Unfortunately, few of these devices are in operation at marine
stations (1150).
Both the conductive and the evaporative heat exchanges can be expressed
as the sum of a slowly fluctuating average value and a rapidly fluctua-
ting random value. The slowly fluctuating portion is that which is estimated
by empirical methods since these methods are based on average values of wind,
70
-------
a
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
120
a no
T)
co
100
d
jrt 90
o
c 80
a
70
60
50
O
N
D
Monthly mean values of net solar radiation incident upon
the area from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles
offshore. The summer months experience more than twice
the insolation of the winter months.
(modified from Lane, 1150)
Figure 7-4. Monthly mean values of net back radiation for the area
from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore.
The low surface temperatures in summer resulting from
coastal upwelling suppresses the net back radiation during
this season, (modified from Lane, 1150)
71
-------
n)
a
240
220
180
160
140
120
100
80
50
40
30
20
4) 10
nt 0
tf -10
-20
-30
-40
-50
J F M A M J JASON DJ
Figure 7-5. -Monthly mean values of evaporative flux for the area
from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore.
In summer the evaporative heat loss is greatly suppressed
from its winter maximum due to cooling effect of coastal
upwelling. (modified from Lane, 1150)
in
M
M
N
Figure 7-6. Monthly mean values of sensible heat conducted across
the air-sea interface for the area from the Oregon coast-
line to 60 nautical miles offshore. Since surface temper-
atures are low in summer due to coastal upwelling, sensible
heat is conducted from the atmosphere to the sea. (mod-
ified from Lane, 11 50)
72
-------
temperature, vapor pressure, etc. The rapidly fluctuating values
are the fluxes of evaporation and sensible heat. These fluxes need to
be measured to obtain the true picture of the evaporative and conduct-
ive heat transfer processes. In the past equipment with sufficiently
fast response time to measure the rapid fluctuations was not available.
Such equipment is now being developed in the laboratory. It will be
some time in the future, however, before equipment reliability and cost
will permit seasonal measurements encompassing a large area.
Summary
The direct measurement of the heat budget terms is generally limited
to laboratory and field experiments. Empirical methods employing
measurements of sea surface temperature, air temperature, humidity,
wind velocity, solar radiation, etc. will have to suffice until direct
reading instruments become available for practical use.
Based on empirical methods the following conclusions can be made
concerning the heat budget for the coastal upwelling region off Oregon
and Washington:
(1) The net heat exchange across the air-sea boundary varies
considerably from year to year. In general, the sea receives a net
annual input of heat from air-sea exchange.
(2) The factors most influential in altering the heat budget
from year to year are variations in cloud cover, sea surface tem-
perature, and wind speed.
(3) Coastal upwelling results in a lowering of air, sea, and
wet bulb temperatures in the nearshore region. These reductions
affect the heat budget by slightly reducing the back radiation, greatly
reducing conduction from the sea to the atmosphere (conduction to
the sea occurs frequently during the upwelling season), and greatly
reducing the heat loss due to evaporation. Due to the relative magni-
tude involved, the reduction of the evaporative flux is the most im-
portant effect.
(4) The measurable effects of upwelling on the climate of
coastal Oregon and Washington are a suppression of the summer and
autumn air temperature values and an increase in relative humidity.
(5) Data are now available to construct heat budget forecasts
on a regional basis. Such forecasts should be an integral part of any
siting study for a thermal outfall.
73
-------
Chapter 8. WAVES
by Robert H. Bourke
Introduction
The importance of wave statistics has long been recognized by
oceanographers and ocean engineers as necessary for design of ocean
and coastal installations. Good wave data, however, are rare and the
records are often such that the wide variability inherent in waves
may not be adequately described. The wave cl -nate off the Pacific
Northwest coast displays a definite seasonal pa tern in response to
the wind regime requiring wave records which encompass all the
seasons.
The basic statistics required to describe the wave regime are the
deep water wave direction, wave period and wave height. From these
statistics one can determine the wave length, wave steepness, energy
content, and particle motion. In the analysis of wave datr the
significant wave height and period (Ho and To) are calculated rather
than average values. The significant height and period are the
average height and period associated with the highest one-third of
the waves observed or measured. In order to eliminate the shallow
water effects of shoaling and refraction wave measurements or
observations should be conducted in "deep" water, i.e. , in water
where the depth is larger than one-half the wave length.
The wave height, period and direction can be determined by obser-
vation from a moored ship in "deep" water, e.g., a lightship or
instrumented buoy. The wave characteristics can also be inferred
from observations of breaker height and period. Errors are inherent
in both of these methods, but the chief difficulty lies in obtaining a
complete annual record.
Wave statistics can also be calculated from the twelve hourly
synoptic charts of the U.S. Weather Bureau. The fetch, duration,
and velocity of the wind are determined and the wave characteristics
are "hindcasted. " Although this method relies heavily on one's
ability to "read" or interpret the synoptic charts, it does provide
a long and continuous record.
74
-------
Data on wave height, period, direction, and frequency of occurrence
over the yearly seasonal cycle are often important to power plant
siting and design for several reasons. Some of these factors which
are in part due to the wave climate are;
a) longshore current speed and direction
b) beach accretion and erosion
c) pressures and forces on bulkheads, pipelines, outfalls, etc.
d) dispersal of the heated effluent from the outfall by wave
turbulence.
Measured or Observed Waves
In the Pacific Northwest few deep water wave observations exist
for extended periods of time. One such set of observations taken at
the Columbia River Lightship from 1933 to 1936 were analyzed and
reported by M. P. O'Brien in 1961 (1164). The data were not
obtained by trained observers and the methods used were rough,
but O'Brien points out that the data are probably more accurate
than most deep -water observations since a limited number of observers
on a relatively small anchored ship were used. The results are
presented in Table 8-1.
O'Brien's analysis showed that the observed periods and wave lengths
were less than the "correct" value. This conclusion was based
upon comparative observations of the period of the breakers measured
near the Columbia River mouth. O'Brien suggested that the reported
wave lengths from the lightship should be increased by about one-
third to bring them into general agreement with those observed on
the coast. The predominant wave direction (as a function of the
square of the wave height) was found to be from west to southwest
(Table 8-2). In general, the observations show that the higher and
longer period waves occur in winter (October through March).
Neal, _e_t_al. (1160) inferred the deep water wave statistics off
Newport, Oregon, from observations on the beach of breaker heights
and periods. The average value of the significant breaker height
and period was determined from visual observations using the height
of eye technique. From solitary wave theory the deep
water wave height was related to the breaker height, H by:
75
-------
Table 8-1. Dimensions and periods of waves observed at Columbia
River Light Vessel
! Percentage of total observations exceeding figure specified
i
i
ft
January 8.
February 6.
March 8.
April 4.
May 6.
June 5.
July 4.
August 6.
September 6.
October 7.
November 9.
December 10.
0
4
6
4
5
2
7
4
1
4
9
9
6
20
L0
ft
310
280
326
227
252
192
275
193
238
293
296
325
Ho = wave height; Lo
(from O'Brien, 1164)
Table
Direction
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
Calm
8-2.
1
'
T :
sec
8.9
8.4
9.5
0.0
7.9
7.6
9.0
8. 1
8. 1
9. 5
8.5
9.2
H0
ft
5.3
3.8
4.4
2.7
3.9
3.3
2. 5
3.6
3.8
4.9
4.8
6.3
= wave length;
Observed
50
1 L0
ft
187
130
242
112
172
125
178
168
180
210
223
239
T
sec
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
. 2
. 0
. 5
. 5
.4
. 0
.7
. 1
. 5
.9
. 0
. 2
T = wave period
80
H0 L
o
T
ft ft sec
2.9
1.9
2. 5 1
1.3
2. 1
1. 3
1. 2
1.6 1
1.8
2.4 1
2.7 1
4. 0 1
between
68
82
59
65
88
71
45
34
78
10
77
53
crests
5.6
4.8
6.1
4.8
5.0
4.2
4. 0
4. 1
4.6
4.6
4.3
5. 5
•
wave direction
Percentage of ;
total observations
over 1 2 months
0
1
3
2
15
18
30
16
11
.73
.80
. 18
.38
. 02
.74
. 03
. 57
. 54
Percentage weighted
2
in proportion to H
0. 57
1.44
1. 26
3.30
25. 14
36.36
23.70
8. 24
(from O'Brien, 1164)
76
-------
-
o
H 3dl
B s
0. 027 LQ d!0
1/2
where the refraction coefficient, dlg/dlo, was assumed close to
unity and neglected. For, the beach at Newport this assumption
may not be valid due to the presence of both an offshore reef and
physical barriers to the north and south which greatly influence the
refractive pattern. The monthly averages of wave height, period
and direction are listed in Table 8-3. The number of observations
per month (from 3 to 9) permit only the most general conclusions to
be drawn. The significant wave heights ranged from 2. 8 ft. in
August to 14. 6 ft. in January averaging 7. 2 ft. with the highest waves
generated during winter (December through April). The significant
wave periods ranged from 5. 2 seconds in July to 17. 8 seconds in
February averaging 1 0. 5 seconds for the year. The long period
waves (11 to 12 'seconds) occurred in winter from November to May.
During the period September-April the direction of wave
approach was from the west; in summer (May-August) they
approached from WNW-NW.
The Coastal Engineering Research Center of the U. S. Army Corps
of Engineers has established a program to measure wave data at
various coastal sites around the United States (Darling and Dumm,
1125). The only site located within the study area is off the mouth
of the Umpqua River where, in August 1964, a pressure type sensor
was installed. Wave data from pressure sensitive devices can
provide accurate information provided the pressure fluctuations can
be properly converted to fluctuations of the sea surface. Recording
is not continuous, however. The available records cover the periods
of 13 August-13 September 1964 and 16 June-15 August 1966. No
analysis has been made of these records as yet; pertinent wave
statistics will be published as soon as the analysis is completed.
A prime source of deep water wave data is that measured from
offshore oil rigs. These rigs are equipped with automatic wave
recording instruments and have their vertical struts marked for
visual observations as well. Several articles in industrial journals
77
-------
Table 8-3. Monthly wave averages, Newport, Oregon, September 1968-August 1969.
oo
Sept.
Direction
from 272°
Period
(sec) 11.4
Ho(feet) 6. 8
No. of
Obs. 3
1968
Oct. Nov. | Dec.
276° 268° 277°
9.7 12.5 11.5
7.5 7.0 10.4
675
1969
Jan. 1 Feb. | Mar.
280° 271" 282°
10.5 11.8 12.3
9.0 8.3 8.3
685
Apr.
283°
11.3
8.4
8 •
May
292°
11.6
6.1
7
June 1 July
297° 320°
9.3 9.8
5.2 6.6
9 9
Aug.
324°
7.4
4.5
4
(from Neal et al. , 11 60)
-------
have reported the measurement of rather remarkable wave heights
developed during intense winter storms off the Pacific Northwest
coast. One rig survived a storm -which generated 58-foot waves
(Watts and Faulkner, 1220), only to be subjected to another even
larger storm which generated a 95-foot wave (SEDCO 135F.1188).
Other large waves recorded from oil rigs are reported by Rogers
(.1183). None of these very large waves represent average wave
conditions during a severe storm, but are simply the chance increase
in wave height due to constructive interference from several large
waves.
Hindcasted Waves
One of the most detailed wave studies for the Pacific Northwest
region was conducted by National Marine Consultants in i960 (1158)
and 1961 (1159). Since equipment to actually measure deep water
wave characteristics was not available at the time of the study, the
investigators resorted to wave hindcasting techniques employing the
spectral energy method of Pierson, Neumann, and James (1176).
Wave prediction based on spectral theory is obviously not as
accurate as prediction based on measured data, but it can provide
indicative figures. The accuracy of the hindcast depends on the
forecaster's experience and ability to interpret the synoptic -weather
charts produced by the U.S. Weather Bureau. The forecasters from
National Marine Consultants had been making verified -wave forecasts
for four years prior to this study and were considered to be exper-
ienced.
The analyses of the deep water wave statistics -were based upon
meteorological records and pharts for the years 1956, 1957, and 1958
which, when considered collectively, would represent an "average"
year. The location of the four deep -water stations shown in Figure
8-1 are:
Station 1 42°00'N, 125°00'W (off Calif. -Oregon border)
2 44°40'N, 124°50'W (off Newport, Oregon)
3 46°12'N, 124°30'W (off Columbia River)
4 47°40'N, 125°00'W (northwest of Grays Harbor, Washington)
The hindcasting method of wave forecasting has been shown to yield
varied results based upon the individual judgments of the interpreters
(Wiegel, pers. comm. ). Because of this inherent variability in the
results, the analysis by National Marine Consultants was considered
to be too detailed for data based upon hindcasting techniques. Their
79
-------
48°
46«
44°
42°
HARBOR
WASH.
COLUMBIA ~R.
Figure 8-1. Location of deep water hindcast
stations (from National Marine
Consultants, 1159)
80
-------
analysis has been made more general by grouping the data over four
octants (N-NW, NW-W, W-SW, SW-S) and over four seasons (winter,
spring, summer, fall). See Tables 8-4 and 8-5. The winter season
includes the months of December, January, and February; spring -
March, April and May; summer - June, July, August and September;
and autumn - October and November. These groupings were based
on the seasonal wind pattern of this region. The spring and autumn
seasons are transitional periods between the more stable climatic
seasons of summer and winter. A further generalization was to
report only the average value of the significant wave height and period
for each octant and season. The standard deviation (S. D. ) of each
is also presented to provide a measure of variability. In addition,
the probable frequency of occurrence for each condition is shown.
The National Marine Consultants' report listed the data in terms of
sea and swell, the former being local waves of a random nature
located within the storm generation area and the latter being the more
uniform waves •which were generated from distant storms. Several
different trains of swell may be present at the same time; only the
height and period of the dominant swell train is reported. Calm
periods are those times when no storm was present in the area to
generate local waves or "sea. " These periods also include the
infrequent occasions -when the direction of wave approach was offshore.
Analysis of the data listed in Tables 8-4 and 8-5 indicates that
general conclusions may be drawn which are common to all four
stations. The most important of these are:
1. The predominant direction from which the swell approached
was from the NW-W octant during all seasons.
2. The predominant direction from which local seas approached
was from SW-SSE during autumn and winter and from N-NW during
spring and summer. The frequency with which the seas approached
from a particular direction showed more variability than did swell.
3. Waves generated by local storms were generally higher than
wave heights of swell.
4. The highest waves regardless of angle of approach always
occurred in winter.
81
-------
Table 8-4. HINDCAST DEEP WATER WAVE HEIGHTS (HI FOR THE OREGON AND WASHINGTON COAST
00
SEASON
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
TYPE
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
H°
5.7
4. 1
2.9
4.5
2.6
4.8
4.8
4.6
3.7
4,6
4,5
5.6
3.3
'4.0
2.9
3.8
4.8
4.2
3.6
4.0
4.8
5.6
3.3
3.9
2.8
3.6
5. 1
5.0
3.3
3.9
4. 1
5.1
2.0
4. 1
3.2
3.7
5.4
2.7
4.O
N - N W
S.D.
3.5
2,4
1.2
2.1
1 .0
2.6
3.3
2.6
2.8
2.5
2.7
4,4
2.0
2.2
1 .7
2. 1
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.5
2.7
4.0
2.0
2.2
1.8
2.0
4.6
3.0
2.5
2.6
0.7
3.0
0.0
2.2
1 .4
2. 1
2.8
1 .5
2.5
%
19.6
15.0
15.7
41 . 1
38.8
59.5
25.0
27.4
24.8
38.3
10. 1
7.5
15.7
32. b
33.3
51.4
17.8
17.4
18.8
30.0
5.2
5.1
11 .5
27.6
22.1
44.3
6.0
12.8
11.1
25.0
0,5
5.6
1.6
22.2
3.1
33.6
10,7
2.2
20.0
,H
5.3
5.3
4.8
3.5
3.3
3.0
4.7
4.3
4.7
4.5
5.4
5.9
4.4
3.9
3.3
2.7
5.1
5. 1
4.6
4.7
5.4
7.0
4.3
4. 1
3.4
3.0
5.2
4.9
4.5
4.6
5.4
7.1
4.0
4.7
3.3
3.6
5.4
5.7
3.8
4.9
NW - W
S.D.
3.3
2.9
3.3
2.0
1 .6
1 . 1
3. 1
2.1
3.2
2.7
3.7
3.6
2.7
2.3
1 .7
1.0
3.6
2.4
3.2
3.2
3.4
3.9
2,6
2.3
1 ,7
1,6
3.3
2.3
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.7
2.0
3.0
1.8
2.0
3.5
3.5
2.8
3.4
W - S W
%
56.6
8.1
65.8
4.7
52.9
2.8
64.0
5.1
59.4
5.0
52.2
10.8
65.7
9.6
59.5
4.8
68.4
7.1
60.5
7.8
50.4
11 .7
63.7
1 1 .4
66.0
10.5
74.5
e.o
62.4
10.5
46.9
11.6
63.2
14.4
72.7
14.5
73.0
9.7
62.4
12.9
Ho
5.5
6.5
2.7
4.5
2.8
3.3
3.3
4.2
4.2
5.0
5.2
6.2
4. 1
4.6
3.2
3.2
3.7
4.7
4.6
.5.0
4.9
6.5
3.8
4.6
3.2
2.9
4.5
5.8
4.3
5.2
4.5
6.8
3.8
5.2
2.9
3.0
3.9
5.5
4.4
5.O
S.D.
3.6
2.8
1 .4
2.4
1 . 1
1 .5
1 .8
2.0
3.2
3.0
3.6
4.0
3.2
2.6
1 .4
2.4
2.5
3. 1
3.4
3.3
3.5
3.9
2.4
2.7
2.2
1 .6
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.3
2.8
3.2
2.8
3.1
1.5
1.6
2.9
3,2
2.9
3.4
%
19.6
13.7
13.4
10. 1
6.6
3.9
9.8
9.9
12.7
9. 1
24.7
14.5
12.4
10.4
4.4
5.6
7.1
15.7
13,2
10.6
29.6
13.9
16.3
10.0
8.6
7.4
11.1
15.8
17.4
11 .0
33.1
11.1
25.4
10.1
18.1
11 .5
17.6
13.6
24.4
11 .3
SW - SSE
H
3.8
8.2
3.3
4.0
2.0
3.2
2.7
5.0
3.3
6.6
5.6
7.9
4.5
5.3
3.5
4.2
3.8
5.9
4.8
6.5
5.3
8.3
4. 1
5.4
2.6
4.6
3.9
6.3
4.6
6.7
5.0
8.1
3.9
5.4
3.3
4.6
4.3
6.3
4.7
6.7
S.D.
1 . 1
4.9
2.2
2.3
0.0
1 .4
' 1 .9
2.8
2.0
4.7
3.9
4.8
3.0
3.3
1.3
2.7
2.6
4. 1
3.7
4,4
3.6
5,0
2.7
3.5
0.3
' 3.3
2.9
4.2
3.4
4.5
3.3
4.8
2.3
3.4
2.6
3.0
3.3
4.2
3.4
4.5
51
4.2
33.8
5.0
17.3
1 .5
4.7
1.2
18.0
3. 1
17.3
13.0
37.0
6.2
17.4
2.8
8.6
6.7
25.1
7.5
20. 6
14.8
37.9
8.5
19.0
3.3
11 .0
8.4
24.6
9. 1
21.9
19.5
46.9
9.8
22.7
2.5
16.6
9.4
35.5
11 .O
28.8
PERCENT
OFFSHORE
OR CALM
29.2
26.9
29.2
39.7
30.3
30.1
29.7
29.5
35.3
31 .0
31.4
32. 1
26.9
39.0
31 .6
24. B
30.5
23.9
30.2
27.0
-------
Table 8-5. HINDCAST WAVE PERIODS (TO) FOR THE OREGON AND WASHINGTON COAST
00
SEASON
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Annual
TYPE
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swall
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swall
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swall
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
Swell
Sea
To
9.8
6.9
9.9
6.9
9.9
6.9
10.2
6.9
10.0
6.9
10.0
6.8
10. 3
6.3
9.4
6.2
10.3
6.2
9.8
6.3
10. 0
7.0
10.0
6.2
9.4
6.0
10.1
6.8
9.7
6.2
9.6
6.7
8.8
6.4
9.2
6.4
7. 1
9.0
6.3
N - N W
s.o.
2.3
1.5
1 .7
1 .3
1 .4
1 .7
2.2
1 .6
1.9
1.5
2.3
1 .9
1.8
1 .4
1 .8
1 .4
2.3
1.5
2.1
1.5
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.6
1.3
2.3
1 .6
1.9
1 .5
1.5
1.5
1 .4
1 .4
O.6
1.2
1 .4
1.5
1.5
%
19.6
15.0
15.7
41 . 1
38.8
59.5
25.0
27.4
24.8
38.3
10.1
7.5
15.7
32.8
33.3
51 .4
17.8
17.4
18.8
30.0
5.2
5.1
11.5
27.6
22.1
44.3
6.0
12.8
11.1
25.0
0.5
5.6
1 .6
22.2
3.1
33.6
10.7
2.2
20.0
T
10. 5
7. 1
10.5
6.2
10.3
5.6
10.5
6.7
10.4
6.4
10.7
"7.3
10.7
6.2
10.4
5.4
10.8
6.8
10.5
6.6
10.8
7.6
10.8
6.3
10.2
5.6
9.6
6.8
10.6
6.5
10.5
7.8
10.5
6.6
10.2
6.0
10.6
7.2
10.5
6.7
NW - W
S.D.
2.6
1 .6
2.4
1 . 1
2.2
0.7
2.5
1 .5
2.5
1 .2
2.8
1 .8
2.6
1 .3
2.3
0.6
2.7
1 .5
2.8
1 . 7
2.7
2.0
2.3
1.3
2.3
1.0
3.2
1 .4
2.5
1 .7
2.7
1.9
2.6
1 .6
2.2
1.3
2.6
1 .7
2.5
1 .8
*
56.6
8. 1
65.6
4.7
52.9
2.8
&4.0
5. 1
59.4
5.0
52.2
10.8
65.7
9.6
59.5
4.8
68.4
7 . 1
6O.5
7.8
50.4
1 1 .7
63.7
1 1 .4
66.0
10.5
74.5
8.0
62.4
10.5
46.9
11 .6
63.2
14.4
72.7
14.5
73. 0
9.7
62.4
12.9
f
10.4
7.6
10.2
6.9
9.3
5.9
9.5
6.7
10.0
6.8
10. 2
7.3
10.5
6.6
8.9
5.8
10.0
6.5
10.4
6.8
10.9
7.6
10.3
6.5
9.7
5.6
10.6
6.9
10.5
6.8
10. 9
7.6
10.7
6.9
10.0
5.6
10.6
6.9
10.6
6.7
W - SW
S.D.
2.6
1.8
1 .8
1 .4
0.3
1 . 1
1 .4
1.5
2.2
1 .4
2.7
1 .6
2.0
1 .4
2.0
1.5
1 .9
2.0
2.4
1.8
2.4
1.8
2.0
1 .4
1.8
1.0
2.4
1 .6
2.4
1 .7
2.7
1.6
2.3
1 .6
2.0
1.0
2.5
1 .9
2.5
1 .8
*
19.6
13.7
13.4
10. 1
6.6
3.9
9.8
9.9
12.7
9.1
24.7
14.5
12.4
10.4
4.4
5.6
7 .1
15.7
13.2
10.6
29.6
13.9
16.3
10. 0
8.6
7.4
11.1
15.8
17.4
11 .0
33. 1
11.1
25.4
10.1
18.1
11.5
17.6
13.6
24.4
11.3
T0
9.4
6.1
9.4
6.8
1 1 .0
5.9
9.3
7.1
9.7
7.0
9.4
7.9
9.1
6.8
8.6
6.0
9.6
7. 1
9.4
7.3
9.6
8.1
9.1
6.9
8.2
6.6
9.6
7.2
9.5
7.4
9.7
8.4
9.4
7.0
8.9
6.4
9.7
7.2
9.6
7.4
SW - SSW
S.D.
1 .3
1.9
1 .6
1 .6
0.0
1 . 1
0.5
1 .6
1.6
1.3
1 .7
2.1
1 .2
1.6
0.9
1 .8
1 .4
2.0
1.5
2.0
1 .8
2.0
1 .6
1 .7
0.5
1 .7
1 .4
2.0
1.6
2.0
1.8
1 .6
1 .3
1 .7
1 .2
1 .6
1 .4
1.9
1 .7
1.9
%
4.2
33.8
5.0
17.3
1 .5
4.7
1 .2
18.0
3.1
17.3
13.0
37.0
6.2
17.4
2.8
8.6
6.7
25.1
7.5
20.6
14.8
37.9
8.5
19.0
3.3
11 .O
8.4
24.6
9.1
21.9
19.5
46.9
9.8
22.7
2.5
16.6
9.4
35.5
11.0
28.8
PERCENT
OFFSHORE
OR CALM
29.2
26.9
29.2
39.7
30.3
30.1
29.7
29.5
35.3
31.0
31 .4
32.1
26.9
39.0
31 .6
24.8
30.5
23.9
30.2
27.0
-------
5. Throughout the year the highest waves came from the
SW-SSE octant.
6. The period of the swell was always greater than the period
of the locally generated wind waves.
7. The shortest periods for both sea and swell occurred
during summer.
8. The longest swell periods generally occurred during
autumn; the longest sea periods occurred during winter.
9. Throughout the year the longest period swell generally
approached from NW-W. At stations 2 and 3 long period swell also
approached from the W-SW octant.
10. During all four seasons the longest period sea generally
approached from the SW-SSE octant.
11. During all four seasons the periods of calm occurred with
about the same frequency, 25-30%; the season of greatest calm •was
autumn.
Wave Steepness
Based on data from the National Marine Consultants' report (1159)
for a station 20 miles west of the Columbia River, Ballard (1106)
has calculated the wave steepness and its effect on sediment transport.
The steepness of a wave is defined as the ratio of the wave height
to its length (HO/LO) and is a critical factor in determining its
capacity to move sediment (Saville, 1185). The steepness values
computed from annual average conditions for both sea and swell were
divided into three groups and the relative frequency of occurrence
within each group determined for various wave directions (Table 8-6).
Most of the swell (81. 5%) fell in the H /Lo range'of <0. 015 while
local seas were dominant (90. 3%) in the 0. 015 to 0. 025 range.
Waves with steepness values in the 0. 015 to 0. 025 range result in
the greatest amount of sediment movement (1185). Ballard has plotted
the relative frequency of waves in this range for various wave directions
84
-------
Table 8-6. Relative frequency of waves with given steepness (HO/LQ) values from various directions.
Values represent average annual conditions for the years 1956, 1957, and 1958.
Ho/Lo
Condition
Percent occurrence from various wave directions
N
NNW
NW
WNW
W
WSW
SW
SSW
S
SSE
S
oo
0. 015
0. 015
0. 025
0. 025
(from
sea
swell
sea 4. 8
swell
sea 0. 4
swell
Ballard, 1106)
0.6
6.9
0. 1
0. 5
9. 0
22. 2
1.3
1.7
0. 1
24. 2
5.9
5. 6
0.6
0. 1
26.4
8. 5
4.9
0. 5
0. 2
10. 2
4. 8
1.9
0.8
0. 1
4. 7
9.4
1.4
1.3
0. 1
0. 1
4. 0
10. 2
1.7
1. 2
2. 3
13.8
0.9
1.8
0. 1
3. 8
0. 1
0.8
0. 1
81.5
90. 3
17.9
9.6
0. 6
-------
as shown in Figure 8-2. The predominance of local seas over
swell in this range is evident. The inset of Figure 8-2 shows the
effect of summing up the frequency of occurrence for both sea and
swell from north-of-west and from south-of-west. The nearly equal
frequencies of occurrence imply no net movement of sediment or a
tendency to keep it localized.
N
NNW NW WNW W WSW SW SSW
DIRECTION
S SSE
Figure 8-2. Relative frequency and direction of deep-water waves
with steepness values of HO/LO = 0. 015 to 0. 025. All
values represent average annual wave conditions.
(from Ballard, 1106)
86
-------
Chapter 9 . COASTAL CURRENTS
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne
Introduction
Data on currents in the region of an ocean outfall are essential for
the solution of heat dispersion problems. Measurements of current
velocities in coastal -waters are extremely sparse. Those measure-
ments that have been made indicate that steady flow is not a common
occurrence, but rather eddy flow and current reversals with tide or
wind are more characteristic of the nearshore circulation. Defining
the circulation patterns throughout the entire project region would
be an enormous undertaking. A more efficient and practical approach
would be to survey only those areas that could be classified as "prime"
site locations. Detailed measurements made at these prime sites may
allow extrapolation to other similar areas based upon a limited number
of key measurements made in those areas.
Because of the many forces present to produce currents in coastal
areas, current speed and direction are highly variable. Some near-
shore currents have been found to respond to the changing forces on
a time scale of about one hour (Neal, et al. , 1160). Due to this
variability average spatial as well as temporal values are usually
reported. In regions where local topography influences the interaction
of the driving forces the current may move as an eddy fluctuating
widely in both speed and direction. For such areas average values
may be meaningless. This is perhaps the reason why some offshore
oil spills have been found to disperse in directions quite different
from that predicted.
The primary forces that produce coastal currents are winds, main
ocean currents, and tides. Of lesser importance are the current
contributions from waves and pressure gradients.
Wind currents take place mainly on the surface. The extent of this
surface layer is still under investigation, but recent studies indicate
•wind driven water motion to a depth of about 10 meters. Tidal wave
motion is a so-called "shallow water" phenomenon and extends theoreti
cally to the bottom of the oceans. Tidal currents, therefore, are
generally thought to be essentially constant with depth in nearshore
regions. Currents due to wind waves (swell) decrease logarithmically
with depth and are essentially negligible at a depth equal to one-half
the wave length.
Main Ocean Currents
The circulation of the main ocean currents off the Oregon-Washington
coast is known only in general terms. The detailed circulation pattern
87
-------
is still a topic demanding extensive investigation. In general, the
California Current is a broad, slow, and shallow southward flowing
current. It flows offshore as a diffuse band about 300 miles wide
with an average speed of 0.2 knots (0. 34 ft/sec). It attains maximum
strength during the summer when surface winds are consistently from
North-Northwest.
The Davidson Current as reported by Schwartzlose (1186) is a seasonal
northward flowing current attaining speeds of at least 0.5 to 0.9 knots
over extensive distances. It has a minimum width of 50 miles. The
current develops off the Oregon-Washington coast in September and
becomes well established by January. Towards spring it diminishes
and disappears by May. The driving force of the Davidson Current
is not well understood. Off Oregon it appears to result from local
wind stress (Ingraham, 1142), but Reid and Schwartzlose (1182) report
it as not due to the local winds but to some larger scale phenomenon.
Their direct measurements indicate support for the concept advanced
by Sverdrup, ei_ al. , (1192) that the Davidson Current is a surface
manifestation of a deeper northward flowing counter current that
develops when the winds weaken seasonally.
Tidal Currents at Pacific Northwest Lightships
Coastal tidal currents found 5 miles (9 km) offshore, as observed
by lightships along the Pacific Coast, are reported in the Tidal Current
Tables (U.S. C. and G. S. , 1202). The currents are rotary, turning
clockwise, with a 12.5 hour period. Spring and neap tides, which
occur biweekly, increase and decrease, respectively, the average
tidal current by about 20 percent. Frequently, wind driven currents
and other nontidal currents are of such strength as to completely mask
the tidal current. These nontidal currents must be vectorially added
to the tidal current to obtain the resultant current.
The tidal currents measured at the Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape
Mendocino show very weak rotary characteristics with average
speeds of less than 0. 1 knots (0. 17 ft/sec). At maximum flood the
current sets north; at maximum ebb it sets south. The tidal current
is generally masked by a nontidal current averaging 0. 2 knots (0. 34 ft/
sec) setting towards the southwest from March to November and towards
the northwest from November to March. The greatest observed
velocity at the lightship is 3. 0 knots (5. 1 ft/sec).
The tidal currents observed at the Columbia River Lightship are also
rotary, but rather weak, averaging about 0. 3 knots (0.51 ft/sec).
The set of the maximum flood and ebb currents are 020° T and 200 °T,
respectively. The discharge from the Columbia River completely
masks the flood current at the lightship. The set of the nontidal
current created by the river flow changes from SW (235° T) during
February through October to WNW (295° T) from October to February
in response to the seasonal wind pattern. The nontidal current speed
-------
ranges from a monthly average of 15 cm/sec (0.45 ft/sec) in March
to 39 cm/sec (1.28 ft/sec) in June (Duxbury, et ai. , 1128). During
periods of high river runoff the combined tidal and nontidal current
frequently is 2.0 knots (3. 4 ft/sec) or greater to the SW. The greatest
observed velocity at the lightship is 3.5 knots (5.9 ft/sec). At the
river mouth between the north and south jetties surface currents
measured by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1200) were 300 cm/
sec (9. 8 ft/sec) on ebb and 120 cm/sec (3. 9 ft/sec) on flood during
June. In September these values had changed to 240 cm/sec (7.3 ft/
sec) on ebb and 180 cm/sec (5.9 ft/sec) on flood.
The tidal currents at the Umatilla Reef Lightship off Cape Arago.
Washington are weakly rotary. Maximum currents occur 15 minutes
after maximum flood or ebb is observed at the entrance to the Straits
of Juan de Fuca. The average velocity of flood and ebb currents is
0.3 knots (0.51 ft/sec) setting 345° T on flood and 165 °T on ebb. Wind
driven currents usually mask the tidal current. From November to
April the flow is northerly (350°T) at 0.7 knots (1.2 ft/sec) peaking
to 1.0 knots (1.7 ft/sec) during December; from April to November
the current is variable, generally setting SE at an average speed of
0.4 knots (0.68 ft/sec). The strong southeasterly winds of winter
produce a combined current of 2 to 3 knots. The greatest observed
velocity at the lightship is 3.3 knots (5.6 ft/sec).
Because changes in wind direction and speed may alter the wind
driven currents, tables have been prepared to account for these changes
(1202). Table 9-1 shows the increase in current speed due to increasing
wind speeds. The number of degrees by which the wind driven current
deviates to the right or left of the wind direction is listed in Table 9-2.
This deflection of the wind driven current, as measured approximately
5 miles offshore, appears to be primarily due to coastline configuration
rather than geostrophic effects.
Grays Harbor. Washington
A literature survey of this area conducted by the Oceanography
Department of the University of Washington (1218) describes the
average flood and ebb currents at the harbor entrance as generally
onshore-offshore at 2.5 knots (4.2 ft/sec). Velocities in excess of
5.0 knots have been reported. The estimated velocity at a depth of
120-180 feet off the harbor entrance is 0.4-0.5 knots. The littoral
current is generally northward although affected by the prevailing
winds. In summer there is an occasional flow to the south with a
maximum velocity of about 1.5 knots (2.5 ft/sec). The maximum
velocity in winter when the flow is northward is about 4. 0 knots
(6.8 ft/sec).
89
-------
Table 9-1. Average speed of current due to winds of various strength.
Wind velocity (mph) 10 20 30 40 50
Average current (knots) due
to wind
Blunts Reef
Columbia River
Umatilla Reef
.2 .3 .4 .7 .8
.4 .5 .6 .8 .8
.2 .6 .9 1.0 .9
Table 9-2. Average deviation of current to Right or Left of wind direction.
Wind from
(in degrees) Blunts Reef Columbia River Umatilla Reef
L, R L R L R
35 44
27 18
9 34
29 48
17 52
2 38
25
6
6
13
32
52
145 77
105 6
78 37
53 25
(from Tidal Current Tables, 1202)
90
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
20
6
10
32
28
7
11
13
1
11
18
28
60
2
31
43
8
7
19
44
74
121
-------
Depoe Bay. Oregon
An extensive study -was made of the nearshore water movement off
Depoe Bay by Mooers, et _al. (1156) from moored current meters
and thermographs during August and September, 1966. Three arrays
were anchored at 5, 10, and 15 miles off the coast (DB-5, DB-10,
and DB-15). The current meters were spaced at a depth of 20 meters
and 60 meters from the surface.
When the current speed and direction vectors for each recording
time increment are progressively summed (tail of one vector placed
against tip of preceding vector), a progressive vector diagram (PVD)
results. PVD's for DB-5 (20m and 6Om), DB-10 (20m), and DB-15 (6Om)
are plotted in Figure 9-1. Several conclusions can be drawn from
these PVD' s: (a) The flow at 20 meters is to the south, and at 60
meters is to the north; (b) The flow tends to follow the local topography,
except for DB-15 (60 meters) where a strong onshore component is
present; (c) There are frequent wiggles in the curves associated with
tidal-like motions; (d) Periods of acceleration and deceleration in
speed and reversals in flow direction are easily seen, e.g., at DB-5
(60 meters) the current changed direction three times within 20 days.
Table 9-3. Mean current measured off Depoe Bay, 15 August-24 September, 1966
based on a 10-minute sampling rate. S. D. is standard deviation.
Depoe N U V Scalar Speed Vector Mean
Bay Depth (No. of (cm/sec) (cm/sec) (cm/sec) Speed Direction
Station (m) days) Mean±S. D. Mean±S. D. Mean±S. D. (cm /sec) Peg. True
5
10A
15
20
60
20
60
14.5
35.4
37. 1
39.8
-2.1*11.4
2.7± 6.7
-0.8±11.0
4. 8± 7.6
-17.9±H.8
5. 1±12.6
-13. 6± 8.6
3.9± 8.5
2 3 . 4±7 . 0
14. 3±5.8
18.4±6.3
12.5±3.4
18.0
5.8
13.6
6. 1
187
028
183
051
(modified from Mooers, _et al. , 1156)
A summary of the basic current data is presented in Table 9-3. The
vector mean speed and direction at 20 meters depth, five miles off
the coast, is 18.0 cm/sec (0.59 ft/sec) flowing southward (187°T).
At 60 meters depth the mean vector speed has been reduced to a third
of that at 20 meters and changed direction by almost 180° to 028°T.
Histograms of current speed and direction and current velocity components
for DB-5, 20 meters and 60 meters, are shown in Figures 9-2 and 9-3,
respectively. These histograms are essentially unimodel indicating a
predominance in velocity and direction.
91
-------
Q DD 10
2O m
9 DO 5
fzo
10
/•10
'•30
135
DB 15 O
6Orn
15
DB 5 Q
Figure 9-1. Progressive vector diagrams of currents,
Depoe Bay array, 15 August-24 September
1966. The figures indicate the number of
days since commencement of current meter
recordings (from Mooers, et aL , 1156).
92
-------
O ?
-------
1
hSH
J5
JO-
25-
20-
!s
t
15-
£
10 ZO 30 10 50 60
SPEED (cm sec-';
-HSK
I
20-
15-
f
10-
Is
fc
^c
ti
H
120
loo
Z40
DIRECTION fDEGREES)
100 ISO
-60
• <0 -ZO 0 20 40
-*' U (cm sec-'; f-
-eo -10 -20 o zo 40 eo
"^"J V (cm scc~'; H'^~
Figure 9-3. Histograms of current speed, direction, and
velocity components measured 5 miles off Depoe
Bay at 60 meters depth (from Mooers, jet al. ,
1156).
94
-------
In order to establish the vertical structure of the horizontal current,
vertical profiles of current velocity were made at DB-5, 10, and 15
using a Savonius rotor current meter. These profiles, as drawn in
Figure 9-4, show that at each station a subsurface minimum and a
deeper maximum exist. No directions are given as these are single
profiles and current direction is known to be highly variable over a
tidal cycle. The speed minimum occurs at a depth near the base of
the thermocline while the depth of the deeper maximum is associated
with the base of the permanent pycnocline.
Additional nearshore current data is available from current meter
arrays located off Depoe Bay and Yaquina Head during the summers
of 1967 through 1969- Analysis and conclusions for the 1967 and the
1968 surveys are nearly complete (Pillsbury, Pattullo, and Smith,
1177). The analysis of the 1969 data is incomplete.
Newport, Oregon
A recent report by Neal, _et al. (1160) discusses the currents near
an ocean outfall off Newport. Due to topographic features (a shallow
offshore reef, a prominent headland to the north, and a long jetty to
the south) the currents are quite variable and unpredictable exhibiting
the characteristics of a large eddy. The dominant driving force
appears to be the wind, but many exceptions are noted. The current
appears to deviate to the left of the wind direction for -wind speeds
less than 10 knots and to the right for wind speeds greater than 10 knots.
South of Yaquina Head the predominant current direction was towards the
beach. Near the ocean outfall off Newport the flow was either northeast
or southwest. North of the jetties current flow was generally to the west.
Off Newport the littoral drift varies seasonally although the dominant
yearly drift along the coast is believed to be north (Kulm, et al. , 1761).
From November-December to March the drift is northward reversing
direction from April to October-November. Neal, _e_t al. (1160), how-
ever, report from drift bottle studies that the longshore currents are
definitely not sustained since at times the currents are in opposite
directions at different portions of the beach. They found that the currents
were about evenly divided between northerly flow and southerly flow
throughout the year except during summer (June-August) when the waves
were consistently out of the NW. Measured values of the longshore
current velocity ranged from zero to over 1.6 ft/sec.
Additional current data is available from the work of James and Burgess
(1146) who have used aerial photography and drift cards in plume
dispersion studies off Newport. Surface current speed and direction
can be calculated from this data, but at present no analysis has been
undertaken for this purpose. Their aerial studies, however, do
corroborate Neal, jet al.' s findings that the outfall plume direction is
quite variable and disperses in all directions.
-------
xD
o
J 75
100 '
DOWN
25
Figure 9-4. Vertical profiles of current speed 5, 10, and 15 miles off Depoe Bay,
23-24 September 1966 (from Mooers, et_aJ. , 1156).
-------
Goodwin, Emmett and Glenne (1232) measured tidal heights and currents
in the Yaquina, Alsea and Siletz estuaries. Higher flood velocities
than ebb velocities were observed. In the Yaquina estuary entrance
a maximum flood velocity of about 2.4 ft/sec was observed. Near
Waldport in the Alsea estuary a maximum flood velocity of about 3. 0
ft/sec was measured. Near Taft in the Siletz estuary entrance a maxi-
mum flood velocity of about 6.7 ft/sec was found. In all three estuaries
an approximate 90° phase lag exists between tidal heights and tidal
currents. No attempts were made to track the estuary flows offshore.
Coos Bay, Oregon
From a literature survey similar to that undertaken for Grays Harbor,
Washington (1219), the average tidal current velocity is listed as 2.0
knots (3.4 ft/sec). Maximum ebb currents up to 7 knots (11.8 ft/sec)
and flood currents of 3.5 knots (5.9 ft/sec) have been reported. The
estimated velocity at a depth of 120-180 feet off the entrance is
0.4-0.5 knots. The littoral current is southerly in summer due to
winds from the northwest and reversed in winter.
Trinidad Head to Eel River, California
From an investigation undertaken for the California Water Pollution
Control Board, Humboldt State College has published a review of its
oceanographic study of the nearshore area of Northern California
(1140). The current pattern of this region is one of eddies superimposed
on the California and Davidson currents. The headlands of Cape
Mendocino and Trinidad Head, the jetties of Humboldt Bay, and the
Eel River canyon all contribute to a mixed circulation pattern. Tidal
currents, most pronounced near the entrance to Humboldt Bay;
dominate the flow when other influencing factors are minimal. Near-
shore currents have been correlated with wind conditions, but a lag
effect of unstated duration was noted when the correlation was poor.
Based upon a variety of observational methods, the current direction
for each month from January to June (1959-1961) is presented in
Table 9-4. Throughout this period the predominant observed direction
was southward. Northward flow was observed most frequently during
winter (January-February).
Table 9-4. Summary of observations of surface current direction for
January-June, 1959-1961, between Trinidad Head and Cape
Mendocino
Flow Direction Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total
South
North
West
East
None
27
33
3
5
1
20
15
1
2
0
23
13
1
2
1
24
18
0
2
5
28
7
0
1
0
24
11
0
1
1
146
97
5
13
8
(from Humboldt State College, 1140)
97
-------
Bottom Currents
The scouring action and differential forces acting on structures and
outfall pipes embedded in the ocean bottom are problems associated
with near bottom currents (Brown, 1112). When current velocities are
of appreciable magnitude, the bottom sediment may be loosely compacted
with considerable material in suspension. Such conditions invite severe
scouring and sedimentation near cooling water intake and outlet
structures.
Direct measurements of near bottom currents are difficult to make
and usually require special equipment. Few direct measurements are
available. Observations along the Pacific Northwest coast have been
made from sea bed drifters and moored current meters.
As reported in the s ection under Depoe Bay (1156), the direction of
current flow measured at 60 meters (60 feet above the sea floor)
was opposite to that measured near the surface (20 meters depth)
(Table 9-3). At a point 5 miles off the coast for a period of 35 days
during the summer the near bottom resultant current (vector mean current)
was 5.8 cm/sec (0. 19 ft/sec) at 028°T. The mean scalar speed was
14.3 cm/sec (0. 47 ft/sec). Fifteen miles off the coast at 60 meters
depth the resultant current was 6.1 cm/sec (0.20 ft/sec) at051°T,
an increase in the onshore component probably due to the increased
depth. The mean scalar speed was 12.5 cm/sec (0.41 ft/sec).
Over the continental shelves of Washington and Oregon for water depths
below 200 meters Dodimead, Favorite, and Hirano (1126) reported
the current flow to be northward based on geostrophic calculations.
This deep northward flowing current was corroborated by Ingraham
(1142) who also employed the geostrophic technique.
The first direct measurement of the near bottom current off the
Washington coastline was made by Gross, Morse, and Barnes (1137)
using sea bed drifters, a saucer-like disk and stem arrangement which
drifts a few meters above the bottom. Data analysis is essentially the
same as that employed with surface drift bottles. Over the inner
continental shelf (waters <40 meters deep) the flow was towards the
coast apparently responding to the influence of waves and the ascending-
shoreward motion of coastal upwelling. Speeds ranged from 0. 7 to 2. 5
km/day (0.03 to 0.09 ft/sec) averaging about 1.6 km/day (0. 06 ft/sec).
Within 10 km of the Columbia River mouth the flow was towards the
river mouth at approximately 1.4 km/day (0.05 ft/sec). For shelf
waters in excess of 40 meters depth the dominant flow was northward.
98
-------
These measurements were made over a period of 3 years •which indicates
that these flows are persistent throughout the year. Seasonal variability
in the flow of the near bottom current has not been determined.
The prediction of bottom currents may be calculated to an order of
magnitude by investigating the relationship between current speed and the
size of the sediment found on the sea bed. A review of previous investiga-
tions in this area and the development of a more general relationship is
presented by Panicker (1171). For currents over a downhill slope he
proposes
U = V /Ka 9-1
s
where U is the average velocity of the bottom current,
V is the average velocity of the sediment,
S
a is the bottom slope, and
K is the portion of available turbulent energy released by the
suspended particle to maintain it in suspension; proposed to
be of the order of 0. 1.
A calculation of maximum depths where wave motion tends to move sedi-
ments is carried out in Chapter 3 in the section on Sediment Motion.
Current Flow under the Influence of Coastal Upwelling
During the summer months, June through September, the process of
coastal upwelling occurs along the Oregon coast (Bourke, 1111). The north-
northwesterly summer winds produce a southward flow in the surface
layer and also an offshore surface flow due to the earth's rotation. This
causes cold, saline water to upwell in eddies and form a rise in both the
seasonal and permanent pycnoclines (Figure 9-5). The seasonal pycnocline
(region of strong density gradients) breaks to the surface forming a surface
front approximately 10 to 20 kilometers offshore. Shoreward of the surface
front the waters take on the characteristics associated with upwelling --
relatively low temperatures, low dissolved oxygen content, and high
salinities. Seaward of the surface front the surface temperature may be 5
to 7°C warmer than the surface waters in the upwelling region. Other
indicators of upwelled water would be increased alkalinity, inorganic
phosphate, and hydrogen ion concentration (Park, _e_t al_., 1172).
99
-------
o
o
T
a
o
E
O
O
cv!
TEMPERATURE
AND HIGH
(®) EQUATORWARD FLOW
X) POLEWARD FLOW
Continental [Continental Shelf
Slope
30 kilometers
Figure 9-5. The mean current of the frontal zone in the coastal upwelling region off
central Oregon (from Mooers, 1157).
-------
The following summary of the general flow pattern for the coastal
upwelling region off central Oregon during the upwelling season
(Figure 9-6) is taken from that postulated by Mooers (1157).
1. The flow is southward in the upper 40 meters of the water
column.
2. The flow is northward below 40 meters tending to concentrate
beneath the inclined permanent frontal layer at about 100 meters.
3. The flow in the surface Ekman layer (a boundary layer in
which frictional effects predominate in the equations of motion) is
offshore. This transport layer is about 10 to ZO meters thick.
4. Within 10 to 20 meters of the bottom, the frictional effects
of the bottom create a bottom Ekman layer where the flow is onshore.
5. Beneath the seasonal pycnocline (formed by summer heating
and the influx of relatively fresh water from the Columbia River
plume) the flow is offshore at a depth of 10 to 30 meters.
6. Within the upper portion of the permanent pycnocline from
20 to 60 meters the flow is onshore.
7. A new water mass formed near the surface possessing a
characteristic temperature inversion sinks beneath the inclined permanent
frontal layer and flows offshore in a layer at a depth of about 40 to 80
meters.
8. Between the above-layer and the bottom Ekman layer the flow
is onshore.
The process of coastal upwelling may go through the phases of inception,
steady-state, and decay several times during the upwelling season
since it is believed to be a process which responds to a wind field
which is neither steady nor statistically stationary. Hence, these
longitudinal and zonal flows fluctuate in depth and rate of transport
commensurate with the current phase of upwelling.
The study of coastal upwelling undertaken by Mooers provides little
information on the effects of the upwelling process for the region
within 10 kilometers of the coast as the closest sensor was located
101
-------
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (kilometers)
Surface
30 20 Front 10
flow in Ekman layers
onshore flow In geostrophic interior
offshore flow in gooslrophic interior
Figure 9-6. Inferred onshore-off shore flow over the continental
shelf off Depoe Bay, Oregon during the summer
upwelling season (from Mooers, 1157).
102
-------
10 kilometers offshore. He states that during the period of observation
it was uncertain how the upwelling process affected this region, but
believed it to be a region where mixing is dominant.
Analytical Approach to Tidal Currents
In lieu of the scarcity of observed current data approximate analytical
methods may be used to determine current velocities. One such
method would be to consider only the wind and tide as the driving
mechanisms for the establishment of coastal currents and to vectorially
add the contributions from each of these forces.
(a) Wind Driven Currents
The drag of the wind passing over the surface of the water produces
a drift current. Much of the initial investigation in this area was
done by Ekman (1130). He found for a homogeneous body of water of
infinite depth that the surface velocity of a pure drift current is propor-
tional to the wind stress and, for an infinite ocean in the Northern
Hemisphere, directed 45° to the right of the wind direction:
V =-^===? 9-2
/ p Af
where V is the surface current (cm/sec),
_ o
T is the wind stress (dyne cm" ),
p is the density of sea water (gm
A is the eddy viscosity coefficient (gm cm" sec" ), and
f is the Coriolis parameter, f = 2f2sin (sec" )
where is the latitude and fi is the rotation rate of the Earth.
For waters of finite depth the angle of deflection of the surface current
from the wind direction is a function of h/D, the ratio between the water
depth and Ekman1 s depth of frictional influence. In shallow water h/D
decreases with increasing wind speed. Actual measurements have
shown the deflection angle at the sea surface to vary between 25° -30° for
low velocity winds (<4 m/sec) and approach the actual wind direction for
high velocity winds (Neumann and Pierson, 1530).
One must use an "effective" eddy viscosity coefficient, A, which is
a function of wind speed, i. e. , A must increase with increasing wind
103
-------
speed. The following table (Table 9-5) for A as a function of wind
speed is from Neumann (1161).
Table 9-5. Effective eddy viscosity coefficient as a function of wind
speed.
Wind speed (m/sec)
A (gm/cm-sec)
4
58
6
161
8
332
10
577
14
1350
18
2520
Because of uncertainties in the values for wind stress and eddy viscosity
coefficient, empirical formulae relating wind speed and current velocity
directly have been postulated. These take the form
9_3
/sin
where W is the wind speed in m/sec,
is the latitude, and
k is a coefficient which varies with wind speed; values used
range from 0. 76 to 2. 59 (1530).
Wind drift currents and the relationship between wind speed and current
speed at the surface have been discussed and studied, but few systematic
measurements are available. Wide variability exists between actual
measurements, and that predicted by theory. Wiegel (1542) emphasizes
that caution should be exercised when results based on theory are being
used. Neither of the two preceding formulas consider the influence of
a coast and should probably not be used in the nearshore region.
Bretschneider (1110) has developed a relationship between wind speed,
U, and the steady state mean longshore wind-driven current, Vgt, over
the continental shelf. Assuming shallow water conditions and constant
values of k = 3.0 x lO'6 and K = lO'Zft1/3 for the wind stress and bottom
stress parameters, respectively, the steady state mean current may
be expressed as:
104
-------
= 0.0173 D^/sin 6
9-4
U
where 6 is the angle of the wind measured from the perpendicular
to the coastline or bottom contours,
D is the water depth (ft), and
Vgj. is in ft/sec and U in knots.
vst
Figure 9-7 shows the relationship of —— versus D for various angles 9.
Exact values for the wind stress and bottom stress parameters have
not been established.
(b) Tidal Currents
An approximate tidal current velocity can be found from the information
listed in the Tide Tables (1203) and the Current Tables (1202). The
time it takes a particular stage of the tide (e.g. , HHW) to travel from
the Farallon Islands off San Francisco to Cape Alava off the northern
Washington coast has been determined from the Tide Tables for four
periods of the year. The pertinent data are listed in Table 9-6 along
with tidal heights at HHW. The approximate distance from the
Farallons to Cape Alava is 628 n. mi.
Table 9-6. Time of higher high water (HHW) and tidal height for four
periods in 1969 for Farallon Island, California and Cape
Alava, Washington.
11 Feb
15 May
23 July
26 Oct
Time Height Time Height Time Height Time Height
(ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
Farallon Islands
Cape Alava
Travel time (min)
0459
0640
101
5.8
8.0
2153
2340
107
5.6
8.5
1659
1840
101
5.8
8.0
1041
1228
107
5.9
9.3
105
-------
0.06
to
3
o
0)
JH
O
,£
CO
bo
0)
-l_>
n)
j_i
CD
ni
cu
•J-)
CO
Note for k = 3. 0 x 10
o
0. 00
o
90
70°
60
50(
40(
30C
20o
15
10
o
20 30 50 70 100 200 300
Depth of Water, D (ft)
500 1000
OQ
1—1
3
B
PJ
(T>
CO
(D
V
&.
i-"
O
O
O
Figure 9-7. Relationship of Vgt/U versus D for various angles 0.
(from Bretschneider, 1110)
106
-------
Using a travel time of 104 minutes, the velocity of propagation up the
coast is 610 ft/sec (362 knots). The Current Tables indicate that the
current is rotary but rather weak all along the Pacific Coast, setting
approximately 060°T on flood, 240°T on ebb. Multiplying the computed
wave velocity by the cosine of 60° yields the resultant wave velocity
for a wave approaching the beach at an angle 30° normal to the shoreline
of 305 ft/sec.
The maximum horizontal particle velocity or the maximum velocity of
the net tidal motion is given by
u = g a/c 9-5
where u is the maximum horizontal particle velocity for a shallow-
water progressive wave based on Airy wave theory (ft/sec),
g is the acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec^,
a is the tidal amplitude and from Table 9-6 is about —r~ = 3. 55 ft,
LJ
c is the wave velocity, 305 ft/sec.
The above values yield a maximum net tidal current of approximately
0.37 ft/sec (0.2 knots) approaching the coast from240°T. This speed
compares very favorably with that -reported in the Current Tables based
on measured values at lightships five miles off the coast (1 202, p. 238).
Due to decreasing water depths as the tidal wave approaches shore,
the wave speed decreases and the wave angle of approach becomes more
and more parallel to the shoreline. The net onshore-offshore component
of particle motion in this shallow coastal region can be computed from
a simple tidal prism analysis. Assume that a flow of unit width perpen-
dicular to the shoreline with period T and height H enters a tidal prism
of volume (LavH) in time T/2 (Figure 9-8). The average onshore-
offshore particle velocity may be expressed as:
- 2 LavH ,
u = 9-6
Tdav
where dav is the mixing layer thickness assumed to extend to the bottom.
The area between the sea surface and the bottom, Lav x dav, was
calculated from the coastline to 3 miles offshore. This area was
divided by the square of the water depth at 3 miles to yield the required
Lav/dav relationship in equation 9-6. Average net onshore-offshore
107
-------
tidal currents at selected areas along the Pacific Northwest Coast were
computed using mean tidal heights from the Tide Tables (1203). These
average tidal currents are listed in Table 9-7. Of primary interest
is a comparison of the magnitude of these currents with location. The
largest currents appear to occur in regions where the beach slope is
relatively flat. The higher velocities of these regions implies better
dispersion of the thermal plume. However, this advantage may be
offset by the necessity of constructing a lengthy outfall to achieve the
desired discharge depth.
Table 9-7. Average net tidal currents for the Pacific Northwest Coast-
line computed from tidal prism analysis.
Location
Humboldt Bay entrance
Crescent City
Coos Bay entrance
Yaquina Bay entrance
Tillamook Bay entrance
Columbia River entrance
Long Beach, Washington
Grays Harbor entrance
Pacific Beach, Washington
Mean Tidal
Range (ft)
6.2
5.1
5.2
5.9
5.7
5.6
6.2
6.9
6.5
Average Onshore -Off shore
Tidal Current (ft/sec)
0.08
0. 12
0.05
0.06
0.05
0. 13
0. 14
0.25
0. 13
Figure 9-8. Sketch of tidal prism defining terms used in equation 9-6.
108
-------
Longshore Currents
Most waves approach the coastline at an angle to the bottom contours.
The effect of refraction tends to bend the angle of wave approach such
that the wave crests are almost parallel to the shoreline by the time
the waves break. However, when waves do break at an angle to the
beach, the shoreward transport of water has a component parallel to
the coast. This water motion parallel to the coast is the longshore
current. These currents are the major mechanism of longshore sand
transport. Most of the longshore sand transport takes place in the
surf zone.
Longshore current velocities can be computed from the relationship
listed by Eagleson (1129)
sina sin0b sin 20-^
9-7
where V, is the mean longshore current velocity (ft/sec) assumed to
be constant in the surf zone. The current will actually
decrease with distance from the shoreline as the depth increases;
HL and h\-, are respectively, the wave height (ft) and water depth (ft) at
the point of breaking;
n-jj is the ratio of the group velocity to phase velocity;
a is the beach slope;
OT-, is the angle between the breaker crest and the original wave
crest;
b
f is the Darcy Weisbach resistance coefficient = [2 log-^Q ~+ 1.74]
k is the equivalent sand roughness, ft.
C
H-L and h. can be computed from solitary wave theory using
1^ = 0. 667 (H0'T)2/3 and 9-8
Hb = 0. 78 hb 9-9
where Ho' is the deep water wave height considering the effects of
refraction, i. e. Ho' = KrHQ
where K is the refraction coefficient.
109
-------
H, and h, can more easily be determined from Figure D-54 in the U. S.
Army Coastal Engineering Research Center Technical Report No. 4
(1121). A sample calculation using conditions appropriate to the Pacific
Northwest Coast follows:
Assume Ho' = 8 feet; T = 10 sec; a = 1°; Gb = 5°; bottom sand roughness,
k^ = 0.0033 ft.
then: h, = 12.3 ft
,
b
Hb = 9 . 6
f t
from eqs. 9-8 and 9-9
n, = 0.95 from linear wave theory tables
h -2
f =[21og10^ +1.74] =0.013
e
2 _ 3 r 32.2 x (9.6)2 x 0.95-ir0.0175 x 0.0872 x 0. 1736 i
vTT ~ 8 L 12.3 Jl 0.013 J
= 1.26 ft/sec.
This is in agreement with measured values off the central Oregon
coast as reported by Neal, et aJ.. (1160).
Many attempts have been made to predict longshore current velocity.
Galvin (1553) in 1967 reviewed the theory and available data. More
recently Lonquet-Higgins (1554) has suggested using the concept of
radiation stress to more satisfactorily estimate the momentum of
the incoming waves. However, the chief difficulty in estimating
longshore current velocity is the inability to accurately measure the
wave angle of approach.
110
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Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES
by Robert H. Bourke and Burton W. Adams
In the early nineteen sixties, several U0 S,, West Coast power com-
panies initiated temperature studies of thermal power plant cooling
water discharges. Important contributions to West Coast field
studies of thermal discharges are described in the following para-
graphs.
In 1962 Squire (1538), using an airborne infrared radiometer,
measured the distributions of surface temperatures around the
outfalls of four steam-electric plants in Southern California (Figure 10-1).
The overflights, made on 16 January and 4 February, revealed increases
of 4 to 20F° above ambient surface temperatures. The temperatures
recorded in February were lower because the area had experienced
storm conditions following the January survey. He concluded that
the high surface temperature gradients indicated the existence of
a warm water lens on the surface.
The Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has conducted temper-
ature surveys for a number of years at several of their thermal
power plants in Central and Northern California. Early studies in
1950-1963 were made from surface craft using standard oceanographic
instrumentation. These surveys were considered inadequate because
the large distance between sampling stations and the time lag between
successive measurements prevented rapid temperature changes from
being accurately mapped. From 1963 to 1967 airborne infrared
radiometers were used by PG&E to map surface temperatures around
power plant outfalls.
Cheney and Richards (1507) examined the temperature outfall data
from three power plants --Morro Bay (an open coast), Contra Costa
(an estuary), and at Humboldt Bay (an enclosed bay). Their data are
presented as maps of surface temperature (Figure 10-2a) and area-
temperature profiles (Figures 10-2b and 10-2c). The infrared measure-
ments were continuously supplemented with surface temperatures
taken from a boat to provide calibration and temperature-depth
profiles. Cheney and Richards concluded that the warming effect
from power plant discharges, whether into a sea, a bay, or an estuary,
is undetectable beyond a mile from the outfall. At 1,000 feet from
the outfall the data showed only an occasional temperature exceeding
5F° above ambient. Subsurface temperature measurements in the
111
-------
START
AIRCRAFT FLIGHT
TRACK
FINISH
Figure 10-1. General pattern of infrared survey flight
tracks (from Squire, 1538).
112
-------
N5J
10-2a. SURFACE ISOTHERMS,Run No.2,SepM2,1963.
Run No.
Average MW
1
758
2
833
3
868
4
570
5
200
6
160
7
660
8
66D
9
660
Z° 4° 6° 0° 10° 12° I
-------
vicinity of the outfall indicate the warm water is normally confined
to a layer approximately 10 feet thick. The degree of wind mixing
dictates the extent to which these temperature gradients diminish.
Comparison with surface temperatures showed that the airborne
radiometer was accurate to ±1F° except under conditions of fog or
smoke when the error could be as much as 3 or 4F°.
In 1968 North and Adams (1531) collected data from nine thermal
power stations which included measurements of the surface areas
enclosed by isotherms drawn from infrared measurements. From
these data (35 measurements) a regression equation was calculated
to determine the correlation between power output at a generating
station and the surface area enclosed by contour lines 10F° and 2F°
above ambient. The wide scatter in the data resulted in a rather
poor correlation.
Maps produced from radiometric data require subjective interpreta-
tion of the data points to plot isotherms (Doyle and Gormly, 1509).
An objective map can be produced if the area under consideration can
be rapidly scanned and a computer program used to compose and
draw the map. PG&E began using a thermal mapper in 1967 to con-
duct their airborne surveys. The thermal mapper is an airborne
device, sensitive to infrared radiation, used to mechanically scan
the scene in its field of view in a line by line fashion. The output
can be recorded on film as an analogous image or on magnetic tape
(Doyle and Cartwright, 1508). A computer program digitizes the
analog data from the magnetic tape and constructs a map of surface
isotherms (Figure 10-3). Additionally, the isotherms can be inte-
grated by computer to yield a temperature-area relationship. This
relationship is used to compare theoretical and prototype values from
which projections of thermal influence from plant enlargements can
be made (1509). Regression equations for each plant have been
computed showing the area of influence as a function of excess
temperature.
Since July 1963 an oceanographic monitoring program has been
conducted by Marine Advisers, Inc. for the San Onofre nuclear
generating station (Marine Advisers, 1153 and 1154). This power
plant utilizes a 2,600 foot submerged outfall discharging 350,000 gal/
min of coolant in approximately 25 feet of water. Sampling was
conducted monthly using standard oceanographic equipment. Since
1969 occasional airborne infrared radiometer surveys have been made
114
-------
Figure 10-3. Isothermal map of surface water produced by computer
conversion of electrical signal from scanner (from
Doyle and Gormly, 1535).
115
-------
to supplement the oceanographic surveys.
Conclusions reached during the 5-year monitoring period are (1154):
1. The largest temperature increase at the outfall boil was
9F°f but generally it is less than 6F° (normal temperature rise
across the condenser is 18F°).
2. Surface areas containing -waters -warmed more than 4F°
are confined to the immediate vicinity of the outfall boi;l (Figure 10-4).
3. The maximum distance from the outfall the warm water
plurne has been detected is 2 miles in the longshore direction.
4. The thermal plume was confined to a shallow surface lens,
normally 5 to 12 feet thick (Figure 10-5).
5. From data available there seems to be little correlation
between the area influenced by the warm water discharge and the
local current speed and direction.
116
-------
Outfoll Operative; Worm Woter Discharge
Temperature in °F
Figure 10-4. San Onofre sea surface isotherms, 21 February 1969 (from Marine Advisers, Inc. t 1154).
-------
BO Boil CO
STATION NO.
DO EO
FO
10
20
CL
bJ
O
30
40
-65
l \ » '
JS)
777777777
i i i i i i i i i i
HORIZONTAL SCALE
Temperoture in °F
I
57.5
57
I
7777777T71
Figure 10-5. Temperature-depth cross sections, 21 February 1969
(from Marine Advisers, Inc. , 1154).
118
-------
Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR THE
PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne
Introduction
Analytical models to determine the distribution pattern of heated
effluents discharged into ambient fluids are based on theory developed
for the disposal of sewage effluent. This type effluent is usually dis-
charged through multiport diffusers into the receiving water where
it undergoes mixing and dilution from the action of essentially two
distinct mechanisms: (1) turbulence and momentum associated with
discharge jets, and (2) natural turbulence and currents -within the
receiving water body (Brooks, 1504).
Upon discharge from the end of an outfall pipe or diffuser port an
effluent possesses kinetic energy due to its velocity. This energy
is dissipated by the turbulent mixing of the jet -with the surrounding
fluid. This mixing process is commonly termed "jet mixing. " Dur-
ing the jet mixing phase the turbulent jet entrains part of the surround-
ing fluid resulting in an increasing volume flux -with increasing dis-
tance from the outlet -while simultaneously decreasing the jet velocity.
Zone of
Flow Establishment
Zone ot
Established Flow
U = U U
-------
The boundary between the jet and the receiving fluid is a region of
instability where high shear stresses exist. Mixing will occur with
a subsequent interchange of properties and constituents (Wiegel,
1542). In the zone of flow establishment (Figure 11-1) the center-
line jet velocity, Uo, is considered constant with longitudinal dis-
tance. Within the zone of established flow mixing takes place
throughout the jet. The velocity profile across this zone is assumed
to be Gaussian. The investigations of Frankel and Gumming (1518)
have shown that the concentration of effluent can also by reasonably
assumed as Gaussian in the established flow zone.
Within a short distance from the outlet the velocity of the jet
will be dissipated. If the fluid in the jet has a different density than
the receiving fluid, it will also possess potential energy. Mixing
will occur as the potential energy is dissipated by the discharge
rising or falling. The combination of this mixing and jet mixing
is often termed "initial dilution. " Further mixing may occur due
to natural turbulence and currents within the water body and the
wind over it (1504). When this mixing takes place on the ocean
or a lake surface, it may be termed "surface dispersion and
interface exchange. " In this zone the effluent may move across the
water surface in the form of a dispersive plume.
Environmental Effects
The disposal of waste heat from thermal electric generating plants
discharging into the ocean, requires that certain environmental
factors be taken into consideration. The major factors and their
effects are discussed below:
(a) Buoyancy Effect
The density of the condenser discharge from a thermal-electric
generating plant will usually be less than that of the surrounding sea
water. This density difference, although quite small, creates a
buoyant force which measurably affects the behavior of the jet
(Figure 11 -2). A jet which contains an initial buoyancy flux as
well as momentum flux is termed a "buoyant" jet (Fan, 1515).
The buoyancy force is proportional to the difference in density
between the sea water and the rising jet and generally decreases
as the jet ascends (1518).
120
-------
No density difference
With density difference
(Pl
-------
(b) Recipient Density Stratification Effect
Vertical temperature and/or salinity gradients in the ocean cause
density stratification of the water column. As the heated effluent
rises through the water column, it mixes with the sea water and
the mixture generally becomes more dense. If the density of the
mixture becomes equal to that of the receiving fluid (which is usually
less dense near the surface), the ascending motion ceases and the
mixture tends to spread horizontally (Figure 11-2). It may be
possible to obtain a plume which is completely submerged below
a strong thermocline (Rawn, e_t a_L. , 1535). The submergence of
a sewage field is often a most favorable situation for coastal
pollution control (1515). However, the heated discharge from
steam electric generating plants will most likely rise directly
to the surface due to the large density difference and flow rate.
(c) Ocean Currents Effect
The ocean currents may affect not only the dispersive plume
established at or near the sea surface, but also the jet mixing
characteristics (1515). The ocean currents usually consist of
large scale ocean currents, tidal currents, wind drift currents,
and currents due to waves. Although some of these currents may
not produce a net transport of water, they are the causes of tur-
bulence which mixes the waters in a process akin to diffusion.
(d) Atmospheric Effects
An important factor in the dissipation of heat from surface water
is the condition of the atmosphere. Air temperature, winds, air
humidity, and solar radiation all influence the sea-air heat trans-
fer rate.
Analytical Models
Analytical models have been proposed by investigators to describe
temporally and spatially the fate of constituents and pollutants when
discharged into lakes, estuaries, and oceans. The following sections
are a review and analysis of models pertinent to the discharge of
thermal effluents into coastal waters.
The discharge of cooling water from thermal electric plants gen-
erally takes place via one of two methods: (1) from a submerged
pipe at a significant depth and distance offshore, or (2) from a canal
which discharges into the ocean at the shoreline. Research has
122
-------
indicated that for both types of discharges cooling of heated effluent
may occur via two processes: (a) initial dilution upon emission
from the outlet pipe or canal, followed by, (b) surface dispersion
and sea-air interface exchange.
Part I. Initial Dilution
(a) Submerged Jets
The turbulent mixing process that occurs when one fluid is dis-
charged into another is a problem for which the theory is relatively
well known. The reference lists of Fan and Brooks (1515) and
Cederwall (1505) contain papers which have contributed to the under-
standing of turbulent jet phenomenon. Cederwall (1505) presents
a detailed review of these studies as related to marine waste water
disposal. Sewage outfalls are now often designed after the pro-
cedures developed by Rawn, Bowerman, and Brooks (1535) and
Brooks (1504).
Frankel and Gumming (1518) advanced the initial studies of Rawn,
_e_t al_. and Brooks by investigating the efficiency of various dis-
charge angles of pipes. They found the horizontal diffuser to give
the least concentrations, but that differences in concentration levels
for various discharge angles became insignificant for a ratio of
diffuser depth to diffuser diameter greater than 50.
Theory seems to underpredict concentrations in the surface trans-
ition zone where vertical flow changes to lateral spreading, Figure
11-3, (1535).
I Zone of establishment (momentum
and buoyancy effects)
II Established vertical flow
III Surface transition zone (little
dilution)
IV Surface horizontal flow
Figure 11-3. Zone configurations of a jet for the case of a
stagnant, homogeneous environment, (from
Frankel and Gumming, 1518).
12,3
-------
Fan (1514) showed that for a vertical jet, the trajectory of the
plume was bent toward the downstream direction of flow (Figure
11-2). Turbulence induced by currents within the receiving fluid
may also affect the initial dilution, but these effects generally are
minor. ,
(b) Stability Considerations
A measure of the stability of a water column is provided by the
Richardson number, Ri, which indicates the degree of turbulence
present. The Richardson number may be expressed as:
Ri = i .8P. /
p 9z
where the numerator and denominator, respectively, describe
the strengths of the vertical gradients of density and velocity
within the water column.
A large density gradient or small vertical velocity gradient results
in a large value of Ri which indicates supression or extinction of
turbulence. A small Ri generally indicates maintenance or an in-
crease of turbulence.
Near the discharge orifice the Ri of the jet is quite small due to
the large vertical shear; the turbulent and momentum fluxes are
at a maximum. With increasing distance from the orifice the
turbulent and momentum fluxes decrease increasing the Richard-
son number. The Richardson number, therefore, measured as
a function of the distance from the discharge point, indicates how
rapidly the momentum of the jet decays. As discussed previously,
the amount of ambient cooling water entrained by the jet decreases
as the velocity decreases; hence, further cooling of heated jets
by turbulent mixing becomes insignificant for large Ri.
The experiments of Hayashi and Shuto (1521) confirmed that for
small Richardson numbers (less than one) turbulent mixing was the
most influential factor in reducing the temperature of the jet.
In practice the Richardson number is difficult to determine.
Generally, velocity data is not available to determine vertical
velocity gradients in the vicinity of the plume. The densimetric
Froude number, N , is often used instead.
F
124
-------
= U0//(Ap/Po) g D0 11-2
where U is the initial discharge velocity of the jet,'
Nr
Ap/pQ is the relative initial density difference between con-
denser discharge and ambient water,
DQ is either initial discharge depth or outfall diameter.
Experimentation has shown that the relative density difference is the
most significant factor in determining the type of pollutant field
that may develop (Wiegel, 1542). Weak or negative relative density
gradients result in a surface field; strong relative gradients in a *
submerged field. The relatively large negative density difference
and large volume flow rate associated with thermal power plant
discharges usually dictate that the heated effluent will spread as
a surface field.
(c) Horizontal Surface Jets
Commonly, thermal power plants discharge their cooling water
through a channel or canal into the ocean at the edge of a beach. The
work of Abraham (1500) indicates a relationship for (he distri-
bution of salinity in a horizontal surface jet. When slightly modi-
fied, this relationship can be used for the distribution of tempera-
ture in the jet if the buoyant effect of the warm water is small.
Such a relationship takes the form (Jen, ejt ah , 1524):
T - T . D , 2
w 1 o 1 r }
J
- ™ - - ~ , , _
1-1 7 r* •• Y 7C *• v-^ 1 1 -3
o w ^^1 x ^^1 x
where T f is a dimensionless surface temperature i.e.
the "temperature concentration,"
T is the temperature of the receiving water (°F),
T is the temperature of the jet prior to mixing (°F),
DQ is the diameter of the jet (ft),
x is the horizontal distance along the jet axis, measured
from the point of discharge (ft),
r is the radial distance normal to the jet axis (ft),
C, is an experimentally determined dimensionless constant,
* 0. 096.
125
-------
Equation 11 -3 is characteristic of jets with densimetric Froude
numbers which are large when compared to unity (Harleman and
Stolzenbach, 1520). High discharge densimetric Froude numbers indi
cate entrainment of the underlying cool water; rapid thickening
of the jet ^takes place until the Froude number decreases to below
unity (Lean and Whillock, 1527).
For buoyant discharges having smaller densimetric Froude numbers,
but greater than unity, Jen, _e_tjal. (1524) found that the buoyancy
does not appreciably affect the entrainment dilution. However,
the buoyancy tends to distort the temperature distribution from
that of the non-buoyant jet by horizontally expanding the plume.
For this condition Jen, e_t aA . found the best temperature description
to be:
where C-> is an experimentally determined dimensionless
constant,
N is the densimetric Froude number, and
F
y is the horizontal distance normal to the jet axis, measured
from the axis of the jet (ft).
For dimensionless distances (x/D ) between 7 and 100 and densimetric
Froude numbers ranging from 18 to 180, equation 11-4 can be expressed
as:
T* =7.0-^ exp[-3(NF)1/2(y/x)2] n_g
An important result indicated by equation 11-4 is that along the
centerline of the jet the discharge temperature decreases as 1 /x.
In a continuation of the above study Wiegel, Mobarek, and Jen
(1541) investigated the mixing efficiency of horizontal surface jets
discharging over sloping bottoms. The constants C, and C- in
equation 11 -4 were found to be dependent on the bottom slope and
also on the ratio of height to width of the rectangular nozzels used
to represent the discharge channel or canal. Wiegel, et al. con-
cluded that steeper slopes resulted in more thorough mixing and,
hence, a more rapid cooling of the effluent plume. Beaches with
shallow sloping profiles do not provide enough water for optimum
entrainment. The mixing capability at "low, mid, and high tide"
126
-------
conditions were examined. The greatest amount of mixing
occurred logically at high tide.
Wiegel, et^ al_. also observed that jet mixing depends upon the jet
discharge velocity. Low velocities result in laminar or low level
turbulent mixing, while high velocities produce "high level1"1 tur-
bulent mixing with large scale eddies at the jet boundary entrapping
the surrounding receiving water.
Part II. Surface Dispersion and Interface Exchange
(a) Surface Dispersion
Hayashi and Shuto (1521) investigated heated jets including the case
of no entrainment, i. e. , the velocity of the jet decreased to nearly
zero. For this condition they found the Richardson number to have
increased to a value slightly greater than one. This is the regime
of "horizontal or surface dispersion and interface exchange. "
In this regime the plume of hot waste is mixed and transported
away from the region of the source by the action of surface cur-
rents. The depth of the plume slowly thickens with distance
from the source due to surface mixing. Heat may also be emitted
to the atmosphere.
The equation developed by Hayashi and Shuto to predict surface
temperatures within the dispersive plume (condition of negligible
entrainment) is:
-.2 _ o
_ K Or.
where K is an atmospheric heat exchange coefficient (Btu
e
F'1 ft'2 sec'1),
BQ is the width of the outlet (ft),
Q0 is the flow rate (cfs),
C- is an experimentally determined dimensionless constant.
This relationship has been corroborated by the work of Harleman
and Stolzenbach (1520) using a hydraulic model. Equation 11-6
127
-------
-Cx2
indicates a temperature reduction at the rate e x where
C is a function of the outlet width, BQ, and discharge flow rate,
Q . Harleman and Stolzenbach1 s experiments with surface dis-
charges showed that the centerline temperature decreased as
1 /x until a distance of x/BQ = 30 was reached when, the decrease
became more rapid and was well represented by T ~ e~Cx .
From their hydraulic model study Harleman and Stolzenbach
concluded that changes in tidal elevation, condenser flow rate and
current velocities do not significantly affect temperature distribution, but
actual field studies have shown that these factors can affect temperature
distributions.
(b) Interface Exchange
Heat exchange with the atmosphere must be considered once the
turbulent motion of the jet has decreased to a level where entrain-
ment of the surrounding cooling water is low. Equations which in-
clude this phenomenon are essentially similar to those used to
predict the dispersion of sewage, pulp mill wastes, or radio-
nuclides except that the non-conservative term (decay term) now
must account for the air-sea interface heat exchange.
The net rate of heat exchange across the air-sea interface, AH,
can be expressed as the algebraic sum of: H-^, the effective long wave
back radiation; He, the evaporative heat flux; and HC, the sensible
heat flux.
To overcome the difficulties inherent in directly measuring the net
heat flux from its component terms, Edinger and Geyer (1512) have
approximated the net rate of heat exchange across the air-sea
boundary by:
AH =.K (T - Te) Btu Ft~2 Day "1 11-7
where K is the surface heat exchange coefficient (Btu Ft
Day'1 'F'1),
Tw is the actual water temperature (°F),
Te is the equilibrium temperature (°F).
Edinger and Geyer define the equilibrium temperature, Te, as the water tem-
perature at which there is no net heat exchange across the water surface,
i. e. AH = 0. Procedures for the calculation of K and T are fully
described by Edinger and Geyer (1512). 6
128
-------
The dispersion of heated discharges into the ocean requires a
model equation in at least two dimensional form. Following the
development of Brooks (1504) for the dispersion and die-away of
coliforms from a sewage outfall, Edinger and Polk (1510) derived
a model to predict the temperature distribution based upon the
lateral dispersion of heat into a uniform longitudinal velocity
field with no vertical temperature gradient. Although the authors developed
this model primarily for rivers and lakes, they applied it to a coastal zone
environment (Morro Bay, California) with some success. The steady state
non-conservative distribution may be expressed as:
u ae a r ae ) K e n-8
9x ~ 8y Y 8y pcp d
where the three terms represent the rates of decrease of excess
temperature per unit volume for longitudinal advection, lateral
diffusion, and atmospheric cooling. Edinger and Polk choose a
solution for a constant Dv (ft /day) which results in a conservative
decay of temperature:
JUJpl Jjs] ^ e if e a(^ U-9
where 6 ( £, y) is the temperature rise (°F) at some specified
lateral coordinate, y, and longitudinal coordinate,
£ = _ y_ , where u is a constant stream velocity (ft/sec),
u
9 is the temperature rise across the condenser (°F),
is the position of the source given by _ 1
=
where Q is the flow rate through the condenser (cfs)
and d is the depth of the water (ft), and
a is a coefficient governing the rate of heat loss at the
surface ,
K
a =
pcp Dy d
where K is the surface heat exchange coefficient (Btu
"F-1 Day"1 Ft ~2). '
The reduction in temperature of the outfall plume may more con-
veniently be expressed as the surface area contained -within given
temperature rise contours. Figure 11-4 from Edinger and Polk
shows the relationship of the temperature rise ratio, 9C / 9p,to the
non-dimensional surface area ratio, A / An, for selected values
of p, a dimensionless coefficient governing the rate of heat decay
at the surface. For selected values of (3, Edinger and Polk found
that atmospheric cooling had little influence on temperature
129
-------
4 567891
LO
o
0
:n! M !i re : ktrttmiiiiniiu ;i
Two - dimensional
ik conservative case
SitSraiiSiSdJ^U
Three - dimensional \
conservative case
jptogajt Q\ ^ " i "
10
1.0
0.1
0.01
100
Figure 11-4. Relationship of temperature rise ratio to non-dimensional surface area ratio for selected
values of 3, a dimensionless coefficient governing the rate of heat decay at the surface (from
Edinger and Polk, 1510).
-------
reduction until 9C/6D had decreased to 0. 60. For values of
9c/9p greater than 0. 60 turbulent mixing was the dominant pro-
cess in reducing the plume temperature. These conclusions are
similar to those postulated by Hayashi and Shuto (1521) and corrobo-
rated by Harleman and Stolzenbach (15ZO).
Edinger and Polk also investigated a three dimensional conservative
model (no heat exchange across the air-sea boundary) which included
a vertical mixing term. For this case temperatures were reduced
at a faster rate than for the two dimensional non-conservative
case (Figure 11-4).
(c) Hydraulic Models
Concerning the model laws for coastal and estuarine hydraulic
models Keulegan (in 1144, p691) states:
"Many of the flow conditions encountered in the natural
phenomena around coasts and estuaries unfortunately
are not amenable to mathematical analysis. The diffi-
culty may be due to the nonlinear character of the equa-
tion of motion, to a lack of information on existing
turbulence and effective diffusion coefficients in instances
of mixing, to the multiplicity of interconnected flow
passages. . . .In such cases it becomes necessary to resort
to models in order to predict the behavior of a prototype
and in some instances to observe, in the model, details
that are not readily examined in nature. "
Hydraulic models should not be treated as a substitute for field and
analytical studies, but should be considered as an aid to such studies by
contributing information not accurately obtained by other means.
Most hydraulic models are distorted geometrically in that the vertical
scale is exaggerated with respect to the horizontal scale. Such distor-
tion is a consequence of the need to have workable water depths and
non-laminar flow in the model. The degree of distortion is dependent
on the area, to be reproduced and the nature of the problem to be investi-
gated. In order to reproduce frictional effects the model may be
"roughened" (generally vertically mounted thin metal strips are used).
In general, satisfactory model verification can be achieved for kine-
matic quantities (i.e., velocity, height, etc.); however, to simulate
water quality parameters (i.e., salinity, temperature, etc.) is
much more difficult. Vertical exaggeration prevents accurate
131
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simulation of beach slope, channel geometry (depth to width ratios)
and lateral dispersion by turbulence (Ackers, 1503). In the vicinity
of the jet where turbulent entrainment is dominant geometric simi-
larity is also necessary.
To circumvent these incompatibilities two models may be used: (1)
an undistorted scale model of the area near the outfall to represent
initial dispersion and the buoyant plume zone, and (Z) a vertically
exaggerated model to represent the whole ar.ea of interest (1503).
Another method is to build a distorted model and attempt to interpret
the affects of differences of the non-similar parameters on the
temperature distribution (1520).
Modeling of power plant outfalls has been practiced extensively
in Great Britain, Japan and the United States. In Great Britain the
Hydraulics Research Station at Wallingford and the University of
Strathclyde at Glasgow are the principal institutions engaged in
hydraulic model research. The reference lists of Ackers (1503)
and Frazer, et_ aL (1551) list pertinent papers in this field. In
the United States hydraulic modeling centers are the U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.;
the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers' San Francisco Bay-Delta
model; the Coastal Engineering Research Center, Washington
D. C. ; Massachuetts Institute of Technology; and the University
of California, Berkeley.
(d) Numerical-Hydrodynamic Models
Solutions to most of the analytical models discussed in the previous
sections are possible only when simplifying assumptions are made,
e. g. , boundaries are of regular shape, distribution of velocity is
simple, etc. Such simplifications may result in solutions which
sometimes have little connection with actual conditions.
With the advent of high speed computers it has become possible
to solve model equations using numerical methods (i. e. , using a
finite difference scheme) which eliminates the need for some
of the simplifications. Applications of numerical hydrodynamic
(N-H) models were initially developed for rivers and estuaries
(Callaway, et al. , 1545; Bella and Dobbins , 1550; Fisher, 1547;
Glenne, 1548; Kent, 1549). Recently several N-H models have
been devised for application to open coasts. Among these are the
Walter Hansen model used by the Fleet Numerical Weather Central
(Laevastu and Stevens, 1526) and the Leendertse model (1529).
132
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Obtaining a solution to an N-H model may be quite costly. Laevastu and
Stevens comment that the model must be run ten to sixty hours in real
time (dependent on the size of the area and grid length) before a correct
solution is obtained. This long running time is that required for initial
convergence, but after a converged solution is obtained, it may be that
it can be inserted repeatedly into a program which solves the advection-
dif fusion equation.
Part III. Dye Diffusion Studies
The use of dyes to study the movement and dispersion characteris-
tics of effluent plumes has become widespread with the advent of
sensitive measuring devices (Pritchard and Carter, 1534; Yudelson,
1543; James and Burgess, 15Z3; Ichiye, 152Z; Foxworthy, 1516).
The vast majority of these studies have been oriented towards the
disposal of sewage. The use of dyes to trace the distribution of
heated effluents, however, has been limited since the distributions
obtained from tracer experiments have to be corrected for the
cooling process at the air-sea boundary.
Pritchard and Carter (1534) have proposed a technique to account
for the non-conservative process of heat loss at the surface when
rhodamine dye is used to trace the effluent plume. The rhodamine
dye must be injected into the water body in a special manner to
take into account the large differences in volume rates of flow of
dye and effluent. The concentration of dye is then related to the
concentration of heat through an expression which takes into account
the flow rates and mixing depths of both dye and effluent, i. e.
- [rd(t)I e-th at u-io
where lY^ is the steady state concentration of heat in Btu Ib
F (t)is the concentration of dye at time t in ppb (10"' Ib/lb),
and QJ are the flow rates of heated effluent and dye, in
Btu day" and Ib day" , respectively,
and Dn are the mixing depths of the dye and heated effluent,
respectively, in feet, and
y is a rate coefficient which represents the loss of excess
heat to the atmosphere which for summer conditions was
found to be approximately 0. 1 ft hr~ .
The time dependent concentration of dye, T (t), was found to
approach the steady state value, r j m , asymptotically at a constant
133
-------
rate, ri , which by best fit of the data was approximately 1. 0 day~ .
After making appropriate substitutions integration of equation 11-10
yielded the steady state concentration of heat as functions of the
steady state dye concentration emitted from a continuous source and
of the flow rates and mixing depths of dye and effluent:
= Qb_. _£d . rdoo 11-11
oh + Y/n
134
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PART II - CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS
We wish to know the chemical characteristics of the nearshore waters
of the Pacific Northwest in order to make reasonable assessments of
the possible effects of the addition of industrial effluents. Dissolved
oxygen, inorganic micronutrients, pH, CCs tension, trace metals,
radionuclides, pesticides, and pulp mill effluents have been considered.
Although this list does not include all constituents which might have
been studied, it does attempt to cover the major ones.
The general rationale for considering these factors can be simply
stated; that factors in the environment favorable to an organism
tend to reduce the effect of a harmful substance, and that factors
unfavorable to the organism tend to increase the effect. The various
factors can be interacting or independent. If interacting, they can
be "synergistic" or antagonistic. Although theories relating to the
toxicity of complex effluents in sea water are very crude, they do
outline the necessity of characterization of those substances which
affect how the system reacts to a specific effluent.
Chapter 12.
Chapter 13.
Chapter 14.
Chapter 15.
Chapter 16.
Chapter 17.
CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH by Stephen W. Hager and
Robert H. Bourke
Page
137
OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS by Stephen W. Hager and
Robert H. Bourke 139
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES by Stephen
W. Hager 143
TRACE METALS by Stephen W. Hager 152
RADIOCHEMISTRY by William C. Renfro 191
OTHER POLLUTANTS 213
PESTICIDES by Stephen W. Hager 213
CHLORINE by Stephen W. Hager 218
135
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Chapter 12. CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH
by Stephen W. Hager and Robert H. Bourke
Studies of the nearshore concentrations of dissolved CO2 in the
Pacific Northwest have been only recently undertaken. Only a
few of the pertinent features will be presented.
1. The concentration of dissolved CO-, in sea water in equilibrium
with the atmosphere in nearshore areas is about 320 ppm (Park
et_al., 6093)
2. The concentration of dissolved CO2 at a depth of 2. 5m in the
Columbia River in December 1968 ranged from about 600 to
1000 ppm (Park et al. , 6093 )
3. Sea water values in nearshore areas were as high as 525 ppm
(Gordon and Park, 6092)
4. Sea water values in nearshore areas were as low as 155 ppm
(Gordon and Park, 6092)
5. Observed pH values correlate very well with CO-> values,
according to the equation:
[H+]2S[CO]
Pco2 = —
where PCO? ^s t^e partial pressure of CO2 in air in equilibrium
with the water, a is the solubility coefficient of CO2 in sea water,
[ H*] is the hydrogen ion activity as measured with a pH meter,
2[CO2]is the total CO2 in the water, and K1 1 and K' 2 are the first
and second apparent dissociation constants for carbonic acid
(Gordon, 6288).
High CO? values are caused primarily by upwelling or by turbulent mix-
ing across the thermocline. Land runoff may play a role in some areas.
Low CO? values are caused by uptake of CO? by photosynthetic organisms.
1 37
-------
Conclusions;
There are wide fluctuations in dissolved CO-, concentrations (or
PCQ ) in nearshore areas. Due to the correlation between pH
and PCO?' measurement °f pH, S[CO2] , and temperature is often
adequate for determination of CC>2 concentrations (Park et al, 6093)
Certain kinds of pollution such as surface active agents or organics
may change this relationship.
138
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Chapter 13. OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS
by Stephen W. Hager and Robert H. Bourke
Dissolved oxygen, inorganic micronutrient (phosphate, nitrate,
silicate) and pH data were obtained from NODC (see Appendix 6
for details), Oregon State University data reports (1231) and the
California Water Quality Control Board (7014). The data were
divided geographically into the sections shown in Figure 13-1.
Only values from, inside of 10 nautical miles were considered.
Monthly means for 0, 10, ZO, 30 and 50 meters (where available)
were obtained for each section and graphed against month. Values
from 10 and 30m were not included on the graphs since presentation
of surface, 20 and 50 meter values appeared to adequately describe
the distribution of the parameters. The data for Section 3 are shown
in Figure 13-2. Data from other sections are given in Appendix 6.
Generalized Features;
The data shown suggest that the water column from the surface to
20 meters is approximately homogeneous from October to April.
During the upwelling season, approximately May to September, the
waters at 20m appear to be much more strongly affected by the up-
welled waters than do the surface waters. This can probably be
attributed to more turbulent mixing in the surface waters.
There are no apparent latitudinal variations within our area.
Oxygen: These observations can be made concerning the data:
1. Average surface values are higher than 20m values throughout
the year.
2. The highest and lowest surface O2 values are found in the summer
months, June, July and August. This is probably due to the com-
peting influences of photosynthetic production and upwelling.
3. The averaged gradient between the surface and 20m is steeper in
the summer months. Surface values are not lowered as much by
upwelling as 20m values.
4. Surface O2 values are about 6. 3 to 7. 0 ml/1 (N. T. P. ) unless
affected by strong upwelling.
139
-------
y.. CALIF. -
125
Figure 13-1. Study area, showing sections from which
dissolved oxygen, nutrient, and pH data
were taken. . .
140
-------
9.0
6.0
3.0
_!l^-^fe
1 \
^fP?4
x 1 /
v
V-
3.0-
JFMAMJJASOND
Figure 13-2..
Data for Section 3, Newport, Oregon, to the
Columbia Biver. Oxygen is in ml/1 (N. T. P. ).
Nutrients are in |j.g-at/l.
141
-------
Nutrients: These observations can be made concerning the three
nutrients, phosphate, nitrate, and silicate:
1. The highest and lowest surface nutrient values are found in the
summer months. Silicate values strongly affected by runoff may
be higher at other times of year. Primary production and up-welling
are probable causes of the wide variations in surface values.
2. The averaged gradient between surface and 20m is steeper in the
summer months.
3. Exclusive of upwelling, representative surface nutrient values are:
P04: 0. 7 HLg-at/1
NO : 5 (j.g-at/1
SiO : 10 ug-at/1
LJ
pH: Very few pH data were available. These tentative descriptions
can be made:
1. pH values are lower in waters affected by upwelling.
2. Surface values are generally around 8. 1.
142
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Chapter 14. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES
by Stephen W. Hager
The Pacific Northwest supports a major pulp and paper industry.
With increased restrictions on the introduction of wastes to river
and lake waters, coastal waters may be increasingly used for dis-
posal of the wastes from, the industry. There are presently four
pulp mills in our area with marine outfalls. Details of the locations
and sizes of these operations are shown in Table 14-1 (Anon., 6319).
Three kinds of pulping processes are in general use; the kraft
process, the sulfite process, and the groundwood process. In
addition, associated bleaching or paper-making processes add to
the mill wastes.
Wastes from pulp and paper mills are basically of two classes:
solid wastes such as wood chips, bark, finely divided wood fibers,
etc. , and dissolved wastes which vary depending on the processes
used.
The effects of pulp and paper industry wastes on the environment
can be classified as either chronic or acute. Chronic effects
generally involve changes in the sediments underlying the waters
to which the wastes are discharged. The solid portion of the wastes
contributes heavily to this "habitat destruction, " although the role
of dissolved materials sorbing on existing bottom sediments cannot
be discounted (Howard and Walden, 6309). Acute effects include
toxicity to organisms in the area, and avoidance reactions in organ-
isms which would ordinarily migrate through the area (cf. Jones
et al. . 6310).
Kraft process;
The kraft process of wood pulping involves digestion of certain types
of wood in a strong caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide,
sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide. The used solution is called the
black liquor, and for economic reasons, 85-95% is recycled
(Waldichuk, 6316). The wastes from a kraft pulp mill are mostly
made up of the waters used to wash the pulp after it is physically
separated from the black liquor.
The characteristics of kraft mill effluents are shown in Table 14-2.
143
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Table 14-1. Pulp and paper mills in our area with marine outfalls.
1. Samoa, California. Georgia Pacific Corp.
Kraft pulp mill. 550 tons bleached kraft market pulp
per 24 hours.
2. Arcata, California. Crown-Simpson Pulp Co.
Kraft pulp mill. 500 tons unbleached kraft market pulp
per 24 hours.
3. Gardiner, Oregon. International Paper Company.
Kraft pulp mill. 570 tons kraft containerboard per
24 hours, 545 tons unbleached kraft pulp per 24 hours
4. Toledo, Oregon. Georgia Pacific Corporation.
Kraft paper and linerboard mill. 880 tons per 24 hours.
Kraft pulp mill, 1075 tons unbleached kraft pulp per
24 hours.
Table 14-2. Kraft pulp mill effluents.
kraft pulp process
1
2
bleached kraft pulp process
volume
BOD
PH
total solids
20,000-30,000 gal/ton
of product/day
130 ppm
7.5-9.0
1100 ppm
35 x 10 gal/day
72 ppm
3.4
California State Water Pollution Control Board, Publ. No. 17,
generalized parameters (6300).
>
'Howard and Walden, for a specific mill (6309).
144
-------
Note the significant pH difference between the effluents of mills
producing bleached kraft pulp and unbleached kraft pulp.
The black liquor contains mercaptans, dimethyl sulfide, turpentine,
methyl alcohol, ammonia, lignin, fatty and resinous acids, formic
acid, acetic acid, lactonic acid, and sodium salts of organic and
inorganic acids (McKee and Wolf, 6000). There may be other minor
components which are important (Servizi, Gordon, and Martens, 6313).
The toxicity of kraft mill effluents to marine species has not been
well studied. The results of studies reported in the literature are
shown in Table 14-3. Other studies using diluted black liquor and
synthesized draft mill effluent gave somwhat similar although less
interpretable results (McKee and Wolf, 6000; Anon., 6299).
Attempts have been made to study the toxicity of individual components
of the effluent (McKee and Wolf, 6000; Servizi et_aL» 63 1 3) but are not
very useful due to the complexity of the factors involved in real efflu-
ent systems, and the variation of composition of actual effluents from
mill to mill (Black, 6301).
Of possible importance are the observations that salmonid fish show
avoidance reactions to kraft mill effluents in fresh waters (Jones et al. ,
6310) and that chlorine bleaching of pulps may produce compounds
analogous in behavior to the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
(Servizi _et_al. , 6313). However, recent work by Dr. Carlton Dence
has shown, for instance, that chlorophenols exist in only trace-amounts
in bleach mill effluents (Anon. , 6361).
There are a number of ways of treating kraft mill effluents to reduce
toxicity. Neutralization of wastes reduced toxicity toward fish (Howard
and Walden, 6309). Holding effluents in ponds reduced the BOD consid-
erably (Gehm and Gove, 6307). Dispersion may be effective, but the
degree of dispersion necessary for protection of aquatic organisms has
not been adequately determined.
Sulfite process:
The sulfite pulping process consists essentially of the digestion of wood
chips in the sulfite of calcium, ammonium, or magnesium, usually
formed by addition of sulfur dioxide to the appropriate hydroxide. It
has not been, economically feasible to recycle the calcium and ammonium
liquors, but magnesium liquors can presently be recycled, a desirable
step from the standpoint of pollution (Waldichuk, 6316; Hall, 6352).
145
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Table 14-3. Toxicity
Organism
English sole
Fluffy sculpin
Striped seaperch
Starry flounder
Kelp greenling
Walleye surfperch
White seaperch
Stickleback
Salmon, chinook
Salmon, chinook
Salmon, coho
of KME to marine
%KME
(unless other-
wise specified)
8. 5
9
9.6
12. 2
15. 2
est. 5
10. 6
12. 5
0.6
1. 2
1. 0-3. 6
organisms.
Effect Reference
96 hour TLm
64 hour TL at
18%o and 30%o sal.
96 hour TLm
96 hour TLm
96 hour TLm
96 hour TLm
(prelim. )
96 hour TLm
72 hour TL
m
growth rate reduced
30 day critical threshold
tolerated both bleached and
6343
6344
6343
6343
6343
6343
6343
cited ii
6344
6299
6299
£onn
Salmon, silver 3. 3
Salmon, sockeye, young 4.8
Salmon, sockeye, young 2.5
Dungeness crab 50
Eastern oyster 0. 05
Bay mussel, embryos 1. 5
Bay mussel, embryos 0. 52
Bay mussel, embryos 0.12
unbleached effluent for 14 da'y's77
30 day critical threshold 6299
tolerated full bleached
effluent
tolerated full bleached
effluent at reduced O^
levels
no effect on 96 hours
exposure
decrease in feeding
6345
6345
6343
6306
48 hour EC50 for strong 6342
waste from kraft mill
48 hour EC50 6344
48 hour EC50 for foam 6344
collected on a beach near
an ocean outfall.
146
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Spent sulfite liquor (SSL) is the term used for the wastes from the
digestion process. These wastes are mixed with wash waters and
other plant wastes producing an effluent characterized by large
volume, very high BOD, high dissolved organic content, and low
pH (Eldridge, 6303; McKee and Wolf, 6000).
An average mill uses about 60, 000 gallons of water per ton of pulp
produced (Hall, 6352). Most of this is wash water, with 2500-3000
gallons per ton being SSL. (Eldridge, 6303). Thus, plant effluents
contain about 50, 000 ppm 10% SSL. The 5-day BOD of the wash-
liquor effluent is about 1500 ppm (Eldridge, 6303) while the liquor
itself may have 30, 000 ppm BOD (Waldichuk, 6316; Anon.. 6300).
Lignins may make up more than 50% of the dissolved organics in
the liquor. The pH of the effluent may be 3-4 (Eldridge, 6303).
The total dissolved solids content of SSL may range from 6% to 16%
(Eldridge, 6303). For convenience, all toxicity data are normalized
to 10% total solids. Results are then reported as dilutions of 10%
SSL. For instance, 10 ppm is 10 parts by volume of 10% SSL mixed
with water to make 1, 000, 000 parts. Another measure of the dilu-
tion of SSL is the Pearl-Benson Index (PBI)(Gunter and McKee, 6308).
This index is not necessarily correlated with toxicity. It is a
measure of the lignin content of the waste waters which may vary
from mill to mill. Background levels of natural lignins may vary
sufficiently over an area to make accurate determinations difficult
(Woelke, 6321).
Sulfite wastes are highly toxic to some marine organisms. Eggs and
larvae of oysters, and eggs of English sole were found to be particularly
sensitive to SSL (Anon. , 6320). Ten ppm was suggested as an upper
limit for protection of this kind of aquatic life (Anon. , 6320). Toxicities
of sulfite wastes to fish are generally lower, in agreement with the
observation of McKee and Wolf that BOD presents the major problem
with respect to fish (McKee and Wolf, 6000). However, 10 ppm has
been shown to affect internal organs of fresh water fish on long exposure
(McKee and Wolf, 6000). Acute toxicities to various marine organisms
are given in Table 14-4.
147
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Table 14-4.The toxicity of spent sulfite liquor to marine organisms.
Organism
Dilution of 10% SSL
(ppm)
Effect
Reference
Salmon, chinook 560-1175
(young)
Salmon, chinook 427-757
Salmon, chinook 422-616
Salmon, pink
(young)
Salmon, silver
530-1550
1015-1230
Oysters, Olympia 10 (Apr -Oct )
20 (Nov-Mar)
Oysters, Olympia 8-16
Oysters, Olympia 2-8
OysterSj Olympia 7
Oysters, Olympia M6
Oysters, Olympia 8-16
Oysters, Olympia 13
and Pacific
Oysters, Pacific 3
(larval)
5% mortality 6317
28 day tolerance 6299
level (NH -base
SWL)
28 day tolerance level 6299
(CaO base SWL)
5% mortality 6317
5% mortality 6317
recommended 6308
safe level
harmful 6308
reproductive cycle 6312
affected, but not
necessarily detrimental
effect
adverse effect on 6318
mortality
adverse effect on 6318
mortality
adverse effect on 6318
reproduction
adverse effect on growth 6318
and mortality
reduction in % normal 6318
larvae in labora-
tory experiments
148
-------
Organism
Dilution of 10%
SSL (ppm)
Effect
Reference
Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
Oysters, Pacific
Oysters, Pacific
35
26
17
8-16
18
50-100
40 (Apr-Oct)
80 (Nov-Mar)
Oysters, larval 2-i
Oysters, larval <20
Oysters, larval ^30
English Sole, eggs 10
Monas sp. (oyster 1000-10,000
food organism)
sp. (oyster 2. 5
reduction in % normal 6318
larvae (bioassay of
natural waters)
50% abnormal larvae 6302
(24°C, 25 °/oo)
50% abnormal larvae
(20°C, 25 °/oo)
50% abnormal larvae
(24°C, 15 °/oo)
threshold of toxicity 6308
affected 6312
100% abnormal 6312
tolerated 6308
recommended safe level 6308
4% abnormal 6320
50% abnormal (in situ) 6320
(Everett area)
50% abnormal (in situ) 6320
(Bellingham area)
critical threshold for 6320
normal development
lethal 6312
'depressing effect" 6312
food organism)
149
-------
Organism
Dilution of 10%
SSL- (ppm)
Effect
Reference
Copepods
Phytoplankton
Marine food
organisms
Fish (marine?)
Young herring
50-157 significant mortalities 6311
in 2 to 14 days
50 "significant injury" 6320
500 harmful 6317
10 affected internal 6000
organs on long
exposures
599-1022 tolerance level 6311
Groundwood process;
The groundwood pulping process is a purely mechanical process,
involving no chemical additives. The wastes include some soluble
materials from the wood, but fine wood fibers are the primary
contributor to pollution (Waldichuk, 6316; McKee and Wolf, 6000).
Fates of pulp and paper mill effluents;
Hall (6352) states, " Clearly, if pulpmill effluent could be sufficiently
diluted, and quickly, in receiving waters of high oxygen content,
little trouble would arise.. . " This statement reflects the feelings
of many people associated with the pulp and paper industry waste
problem that BOD is the major pollutional concern (McKee and Wolf, 6000).
However, it would be unwise to conclude that satisfaction of BOD
requirement is the only concern. In particular, the quantities and
fates of not readily biodegradable substances, whether natural or
added in the pulp and paper making processes, is not known.
150
-------
The possibilities have only recently started to come to light. Most
pulp mill effluents are thought to remain in solution on contacting
sea water, with subsequent dispersal and biological and chemical
degradation (Schroeder, 6348; Mason and Oglesby, 6349; O'Neal,
6346). However there are indications that under certain conditions
some fraction of kraft process effluent precipitates on interaction
with sea water (Courtright and Bond, 6344; F^yn, 6347; O'Neal,
6346). In other situations, a fraction of kraft effluent may be foamed
off (Courtright and Bond, 6344). Another fraction may be sorbed on
any of a number of solid substances (Howard and Walden, 6309; O'Neal,
6346). The nature of the fractions undergoing these various reactions
is not well known, -but the foamed fraction was shown to have higher
toxicity than bulk effluent, even though its FBI-was lower (Courtright
and Bond, 6344). The possibility that the chlorine bleaching of pulps
produces chlorinated hydrocarbons similar in behavior to chlori-
nated hydrocarbon pesticides and PCB's has been put forth (Servizi
et al. , 6313) although this suggestion is yet to be confirmed. More-
over, chlorophenols are found in only trace amounts in bleach liquors
(Anon., 6361).
In general, the fate of the not readily biodegradable fraction of
effluents is unknown. The projected doubling of the pulp and paper
industry in the Pacific Northwest in the next 20 years (Hall, 6352)
makes it a matter worth investigating.
Summary;
1. There are four pulp and paper mill outfalls into the nearshore
marine environment of the Pacific Northwest. They discharge
wastes from the production of bleached and unbleached kraft
pulp, and kraft paper products.
2. Mill effluents differ significantly in their characteristics. A
pollution prevention program, then, should be tailored to a
specific plant and location.
3. Acute toxicities of kraft mill effluents to marine organisms are
not well known.
4. Toxicities of sulfite mill effluents are better known and suggest
a limit of 10 ppm of 10% SSL for protection of marine aquatic
life. This represents an approximately 5, 000 times dilution of
a typical sulfite mill effluent.
5. The amount and final disposition of less biodegradable products
of the industry are unknown.
151
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Chapter 15. TRACE METALS IN THE NEARSHORE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
by Stephen W. Hager
The term "trace metals" is not concisely defined. It applies to all
elements found in trace quantities (less than 1 mg/1) which show
characteristic chemical behavior of metals to a greater or lesser
degree. The "heavy metals" and "transition series metals" are
both subcategories of trace metals. In all, 54 elements were con-
sidered to be trace metals for the purposes of this study.
Use of the term in the text implies a definite lack of specific
information, not a generalization over large bodies of data. Where
detailed quantitative information is available, the elements for which
it is available are specified.
Trace metal pollution is not so spectacular as oil pollution nor so
obnoxious as pulp mill effluents. It cannot usually be detected per se.
Rather, effects on the biology of the area may be the first clue to
the fact of pollution. For these reasons, we must be concerned with
prevention and early detection of increasing trace metals concentra-
tions.
This study was undertaken: (1) to provide information on existing
levels of trace metals in the nearshore marine environment of the
Pacific Northwest. The present low level of heavy industrial activity
in this area suggests that such data might well be used as a "baseline"
for future pollution studies. (2) to collect all data relevant to the
distribution of trace elements in the marine environment. From this
information it was hoped that an understanding of the behavior of
each element in the nearshore environment could be gained which
would enable formulation of a meaningful trace metal evaluation
program in the Pacific Northwest. The following discussion attempts
to point out information necessary for a consideration of coastal pollu-
tion by trace metals.
Chemical Form
Chemical forms of trace elements in sea water must be known before
an evaluation of their pollution potential can be made. Oxidation state
and physical state are equally important. The oxidation states of
many trace metals in sea water are reasonably well known, either
by inference from thermodynamics or by direct observation.
152
-------
It should be noted that thermodynamic estimates and observational data
sometimes conflict, as in the cases of arsenate and arsenite (Goldberg,
6059), chromium (III) and chromate (Fukai and Huynh-Ngoc, 6269), and
others. In such cases, the disagreements have been attributed to a need
for reaction sites (Goldberg, 6059), organic counter-reactions (Fukai
and Huynh-Ngoc, 6269), or analytical problems. It seems possible that
this problem might arise for other elements.
Adsorption on particulate matter and chelation by dissolved organic sub-
stances are processes which may control the concentration of a trace
metal in sea water. The quantitative partitioning between these reser-
voirs and the dissolved ionic fraction is largely unknown. We distin-
guish between particulate (>0.45|a) and soluble material, but this is an
operational definition, related in an unknown way to the actual manner
in which the metal behaves.
Table 15-1 presents data on the chemical and physical states of trace
metals in sea water with appropriate references. In cases where
there is substantial agreement between investigators, only the most
recent is cited.
Table 15-1. Predominant physico-chemical forms of trace elements
in sea water compiled from the literature.
Element
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
Physical Form
particulate
ionic (? )
ionic
ionic
"soluble"
particulate (? )
Chemical Form
A1O2" (H2O)
SbO+ (?)
Sb(OH)6- ?
H3AsO3, H3AsO4
HAsC>4~, H2AsO4~
HsAsO4, H3AsO3
Ba++, BaSO4
« — _
References
6139
6075
6061
6363
6060
6059
6059
6035
6112
6019
' Bi
Cd
ionic
ionic
BiO
+
CdCl, CdCl2
Cd++, CdS04
CdCl+
6102
6102
6059
6099
153
-------
Table 15-1 continued
Element
Cs
Cr
Co
Cu
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
In
Fe
Pb
Li
Mn
Physical Form
...
ionic
particulate ( ? )
ionic
ionic
soluble
soluble (?)
particulate ( ? )
particulate ( ? )
particulate
ionic
soluble ,
particulate
soluble,
particulate
ionic
ionic
particulate
ionic
Chemical Form
Cs +
Cr+++
4
Co++
Cu++
Ga(OH) ~
Ge(OH)4
AuCl ~
4-
™
—
HfO++
In+++ ( ? )
In(OH)2+
Fe(OH) (soluble)
J
— — _
++
Pb
Pb++, PbOH+,
PbCl +
Li +
Mn
References
6059
6019
6269
6269
6059
6019
6192
6180
6019
6059
6019
6059
6109
6019
6179
6143
6285
6059 '
6193
6160
6019
6363
6034
6109
6110
154
-------
Table 15-1 continued
Element
Hg
Mo
Ni
Nb
Pd
Pt
Po
Re
Rb
Ru
Sc
Se
Ag
Sr
Physical Form
soluble
ionic
ionic
ionic
parti culate (? )
unknown
unknown
ionic
mostly ionic
paiti culate ( ? )
ionic
ionic
Chemical Form
Hg++ _
MoO =
N!.w
NbO (soluble) (? )
C*
Po(OH)4 (?)
ReO ~
4
Rb +
(?)
Sc+++
HSeO3~
SeO.a
4
AgCl
Sr
References
6071
6059
6059
6102
6059
6177
6027
6179
6140
6059
6028
6075
6019
6030
6059
6:102
6019
6059
6019
Tl
Sn
ionic
ionic
parti culate ( ? )
Tl
6144
SnCl (?),SnCl (?) 6179
5 6019
155
-------
Table 15-1 continued
Element Physical Form
Ti particulate (?)
W
ionic
v
ionic
Y particulate (?)
Zn ionic
Zr particulate (?)
Chemical Form References
H.TiO. 6062
4 4
WO = 6059
6102
H VO ~ VO (OH) ~ 6102, 6059
6019
Y(OH) (soluble) 6117
Zn++ 6117
Zn++ ZnOH+ 6099
6061
(?) indicates speculative
The problem of possible trace metal pollution of the nearshore marine
environment of the Pacific Northwest may be considered to be a "flushing"
or "residence time" problem.
The important factors are input rates, output rates, and allowable
residual levels. Input rates include both those from natural and
industrial sources. Output rates include those effected by circulation
and by biogeochemicalprocesses. Allowable residual levels are
those concentrations, resulting from the balance of inputs and outputs,
which do not constitute pollution.
Natural Inputs
There are three major natural inputs of water containing trace metals
to the nearshore areas of the Pacific Northwest; surface advection,
upwelling, and land drainage/rivers.
Advection of surface water trace metals into the area of interest is
the "background" input against which the other inputs, upwelling and
land drainage,operate. The magnitude of the effects of the other in-
puts will depend to a large extent on the rate of this advective input
which is discussed in Chapter 9.
156
-------
Trace metal concentrations in the advecting waters are poorly known.
Gold and iron are the only trace metals which have been determined
in the nearshore waters (0-10 km) of the Pacific Northwest. Caldwell
(6025) found an average value of 0. 21 \j.g gold/1 in seven samples taken
at Waconda Beach, just south of Waldport, Oregon. He detected less
than 0. 05 |o.g gold/1 at Agate Beach, north of Newport, Oregon.
Putnam (6132) found 5. 1 |ag gold/1 at Copalis Beach, Washington,
and less than 0. 5 |j.g gold/1 at Bandon, Oregon. Strickland (6156)
found 8.4-16 p-g/1 total reactive iron on the Washington coast.
A determination of molybdenum at Muir Beach, Marin County,
California, is perhaps relevant, although not strictly in our survey
area. Bachmann and Goldman (6008) found 10. 0 \±g molybdenum/1.
The elements aluminum, arsenic, cobalt, copper, iron, lead,
manganese, nickel, selenium, and titanium have been determined
for the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the
Northeast Pacific, but these measurements may not be representative
of the open nearshore coastal environment.
Measurements of nearshore and oceanic trace element concentrations
suitable for direct comparison have been made for eight elements
(Table 15-2). Six of the elements compared give values which might
be explained by considering the mixing- of sea water and land drainage
water (see Table 15-5). However, data are insufficient to permit
generalizations about concentrations to be expected in nearshore areas.
A compilation of probable values for various trace metals in nearshore
and oceanic waters is presented in Table 15-3. The values given
result from a consideration of the frequency distribution of all values
available (see Appendix 4). Other factors considered were location,
proximity to land masses, methods, season, and depth. References
are for representative studies.
Previous compilations of oceanic trace metal concentrations have
been made by Richards (6261), Goldberg (6058), (6059), (6290^, Htfgdahl
(6289), Riley(6l81), and Bowen (6019).
The trace metal concentrations considered in this compilation may
be real and a result of various hydrologic, geologic, and biologic
157
-------
Table 15-2. Direct comparisons of near shore and oceanic values for
trace metals
Element
Nearshore Value
(Location)
Open Oceanic Value
Reference
Al
Be
Cs
Cu
Fe
2 + 1 (Jig Al/1 (ionic)
(Scripps Pier)
1. 7xlO'4 |j.g Be/1
(soluble)
0. 9xlO"4 fig Be/1
(parti culate)
(Scripps Pier)
0. 335 + 0. 012
(Scripps Pier)
ca. 20 |j.g Cu/1
(tropical waters)
up to 25 jag Fe/1
(tropical waters)
Fe , 8.4-16 jig Fe/1
(total reactive)
(Washington coast)
Mn up to 3. 9 (JLg Mn/1
(Gulf of Mexico)
1 t 1 ug Al/1 (ionic)
3.9xlO-4 |ig Be/1
(soluble)
l.SxlO"4 ,j.g Be/1
(particulate)
Cs/1 0.35 t 0. 024|j.gsCs/l
ca. 10 (jig Cu/1
4. 6 |j.g Fe/1 (total
reactive)
6139
6112
6052
6192
as low as 0. 5 (ig Fe/1 6194
6156
as low as 0. 2 [ig Mn/1 6137
Rb 170, 190 (j,g Rb/1
(Caribbean)
Sr ,- 5. 5 mg Sr/1
120, 120, 140 fig Rb/1 6014
7.5, 7. 8, 7.0 mg Sr/1 6014
158
-------
Table 15-3. Probable values of trace metals in oceanic and nearshore
waters
Element
Form Measured
Oceanic
Concentration
UgA
Nearshore
Concentration
M-g/1
Reference(s)
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
Bi
Cd
Cs
Cr
Co
dissolved (ionic)
total <0.45fo.
particulate
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
soluble
particulate
total
total
total
total
dissolved (total)
particulate
Cr(III)
Cr(VI)
total
total
1 t 1
<10
1 - 120
0.33
2-3
15 - 37
13
0.00039
0.00018
0.033
0. 11
0.35
0.4
0.03 - 0.012
0.2
0.2
0.27(0.035-4.1)
+ 10
->10, 000
_ _ _
0.3
1 - 7
13
0.00017
0.00009
0.03
0. 11
0.335
0.3-0.6
-"0.2
0. 1 - 0.4
0.2 - 0. 7 ?
6139
6139
6139
6141
est
6177,
6149,
6060,
6016,
est
6112
6112
6130
est
6118,
6052
6274
6272
6274
6274
6141
6163,
6077
6128
6164
6035
6091
6177
159
-------
Table 15-3. continued
Element
Form Measured
Oceanic
Concentration
US/1
Nearshore
Concentration
M-g/1
Reference(s)
Cu
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
In
Fe
Pb
Li
Mn
ionic
ionic
total <0. 5(Ji
total
particulate
total
total
total
total
total
ionic
total <0. 5p.
total <0. 5(1
ionic
particulate
particulate
total
total
total
total
total
total
0.3-2
+5
+20
+600
<0. 5
0.03
0.06 0. 06 ?
0.011
+ 5 ?
<0.008
<0.012
(inferred)
0-6
+ 25
<1
0-5
+ 100
+ 200+
0.03-0.3
+ 1.5
170-180
0. 2 - 4
+ 10
6192,
6037,
6192,
6195
6192,
6023
6023
6141
6132
6141
6285
6108,
6176,
6193
6094,
6176,
6164
6160
6109
6034,
6137,
6165
6193
6040
6193
6193
6162
6105
6108
6105
6136
6050
Hg
total
0.08 - 0. 15
6065
160
-------
Table 15-3. continued
Element
Form Measured
Oceanic
Concentration
MfiA
Nearshore
Concentration
ng/l
Reference(s)
Mo
Ni
Nb
Re
Rb
Sc
Se
Ag
Sr
Tl
Sn
Ti
W
V
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
total
10
10
0.8
5.4(0.43-43)
<6
<0.005 ->0. 1
0.0084
120
->400
<0.004
0.05 - 0.5
-•-6
0.29 + 19.6
(0.055-1.5)
6-10
5 - 12
<0.01
0.30 - 1.22
8-9
<6
0.09 - 0. 12
1-5
5-7
6172,
6008,
6189
6141,
6104,
6027
6140
6153,
6014,
6141
6141,
6077
6141
6038,
6014,
6121,
6067
6015
6015,
6077,
6089,
6015
6186
6209
6055
6193
6016
6078
6030
6197
6096
6144
6062
6087
6029
161
-------
Table 15" 3. continued
Element
Form Measured
Oceanic
Concentration
UK/1
Nearshore
Concentration
UK/1
Reference(s)
Zn
Zr
total
total
total
total
0.3
0.6 -25
0.011 - 0.041
>-40
6075
6155, 6175
6189, 6114
6145
"*" Signifies highest measured value
est Signifies estimated from trends in behavior, but not based on actual
measurements
? Signifies great uncertainty in the value(s) cited
processes, or they may be analytical artifacts. Often, it is impossible
to decide which the case may be. No attempt was made, therefore,
to exclude outlying results from consideration. Where the results
of one investigator had been criticized by a subsequent investigator
on the grounds of the methods involved, however, this was considered.
Upwelling may provide the single largest perturbing influence on
trace metal concentrations off our coast. Schutz and Turekian (6141)
found that silver, cobalt, and nickel were significantly higher in areas
of upwelling. However, they did not state whether upwelling was-
actually occurring at the time of sampling. Concentrations of
aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, gallium, lead, titanium, and
zinc, all with high concentration factors in plankton (Table 15-4),
might be higher in upwelled waters.
Land drainage probably does not play a significant role in determining
the dissolved trace metal concentrations on our coast. As can be
seen from Table 15-5, the concentrations of many trace metals in
the river waters are roughly similar to those in sea water. Thus,
the change in the salinity of a sample of mixed river-sea water
environment would be much greater than the change in the trace metal
162
-------
Table 15-4. Concentration of trace metals by plankton: concentration
factor = ppm in fresh organ!sm/ppm in sea water.
(Concentration factors from 6019.)
Element | Concentration Factor T
Comment
Ag
Al
Ba
Cd
Co
Cr
Cs
Fe
Ga
Mn
Mo
Ni
Pb
210
25,000
120
910
4600
17,000
1-5
2000-140, 000
12,000
750-9400
25
1700
41,000
Marine .organisms may be able
to utilize particulate Al,
making this number of doubtful
meaning.
Based on a sea water value of
30 ppb. Surface water value
is probably around 13 ppb.
Based on a S. W. concentration
of 0. 00005 ppm. It appears that
0. 0005 ppm may be more
reasonable, giving a cOTicentra-
tion factor of 1700.
Based on a sea water value of
0. 05 ppb. Value is probably
nearer to 0. 3 ppb.
See comment on Al.
See comment on Al.
Nickel concentrations in S. W.
show great variation, 0. 43 to
43 [J.g/1 in one worldwide study
(6141).
Based on deep water Pb value
of 0. 03 ppb. 0. 1 to 0. 3 ppb is
probably a better surface value.
163
-------
Table 15-4. continued
Element [ Concentration Factor |
Comment
Ru
Sb
Sn
Sr
Ti
V
Zn
Zr
600-3000
50
2900
8, 9
20,000
620
1000-65,000
1500-3000
Value is based on a sea water
value of 3 jjig/1 (6121). Sea
water value may be around
1 jig/I (6067).
164
-------
Table 15-5. Comparison of trace element concentrations in rivers and
in sea water
Element
Rivers
HR/I
2
Columbia River
Ug/1
Sea water
uK A
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
Cd
Cs
Cr
Co
Cu
Fe
Pb
Li
Mn
Hg
Mo
Ni
Rb
Se
Ag
Sr
Sn
Ti
130
1. 1
2
44
0.01
0. 24
0. 02
3. 2
0.3
10
40
4.2
1. 1
25
0.08
8
7
1.3
0.20
0.19
80
0. 04
8.6
90
2
32
<0.03
<0.2
2
0. 02
10
30
3. 2
2.2
1. 5
6
<23
0. 12
62
%o
3.4
1-10
0.3
2-3
13
0.0004
0. 11
0. 35
0.3-0. 6
0.2-0. 7
1-10
0-6
0.03-0.3
170-180
0. 2-4
0.08-0.15
10
5.4
120
0.05-0. 5
0.29
6-10
0. 3-1. 2
8-9
165
-------
Table 15-5. continued
Element
V
Zn
Zr
Rivers
Hg/1
1
10
2.6
Columbia River Sea water
~2 1-5
20 0.6-14
^0 0.011-
0.041
1
Durum and Haffty (6281)
Livingstone (6283)
Kopp and Kroner (6278)
Kharkar, Turekian, and Bertine (6282)
'Durum and Haffty (6284)
Kopp and Kroner (6278)
Silker (6045)
This review
concentrations. Aluminum, beryllium, chromium, iron, lead, man-
ganese, strontium, and zirconium apparently have significantly higher
concentrations in river waters than in sea water.
All of these inputs undergo seasonal cycles. Ambient nearshore trace
metal concentrations may be highest following winter periods of low
productivity (Atkins, 6007; Chow and Thompson, 6037). River inputs
are probably highest at the times of highest runoff, although river con-
centrations of trace metals may be highest at times of lowest runoff
(see Chapter 4). Upwelling occurs primarily in the late spring, summer,
and early fall, although winter occurrences have been observed (Burt,
McAlister, and Queen, 6329). The net effect of these variations may'
be to reduce the seasonal variations in the sea water, while inten-
sifying short-term and local variations.
166
-------
Industrial Inputs
One ultimate goal is to quantitatively estimate the rate of input of
potential pollutants which a given area can tolerate. In order to do
this, we must know the characteristics of the proposed effluent.
These data should include estimates of maximum volume of effluent
to be expected and maximum concentrations of various substances
which will occur in the effluent. Plans for such a waste inventory
on a national scale are presently beset with implementation diffi-
culties (Anon. , 6358). Such declarations are regularly required by
the Department of Environmental Quality of the State of Oregon and
the Water Pollution'Control Commission of the State of Washington
(Anon., 6356). The California Regional Water Quality Control
Boards require only a general "type of waste" declaration, with
the stipulation of ". . . such additional information as it (the regional
board) deems necessary. " (Anon. , 6357). Each proposal is treated
as a separate case.
Removal Processes
A number of authors have adequately outlined the processes by
which trace metal pollutants may be removed from nearshore
marine waters (Waldichuk, 6284; Carritt and Harley, 6028). These
processes include advection, biological activity, sorption, floccu-
lation, ion exchange, precipitation and coprecipitation (Waldichuk,
6284). However, research on removal mechanisms has progressed
little beyond the naming of the various possible mechanisms. There
are almost no quantitative data. In short, then when asked to predict
the fate of additions of toxic trace metals to nearshore waters of the
Pacific Northwest, we must answer, "we don't know. "
The reasons for this ignorance are several. First, the nearshore
coastal zone is very complex. The processes of removal of trace
metals vary in time and space. A measurement in the summer may
not be applicable to the winter; a measurement in Southern California
may not be applicable to Northern California.
Second, the necessity for understanding the processes has not always
been clear. Much pollution prevention has, in the past, actually been
pollution correction. Admittedly, the prediction of pollution is not al-
ways possible, as, for instance, in the cases of the biological produc-
tion of methyl-mercuryand the worldwide dispersal of DDT. However,
as our technology rapidly advances, we must attempt to predict
167
-------
environmental consequences, since they may be only slowly reversible.
In particular, trace metals in sediment and biological reservoirs may
continue to supply pollutant long after the original source has been re-
moved (Anon., 6337; Abelson, 6338).
What is needed, as specified by Carritt and Harley (6028) for radionuclides,
is sufficient information on assimilative processes to be able to construct
balance sheets, accounting for all of each specific pollutant added. For
example, the study of Duke et al. (6325) showed that of the zinc-65 added
to experimental ponds, up to 98. 8% was found in the sediments, 0. 2% in
the macrobiota, and 0. 0% in the water at approximately steady state con-
ditions. Although it will not be economically feasible to do the same with
all industrial effluents, it is essential that we recognize such complete
knowledge as an ideal, and that we not lose sight of that ideal.
Precisely what do we know, relevant to the nearshore waters of the
Pacific Northwest?
A dvec tive R ernova 1
The advection of nearshore waters of the Pacific Northwest is not well
enough known to allow its quantitative prediction for a specific site
(see Chapter 9). Generally, the advecting waters will remove the
dissolved fraction of the trace metal from an area. In addition, por-
tions of other fractions (sorbed, precipitated, or flocculated) may be
removed. Consequently, advection will probably be a key concern in
outfall siting. The greater the rate of advective flow out of an area,
the lower the amounts of pollutant remaining in the area under steady
state conditions.
However, the metals may be removed from the water before it can be
advected from the nearshore zone. This may be accomplished by bio-
logical or geochemical processes which may act to prevent acute pollu-
tion by removing metals from the solution phase or to establish chronic
pollution by concentrating the pollutant in another form and in
another place.
Biological Removal
Net removal of trace metals by biological means depends on several
factors: a) primary production by phytoplankton, b) transportation of
organic matter by physical processes, c) destruction of organic
matter by organisms or non-biological processes, and d) rate of
inorganic sedimentation (Gross, 6122).
168
-------
The surface sediments of the Pacific Northwest inside of 10 km are
generally characterized by large particle size (sand) and low organic
matter content (0. l%)(Bushnell, 6148; Carey, 6134). Thus, although
production in areas of upwelling may be as high as 150 gCm~2yr~l
(60 gCmT yr~ is average for the area, Gross, 6122), the net removal
of organic material in the nearshore region is probably low. However,
high concentrations of glauconitic sands (up to 90%), and organic car-
bon (up to 3%) in sediments from the continental slope about 30 miles
offshore (Bushnell, 6148) suggest that transport and deposition of or-
ganic material away from the coast may be significant.
Substantial burial of organic material by rapid sedimentation is not
probable due to the well-sorted characteristics of the nearshore
sediments (Bushnell, 6148).
Biological processes have been implicated in the removal of barium
(Goldberg, 6l69), copper (Turekian, 6125), vanadium, tungsten,
cobalt, and nickel (Krauskopf, 6102), and cadmium (Brooks and
Rumsby, 6021).
Geochemical Removal
Geochemical removal processes include precipitation, completing
and chelation, and solid-ion interactions such as sorption, ion exchange,
flocculation, and coprecipitation.
Precipitation: .It is doubtful that solubilities of inorganic precipitates
control the concentrations of many elements in sea water (Goldberg,
6059). However, precipitates formed by the reaction of an effluent
with sea water may occur, and 'it is this process which is of interest
in considering coastal pollution. The precipitates formed may act
as transport mechanisms and later redissolve producing no net removal
from sea water. However, by this process mass removal of pollutants
from nearshore areas or accumulation of the material in nearshore
areas may occur.
The main precipitates which might be formed by trace metals in sea
water are carbonates and hydroxides or hydrous oxides. Carbonates
of cobalt, copper, zinc (Goldberg, 6059; Duursma and Sevenhuysen,
6213), and lead (Goldberg, 6059) might be precipitated from sea water
of pH 8 at levels around 20 jxg/1.
169
-------
Copper hydroxide might also be precipitated from pH 8 sea water
at around 20 )o.g/l (Duursma and Sevenhuysen, 6213). There is
great uncertainty in these estimates. The pH dependence of these pre-
cipitations is inherent in the anions involved. Associations with inor-
ganic ligands and dissolved organic substances in sea water may also
alter these estimates considerably. Kinetics of precipitation will prob-
ably be unimportant due to the availability of nucleation surfaces
(particulate matter) in nearshore waters.
Complexing: Complexing by inorganic ligands does not physically
remove metals from the environment. It does change their ionic
form, however, which affects their geochemical behavior and possibly
their toxicity. The major ligands are the chloride and sulfate ions
which are present in consistently large quantities in sea water. Car-
bonate ions may also be important. Recent studies have indicated
that some trace metals may form ion pairs with the inorganic anions
of sea water. Specifically, there is evidence for hydroxyl or carbonate
ion pairs of zinc and lead in sea water (Zirino and Healy, 6275).
Chelation: Chelation of metals by the dissolved organic substances
in sea water is known to occur (Koshy and Ganguly, 6339; Williams,
6040; Barsdate, 6279; Rona _et_al. , 6137) , but the conditions under
which this process occurs in the natural environment are not well
known (Barsdate, 6279; Koshy and Ganguly, 6339). The major effect
is "solubilization, " or a tendency to keep metals in the soluble (<0. 45fi)
fraction of a sea water sample(Koshy and Ganguly, 6339). Chelation
thus affects the behavior of a metal with respect to removal processes
such as precipitation and sorption. The organic ligands which chelate
metals in sea water are unknown.
The quantity of dissolved organics in nearshore waters of the Pacific
Northwest is unknown. As shown by Duursma (6341), the factors
determining dissolved organic concentrations are insufficiently known
to allow prediction of the levels by considering the area to be a
typical nearshore, upwelling, high-productivity area.
Solid-ion interactions: The reaction of trace metal ions with solid
materials in sea water may result in the removal of the ions from
solution. The extent to which this process is capable of removal of
added metals from sea water will be determined primarily by the
form of the ions involved and by the nature and amount of solids in-
volved.
170
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The nature of the ions of concern will be determined by the composition
of the effluent, and its immediate interactions with sea water. Such
interactions may include inorganic complexing or organic chelation.
The solids which interact with metal ions in sea water are extremely
varied, including organic detritus, inorganic mineral grains,
hydrous oxide floes, precipitates, etc. In addition, each of these
descriptive terms may encompass a wide range of materials with
equally widely varied sorptive characteristics. Even for relatively
well defined substances, factors such as previous history can change
sorption behavior. Thus, this discussion will deal only with the
general category solid materials.
Of the number of ways of considering solid-ion interactions which
may occur in sea water, the concept of reservoirs (see Carritt and
Goodgal, 6266) seems to be most useful. Although simplistic, it
provides a quantitative overview conspicuously lacking in some
other approaches. Although there are few real
numbers which we can use in this model to get useful answers, the
types of data needed will be made evident.
A schematic of a simple two-reservoir system is shown in Figure
15-1.
Rl
R2
Figure 15.1.
The system can be roughly described by a distribution coefficient
between the two reservoirs, and by the sizes of the two reservoirs.
It is the latter factor which is often neglected.
171
-------
4. KD may depend on Xg or Cw, although within reasonable limits
of Xs dependence does not seem great (Duursma and Bosch, 6330).
At low solution concentrations, however, K1 s varied with solution
concentration (Hamaguchi, 6335).
5. KT-J and Xs are operational parameters. For instance, if Cs
and C are defined as the concentrations in the fractions which
are retained and which pass through a 0.45jx filter, respectively,
fs is then the fraction sorbed on the greater than 0. 45[i fraction,
and thus represents a lower limit to the material actually sorbed.
6. Organic chelation and sorption can change the entire system,
emphasizing the need to use natural waters and sediments.
The shaded area in Figure 15-2 represents that bounded by reasonable
(102- 105) (Duursma and Bosch, 6330; Ganapathy, Pillai, and Ganguly,
6365) and reasonable Xg (10-1000 mg/kg) (Ganapathy, Pillai, and Ganguly,
6365) values. Note that the f values range from about .99 to 0.001, or
from 99% of the metal sorbed on the sediment of 0. 1% sorbed. This
uncertainty again outlines the necessity of data specific to the region
of interest and the element of interest, using Kj^' s and Xg's observed
in the waters into which the proposed effluent will flow.
Although it appears that the suspended material in sea water
is qualitatively superior to. the consolidated sedimentary material
with respect to sorptive capacity (due to particle size) and availability
(due to dispersion in the water column), the major limitation on the
suspended material will be quantitative. That is, while the suspended
materials will, in general, have a higher sorptive capacity per gram
and will be more likely to come in contact with the ions, the total
sorptive capacity (capacity per gram times gram available sorbent)
may not be sufficient to remove significant amounts of trace metals.
Therefore, although we do not presently have sufficient knowledge
of turbulent diffusion and mixing to determine which effluents will
be brought into direct contact with bulk sediment (see Chapter 11)
this distinction will be, as pointed out by Waldichuk (6284), an
important one. There seems to be little doubt that metals in
effluents which come into contact with bulk sediments will become
sorbed to a substantial degree (Pritchard, 6231; Duke, Willis, and
Price, 6325; Carritt and Goodgal, 6266; Postma, 6331; Duursma
and Bosch, 6330). This is borne out by a consideration of Figure
15-2. At a sediment- water interface, we can probably say that Xg
increases greatly, although, as pointed out in consideration number
3, it becomes difficult to quantitatively define.
172
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A trace metal pollutant may be partitioned between reservoirs such
as suspended material, consolidated sediments, dissolved components,
and biota. The biological reservoir has already been discussed in
part.
In order to get some quantitative feeling for the partitioning of
a trace metal between the dissolved and suspended reservoirs,
consider Figure 15-2 which is derived from mass balance consider-
ations. T is the total trace metal in the water-suspended material
system, Cs is the concentration of the metal on the suspended mat-
erial, Xs is the concentration of suspended material in the water, MW
is the mass of water being considered, Cw is the concentration of the
trace metal in the water, fs is the fraction of the total trace metal which
will be found associated with the particulate matter, and K-p is the
distribution coefficient for the metal between the particulate matter
and the water, defined as CS/CW.
As mentioned above, such a diagram is only able to give a feeling
for the possible magnitude of some of the factors involved and cannot
and must not be used without consideration of these approximations
involved in its derivation:
1. It is assumed that the water and suspended material are the
only two "reservoirs" involved. A similar diagram could be
made for the relationship between amounts of metal in water
and in the biota. The vertical axis would be biomass concen-
tration in the water and the horizontal axis the concentration
factor (see Table 15-4) for a given metal. Thus, only if other
reservoirs are small when compared to the suspended material
reservoir can we use Figure 15-2.
2. Obviously, this is an "equilibrium" model. Whether or not
this is a realistic model of the natural environment is now known.
In particular, the reversibility of sorption reactions is not well
known. Thus metals sorbed in one ionic environment and trans-
ported to another may or may not be desorbed (Turekian, 6282;
Johnson, Cutshall and Osterberg, 6047; Kharkar, Turekian and
Bertine, 6215).
3. The diagram cannot be used for waters in contact with bulk sedi-
ments. The model is very sensitive to variations in Xs, which
would be difficult to define in such a case.
173
-------
(mg/kg)
K
D
Fzgure 15-2. Nomograph representing approximate partitioning
of a metal between dissolved and suspended participate
reservoirs. Xg, concentration of suspended material
in the water in mg/kg; KD) observed distribution
coefficient for a specific metal on a specific material-
j- —— —•-*• WJ.A a, ojjc^j.j.nj mate
fraction of metal in water-suspended material
system sorbed on suspended material
F =
CXM
S1VLW
T = CsXsMw+
174
-------
It was noted earlier that the nearshore sediments of the Pacific
Northwest are primarily well-sorted sands (X very large; K-Q
small). Much less is known, however, about the suspended mate-
rial; its quantity (Xs), its characteristics (K-p), its sources and
sinks, and its rate of passage through the nearshore area. The
quantity of suspended material in nearshore areas of the Pacific
Northwest is thought to be high (Waldichuk, 6284). Areas affected
by the river drainage might be expected to be particularly high.
Not much is known about the characteristics of the nearshore sus-
pended material. It might be guessed that suspended participate
matter is primarily organic in the spring and summer months and
inorganic during the winter months, but this is unconfirmed. A
median diameter of 2 to 3 microns has been observed (Carder, 6353),
suggesting that the surface to mass ratio would be high, and that
a high sorptive capacity would exist. In addition, the Stokes'
settling rate for particles of this size would be about 70 cm/year,
resulting in negligible sedimentation as compared to advection
into deeper waters. The observed distribution of sediment sizes
in nearshore sediments bears this out (Bushnell, 6296).
Allowable Residual Level
The establishment of allowable upper limits for trace metal concen-
trations in nearshore waters will require criteria for distinguishing
between change, and detrimental change (pollution). The "no change"
approach is rejected a priori, since if we detect no change it could
mean simply that we are looking at the wrong variables or with
insensitive techniques.
There are a number of approaches which one might take in order to
determine permissible trace metal concentrations in nearshore areas.
They include consideration of (1) the lethal limits and sub-lethal
effects for individual species, (2) lethal concentrations and sub-lethal
effects for natural populations, and (3) ecological models.
Individual species; Most studies aimed at determining the permis-
sible levels of a toxic substance in the marine environment have deter-
mined the tolerance of certain species of organisms to that substance.
The toxicities of various trace metals to marine organisms found in the
Pacific Northwest are presented in Table 15-6. The data are listed
alphabetically by species under the appropriate metal. Included are
the concentration and form of the metal, effect on the organism, dura-
tion of the exposure, and the pertinent literature citations. Data
for additional marine species are presented in Appendix 4. Reviews
175
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Tablel5-6. Response of marine organisms of the Pacific Northwest
to various concentrations of trace elements
Generic name Specific name (common name)
trace element effect on the organism duration
concentration
(TLm, killed, not lethal) of test
Mya arenaria (soft-shell clams)
0. 1 ppm apparently not toxic 56 days
Crassostrea virginica (oyster)
0.01- pumping activity
0.05 mg/1 reduced
1 mg/1 effective pumping
impossible
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
1. 0 mg/1 no effect 5 days
5-10 mg/1 10-15% photosynthesis 2 days
reduction
5-10 mg/1 50-70% photosynthesis 5-7 days
reduction
Mytilus edulis (adult mussel)
10 ppm killed 5 days
2. 5 ppm killed 5 days
1 ppm killed 15 days
Reference No.
other
factors
Al
As
Cd
Crassostrea virginica (oyster)
88 ppm not toxic
(pink salmon)
5. 3 mg/1 "extremely harmful"
Crassostrea virginica (oyster)
0. 2 mg/1 TL,m
0. 1 mg/1 TLm
1 1 days
8 days
8 weeks
15 weeks
6207
A1C13
6004
As203
6004
Cd(NO3)2
Cd(N03)2
6131
6000
6000
6243
176
-------
Table 15-6. continued
Cr Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
1 mg/1 photosynthesis 5 days
diminished
Nereis yirens (polychaete worm)
1 ppm threshold 5 weeks
Nereis virens (polychaete worm)
0. 2 mg/1 similar to controls 20 weeks
Cu Acartia clausi (copepod)
0. 5 mg/1 50% mortality 13 hours
Acmaea scabra var. limatula (mollusc)
0. 10 ppm lethal 3 days
Balanus crenatus (adult barnacles)
10 mg/1 killed 2 hours
Balanus crenatus (barnacle nauplii)
30 mg/1 killed 2 hours
Haliotis fulgens (mollusc)
0. 10 ppm 100% mortality 3 days
0. 05 ppm less than 100% mortality 30 days
Ischnochiton conspicuus (mollusc)
0. 15 ppm 100% mortality 10 days
0.10 ppm less than 100% mortality 60 days
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
0. 1 mg/1 visible injury 10 days
0. 1 mg/1 50% photosynthesis 2-5 days
inhibition
Mya arenaria (soft-shell clam)
0. 02 ppm least toxic concentration 8 days
(0. 05 ppm studied
6000
K2Cr207
6203
Cr+6
6004
Cr207=
citrate
6255
6236
CuSO4
6236
CuSO4
6255
6255
6000
SO4= & Cl"
S04= fad'
6131
Cu++
177
-------
Table 15 -6. continued
Cu Mytilus californianus (mussel)
0. 20 ppm 100% mortality 2 days
0. 15 ppm less than 100% mortality 30 days
0. 10 ppm less than 100% mortality 60 days
Mytilus edulis (mussel)
0. 55 killed • 12 hours
0. 14 killed 1 day
0. 08 killed 2 days
0. 04 some mortality 3 days
0. 02 no mortality 4 days
Mytilus edulis (mussel)
0. 20 ppm 100% mortality 17 days
0. 10 ppm less than 100% mortality 35 days
Mytilus edulis (mussel)
0.32mg/l "significant response"
6255
6238
citrate
citrate
citrate
citrate
citrate
6255
6000
sor
Mytilus edulis planulatus Lamarck (bivalve mollusc larvae) 6247
22.2 mg/1 50% mortality 2 hours citrate
pH 7.0-8.2
Neosphaerona oregonensis (isopod)
0.02 mg/1 "significant response"
Nereis virens (polychaete worm)
0. 1 ppm threshold
Paphia staminea var. laciniata (mollusc)
1 ppm non lethal
3 ppm -v50% lethal
Skeletonema costatum (phytoplankton)
0. 20 ppm toxic (no growth)
0. 17 ppm toxic (no growth)
6000
21 days
30 days
•v60 days
8 days 20 °C
8 days 30 °C
6203
6255
6240
SO4=
EDTA,
cultured,'
static,
bacterially
contaminated
178
-------
Table 15-6. continued
Pb
Hg
Ni
Zn
Spirorbis lamellosa Lamarck (tubeworm
0. 51 mg/1 50% mortality
Staphlococcus aureus (bacteria)
18 g /I lethal
Crassostrea virginica (oyster)
0. 2 ppm not toxic
Crassostrea virginica (Eastern oy ter)
0.5 mg/1 TLm
0.3 mg/1 TLm
0. 1-0.2 mg/1 noticeable tissue changes
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
4. 1 mg/1 no deleterious effects on
rate of photosynthesis
Mya arenaria (soft- shell clam)
0. 2 ppm apparently not toxic
Acartia clausi (copepod)
0. 05 mg/1 50% mortality
0. 05 mg/1 50% mortality
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
0. 05 mg/1 50% photosynthesis
decrease
0. 1 mg/1 15% photosynthesis
decrease
0. 1 mg/1 inactivation
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
1.31 mg/1 no effect
13.1 mg/1 50% photosynthesis
reduction
Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)
1.31 mg/1 no effect
10 mg/1 50% "inactivation"
larvae)
2 hours
49 days
1 2 weeks
1 8 weeks
12 weeks
4 days
84 days
2. 5 hours
2. 3 hours
4 days
1 day
4 days
4 days
4 days
4 days
6247
citrate
pH 7.0-8.2
6253
ci-
6131
6004
Pb++
Pb++
Pb++
6000
6131
6241
ci-
I"
6000
ci-
ci-
Cl~
6000
SO4=
SO4=
6000
SO4~
so4=
179
-------
of acute toxicity information have been made by Doudoroff and Katz
(6235) and McKee and Wolf (6000). Ingols (6239), Jones (6291),
Sprague (6l6l, 6155) and Woelke (6232) and others have reviewed
factors which relate to the measurement of toxicity.
Acute toxicity has usually been measured as a 24-, 48-, or 96-hour
TL (median tolerance limit) or roughly equivalent parameter
(LDso, etc. ). The concept of a threshold concentration refers to
a concentration below which the organism could live almost indefinitely
(Lloyd and Herbert, 6359). The 96-hour TLm is an experimentally
feasible approximation to the above concept. Because many log-toxicant
concentration vs. log-time of measureable response plots are almost
parallel to the time axis at 96 hours (see Figure 15-3, also Lloyd and
Herbert, 6359), the approximation can be quite good. For points on
the left arm of the curve, a small change in some parameter (tempera-
ture, another toxin, etc. ) may produce relatively large changes in the
time to 50% mortality (frequently observed), but small changes in the
observed TLm (see Lloyd, 6267).
It would be well to discuss the concept of "synergism" at this point.
There seems to be considerable imprecision in the literature in the
use of the word with respect to the effects of environmental pollu-
tants (see Sprague, 6155). Synergism is defined as "cooperative
action of discrete agencies such that the total effect is greater than
the sum of the two effects taken independently. " (Webster's 7th
New Collegiate Dictionary, 1967). To clarify what is meant by
synergism, then, we must clarify what we mean by the "effect"
of the toxicant. There are two "effects" encountered in our normal
methodology: (1) shortening of survival time ("time potentiation")
at a given concentration of toxicant, and (2) lowering of amounts
necessary to kill a certain fraction of the sample in a certain time
interval ("threshold lowering"). Both are of concern in considering
nearshore pollution. In areas immediately around outfalls, the
rates of toxic reaction may be important, particularly to organisms
which depend on avoidance reactions for survival. In areas away
from outfalls, long-term exposure to slightly elevated levels of
"synergistic" toxicants would be important.
Figure 15-3, taken from the paper of Sprague and Ramsay (6260)
illustrates the distinction between time potentiation (vertical displace-
ment of the lower part of the curve) and threshold lowering (horizontal
curve-displacement). In fact, no study was found in the literature
which conclusively demonstrates trace metal-trace metal threshold
lowering as opposed to time potentiation.
180
-------
200
3
o
so
5 20
Z
o
in
-------
Trace metal-temperature "synergism" has been frequently cited
as a potential danger attendant to thermal pollution (see review of
de Sylva, 6283). However, the recent conclusion of Sprague (6155)
that ". . .no assumptions should be made about temperature effects
on toxicity" is well supported by the literature. Certainly, there
is often a time potentiation effect (see references given by Sprague,
6155). However, Lloyd (6267) presents data and cites four references
to show that trace metal-temperature threshold lowering may not
occur. A study by Portmann (6006) seems to suggest otherwise.
However, Portmann (personal communication, 6291) agrees that
additional evidence is needed to confirm the presence of threshold
lowering. In addition, Sprague cites unpublished data to the effect
that the incipient lethal level of zinc to salmon is actually lower at
lower temperatures (6155).
Effects of sub-lethal levels of some trace metals on growth, respira-
tion, and reproduction of some marine organisms have been studied
(Bougis, 6114, 6100; Clendenning and North, 6113, see Table 15-6),
but many more studies are needed.
Data obtained from laboratory toxicity tests using individual species
should be applied to the prediction of nearshore marine pollution
with caution. Estimates of acceptable environmental levels include
one-tenth of the 48-hour TLm (Burdick, 6323) and one-tenth of the
96-hour TLm (Wurtz, 6233). Beak (6276) had considered a similar
estimate to be "little more than an intelligent guess". One-hundredth
of the 96-hour TIjm has been recently suggested by the U. S. National
Technical Advisory Committee (6004). Sprague (6155) reviews studies
on water quality criteria relating to the validity of these assigned levels.
Natural populations: The determination of the short-term tolerance
of a population is roughly equivalent to determination of the most
sensitive species in the population. Provided the appropriate tech-
niques can be worked out, acute toxicity tests applied to natural
populations will be a systematic and relatively rapid method of sing-
ling out critical "indicator" species. In addition, such tests inher-
ently take into account organism-organism interactions. Ways in
which toxicity may be altered in a natural population are uptake of
the toxic substance by less sensitive species (see, for example, Keil
and Priester, 6083), and excretion of organic substances which bind
or chelate the toxic substance (see Provasoli, 6367).
182
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Studies of sub-lethal effects on natural populations may be prohi-
bitively difficult with our present technology. If, however, we can
elucidate some simple interactions in a population, we may be able
to piece some meaningful "partial population" experiments together.
An example of an experimentally reasonable partial population study
has been suggested by Waldichuk (6248). He pointed out i.hat labora-
tory predator-prey experiments could be expanded to include a study
of the effect of pollutants on this important relationship between
organisms.
Ecological models: No attempt has been made to list or evaluate
ecological models. Their mention here is to indicate the possibility
for their use in evaluating pollution problems.
The goals of ecological models are parallel to those of chemical
thermodynamics; to be able to describe the state of the system of
small "particles" in terms of observable macroparameters. The
choice of a "standard" or reference state of a biological system will
be difficult. The choice of variables is not obvious. There may not
be basic variables for biological systems corresponding to tempera-
ture, pressure and volume in gaseous chemical systems.
An example of a measurable parameter which may be usable in
modeling biological systems is species diversity, which has been
described by a number of statistical indices. It is thought that
"stability" of an ecosystem (ability to withstand environmental stress)
increases with increased species diversity. This relationship must
be further investigated (Pearson, Storrs, and Selleck, 6366).
Summary
1. The physical and chemical forms of trace metals in sea water
are important to a consideration of their behavior as potential
pollutants.
2. Very little is known about nearshore trace metal concentrations
on the open coast of the Pacific Northwest. Inference from other
"similar" locales is not justified at the present state of knowledge
about factors which control trace metal concentrations.
3. Some of the processes which may remove trace metals from sea
water are precipitation, sorption, flocculation and biological
uptake. The relative importance of these mechanisms for specific
areas is not known.
4. Although there is a fair amount of information on the short-term
acute toxicities of trace metals to specific marine organisms
from the Pacific Northwest, methodological questions and lack
of long-term or sub-lethal studies make it difficult to predict
safe levels.
183
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In the course of this study, several individual metals were selected
for more intensive study. The metals selected were those with
apparently high potential for pollution of nearshore waters of the
Pacific Northwest. These metals were mercury, copper, lead,
and zinc.
MERCUEY
In the late 1950's and early 1960's, organo-mercury compounds on
fish and shellfish from Minamata Bay, Japan caused severe neuro-
logical disorders in 111 persons and killed 41. There were 19 cases
of congenital disorders attributed to the same cause (Irukayama,
6277).
In 1966, Sweden prohibited the use of methyl-mercury as a seed-
dressing after significant bird mortalities (Jernelov, 6220).
In 1970, fish from Lake Erie were found by Canadian researchers
to contain mercury levels higher than those allowed by existing
health standards (Anon. , 6013). The major source of mercury in
Lake Erie was from chlorine-caustic soda production plants (Anon. ,
6298). There are several chlorine-caustic soda plants in the Pacific
Northwest, primarily for the purpose of supplying chlorine needed
for bleaching pulps, although none yet are situated on the open coast.
In addition, the continued use of organo-mercurial fungicides as
seed treatment (Anon., 6289), the limited use organo-mercurials
in the pulp and paper industry (which has been reduced in recent
years), and the presence of economic deposits of mercury-bearing.
ores in the area (Highsmith, 6340) warrant some consideration.
The quantity of mercury in nearshore waters and in rivers in the
Pacific Northwest has never been measured. There are very few
determinations of mercury in sea water. The range of observed
open oceanic values is from 0. 08 to 0. 27 p.g/1 (Hamaguchi, Kuroda,
and Hosohara, 6065; Hosohara, 6070). In Minamata Bay in I960,
values for total mercury (oxidized samples) ranged from 1.6 to
3. 6 fig/ 1. Mercury in unoxidized samples was about one-tenth of
this value (Hosohara et al. , 6071).
184
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Mercury has been detected in marine organisms in the following
concentrations: brown algae, 0. 03 ppm dry weight; mollusca
(tissues), 1 (?) ppm dry weight; pisces, 0.3 (?) ppm dry weight
(Bowen, 6019). Question marks are those of the cited reference
and indicate questionable values. Haddock and cod caught near
Sweden contained 0. 044 ppm and 0. 031 ppm wet weight respectively
(We s too, 6278).
The behavior of mercury in the natural environment is not well
understood. It has been established that inorganic mercury is
converted to methyl-mercury in anaerobic sludges (Jensen and
Jernelov, 6242). "This may be a chemical transfer reaction, al-
though regeneration of methylcobalamine, one necessary factor
for the reaction, is enzymatic (Wood, 6009).
Mercury in most of its chemical forms is adsorbed onto sediments.
Some of this adsorbed mercury is very slow to exchange with the
water (Hannerz, 6003). Marine sediments taken near the Hyperion
outfall at Los Angeles contained up to 50 times more mercury than
similar unaffected sediments (up to 1 ppm) (Klein and Goldberg,
6286).
Chemical form is extremely important to the biological behavior of
mercury. The species of primary concern in sea water will be
HgCl4=, HgCl3", HgClz; CH3HgCl; and (CH3)2Hg; inorganic mer-
cury, methyl-mercuric chloride, and dimethyl mercury respectively.
All are quite soluble in water. Dimethyl mercury[( CH3)2Hg] is
volatile and is changed to methyl-mercuric chloride (CHoHgCl)
under slightly acidic conditions (Wood, Kennedy, and Rosen, 6010).
CH-jHgCl and (CH3)2Hg diffuse more easily than the inorganic
species through biological membranes (Wood, 6009). Uptake of
mercury by organisms is generally more rapid than excretion, which
is one factor involved in accumulation (Hannerz, 6003). Thus we
might expect organo-mercurials to be more highly concentrated by
organisms than inorganic mercury. This is observed (Hannerz, 6003).
Westob" (6278) found that 82% of the mercury in Swedish marine fish
was CH3Hg Cl, although it is possible that (CH3)2Hg was converted
during the analysis procedure.
It should be noted that the concentration of mercury in organisms
is not necessarily related to its place in the food chain (trophic level),
but to such factors as the uptake-excretion balance (metabolism),
and size of individuals. The variations between individual organisms
of the same species are very large, with as much as a factor of
twenty between the lowest and highest concentrations in a single
laboratory sample (Hannerz, 6003).
185
-------
Organo-mercurials are considerably more toxic than inorganic
mercury to marine organisms, particularly vertebrates (Lbfroth
and Duffy, 6281) due to the more rapid membrane passage. Bond
and Nolan (6222) tested 32 mercury compounds, 9 inorganic salts
and 23 organo-mercury compounds, on the snail Australorbis
glabratus. The most effective inorganic salt (HgB^) produced
80% mortality in 24 hours at 1 ppm concentration, although it pro-
duced no mortalities at 0.5 ppm in the same time interval. Twelve
organo-mercury compounds,on the other hand, produced significant
mortality at the 0. 3 ppm level.
The acute toxicity of mercury to marine organisms is high. Bi-
valve larvae were killed by 20 ng/1 (McKee and Wolf, 6000). Cope-
pods (Acartia clausi) were killed in 2. 5 hours by 50 (J.g/1 (Corner
and Sparrow, 6241). Bryozoan larvae (Watersipora cucullata)
were found to have a 2-hour TL,-n of 100 jj.g/1 (Wisely and Blick, 6247).
These short-term results, combined with the observation of Boetius
(cited in McKee and Wolf, 6000) that mercury is "infinitely toxic"
if the exposure is long enough, suggest that acute toxicity of mercury
may be important.
Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) suffered a 50% decrease in photo-
synthetic capacity on exposure for 4 days to 50 (a.g/1 (McKee and
Wolf, 6000).
A temperature-mercuric chloride synergism has been reported by
Portmann (6006). He showed that LE> (48 hour) for the cockle
(Cardium edule) at 5° C was 130 times that at 22° C. The LD50
for the brown shrimp (Cragon cragon) changed only by a factor
of 5 over the same temperature interval. However, Portmann
(personal communication, 6291) has indicated that more study is
needed to confirm this apparent synergism.
Summary
1. Mercury has great pollution potential.
2. Mercury concentrations in sea water may be around 0. 1 to
0.
3. The behavior of mercury in the natural environment is not
well understood; certain conditions favor the production of
methyl- mercury in sediments.
186
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4. Marine organisms concentrate mercury. Methyl-mercury is
even more highly concentrated.
5. The acute toxicity of mercury to marine organisms is high.
6. Temperature may have a effect on mercury toxicity.
COPPER
Our concern with copper as a potential pollutant stems from its
extensive use in industry and its relatively high toxicity to marine
organisms. Pollution with copper has been observed in a number
of harbors on Long Island Sound (Prytherch, 6195; Galtsoff, 6056).
Sources of copper pollution are copper pickling and plating pro-
cesses (electronics industry, metals industry), algicides, corrosion
of condenser tubing in thermal electric plants ( see Roosenburg,
6324; USDI, 6240), marine antifouling paints, and many other
industrial processes (see Appendix 4). The addition of copper from
corrosion of the condenser tubing in thermal electric power plants
may be negligible (USDI, 6254), but may vary considerably de-
pending on the antifouling additives which are used.
There are many measurements of copper in sea water. Only the
more recent ones distinguish between inorganic and organic copper.
Corcoran and Alexander (6 193)and Alexander and Corcoran (6192)
working in the Caribbean found less than 2 jag ionic copper/1 with
less than ljag/1 below 50 m. Particulate copper was less than
0.5 H-g/1. Total soluble copper (<0. 5|J.) was 4-13 M-g/1 with occa-
sional values as high as 20 (J.g/1.
Williams (6040) found organically bound copper ranging from 0.0
to 0. 45 (J-g/1, and inorganic copper from 0.38 to 4. 26 |j.g/ 1 in near-
shore areas off San Diego. There was no correspondence between
amounts of organic and inorganic copper found. The percent organ-
ically associated ranged from 0-28% of the total. The nature of the
organic association is not known.
Although only ionic copper is toxic to fish, there are indications
that complexed copper may be as toxic to algae as ionic copper
(Ingols, 6239). Whether the organically associated copper has
a nature similar to this "complexed" copper is not known. The
possibility needs further investigation, particularly in light of the
wide variations in "organic" copper reported above.
187
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The ways in which the nearshore marine environment assimilates
copper "pollution" may be very complicated. Divalent copper was
strongly and consistently adsorbed on all materials tested by
Krauskopf (6102). Chow and Thompson (6037) showed that under
certain conditions, shallow sediments release copper to sea water.
The concentration of Cu++ in equilibrium with Cu(OH)2 in sea water
is about 20ug/l (calculated from solubility constant values presented
by Duursma and Sevenhuysen, 6213) at 18-20° C. Yet values up to
600 fjig/1 total copper are observed (Prytherch, 6195). Thus the
organic involvement of copper in the marine environment seems to
"stabilize" relatively large concentrations of copper in solution.
There are more data on the toxicity of copper to marine organisms
than on any other metal, probably due to its extensive use in marine
antifouling paints. Bougis (6114) showed that 10 to 20 jj.g Cu/1 slowed
the growth of sea urchin pluteaus. 26 (j.g/1 CuSO4 in the presence
of EDTA inhibited growth of the phytoplankton Exuviaella at 30° C
(USDI, 6240). A number of other phytoplankton species (Coccochloris
elab ens, Glenodinum foliaceum, Prorocentrum sp. ) have similar
tolerance levels (USDI, 6240; Marvin, Lansford, and Wheeler, 6252;
Mandelli, 6354). On the other hand, the minnow, Fundulus hetero-
clitus tolerated 30 mg/1 (30, 000 |J.g/l) for 4 days (Doudoroff and Katz,
6235). Even higher concentrations (up to 18 g/1 ) were used to kill
bacteria (USDI, 6253). High copper concentrations in sea water make
oysters unfit for human consumption (Roosenburg, 6324).
Summary
1. Copper is common in many industrial effluents, particularly
those of heavy industry.
2. The processes by which the environment deals with copper are
complicated by organic involvement.
3. Copper has a high toxicity to marine organisms.
4. Sub-lethal copper pollution can make oysters unfit for human
consumption, and may slow growth of other marine organisms.
188
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LEAD
It has been recently estimated that 100, 000 tons of lead aerosols
are produced annually in the Northern Hemisphere (Murozumi,
Chow,1 and Patterson, 6360), primarily by the burning of fuels
containing tetraethyl lead. The effect of this industrial input of
lead into the oceans is noticeable in oceanic lead concentrations.
The deep sea lead concentration is about 0. 03 \± g Pb/1. It has been
estimated that surface lead concentrations were similar prior to
the industrial revolution (Tatsumoto and Patterson, 6160). Now
surface values run fairly consistently between 0. 1 (o.g/1 and 0. 4
fjig/l(Chow, 6031, 6032; Tatsumoto and Patterson, 6l60). In local-
ized areas, values may run as high as 1. 5 [J.g/1 (Loveridge et al. ,
6109) or even 5 |ag/l (Noddack and Noddack, 6121).
Rivers in the Pacific Northwest have, generally, a high lead content,
around 4 fig Pb/1 (Durum and Haffty, 6208).
The acute toxicity of lead to marine organisms is poorly known. An
18-week TL for the oyster Crassostrea virginica was measured
to be 300 fJ.g/1. 100 (J-g/1 was observed to cause noticeable tissue
changes in 12 weeks (USDI, 6004). On the other hand, 4 mg/1 had
no effect on Plaice embryos (Doudoroff and Katz, 6235), and 200
mg/1 was required to cause abnormalities in sea urchin eggs
(McKee and Wolf, 6000).
Lead is accumulated in marine organisms, although not to the same
degree as zinc. Marine plants have been observed to contain 8,400
ppb compared to a sea water concentration of about 0. 1 ppb '(Bowen,
6019).
Summary
1. Man has significantly changed the lead content of surface sea
waters.
2. The lead concentration in coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest
in unknown. Rivers in the area have around 4 fig Pb/1.
3. Sub-lethal effects will probably be more important than acute
toxicities.
189
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ZINC
In spite of its relatively low acute toxicity, zinc is of concern in
our study of coastal pollution. This is primarily due to observed
sub-lethal effects. The high concentration factor of zinc in marine
organisms (USDI, 6004; McKee and Wolf, 6000) is also of interest.
Observed zinc values in nearshore areas range between 3 (Morris,
6117) and 50 (j.g/1 (Brooks, 6189). Zinc apparently has a fairly
strong organic association in sea water, similar to copper (Rona
et al. , 6137; Barsdate, 6280). The values of Buffo (61 75) thought
to be affected by contamination (Cutshall, pers. comm. ) but could
be largely due to upwelling (see Schutz and Turekian, 6141). Buffo
(6175) found an average of 22 [xg/ 1 in surface samples from off the
Oregon coast.
Zinc in rivers of the Pacific Northwest is generally around 10 to
20 jj.g/1 (Kopp and Kroner, 6251; Durum and Haffty, 6208), but
values up to 300 |xg/l have been observed (Kopp and Kroner, 6251).
Acute toxicities of zinc to marine organisms are generally around
5 to 10 mg Zn/1, although some of these were measured over very
short time intervals (Wisely and Blick, 6247), Invertebrate larvae
seem to be the most sensitive of the organisms tested (Wisely and
Blick, 6247). Growth of the larvae of Poracentrotus lividus (a sea
urchin) was retarded by only 30 ug Zn/1 (Bougis, 6100). 160 |ag
Zn/1 caused abnormalities in sea urchin eggs (McKee and Wolf,
6000). The division rate of the diatom Nizschia was reduced by
exposure£to only 0.25 nag/1 (Chipman, Rice, and Price, 6224).
Summary
1. Zinc is somewhat variable in nearshore waters, but Oregon
coastal values are probably around 20 jj.g/1.
2. Organic involvement may "stabilize" high zinc concentrations
in sea water.
3. Acute toxicities are moderate, but sub-lethal effects may be
important.
190
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Chapter 16. RADIOCHEMISTR Y
by William C. Renfro
The Pacific Northwest coastal region is one of the unique areas of
the world from a radiochemical viewpoint. Any sample of water
from this area may contain radioactive elements from several
different sources, including the following:
A. naturally-occurring radionuclides,
B. fallout fission products from nuclear weapons tests, and
C. neutron-induced radionuclides from fallout and from the Hanford
plutonium production reactors.
To understand the levels of radioactivity in water, sediments, and
biota of the region, it is most convenient to discuss the radionuclides
on the basis of their origin.
A. Naturally-occurring radionuclides
Radionuclides occurring naturally are essentially of two kinds:
long-lived primordial radioisotopes with their decay products and
cosmic ray-induced radionuclides.
From the standpoint of background radioactivity levels in sea water,
potassium-40 with a half life of 1. 26 x 10 years is a most important
primordial radionuclide. More than 90% of the total radioactivity
in sea water is due to "*0j£ (Burton, 4187) because potassium is a
major element in sea water averaging 0. 39 g K/l (of which 0. 0118%
is ^K). Furthermore, potassium constitutes a significant fraction
(0. 2-0. 3%) of the elemental composition of man, fish, and other
organisms so that the natural abundance of K accounts for a large
part of the internal irradiation all organisms experience.
191
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Relatively few measurements of 40K in the Pacific Northwest
marine environment have been published, probably because this
radionuclide is so ubiquitious as to be of little interest to most
investigators. Gross, McManus , and Creager (4218) observed
4°K concentrations averaging about 25 picocuries per gram(pCi/g)
dry sediment in the area around the mouth of the Columbia River.
This value (25 pCi/g) is in general conformance with the 40K
sediment levels measured by Toombs and Culter (4217) throughout the
lower Columbia River and Tillamook Bay.
The concentration of 40K in sea water is stated by Burton (4187)
to be 0.324 pCi/g. Osterberg (4069) measured 40K in euphausiids
(small marine crustaceans), lantern fish, shrimp, and viper fish
caught along the Oregon coast. With few exceptions 40K activities
in these organisms ranged from 0. 6 to 1.3 pCi/g wet weight.
Seymour and Lewis (4093) reported a range from 2 to 6 pCi/g
wet weight in intertidal marine organisms near the Columbia River
mouth. Almost all marine and estuarine organisms analyzed by
Toombs and Culter (4217) averaged 2 to 3 pCi/g wet weight. It
appears from these observations that the concentration of 4(^K in
marine organisms can be expected to be near 2 pCi/g regardless of
their habitat.
87
Rb
Another radionuclide in sea water contributing a small fraction
to the total sea water radioactivity (less than 1% of that due to 4<^K)
is 87Rfo with a 4. 8 x 10*0 year half-life. Since its activity in sea
water is only 0. 003 pCi/ml (Burton, 4187) and because most marine
organisms do not concentrate Rb to high levels (concentration factors
from 1 to 26; Polikarpov, 4219), 87Rb is not greatly important
as a source of internal radiation.
232Th 235^ 238^
Of particular interest to oceanographers and geochemists are the
naturally-occurring elements having atomic numbers greater than
83 (bismuth). All these elements are radioactive and belong to
the decay chains of 238U (4. 51 x 1 O9 years), 235 U (7. 13 x 1 O8
years), or 232Th (1. 39 x 1010 years). Under certain conditions,
192
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the relative activities of a parent-daughter pair of radionuclides in
a decay chain can be used to determine rates of oceanographic or
geochemical processes.
The concentration of uranium in well-mixed sea water averages
about 3. 3 (j.g/1 or 2. 2 pCi/1 (Burton, 4187) of which 99. 3% is 238U
and 0. 7% is 23^U. The amount of thorium in sea water is very low;
being on the order of 10~9 g/1 (Prospero and Koczy, 4011). In
sediments uranium may be present in concentrations around
1 microgram per gram ((J-g/g) but may be concentrated to high levels
in certain reducing conditions and when associated with highly organic
sediments (Burton, 4187). Thorium in oceanic sediments varies
largely with the amount of clay present, ranging from 2-12 |o.g/g
(Prospero and Koczy, 4011). In marine organisms the concentrations
of both thorium and uranium are usually hundredths of (J.g/g wet
weight (Bowen, 4220). Despite the generally low concentrations of
uranium and thorium parent elements in marine organisms, some
daughter radionuclides further down the decay chains may contribute
significantly to the total radiation background. For example, 222j^n
is a radioactive gas in the 238u decay chain which escapes from
sediments, sea water, and land to the atmosphere. In turn, its
radioactive daughter, ZlOpt^ can return to the ocean in precipitation
and constitute a significant fraction of the internal radiation background
of marine animals (Beasley, 4193).
Other primordial radionuclides
Other primordial radionuclides having very long half lives from
107 to 1015 years include ^V, 115In, 138La, 144Nd, 147Sm, 152Gdj
174Hf, 176Lu, 180Ta, 187Re, and19°Pt. Most of these have'low
concentrations in sea water, and many have not been detected. Hence,
these radioisotopes are responsible for only a negligible fraction of
the total radioactivity in sea water and, excepting vanadium in
tunicates, are not presently thought to be biologically important.
Cosmic ray-induced radionuclides
High energy cosmic rays which originate in outer space and are
accelerated by interstellar magnetic fields engage in nuclear
reactions with elements in the earth's atmosphere. Some of the
nuclear reactions involving cosmic rays produce significant
amounts of 3H, 7Be, and ^Be as spallation fragments. At the
193
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same time the radionuclides H (half-life, 12.3 years) and 14C
(half-life, 5730 years) are continuously formed and have proved to
be valuable indicators of ocean and atmosphere mixing rates.
Tritium, in addition to being continually produced by cosmic ray
neutron interaction with nitrogen (14N + !n- 3H + 12C) is also
produced in large amounts in nuclear weapons tests, reactor fuel
element reprocessing, and nuclear reactors. Although the concen-
tration of 3H in sea water averages about 1 pCi/1 (Pertsov, 4097),
it does not appear to be concentrated highly by marine organisms.
Nevertheless, large and continuing injections of 3H into the biosphere,
as from fuel reprocessing activities , should be avoided for they
increase the radiation background.
14
Carbon-14 formed in the secondary cosmic ray reaction ( N +
In -» ^4C+ H) is also produced in nuclear -weapons tests. Cosmic
ray-produced *-^C is oxidized to carbon dioxide and enters the
atmosphe re -hydrosphere carbon dioxide cycle. Almost 95% of the
exchangeable carbon is in the ocean, mostly in an inorganic form
(Burton, 4187). Substantial perturbations in the specific activity
of 14c (activity of 14c/g total carbon isotopes) have occurred in the
past century due to the burning of 14c-poor fossil fuels and in the
past two decades from nuclear weapons tests. The concentration
of 14c in sea water is around 0. 2 pCi/1.
Silicon-32 with a half -life of 650 years is produced in the atmosphere
by cosmic rays, probably in a spallation reaction with argon (Burton,
4187). The concentrations of 32Si in sea water are very low, being
8 x 10-6 pCi/1 (specific activity, 2.7 pCi 32Si/kg Si; Burton, 4187).
lOBe
Beryllium-10 with a half-life of 2. 5 million years is produced by
cosmic ray interactions with atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
194
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It has been measured at very low concentrations in deep ocean
sediments and is unlikely to be of importance in the nearshore
coastal zone.
B. Fission product radionuclides from weapons tests
When a neutron reacts with the nucleus of a heavy element such
as ^3E>U, j-^g nucleus often splits, producing two fission fragments.
In general, these fission products have unequal masses. The light
fragment has an atomic mass around 95 and the heavier fragment's
mass is around 139, although detectable amounts of fission products
are found throughout the mass region 72-166 (Katcoff, 4221).
Some of the important fission fragments and their half-lives are listed
below:
Nuclide
85
Kr
89Sr
90
/ v _
Sr
90
V Y
91
* Y
95
/ -*' rj
Zr
95
7 Nb
103
Ru
106
Ru
Ha If -life
10. 27 yrs
54 days
28 yrs
64. 5 hrs
58 days
63 days
35 days
41 days
1. 0 yr
Nuclide
106
Rh
127m
127
Te
1 2Q m
Te
129
131
I
133
Xe
135
I
137
Cs
Half-life
30 sec
90 days
9. 3 hrs
33 days
72 min
8. 05 days
5. 27 days
6. 68 hrs
26. 6 yrs
Nuclide
140
Ba
140T
La
141
Ce
143
Pr
144
Ce
144
Pr
147
Nd
147
T— »
Pm
151
Sm
Half-life
12.8 days
40. 2 hrs
32 days
13.7 days
290 days
17.5 min
11.3 days
2. 6 yrs
93 yrs
Since these and other fission product radionuclides invariably have
an excess of neutrons in their nuclei, they decay by emitting negative
beta particles (Glasstone, 4222). In many cases, fission decay
chains result from successive beta emissions. For example,
the fission decay chain for mass number 140 is as follows:
140V 16 sec
Xe
140_ 66 sec
Cs
140^ 12. 8 days
Ba —
140T 40 hrs
La
140
Ce.
In this manner, a large spectrum of fission fragments and their daughter
radionuclides are present following a nuclear fission test in the
atmosphere.
195
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From the first nuclear explosion in the summer of 1945 to the
first test moratorium in late 1958, the United States, Great Britain,
and Russia detonated 250 nuclear devices. The total energy of the
fission events amounted to about 90 megatons (million tons of
TNT)as shown in Figure 16-1. In addition, 80 megatons effusion
energy resulted from thermonuclear (fission-fusion) weapons tested
prior to the 1958 test moratorium (Eisenbud, 4207). In i960 France
began testing nuclear weapons and in late 1961 and 1962 the United States
and Russia resumed tests. The fission products yielded by tests
in 1961 and 1962 totalled more than that of all previous fission
explosions (Figure 16-1). In addition, massive fusion explosion
tests were carried out in 1961 and 1962 which added moderate
amounts of fission fragments to the biosphere. In 1963, the United
States, Great Britain and Russia signed a treaty banning nuclear
testing on the ground, under water, or in space. Since that time
only France and Mainland China have contributed fission products to
the biosphere.
Vaporized fission products and neutron-induced radionuclides are
mixed with surface material swept up into the mushroom. This
debris reaches only into the lower atmosphere (troposphere) in
the case of fission devices. In contrast, radioactive debris from the
larger magaton weapons tests (thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs)
is thrown higher, much of it being injected into the stratosphere
(Mauchline and Templeton, 4126). Because the tropopause forms
a barrier to free exchange of material between the troposphere
and the stratosphere, the residence time for bomb debris in the
stratosphere is long. As a result, fallout of such material may
occur for several years after a bomb test and constitute a continuing
source of fission fragments to terrestrial and marine environments.
90C
Sr
In 1966 Polikarpov (4219) stated that the cumulative contamination
of the earth's surface would increase to a maximum by about 1970
(in terms of 90Sr and 137Cs) as the result of inputs from the vast
reservoir of long-lived radionuclides in the stratosphere. Despite
continued atmospheric nuclear tests by France and Mainland China,
fallout of long-lived fission fragments has diminished. For example,
ground level 90Sr concentrations in air measured by Shleien, Cochran,
and Magno (4223) showed continual decline from late 1963 through
196
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JOOr-
50
0
76
38
40
0.7
13
25
1945-51
1952-54 1955-56 1957-58
1961
1962
Figure 16-1.
Atmospheric nuclear tests prior to the 1963 moratorium.
Note that recent tests by China and France are not
included (Modified from Comar, 4208).
-------
early 1969. Thus, while the nuclear test ban has resulted in large
reduction in fallout of fission fragments, the total levels of long-
lived fallout radionuclides is probablynear a maximum at present.
The detonation of a nuclear weapon in the atmosphere can rapidly
increase the amount of fallout into the oceans. For example,
89Sr and 90gr produced by the second Chinese test in the Lop Nor
area (90°E-40°N) in May 1965 was shown by Kuroda, Miyake, and
Nemoto (4224) to travel around the earth in the troposphere in less
than one month. Consequently, general statements about concen-
trations of fission-product radionuclides in the marine environment
should be based on long-term averages.
Because 89Sr and 9°Sr are not gamma emitters, their measurement
is relatively difficult and comparatively few measurements of their
concentrations have been made in Pacific Northwest waters.
Concentrations of 90sr in filtered Columbia River Estuary water and
in sea water 16 km off the river mouth in July 1964 were reported to
be 0.7 ± 10%pCi/l (Parke^al. , 4077). Reporting on the results
of more than 750 analyses for 90gr in the North Atlantic Ocean surface
waters, Bowen e± al_. (4225) listed mean annual concentrations ranging
from 0. 08 to 0. 20 pCi/1 from 1959 through 1967. Although 90sr is of
great concern in the terrestrial environment because of its long
half-life, tendency to be incorporated into bone, and dangerous ionizing
radiations, it is greatly diluted by the relatively large concentrations
of stable Ca and Sr in sea water.
(
95Zr-95Nb
i
Fission product ' Zr is a beta and gamma emitter which decays
with a 65-day half-life to 95Nb, also a beta and gamma emitter
(half-life, 35 days). These radionuclides attain transient equilibrium
and are present in sea water almost exclusively in the particulate
form. Watson ej: al. (4004) analyzed estuarine and coastal organisms
collected near the Columbia River mouth in April 1959 and in April
I960. They showed that 95Zr-9%b levels in all plants and animals
were declining as the result of decreased world-wide fallout. Further-
more euphausiids (small crustaceans) taken in Oregon offshore waters
in the first portion of 1961 gave no evidence of ^^Zr-^^N^ in
their gamma-ray spectra prior to the resumption of Russian nuclear
tests in September 1961 (Osterberg, 4069). However,-Osterberg (4070)
198
-------
95 95
reported Zr- Nb activities as high as 618 pCi/g dry weight in
euphausiids taken off Oregon in November 1961. Such rapid changes
in levels of fallout fission fragments emphasize the necessity of
extended, periodic measurements to establish radioactivity levels
in the marine environment.
103_ , 106^
Ru and _ Ru
Both Ru and Ru are important fission products which are
as sociated with particle s in sea water. They decay by beta emission
to short-lived 1(53Rh and 106Rh. As with 95Zr-95Nb, 103Ru and
u declined in organisms near the Columbia River mouth from
April 1959 to April I960 (Watson ej: al. , 4004). Similarly, these
fallout radionuclides increased by November 1961 to concentrations
from 10 to 30 pCi/g dry weight in euphausiids along the Oregon coast
(Osterberg, 4070). Seymour and Lewis (4093) also noted great
increases in fallout radionuclides in coastal marine organisms as
the result of nuclear weapons tests in September 1961.
r
Cs
Cesium-137 is a long-lived (half-life, 30 years) fission product
which decays by beta emission to Ba (half-life, 2. 6 minutes).
It remains predominantly in the ionic form in sea water according
to Greendale and Ballou (4056). The concentrations of '-^ Cs in
Northeast Pacific Ocean surface waters during late 1959 and I960
ranged from 0. 05 to 0. 23 pCi/1 (Burton, 4187). Park^tal. (4077)
reported -^'Cs surface concentrations from 0.3 to 0.8 pCi/1 in
the Columbia River plume off Oregon in July 1964. Despite the
fact that 3' QS js a prominent fission fragment in fallout, it is not
usually found in high concentrations in marine organisms because of the
relatively high levels of potassium, which is chemically similar to
and biologically more important than cesium. Polikarpov (4219) stated,
for example, that concentration factors of 137 Cs (activity of *37cs per
gram organism/activity of ^-^'Cs per gram water) are two to three
orders of magnitude higher in freshwater organisms than in marine
organisms. Folsom e_t al. (4215) reported that 3'Cs activities in
albacore muscle averaged 0.90 pCi/g wet weight, representing a
103 -fold concentration over 137cs concentrations of North Pacific
surface waters between January and March 1966.
199
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141
Ce
Another fission fragment of interest in the marine environment
is Cerium-141 , a beta emitter which decays with a half-life of
32. 5 days to Praesodymium-141 . Cerium is an element which
occurs almost entirely in the ionic form in sea water (Greendale
and Ballou, 4056). Activities of 141Ce-144Ce in marine organisms
near the Columbia River mouth were observed by Watson et al.
(4004) to decrease generally between April 1959 and April I960.
Following the nuclear tests of September 1961, Osterberg measured
141 Ce activities ranging from 5 to 175 pCi/g dry weight in euphausiids
along the Oregon coast. As with l^Cs, freshwater animals have
much higher radiocerium concentration factors than do marine
animals (Polikarpov, 4219).
C. Neutron-induced radionuclides
In addition to radioactive fission fragments produced by fission
and fission-fusion devices, there is an enormous flux of neutrons.
These neutrons interact with nonradioactive elements in the air,
soil, and bomb structure to form neutron-induced radionuclides.
These neutron-induced radionuclides are a conspicuous part of
local and worldwide fallout from atmospheric weapons tests.
A second source of neutron-induced radionuclides in marine waters
of the Pacific Northwest is the Hanford Atomic Products Operation.
This facility, located in Eastern Washington some 650 km up the
Columbia River from the ocean, is a site of plutonium production.
Plutonium ( "°Pu) is a fissionable element which serves as the
primary ingredient of some fission bombs and as a fuel in nuclear
reactors. In the production reactors at Hanford 239pu is formed
in the following reactions:
239
r
23 mm r 2.3 days
To provide the neutrons for plutonium production, large nuclear reactors
are necessary and great quantities of heat must be dissipated from
the reactor cores. This is accomplished in modern reactors by a
closed primary cooling system coupled through a heat exchanger
to an external heat sink. However, the eight plutonium production
200
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reactors constructed at Hanford between 1943 and 1956 use a "single
pass" cooling system in which Columbia River water was pumped
through the reactor cores, delayed in cooling ponds, then returned
to the river.
In passing through the reactor core various elements, dissolved
or suspended in the cooling water stream, are exposed to the great
neutron flux and become radioactive. Corrosion of neutron-activated
metal parts within the reactor structure also contributes radionuclides
to the coolant water. Finally, certain chemicals used to pretreat
the coolant water were also made radioactive by neutron activation.
Immediately after its discharge from the reactors the coolant
waters may contain up to 200 radioisotopes, the majority very
short-lived. Four hours after the water passes through the reactors
fewer than 20 radionuclides comprise 99% of the activity (Wooldridge,
4228). During the two to four week passage downriver the concen-
trations of radionuclides are diminished by physical decay, sedimentation
to the river bottom, and accumulation by organisms (Osterberg, 4069).
As a result, only a few of the longer-lived radionuclides are readily
measurable at the mouth of the river.
Listed below are neutron-induced radionuclides present in fallout
and in the Columbia River:
Nuclide
3
H
14
C
32
P
35
•"s
46Sc*
51
Cr#
54
Mn*
Half-life
12. 3 years
5730 years
14. 3 days
87.9 days
83. 9 days
27. 8 days
303 days
Nuclide
55
Fe
57
Co
58
Co*
59
VFe*
6°Co*
65
Zn*
124
Sb
Half-life
2. 6 years
270 days
71.3 days
45. 6 days
5. 3 years
245 days
60. 4 days
— —.._ / , ^_; _ ^- i
*Gamma-emitting radionuclides occurring in measurable amounts
in the river between Hanford and Vancouver, Washington in 1964
(Perkins et al. , 4226).
201
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The levels of neutron-induced radionuclides introduced into the
ocean vary with changes in a number of conditions including the
following:
A. number of plutonium production reactors in operation,
B. power levels of the operating reactors,
C. flow rate of the Columbia River,
D. operations of dams and reservoirs between reactors and ocean
E. condition of the fuel element cladding
F. methods of cooling water pretreatment, and
G. concentrations of elements in the water used for cooling.
The numbers of plutonium production reactors at Hanford has
decreased in recent years (Figure 16-2). Discounting the N-reactor,
which has a closed primary cooling system, the numbers of production
reactors in operation has decreased from eight in early 1965 to
one in early 1970. This decrease in reactor operations has reduced
the levels of neutron-induced radionuclides entering the Pacific
Ocean by at least five -fold.
In the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest only
32ps 5lQrj 54jy[n) ancj o5zn have been r
water, sediments, or marine organisms.
ancj o5zn have been regularly measured in
32
Among these neutron-induced radionuclides only P does not
emit gamma rays and, for this reason, it is more difficult to measure
accurately. Although very small amounts of 32p in marine waters
may originate from cosmic ray interactions, essentially all 32p
present near the mouth of the Columbia River comes from Hanford.
Chakravarti e_t al. (4050) reported 32P activities from 3. 6 ± 0. 6 to
8. 0 ± 0. 6 pCi/1 of filtered sea water at stations ranging 16 to 56 km
from the Columbia River mouth during July 1963. In June 1966,
202
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32
Isakson (4211) measured the concentration of P in filtered sea
water at the mouth of the Columbia River at 2. 2 pCi/1. This decrease
is probably a reflection, in part, of reactor shutdown (Figure 16-2).
Isakson (4211) also radioanalyzed various organisms from a single
station at the mouth of the Columbia River from September 1965 to
September 1966. He observed 32p jn dams (Siliqua patula) and
mussels (Mytilus californianus) to increase from February to a peak
in April or May with annual averages during the study near 150 pCi/g
dry weight.
51-
Cr
Chromium-51 is the most abundant neutron-induced radionuclide
reaching the ocean from Hanford. It is introduced into the Columbia
River largely in a dissolved hexavalent anion and, except for small
amounts •which are reduced to trivalent form and sorbed to particulates,
remains in this form at sea (Cutshall, 4229). Because 51 Cr remains
in the dissolved state and is not appreciably concentrated by marine
organisms (Osterberg, Cutshall, and Cronin, 4026), it has been
used as a tracer of Columbia River water in the Pacific Ocean.
Frederick (4102) used large volume chemical coprecipitation and
shipboard gamma-ray analysis to trace the Columbia River plume
380 km south from the mouth in summer and more than 200 km
northward in winter during 1966 (see Figure A7-1, Appendix 7).
In general, the plume remains offshore from the Oregon coast in
summer so that 51 Cr concentrations in waters near to shore are
low. In the winter, however, the plume is concentrated in Washington
coastal waters and has Cr activities of 100 pCi/1 or more.
Curl, Cutshall, and Osterberg (4030) reported that measurable
activities of 5-l-Cr were associated with particulate matter in the
Columbia River plume. These authors also showed in laboratory
studies that 51 Cr in the trivalent oxidation state is actively sorbed
to particles in sea water. Although trivalent 51 Cr is not to be
expected in sea water, since it is not thermodynamically favored
(Curl ej; al. , 4030), this radionuclide was measured in sediments
as far as 56 km offshore from the Columbia River mouth in August
1962 (Osterberg, Kulm, and Byrne, 4034).
203
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o
*••
> 1 • •
1945
50
' ' 1 '
55
60
65
' ' 1 '
1970
YEAR
Figure 16-2.
Operations of nuclear reactors at the Hanford Atomic
Products, Washington. The N-reactor, which became
critical in 1964, has a heat exchanger system and,
thus, contributes relatively little radioactivity to the
Columbia River (Modified from Nakatani, 4204).
-------
The levels of ^ Cr in marine organisms are not usually high because
chromium has little biological importance. Osterberg, Pearcy,
and Curl (4072) observed that 51 Cr was not transferred up the
food web to higher trophic levels, although it was present in particulate
form at a concentration of 1 6 pCi/1 of sea water 24 km off Astoria
in April 1962.
54Mn
Manganese-54 is a neutron-induced radionuclide formed in the
nuclear reaction: ^4jre 4. in _ 54j^n + ip_ This reaction can take
place in the fireball of a nuclear explosion or in the reactors at
Hanford. The relative contributions of ^^M.n to Northeast Pacific
Ocean waters from fallout and from Hanford are not well understood.
Cutshall (personal communication, 4230) observed during 1963 that
the levels of ^4]y[n ^n sediments upstream were much lower than
sediments downriver from the Hanford reactors. This observation
strongly suggests that Hanford contributes significant levels of
54jvln to the Columbia River and plume. In contrast, Kujala, Larsen,
and Osterberg (4231) observed gradients in the concentrations of
^Mn in salmon viscera between the Columbia River mouth and Cook
Inlet, Alaska in 1964 which suggested that fallout of ^^M.n in high
latitude Alaskan waters was more important than 5^Mn from Hanford.
These authors showed that ^Mn ^n chinook and coho salmon viscera
declined 4- to 40-fold between Alaska and Oregon, while °^Zn
(predominantly from Hanford) in the same samples had opposite
trends. Pearcy and Osterberg (4146), studying ^^Zu and -"^Mn ^n
albacore bet-ween Baja California and Washington during the summers
of 1962-1965, concluded that -^Mn enters the ocean from fallout
and is more available in offshore waters than in nearshore -waters.
Folsom e_t al. (4029) analyzed sea water and biota from Southern
California in 1963 and reported a Mn average concentration of
. 059 pCi/1 in water and up to . 375 pCi/g wet weight of organisms.
55Fe
Iron-55 is produced in the reaction: Fe + n -> Fe. Most of
the ~*Fe present in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean probably has
originated from the large thermonuclear tests with negligible
amounts being contributed by the Hanford reactors (Jennings, 4120).
205
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Although it has a half-life of 2.7 years and is a major radionuclide
in fallout from recent nuclear tests, the weak (5. 9 kev) x-ray
associated with decay of 55Fe is easily absorbed and difficult to
measure quantitatively (Palmer and Beasley, 4024). For this reason,
it has not been extensively studied. Jennings (4120) reported 55Fe
specific activities in the viscera of salmon from Pacific Northwest
waters in 1964 ranging from 0. 7 to 28. 7 |J.Ci/g Fe. Specific activities
of 55Fe in sea cucumbers and sediments collected off the coast of
Oregon were three to four orders of magnitude lower than those in
the salmon (Jennings, 4120).
57 58rn 60
Co, Co, Co
"57 58 60
The radionuclides Co, Co, and Co are produced in nuclear
tests and are conspicuous in plankton samples in the vicinity of
test sites for many weeks after detonation (Lowman, 4149).
However, in Pacific Northwest coastal waters only small concen-
trations of ^Co and "^Co have been reported in plankton (Seymour
and Lewis, 4093) and sediments (Gross, McManus, and Creager,
4218; Osterberg, Kulm, and Byrne, 4034). Gross and Nelson
(4232) used the ratios of the activities of ^Zn and "^Co to estimate
rates of sediment movement along the Oregon and Washington coasts.
59 Fe
Iron-59 is produced in the neutron activation reaction: Fe + n -» Fe
in nuclear reactors and in nuclear explosions. However, the natural
abundance of ^°Fe is very low (0. 3%) so that relatively small amounts
of 5
-------
Off the Washington and Oregon coasts Zn from the Hanford plutonium
production reactors occurs seasonally in all components of the marine
ecosystem: •water, sediments, and biota. Comprehensive sampling
programs sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission were
initiated in 1961 to learn the distribution and fate of Hanford-produced
radionuclides in the vicinity of the Columbia River mouth. Earlier
reports by Watson, Davis, and Hanson (4004,4022) established
the presence of 65zn and other radionuclides from fallout and
Hanford in estuarine and coastal biota. These authors measured
65Zn in intertidal clams within 20 km north and south of the river
mouth ranging from 1 0 to 147 pCi/g wet weight in 1957 , 1959, and
I960.
The distribution of Zn in plankton from the offshore areas of
Washington and Oregon during the three-year period, 1961-1963,
was studied by Lewis and Seymour (4010). Although significant
seasonal fluctuations in "^Zn occurred, the levels of "-^Zn in unsorted
plankton near the river mouth did not change greatly from 1961
to 1963. The geometric mean "^Zn concentrations were highest
(200 pCi/g dry plankton) to the north of the river mouth in winter
and at the mouth during spring (200 pCi/g) and summer (110 pCi/g).
In the autumn the geometric mean concentrations of the Washington
and Oregon coastal regions were low (19-41 pCi/g dry plankton).
A number of intertidal animals from the Washington and Oregon
coasts have been analyzed for 65zn. Seymour and Lewis (4093)
reported that 65zn concentrations in mussels (Mytilus californianus)
averaged over the period 1961-1963 decreased sharply with increasing
distance from the Columbia River mouth. From a mean value of
540 pCi/g dry weight the mussel 65zn levels diminished to roughly
210 pCi/g at a distance of 80 km north and to about 80 pCi/g at a
distance of 80 km south. In January 1966, Mellinger (4128)
repeated these coastal °->Zn analyses of mussels along the Washington
and Oregon coasts with the following results: mussels at the
Columbia River mouth. . . 120 pCi/g, 80 km north. . . 55 pCi/g, and
80 km south. . . 25 pCi/g dry weight. The higher 65zn levels in
mussels from locations north are due to the fact that the winter
Columbia River plume is driven inshore along the Washington coast,
whereas the summer plume sets to the southwest and tends to remain
away from, the Oregon coast.
207
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There are abundant reports on Zn in pelagic and benthic animals
from offshore waters of Washington and Oregon. However, little
information is available regarding 65zn concentrations within 10 km
of the coast. Carey (4233) reported that 65Zn specific activities
of echinoderms varied with season, depth, distance from the
Columbia River, and food habits. Specific activities of °5Zn in
echinoderms taken at depths of 200 m or less during June 1966
along the Oregon coast ranged from . 02 to . 25 pCi/g Zn. In
albacore (Thunnus alalunga) livers collected along the Oregon coast
in 1963, 1965, and 1966, Pearcy and Osterberg (4146) reported
65Zn specific activities from .02 to .37 pCi/g Zn. In earlier studies
Osterberg, Pattullo, and Pearcy (4033) observed that °5Zn
concentrations in euphausiids off Newport, Oregon (170 km south
of the Columbia River) were sometimes higher than those at the
river mouth. They suggested that this condition probably reflected
the length of time the euphausiids spent in water containing Zn.
The Zn concentrations in euphausiids taken within 50 km of the
shore from July 1961 through August 1962 ranged from 13 to 136
pCi/g dry weight at the Columbia River mouth, 12 to 93 pCi/g
at Newport, and 5 to 27 pCi/g at Coos Bay.
Although Zn is introduced into the river at Hanford in the cationic
form, it becomes increasingly associated with particulate matter
during its transit to the ocean (Perkins, Nelson, and Haushild,
4226). Some of the particulate matter in the Columbia River plume
settles to the continental shelf and can be identified by its radio-
activity. During 1961 Gross, McManus, and Creager (4218) measured
Zn in the top centimeter of sands along the Washington-Oregon
coasts at depths of 60 m or less. The 65zn concentrations in these
samples ranged from 1.3 to 16 pCi/g dry weight. Offshore sediment
values reported by these authors ranged from 0 to 460 pCi ^Zn/g
with most being less than 10 pCi/g. Osterberg, Kulm, and Byrne
(4034) reported that °5Zn concentrations in sediments in and around
the Astoria Canyon decreased from about 100 pCi/g dry weight
9 km offshore from the Columbia River mouth to undetectable levels
at stations 65 km offshore during August 1962. Recently, the
Oceanography Department at Oregon State University has measured
65Zn specific activities ranging from 100 nanocuries per gram zinc
(nCi/g Zn) at the Columbia River mouth to 1 5 nCi/g Zn at the Straits
of Juan de Fuca.
208
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124Sb
Antimony-124 is formed in the reaction: Sb + n -* Sb in
the nuclear reactors at Hanford. Like ->J-Cr, ^ "Sb tends to remain
in the ionic state during its passage downriver (Perkins, Nelson,
and Haushild, 4226). Both ^ Cr and 4Sb appear to be conservative
radionuclides, that is, their concentrations are not altered significantly
by biological processes but are changed primarily by mixing. For
this reason, the ratios of ^Cr- ^Sb activities in Columbia River
plume waters may hold promise for determining mixing and movement
rates. To date ^ "Sb concentrations have not been reported,
although Pope (4205) measured ^"*Sb in the water at the Columbia
River mouth at 1. 2 ± 0. 2 pCi/1 in April 1969.
Future radioactivity levels in coastal waters
Man has little or no control over his exposure to radiations from
naturally-occurring radionuclides. Short of moving to another location,
a man is generally compelled to accept radiations from the rocks
on -which he lives and the various building materials about him.
However; the levels of artificial radionuclides in the environment
from nuclear reactors and weapons tests can be controlled. Thus,
man is faced with decisions regarding the environmental costs
and the benefits to be derived from the use of nuclear fission and
fusion.
Despite the current ban on atmospheric nuclear tests, France and
Mainland China continue to explode nuclear devices in the atmosphere.
For this reason, the concentrations of fission fragments and neutron-
induced radionuclides in fallout can be expected to fluctuate. Until
all such tests cease and the reservoirs of radionuclides in the
atmosphere stabilize, accurate predictions of fallout radioactivity
in surface ocean waters are not possible.
The Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty between the United States,
United Kingdom, and Russia has contributed to reducing radioactive
fallout and to limiting the proliferation of nuclear -weapons (Ehrlich,
4234). Furthermore, a provision in this treaty prohibits any under-
ground explosion that causes radioactive debris to be present beyond
the boundaries of the country initiating the explosion. This prohibition
209
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may place formidable barriers to many peaceful applications
of nuclear explosions such as harbor excavations, sea level canal
projects, and other nuclear engineering works which might add
radioactivity to the biosphere.
An additional source of radioactivity in atmospheric fallout may
result from space vehicle incidents. For example, SNAP -9 A,
an isotope power generator for a space vehicle, burned up in the
atmosphere in 1964. This resulted in increased levels of 238pu
(the SNAP-9A power source) in ground level air samples taken
in Massachusetts from mid-1966 through 1968 (Schlein, Cochran,
andMagno, 4223).
Radioactivity from nuclear reactors is currently of great interest
in the Pacific Northwest. The history of reactor operations at
Hanford (see Figure 16-2) clearly shows that the number of plutonium
production reactors has been drastically reduced. On 29 January
1971 the last plutonium production reactor was shut down.
Following this the levels of 32P and Cr in the coastal ecosystem
should soon become negligible due to their short physical half -lives.
However, traces of £>$Zn (half-life, 245 days) will remain in coastal
sediments and organisms for several years.
According to Wooldridge (4228), an average of 40 Ci of zn was
transported past Bonneville Dam each day during 1967. With
reductions in the numbers of operating reactors in the following three
years (Figure 16-2), the transport rate probably decreased by at
least one-half. Hence, if we assume equilibrium between the rate
of decay in the ocean and a. constant input rate of 20 Ci/day, then
about 7,000 Ci of 65zn should exist in the Pacific Ocean and Columbia
River below Bonneville Dam as a result of the Hanford operation.
This total inventory in water, sediments, and biota will decay at
a rate of 65% per year following shutdown of the last reactor. Thus,
in two years (three 65Zn half-lives) less than 15% of the inventory
should remain.
At present only three electrical generating stations in the Western
United States are powered by nuclear fission. These are: (a) San
Onofre in Southern California with an electrical generating capacity
of 385 megawatts (MW), (b) Humboldt Bay in Northern California
210
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with a capacity of 172 MW (North and Adams, 1531), and (c) the
N-reactor on the Columbia River at Hanford, Washington with an
800 MW capacity. These plants employ closed primary cooling
loops and thus add minimal amounts of radionuclides to the aquatic
environment. Scientists at Hanford are unable to distinguish
radioactivity originating in the N-reactor from the higher radionuclide
concentrations released to the Columbia River by the plutonium
production reactor situated upriver.
Despite the fact that all modern nuclear power reactors are provided
with closed loop primary coolant systems in which demineralized water
circulates, small amounts of radionuclides do escape to the environment
during normal operations. Salo and Leet (4194) stated that radionuclides
at the Humboldt Bay plant accumulated from the following: (a) reactor
water and steam-system drainage, (b) floor drainage of the radiation
zone, (c) liquids associated with fuel handling, (d) fuel storage basins,
(3) radiochemical laboratory, (f) laundry, (g) routine maintenance
operations, and (h) equipment decontamination operations. At
the Humboldt Bay plant these liquid wastes are stored in holdup
tanks for decay, filtered, and, if necessary, processed further prior
to release to the condenser cooling discharge canal. The principal
radionuclides in the discharge waters at Humboldt Bay during 1965 were the
neutron activation products Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr, Co, and
the fission fragments 134Cs and 137Cs (Salo and Leet, 4194). The
most abundant radionuclide, Zn, averaged about 5 pCi/1 in the discharge
waters during 1965 but was diluted 103 to 10 times within 30 m of
the point at which the effluent entered Humboldt Bay.
Although radioactivity may be expected to be present in exceedingly
low concentrations in discharges of a nuclear power reactor, various
marine organisms can accumulate and retain some of the biologically
important radionuclides for long periods. For example, oysters
in the vicinity of the Bradwell nuclear power plant on Blackwater
Estuary in England increased steadily in their ^^Zn concentration from
early 1964 to an apparent equilibrium in early 1967 (Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 4235). Other radionuclides found
in low levels around English nuclear power stations include: 3 P,
55Fe, 6°Co, 11OmAgj 134CS) 137Cs> and 144Ce (Mitchell, 4236).
211
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To conclude, it seems reasonable to expect that radioactivity in Pacific
Northwest coastal waters will continue to diminish in the 1970's.
Although natural radioactivity will remain, fallout radionuclide
concentrations may decline as the weight of world opinion continues
to be exerted on the nations still conducting nuclear weapons tests
in the atmosphere. Although nuclear generation of electric power
will increase in the Pacific Northwest, radioactivity from nuclear
reactors will probably decline as plutonium production at Hanford
is phased out.
Despite the possibility that total radioactivity may diminish in the
future, research on the distribution and cycling of radionuclides
in coastal ecosystems should continue. Such research provides
important insight into the fates of radionuclides released to the marine
environment by future nuclear power stations. In addition, these
studies furnish baseline radioactivity values against which future
levels can be compared. It is important, therefore, that detailed
studies of radioactivity, community structure, temperature, and
other environmental variables be carried on at each plant site
before construction and throughout its operational existence.
Summary
1. Coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest contain naturally-occurring
radionuclides, fission fragments from nuclear test fallout,
neutron-induced radionuclides from nuclear weapons tests, and
radionuclides from the plutonium production reactors at Hanford,
Washington.
2. Man has no control over the primordial or cosmic ray-produced
radionuclides in the ocean. However, these radionuclides occur
in very low concentration except for ^K which is present in all
sea water, living matter, and sediments.
3. Radioactivity from Hanford has declined due to serial shutdown
of the plutonium production reactors.
4. Fallout radioactivity has diminished since the nuclear test ban of
1963. Nevertheless, France and Mainland China continue to
create radioactive fallout through atmospheric weapons tests.
5. Research on the cycling of radionuclides now in the marine ecosystem
will aid in understanding the environmental impact of future coastal
nuclear facilities.
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Chapter 17. OTHER POLLUTANTS
PESTICIDES
Introduction
The extensive use of pesticides in agriculture and forestry in the Pacific
Northwest warrants a brief consideration of the role of pesticides in
nearshore regions of the area. This section summarizes pesticide
residue levels which have been observed in the area, the toxicities of
various common pesticides to marine species, and the behavior of
persistent pesticides in the marine environment.
Pesticide Residues in the Pacific Northwest
Since pesticide levels in natural waters are generally low and quite
variable, a bioassay approach is usually taken to determine the
extent of pesticide pollution in an area. Since organisms are able
to excrete many pesticides only very slowly, the pesticide level
in the organisms represents an integrated value over some time
interval. Even then, however, there are large variations in pesti-
cide levels from sample to sample and from individual to individual.
The cause of these wide variations is unknown.
The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries is conducting an extensive
pesticide monitoring program in the United States. Ten or more
pesticides were determined in selected organisms. Less than 3%
of the samples taken in Washington between 1965 and 1968 were
contaminated with pesticides. DDT residues (DDT + DDE), by far
the most commonly detected pesticides, were always less than 50 ppb
(Butler, 6273). Oysters, Crassostrea gigas, taken in Humboldt Bay,
California in 1966-1967 also showed DDT residues to be less than 50
ppb. However, the ova of a king salmon taken in the American River,
California in January of 1968 contained 668 ppb total DDT residues
(Modin, 6272).
Kraybill (6063) cites observations made in the Willapa Bay area in
Washington which show the effects of aerial spraying of forests with
DDT on DDT concentrations in oysters (Crassostrea gigas). When
the spraying was halted, DDT plus DDE values for shellfish dropped
to as low as 0. 008 ppm, the lowest value recorded in the United States
at that time.
213
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Kraybill (6063) also reported less than 0. 1 ppm each of o-p DDT and
p-p DDT in oysters from Sheldon, Washington and in shrimp from
Bodega Bay, California. Less than 0. 02 ppm each of Heptachlor
Epoxide, DDE, and Dieldrin were found in oysters from Sheldon and
shrimp from Bodega Bay.
Stout (6069) measured concentrations of DDT and its metabolites, DDE
and TDE in anchovy (Engraulis mordax), Dungeness crab (Cancer magister).
English sole (Parophrys vetulus), hake (Merluccius productus), ocean
perch (Sebastodes alutus), starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus), true
cod (Gadus macrocephalus), and yellowtail rockfish (Sebastodes flavidus)
taken in Oregon and Washington coastal waters. Concentrations were
generally low, less than 100 ppb. Significantly more residue was found
in yellowtail rockfish caught near the mouth of the Columbia River than
in those caught in Hecate Strait, British Columbia which is near no
major river. It was concluded that this was due to agricultural runoff
from Oregon and Washington.
Risebrough et al. (6271) found from 0. 2 to 2. 8 ppm total DDT residues in
northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax, English sole, Parophrys vetulus,
Pacific jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus, and hake, Merluccius
productus caught south of San Francisco. These values may be more
representative of the southern California coast than of our area.
More recently, residues in mackerel have been monitored by the
Department of Public Health, State of California. Between November
1969, and 11 May 1970, 31 lots of mackerel gave DDT residues ranging
from 0. 50 ppm to 6. 0 ppm. Only 2 of the 31 lots contained more than
3 ppm (Buell, 6270).
The recent review by Edwards (6084) covers pesticide residues on a
nationwide scale.
Toxicities of Pesticides to Marine Organisms
An incomplete, but representative, listing of the toxicities of commonly
used pesticides to marine organisms is given in Appendix 5.
In general, "... organochloride insecticides are more toxic to marine
fauna than other agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastes--including
organophosphorous insecticides, soaps and detergents, aziridinyl insect
sterilants, slimicides, heavy metals and crude and refined oils" (Eisler
6048).
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Specifically, for phytoplankton, Ukeles (6101) found substituted ureas
to be most toxic, closely followed by Lignasan, an organo-mercurial.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbamates, and organophosphates com-
plete the list, with considerable differences observed between the
toxicities of the various chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides tested.
For crustaceans, Eisler (6048) found organochlorine pesticides to
be generally more toxic than organophosphates, but there was con-
siderable overlap between the less toxic organochlorine compounds
and the more toxic organophosphates.
For fish, Johnson (6072) gives a general order of organochlorine,
organophosphate, herbicide. He also notes that eggs and larvae are
generally more resistant than adults.
The specificity of certain pesticides toward certain kinds of marine
organisms may make them useful in marine aquiculture, but it is of
more interest in this study to discover which marine organisms will
be most affected by pesticide pollution. The specificity of organo-
phosphates will not be considered since they are quite unstable in the
environment. Organochlorines will be our biggest concern. Lindane
and DDT have both been shown to be toxic to arthropods (copepods)
at concentrations which did not harm phytoplankton cultures (Ukeles,
6101).
In addition to the reductions in photosynthesis caused by sub-lethal
concentrations of pesticides cited in Appendix 5, sub-lethal concen-
trations increase the "body burden" of pesticides in organisms.
This can affect carcinogenesis, resistance to disease and stress,
reproduction, genetic factors, longevity, and vigor in organisms.
There may be other factors as of yet unrecognized (Johnson, 6072).
A particularly pertinent example of the effects of sub-lethal exposure
is in the results of Ogilvie and Anderson (6274) who suggested that
". . . DDT may interfere with the normal thermal acclimation mecha-
nism" on the basis of observed changes in the "selected temperature"
of Atlantic Salmon.
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Behavior of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides in the Marine
Environment
Although DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides have
served mankind quite well, it has become increasingly evident in
recent years that their persistence in the environment precludes
adequate control and prediction of effects on non-target organisms.
As a result, the U. S. Department of Agriculture has announced
plans to phase out the use of DDT by 1971 (Anon. , 6294). Use in
other parts of the world will probably continue for some time.
Although our understanding of the behavior of DDT (and other chlor-
inated hydrocarbons) in the environment is better than for other
compounds, it is still rudimentary. These points have emerged
as the relevant factors;
1. DDTis strongly hydrophobic, and has a very low solubility
in water. As a result, it is concentrated at sediment-water,
and atmosphere-water interfaces (Seba and Corcoran, 6046;
Keith and Hunt, 6292). In addition, its high solubility in
lipid-containing biological materials produces high biological
concentration factors relative to the bulk water mass (Wurster,
6295; Keil and Priester, 6083).
2. The toxic action of DDT is not highly specific, affecting most
organisms (Wurster, 6295).
3. DDT is quite stable in the aquatic environment. The exact
residence time is difficult to determine (Wurster, 6295; Peterle,
6296).
4. Almost no area of the earth's surface is free from the influence
of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, probably as a result of
significant atmospheric transport (Frost, 6297; Risebrough et al,
6271). '
It has been suggested that DDT in the world ecosystem is in steady
state. That is, in the 25 years of its use, reservoirs of DDT have
been built up into which the rate of input (usage today) is equal to the
rate of output (breakdown into non-toxic substances and loss to sedi-
ments and other sinks) (Spencer, 6293). It appears, however, that
the data on the size of the reservoirs and on the rates of output are
at present insufficient to establish the existence of a steady state con-
dition.
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Summary
1. Pesticide residue levels in marine organisms in the Pacific
Northwest are generally low.
2. Acute toxicities of pesticides to marine organisms are probably
less of a concern than sub-lethal effects. Residues may be im-
portant to higher predators such as sea birds and man.
3. Although the behavior of DDT in the marine environment is
poorly understood, its hydrophobic nature, non-specific toxi-
city, stability, and modes of transport make it a matter of
real concern.
4. Much more information is needed on the overall behavior and
effects of DDT in the marine environment.
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CHLORINE
Elemental chlorine, C12, does not occur naturally in sea water.
Concern with its effects stems from its use as an antifouling agent
in thermal electric power plants. Use of chlorine (or substances
which hydrolyze releasing Cl ) varies widely. Use of various
methods of preventing fouling are shown below, a response
to a questionnaire sent to 69 operating power plants in 1968 (USDI,
6254).
40 Chlorination
1 Chlorination 0. 6 ppm at condenser outlet
3 Chlorination, periodic shot feed
3 Intermittent chlorination
9 Sodium hypochlorite
2 Sodium hypochlorite, 3 Ibs per min for 20 min for each
unit twice a day
1 Sodium hypochlorite, 1.4 Ibs per min for 20 min for each
unit twice a day
3 Sodium hypochlorite shot fed daily
0 Polyphosphate addition
8 Ferrous sulphate
1 Sodium hydroxide (for pH control)
2 Thermal shock (to inhibit marine growth)
3 None
3 Chlorination, stable residual 7-10 ppm as available C1-?
2 Chlorination as required to control slime
2 Sodium hypochlorite, 30 min per day
Although intermittent chlorination is apparently the usual practice for
operating thermal power plants (USDI, 6254; Hamilton et al 6322)
it has been pointed out that continuous chlorination at low levels is
necessary to prevent mussels from setting and growing on the efflu-
ent pipe (Beauchamp, 6326; Holmes, 6355).
Chlorine in water hydrolyzes rapidly to form HOCL which is the primary
toxic principal. HOCL oxidizes organic matter rapidly, and so it, too,
is short lived in the marine environment. The major effect of chlorina-
tion, then, will be on the planktonic organisms actually transported
through the cooling system of the power plant. The total amount of
218
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water passing through a 1000 Mw plant in a year would fill an area
60 km by 1 km, 30 meters deep. The existing tidewater power
plants in the state of California pass a volume of water 1000 km
by 1 km by 30 meters each year (calculated using power generation
data of Adams, 6364). In short, a very large volume of planktonic
organisms may be subjected to short-term exposures of peak chlorine
concentrations.
The effects of such short-term exposures are poorly known. Waugh
(6268) showed that nauplii of the barnacle Elminius modestus suffered
heavy mortalities following a 10-minute exposure to 0.5 ppm chlorine.
Larvae of the oyster Ostrea edulis, on the other hand, were apparently
unharmed by up to 48 minutes exposure to 10 ppm chlorine at 10 C°
over ambient temperature.
Chlorination to level of 2. 5 ppm (my calculation) was found to
decrease primary productivity of effluent waters by as much as
91%. A consistent effect on estuarine receiving waters was not de-
tected, although the calculated maximum effect for the estuary
studied was 6. 6% (Hamilton etal., 6322).
Summary
1. Chlorine is used as an antifouling agent in many thermal
electric power plants.
2. The response of marine organisms to short-term, low level
doses of chlorine is highly variable.
3. Phytoplankton are apparently very sensitive to the action of
chlorine.
4. Effects on receiving waters are unknown.
219
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PART III - BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Page
Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS by
James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock 223
Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NORTHWEST SPECIES
by Danil R. Hancock and James E. McCauley 228
Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST SPECIES
OR SPECIES GROUPS by James E. McCauley
and Danil R. Hancock 246
221
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Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
by James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock
The physical and chemical properties of the coastal zone are important
to man because they affect him either directly, or through some of the
organisms of the region. The biology of this outer zone becomes important
because man depends on many species for food, raw materials, and
recreation, but more importantly because he is firmly enmeshed in the
complete ecological system which includes marine as well as fresh-
water and terrestrial species. The coastal zone, considered by some
to be the most productive region of the world (Ryther, 5852), produces
95% of the organic matter in the sea. It is a heavily fished zone where
many species feed and where primary productivity is at its greatest. It
is important not only because it provides for man but because it is readily
accessible and seemingly inexhaustible.
Recent awareness of how man may damage this rich region by using
it for a dump has reemphasized the need to study nearshore coastal
zones. What •will be the effects of dumping large amounts of solid,
liquid, and thermal wastes into the coastal zone? Can the biota survive
under such conditions? Can man continue to pollute? Do we really
know what is there? Much has been written about the coastal zone biology,
most of it restricted to the intertidal zone or to commercially important
species. This section summarizes biological information as it applies to
the nearshore region of the Pacific Northwest. We have arbitrarily dealt
with the outer coastal zone from Cape Flattery at the northwest corner of
Washington to Cape Mendocino about 180 km south of the Oregon-California
border in California. This is a relatively straight coastline with sandy
beaches alternating with rocky headlands and with a biota that does not
differ greatly from place to place •when similar areas are compared. The
estuaries and bays represent a special type of habitat; one that is critical
to many species of animals as breeding or nursery ground. These areas
are highly susceptible to damage from pollution and -with few exceptions
should be rigorously protected from man's industrial activities. For these
reasons -we have excluded the bays and estuaries from our studies except
in those cases where they •were inseparable from the outer coastal zone;
e. g. , •where a species that occurred in the outer zone spends part of its life
in an estuary or where research on the coastal species had been done on an
estuarine population.
223
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Where feasible we have reviewed the information only of those
species occurring within 10 km of shore. This is the region where
man's impact will be most severely felt; the zone where pollutants are
most likely to enter and be diluted. Our goal was to determine the kinds
of organisms that occur in this area and to determine their vital
requirements, preferences, and limitations. Special emphasis has
been placed on the influence of temperature on the species; including
special thermal tolerance studies, and the casual notations included
in ecological or distributional studies.
The effects of temperature on aquatic organisms has been the subject
of a number of comprehensive reviews (Brett, 2796, 2770; Gunter, 2849;
Wurtz and Renn, 2565; Naylor, 2798; Warinner and Brehmer, 2690;
Kinne, 2378, 2379; de Sylva, 6283; Hedgpeth and Conor, 3856; and
Parker and Krenkel, 3222. In addition, a number of extensive
bibliographies have been produced (Trembley, 2692; Kennedy and
Milursky, 2926; American Society of Civil Engineers, 3673; Raney
and Menzel, 2946). Most of these reviews and bibliographies concern
fresh water aquatic organisms and only a few deal with marine or
estuarine species. None is specific to the Pacific Northwest coast and
none emphasizes the outer coastal region. Naylor (2798) and Kinne
(2378, 2379) have dealt primarily with marine and estuarine species
but have emphasized European, primarily estuarine species.
The volume of information covered in these reviews and bibliographies
is simply overwhelming. Krenkel and Parker (3222) assessed the
situation: "Unfortunately the sheer mass of detailed information in
these reviews leaves the reader with a feeling of hopeless frustration. "
We have concentrated on a limited geographical region with a concerted
team effort, attempting to assemble all the known information about
species occurring here. To accomplish this study a detailed annotated
checklist has been assembled and is included (Appendix 8). Not all
groups have been included although some omitted may be extremely
important. The marine bacteria, marine fungi, Kiriorhynch, and
Ostracods have been intentionally omitted. Representatives of the
first two groups are often cosmopolitan and the literature is widely
scattered. Few of the papers on these groups deal specifically with
the Pacific Northwest. Only a single Kinorhynch was found to be
reported from the area. The Ostracods were excluded because a detailed
review is forthcoming from the University of Minnesota (Swain, in press),
and it did not seem necessary to duplicate part of this work.
224
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From the annotated checklist a few species were selected for
intensive study. In general, these were the better known species, those
commercially or numerically important or subject to intensive
biological study.
The biological information available for the coastal zone of the
Pacific Northwest is indeed diverse, and the sources are many.
Much of the information has been derived from the published literature,
but some has come from less readily available sources: progress
reports, personal communications, in-house working papers, student
reports, etc. Not all the published information is readily accessible,
occurring in obscure and unexpected places.
The number of entries in our bibliography indicates the large amount
of information that is known, how scattered it is, and why it was
necessary to compile it in a review study. Very little of the information
can be used directly to assess the impact of an ocean outfall on the
environment. Many of the studies which would have seemingly been
useful were directed at estuarine or oceanic species instead of coastal
species. Still other studies of coastal species have dealt with problems
of resource management and have emphasized the effectiveness of
legal restraints or artificial propagation. Basic biological studies
have often been left to the academic sector, which has contributed
significantly to overall understanding of biology but may fail to answer
specific practical questions because these questions were not the
goals of the study.
We have attempted to assemble all the available biological literature.
Taxonomic Studies
By far, the largest body of information available on the organisms of
the outer coast of this region is taxonomic. Our bibliographic citations
reflect this situation, even after the omission of some of the very
early works which have been subsequently summarized. Many of the
citations contain taxonomic or distributional information, describing
species, listing the occurrence of a species, or a general group of
biota. Some of these listings include very detailed collection locations,
others simply infer the presence of a species. These works contain a
wide variety of literary styles and therefore are quite erratic in
supplying pertinent supplemental information on the requirements,
225
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preferences and tolerances of the organisms from this zone. Such
variety makes categorizations difficult. For many of the species
which do not have direct commercial value the only information known
is its collection record(s); i. e. , where it has been found. Few of the
groups have been monographed for large enough geographic regions
to be complete and therefore the amount of additional work required
for a coastal site will vary with the location.
The fauna and flora of the nearshore region is known mostly from
extensions of studies of intertidal areas, pelagic offshore fisheries
studies, or nearshore coastal studies performed in California.
Oceanographers are just becoming aware of the urgency for data
from this region and hopefully will endure the hardships required to
study this inhospitable zone. Generally the adult stages of the macro-
fauna of the coastal zone from our region will not present serious
taxonomic difficulties to qualified personnel studying the region, but
larval and juvenile stages, even for the commercial species are not
well known taxonomically. Likewise, many of the less popular
smaller groups are not well known taxonomically. These include
such things as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, phytoplanktoh, annelids,
insects, certain of the crustaceans, and many others which may be
extremely important to the community. These groups generally
require specialists for identifications and may present real problems
to those responsible for siting outfalls on the coast of the Pacific
Northwest.
Obviously, the familiarity of the fauna and flora is a function of the
number of studies and the kinds of studies previously made. Further,
these studies seem to be related to areas near marine biological stations.
Bibliographie s
Bibliographies are a time-saving tool to the scientist facing a new
problem. If kept up to date, good bibliographies can give a gross
indication of the state of knowledge of a subject. Both the number of
entries and titles of citations however can be misleading.
Several bibliographies occur for the Cape Flattery to Cape Mendocino
region, none of which is directed at the nearshore region. Some of
these are regional in nature; others concern an individual organism
or a group, while still others concern a general topic such as "Effects
of heated effluents on marine organisms," e.g. , of which only a
fraction is relevant to our region.
226
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Many of the bibliographies concern bays in our region but have some
information pertinent to the outer coast. Bibliographies of some value
to our review -were:
Bryan, (3851), A partial bibliography on Humboldt Bay; Ditsworth
(3833, 3854), Environmental factors in Coastal Waters; Pearce,
(3852), A bibliography on Marine Benthic Investigations; Butler,
(3611), A bibliography on the Dungeness Crab; and the University of
Washington's Literature Surveys on Grays Harbor, Coos Bay, and
Humboldt Bay (2569, 2568, 2008).
The assessment and prediction of pollution in the nearshore coastal
zone as -well as determination of indications of normal or "baseline"
conditions are dependent on detailed, statistically valid ecological
studies. Such comprehensive studies of the nearshore coastal zone
of the region encompassed by this study are conspicuously lacking.
Our review indicates that only in the southernmost region has this
type of study been even attempted. This study was Allen's (2686) work
entitled "An oceanographic study between the points of Trinidad Head
and the Eel River. "
Many pieces of important ecological data are contained in small-scale
ecological studies, rather than broad comprehensive investigations.
These data have been listed as annotations to the species checklist
of Appendix 8. The problem with this data is that it lacks continuity,
usually is without time sequence, and is usually directed at different
goals.
Chapter 19 deals with the thermal ecology of coastal species of the
Pacific North-west, summarizing the information that is available.
It also includes the available information on other physical factors
such as salinity, oxygen, and pH. While Chapter 19 deals in general
terms, Chapter 20 singles out those species which we consider to
be important and which have received the most attention. This Chapter
summarizes the data which are available. Not only are ecological
data included but other biological data potentially important to
pollution studies are included as well.
227
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Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NORTHWEST SPECIES
by Danil R. Hancock and James E. McCauley
Of concern to many, especially to those involved in the siting of marine
coastal outfalls, are the physiological responses of organisms to environ-
mental stresses such as increased temperature, rapid fluctuations in tem-
perature, oxygen, and salinity. Recently, concern has also included the
actual environmental conditions dictated by the physiological requirements
of the organism i. e. , the fact that some organisms actually require fluc-
tuations in-temperature (Kinne, 2379; Hedgpeth and Conor, 385-6).
Temper a til re
Interest in the effects of temperature on marine organisms is not new and
perhaps began early in the eighteen hundreds. As early as 1899, H. M.
Vernon published a paper entitled "The Death Temperature of Certain
Marine Organisms" (2912). Earlier works by Vernon included heat rigor
and effects of temperature on respiration (3307, 3306). Recent years have
seen a proliferation of information on the response of both freshwater and
marine organisms to increased temperatures. The listing of previous
general reviews and comprehensive tables covering the extremes of tem-
peratures which can be endured by fishes has recently been done by Parker
and Krenkle (3222). The literature describing responses of aquatic in-
vertebrates to thermal gradients by taxonomic groups has been discussed
by Jensen £_t £il. (3855). Such reviews generally place major emphasis on
freshwater organisms. Although both of these reviews have some information
applicable to marine forms, the detailed reviews of Naylor (2798) and Kinne
(2379, 2378) are probably the best source for marine and brackish forms.
Hedgpeth and Conor (3856) have presented a brief review of the literature
on the marine benthos, particularly as it relates to research needs of
the marine benthos.
The review by Jensen e_t al. (3855) states: "It should be observed; the
data used to predict the effects of heated effluents on the biota, the focus
of this paper, have rarely been drawn from field studies deliberately de-
signed for these purposes. " Our study is in full agreement with this state-
ment, but not, however, with their attempts to formulate general principles
and generalizations based on such heterogeneous information. We feel
that such broad conclusions must be subjected to further verification, least
we succumb to what Chamberlin (3858) refers to as the "Ruling Theory. "
Most of these studies involve work done in regions of the world other than
the Pacific Northwest. The study of Hedgpeth and Conor (3856), however,
includes some data from the central Oregon Coast.
228
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Our attempts to summarize temperature and other physical information by
species is presented in Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3. No requirements
for admission to this listing were set, therefore information came from
a wide variety of sources and may refer to an estuarine form, to an outer
coastal form, to an Atlantic population of a Northwest form or to a labora-
tory study. Jensen _ejt al. (3855) in their review of the role of temperature
in the aquatic ecosystem suggest that laboratory results are often based
upon the use of laboratory aquaria in which the water quality is less than
typical of that found in natural environments. In most laboratory studies
they found that aquaria water was either abnormally pure or polluted with
toxic nitrogen wastes, or that parasitism was often high due to the stress
of overcrowding, or high ammonia levels etc. "In addition, placing animals
in heated water cannot simulate natural conditions where heat decays and
where animals are free to move to cooler layers. " Maximum tolerable
temperature may be a poor predictive tool for scientists concerned with
the problems of thermal discharges (Jensen et al. , 3855). Maximum ther-
mal tolerance depends on water quality, age, condition and size of the ex-
perimental animal, reproductive state, previous thermal history, and/or
the rate of change of temperature. Thus, the precision of maximum ther-
mal tolerance evaluations necessitate careful delineation of variables by
the researchers. For example, temperature limits on the "O" strain of
Macrocystis from Baja, California are quite different from those of other
regions. We therefore urge that caution be employed when relating specific
values from one region to another or from field to laboratory.
Since the data in our tables came from widely scattered studies in which
no common denominator of life stage, age size, or previous temperature
history was recorded, we have attempted to include these "Classic" papers
along with the meager information from the Pacific Northwest and abstract
from them published temperature. We do not attest to the quality of this
previous temperature information, but present it only to indicate what is
available to fulfill the needs of other investigators. Detailed summaries
of this information for selected species are presented in. Chapter 20,
For the most part, the discussion restricts itself to the particular kinds
of temperature information found as compared to what is necessary to
make the kinds of decisions currently in demand. Interspersed with the
kinds of information available are critical remarks about the quality of
this information. We hope that such criticism is both justified and helpful
in the design of future research.
Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3 summarize most of the temperature information
located in this review. The 129 species, at first glance, may seem quite.
numerous, yet, when viewed in terms of the 3, 000-odd species recorded
from this coast it represents only a fraction of a percent.
229
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Table 19-1
Summary of Physical Data t n Phytoplankton and Algae
Name
Temperature
PH
See
Sources
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton (gen.inform. )
Ampidinium cortesi
Asterionells japonica
Chaetoceros curuisetus
Chaetoceros gracilis
Chaetoceros lacinisosus
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Eucampia zoodiacus
Isochrysio gabana
Monochrysis lutheri
Nitzochia closterium
Procentrum micans
Phaeodactylum tricornaturn
Rhizosolenia setigera
Skeletonema costatum
Skeletonema tropicum
Thalaniosera noudenskioldii
Dinoflagellates (gen, inform.)
Macroalgae
Bossea
Chlamydomoiius reinhardi
10. 5-14°C(E)
18-33°C (R)
<30°C (L), 20-25°C(0)
G. R. 17-18°C (E)
11-41°C (R),
23-37° C(O)
G. R. 17-18°C(E)
11- 36+«C (R)
39° C (L)
G. R. 17-18°C(E)
8- <30°C(R)
14-25° C(O)
20-35° C(L)
8-< 27°C(R),
G. R. 18-20°C(E)
5-30°C (R)
9-25°C (R)
5-25°C (R),
G. R. 5-20° C(E)
5-30°C (R),
37-40° C (L)
G. R. < 13-31°C(E)
< 2-19°C (R)
14. 2-39° C,
-1.39-12. 22° C
6-28° C,
18-28°C(O)
(7032), (7030),
(3527), (7015),
(7006), (7008),
(7009)
(7009)
(7012)
(7012)
(7009)
(7012)
(7016), (7009)
(7037)
(7016)
(2949)
(2469)
(7009), (7012)
(7026), (7029)
(2949)
230
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Table 19-1 (cont'd)
Corallina + (2949)
Enteromorpha + (2949)
Fucus + (2949)
Macrocystis 15-17°C(E), (5816)
18-20° C(L) (5809)
Nereocystis luetkeana 16-18°C (E)
Pelvetia + (2949)
Ulva + (2949)
Key; R = Range
L = Lethal
E = Experimental
O = Optimum
G. R. - Growth Rate
+ = Data Available
231
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Of those organisms listed in the tables "Temperature Kange" information
seems to be the most common entry. If all of these data were taken in the
same manner or if it referred to a single ecological factor, these so-called
ranges would become both meaningful and useful. Such is not the case,
and therefore, each datum entered must be considered separately and be-
comes limited to a specific intended use. The temperature ranges in the
literature indicate almost anything. They can mean the two extreme tem-
peratures under which a particular experiment or observation was made,
the end points of a temperature curve, the actual range determination made
by multiple experimentation, the upper lethal and the lowest temperature
at which an experiment was conducted, or any combination of these. Some
reports such as Farmanfarmaian and Giese (2835) and Reed (3092) were
very explicit and'all necessary details were included. Such studies are
most valuable.
The temperature at which an organism dies may have little significance if
it is far from the natural temperatures the organism might experience. As
previously mentioned, itis well established that these limits or tolerance
levels are quite dependent on many factors, such as previous temperature
history. Tropical species may be living nearer their upper temperature
limit and Arctic species may be living near their lower limit. Many of the
laboratory studies which have determined temperature requirements for an
organism do not use temperature values which would be similar to an
organisms natural experience. A major criticism of the values listed
in Table 19-1 , -2, -3 is that most were presented without the important
necessary background information.
In view of the heterogeneity of the information listed under the column "Range"
it is perhaps a misnomer to have a column entitled "Miscellaneous, " yet
information listed is sometimes more specifically categorized as to whether
or not it was a rearing range, a temperature at which the organism was ob-
served to live, its eggs hatched, or was spawned.
The optimum ranges of some.of the organisms in this study have been deter-
mined. These are somewhat obscured by the fact that.for at least some of
the species the best (optimum) temperatures for reproduction, for survival,
or for growth of the various life stages may not be identical. By and large,
however, this temperature information'is probably the most usable of any
temperature data that we encountered.
Information on temperature requirements of larval and juvenile stages is
scant. Studies of laboratory rearing of species seem to account for
most of the knowledge we have about these sensitive stages of an animal's
life. Serious attempts at in situ rearing of larvae are absent and published
studies of temperature requirements are noticeably lacking for all but a
few species.
232
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Although adequate temperature information forno species is completely
known, temperature information was found to be nearly adequate for several
species. In general, this information was of applied value to the species
involved. The species included in Chapter 20 are the best studied and many
need only specific goal-related temperature measurements to be useful.
Of the many marine phytoplankton occurring in this region, only the ubiquitous
Skeletonema costatum is well studied. The temperature range and growth
range are known for Chaetoceros gracilis and the growth ranges of two other
members of the genus, C. lanciniosus and C. curvisetus , are reported.
Similar information was not found for a very important member of this
genus C^ a r ma turn, which is thought to be the major food source of Siliqua
pa tula, the Pacific razor clam (personal communication, H. Tegelb^rg
and D. Magoon).
Only a single member of the marine macroalgae is well known thermally.
The commercially important Macrocystis pyrifera has been studied ex-
tensively off Southern California. It occurs in the Pacific Northwest but
is less abundant. Macrocystis integrifolia tends to replace it in the Pacific
Northwest. Studies of temperature, light requirements, effects of turbidity,
nutrients, effects of predation, and in situ growth rates have been attempted.
Much of the data is scattered in progress reports and agency reports. The
Final Report of the California Water Resources Agency "The effects of dis-
charged wastes on Kelp" (2994 ) contains a good deal of information on
M. pyrifera and its ecological associates.
Little temperature information is known for most of the marine bacteria,
and most of the smaller invertebrate phyla occurring in the Pacific
Northwest.
A large amount of temperature information, most of which is far from com-
plete relates to mollusks. Some of the more important commercial species
have been extensively studied with respect to the culture experiments. Tem-
perature relations in the oysters, both commercial and imported, have been
reasonably well studied. For the most part, these are bay forms, although
beds are known from some outer coastal areas.
Mytilus californianus has been well studied with respect to community
interactions and community ecology. Information on temperature range,
growth range, salinity relationships, and larval stages is available.
Mytilus edulis (the cosmopolitan bay mussel)also found on the outer coast,
is one of the best known thermally of any invertebrate species found along
the coast of the Pacific Northwest, but most of the published studies have
come from other regions. Table 19-2 does not completely cover the thermal
233
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Table 19-2
Physical Data on Invertebrates
Name
Coelenterata
Actina equina
Aequoria aequoria
Gonionemus
Ctenophore
Beroe ovata
Kinorhyneha
Echinoderes pennaki
Crustaceans
B r anchiopoda
Evadne normanni
Pondon polyphemoides
Copepods
Calanus finmarchicus
Ismalia montrosa
Tigriops californicus
Decapods
Callianassa. longimanna
Cancer gibbosuius
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Cancer magister
Age
• Class
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
J
L
Temperature Salinity
41.5-43.5°C(L)
0. 1 - 11°C(E)
20-30° C(O)(R)
34.2-36.4°C(L)
16°C (N)
6 18. 5°C(R) 2-35. 47%o
2.46-19. 8° C(R) 1.05-35. l%o
0° -10°C(R)
15°-16°C(N)
? 39°C(R) 2-90%o (R)
90-175%o (L)
8. 2-13. 9° C(R) 4-8%o (R)
9. 7-11. 5°C(R) 33. 9%o (N)
38-75°F(R) 11-32% (R)
< 10%o (R)
71°F(L) 20%o (L)
50-57° F(O) 25-30%o (O)
6. 1-21. 7°C(L)
10-17. 8°C(O)
See
Source
5844
5845
3583
2695
3650
2184
2184
3635
Key; R = Range O - Optimum L=Lethal T = Tolerance level
N Natural or "in situ"E = Experimental x = Data Available
234
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Table 19-2 (cont'd)
Name
Cancer oregonensis
Cancer productus
Crangon alaskensis elongata
Crangon munita
Crangon munitella
Crangon communis
Crangon spinosissima
Hemigrapsus nudus
Hemigrapsus oregonensis
Oregonia gracilis
Paeurus samuelis
Pandalis dana
Pandalus jordani
Pandalus jordani
Paracrangon echinata
Petrolistles eriomerus
Pugettia gracilis
Age
Class
A
A &L
A
A
A
A
L,
A
L,
E
A
A
A
Temperature Salinity
24-30° C(L)
11°C Adult 33%o+ l%o (E)
spawned and
larvae reared
30° C(L)
9.3-12. 2° C(R) 33. 8-34. 3%o (R)
24-27 (L)
11.5-13.0° C(E)
24-26° C(L)
11.0-13.5°C(R) 26.6-31. 6%o (R)
11.5-13.0 (E)
24°C(L)
9.3-11.4°C(R) 33. 8-34. 3%o (R)
11.5-13.0°C(E) 4%o-8%o(R)
24°C(L)
X X
9.8-ll°C(?) 3. 8-34: 2%o (R)
24-30° C(L)
17-18°C(E)reared
11.5-13. 0°C(E)
24-30° C(L)
13+ 0. 2°C(reared)
50-54° F(hatching) 7. 8- 24. l%o (R)
13J-0. 2°C(O)
24°C{L)
24°C(L)
11 C 1 "^ o f~* / Ti*\
1 . O — A O \^ 1 Jtl//
24-30° C(L)
See
Source
5842
3279
5842
5842
5842
5842
3585
2184
5842
2324
2295
5842
5842
5842
235
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Table 19-2 (cont'd)
Name
Segra acutifrons
Spirontocaris cristata
Spirontocaris gracilis
Uca pagnax
Isopods
Argeia pugettensis
Limnoria '(gen)
Limnoria (gen)
Limnoria ligorum
Limnoria lignorum
Limnoria quadripunetata
Limnoria tripunetata
Limnoria tripunetata
Barnacles
Balanus balanus
Balanus cariosus
Balanus crenatus
Mollusca
Acmea digitalis
Acmea persona
Age
Class Temperature
11.5-13.0°C(E)
24° C (L)
7. 6-19. 4°C(R)
13. 8-14. 6" C(N)
9. 6-9.8°C(N)
20° C (E)
20° C (E)
A 7-23° C(T)
30°C(L)
15°C(O)
See
Salinity & DO Source
5842
22.5-34.3%o(R)
20. 8-32. 2%o(N)
34. 2-34. 3%o (N)
3636,
2689
E 9° C =53 days incubation 2689
21° C =20 days incubation
A 28°C-med. Tol.
E 11-16°C(R)
7-8°C (lo. dev)
A
A 10-30°C(R)
15°C(O)
E 20-30°C(R)
X
X
A 7. 6-8. 6° C
42° C
3.4-31°C(R)
1. 0 mg/L 3636,
@ 15-16°C 2689
1.0 mg/L
@ 15-l6°C
0. 75 mg/L 3636
@15-16°C 2710
0. 60 mg/L 2689
@ 22-26° C
1. 0 mg/L 3628
@ 15-16°C 2710
1. 18 mg/L 2689
@ 22-25°C
3788
3772
236
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Table 19-2 (cont'd)
Name
Acmea scabra
Adula californiensis
Botula falcata
Age
Class Temperature
42°-44°C(L)
15°C(O)
5° &20°C dev.
stopped
Salinity &DO
32. 2%o (O)
DO max. @ 20° C
DO inc. @ 35. 3° C
See
Sources
3772
3633
2839
2839
Brachidontes demissus plicatulus
Callistoma costatum
Crassostrea gigas
Crassostrea virginica A
Crassostrea virginica
Cymbulia peronii
Limacina helacina
Littorina (gen)
Littorina scutulata
Littorina sitkana
Macoma
Mytilus edulus
Mytilus californianus
Mytilus californianus
Octopus vulgaris
Ostrea edulis
E&L
60° C air temp.
10-13°C(N)
10-20° (N) much other information
10 & 20° (N) much other information
much temp, information under
culturing
Temp. &. Development
35.2-35. 7° C(L)
34-36.5°C
Lower Limit
34-36.5 (R)
7. 8-9. 7(R)
l6-20%olower
limit
l6-20%o
29.2-31.4%o
DO 4. 3-6. lmj./L
O, max. @ 20° C
3796
5840
3783
3807
3506
2385
3506
3751
82-106° F(L)? O2 max. @ 20° C 2839
77°F(O) 2798
much other ecol. temp, infor.
7°-28°C(R) 17-45%o (R) well studied 2330,
15-20° C(O) 12&55%o(L) 2225,
2228
21.5%oLo survival
33. 7-36.0° C
15°C gametogenesis much other
information
2228
3789
237
-------
Table 19-2 (cont'd)
Name
Patella aspersa
Patella vulgata
Plarnnectfin mapellani
Age
Class Temperature Salinity & DO
Low QJQ
15-20°C
Low Q]Q
15-20°C
cus 21.0-23. 5° C(L)
See
Source
2693
2693
3764
Placopecten tnagellanicus
Pododesmus cepio
Pterotrachea cornata
Tegula fundbrali_s
Tefoys lanorina
Iresus capax
Echinodermata
Dendraster excentricus
Pisaster ochraceous
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus A
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus E
upper lethal raise
0 C/5° C inc. in
acclimation temperature
15° C (Gametogensis)
39.2-42.5°C(L)
24°C; 51.5-63T
60° C air
10-13»C(N)
40.0-40.5
9° C? 30.5%o (O)
10-16°C(N)(R)
12-18°C
21°C(T)
7. 4°C(N)
8-23.5°C(R)Lab
25"C(L)
3789
3635
17. lOchlorinity(N)
7. 85-8. 55 mg/L
13-209C(R)
25°C(L)
5° C & 30° C no fertilization
'3388
3012
3043
5823
3286
2302
3295
3286
2835
5861
2798
238
-------
knowledge because we consider this species primarily a bay form. Mytilus
larvae are relatively sensitive to environmental changes, and have been
recommended as a standard for toxicity tests (De Ben, 3857).
Incidental temperature studies for the mollusks Macoma spp. , and Littorina
spp. are also known.
Excellent temperature and other physical information exists for several
Arthropods. Calanus finmarchicus, a cosmopolitan form has been studied
in other regions. The wood-boring isopod genus Limnoria rivals Mytilus
in the amount of temperature information known. The destruction of wooden
structures by this genus has been the subject of much study. Information
on rates of boring with increased temperatures, O consumption, survival,
reproduction, and population dynamics have been studied. The validity of
this information applied to specimens of this genus on our coast is unknown
because many of these studies have been done elsewhere, under different
environmental conditions.
The barnacle genus Balanus has been quite extensively studied and information
on temperature, especially, as it relates to the zoogeography of this genus
is published. Although some of the species are cosmopolitan, most of the
studies were done in Europe and may have limited value.
The most important decapod crustacean which is well known thermally is
Cancer magister, the dungeness crab. This species has been very well
studied in many respects. At least partial temperature information exists
for all life stages: it has been reared in the laboratory and the thermal
tolerances of the adults are reasonably well understood. In situ studies,
especially of larval forms, present one type of study which is needed. Such
studies are necessary to predict the distribution, the expected yield or
the effects of a coastal outfall. Cancer productus , a closely related species
has also been reared in the laboratory, but due to its lack of commercial
importance, has not received the attention given _C_._ magister.
A small amount of temperature information is available for three other
genera of decapod crustaceans, Crangon, Pagarus and Pandalus. The
latter two genera have been reared in the laboratory.
The kinds of information available for some of the common species of the
Echinodermata is perhaps of better quality than for most of the other groups
of organisms. The urchin genus Strongyloc entrotus is represented in this
region by three species. Two of these Strongyloc entrotus purpuratus and
S^ fransiscanus occur commonly from Washington to Southern California.
A third, _S_. droebachiensis is the common form in Puget Sound and is also
found on the outer coast of Washington and on the Atlantic coast. Strongylo-
c^entrotus purpuratus has been commonly used as a laboratory test animal
for numerous physiological, biochemical and histological studies. We have
239
-------
not attempted to summarize these types of studies but have concentrated
on pertinent life history and temperature studies. The reason for the large
number of studies on this species is due to its large size, common occur-
rence, ease of collection, and readily obtainable reproductive cells for
developmental studies. The importance of S. purpuratus to the decline of
the kelp forests in Southern California also led to many detailed investigations
of this species.
Experiments by Farmanfarmaian and Giese (2835) indicate that £>. purpuratus
does not acclimatize beyond the upper limit of its temperature range of
5 23. 5° C. (The Crinoids have also been shown similar in this respect.)
Temperatures of 25° C "were lethal even after acclimation at 20° C for four
days. This species also exhibits a rather sharp upper tolerance boundary.
It appears healthy and normal at 23. 5° C but is killed at 25° C. Acclimatization
to lower temperatures, however, did occur. The same study by Farmanfarmaian
and Giese also presented information on the fertilization and development
in S^ purpuratus . Animals developed normally between 13 20° C but at
5° C and 30° C no fertilization membrane or development occurred. The
low temperature of 5° C was not deleterious but 25° C was lethal to the eggs.
Eeproduction is thought by Boolootian (5836) to be independent of temperature.
Conor (3338) made internal temperature measurements on S^. purpuratus
on the outer coast of Oregon. When the internal temperature rose above
26° C for 3-5 hours on several successive days, a heat kill resulted. This
heat kill was a natural occurrence and was attributed to the occurrence of
spring tides at a period of maximum solar heating for this region.
Limited information on oxygen utilization by the purple urchin is presented
by Farmanfarmaian and Giese (2835). Salinity tolerances of this genus have
not been specifically studied; however, the echinoderms in general are
considered to be unable to tolerate low salinities (Boolootian, 3286).
Such studies suggest that the urchin S_. purpuratus is very sensitive to temperature
changes. Since it is not presently conceivable that large volumes of the
coastal region in the Pacific Northwest would be heated above 25° C, the
upper lethal temperature of the purple urchin may not be as important as knowing
the effects of the rate of change of temperature within the viable range of this
species.
Strongylocentrotus fransiscanus and S_. droebachiensis have not been sub-
jected to such extenisve studies although they are also frequently used as
laboratory test animals.
240
-------
Information on the effects of temperature on the thickness and structure
of the tests of Dendraster excentricus is the only temperature information
located for this species of sand dollar (Raup, 3012) although a goodly
amount of information was available on the natural history of this species.
Only scattered incidental temperature information was found for the aster-
oid, Pisaster ochraceous. It was observed that this starfish seldom ex-
periences water below 10° C or above 16°C, but it tolerates air temperatures
of 21° C in the laboratory for 3 hours (3286). At 12-18°C it can survive for
18 months without food (5283). Such information is not adequate to determine
the effect of temperature on this species.
The most frequently studied holothuroids from our area are Parastichopus
californiensis and Cucumaria curata Most studies on this group centered
on behavior, ecology, natural history, or physiology.
To date, the work done on temperature requirements and tolerances of
marine vertebrates has been minimal. For mammals and birds, this
lack of knowledge may not be critical for they are homeothermic animals
and can stand a very wide range of temperatures. Most of the birds along
the Pacific coast undertake extensive migrations, spending their summers
in the Arctic and their winters along the California, Mexican, and South
American coasts. Some birds are perennial residents along the Pacific
Northwest coast and so obviously can withstand the large seasonal changes
in temperature. For the most part offshore marine birds are unstudied.
The mammals, such as the whales and sea lions, also migrate long dis-
tances, some from Arctic to sub-tropical waters as a normal part of their
life cycles.
Of all groups studied the largest amount of temperature information was
found for the marine fishes. The anadromous Salmonids have been extensively
reviewed, and temperature studies, expecially those pertaining to rivers
and fresh waters are numerous. A recent review of the Pacific salmon
is to be found in Parker and Krenkel (3222). We have therefore omitted
the Salmonids from out: temperature discussion. However, Chapter 20
does contain a review of the coastal migrations and feeding of Pacific
salmon.
We have recorded (Table 19-3) temperature range information for some
life stage of thirty-one (31) species of marine fishes, of which approximately
50% are for adult stages. For some of these data, it is not known for which
life stage the information was obtained. Only eight species had information
for more than a single life stage; Trachurus symmetricus and Engraulis
mordax (Anchovy) had information, recorded for adult, juvenile, and larval
stages.
241
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Table 19-3
Summary of Physical Data otiFish
H O etc. Medium Tol.
Upper Optimum b Nit. Temp. Limits Temp/
Name Age Claia T. Range Lethal T. T. Env. T. Mine. O2 - cent. O,
Alosa sapi- A 16-25' F
dissiina
Alosa sapi- J 45-70' F
dissima
Alosa sapi- J 55-70' F
dissima
Artherinops 12. 8-28. 5'C
affinis oregonla
Brachj'iatlus 13-19' C
frenatus
Bram rail 57' F
Clinocottui Max. Surv. 26' C
globicepe QIO = 3.6
Clinocottus Q]() =.2.9
rccalvus ,
Clupca harangm 20. 8-24. 7* C
Ciup^-a harangu* E "Large" Nat. Hatch Hatch Exp.
pallasi 3-6' C 9-14' C
Cyrnatogaster A
Cyrr.atojgaster J
Engraulis mordax A Spawn Thre»-
,. , . „ . hold 11.5-12.0'C
Engraulij mordax A 14. 5 Ic 8. 5 -
20.0»C 25. 0'C Spawn. 13'C
Engrauli. mordax L 10.0-19. T C 14.0-
17.4' C
EngraulU mordax E 9. 9-23. 3' C 13.0fc
17.5' C
Embiotocid 13' C Unfavorable
" 19'C
Fundulua 40.5-42 40.5-
hcteroditus' 42' C
Gadus macro- 2 - ll'C
Girelia nigi-an* 11.8-27.0'C
• Hippoglossm 2«C-north 3-8*C Breeding Z. 3-
»t.-noli.,n» 10-ll'C-»outh *.*• f-
Hipposlo3SU» L 1-10'C Development
gtcnolcpii J. !>-6.!>*t.
Leptocottm 12-29. 5'C
B rinatm
Merluccius 1. l> E 10.6-15,0'C 47.5-67.3'F
productu*
Salinity See
Salinity MUc. Sources
5614
26- 32%o R
max. 75%> Tolerated 2687
12' C L. 44%, Z6«C
2850
R= "Large"
20- 100ft, R 5802
25-36%o R 5802
in >itu 32%c ;6%, 5549
19-31«j R 5502
B re eding 5 764 , 5 766
33. S-34. l%o S772
37. 5-67. 5%cR 26S7
Max. 67.5%,
-------
Oligocottu*
maculosuB
O. snvrieri
Osn ie rua mordax
Pg_^Qj?_hryg
_vg.tul._us v
fiirppl^rvii
vmalu* See B.
Pavo^-hr^a
VCtail.s
P;wlis clemensl
Flatirhthvs
{HcllaUUiB
nu- 1 -x r.t? s t i c tu»
Quietula y«cauda
Raja diaphane*
Raii erinacea
Ra^a radiata
ReiTiicola
muse u ram
Koccua saxatilis
Roccas saxatiUs
5a rdinoga sagax
(cagruica)
Sardinnr»3 sagax
(caoriA_Iea)
Sebastodes alutus
Sjqualua acanthiaa
Thunnus alalunt^a
Trachurus
sytiimetricus
Tr.ichurus
sy.nmetricua
Trach.iru*
sv.v.mttricw
** ParopHvrvs vetulua
»2-z'.s-c Q .2.,
° 21-75%, H n
2-28*C 30'C 1-50%.
2.3-18'C- 21.5-
28. 5"C
E 2. 3-13. 8- C Extremes Viable 10. 6+0.4'C Hatched at Consumption
Blow 2.3-18-C Hatch ~ 4-13* C 0. 560g/embryo/. viable hatch
6. 5-10- C hr. 20-32%,
E Won't hatch In situ
at 2* C 20-34%,
8.8-10. 5' C
E Embryo
Oevel. 12. 5* C
E Hatch
7-9- C
max. critical Mar. 37. 4+. 1'C fc
37*C Sept. 42. 3+0. 3«C
28. 6 t,
29. 0*C
30.2'C(2 small)
29. 1-29. S'C
(2 large)
3 died at 26.5-
26. 9- C
14- C
A 45-80- F
J 55-70-F Can't tolerate
45- F
11-27. 4-C Spawns 12.5-
16. 5-C
Dev. Impaired
13-C
4-5-- 14- C Spawn. 3.8-
4.2-C
28. 5 - 29. 1- C
16. 3-22. 8- C
A 10-19.5-C
L 14-16- C Spawn. 14-
15. 5-C
E 14 - 16- C 15. 5-C 10-19. 5-C
- development time; 5C% hatching ranged from 3.5 days at 12- C and 25%oS to 11. 8 days at
2687
25*.
Hatch 10-40%,
28%.
30%.
5614
5614
3818
5755
5741
-1'C and 25%o S. Between 6-12*C development time to 50% hatching was delayed by salinities above and
below 25%o. At 4'C hatching seemed to be accelerated by salinities greater and smaller than 25%».
Key N,-it. Hatch. = Natural Hatch conditions
Hatch Exp. = Hatch Experiment conditions
T. = Ttmperature
M^x. Surv. - Maximum Su-rvival
R. = Ean^e
L, •- Ltthal
-------
General information about the temperature of the water of the natural en-
vironment of fishes is also occasionally found in the literature. Information
on breeding and spawning especially for commercial species, although
meager, is best known for this group. For marine fish the scarcity of
temperature data becomes more important. Many studies have revealed
that temperature is an important factor in the development, longevity and
distribution of various species. However, the information is woefully in-
complete. Obviously, the fish are living in areas whose temperature is
suitable to their life cycle and diet. But in very few cases is it known how
much of an increase or decrease in temperature a particular species can
tolerate without upsetting its delicate metabolism, disturbing the develop-
ment of its young, and altering its own position in the food chain.
The summary of available temperature information clearly indicates the
need for high quality temperature measurements, on a wide variety of
outer coastal marine species. Especially important would be studies on
early life stages and effects of change in temperature on coastal habits
such as feeding and migration. Such studies will be useful only if suffi-
cient background information is simultaneously collected to make comparisons
and inferences. Concentrated efforts must be made to determine the critical
organisms from a biological, economic, and practical standpoint and obtain
as much i.n situ temperature information as possible. It is evident that one
of the first goals to do this type of research will be the development and
standardization of methods. A similar finding was derived by Parker and
Krenkel (3222) who made the following statement;
"The authors would like to stress the need for future investi-
gators to conform to a standard methodology in determining tem-
perature effects on the biota. For example, information on maxi-
mum lethal temperatures is rather useless unless simlutaneous
data are collected on the acclimating time, the length of time the
fish (and other organisms-authors) are exposed to temperature,
the rate of change of temperature, the size of the animal, the
condition of the organism, the salinity and dissolved oxygen con-
centration and the concentrations of ions which might be synergistic
or antagonistic to the effects of increased temperature (Doudoroff,
1957). Furthermore, even if the animals die or were dying at
these temperatures, many experiments do not disclose if sublethal,
irreversible physiological reactions had occurred well below the
so-called upper lethal limit (de Sylva, 1969). "
244
-------
Other Factors
Temperature is not the only factor which affects the distribution and abund-
ance of marine organisms. Physical factors such as salinity, dissolved
oxygen, light, turbidity and pH are also important. Previous reviews of
the literature on the combined effects of temperature and salinity are limited
to Kinne's (Z378) discussion. In discussing the effects of physical factors
on marine organisms, we must remember that animals and plants do not com-
partmentalize the various physical and biotic factors in their environment.
The organisms see the combined effects of all of the complex interacting
environmental factors and a small change in one may have a significant
effect on some other factor (Kinne, 2379; Hedgpeth and Gonor, 3856).
Our review of supplementary physical factors was not as extensive as that
for temperature; we feel a quick perusal of Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3
will indicate the appalling lack of supplemental factors for almost every
species.
Salinity information was found for 28 species of marine invertebrates
from our area (Table 19-2) and 1 2 species of fishes (Table 19-3). These
data can generally be broken into two groups--optimum salinity which
generally corresponds to a given temperature and salinity range which,
like the temperature range, is not comparable between species.
Oxygen data are meager. Several studies confirmed the increase of O?
consumption with increasing temperature. The importance of O_ may be
a matter of concern only seasonally, if at all. Information on pH is recorded
for seven species of marine algae, and this in an abstract of an unpublished
report by Blinks (2949).
In view of the fact that there is so much variance in the amount and the
quality of temperature, salinity and other physical data on the organisms
of the outer coast of the Pacific Northwest we strongly recommend referring
to specific entries in Chapter 20, or to appendix 8.
The effects of other factors such as chemical pollutants are found in Chapters
15, 16, and 17.
245
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Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST SPECIES
OR SPECIES GROUPS
by James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock
This chapter presents comprehensive summaries of the information
collected for 20 selected species or species groups which we concluded
were important. Importance is a highly subjective concept often
reflecting the views of the writer. It, therefore, becomes necessary
for the writer to state his position when selecting a group of species
which he wishes to call important. To derive such a list we
reviewed the amassed literature available on species from the region
of our study. This literature involved more than four thousand
species; most included simply reports of the species occurring in
the region. From this literature review a checklist of the species
from the region was compiled; this list, with appropriate annotations,
is included in this report as Appendix 8. Among the species included
in this list, a few stood out as being much more thoroughly studied
than the rest. The reasons for this more intensive study were
usually rooted in the economic importance of the species, but in some
.cases were related to abundance or to other less specific factors.
Although 20 species or species groups are included in this Chapter,
we do not intend to infer that these are the only important species
in the region of our study. The listing is comprised mostly of fishes,
probably because this group has been subjected to a great deal of
study by State and Federal fishery agencies and by other interested
groups. Many species have been omitted from this Chapter simply
because there is not enough information available to allow us to
assess their importance in the nearshore marine community.
In this Chapter the ecology of each of the 20 species (or species groups)
has been described. Data on such environmental factors as temperature
and salinity have been discussed fully but information of other factors
sometimes is limited to a literature reference. Whereas most of the
literature used to derive the big checklist (Appendix 8) has referred"
to the Pacific Northwest, more distant sources were included in these
detailed studies.
The assembled information included here should be useful in
quickly determining significant basic facts about some of the important
organisms of the region and, perhaps more importantly, should point
out those areas in which more research is needed.
246
-------
We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Emory Sutton,
Mrs., Nancy Blind, and Mrs. Dianne Dean for their assistance in
compiling this information.
The species (or species groups) are arranged alphabetically by
scientific name except for the group Phytoplankton which comes first.
The following are included:
Page
1. Phytoplankton 247
2. Clupea harengus pallasi. (Pacific herring) 251
3. Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner perch) 253
4. Cancer magister (Dungeness crab) 255
5. Engraulis mordax (Northern anchovy) 259
6. Eopsetta jordani (Petrale sole, brill) 262
7. Hippoglossus stenolepis (Pacific halibut) 263
8. Macrocystis spp. (Giant kelps) 266
9. Merluccius productus (Pacific hake) 269
10. Microstomus pacificus (Dover sole) 272
11. Mytilus californianus (Sea mussel) 273
12. Oncorhynchus spp. (Pacific salmon, five species) 277
13. Ophiodon elongatus (Ling cod) 283
14. Parophrys vetulus (English sole) 285
15. Pandalus jordani (Pink shrimp) 288
16. Sardinops sagax (Pacific sardine) 291
17. Sebastodes alutus (Pacific ocean perch) 294
18. Siliqua patula (Razor .clam) ' 296
19. Thallichthys pacificus (Columbia River smelt) 300
20. Trachurus symmetricus (Jack mackerel) 301
1. Phytoplankton
by Emory Sutton
The knowledge of the inshore marine phytoplankton of the area may
be divided into three categories (1) taxonomy and distribution
(2) community structure (3) physiological responses to elevated
temperature. It is advantageous to discuss these three categories
separately so that the need for additional work may be easier to assess.
247
-------
Taxonomy and species distribution
A review of the literature concerning species distribution reveals
that a large number of species are present wherever a taxonomist
is found, and that the phytoplankters in the areas between the focal
points of taxonomists are poorly known. The region with which we
are concerned is located between two such focal points and it must
be inferred in many cases that an organism exists in this area
because it exists both at the northern and southern sites of taxonomic
study. It may be further pointed out that both of the extensive studies
(Cupp off southern California; 7000, and Gran and Angst in Puget
Sound, 3527) were done over thirty years ago. Since that time
taxonomy has been largely a by-product of some other aspect of
planktonology and not the result of work by a full-scale taxonomist.
By contrast, Hendey (7039) has done quite a thorough study of the
British coastal waters. This work was begun in the mid 1930's
however.
What is needed for this area is a sampling program which would
give an adequate picture of what organisms are found in the coastal
waters of the region under consideration. This -would take at least
a year since different organisms appear at different times of the
year. The validity of the fl.ora of Puget Sound (Phifer, 7017;
Gran &: Angst, 3527) might be questioned at this time due to the
influence of increased population, since 1930, in the Puget Sound
region. Another problem with the species distribution analysis is
the fact that few people are active in the field of taxonomy. The
University of Washington and Oregon State University both have
preserved samples from off the Oregon coast but so far no publications
have come from these samples which represent years of data.
Community structure
This aspect of marine phytoplankton research cannot actually be
separated from part (1) since the factors which control the distribution
of species also act to control the community composition at any
given location. It is this phase of research which should concern
the individuals engaged in determining the possible effects of elevated
temperature on the marine phytoplankton. So little is known about
248
-------
the effects on community structure of a changing environment that
we cannot even predict with any certainty what will happen when
we change just one factor, temperature. It has been observed
(7032) in Monterey Bay, California, that when the temperature of
the water warmed from 12°C to 14UC the diatoms were displaced
as the dominant organisms by species of Peridinium, Gonyaulax,
and Ceratium with accompanying red tide and bioluminescence.
When studying the effect of temperature variation on phytoplankton,
the situation is complicated by the combined interactions between
the organism, the community of light, nutrients, and temperature.
This is the one point upon which many phytoplanktonologists and
ecologists are agreed (Oppenheimer, 7041). In the laboratory the
light and nutrient variables may be controlled and the effects of
temperature examined before any predictions may be made on
the possible effects on the phytoplankton community of the intro-
duction of effluent of high temperature into the environment.
Physiological responses to elevated temperatures
So little has been done in this area that in a recent publication
Strickland and Eppley (7038) devoted less than two pages to the
effects of temperature on the kinetics of marine phytoplankton
growth. A number of investigators have looked at the thermal limits
of some marine phytoplankters but oftentimes they were looking
at different aspects of the organism's responses to thermal stress.
A partial listing of the work and findings of investigators using
organisms found in this area follows. Kain and Fogg (7002), while
studying Asterionella japonica, found that this organism had an optimum
temperature for growth at 20-25°C and a maximum of less than
30°C in culture. This is considerably higher than that found in the
natural situation in the region under consideration. However,
the effects of adding nutrients, trace elements, and vitamins to
the medium must be considered in such laboratory cultures.
Asterionella japonica is very common in the inshore region and
needs more attention before conclusions are drawn in regard
to the effects of thermal pollution. Thomas (7003) used another
organism which occurs in this region, Chaetoceros gracilis,
and found that this organism had a lower limit of 11 °C and an upper
limit of 41 °C with an optimum between 23 and 37 °C. Skeletonema
costatum has been the subject of considerable research on the
249
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influence of temperature on physiological processes. This
organism is important in the neritic phytoplankton and is of ubiquitous
distribution. Jorgensen and Nielsen (7006) found that photosynthesis
was little affected by temperature in the range 7-20°C. Curl and
McLeod (7008) found this organism to be tolerant of temperatures
5-30°C and reported that Matsue had found a tolerance to 37-40°C.
Jitta e_t al. (7009) studied the cell division of Skeletonema costatum
and found that it would tolerate temperatures from 6°C to more
than 28 °C. Braarud (7012) found that this organism grew well
at!7-18°C. Ryther and Guillard (7015) found that SL costatum grew
from 5 to 25 °C.
The problem of assigning a label of "important" to a species of the
phytoplankton is nearly impossible whether it be for scientific or
economic reasons. Little is known about the effect on the higher
trophic levels of changing phytoplankton community structure.
Some studies have been done on the feeding preferences of copepods
with respect to diatom shape by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Laboratory at Auke Bay, Alaska. It has been suggested that the
diatom Chaetoceros armatum might be a principal food organism
for the razor clam along the Washington coast. If this is so then
this organism should be investigated with respect to its physiological
ecology. The diatom Skeletonema costatum is important because
of its ubiquity and its role in phytoplankton research. Chaetoceros
decipiens is important because of its abundance off the Oregon coast.
A group of organisms which is probably important but largely
unknown are the various unicellular flagellated forms which are
not studied because of the difficulty involved. These small
flagellates abound in the estuaries and inshore regions of the area
especially in the spring and summer months. A concentrated
effort is needed to gain some knowledge as to the distribution and
physiology of these organisms as well as their interrelations with
the higher trophic levels.
The fact is clear that there can be little possibility of assigning
importance values to the phytoplankters until there is more known
about their interrelationships with the next higher trophic level. The
fact that an organism which occurs in abundance in an area may
be displaced by another organism when the environmental conditions
change is important.
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In conclusion it might be said that the need at present is to find
out,what organisms are occurring in the area, the dynamics of
change in population size, and the dynamics of change in community
structure and then to find how a change in temperature changes the
above. The phytoplankton are small and easily overlooked when
concentrating attention on larger economically important species.
2. Clupea harengus pallasi (Valenciennes) (Pacific Herring)
by Nancy Blind
The Pacific herring is probably the most important fish in the
northeastern Pacific area. Not only is it important because of
the large commercial fishery it forms but also because of the
great number of animals that feed upon herring eggs, larvae and
adults.
The range of the herring is from Kamchatka to the San Diego area
(Schultz and DeLacy, 2049), with the largest fishery being in
British Columbia and Washington. The herring is fished commercially
in the fall when it begins to move inshore toward the spawning
grounds (Thompson, 2444).
Spawning takes place primarily in bays and estuaries along the
Pacific coast, in winter and spring. In British Columbia, spawning
is from mid-February to mid-April, with the peak occurring
slightly earlier in southern British Columbia than in the northern
area (Taylor, 5530). :
The eggs are laid in the intertidal zone from approximately 0 to
4 meters above the low tide level (Taylor, 5530). Some sources
extend the area of egg deposition to a depth of 30 ft. (Fulton, 3635).
The spawn adheres to gravel, pilings, oysters and vegetation such
as Zpstera marina, Phyllospadix scouleri, Sargassum muticum,
Fucus evanescens, and Laminaria sp. (Taylor, 5530).
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Temperature and Larvae^
Hatching time of the eggs has been shown to be temperature dependent.
In the natural environment, the water temperature is around 3-6°C
and at this temperature, hatching occurs in 20-22 days. When
the temperature is raised to 9-10°C, hatching takes 14-15 days,
and when increased to 12-14°C, the eggs hatch in 9 days
(Nikitinskaya, 5673). The larvae are very small, thin and nearly
transparent and are easily sucked into water intake pipes (Fulton,
3635). They can withstand large ranges of temperature and
salinity. At the end of the first year, the larvae leave the bays
and sounds for the open ocean (Taylor, 5530).
Migration
Maturity is reached after 2, 3, or 4 years and herring may live 8
years (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). Tagging of juveniles showed
52% homing after 2 years at large and 64% after 3 years, by sub-
district, which is defined as the region occupied by an adult
population. Adults showed 81% and 92% homing (Hourston, 5666).
Analyses of vertebral counts and tagging data also show that there
is more than one population along the west coast of Vancouver
Island. Each has a separate run and there is very little mixing
between populations (Tester, 5680). The largest migratory
populations form the greatest part of the fishery (Taylor, 5678).
Feeding
The herring is primarily a plankton feeder (Clemens and Wilby, 2390)
and (Fulton, 3635). However, in Little Port Walter, Alaska, herring
were observed feeding on Qncorhynchus gorbuscha fry. The greatest
predation, in this instance seemed to be in daylight (Thorsteinson,
5681).
Predators
Most importantly, it is a food source for innumerable marine
animals. Herring eggs are eaten by fish and other filter feeders
such as jelly fish, combjellies and crustaceans (Clemens and
Wilby, 2390). Primary predators on herring eggs are the marine
252
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birds. It has been estimated that mortality due to bird predation
ranges between 56% and 99% (Taylor, 5530). Losses up to 39%
within the first 3 days after spawning were calculated from predation
by the glaucous-winged gull and the herring gull alone. This was
calculated for eggs laid mainly on vegetation. Of the two, the
glaucous-winged gull consumed less vegetation and more spawn
than did the herring gulls (Outram, 5661). Larvae near the surface
are also preyed upon heavily (Taylor, 5530).
Larger herring are eaten by sharks, fishes, waterfowl, seals
and sea lions (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). Stomach analyses of
1004 salmon (Oacorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in the year of
October 1954 to October 1955, showed that 12. 7% of the stomach
contents was Clupea pallasii (Merkel, 5669). Herring is the principal
food of the Alaskan fur seal during the spring (Scheffer, 5674).
Ninety-nine percent of the food of 148 mature female Callorhinus
ursinus taken in January and March was jC. pallasi. Also, one
harbor porpoise (Phocoena vomerian) taken had fed entirely on
herring (Wilke and Kenyon, 5682).
Very little has been done on temperature tolerances and we found
no information concerning the effects of various chemicals or
pollutants on the herring.
Other studies on the Pacific herring include:
Fecundity - Piskunov, 5671; Katy and Erickson, 5664; McHugh, 5668.
Egg description and fertilization information - Yanagimachi, 5690,
5691, 5692; Yanagimachi and Kaneh, 5693.
Fishery - Taylor, 5530; Kithama, 5665; Tester, 5529.
For catch data see - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Current
Fishery statistics; U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
Statistical Digest (Pacific Coast Fisheries).
Synonyms: Clupea pallasii, C. mirabilis
3. Cymatogaster aggregata (Gibbons) (Shiner perch)
by Nancy Blind
The shiner perch, a fish of relatively small commercial value,
is of particular interest because it is so numerous along the Pacific
coast and because it bears live young. Sometimes called the pile
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perch, it is common around docks and pilings. According to Schultz
and DeLacy (2049) the range of C. aggregata extends from approxi-
mately Port Wrangel, Alaska to Todos Santos Bay in Baja California.
Life history
The reproductive cycle of this fish has been the subject of much
study. Copulation occurs in mid-summer; sperm is retained in
the ovary of the female until December when fertilization takes
place (Wiebe, 5800; Eigenmann, 5736). The embryos are then
held until parturition in mid-summer.
Temperature studies
Temperature and photoperiod seem to have a definite effect on
the reproductive cycle of _C. aggregata. Increasing or long photo-
period, such as in late winter, spring or early summer, results
in spermatogenesis, development of secondary sex structures
and reproductive behavior. Warm temperatures also enhance this.
Cold temperatures and short photoperiod, as in winter, result in
testicular restitution and growth of spermatogonia (Wiebe, 2484).
In the female, warm, temperatures as in late summer and early
autumn aid in oocyte formation. Cold temperature as in late winter
helps oocyte maturation. Early gestation is aided by cold temperatures
but warmer temperatures are required later on (Wiebe, 2484).
Adults regulate to dilutions from 20% to 100% sea water, but the
ability of the young to regulate was proportional to their stage of'
development. The youngest stages could only regulate -well between
25-36% sea water due to greater permeability and less efficient
salt secretory mechanisms (Triplett and Barrymore, 5802).
Cymatogaster aggregata is more resistant to changes in oxygen
content or carbon dioxide content of sea water than either the salmon,
Qncorhynchus kisutch, or the herring, Clupea pallasii. This was
in keeping with the fact that the alkali reserve of the blood plasma
of_C. aggregata changes very rapidly with changes in carbon dioxide
tension of sea water (Powers and Shipe, 2575).
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The pile perch is found in shallow waters during the summer and
in deeper waters in the winter. They eat small crustaceans and
other invertebrates (2390). There is a record of a massive kill
of C^. aggregata in British Columbia due to hydrogen-sulfide
production during a dredging operation (Hourston and Herlinreaux,
5797).
Other important studies include:
Reproduction - Wiebes, 5800; Turner, 5801; Eigenmann, 5736;
and Wilson and Millemann, 5799.
4. Cancer magister Dana (Dungeness crab)
by Diane Dean
The Dungeness crab is one of the largest edible crabs of the United
States. It is also known as the Pacific crab, market crab, commercial
crab, and white crab (3361 , 3342), ranging from the Alaskan Peninsula
(Aleutian Islands) to Magdalena Bay in lower California (Rees,
3275; MacKay, 3363). It occurs within bays and estuaries as
well as on the open ocean floor preferring sandy or sandy-mud
bottoms but found on all types (Waldron, 3232; Dewberry, 3356;
MacKay, 3363). The crab is found at varying depths. Rees (3275)
stated 12-120 feet and Dewberry (3356) stated from low tide to
an average of 50 fathoms. Other reports are from 2-20 fathoms
(Hipkins, 3361), 40-60 fathoms (Cleaver, 3333) and from inter tidal
zone to 93 fathoms (Kenyon and Scheffer, 3372). Butler (3611)
has compiled an extensive bibliography for this species. 3
Life history
The diet of the Dungeness crab consists of small fish, shrimp,
small crabs, marine worms, isopods, amphipods, barnacles,
clams, oysters and other shell fish, preferring fresh, live food
or recently dead to stale food (Dewberry, 3356; Waldron, 3282;
MacKay, 3363). It is mainly carnivorous and -will eat other
crabs in the soft-shelled stage (Dewberry, 3356).
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Reproduction and life cycle
The female is usually 90 to 100 mm wide and about two years of age
at sexual maturity ( Cleaver, 3333;. Butler, 3329). The males
reach sexual maturity at a carapace width of 11 6 mm. Breeding
activity begins at about 140 mm carapace width or when the crab
is 3 years old (Butler, 3329). At the onset of maturity there is
a definite segregation between males and females as shown by lack
of uniform distribution (Cleaver, 3333; Dewberry, 3356). In British
Columbia mating takes place from April to September on the tidal
flats. Males are polygamous (Dewberry, 3356). In Washington,
mating takes place during May and June (Cleaver, 3333). Hatching
takes place from December to June with the height in March in
British Columbia (MacKay, 3356). In Oregon waters hatching
takes place from December to April (Trask, 3279).
Larvae or "protozoea" swim to the surface of the water and moult
to zoea stages. Crab larvae are attracted by light and at times in
May and June in Washington waters they swarm near shore at the
surface of the water. Later in life they show an aversion to light
(Cleaver, 2039).
Poole (3273) reared larvae in the laboratory and watched them
'develop through six larval stages, five zoea and one megalopa
which metamorphoses directly to the first crab instar (Reed, 3274).
Development occurred in salinities from 26-30%o at a temperature
of 51 °F. Total development time from egg to first crab instar
was 111 days. High mortality during transitions appeared to be
due to inability of larvae to break completely away from casts.
Under natural conditions sand may aid.in shedding casts. Food
for the zoea was Artemia nauplii. The megalops fed on larger
brine shrimp (Poole, 3273). Natural development in the ocean
appears tb take from 128 to 158 days. Under natural conditions
the zoea feed on microscopic plants and minute marine animals
(Dewberry, 3356). Crab larvae are eaten by a number of aquatic
animals, among them fish such as silver salmon, herring, pilchard,
mackerel and wolf eel, and also sea birds (Fish Commission of
Oregon, 3319; Waldron, 3282; Dewberry, 3356).
256
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The megalops is cannibalistic and preys on small crustaceans,
crab eggs, and dying and dead planktonic life (Dewberry, 3356).
The megalops stage shows up about the month of August (Dewberry,
3356; Butler, 3332) and eventually loses its ability to swim,
sinking to the sea bed where it burrows into the sand and mud and
continues to molt (Dewberry. 3356).
Trask (3279) reared Cancer magister and Cancer productus in
the laboratory and indicated how to separate the larval stages of
these two species. He did not describe in detail the physical
conditions under which they -were reared.
Temperature and salinities
MacKay (3397) reported that the crabs' distribution is bounded
by surface water isotherms of 75 and 40°F and one report of
temperature-salinity range for the Dungeness crab is from 38-65 °F
and from ll-32%o. Crabs can't live in fresh water, and adult
crabs retreat before a freshet. Juvenile crabs appear to have a
wider tolerance for they are commonly found in estuaries with
salinities less than 1 0%o ( Cleaver , 3333).
In culturing zoeae, Reed (3092) found the optimum lab-culturing
ranges of temperature and salinities to be 10. 0-1 3.9 °C and
25-30%o respectively. Faster zoeal development with lower
survival rate occurred at 17.8°C and 20-30%o. The effects of
temperature and salinity alone on zoeae didn't seem to cause large
fluctuations in zoeal survival, but reduced temperature and resulting
prolonged zoeal development combined with current transport may
effect survival of post larval crabs.
The Dungeness crabs are extremely susceptible to drying (Cleaver,
3333), but can be kept alive for 2-8 hours if their gills are kept
moist (Hipkins, 3361; Dewberry, 3356).
Migration
Both sexes show characteristic migratory patterns (Dewberry, 3356),
A predominant south to north movement occurs during spring and
summer months (January to June). Two other migratory patterns
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are (1) on and off-shore and (2) coast wise. Tagged specimens
travel average distances of 10-12 nautical miles after six months'
freedom. One long migration was recorded from Grays Harbour
to Tillamook Bay, Oregon, a distance of more than 148 km
(Cleaver, 3333). Waldron (3282) found that the average non-
directional distance travelled was 15 km (range 0-250 km).
Crabs released in bays averaged non-directional distance of
8 km (range 0-150 km). Snow and Wagner (3278) and Butler (3331)
also made tag-migration studies.
Predation
Crab larvae have numerous enemies, and the adult is also subject
to prey. After molting it is defenseless. Enemies include the
conger eel, wolf eel, cod, dog fish, halibut, skate rays, nurse
hound sharks, marbled sculpin, rock fish, octopus and other crabs.
Cannibalism takes place when one crab is in the soft-shelled state
(Waldron, 3282; Dewberry, 3356; Gray, 3358).
Economic importance
Crabs are economically important. The Pacific Coast states
produce over 15,800 metric tons of shell crab with a value of at
least $5. 5 million to the fishermen (Poole, 3273). The crabs are
marketed as frozen, whole or dressed crabs and cooked meat
is sold fresh or canned (Walburg, 3287). California leads in
catches followed by Oregon, Washington and then Alaska (Rees, 3275).
Other important studies include:
Molting and regeneration - Dewberry, 3356; Phillips, 3405;
MacKay, 3363; Walburg, 3287.
Mating behavior - Snow and Nielson, 3277; MacKay, 3363 .
Egg development - MacKay, 3363.
Growth and development - Butler, 3222 and 3321; Dewberry, 3356;
MacKay and Weymouth, 2067-
Physiological studies - Jones, 3362; Davenport, 3344; Collip, 3129;
Goode, 3318.
Needed research:
Although much work has been done on Cancer magister, no "in situ"
studies describing the effects of environmental changes on the life
cycle and ecology were found.
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5. Engraulis mordax (Girard) (Northern anchovy)
by Nancy Blind
The northern anchovy is probably the most abundant fish in the
northeastern Pacific ranging from the Queen Charlotte Islands in
British Columbia to Cape San Lucas, Baja California. The largest
concentration is found from San Francisco Bay to Magdalena Bay
(Baxter, 5697). Meristic characters such as the number of gill
rakers, vertebrae and fin rays, indicate three subpopulations along
the Pacific coast (McHugh, 5696). The first population extends
from British Columbia to central California, the second from southern
California to northern Baja California, and the third from central
to southern Baja California (Baxter, 5697). There seems to
exist for each characteristic an inverse relationship between the
mean number of meristic elements and the water temperature during
the fixation period in the larval stage (McHugh, 5696).
The anchovy, a pelagic fish inhabiting coastal waters, is found well
below the surface during the day and in the upper layers at night
(McHugh and Fitch, 5621). No north-south migrations have been
noted but the fish move offshore during fall and winter and inshore
during the spring (Baxter, 5697). Tagging studies indicate no
significant movement for this species (Wood and Robson, 5706;
Messersmith, 5703). At times when the water temperature is
warmer than usual, fewer adults are found in inshore waters
(Baxter, 5697).
Biology
Spawning occurs over the entire range but is concentrated from
Point Conception, California, to Point San Juanico, Baja California.
The peak of the spawning period is in late winter and early spring,
however spawning does occur in every month of the year. Although
anchovies spawn as far as 480 km from shore, most spawning takes
place within 90 km. Each female spawns 2-3 times each year. The
eggs and larvae are pelagic and are found in the upper layers
(Baxter, 5697).
259
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Off California, eggs are found in temperatures ranging from
9. 9 to 23. 3°C with most between 13. 0 and 17. 5°C. Ten percent
of the spawning takes place below 13.0°C (Baxter, 5697). Bolin
(5726) indicated that spawning occurred regularly at 10°C. The
threshold temperature for spawning seems to be 11.5 or 12. 0°C.
Fertilization is immediate and apparently very successful since
unfertilized eggs are uncommon (Baxter, 5697).
Hatching occurs in 2-4 days depending on the water temperature.
Larvae taken in California are found from 10. 0 to 19. 7°C with
95% being present in temperatures from 14. 0 to 17.4°C. Some
were taken in the upper 23 meters but the main concentration
seemed to be between 24-48 meters. The larvae are 2. 5 to 3. 0 mm
at hatching (Baxter, 5697) and colorless, in contrast to most fish
larvae which have some pigmentation (Ahlstrom, 5724).
The growth rate is very rapid, however, there seems to be a
decrease in growth rate from August to November (Baxter, 5697).
Clark (5694) found that fifty percent of the females reach maturity
in 2-3 years. All are mature by the time they reach a length of
150 mm or by 4 years. The anchovy is relatively short-lived, with
a life span of approximately four years.
Feeding
Food is primarily organisms less than one mm in length filtered
from the water. Larvae feed on crustaceans, especially copepods.
Adults feed also by biting on larger organisms. In this sense,
they are somewhat cannibalistic, since they occasionally prey on
smaller anchovies. Although they seem to prefer larger organisms,
anchovies will not abandon filtration unless other organisms are
in abundance (Baxter, 5697).
Ecology
Along the Pacific coast, there is a close competition between
the anchovy and the sardine (Sardinops sagax). The competition
seems to be that of two animals occupying the same trophic level
(Ahlstrom, 5698) and is evident from the larval stages of both fish.
Both sardine and anchovy are abundant in the same area and eat
260
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nearly the same food (Baxter, 5697). Indications are that anchovy
larvae can consume larger food particles than can sardine larvae
(Berner, 5725), perhaps, giving it an advantage. However, it
will be noted that the sardine is present in the Gulf of Mexico, an
area which has not yet been invaded by the anchovy (Ahlstrom, 5698).
Since 1954, the sardine population along the Pacific coast has
greatly decreased while the anchovy has increased. Recent surveys
show that eggs of the sardine are outnumbered .not only by the eggs
of Engraulis mordax, but also of Merluccius productus, Trachurus
symmetricus and Sebastodes spp. The anchovy now appears to be
the dominant species.
Freda tion
Enemies of the anchovy include nearly every species of predatory
fish. Not much is known about the percent of the anchovy population
consumed by the various species. Available data shows that in
California, the anchovy comprises 12. 8% of the food of Senola
dorsalis and 29. 1% of Qncorhynchus kisutch (Baxter, 5697).
It is also the main food in summer and fall for Roccus saxatilis
in San Francisco Bay (Johnson and Calhoun, 5695).
Tempe ratur e s tudie s
From 1955 to 1964, samples of anchovy taken along the California
coast -were taken in water temperatures ranging from 8. 5 to 25. 0°C.
Of 617 samples from northern California to Magdalena Bay, 75.9%
were taken between 14. 5 and 20. 0°C. From southern California to
northern Baja California, 340 samples were taken in 8. 5 to 21,. 5°C and
72. 5% of these were between 14. 5°C and 18. 5°C. Of 277 samples
taken in central to southern Baja California waters of 13.0 to
25. 0°C, 65% were from water between 17. 0 and 21. 5°C (Baxter, 5697).
Economic importance
There are two fisheries for the anchovy: the commercial and the
live bait fishery. The commercial fishery is concerned with fresh,
frozen, or salted fish for human or pet food; dead bait; feed for
hatcheries or mink farms and reduction of waste parts to meal and
oil. The anchovy comprises 98% of the live bait fishery (Baxter,
5697). It is mainly used in fishing for albacore. Most indications
are that the anchovy fisheries can be exploited to a greater extent
in the future (Prater, 2571).
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Other important studies are:
Fecundity - Baxter, 5697.
Eggs - Ahlstrom, 5724.
Photoreception and light intensity - O'Connell, 5700; Loukashkin, 5704.
Catch Statistics for California (other states not available) from
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest. No. 55-60.
6. Eopsetta jordani (Lockington) (Petrale sole, brill)
by Nancy Blind
In older literature, the name may appear as Hippoglossoides
jordani (241 6).
The range of the petrale sole extends from Unalaska to San Diego
Bay (Schultz and DeLacy, 2049) however it is fished commercially
only from Santa Barbara, California, to Hecate Strait, British
Columbia, with the main area of concentration being in northern
Washington and southern British Columbia (California Fish and Game,
5729).
Feeding
Eopsetta jordani is usually found on bottoms of a mixture of mud
and sand. Although little is known about its feeding habits,
the sole is reported to eat herring, sandlance, anchovies, euphausiids,
rockfish, flatfish, and zoarcids (Clemens and Wilby, 2390;
California Fish and Game, 5729; Cleaver, 5773).
Spawning and growth
Harry (5525, 5775) indicated that spawning takes place from
November to March throughout the range with the heaviest spawning
being in December and January. The eggs are probably free floating;
very little information is available on development (California Fish
and Game, 5729).
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Comparison of meristic characters indicate the existence of two
main stocks in the northern Pacific area: one extends from Hecate
Strait to Trinidad Head, California, and the other one ranges from
central to southern California. This is accounted for by the stable
conditions of temperature and salinity -within the areas -where
spawning takes place. South of Point Conception, the salinity is
similar but the water temperature is 1. 0°C higher (Best, 5774).
Migration
Although there is little mixing of the two populations, tagging
studies indicate a north-south spawning migration (Ketchen and
Forrester, 5793; Barraclough, 5789; California Fish and Game,
5729). There is a northerly inshore feeding migration in the summer
and a southerly, offshore spawning movement in the -winter.
Spawning seems to take place in waters of about ZOO fathoms (California
Fish and Game, 5729). The average rate of migration is 3. 75 km/
day with the maximum for an individual being 7. 1 km/day (Best,
5774).
Additional important information on the petrale sole includes:
Trawling and catch data - Alverson and Pruter, 5735.
Feeding - California Fish and Game, 5729
Age, Growth and Size range Alverson and Pruter, 5735; California
Fish and Game, 5729; Cleaver, 5773; Harry, 5775; Ketchen
and Forrester, 5793.
7. Hippoglossus stenolepis Schmidt (Pacific halibut)
by Nancy Blind
The Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis Schmidt, forms the
basis for a significant industry along the Pacific Northwest coast.
It is widely distributed throughout the north Pacific, occurring
from Japan north into the Bering Sea and then southward along
the coast to northern California (Schultz and DeLacy, 2049). The
southern limit of the commercial fishery is Cape Mendocino,
California (Bell and Best, 5766).
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Life history
Information concerning the life history of the halibut is not extensive.
The fish occurs from very shallow water to depths around 1100 meters
although it is most numerous between 55-400 meters (Clemens
and Wilby, 2390). Along the Washington and Oregon coasts, no
halibut are taken commercially deeper than 367 meters. Most
of the fish were caught on the inner continental shelf and the number
taken decreased with increased depth. Halibut comprised 15% to
42% of all flounders caught on the inner shelf (Alverson, 5735).
Spawning
Spawning takes place during the winter, usually from November
to January, at depths of 275-400 meters (Clemens, 2390). The
fertilized eggs and early larvae rise to midwater depths and are
carried great distances by the ocean currents. The northward
drift of the larvae is counterbalanced to some extent by a general
southerly movement of the adults (Bell and Best, 5766). Studies
in the Gulf of Alaska show considerable movement eastward
(Thompson and Henington, 5765), presumably toward spawning
grounds over the continental slope (Thompson and Van Cleve,
5764).
Russian studies in the Bering Sea indicate that the halibut breeds
in water of temperature 2. 3° to 3. 5°C and salinity of 33. 5%0 to
34. 1%0 (Novikov, 5772). Thompson et al. (5764) report that the
larvae develop at 3. 5-6. 5 ° C.
After six to seven months, the larvae become demersal, usually
during May and June. Thompson and Van Cleve (5764) gave a
very detailed account of this as well as the taxonomic aspects of
the development of the eggs and larvae. Apparently, the young
halibut occupy somewhat shallower water than do the adults (Novikov,
5772). Females grow faster than males and have a longer life
span. Catches in the Bering Sea consisted of fish from 1 to 25
years of age. Males reach maturity sometime between their seventh
and thirteenth year and at lengths of 90 to 140 cm (Novikov, 5772).
Off the Oregon and Washington coasts, the range was 23 to 176 cm
with an average of 59. 2 cm (Alverson et al. , 5735).
264
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Food
Clemens and Wilby (2390) list food of the halibut as: various fish,
crabs, clams, squids and other invertebrates. There is some
indication that diet varies with age (Novikov, 2772).
Predators
Some of the halibuts' natural enemies are the sea lion (Eumetopeaj
stelleri), the "ground shark," the lamprey and other halibut
(Thompson, 2442).
Temperature and Distribution
The geographic distribution of the halibut has been analyzed -with
regard to temperature. Throughout the north Pacific it occurs in
boreal waters of 3-8°C. This also seems to be correlated with
the ocean current pattern. The southern limits of the commercial
fishery occur at 10-11°C and the northern limit is 2°C (Thompson
and Van Cleve, 5764). Optimum temperature for the halibut in
the Bering Sea was given as 1-10°C. This was considered to be
a wider range than evidenced for more southerly individuals (Novikov,
5772). Abundance of halibut broods and the temperature from 1910
has seemed to have a positive relationship 10 to 12 years later
(Ketchen, 5767).
Other important studies on the Pacific halibut include:
Size range - Alverson et al. , 5735
Fecundity - Alverson et_ al. , 5772
Egg size and composition - Thompson and Van Cleve, 5764
Growth - Southward, 5769
Food and Feeding - Thompson, 2442
Fishery - Thompson, 5762; Burkenroad, 5763; Southward, 5769, 5770
Catch statistics - see U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistical
digest for the years of interest.
Also see the publications by the International Halibut Commission
for additional information concerning catch statistics, regulation
and state of the fishery.
265
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8. Macrocystis^ spp. (Giant kelps)
by Diane Dean and Danil R. Hancock
Macrocystis , the giant kelp, forms the dominant plant community
of-sub-littoral, temperate, boreal and austral areas (MacFarland
and Prescott, 5817) growing along the North and South Pacific
coasts of the Western Hemisphere between 40 °N and 60 °S latitude.
In shallow (8-25 m) rocky regions of southern California Macrocystis
pyrifera is the dominant species in the climax community, while
further north M^ integrefolia increases in relative dominance.
In the Pacific Northwest, especially Puget Sound, the closely related
Nereocystis luetkeana (the bull kelp) becomes the dominant kelp.
Macrocystis attaches to rocks by means of a holdfast. Growth
tends to diminish with depth and below 30 m attached plants become
quite sparse (Anonymous, 5815; Leighton e_t al. , 5816). Kelp,
both directly and indirectly, is an important food source for man
and for nearshore animals. The extensive holdfast system and
the dense foliage canopy at the surface provides both food and
shelter for marine organisms and therefore the beds comprise
prize fishing areas (Leighton ej: a_l. , 5816). "Drift" seaweed,
of which Macrocystis often comprises a substantial portion, is
of importance and has often been observed on the sea floor in
areas much deeper than it normally grows (Anonymous, 5815).
Although agarophytes and edible seaweeds are often present in
abundance, giant kelp is the only marine plant in the California
region directly utilized by man and 90,000 metric tons (wet)
are harvested annually (approximate value, one million dollars).
It is also used as fertilizer, for food additives, and the upper .parts
are harvested for certain chemical constituents (North, 5811).
Most of our knowledge concerning the giant kelp communities are
the result of studies in southern California to determine the causes
for their decline since 1940.
266
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Growth and photosynthesis
The giant kelps extend from the bottom into the zones of bright
illumination providing a large surface area of photosynthetic
tissue and creating a zone of plant productivity in deeper water.
The stipes, pneumatocysts and blades are photosynthetic (Clendenning,
5812), but the vegetative blades are the main site of photosynthesis.
The sporophyll-is located directly above the holdfast. Spore
liberation apparently continues throughout the year eventually
giving rise to gametophytes. Gametophytes are dioecious, the
female producing the egg which can be fertilized by the sperm to
produce the spermatophyte, known as kelp. It requires about 1/2
year from the time of spore liberation to the development of a
sporophyte 18" high (Anonymous, 5815).
Temperature, salinity and water quality
Kelp growth probably increases about two-fold for a 10°C rise in
temperature (Leighton, 5816). Leighton cited Clendenning who
found a QIQ of 2. 0 for kelp photosynthesis and North who obtained
a value of 1.7 for frond elongation (Leighton et_ al. , 1966).
Temperatures above 18 °C may affect kelp adversely, increasing
with the length of time the high temperature is maintained. Beds
seem to deteriorate in warm water later in the summer and early
autumn but will revive in cold conditions (North, 5809).
There seems to be considerable geographic variation in the degree
of sensitivity of kelp to warm water (Anonymous, 5815). The
strains of Macrocystis in southern California exhibit sensitivity
to elevated water temperature and large quantities of kelp are
lost in summer if water temperature exceeds 20°C and persists
for several -weeks. A strain of kelp labelled "O" in Baja California
has greater resistance surviving temperatures of 24°C (North, 5809).
In a 90-day transplant experiment, plants kept at 1 5 meters
(temperature 15-1 8 °C; photosynthetically active light 5% of surface
intensity) doubled in area every 21 days and in length every 24 days.
267
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Plants growing at comparable depths on natural substrates doubled
in length every 24 to 34 days (Haxo and Neushal, 5818). For additional
information on temperature and transplants see North and Neushal
(5809).
Salinity does not seem to have a detrimental effect on photosynthesis
following an 18-hour exposure to salinity of 25%o higher or lower
than natural seawater. In a 5-day incubation period at 20 °C
photo synthetic capacity was lower in samples that had been exposed
to seawater diluted 10% to 25% with distilled water. Water temperature
was held between 14-17 °C. At 18°C the kelp did not do well (Anonymous,
5815).
Discharge of effluent may cause changes in salinity and/or temperature
which could be significant in the immediate vicinity of an outfall,
but certainly not at greater distances. In fact, investigations into
the effects of discharged wastes on kelp have revealed that no
chemical or effluent tested was sufficiently toxic to account for
great losses in kelp (Anonymous, 5815).
Predation
Grazers use the kelp beds as a main supply of food. More obvious
grazers include fish, the abalone Haliotus fulgens; the wavy top,
Astraea undosa; the turban, Norriaia norrisii; the opaleye, Girella
nigricans; crustaceans; gastropods, and echinoids. Two important
urchins Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S_. purpuratus feed
on the sporophylls of the kelp (Leighton et^ al. , 5816; Anonymous,
5815). These sea urchins seem to be one of the most damaging
herbivores because they sever the stipe at the base (Leighton
j^t al. , 5816). Sewage may encourage urchins and cause a change
in the ecological balance between seaweed and grazers.
Predators of the urchins include: sheephead fish (Pimelometopon
pulchrum), the sun star (Pycnopodia helianthoidesj, the agile
sea star (Astrometris sertulifera), and the sea otter (Enhydra
lutris). Only the otter appears to be an effective controlling agent,
but it occurs in insignificant numbers (Leighton et al. , 5816).
268
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Leighton et_ al. (5816) showed that a rise in temperature from 5-1 5 °C
can increase the average daily algal consumption by £L purpuratus
from about 1. 7 to 6. 4% of body weight. Above 17 °C the consumption
rate declined. Over the range where rates increased, consumption
by urchins increased much more rapidly than the kelp growth
rates. Increased demands by grazers may occur during warm
water seasons when feeding rates may rise more rapidly than
plant growth rates.
Other important studies on the giant kelp include the following:
Measurements on respiration and chlorophyll MacFarland and
Prescott, 5817
Translocation of organic matter - Sargent and Lantrip, 5819
Growth - North, 5811
Transplantation - Anderson and North, 5813
Standing crop - MacFarland and Prescott, 5817; Anderson and
North, 5813
Grazing pressures - Leighton j^t al. , 5816
For further information on giant kelp see:
Clendenning, K. A. 1958. Quart. Prog. Rpt. Kelp Inv. Prog.
Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. IMR ref. 58-3, Oct-Dec,
1957, p. 6.
Clendenning, K. A. 1959. Physiological Studies on Giant Kelp.
Kelp Inv. Prog. Quart. Prog. Rpt. IMR ref. 59-9, Univ.
of Calif.
I. M. R. 1963. Kelp Habitat Improvement Proj. Final Rept.
1962-63. Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. I. M. R. ref. 63-13.
Leighton, D. L. I960. Quart. Prog. Rept. Kelp Inv. Prog.
Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. I. M. R. ref. 60-8, Jan-Mar,
I960, p. 28.
9. Merluccius productus (Ayers) (Pacific hake]
by Nancy Blind
The biology of the Pacific hake has recently been reviewed in
detail by the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (3081, 3082).
269
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The hake is pelagic and sometimes demersal. It ranges from the
Gulf of Alaska to the Gulf of California but it is commercially
concentrated from south Vancouver Island to Baja California.
It is usually taken near the bottom anywhere in shallow waters to
depths around 800 meters, and particularly between 45 and 500
meters (Alverson and Larkins, 5712), (Nelson and Larkins, 3081).
In Washington, the hake is most numerous from Grays Harbor
to the Columbia River at depths of 37 to 92 meters, most occurring
within 18 meters from the sea bed (5714).
Spawning
Spawning is pelagic in the open ocean and the greatest concentration
of eggs and larvae seems to be at about 200 meters. Larvae
are abundant very near the coast to 380 km from the coast off
southern California (Alverson and Larkins, 5712). Some hake
larvae have been found as far out to sea as 650 km., Along the
California coast, hake larvae are the most numerous species
taken (Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, 5729). The largest concentration
of eggs and larvae occurs at temperatures between 10. 6° and
15.0°C in southern California (Ahlstrom and Counts, 5728).
Nelson and Larkins (3081) state larvae most often found with
or near the thermocline at temperatures 47. 5-65. 3°F. An
obvious lack of knowledge concerns the distribution and ecology
of the juvenile (1-3 yr. old) hake (Nelson and Larkins, 3081).
Adult hake usually mature between 3 and 4 years. There seems
to be a high natural mortality among adults which has been
estimated to be around 40% (Alverson and Larkins, 5712).
Migration and schooling^
The adult population occupies the northern part of the range in
spring, summer, and fall; and the southern part in the winter
(Alverson and Larkins, 5712). This may be associated with
spawning which occurs primarily in January through April (Calif.
Dept. Fish & Game, 5729). During the summer, length-frequency
data shows a lack of juveniles off Washington, but an abundance
off southern California. This, too, indicates some north-south
migration. Migration patterns suggest that there is one homogeneous
stock off the Pacific coast. Genetic studies also indicate a single
270
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population throughout the range (Nelson and Larkins, 3081). This
population may perhaps aggregate during the spawning season
(Alverson and Larkins , 5712).
Feeding
Off the Washington coast, the main foods of the hake are the
euphausiids Thysanoessa spinifera and Euphausia jaacifica, and
the pink shrimp Pandalus jordani ( U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
5713; Nelson and Larkins, 3081; and Gotshall, 5730). In addition,
the hake also eats some small fishes and squids (Clemens and Wilby,
2390). Alton and Nelson (3082) have recently published a complete
review of the feeding of the Pacific hake.
Predators
No specific major predators have been listed for the hake. The
dog-fish shark, Squalus acanthias, has been observed eating hake
(Shippen and Alton, 5639) and it can be assumed that probably any
one of the large predators will consume hake.
The interest in commercially fishing for hake has risen considerably
in the last ten years. With the use of special techniques, the hake
can be easily and profitably reduced to meal and oil (Dyer e_t al. , 5731;
Alverson and Larkins, 5712). Also, it has recently been appearing
on the market in small numbers as fillets. It is still a large source
of animal food (Best and Nitsos, 5732). The standing stock in the
summer off Washington and Oregon has been estimated to be between
550 and 1,100 thousand metric tons. This means that the population
is second only to the anchovy, Engraulis mordax, in number
(Alverson and Larkins, 5712). There is no reason to doubt that
the hake may become even more important in the future.
Other important information on the Pacific hake includes:
Depth and Distribution - Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 5713.
Fecundity - MacGregor, 5637.
Vertical Migration - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 5713.
Catch Data - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistical digest for
years of interest.
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10. Microstomus pacificus (Lockington) (Dover sole]
by Nancy Blind and Danil R. Hancock
The Dover sole, which ranges from Alaska to Guadalupe Island,
Baja California, is one of the most important species of flatfish
along the Pacific coast. It inhabits deeper waters than most flatfish
and is found on muddy bottoms (Roedel, 2567; Clemens and Wilby,
2390). One fishery survey found Dover sole from 2 to 1090 meters
although catch rates were highest between 180 and 365 meters.
Off Washington and Oregon it was a dominant species, comprising
56-91% of the flatfish catch. It was found to be less abundant and
in shallower waters farther north (Alverson e_t aL , 5735).
Spawning
Spawning takes place from November to March (Harry, 5775).
Some references give the time as December to February (Hagerman,
2572). The larvae are pelagic. According to Hagerman (2572)
eggs and young tend to drift south and shoreward on currents.
Growth and development
Very little information is available on the growth and development
of the Dover sole. The trawls catch fish whose lengths range from
11 to 63 cm (Alverson _et al. , 5735) but 14 in. (approximately 35 cm)
seems to be the accepted market minimum (Harry, 5775). The
females are larger than the males (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Mean size seems to increase with depth (Alverson et al. , 5735).
The sole eats mainly invertebrates that inhabit mud (Hagerman, 2572).
Migration
No north-south migrations are indicated for this species (Harry, 5528)
but tagging studies have revealed a seasonal inshore-offshore migration
(Harry, 5528; Westrheim and Morgan, 5776). This probably accounts
for the fact that in California, the Dover sole fishery is most
important in the summer (Best, 5785). Tagging in the Willapa area
in Washington showed that inshore recoveries were made between
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55-110 meters during June to September and offshore recoveries
were made between 180-300 fathoms from November to April.
Most of the fish tagged were males (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Another study found that fish tagged in shallow water in the summer
were recovered in 365 meters in the winter (Harry, 5528).
There seems to be a limited exchange of stocks between British
Columbia and northern California (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
In the Willapa tagging study, only seven sole were recaptured at
distances more than 55 km from the original tagging area. Also
from this study, the annual mortality was estimated to be 0. 58
(Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Other information on Dover sole includes:
Fecundity - Harry, 5775.
Fishery - Best, 5785; Westrheim and Morgan, 5776.
11. Mytilus californianus Conrad (California sea mussel)
by Diane Dean
The California sea mussel is also known as the big mussel or rock
mussel. It ranges from 18° N to 54° N (Alaska to Mexico) (Keen,
2207). Reish (2898) pinpointed the two extremes of their range
at the Aleutian Islands in Alaska and Isla Socorro in Mexico. On
the Oregon coast these mussels are abundant at Netarts Bay, Cape
Mears, North Siletz Bay and Tillamook Head (Edmondson, 2345).
The habitat of the mussel is the inter tidal zone on rocky exposed
coasts (Reish, 2898). The supposed stenobathic habitat of the
California sea mussel has been questioned by Berry (2542). He
stated that the mussel can survive long periods of immersion in
aerated sea water of widely different salt concentrations and further
that the mussel has the ability to live and thrive well below the
tidal zone; in fact as far down as 90 meters.
The mussel occupies a wide vertical zone in the marine intertidal
environment. Research on respiration showed that high-level mussels
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have higher metabolic rates during submergence and post-exposure
periods. One consequence of high tide existence is an increase
in metabolic function above that found in low-level animals (Moon, 2335).
Salinity, temperature and physiology studies
Studies of sex cells and larvae suggest that they are affected by
salinities less than 29. 6%o. Fertilization usually occurs readily at
21. 5%o but survival of the larvae is low. Turbulence as well as
salinity may be a factor in determining the mussel's distribution
(Young, 2330).
Aeration is a factor very beneficial to prolonging the life span of
the mussel in water of any salinity that does not kill them in a
short time. Under conditions of continuous aeration, the mussel
possesses a wide range of tolerances for heterosmotic conditions
(17%o-45%o S). Fox e_t al. (2228) found that mussels immersed in
water of salinities about 1 2%o and less die in 4-7 days. Hypertonic
solutions of 55%o or more prove fatal also. Crowding individuals
in an aquarium has a deleterious effect because of the accumulation
of nonvolatile waste products.
Temperature is another factor which affects the California sea
mussel. Naylor (2798) stated that intertidal molluscs show tolerances
for higher temperatures; the higher up the shore they are found, the
longer periods they are normally exposed to air. Sublittoral species
are much less tolerant. Mussels of higher latitudes had higher rates
of ciliary pumping action than did low-latitude species at lower
temperatures. A positive correlation between growth rate and water
temperature was found by Fox and Coe (2229), but there was a
decrease in growth during the month with the highest temperature.
Optimum growth temperatures are 15-19°C with a decrease of growth
at 20°C. Temperatures above 20°C are less favorable for general
metabolism (Coe and Fox, 2225). Other temperature data listed
by Coe and Fox (2226) showed that mussels exhibit a rapid increase
in size at temperatures of 17-20°C. Growth continues less rapidly
at 14°C or lower. Feeding continues at temperatures as low as 7-8°C
and as high as 27-28°C.
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Rao (2891) studied rate of water propulsion in the mussel as a
function of latitude. He found that (1) shell weight is a function of
latitude and, consequently, of the mean annual temperature (increases
with increasing latitude), (2) absolute rate as well as weight-specific
rate of pumping is greater at any temperature in mussels from higher
latitudes, (3) rate of decline, in absolute as well as weight-specific
rate of pumping with increasing size was slower in higher latitudes.
He speculated perhaps this is why there are larger sized mussels
in the more northern forms. The center of dispersal of species
such as Mytilus calif or nianus is in the lower latitudes.
Rao (2893) made other studies concerned with tidal rhythmicity of
rate of water propulsion in the California sea mussel. Mussels
exhibit a pattern of activity (measured by rate of water propulsion)
which corresponds in time and degree to the tidal levels in the locality
in which they live. The rhythm is independent of temperature (range
from 9-20°C) and of various light conditions and no indication of
a diurnal rhythm in the rate of water propulsion is apparent.
Rao speculated that the frequency of the rhythm is intrinsic and
perhaps inherited and suggested that the degree to which the intrinsic
rhythm becomes marked and measurable depends on the amplitude
of the environmental rhythm.
The California sea mussel is a mucus, filter-fee ding organism.
Mussels feed by extending their siphons and drawing a current of
water. Their principal food supply is minute particles of organic
detritus from disintegrating cells of all kinds of marine organisms
(plant and animal), supplemented by living and dead unicellular
organisms and living or dead gametes (Coe and Fox, 2226). Detritus
comprises 4/5 of their nutrition (Fox e_t aL , 2228). Rapid growth
rate correlates indirectly with dinoflagellate populations, however,
dinoflagellates can supply only a small fraction of the mussel's
nutritive requirements (Coe and Fox, 2226). Calcium used in shell
building is obtained from the water. The alkaline nature of the mantle
next to the shell permits calcium deposition by that tissue.
Biology
Sexes of the mussels are strictly separate (Fitch, 2227). Males
become sexually mature earlier than females (Coe and Fox, 2225).
Female mussels produce as many as 100,000 eggs during a season
(Bonnot, 2224).
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According to Whedon (2329) spawning occurs at all times of the year
irrespective of temperature or other external stimuli, yet at the same
time he found spawning coincident with a falling rather than a rising
temperature. The period of maximum spawning begins in early
October followed by two lesser periods in January-February
and May-June. Data indicating a definite annual spawning cycle
are also in the literature (Annonymous, 2706). Spawning begins
in September, increases to a maximum in midwinter and gradually
declines to a minimum from May to August. Occasional spawning
is observed in summer. A negative correlation exists between
rising temperature and spawning in Mytilus. The major spawning
season is between October and March.
Stimulation of spawning by Kraft mill effluent has been studied
(Breese e^ al. , 3810). Kraft mill effluent is highly effective in
triggering spawning in the bay and California sea mussels. Stimu-
lation does not seem to affect viability and fertilization capacity
of the gametes.
Ecological studies
Hewatt (2233) studied ecological succession on an exposed rock which
had been scraped clean. He stated that the reestablishment of the
climax condition requires a period of at least more than 21/2 years;
therefore, he cautioned against exploitation of mussel beds. Predators
of the mussel include gulls, sharks, rays, fish, starfish, flesh-
eating snails and crabs (Fitch, 2227).
The mussel affects the physical properties of the environment,
(1) by removing minute material, altering turbidity and light penetration
of the water, (2) by depositing feces and pseudofeces to change the
character of the bottom, (3) by altering the chemical composition
of the water slightly (©3 -*CO2, etc. ), (4) by adding to a temporary
supply of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates where it dies, and
(5) by contributing to gametes and itself a food supply for fish and
other invertebrates (Fox and Coe, 2229).
There are several reasons why the California sea mussel is
economically important. It can be one of the greatest expenses to
steam and other industrial plants by growing in large clumps and
fouling intake pipes (Fitch, 2227).
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The mussel is used as a food source by man (Fitch, 2227). Joyner
and Spinelli (2446) stated that mussels can be readily processed
into dried concentrate, rich in protein.
Other studies on the California sea mussel include:
Attachment and locomotion - Bonnet, 2224
Organic matter and soluble nutrient removal, utilization and
fixation - Coe and Fox, 2226
Clumping, crawling as a distributional and competitive factor
Harger, 3753
Paralytic shellfish poisoning, Pharmacological and biochemical
studies - Murtha, 2334; Schantz, 2332
Parasitological studies - Berry, 2543; Chew e_t a_l. , 5534; Naylor,
2798; Coe and Fox, 2525 ~~
Predator prey relationship - Pilson and Taylor, 2333
Portions of the life cycle of this mussel are well studied while
information on other phases, especially larval stages is less well
known. A comprehensive review of the life history of the California
sea mussel would be most useful. Although the larvae has been
shown to be very sensitive to toxic substances, only limited information
on the mussel's tolerance to temperature and other pollutants is
available. Work in these areas would be advisable.
12. Qncorhynchus spp. (Pacific salmon)
by Diane Dean and Danil R. Hancock
This report deals -with five species of Pacific coast salmon: Qncorhynchus
gorbuscha (pink salmon), C). keta (chum salmon), O_. kisutch (coho
salmon), O_. nerka (sockeye salmon), and O_. tshawytscha (chinook
salmon). These salmon have been intensively studied with regard
to their fisheries which are primarily brackish and fresh water.
We therefore placed emphasis on reviewing the coastal migratory
patterns of these fishes although a succinct summary of the life
cycle, biology, and ecology has been attempted. A review of the
Pacific salmon has recently been published by Parker and Krenkel (3222).
277
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Review of life history
Salmon hatch in streams, rivers and lakes of the mountainous coasts
of North America and eastern Asia. They journey out to the sea
where they grow to a fairly large size and then by some unknown
mechanism return to their natal streams to spawn and die.
All species of Pacific salmon are anadromous, meaning the adults
must migrate to fresh water to spawn. Spawning usually takes place
in the summer and autumn months. Females deposit their eggs in
redds (or nests) in the stream's gravel. The accompanying male
fertilizes the eggs and the eggs are covered over by gravel. Hatching
depends on water temperature and the particular species, but usually
takes about three months. Fry absorb food from their yolk sacs
and then leave the gravel in search of food. They often move down-
stream to a lake where they may remain for a time before going on
to the sea. Seaward migration depends on the species. Some fish
may go to sea as fry and some as late as two years. During summer
young fish tend to occupy a single region of thermocline. Later,
in autumn and winter when temperature is more uniform, a vertical
distribution occurs. With the onset of spring, yearlings tend to
become more active and start to school. Their movement and the
current flow to outlets brings fish to stream outlets of the lakes and
then they are caught in the streams. Now they are under the influence
of the current. Some fish (in Georgia Strait) tend to remain in the
upper less saline water. This places them in the location of the
strongest seaward current. Young salmon are sometimes carried
in a coastal current causing them to move in a north and northwest
direction (Clemens, 2424). The time at sea and the miles they travel
is as yet not definitely known. When salmon eventually reach the
ocean their oceanic life spans one to four years depending on the
species. As they begin to mature they change physically: (1) increasing
in endocrine activity, (2) changing body metabolism, and (3)
altering osmotic regulation. The fish tend to occupy water of lower
salinity which will be surfaceward and shoreward. They also respond
rheotactically and will be led to the rivers, whereupon they begin
their upstream migration to spawn (Clemens and Burner, 2424, 3020;
Foerster, 2502).
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Food
Young salmon depend on plankton organisms which are abundant both
in fresh and salt •water (Burner, 3020). All salmon eat crustaceans,
especially the pinks (2390), chum (2771), sockeye (Burner, 3020)
and king (5507). Pinks also feed on squid and other fish (2390).
Coho are more pelagic in feeding and accept a wider variety of food
than the chinook salmon. Herring is one of the main foods but studies
show that if the herring is eliminated from their diet, the salmon
would turn to other food sources (5507).
Food of the Pacific Salmon.
O.
Pink
gorbuscha
Chum
keta
Coho
kisutch
Chinook
tshawytscha
Plankton
organisms
Crustaceans A
polychaetes
pteropods
Copepods
amphipods
euphausiids
Crab megolops
Squids AB
small fish AB
herring
sand lance
insects
A - Clemens and Wilby, 2390
B - Manzer, 3032
C - Brett and Alderdice, 2771
D - Carl, 2336
E - Prakash, 5507
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
ABD
AD
AD
AD
F
F
F
EF
E
Sockeye
nerka
HJ
J
J
J
J
J
B
F - Merkel, 5669
G - Sosaki, 3144
H - Burner, 3020
J - Fulton, 3635
279
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Temperature and salinity factors
Studies show that young chum, chinook, coho, sockeye, and pink
salmon prefer salinities less than 33. 6%o and temperatures less
than 15°C. They avoid water of greater than 34%o salinity and
temperatures of 20°C. Young pinks and chum have intolerance
to temperatures below -0. 5°C and -0. 1 °C is the low limit for lethal
temperatures (2771). Young coho have a fairly high minimum
temperature limit of 5. 0-5. 9 ° C and prefer 7°C (Manzer_et_a_l. , 3023).
Juvenile coho have a maximum cruising speed of 0. 3 m/sec at 20°C
and a minimum of 0. 06 m/sec at around 0°C (5513). Juvenile
sockeye salmon had a maximum cruising speed of 0. 33 m/sec at
the optimum temperature of 16°C and a minimum of 0. 1 2 m/sec at
0°C (5513). A high water temperature where chinook were caught
was 13-13. 9°C (Manzer ert al. , 3023).
Temperature and Salinities Information on Pacific Salmon
Pink Chum Coho Chinook Sockeye
Salinities O. gorbuscha keta kisutch tshawytscha nerka
Young prefer
less than33.6%o 'A A A A A
Avoid greater
than 34%o A A A A A
Temperatures
Preferred less than
15°C A A A A
Avoid greater than
20 °C A A A A A
Complete intolerance
to temperature
below -0. 5°C B B
Lethal temperature
-0. 1 °C low limit B B
A - Clemens and Wilby, 2390
B - Brett and Alderdice, 2771
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One research operation including 5,160,000 square meters off
the coast of Oregon and Washington to longitude 175°C and from
latitude 43 °N to 60°N captured salmon in surface water temperatures
of 0. 5-14. 5°C. No juvenile sockeye or chum were captured in
water temperatures below4.4°C. In warmer areas, the largest
salmon catches were made in waters ranging from 9. 4-12. 8°C -with
the largest total catch associated with a 10°C surface temperature
(Hanovan and Tononako, 2645). Chinook and coho seem to be the
most resistant to high temperatures (5-24°C) while pinks and chums
are least resistant. Sockeye have greater resistance to prolonged
exposure to high temperatures than the latter two. None of these
species can withstand temperatures below 4°C when acclimated to
20 °C , nor can they tolerate temperatures exceeding 25. 1 °C when
exposed for a -week (Brett, 5568).
Sockeye are native to practically all temperate and subarctic water
where summer surface temperatures range from 5-1 6 °C and summer
surface salinities are generally less than 32. 2%o. Salmon occupy
the upper 20-30 m (60-100 ft) strata of water (Foerster, 2502).
Spawning times: pink late September to early November (2390)
chum late in fall (2390)
sockeye late summer and autumn, August to
November (Foerster, 2502)
Most salmon in Aleutian waters spawn in streams either in Asia or
North America, exclusive of the Aleutian Islands. Migrations
ultimately must be more or less west or eastward (Johnson, 2840).
Migration patterns
Not much is known concerning the migratory patterns of salmon
at sea. It -would seem that temperature and maturity of the fish
influence their location. A change in distribution of each species
may be due to maturing fish leaving the high seas for spawning
grounds and immature individuals remaining and responding to
various environmental factors (Manzer e_t a^. , 3023). Salmon
evacuate the Bering Sea and northeastern Pacific in winter where
surface water temperature decreases and they move southward and
eastward (Manzer et al. , 3023).
281
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Columbia River fall chinook are found principally north of the Columbia
River and predominant migration in the fall is to Columbia River
watersheds to spawn. Tagging in Northern British Columbia and
Alaska have shown large numbers of Columbia River fish.
Lower river populations must confine their ocean migrations to
areas between the Columbia River and Vancouver Island. Upper river
fish may not even make a long northward migration but stay in the
local area through life.
Relatively few chinook are found in the ocean off the Columbia River
during June and July. In winter the fish gather in the area between
the Columbia River and Gray's Harbor. As the season progresses
most of the fish move northward on a feeding migration -while the
rest turn south towards the Sacramento-San Jaoquin System. In
the fall mature fish enter rivers leaving immature fish scattered
along the coast. In the winter the remaining fish regroup in the
Columbia River-Gray's Harbor area making a spring and summer
northward migration again.
The northward shifting populations in the summer and southward
movement in the winter appear to be characteristic for all North
Pacific salmon. This could be due to a response to warming of
surface water or differences in distributional patterns between
mature and immature fish (Van Hyning, 3301).
Adult fall chinook return from the North in August and September
when the current is running south. Young may be carried north
earlier by currents.
Studies in British Columbia show that initial dispersion of immature fish
from stream mouth up to distances of 55-74 km is accomplished
within a few days. Pinks and chums intermingle and frequent the
shores until mid July. Their offshore movement is gradual or
irregular. Pinks have been captured up to 11-22 km from shore in
September. Distribution and movement during autumn and winter is
virtually unknown. Tagging in 1962 showed that in April and May
fish which subsequently migrated to central coastal areas in British
Columbia were to the south of their spawning streams or near the
latitude of the Columbia River (45°31'N, 126°36'W). A northward
282
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movement took place next and some went far north of their spawning
grounds (Neave, 3053). It is known that a concentration of sockeye
occurs near the middle of the Gulf of Alaska during April and May.
Distribution becomes complicated as fish go to their separate
rivers (Ricker, 3116).
It is known the sockeye reproduce in North American watersheds
from the Columbia River to the Bering Sea (Margolis e_t a_l. , 3202).
The fry generally emerge in 80-140 days (April-May) (Foerster, 2502).
Avoidance reactions of Pacific salmon to pulp mill effluent were
tested. Chinook showed marked avoidance to toxic concentrations
of sulphate and sulphite wastes. Coho showed reduced avoidance
compared to chinook (Beak, 2152).
Studies of ocean migrations for salmon are being conducted and
perhaps in the future predictions can be made.
13. Ophiodon elongatus (Girard) (Ling cod)
by Nancy Blind
The ling cod ranges from Alaska to the San Martin Islands in
northern Baja California (Roedel, 2567) but it reaches its greatest
abundance north of California. It lives on the bottom in rocky areas
or kelp beds, particularly near a strong tidal current (Calif. Fish
and Game, 5729; Clemens and Wilby, 2390). It is sometimes taken
as deep as 370 meters but is found mainly in depths of around 1*10
meters (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647).
Life history
The adult ling cod is rather sluggish and spends most of its time
resting on the bottom waiting for prey to swim within its reach.
Tagging studies by Phillips (5647) indicate that only nine percent
of the population move more than five miles from the area of release.
Sex does not seem to have any effect on migration/ but indications
are that large fish move less frequently than smaller ones (Hart, 5734).
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In some regions there seems to be a shifting of spawning fish from
offshore waters to inshore sub-tidal rocky reefs (Calif. Fish and
Game, 5729).
Spawning
Spawning takes place from late December to February or early
March (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). The eggs are guarded by the male
ling cod until they hatch, around six weeks later. The larvae are
about 1. 3 cm long and use their yolk sac in 1 0 days. Very little is
known about the post-larval stages (Phillips, 5647).
Growth and development
Both males and females start to mature at 63 cm in length and almost
all are mature at 65 cm. Females reach 63 cm in 3 years and 65 cm
in four years (Phillips, 5647; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729). Males
are somewhat shorter-lived than the females, which may reach
a maximum age of twenty years (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
Feeding
The ling cod is an extremely voracious fish and will eat almost
anything. Its most common diet includes herring, flounders, hake,
cod, whiting, sand lance, young ling cod, squid, dog fish shark,
pollack, rockfish, crab and shrimp (Clemens and Wilby, 2390;
Phillips, 5647).
Economics
Although the ling cod is an important component of the west coast
fishery, there seems to be comparatively little information in the
literature about it. No temperature data seem to be available and
information about life history is minimal.
Other important information on ling cod includes:
Fecundity - Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647
Metabolic rate and biochemical studies - Pritchard, 2097
Egg description - Phillips, 5647
Survival rates - Chatwin, 2211
Catch statistics - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest,
for years of interest
Fishery Reeves, 2089; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647.
284
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14. Parophrys vetulus Girard (Lemon sole or English sole)
by Nancy Blind
Parophrys vetulus ranges from Unalaska to Sebastian Vizcaino Bay
in Baja California (Roedel, 2567). More specifically, its range is
given as being from 28°30'N, 115°00'W to 54°30'N, 164°00'W (Alderdice
and Forrester, 2453). The range for the commercial fishery is
from Santa Barbara, California, to Hecate Strait, British Columbia
(Jow, 5778). It is particularly important in Oregon and Washington,
but declines toward the northern end of its range (Alverson e_t aA. ,
5735). Almost all lemon sole caught are sold as fresh fillets
(Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
Biology
The lemon sole is found over muddy or sandy bottoms, often from
20 to 50 fathoms (Clemens and Wilby, 2390; Ketchen, 5522, 5523).
A trawling survey, primarily along the Washington coast, found
the sole in depths from 1 to 299 fathoms (Alverson e_t al_. , 5735).
The spawning season is given by Budd (5737) as being from January
to May, whereas Harry (5775) believes it to be from November to
March. Alderdice and Forrester (2453) listed the lemon sole as
spawning over a four-month period ending in late March or early
April with the peak in early February.
The eggs are bouyant, pelagic, spherical, and transparent (Budd, 5737;
Alderdice and Forrester, 2453; and Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
The eggs float at the surface but if not fertilized within 15 to 30
minutes, they begin to sink (Orsi, 5541).
Temperature and salinity
Alderdice and Forrester (2453) performed experiments to determine
the effect of temperature and salinity on the eggs and larvae of
Parophrys vetulus. Their study produced the following information:
The eggs were held at various combinations of salinities from 1 0%o
to 40%o S and temperatures of 4° to 12°C. Hatching occurred at
285
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every salinity and temperature. Development time to 50% hatching
ranged from 3. 5 days at 12° C and 25%o salinity to 11.8 days at 4°C
and 25%o salinity. Between 6°C and 12°C, development time to 50%
hatching was delayed by salinities above and below 25%o whereas at
4°C, hatching seemed to be accelerated by salinities greater and
smaller than 25%o.
In regard to lengths of the larvae, the greatest mean length (2.92 mm)
was obtained at 25%o salinity and 8°C. The total number of larvae
hatched seemed to be greatest at this level also. The oxygen con-
sumption was calculated to be 0. 560 g per embryo per hour.
Salinities and temperatures encountered in the natural environment
were 20%o to 34%o salinity and 2. 3 to 13. 8° C. A change of 1 ° C was
found to be approximately equivalent to a change of 4%o salinity.
Experimental evidence showed that 90% viable hatch was obtained
at salinities of 20-32%o and temperatures 6. 5-10°C. Although
salinity may perhaps modify the effects of temperature on early
development of F\ vetulus, it appears to have little direct influence
on egg survival. Temperatures at the extremes of the geographical
range for this species are 2.3°C and 18°C. These areas are probably
populated through larval drift and some adult migration. Irregularity
of catch and abundance over the area would suggest that other factors
such as water transport and availability of suitable areas for continued
larval development also influence egg and larval survival.
It has been noted that weak year classes are produced in years
when the water temperature is higher than normal since the elevated
temperature speeds up embryonic development. Thus the developing
larvae would not be carried to the proper rearing grounds by the
currents. Low temperature prolongs the pelagic stage allowing the
larvae to be^carried to the rearing grounds (Ketchen, 5522).
The young, when hatched, are extremely weak swimmers and hence
are at the mercy of the water currents. They survive for approximately
14 days on the yolk sac (Orsi, 5541). The larvae are carried about
in the surface currents for about 6 to 1 0 weeks and then go to the
bottom (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729). Usually they are found close
to the intertidal zone and then move into deeper water as they mature
(Clemens and Wilby, 2390). In one bay survey, only young fish
286
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(2 to 18 cm) were caught in the bay. Presumably no adults were present.
All but 5% of the young fish migrated from the bay to the ocean in the
late summer and early fall of their first year (Westrheim, 5542).
Feeding
Adult lemon sole feed mainly on invertebrates which inhabit muddy
bottoms, such as worms, molluscs, small starfish, small crabs,
brittle stars, clam siphons and shrimps. Occasionally they consume
small fish. Sharks, .skates and lingcod are the lemon sole's main
predators however, no one species can be designated as the major
predator (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Clemens and Wilby, 2390).
Distribution and migragion
Various studies have indicated the existence of several stocks of
Parophrys vetulus along the Pacific coast. Two broad groups have
been defined; one ranging along the Washington coast and the other
centering around Cape Blanco to Cape Mendocino (Anon. , 5777).
In addition, two major stocks have been'described off British Columbia;
one in the Strait of Georgia and the other around Hecate Strait.
Within these main stocks, there appear to be substocks (Forrester,
5781). Four stocks have been described for California (Jow, 5778).
Along the Washington and British Columbia coasts, a spawning migration
seems to take place. Fish tagged in Washington went south along
northern Oregon; some as far as northern California, in the fall
and then north in the spring. All recoveries were made over the
continental shelf in depths less than 100 fathoms (Pattie, 5782).
Off British Columbia, the fish go north to feed in the summer. ^The
adults then are found around 20 fathoms. In the winter they are
somewhat deeper. Extensive migrations seem to be more characteristic
of the females than the males (Forrester, 5781). There appears
to be little mixing between stocks (Ketchen and Forrester, 5546).
Other important information on the English sole includes:
Egg description - Budd, 5737
Fecundity - Harry, 5775
Catch statistics - see U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical
Digest, for the years of interest
Fishery - Palmen, 2063; Holland, 5779; Smith, 5780; Forrester, 5781
Growth and development - Van Cleave and El Sayer,-5783; Smith,
5790; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Alverson £t al. , 5735;
Harry, 5775.
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15. Pandalus jordani Rathbun (Pink shrimp)
by Diane Dean
The pink shrimp Pandalus jordani is distributed along the Pacific
coast from Unalaska in the Aleutians to Southern California
(Rathbun, 2328). San Diego is the extreme southern extension of
its range (Dahlstrom, 2327). The pink shrimp is the dominant
species along the Oregon and Washington coasts, but north of
British Columbia P. borealis becomes the dominant species. Ronholt
(2294) stated that P. jordani, P. borealis and Pandalopsis dispar
all appeared to occur in concentrations adequate to support large-
scale commercial operations.
The pink shrimp have been taken at depths ranging from 37 to
450 meters, but are commonly caught within the depths of 110-180
meters. They generally occur in areas which are characterized
by green mud (Ronholt, 2294) or glauconite mud (Alverson jet aL ,
2324).
Food habits of P. jordani are not well known. Dahlstrom (2327)
stated that the food of the pink shrimp was believed to be microscopic
material found in green mud bottoms. The only available temperature
information on the adults (Alverson et al. , 2324) reported that
shrimp were caught in water having a temperature of 42. 1 -46. 7°F
off Oregon and Washington and further that no apparent relation was
noted bet-ween catches of pink shrimp and differences in bottom-water
temperature -within that range.
Some comparisons of different species of shrimp were made as
to depth range (Anonymous, 2322). Spot shrimp collected in Dabob
Bay were,found to occur only in the lower four rows of collector
bags. These were concentrated in the area between the bottom and
one meter. Pink shrimp and side-striped shrimp were found in
all openings of the bag particularly from . 03 to 1 meter off bottom.
That pink shrimp undergo a.vertical migration to the near-surface
water during hours of darkness is well documented.
288
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They have been located off the Queets River, 11 to 1 5 meters
below the surface over bottom depths of 79 to 81 meters. Before
midnight there was none caught and at 041 Z hours there was no
yield (2321). Shrimp off the Washington coast may move off the
bottom at night. One night drag in autumn produced 30 kg pounds
of pinks while 4 night drags in spring produced an average of 2. 5 kg
per drag. Alverson et a_l. (2324) also mentioned vertical movements
in response to diurnal changes. Day-time drags always produced
more shrimp (Tegelberg, 2325).
Magill and Erho (2296) reported that the species is small,
with the average length being 10 cm. Shrimp are measured
by count per pound and Dahlstrom (2327) listed figures of approxi-
mately 100/lb. or 60-180/lb. while Magill and Erho (2296) listed
70-150/lb. Dahlstrom (2327) reported the average age of shrimp
to be about 4 years.
Pink shrimp are protandric hermaphrodites beginning life as males
and changing to females (Magill and Erho, 2296). During the period
when the males transpose to females the shrimp are termed
"transitionals" (Ronholt and Magill, 2326). Normally, the individuals
reach maturity as mature males at 1 1/2 years but up to 50% of
this age group may be mature females by the second autumn (Butler,
2323). Some confusion exists on the breeding cycles of the pink shrimp.
Certain instances in Oregon have been noted where shrimp continued
as males throughout the second winter -while the majority of the year
class transposed to females and became gravid (Magill and Erho,
2296). Tegelberg and Smith (2325) noted 18 month old females bearing
eggs in the fall. They had either functioned early as males or had
skipped the male stage.
In distinguishing males from females after larval development
two points, including the male organ, are evident on the ramus
of the male. Atrophy of the male sex organ and lengthening of
the tip of the ramus take place during the transitional period. The
female has a single elongate ramus tip (Tegelberg and Smith,
2325). Tegelberg and Smith (2325) stated that females taken in
October and November could be identified by a distinct blue
coloration seen dorsally through the carapace.
289
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At 2 1 /2 years the pink shrimp are mature females carrying
1,000 to 3,000 eggs attached to their pleopods. Eggs are present
from October through January (Dahlstrom, 2327). The eggs are
ellipsoid,!. 2-1. 6 millimeters long (2327). At approximately three
years of age (2327) spawning of the pink shrimp occurs. There is
a seasonal movement to deeper waters (160 fathoms) for spawning
(2327; Alverson et al. , 2324).
There is disagreement on timing of metamorphosis, spawning,
and hatching as shown in the following table.
Time of
Spawning
Oct-Dec
Nov-Apr
Mature ova
Time of
Hatching
Feb-Mar
late Mar -Apr
Feb-May
Feb-Apr
Time of
Metamorphosis
Early August
Reference
(2326)
(2323)
(2327)
(2296)
visible under
carapace in Aug
carried externally
by Oct-Nov
Larval development
Modin and Cox (2295) and Lee (3346) have successfully reared
pandalid shrimp in the laboratory. The former found that planktoriic
larvae were subject to many physical, chemical and biological
phenomena in the ocean and that this stage of their life is a very
vulnerable one. In both studies egg-bearing shrimp were transported
to specially equipped aquariums where temperature was controlled
and the water could be filtered, aerated, and ultra-violet treated to
reduce bacterial growth. Modin and Cox (2295) maintained a
constant water temperature of 10-12°C. Lee (3346) maintained a
water temperature of 13 °C (±0. 2°C) and a pH and salinity of
7. 8 and 24. 1%0 respectively. Details of development are in both
papers.
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Magill and Erho (2296) stated that pink shrimp may be particularly
susceptible to overfishing since the large shrimp which are most
available to the fishery are females. A reduction in the female
pink shrimp population could be conceived to be serious, if the
female brood stock became low enough to result in a year class
failure.
The information on the shrimp seemed to be limited in the sources
used. Some studies on thermal and salinity tolerances, food habits
and ecology -would.be helpful.
Other information on the pink shrimp includes:
Fishery - Alverson e_t al. , 2324; Magill and Erho, 2296; Modin
and Cox, 2295
Predators - Dahlstrom, 2327.
16. Sardinops sagax (Jenyns) (Pacific sardine)
by Nancy Blind
Sardinops sagax is the presently accepted name of the Pacific
sardine, but it is also found under Sardinops caerulea. It ranges
along the Pacific Northwest coast. It has been taken as far north as
southern Alaska, off the outer coast of Vancouver Island. It
has been found along the Washington, Oregon, and California coasts
and its southern range is lower California and the Gulf of California.
The sardine is not found more than 550 to 750 km from shore, usually
less than 180 km (Clark, 2976).
The Pacific sardine is an inshore, pelagic, south temperate fish.
The southernmost end of its range abuts on tropical waters and this
boundary seems to be relatively uniform geographically (Murphy,
2982).
Ecology and life cycle and biology
Much of the information concerning the behavior, locations, etc.
for spawning sardines seems to be speculative.'
291
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Farris (3428) studied the sardine and found that they exhibit diurnal
and seasonal periodicity but do not exhibit lunar periodicity.
Spawning
Sardines spawn planktonic eggs under fairly specific temperature
conditions. The temperature range for spawning is between 12°C
and 17 °C (Ahlstrom, 2473) but under lab conditions they have
spawned at 13-24 °C (Lasker, 2385).
Spawning centers are off Southern California and include Cedros
Island, Baja California, and Northern Baja California (Dahlstrom,
2700). Most spawning takes place in April through June but it
does occur throughout the year (Ahlstrom, 2473).
The eggs are fertilized after extrusion and float freely in the upper
50 meters of water. After three days the eggs hatch into tiny
transparent, thread-like larvae about 3 mm in length. The larvae
reach the sandy beaches of Southern and Lower California (Clark, 2976).
Teimperature
Lasker (2385) ran some experiments on yolk utilization and found
that the energy provided by the yolk would meet the metabolic
needs of the animal at 14°C until 160 hours after spawning. From
this tim.ec.on, the larvae were on a continuing energy deficit and
were actually at a critical stage in their life. They must be able
to feed and food must be available. Lasker (2592) also showed how
important the temperature is to the struggling larvae, for functional
jaws and pigmented eyes fail to develop in sardine larvae at
temperatures below 13 °C. Lasker (2592) ran some temperature
experiments with anchovies (-which seem to be competitive) and
found that they hatch sooner and develop normally at these lower
temperatures. A two-degree decrease in temperature (from critical
temperatures) for the sardine larvae can prolong the rate of
development by one-third and larval survival may decrease
concomitantly (Lasker, 2592).
Temperature appears to influence both the time of spawning and
the length of the spawning season. If an abundant food supply is
available and there is a large area for young sardines, then survival
chances are good. All this would tend to depend on temperature
(Ahlstrom, 2597).
292
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Feeding
Scofield (2591) stated that larval sardines are unable to strain food
because their gill rakers do not form on the gill arch until they
are about 20 mm long. Young sardines (40 mm long) feed primarily
on copepods, and sardines 100 mm long feed primarily on diatoms.
Other studies how little variation to this one (Arthur, 3644).
Hand and Berner (2593) felt that crustaceans are the most important
food source •with copepods highest on the list, but they stated that
the size of the fish didn't have much to do -with the food contained
in the stomach. They also stated that the sardine is primarily an
omnivorous filter-feeder rather than a particulate feeder.
Lewis (5540) stated after feeding studies in the San Diego area that
sardines eat diatoms, dinoflagellates and crustaceans. He felt
that fluctuations in temperatures affected the abundance of diatoms
which affects sardines. He believed that lower temperatures favoring
growth of diatoms attracts sardines.
Salinity
Walford (2594) made some studies on the correlation between
fluctuations in abundance of the Pacific sardine and salinity of the
sea water; salinity reflecting the intensity of upwelling which
increases plankton production. As has been pointed out, an environ-
mental condition most critical to the young sardine is the abundance
of food. This varies directly with the availability of nutrient salts
which in turn is dependent on strength of upwelling. What is
suggested here is that intensity of upwelling or surface salinity^
is highest in summer, and this is at the same time a critical period
in the life of the young sardine, and also a period of maximum solar
heating.
A comprehensive review of the life history and biology of the sardine
has been compiled by Gates (5649). Investigations on thermal ecology
as such are limited to just the spawning temperature ranges and
development of the larvae. This report indicates that some information
is known concerning lower temperature tolerance but not the effects
of elevated temperatures. Knowledge of the early life history of the
sardine is incomplete. Ecological studies would also be of value.
293
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Other studies on the sardine include:
Spawning behavior - Wolf, 2619
Fecundity - Clark, 2976
Behavioral studies - Fink, 2861; Yoshimuta and Mitsagi, 2595;
Clark, 2967; Loukashkin, 2596
Catch statistics Kimura and Blunt, 2708; Marr, 3641
Parasites - Kunnenkeri, 3645
Morphology and Serology - O'Connell, 3638; Voorman, 2817
17. Sebastodes alutus (Gilbert) (Pacific ocean perch)
by Nancy Blind
The genus Sebastodes, one of the largest on the northeast Pacific
coast, is represented by 52 species in this area. Several, of the
species are important commercially but probably the one of greatest
importance is Sebastodes alutus, the Pacific ocean perch (DeLacy
£t al. , 5624). The Pacific ocean perch is found from the Bering
Sea to Santa Barbara, California (Clemens and Wilby, 2390), but
the fishery is concentrated in the northern parts of its range.
Westrheim (5567) reported its depth range as being 38 to 350
fathoms.
Biology
Information on the life history of the Pacific ocean perch is minimal
at best. Much recent information has come from Russian studies
carried out in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. Because data
are wanting from the Pacific Northwest populations, some data
from the Bering Sea are included herein.
Reproduction
Westrheim (5567) concluded that birth for S^. alutus occurred in
January, February and March. Paraketsov (5752), however, in
a study conducted in the Bering Sea, reported that fertilization
occurred in January and February and that hatching took place in
March through May. It has not yet been determined for this species
whether or not the eggs hatch within the ovary or after they have
been released (DeLacy £tal. , 5624).
294
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Distribution and migration
Usually, there is a 1:1 sex ratio in a catch of Sebastodes alutus,
but this varies during the year. Westrheim (5567) found that the
males seemed to dominate during February and March and that
their numbers reached a minimum in September. The lack of
females in the population during February and March may be
connected -with spawning activities. Fadew (5759) found that spawning
populations tended to move to shallower waters. According to
Lyubimova (5753, 5758), the females forma separate group at
this time and move away from the males to the spawning areas.
After hatching, which takes place from March to April in the
Bering Sea, the females begin to feed intensely and then rejoin
the males. The adults are found at a greater depth in the winter
in the Bering Sea. Paraketsov (5752) reported that during the
winter, the largest aggregations were found at 340-420 meters
and in the summer at 140-360 meters. From May to September
the adults forage and fatten in open waters (Lyubimova, 5753).
Fertilization takes place in November and December according to
Lyubimova (5758), but Paraketsov (5752) reports it to be during
January to February.
The young ocean perch form separate schools from the adults.
The surface temperatures near the Pribilov Islands which are
the main spawning grounds in the Bering Sea were around 3. 8°C-
4. 2°C (Paraketsov, 5752). However, temperatures at places of
larval shoaling ranged from 4-5°C to 14°C (Lyubimova, 5756).
The young eat planktonic crustaceans during their first two years
(Paraketsov, 5752). During their third year of life, they change
to a demersal mode of life. The growth rate is high during the
first 5 to 6 years (Lyubimova, 5756) and maturity is reached
between 6 and 8 years (Paraketsov, 5752).
Westrheim (5567) found that fish in commercial catches ranged
in size from 25 to 48 centimeters with the main part of the population
occurring between 32 and 44 cm. Males were somewhat smaller
than females, and rarely exceeded 40 cm. The females ranged
between 32-44 cm. Paraketsov (5752) reported for the Bering Sea
that the average length for males was 46 cm and for females, 49 cm.
The maximum size for S. alutus according to Lyubimova (5758) is
40 cm and 1. 5 kg. The maximum age seems to be around 25 years
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with the 14 to 16+ age groups dominating the catches (Gritsenko,
5754). This figure was given as 11-18 year class by Paraketsov
(5752).
Feeding
The adult Pacific ocean perch feed in open waters mainly on
euphausiids, calanoids, hyperiids, mysids, amphipods (Paraketsov,
5752). Sebastodes alutus seems to be important as food for halibut
and albacore (Clemens and Wilby, 2390).
No extensive migrations have been indicated for £5. alutus except
those connected with spawning activities (Fadew, 5759). However,
the populations in the eastern and western portions of the Pacific
are considered to be of the same biological stock with differences
in local populations (Lyubimova, 5756, 5758).
Additional information which is available:
Fecundity - Westrheim, 5567
Catch statistics Niska, 5853; Westrheim, 5567; Alverson e_t al. ,
5735; Greenwood, 5751.
18. Siliqua patula Dixon (Pacific razor clam)
by Danil R. Hancock
The Pacific razor clam Siliqr.a patula Dixon is a most important
molluscan species in the Pacific Northwest. Its total value is
more than that of all other molluscs in the state of Washington
(McMillin, 2732). Although it ranges from the Aleutian Islands in
Alaska to Pismo Beach, California (Anonymous, 3597; Fitch, 2227),
its distribution within these limits is far from ubiquitous. Broad
'flat beaches of fine sands retaining interstitial water are most
typical but it exhibits preference for ocean
beaches where a strong surf beats constantly and appears to be
dependent on wave action for carrying out its life activities.
Although sometimes found on the inland side of spits, it will not
grow in sheltered bays (McMillin, 2732).
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Maximum abundance of young and old occurs at about 30 cm below
mean low water. Large clams are usually found about 30 cm under
the sand and smaller clams nearer the surface. According to
McMlllin (2732), 350-550 m from low water line is the lower
limit of the razor clam, and the beds are limited in width to the
area near mean low water. Diving observations have indicated
at least a fair population of clams exists 1 km offshore but
Tegelberg, Magoon,and Woelke (personal communications)
further stated that the offshore distribution of the razor clam has
never been established, and that a separate offshore population may
exist.
Locomotion in razor clams is by means of digging with the large
muscular foot. The digging actions are so rapid that a large clam
can be buried in 1 /2 to 2 minutes and a young clam can bury itself
in 5-10 seconds. Clams have been reported several feet beneath
the surface. Such locomotion provides protection from shifting
sands and predation from enemies (McMillin, 2732). Larger members
of a year class were found lower than smaller members, however
this comparison did not include offshore areas (Hirschhorn, 3816).
Razor clams orient to the direction of wave action, with the hinged
side toward the ocean.
The region of the Washington coast just north of the Columbia River
and extending to the Quinalt Reservation appears to be a region of
maximum, density and supports the largest fishery. Densities
here have been recorded as high as 12,000/m (1450 clams/square foot)
at Copalis Beach in August, 1923 (McMillin, 2732; Tegelberg and
Magoon, 3407). In Oregon, Clatsop county beaches are the region
of maximum abundance of the razor clams. These beaches have
supported a commercial and recreational fishery for many years
under a commercial minimum size limit of 3.5 inches (90 mm)
and a sport fisheries bag limit of 36 clams* In the period 1955-1962
the Clatsop beaches yielded one million razor clams to the sport
fishery and 308,000 to the commercial fisheries (Anon. , 3597).
Until about 1914 many productive razor clam beds were known along
the entire coast of Oregon, but many of these have disappeared. In
1920 Edmondson (2345) wrote, "Until about six years ago beds of
razor clams of considerable size •were known to exist at many points
throughout the entire coast of Oregon. There apparently occurred,
however, a sudden depletion of the species along the sandy beaches
south of Tillamook Head, a satisfactory cause for which has not
been ascertained. "
*Current Oregon limit 24 clams/day, no size limit.
297
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Spawning
Sexes are separate in the razor clam. The mature female (age
two years) produces six to ten million eggs. The rich, yellow,
"ripe" ovaries contribute 30% of the animal's non-shell weight.
Ovarian follicles, each containing 100-150 eggs, rupture releasing
eggs through the siphon into the water. Both eggs and sperm are
released when the water temperature reaches 13 °C and fertilization
occurs in the water. The clams on one section of the beach spawn
simultaneously, and the triggering of this is thought to be due to
the release of certain chemical substances into the environment.
Washburn (3609) indicated the bulk of spawning occurred during
April and May. McMillin (2732) indicates the principal spawning
period was between May 15 and June 5 but noted that a very small
amount of spawn is released in October. On Clatsop beaches (Anon. ,
3597) spawning occurs in late spring and summer with almost 98%
of the spawn cast out in 2-4 days. Dispersal of eggs is determined
by the currents and waves and is thought to be limited. The fertilized
egg is "pear shaped" with a white spot in the center. After subsequent
cleavage (about 3 •weeks) the fertilized eggs become a veliger larvae
and begin swimming. The number of -weeks before the free living
larvae "sets" or begins to dig into the sand varies from 5 to 8 weeks
(Fulton, 3600; McMillin, 2732; Anon. , 3597). The veliger larvae
are distributed by currents and waves during the larval stages and
migration of adults is very limited (McMillin, 2732). Because of
small size, the young set are unable to withdraw rapidly from the
top layers of sand and hence their movement is likely to be governed
by upper sand layers. During erosional phase of the annual beach
cycle upper layers of sand move offshore and are a ready vehicle
for the redistribution of small razor clams (Hirschhorn, 3816). The
spawn develop in water ranging in temperature from 11-17°C.
Mortality of larvae and young razor clams can be very high. McMillin
(2732) records 99% loss from fall 1923 to mid February 1924, and
Tegelberg and Magoon (3407) observed a 95% mortality of set during
a severe storm. Mortality of young is influenced by such things as
freshwater runoff (rain) crowding, predation, and sediment
disturbances. Natural predators are sea gulls, ducks and fish.
Man-caused mortalities of young are alteration of clam beds by
coastal construction (groins, jetties, outfalls), vehicular traffic on
clam, beds, and careless digging.
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After reaching sufficient size to actively dig, the mortality rate
is greatly reduced and life spans of 1 5 years have been recorded
in Alaska. At the southern end of the range the average life span
is four years, and the maximum life span on Copalis Beach, Washington,
is about 8 years (Anon. , 3597).
Food and feeding
The razor clam is a filter feeder. Water containing diatoms, organic
detritus, and some .small animals is taken into the mantle cavity
by the inhalent siphon. As the water passes over the gills food
is taken out and passed to the stomach (McMillin, 2732). Tegelberg
and Magoon (3704) feel that the major food source of the razor
clam is the diatom Chaetoceros armatus, and that growth rate is
dependent on food supply. They conclude the poor growth in the
1966 set of clams on Washington clam beaches was due to overpopulation
which caused a drastic reduction of the plankton supply. Growth is
thought to be proportional to food intake while temperature of the
water influences the intensity of feeding (McMillin, 2732). Relative
shell width was found to increase during the period March-July,
as did maximum increase of total length. Size increase appears
to be associated with seasonal rises in water temperature
(Hirschhorn, 3816).
Temperature
Temperature of the water is thought to play an important role in
spawning, feeding, and growth of the razor clam, yet there appears
to be little evidence for such thinking. In fact, very little is known
about either the thermal tolerances or the responses of this clam
to temperature. Some very preliminary temperature tolerance
tests on adult razor clams indicated that a two-hour exposure to
75°F (24°C) was lethal (Tegelberg, personal communication).
Larval razor clams are expected to have a narrower temperature
tolerance than the adults (Fulton, 3600).
Ova are found in female clams throughout the entire year; therefore
if increased temperatures or changes in temperature play a role
in spawning, the effects of a lens of warm water from a thermal
outfall could be significant. Since the razor clam moves very little
after settling, such a warming of the water may cause spawning
at times that are not optimal. Growth parameters of the Pacific
razor clam are quantitatively associated with mean annual air
temperature at localities ranging from California to Alaska
(Taylor, 3831).
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. Thaleichthys pacificus (Richardson)
(Columbia River smelt, eulachon)
by Nancy Blind
The eulachon is an anadromous member of the family Osmeridae.
Until fairly recently its range was thought to extend from the Bering
Sea to the Klamath River in California, but records show that it
has been found as far south as Bodega Head, California (Odemar, 5804).
Since spawning and the hatching of the larvae takes place in freshwater
from mid-March to mid-May, they will not be treated in any detail
here. "Little is known about the distribution of eulachon from
the time the larvae leave the river until the time the adults return
to spawn" (Barraclough, 5798). The eulachon spend two years in
the ocean and return to the rivers to spawn at three years. The
larvae and juveniles are prevalent in the echo-scatter ing layers.
The stomachs of those caught were full of euphausiids (Barraclough,
5798). The adults also seem to be plankton feeders; Cumacea
dawsoni is the only species positively identified from stomach
contents (Smith, 5795).
The eulachon may be an important link in the food chain as it is
consumed by a number of different species, among which are
sturgeon, halibut, cod, porpoise, finback-whale, seals and sea lions
(Hart and McHugh, 5538). Adults have also been found in the stomachs
of the dogfish, salmon, hake, lingcod, harbour and fur seals but
its relative importance in these diets is unknown (Barraclough, 5798).
They also may be important in the food supply of Cancer magister
as well as other shore species (Smith, 5798).
Fishermen have reported large aggregations of eulachon off the
mouth of the Columbia River in November- December and January,
just prior to their move up river. Migration upstream may be
influenced by temperature of the river water (Smith, 5795).
The fish are primarily caught as they go up river to spawn.
Males seem to predominate in the commercial catch (Smith, 5795).
Most of the spawning fish die but some may survive and return to
spawn again in their fourth year (Barraclough, 5798).
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For catch data on the Columbia River smelt see U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Statistical Digest for years of interest.
Spawning - Hart and McHugh, 5538; Smith, 5795; Barracough, 5798.
20. Trachurus symmetricus (Ayres) (Jack mackerel)
by Nancy Blind
The range of the jack mackerel extends from the Gulf of Alaska to
Cape San Lucas, but the fishery is concentrated in Southern California,
from Monterey to San Diego (Ahlstrom, 5748; Anon. , 5729).
Adults have been taken 1100 km from shore and the eggs and larvae
have been taken as far sea-ward as 2000 km off the coast of Washington
(Ahlstrom, 5748). Studies indicate that there is one population
along the Pacific coast (Roedel, 5746).
Spawning takes place primarily from February to October (Farris,
5619) with the peak ranging from. April to June (Ahlstrom, 5724).
Cruises along the California coast produced the folio-wing results:
1951--the peak number of eggs occurred in March, 1952--spawning
began in January with the peak in May and ended at the end of
September, 1953 - -spawning began in February with the peak in
April, l954--the peak occurred in May (Farris, 5747).
Spawning is pelagic and takes place (Ahlstrom, 5724) mainly from
150 to 450 km offshore (MacGregor, 5741). Larvae have been
taken as far north as Washington (Anon. , 5729; MacGregor, 5741)
but the area of concentration seems to be from Point Conception,
California, to San Quentin, Baja California (Anon. , 5729). The
jack mackerel lives in the upper water layers, between 16 and 90 m
(Ahlstrom, 5724). In one survey, 97% of the eggs and 88% of
the larvae were taken in the upper 50 meters (MacGregor, 5741).
Very little is known about the mating activities of the mackerel but
evidence indicates that most spawning occurs around midnight
(MacGregor , 5741). Indications are that females spawn more than
once in a season (Anon. , 5729).
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Temperature of the water has a definite effect upon the incubation
time. It has been shown that hatching occurs in 108. 5 hours at
14°C and 84 hours (3. 5 days) at 15°C. Temperature may also have
importance in relation to where the jack mackerel spawns. The
spawning area is approximately bounded by the 26th parallel in
the south, the 45th parallel in the north and the 150th meridian on
the west. Within the southern California area, and at a depth around
10 meters, where the greatest abundance of eggs occurs, the
temperature remains fairly constant around 15. 5° C. In one study,
it was found that 60% of the spawning took place within 1 ° of 15. 5°C
(Farris, 5619). Another survey indicated that 70% of the larvae
collected were in waters of 14-1 6 °C (MacGregor, 5741). However,
despite the constancy of temperature in the California area,
spawning occurs only in the spring and summer. Therefore, it is
thought that photoperiod may also be of some importance (Farris, 5619).
At hatching, the larval jack mackerel is somewhat larger than the
larvae of either the anchovy or the sardine. However, it has no
eyes, fins or mouth (Ahlstrom, 5724). After the development of
these features, the larvae feed upon minute crustaceans (MacGregor,
5741). Microstella norvegica seems to be particularly important
(Ahlstrom, 5724). At this stage the jack mackerel eats nearly the
same things as do the anchovy and sardine but the specimens it
can consume are somewhat larger than those taken by the other
species. This is probably one of the reasons for its success (Ahlstrom,
5724). Survival at the end of 30 days after hatching was calculated
as 131, 112, and 179 larvae per 100,000 eggs hatched for the years
1952, 1953, and 1954. The variation was considered insignificant
(Farris, 5619).
Very little is known about the juvenile stage except that juveniles
eat euphausiids, pteropods and copepods. Copepods seem to be
more important to the juveniles than to the adults (MacGregor, 5741).
The jack mackerel matures between the second and third year (Anon. , 5729).
Predation by organisms other than man has not been studied (MacGregor,
5741) but it is assumed that the jack mackerel is consumed by sea
lions, porpoises and most of the large predatory fish in the area
(Anon. , 5729). The Pacific mackerel is considered its most important
competitor (MacGregor, 5741).
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Feeding
The adult jack mackerel is known to eat euphausiids, copepods ,
pteropods, anchovies, lanternfish and juvenile squid (Anon. , 5729).
The fish have been observed feeding on saury and lanternfish gathered
beneath the floodlights of a ship at night. The jack mackerel congregated
3 to 5 meters below the surface in schools of around forty fish.
They selected and chased individual prey (Grinols and Gill, 5742).
Mackerel seem to feed at any time during the day but it is not known
if they feed at night (MacGregor, 5741).
Schooling and migration
The jack mackerel is a schooling fish and there has been some
research regarding the effects of light on feeding and schooling and
the organization of the schools before, during and after feeding.
Schooling seems to be determined by size. It was observed in one
laboratory study that schools of juveniles that were rather disperse
during feeding became more compact after feeding (Hunter, 5745).
Not much is known about migrations of the jack mackerel (MacGregor,
5741). In 1950, adult jack mackerel taken at a depth of 20 meters
were found in temperatures ranging from 10°C to 19. 5°C (MacGregor,
5741).
Other information on the jack mackerel includes:
Catch statistics - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest,
No. 55-60. Information available for California only.
Growth, maturation and life span MacGregor, 5741; Roedel, 5746;
Anonymous, 5729
Fecundity and egg description - Anonymous, 5729; Ahlstrom, 5724;
MacGregor, 5741
Behavior - Hunter, 5744
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PART IV INTEGRATED ECOLOGY
Chapter 21. THE NEARSHORE COASTAL, ECOSYSTEM: AN
OVERVIEW by James E. McCauley,
William C. Renfro, Robert H. Bourke,
Danil R. Hancock and Stephen W. Hager
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Chapter 21. THE NEARSHORE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:
AN OVERVIEW
by James E. McCauley, William C. Renfro,
Robert H. Bourke, Danil R. Hancock and Stephen W. Hager
An ecosystem is defined as "any area of nature that includes living
organisms and nonliving substances interacting to produce an exchange
of materials between the living and nonliving parts," (Odum, 1959).
This broad concept can be used to advantage in considering an area
subject to possible pollution. Knowledge of the various living and
nonliving components in sufficient detail to understand their inter-
relationships enhances our ability to anticipate changes resulting
from pollution of the ecosystem. In one sense, pollutants, such as
toxic chemicals or heated water, might be thought of as additional
environmental factors which might alter the system drastically.
Patently, a certain minimal level of information is necessary for
even crude predictions of the effects of pollution.
No ecosystem is a completely self-contained unit, and the Pacific Northwest
coastal region is no exception. It is influenced by adjoining regions
such as the open Pacific Ocean to the west and the land mass to
the east. These adjacent regions have a marked influence on the
climate and are the sources of many inputs into the system. Although
we can look at the region as a somewhat discrete unit, we must
continually keep in mind the influence of these contiguous territories.
Within the coastal ecosystem there are many interrelated physical,
chemical, geological, and biological processes. In the following
section an attempt will be made to describe some of these important
factors and the manner in which they interact.
The area considered here is the coastline of the Pacific Northwest,
extending from Cape Flattery, Washington to Cape Mendocino,
California. It can be characterized as a series of sandy beaches
interspersed with rocky headlands. This coastline is oriented in a
north-south direction and, except for local headlands and bays, is
nearly straight. The absence of major embayments and irregularities
results in a smaller variety of habitats thanwould normally be
expected to occur on a more highly dissected coastline. A large
portion of the coastline is, therefore, subjected to the full impact
of breaking -waves.
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The sandy beaches generally lie at the foot of low bluffs which are
usually not more than 10 meters high. Occasionally the bluffs reach
much greater heights, especially along the southern Oregon coast.
In some areas the bluffs may be greatly reduced as along the Clatsop
Plains region of northern Oregon or along the spit that separates
Willapa Bay from the ocean near Long Beach, Washington. In
other regions the bluffs may be far inshore, separated from the
beach by extensive sand dunes as occurs near Florence, Oregon.
The beaches are composed primarily of quartz and feldspar that
have been derived from ancient marine terrace deposits found along
the entire length of the inner continental shelf off Washington and
Oregon. These beach sands are conspicuously lacking in shells
and shell fragments which characterize the beaches of the mid-
Atlantic states.
Beach profiles exhibit wide annual fluctuations in response to
wind-generated •wave conditions, being broader and steeper in
summer. The intertidal microfauna of the sandy beaches of the
Pacific Northwest has not been extensively studied. The macrofauna
is limited to a few species which are mostly burrowing organisms.
The well-sorted character and large particle size of these beaches,
combined with a low content of organic matter, results in low species
diversity. Particle size of the sand also affects the compaction
and aeration of the beach, thereby affecting its suitability as a
habitat for animals which burrow into it or obtain nourishment from
it. The shifting of the sand and the absence of rocks or cobbles
generally exclude macroalgae from the sandy beaches of the
Pacific Northwest. In northern Oregon and southern Washington
sandy beaches harbor vast numbers of razor clams, Siliqua patula,
but no other intertidal species are of great economic importance.
Basaltic headlands alternating with the sandy beaches provide
rocky intertidal areas having an exceedingly rich flora and fauna.
In some areas, offshore rocks and reefs temper the force of the
surf on these headlands forming the well-known protected rocky
outer coastal habitat. This type of environment, considered to be
one of the most productive, is a graphic example of the moderating
effect of the geomorphology on physical oceanographic processes
which, in turn, profoundly influence the biology. Tides, with an
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average range of about two meters, bare much of this area at low
tide, subjecting it to abnormally high temperatures. The degree
to which the exposed intertidal surfaces are heated by absorption
of short wave solar radiation is largely determined by the nature
of the substrate. Dark surfaces absorb greater amounts of energy
than lighter ones. Hence, organisms found on dark surfaces may
tolerate, or even require, broader daily ranges of temperature
and higher temperatures than those on lighter surfaces. Such subtle
differences in substrate characteristics may have significant effects
on the composition and distribution of intertidal communities.
The water level changes due to tides have a marked effect on the
distribution of intertidal species. Vertical zonation is generally
quite evident, especially on the more vertical rock faces. The
California mussel, Mytilus californianus, the ocean goose barnacle,
Pollicipes polymerus, and the sea star, Pisaster ochraceous,
constitute a trio of species which form massive beds in the upper
intertidal zone. The splash zone above has its own biota, consisting
primarily of smaller species. The zones below also have characteristic
plants and animals and generally have a great number of species.
The My tilu s - Polli cipe s - Pisa s te r zone is alternately exposed to
air and water and the upper limit of this zone is generally determined
by this exposure. The lower limit, however, is most likely
controlled by predation of the starfish on the other two species.
This illustrates the interaction of biological and physical influences
on the distribution of species.
The intertidal community is dually exposed to predation. When covered
with water, fishes, seals, diving birds and other marine species
have ready access to the organisms. At low tides, shore birds
and terrestrial animals invade the region. Man, too, has become
a major influence on the ecology of intertidal zone along the Pacific
Northwest coast. The impact of intertidal collectors (tourists,
school and college classes) and fishermen has become so great that
use of the region must be regulated to protect the species. In
many areas Pisaster ochraceous, the starfish that was once a
most conspicuous part of the fauna, is now a rare species, having
been removed by human visitors to the beach. How will man's
predation on Pisaster effect the Mytilus-Pollicipes-Pisaster zone
of animals? Will Mytilus and Pollicipes encroach upon the lower zones?
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Man-made structures have altered the shape of the coastline and
provided solid substrates for the attachment of many sessile organisms.
Jetties have been constructed to protect practically all the harbor
entrances along the Pacific Northwest coast. These jetties disrupt
the movement of sand along the coast. The seasonality of this
alongshore movement, or littoral drift, causes sandy beaches to
build up on both north and south sides of some jetties. Breakwaters
and groins similarly alter the natural flow of sand in the littoral drift.
The nearshore subtidal area is largely composed of sands similar
to those found intertidally, but become finer farther from shore. The
sand characteristically has a median diameter ranging from 200 to
300 microns and makes up nearly 100% of the sediment. The supply
of sand to this area from coastal rivers is small, most of it
being trapped in the estuaries of the supplying streams. Silt and
clay sized particles, however, are supplied to the nearshore
region in significant quantities. These particles do not settle,
but remain suspended and are transported from the area, most
being deposited farther out on the continental shelf. This suspended
material may be important in removing toxic substances from the
water. For example, toxic organic substances, such as pesticides or
pulp mill wastes, and toxic trace metals (e.g. , mercury, lead,
etc. ) may be absorbed or adsorbed by the suspended silt and clay
particles and be deposited farther offshore.
The subtidal region has a moderate slope of about 1 : 80 such that
at one kilometer from shore the average depth is about 10-14
meters. In the northern part of the area under consideration the
slope is somewhat less than this; in the southern part, somewhat
more. Gravelly or rocky substrates are found off the mouths of
many coastal rivers due to the scouring action of the more intense
tidal currents created by the flow of water entering and leaving
the estuary. Rocky outcroppings occur off most headlands either
as sea stacks which have resisted erosion or as rubble which has
fallen from eroding headlands. Sea stacks are common off the
major headlands such as Tillamook Head, Cape Arago, and others,
and are a dominant part of the seascape within several kilometers
of the shore south of Cape Blanco. These structures may have a
large influence on the local, nearshore circulation (to be discussed
later) which, in turn, may affect communities by altering.the transport
of nutrients, pollutants, and pelagic larvae.
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Two dynamic communities interact in this near shore subtidal
region: (1) A benthic community consisting of those organisms
living in or on the sediment or near the sediment-water interface
and (2) A pelagic community consisting of those organisms drifting,
floating, or swimming in the overlying water. Because of their
interactions, the boundaries of these communities are not clear.
The Pacific herring, for example, deposits eggs which become part
of the benthic community while the larvae and adults are members
of the pelagic community. Conversely, many of the benthic species
produce eggs which float to the surface, hatch into planktonic larvae,
and become dispersed by ocean currents before settling permanently
to the bottom. In many other cases, benthic fishes swim up into
the surface waters to feed on pelagic organisms, while such pelagic
species as sea otters dive to the bottom to feed on benthic sea
urchins. The benthic community depends upon the continual "rain"
of materials from the overlying waters in the form of decomposing
organisms, fecal pellets, suspended sediment particles, etc. , for
nourishment. These bottom organisms, including bacteria, marine
worms, etc. , perform the valuable function of breaking down these
organic materials into elemental forms which are recycled. The
cycling of some elements have been studied by following radionuclides
artificially induced in the Columbia River at Hanford, Washington, and
subsequently incorporated into the marine biogeochemical system.
This nearshore subtidal region with its many interacting communities
is the site of several major fisheries in the Pacific Northwest. The
largest of these is the salmon fishery, but Dungeness crab, shrimp,
perch, sole, founder, bass, and rockfish fisheries contribute
significantly to the economy of the region.
The temperature of the nearshore coastal surface water varies
seasonally, ranging from an average high of 17.7°C to an average low
of 7. 6°C. The annual range in mean temperature is small, however,
with mean summer temperatures (14°C) being about 5°C warmer than
mean winter temperatures (9°C). Such a small annual temperature
range is in sharp contrast to that of many other coastal regions.
More variability is observed in summer than in winter. Summer
temperatures fluctuate within a 4 to 6°C range while winter temperatures
are constrained to a 1 to 2°C range. Due to the warming influence of
the Columbia River, summer temperatures are 2 to 3 ° C higher in
the vicinity of the river mouth (from Willapa Bay to Tillamook Head).
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Coastal upwelling, most prevalent off southern Oregon and northern
California, tends to suppress the high surface temperature normally
expected during summer. Average temperatures of 9. 5 to 10. 5°C are
observed in regions of active upwelling. At the same time, temperatures
of 12 to 14°C are found in nearby regions undergoing little or no
upwelling.
The net heat exchange across the air-sea boundary varies from year
to year due mainly to fluctuations in solar radiation and evaporation.
Seasonal fluctuations of these two factors also establish an annual
cycle of net heat transfer. From April through September the ocean
is warmed by a transfer of heat from the atmosphere to the oceans;
October through March constitutes a cooling period when the ocean
gives up heat to the atmosphere. Net solar radiation reaches its
maximum during the summer months. The insolation during April
through September is more than twice that received during the
winter months. Heat loss due to evaporation is at a maximum during
the winter months. The evaporative process is supressed during
the summer months when upwelling is prevalent.
Atmospheric temperatures observed at coastal weather stations
and at lightships range from a mean summer temperature of
approximately 14°C peaking in August to a mean winter temperature
of approximately 10°C during January through March.
Average surface salinities are higher in summer than in winter
(approximately 33. 5%o and 32%o, respectively). Coastal upwelling
tends to keep salinities high during the summer, while winter rains
and high river run-off tend to lower surface salinities. Where
coastal upwelling is prevalent, salinities are frequently observed in
excess of 33. 8%o but seldom exceeding 34.4%o. In winter the discharge
from the Columbia River flows northward along the Washington
coastline. Mean salinities observed along the southern Washington
coast are low (25 to 28%o) with maximum salinities rarely exceeding
30%o. In June, during periods of peak river flow, salinities less
than 20%o have been observed from Seaside, Oregon to Willapa Bay,
Washington.
The quality of sea water depends not only upon those substances which
are a natural part of the marine ecosystem, but also upon those
substances-which have been added by man. Little is known about
312
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the natural properties of Pacific Northwest nearshore coastal waters
except for those tied closely to biological production and upwelling.
These properties, pH, dissolved CC^, inorganic nutrients, and
dissolved oxygen,are discussed later under considerations of upwelling.
Substances introduced into the nearshore waters of the Pacific
Northwest by man include domestic sewage, pesticides, and pulp
mill effluents. The interactions of these substances with the environ-
ment have not been studied thoroughly in this region. Although there
are four pulp mill outfalls in this coastal zone, little is known about
the interactions of these waste products with sea water and nearshore
communities.
One feature of the Pacific Northwest coast which sets it apart from
the more southerly coasts is the occurrence of much driftwood washed
ashore or water-logged in the sub-tidal area. This wood, carried
to the oceans from logging activities ashore or lost from log-rafts at
sea, provides a substrate for those communities which attach to
floating objects or bore into submerged wood. In the surf these
logs are a hazard to swimmers and boaters and may act as battering-
rams dislodging attached animals and damaging sea walls.
The trend of the winds over this coastal area is largely influenced
by the barriers presented by the coastal bluffs and nearby mountains.
Summer winds prevail from the north-west (WNW in the northern
region, NNW in the southern). Winds observed at the lightships
off Cape Flattery, Cape Mendocino, and the mouth of the Columbia
River are similar to those observed at coastal stations suggesting
that the influence of the coastal bluffs and mountains is felt at least
10 kilometers offshore. Most winter storms are southwesterly,
but prevailing winds during the winter generally have an easterly
component. The net result of these wind forces is a seasonal
pattern of nearshore •water' movement either northward or southward
along the coast.
Littoral sand transport along the coast is responsive to the local
wind-generated wave action and moves sand northward during the
winter and southward during the summer. The more severe winter
storms generate higher waves tending to make the annual net movement
northward, but this may vary locally. Except for seasonal changes in
313
-------
the beach slope very near to shore, the onshore-off shore movement
is negligible. This absence of net offshore transport, combined
with reduced net alongshore drift due to seasonal reversals,
results in a low rate of removal of sands from a given area.
Dispersion of pollutants adsorbed on the sand particles would also
be limited by this containment or anti-dispersal mechanism.
The northerly summer winds are also associated with coastal
upwelling which brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface to
replace the surface water which has been transported offshore by
the combined influence of wind stress and the Earth's rotation.
Upwelling is particularly apparent in the southern half of the region
(southward of Tillamook Head) and generally is initiated in June,
becoming most intense in July and August and persisting until
September. Periods of subsidence occur during periods of calm
or when the wind shifts from the north. The upwelling phenomenon
is manifested as local pockets of relatively cool saline water
varying locally in intensity. The temperature of this upwelled
water is about 11 to 13°C, approximately 5 to 7°C less than that of
surface waters 40 kilometers farther offshore. Upwelling has a
marked effect on the coastal climate producing local fog and chilly
weather during the summer months. Recent studies indicate that
upwelling is more persistent in the vicinity of rocky headlands.
Upwelling is an important mechanism for bringing cold, nutrient-rich,
low oxygen water to the surface where it can be utilized by phytoplankton.
The rich supply of these nutrients, which often limit photo synthetic
production, stimulates the growth of phytoplankton resulting in a
population explosion or "bloom. " Such blooms generally occur between
May and September along the Pacific Northwest coast. These blooms
are closely followed by an increase in the population of zooplankton
which feed on the phytoplankton. The region is thus rich in food for
higher trophic levels. Important forage fish, such as anchovy and
herring feed on this rich food and in turn are fed upon by salmon and
other commercial species. Thus, the success and timing of the
fisheries in the Pacific Northwest is closely correlated with the
timing and location of intense upwelling zones.
In addition to its higher nutrient concentration, upwelled waters differ
from surface waters in other chemical characteristics. Values of
314
-------
pH may be as low as 7.7 or roughly twice as acidic as surface
waters (pH 8. 1). Dissolved carbon dioxide may reach levels of
500 ppm or more while the level of typical surface waters is
generally less than 3ZO ppm. Oxygen values may be as low as
1. 5 ml/1 (N. T. P0 ) whereas usual surface values are about 7 ml/1.
Higher concentrations of trace metals probably occur in upwelled
waters, and concentrations of dissolved organics and particulate
matter may also be high. The implications of these significant
changes in chemical composition are not yet fully understood, but
they may be as important as the nutrients to the biological systems.
Wave studies indicate that the predominant offshore swell is from
the northwest throughout the year. Thus, communities on the
exposed northern sides of headlands may differ in their species
composition from those on the more protected southern sides. The
average height of the swell is less in summer than in winter (1 m and
1. 6 m); the average period during both seasons is about 1 0. 5 seconds.
Waves generated by local storms are superimposed on this general
swell pattern. These locally generated waves are higher (1.1 m
in summer, 2. 5 m in winter) and of a shorter period (6. 4 sec in
summer, 8. 1 sec in winter) than the swell. Wave height and wave
length determine the depth at which bottom material can be resuspended
or moved. The resultant turbidity and movement of material may
significantly influence the bottom topography, benthic communities, and
chemical characteristics of the area.. Upon reaching the nearshore
area the waves appear mostly as swell and are bent from their
direction of approach to arrive with their wave crests nearly parallel to
the shoreline. Where troughs, canyons, or other depressions occur
on the sea floor, there are regions of divergence where the wave
heights are diminished. Off headlands, reefs, bars, and other
shoaling areas (regions of convergence), wave heights are increased,
in some cases to a height where breakers occur.
Turbulent mixing by the large storm waves of winter causes thorough
mixing of the -water column from surface to bottom. The small
temperature differences observed between surface and bottom waters
(about 1 °C) during the summer are absent during the period from
December through March or April.
Reliable estimates of wind-driven current velocities beyond the
surf zone are not available at present, but observations 5 to 1 5
kilometers offshore show a. general southward surface flow of 20
315
-------
to 40 cm/sec during the summer. Depending on the strength of
the surface flow, a subsurface northward flow may also be present
near the base of the permanent pycnocline. It seems doubtful
that such subsurface flow would be observed because of the influence
of the shallower water and other coastal features. In winter the
direction of the southward current is reversed in response to the
seasonal shift of the winds. The conformation of the coastline
(headlands, reefs, etc. ) has a marked influence on local circulation
patterns, creating complex eddies, most of which have not yet been
studied. Local circulation constitutes the main mechs.nism for the
dispersal of material added to the nearshore area by rivers, erosion,
and human activities.
These circulation patterns are also of great importance in transporting
planktonic organisms, particularly the planktonic larvae of benthic
plants and animals. Such offspring must be transported to a suitable
area during proper seasons in order to insure continued maintenance
of benthic communities. Distribution of materials such as nutrients,
trace metals, and pollutants are also influenced by the currents.
Disruption of the usual patterns of longshore water movement during
prolonged stormy periods may seriously affect planktonic organisms.
Currents also carry foods and other substances to various organisms,
especially those which are attached to the substrate, and may also
remove waste products which might become toxic if allowed to remain
in the area.
A number of rivers empty into the region, including coastal streams
and the Columbia River. The impact of the coastal streams is slight
compared to that of the mighty Columbia. These rivers introduce'
fresh water with its load of sediment and diverse chemicals into
the ocean. Such riverborne chemicals as trace elements, organic
compounds, inorganic nutrients, and particulate matter, may have a
great influence on the ecology of the nearshore region. The specific
chemical characteristics of each stream are largely determined
by the nature of its drainage basin. The chemistry of Pacific
Northwe&t coastal streams is thus influenced by the geology of the
Coast Range; the markedly seasonal precipitation patterns; and the
activities, of various industries, in particular, the forest products
industries. The generally low population density in these drainage
basins has helped to preserve the pristine quality of the water.
316
-------
The effects of the coastal streams are generally local and seasonal
with discharges ranging from 3 to 30 m^/sec in summer and 300 to
600 m^/sec cfs in-winter. The Columbia River, however, is much
larger (7500 m^/sec mean annual flow) and has a plume that can
be detected far at sea. Its impact on the coastal area is primarily
along the Washington coast where the winter plume flows northward
close to shore. The summer plume of the Columbia flows southwest
from the mouth of the river and is soon far offshore. The influence
of the Columbia is not entirely absent from the coastal region of
Oregon, however, for traces of radionuclides induced in the Columbia
River at the Hanford Atomic Works can be detected in the coastal
fauna and sediments at least 300 kilometers south of the river mouth.
The influence of the river on the biota is not always obvious, but
anadromous fishes such as salmon, bay smelt, and herring require
varying degrees of fresh water for spawning. It is also thought
that the chemical make-up of the rivers is important for the successful
navigation of these anadromous species, serving as a sort of
"fingerprint" to identify the natal stream. Changes of the chemical
make-up of a river can hinder their upstream navigation.
Most of the coastal rivers and the Columbia River enter the ocean
through well-developed estuaries. Estuaries are the sites of most
of the cities and smaller communities along the coast, and also
the location of most of the industry. These estuaries have a fauna
and flora that are more or less typical of the habitat, and-are
important feeding grounds for the larvae and juveniles of many marine
species. Estuaries undoubtedly have an important impact on the
outer coastal zone, but they have been excluded from this study.
In summary, the general uniformity of this coastal region should
be emphasized. The plant and animal composition of the entire
region shows a remarkable similarity from north to south. Most
of the more common species reported from northern Washington have
also been reported from northern California and vice versa. There are
no major faunal or floral boundaries in the region, and the differences
in biota that can be seen between the extremes of the region generally
occur gradually. The general ecological factors which are thought
to control biological distributions (e.g. temperature, substrate,
salinity) all show a relative uniformity throughout the region so that
the absence of a biological boundary is not surprising.
317
-------
In this chapter we have attempted to describe the nearshore coastal
region of the Pacific Northwest, to show that it is a dynamic ecosystem
interacting with adjacent ecosystems. We have tried to discuss
the various components of this ecosystem as they interact and to
show that there is great interdependence among these components.
In the preceding chapters and in the appendices to this report we
have brought together all the information that we could locate about
the area. It was necessary for this information to be compartmentalized,
although from the ecological viewpoint it cannot realistically be
separated into discrete parts. Much of the information is so fragmentary
and so incompletely understood that we cannot incorporate it into
a large interacting whole. Ecology has not yet reached the degree of
sophistication necessary for us to completely understand the complex
and subtle interactions within an ecosystem, but it is probable
that any available information may be useful and perhaps even
essential.
318
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In preparing this bibliography an attempt was made to uncover
all of the literature pertaining to the outer coastal zone.
Undoubtedly, important references were unintentionally omitted.
For this the authors apologize and would appreciate having such
omissions called to their attention.
Early in the preparation of this report the decision was made to
number literature citations serially, and a block of numbers
was assigned to each worker. Duplications have been deleted but
limited time and space have precluded indexing or alphabetizing
the references. Hence, the reader must reach the references
from the number citations in the text and appendices.
Only selected publications from the pre-1920 literature have been
reviewed and evaluated. This literature was often unavailable.
Changes in biological nomenclature made accurate placement of the
information difficult, if not impossible, without a complete
synonymy of the species. Furthermore, most of the significant
works published before 1920 have become incorporated into the more
recent literature.
319
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1100 Adams, James R. 1969. Ecological investigations related
to thermal discharges. Pacific Coast Electrical
Association, Engr. & Operating Section. Annual
Meeting. March 13, 14. 1 0 p.
1101 . 1969. Thermal power^aquatic life, and
kilowatts on the Pacific coast. American Power Confer-
ence Annual Meeting. Chicago, 111. April 2?,-25. 13 p.
1102 . 1968. Ecological investigations around
some thermal power stations in California tidal waters.
Chesapeake Science (to be published). 1 3 p.
1105 Pacific Gas and Electric Company. 1969. Summary of
ecological studies and agreements between Pacific
Gas and Electric Company and California Resources
Agency for thermal power plants. PG&E Company,
San Francisco.
1106 Ballard, R. L. 1964. Distribution of beach sediment near
the Columbia River. Department of Oceanography,
University of Washington, Seattle. Tech. Report
#98. 82 p.
1107 Bijker, E. W. 1968. Littoral drift as a function of waves
and current. Proceedings llth Conference on Coastal
Engineering. London. Vol. I: 421 -435.
1110 Bretschneider, C. L. 1966. On wind tides and longshore
currents over the continental shelf due to winds blow-
ing at an angle to the coast. National Engineering
Science Company, Washington. 45 p.
1111 Bourke, R. H. 1969. Monitoring coastal upwelling by
measuring its effects within an estuary. Master's
thesis. Corvallis, Oregon State University. 54 num. Ivs.
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1112 Brown, R. L. 1967. Hydrodynamic forces on a submarine
pipeline. Proc. Journal of Pipeline Division. , ASCE.
93 (PL1): 9-19.
1113 Budinger, T. F. , L. K. Coachman, and C. A. Barnes. 1964.
Columbia River effluent in the northeast Pacific Ocean.
1961, 1962: selected aspects of physical oceanography.
Department of Oceanography, University of Washing-
ton, Seattle. Technical Report 99. 78 p.
1114 Budyko, M. I. 1964. Atlas of the heat balance of the earth.
U. S. Department of Commerce WB/T-106. 25 p.
1115 Burt, W. V. , W. B. McAlister, and J. Queen. 1959.
Oxygen anomalies in the surf near Coos Bay, Oregon.
Ecology 40(2): 305-306.
1116 Burt, W. V. 1954. Albedo over wind-roughened water.
Journal of Meteorology J_l (4): 283-290.
1117 . 1958. Heat budget terms for Middle
Snake River reservoirs. Corvallis. (OSU Tech. Rpt. 6).
1118 Cairns, J. L. 1968. Thermocline strength fluctuations
in coastal waters. JGR_73(8): 2591-2595.
1121 Coastal Engineering Research Center. 1966. Shore pro-
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Third ed. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington.
401 p.
1123 Committee on Thermal Pollution. 1967. Bibliography
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Div. SA3: 85-113. #5303.
1124 Cooper, William S. 1958. Coastal sand dunes of Oregon
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72. 169 p.
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1125 Darling, J. M. and D. G. Dumm. 1967. The wave record
program at CEP C. U. S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center Miscellaneous Paper No. 1-67.
30 p.
1126 Dodimead, A. J. , F. Favorite, and T. Hirano. 1963. Salmon
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North Pacific Fisheries Commission, Bulletin 13.
195 p.
1128 Duxbury, A. , Betty-Ann Morse, and N. McGary. 1966. The
Columbia River effluent and its distribution at sea
1961-1963. University of Washington, Dept. of Oceanog-
raphy, Seattle. Tech. Report #156. 105 p.
1129 Eagleson, P. S. 1965. Theoretical study of longshore currents
on a plane beach. M. I. T. , Department of Civil Engineering
Hydrodynamics Lab. , Report no. 82.
1130 Ekman, V. W. 1905. On the influence of the earth's radiation
on ocean currents. Ark. f. Mat. , Astron. och Frysik,
2/11): 1 -53.
1131 Engineering Laboratory, TVA. 1969. Heat and mass transfer
between a water surface and the atmosphere. Water
Resources Research Lab. Report. #14 (revised).
Norris , Tenn. 98 p.
1132 Federal Power Commission. 1969. Problems in disposal of
waste heat from steam-electric plants. Bureau of Power,
Washington, D. C. 53 p.
1133 Frolander, Herbert F. 1960-1970. Unpublished hydrographic
data from Yaquina Bay, Oregon. Corvallis, Oregon State
University, Department of Oceanography.
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1135 Conor, J. J. 1968. Temperature relations of coastal
Oregon marine intertidal invertebrates; a pre-publi-
cation technical report to the office of naval research.
Dept. of Ocean. , Oregon State University, Corvallis.
Ref. No. 68-38. 43 p.
1137 Gross, M. G. , B. Morse, and C. A. Barnes. 1969. Move-
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off the Northwestern United States. J. of Geo.
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1138 Haertel, L. S. 1969. Plankton and nutrient ecology of the
Columbia River. Ph. D. thesis. Corvallis, Oregon
State University. 54 numb, leaves.
1139 Hedgpeth, J. and J. J. Conor. 1969. Annual summary report
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1140 Humboldt State College. 1964. An oceanographic study
between the points of Trinidad Head and the Eel
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1142 Ingraham, W. J. 1967. The geostrophic circulation and
distribution of water properties off the coasts of
Vancouver Island and Washington, spring and fall
1963. Fishery Bulletin, 66j2): 223-250.
1144 Ippen, A. T. 1966. Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics.
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1145 James, R. W. 1966. Ocean thermal structure forecasting.
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217 p.
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1146 James, W. P. and F. J. Burgess. 1969. Airphoto analysis
of ocean outfall dispersion for period 6/1/68 - 4/30/69.
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1147 Johnson, J. W. and R. L. Wiegel. 1958. Investigation of
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4: 85-118.
1149 Laevastu, T. i960. Factors affecting the temperature of
the surface layer of the sea. Societas ,Scientiarum
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1150 Lane, Robert K. 1965. Climate and heat exchange in the
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1151 Law, W. P. 1965. Investigation into the short-period advective
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1155 Meteorology Committee, Pacific Northwest River Basins
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1156 Mooers, C. N. K., et_al. 1968. A compilation of observations
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1158 National Marine Consultants. I960. Wave statistics for seven
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1159 . 1961. Wave statistics for three deep water
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1160 Neal, V. T. , D. F. Keene and J. Detweiler. 1969. Physical
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1161 Neumann, G. 1952. On the complex nature of ocean waves and
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1162 North, Wheeler J. 1968. Biological effects of a heated water
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Supplement to Current Discharge at Selected Stations in the
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1164 O'Brien, M. P. 1951. Wave measurements at the Columbia River
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1165 Oregon State Water Resources Board. 1959. Rogue River Basin.-
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1166 . 1969. Summary report of Oregon's long range
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1171 Panicker; N. N. 1969. Prediction of bottom current velocities
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1176 Pierson, W. J. , G. Neumann, and R. W. James. 1955.
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1179 Pritchard, D. W. 1969. Problems related to disposal of
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3418 Kennedy, V. S. and J. A. Mihursky. 1967. See 2926.
3419 Pech, Morton E. 1941. A Manual of the Higher plants of
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to air on the respiration of two intertidal snails.
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3424 Lorss, Carl Albert,, 1966. The oplophorid and pasiphaeid
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3426 Tipper, R. C. 1968. Ecological aspects of two wood-boring
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3503 Hyman, L. H. 1959. Some Turbellaria from the coast of
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3506 Thomas, Robert I. 1966. The distribution and zonation of
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3518 Smith, H. S. 1956. Fisheries statistics of Oregon 1950-
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3527 Gran, H. H. and E. C. Angst. 1931. Plankton diatoms
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3529 Guberlet, John E. 1928. Observations on the spawning
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3530 Guberlet, John E. 1934. Observations on the spawning
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3531 Guberlet, J. E. and Melville H. Hatch, n. d. The distribution
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3532 Hacker, R. L. 1934. The method of boring, spawning
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3536 Soat-Ryen, T. 1955. A report on the family Mytilidae.
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3537 Jones, Vicki. 1967. The Ecology of Qnchidella borealis
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3538 Hurd, Annie May. 1916. Codium mucronatum. Puget Sound
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3540 Kurd, A. M. 1917. Winter condition of some Puget Sound
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3547 Johnson, M. W. and R. C. Miller. 1935. The seasonal
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3550 McCutcheon, Rob. S. , L. Arrigoni, and L. Fischer. 1949.
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3551 McKernan, D. L. , V. Tarter, and R. Tollefson. 1949.
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3553 McLean, A. J. 1921. Effects of thyroid and iodind feeding
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3557 Nightingale, H. W. 1936. Red water organisms--their
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3559 Pease, Vinnie A. 1917. North Pacific coast species of
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3560 Phifer, Lyman D. 1929. Littoral diatoms of Argyle Lagoon.
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3564 Powers, Edwin B. 1921. Experiments and observations
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3566 Schaefer,- Milner B. 1938. Preliminary observations on the
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3568 Scheffer, Victor B. and J. W. Slipp. 1948. The whales
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3569 Scheffer, V. B. and C. C. Sperry. 1931. Food habits of
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3570 Schultz, Leonard P. 1930. Miscellaneous observations on
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3571 Shelford, V. E. , A. O.Weese, L. A. Rice, D. I. Rasmussen,
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3572 Swan, Emery F. 1952. Growth indices of the clam Mya arenaria.
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3573 Swan, Emery F. and J. H. Finucane. 1951. Observations
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3574 Towler, Emmett D. 1926. The common barnacles of Friday
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3580 Wells, Wayne W. 1931. Ecology and taxonomy of the Pinno-
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3582 Tucker, John S. 1958. Bipolarity in the anemone Anthopleura
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3584 Clogston, Fred. L. and D. H. Montgomery. 1964. Spawning
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3586 Oglesby, Larry C. 1964. Chloride exchange in nereid
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3587 Kincaid, Trevor. 1961. The ecology and morphology of
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3591 Wirth, Willis W. 1949. A review of the Clunionine midges
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3592 Water Resources Research Institute. 1962. Publications and
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5245 Fujiyama, T. 1955. On the life-history of Prasiola japonica
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5246 Hanic, L. 1965. Life-history studies on Urospora and
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539
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5250 Hazen, T. E. 1922. The phylogeny of the genus Brachiomonas.
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5252 Hollenberg, G. J. 1936. A study of Halicystis ovalis. I.
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5253 Hollenberg, G. J. 1948. Notes on Pacific Coast marine
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5254 Hollenberg, G. J. 1957. Culture studies of Spongomorpha
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5255 Hollenberg, G. J. 1958. Observations concerning the life
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5256 Howe, M. A. 19H. Phycological studies V. Some marine algae
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5257 Hurd, Annie May. 1916. Codium dimorphum. Puget Sound
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5258 Hurd, A. M. 1916. See 3538.
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5261 Levring, T. 1955. Some remarks on the structure of the
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5262 Manton, I., and I. Friedmann. I960. Gametes, fertilization
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540
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5264 Provasoli, L. 1958. Effect of plant hormones on Ulva.
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5265 Rigg, G. B. , and R. C. Miller. 1949. Int ertidal plant and
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5266 Sanborn, E. I., and M. S. Doty. 1947. The marine algae
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5267 Scagel, R. F. 1957. An annotated list of the marine algae
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5268 Scagel, R. F. 1959. Culture studies of benthonic algae
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5269 Scagel, R. F. I960. Life-history studies of the Pacific
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5270 Scagel, R. F. and J. R. Stein. 1961. Marine nonnoplankton
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5271 Shihira, I. 1958. The effect of light on gamete liberation in
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5272 Silva, P. C. 1951. The genus Codium in California with
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5273 Smith, G. M. 1947. On the reproduction of some Pacific coast
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5274 Yabu, H. and J. Tokida. I960. Nuclear and cell divisions in
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541
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5275 Ziegler, J. R. and J. M. Kingsbury. 1964. Cultural
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5276 Dillwyn, L. W. 1809. British Confervae. London. 87 p.
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5278 Gardner, N. L. 1918. New Pacific Coast marine algae II. Univ.
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5279 Gardner, N. L. 1918. New Pacific Coast marine algae III.
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5280 Gardner, N. L. 1940. New species of Melanophyceae from the
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5281 Hollenberg, G. J. 1944. An account of the species of Polysi-
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5282 Papenfuss, G. F. 1933. Notes on the life-cycle of Ectocarpus
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5283 Pease, Vinnie A. 1917. See 3559.
5284 Doty, M. S. 1947. The marine algae of Oregon. Part II.
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5285 Papenfuss, G. F. 1945. Review of the Acrochaetium-
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5286 Papenfuss, G. F. 1944. Notes on algal nomenclature. III.
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542
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5288 Harvey, W. H. and J. W. Bailey. 1851. See 5073.
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5290 Gardner, N. L. 1940. See 5280.
5291 Pease, V. A. 1917. See 3559.
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5293 MacMillan, C. 1899. See 5100.
5294 MacMillan, C. 1900. See 5101.
5295 MacMillan, C. 1902. See 5102.
5296 MacMillan, C. 1902. The kelps of Juan de Fuca. Postelsia
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5297 Collins, F. A. I. Holden, and W. A. Setchell. 1895-1919.
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5298 Connell, R. 1928. See 5226.
5299 Mason, L. R. 1953. The crustaceous coralline algae of the
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5300 Anon. 1964. See 2994.
5301 Carl, G. Clifford, (n.d.) See 2336.
5500 Bailey, Reeve (Chairman). I960. American Fisheries Society.
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5502 Forrester, C. R. 1964. Laboratory Observations on Embryonic
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543
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5503 Spalding, D. J. 1964. Age and Growth of Female Sea
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5504 Hartman, C. F. , T. G. Northcote and C. C. Lindsey. 1962.
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5505 Scott, D. P. 1962. Effect of Jood Quantity on Fecundity
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5506 Pike, Gordon C. 1962. Migration and Feeding of the Gray
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5507 Prakash, A. 1962. Seasonal changes in Feeding of Coho and
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5508 Tibbo, S. N. D. J. Scarratt and P. W. G McMullon. 1963.
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5509 LeBrasseur, R. J. 1964. Stomach Contents of Blue Shark
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5510 Hitz, Charles R. 1964. Observations on Egg cases of the Big
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5511 Rosenblatt, Richard H. 1964. A new Gunnel, Pholis clemensi, from.
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'5512 Pike, Gordon C. and Brian E. Maxwell. 1958. The abundance
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544
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5513 Brett, J. R. , M. Hollands, and D. F. Alderdice. 1958.
The effect of Temperature on the Cruising Speed
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5514 Ketchen, K. S. 1954. The Rockfish Sebastodes rubrioinctus
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5515 Ketchen, K.-S. 1956. Se 5630.
5516 Inque, M. 1959. Studies on Movements of Albacore Fishing
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5517 Forrester, C. R. and D. F. Alderdice. 1966. Effects of
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5518 Grinols, Richard B. 1966. Northeastern Pacific Records of
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5520 Peden, Alex. 1966. Rare Marine Fishes from British
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5521 Peden, Alex. 1966. Occurrences of the Fishes Ph.olis schultzi
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5522 Ketchen, K. S. 1956. Factors influencing the survival of the
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5523 Ketchen, K. S. 1947. Studies on lemon sole development and
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545
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5524 Hickman, Cleveland P. , Jr. 1959. The larval development
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5525 Harry, George Y. , Jr. 1959. See 5775.
5526 Hubbs, C. L. and L. C. Hubbs. 1954. Data on life history,
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5527 Eberhardt, Robert L. 1954. Observations on the Saury
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5528 Harry, G. Y. , Jr. 1956. Analysis and history of the Oregon
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5529 Tester, A. L. 1938. Herring, the tide and the moon.
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5531 Stevenson, J. C. 1946. Growth of herring along the upper
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5532 Tester, A. L. and R. B. Boughton. 1939. Herring and herring
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5534 Chew, K. K. , A. K. Sparks, and S. C. Katkansky. 1964.
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5535 Morgan, A. R. and A. R. Gerlach. 1950. See 2747.
5536 Harry, G. Y. , Jr. 1948. Oregon pilchard fishery. Fish
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546
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5537 Harry, G. Y. , Jr. 1949. The pilchard situation in Oregon.
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5539 Schultz, Leonard P. 1933. The age and growth of Atherinops
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5540 Lewis, R. C. 1929. The food habits of the California sardine
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5541 Orsi, James J. 1968. The embryology of the English sole
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5542 Westrheim, S. J. 1955. Size, composition, growth and
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5543 Manzer, J. I. and F. H. C. Taylor. 1947. The rate of growth
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5544 Gharrett, J. T. 1950. The Umpqua River shad fishery. Fish.
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5545 Ketchen, K. S. , Ruth I. Peterson, and C. R. Forrester. 1951.
Fluctuations in the length and age composition of lemon
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5546 Ketchen, K. S. and C. R. Forrester. 1955. Migrations of the
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5547 Manzer, J. I. 1946. First year returns of lemon sole tags used
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547
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5548 Gnose, C. E. 1968. Ecology of the striped seaperch,
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5549 Parrish, Loys P. 1966. The predicted influence of Kraft
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5550 Privol'nev, T. I. and N. V. Koroleva. 1955. Critical Content
of Oxygen in Water fro Fish at Various Temperatures
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5551 Rubin, M. A. 1935. Thermal reception in Fishes. J. of
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5552 Roots, B. I. and C. L. Prosser. 1962. Temperature Acclimation
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5553 Smith, D. C. 1928. The Effect of Temperature on the Melanophores
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5554 Seymour; Allyn. 1956. Effects of Temp, on Formation of
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5555 Meisner, H. M. and C. P. Hickman, Jr. 1962. Effect of
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5556 Meek, E. M. 1922. The Effect of Temperature on the Growth
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5557 Alabaster, J. S. 1962. Effects of Heated Effluents on Fish,
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5559 Andrews, C. W. 1946. The effect of heat on light behavior of
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548
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5561 Angelovic, J. W. , W. F. Sigler, and J. M. Newhold. I960.
The effect of Temperature on the Incidence of Fluorosis
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556Z Rechnitzer, Andreas B. and Conrad Limbaugh. 1952. Breeding
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5563 Pennsylvania--Dept. of Health. 1962. Heated Discharges --their
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5564 Minimal Oxygen Requirements for Certain Species of Fish. 1954.
Technical Bull. 66, Nat. Counc. on Stream Improvement,
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5565 Cleaver, F. C. 1949. The Washington Otter trawl fishery with
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5566 Bonnet, D. D. 1939- Mortality of the cod egg in relation to
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5567 Westheim, S. J. 1958. On the biology of the Pacific Ocean
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5568 Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific
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5570 Britton, S. W. 1924. The effects of extreme temperature on
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5571 Bull, H. O. 1936. Studies on conditioned responses in fishes;
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549
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5573 Cairns, J. , Jr. 1956. The effects of increased temperatures
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5574 Collins, G. B. 1952. Factors influencing the orientation of
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5575 Craigie, David E. 1963. An effect of water hardness in the
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5576 Crawford, D. R. 1930. Some considerations in the study of
the effects of heat and light on fishes, Copeia, 73; 89-92.
5577 Button, G. J. and Montgomery, J. P. 1958. Glucuronide
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5578 Ellis, M. M. 1947. Temperature and fishes, Fishery
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5580 Embody, G. C. 1934. Relation of temperature to the incubation
periods of four species of trout, Trans. , Amer. Fish.
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5581 Alverson, D. L. 1953. Notes on the Pacific Ocean Perch.
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5582 Evans, R. M. , F. C. Purdie, and C. P. Hickman, Jr. 1962.
The effect of temperature and photoperiod on the
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5584 Fry, F. E. J. 1951. Some temperature relations offish,
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5585 Pearson, T. Gilbert (ed. ). 1936. Birds of America. Garden
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5586 Garside, E. T. , and J. S. Tait. 1958. Preferred temperature
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550
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5588 Hathaway, Edward S. 1928. Quantitative study of the changes
produced by acclimatization in the tolerance of high
temperature by fishes and amphibians, Bull. , U. S.
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5589 Hathaway, E. S. 1927. The relation of temperature to the
quantity of food consumed by fishes, Ecology, 8(4): 428-434.
5590 Huet, Marcel. 1965. Biological problems in water pollution:
water quality criteria for fish life, Third Seminar: 1962,
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5591 Bernard, F. 1967. Prodrome for a distributional check-list
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5593 Huntsman, A. G. 1946. Heat stroke in Canadian maritime
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5595 Kawajiri, M. 1928. The influence of variation of temperature
of water on the development of fish eggs. On the relation
of growth and death from starvation of the trout fry to
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5596 Kerr, J. E. 1953. Studies on fish preservation at the Contra
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5597 Ketchen, K. S. 1952. Factors influencing the survival of the
lemon sole (Parophrys vetulus, Girard) in Hecate Strait,
B. C. , thesis presented to the Univ. of Toronto, at Toronto,
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5598 Lawrence, W. M. 1940. The effect of temperature on the weight
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5600 MacCardle, R. C. 1937. The effect of temperature on Mitochondria
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551
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5601 Mantleman, I. I. I960. Distribution of the young of certain
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5604 Marrow, J. E. , Jr., and A. Mauro. 1950. Body temperature
of some marine fishes, Cope La, _2: 108-116.
5605 Miller, William T. 1956. Possible relationship of water
temperatures with availability and year class size in
the Pacific sardine, thesis presented to Stanford U. ,
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5606 Mossman, William H. , and Anthony L. Pacheco. 1957- Shad
catches and water temperatures in Virginia, J. of
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5607 Musacchia, J. , and M. R. Clark. 1957. Effects of elevated
temperatures on tissue chemistry of the Arctic sculpin,
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5608 Nakano, T. 1961, 1962. Studies on the physicological chemistry
of phosphorus compounds in fish muscle. V. Quanti-
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5609 Pegel, V. A. 1959. Mechanism of adaptation by fishes to. the
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5610 Peiss, C. M. , and J. Field. 1950. The respiratory metabolism
of excised tissues of warm and cold adapted fishes,
Biol. Bull. , Woods Hole, 99^(2): 213-224.
5612 Powers, E. B. 1920. Influence of temperature and concentration
on the toxicity of salts to fishes, Ecology, 1_: 95-112.
5613 Taverner, P. A. 1928. Birds of Western Canada. Nat. Mus.
Canada, Bull. , No. 41 (Biol. series 10).
5614 Tagatz, M. E. 1961. Tolerance of striped bass and American
shad to changes of temperature and salinity, Special
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Serv. , 8 pp.
552
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5615 Tauti, M. 1927. On the influences of temperature and salinity
upon the rate of development of fish eggs, J. , Imperial
fisheries Institute, Tokyo, 23: 31-37.
5616 Van Vliet, V. 1957. See 2913.
5617 Waede, M. 1955. See 2796.
5618 Wurtz, C. B. 1961. Is heat a new pollution threat? Wastes
Engineering, 3_2_(12): 684 et seq.
5619 Farris, David A. 1961. Abundance and distribution of eggs and
Larvae and survival of Larvae of Jack Mackerel
(Trachurus symmetricus). U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.
Fish. Bull. 187, 61: 247-279.
5620 Miller, B. S. 1965. Foos and Feeding studies on adults of
two species of pleuronectids (Platichthys stellatus
and Psettichthys melanostictus) in East Sound , Orcas
Island, Washington. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, 131 p.
5621 McHugh, J. L. and J. E. Fitch. 1951. An annotated list of
the clupeoid fishes of the Pacific Coast from Alaska to
Cape San Lucas, Baja California. Calif. Fish and Game
37; 491-495.
5622 MacPhee, C. and W. A. Clemena 1962. Fishes of the San
Juan Archipelago , Washington. Northwest Science ,
36; 27-38.
5623 Grinols, R. B. 1965. Check-list of the offshore marine fishes
occurring in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, principally
off the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon,
M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Wash. Seattle, 217 p.
5624 Delacy, A. C. , C. R. Hitz, and R. L. Dryfoos. 1964. Maturation
and birth of rockfish (Sebastodes) from Washington and
adjacent waters. Washington, State of, Dept. of Fish. ,
Fish. Res. Bd. Papers_3(2): 51-67. Also Contri. no.
164, School, of Fish. Univ. of Washington.
553
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5625 Bayliff, W. H. 1954. A review of the Zoarcidae of the north-
eastern Pacific Ocean . M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, 189 p.
5626 Tester, A. L. 1932. Local populations of herring. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada, Pacific Progr. Kept. No. 12: 12-14.
5627 Tester, >. L. 1933. The age and growth of herring in British
Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Progr. Rept.
No. _!_§_; 10-13.
5628 Hart, J. L. and G. H. Wiles. 1931. The food of pilchards.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Progr. Rept. No. 11; 24-28.
Also Contr. Can. Biol. and Fish. , 7_(19) (Ser. A. no. 16)
247-254 (1932).
5629 Williams, R. W. 1959. The fishery for herring (Clupea
pallasii) on Puget Sound. Washington, .Fish. Res.
Papers_2(2): 5-29.
5630 Ketchen, K. S. 1956. See 5515.
5631 Jewett, St. G. _e_t al. 1953. Birds of Washington State, University
of Washington Press, Seattle, 1953, 767 pp.
5632 Ingles, Lloyd C. 1965. Mammals of the Pacific States, Stanford
University Press, Stanford, California, 506 p.
5633 Arora, Hartans Lall. 1951. An investigation of the California
sand Dab, Citharichthys sordidus (Girard). Calif. Fish
and Game _37(1): 3-42.
5634 Reeder, William G. 1951. Stomach analysis of a groups of
shorebirds. Condor, 53; 43-45.
5635 Turner, Clarence L. 1938. Histological and cytological changes
In the ovary of Cymatogaster aggregatus during
gestation. J. Morphology, 62: 351 -368.
5637 MacGregor, John S. 1966. Fecundity of the Pacific Hake,
Merluccius productus (Ayres) Calif. Fish and Geme
52(2): 111-116.
554
-------
5638 Carlisle, John G. Jr. 1966. Aerial Census of California
Sea Otters in 1964 and 1965. Calif. Fish and Game,
52(4): 300-302.
5639 Shippen, Herbert H. and Alton Miles. 1966. Predation upon
Pacific Hake, Merluccius productus, by Pacific Dog fish,
Squalus acanthias. Calif. Fish and Game, 53(3): 218-219.
5640 Miller, Daniel J. and John Schmidtke. 1956. Report on the
distribution and abundance of Pacific Herring (Clupea
pallasi) along the coast of central and southern
California. Calif. Fish and Game , 42(3): 1 63 -1 87.
5641 Scheffer, Victor B. 1958. Seals, Sealions, and Walruses.
A Review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press,
Stanford, Calif, x + 179 pp.
5642 Radovich, John. 1963. Effect of ocean temperature on the
•seaward movements of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis,
on the Pacific coast. Calif. Fish and Game 49(3): 191-206,
5643 Hester, Frank J. 1961. A Method of Predicting tuna catch
by using coastal sea-surface temperatures. Calif. Fish
and Game, _47(4): 313-326.
5644 Robinson, John B. I960. The Age and Growth of Striped Bass
(Roccus saxatilis) in California, Calif. Fish and Game,
46J3): 279-290.
5645 Chadwick, Harold B. 1959. California Sturgeon Tagging
Studies, Calif. Fish and Game , _45(4): 297-301.
5647 Phillips, J. B. 1959. A review of the lingcod, Ophiodon
elongatus: Calif. Fish and Game 45(1): 19-27. Biol.
Abs. 33(1959), no. 31930.
5648 Phillips, J. B. 1958. The Fishery for Sablefish, Anoplopoma
fimbria. Calif. Fish and Game, 44(1); 79-84.
5649 Gates, D. E. I960. Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea)
Res. Briefs Fish. Comm. Ore. I960: 46-48.
5650 Otsu, Tamio and Richard N. Uchida. 1963. Model of the
migration of albacore in the north Pacific Ocean. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv. Bur. Comm. Fish. Fishery Bull.
63(1): 33-44.
555
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5652 USDI, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1952. Doctoral dissertations
on the management and ecology of fisheries. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv. , Spec. Sci. Kept. - Fish. No.
87 , 44 p.
5653 Wilimovsky, N. J. and W. G. Freihofer. 1957. Guide to
literature on systematic biology of Pacific salmon. U. S.
Dept of the Interior, Fish and Wildl. Serv. , Spec. Sci.
Kept. Fish. No. 209, 266 p.
5654 Shimada, Bell M. 1951. An Annotated Bibliography on the
Biology of Pacific Tunas, U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.
Fish. Bull. J52j[58): 1-57.
5655 Ginsburg, Isaac. 1952. Flounders of the genus Paralichthys
and related genera in American waters. U. S. Fish &
Wildl. Serv. , Fish. Bull. _52(FB 71): 267-351.
5656 Royce, William F. , Lynwood S. Smith, Allan C. Hartt. 1968.
Models of Oceanic Migrations of Pacific Salmon and
comment on guidance Mechanisms. U. S. Dept. of Int.
U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. , Bur. of Comm. Fish.
Fish. Bull. 66(3).
5658 Townsend, Lawrence D. 1942. The occurrence of flounder post-
larvae in fish stomachs. Copeia 1942(2): 126-127.
5659 Cope, Oliver B. 1958. Annotated Bibliography on the Cutthroat
trout. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull_40(58).
5660 Nagasaki, Fuzuko. 1958. The fecundity of Pacific herring
(Clupea pallasii) in British Columbia coastal-waters.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, ]_5_(3): 313-330, Biol. Abs.
33(1960), 1959.
5661 Outram, D. N. 1958. The magnitude of herring spawn losses
due to bird predation on the west of Vancouver Island,
Fish. Res. Brd. Canada. Pac. Progr. Rpts. Ill; 9-13,
1958. Biol. Abs. _33, 1959, (12690)
5662 Blake, James H. 1867- On the organs of copulation in the male
of Embiotocoid fishes. Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci.
3: 371-372.
556
-------
5663 Kanoh, Yashiko. 1953. Uber den joponischen He ring (Clupea
pallasii Cuvier et Valenc) II Veranclemung im Ei bei
der Befruchtung odor Aktivierung. [Concerning the
Japanese herring ( C. pallasii) II Changes in the egg during
fertilization or activation.] Cytologia 18(1): 67-79,
1953, Biol. Abs._29.
5664 Katz, M. and D. W. Erickson. 1950. The fecundity of some
herring from Seal Rock Washington. Copeia_ 1950(3): 176-181
Biol. Abs._2_5: 1951 (3433)
5665 Kithama, H. 1955. The secular variation of the total length of
spring herring Clupea pallasi C. and V. , on the -western
coast of Hokkaido, [in Japanese with Eng. summ] Bull.
Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish. 21(8): 915-920. Biol. Abs.
3J_: 1957 (23464).
5666 Hourston, Alan'S. 1959. The relationship of the juvenile
herring stocks in Barkley Sound to the major adult
herring populations in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada j_6(3): 309-320. Biol. Abs. 35, (6561), I960.
5667 International North Pacific Fisheries Commission. 1961.
The exploitation, scientific investigation and management
of herring (Clupea pallasi) on the Pacific Coast of
North America in relation to the abstention provisions of
the North Pacific Fisheries Conventions. Inter-nat. N.
Pacific Fish. Comm. Bull. 4_: 1-100.
5668 McHugh, J. L. 1954. Geographic variation in the Pacific
herring. Copeia, 1954(2): 139-151. Biol. Abs. 29,
1955(2462).
5669 Merkel, Terrence J. 1957. Food Habits of the King salmon,
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) in the vicinity of
San Francisco, California. Calif. Fish and Game
43(4): 249-270. Abs. _32.
5670 Outram, D. N. and F. H. C. Taylor. 1964. A quantitative
estimate of the number of Pacific herring (Clupea
pallasii) in a spawning population. J. Fish. Res. Brd.
Canada, 21(5): 1317-1320.
557
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5671 Piskunov, I. A. 1952. [The fecundity of herring (Clupea
harengus pallasi V. ) which spawn along the western coast
of Sakhalin] [in Russian]. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal
3j_(l): 115-121. Biol. Abs. 27, 1953 (8663).
5672 Rogers, Stephen H. 1965. Herring (Clupea harengus pallasii)
fishery in southeastern Alaska, Comm. Fish Rev.
27(8): 1-6.
5673 Nikitinskaya, I. V. 1958. [The difference in the qualities of the
larvae of the Sakhalin herring (Clupea harengus pallasi
Val. )]. Nauchn. Dokl. Vysshei Shkoly. Biol. Nauki
4:31-36. Referat. Zhur. , Biol., I960, No. 2052,
(Translation) Biol. Abs. Vol. 48, 1967, (120381).
5674 Scheffer, Victor B. 1950. The Food of the Alaska fur seal. Trans.
North A me r. Wildlife Conf. r5: 410-421. Biol. Abs.
Vol. 25, 1951 , (3035).
5675 Stevenson, J. C. and D. N. Outram. 1952. Results of
investigation of the nerring populations on the west
coast and lower east coast of Vancouver Island in
1952-53, with an analysis of fluctuations in abundance
since 1946-47. Kept. Brit. Columbia Dept. Fish.
1952:57-84. Biol. Abs. Vol. 29, 1955(10401).
5676 Stevenson, J. C., A. S. Hourston and J. A. Lanigan. 1950.
Results of the west coast of Vancouver Island herring
investigation, 1950-51. Rept. Brit. Columbia Dept.
Fish. 1950: 51-84. Biol. Abs. Vol. 27, 1953(18943).
5677 Taylor, F. H. C. 1955. The status of the major herring stocks
in British Columbia in 1954-55. Rept. Brit. Columbia
Dept. Fish. 1954: 51-73, 1955. Biol. Abs. Vol. 32,
1958 (11397).
5678 Taylor, F. H. C. 1964. Life history and present status of
British Columbia herring stocks. Bull. Fish. Res. Brd.
Canada. 143; 1-81.
5679 Taylor, F. H. C. , A. S. Hourston, D. N. Outram. 1956.
The status of the major herring stock in British Columbia,
1955-56. Rept. Brit. Col. Dept. Fish. 1955:51-80.
Biol. Abs. Vol. 32, 1958. (11398).
558
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5680 Tester, A. L. 1949. Population of herring along the west
coast of Vancouver Island on the basis of mean vertebral
number, with a critique of the method. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada_7(7): 403-420. Biol. Abs. Vol. 24, 1950
(31885).
5681 Thor stein son, Fredrik V. 1962. Herring predation on pink
salmon fry in a Southeastern Alaska estuary. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. _9J. (3 ): 321-323. Biol. Abs. Vol.
40(438). 1962.
5682 Wilke, F. and K. W. Kenyon. 1952. Notes on the food of fur
seal, sea-lion and ha rbor porpoise. J. Wildl. Manage-
ment J_6(3): 396-397. Biol. Abs. Vol. 27 (15022), 1953.
5684 Yamamoto, Kiichiro. 1957(7). Studies on the formation of
fish eggs: V. The chemical nature and the origin
of the yolk vesicles in the oocytes of the herring,
Clupea pallasii. Anno. Zool. Japan, _2_8(3): 158-162.
Biol. Abs. Vol. 31, 1957 (6713).
5685 Yamamoto, Tadashi S. 1955. [Ovulation in the salmon, herring
and lamprey. ] [in Japanese with English resume] Japanese
Journ. Ichthyol. 4(4/6): 182-192. Biol. Abst. Vol.
31 , 1957 (24347).
5686 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in
Clupea pallasii I. Extension of Fertilizable life of
unfertilized eggs by means of isotonic Ringer's solution.
Zool. Mag. (Dobotsugaku Zasshi) 66( 5): 218-21.
Biol. Abs. Vol. 32 (15780).
5687 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in Clupea
pallasii II. Structure and activity of spermatazoa.
[in Japanese with English summ. ]. Zool Mag. 66(5):
222-225. Biol. Abs. Vol. 32 (15781).
5688 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in
Clupea pallasii. III. Manner of sperm entrance into
the egg. Zool. Mag. 66(5): 226-233. Biol. Abs. Vol. 32,
(15782).
559
-------
5689 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in
Clupea pallasii, IV. Some properties of the sperm-
stimulating factor in the micropyle area of the mature
egg. Bull. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish. 23_(2): 81-85.
Biol. .Abs. 33(36122), 1959.
5690 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in Clupea
pallasii. V. The role of calcium ions in fertilization
and development. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 2/3(6): 290-294.
Biol. Abs. _33(45079), 1959.
5691 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. 1957. Studies on fertilization in Clupea
pallasii. VI. Fertilization of the egg deprived of the
membrane. Jap. J. Ichthyd. _6(3):41-47. Biol. Abs.
32(23654), 1958.
5692 Yanagimachi, Ryuzo. The effect of single salt solutions on the
fertilization of the herring egg. J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido
Univ. Ser. VI. Zool. 1_2(3): 317-324. Biol. Abs.
3^(12107).
5693 Yanagimachi, R. , and Y. Kanoh. 1953. Manner of sperm
entry in herring egg, with special reference to the role
of calcium ion in fertilization. J. Fac. Sci. Hakkaido
Univ. Ser. VI. Zool. _U(3): 487-494. Biol. Aba
29(16161).
5694 Clark, Frances N. and Julius B. Phillips. 1952. The northern
anchovy (Engraulis mordax) in the California fishery.
Calif. Fish and Game 3_8_(2): 189-207. Biol. Abs.
2^(3240), 1953.
5695 Johnson, W. C. and A. J. Calhoun. 1052. Food habits of
California striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game 38(4):
531-534. Biol. Abs. 27_(21405) 1953.
5696 McHugh, J. L. 1951. Meristic variations and populations of
northern anchovy. Bull Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.
6(3): 123-160. Biol. Abs. 2^(8085), 1952.
5697 Baxter, John L. 1967. Summary of biological information
on the northern anchovy Engraulis mordax Girard.
In: Symposium on achovies, genus Engraulis, Lake
Arrowhead, Calif. Nov. 23-24, 1964. Calif. Coop.
Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 11; 110-116.
560
-------
5698 Ahlstrom, Elbert H. 1967. Co-occurences of sardine and
anchovy larvae in the California current region of
California and Baja California. (Sardinops caerulea,
Engraulis mordax). In: Symposium on ahcnovies, genus
Engraulis, Lake Arrowhead, Calif. Nov. 23-24, 1964.
Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish Invest. Rep. 11; 117-135.
Biol. Abs. _49(65501).
5700 O'Connell, Charles P. 1963. The Structure of the eye of
Sardinops caerulea, Engraulis mordax, and four other
pelagic marine teleosts. J. Morphol. 113(2): 287-329.
5701 Vrooman, Andrew M. , Pedro A. Paloma, and Romula Jordan.
1966. Experimental tagging of the northern anchovy,
Engraulis mordax. Calif. Fish and Game _52(4): 228-
239. Biol. Abs. 48(26938).
5702 Schwassmann, Horst O. 1963. Functional development of visual
pathways in larval sardines and anchovies. In: Symposium
on larval fish biology , Lake Arrowhead, Calif. 29-31
Oct. 1963. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish Invest. Rep.
10: 64-70. 1965. Biol. Abs. 48J86192).
5703 Messersmilth, J. D. 1967. Tagged anchovies move from
southern California to Monterey Bay. Calif. Fish and
Bame 53(3): 209- Biol. Abs. 48(10990).
5704 Loukashkin, Anatole S. 1965. Behavior and natural reactions
of the northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax Girard, under the
influence of light of different wave lengths and intensities
and total darkness. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 31(24);
631-692. Biol. Abs. _47(5476).
5705 Ahlstrom Elbert H. and David Kranmer. 1957. Sardine
eggs and other fish larvae Pacific coast. U. S. Fish
& Wildlife Ser. Spec. Sci. Kept. Fish. 224; 1-9.
Sport Fish. Abs. 2(4) (1178). Biol. Abs. 33 (8789).
5706 Wood, Richard and Robson A. Collins. 1969. First report of
anchovy tagging in California. Calif. Fish and Gime
55(2): 141-148. Biol. Abs. _50(90543).
561
-------
5707 MacGregor, John S. 1968. Fecundity of the northern anchovy
Engraulis mordax Girard. Calif. Fish & Game 54(4);
281-288. Biol. Abs. _50(17735).
5708 Stout, Virginia A. 1968. Pesticide levels in fish of the North-
east Pacific. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. _3(4):
?40-246. Biol. Abs. 50(34301).
5710 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle. 1967. Cruise Report
Exploratory Cruise No. 89, USFWS Vessel JOHN N.
COBB, Aug. - Sept. 1967.
5711 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1966. Cruise Rpt. , Exploratory
Cruise No. 78, Vessel USFWS JOHN N. COBB, June,
1966.
5712 Alverson, Dayton L. and Herbert A. Larkins. 1969. Status
Df knowledge of the Pacific Hake resource. Calif.
Mar. Res. Comm. Calif COFI Rept. JL3; 24-31.
5713 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1967. Cruise Report,
Exploratory Cruise No. 88, Vessel USFWS JOHN
N. COBB. August.
5714 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1969. Cruise report,
Cruise 69-a, USFWS Vessel JOHN N. COBB.
Seattle, August.
5715 Nikol'skii, G. V. 19 54 (translated 1961). Special Ichthyology
(Chastnaya ichtiologiya) translated from Russian. Jerusalem.
1961.
5716 Pruter, A. T. 1964. Demersal fishes and fisheries of the
Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Transactions, of 29th
N. American Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. March 9, 10,
11, 1964. Wildl. Management Inst.
5717 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1969. Cruise Report, USFWS
Vessel JOHN N. COBB, Cruise No. 69-2. March 1969.
5718 Hitz, C. R. , H. C. Johnson and A. T. Pruter. 1961.
Bottom Trawling Explorations off the Washington
and British Columbia coasts, May-August I960.
Comm. Fish. Review, 23(6).
562
-------
5719 Hitz, C. R. and D. L. Alverson. 1963. Bottom fish
survey off the Oregon Coast, April-June 1961,
Comm. Fish. Rev. 25(6).
57ZO Pereyra, Walter T. William G. Pearcy and Forrest E. Carvey, Jr.
1969. Sebastodes flavidus, a Shelf Rockfish feeding on
mesopelagis fauna, with consideration of the ecological
implications. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 26: 2211-2215.
5722 Heyamoto, H. 1963. Availability of small salmon off the
Columbia River. Pac. Marine Fish. Comm. Bull. 6,
1963.
5723 Fulton, Leonard A. 1968. Spawning areas and abundance of
Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the
Columbia River basin--past and present. Spec. Sci.
Rept. Fish. No. 571. Bur.of Comm Fish.
5724 Ahlstrom, E. H. 1956. Eggs and larvae of anchovy, jack
mackerel and Pacific mackerel. Calif. Coop. Oceanic.
Fish Invest, Prog. Rept. 1 April 1955 - 30 June 1956:
33-42.
5725 Berner, L. , Jr. 1959. The food of the larvae of the northern
anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna
Comm. Bull 4_(1): 22.
5726 Bolin, R. L. 1936. Embryonic and early larval stages of the
California anchovy. Calif. Fish and Game_22(4): 314-321.
5727 Ganssle, D. 1961. Northern anchovy Engraulis mordax.
In California ocean fisheries resources to the year
I960, 21-22. Calif. Dept.Fish and Game.
5728 Ahlstrom, Elbert H. and Robert C. Counts. 1955. Eggs
and larvae of the Pacific hake Merluccius productus.
U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. _5_6(99): 295 -329.
Biol. Abs. 30(7056). 1956.
5729 California Dept. of Fish and Game. 1961. California Ocean
Fisheries Resources to the year I960. Calif. Dept. Fish
and Game, Fish and Game Comm.
563
-------
5730 Gotshall, Daniel W. 1969. Stomach contents of Pacific hake
and arrowtooth flounder from northern California. Calif.
Fish & Game 55(1): 75-82. Biol. Abs. 50(45557).
5731 Dyer, John A. , Richard W. Nelson and Harold J. Barnet. 1966.
Pacific hake (Merluccius productus) as raw material for
a fish reduction industry. Comm. Fish Rev. 28(5);
12-17-
5732 Best, E. A. and R. J. Nitsos. 1966. Length frequencies of
Pacific Hake (Merluccius productus) landed in California
through 1964. Calif. Fish and Game .52(1): 49-53.
5733 Hart, J. L. 1967. Fecundity and Le nth-Weight Relationships in
Lingcod. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada _24( 11): 2485-2489.
5734 Hart, John Lawson. 1943. Migration of lingcod. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada, Pac. Prog. Repts. No. 57.
5735 Alverson, D. L. , A.T. Pruter, and L. L. Ronholt. 1964.
A study of demersal fishes and fisheries of the north-
eastern Pacific Ocean. H. R. MacMillan Lecture
Ser. , Inst. Fish. , Univ. British Columbia. 190 p.
5736 Eigenmann, C. H. 1894. On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific
coast of North America. House Miscellaneous Doc. 18;
1893-1894, Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. _12: 381-471.
5737 Budd, Paul L. 1940. Development of the Eggs and Early
Larvae of Six California Fishes, Calif. Dept. Fish &
Game. Fish Bull. 56.
5738
Randolph, P. G. 1898. The mating habits of viviparous
fishes. Am. Naturalist _32_: 305.
5739 Hubbs, Carl L. 1933. Crossochir koelzi: A new California
surf-fish of the family Embiotocidae. Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 82; 1-9.
5740 Wares, Paul G. 1968. Biology of the pile perch (Rhacochilus
vacca). M. S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ. Corvallis,
73 p.
564
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5741 MacGregor, J. S. 1966. Synopsis on the biology of the jack
mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), U. W. Fish and
Wildlife Serv. Spec. Sci. Kept. Fish , 5Z6: 16.
5742 Grinols, Richard B. and Charles D. Gill. 1968. Feeding behavior of
three oceanic fish (Oncorhynchus kisutch, Trachurus
syminetricxis , and Anoplopoma fimbria) from the North-
eastern Pacific. J. of Fish. Res. Brd. Canada.
25(4): 825-827. Biol. Abs. 49 (92877).
5743 Duffy, J. M. 1968. Jack mackerel yield per area from California
waters, 1955-1956 through 1963-1964. Calif. Fish
and Game_54(3): 195-202. Biol. Abs. 49(119965).
5744 Hunter, John R. 1968. Effects of light on schooling and feeding
of jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus. J. Fish
Res. Brd. Canada 25(2): 393-407. Biol. Abs. _49(70907).
5745 Hunter, John R. 1966. Procedure for analysis of schooling
behavior. J. Fish. Res. Brd. Canada, 23(4): 547-562.
Biol. Abs. 47(90706).
5746 Roedel, Phil M. 1953. The jack mackerel, Trachurus
symmetricus , A Review of the California Fishery and of
Current Biological Knowledge. Calif. Fish & Game
39.(1): 45-68, Biol. Abs. 27J26897).
5747 Fanis, David A. 1958. Jack mackerel Eggs, Pacific Coast,
1951-1954. U. S. Rish and Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci.
Kept. #263, July.
5748 Ahlstrom, Elbert H. 1968. An Evaluation of the Fishery Resources
available to California Fishermen, in Fishery
Resources of the World, reprinted from: The
Future of the Fishing Industry of the United States. U. of
Wash. Fish. Publ. New Series Vol IV.
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6343 Parrish, L. P. 1966. The predicted influence of kraft
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6344 Courtright, R. C. and C. E. Bond. 1969. Potential
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6347 F$yn, E. 1970. Disposal, distribution, and effects of
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6348 Schroeder, E. D. 1962. The degradation of kraft mill
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6349 Mason, G. and R. Oglesby. 1967. Biological degradation
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6351 Breese, W. P., R. E. Millemann, and R. E. Dimick.
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6352 Hall, J. A. 1969. The pulp and paper industry and the
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6353 Carder, K. L. 1970. Particles in the eastern Pacific
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6357 Anon. I969b. The Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control
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6359 Lloyd, R. and D. W. M. Herbert. 1962. The effect
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6360 Murozumi, M. , T. J. Chow, and C. Patterson. 1969.
Chemical concentrations of pollutant lead aerosols,
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6361 Anon. 1970g. Increases knowledge of bleaching liquors.
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6364 Adams, J. R. 1969. Thermal power, aquatic life, and
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1 13.p.
6366 Pearson, E. A., P. N. Storrs, andR. E. Selleck. 1967.
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7022 Allen, W. E. 1927- Surface catches of marine diatoms and
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and Dinoflagellates at four inshore stations on the coast
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7026 Allen, W. E. 1929. Surface catches of marine diatoms and
Dinoflagellates made by USS Pioneer in Alaskan waters
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2i 139-153.
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and Dinoflagellates taken at five stations on the east
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of Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates taken in Alaskan
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marine diatoms and Dinoflagellates at Scotch Cap
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614
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7032 Abbott, D. P. and R. Albee. 1967. Summary of Thermal
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7033 McCombie, A. M. I960. Actions and interactions of temperature,
light intensity and nutrient concentration on the growth
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7040 Strickland , J. D. H. , R. W. Eppley and Blanca Rojas de
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615
-------
j [ Accession .Vumber
Organization
Subject
Field 4 Group
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Oregon State University, Department of Oceanography
Oceanography of the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest
relating to possible pollution
"Wl
Ja
Ba
Re
Da
st<
Aulhotfs.) ' ~ ~
lliam C. Renfro
mes E. McCauley
rd Glenne
>bert H. Bourke
nil R. Hancock
pphen W. Hager
11
16
Date
1971
12
XX
vi
+ 615
+ 744
Project Number
,r ' Contract Number
16070EOK
2| Note
_22J
23
Descriptors (Starred First)
*Oceanography, ^Pacific Northwest, *Coast Review, U. S. , Bibliography,
Water Pollution, Thermal Pollution
25 ' Identifiers (Starred First)
*Literature Review
•5-7 , Abstract
*' I
This study is limited to the coastal zone of the Pacific Northwest from high tide to
ten kilometers from shore, and does not include estuaries and bays. The literature
has been reviewed in 21 chapters including chapters on geology, hydrology, winds,
temperature and salinity, heat budget, waves, coastal currents, carbon dioxide and
pH, oxygen, nutrients, and biology. Special chapters deal with field studies on thermal
discharges, heat dispersion models, pulp and paper industrial wastes, trace metals,
radiochemistry, pesticides and chlorine, thermal ecology, and biology of 20 selected
species. A summary chapter is entitled "The nearshore coastal ecosystem: an over-
view. " The bibliography contains more than 3100 entries, most from the open litera-
ture, but some from unpublished reports.
A separate volume includes the following appendices: 1. Wind Data; 2. Temperature
and Salinity Data; 3. Wave Data; 4. Trace Metals (including trace metal toxicities);
5. Pesticide Toxicities; 6. Oxygen, Nutrient, and pH Data; 7. Radionuclides; and
8. An Annotated Checklist of Plants and Animals (including more than 4400 species).
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16070EOK under the sponsorship
of the Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection Agency. (McCauley OSU)
Abstractor
J. E. McCauley
Oregon State University
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971-442-890/385
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