THE
WATER
SOURCEBOOK
GRADES
2S-1803
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WATER SOURCEBOOK
A Series of Classroom Activities for
Grades 6-8
Produced for
LEGACY, INC.
Partners in Environmental Education
in cooperation with
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Prepared by
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH ALABAMA
July 1998
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DISCLAIMER
This document was prepared for Legacy, Inc. (a not-for-profit organization) by the University of
South Alabama, through the Alabama Department of Environmental Management in
cooperation with teachers in Alabama and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Legacy, Inc. and the University of South Alabama are equal opportunity and affirmative action
employers. These partners also ensure that the benefits of programs receiving their financial
assistance are available to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, national origin,
handicap, or age.
Neither the techers, the EPA, the University of South Alabama, Legacy, Inc. nor any persons
acting on their behalf:
a. make any warranty or representation, expressed or implied,
with respect to the use of any information contained in this
document, or that the use of any information, apparatus,
method, or process disclosed in this document may not
infringe on privately owned rights; or
b. assume any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for
damages resulting from the use of any information, apparatus,
method, or process disclosed in this document.
This document does not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the above partners. The use
of specific brand names or products should not be construed as an endorsement by any of the
partners.
If any of the information in this book changes, or is considered to be incorrect, please notify EPA
Region 4, Water Management Division, 61 Forsyth Street, Atlanta, GA 30303-8906, 404-562-
9345, and specify the recommendations.
For information about obtaining a copy of the Water Sourcebook.
a. The Georgia Water Wise Council, 1033 Franklin Road,
Suite 9-187, Marietta, GA 30067-8004 USA,
770/483-9474, 770/426-6901 (fax), or web page:
www.griffin.peachnet.edu/waterwise/wwc.htm.
b. The Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe Street,
Alexandria, VA 22314-1994 USA, 800-666-0206 (phone),
703-684-2492 (fax), or web page: www.wef.org.
For information about the Water Sourcebook project, contact Legacy, Inc., P 0
Box 3813, Montgomery, AL 36109, (334) 270-5921.
EPA Document Number EPA/904-R-94-017(c).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Project Staff
Brenda Litchfield, Project Director, Ph.D., University of South Alabama
Charles Horn, Project Coordinator, ADEM
Wayne Aronson, Project Coordinator, EPA
Angie Fugo, Technical Editor, EPA
Paige Connell, Project Coordinator, Legacy, Inc.
Ashley Daigle, Assistant Project Director, University of South Alabama
Sandy Van Eck, Editor, University of South Alabama
Rick Van Eck, Layout & Design, University of South Alabama
Clint Orr, Graphic Designer, University of South Alabama
Activity Writing Team & Field Testers
June Bean - Mobile, AL
Lisa Bramuchi - Mobile, AL
Janet Bridges - Mobile, AL
William Cochran - Mobile, AL
Omagene Cooper - Mobile, AL
Rickey Corker - Mobile, AL
Trudy Cunningham - Mobile, AL
Rachel Davis, - Mobile, AL
Shirley Gulley - Mobile.AL
Bridgett Hall - Mobile, AL
Pam Henson - Daphne, AL
Betty Harbin - Mobile, AL
Rosia James - Mobile, AL
Carolyn Jenkins - Mobile, AL
Pearl Jennings - Mobile, AL
Joan Johnson - Mobile, AL
Taftnee Martin - Mobile, AL
Leigh Miller-Mobile, AL
Dyana Miniard - Mobile, AL
Scott Nelson - Mobile, AL
Brenda Peters - Mobile, AL
Judy Reeves - Bay Minette, AL
Lillie Richardson - Mobile, AL
Carol Rogers - Mobile, AL
Karen Ryals - Mobile, AL
Mary Catherine Sullivan - Mobile, AL
Delilah Warren - Mobile, AL
Reviewers by Organization
Alabama Department of Education
Alabama Department of Environmental Management
Alabama Power Company
Baldwin County Schools, Fairhope, Alabama
Geological Survey of Alabama
Legacy, Inc., Partners in Environmental Education, Montgomery, Alabama
Mobile County Schools, Mobile, Alabama
The Forum, Partners in Environmental Progress, Mobile, Alabama
The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia
Water Environmental Federation, Alexandria, Virginia
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction i
Correlation iv
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Water
Transpiration in Plants 1-1
Design and Construct a Terrarium 1-7
Aquatic Foods 1-11
On Your Mark, Get Set, Evaporate 1-15
Environmental Vehicle Plate Messages 1-19
Nutrients and Water Quality 1-23
Water Resource Problems: Too Little Water 1-27
Water Resource Problems: Too Much Water 1-31
Water Career Fair 1-37
Water Evaporation 1-41
Home Water Use '. 1-47
Water Meter Reader 1-53
Chapter 2 - Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment
Contaminant Scavenger Hunt 2-1
Desalination/ Freshwater 2-9
How Soft or Hard Is Your Water? 2-13
How to Treat Polluted Water 2-17
Leaky Faucet 2-21
Let's Give Water aTreatment 2-27
Purifying Water 2-31
Water Treatment Plants 2-35
Purification of Water 2-41
Bacteria in Water 2-47
Indicating Insects 2-55
Water Pollution Solutions 2-61
Chapter 3 - Surface Water Resources
Bioassessment of Streams 3-1
Cleaning Point Source Pollution 3-9
Coliform Bacteria and Oysters 3-13
Algae Growth 3-19
Small Frye 3-25
Surface Freezing 3-31
Surface Tension 3-35
Runoff 3-39
The Shrinking Antacid 3-43
Using Topographic Maps and Data Tables to Determine Surface Water Quality 3-47
Whipped Top Water 3-51
Xeriscape — Water - Wise Landscaping 3-55
Chapter 4 - Groundwater Resources
Disposal of Old Paint 4-1
Contamination of Groundwater 4-5
Groundwater 4-9
Invisible Water 4-15
Percolation 4-19
Porosity? Permeability? 4-23
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Aquifers and Recharge Areas 4-27
Water—Through And Through 4-37
Rain and Leaching 4-41
Making Drinking Water 4-45
Recharge and Discharge of Groundwater 4-51
Rural Waste Water 4-57
Chapter 5 - Wetlands and Coastal
Dilution And Pollution 5-1
Cleaning Oil Spills 5-5
Effects of Lost Salt Marshes 5-11
Let's Go Fishing! 5-19
Pictures, People, and Pollution 5-25
Plastic Waste 5-27
Pollution ... Pollution ... Pollution 5-31
Salt Tolerance of Plants 5-35
Sea Level Rising 5-39
Wave Actions 5-45
Role-Playing Game 5-51
Water Filtration 5-57
Glossary G-1
Fact Sheets
The Water Cycle F-1
Watersheds F-3
The Community Water Environment F-5
Water Quality F-7
Water Pollution F-9
Water Pollution Prevention F-13
Water Quality Legislation F-17
Wastewater Treatment F-19
Alternative Wastewater Treatment Methods F-21
Septic Tanks And Septic System Alternatives F-23
Commercial / Industrial Wastewater Treatment F-25
Other Wastewater Treatment Issues F-27
Drinking Water F-29
Drinking Water Treatment F-31
Drinking Water Contamination F-33
Other Issues: Drinking Water F-35
Water Conservation F-37
Surface Water F-39
Surface Water Quality Standards F-41
Land Use and Water Quality F-43
Other Surface Water Issues F-49
Groundwater F-51
Groundwater Problems F-53
Coastal Wetlands F-57
Freshwater Wetlands F-59
Destruction of Wetlands F-61
Coastal and Coastal Wetlands Issues F-63
Water Testing F-65
Water Related Careers F-67
1996 U.S. EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations F-69
1996 U.S. EPA National Secondary Drinking Water Standards F-73
Water Sourcebook References and General Publications F-75
Water & Aquatic Life - General Resources F-77
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Drinking Water Resources F-79
Surface Water Resources F-81
Groundwater Resources F-83
Wetlands Resources F-85
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INTRODUCTION
The value of clean, safe water for individuals, communities, businesses, and industries can't be measured.
Every living thing depends on water. The economy requires it. Water issues should be everyone's concern, but
most people take water quality and availability for granted. After all, clean, safe water is available to most
Americans every time they turn on the tap. Water issues do not become a concern until there is a crisis such as
a drought or wastewater treatment plant failure. Educating citizens who must make critical water resource decisions
in the midst of a crisis rarely results in positive change. Developing awareness, knowledge, and skills for sound
water use decisions is very important for young people, for they will soon be making water resource management
decisions. Properly equipping them to do so is essential to protect water resources.
WATER SOURCEBOOK PROGRAM
The Water Sourcebook educational program is directed specifically toward the in-school population. The program
will consist of the development of supplemental activity guides targeting kindergarten through high school.
Materials developed in the program are compatible with existing curriculum standards established by State
Boards of Education throughout the United States and teach concepts included in those standards by using
water quality information as the content.
The Water Sourcebooks include five chapters: Introduction to Water, Drinking and Wastewater Treatment,
Surface Water Resources, Groundwater Resources, and Wetlands & Coastal.
DEVELOPMENT
The Water Sourcebooks are developed in three stages. First, classroom teachers are selected to write the
activities with the assistance of education specialists. Teams of teachers are given the task of developing and
writing the activities for each of the five instructional chapters. The second step involves testing the activities in
the classroom and gathering technical reviews by water experts. From the evaluations provided by the testing
teachers and technical reviewers, revisions are made. Finally, editing, and illustrations are completed, and the
Water Sourcebook is published.
ACTIVITY DESIGN
All of the activities include "hands-on" components and are designed to blend with existing curricula in the areas
of general sciences, language arts, math, social studies, art, and in some cases, reading or other areas. Each
activity details (1) objectives, (2) subjects(s), (3) time, (4) materials, (5) background information, (6) advance
preparation, (7) procedure (including setting the stage, activity, follow-up, and extension), and (8) resources.
Fact sheets and a glossary section are included at the end of the guide to help equip teachers to deal with
concepts and words used in the text that may be unfamiliar. A resource section contains a variety of relevant
information related to water.
ORGANIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITIES
Each activity is organized in the same way, detailing objectives, materials needed, background information, and
procedures. The following is a brief summary of what you should expect to find in each activity.
OBJECTIVES: Describes what the student should be able to do when the activity is completed.
SUBJECT:The general subject(s) to which the activity applies: Sciences, Mathematics, Social Studies, Language
Arts, and so on.
TIME: The approximate number of minutes needed to complete the main exercise(s). More time may be needed
for the follow-up and extension exercises. Some activities or follow-ups may require collecting data over several
days/weeks, but will only need major time blocks at the beginning and end of the activity to explain, present
information, and reach conclusions.
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MATERIALS: List of materials needed to complete activity. Alternatives and optional materials are listed where
appropriate. If the basic materials are not immediately available in your classroom, they can often be borrowed
from other classes in the school or local college or university science departments, local government agencies,
or area businesses.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Background information specific to the activity. This material is suggested as
a basis for teacher lecture and/or student discussion when the activity is introduced. (More general background
information can be found in the Fact Sheets located in the back of the guide.)
ADVANCE PREPARATION: Directions for the teacher/student to prepare materials in advance.
PROCEDURE: Complete directions to conduct the entire activity, including follow-up and extension ideas.
Includes teacher sheets and student sheets.
Setting the Stage: Introduction of the main ideas of the activity to the students. This section may use student
discussion questions/topics, sharing the pertinent background information, a demonstration or activity, or a
combination of these.
Activity: Step-by-step instructions on how to do the activity.
Follow-Up: Suggestions for ending the activity, often with questions to demonstrate that students understand
what they have done.
Extension(s): Suggestions for extending the activity into other subject areas and/or suggestions for other
related activities. This part of the activity is optional. Some may be used as ongoing projects, while others may
be used as additional classroom work for advanced students or for extra credit.
RESOURCE(S): Reference materials used either in developing the activity or to provide additional information
and addresses for ordering materials used in the activity.
ACTIVITY PREPARATION
Once you have decided on the activity(ies) you will be doing, check the materials list. You will need to take into
account the number of students or student teams in your class(es). Many materials are readily available, but
some may need to be borrowed or purchased ahead of time.
Prepare copies of all the needed student handouts and/or transparencies or other materials for your use. Most
activities contain ready-made masters for these. Teacher and student sheets can be easily removed from the
binder and replaced after photocopying or producing a thermofax master for print duplication. Some activities
also contain suggestions to make a transparency for use with an overhead projector. Transparencies may be
made by a thermofax, a photocopier, or by tracing.
If you plan to have the students do part or all of the extension suggestions, you will want to add additional
materials to your list. You may also need to locate other sources of information or telephone numbers to complete
the extension. Many resource names and numbers can be found in the back of this book. Some extensions can
be started simultaneously with the regular activity.
As you read through the activity, decide whether you will do optional suggestions. Check the suggested time for
completion of the activity and add any time needed to do any extension activities. The time needed may vary
from class to class. These activities have all been field tested in middle school classrooms. However, you might
want to do a trial run of the activity yourself to evaluate the time needed and areas where minor problems might
occur. It is also a good idea to mark points in the text where natural breaks can be taken to divide the activity into
class periods.
The Fact Sheets included in the back of the guide and the background material included in each activity should
provide the information necessary for your preparation. Further reading may be found in the list of resources at
the conclusion of each activity. If these resources are not readily available, lists of additional resources are
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provided at the back of this Sourcebook.
PAGINATION
Each chapter is page-numbered separately and is designated with an appropriate chapter number. For example,
the "Introduction" chapter begins with page 1 -1, the "Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment" chapter begins
with 2-1, and so on.
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CORRELATION CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION TO WATER
6-8
Mathematics
Biology
Botany
Chemistry
Earth Science
Ecology
Geology
Health
Microbiology
Physical Science
Language Arts
Social Studies
Geography
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CORRELATION CHAPTER 2 - DRINKING WATER AND
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
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CORRELATION CHAPTER 3 - SURFACE WATER RESOURCES
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CORRELATION CHAPTER 4 • GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
6-8
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Chemistry
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Ecology
Geology
Health
Microbiology
Physical Science
Language Arts
Social Studies
Geography
Art
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CORRELATION CHAPTER 5 • WETLANDS AND COASTAL
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VIII
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_
THE WATER SOURCEBOOK
INTRODUCTION
TO WATER
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TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define the hydrologic cycle.
2. Define transpiration.
3. Name the three parts of the hydrologic cycle.
4. Record the amount of moisture given off by several green plants.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the
oceans. The resulting water vapor is transported by moving air masses.
into clouds that could lead to precipitation.
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Botany, Math
TIME:
3 consecutive class periods
MATERIALS:
potted plants
clear plastic bags
balances with gram weights
marker
sheet of graph paper
student sheet
teacher sheet
Eventually this water vapor may form
What happens to all of the rain that falls on the United States in an average day? About 3 percent of this water
will seep underground. About 31 percent will run off into rivers, streams, and lakes. About 66 percent of the water
returns to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.
Plants take water from the soil through their roots. They release water vapor to the atmosphere through thousands
of small holes (called stomata) on the backs of their leaves in a process called transpiration. A big oak tree gives
off about 150,000 liters of water a year. While water from streams and lakes evaporates, plants emit water vapor
into the air through transpiration at a much higher rate. But the most significant recyclers of water are the Earth's
oceans, which absorb solar energy and evaporate (just like water in a glass will). Evaporated water from the
ocean becomes water vapor moving along the surface of the ocean. The air above the ocean also warms and
rises, starting a convection cell and carrying water vapor with it. As warm air gets higher, it cools. The cooling
water vapor turns back into liquid. The change from water vapor to liquid is called condensation.
Terms
condensation: the act or process of reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid or solid state.
evaporation: the act or process of converting or changing into a vapor with the application of heat.
humidity: the degree of wetness especially of the atmosphere.
hydrologic (water) cycle: the cycle of the Earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the Earth and back
which includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies and
groundwater.
moisture: a small amount of liquid that causes wetness.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently massive
to fall to the Earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
transpiration: direct transfer of water from the leaves of living plants or the skins of animals into the atmosphere.
1-1
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Obtain enough green potted plants so that each group of students has two.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show a plant to the students.
B. Ask the students the following questions:
1. How do plants get water?
2. What happens to the water after it gets into the plant?
3. How does the water leave the plant?
4. Where does the water go after it leaves the plant?
5. Do plants contribute to the hydrologic cycle?
6. How do plants contribute to the hydrologic cycle?
7. Discuss the hydrologic cycle and how it works.
//. Activity
A. Divide the students into groups.
B. Give each group two potted plants, a plastic bag with a tie, and a balance.
C. Have the groups do the following:
1. Cover one of their plants with a plastic bag.
2. Tie the bag so that it is air tight.
3. Place the plants on opposite sides of the balance.
4. Make sure the plants are balanced by adding weight (gram) to one side if necessary.
5. Mark one side of the balance A and the other side B.
D. For the next three days, ask the students to observe any differences in the weight of the plants.
E. Students can determine the weight lost through transpiration by recording the number of grams it takes to
balance the plants. Record this amount each day and plot it on the graph.
F. Have the students answer the questions below:
1. What do you see on the inside of the plastic bag?
2. Which side of the balance has gone up? Down?
3. Do you think all plants give off the same amount of water?
1-2
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4. Where is the water that was lost in the plant that was not covered?
5. How does humidity affect water loss?
6. What season of the year will the plants give off the most water? The least water?
7. In what biomes would plants lose the most water? The least?
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students relate transpiration to the hydrologic cycle and draw pictures showing transpiration
as part of the hydrologic cycle.
IV. Extension
A. Have the students conduct the same investigation with various plants such as geraniums and
cactuses.
B. Research the climatic conditions and types of plants in various biomes.
RESOURCE
The Water Cycle: http://njnie.dl.stevens-tech.edu/curriculum/recycle.html
1-3
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS
Directions: Determine the weight lost through transpiration by recording the number of grams it takes to balance
the plants. Record this amount each day and plot it on the graph below.
Day One
Day Two
Day Three
Plant #1 (enclosed in plastic)
Plant #2 (without plastic covering)
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Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
1-4
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS
Hydrologic Cycle
Condensation
^\\\\- Run-off to Lakes \\ x
\ '\\^ v < • • \ \ > r^
Transpiration
Vaporation
Groundwater Movement
1-5
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1-6
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCT A TERRARIUM
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Botany, Language Arts
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
2 L plastic soft drink bottle
5 cups potting soil
small plants that grow well in moist
environments
5 cups of water
scissors
plastic wrap
masking tape
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Design and construct a terrarium.
2. Explain the processes of the water cycle.
3. Describe how a closed system works.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The distribution of evaporation and precipitation over the ocean (its
hydrologic cycle) is one of the least understood elements of the climate
system. However, it is now considered one of the most important,
especially for ocean circulation changes on decadal to millennial time-
scales. The ocean covers approximately 75 percent of the Earth's surface
and contains nearly all (more than 97 percent) of its free water. Thus, it ~ "^
plays a dominant role in the global water cycle. The atmosphere only holds a few cubic centimeters of liquid
water, or 0.001 percent of the total. However, most discussions of the water cycle focus on the rather small
component associated with terrestrial processes. This is understandable, since the water cycle is so vital to
agriculture and all of human activity. Yet, current estimates indicate that 86 percent of global evaporation and 78
percent of global precipitation occur over the oceans. Since the oceans are the source of most rain water, it is
important for us to work toward a better understanding of the ocean hydrologic cycle. Small changes in ocean
evaporation and precipitation patterns may have dramatic consequences for the much smaller terrestrial water
cycle. For example, if less than one percent of the rain falling on the Atlantic Ocean were to be concentrated in
the central United States, it would double the discharge of the Mississippi River.
Groundwater is an integral part of the water cycle. The cycle starts with precipitation falling on the surface.
Runoff from precipitation goes directly into lakes and streams. Some of the water that seeps into the ground is
used by plants for transpiration. The remaining water, called recharge water, drains down through the soil to the
saturated zone, where water fills all the spaces between soil particles and rocks.
The top of the saturated zone is the water table, which is usually the level where water stands in a well, if the
local geology is not complicated. Water continues to move within the saturated zone from areas where the water
table is higher toward areas where the water table is lower. When groundwater comes to a lake, stream, or
ocean, it discharges from the ground and becomes surface water. This water then evaporates into the atmosphere,
condenses, and becomes precipitation, thus completing the water cycle.
Terms
closed system: a system that functions without any materials or processes beyond those it contains and/or
produces itself.
terrarium: a box, usually made of glass, that is used for keeping and observing small animals or plants.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have students complete the terrarium planning sheet.
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss with students what a closed system is and how it works. (Example: an automobile engine)
B. Ask students the following questions:
1. What is a terrarium?
2. Where are they found?
3. Can anyone design a terrarium?
4. Are they expensive to make?
//. Activity
A. The teacher or the students should cut the top off the 2-liter bottle using scissors.
B. Have the students cover the bottom of the bottle with soil.
C. Have the students plant the small plants and water them.
D. Finally, have the students cover the terrarium with a piece of plastic wrap and seal it.
E. Ask the students to observe the terrarium carefully, noting the path of the water through the water cycle.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask students to compare the way water moves in the terrarium to the steps of the water cycle.
B. Have the students compare their terrariums with those of other students in the class.
C. Students are to make daily observations of their terrariums and record their findings.
D. Ask students to explain what the terrarium observations say about water in our environment. (Answer:
Water is never created or destroyed but is continually obtained, used, and recycled by nature—and by
humans.)
IV. Extensions
A. Have students predict what would happen to the plants in three months, six months, or even a year.
B. Make a terrarium on a larger scale using a 5-gallon bottled water bottle.
C. Visit a greenhouse.
RESOURCES
Groundwater in the Water Cycle: http://hammock.ifas.ufl.edu/txt/fairs/16848
Fundamentals of the Ocean Water Cycle: http://earth.agu.org/revgeophys/schmit01/node1.html
1-8
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
DESIGN & CONSTRUCT A TERRARIUM
Daily Observation of a Hydrologic Cycle in a Terrarium
Observation
Day 1
Day 2
Day3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Day8
Day 9
Day 10
Extended Predictions of Hydrologic Cycle in a Terrarium
Observation
One month
Two months
Three months
Use the space below to summarize your findings:
1-9
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1-10
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AQUATIC FOODS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify foods derived from aquatic sources.
2. Describe how the aquatic environment is important to our food
sources.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Health, Social Studies
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
pencil
paper
magazines
newspaper
poster
glue
food labels
student sheet
Aquaculture is a form of agriculture which involves the propagation,
cultivation, and marketing of aquatic plants and animals in a more-or-
less controlled environment. Fish farming was first practiced as long
ago as 2000 B.C. in China, but United States aquaculture started in the
late 19th century. The Bible refers to fish ponds and sluices, and
ornamental fish ponds appear in paintings from ancient Egypt. European
aquaculture began sometime in the Middle Ages and transformed the
art of Asian aquaculture into a science that studied spawning, pathology, and food webs.
The history of aquaculture in the United States can be traced back to the mid-to-late 19th century when pioneers
began to supply brood fish, fingerlings, and lessons in fish husbandry to would-be aquaculturists. Until the early
1960s, commercial fish culture in the United States was mainly restricted to rainbow trout, bait fish, and a few
warm water species, such as buffaloes, bass, and crappies. The most widely recognized types of aquaculture in
the United States are the catfish industry and crayfish farms in the South and the trout farms in Michigan and the
West. Both of these industries involve the culturing of a single fish species for food. Another familiar type of
aquaculture is the production of bait minnows and crayfish for use by recreational fishermen. There are several
categories of production of aquaculture products: 1) food organisms, 2) bait industry, 3) aquaria trade-ornamental
and feeder fish, 4) fee fishing, 5) pond and lake stocking, and 6) biological supply houses.
The production of food organisms is the most common form of aquaculture practiced in the United States. Of the
approximately 60 species that have the potential to be grown as food fish, technical support and markets limit
these to a select few. The most common food fish and shellfish in the United States are catfish, trout, salmon,
carp, crayfish, freshwater shrimp, striped bass and its hybrids, and tilapia.
Terms
aquaculture: the science, art, and business of cultivating marine or freshwater food fish or shellfish, such as
oysters, clams, salmon, and trout, under controlled conditions.
mariculture: the cultivation of marine organisms in their natural habitats, usually for commercial purposes.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather newspapers and magazines.
B. Obtain labels from certain foods.
C. If students want to, they can bring in food.
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss aquaculture and mariculture. (Example: Seaweed, also known as algin or algar, is used as a
thickener in ice cream and is also used as a suspension agent in chocolate milk.)
//. Activity
A. Using newspapers and magazines, clip out all foods derived from aquatic environments.
B. Allow students to draw and label the foods from aquatic sources they brought in.
C. Construct a mural or a bulletin board of pictures and advertisements to show aquatic foods and their
sources.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the following questions using the mural or bulletin board:
1. Where do certain foods come from?
2. How are they obtained?
3. Where and how are they processed?
4. How are they used?
IV. Extensions
A. Research aquaculture and mariculture in the U. S. and other countries.
B. Classify the aquatic food products according to the kinds of aquatic habitats in which they are found:
saltwater (ocean, estuary, marsh) and freshwater (lake, pond, river, stream).
C. What environmental requirements must be met for successful aquaculture? How are they met in real-
world applications?
D. Keep a list of foods eaten for a week. Classify each as aquatic or not aquatic.
RESOURCES
Western Regional Environmental Education Council 1987, Project Aquatic Wild, P.O. Box 18060, Boulder, CO
80308-8060. (303) 444-2390.
A Basic Overview of Aquaculture: http://info.utas.edu.au/docs/aquaculture/Pages/Swann.html#400
1-12
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
AQUATIC FOODS
Directions: List in the correct column the foods you eat in a week.
Aquatic
Non-Aquatic
List of Foods Eaten
1-13
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1-14
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ON YOUR MARK, GET SET, EVAPORATE
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Math
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
chalkboard
chalk
sponge
pail of water
salt
clock with second hand
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Explain the hydrologic cycle.
2. Explain the terms evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Evaporation is the main way water on land is transferred to the
atmosphere. It is the process whereby liquid moisture is turned into
gaseous moisture. Energy is supplied from the sun or atmosphere. This
energy causes the water molecules to vibrate faster which causes them
to move further apart. As temperatures increase, molecules at the water
surface detach and move into the atmosphere. Saturation of the lower ~ '
atmosphere occurs, dependent upon atmospheric conditions. Cold, humid air undergoing little movement will
quickly saturate, but warm, dry air undergoing turbulent mixing as a result of wind will saturate slowly leading to
higher evaporation rates.
Factors influencing evaporation:
Meteorological Factors
1. Radiation: This can come directly from the sun or indirectly from the surrounding atmosphere. This causes
an increase in the temperature of the air and water.
2. Wind: Evaporation is higher in areas that are open and subject to air movement than in sheltered areas
with little movement of the air. Air movement and turbulence is desirable to mix up air and cause saturated
lower layers to mix with drier upper air.
Physical Factors
1. Salinity: An increase in salinity leads to a proportional decrease in evaporation rates.
2. Surface Area: As the surface area of the water body increases, the total evaporation increases.
Terms
condensation: the act or process of reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid or solid state.
evaporation: the act of converting or changing into a vapor with the application of heat.
hydrologic (water) cycle: the cycle of the Earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the Earth and back
which includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies and
groundwater.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently massive
to fall to the Earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Assemble all of the materials you will need for this activity.
1-15
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Fill a glass full of water.
B. Set it on a table close to a heat source.
C. Show the students the glass of water.
1. Ask the students what they think will happen to the water over a period of time.
2. Ask them to explain the process of evaporation.
3. Ask the students what they think will happen to a glass of oil, coca cola, and syrup over time.
//. Activity
A. Distribute the student sheets. Divide the class in half and get two volunteers to come to the chalkboard.
Two other volunteers will watch a clock.
B. Have the volunteers draw a circle about two feet in diameter on each half of the blackboard. Provide the
two volunteers with a wet sponge.
C. Ask the volunteers to stand in front of the circles. When you say "go," the volunteers will then wet the
circle with a sponge.
D. The students who are seated will observe the spot and alert the clock person when their spot is completely
dry. The volunteers with the clocks have to immediately stop the clocks when their spot dries.
E. The race is run 2 out of 3 times. The best 2 out of 3 wins.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students the following questions:
1. What happened to the water that the volunteers wiped on the board?
2. Where did the water go?
3. Do you think various substances diluted in water would affect the rate of evaporation?
4. Think of ways to make the water evaporate faster. (Shining a hot light on the circle, using a fan, etc.)
5. What are natural occurrences or results of evaporation? (Answer: lowering of lake levels during
warm, dry periods.)
6. What happens within streams and lakes with evaporation relative to pollutants? (Answer: pollutants
concentrate.)
IV. Extensions
A. Use saltwater instead of freshwater to conduct the above race.
B. Use alcohol.
1-16
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RESOURCES
Siepak, Karen L. Water. Carson-Dellosa Publishing Company, Inc., Greenboro, NC, 1994.
Hackett, Jay & others. Science. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus, OH, 1989.
Evaporation: http://giswww.king.ac.uk/aquaweb/main/evaporat/evapo1.html
1-17
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STUDENT SHEET ON YOUR MARK, GET SET, EVAPORATE
6-8
Directions: Complete the following chart.
Time it takes for the water to evaporate:
Race #1 Race #2 Race #3
Volunteer #1
Volunteer #2
Time it takes for the alcohol to evaporate:
Race #1 Race #2 Race #3
Volunteer #1
Volunteer #2
SUMMARY:
Explain the results in the space below:
1-18
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ENVIRONMENTAL VEHICLE PLATE MESSAGES
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Decode hidden messages on imaginary vehicle plates.
2. Create plate twisters dealing with water topics.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This activity is appropriate for any unit on water. This activity uses any
terms that relate to water, such as river, hydrologic cycle, precipitation,
runoff, watershed, reservoir, etc., and relates them to the growing
popularity of environmental license plates and personalized messages
unique to each owner. See the Glossary or other activities for more ideas.
Terms
watershed: land area from which water drains to a particular water body.
SUBJECT:
General
TIME:
30 minutes
MATERIALS:
"license plates" made up with
shortened environmental
terms and phrases
activity sheet
poster board
pens/markers
student sheets
hydrologic (water) cycle: the cycle of the Earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the Earth and back
which includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies and
groundwater.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently massive
to fall to the Earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
reservoir: a body of water collected and stored in a natural or artificial lake.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
hydroelectric: that generation of electricity which converts the energy of running water into electric power.
conservation: act of using the resources only when needed for the purpose of protecting from waste or loss of
resources.
runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters a
water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Discuss the topic of water and the many ideas it encompasses.
B. Have the license plates already made up. These may be done on a poster board or placed on a worksheet. At
the end of this exercise is a sample worksheet that you may administer to your students.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show the students a sample license plate and ask if they can decipher the hidden message.
B. Explain to the students that they will be playing a game to see how many hidden messages they can
correctly reveal on the license plates.
1-19
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C. This activity can be done individually or with a partner. Remind them that it will be a timed activity. The first to
decode the hidden messages correctly will be the winner. You may want to have a prize for the winner.
//. Activity
A. Individual work
1. Pass out the activity sheet to all students and begin timing. Have students decode the messages
and define the term or explain the process.Call time and have students count the number they got
correct.
2. Have students create their own messages based on water terms. They can trade with other students
or groups and decode each other's messages.
B. Group work
1. Hold up the first plate to the first pair of partners. The students will try to decipher the message
within 30 seconds. If they get the plate correct, they receive a point. If they miss the answer, Team
2 gets a chance, and so on through the other teams.
2. The game ends depending upon the teacher's discretion and time.
C. Key to plates:
1. Groundwater
2. Hydrologic cycle
3. Water vapor
4. Point source pollution
5. Condense
6. Evaporate
7. Conserve
8. Water bird
9. Molecule
10. Conserve water
11. Watershed
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students make up their own plate messages. They may want to play a round of the game with
their license plate ideas.
B. Make a bulletin board of all the plate messages to be shared with other classes.
IV. Extensions
A. Students may write the words and phrases in complete sentences.
B. Have the students compile all of their plate messages and make a booklet.
C. Over a specified time period, have students collect plate messages they observe on the roads during
their daily routines.
D. Have the students write to their local license commissioner for a list of creative license plates.
RESOURCES
State Agencies (Revenue, Licensing, Finance Departments).
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
ENV. VEHICLE PLATE MESSAGES
Directions: Please decode the following vehicle license plate plates.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
G Water
Hydro C
Water V
P S Poll
C
dense
va p rate
C
serve
Wa Bird
Mo cule
Con
H2O
Water S
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
ENVIRONMENTAL VEHICLE PLATE MESSAGES
O
O
N)
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NUTRIENTS AND WATER QUALITY
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List changes in water conditions caused by various pollutants,
such as household chemicals, that often end up in aquatic
environments.
2. Describe potential effects on animals and plants caused by these
pollutants.
3. Classify sources of pollution.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Two nutrients that are essential for the growth and metabolism of plants
and animals are nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P). Plant growth depends
on the amount of phosphorus available. Phosphorus is present in low
concentrations in numerous bodies of water, so it is a growth-limiting
factor. Since nitrogen is found in several forms, it is frequently more
available than phosphorus. Nitrogen is used by plants to make plant
proteins, which animals convert into their own proteins when they eat the
plants.
Even though nutrients are needed, too much nutrient material in the water
can cause pollution. Algae use up phosphorus quickly. When there is
excess phosphorus, a vast growth of algae called an algal bloom can
occur. The water may then look like pea soup. The algae rob the water of oxygen needed to sustain life. Some
forms of nitrogen can cause similar problems in water.
There are several ways that excess nutrients get into the water. Both nitrogen and phosphorus are part of living
plants and animals and become part of organic matter when the plants and animals die and decompose. Nutrients
come from human, animal (including pet), and industrial wastes. Other sources of nutrients are human activities
that disturb the land and its vegetation, such as road and building construction, farming, and draining of wetlands
for development. Normally, nutrients are held in the soil and stored in the wetlands. When soil erodes and
washes away, it carries the nutrients along until it ends up in the water. If wetlands are drained for development,
they can no longer filter nutrients from runoff.
Terms
nutrient: an element or compound, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, that is necessary for plant
growth.
algal bloom: a heavy growth of algae in and on a body of water; usually results from high nitrate and phosphate
concentrations entering water bodies from farm fertilizers and detergents; phosphates or algal blooms also
occur naturally under certain conditions.
point source pollution: pollution that can be traced to a single point source, such as a pipe or culvert (Example:
industrial and wastewater treatment plant discharges).
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Ecology
TIME:
Takes place over the course of
about one month. Set up
approximately two weeks
ahead of experiment.
MATERIALS:
5 clear 1-qt or larger containers
(plastic soda bottles or canning
jars)
water with algae from a freshwater
pond or purchased from a
supply house
plant food
aged tap water (allow to sit about
48 hours)
light source (direct sunlight or
strong artificial light)
pollutants: cooking oil (colored
red), detergent (not green),
vinegar
camera and film (optional)
student sheet
1-23
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nonpoint source pollution (NPS): pollution that cannot be traced to a single point, because it comes from
many individual places or a widespread area (Example: urban and agricultural runoff).
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Set up jars at least two weeks before the experiment begins. Explain to the class that they are setting up
model water environments for an experiment to be done later. Plants in a wetland or other aquatic
system need nutrients to grow. Nutrients are found in all natural systems. Fill the jars with aged tap
water. Add one teaspoon of plant food to each jar and stir well.
B. To improve the quality of the model, use pond water or try adding a bit of soil from a pond or aquarium
gravel along with the water. Place the jars in a window where they will get good indirect light or light
provided by an incandescent or fluorescent light source. The jars should not be placed in a cold location.
C. Explain to the students that they will be using the model aquatic environments to test the effects of
certain pollutants that come from home. Students should decide on household products to use—products
that they feel are used frequently, are often dumped down the drain, and thus end up in waterways.
Students should bring samples of these materials from home.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Begin with a classification exercise explaining that students are to organize what they already know
about pollution. Some water pollution comes from specific sources such as drains, pipes, effluent from
industry—outfalls. This is called point source pollution. Other kinds of pollution come from many
widespread sources and are called non-point source pollution. Write these terms on the chalkboard
making two columns. Have students suggest things that pollute the water and place them in categories
in the chart.
B. Explain that students will conduct pollutant tests with the models set up two weeks ago.
//. Activity
A. Take out the jars, which by now should have algae growing in them. Have the class decide on three safe
pollutants to test—use more plant food for the fourth jar, use the fifth jar as a control. When the class has
decided what to test, add the materials to the four jars. Add a reasonable amount: two tablespoons of a
strong detergent; enough oil to just cover the surface; 1/4-1/2 cup of vinegar; one or two teaspoons of
plant food. Ask students to explain how each pollutant could get into the environment in real life.
B. Leave the jars in the light as before. Have the students write their predictions as to what will happen in
each container. Photograph the jars (with labels and dates showing) two or three times each week for
several weeks.
///. Follow-Up
A. Results will depend on the type of pollutant used.
1. Some pollutants, such as the plant food, favor plant growth and will cause an algal population
explosion. This is not healthy since it disrupts the balance of organisms. When the algae die and
decompose, oxygen is used up. Ask students to name some plants and animals that would be
affected by this situation. Oysters and clams would suffocate because they are unable to move to
another location to get more oxygen. A thick mat of algae will block out sunlight needed by other
plants.
2. Other pollutants, such as acids, would cause the water to be clear since everything in the water
would be killed.
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3. The sample with the oil spill may surprise students. If the algae have enough sunlight, they may
produce enough oxygen to keep things alive below the oxygen-impervious oil layer. Ask students to
consider the effects of a larger spill—ducks and other birds would become coated with oil and not be
able to fly, fish gills would be clogged, etc. Ask the students for their conclusions.
B. Human activities which result in water pollution can affect the water environment in ways that are disastrous
for natural communities. Some nutrients are necessary for an aquatic habitat, but having too many is
harmful. Have the students explain how.
IV. Extensions
A. Ask students whether or not they can devise a method to reverse the pollution in their models. (Example:
Add baking soda to the acid model to neutralize the acid, which is similar to adding limestone rocks to
lakes or streams to lessen the effects of acid rain. Example: Mop up the oil spill with sawdust, cotton, etc.
Could students skim off the oil from their model and let oxygen through again? )
B. Discuss ways to keep pollutants from reaching the water and ways to reduce the amounts that do get
through.
RESOURCES
"What's In the Water?" Living In Water, pp. 55-57.
WOW!: The Wonders of Wetlands, pp. 80, 87-89.
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
NUTRIENTS AND WATER QUALITY
Directions: Record your observations of changes in water conditions caused by pollutants.
Jar #1 (1 tsp. plant food
added — pollutant added is
motor oil)
Jar #2 (1 tsp. plant food
added — pollutant added is
strong detergent)
Jar #3 (1 tsp. plant food
added — pollutant added is
vinegar)
Jar #4 (1 tsp. plant food
added — pollutant is 2 more
tsp. plant food)
Jar #5 (1 tsp. plant food
added — no pollutant added.
This is the control.)
3 days
6 days
9 days
12 days
1 5 days
18 days
21 days
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WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS: TOO LITTLE WATER
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Earth Science, Ecology, Social
Studies
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
soil
gravel
sand
pebbles
bedding plants
shallow pan
water
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
Students will do the following:
1. Make a model of a drought.
2. Explain why water is our most abundant resource.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Human activities are causing environmental changes that can directly
affect global conditions and global politics. During the late 19th and 20th
centuries, modern civilization began to degrade the quality and viability
of global ecosystems through air and water pollution, changes in
atmospheric trace-gas levels, and massive development projects that
directly affect ecological balances. Such degradation alters the quality
and quantity of resources such as freshwater, genetic reserves, and
agricultural soils. These impacts, in turn, can affect political and security relationships, as demonstrated by
recent events in Somalia and northern Africa, friction over acid rain, water pollution, and shared rivers throughout
the world, and growing global concern about climatic changes and depletion of stratospheric ozone. Future
international tensions and conflict may thus come to depend as much on environmental and resource pressures
as on the geopolitical inclinations of nations.
Terms
desalination: the purification of salt or brackish water by removing the dissolved salts.
drought: a lack of rain or water; a long period of dry weather.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
water conservation: practices that reduce water use.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prepare separate containers of soil, gravel, small stones, pebbles, and sand.
B. Gather all materials for groups of four.
C. Select a nice warm place (plenty of sunshine) around the building (undisturbed) to leave the activity materials
for 4 to 5 days.
D. Review the general steps of conducting scientific investigations with students. Later they will write up their
investigations using these steps.
1. Define the problem
2. Formulate the hypothesis
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3. Collect information or data.
4. Test the hypothesis.
5. Analyze the results.
6. Formulate a tentative conclusion. Stress that conclusions are tentative based on the procedures
that were followed in this specific investigation. Results may turn out differently if the investigation
was done at another time in another place. To get more accurate results, scientists repeat
investigations several times and get an average.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Have students bring in plants, or ask nearby nursery to donate bedding plants.
B. Work near running water.
//. Activity
A. Have the students do the following:
1. Place equal amounts of sand, soil, gravel, and pebbles in a shallow baking pan. Start with the largest
size material and put it on the botton. This should be the gravel unless the pebbles are larger. Make
this the first layer. Then add the next largest material ending with the soil as the top layer.
2. Add small stones to the pan.
3. Add plant life to the pan and sprinkle with water.
4. Set pan aside for 4 or 5 days.
5. Make observations daily and record them on the data chart.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have students write up the activity following the steps of scientific investigation.
B. Have students do research on droughts.
C. Research different water requirements of various plants.
D. Assign research papers on each of the topics in the background information.
IV. Extensions
A. Repeat the investigation using different plants. Use plants with a wide range of adapatability such as
succulents and broad - leafed plants.
B. Call a plant nursery and find out about their watering practices. When do they water? How long do they
water? Which plants need the most water? Which plants need the least amount of water?
C. Repeat the investigation with the same kinds of plants but leave one in the pot or pan and plant the other
in the ground. What differences are there in how often the plant needs to be watered?
1-28
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RESOURCE
Arms, Karen, Environmental Science. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Orlando, FL, 1996.
1-29
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
WTR RES PROB: TOO LITTLE WATER
Directions: Observe your plants each day and record your observations.
DAY
OBSERVATIONS
1-30
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WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS: TOO MUCH WATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Explain what happens to various areas that are flooded.
2. Measure the amount of water required to saturate and
supersaturate a soil sample.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Some countries have enough annual precipitation, but they get most of it
at one time of the year. More than 2,000 cities world wide are located
completely or partially on flood plains suffering floods on an average of
once every two to three years. (This is a statistical average. Major floods
may occur three times within a month, annually for five consecutive years,
or not for several hundred years.)
SUBJECTS:
Earth Science, Ecology, Geology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
soil
gravel
small stones
pebbles
bedding plants
shallow pan
water
beaker (baby food jars for water)
student sheet
teacher sheet
Flooding is disastrous. It has become more severe over the years. It causes billions of dollars in property damages.
People die by drowning and snakebite. Some are left homeless. Hundreds of thousands contract diseases such
as cholera and typhoid fever from contaminated water and food supplies.
Floods occur when a watershed receives so much water that its waterways cannot drain it off properly. A watershed
is an area of land (usually quite large) over which water drains into a river or stream. A small river will drain
several thousand or hundreds of thousands of acres of land. Within any one watershed, excess rain will cause
increased water levels downstream. What occurs at any point along a river can affect not only that point but also
the entire watershed.
To minimize the effects of a flood, engineers build levees to constrict the overflow of rivers. As more communities
build levees, the water in a river is forced to flow at a higher rate because it cannot spread out. As the water flows
at a higher rate, it alternatively erodes and deposits sediment and alters the riverbed. The situation worsens as
the water rushes downstream. The water level can only continue to rise, eventually spilling over the levees.
During prolonged periods of flooding, many levees give way because they are under pressure from the swollen
river and are being undercut by water seepage.
Floods in undeveloped areas are not as damaging as the floods in developed areas. First of all, many natural
areas have thousands of acres of wetlands which act as giant sponges to soak up excess water. Second, many
rivers overflow into the floodplain—a low, flat area on either side of the river. If a river is allowed to spread out
onto its floodplain, the flow downstream is slowed. A river's floodplain can accommodate huge amounts of water
which are diverted from the main channel and held back. Allowed to flood in this way, the river creates less
damage downstream. If humans do not interfere with it, a stream or river produces its own flood control system
Floods are the most frequent and most lethal natural disasters. Ninety-seven percent of the Earth's water is in
the oceans; only 0.014% is in lakes, rivers, soil, and the atmosphere. Floods occur when a larger than normal
amount of water moves through an area without adequate natural or human-made barriers, or the soil capacity
to accommodate the water. This large amount of water may result when previously controlled large bodies of
water escape their boundaries or may result from rainfall, melted snow or ice, sea surges, and accidental damming.
A high tide combined with an atmospheric depression can cause the seas to flood low lying areas. The majority
of floods, called flash floods, happen unpredictably after a big rain. A cubic foot of water weighs 62 pounds. Sand
and clay mixed with the water increases force. Most damage results from the impact of moving water and the
1-31
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objects carried by it. In 1969, the National Weather Service began predicting flash floods. Potential flooding is
predicted using automatic rainfall gauges, radar, and human observation. Stilling wells, which measure small
changes in river height, are also used.
Terms
flooding: an overflowing of water, especially over land not usually submerged.
floodplain: a low, flat area on either side of a river that can accommodate large amounts of water during a flood,
lessening flood damage further downstream.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently massive
to fall to the Earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
saturation: the state of being infused with so much of a substance (Example: water) that no more can be
absorbed, dissolved, or retained.
supersaturation: the state of being infused with more of a substance (Example: water) than is normally possible
under given conditions of temperature and pressure.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prepare container with sand, gravel, pebbles, and small stones.
B. Gather enough materials for groups of four.
C. Work near running water.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss with students the key terms.
B. Explain that floods are disastrous.
C. Have students suggest ways to prevent or reduce flood damage.
//. Activities
A. Divide the students into groups of four.
B. Give each group the following: sand, soil, gravel, small stones, pebbles, bedding plants, shallow pan,
and a beaker with water.
C. Have students do the following:
1. Place equal amount of sand, gravel, small stones, pebbles, and soil in the shallow dish.
2. Arrange the plants throughout the soil mixture.
3. Saturate the soil mixture with water. Make and record observations.
4. Supersaturate the soil mixture, make observations, and record.
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///. Follow-Up
A. Have students write up the activity, utilizing the steps of the scientific method.
B. Have students list reasons why flooding is disastrous.
C. Have students list various flood management/control methods.
IV. Extension
A. Research areas in the US and worldwide that have experienced devastating floods. Find out how many
people died and what the estimated amont of damage was in dollars. Indicate the flooded areas on a map.
RESOURCES
American Water & Energy Savers, Inc.: http://www.americanwater.com/49ways.htm
Miller, Tyler, Living in the Environment. Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA, 1990.
Monorama Talaiver, author: Floods: http://ms.mathscience.k12.va.us/lessons/weather/flood.html
Newton's Apple: Floods: http://132.230.36.11/schule/earthquake/floods.html
Pacific Institute: Water and Sustainability: http://www.igc.apc.org/pacinst/progs.htmW
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers District Offices
1-33
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
WTR RES PROB: TOO MUCH WATER
DAY
ONE
DAY
TWO
DAY
THREE
DAY
FOUR
DAY
FIVE
Soil Type:
Saturated
Supersaturated
Soil Type:
Saturated
Supersaturated
Soil Type:
Saturated
Supersaturated
Soil Type:
Saturated
Supersaturated
Soil Type:
Saturated
Supersaturated
Observations:
Observations:
Observations:
Observations:
Observations:
1-34
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TEACHER SHEET
WTR RES PROB: TOO MUCH WATER
6-8
Flood deposits Sand and gravel
T>. of silt and clay in channel
Point bars
of sand
Migration of
w meander
Flood plain
Z
'' Sand deposited during flood
Natural levees Backswamp
1-35
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1-36
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WATER CAREER FAIR
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify different water-related careers that work specifically with
water.
2. Design a career fair exhibit to showcase careers related to water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECT:
Biology, Chemistry, Physical
Science
TIME:
3 class periods
MATERIALS:
student sheet
If someone asked you to name the different careers that are related to water, you might immediately think of a
marine biologist or someone in the Navy or Coast Guard. Perhaps you might even think of one who works with
different sea animals that are held in captivity. However, these are only a few water-related careers. Some
examples of workers in water-related jobs are weather forecasters, landscape architects, and nursery workers.
Consider the oil rig worker that helps build and maintain off-shore oil rigs. What about the operators for wastewater
treatment plants whose duties include testing water samples and maintaining equipment? Consider also those
who work daily to assure that toxic waste does not reach our drinking water supply, or the meter reader who
determines how much water we use. There's also the meteorologist, climatologist, or aqueduct builder. The list
is endless. Our lives are maintained and surrounded by water. A water-related career is probably one of the most
important careers one could choose.
hydraulic: operated, moved, or brought about by means of water.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather materials needed for students to build an exhibit on their selected careers.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss different water-related careers and how each one relates to students personally. Use as many
visuals as possible, including pictures, videos, speakers, etc.
1. Ask students to name different types of water-related careers.
2. Ask students if they know someone who works in this area.
//. Activity
A. Have students research the topic of "water-related careers." Guide students as to how to do this. For
example, have them look up marine biologist in an encyclopedia or dictionary, or have students interview
an individual in a water-related career.
1. Students should generate their own questions for the interview, asking at least ten questions. Some
sample question areas are listed below:
a. Educational background or training
1-37
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b. Salary range
c. Daily responsibilities and duties
d. Amount of travel involved
e. Location of most work opportunities
B. Have students create a poster or backboard that provides information about the career.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have students design exhibits and hold a water-career fair using the library where other students can
view their projects.
IV. Extensions
A. Take a field trip to a water or wastewater treatment plant or another type of water facility.
B. Have speakers come in.
C. Consider businesses that might allow students interested in certain careers to "shadow" someone working
there for one day. This would enable the students to see the daily responsibilities of that particular
career.
RESOURCES
Biological Science. Green, 1994.
Earth Science. Holt, 1994.
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STUDENT SHEET
WATER CAREER FAIR
6-8
WATER-RELATED CAREERS
Agricultural Engineer
Aquarium Director
Archaeologist
Aquatic Entomologist
Biologist
Biosolids Specialist
Boat Builder
Boater
Botanist
Bottled Water Company Employee
Builder
Chemist
Chemical Engineer
Civil Engineer
Coast Guard
College/University Professor
Commercial Fisherman
Computer Scientist
Desalination Plant Director
Diver
Docks Master
Ecologist
Environmental Attorney
Environmental Chemist
Environmental Engineer
Environmental Scientist
Farmer
Fire Fighter
Fisheries Biologist
Forester
Geographer
Geologist
Groundwater Contractor
Health Dept./Environmental Inspector
Hydraulic Engineer
Hydrologist
Ice Skater
Landscape Artist
Landscape Architect
Limnologist
Malacologist
Marina Owner/Operator or Employee
Marine Salvage Engineer
Marine Geophysicist
Marine Geologist
Marine Conservationist
Marine Explorer
Marine Technician
Merchant Marine
Meteorologist
Motor Sailboater
Navy
Oceanographer
Olympic/Professional Swimmer
Photographer
Physical Scientist
Plant Physiologist
Plumber
Potter
Professional Tournament Fisherman
Professional Skier (Water or Snow)
Rafting Guide
Ranger
Recreation Instructor
Science Teacher
Scuba Diver
Ship Builder
Seaman
Snow Hydrologist
Soil Scientist
Structural Engineer
Submariner
Sunken Treasure Hunter
Tugboat Biologist
Underwater Photographer
Wastewater Treatment Engineer
Water Meter Reader
Water Level Controller
Water Resources Engineer
Water Quality Control Officer
Well Driller
Yachtsman
Zoologist
1-39
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1-40
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WATER EVAPORATION
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Math
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
pan balance
cellulose sponges
scissors
plastic sandwich bag
spotlight
hot water
cold water
electric fan
petri dishes
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Determine the different factors that affect evaporation rate.
2. Brainstorm to come up with ideas to solve a problem.
3. Employ the scientific method while designing and conducting an
experiment.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water Evaporation
See "Transpiration in Plants" activity for information on water evaporation.
Humidity is the water vapor or moisture content always present in the
air. Humidity can be defined in two ways:
1. Absolute humidity is the weight of water vapor per unit volume of air,
pounds per cubic foot or grams per cubic centimeter.
2. Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the actual partial vapor pressure of the water vapor in a space to the
saturation pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Relative humidity is the commonly accepted
measurement of the moisture content in the air.
In simpler terms, relative humidity may be considered as the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the
amount the air can hold at a given temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. For example,
10,000 cubic feet of 10 degrees F air can hold 5,820 grains of moisture representing a relative humidity of 75
percent. If this air is heated to 70 degrees F, it will still contain the same 5,820 grains of moisture. When it is at 70
degrees F, 10,000 cubic feet of air can potentially hold 80,550 grains of moisture; however, the 5,820 grains it
actually holds gives it a relative humidity of about 7 percent.
When humidity is low (less than 40 percent RH), air seeks to draw moisture from any available source. Dry air
can make one feel "cold" in a warm room. Moisture evaporates readily from the skin and leaves a feeling of
chilliness even with the temperature at 75 degrees F or higher.
When humidity is high (>60 percent), the humid air tends to make people feel that their environment is warmer
than it really is. An area at 72 degrees F and 60 percent or greater RH feels warmer than an area at 72 degrees
F and 40 percent RH; this is because the evaporative cooling of the body through perspiration is reduced by the
high RH of the surrounding air.
Terms
evaporation: the act or process of converting or changing into a vapor with the application of heat.
molecules: the smallest portions of a substance having the properties of the substance.
saturated air: air that contains as much moisture as it is possible to hold under existing conditions.
humidity: the degree of wetness, especially of the atmosphere.
1-41
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condensation: the act or process of reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid or solid state.
cloud: a visible mass of tiny bits of water or ice hanging in the air usually high above the Earth.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Students must plan for a control on the factor they are going to test. Remember—the control is to be treated
exactly like the variable. Use only one factor to test the variable.
B. Students should write down and be prepared to discuss all steps in the scientific method except stating the
problem. (The problem was presented to them.)
PROCEDURE
/. Activity
A. Use one of the factors listed in the student sheet and the materials given to design and carry out an
experiment to prove or disprove your prediction for the stated problem. The factors are wind, humidity,
water, temperature, or surface area.
1. Record the steps of your experiment.
2. Record the results of your experiment. Remember to weigh all sponges before and after use.
B. Compare your results with other groups who are testing the same factor.
C. All groups share the results with the entire class using the charts.
D. Answer the following questions.
1. Which factor had the fastest evaporation rate? Why? The slowest rate? Why?
2. How would the above factors influence the different oceans of the world?
3. Explain how winter, spring, summer, and fall affect the evaporation rate.
///. Extensions
A. Have students construct an iceberg. Fill a balloon with tap water and freeze overnight. The next day peel
the rubber off and place the iceberg in a clear container filled 1/2 full of water. Answer the following.
questions:
1. How much of the iceberg is above the water? Below the water?
2. Why are icebergs very dangerous to ships?
B. Write reports on famous shipwrecks.
C. Watch the movie, The Poseidon Adventure.
D. Do the Word Search (attached).
RESOURCES
Oceans in Motion. MacMillan / McGraw-Hill, 1995.
Humidity: Friend or Foe, by Enviros: The Healthy Building Newsletter.
1-42
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STUDENT SHEET
WATER EVAPORATION
6-8
Directions: Design and conduct an experiment.
Selected Factor (circle one)
Sun's Energy
Wind
Humidity
Water Temperature
Prediction
Surface Area-Sponge
Weight Before
Weight After
List and number the steps you will follow in your experiment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
INFLUENCE ON EVAPORATION RATE
Sun's
Energy
Wind
Humidity
Water
Temperature
Surface
Area
Explain the results of your experiment.
1-43
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STUDENT SHEET WATER EVAPORATION
6-8
Directions: Answer the following after conducting your experiment.
1. Which factor had the greatest evaporation rate? Why?
2. Which factor has the slowest evaporation rate? Why?
3. How would the above factors influence the different oceans of the world?
4. Explain how winter, spring, summer, and fall affect evaporation rate?
1-44
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STUDENT SHEET WATER EVAPORATION
6-8
C E G
O R T
NEK
D R A
E E K
N H M
S P 1
A S O
T 0 U
1 M O
O T S
NAB
Z E M
WORD SEARCH
MKBL DMOHRR
OUJCLOUDI K
LZWBCMDYAE
E 1 R Z 1 1 B Z D T
CGEDL ROEBA
UPFOMKTMKR
LESPZAEOEO
ECULREATEP
LESUKRZAEA
LMTJACEGOV
FALCMJAFRE
SJMOI STURE
GFAVAPORFM
1-45
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
WATER EVAPORATION
WORD SEARCH ANSWER KEY
c
o
N
D
E
N
S
A
T
1
O
&
E
R
E
R
E
H
P
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1-46
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HOME WATER USE
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Ecology, Math
TIME:
20 minutes
MATERIALS:
plastic ruler
bath tub with shower
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Calculate the volume of water used in the home.
2. Identify methods of conserving water in the home.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Which requires less water, a bath or a shower? Did you know 30 percent
of your indoor water is used in flushing the toilet? The average toilet uses
five to seven gallons per flush. An average household can save about $100 a year and help conserve thousands
of gallons of water by installing water-efficient toilets. These "improved" toilets rely on an efficient bowl design
and increased flushing velocity—instead of extra water—to remove wastes.
Which uses more water—washing dishes by hand or in a dishwasher? The average dishwasher uses about 10
gallons of water per load, while washing the same number of dishes by hand takes about 16 gallons (though
you'll use less water if you use the sink or a dishpan for washing and rinsing). Newer, efficient dishwashers use
as little as five gallons per cycle, which means they also consume less energy to heat the water.
Showers and baths account for one-third of most families' water use. The typical shower head allows a water
flow of eight to 10 gallons per minute. Installing a flow restrictor or low-flow shower head will reduce this flow by
one-half, and most people can't tell the difference. A faucet that drips once per second wastes 2,300 gallons of
water a year. Most household leaks are easily fixed by replacing worn parts, like the washer.
Terms
natural resource: something (as a mineral, forest, or kind of animal) that is found in nature and is valuable to
humans.
freshwater: water containing an insignificant amount of salts, such as in inland rivers and lakes.
renewable resource: a resource or substance, such as a forest, that can be replenished through natural or
artificial means.
conserve: to save a natural resource, such as water, through intelligent management and use.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Discuss with students the importance of conserving water.
B. Make sure each student has a plastic ruler.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Ask students to estimate how many gallons of water they use daily.
1-47
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B. Ask students to estimate how many gallons of water they use when taking a bath or shower.
//. Activities
A. Have students measure the amount of water they use when taking a bath by following these steps:
1. Run the bath.
2. Before getting into the tub, measure the depth of the water with a plastic ruler.
3. Record the depth of the water on the Student sheet.
B. Have students measure the amount of water they use when taking a shower by following these steps:
1. Close the bathtub drain.
2. Take a shower using your usual amount of time.
3. Before draining the bathtub, measure the depth of the water with a plastic ruler. (Do not stand in the
tub when measuring.)
4. Record the depth of the water on the Student sheet.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students answer the following questions on Student Sheet 1.
1. Which requires more water, a bath or a shower?
2. Should the procedure have included a specific length of time for the shower?
3. Why is it important that the depth of the water in the tub be measured without a person in the tub?
B. Have the students review Home Water Use - Ways to Save Water: Student Sheet 2. Ask students to
check each one they already use in their home to save water. Have them circle the ones they will plan to
use in the future.
C. Have students answer the questions on the Home Water Student Sheet 3. Have them answer questions!
individually first. Then put them into small groups and have them compare answers.
IV. Extensions
A. Ask the students to imagine their city is experiencing a severe water shortage. Have them list ways in
which they, as citizens, can conserve water during the crisis.
B. Ask students to keep track of how many baths and showers are taken in their home each day for a week.
Calculate how much water is used in the house for baths and showers.
C. Have students go to a hardware store or call one and find out about shower flow restricters. How do they
work? How much water do they save? Calculate how much water could be saved in their house if one
was installed in each shower.
D. Call the city or county water department. Find out where the city water comes from and how much it
costs per 1,000 gallons.
1-48
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RESOURCE
Earth Science. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1991.
1-49
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STUDENT SHEET 1
HOME WATER USE
6-8
Directions: Measure the length and width of the bathtub or shower. Then measure the depth of the water used
for a bath and for a shower. Record these measurements below:
Bath:
Shower:
To determine how much water is used in one bath or shower, use the formula for volume, V = length x width x
height. Use your measurements from above.
Bath:
Shower:
Using the chart below, figure the amount of water used in one day, one week, one month, and one year, by
multiplying the volume of water used in one bath or shower by the number of baths and showers taken during
each of those times.
Bath Tub
Shower
1 Day
1 Week
1 Month
1 Year
Now, answer the following questions:
1. Which requires more water, a bath or a shower?
2. Should the procedure have included a specific length of time for the shower?
3. Why is it important that the depth of the water in the tub be measured without a person in the tub?
1-50
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STUDENT SHEET 2 HOME WATER USE
6-8
Ways to Save Water
1. Never put water down the drain when there may be another use for it, such as watering a plant or garden or
cleaning.
2. Verify that your home is leak-free because many homes have hidden water leaks. Read your water meter
before and after a two-hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read exactly the same,
there is a leak.
3. Repair dripping faucets by replacing washers. If a faucet is dripping at the rate of one drop per second,
2,700 gallons per year can be wasted, which adds to the cost of water and sewer utilities and places strain
on septic systems.
4. Check for toilet tank leaks by adding food coloring to the tank. If the toilet is leaking, color will appear within
30 minutes.
5. Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues, insects, and other waste in the trash rather than
the toilet.
6. Take shorter showers. Replace shower heads with ultra-low-flow versions.
7. Use the minimum amount of water needed for a bath by closing the drain first and filling the tub only 1/3 full.
8. Operate automatic dishwashers and clothes washers only when they are fully loaded, or properly set the
water level for the size of load being washed.
9. When washing dishes by hand, fill one sink or basin with soapy water. Quickly rinse them under a slow-
moving stream from the faucet.
10. Store drinking water in the refrigerator rather than letting the tap run every time cold water is needed.
11. Do not use running water to thaw meat or other frozen foods. Defrost food overnight in a refrigerator or by
using the defrost setting on a microwave.
12. Kitchen sink disposals require lots of water to operate properly. Start a compost pile as an alternate method
of disposing food waste instead of using a garbage disposal. Garbage disposals also can add 50% to the
volume of solids in a septic tank which can lead to malfunctions and maintenance problems.
13. Insulate water pipes. Hot water is available faster, and this avoids wasting water while'it heats up.
14. Don't over water the lawn. As a general rule, lawns only need watering of one inch every 5 to 7 days in the
summer. A hearty rain eliminates the need for watering for as long as two weeks.
15. Water lawns during the early morning hours when temperatures and wind speed are the lowest. This reduces
losses from evaporation.
16. Don't water the street, driveway, or sidewalk. Position sprinklers so that water lands on the lawn and shrubs
— not the paved areas.
17. Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches. A lawn cut higher encourages grass roots to grow
deeper, shades the root system, and holds soil moisture better than a closely clipped lawn.
18. Avoid over-fertilizing the lawn. The application of fertilizers increases the need for water.
19. Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground covers, shrubs and trees. Once established, they do
not need to be watered as frequently, and they usually will survive a dry period without any watering.
20. Do not hose down the driveway or sidewalk. Use a broom to clean leaves and other debris from these areas.
Using a hose to clean a driveway can waste hundreds of gallons of water.
21. Consider using a commercial car wash that recycles water. At home, park the car on the grass when washing it.
22. Avoid the installation of ornamental water features (such as fountains) unless the water is recycled.
23. Consider a new water-saving pool filter for swimming pools. A single back-flushing with a traditional filter
uses from 180 to 250 gallons or more of water.
1-51
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STUDENT SHEET 3 HOME WATER USE
6-8
Directions: Answer the following questions in complete sentences.
1. How many gallons of water can you expect per year if a faucet drips at the rate of one drop per second?
2. How can you verify that your home is leak free?
3. Please explain how you can check for toilet leaks.
4. Why should you avoid over-fertilizing your lawn?
5. Why should you use a commercial car wash instead of washing your car by hand?
6. Is it possible to have an ornamental water feature (such as a fountain) and not waste water? Please explain.
7. Please list two reasons you should not use a garbage disposal.
8. What time of day should you water your lawn?
9. How can insulating your water pipes help to conserve water?
10. How does raising the blade on your lawn mower help to conserve water?
1-52
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WATER METER READER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Determine how much water his or her family uses at home.
2. Observe, interpret data, infer, and use numbers to compare water
usage to that of other students.
3. Construct a graph using collected data on water usage.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Ecology, Math
TIME:
2 class periods
7 days to read home meters
MATERIALS:
home water meter
old water bill
student sheets
Water is a valuable resource. The average household uses 200 gallons
of water per day. Water shortages are occurring in many parts of the world because of rising demand from
growing populations, unequal distribution of useable freshwater, and pollution. We must all be conscious of the
water we are using and learn ways to conserve water. By changing personal habits, such as running water while
brushing teeth, people can save a lot of water.
Each household can monitor the amount of water it uses by reading its water meter. There are several types of
water meters. The water company in your area should have directions on how to read a water meter. Families
can use meter readings as a challenge to reduce water use. Read the meter, obtain an average water use, and
strive as a family to reduce water use by 1-2 gallons per day or 10-20 gallons per week, etc.
As much as half of the water being used now for domestic purposes can be saved by practicing certain conservation
techniques. Water can be saved in the bathroom by using low volume shower heads, taking shorter showers,
stopping leaks, and by using low volume or waterless toilets. Toilet flushing is the largest domestic water use.
Each person uses 13,000 gal (50,000 liters) of drinking quality water a year to flush toilets. Regulations in many
areas now require water-saving toilets be used. An old toilet can conserve water by having a water-displacement
device, such as a half-gallon milk jug filled with water or sand, placed in the storage tank. Special water conserving
appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines are available now that reduce water consumption
greatly.
Approximate volumes of home water usage are as follows:
Bath
Shower
Washing clothes
Flushing a toilet
Dishwasher
Cooking
Watering a lawn
100-1 SOL (30-40 gallons)
20 L (5 gallons) per minute
75-100 L (20-30 gallons)
10-15 L (3-4 gallons) or more
50 L (15 gallons) per load
30 L (8 gallons) per day
40 L (10 gallons) per minute
Different communities use several types of water meters. Meters have different numbers of dials. As water
moves through the water pipes, the meter pointers rotate. To read a meter, find the dial that has the lowest
denomination indicated. Record the last number that the pointer has passed. Continue this process. If the meter
has more than one dial, the meter may be measured in gallons, cubic feet, or cubic meters.
cubic feet: the volume of a cube whose edges are a specified number of feet in length. (Example: 3 cubic feet
would be a cube that is 3 feet long, 3 feet high, and 3 feet wide.)
1-53
-------
cubic meters: the volume of a cube whose edges are a specified number of meters in length. (Example: 3 cubic
meters would be a cube that is 3 meters long, 3 meters high, and 3 meters wide.)
gallon: a unit of liquid capacity equal to four quarts (about 3.8 liters).
unit: a fixed quantity (as of length, time, or value) used as a standard of measurement; a single thing, person,
or group forming part of a whole.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have students draw a picture of their water meter and bring it to class.
B. Have students bring to class a water bill from their households..
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the different types of meters using the pictures the students bring to class. Discuss the bills that
the family receives each month.
B. Show students how to calculate how much water is used in a home using the Meter Reader Student
Sheet.
C. Fill in Day 1 together as a class so students know how to use the sheet.
//. Activity
A. Have the students read their home water meters at the same time of the day for 7 days (one week).
B. Have the students subtract the previous day's reading to find the amount of water used each day.
C. Ask the students to record how water is used in their homes each day (bath, shower, clothes washing,
dishwasher).
D. Using graph paper, have student plot data daily. Label the vertical axis with the units used by your meter.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students answer the following questions:
1. What day did your family use more water? Why?
2. What was the total amount of water used by your family during the week?
3. What is the average amount of water used by each person in your family?
4. Estimate a monthly and yearly average of water usage in your home.
5. Would the family's water usage vary during the year? Why?
6. How can your family conserve water?
IV. Extensions
A. Have students find out the source of their water supply and trace it until it reaches their homes. Who
determines if the supply is pure? How often is the water tested, and how is the wastewater treated?
1-54
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B. Have students visit home improvement shops to calculate the cost of water conserving products as well
as to determine where to obtain them.
C. Take a field trip to a water treatment plant.
RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
1-55
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STUDENT SHEET
WATER METER READER
6-8
Home Water Usage
Your water meter probably looks like one of these. The first meter is read clockwise and measures
water in gallons. The second meter measures water in cubic feet and is read in the same manner. (To
convert cubic feet to gallons you must multiply the number on the meter by 7.5.) The third meter is
read like a digital clock. Meters 1 and 2 have six dials, which are read clockwise. Begin with the
"100,000" dial and read each dial to the "1" dial. Remember that when the dial is between two
numbers, you read the smaller number. Read and record the number shown on each meter.
YOUR METER COMPANY
CUBIC METERS
IOI3I4I2I9I
YOUR METER COMPANY
CUBIC FEET
0
1-56
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
WATER METER READER
Home Water Usage
Directions: Reda the dials from left to right. When the dial is between two numbers, read the smaller number. Write the numbers in the blanks
below the dials.
-------
STUDENT SHEET
WATER METER READER
6-8
Directions: List how water is used in your home. Indicate how many times each occurred and how much water
was used. Compute a total for each day and for the entire seven days.
Day 1 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
Day 2 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
Day 3 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
Day 4 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
Day 5 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (15 gal)
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
I)
5 gal)
I)
iter runs)
3r day)
I)
5 gal)
I)
ter runs)
3r day)
)
5 gal)
I)
ter runs)
3r day)
)
5 gal)
I)
ter runs)
sr day)
)
jgal)
I)
ter runs)
jr day)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushinqs
Total Gallons
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushinqs
Total Gallons
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushinqs
Total Gallons
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushinqs
Total Gallons
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushinqs
Total Gallons
1-58
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
. gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
-------
STUDENT SHEET
WATER METER READER
6-8
Day 6 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (15 gal)
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
teeth (1 gal
meals (8 gal per day)
Day 7 — Date
shower (25 gal)
bath (35 gal)
dishwasher (15 gal)
laundry (20 gal)
toilet (4 gal)
teeth (1 gal water runs)
meals (8 gal per day)
)
>gai)
I)
ter runs)
X
X
X
X
X
X
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushings
Total Gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
x
x
x
x
x
x
showers
baths
loads
loads
flushes
brushings
Total Gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
8 gallons
1-59
-------
1-60
-------
THE WATER SOURCEBOOK
DRINKING AND
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
•*" i-n
H "3
-------
CONTAMINANT SCAVENGER HUNT
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Language Arts
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
writing supplies
student sheets
OBJECTIVE
The student will do the following:
1. Identify substances and activities within a household that contribute
to water pollution.
2. Identify safe cleaning alternatives for commercial cleaning
products.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Pollutants that come from homes often originate in the kitchen, bathroom, or garage. Some chemicals such as
oil, paint thinner, and pesticides often find their way down the drain and into the water system. Household
cleansers, such as drain cleaner, oven cleaner, and tarnish remover have caustic chemicals that lower water
quality. These products have chemical ingredients that may not be removed during water treatment. A partial
solution would be to avoid putting these chemicals directly into water in the first place. Hazardous household
wastes can be taken to approved disposal sites.
Fortunately, there are non-toxic alternatives that can be used instead of some household cleansers. Items such
as baking soda and vinegar can be used in different combinations to clean different areas of the home. Baking
soda can be used in place of a room deodorizer. Boiling water, vinegar, and baking soda can be used with a
plunger to take the place of a toxic drain cleaner. Vinegar wiped with newspaper can be used as a window
cleaner. Scouring powder can be replaced by baking soda and vinegar. Salt, baking soda, and a piece of aluminum
foil in warm water can take the place of a tarnish remover.
alternative: a chance to choose between two or more possibilities; one of the two or more possible choices.
caution: a warning against danger.
disposal: a disposing of or getting rid of something, as in the disposal of waste material.
pollution prevention: preventing the creation of pollutants or reducing the amount created at the source of
generation, as well as protecting natural resources through conservation or increased efficiency in the use of
energy, water, or other materials.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prepare two copies of the "Contaminant Survey" sheet and one copy of the "Alternative Cleaning Products"
sheet for each student.
B. Make an overhead of the "House Cutaway."
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Divide class into teams. Have at least two products per team on hand. Have each student fill out one
2-1
-------
contaminant survey sheet using the two team products. Have the students work in teams to find the
information.
B. Assign a different area of the house to each team: kitchen, garage, garden/yard, bathroom, basement,
and laundry room.
C. Displaying the overhead of the house, brainstorm with the class a list of possible products used in each
location.
//. Activities
A. Have each team fill in the remaining contaminant survey sheet with the products brainstormed for their
area of the house.
B. Have students collect data from their own homes. Explain that some products will not have an entry in
each category.
C. Have the students meet in their teams and combine their lists into a master list for their area.
D. Have the students use the "Safe Alternatives to Toxic Home Cleaners" handout to fill in the "Alternative
Cleaning Products" sheet for the cleaning products they found.
///. Follow-Up
A. Review data with students:
1. What products did they find?
2. How do we use these products?
3. How do these products affect water? (This may be on the label under the caution statement.)
IV. Extensions
A. Have the students keep track of how many times they use alternative cleaning products.
B. Let the students share this project with their families at home. Encourage them to show their families
their home surveys and the list of alternative products that could be used.
C. Have the students watch television advertisements and check the products advertised for environmental
or physical safety.
D. Have the students make their own handbooks to take home and refer to as needed.
RESOURCES
Gralla, Preston, How the Environment Works. Ziff-Davis Press, Emeryville, California, 1994.
Household Hazardous Waste Wheel. Available from Legacy, Inc. 800 - 240 - 5115.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
1995. Obtain from Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall, Montana State University,
Bozeman, MT 59717-0057 (Fax: 406-994-1919; e-mail: rwwet@msu.oscs.montana.edu).
2-2
-------
STUDENT SHEET
CONTAMINANT SCAVENGER HUNT
6-8
electricity in
Directions: Use a colored marker to trace all the possible routes by which radon may
enter this home.
2-3
-------
STUDENT SHEET
6-8
CONTAMINANT SURVEY
Product
Name
i.
Four Main
Ingredients
Container
Plastic
Glass
Paper
Caution
Statement
First
Aid
Disposal
Procedure
-------
STUDENT SHEET ALTERNATIVE CLEANING PRODUCTS
6-8
PRODUCT
SAFE ALTERNATIVE INGREDIENTS
2-5
-------
SAFE ALTERNATIVES TO TOXIC HOME CLEANERS
6-8
The average home in America today has between 10-15 gallons of toxic products. The following is a list of safe
alternatives to some of these toxic chemicals used in the home. Please be aware that, although these "home
brews" may be friendlier for the environment, this does not mean they are safe for human consumption (even
common materials such as vinegar can be harmful if consumed in large quantities). So treat these mixtures with
care and keep them out of children's reach.
DRAIN CLEANER
Dissolve 1 Ib. washing soda in 3 gallons of water and
pour down the drain. Grind lemon rinds and 1/4 cup
borax in garbage disposal and rinse with hot water.
Pour 1/2 cup baking soda into drain and follow with 1/2
cup vinegar or lemon juice (beware of a strong reaction
from these two chemicals). Let the mixture sit for 15
minutes before rinsing with hot water.
BEST BET: avoid dumping grease down the drain;
instead, pour into soup can, freeze it, and throw it out
on garbage day.
APPLIANCE CLEANER
Combine 1 tsp borax, 2 tbsp vinegar, 1/4 tsp liquid soap
and 2 cups of very hot water in a spray bottle. Shake
gently until everything dissolves; spray the mixture onto
appliances and wipe with a rag.
OVEN CLEANER
Sprinkle oven generously with water, sprinkle with
baking soda, sprinkle again with water. Let sit overnight
and wipe up. If desired, wipe entire oven with liquid
soap and rinse thoroughly.
Mix 2 tbsp liquid soap, 2 tsp borax and warm water.
CREAMY SOFT SCRUBBER
Combine 1/2 cup baking soda in a bowl with vegetable-
oil-based liquid soap, stirring into a creamy paste.
Scoop onto a sponge and wash desired surface. Rinse
thoroughly. If a disinfectant is desired, add borax; for
heavy washing jobs, add washing soda.
WINDOW CLEANER
Shake up 1 tsp liquid soap, 3 tbsp vinegar and 2 cups
water in a spray bottle. Use as you normally would.
LINOLEUM FLOOR CLEANER
Blend 1/2 cup liquid soap, 1/2 cup lemon juice, and 2
gallons warm water. Wash floors as usual.
STAIN REMOVERS
COFFEE STAINS - rub moist salt on the item
RUST STAINS on clothes - lemon, juice, salt, and
sunlight
SCORCH MARKS on clothes - use grated onions
INK SPOTS on clothes - cold water, 1 tbsp cream of
tartar and 1 tbsp lemon juice
OIL STAINS on clothes - rub white chalk on stain before
laundering
PERSPIRATION STAINS on clothes - white vinegar
and water
GENERAL SPOTS on clothes - club soda or lemon
juice or salt
BATHROOM CLEANERS
MILDEW REMOVER - use equal parts vinegar and
salt
TOILET BOWL CLEANER - paste of borax and lemon
juice, or just borax, left in toilet overnight and wiped out
in the morning
TUB AND TILE CLEANER - combine 1/2 cup baking
soda, 1 cup white vinegar, and warm water
POLISHES FOR AROUND THE HOUSE
for CHROME - apple cider vinegar
for SILVER - mix 1 qt. warm water, 1 tbsp baking soda,
1 tbsp salt, and a piece of aluminum foil
for COPPER - lemon juice and salt
for STAINLESS STEEL - mineral oil
for BRASS - worchestershire sauce or vinegar and
water
SHOE POLISH
banana peel
INSECT PROBLEMS AT HOME
Ants - red chili powder at point of entry into house
Moths - cedar chips
Fleas on pets - gradually add brewers yeast to pet's
diet
Nematodes in garden - plant marigolds
2-6
-------
LIQUID FABRIC SOFTENER
baking soda or borax in the rinse water
RUG & UPHOLSTRY CLEANER
club soda
DECAL REMOVER (ON GLASS)
soak with white vinegar
RUSTY BOLT / NUT REMOVER
carbonated beverage / vinegar
INSECT PROBLEMS AT HOME Conf d
Flies - well-watered pot of basil
Roaches - chopped bay leaves and cucumber skins
Insects on outdoor plants - soapy water on leaves, then
rinse; or boil elderberry leaves in water and add a touch
of liquid soap to make a spray
CAUTION
Be judicious using any of these mixtures. Test on a
small, hidden area when cleaning clothes, carpets, etc.
As indicated earlier, these mixtures can be harmful if
ingested or used carelessly.
The easiest and safest way to manage household
hazardous waste is not to make it in the first place.
Choose less toxic products and products whose
processing results in less toxic waste.
2-7
-------
2-8
-------
DESALINATION / FRESHWATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Produce freshwater from saltwater by the process of desalination.
2. Discuss the substances found in ocean water (composition).
3. Discuss why some substances in seawater do not remain in solution
for long periods of time.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Oceans are physical combinations of different substances. These
substances are in the oceans because they were dissolved, given off by
volcanoes, or were weathered off. Seawater is a well-mixed solution of
dissolved salts in water. Sodium and chloride combine to form common
salt. Sodium and chloride ions together account for 86 percent of the salt
ions present in seawater. Sulfate, magnesium, calcium and potassium
ions together make up the next 13 percent of salt ions present. Other
elements such as iodine are present in trace concentrations and are
measured at less that one part per million.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Social Studies
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
goggles
washers
scissors
towel
glycerin
glass tubing bent at right angles
shallow pan
ice
water
pan balance
table salt
two 500 ml beakers
1000 mL flask
1-hole rubber stopper
rubber tubing
hot plate cardboard
teacher sheet
A process called desalination is used to remove salt from the ocean.
Distillation is one of the most common methods of desalination. At
desalination plants ocean water is heated so water vapor will form. This
vapor is then collected and cooled. The end product from this procedure
is fresh water. The ocean, therefore, stores freshwater. Desalination is a very expensive process but very much
welcomed in areas with limited or no supply of freshwater.
Areas such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, and the state of Florida have a limited supply of freshwater and
an abundant supply of seawater. Some areas, such as Oman and Bahrain, have no access to freshwater. Lack
of freshwater is a limiting factor for population and industrial growth. Technology is now being used to convert
seawater into freshwater for use in areas with limited or no access to freshwater.
Terms
desalination: the purification of salt or brackish water by removing the dissolved salts.
glycerin: a sweet, thick liquid found in various oils and fats and can be used to moisten or dissolve something.
halite: a white or colorless mineral, sodium chloride or rock salt.
mineral: a naturally occurring substance (as diamond or quartz) that results from processes other than those of
plants and animals; a naturally occurring substance (as ore, petroleum, natural gas, or water) obtained usually
from the ground for human use.
mixture: two or more substances mixed together in such a way that each remains unchanged (sand and sugar
form a mixture).
salinity: an indication of the amount of salt dissolved in water.
2-9
-------
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have all equipment ready prior to lab day. Be sure to cut and bend glass tubing so it fits into the holes in the
stopper. All glassware needs to be clean.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Stress that the students should be careful when putting the glass into the stopper and rubber
tubing into the glass tubing.
//. Activity
A. Have the students perform or watch as you demonstrate the following:
1. Dissolve 18 g of table salt in a beaker filled with 500 ml of water.
2. Put the solution into the flask. Place the flask on the hot plate. Do not turn the hot plate on.
3. Connect the stopper, glass tubing, and rubber tubing (see diagram). Use the glycerin on the ends of
the glass tubing. Using protective gloves or holding the tubing with a towel, gently slide the glass
into the stopper and rubber tubing.
4. Put the stopper into the flask. Make sure the glass tubing is above the solution.
5. Make a small hole in the cardboard. Slide the free end of the rubber tubing through the hole. Do
not let the tubing touch the hot plate.
6. Put the cardboard over a beaker and weigh it down with four washers. This will hold it in place.
7. Place the beaker in the shallow pan that is filled with ice.
8. Turn on the hot plate, bringing the solution to a boil. Write down what occurs to the solution in
the flask and the beaker.
9. This process will be continued until almost all of the solution is boiled away.
10. Turn off the hot plate and let the beaker cool.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students the following questions, or have them answer the questions in groups.
1. What occurred to the solution in the flask?
2. What occurred inside the beaker?
3. Taste the H2O inside the beaker. Does the water taste salty?
4. Is anything in the flask? If your answer is yes, identify.
5. Do you still have the same amount of water that you started with? Explain.
6. Look at the sides of the flask and write down what you see.
7. Write a paragraph and explain how desalination produces fresh water.
2-10
-------
IV. Extensions
A. Debate the idea of obtaining gold from the oceans.
B. Provide water samples and have students use a test kit to analyze the water. Kits can be obtained from
a biological supply catalog.
C. Obtain water from the ocean or Gulf (if available). Place an open container of seawater in the sun,
allowing the sun to help the water evaporate more quickly, leaving a salt residue behind. (This can also
be used to introduce the activity.)
D. Have students do research on the Nansen bottle or salinometer, then make a model of one of these
instruments.
E. Have students research the Gulf War in Kuwait and the surrounding area and discuss what happened to
the environment when Hussain blew up the oil wells and the desalination plant.
F. Have students calculate the cost of building a desalination plant.
G. Have students research and report on other methods of desalination (e.g., reverse osmosis, ultrafilteration
or others) and list the advantages/disadvantages of all methods.
RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Duxbury, Alison B. and Alyn C. Duxbury, Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque,
Iowa, 1996.
2-11
-------
TEACHER SHEET
DESALINATION
6-8
Clear
Rubber
Tubing
Glass
Tubing
Hotplate
2-12
-------
HOW SOFT OR HARD IS YOUR WATER?
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Test samples of water to determine how a chemical water softener
(borax, washing soda) affects water's ability to form suds.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water that contains large amounts of dissolved calcium or magnesium is
considered to be "hard." The chemical weathering of rocks containing
calcite, dolomite, orferromagnesium minerals leaching into groundwater
supplies or streams is often the source of hard water for home use. Hard
water causes several problems in homes.
A reaction occurs when hard water comes in contact with detergents.
During this process the calcium ions precipitate the fatty acids from the
soap. A form of scum or gelatinous, gray curd forms. The curd forms as
calcium ions are removed from the water. This process continues until all
of the calcium ions are bound up in the curd. The soap will not lather until
curd. For this reason, households that have hard water must use larger
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Geology, Math,
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
borax or washing soda
different samples of water
distilled water
second timer
test tubes with stoppers or small
bottles with corks or caps
medicine dropper
soap
marking pencil
student sheets
all of the calcium ions are bound in the
amounts of detergent.
Hard water causes other household problems by precipitating a scaly deposit inside tea kettles, hot water tanks,
and hot water pipes. This scaly deposit consists of carbonate salts that, over time, can build up enough to clog
an entire hot water piping system in a home. The entire hot water piping system must then be replaced.
"Soft" water carries ions that do not react with the soap and therefore allows lathering. Water softeners are
available for home use that replace calcium ions with sodium ions. The sodium ions do not affect lathering or
cause scaly deposits to build up. Soft water containing large amounts of sodium may be harmful, however, for
persons with salt-free or low-sodium diets. Soft water tends to be significantly more aggressive than hard water
and can leach metals from pipes (primarily lead and copper). Some water suppliers add zinc ortho phosphates
to the water to reduce its softness and balance its pH to near 7.0.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Make a soap solution by dissolving a walnut-sized piece of soap in 1/2 liter (about 1 pint) of water.
B. Collect samples of water from different places, such as a stream, a river, a lake, a well, a spring, and a
faucet. You may also use various brands of bottled water from different locations in the US,
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Place half of each sample in a separate bottle so that each bottle is half full. Place distilled water into one
pair of bottles. Label each sample.
2-13
-------
//. Activity
A. Have the students follow these steps:
1. Using a medicine dropper, add ten drops of the soap solution to one of the distilled water samples.
2. After closing the bottle, shake for several seconds and lay the bottle on its side. Observe the suds in
the bottle.
3. If, at the end of one minute, no suds remain, continue to add the soap solution one drop at a time
until some suds remain at the end of one minute.
4. Record on the student sheet the total number of drops of soap solution needed for the water sample
to contain suds.
B. Repeat steps 1 - 4 for each of the different samples of water collected. Record the data on the student
sheet.
C. Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 with the other set of samples. Treat each water sample by dissolving a few
crystals of either washing soda or borax in each sample before adding the soap solution. This should
make the water sample softer but do not announce this to the students, let them figure it out.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students answer the following questions:
1. Using the data you recorded in the table under "No Water Softener," which water sample was the
softest? Which was the hardest?
2. List all of the samples in order of hardness, beginning with the softest.
3. Why is the method used in this activity a way of determining the relative hardness of water rather
than the actual hardness of water?
4. How were the results different when the samples were treated with a water softener?
5. What conclusions can you draw from the results observed when the chemical water softener was
added to the samples?
IV. Extension
A. Have the students graph the results of the treatments. (See a sample graph on the student sheet.)
B. Have the students test their water at home.
RESOURCES
McGeary, David and Charles C. Plummer, Physical Geology: Earth Revealed. 2nd Edition. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1994.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, 1995. Obtain from Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall, Montana
2-14
-------
STUDENT SHEET
HOW SOFT OR HARD IS YOUR WATER?
6-8
Directions:
1. Fill each test tube or jar half full with sample water and cap it.
2. Label each sample.
3. Using a medicine dropper, add ten drops of the soap solution to the first sample (distilled water).
4. Shake the sample for five seconds, lay it on its side, and observe the suds.
5. Time for one minute. If no suds remain, add more soap one drop at a time until suds remain for one minute.
6. Record the number of drops added to each sample on the table below.
7. Repeat steps 1-6 with the same samples. Treat each by dissolving a few crystals of washing soda or borax
in each sample before adding the soap solution.
UNTREATED SAMPLES
Sample Type
1. Distilled
2. Faucet
3.
4.
5.
6.
# Drops of Soap Added
Description of Sample
TREATED SAMPLES
Sample Type
1 . Distilled
2. Faucet
3.
4.
5.
6.
# Drops of Soap Added
Description of Sample
2-15
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STUDENT SHEET
HOW HARD OR SOFT IS YOUR WATER?
6-8
a 5
s|
*- "o
O CO
o5 a
o W
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10,
0'
Relationship of Water and
Amount of Soap to Produce
Bubbles That Last One Minute
Example (results may vary)
Pond School Well
Source of Water
Bottled
c
o
20
19
18
17
o 16
(0
a
m
o
CO
15
14
13
to
a
2
Q
12
a>
XI
I "
10
Relationship of Water and
Amount of Soap to Produce
Bubbles That Last One Minute
Pond
School Well
Source of Water
Bottled
2-16
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HOW TO TREAT POLLUTED WATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Demonstrate a method of treating polluted water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water pollution has increased greatly over the years as the population
has grown and development has occurred. Water treatment has also
grown. Water is cleaned in nature as it passes through sand and gravel.
Drinking water or wastewater treatment plants use metal grating and
screens that filter out large debris. Most point sources are treated; nonpoint
sources have continued to grow, however. Raw sewage must now be
treated before it is allowed to enter our rivers, lakes, and ocean. All water
from streams and lakes must be treated or purified again before it can be
used as drinking water. The procedures used for treating water in this
experiment are similar to the procedures used in water treatment plants.
Polluted water is usually treated in three steps. The first step is
pretreatment. The second step is the primary treatment of settling and
skimming. Layers of sand and gravel are used for filtration. During this
process, solids get trapped in the sand and gravel while the water flows
through. The third step is the secondary treatment of aeration and settling.
Aeration is the process of stirring or bubbling air through the liquid. Adding
oxygen to the water promotes the growth of helpful aerobic bacteria and
other microorganisms that can decompose organic material. This process
is called biological degradation. Wastewater treatment plants have large
aeration tanks and clarifiers that do this procedure. Finally, chlorine is
added to the water or other disinfection procedures are used to kill any
remaining harmful bacteria.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Earth Science, Health
TIME:
15 minutes preparation
2 days time for biological
degradation
1 day aeration time
50 minutes investigation
MATERIALS:
sand
fine gravel
medium gravel
funnel
filter paper
ring stand and ring
aerator or stirrer
goggles for each student
chlorine bleach
large jar
4 large test tubes
test tube rack
two 400 mL beakers
green food coloring
dirt
organic matter
detergent
glass-marking pencil
student sheet
Terms
aeration: to expose to circulating air.
chlorine: a chemical element, symbol Cl, atomic number 17, atomic weight 35.453; used as a disinfectant in
drinking and wastewater treatment processes.
disinfection: the use of chemicals and/or other means to kill potentially harmful microorganisms in water; used
in both wastewater and drinking water treatment.
organic material: material derived from organic, or living, things; relating to or containing carbon compounds.
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
sewage contamination: the introduction of untreated sewage into a water body.
ultraviolet light: similar to light produced by the sun. Ultraviolet light is produced by special lamps. As organisms
are exposed to this light, they are damaged or killed.
2-17
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather all materials before lab session.
B. Do steps 1 and 2 of the activity as a demonstration or have groups of students complete them. Depending
on the maturity and skill level of the students, this may be best done as a teacher demonstration.
C. Run off copies of the data table.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss background information with students.
//. Activity
A. Have the students perform the following procedure:
1. Fill a large glass jar 3/4 full of water. Add some dirty ground-up organic matter such as grass clippings
or orange peels, a small amount of detergent, and a few drops of green food coloring.
2. Cap the jar, shake it well, and let the mixture stand in the sun for two days.
B. After the polluted sample has ripened for two days, have the students do the following:
1. Shake the mixture and pour a sample into one of the test tubes. Label this test tube "Before treatment,
Sample # 1"
2. Use an aerator from an aquarium to bubble air through the sample in the jar. Allow several hours for
aeration; leave the aerator attached overnight. If you do not have an aerator, use a mechanical
stirrer or mixer and also leave on overnight.
C. The next day, when aeration is complete, have the students:
1. Pour another sample into a second test tube labeled "Aerated, Sample # 2."
2. During treatment, fold a piece of filter paper in half twice. Hold three sides and pull out the remaining
side to form a cone. Wet the paper with tap water and then insert the cone in a funnel. Mount the
funnel on a support.
3. Place a layer of medium gravel, then fine gravel, and finally white sand in the funnel. (A filtration
plant does not use filter paper, but the sand trap is several meters deep. The paper replaces several
layers of sand.)
4. Pour the remaining aerated liquid through the filter into the beakers. This takes a while and spills
easily. Do not allow the liquid to spill over the filter paper. You may have to filter the same liquid
several times before you obtain good results.
5. Pour a sample of the filtered water into a third test tube labeled "Filtered, Sample # 3".
6. With goggles on, pour another sample of the filtered water into a fourth test tube labeled "Chlorinated,
Sample # 4." Add two to three drops of chlorine bleach to the test tube. Mix well until the water is
clear.
7. Carefully observe all four test tubes. Write a detailed description of each liquid in the data table on
the student sheet. Include the odor of each sample. Do not taste!
2-18
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I//. Follow-Up
A. Have students fill in the data table.
B. Ask students the following questions:
1. What changes in the composition of the liquid did you observe after aeration?
2. Did aeration remove any of the odor?
3. What was removed by the sand filter?
4. Did the addition of chlorine cause the water to become clearer?
5. Did the chlorine remove the green color?
6. Did the chlorine have an odor? Was it worse than the wastewater?
IV. Extensions
A. This can also be set up in an aquarium using several layers of sand and gravel. Pour water through as
a solution to filter. It is impressive to note how much it takes to filter the color out of the water.
B. Visit a local wastewater treatment plant (always accompanied by an operator or manager).
C. Invite a guest speaker from a wastewater treatment plant to speak with the class about treatment
processes, experiences, costs, and benefits to the community and environment.
RESOURCES
Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. 7th edition. BSCS Innovative Science Education, Kendall/Hunt
Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 1992.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
2-19
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STUDENT SHEET HOW TO TREAT POLLUTED WATER
6-8
Directions: Fill in the following information for each sample.
Describe Step 1 (Making Solution):
Describe Step 2 (Aeration):
Describe Step 3 (Filtration):
Describe Step 4 (Chlorination):
RECORD OBSERVATIONS OF SAMPLES 1. 2. 3. 4
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
2-20
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LEAKY FAUCET
6-8
SUBJECT:
Ecology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
plastic cups
graduated cylinders
water
nail
stop watch or watch with second
hand
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List how water resources can be managed to meet human needs.
2. Describe how conservation is essential to water resource
management.
3. Explain how much water can be wasted by a leaky faucet.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water is a major limiting factor of the environment. Without water life
cannot exist. Increasing pressure on water resources and widespread,
long-lasting water shortages in many areas exist for three reasons. The
first reason is that increases in human populations are putting great demands on natural freshwater sources.
The second reason is that there is an unequal distribution of usable freshwater. The final reason is that existing
water supplies are becoming more and more polluted, more used, and less available.
Water is not usable in all forms and is not evenly distributed. Only 3 percent of the world's water supply is
drinkable. Only .5 percent is reachable. Through careful management and conservation, available water supplies
will be able to meet the demands of our increasing population. Practicing conservation is extremely important to
everyone. Scientists estimate that 30 - 50 percent of the water supply used in the United States is wasted. Leaky
pipes and faucets waste up to 30% of the nation's water. Industries can practice conservation by cleaning and
reusing the water needed to make products. Plastic sheets that line irrigation canals can prevent much water
from seeping into the ground.
As much as half of the water now being used for domestic purposes can be saved by practicing certain conservation
techniques. Water can be saved in the bathroom by using low-volume shower heads, taking shorter showers,
stopping leaks, and by using low-volume or waterless toilets. Toilet flushing is the largest domestic water use.
Each person uses 50,000 liters (13,000 gallons) of drinking quality water each year to flush toilets. Special
water-conserving dishwashers, washing machines, and other appliances that greatly reduce water consumption
are available today.
It is estimated that half of all the water used for agriculture is lost. Better farming techniques, such as minimum
tillage, use of mulches, and trickle irrigation, can reduce water losses dramatically. Almost half of all water used
in electric power plants and other industrial facilities is for cooling. Dry cooling systems may be a useful alternative.
Water used for cooling may also be reused for something else.
Term
conservation: planned management of natural resources (such as water) to prevent waste, destruction, or
neglect.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather materials.
B. Make sure the cups hold enough water to drip for one minute based on the size of the nail hole. The hole
should simulate the approximate size of the drip that would come from a leaky faucet.
2-21
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. If graduated cylinders are not available, make your own by using a larger cup marked off in specific
measurements for the graduated cylinder. Be sure the top cup, the "drip cup," does not slip inside the
larger. If it does, use toothpicks placed close to the top to hold the "drip cup" in place.
B. Provide a foam or plastic cup and a nail for each group. You may want to demonstrate to the students
how to punch a hole into the bottom of the cup.
C. Explain to the students they will be doing three trials to get an average volume.
//. Activity
A. Fill the cups with water.
B. Set the cup on top of the graduated cylinder.
C. Start timing.
D. Collect water drops in the cylinders for one minute.
E. Measure the water volume collected from each cup.
F. Record the data on the student sheet.
G. Repeat three times.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students the following questions:
1. How does this activity relate to water that is wasted in a leaky kitchen faucet?
2. If you cannot stop the leak right away, what could you do with the water?
B. Have the students compute the volume of water that would be "wasted" from each cup after one hour,
one day, one week, one month, and one year.
C. Have the students complete the "Conserve Water at Home" student sheet.
IV. Extensions
A. Observe water use around the house and list ways to conserve.
B. Have students work in teams (cooperative learning) to create posters of ways to conserve water.
C. Have the students make up their own cartoon strip, which can be shown to the whole school by placing
it on a bulletin board.
RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
2-22
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Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
1995. Obtain from Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall, Montana State University,
Bozeman, MT 59717-0057 (Fax: 406-994-1919; e-mail: rwwet@msu.oscs.montana.edu).
2-23
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STUDENT SHEET
LEAKY FAUCET
6-8
Experiment set-up
V..
2-24
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STUDENT SHEET LEAKY FAUCET
6-8
Directions:
1. Place the plastic cup on top of the graduated cylinder. Make sure someone holds it the whole time.
2. As soon as the water is poured in the cup, start timing for one minute.
3. At the end of one minute, move the cup off the cylinder. Put your finger over the hole.
4. Record your results.
5. Do three trials.
Trial # 1 - volume of water =
Trial # 2 - volume of water =
Trial # 3 - volume of water =
Total volume
Average volume (divide total by 3) in one minute =
6. Answer the following questions based on your trials:
a. How does this activity relate to water that is wasted by a leaky faucet?
b.lf you cannot stop the leak right away, what could you do with the water?
c. Compute the volume of water wasted in the following time periods:
one hour
one day
one week
one month
two months
one year
2-25
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STUDENT SHEET LEAKY FAUCET
6-8
Use the vertical letters below to write a sentence about conserving water. An example is provided for you.
C
o
N
S
E
R
V
E.
W_
A_
T_
E.
R.
A
T AKE SHORTER SHOWERS
H
O
M
E
2-26
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LET'S GIVE WATER A TREATMENT
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define potable water.
2. Learn why water is treated for drinking purposes.
BACKGROUND
Sources of water pollution include the home, leaking septic systems,
industry, cities, agriculture, logging operations, and mines. Pollutants from
these sources eventually get into both surface and groundwater. Water
for drinking is taken from both surface and groundwater.
Infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites can come from
untreated or improperly treated human wastes, farm animal wastes, and
food processing factories with inadequate waste treatment facilities. Water
runoff from these areas carries pathogens to nearby waterways and water
sources. Drinking water must therefore be disinfected during the treatment
process to kill these pathogens. Chlorine is the most commonly used
water disinfectant. A form of liquid chlorine (NaOCI or CaOCI2) is one of
the compounds in bleach.
SUBJECTS:
Art, Biology, Ecology, Health
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
pond water
rain water
dirty water (mix dirt and water)
four clear plastic cups labeled A,
B, C, and D
small can with holes in bottom
paper towel
sand
microscopes
bottle with eye dropper filled with
bleach
slides
goggles for each student
student sheet
Hazardous wastes such as household cleansers and paint thinners are often poured down the drain or onto the
ground. These household items contain harmful chemicals that cannot always be removed during water treatment,
so they should be used as infrequently as possible. Household wastes should be disposed of carefully. Reading
the label is often a good way to determine how and where to use and dispose of household chemicals. Heavy
rains in cities wash dirt, wastes, and pollutants from city streets into storm drains. Industries and mining operations
produce harmful chemicals and sometimes radioactive materials.
The Environmental Protection (EPA) Agency is a federal agency that seeks to protect water quality. For years
many people assumed that groundwater could not become polluted. It was thought that water was cleansed as
it passed through the soil. Soil can filter water to some extent; however, it cannot remove certain chemicals. In
1988, a survey by the EPA showed that 45 percent of public water systems that were served by groundwater
sources were contaminated with industrial solvents, agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, or other synthetic chemicals.
In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act. This important legislation appropriated funds for reducing water
pollution. Much of the money has been spent on improving municipal sewage treatment plants.
Terms
landfill: a large, outdoor area for waste disposal; landfills where waste is exposed to the atmosphere (open
dumps) are now illegal; in "sanitary" landfills, waste is layered and covered with soil.
pollutant: an impurity (contaminant) that causes an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the air, water, or land that may be harmful to or affect the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other living organisms.
potable: fit or suitable for drinking, as in potable water.
2-27
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surface water: precipitation that does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or
transpiration, and is stored in streams, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs, and oceans.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Assemble all materials. Check pond water to make sure it has life in it.
B. Use a designated, clean working area.
C. Label glasses A, B, and C.
D. Make copies of the data table.
E. If you do not have enough goggles for all students, do the activity as a teacher demonstration.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss proper use of microscope.
B. Discuss why water needs to be clean and what health problems can occur if it contains harmful organisms
or pollutants.
//. Activity
A. Pour some pond water (A), rain water (B), and "dirty" water (water that has been mixed with soil and
shaken) (C) into clear plastic cups. Label each.
B. Have the students observe a drop of pond water under the microscope and draw what they see.
C. Have the students observe a drop of rain water under the microscope and draw what they see.
D. Have the students observe a drop of dirty water under the microscope and draw what they see.
E. Pour dirty water into a can with a paper towel and sand and set the can over a clear cup labeled D.
F. Allow this to stand for 30 minutes.
G. Add several drops of bleach to cup A and have students observe what happens to the organisms after
bleach is added. Compare cup A to cups B and C. Even water that appears to be clear must be disinfected
with chemicals to make sure it is safe to drink.
H. Treat the water in cups B and C by putting several drops of bleach in each.
I. Stir cup A and compare it with the treated water in cups B and C. Allow the students to look at a sample
of each again with a microscope.
J. Have the students observe a sample of the water in cup D under the microscope.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students answer the following questions:
1. What did you observe?
2. What is the difference between the water in cups A, B, and C?
2-28
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3. Is this filtered water clean enough to drink?
4. Is there any use for this water?
5. What do you see in the microscope?
6. What happens to the microorganisms when bleach contacts them?
7. What is potable water?
IV. Extensions
A. Visit a wastewater treatment plant.
B. Bring in a speaker from an industry such as a paper company that handles treating wastewater.
RESOURCES
Department of 4H and other youth programs, "4H Water Wise Guys," Cooperative Extension Service, April
1992.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Gralla, Preston, How the Environment Works. Ziff-Davis Press, Emeryville, California, 1994.
2-29
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STUDENT SHEET
LET'S GIVE WATER A TREATMENT
6-8
Water
1st Observation
2nd Observation
Pond
Rain
Dirty
Filtered Dirty
1. What did you observe in Sample A after you added the bleach?
2. Do you think Sample D is clean enough to drink? Why or why not?
2-30
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PURIFYING WATER
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Art, Chemistry, Health
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
stereomicroscope
petri dish
samples of pond water
laundry bleach
small beaker
medicine dropper
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Discuss ways of conserving resources.
2. State what the acronym "EPA" stands for and explain the agency's
function.
3. Discuss ways water pollution can be controlled.
4. Describe how laundry bleach can be used to purify water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water pollution affects our water ecosystems. Freshwater is a renewable
resource, but it can become so contaminated by pollution that it is no longer safe for consumption. Water can
become polluted by fertilizers, pesticides, and other wastes that have run off land into surface water or leached
into groundwater. Poor land use rapidly increases sediment erosion, and pollutants can quickly reach surface
water.
In large, rapidly flowing rivers, contaminants are diluted quickly to low concentrations and the aquatic oxygen
supply and the waste decomposition is quickly renewed. Sewage is one common water pollutant. When the
amount of sewage is large in comparison to the water volume, an overabundance of phytoplankton is produced.
The organisms that decompose the phytoplankton use up the available oxygen, so aerobic organisms in the
area die. As the water flows downstream, the sewage is diluted and further decomposed, and the oxygen supply
increases.
Huge amounts of sediment and surface runoff end up in rivers daily. Runoff from factory waste can include
poisonous chemicals such as lead, mercury, alkalis, and chromium, which kill the organisms that decompose
organic wastes. Hydroelectric plants discharge hot water into rivers, which changes the light, temperature, and
atmospheric gases of the aquatic environment, rendering it intolerable for many organisms. Perpetually warm
water may change the type of species living in the area. Humans depending on this water can also have their
health affected by these pollutants.
Terms
chlorine: a chemical element, symbol Cl, atomic number 17, atomic weight 35.453; used as a disinfectant in
drinking and wastewater treatment processes.
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Set up lab stations with required materials.
B. Collect water samples from a pond, making sure the water contains microscopic organisms.
2-31
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the activity objectives using the background information.
B. Explain to the students they will be doing three treatments to get an average.
//. Activities
A. Place the petri dish on the microscope's stage.
B. Pour the pond water into the petri dish.
C. Have the students observe the movement of the microorganisms.
D. Have the students draw on the student sheet what they see through the microscope and describe the
movement of the microorganisms.
E. Add one drop of bleach. Have the students observe and describe what happened to the microorganisms.
F. Continue adding one drop of bleach at a time. Continue this until all movement has stopped.
G. Repeat steps B - F three times, filling in the information on the student sheet.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask students the following questions after they have completed the student sheet:
1. What do you conclude from your three treatments?
2. What other methods could be used to purify water?
B. Have the students use the steps in the scientific method to write up the lab activity (problem, procedure,
data, conclusion).
IV. Extensions
A. Call a water treatment facility and ask what is done to purify the drinking water. Find out what is added,
when, and how much.
B. Take a field trip to a water treatment facility.
C. Write a letter to your regional Environmental Protection Agency office (there are 10), state environmental
agencies, or local organizations concerned with water protection. Request information on topics such
as water quality, water testing, and water regulations. (See Resources chapter for addresses.)
RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Gralla, Preston, How the Environment Works. Ziff-Davis Press, Emeryville, California, 1994.
BSCS Innovative Science Education, Biological Science: An Ecological Perspective. Teacher's Edition, Kendall
Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1992.
2-32
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STUDENT SHEET
PURIFYING WATER
6-8
Trial #
Drawing
no bleach
1 drop
2 drops
3 drops
Approximate # of
microorganisms
moving
Approximate # of
microorganisms
moving
Approximate # of
microorganisms
moving
Approximate # of
microorganisms
moving
Describe what you observed.
Describe what you observed.
Describe what you observed.
Describe what you observed.
2-33
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STUDENT SHEET
PURIFYING WATER
6-8
Supply the following information based on your three treatments.
Directions: Count the approximate number of microorganisms that were moving during each of the treatments.
no bleach
(no treatment)
1 drop
2 drops
3 drops
Treatment #1
Treatment #2
Treatment #3
Total 1,2, 3
Average (divide total by 3)
Answer the following questions based on your investigation:
1. What is the effect of adding bleach to pond water?
2. How does the amount of bleach affect the microorganisms?
3. What other methods could be used to purify water?
2-34
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WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Botany, Health
TIME:
Teacher set-up one day ahead,
then 30 minutes for
demonstration and discussion.
MATERIALS:
celery stalks
2 beakers (jars may be used)
food coloring
water
knife
teacher sheet
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Describe how plants remove pollutants from water.
2. Discuss the limitation of plants' ability to remove pollutants from
water when overburdened with pollutants from the land.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Many people fail to realize that plants are essential to the health of our
water supply. Wetlands and their plants are an increasingly popular
alternative for filtering wastewater from homes, factories, schools, and
businesses. Plants growing in a wetland filter pollutants out of runoff,
rainwater, and wastewater before it enters bodies of water.
The tangle of leaves, stems, and roots in a densely vegetated wetland
trap trash and particles of sediment. These remain in the wetland, while
the cleaner water moves away. As water moves through a wetland, plants
also take up toxic pollutants and nutrients. Nutrients are used by the plant for metabolism and growth while other
substances are stored in the tissues of the plant.
In a natural system, plants are fairly efficient at keeping the system in balance even when there is a naturally
occurring flow from upstream. However, when human activities in the water and on land add nutrients, sediment,
and toxic pollutants, plants cannot clean everything. We must be careful that our activities will not send pollutants
into the water. We also must maintain and even add to the wetlands that help keep out those pollutants that we
miss or cannot control.
Many pollutants run off of the land from construction sites, highways, streets, and the communities in which we
live. Sometimes ponds or ditches are built to filter runoff from these sites. These ponds are ditches, which are
often planted with wetland plants to aid in the filtering. Rain and runoff also rest a bit here before moving on. This
means that many of the pollutants, especially soil particles, settle to the bottom while the cleaner water drains off
from the top. These ponds or ditches are called storm water management ponds.
Natural and constructed wetlands are now being used for sewage treatment in some areas. One city in California
transformed a 160 acre garbage dump into a series of ponds and marshes. The sewage is first pumped into the
holding ponds where it undergoes the settling process. Bacteria and fungi digest the organic solids that have
settled out. Effluent from the holding ponds then passes through the marshes where water is filtered and cleansed
by aquatic plants.
nutrient: an element (or compound thereof), such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, that is necessary
for plant growth.
pollutant: an impurity (contaminant) that causes an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the air, water, or land that may be harmful to or affect the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other living organisms.
storm water runoff: surface water runoff that flows into storm sewers.
2-35
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. The activity may be done in groups or as a demonstration. Prepare the demonstration one day before the
lesson. Repeat these steps in front of the class to show how the demonstration was prepared.
B. Place one set up of celery in the refrigerator to note whether any differences are noted in the chilled plant.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Prepare a solution in a beaker by adding several drops of food coloring to water. Explain that the food
coloring represents pollution by a toxic substance (a pesticide, for example). Students may come up
with other examples.
B. Ask students to imagine water flowing through a wetland that has many plants. Tell students that the
stalks of celery are similar to plants growing in a wetland, such as sedges, cattails, and grasses.
//. Activity
A. Cut off the bottom half inch of the celery stalks and place them in the water overnight. Over time the
colored water will travel by capillary action up the stalk. This will be a visible demonstration of how plants
can absorb pollutants with the water they "drink."
B. The colored water may or may not be visible on the outside of the stalk. Cut off one-inch pieces of the
celery and hand them to the students to study closely. They will see colored dots on the cross section,
which are water-filled channels in the celery.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the following questions or have students answer them in groups:
1. How do wetland plants help to purify water? (They purify water by taking up pollutants from it.)
2. Why is the water remaining in the beaker still polluted? (Plants can only do so much. As new,
hopefully clean, water flows into the system, the pollutants will be somewhat diluted and the water a
bit less polluted. If the water continues to flow on to other parts of the wetland, other plants will
continue to remove pollutants. Wetland soil also helps to filter out some pollutants.)
3. Where does the water go after uptake into the plant? (It is transpired out through the stomata in the
plants' leaves and usually evaporates.)
4. What happens to the pollutants? (Some are used in the plants' metabolic processes, some are
transformed into less harmful substances, while others are stored in the plants' tissues and could be
re-released into the environment if the plants die.)
5. Why can't we simply dump all of our waste into wetlands? (Wetlands can only do so much, so many
pollutants still end up in the water. Too many pollutants will harm or destroy a wetland. The best
solution is to reduce the pollution.)
IV. Extensions
A. Have the students check their neighborhoods and other places undergoing construction to observe the
areas after a rainstorm.
B. Have the students write a plan for how they would control pollutants if they owned a large plant nursery.
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C. If the neighborhood has a storm water management pond, ask the students to observe it. Many are
located near large shopping centers and parking lots. Ask the students to observe the pond on a dry day
and on a day after a heavy rain.
RESOURCES
"Treatment Plants," Discover Wetlands.
WOW!: The Wonder of Wetlands.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Dennison, Mark S. and James F. Berry, Wetlands: Guide to Science. Law, and Technology. Noyes Publications,
Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1993.
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TEACHER SHEET
WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
6-8
Celery
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STUDENT SHEET
WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
6-8
1. How do wetlands help to purify water?
2. Why is the water remaining in the beaker still polluted?
3. Where does the water go after uptake into the plant?
4. What happens to the pollutants?
5. Why can't we simply dump all of our waste into wetlands?
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PURIFICATION OF WATER
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Ecology, Chemistry, Health
TIME:
50 - 90 minutes
MATERIALS:
photographs or posters of water
and wastewater treatment
plants
list of steps involved in water and
wastewater treatment plants
local map
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify the reasons for purifying water for communities.
2. Describe the water treatment processes that occur at a water
filtration and treatment plant.
3. Describe the wastewater treatment processes that occur at a
municipal wastewater treatment facility.
4. Compare the municipal system's water purification system to the
ways water is purified in nature.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of chlorinated water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Rivers and lakes are sources of water for municipal areas. Water samples collected from these water sources
often look cloudy. Samples can look clear and still contain invisible sources of pollution. Rivers and lakes must
be monitored for contamination and other sources of pollution.
Water that enters the municipal water supply has to be cleaned before it can be used and must also be cleaned
after it is used. Thus, the water is both precleaned and post-cleaned. Precleaning takes place at a water treatment
plant, and post-cleaning takes place at a wastewater treatment plant.
In some areas of the country, raw or insufficiently treated wastewater threatens the purity of the water resources.
Poorly treated wastewater may contain harmful levels of bacteria and chemicals that can jeopardize human life.
Municipal water systems are responsible for cleaning the water before it is used. The water treatment system
includes standardized steps for the treatment of the water before it is allowed to enter the homes of individual
citizens.
The following steps are included in a water treatment filtration system:
1. Screening removes large objects from the water.
2. Pre-chlorination adds chlorine to kill disease causing organisms.
3. Flocculation adds alum and lime to remove suspended particles by trapping them in a jelly-like suspension
formed from the added particles.
4. Settling allows trapped particles and solids to settle to the bottom.
5. Sand filtration allows sand to act as a natural filter, removing nearly all suspended material.
6. Post-chlorination adjusts the chlorine to maintain long-term action to kill disease-causing organisms.
7. Other treatments, such as fluoridation, pH adjustment, and further aeration, can be optional steps.
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The following steps are included in a wastewater treatment system:
1. Preliminary Treatment: Screening is when large objects are removed; smaller objects are ground into even
smaller pieces, and sand and dirt are allowed to settle out.
2. Primary Treatment: Primary settling happens when floating grease and scum are skimmed and heavier
organic solids settle out.
3. Secondary Treatment: Aeration tanks add air and allow bacteria to digest organic substances. Sometimes
rock or plastic media filters are used to grow bacteria that consume organisms in the wastewater.
4. Final settling is when bacteria settle out of the wastewater and are removed to a solids treatment process for
stabilization. The stabilized solids, called biosolids, are then suitable for disposal on cropland, in landfills, or
for other beneficial uses, such as compost.
5. Disinfection or chlorination means that additional chlorine is added to kill disease-causing organisms. Chlorine
can be harmful to humans in large amounts. Chlorine can react with water and produce harmful substances
such as chloroform which is carcinogenic. Other popular means of disinfection include ultaviolet irradiation
that uses ultraviolet rays to kill harmful bacteria.
6. Optional treatments include controlling water pH by using carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Carbonic
acid can neutralize alkaline compounds. Heavy metal ions and phosphate ions can also be removed by
precipitation.
7. Advanced treatment processes also remove toxins such as ammonia.
Terms
carcinogen: cancer-causing agent.
chlorination: water disinfection by chlorine gas or hypochlorite.
flocculation: the process of forming aggregated or compound masses of particles, such as a cloud or a precipitate.
purification: the process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates.
settling: the process of a substance, such as heavy organic solids or sediment, sinking.
sewage contamination: the introduction of untreated sewage into a water body.
wastewater: water that has been used for domestic or industrial purposes.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Research the water treatment and wastewater treatment plants in your area.
B. Display diagrams of water and wastewater treatment plants on bulletin boards.
C. Make duplicate copies of the steps in water and wastewater treatment.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Locate the water treatment and wastewater treatment plants in your area on a local map.
B. Discuss the water supply that provides the water for the water treatment plants.
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C. Compare the number of students in the class who use water from a water treatment plant with the
number who have private wells.
//. Activities
A. List the steps involved in purification of a municipal water supply and explain what happens at each
step.
B. Ask the students to draw and label the activities involved in each of the steps.
C. Have the students speculate regarding what might happen if a step was not included.
D. List the steps involved in the treatment of wastewater at a wastewater treatment plant.
E. Ask the students to draw and label the activities involved in each of the steps.
F. Have the students speculate regarding what might happen if a step was not included.
G. Have the students research the amount of chlorine added to the water at each treatment facility. Discuss
as a class the possible effects of over-chlorinating.
H. Discuss alternative methods of disinfection.
I. Have the students compare their drawings and descriptions to the wall diagrams.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask students to research the optional steps used by water treatment facilities in local and surrounding
communities. Discuss which optional steps can be detrimental to people or to the environment.
B. Discuss the possible hazards of using well water rather than water from a water treatment facility.
IV. Extensions
A. Take a field trip to the local water treatment and wastewater treatment plants.
B. Secure a speaker from a local, state or federal environmental agency, the local utility company, or an
environmental consulting firm to discuss each person's responsibility in protecting our surface waters.
C. Develop a clean water monitoring group to collect data from local rivers and streams.
RESOURCE
American Chemical Society, ChemCom: Chemistry in the Community. Kendall Hunt Publishing
Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 1993.
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STUDENT SHEET PURIFICATION OF WATER
6-8
The following steps are included in a water treatment filtration system:
1. Screening — removal of large objects from the water.
2. Pre-chlorination — addition of chlorine to kill disease-causing organisms
3. Flocculation — addition of alum and lime to remove suspended particles by trapping them in a jelly-like
suspension formed from the added particles
4. Settling — trapped particles and solids are allowed to settle to the bottom
5. Sand filtration — sand acts as a natural filter, removes nearly all suspended material
6. Post-chlorination — adjustment of the chlorine to maintain long-term action to kill disease-causing organisms
7. Other treatments — fluoridation, pH adjustment, and further aeration can be optional steps
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STUDENT SHEET PURIFICATION OF WATER
6-8
The following steps are included in a wastewater treatment system:
Step 1 - Preliminary Treatment:
1. Screening — large objects are removed; smaller objects are ground into even smaller pieces, and sand and
dirt are allowed to settle out.
Step 2 - Primary Treatment:
2. Primary settling — floating grease and scum are skimmed and solids settle out.
Step 3 - Secondary Treatment:
3. Aeration — aeration tanks add air and allow bacteria to digest organic substances.
4. Final settling — sludge continues to settle out, and it is aerated, chlorinated, and dried for
incineration or for dumping in landfills.
5. Disinfection/chlorination — additional chlorine is added to kill disease-causing organisms. Other disinfection
processes include ultraviolet irradiation.
6. Optional treatments — water pH can be controlled by using carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Carbonic
acid can neutralize alkaline compounds. Heavy metal ions and phosphate ions can also be removed by
precipitation.
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2-46
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BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Inoculate petri dishes with water samples.
2. Observe and record the growth of bacterial colonies.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Seventy-one percent of the Earth is covered by water. Only three percent
of this water is considered to be freshwater. Freshwater is water that
contains less than 0.5 parts per thousand dissolved salts. Ninety-nine
percent of the freshwater is either locked up in ice or snow or buried in
groundwater aquifers. Lakes, rivers, and other surface freshwater bodies
make up only about 0.01 percent of all the water in the world.
Freshwater is a major limiting factor for both biological systems and human
societies. Growing world human populations are continuing to place great
demands on freshwater supplies. Water shortages are resulting from rising
demand, unequal distribution of usable freshwater, and increasing
pollution of existing water supplies.
SUBJECTS:
Art, Health, Math, Microbiology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
water samples from various
sources
bacterial plates
collecting bottles
petri dishes with prepared media
pipette or medicine dropper
gloves
biology text
safety goggles
teacher sheet showing types of
bacteria
student sheets
The presence of coliform bacteria in water is a sign that the water has been contaminated. Water quality control
personnel monitor water for the presence of coliform bacteria. Coliform bacteria live in the colon or intestine
humans and other animals.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. This activity will be used in conjunction with a unit on pollution of the environment. Students should have
reviewed the basic types of bacteria as indicators of pollution and possible sources of contamination by
domestic or agricultural sewage.
B. Because this unit follows microscope use and microorganisms, the students should be familiar with lab
techniques. This activity will allow students to directly observe standard lab procedures in determining
the pollution level of an area's water bodies.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Assign groups of four to six students.
B. Distribute three water samples to each group.
C. Prepare the petri dishes by labeling them with the group number and date. Note: Safety goggles
should be worn during this lab.
//. Activity
A. Students will use a pipette or medicine dropper to inoculate each dish with water from a different source.
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B. Have the students tape the dishes (to avoid leakage or exposure) and put them in a cool, dark place.
C. Ask the students to observe the cultures and identify and count the colonies daily for one week. Have
them compile and graph the data so comparisons with other groups can be made. Reference books and
lab manuals should be available to help with identification.
D. After one week, the teacher should destroy the cultures by pouring household bleach into each dish and
then incinerating it. Instruct the students regarding the reasons for careful handling.
///. Follow-Up
A. Evaluate each group's lab techniques during the setting up and observations of the cultures.
B. Evaluate the graphs and data collected during the activity.
C. Students will write answers to the following questions:
1. Explain which culture demonstrated the most types of colonies.
2. Discuss the possible health hazards associated with bacterial pollution.
3. Describe the appearance of bacteria, either from your culture plates or from reference books.
IV. Extensions
A. Identify possible sources of bacterial contamination.
B. Conduct other water parameter tests to determine if pH, nitrates, and phosphates have any correlation
to the colony counts.
C. Take a field trip to local water and/or sewage treatment plants.
D. Invite a water quality expert to speak to the class.
RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global
Concern. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Western Regional Environmental Education Council, 1995. Available
Through Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall, Montana State University, Bozeman,
MT 59717-0057 (Fax: 406-994-1919; e-mail: rwwet@msu.oscs.montana.edu).
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STUDENT SHEET
BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
Directions: Number each petri dish and inoculate with a different water sample. Record your observations each
day for a week, and then graph your results.
Dish # 1 Water Source
Day 4
DayS
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STUDENT SHEET
BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
Directions: Number each petri dish and inoculate with a different water sample. Record your observations each
day for a week, and then graph your results.
Dish #2 Water Source
Day 4
Day 5
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STUDENT SHEET
BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
Directions: Number each petri dish and inoculate with a different water sample. Record your observations each
day for a week, and then graph your results.
Dish # 3 Water Source
Day 4
DayS
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STUDENT SHEET
BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
Graph your results. Make sure you title your graph and label the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes. The first is
done.
Number of colonies in
water.
#1
12
10
CO Q
o o
o
° 4
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TEACHER SHEET
BACTERIA IN WATER
6-8
COCCI
SPIRILLA
ROD
2-53
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INDICATING INSECTS
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Ecology
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
swiftly moving stream
fine netting (2 feet X 10 feet)
jars (one per student)
insect field guides
white sheet
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Compile a table of the different kinds and quantities of insects
found in a shallow stream.
2. Create a classification system for the insects found.
3. Appraise the quality of the water based on the insects found.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Healthy streams contain entire communities of plants, animals, and other
organisms which interact with one another and their environment. ~ ~
Producers such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, and water mosses grow on the stones at the edge or on the bottom
of the brook. These producers provide food and shelter to aquatic insects. The insects in turn provide food for
the small fish inhabiting the brook.
Any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms is considered
to be pollution. Water pollution affects all the living things of a stream. Some organisms are resistant to certain
types of pollutants. Others, however, are less resistant and are vulnerable to the adverse effects of water pollution.
Water quality researchers often sample insect populations to monitor changes in stream conditions. The insects
are monitored over time to assess the cumulative effects of environmental stressors such as pollutants.
Environmental degradation resulting from pollution will likely decrease the diversity of insects found by eliminating
those that are less tolerant to unfavorable conditions. Insects such as the mayfly, stonefly, and caddis fly larvae
are sensitive or intolerant to changes in stream conditions brought about by pollutants. Some of these are able
to leave for more favorable habitats. Some, however, are either killed by the pollutants or are no longer able to
reproduce. Other organisms such as dragonflies, damselflies, and nymphs are called facultative organisms.
These organisms prefer good stream quality but can survive polluted conditions.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have students bring in an empty, average-sized jar.
B. Locate a swiftly moving stream that is at least 3-4 inches deep, but not deeper than approximately 12 inches.
C. Obtain a fine netting that will not allow small insects to pass through.
D. Obtain several insect field guides.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Explain the relationships between insects and water quality.
B. Discuss the best locations in a stream to collect the insects.
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C. Make sure students know how to classify.
//. Activity
A. Select a stream to be tested and bring all the required materials.
B. Locate an area of the stream that has a swiftly moving current. Have the students observe and record
the kinds of insects found on the surface of the water.
C. Stretch the netting across the stream perpendicular to the current. Secure the bottom of the net along
the bottom of the stream with larger rocks and pebbles. Hold the top of the net above the surface of the
water.
D. Have a few students stand about 10-15 feet upstream and disturb the water by shuffling their feet on the
bottom, being sure to kick up both large and small rocks.
E. After this disturbed water has passed the point of the netting, have the students quickly pick the bottom
of the netting up out of the water without letting the top part of the netting drop into the water.
F. Place the netting on a white sheet on the banks of the stream so that the insects can be observed. Have
the students record the kinds and quantities of insects present in a data table.
G. The students should now compare the types of insects found on the surface of the water to the types
collected.
H. After separating and observing the insects, place the insects in jars for further observations.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students create a classification system of the insects found. Then have them use an insect
guide to identify the type of insects found and check the accuracy of their classification system.
B. Use field guides to identify the relationship between the kinds of insects and the indication their presence
has on water quality. Write a brief paper on the water quality of the stream tested.
C. Have the students prepare several graphs of the types and quantity of insects found in the stream.
IV. Extensions
A. Have the students identify the various larvae found and the insects into which they will develop.
B. Research the physical characteristics of the insects found at the surface of the water and the adaptations
they have made to live there.
C. Invite a limnologist to class to talk about the relationship between insects and water quality.
RESOURCES
Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque,
lowa,1992.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global
Concern. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, 1995.
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STUDENT SHEET
INDICATING INSECTS
6-8
MACROINVERTEBRATE GROUPS
Beginner's Protocol PICTURE KEY
GROUP 1 These organisms are generally pollution intolerant.
Their dominance generally signifies Excellent-Good Water Quality.
RIFFLE BEETLE RIFFLE BEETLE
(larva) (adult)
CADDISFLY
(larva)
SNAIL MAYFLY
(shell opens to the right) (nymph)
GROUP 2 These organisms exist in a Wide Range of water quality conditions.
DRAGONFLY
(nymph)
BLACKFLY BLACKFLY
(pupa) (larva)
SOWBUG
FILTERING CADDISFLY
(Hydropsychidae)
(larva)
SCUD
HELLGRAMMITE
(Dobsonfly)
(larva)
GROUP 3 These organisms are generally tolerant of pollution.
Their dominance generally signifies Fair-Poor Water Quality.
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
MIDGE
(Larva)
POUCH SNAIL
(Physidae)
AQUATIC WORMS
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STUDENT SHEET
INDICATING INSECTS
6-8
GROUP 1
"Bugs"
RIFFLE BEETLE
(adult)
RIFFLE BEETLE
(adult)
RIFFLE BEETLE
(larva)
STONEFLY
(nymph)
STONEFLY
(nymph)
STONEFLY
(nypmth)
SNAIL
SNAIL
(shell opens to the right)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
CADDISFLY
(larva)
CADDISFLY
(larva)
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STUDENT SHEET
INDICATING INSECTS
6-8
GROUP 2
"Bugs"
BLACKFLY
(pupa)
BLACKFLY
(larva)
HELLGRAMMITE
(Dobsonfly)
(larva)
SOWBUG
DRAGONFLY
(nymph)
SNIPE FLY
(larva)
SCUD
FILTERING CADDISFLY
(Hydropsychidae)
(larva)
CRAYFISH
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STUDENT SHEET
INDICATING INSECTS
6-8
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Larva)
GROUP 3
"Bugs"
MIDGE
(Pupa)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
AQUATIC WORMS
SNAIL
(shell opens to the left)
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WATER POLLUTION SOLUTIONS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define water pollution.
2. List ways water is polluted.
3. List different kinds of chemicals that can cause water pollution.
4. List ways water pollution can be prevented.
5. Develop various activities to help promote clean water awareness.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Art, Chemistry, Language Arts
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
scissors
index cards
glue
paper
old magazines
camera and film (optional)
copier (optional)
Water pollution has been attributed to three main causes: human population growth, industrialization, and natural
resources development. About one quarter of America's water supply is measurably polluted. Many developing
countries have essentially no unpolluted water.
The best solution to water pollution is prevention. If we want to have healthy water, we must create less pollution.
Farmers, municipal authorities, industrialists, governments, and the general public must all clean up their activities
to reduce pollution.
Individuals can do many things to help clean up our water supply. A good place to start is the home. The main
source of water pollutants that come from homes originate in the kitchen, bathroom, or garage. Some chemicals,
such as oil, paint thinner, and pesticides, often find their way down the drain and into our water systems. Household
cleansers such as drain cleaner, oven cleaner, and tarnish remover have caustic chemicals that lower water
quality. These products have chemical ingredients that may not be removed during water treatment. A partial
solution would be to avoid putting these chemicals directly into water in the first place. Hazardous household
wastes can be taken to approved disposal sites.
Individuals can also influence political leaders to pass laws that prohibit or decrease water pollution. Other ways
to decrease water pollution include decreasing water runoff from surfaces in the neighborhood, disposing of
hazardous materials properly, and using biological controls instead of toxic pesticides in the home and garden.
Terms
impurity: something that, when mixed into something else, makes that mixture unclean or lowers the quality.
pollutant: an impurity (contaminant) that causes an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the air, water, or land that may be harmful to or affect the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other living organisms.
water pollution: the act of making water impure or the state of water being impure.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather all of the materials that you will need for the following activities.
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show the students various pictures illustrating water pollution.
B. Ask the students to describe the situations in each picture.
C. Tell the students about the pictures and relate them to water pollution.
//. Activity
A. Divide the class into groups and ask them to choose one of the activities below to draw attention to
water pollution solutions.
1. Pollution Solution Cartoon
a. The students are responsible for writing a cartoon story depicting characters who are trying to
save the Earth's water from pollution.
2. Pollution Solution Book Marks
a. The students can make their own book marks. The pictures on the book marks describes a
solution to pollution.
3. Pollution Solution Rap Song
a. The students can make up a song that is based on a solution to water pollution.
4. Pollution Solution Flash Cards
a. The students can cut out, copy, or draw some pictures from magazines that show water
contamination problems. Better yet, they can take their own pictures.
b. The pictures can be placed in chronological order: the students will arrange the pictures and
explain how what is happening in one picture can cause what they see in other pictures.
5. Pollution Solution Video
a. The students can write and film a short video on water pollution. It should be no more than 2-3
minutes and be modeled after a public-service announcement.
///. Follow-Up
A. The students can research local and regional areas that have had problems with water pollution. Examples
are the Thames River in London, England; the Hudson River in New York; Chesapeake Bay in Maryland;
the Everglades in Florida; the Mississippi River near New Orleans; and many others.
B. Students can research individual incidents of water pollution, such as Love Canal; the Exxon Valdez
tanker spill; Times Beach, Missouri; the North Carolina hog waste problem; or other local events.
IV. Extensions
A. The class can invite a spokesperson from the EPA to come in and talk about current trends in preventing
water pollution.
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B. The class can conduct a survey of the area in which they live to determine the extent of water pollution
and suggest ways to prevent further pollution.
RESOURCES
DeVito, Alfred and Krockover, Gerald, Creative Sciencing. Scott, Foresman and Co., Glenview,
IL, 1991.
Marine Pollution: http://www.panda.org/research/facts/fct_marine.html
Maton, A., Ecology: Earth's Natural Resources. Prentice Hall Science, NJ, 1991.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, 1995. Available through Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall,
Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717-0057 (Fax: 406-994-1919; e-mail rwwet@msu.oscs.montana.edu).
Sund, Robert, Accent on Science. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus, OH, 1983.
Water Pollution: http://www.fcn.org/fcn/ecosystem/water_po.html
Water Education Federation brochure on Household Contaminants. Available through http://www.wef.org.
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THE WATER SOURCEBOOK
SURFACE WATER
-------
BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Work as a team to gather organisms from a stream to evaluate if
the water quality is excellent, good, or fair to poor.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The quality of streams can be determined by analyzing macroinvertebrates
present. Macroinvertebrates are those organisms lacking a backbone
that are visible to the naked eye. In freshwater streams, they include
insects, crustaceans (crayfish and others), mollusks (clams and mussels),
gastropods (snails), oligochaetes (worms), and others. In most streams
and rivers, the larval insects dominate the macroinvertebrate community.
These organisms provide an excellent tool for stream quality assessment
work because they are restricted to their immediate habitat and cannot
escape changes in water quality.
SUBJECTS:
BioJogy, Ecology
TIME:
field trip or walk to a stream, then
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
magnifying glasses—one per
student, if possible
2 buckets per team
2 hand nets for scooping stream
debris
one clipboard & pencil per team
rubber boots for 2 people
student sheets
The problems affecting streams can be grouped into three general categories:
1. Physical - stream alterations such as reduced flow or temperature extremes, including excessive sediment
input from erosion or construction which unfavorably alters riffle characteristics. The result of physical impacts
to a stream range from a general reduction in the numbers of all organisms to a reduction in the diversity of
taxa.
2. Organic Pollution and Enrichment - the introduction of large quantities of human and livestock wastes, as
well as agricultural fertilizers. Mild organic enrichment usually results in a reduction in diversity, leaving a
marked increase in the types and numbers of macroinvertebrates that feed directly on organic materials.
Because of the organic enrichment, excessive blooms of algae and other aquatic plants provide a plentiful
food supply, favoring algae and detritus feeders.
3. Toxicity - this includes chemical pollutants such as chlorine, acids, metals, pesticides, oil, and so forth. It is
very difficult to generalize the effects of toxic compounds upon macroinvertebrates, since a number of the
organisms vary in their tolerance to chemical pollutants. Generally speaking, however, a toxicity problem is
usually the only condition that will render a stream totally devoid of macroinvertebrates.
detritus: loose fragments or grains that have been worn away from rock.
macroinvertebrates: organisms that are visible to the naked eye and lack a backbone.
taxa: one of the hierarchical categories into which organisms are classified.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Either schedule a field trip or walk your class to a nearby stream or do the same activity as a classroom
simulation, with 3 "streams" that have paper cut-out animals to be found and analyzed.
B. Divide the room into teams of about 10 students each with a team recorder for each group who will need a
pencil, clipboard, and "Stream Quality Assessment Form."
3-1
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C. Run off copies of the "Stream Quality Assessment Form," the "Macroinvertebrate Groups" form, and the
"Bugs" sheets showing common stream macroinvertebrates.
D. Gather magnifying glasses for the class. The small ones tied around the neck like a necklace work very well.
E. Procure a couple of hand nets to gather stream debris. Procure 2 buckets per group.
F. Make sure those who will be in the stream wear rubber boots. Sometimes it is best for the teacher or a parent
to get in the stream and do the actual gathering in the nets. Let the students go through the net contents and
find the animals.
G. Contact an environmental scientist (if possible), for help in identifying the animals.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Pour a glass of "mystery water" (made of sweetened tea) and tell the class this water was collected from
a stream near a chemical plant. Ask if you have any volunteers to drink it. If there are no volunteers,
drink the whole glass and brag about how delicious it tasted. Then pour a glass of "mystery water"
(made of clear saltwater) and ask for a volunteer to taste it. Warn them that you are not sure where it
came from and that they had better only take a sip. (One sip will not make anyone sick.)
B. Discuss the problem of determining water quality when the water has not been tested. Ask if the students
can think of a way to determine water quality without a water testing kit.
//. Activity
A. Plan a trip to a nearby stream to bioassess the water quality. Each team should have an adult advisor,
if possible, to help identify organisms. The "Macroinvertebrate Groups" form will help to identify organisms.
Make sure one member of each team serves as a recorder with a clipboard, pencil, and "Stream Quality
Assessment Form." Use the bottom half of the form to tally each animal discovered by a team member.
B. Only one or two people need to get into the stream (in the shallow parts, wearing rubber boots) and use
nets to scoop up mud, leaf, and other stream debris. This is emptied out into a bucket in the center of
each team, whose members go through it looking for organisms. As they find organisms, they identify
them as belonging to group 1, 2, or 3 and are tallied by the team recorder.
C. This process lasts about 45 minutes. The goal is to find 100 organisms for each team, but stream
assessment can be accomplished with fewer specimens. The teams do not bring specimens back to the
school, although it is interesting to bring back a water specimen to view under the microscope.
D. After returning to school, the class analyzes and compares all team data. If many specimens (over 22)
are found from Group 1, the stream is of excellent quality, since these organisms are pollution-intolerant.
If there are few or no specimens from Group 1 and 2, and mostly specimens from Group 3, one can
assume the stream quality is poor, with only pollution-tolerant organisms able to survive.
///. Follow-Up and Extension
A. Many opportunities exist to teach children about environmental issues after this activity. Afew possibilities
include cleaning up a poor quality stream, trying to find out the source of pollution and getting it stopped,
and assessing other streams.
3-2
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RESOURCES
Kentucky Water Watch. Biological Stream Assessment: http://www.state.ky.us/nrepc/water/introtxt.html
State Water Watch Organizations.
3-3
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STUDENT SHEET
BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
MACROINVERTEBRATE GROUPS
Beginner's Protocol PICTURE KEY
GROUP 1 These organisms are generally pollution intolerant.
Their dominance generally signifies Excellent-Good Water Quality.
V
•<*= [E 3^-
m
RIFFLE BEETLE RIFFLE BEETLE
(larva) (adult)
CADDISFLY
(larva)
SNAIL
(shell opens to the right)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
GROUP 2 These organisms exist in a Wide Range of water quality conditions.
DRAGONFLY
(nymph)
BLACKFLY BLACKFLY
(pupa) (larva)
SOWBUG
FILTERING CADDISFLY
(Hydropsychidae)
(larva)
SCUD
HELLGRAMMITE
(Dobsonfly)
(larva)
GROUP 3 These organisms are generally tolerant of pollution.
Their dominance generally signifies Fair-Poor Water Quality.
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
POUCH SNAIL
(Physidae)
AQUATIC WORMS
3-4
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STUDENT SHEET
BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
GROUP 1
"Bugs"
RIFFLE BEETLE
(adult)
RIFFLE BEETLE
(adult)
RIFFLE BEETLE
(larva)
STONEFLY
(nymph)
STONEFLY
(nymph)
STONEFLY
(nypmth)
SNAIL
SNAIL
(shell opens to the right)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
MAYFLY
(nymph)
CADDISFLY
(larva)
'T~I~I
CADDISFLY
(larva)
3-5
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STUDENT SHEET
BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
GROUP 2
"Bugs"
BLACKFLY
(pupa)
BLACKFLY
(larva)
SOWBUG
DRAGONFLY
(nymph)
SCUD
FILTERING CADDISFLY
(Hydropsychidae)
(larva)
HELLGRAMMITE
(Dobsonfly)
(larva)
SNIPE FLY
(larva)
CRAYFISH
3-6
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STUDENT SHEET
BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Larva)
GROUP 3
"Bugs"
MIDGE
(Pupa)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
MIDGE
(Larva)
MIDGE
(Pupa)
AQUATIC WORMS
SNAIL
(shell opens to the left)
3-7
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STUDENT SHEET BIOASSESSMENT OF STREAMS
6-8
STREAM QUALITY ASSESSMENT FORM
*
Monitoring Group
Name: Stream Name:
Site Location: Date: Time (military):
County: Town/City:
Organic Substrate Components:
Canopy Cover: open partly open partly shaded shaded
Streamside Vegetation type:
Turbidity: clear sightly turbid turbid opaque
Water Conditions (color, odor, bedgrowths, surface scum):
Chemical Assessment
Please convert °F to °C (°C=[°F-32] x 5/9) & feet to centimeters (cm=ft x 30.48)
Air temp °C: Water temp °C:
Water depth (cm): Secchi Depth (cm):
Alkalinity (mg/l): Hardness (mg/l):
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l): pH (SU):
Turbidity (JTU):
Width of Riffle:
Bed Composition of Riffle (%):
Silt:
Sand:
Gravel (1/4" -2"):
Cobbles (2"-10"):
Boulders (>10fl):
3-8
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CLEANING POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Ecology, Math
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
clear plastic cups
medicine dropper
straw
spoon
motor oil
water
paper towels
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Estimate the amount of pollution in a water sample.
2. Remove pollution from water using different methods.
3. Measure the pollution removed and calculate the percentage of
pollution removed from each sample.
4. Analyze and discuss the most effective methods of cleaning
pollution from water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Point source pollution is pollution that is discharged from a single source,
such as an oil tanker, water treatment plant, or a factory. Point source pollution is easily identified and can be
traced to its source. It is often difficult to enforce cleanup of point source pollution, even when the source is
identified. Point source pollution can also come from septic-tank systems, storage facilities for polluted waste,
petroleum products stored underground, and runoff from landowners.
Organic chemicals are products composed of hydrocarbons originally found in ancient plants. A petroleum product,
such as oil, can be accidentally released into the environment when collisions of tankers occur, when ships run
aground, when facilities leak, or when petroleum products are not disposed of properly.
Sewage, radioactive and hazardous metals, medical wastes and all manner of dissolved solids contribute heavily
to the pollution of our waterways. Of particular importance is mine waste because it is continuous, commercially
important on a large scale, and involves pollution of water at several different points in processing. In coal mines
in particular, sulfuricacid (H2S) is a problem. Coal is mineralized plant and animal matter that was not decomposed
by microbes millions of years ago because it was in an oxygen-free environment. Without oxygen, microbes
breathed sulfates instead and reduced them to sulfuric acid. This reaction is very inefficient, so these microbes
were unable to decompose the carbon rich plant material. H2S is a natural and necessary part of coal deposits,
but it is also a very strong acid. Poured onto soil, it causes aluminum and iron toxicity in crop plants and kills
nitrogen fixing organisms, leading to crop deficiencies in nitrogen. The H2S that gets to the smelting stage of
processing becomes gaseous H2SO4, the main ingredient in acid rain. Many other harmful minerals are present
in the ores themselves so that even slurries of crushed rock may be harmful to the environment.
Many pieces of legislation have been put forth to eliminate point source pollution. The General Mining Law of
1872 says that miners who pollute canals that settlers rely upon must pay reparations for the damages they
have caused. The Refuse Act of 1899 required a federal permit for the dumping of anything into navigable
waters, and the Clean Water Act of 1972 regulated a new program of permits to replace the permits of the 1899
law with stricter more efficient enforcement.
Nonpoint source pollution is pollution generated from diffuse sources rather than one specific, identifiable source.
The primary contributors to nonpoint source pollution include urban runoff, agriculture, silviculture, storm water,
livestock waste, and raw domestic wastes. It may include contaminants such as sediment, bacteria, oil and oil-
related chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals, and other toxic substances. Heavy rainfall often increases nonpoint
source pollution by washing sediment, chemicals, and other contaminants from fields, towns, and cities into
surface water areas and eventually into areas of possible groundwater recharge. Many federal, state, local
agencies and groups have programs to help reduce nonpoint source pollution.
3-9
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Terms
point source pollution: pollution that can be traced to a single point source, such as a pipe or culvert (e.g.,
industrial and wastewater treatment plant discharges).
nonpoint source pollution (NPS): pollution that cannot be traced to a single point, because it comes from
many individual places or a widespread area (Example: urban and agricultural runoff).
hydrocarbons: a very large group of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen. The
largest source of hydrocarbons is petroleum (crude oil).
runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters a
water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Set up three stations consisting of three different procedures for removing oil from water. (Note: Oil may be
added to each container by the teacher or by each group. The quantity of oil should be determined by
the teacher. Each group must add the same amount of oil.)
B. Place the following materials at the designated station:
Station 1: Station 2 : Station 3:
spoon straw medicine dropper
two clear plastic cups two clear plastic cups two clear plastic cups
student sheet student sheet student sheet
paper towels paper towel paper towel
motor oil motor oil motor oil
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Have students brainstorm the best ways to remove oil pollution from water. Have them research and
discuss the oldest methods and compare them to newer methods used today.
B. Have students predict the most effective cleanup method of the three methods they will be using.
//. Activity
A. Station 1: You will have two minutes to perform the following activities:
1. Work with your group and estimate the pollution (oil) in each of the three samples. Enter your
findings on the data table.
2. Have one member of the group use the spoon to try to remove all of the oil from the sample. Place
the oil in an empty plastic cup.
3. Measure the amount of oil removed and calculate the percentage of pollutant removed from the
sample with the spoon (old technology). Divide the amount of oil removed by the amount of water.
4. List any spills on the data chart.
5. Mark down any instances of habitat disturbance, such as water being removed with the cleanup.
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B. Station 2: You will have two minutes to perform the following activities:
1. Have another member of your group use the straw and try to remove all of the oil from the sample.
Save the oil in an empty plastic cup.
2. Measure the amount of oil removed and calculate the percentage of pollutants removed from the
sample with this newer technology (straw). Do not use your mouth! Divide the amount of oil
removed by the amount of water.
3. Mark down any spills on the data chart.
4. Mark down any instances of habitat disturbance, such as water being removed with the cleanup.
C. Station 3: You will have two minutes to perform the following activities:
1. Have another member of your group use the medicine dropper and try to remove all of the oil from
the sample with the dropper (newer technology).
2. Measure the amount of oil removed and calculate the percentage of pollutant removed from the
sample with the dropper. Divide the amount of oil removed by the amount of water.
3. Mark down any spills on the data chart.
4. Mark down any instances of habitat disturbance, such as water being removed with the cleanup.
D. Analyze the data collected from each group and discuss the most effective oil removal method. Brainstorm
how cost-effective each method is on a global basis.
///. Follow-Up
A. Perform the same steps, but substitute various pollutants other than oil.
B. Have students research major oil spills in the world that are presently being cleaned and the methods by
which they are being cleaned.
C. Have students discuss disposal alternatives for removed oil (Examples: burning, re-refining, coating
surfaces for protection, use as fuel, etc.).
IV. Extensions
A. Secure a speaker from the Coast Guard or Environmental Protection Agency that has participated in a
coastal cleanup.
B. Have students participate in a coastal cleanup, Earth Day activities, a clean campus organization, or
other environmental activities.
RESOURCES
Arms, K. Environmental Science. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Austin, TX, 1996.
The Changing Definition of Point Source Pollution in the Clean Water Act of 1972: http://moby.ucdavis.edu/
GAWS/161/2bravo/1.htm
Nonpoint Source Pollution: http://www.deq.state.la.us/owr/owrnps.html
3-11
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STUDENT SHEET CLEANING POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
6-8
Directions: Complete the data table for each of the three types of technology.
Technology
Spoon
Straw
Medicine
Dropper
Original Cup
Estimated ml_ Oil
Dump Cup
% Oil Removed
Oil Spills
While Cleaning Up
Water Removed
Estimated ml_ Water
Analysis and Conclusions
1. Which technology resulted in the most spills during cleanup?
2. Which technology caused the least disturbance of the habitat (removed the least water from the sample)?
3. Which technology would result in the highest fine?
4. Were the three technologies equally effective in helping you remove 50% of the pollution?
5. State a conclusion which relates to your original hypothesis.
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COLIFORM BACTERIA AND OYSTERS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Explain why coliform tests are performed to aid in the protection
of oyster reefs.
2. List three common sources from which coliform bacteria enter a
body of water such as a bay or estuary.
3. Perform an experiment to measure the amount of coliform bacteria
in a water sample from different areas of bays and estuaries.
4. Define and interpret verbal materials concerning the vocabulary
used in the terms list.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Oyster farming in coastal areas is a valuable activity. The collection,
processing, transporting, and selling of these oysters provide an income
for many people. As is the case with fisheries, state laws regulate
oystering. These laws are designed to protect the health of the consumer
and the size of the oyster population.
Oysters are common bivalves that live in shallow estuarine waters. Their
soft body tissue is enclosed by a two-part shell which is held together by
a strong hinge. The shell of an oyster is usually attached to another oyster
or some other hard object, forming clumps of oysters. Large areas covered
with these clumps are called oyster reefs.
Oysters take in oxygen from the water by pumping water through their
bodies and across their gills. During this process, tiny plants and animals are filtered from the water and are
eaten by the oyster. The oyster cannot choose what is filtered from the water. Whatever is present in the water
is filtered and taken into the oyster. Thus, any toxins or harmful microbes in the water are likely to be present in
the oyster also.
State conservation, natural resources, and public health agencies are authorized to regulate the opening and
closing of the oyster reefs. An open oyster reef is one from which you can legally collect oysters. A closed reef is
off-limits to oyster collecting. Numerous tests and measurements are performed to provide information that will
influence decisions to open or close the reefs. One of these tests measures the amount of a certain type of
bacteria called coliform bacteria. These indicator bacteria are commonly found in the intestinal tract of many
animals, including humans. They aid in digesting many foods that animals cannot digest alone. When animals
defecate, some of the coliform bacteria in the intestinal tract are also passed. Although coliforms are relatively
harmless, their quantity in the water is measured because it may be an indication that other harmful microbes
are present. If these microbes are present in the water, they are probably also present in the oysters that live in
that water.
Sewage outfalls are the most common causes of increased coliform levels. Although many environmental factors
influence the closing of an oyster reef, an outfall located too close to a reef may be responsible for its permanent
closing. The decision of where to put a new sewage outfall is always an intensely debated issue. Sometimes it
is difficult to utilize one resource without affecting or destroying another. People are continually seeking better
SUBJECTS:
Art,Geography, Microbiology,
Math,
TIME:
50 minutes for experiments plus
four observation days
MATERIALS:
film for camera
water samples from coastal areas
membrane filtration apparatus
hand-operated vacuum pump
MF-Endo broth in premeasured 2
mL ampuls (bio. supply co.)
absorbent media pads and
gridded membrane filters
50- or 60-mm (about 2 inch)
diameter petri dishes
1 mL plastic pipette
alcohol lamp
forceps
sterile or dechlorinated tap water
sterile glass or plastic petri dishes
1 mL plastic pipette
EMB (eosin-methylene-blue)
agar-agar
Means Option B test materials
student sheets
3-13
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ways of using one resource without harming others.
In this activity, you will perform a test to measure the amount of coliform bacteria present in water samples taken
from different areas. The tests actually used by state authorities are too difficult to be used in this case. Three
quick and easy tests for measuring the amount of coliform are provided here.
Terms
bivalve: a mollusk that has two shells hinged together, such as the oyster, clam, or mussel.
conforms: bacteria found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals; used as indicators of fecal contamination
in water.
defecate: to void excrement or waste through the anus.
estuarine: of an area where a river empties into an ocean; of a bay, influenced by the ocean tides, which has
resulted in a mixture of saltwater and freshwater.
fishery: a place engaged in the occupation or industry of catching fish or taking seafood from bodies of water; a
place where such an industry is conducted.
microbe: a microorganism; a very tiny and often harmful plant or animal.
sewage outfall: the point of sewage discharge, often from a pipe into a body of water, in turn called the outfall
area.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. The teacher should be the one to collect appropriate water samples to be tested. Pictures should be taken of
the various areas in which samples were collected. It is important that students can relate the samples to
particular areas along the bay.
B. Make sure that the body of water from which you collect the samples is not heavily polluted. You do not want
your students working with a water sample with harmful toxins or bacteria.
C. A special lab session should be given to show and explain how to use alcohol lamps and hand-operated
vacuum pumps, as well as give instructions on how to sterilize equipment. Leave the lab set up for the
experiments the following day.
D. Ask students during the prior weeks to look in the newspapers and magazine for articles concerning the
oyster season's opening or closing.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Pass out developed pictures of the different areas where the samples were taken. Ask students to try to
identify the particular areas in a nearby bay or estuary.
B. Post all the pictures of each particular area together on different bulletin boards or showboards. Leave
them out for students to look at during and after their experimenting.
C. Have an area map to plot the locations where samples were taken.
//. Activity
A. Light the alcohol lamp and sterilize the forceps by dipping them in alcohol and igniting by passing the tip
3-14
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through the flame.
B. Use the sterilized forceps to place a white absorbent media pad into a petri dish. Break an ampul of MF-
Endo medium and pour the contents onto the absorbent pad. Close the petri dish.
C. Resterilize the forceps in the flame. Then use it to place a gridded membrane filter on the filter funnel.
Close the apparatus.
D. Pour about 100 mL (the amount does not affect the outcome) of sterile or chlorine-free tap water into the
funnel of the machine. The sterile water is used to dilute the test sample so coliforms (if present) will be
distributed evenly on the filter and, therefore, be easier to count.
E. Pipette one mL of the "test sample water" (river or bay water) into the funnel of the apparatus. Students
should not put the pipette to their mouths. The pipette will fill by capillary action if it is held vertically
in the water, or a pipette bulb may be used.
F. Cover the apparatus and swirl it to mix the sterile dilution water and the one-mL test sample water.
G. Attach the hand pump to the equipment and filter the water. Sterilize the forceps. Then remove the filter
and set it into the petri dish on top of the MF-Endo saturated pad. Close the petri dish.
H. Store the dish upside down in a dark place at room temperature. (Petri dishes are incubated in an
inverted position to prevent condensation or moisture from falling on bacterial colonies: It causes them
to "run together")
I. Observe and describe the dishes each day for five days. Fill in the student data.
J. Counting the coliforms: Coliform colonies have a distinct metallic green sheen. Count only the obvious
coliform colonies.
///. Follow-Up
A. The following is another convenient way to test for the "quantitative" presence of coliform bacteria without
using an expensive membrane filtration kit.
1. Make up one or more sterile EMB agar-agar plates per group.
2. If you are using 100-mm sized petri dishes, pipette one ml of test sample (river or bay water)
directly into the dish. Cover the dish and swirl the sample so the water covers as much agar as
possible.
3. Store the petri dish upside down in a warm dark place at room temperature.
4. The presence of metallic green colonies is a positive test for coliform bacteria. Count the coliform
colonies.
B. Due to crowding of the bacteria, it may be impossible to count all the colonies. Nevertheless, this
experiment will give you a rough idea of the relative numbers of coliforms present in the water sample.
Though relatively inaccurate, this procedure is fast, simple and very inexpensive. In addition, it requires
a minimum amount of equipment. Even if you don't find coliforms, you will discover other kinds of
bacteria, which in itself is interesting. A third simplified plate technique exists. Contact Alabama Water
Watch for name, cost, and procedure.
C. Contact the local wastewater treatment plant. The plant operator might be willing to provide equipment
or split a sample to verify students' results. The telephone and name can be gotten by calling the city
hall, township hall, or village hall.
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IV. Extensions
A. Take additional pictures of the results from the experiment and place the colony pictures with the correct
photos taken from the different areas of the water you tested.
B. Have students correlate and graph the results of the experiments.
C. Students will then take the information and put it on the computer to send to their Conservation, Natural
Resources, or Public Health agencies. Comparisons are requested from these departments.
RESOURCES
Biggs, A., Kapitka, C., and Lundgren, L, Biology: The Dynamics of Life. Glencoe, NT, 1995.
Cunningham, W. and Saigo, B., Environmental Science. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA, 1995.
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STUDENT SHEET
COLIFORM BACTERIA AND OYSTERS
6-8
Directions:
Label each of the three petri dishes with the source of the water used.
Inoculate each dish with water, tape the lids on, and place it in a warm (not hot), dark place.
Draw and describe what is observed each day on each dish by filling in the information below.
Day 1 Date
Inoculate three dishes with water from (1)
- (2).
_, and (3)
Description
Description
Description
Description
Description
Description
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STUDENT SHEET COLIFORM BACTERIA AND OYSTERS
6-8
Day 1 Date
Inoculate three dishes with water from (1)
(2).
_, and (3).
Description
Description
Description
Description
Description
Description
3-18
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ALGAE GROWTH
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Botany, Math
TIME:
2 weeks
MATERIALS:
1-L soda bottles with labels
distilled water
three types of laundry or
dishwashing detergents (two
with and one without
phosphate)
lawn fertilizer
graduated cylinder
pond water samples
microscope
student sheets
various algae
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Test the effects of common pollutants on algae growth in water.
2. Observe the growth of algae in a water sample.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Algae are simple plants. They generally do not have vascular tissue, and
they do not show the high level of organ differentiation of the familiar,
more complex plants. Most algae are photoautotrophic, which means
that they can make their own food materials through photosynthesis by
using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.
Algae are the chief food source for fish and for all other types of organisms
that live in the water. They also contribute substantially to the store of
oxygen on Earth. There are approximately 25,000 species of algae. The
simplest algae consist of a single cell of protoplasm, a living jelly-like
drop. No larger than three microns, the size of a large bacterium, it is
visible only under a microscope. The most complex algae are the giant kelps of the ocean that may be 200 feet
(60 meters) long.
Algae are found all over the Earth, in oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, and marshes. They sometimes
accumulate on the sides of glass aquariums. Algae are found on leaves, especially in the tropics and subtropics,
and on wood and stones in all parts of the world. Some live in or on higher forms of plants and animals. And
some exist in places where few living things are able to survive. One or two species capable of tolerating
temperatures of 176 degrees F (80 degrees C) dwell in and around hot springs. A small number live in the snow
and ice of the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
Marine algae, such as the common seaweeds, are most noticeable on rocky coastlines. In northern temperate
climates, they form an almost continuous film over the rocks. In the tropics they are found on the floors of
lagoons. They are associated with coral reefs and island atolls. A few saltwater species of green algae secrete
limestone that contributes to reef formation. In freshwater, algae are not noticeable unless the water is polluted.
All algae contain the green pigment chlorophyll. This substance makes it possible for algae to perform
photosynthesis. Other pigments also are present, giving different algae the distinct colors that are used as a
basis of classification.
Algae are of special interest because they include the most primitive forms of plants. They have no true roots,
stems, or leaves, and they do not produce flowers or seeds, as higher plants do. Yet all other groups of plants
may have evolved from algae.
Algal blooms are a serious consequence of human activities effect upon the water quality and temperature.
When massive amounts of algae literally overtake an area of water due to excessive nutrients, it is considered
an algal bloom. In addition to being unsightly and smelly, masses of blue-green algae can literally choke the life
out of a lake or pond by depriving it of much needed oxygen. At first glance this may seem like something of a
paradox: since blue-green algae undergo photosynthesis, they should produce more oxygen than they consume.
However, after large concentrations of algae have built up, aerobic processes such as respiration and the
decomposition of dead algal cells becomes increasingly significant. Under extreme conditions, a eutrophic lake
3-19
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or pond may be left entirely devoid of fish.
Terms
algae: any of a large group of simple plants that contain chlorophyll; are not divisible into roots, stems and
leaves; do not produce seeds; and include the seaweeds and related freshwater and land plants.
nonpoint source pollution (NFS): pollution that cannot be traced to a single point, because it comes from
many individual places or a widespread area (Example: urban and agricultural runoff).
non-vascular plant: a plant that does not have specialized tissue for transporting water, minerals, and food.
nitrates: used generically for materials containing this ion group made of nitrogen and oxygen (NO3~); sources
include animal wastes and some fertilizers; can seep into groundwater; linked to human health problems, including
"blue baby" syndrome (methemoglobinemia).
phosphate: used generically for materials containing a phosphate group (PO43-); sources include some fertilizers
and detergents; when wastewater containing phosphates is discharged into surface waters, these chemicals act
as nutrient pollutants (causing overgrowth of aquatic plants).
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Collect soda bottles and place labels on them. Collect several water samples from ponds and other local
sources.
1. Label the bottles "A," "B," "C," "D," and "E."
B. List these figures and compute their corresponding percentages on the chalkboard: If we represent the
Earth's entire supply of water as 1,000 mL, then 28 mL represents the total freshwater supply and the remaining
972 mL is saltwater that occurs primarily in oceans.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Explain to the students the importance of unicellular algae to worldwide oxygen production. Have them
observe some examples of various algae both with a magnifying glass and under a microscope.
B. Display several detergent and fertilizer containers. Notice on the list of ingredients whether or not they
contain nitrates and phosphates and in what amounts.
//. Activities
A. Pour 900 mL distilled water into each of the five bottles.
1. Add 90 mL pond water to Bottle A.
2. Add 90 mL pond water and 15 mL detergent # 1 to Bottle B.
3. Add 90 mL pond water and 15 mL detergent # 2 to Bottle C.
4. Add 90 mL pond water and 15 mL detergent # 3 to Bottle D.
5. Add 90 mL pond water and 15 mL fertilizer to Bottle E.
B. Ask students to make predictions as to what they think will occur.
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C. Set the uncovered bottles in a well-lighted place for about two weeks, ensuring that each bottle receives
an equal amount of light each day.
D. Have students compare and record their observations on the student sheet. Take note of any algae
growth that they notice.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students write up the lab activity by completing the student sheet.
B. Have students list and draw several different types of algae that may be present.
C. Have students locate several different types of detergents used in their home and list the phosphate and
nitrate content of each.
D. What are the environmental implications of algae blooms to lakes and streams? Which are most severely
affected? Why?
IV. Extensions
A. Look up algae blooms that occur when fire algae reproduce rapidly. Have students investigate how
these blooms affect the animals in the water.
B. Have students go the supermarket and take notes on which detergents contain phosphates (list amount)
and those that do not.
C. Contact a local nursery and find alternatives to processed fertilizers. How are they better for the
environment?
D. Use a microscope to examine the microorganisms found in each bottle.
RESOURCES
Algal Bloom: http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/agen521 /epadir/wetlands/algal_bloom.html
Introduction to Algae: http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/presents/algae1/index.html
Compton's New Media, Inc., Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia. 1995.
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STUDENT SHEET
ALGAE GROWTH
6-8
Directions: Complete the following information about your investigation.
1. Problem Statement
2. Procedure (number the steps you performed)
a.
b.
3. Data collected
Algae Growth
Bottle Contents
A distilled
water
pond
water
B
C
D
E
Amt
900 ml
90
ml
Amt Phosphate
0
Amt Nitrate
0
After 4 Days
After 8 Days
After 12 Days
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STUDENT SHEET ALGAE GROWTH
6-8
4. Data Analysis
a. Which bottle had the smallest amount of algal growth?
b. Which bottle had the largest amount of algal growth? _
c. Which detergent produced results most similar to the fertilizer?
Tentative Conclusions
a. What effect does the amount of phosphate and nitrate have on algal growth?
b. List all of the things you and people in your home can do to keep phosphates and nitrates from entering the
water.
3-23
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3-24
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SMALL FRYE
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Art, Microbiology
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
one gallon jar of pond water
18 hand lenses
one microscope for every team
of two students
pens
pencils
3 packs assorted colors of poster
paper
kite string or fishing line
75 plastic straws
35 wire coat hangers
teacher sheet
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify various forms of microscopic life that live in water.
2. Compare the relationship of various aquatic plants and animals.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
When Robert Hooke and Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, inventors of the
microscope, observed the small world of ponds and streams, they were
amazed to find life forms. It was obvious that thousands of small organisms
lived in water. Microorganisms, both plants and animals, are essential in
the food supplies offish, aquatic birds, amphibians, and mammals—yes,
even humans.
Microorganisms can be divided into the following categories:
Bacteria: Bacteria are single-cell microbes that grow in nearly every
environment on Earth. They are used to study diseases and produce
antibiotics, to ferment foods, to make chemical solvents, and in many "^~"^^~'^^~l"^^^"^~""
other applications.
Protozoans: Protozoans are small single-cell microbes. They are frequently observed as actively moving
organisms when impure water is viewed under a microscope. Protozoans cause a number of widespread human
illnesses, such as malaria, and thus can present a threat to public health.
Algae: These are organisms that carry out photosynthesis in order to produce the energy they need to grow.
Fungi: These are well-known organisms, such as mushrooms and bread mold, that lack chlorophyll. Fungi
usually derive food and energy from parasitic growth on dead organisms.
Viruses: Viruses are the smallest form of replicating microbes. Viruses are never free-living; they must enter
living cells in order to grow. Thus, they are considered by most microbiologists to be nonliving. There is an
infectious virus for almost every known kind of cell. Viruses are visible only with the most powerful microscopes,
namely electron microscopes.
One way to eliminate microorganisms from water supplies is to add chlorine. Adding chlorine to drinking water
virtually eliminates waterborne diseases, such as cholera, by destroying these disease-causing microorganisms.
Microorganism's habitats may be as large as an ocean or smaller than a grain of sand. The ubiquity or extreme
prevalence of microorganisms is due to the following characteristics and abilities:
1. Small size allows for easy dispersal.
2. Energy conversion is not restricted to aerobic condition, they survive and thrive in anaerobic conditions
(without oxygen).
3. Extreme metabolic versatility, they can utilize a broader range of nutrients than eukaryotes; unique ability to
fix atmospheric nitrogen.
4. Tolerate unfavorable environmental conditions.
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Terms
microorganisms: organisms too small to be seen with the unaided eye, including bacteria, protozoans, yeasts,
viruses, and algae.
pond: an enclosed body of water usually smaller than a lake.
food web: the connections among everything organisms in a location eat and are in turn eaten by.
food chain: a succession of organisms in a community that constitutes a feeding order in which food energy is
transferred from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed upon by a
higher member.
habitat: the arrangement of food, water, shelter, and space suitable to an organism's needs.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Introduce students to the term "microorganisms." Ask them to list what they have heard, learned, or read
about these microorganisms.
B. Ask students to write a one-page essay of what life would be like if they were microscopic.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Students will take a field trip to an environmental center or area in their neighboor or town to observe life
in a pond or view a video or film about pond life.
B. Have students share their observations with other members of the class, either orally or in writing.
//. Activity
A. The teacher will collect pond water samples and furnish each team with one tablespoon of the water
sample. Samples are to be taken from within the container and not just at the surface. Students are to
examine the water with microscopes and hand lenses.
B. Students are to draw or make sketches of the microorganisms they observe.
C. After they have sketched several organisms, they are to select a favorite life form from which to construct
a microorganism mobile.
///. Follow-Up
A. Invite a laboratory technician who works for a water or wastewater treatment plant that uses
microorganisms to break down wastes into harmless substances.
B. Have the students collect samples of pond water from various ponds and observe the microorganisms.
IV. Extensions
A. Have a contest for the best constructed "Microorganism Mobile."
B. Read aloud stories written by the students about their life as a microscopic organism.
C. Have pictures of common microorganisms that are found in pond water and have students identify their
sketches with the pictures.
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RESOURCES
Aquatic Project Wild, 1987. P.O. Box 18060, Boulder, CO 80308-8060. (303) 444-2390.
Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia. Compton's NewMedia, Inc., 1994,1995.
Eliminating Microbes from Water: http://c3.org/curriculum/bbc5.html
Life Science. Grade 7, Prentice Hall, 1991.
Microorganisms in Their Natural Environment: http://www.towson.edu/~wubah/miceco/natural_envts.html
3-27
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STUDENT SHEET
SMALL FRYE
6-8
Directions: Draw the organisms you observe in the pond water.
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TEACHER SHEET
SMALL FRYE
6-8
3-29
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3-30
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SURFACE FREEZING
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Create a moving picture of the circulation of water in a pond
thawing after a winter freeze.
2. Explain the impact of surface freezing on the life of a pond.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The surface of a body of water receives adequate sunlight to sustain a
diverse population of organisms. The region of water which receives this
sunlight is known as the littoral zone. Autotropic organisms cannot,
however, survive in zones inaccessible to sunlight. This zone, known as
the benthiczone, is host to other types of organisms called heterotrophs.
In addition, organisms that die will sink to the bottom and decompose,
replenishing the pond with nutrients.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Math
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
clear plastic soda container
ice cube trays
water
blue and yellow dye
scissors
colored pencils
graph paper
stapler
student sheet
As the air temperature decreases and falls below zero degrees Celsius, the freezing point of water, the surface
water will begin to freeze. Sustained below-freezing temperatures will allow the pond or lake to maintain a
blanket of ice at its surface. Life at the surface will decrease due to the lack of adequate sunlight, and competition
for food will increase among heterotrophs. As the surface ice begins to melt in the springtime, this colder, denser
water will sink to the bottom. As it does, it creates a convection current in the pond which will carry the nutrients
resting on the bottom to other zones in the pond, including the littoral zone. After the surface ice has completely
melted, the littoral zone, as well as other zones, will once again contain a diverse population of life.
Terms
autotroph: an organism that can make its own food (usually using sunlight).
benthic zone: the lower region of a body of water including the bottom.
convection current: the transfer of heat by the mass movement of heated particles.
heterotroph: an organism that is not capable of making its own food.
littoral zone: region in a body of water that sunlight penetrates.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have each student bring an empty one- or two-liter plastic soda container.
B. Prepare colored ice cubes (blue in color).
C. Run off a student sheet for each student.
D. Remove the label and clean the inside of the container.
E. Cut off the top portion of the container.
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the background information to be sure the students understand the terms.
B. Explain the behavior of water in its three states.
//. Activity
A. Gather the materials.
1. Fill the container three-fourths full with hot water.
2. Add a few drops of yellow dye to the container and let stand for several minutes or until the water is
no longer circulating.
3. Place one colored ice cube in the container and observe.
4. Have students write down observations as the ice is melting.
5. Have the students use the student sheet to make a precise drawing of the appearance of the container
every 30 seconds until the ice has completely melted. (Be sure to instruct them to note the position
and size of the ice over time in their drawing, as well as the color of the water in the rest of the
container.)
6. Color the drawings with the proper colors and place the sheets in the proper sequence and staple
together.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students observe the moving picture of their experiment and compare it to others in the class.
Have them explain the similarities and differences between their results.
B. Have the students write up this activity in proper scientific form including a purpose, materials, procedure,
results, and conclusion.
IV. Extension
A. Use real samples of pond water (obtaining both bottom sediments and water) and compare the quantity
of organisms in each zone before and after melting a top layer. Use a microscope to observe and draw
the organisms and graph results.
RESOURCE
Robson, P. and Seller, M., Encyclopedia of Science Projects. Shooting Star Press Inc., New York, 1994.
3-32
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
Time 0 Min.
CO
SURFACE FREEZING
Time 30 Sec./.5 Min. Time 1 Min.
Time 1.5 Min.
Time 2.0 Min. Time 2.5 Min. Time 3.0 Min. Time 3.5 Min.
-------
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SURFACE TENSION
6-8
OBJECTIVES:
The students will do the following:
1. Explain the concept of surface tension.
2. Identify the process by which surface tension can be broken by
the addition of detergents.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Language Arts,
Physical Science
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
petri dish
container of water
loop of thread
dishwashing detergent
toothpicks
list of vocabulary words for follow-
up activity
student sheet
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The tendency of a liquid to form a relatively tough "skin" or film on its
surface is known as surface tension. Surface tension is caused by the
attraction between the molecules of the liquid; it is surface tension that
causes water molecules to stick together and to form droplets. The surface
tension that holds drops together makes it difficult for the water to penetrate
or "wet" fabrics or skin; consequently, many soaps or detergents contain
"wetting" agents designed to reduce surface tension and to increase fabric penetration by water.
If you could see molecules of water and how they act, you would notice that each water molecule electrically
attracts its neighbors. Each has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, H20. The extraordinary stickiness of
water is due to the two hydrogen atoms, which are arranged on one side of the molecule and are attracted to the
oxygen atoms of other nearby water molecules in a phenomenon known as "hydrogen bonding." (If the molecules
of a liquid did not attract one another, then the constant thermal agitation of the molecules would cause the liquid
to instantly boil or evaporate.)
Hydrogen atoms have single electrons which tend to spend a lot of their time "inside" the water molecule, toward
the oxygen atom, leaving their outsides naked, or positively charged. The oxygen atom has eight electrons, and
often a majority of them are around on the side away from the hydrogen atoms, making this face of the atom
negatively charged. Since opposite charges attract, it is no surprise that the hydrogen atoms of one water
molecule like to point toward the oxygen atoms of other molecules. Of course in the liquid state, the molecules
have too much energy to become locked into a fixed pattern; nevertheless, the numerous temporary "hydrogen
bonds" between molecules make water an extraordinarly sticky fluid.
Within the water, at least a few molecules away from the surface, every molecule is engaged in a tug of war with
its neighbors on every side. For every "up" pull there is a "down" pull, and for every "left" pull there is a "right" pull,
and so on, so that any given molecule feels no net force at all. At the surface things are different. There is no up
pull for every down pull, since of course there is no liquid above the surface; thus the surface molecules tend to
be pulled back into the liquid. It takes work to pull a molecule up to the surface. If the surface is stretched - as
when you blow up a bubble - it becomes larger in area, and more molecules are dragged from within the liquid
to become part of this increased area. This "stretchy skin" effect is called surface tension. Surface tension plays
an important role in the way liquids behave. If you fill a glass with water, you will be able to add water above the
rim of the glass because of surface tension.
You can float a paper clip on the surface of a glass of water. Before you try this you should know that it helps if
the paper clip is a little greasy, so the water doesn't stick to it. Place the paper clip on a fork and lower it slowly
onto the water. The paper clip is supported by the surface-tension skin of the water.
The water strider is an insect that hunts its prey on the surface of still water; it has widely
spaced feet rather like the pads of a lunar lander. The skin-like surface of the water is depressed under the water
strider's feet.
3-35
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Terms
surface tension: the elastic-like force in a body, especially a liquid, tending to minimize, or constrict, the area of
the surface.
polar: of or relating to a pole of a magnet.
adhesion: the molecular attraction exerted between the surfaces of bodies in contact.
cohesion: the force of attraction between the molecules in a mass.
polarity: the quality or condition inherent in a body that exhibits opposite properties or powers in opposite parts
or directions or that exhibits contrasted properties or powers in contrasted parts or directions.
positive charge: of, being, or relating to electricity of a kind that is produced in a glass rod rubbed with silk.
negative charge: of, being, or relating to electricity of which the electron is the unit and which is produced in a
hard rubber rod which has been rubbed with wool.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Place petri dishes, containers of water, loops of thread, and small containers of detergents at each lab
station.
B. Prepare the list of words for use in the follow-up activity.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Students will perform the activity before it is discussed. This activity is best discussed after students
have manipulated the thread in the water and observed the results.
B. Students are reminded to make careful observations about the loop of thread during each step of this
activity.
//. Activity
A. Have students fill the petri dish about half full of water. The petri dish is more visible placed on a white
sheet of paper. Place the loop of thread on the surface of the water. The thread will float, but have an
irregular shape. Students will observe and make inferences about the shape of the loop.
B. Students will touch the surface of the water within the loop with the end of a clean toothpick. The thread
should move slightly, but not change shape. Students will observe the floating loop and discuss how
surface tension is responsible for supporting the thread.
C. Students will next dip the end of the toothpick into the dishwashing detergent and carefully place a drop
of soap inside the loop of thread by touching the toothpick to the surface of the water.
D. Students will describe what happened when the drop of dishwashing soap was placed inside the loop of
thread. Have them speculate about what would happen if the drop of detergent were placed outside the
loop of thread rather than inside the loop of thread.
///. Follow-Up
A. Students will explain what happened to the loop of thread and why it happened using the following terms
in the explanation. All terms must be used and can be used more than once.
3-36
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bound circle surface tension
cohesion polar positive charge
lowers higher negative charge
attractive forces strong . adhesion
polarity
B. Have the students highlight or circle all of the above words used in their explanation.
IV. Extensions
A. Research different types of detergents. Compare results obtained when these detergents are placed
into the loop.
B. Double the amount of detergent to observe if there is a noticeable difference in the loop of thread.
C. Change the temperature of the water for each group to determine if thermal pollution is a factor in
surface tension.
D. Prepare a wall data chart for groups to observe over a period of time. Refer to the data collected and
review as other clean-up concepts are discussed.
RESOURCE
Robson, P. and Seller, M., Encyclopedia of Science Projects. Shooting Star Press, London, 1994.
Surface Tension, WQA: http://www.wqa.orgA/VQIS/Glossary/surftens.htm
http://www.whitman.edu/Departments/Biology/classes/B111/Modules/Water/Cohesion.html
3-37
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STUDENT SHEET
SURFACE TENSION
Gently touch surface of water with a clean toothpick and observe
Detergent
Place one drop of detergent inside the loop of thread and observe
3-38
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RUNOFF
SUBJECT:
Biology, Geology
TIME:
1-2 class periods
MATERIALS:
county map / state map of
your area
student notebooks
plastic box or pan at least one foot
by two feet
sandbox sand, enough to fill half
the box
two 250 mL cups
65 ml chocolate syrup
one 20 cm by 20 cm square of sod
or several smaller grass plugs
a metric measuring cup
water
bucket or pot
teacher sheet
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The students will do the following:
1. Define surface water, runoff, drainage basin, permeable, and
impermeable.
2. Identify factors affecting runoff in a drainage basin.
3. Perform an experiment on drainage basins.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water found above the ground is called surface water. That is because it
is located or seen on the Earth's surface. Oceans and rivers are examples
of natural surface water bodies. Most surface water bodies are natural;
however, there are many bodies of surface water that are made artificially.
The area where water drains off the land into a river or lake is called a
drainage basin. Water that drains off the land into the basin is called
runoff. Many things determine the runoff in a drainage basin. Water moves
slowly along flat land or a gently sloping hill. When the water moves
more slowly, it can evaporate or soak into the ground. A steep slope will ^~^^^^~^~~
cause water to flow more quickly into a surface water body. That is why drainage basins with steep slopes often
flood.
Vegetation such as plants, trees, and grass help slow the water flowing through a basin. Trees and other plants
also help to hold water on or above the ground. By doing so, they allow the water time to soak into the ground or
to evaporate. Different kinds of soil have differing abilities to hold water. Water moves more quickly and easily
through layers of sand and gravel than through clay. This is because clay is not as permeable as sand or gravel.
Permeability is how fast water can flow through an object. Because clay particles fit tightly together, water does
not flow through clay very easily. Clay is said to be impermeable. The next time it rains, watch what happens to
the water running off the sidewalk or street near your home, then watch the water that falls on ground covered
with trees, grass, or other plants. Notice which type of surface has the faster-flowing water. Rainwater that runs
off a paved surface and does not soak into the ground is called storm water runoff. This water usually flows into
the nearest body of water.
Terms
surface water: precipitation that does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or
transpiration. It is stored in streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands, oceans, and reservoirs.
drainage basin: an area drained by a main river and its tributaries.
runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters a
water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
permeable: passable; allowing fluid to penetrate or pass through it.
impermeable: impassable; not permitting the passage of a fluid through it.
3-39
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storm water runoff: surface water runoff that flows into storm sewers or surface waters.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Study the background information so it may be presented to the class in an organized manner.
B. Write the vocabulary words on the board so the students may view the words that will be covered in this
lesson.
C. Have materials ready for the experiment.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Have materials set out on a table in the front of the room. Tell the students that they will be learning
about surface water and will be performing an interesting experiment.
//. Activity
A. Discuss the background information with the students.
B. Ask the following questions:
1. What is water above the ground called?
2. What makes water drain from one area to another?
3. What does permeable mean?
4. Through what soils does water move quickly?
5. Why does water move slowly through clay?
6. What does storm water runoff mean?
7. Name some examples of things storm water can pick up as it travels over land.
8. Where might storm water runoff go in rural areas?
C. Have the students perform the following experiment.
1. Fill the box or pan half full of sand. Diagonally, from the top corner of the box to the bottom corner,
make a surface water (river) channel. Scoop sand from the middle of the box up onto the sides to
form river banks. Make a steep slope on one side of the river and a gentle slope on the other side.
2. Place the sod square or several grass plugs on the side with a gentle slope. This represents wetlands
vegetation.
3. Place bucket or pot under opening.
4. Position one student on each side of the "river" holding the 8-ounce cups of water. These students
will make it "rain" on the river. Very slowly and at the same time, have one student pour water on the
sandy side, while the other pours water on the grassy area. Observe which runoff flows faster and
drains into the "river" first.
3-40
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D. Repeat Step C, using 65 ml of chocolate syrup. The syrup represents storm water pollution. Observe
what happens.
E. Repeat Step C, again, pouring 125 mL of water on the syrup. Observe what happens.
F. Ask the following questions:
1. Which side of the river had the fastest runoff?
2. What effect did the grass or sod have on storm water runoff? On pollution?
3. Did you see anything in this experiment that would help you decide whether the sand is permeable
or impermeable? If so, what?
4. List several things that determine the speed of runoff in a drainage basis.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students list examples of surface water bodies in their county and state. Let your students see
how many water bodies they can name before posting the maps.
B. Have the students determine where the school's storm water runoff drains.
1. Are there steep or gentle slopes around the school yard?
2. What types of pollution would this storm water pick up as it drains from the school yard?
IV. Extensions
A. Ask students to find out the average rainfall for their city or county.
B. Have students bring in various types of soil and design their own experiments to test which soils are
permeable or impermeable.
C. Have students do research in the library to locate information on how to make a rain gauge.
1. Help students make their own rain gauges and have them keep track of rainfall amounts for one
month in their waterways notebook.
2. Have them design a bar graph to show rainfall totals. Have students do this at home and then
compare their findings with others in their class. Sometimes it will rain on one side of the street and
not on the other.
D. Contact the local office of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly known as the Soil
Conservation Service, or SCS) to request a guest speaker on the "soil profile" of your area. Ask the SCS
representative for more information and experiments on soil types.
RESOURCE
Johnson, C., Waterways: A Water Resource Curriculum. St. John's River Management District, Jacksonville, FL,
1991.
3-41
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TEACHER SHEET
RUNOFF
6-8
Steep Slope
Sod or Grass Plugs
i
Sand
3-42
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THE SHRINKING ANTACID
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Earth Science
TIME:
20 minutes
MATERIALS: (for each group)
small clear cup
I tablespoon
white vinegar
antacid tablet containing calcium
carbonate
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define acid rain.
2. Explain what causes acid rain.
3. State various substances found in acid rain.
4. Describe the effects of vinegar on antacid tablets.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Normal rain has a pH of between 5.6 and 6.0, whereas acid rain has a
pH between 2.0 and 5.6. Acid rain leads to several detrimental effects in
the ecosystem. A very highly publicized problem is the effect of acid rain
on trees. Conifers appear to be particularly affected, with needles dropping off and seedlings failing to produce
new trees. The acid also reacts with many nutrients the trees need, such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
The trees then starve, which makes them much more susceptible to other forms of damage, such as being
blown down or breaking under the weight of snow.
Acid rain also causes lakes and rivers to become acidic, causing fish populations to decline. Short-term increases
in acid levels kill many fish, but the greatest threat is from long-term increases. A long-term increase stops the
fish from reproducing. The extra acid also frees toxic metals, especially aluminum, that were previously held in
rocks. This metal can prevent fish from breathing. Single-celled plants and algae in lakes also suffer from increased
acid levels, with numbers dropping off quickly once the pH goes below 5. By the time the pH gets down to 4.5,
almost no life is sustainable.
Many toxic metals are held in the ground in compounds. However, acid rain can break down some of these
compounds, freeing the metals and washing them into water sources such as rivers. As the water becomes
more acidic, it can also react with lead and copper water pipes, contaminating drinking water supplies. Too much
copper can cause diarrhea in young children and can damage livers and kidneys in adults and children.
Terms
acid rain (or acid precipitation): rain with a pH of less than 5.6; results from atmospheric moisture mixing with
sulphur and nitrogen oxides emitted from burning fossil fuels or from volcanic activity; may cause damage to
crops, forests, wildlife habitats, aquatic life, as well as damage to buildings, monuments, and car finishes.
calcium carbonate: a powder occurring in nature in various forms, as calcite, chalk, and limestone, which is
used in polishes and the manufacture of lime and cement.
pollutant: an impurity (contaminant) that causes an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the air, water, or land that may be harmful to or affect the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other living organisms.
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Divide the class into groups of three.
3-43
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B. Gather enough materials for each group.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show the students some calcium carbonate tablets.
B. Ask them to guess what they are.
C. Tell them what they are and explain to them that these substances are found in many different kinds of
rocks.
//. Activity
A. Give each group a cup with an antacid tablet in it.
B. Ask them to pour 15 ml vinegar over the antacid tablet.
C. Ask the students to observe the antacid and vinegar for about 5 minutes.
D. Tell the students to record the action between the vinegar and the antacid tablet.
E. Ask the students to answer the following questions:
1. What happened to the antacid tablet?
2. How can this experiment relate to the effects of acid rain in various areas?
3. What causes acid rain?
4. What measures can we take to prevent or stop acid rain?
5. Why is acid rain such an important topic to study?
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students to write a report on the effects of acid rain on the environment.
B. Ask the students to draw or cut out pictures from a magazine showing the effects of acid rain.
C. Ask the students to do research and write a paper about acid rain.
IV. Extensions
A. Have the students use other substances that will act on the antacid tablet.
B. Have the students research and plot various areas on a geographic map that have problems with acid
rain.
RESOURCES
Tippens, Tobin, Instructional Strategies for Teaching Science. Macmillan, New York, 1994.
Cable, Charles, Dale Rice, Kenneth Walla, and Elaine Murray, Earth Science. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991.
http://nis.accel.worc.k12.ma.us/www/projects/WeatherWeb/acidrain.html
3-44
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STUDENT SHEET
THE SHRINKING ANTACID
6-8
Directions - Record your observations at the specified times and answer the questions.
Time
Add 15 ml vinegar to antacid in cup
1 minute
1.5 minutes
2 minutes
2.5 minutes
3 minutes
3.5 minutes
4 minutes
4.5 minutes
5 minutes
3-45
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STUDENT SHEET THE SHRINKING ANTACID
6-8
1. What happened to the antacid tablet?
2. How can this experiment relate to the effects of acid rain in various areas?
3. What causes acid rain?
4. What measures can we take to prevent or stop acid rain?
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USING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND DATA TABLES TO
DETERMINE SURFACE WATER QUALITY
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Ecology, Geography
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
topographic or relief map of
watershed area
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Describe the physical features of land areas surrounding area
waters.
2. Distinguish drainage areas that will flow into existing bodies of
water.
3. Analyze data obtained from a sampling of surface waters.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A watershed is a drainage area that includes all the rivers, streams, and sloping land which flow into a specific
body of water. A watershed is impacted by activities that occur within the specific sloping area. Pollution from
industries and individuals can affect the quality of water in a watershed. Other activities that can damage a
watershed include farming, construction, and industrial activities.
Water monitoring sites can be established along watershed drainage areas to determine the quality of the water
entering the downstream body of water. Data can be collected and analyzed at various sites along the drainage
areas. Downstream impact can be determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen content, pH of the water,
turbidity, and the biological diversity of organisms located in the drainage areas. By analyzing these parameters,
students can compare information from several monitoring sites and determine the relative quality of the surface
waters in the watershed area.
Geological watershed maps can be obtained from state geological surveys, the United States Geological Survey,
or from local map dealers.
Terms
biological diversity: a wide variety of plant and animal life.
dissolved oxygen (DO): oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in water.
drainage basin: an area drained by a main river and its tributaries.
monitoring: scrutinizing and checking systematically with a view to collecting data.
nonpoint source pollution (NPS): pollution that cannot be traced to a single point (Example: outlet or pipe)
because it comes from many individual places or a widespread area (typically, urban, rural, and agricultural
runoff).
pH: a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 7 is
neutral and values less than 7 are progressively acidic, and values greater than 7 are progressively basic or
alkaline; pH is an inverted logarithmic scale so that every unit decrease in pH means a 10-fold increase in
hydrogen ion concentration. Thus, a pH of 3 is 10 times as acidic as a pH of 4 and 100 times as acidic as a pH
of 5.
point source pollution: pollution that can be traced to a single point source, such as a pipe or culvert (Example:
3-47
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industrial and wastewater treatment plants, and certain storm water discharges).
topographic map: a map showing the relief features or surface configuration of an area, usually by means of
contour lines.
turbidity: the cloudy or muddy appearance of a naturally clear liquid caused by the suspension of particulate
matter.
watershed: land area from which water drains to a particular water body.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
/. Setting the stage
A. Display a topographic map of the local area and define the watershed area.
B. Discuss the major streams, rivers, and sloping areas indicated on the map.
C. Hypothesize the factors that could cause pollution problems in the drainage area of the watershed.
D. Prepare copies of the student sheet for each student.
//. Activity
A. Have the students use the student sheet to answer the questions about the streams located in the
watershed.
B. Have the students analyze the information, discuss possible contributing factors, and determine what
other types of investigations will be necessary.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students make visual observations of local streams and creeks and locate these on the
watershed map.
B. Display topographic maps of other watersheds in other areas. Ask the students to compare the size of
the drainage areas.
IV. Extensions
A. Take a field trip to a local park located on the watershed.
B. Develop site monitoring groups for area streams and rivers.
C. Develop a resource file of organisms known to indicate biological diversity in local waters.
RESOURCES
United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map of local watershed.
Person, Jane L, Environmental Science: How the World Works and Your Place in It. Lebel Enterprises, Dallas,
Texas, 1995.
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STUDENT SHEET
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
6-8
SAMPLING INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM WATERSHED MONITORING SITES
SITE#
1
2
3
4
5
DO
.6
.8
.7
.9
.4
pH
7.0
7.5
7.0
6.2
5.0
DIVERSITY
GOOD
POOR
GOOD
FAIR
POOR
TURBIDITY (M)
.2
.4
.1
.4
0
QUESTIONS
1. At which site was the water most turbid?
2. Does the topographic map indicate any reasons for the high turbidity at that site?
Explain.
3. Which site illustrates the lowest dissolved (DO) oxygen content?
What could have caused the low DO at this site?
4. What could have caused the pH to be more acidic at site 5?
5. Does DO seem to cause poor biodiversity?
_Explain.
6. What variables are present in monitoring of test sites?_
7. List the types of land use that might have an effect on each of the following:
dissolved oxygen
pH
turbidity_
other
8. Based on the information given for each of the five sites, which site do you consider to be the healthiest?
Explain.
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3-50
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WHIPPED TOP WATER
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Ecology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
6 large containers of cool whip
chart on water use (state/
national)
red, yellow, blue, and green food
colors
plastic spoons and knives
six pieces of construction paper
paper plates for everyone
teacher sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Read a graph.
2. Frost a pie using the information from the graph.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water conservation does not mean doing without water. Rather, it means
using water wisely and not wasting a drop. In certain areas of the country,
the limited availability of drinking water has made water conservation
mandatory. In other areas, reducing water use is necessary because
supplies have been contaminated by landfills, toxic wastes, oil spills, or
drought conditions.
On the average, each American uses about 150 gallons of water a day—
most of it in the home. Nationwide, home use accounts for 57 percent of publicly supplied water. Public use for
fire fighting, street cleaning, parks and recreation, and unaccounted for losses average 11 percent. The remaining
32 percent is used by businesses and industries.
Water conservation measures can stop the waste and help protect our water resources. Widespread reduction
in water use can reduce the need for additional water projects that dam rivers, drain aquifers, and dry up wetlands
and wells. It also can reduce the need for new or expanded sewage treatment facilities and reduce the amount
of energy needed to clean pump, distribute, and heat water. By diverting less water, we leave more water to
maintain stream flow, which improves water quality. Long-term conservation strategies can make our clean
water supplies last longer.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Divide students into teams of four or five.
B. Have each team make a no-bake cheesecake at home the night before the activity.
C. Prepare different colored frostings by using cool whip and food color. This will be done for each team, so
make sure you have enough of each color. Each food color will represent a type of water use:
red = power generation
yellow = industrial
black (combine green and blue) = mining
blue = public water supply
green = agriculture
white = other
D. Have each color set up at different stations around the room. Also have on the table a piece of construction
paper that has printed on it the amount of water used for that particular area. Arrange it so that the colors
match the food color.
E. Bring at least one pie in case a group does not have a pie or does not make it to class with the pie they made.
3-51
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Explore the students' knowledge on the subject prior to the lesson by asking questions such as:
1. How many of you use water?
2. List some ways you use water.
3. How is water used in our society and our environment?
B. Show the chart on water use. Discuss how the water is used. Stress the amount used in each area.
//. Activity
A. Show the students that different colored cool whip is located at different stations in the room. Each
colored cool whip represents a water use. Example, agricultural uses are signified by the green cool
whip.
B. When they arrive at that station, they will frost that percent of their pie used for agriculture with the green
cool whip. This will give them an idea of how much water is used for agriculture.
C. Then the students are to rotate to another station and top their pie with the correct amount of colored cool
whip represented on the chart.
///. Follow-Up
A. When finished, all pies should be decorated and the students may then reward themselves by eating a
piece of their pie.
RESOURCE
Clean Water Foundation 1992 Calendar.
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TEACHER SHEET
WHIPPED TOP WATER
Amounts of each color will vary depending upon the water use in your particular area.
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XERISCAPE - SEVEN STEPS TO WATER - WISE LANDSCAPING
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define xeriscape and identify specific landscaping methods that
support xeriscape practices.
2. Differentiate between water conservation practices and standard
landscaping practices.
3. Survey xeriscape practices currently in use at home and initiate
new conservation practices indicated by the survey.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Botany, Ecology
TIME:
3 class periods
2 to 3 weeks for students to
complete survey at home and
design landscape
MATERIALS:
teacher sheets
student sheets
As increases in population and land development occur, the supply of usable water will continue to decrease
and will lead to greater restrictions of water use. In recent years, droughts in many areas of the United States
have forced residents to limit their use of water.
By using landscaping and horticultural techniques that reduce water use, many landowners can drastically
reduce the overall need for water in landscaped areas. Xeriscape is the wise use of these strategies 'o minimize
water use, reduce maintenance, and produce more drought-resistant gardens and landscaped areas.
A Xeriscape-type landscape can reduce outdoor water consumption by as much as 50% without sacrificing the
quality and beauty of a home environment. It is also an environmentally-sound landscape, requiring less fertilizer
. and fewer chemicals. A Xeriscape-type landscape is low maintenance - saving time, effort, and money. Any
landscape, whether newly-installed or well-established, can be made more water-efficient by implementing one
or more of the seven steps. A landscape does not have to be totally redesigned to save water. Significant water
savings can be realized simply by modifying the watering schedule, learning how and when to water, using the
most efficient watering methods and learning about the different water needs of landscape plants.
There are several general principles that can be used in most home Xeriscape projects. These strategies include
grouping plants with similar water uses, reducing the amount of irrigated turfgrass areas, using sufficient amounts
of organic material, using an efficient watering system, and managing landscapes to reduce water demand.
Xeriscape can conserve water and also produce attractive, low-maintenance landscaped areas. Each person
can make a difference in conserving water.
Terms
Xeriscape: the use of landscaping and horticultural strategies to minimize water use, reduce maintenance, and
produce more drought-resistant gardens and landscaped areas.
mulch: a protective covering of various substances, especially organic; placed around plants to prevent
evaporation of moisture and freezing of roots and to control weeds.
organic material: material derived from organic, or living, things; also, relating to or containing carbon compounds.
inorganic material: material derived from nonorganic, or nonliving, sources.
pruning: trimming or cutting off undesired or unnecessary twigs, branches, or roots from a tree, bush, or plant.
turfgrass: lawns
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drought: a lack of rain or water; a long period of dry weather.
topography: the detailed mapping or description of the features of a relatively small area, district, or locality; the
relief features or surface configuration of an area.
landscaping: improving the natural beauty of a piece of land by planting or altering the contours of the ground.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Make overheads or handouts of Teacher Sheets.
B. Prepare copies of Student Sheets for each student. Run copies back and front to get on one sheet.
C. Read the Water Conservation Fact Sheets on pages F - 37 & 38 to become familiar with the seven steps used
in Xeriscape-type landscaping.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss what happens to plants when there is insufficient rain or drought conditions. Ask students what
restrictions are often placed on water use during these times.
B. Ask students if they have noticed that often plants in people's yards sometimes look wilted but plants in
woods and fields do not. Discuss how native plants are adapted to a wider range of conditions than
some plants used in yards.
C. Introduce the term Xeriscape. Explain that it was derived by combining the Greek word "Xeros," meaning
dry, with the word "landscape." Give students the definition of Xeriscape.
D. Discuss each of the seven steps of Xeriscape landscaping given in the Water Conservation Fact Sheet.
List steps on the board and tell students they will be using these steps later in the activity.
//. Activity
Step 1 - Planning and Design
Step 2 - Soil Analysis
Step 3 - Appropriate Plant Selection
Step 4 - Practical Turf Areas
Step 5 - Efficient Irrigation
Step 6 - Use of Mulches
Step 7 - Appropriate Maintenance
A. Pass out Student Sheet 1 - Landscape Symbols. Show Teacher Sheet 1 - Base Map and Site Analysis.
Explain to students they are going to conduct a survey of their yards. If possible, pair students that live
close together. If a student lives in an apartment, pair with a student who has a yard. The first step in
Xeriscape landscaping is to begin with a Base Map of the existing area and conduct a Site Analysis.
Point out the features in Teacher Sheet 1 and make sure students understand the extent of their
assignment. You may want to call one student to the board to draw a base map of his or her yard.
Explain that they will need to walk around the yard to get all the details. Use the landscape symbols to
indicate the existing vegetation. Give students a couple days to complete this assignment.
B. Show Teacher Sheet 2 - Water Use Zones. Discuss why certain areas need more water than others and
how shade affects water use. Using their Site Analysis, have students determine water use zones of
their yards. There are plant exceptions to each of these use zones. It is best to find out from a local
nursery person or Extension Agent which plants fit these zones for your particular area. Generally,
these guidelines can be followed:
High - regular watering - some flower beds, turf grass in direct sun
Moderate - occasional watering - well established plants, plants in partial shade
Low - natural rainfall - do not need watering except in extremely dry conditions, full shade, woody
ornamental trees, some turfgrasses.
3-56
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C. Show Teacher Sheet 3 - Landscaped Water Use Zones. Ask students to describe the changes that have
been made in the landscapes. Discuss the water use based on the "before" landscape as compared to
the "after" landscape. Discuss what factors (shade-tolerant ground cover, mulch, native trees and shrubs,
less turfgrass) changed the water use zones.
D. Pass out Student Sheet 2 - Survey of a Landscaped Area. Students should use the checklist to determine
the ways that Xeriscape is or can be used in their home landscaped areas to reduce the amount of water
used. Give students a couple days to complete this assignment.
E. Show Teacher Sheet 4 - Professional Landscaping. Discuss what was done to change the landscape.
Also note the change in water use zones. You may need to review the landscape symbols so students
are familiar with each one. Explain to students they are going to "landscape" their yards using Xeriscape
practices and create a Master Plan for their yard. If students have yards that are already fully landscaped,
pair with students whose yards are not landscaped. Remind students to include each Xeriscape Step
including their plan for Appropriate Maintenance in the future. Soil analyses can be done by your local
county Extension office. You may want to check with your local office before you have a large number of
students sending in soil samples at the same time. Have students use their Base Map to create their
Master Plan. Give students several days to complete this assignment.
F. Display completed plans in the room. You may want to have students "judge" the plans and award a Yard
of the Month - type award for the plan that best adheres to Xeriscape principles and practices.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students take photographs of an area before it is xeriscaped and compare it to later photographs.
B. Have students keep a journal of differences in maintenance, weed control, pests, and diseases on
plants, and the overall appearance of the site.
IV. Extensions
A. Invite speakers from landscaping associations or master gardners to speak to the class about xeriscape.
B. Have students develop a miniature Xeriscape terrarium that models the landscaped area at home.
C. Have students create a Xeriscape landscape plan for the school campus.
D. Have students observe other yard and business landscapes and determine if Xeriscape practices
were followed.
RESOURCES
National Xeriscape Council, Inc., Post Office Box 767836, Roswell, GA 30076.
Waterways: A Water Resource Curriculum. St. John's Water Management District, Jacksonville, FL, 1991.
Xeriscape: A Guide to Developing a Water-wise Landscape, Cooperative Extension Service, University of
Georgia, 1992.
3-57
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STUDENT SHEET 1
6-8
LANDSCAPE SYMBOLS
Symbols
EXISTING HARDWOOD
° £ EXISTING CONIFER
T *J--^
00G3
SHRUBS
HEDGE
GROUNDCOVER
PROPOSED HARDWOOD
PROPOSED CONIFER
FLOWERING SHRUB
D 0 D FENCE
ANNUALS &
HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
COMPOST PILE &
POTTING BENCH
3-58
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STUDENT SHEET 2 XERISCAPE
6-8
Survey of a Landscaped Area
Directions: For each practice, indicate which of the seven xeriscape steps it illustrates. Refer to Fact Sheet on
Water Conservation, pages 37 and 38. Also determine what landscaping practices are currently being used in a
landscaped area and if there are xeriscape practices that can be implemented to conserve water.
Step In Can
Number Use Implement
Plant varieties that are well adapted to this locality and soil conditions.
Group plants with similar water needs together.
Use moisture-loving plants for wet, poorly drained areas.
Use drought-tolerant plants for drier, sunnier areas.
Use turfgrass to cover excessively large areas.
Grow grass under a densely shaded area of shallow-rooted trees
Grow grass around shrubs.
Grow grass on steep slopes, in rock outcroppings, or in very narrow spaces.
Grow grass in areas where play tramples all vegetation.
Check pH regularly to maintain pH of 6.0 to 7.0.
Fertilize three times per year.
Add lime to create a higher soil pH and to make lawn more drought-resistant.
Control weeds.
Maintain a cut-lawn height of 2-1/2 to 3 inches during the summer for cool
season grasses or between 1 to 1-1/2 inches for warm season grasses.
Water the lawn only as needed.
Check for stress areas and water them first.
Water only in the cool of the morning or when the area is shaded.
Check sprinklers for accurate spraying. Avoid watering pavement, sidewalks,
and driveways.
Mulch is used around trees, shrubs, and perennials rather than
turfgrass.
Transplant smaller trees into areas rather than large trees that experience
greater transfer shock.
Transplant trees in the fall when feeder-root systems can be established.
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STUDENT SHEET 2 XERISCAPE
6-8
Step In Can
Number Use Implement
Avoid planting during drought periods. Use natural periods of rainfall in the
fall or spring.
Prepare planting holes that are broad, saucer-shaped and two to three
times the size of the root ball.
Incorporate compost into the soil to improve the water-holding capacity rather
than adding organic matter as fill in the planting hole.
Use a trickle of water in newly planted trees and shrubs to settle the soil and
prevent dry pockets of air.
Create a saucer around newly placed plants to create a water basin.
Use two to three inches of mulch around newly planted trees and shrubs.
Control weeds around newly planted shrubs and trees by mulching, pulling,
mechanical cultivation, or herbicides.
Use organic mulch that includes straw, leaves, manure, pine needles, leaf
clippings, shredded bark, sawdust, compost, etc.
Use inorganic mulch that includes gravel, pebbles, cobblestones, or weed
control mats.
Use white marble chips that raise soil pH and cause iron deficiency, leaf
scorch, and glare.
Use natural stones to break the force of splashing water and provide area for
planting of annuals and perennials.
Use a recommended watering schedule for the area when there is insufficient
rainfall.
Water newly planted sod and freshly planted grass seeds daily for the first
week and every other day until the lawn is green.
Use a water gauge to measure water applied to lawns when there is not 1 to
1/2 inches of rain per week.
Water lawns when there are visible signs of wilting.
Avoid watering dormant lawns.
Use a deep soaking method (about one inch of water) to encourage deep
root development.
Avoid overhead sprinklers that are 75% efficient as compared to drip or
subsurface sprinklers that are 90% efficient.
Use an alarm on sprinkler systems to remind you to turn them off.
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TEACHER SHEET 1
6-8
LANDSCAPE SYMBOLS
CO
en
STREET
Base Map of Property
Site Analysis of Property
-------
TEACHER SHEET 2
6-8
WATER USE ZONES
LOW
WATER USE
MODERATE
WATER USE
MODERATE WATER USE
RESIDENCE
MODERATE
WATER USE
3-62
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TEACHER SHEET 3
6-8
LANDSCAPED WATER USE ZONES
3-63
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TEACHER SHEET 4
PROFESSIONAL LANDSCAPING
BEFORE:
co
s
AFTER:
PLANT LIST
1. Boxwood
2. Dogwood
3. Eleagnus
4. Holly
5. Nandina
6. Pfitzer Juniper
1. Azalea, George Tabor
2. Azaleas, Gumpo
3. Boxwood, American
4. Dogwood
5. Dogwood, Existing
6. Eleagnus, Existing
7. Foster Holly
PLANT LIST
8. Holly, Existing
9. Hydrangea, Bigleaf
10. Mondo Grass
11. Otto Luyken Laurel
12. Yaupon Holly (Tree
Form)
13. ZoysiaTurf
WATER USE ZONES
Credit: Design Courtesy of William T. Smith & Associates
Atlanta, Georgia
Redd-Chezmar Residence
Designer William T. Smith
WATER USE ZONES
-------
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: v-"J> "; vP ^:^-'^. • : -;'!.'v.. 7
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31
WATER SOURCEBOOK
GROUNDWATER
Q
S3
o
z
D
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-------
DISPOSAL OF OLD PAINT
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify toxic household products that should not be disposed of
in a landfill.
2. Select alternative disposal procedures involving toxic products.
3. Write a news program for a local TV station explaining and
identifying toxic substances that should not be placed in a landfill.
SUBJECT:
Chemistry, Drama
TIME:
3 class periods
MATERIALS:
video camera, if desired
camera for slides or pictures, if
desired
microphone
pictures of toxic products and
landfills
student sheet
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Our society produces immense quantities of waste. According to estimates
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), our society produces
over ten billion tons of waste per year. This quantity comes not only from municipal waste but from agriculture,
mining, and industry. According to U.S. EPA figures from the 1990s, about 180 million tons of municipal waste
are produced each year in the U.S. Without source reduction, the EPA estimates that U.S. citizens will generate
approximately 216 million tons of municipal waste in the year 2000.
Waste volumes are growing even faster than our population. The U.S. produces about four pounds per person
per day of municipal solid waste in the late 1990s, up from about 3.5 pounds per person per day in 1960. This is
projected to be about 5 pounds per person per day in the year 2000.
Of major concern is groundwater pollution. Pollutants in waste can cause health and environmental problems if
allowed to enter the groundwater, which is used for drinking by 70 percent of the nation. Chemical reactions
during the degradation of material in a landfill can allow pollutants such as metals to become soluble and to
migrate, if not contained, into surrounding water supplies. Today's landfill designs seek to contain these waste
materials and to monitor the groundwater to ensure that containment is secure.
landfill: a large, outdoor area for waste disposal; landfills where waste is exposed to the atmosphere (open
dumps) are now illegal; in "sanitary" landfills, waste is layered and covered with soil.
toxic: having the characteristic of causing death or damage to humans, animals, or plants; poisonous.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Make arrangements to use a video camera to tape the news program.
B. Create a news station atmosphere.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show a video depicting hazardous products and materials.
B. Discuss problems with storing toxic products in a landfill.
4-1
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C. Discuss alternative disposal of hazardous materials.
//. Activity
A. Divide the students into groups. Each team will represent a different TV station news team.
B. Have students choose who will be the interviewer and who will be interviewed.
C. Have student choose two anchor people.
D. Have students choose reporters.
E. Have each team practice, then present its news report.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students to determine what constitutes a "good" news report, thereby establishing "criteria" for
"evaluation." Introduce them to these concepts.
B. Using their criteria, have the students vote on the best news report in the class.
IV. Extensions
A. Have students determine the availability of toxic product disposal in their communities. For example,
where can used motor oil be recycled to prevent it from reaching landfills and polluting groundwater?
B. Have the students call oil-changing stations or service stations to find out how they dispose of their used
oil.
RESOURCE
American Water Works Association, Household Hazardous Waste Brochure. West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO
80235.
Earth Science. Prentice Hall, 1991.
LFG Control and Recovery, by author: SCS Engineers, http://204.240.184.66/landfill.html
Solid Waste Landfills: http://wissago.uwex.edu/uwex/course/landfill/
4-2
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STUDENT SHEET
DISPOSAL OF OLD PAINT
6-8
POTENTIAL SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
Source
Possible Major Contaminants
Landfills
Municipal
Industrial
Hazardous waste disposal sites
Liquid waste storage ponds
(lagoons, leaching ponds, and
evaporation basins)
Septic tanks and leach fields
Deep-well waste injection
Agricultural activities
Land application of wastewater and
sludges
Infiltration of urban runoff
Deicing activities (control of snow
and ice on roads)
Radioactive wastes
Improperly abandoned wells and
exploration holes
Heavy metals, chloride, sodium, calcium
Wide variety of organic and inorganic constituents
Wide variety of inorganic constituents (particularly heavy metals such
as hexavalent chromium) and organic compounds (pesticides,
solvents, PCBs)
Heavy metals, solvents, and brines
Organic compounds (solvents), nitrates, sulfates, sodium, and
microbiological contaminants
Variety of organic and inorganic compounds
Nitrates,herbicides, and pesticides
Heavy metals, organic compounds, inorganic compounds, and
microbiological contaminants
Inorganic compounds, heavy metals, and petroleum products
Chlorides, sodium, and calcium
Radioactivity from strontium, tritium, and other radionuclides
Variety of organic, inorganic, and microbiological contaminants from
surface runoff and other contaminated aquifers
4-3
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4-4
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CONTAMINATION OF GROUNDWATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Demonstrate how precipitation on a farming field or nursery can
leak chemicals into groundwater, contaminating wells, ponds, and
streams.
SUBJECTS:
Earth Science, Geology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
clear plastic boxes
clay
water
student sheet
teacher sheet
2. List safe and unsafe farming methods.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Almost all groundwater is formed by the downward percolation of
precipitation through the zone of aeration. Small amounts of groundwater
also originate from seawater trapped in rocks when they were deposited (known as connate water).
The distribution of water can be split into four zones. The soil zone and the intermediate zone form the unsaturated
zone of aeration which contains soil moisture and air in pores or voids (interstices) between the soil particles.
Water pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure due to capillary forces. The capillary fringe forms the zone of
movement and, together with the underlying aquifer, form the zone of saturation. The most significant quantity of
water is held in the aquifer where nearly all the interstices are full of water.
The underground storage of water can be considered in terms of changes in storage, recharge, and discharge.
The change in storage equals the recharge minus the discharge. Thus, the groundwater balance can be
represented as:
D S (storage) = Qr (recharge) - Qd (discharge)
Recharge occurs by infiltration and subsequent percolation of water as the result of a precipitation event.
River channels include influent and effluent streams. Influent channels occur when groundwater is discharged
into the river channel. Effluent channels occur when river channels and lakes in contact with the groundwater
body discharge water to the underlying aquifer.
The movement of groundwater is dependent upon the slope of the water table (or hydraulic gradient) of the
aquifer. Other physical factors also affect groundwater movement, such as the geology (type of sand and gravel,
mineral deposits, etc.).
Wetlands often act as links between ground and surface water. After a rainstorm, wetlands act as catchment
basins. If the wetland is located above the water table and its underlying soil allows water movement, water will
gradually move from the wetland into the underlying soil. If wetlands are drained, the water which would normally
enter the groundwater supply is likely to remain above ground, leading to erosion, sedimentation, and flooding of
lakes and rivers.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently massive
to fall to the Earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
4-5
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runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters a
water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have on hand clear plastic boxes, water, and clay.
B. Divide students into groups.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show a video of groundwater pollution.
B. Gather pictures that explain groundwater leaching and discuss how what we place in the soil can eventually
leak into groundwater.
//. Activity
A. Have students put clay in the clear plastic box, making one end a sloping hill that drains into a pond. Be
sure the ridges in the clay cause the water to drain into the pond area when poured into the clear box.
B. Have students change the ridges in the clay so the water does not drain into the pond.
C. Have them compare the results of the two activities.
///. Follow-Up
A. Discuss what happened in each setup and why.
B. Relate the direction of plowing to the runoff that occurs into bodies of water.
C. Ask students to recall farms and how they were plowed with respect to the land.
IV. Extensions
A. Students can create a poster show that depicts groundwater contamination.
B. Have students explain the relationships between surface and groundwater that might exist over the four
seasons of the year.
C. Visit an area where wetlands contain water or where storm water detention ponds exist. Test the water
for contamination (Examples: solids, pH).
RESOURCES
Earth Science. Prentice Hall, 1991.
Groundwater video. Obtain through the Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA22314-
1994 (phone: 703-684-2400, FAX: 703-684-2492, or http://www.wef.org)
Groundwater: http://giswww.king.ac.uk/aquaweb/main/groundwa/gw1.html
Water Purification Capabilities: http://hermes.ecn.purdue.edu:8001/http_dir/Gopher/agen/agen521/Lessons/
Wetlands/purification.html
4-6
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
Set-Up A
Set-Up B
CONT. OF GROUNDWATER
Hill w/ ridges that drain into pond
Contour plowing
1. What did you observe in A?
2. What did you observe in B?
3. How does plowing affect erosion?
4. How can groundwater be contaminated by poor farming practices?
4-7
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TEACHER SHEET
CONT. OF GROUNDWATER
SOIL CONSERVATION
CONTOUR FARMING
^^;::/:^>>v
il',U> *'>""• --••
u£&^'.''r'^
WINDBREAK
TERRACING
4-8
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GROUNDWATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define groundwater.
2. Identify groundwater's relationship to springs, artesian wells,
ordinary wells, and sinkholes.
3. Explain the process by which sinkholes are formed.
4. Explain saltwater contamination and explain its causes.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Geology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
oblong balloon
plastic box
sand
gravel
plastic cup
straight pin
teacher sheets
Sinkholes form in carbonate terraces when acidic groundwater dissolves the underlying rock. They are typically
closed depressions, in which water drains down into the underlying rock rather than over a surface stream or
gully. Sinkholes are common in a type of topography called karst, which is characterized by abundant sinkholes,
caves, springs, and disappearing streams. Although common in many parts of the world, such as the Southeastern
United States, karst is uncommon in the western United States.
Sinkholes, caves, and other karst features form when carbonate rock dissolves in acidic groundwater. Normal
rainwater becomes acidic as it percolates through the soil and picks up carbon dioxide (C02) produced by
organisms in the soil. The CO2 dissolves in the water and forms carbonic acid: CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (carbonic
acid), which disassociates into a hydrogen cation and bicarbonate anion to form carbonic acid:
H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate anion)
The hydrogen of the carbonic acid then attacks the calcium carbonate of which the marble is composed:
CaCC-3 (calcium carbonate) + 2H+ = Ca++ + 2HCO3-
(The two +'s near the Ca refer to the double positive charge of the Ca ion.) The Ca++ and HCO3- ions then flow
away in the groundwater.
This process can form underground caves and passageways. If one of these underground cavities collapse, a
sinkhole forms. Groundwater flows along joints and fractures dissolving the marble and forming sinkholes, caves,
and other karst features. With time, the joints and fractures widen and turn into cracks and canyons.
artesian well: a well in which the water comes from a confined aquifer and is under pressure. One type of
artesian well is a free-flowing artesian well where water just flows or bubbles out of the ground without being
pumped.
drought: a lack of rain or water; a long period of dry weather.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
karst: topography formed mainly by underground drainage characterized by sinkholes, caves, springs, and
4-9
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disappearing streams.
percolate: to drain or seep through a porous substance.
saline (or saltwater) intrusion: the saltwater infiltration of freshwater aquifers in coastal areas, when groundwater
is withdrawn faster than it is being recharged.
sinkhole: a natural depression in a land surface connected to a subterranean passage, generally occurring in
limestone regions and formed by solution or by collapse of a cavern roof.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather all materials before hand so they are ready for the activity.
B. Have on hand enough sand for everyone to build boxes.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show the students a bag of sand, soil, and gravel. Ask them to describe each.
B. Fill a plastic box with gravel first, then soil, and finally sand. Discuss the fact that all make up the surface
of the Earth. (Have students observe the layers.)
C. Explain and illustrate how water moves from the Earth's surface to underground. Explain and discuss
springs.
D. Talk about the removal of water from underground for our use.
//. Activity
A. Have each student cover bottom of the box with about 2 1/2 inches each of gravel, soil, and sand (top).
B. Blow up and tie the balloon. Place it in the center of the box on top of the sand.
C. Cover the balloon by placing sand over it, packing the balloon down.
D. Put a paper cup on top of the sand that is over the balloon.
E. Use your straight pin to burst the balloon. The results will illustrate how sinkholes are formed.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have students use the scientific method to write up the activity.
B. Have students discuss in writing the importance of groundwater.
C. Have students illustrate what was observed in the activity.
D. Have students explain the relationship between groundwater and sinkholes.
IV. Extensions
A. Go to the library and research sinkholes. Find out if you live near an area where sinkholes occur.
B. If you have a chance, plan a field trip to the nearest sinkhole. Remember: some plants and animals may
4-10
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live only in this one place. Therefore, try to protect their habitat. Stay on marked trails. Try to leave no
evidence of your visit—only your footprints.
C. Obtain a piece of limestone and some carbolic acid. Put the acid on the stone and observe how it
dissolves the limestone.
RESOURCES
Environmental Science, Teacher's Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1996.
Sinkhole: http://emerald.ucsc.edu/-es10/fieldtripUCSC/sinkhole.html
4-11
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
GROUNDWATER
SANDSTONE
CLAY
SINKHOLES
LIMESTONE
CAVE
-------
STUDENT SHEET
GROUNDWATER
6-8
A MODEL KARST FORMATION
Needle or Pin
Miniature
House
Toy Car
Balloon Buried
In Layers of Soil
6 cm
Gravel
4-13
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4-14
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INVISIBLE WATER
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Art, Earth Science, Math
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
a large display relief map of the
world
a 12-inch diameter globe (one
showing the ocean bottom is
best)
a five or ten gallon aquarium
writing materials
calculators
measuring cup
one quart container for every
three students
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define groundwater, aquifer, and hydrologic cycle or water cycle.
2. Describe the amount and distribution of groundwater on planet
Earth.
3. Make inferences about the importance of responsible use of
groundwater.
4. Calculate water volumes using the statistical information provided.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The Earth has been called the water planet. Between two-thirds and
three-fourths of the Earth's surface is water, which is visible in rivers,
ponds, lakes, icecaps, and clouds. The Earth's invisible source of water
(groundwater) is more difficult to see and understand, yet all these forms
of water are part of the interrelated flow of water that we call the water cycle or hydrologic cycle.
Water, a renewable natural resource, is continuously being renewed through the hydrologic or water cycle. The
hydrologic cycle is powered by the sun's energy and gravity. In this circulation process, water is constantly in
motion, cycling through sky, earth, and oceans.
When precipitation (snow, sleet, rain, or hail) falls on the Earth's surface, several things may occur. When
precipitation builds up on the soil surface, surface runoff occurs. Surface water moves by overland flow into
stream, ponds, lakes, or other bodies of water. When precipitation falls on a porous soil surface, some of the
water will seep into the ground through infiltration. Some water clings to soil particles and is drawn into the roots
of growing plants; it is then transported to leaves, where it is lost to the atmosphere as vapor in the transpiration
process.
Some of the water that enters the soil moves either laterally or vertically through the soil. Lateral movement of
water through the soil is called throughflow or interflow. Vertical or downward movement of water through the soil
is called percolation. The percolating water eventually enters the zone of saturation, where all spaces between
the rocks and soil particles are filled with water. The water filling all the spaces between the rocks and soil
particles in the saturated zone is known as groundwater.
Groundwater is stored in two geologic regions: aquitards or aquifers. If water cannot move through the particles
of the geologic region, the region is called an aquitard. If water can move through or permeate through the
material of the geologic region, the region is called an aquifer.
Aquitards and aquifers vary in their depth, thickness, and even where they occur. An aquifer that is bounded on
the top and bottom by aquitards is known as a confined aquifer. Generally, unconfined aquifers are overlaid by
permeable layers and are usually found near the land surface.
Groundwater flows through the rocks and layers of earth until it discharges in springs, streams as baseflow, and
oceans. The sun warms up the water surface, changing water into vapor, a process known as evaporation.
4-15
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Each of the segments of the water cycle shares a portion of the total amount of the water on planet Earth. Fresh
water is not evenly distributed throughout the world. Some people take fresh, clean water for granted, while
others treasure every drop. Yet, simple calculations demonstrate the fact that the amount of water is limited.
Scientists believe that all the water that we will ever have is on the Earth right now. Whatever amount is available
for human and animal consumption depends on how the quality is maintained. We, as human beings, have the
responsibility to conserve water and use it wisely while protecting its quality.
The purpose of this activity is for students to understand how fragile and important water is as a natural resource.
Terms
aquifer: an underground layer of unconsolidated (porous) rock or soil that holds (is saturated with) usable
amounts of water.
aquitard: an underground layer of consolidated (nonporous) rock or impermeable soil through which water
cannot move.
baseflow: groundwater contribution to a stream.
confined aquifer: an aquifer that is sandwiched between two layers of impermeable materials and is under
great pressure.
evaporation: conversion of a liquid to the vapor state by the addition of heat.
groundwater supply: the amount of fresh water stored beneath the Earth's surface.
infiltration: when precipitation falls on a porous soil surface and some of the water seeps into the ground.
interflow: significant lateral movement of water through the soil.
overland flow: when precipitation moves quickly over the surface of the land into a stream channel or other
body of water.
percolation: downward movement of water through the soil.
precipitation: any or all of the forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and
reach the ground.
surface runoff: when precipitation builds up on the soil surface and water moves by over land flow into a
stream channel or other body of water.
throughflow: significant lateral movement of water through the soil.
transpiration: the passage of water from plants and animals directly into the air in the form of a vapor.
unconfined aquifer: an aquifer overlaid by permeable layers, generally found near the Earth's surface.
water cycle: the cyclical process of water's movement from the atmosphere, its inflow and temporary storage
on and in land, and its outflow to the oceans. The cycle consists of three principal phases: precipitation, runoff
in surface waters or groundwater, and evaporation and / or transpiration in the air.
zone of saturation: that region below the surface in which all voids are filled with liquid.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have students make a panel mural of the water or hydrologic cycle, emphasizing the location of groundwater.
B. Make transparencies of the hydrologic or water cycle and the relative percentages of water on Earth.
4-16
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C. Make a student facts sheet showing the percentages of water locations on Earth.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Introduce the unit with a film on groundwater or groundwater resources.
B. Have students read and identify the terms used in the background information.
//. Activity
A. Using a relief map of the Earth and the transparency of relative percentages of water on Earth, begin the
discussion by pointing out that groundwater is less than 1% of the total amount of water on the Earth.
Relate this fact to the percentage of ocean water that is between two-thirds and three-fourths of the
surface of the Earth.
B. Discuss the relative percentages.
C. Provide students with a facts sheet. Have the students calculate the estimated amount of fresh water
potentially available for human use:
Groundwater 0.62%
Freshwater lakes 0.009%
Rivers 0.0001%
Icecaps/glaciers 2.0%
2.6291%
D. While discussing the relative percentages of freshwater, emphasize that the usable percentage of existing
fresh water is reduced by pollution and contamination, the fact that all groundwater is not available, and
the fact that water from icecaps is not readily available.
E. Ask the students to discuss the following:
1. The amount of water used by humans daily for drinking, food preparation, bathing, laundry, and
recreation.
2. That other life forms (plant and animal) need fresh, clean water as well as saline (salt) water.
F. Have the students assume that five gallons (or 1280 tablespoons) represents all the water on Earth.
Have the students calculate the volume of all the quantities on the water percentage list. Ask the students
to consider the following:
1. Remind students hat for multiplication, all the decimal places must be shifted two places to the left so
97.2% becomes 0.972 prior to multiplication:
Example: 0.972 X 1280 tablespoons = 1244.16 tablespoons
VOLUME OF WATER ON THE WATER PERCENTAGE LIST
5 gallons 1280.00
Oceans 1244.16
Icecaps/glaciers 26.24
Groundwater 7.93
Freshwater lakes 0.11
Inland seas/salt lakes 0.1
Atmosphere 0.0128
Rivers 0.0012
approx. 1280.0000 Tablespoons
4-17
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2. Once the values are obtained, ask the students to calculate the total volume of all water other than
ocean water. (It is approximately 34 tablespoons.)
3. Explain to the students that the volume of water on the water percentage list will be used in the
science class.
G. SCIENCE CLASS:
1. Have students make a data table using the volume of water on the water percentage list that was
completed earlier in mathematics, being sure to show the total volume of water other than saline
water.
2. Once the values are placed on the data table, divide the students into teams of three. Have the
gopher for each team place 34 tablespoons of water in a container and take it to the team's workstation.
3. Ask students to remove the amount of water representing all freshwater lakes (approximately 0.11
tablespoon).
4. Ask students to remove the amount of water representing all the rivers (approximately 0.001
tablespoon, which is less than a drop).
5. Ask students to remove the amount of water representing all groundwater (approximately 7.9
tablespoons).
6. Have the students discuss the following:
a. The fragile nature of the freshwaters (especially groundwater), wetlands, and oceans of our
planet.
b. The vast number of species (both plant and animal) that are dependent on clean, usable
groundwater for survival.
c. How fresh water is replenished by the water cycle (Example: by evaporation from the snows
and inland rainfall that recharges streams and aquifers).
///. Follow-Up
A. Present the film Groundwater. Have students draw and label typical soil profiles.
IV. Extensions
A. Have students find our where the local drinking water supply is obtained by calling the city or county
water supply department. Research the number of wells in the area: Hown many are there? How deep is
the average well? What are the most common minerals and compounds in the water? Does composition
vary with locale?
RESOURCES
Aquatic Project Wild. Western Regional Environmental Education Council, 1987. Obtain from Aquatic WILD, PO
Box 18060, Boulder, CO 80308-8060 (phone: 303- 444-2390).
Coble, Rice, Walla, Murry, et al. Earth Science. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Needham, MA, 1994.
Groundwater video. Obtain through the Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA22314-
1994 (phone: 703-684-2400, FAX: 703-684-2492, or http://www.wef.org).
4-18
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PERCOLATION
6-8
SUBJECT:
Geology
TIME:
30 minutes
MATERIALS:
aquarium or ant farm type glass
case
clean sand (white or yellow)
water
food coloring
dish detergent bottle or similar
one with a nozzle
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Observe how water travels through soil over a short period of
time.
2. Learn that the movement of water through soil can carry surface
contamination to deeper levels (including groundwater).
3. Predict how they believe the water will travel through the soil.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
During precipitation, water reaching the ground will infiltrate into the
underlying soil. Water that is not taken up by plant roots can percolate
through the ground to join the groundwater. The rate of percolation is ~" ^
dependent upon rock type and composition.
The infiltration capacity is the constant rate at which water percolates into the ground. Infiltration capacity is
dependent upon soil porosity. Sandstones have high porosity and, therefore, high infiltration capacities while
clays have low porosity and, therefore, low infiltration capacities.
Infiltration is measured using an infiltrometer.
Terms:
percolation: the drainage or seepage of a liquid through a porous substance.
leach: to remove soluble constituents by the actions of a percolating liquid.
point source: known source of contamination.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prior to the lesson, pack the sand tightly and uniformly in the glass case. (An ant farm case will work best
because it will be easier to see the movement of the water through the sand; however, be sure it is sealed so
that it will not leak.) Prepare the colored water in the bottle.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the topic of percolation and explain how it can carry contamination to deeper levels of the soil
and to the groundwater. Explain what a point source of contamination would be.
//. Activities
A. Have the students guess how they think the water will move through the soil and sketch a picture of it.
B. Place the glass case so that all the students can see it.
4-19
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C. Add the water. If using an aquarium, add the water near the front edge so that all students can see it.
Make sure to put the water in one location. Do not move the bottle as it is added. This will illustrate a
point source contamination.
D. Observe the way the water moves through the sand.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students compare their guesses (either orally or written) as to what actually happened.
IV. Extensions
A. Use sand with a different grain size and try the experiment again. Or, use clay as a layer with the sand.
Demonstrate why liners are used for landfills.
RESOURCE
Groundwater: http://giswww.king.ac.uk/aquaweb/main/groundwa/gw1.html
4-20
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
PERCOLATION
Directions: Fill in the information as you do your investigation.
Soil Type
Estimated Percolation Time
Actual Percolation Time
1. Which soil was most porous?
2. Which soil was least porous?
3. How does percolation time affect groundwater?
4. How does percolation time affect leaching?
4-21
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4-22
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POROSITY? PERMEABILITY?
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Geology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
four 500 mL beakers
3 soil samples
water sample
stop watch
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define the terms porosity and permeability.
2. Explain the way water moves through the Earth.
3. Make a table in which to compile and interpret results.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Because of gravity, rainwater travels downward into the tiny openings in
the Earth. These openings or spaces are called pores. The more porous
the land, the greater the volume of water that the soil can hold. When you measure the volume of water the soil
can hold, you are measuring the porosity.
Different soils let water pass through them at faster rates. This is called permeability. When you measure the
time it takes for water to reach the bottom of the soil, the measure taken is the permeability of the soil. When all
the pores of the soil are filled with water, the extra water makes its way down to lower levels. Eventually water
begins to collect below the Earth's surface. This water is then called groundwater. Groundwater is liquid water
that lies in the subsurface in fractures in rocks and in pore space between grains in sedimentary rocks. Groundwater
is a type of freshwater that humans use for their everyday life.
Porosity is the percentage of open space in a rock. Porosity can be as high as 50 percent in loose sand to 5
percent in cemented, lithified sandstone, to near zero in unfractured igneous rocks. The porosity is due to pore
spaces in the rock between the mineral grains. Compaction and cementation due to burial destroy porosity.
Sediments may have up to 40 percent initial porosity before cementation.
Permeability is the ability of fluids to flow through rock, which depends on the connectivity of the pore space.
Permeable rocks include sandstone and fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks and karst limestone.
Impermeable rocks include shales and unfractured igneous and metamorphic rocks. The permeability depends
on the communication of the pores in a rock. Permeability determines whether fluids such as gas, oil, or water
can be produced from a reservoir. Rocks such as shales can have very good porosities (20 percent plus) but
have very poor permeabilities. Permeability can be enhanced naturally due to fractures or can be stimulated
artificially.
Natural cements form in the pore space between grains due to various chemical reactions. Common cements
include calcite, hematite, dolomite, silica, and clay. Cementation of sedimentary rocks changes the ability of the
rocks to contain fluids and the ability of fluids to move through the sedimentary rock.
Terms
gravity: the force of attraction, characterized by heaviness or weight, by which terrestrial bodies tend to fall
toward the center of the Earth.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
permeability: the property of a membrane or other material that permits a substance to pass through it.
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porosity: the property of being porous, having pores; the ratio of minute channels or open spaces (pores) to the
volume of solid matter.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. A day before the lab, gather sufficient materials for the class, assuming four students per group.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss with the class that porosity is the number of pore spaces in a given material. Stress that the
more pore space in the soil, the more water the soil will hold.
B. Have the students read the lab.
1. Have the students make an educated guess as to which soil type will hold the most water. Why?
//. Activities
A. Divide the class into teams and have each group complete the following exploration.
1. Fill 3 beakers with 3 different soil types. Do not pack soil in the containers.
2. Write a hypothesis after looking at the three samples, predicting which sample will hold the greatest
amount of water. Also predict which sample will cause the water to move through the fastest.
3. Fill the empty beaker with 75 mL of water. Slowly pour the water into the first soil sample. Stop when
the sample can hold no more.
4. At the same time you are pouring the water, time with the stop watch how long it takes for the water
to reach the bottom. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the other two soil samples.
5. Use the table on the student sheet to record your data. Complete the table as you obtain your
results.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students analyze the data, then answer the following questions.
1. Which soil had the greatest permeability?
2. Which soil had the least permeability?
3. Which soil held the most water?
4. Which soil held the least amount of water?
5. If your city was said to be the wettest city in the country, how would this affect the soil?
IV. Extension
A. Walk students around the school grounds discussing the different soil types that are seen.
1. On your walk, test presoaked permeability by using a coffee can with both ends cut off. Pour water
into the can and time how long it takes the water to be absorbed into the ground. This presoaking
will determine the initial filling of the soil space.
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2. Wait five minutes after all the water has been absorbed. Pour the same amount of water into the can
and time how long it takes the water to be absorbed into the ground. This will be the actual absorption
rate after the soil space has been filled.
RESOURCES
Merrill, Focus on Earth Science, 1984.
Groundwater: http://xtl5.colorado.edu/~smyth/G101-12.html
University of Tulsa - Department of Geosciences, author: Sedimentary Rocks:
http://arbuckle.utulsa.edu/epe/sed-rocks.html
4-25
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STUDENT SHEET
POROSITY? PERMEABILITY?
6-8
Type of Soil
Time to Pass Through
(in seconds)
Amount of Water Absorbed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5-
6.
had the greatest porosity.
had the least porosity.
had the greatest permeability.
had the least permeability.
held the most water.
held the least water.
7. What is the difference between porosity and permeability?
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AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Create a model of an aquifer.
2. Describe how an aquifer works.
3. Describe how pumping affects an aquifer.
4. Prepare a model presenting to local planners the important aspects
of protecting recharge areas.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
An aquifer is a layer of underground rock or sand which stores and carries
water. A recharge area is the place where water is able to seep into the
ground and refill an aquifer because no confining layer is present.
Recharge areas are necessary for a healthy aquifer. Few rules and
regulations were made to protect these areas.
SUBJECTS:
Art, Geology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
3-liter soda bottle - demo
three large syringes
ruler
gravel
builder's sand
topsoil
measuring cup
water
food coloring
clear plastic cups (10 oz.)
student sheet
teacher sheets
Aquifers form significant natural reservoirs of water and can form a large proportion of water used for drinking
purposes. In some countries the supply of water from underground can be the only source of water available.
The location and extent of aquifers is dependent upon the geological conditions of the underlying rock. There
are three types of aquifers: perched, unconfined, and confined.
Perched aquifers occur in isolation as small quantities of water in suitable confining strata above the water table.
Unconfined aquifers form when the permeable strata forms an outcrop on the surface. The upper part of the
aquifer is represented by the water table whose levels fluctuate according to the groundwater balance. Confined
aquifers have impermeable strata above and below and are not recharged by percolating rainwater.
Note that impermeable strata do not always represent a complete barrier to water movement and that recharge
of the aquifer may take place many kilometers away where the strata forming the confined aquifer form a surface
outcrop.
Terms
aquifer: an underground layer of unconsolidated rock or soil that is saturated with usable amounts of water (a
zone of saturation).
recharge area: an area where water flows into the Earth to resupply a water body or an aquifer.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather information from the city planning staff concerning a local recharge area that needs special protection
from pollution and development.
B. Have the students visit the site and take pictures of the area.
C. After the trip have the students divide into groups of four.
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Tell the groups that they are going to conduct an experiment that includes creating an aquifer.
B. Explain what an aquifer is and the importance of a recharge area.
C. Brainstorm how this information will help us develop a plan to protect our recharge area.
//. Activities
A. Have each group mimic you as you:
1. Place 4 inches of gravel in a bowl. Measure correct amounts of gravel, topsoil, and sand with the
ruler.
2. Put three syringes upright in the gravel. Do this before Step 3, or they will clog with sand. The
syringes show an example of wells pumping from the aquifer.
3. Hold the syringes and at the same time put 3 inches of sand on top of the gravel and 2 inches of
topsoil over the sand.
4. Add food coloring to 2 cups of water.
5. Slowly pour enough water over the topsoil to saturate. This is the example of rain seeping into the
aquifer and becoming groundwater.
6. Put the bowl at eye level, observe, and record changes.
7. Pull the stopper up to fill one syringe. This is an example of how water well pumping affects the
aquifer.
8. Repeat Step 6 using two syringes at once. Record changes in groundwater.
9. Repeat Step 6 again using all the syringes. Record changes in groundwater.
///. Follow-Up
A. Each group must answer the following questions:
1. Is this aquifer model a recharge area?
2. How do you know?
3. Describe how an aquifer works.
4. Are the sand and topsoil permeable or impermeable? Why?
5. What do you think would happen if more syringes were used?
6. Why is it necessary that we protect recharge areas?
IV. Extensions
A. Each group should brainstorm ways to construct a model that they could present to the city planning
committee. This model will show why this area needs protection. The model will show pictures of the
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site, the results of the experiments, and why a recharge area is important.
B. The winning group may present their model to the planning committee.
RESOURCES
Johnson Cynthia C., Waterways. Division of Public Information St. John's River Water Management District,
Jacksonville, FL, 1991.
Groundwater: http://giswww.king.ac.uk/aquaweb/main/groundwa/gw1.html
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TEACHER SHEET
AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
• 2 cm Topsoil
•3 cm Sand
• 4 cm Gravel
4-30
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STUDENT SHEET AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
Directions: Draw your investigation set-up, record your observations, and answer the questions.
1. Fill the syringe 1/3 full. Record changes in groundwater.
2. Fill the syringe 2/3 full. Record changes in groundwater.
3. Fill the syringe all the way. Record changes in groundwater.
4. Is this aquifer model a recharge area? Why or why not?
5. How does an aquifer work?
6. How are the syringes similar to wells in an aquifer?
7. Why is it necessary to protect recharge areas?
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TEACHER SHEET
AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
- 2 cm Topsoil
•3 cm Sand
•4 cm Gravel
4-32
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TEACHER SHEET
AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
GO
W
LOCATION OF MAJOR U.S. AQUIFERS
-------
TEACHER SHEET
6-8
AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
AQUIFER DIAGRAM
ARTESIAN WELL
WATER TABLE WELL
RECHARGE AREA
FOR ARTESIAN
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
-------
TEACHER SHEET
AQUIFERS AND RECHARGE AREAS
6-8
ARTESIAN WELL
ARTESIAN-AQUIFER RECHARGE AREA
WATER-TABLE WEI
FLOWING ARTESIAN WEL
WATER TABLE
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
ARTESIAN AQUIFER
The Groundwater Resource
-------
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WATER—THROUGH AND THROUGH
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Geology, Math, Language Arts
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
pieces for rock samples
water
large beakers
triple beam balance
magnifying glass
student sheet
OBJECTIVES:
Students will be able to:
1. Observe rock samples of characteristics using the naked eye and
magnifying glass.
2. Determine how much water different rock samples hold.
BACKGROUND
Each year worldwide 517,000 cubic kilometers of water are evaporated.
About 108,000 cubic kilometers of waterfall to the Earth as precipitation.
What happens to this water? Some water is used by plants to survive.
Some runs into lakes; most of the excess flows back into the ocean. The ~" *
other is called groundwater since it sinks into the porous parts of the Earth's crust. Depending on the rock, water
can pass through the layer or be trapped. These two layers are called impermeable and permeable.
Terms
aquifer: an underground layer of unconsolidated rock or soil that is saturated with usable amounts of water; a
zone of saturation.
artesian well: a well in which the water comes from a confined aquifer and is under pressure. One type of
artesian well is a free-flowing artesian well where water just flows or bubbles out of ground without being
pumped.
impermeable: impassable; not permitting the passage of a fluid through it.
permeable: passable; allowing fluid to penetrate or pass through it.
porosity: the property of being porous, having pores; the ratio of minute channels or open spaces (pores) to the
volume of solid matter.
ADVANCED PREPARATION:
A. Collect egg-sized pieces of rock samples (sandstone, shale, and other rocks).
B. Get the students thinking by displaying a jar filled with pebbles. Ask if the jar is full. (No, there are air spaces.)
C. Fill the jar with water to demonstrate.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the concepts of permeable and impermeable rock.
B. Explain and discuss aquifers and wells.
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//. Activity
A. Have students find and record the mass of each rock.
B. Have students soak the rocks in water overnight.
C. The next day, have the students remove the rocks from the water. Again ask them to find and record the
mass of each sample.
D. Have students complete the student sheet.
///. Follow-up
A. Ask students to discuss the following questions:
1. What information did you learn about each rock as it relates to the water?
2. Which rock makes the best aquifer? The worst?
3. How would water react to sand, clay, or coal?
IV. Extensions
A. Write a letter to the following organization to receive more information concerning geology:
American Geophysical Union
2000 Florida Ave. NW
Washington, DC 20009
http://www. AGU.org
B. Research local aquifers.
C. Have students discuss sinkholes and how they are related to aquifers.
D. Have students research where their local community drinking water originates.
RESOURCES
Hesser, D. and Leach, S., Focus on Earth Science. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio, 1987.
Cunningham, W. and Saigo, B., Environmental Science. 3rd Ed.. William Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa,
1995.
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STUDENT SHEET WATER — THROUGH AND THROUGH
6-8
Directions: Fill in the data from your observations and answer the questions below.
Rock
Sample
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mass Before
Soaking
Mass After
Soaking
Difference
1. What information did you learn about each rock as it relates to the water?
2. a. Which rock makes the best aquifer?_
b. What rock makes the worst aquifer?_
3. How much water do you think each of the following would hold?
sand
clay
coal
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4-40
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RAIN AND LEACHING
6-8
SUBJECT:
Chemistry, Earth Science
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
For each group of 3-4 students:
1/4 cup topsoil
1/4 Tbsp powdered, red tempera
paint
1 funnel
2-L soda bottle
1 coffee filter
1/4 cup water
student sheet
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. State what leaching is and how it occurs.
2. Make a model simulating leaching.
3. State the results of leaching.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Most of our household waste is buried in landfills. An important factor in
how landfills are built is how they contain waste and prevent waste from
contaminating nearby soil and water sources. The possibility of leachate
contaminating soil and groundwater exists wherever wastes are disposed.
Leachate is a fluid that has passed through or emerged from the waste in
a landfill, picking up a variety of suspended and dissolved materials along
the way. Leachate generation depends on the amount of liquid originally
contained in the waste (primary leachate) and the quantity of precipitation that enters the landfill through the
cover or that which comes in direct contact with the waste (secondary leachate) prior to being covered. Factors
that affect leachate generation are climate (rainfall), topography (run-on/runoff), landfill cover, vegetation, and
type of waste.
In unlined landfills, the leachate continues to leach into the ground and may contaminate groundwater. Many old
landfills used a simple clay liner for containing leachate (clay is one of the most non-permeable soils). Newer
landfills are required to meet federal and state requirements to prevent environmental contamination (Subtitle D
landfills). These landfills have sophisticated liner systems often made of heavy-duty, high density polyethylene
(HOPE) plastic, where leachate is routed to a wastewater treatment plant. Treated leachate can be disposed of
in a number of ways (e.g., discharged to surface waters or recirculated back into the landfill). Some states also
allow continued use of clay liners, if the liner meets federal and state performance standards, and if the leachate
is properly collected, treated, and disposed of.
In this lesson, the landfill model represents the construction of a Subtitle D sanitary landfill to hold municipal
waste.
A common convenient procedure for disposal of household and domestic garbage is to take it to the nearest
ravine, hollow, or back road and leave it in a completely unprotected situation. Because this kind of behavior is
such an accepted and uncontested way of life for many households, the effect of this garbage upon water quality
can be overwhelming. Often, there is absolutely no regard for the contamination potential of some of these
items. The results of this can be the introduction of very toxic substances into the streams and groundwater. An
understanding of the long-term harmful effects of these actions would influence the future actions of students
and their counterparts toward proper garbage disposal. Such an understanding of the part of the community
leaders will possibly influence legislation and enforcement.
Terms
leaching: the removal of chemical constituents from rocks and soil by water.
leachate: the liquid formed when water (from precipitation) soaks into and through soil, picking up a variety of
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suspended and dissolved materials from the waste.
topsoil: the rich upper layer of soil in which plants have most of their roots.
runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters a
water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
landfill: a large, outdoor area for waste disposal; landfills where waste is exposed to the atmosphere (open
dumps) are now illegal; in "sanitary" landfills, waste is layered and covered with soil.
sanitary landfill: rehabilitated land in which garbage and trash have been buried.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Divide the class into groups of 3-4.
B. Gather enough materials for each group to do the investigation twice.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss what can occur when rain hits the ground: evaporation, runoff, absorption into the ground.
B. Discuss the fact that nutrients in the soil are important for plant growth.
C. Review with students the definition of "leaching."
//. Activities
A. Tell students they will be constructing a model which illustrates leaching.
B. Have each group do the following with their materials:
1. Add 1/4Tbsp (1.25 ml_) red tempera paint to 1/4 cup (75 ml) topsoil. Mix thoroughly.
2. Set funnel in the 2-L bottle.
3. Place the coffee filter inside the funnel.
4. Pour the colored soil into the paper filter.
5. SLOWLY add 1/4 cup (75 mL) of water to the funnel.
6. Observe the liquid dripping into the bottle. (Teacher Note: Results—The liquid will be red. This
red liquid represents the nutrients in the topsoil which have been leached.)
7. Repeat the process. This time, QUICKLY add 1/4 cup (75mL) of water until the filter is full.
8. Observe the liquid dripping into the bottle.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students write up the activity using the student sheet.
B. Ask the students the following questions:
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1. What does the red tempera paint represent?
2. What happened to the paint/dirt mixture after water was added?
3. What was the result of the activity?
4. Why did the results occur?
IV. Extensions
A. Research landfills and how they are constructed.
B. Discuss what happens when it rains on an open dump, a landfill, and a sanitary landfill.
RESOURCES
Arms, K., Environmental Science. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Austin, TX, 1996.
Cunningham, W., and Saigo, B., Environmental Science. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA, 1995.
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STUDENT SHEET
RAIN AND LEACHING
6-8
Directions: Complete the following information about your investigation.
1. Problem statement
2. Procedure (number the steps you performed)
a.
3. Data collected
Trial Observation
Trial 1
Add Water Slowly
Trial 2
Add Water Quickly
4. Data analysis
a. Did the same amount of leachate come out of both trials?
b. Were the leachates a different color? If so, how were they different?
5. Tentative conclusions
a. What is the relationship between the rate at which water flows through soil and the amount of leaching?
b. In which cases would leaching be good?
c. In which cases would leaching be bad?
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MAKING DRINKING WATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Describe methods of purifying water as used by the pioneers, as
well as those being used today by water treatment facilities.
2. Explain how groundwater and drinking water can become
contaminated.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The pioneers learned to drink from flowing waters and not from still waters.
While water in lakes, rivers, and streams often contained impurities that
made them look and smell bad, the water could be "cleaned" to make it
safer to drink. The pioneers used citric acid or alum, which took suspended
particles and allowed them to sink to the bottom of the bucket.
Sedimentation, or allowing the water to sit for several hours, also took
out some impurities. Finally, they would strain the water through material
further purify the water, especially if disease was suspected, they boiled
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Earth Science, Health
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
For each group:
600 mL water
10 ml teaspoon dirt
2 clear plastic cups (10 oz.)
2 pieces of cheesecloth to cover
cup top
20 mL powered alum (from a drug
store)
teacher sheets
to take out the rest of the impurities. To
the water before drinking it.
Several of these methods are used by water companies to treat our drinking water today. The water that is
processed for most drinking water comes from rivers, lakes, streams, and groundwater and has usually been
transferred and stored before processing.
Groundwater accounts for a major portion of the world's freshwater resources. Thousands of cities and towns
rely on groundwater for their drinking water. Groundwater can become contaminated from a variety of sources.
Because groundwater is such an important source of drinking water, we must be careful not to contaminate it
through pollution or careless disposal of household chemicals.
Terms
aeration: exposing to circulating air; addition of oxygen to wastewater or water, as in the step of both activated
sludge wastewater treatment process and drinking water treatment.
coagulation: the process by which dirt and other small suspended solid particles are chemically bound, forming
floes using a coagulant (flocculant) so they can be removed from the water (the second step in drinking water
treatment).
chlorination: the addition of chlorine to water to destroy microorganisms, especially for disinfection.
filtration: the process of passing a liquid or gas through a porous article or mass (Example: paper, membrane,
sand) to separate out matter in suspension, used in both wastewater and drinking water treatment.
sedimentation: (1) the process of depositing sediment, or the addition of soils to lakes that is part of the natural
aging process; (2) the drinking water treatment process of letting heavy particles in raw water settle out into
holding ponds or basins before filtration (also called "settling"); (3) the process used in both primary and secondary
wastewater treatment that takes place when gravity pulls particles to the bottom of a tank (also called "settling").
4-45
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Make transparencies of the teacher sheets or run off copies for each group.
B. Collect sets of materials for each group.
C. On the day prior to the activity, at the beginning of the class, mix 275 mL water and 10 mL of dirt in a
clear plastic cup. Note rate of settling during class and let settle overnight.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Find out if groundwater is used for the community's drinking water.
B. Discuss groundwater with the students and show the transparencies. Discuss what your state uses for
drinking water.
C. Discuss water purification and what your community does.
//. Activity
A. Give each group a set of materials.
B. Have the students mix 275 mL water and 10 mL of dirt in a clear plastic cup.
C. Have the students mix 10 mL teaspoon of alum into the water and watch the floe form.
D. Tell the students to allow the cup to sit undisturbed for several minutes, noting the rate of flocking.
E. Discuss the process of sedimentation while the materials are flocking.
F. Have the students cover the clean cup with cheesecloth and carefully pour the flocked water into the
cup.
G. Ask the students to clean the first cup and repeat the process with the water and a new piece of
cheesecloth.
H. Observe the differences in the material that was collected on the two pieces of cheesecloth.
///. Follow-up
A. Discuss how the final process for pioneers would be boiling, whereas today we use chemicals to purify
drinking water.
B. Have the groups of students compare the results they obtained.
IV. Extensions
A. Repeat the investigation using different amounts of dirt and water.
B. Visit a water treatment facility and find out about water purification processes.
C. Find out what other countries use to purify their drinking water.
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D. Interview a soldier or someone who spent time in an area where drinking water had to be purified by
using alum.
RESOURCE
Children's Groundwater Festival Outreach Packet, the Groundwater Foundation, Post Office Box 22558, Lincoln,
NE, 402-434-2740.
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
MAKING DRINKING WATER
Major Underground Sources of Water
^
oo
-------
TEACHER SHEET
MAKING DRINKING WATER
6-8
Ten states that rely most on groundwater as a source of water
(percentage of all water used which is groundwater):
Iowa
Texas
Nebraska
Delaware
Arizona
85%
61%
59%
59%
58%
Oklahoma 56%
Minnesota 54%
South Dakota 48%
New Mexico 47%
Georgia 41%
Ten states that use the most groundwater
(in GPD-Gallons Per Day):
California 14,6000,000,000 Arizona
Texas
Nebraska
Idaho
Arkansas
9,700,000,000
7,100,000,000
6,300,000,000
4,300,000,000
Florida
Colorado
Louisiana
Mississippi
4,200,000,000
3,800,000,000
2,800,000,000
1,800,000,000
1,500,000,000
4-49
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4-50
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RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF GROUNDWATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify several sources of recharge and discharge for
groundwater.
2. Discuss how water moves from recharge to discharge areas.
3. Discuss the connection between surface water and groundwater.
4. Explain how groundwater can become polluted.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Approximately half of the people living in the U.S. depend on groundwater
for their drinking water. Groundwater is also one of the most important
sources of irrigation water. Unfortunately, some of the groundwater in
every state has become tainted with pollutants. Some scientists fear that
the percentage of contaminated groundwater may increase as toxic
chemicals dumped on the ground during the past several decades slowly
make their way into groundwater systems.
SUBJECTS:
Geology,
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
For each group:
clear plastic container (at least
15cm x 22cm x 6 cm deep)
enough pea-size gravel to fill
container 2/3 full
two 472 ml paper cups
one pump dispenser
472 ml water
grease pencil
twigs or small tree branches
ruler with cm
colored powered drink mix or food
coloring (optional)
teacher sheet
Many people picture groundwater as underground lakes or rivers, but, it is actually water that fills the spaces
between rocks and soil particles underground—much the same way water fills a sponge. Most groundwater is
precipitation that has soaked into the ground. Groundwater sometimes feeds lakes, springs, and other surface
water.
Recharge is the addition of water to an aquifer. Recharge can occur from precipitation or from surface water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, or streams. Water is lost from an aquifer through discharge. Water can be discharged
from an aquifer through wells and springs, and to surface water bodies, such as rivers, ponds, and wetlands.
Terms
aquifer: porous, water-bearing layer of sand, gravel, and rock below the Earth's surface; reservoir for groundwater.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the Earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below the
Earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
groundwater discharge: the flow or pumping of water from an aquifer.
groundwater recharge: the addition of water to an aquifer.
infiltration: the flow of water downward from the land surface into and through the upper soil layers.
permeability: the capacity of a porous material to transmit fluids. Permeability is a function of the sizes, shapes,
and degree of connection among pore spaces, the viscosity of the fluid, and the pressure driving the fluid.
saturated zone: a portion of the soil profile where all pores are filled with water. Aquifers are located in this
zone. There may be multiple saturation zones at different soil depths separated by layers of clay or rock.
4-51
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surface water: precipitation that does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or
transpiration. It is stored in streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands, oceans, and reservoirs.
unsaturated zone: a portion of the soil profile that contains both water and air; the ozone between the land
surface and the water table. The soil formations so not yeild usable amounts of free-flowing water. It is also
called zone of aeration and vadose zone.
water table: upper surface of the zone of saturation of groundwater.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Using a nail, punch 8 -10 small holes in the bottom of the paper cups. When filled with water, this will simulate
rain.
B. Gather materials and fill the clear containers 2/3 full with the gravel. The gravel should be level in the containers.
C. Make transparency or run off copies of teacher sheet showing model set up.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss groundwater and the reasons why people depend on it.
B. Discuss what your community uses for drinking water.
//. Activity
A. Divide the class into groups and distribute the materials.
B. Have students construct the model as shown with a valley in the middle. Explain that the gravel mounds
on both sides of the container represent hills with a valley in between. Use the twigs to represent trees
and vegetation.
C. Have one student fill the cup without holes with water then pour this water into the cup with holes holding
it over one of this "hills" of the model. Observe how the water moves through the gravel.
D. Introduce the word "recharge" - the addition of water to the groundwater system. Have students observe
that water is standing in the valley. Have the students use the grease pencil to draw a line identifying the
water level under the hills and in the valley. Measure the height of the water and mark it on student
diagrams of the model.
E. Explain that they have just identified the top of the groundwater in their model. The top of the groundwater
is called the water table. Discuss how the groundwater becomes a pond in the valley because the water
table is higher than the land surface.
F. Have students insert the pump into one of the hills on the side of the valley pushing the bottom down to
the groundwater. Allow each of the students in the group to press the pump 20-30 times after the water
in the pump has begun to flow. Catch the water in the cup with no holes.
G. After each student pumps the water, mark the level of the water with the grease pencil and measure it.
Mark the level of the diagram.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students work as a group to fill in the student sheet. Have them discuss their answers as a
class.
4-52
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IV. Extensions
A. Sprinkle the colored powder drink mix or food coloring on top of one of the hills and repeat the activity.
Discuss the movement of "pollution" from the hill to the groundwater to the pond.
B. Try the activity with sand and gravel of a different size and note the rate of recharge.
RESOURCES
U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25286, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225, 303-236-7477.
The Groundwater Foundation, P.O. Box 22558, Lincoln, NE 68542, 404-434-2740.
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STUDENT SHEET RECHG. AND DISCHG. OF GROUND H2O
6-8
Directions: Draw a diagram of your model in the space below. Make it at least 8cm high. You will be measuring
the level of water in your model and marking it on your diagram.
Answer these questions as a group. Be prepared to discuss them with the class.
1. What was the highest level (in cm) of your groundwater?
2. What was the level after one pumping?
3. What was the level after two pumpings?.
4. What was the level after three pumpings?
5. Where does groundwater come from?
6. What could happen to groundwater if a well is drilled nearby?
7. Explain how groundwater can become polluted by human activity.
8. Devise a way to clean up polluted groundwater.
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF GROUNDWATER
£>.
Ol
CLEAR CONTAINER-
CUP WITM
MOLES
WATER
-------
4-56
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RURAL WASTEWATER
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic digestion of waste.
2. Explain the difference between black water and gray water waste.
3. Explain how a septic tank drainage field system is constructed
and functions.
4. Describe the symptoms of a failing septic system.
5. Explain how a failing septic tank system can cause groundwater
contamination.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Many rural areas are not served by any type of wastewater systems, and
household wastewater must be disposed of onsite. The septic tank, along
with a soil absorption system (field lines), is the most common and effective
method of wastewater treatment used in these rural settings. Cesspools,
which are no longer approved for new installations in most areas, and pit
privies are the other most widely known methods.
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Health
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
For each lab station:
funnel
rubber tubing
glass bend
pneumatic trough
3 "T" connectors
250-mL side arm flask
1-hole stopper
wire gauge
coarse gravel
fine gravel
soil
Lamotte Water Test Kit (available
through a biological supplies
catalog)
student sheets
Other alternatives include the following: aerobic (requiring oxygen)
treatment tanks; off- lot systems in which wastewater from several households is conveyed to a common disposal
and treatment site (such as a soil absorption field); and evapotranspiration systems. Evapotranspiration is a
process used for shallow soil depths. Grass or other plants are used to cover the field which receive the wastewater.
The plants take the water and selected mineral but leave the rest for organic decomposition. The water leaves
the plants by normal transpiration processes by which plants lose water to the air. Some of the more recent
alternatives include the following: composting; low-flush; incinerating, or recycling toilet systems; and dual treatment
systems which separate "blackwater" (human body wastes) from "graywater" (other domestic wastewater). On-
site disposal systems, such as septic tanks, discharge wastewater to the subsurface.
A septic tank is simply a tank buried in the ground for the purpose of treating the sewage from an individual
home. Wastewater flows into the tank where bacteria breakdown organic matter, allowing cleaner water to flow
out of the tank, into the ground, through a subsurface drainage system. Periodically, sludge or solid matter in the
bottom of the tank must be removed and disposed. Failing septic tanks and cesspools are frequent sources of
groundwater contamination.
Terms
aerobic: in the presence of oxygen.
anaerobic: in the absence of oxygen; oxygen free.
sewage: the solid human waste and human-generated wastes that are normally discharged into wastewater
transported through sewers.
sludge: solids removed from wastewater or raw water in the process of treatment; the heavy, partially decomposed
solids found in the bottom of a septic tank.
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evapotranspiration: molecules leaving the liquid state and entering the vapor or gaseous state through plant
leaves.
blackwater: sewage that is from the solid human waste.
graywater: all sewage that does not contain solid human waste that comes form a household, (Examples: from
sinks, laundry, and showers.
ADVANCE PREPARATIONS
A. Copy student sheets
B. Gather materials and put out at each station (only one water test kit is necessary for the class).
C. Prepare "blackwater" by adding to containers of tap water such materials as barn- yard animal manure
or animal manure purchased from a garden shop. Prepare "gray water" by adding to container of tap
water such materials as raw peanut hulls, ashes from burned peanuts, detergent, or grease.
//. Activities
A. Have students make working septic tank models.
B. Run "wastewater" into the septic tank (flash) until it rises to the outlet. Allow at least 24 hours (or a
weekend) at room temperature. One group runs "blackwater" through the system and one runs "graywater"
through the system.
C. After observing results of previous work, add an amount of the same type of "wastewater" to the septic
tank (flask) and catch any effluent coming from the drain tubing. (A pinch clamp should be used on the
tubing.)
D. Test final effluent for pH, odor, mineral content (hardness), color, and turbidity.
E. Have students compare effluents of wastewater types.
///. Follow-Up
Have the students complete the following:
A. Explain the difference between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of wastes.
B. Define "blackwater" and "graywater."
C. Explain how a septic tank is constructed.
D. Explain how to install a drainage field system.
E. List ways of abusing a septic tank system.
F. Describe several symptoms that indicate that the septic tank system is failing.
IV. Extensions
A. Construct diagrams and specifications of systems for wastewater treatment making use of 1) an aerobic
treatment tank and 2) evapotranspiration. After doing so, have students discuss the following questions:
1. What factors limit the volume of wastewater that can be processed?
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2. Is each system equally effective in swampy and hilly terrain?
3. How does each system treat wastewater so as to avoid offensive odors?
4. Discuss which system would work best in rural areas. What type of system is used by the schools?
Where is the system and drainage field for the school located?
B. Have students do a "perk" test on the soil in the area. (See your local health department for instructions
on how to perform this activity.)
C. Have rural students check the site of effluent discharge from the systems at their homes in relation to the
drinking water source. Is it adequate? What are the regulations for location of waste treatment systems?
D. Have students explore problems created by concentrated housing (mobile home/trailer parks along a
lake) when only a septic tank system is used for each habitat.
RESOURCE
Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.
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STUDENT SHEET RURAL WASTEWATER
6-8
ALABAMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5612
CIRCULAR ANR-790 Water Quality
On-Site Sewage Treatment
Understanding Septic System Design And Construction
Years of experience have shown that properly designed, constructed, and maintained septic systems pose no
undue stress on the environment. All three tasks—design, construction, and maintenance are crucial if the
system is to operate properly.
Typically, the homeowner does not become involved in the design details of a septic system. State and local
regulations and design standards have been established to ensure properly designed systems. Similarly, if
homeowners are careful in selecting a reputable construction contractor, they usually can be assured that the
system will be installed properly.
But understanding septic system design and construction will enable homeowners to interact knowledgeably
with local inspectors and contractors.
Conventional Septic System Design
Conventional septic systems have two key components: a septic tank and a soil absorption system. Each
must function properly for the entire system to perform satisfactorily.
The Septic Tank.
The septic tank is simply a container usually prefabricated from concrete according to standard designs. It
receives wastewater from the home generated in the bathroom, kitchen, and laundry. The septic tank retains
the wastewater for approximately 24 hours allowing the solids to separate and settle out and allowing bacteria
to partially decompose and liquefy the solids.
There are three layers in the septic tank:
1. Sludge, consisting of heavy, partially decomposed solids that will not float.
2. Liquid, containing dissolved materials such as detergents and small amounts of suspended solids.
3. Scum, consisting of fats and oils and other light-weight solids that float on the surface of the wastewater.
Solids and scum in the tanks are digested or decomposed by anaerobic bacteria (bacteria active in the
absence of oxygen). This decomposition liquefies up to 50 percent of the solids and scum. The liquid is
carried out into the absorption field, and the indigestible solids remain in the tank as sludge.
Each time raw sewage enters the tank, an equal amount of fluid is forced out of the tank. Tees or baffles at
the inlet and outlet of the tank slow the velocity of incoming wastewater and prevent flow directly to the outlet
of the tank. The tees also help prevent sludge from leaving the tank through outlet lines. The fluid leaving the
tank is called effluent and can contain disease organisms. Small amounts of suspended and dissolved matter
in the effluent not completely stabilized or digested also move out of the tank to the absorption field.
While typically designed to hold 1,000 gallons of liquid, the size of the septic tank varies, depending on the
number of bedrooms in the home. Regulations require that septic tanks be a certain size based on the
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expected daily flow rate of wastewater. Proper sizing is important to allow adequate time for settling and
flotation so that the soil absorption system is not clogged with sludge and scum.
The Soil Absorption System
The soil absorption system consists of a distribution box and up to 300 feet or more of tile or plastic drain lines
buried in the soil. The soil absorption system receives wastewater from the septic tank. The partially treated
liquid, called effluent, flows out of the septic tank to the distribution box, where it is evenly distributed
throughout the absorption field. The effluent is allowed to trickle into the soil through perforated pipes placed
at a certain depth throughout the absorption field. As effluent moves through the soil, impurities and
pathogens are removed. The soil provides filtering and treatment to remove pathogenic microorganisms,
organics, and nutrients from the wastewater. Just as the septic tank requires a certain amount of time to allow
solids to settle and light materials to float, so the soil requires a certain amount of time to remove harmful
materials from the wastewater leaving the tank.
The size of an absorption area is based on the volume of wastewater generated in the home and the
permeability of the soil. Usually, the absorption field can fit within the front yard or the backyard of a typical 1 -
acre homesite. The precise area requirements will depend upon the kinds of soils at the homesite, the size of
the house (the number of bedrooms), and the topography of the lot. Adequate land area must be available to
install a replacement system in case it is ever needed. This replacement area must meet the same soil and
site requirements as the original system.
Conventional Septic System Location
Unlike a sewer system, which discharges treated wastewater into a body of water, the septic system depends
on the soil around the home to treat and dispose of sewage effluent. For this reason, a septic system should
be installed only in soils that will adequately absorb and purify the effluent. In addition, the septic system must
be located a specified distance from wells, surface waters, and easements.
To insure that your septic system is located properly, keep the following tips in mind:
1. The septic system should be installed where the soil tests were performed.
2. The location of individual septic system components should meet certain setback requirements. If a septic
system is located too close to wells, streams, or lakes, wastewater may not be properly filtered and may
contaminate surface water supplies. Generally accepted safe distances are shown in Table 1.
When the septic system is being installed, record the location of your septic tank, absorption field, and repair
area. Measure and record distances from the septic tank, septic tank cleanout, and soil absorption system to
above ground features such as buildings, fence comers, or large trees. Then after the area has grassed over,
you can still find the system. A sample sheet for recording information is provided on another page.
Table 1. Recommended Horizontal Separation Distances For On-Site Sewage Disposal System Components.*
Part Of System Water Supply Water Supply Lake Or Stream Dwelling Property Line
(well or suction line) (pressure line)
Feet
Septic tank
Distribution box
Absorption field
50
50
100
30
30
30
50
50
50
10
20
20
10
10
10
*Distances may vary from state to state. Contact your local health department for specific guidelines.
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Conventional Septic System Construction
While the construction of a septic system is a matter for professionals, homeowners can ensure proper
construction by keeping the following tips in mind.
Keep heavy equipment off the soil absorption system area both before and after construction. Soil compaction
can result in premature failure of the system. During construction of the house, fence off the area designated
for the soil absorption system as well as the required placement area and the area directly downhill.
Water related issues are given below:
- Avoid installing the septic tank and soil absorption system when the soil is wet. Construction in wet soil can
cause puddling and smearing and increase soil compaction. This can greatly reduce soil permeability and
shorten the life of a system.
- Make sure the perforated pipes of the absorption system are level to provide even distribution of the septic
tank effluent. If settling and frost action cause shifting, part of the soil absorption system may be overloaded.
- Divert rainwater from building roofs and paved areas away from the soil absorption system. This surface
water will increase the amount of water the soil has to absorb and cause premature failure.
- Keep water from footing drains and water softener discharges out of the septic system. Water from footing
drains can overload the capacity of the absorption field, reducing its ability to accept effluent. Water softener
discharges contain high concentrations of sodium, which react with the soil to reduce permeability. Remember,
the system was designed and sized to handle only the wastewater from plumbing fixtures and washing
machines.
Do not plant trees and bushes near the septic tank or absorption field because their roots can enter the
system and cause extensive clogging problems. Do not cover the absorption field with a driveway, patio, or
other paving that would prevent the release of water vapor.
Allow accessibility for a pumper truck or backhoe to service your system. Septic tanks require routine
pumping and periodic maintenance, so keep access to the area easy.
Alternative On-Site Sewage Treatment Systems
In locations where a conventional septic tank and soil absorption system is unsuitable (such as areas with
high water tables or slowly permeable soils), you may be able to modify site conditions. For example, in areas
with high water tables one option is to use underdrains or curtain drains to lower the water table. Another
option is to raise the level of the soil surface with layers of fill soil.
When it is not practical to modify the site, consider an alternative system. The mound system and the aeration
system are alternatives that may be used in areas with high water tables or slowly permeable soils.
With the mound system, the absorption field is built above the natural ground level. A distribution network
supplies effluent to the mound, and the effluent is treated as it passes through the fill sand and natural soil.
The aeration system consists of a chamber that mechanically aerates (mixes air with) the effluent and
decomposes the solids. Effluent is discharged to an absorption field or, after chlorination, to surface water or
an evaporation pond.
Other alternatives include sand filters, lagoons, constructed wetlands, electro-osmosis systems, dropbox
distribution systems, serial distribution systems, pressure-dosed distribution systems, and leaching chambers.
In general, alternative systems are more costly to install and operate than conventional septic tank and soil
absorption systems and may require additional maintenance.
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Conclusion
Improperly designed and constructed septic systems are doomed from the start. These systems usually fail in
a few months because they are inadequately sized, installed in impermeable soils, or not properly
constructed.
When on-site sewage disposal systems are installed on the proper site and are properly designed,
constructed, and maintained, they provide a safe, cost-effective alternative to municipal and community
sanitary sewage treatment.
References
Alabama Department Of Public Health. 1988. Location of On-Site Sewage Disposal Systems. Rules of State
Board of Health. Chapter 420-3-1-. 22. Division of Community Environmental Protection. Onsite Sewage
Branch. Montgomery, AL.
Bicki, Thomas J. 1989. Septic Systems: Operation And Maintenance Of On-Site Sewage Disposal Systems.
Land And Water Number 15. Illinois Cooperative Extension Service. University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, IL.
Graham, Frances C. 1990. Correct Use Of Your Septic Tank. Information Sheet 1419. Mississippi Cooperative
Extension Service. Mississippi State University. Mississippi State, MS.
Septic System Installation Record
Date installed:
Building permit number:
Name and address of licensed installer:
Size of septic tank: gal
Amount of field lines: ft
Depth of trenches or bed: ft
Sketch the layout of your septic system. (Include the distances from the tank and the absorption field to
buildings and wells.)
4-63
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STUDENT SHEET
RURAL WASTEWATER
6-8
Septic Tanks
Septic tanks are used for domestic wastes when a sewer line is not available to carry them to a
treatment plant.
- baffles -
Wastes
~N
gases
are piped to
underground
tanks directly
from the
home or homes
minimum
capacity
1000 gallons
The bacteria in the wastes decompose
the organic waste, and the sludge
settles on the bottom of the tank.
The effluent flows out of
the tank into the ground
through drain tiles.
(see diagram below)
The sludge is pumped out
of the tanks, usually by
commercial firms, at
regular intervals.
Aerial View of Drain Tiles
The effluent enters
from the tank.
Effluent
flows
through
tiles
with
holes.
4-64
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• i §
WATER SOURCEBOOK
WETLANDS/COASTAL
n
-------
DILUTION AND POLLUTION
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Compare pollution amounts in the same quantity of water.
2. Explain how even small amounts of pollution in a given water
supply can be harmful.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Health, Math, Social
Studies
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
6 plastic cups per group
100-mL graduated cylinder
water
dropper
spoon
colored powdered drink mix
without sugar
colored powdered drink mix with
sugar
sugar (2 cups)
student sheet
3. Outline alternative waste removal techniques.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Water pollution is often difficult to detect. Large bodies of water have the
capacity to dilute and disperse wastes. As a result of dilution and
dispersion, the color, smell, and taste of contaminated water may not be
any or much different than uncontaminated water. For this reason, seas
and oceans have become a huge dumping ground for the world.
In 1988, the beaches on the northeast coast of the United States were
closed because medical wastes such as hypodermic needles were ~ ~
washing up on shore. Each year during the 1990s, more than 500 tons of sewage is dumped into the Mediterranean
from surrounding countries. Two thirds of this sewage has not been treated at all.
Minerals are naturally occurring chemicals that are dissolved in small amounts in our water sources. When small
amounts of chemicals are dissolved in large bodies of water, the water is a dilute solution. When the levels of
these chemicals increase due to ocean dumping, they may become harmful to the plants and animals of the
area.
Swimmers in polluted areas can become ill with a variety of infections. Large amounts of contaminants can kill
fish or make them unfit to eat. Shellfish such as oysters have the ability to concentrate certain toxins from
polluted water in their tissues, making them harmful to eat. Algal blooms flourish in waters polluted with sewage
and fertilizers. Much of the oxygen in water is used up during an algal bloom. This oxygen deficiency causes
large amounts of fish to die and large deposits of slimy, odorous muck from dead vegetation on the bottom.
Terms
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
dilution: the act of making thinner or more liquid by adding to the mixture; the act of diminishing the strength,
flavor, or brilliance of by adding to the mixture.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prepare the unsweetened powdered drink mix for the students to taste. Add small amounts of sugar and have
the students keep tasting until the taste becomes sweet. Discuss the addition of the sugar in the drink and
how the sugar cannot be seen but can be tasted. Relate this to the presence of chemicals in water.
B. Run off copies of the student sheet.
5-1
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss any local bodies of water and the runoff that enters them. Have students brainstorm the various
types of chemicals that may enter these waters.
B. Number the cups 1 through 6, using labels or a marker.
//. Activities
A. Mix the powdered drink mix using the recommended amount of sugar.
1. Use the graduated cylinder to place 100 mL of this prepared drink with sugar into cup 1 andSOmL
of water into cups 2 - 6. Have students taste the drink in cup 1 using a teaspoon. Make sure the
students taste only 1 teaspoon at a time or you will run out of solution.
2. Now cup 1 is polluted. Place 50 mL of the "polluted water" from cup 1 into cup 2 using the graduated
cylinder. Make observations and notes. Is this water less polluted than cup 1 ? What color differences
did you notice? What is the difference in sweetness? (Have one student taste.) Record descriptions
in chart.
3. Predict how dark the color will be and how it will taste in cups 3-6. Slowly add 50 ml of the "polluted
water" from cup 2 to cup 3. Mix and record observations. Repeat this procedure for cups 4 - 6.
4. When these observations are recorded, compare cup 1 to cup 3, and then compare it to cup 6.
Place a white sheet of paper underneath each cup to emphasize the color differences. Note the
differences in taste.
B. Each student should complete the chart and answer these questions:
1. What signs were there that pollution still remained in the water even when the solution was diluted?
2. How many more times do you think the polluted water would need to be diluted in order not to cause
color or taste changes?
3. Do you think that dilution is a good solution for pollution? Why or why not?
4. Does pollution always remain in the water? If not, where does it go? (Answer: sediments, air,
bioaccumulates.)
///. Follow-Up
A. Have each student research at least two alternative waste treatment methods other than simply dilution.
IV. Extensions
A. Design a space ship that has a recycling system of waste and water management.
B. List different types of bacteria that are important in the breakdown of various pollutants in the water.
RESOURCES
Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 1992.
Morgan, Sally, Ecology and Environment: The Cycles of Life. Oxford University Press, New York, 1995.
5-2
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STUDENT SHEET
DILUTION AND POLLUTION
6-8
Directions: Dilute each water sample and record your color and taste observations.
50ml_ ^~50ml_ /^~~" 50ml_ ^~~^ 50mL ^ 50mL ^~~ 50mL
Starting 100mL 50mL 50mL 50mL 50mL 50mL
Liquid Kool-Aid water water water water water
Color
Taste
(Sweetness)
1. What signs were there that pollution still remained even when the solution was diluted?
2. How many more times do you think that the polluted water would need to be diluted in order not to
cause color or taste changes?
3. Do you think that dilution is a good solution for pollution? Why or why not?
5-3
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5-4
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CLEANING OIL SPILLS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List and compare the relative effectiveness of several methods
and materials for cleaning up oil spills.
2. Explain why cleaning up an oil spill is usually difficult and only
partially successful.
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Drama, Math, Social
Studies
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
a large, deep pan for each group
water
a small aquarium net
motor oil in a small container for
each group
pencils and paper
teacher sheet
student sheet
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Each year more than three million tons of oil pollute the sea. The most
visible source of oil pollution is accidents involving oil tankers. Oil spills
caused by tankers such as the Amoco Cadiz off the coast of Normandy,
France, in 1978 and the Exxon Valdez off the coast of Alaska in 1989
received a lot of media attention. The Amoco Cadiz accident spilled "" *
223,000 tons of oil into the Pacific Ocean, while the Exxon Valdez spill dumped 10,080,000 tons of oil into Prince
William Sound. The Exxon Valdez spill affected nearly 1,500 kilometers of the Alaskan coast line. Extensive
damage was done to native wild life. These are only two examples of oil spills; there are many more.
Spills such as these, however, account for only a sixth of the oil that pollutes the sea each year. Half of the oil
pollution is from land-based sources. Each time a tanker is rinsed, for example, oil is released into the sea. This
accounts for one-third of the oil that pollutes the sea each year. Oil spills also occur during loading and unloading
of ships in port.
Oil pollution has extreme detrimental effects on the environment. Oil cannot dissolve in water. It floats on or near
the surface. Birds whose feathers become coated with oil lose their water-proofing qualities. Birds with oil-
coated wings cannot fly well; therefore, many of them drown. Marine mammals, such as seals, also lose the
water-proofing qualities of their fur.
Several methods have been used to clean oil spills. A common method is to use detergents and solvents that
disperse and break up the oil. These detergents, however, can also have damaging effects on the environment.
A process called bioremediation is also being used to clean oil spills. Bioremediation is the use of organisms
such as bacteria and fungi to remove pollutants. Organisms that eat oil and oil-based products are called
petrophiles. These petrophiles need oxygen, oil, and nutrients to survive and grow in numbers. In the case of an
oil spill, oxygen and oil are already in abundance, however, nutrients are not. Nutrients in the form of fertilizers
must be added to promote the process of bioremediation.
Term
bioremediation: the use of oil-eating organisms such as bacteria and fungi to remove pollutants.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. A day before you begin the activity, ask several volunteers to prepare to role-play a TV newscast team
reporting on an oil spill that has just occurred.
B. Ask them to write their own script and to end with the idea that a group of specialists is on the way to clean up
the oil spill.
5-5
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PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. To begin the activity, ask the news team to give their special report. Videotape these reports if you have
a camera.
B. Then, inform students that they have just been mobilized to clean up the oil spill. Let them group into
teams of four.
C. Each team should plan how it will clean up its spill. Team members should decide what materials they
will bring and what procedure(s) they will use. Suggest that each team bring at least four materials to try
(one per student). Brainstorm with students what materials they might use to clean up the spill—detergents,
cloth, paper, cotton, and so forth.
//. Activity
A. The following day, students will try to clean up their oil spill. Have each group fill its pan at least 3/4 full
with water and pour 15 mL (1 T) of motor oil on the water.
B. Students should try to clean up the spill, using the materials they brought. (Note: You may wish to have
aquarium nets available for them to scoop up any oil-absorbing materials they place on the water.)
C. Allow the students to add more oil if needed.
D. Students may retest their oil-spill materials and methods if they wish.
///. Follow-Up
A. Following the activity, ask students to rank the effectiveness of their materials and cleanup procedures.
(Use a scale of 1 - 5, with 1 being the least effective and 5 being the most effective.)
B. Let each group report to the class. (They may wish to report as if they were an official panel.)
C. Then guide a class discussion by asking them to explain why it was difficult to remove the oil, how the oil
reacted to their efforts, and how they disposed of their oil-coated materials.
D. Ask them to consider what would happen to the environment if large quantities of their clean-up materials
were put into the ocean.
IV. Extensions
A. Have teams simulate another oil spill. Have all teams use the same clean-up method, but vary the time
each team waits before beginning to cleanup the spill. Have them determine how the lag time before
reporting an oil spill might affect the effectiveness of the cleanup.
B. Let students pollute their pan of water with different types of petroleum products and determine which
type is easiest to clean up.
C. Have each team write a follow-up newscast to present the results of their cleanup procedures to the
class.
D. Have the students discuss at least three reasons why cleaning up an oil spill is difficult and only partly
successful.
5-6
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E. Have the students discuss the following:
1. From your oil spill cleanup activity, which material seemed to be the most effective in removing the
oil?
2. Explain what you think might happen if large quantities of your cleanup material were placed in
ocean waters.
F. Ask the students to respond individually or in teams to the following:
1. You are in charge of cleaning up a major oil spill. The people in a community affected by the oil spill
want to know how you will clean up the spill and how long it will take. What will you tell them?
(Explain in detail.)
RESOURCES
Battling Sea Pollution. Prentice Hall Earth Science Video.
Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 1992.
Dashefsky, Stephen, Environmental Science: High School Science Fair Projects. Tab Books, Blue Ridge Summit,
Pennsylvania, 1994.
Morgan, Sally, Ecology and Environment: The Cycles of Life. Oxford University Press, New York, 1995.
Water, the Life-Giving Resource. Prentice Hall Earth Science Video.
Information packet from Exxon detailing their cleanup procedures for the Alaskan oil spill. Packets may be
ordered from Exxon.
5-7
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STUDENT SHEET— CLEANING OIL SPILLS
6-8
Directions: Add 15 ml of oil to the pan of water and try your different cleaning materials. Describe how well each
cleaned up the oil.
Cleaning
Material
What you did and how well it worked
Note: If your material cleaned the oil well, you may have to add more oil to the water before trying a new cleaner.
Which material worked best?
Which material(s) did not work well?
Would your material(s) work for oil cleanup in large areas? Why or why not?
5-8
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
CLEANING OIL SPILLS
Ol
CO
-------
TEACHER SHEET
CLEANING OIL SPILLS
6-8
tn
o
Urban
runoff,
sewage
Coastal
refineries
Normal tanker
operations
Blow-outs and
accidents from
offshore exploration
and production
-------
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Relate the importance of the salt marsh to the food chain.
2. Compose a position statement that will explain why the salt marsh
should not be developed.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Salt marshes are coastal wetlands that exist in the intertidal zone. They
are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. In fact, salt
marshes produce more vegetation than tropical rain forests.
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Botany, Ecology
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
magazines for "cut-out" pictures
transparencies
pens for transparencies
paper for drawing and charts
teacher sheets
student sheets
Wetlands perform functions that are helpful to people and the environment. Vegetation of the salt marsh is
responsible for dampening the effects of wave action in coastal areas, which reduces the amount of erosion.
Wetlands also have the ability to store excess storm water, which helps in flood control. Water is cleaned naturally
as it flows through a wetland.
Another very important function of salt marshes is their "nursery" capability. They provide food and shelter to
juveniles of many commercial and non-commercial animals. It is estimated that wetlands contribute between 60
percent and 90 percent of the fish caught for commercial reasons. A wide variety of birds depend on wetlands
such as salt marshes for both breeding and feeding grounds.
Salt marshes, as well as other wetlands, provide many functions that are both valuable to people and important
to the environment. These areas, however, are continuing to be destroyed to make way for commercial or home
development. The long-term effects and costs of destroying wetlands will likely outweigh the short-term benefits
of using the areas for industry or condominiums.
Terms
ecology: a branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environments; the
totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment.
ecosystem: an ecological community together with its physical environment, considered as a unit.
salt marsh: estuarine habitat submerged at high tide, but protected from direct wave action, and overgrown by
salt-tolerant herbaceous vegetation; aquatic grasslands ("coastal prairies") affected by changing tides,
temperatures, and salinity.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Gather magazines with pictures of salt marshes that show their inhabitants, plant life, and migratory life.
B. Gather magazines with pictures relating the importance of salt marshes to human life.
C. Have the following on hand: transparencies, pens, and paper for charts and drawing.
5-11
-------
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Give the students the following scenario:
You are a local citizen whose total income depends on the seafood industry. You are the spokesperson
representing the other fishermen in your area. It is your responsibility to convince the local government
that it is not in the best interest of your community or of many surrounding communities for a condominium
developer to dredge and fill in valuable marshlands in order to build a new condominium. You must
include as many visuals as possible in order to get your point across. You may choose from the following
materials or add to them if desired: transparencies, poster board, and pictures. You must also choose a
speaker to present your report to the federal government.
//. Activity
A. Divide the students into teams to complete the assignment.
B. Have the teams choose a spokesperson who will present the position statements to the local government.
C. Have the teams write their position statements.
D. Have the teams create visuals to be used.
E. Be sure to have the teams choose a moderator to keep the team "on task."
///. Follow-Up
A. Have each team present its position statement and visuals.
IV. Extension
A. Choose teams to debate both sides of the issue. One team will support the developer's position and the
other will support the environmentalists.
RESOURCES
Dennison and Berry, Wetlands: Guide to Science. Law, and Technology. Noyles Publications, Park Ridge, New
Jersey, 1993.
Smithey, William K.. American Swamps and Wetlands. Gallery Books, New York, NewYork, 1990.
Tidal Salt Marshes: http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu/info/wetlands/types3.htmWsur
5-12
-------
STUDENT SHEET
6-8
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
CJl
CO
Tidewater silverside
Grass shrimp
-------
STUDENT SHEET
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
Ul
Snow geese
Forster's tern
Marsh hawk
Saltmarsh cordgrass
American coot
Double-crested Cormorant
Marsh periwinkle
Parchment wor
Amphipod
Polychaete
Saltmarsh cordgrass
Brown shrimp
Ribbed mussel
Southern flounder
-------
STUDENT SHEET
6-8
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
Ol
en
,
'' '' i1"^'1 .-i^*''' • ; "*^
''i'-y.'•".".,• i'/s •ilW'1^'''^^''^',,^' '•'
—'i;.-!''''''".:"' ' * '-".'-^"^i
Two-thirds of the human population live on one-third of the world's land area adjacent to ocean coasts. Wetlands are drained for agriculture,
housing, and industry. Man alters flooding patterns by constructing road embankments, canals with elevated spoil banks, and levees along
streams. Ecological relationships are altered when man pollutes estuarine streams and lakes with sewage, fertilizers, and pesticides.
-------
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
Backdune Zone
Forest Zone
TEACHER SHEET
6^8
Frontal Zone
-------
TEACHER SHEET
EFFECTS OF LOST SALT MARSHES
6-8
Spring or Storm Tide
UPLAND
switchgrass
high-tide bush
black grass
salt hay cordgrass
spikegrass
salt marsh aster
glasswort
smooth cordgrass
(short form)
Daily High Tide
._^__v«^ -ta ——•—. — «
Daily Low Tide
smooth cordgrass
(tall form)
IRREGULARLY FLOODED MARSH
V
REGULARLY
FLOODED
MARSH
INTERTIDAL
FLAT
ESTUARINE
OPEN WATER
(BAY)
A cross-section of a salt marsh.
5-17
-------
5-18
-------
LET'S GO FISHING!
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List the freshwater and marine fish that are managed by state
and federal regulations.
2. Explain the reasons for fishery management.
3. Discuss ethical/moral/legal reasons for abiding by regulations.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECTS:
Biology, Ecology
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
copies of state and federal fishing
regulations for your area
student sheets
Overfishing, decreased habitat, and sometimes deteriorated water quality have caused a decline in some desirable
fish populations. Management of a species may be mandatory if a species is to be saved from extinction. The
National Marine Fisheries Service and, in most states, Departments of Conservation or Natural Resources are
charged with monitoring fishery stocks and imposing regulations when necessary to protect a species. Fishing
laws and regulations should maintain healthy fish populations while allowing recreational fishermen their sport
and commercial fishermen the ability to make a living.
Regulations are flexible, changing from year to year to reflect changes in fish populations due to harvest, disease,
predation, reproduction, weather, and so forth. In a good year, seasons may be extended or limits increased; in
a bad year, seasons may be shortened and limits may be decreased. The objective is to maintain optimum
numbers, with fish stocks neither depleted nor wasted.
Fishery biologists monitor the numbers of fish by sampling commercial and recreational catch tally reports of
tagged fish, data on water quality, fish kills, bycatch, and weather events. After limits and seasons are set,
enforcement is the province of the state departments of conservation, game and fish, and marine fisheries
officers. Penalties include impoundment, fines, loss of license, and arrest.
Terms
bag limit: the number of a certain fish that can be caught each day.
bycatch: species other than shrimp that are caught in shrimp trawl nets
closed season: a time when a certain fish cannot be caught.
FL (fork length): the length of a fish from its mouth to the fork in its tail.
quota: the number or amount constituting a proportional share.
TL (total length): the length of a fish from its mouth to the end of its tail.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Make copies for each student of the regulations for salt- and freshwater fish, the "catch" worksheets, and
enough "fish" (slips of fish names) for each student to receive twenty slips (approximately 75 per page).
B. Cut the fish names apart.
5-19
-------
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss the students' knowledge of saltwater and freshwater fishing licenses, limits, and seasons for
various game fish, who oversees compliance with regulations, and any anecdotes about confrontations
with game wardens.
B. Ask them if they think fishing has changed much over the years (stories from parents or grandparents).
//. Activity
A. Tell the students to imagine they are going on a fishing trip. The weather is perfect, the fish are hungry,
and everyone's having a wonderful time. Give them copies of fishing regulations and worksheet, and
allow them to "catch" 20 fish each from your stock. Assign half the class to state waters and half to
federal waters, and assign certain lakes and reservoirs by row or by lottery.
B. Ask the students to list on their worksheet each fish they caught, its size, and whether it was legal. Don't
forget bag limits—even if the fish are legal size, you can only keep a certain number.
C. After they are all finished, find the tournament "winners" by number of fish, size, total number of fish
inches, or any other categories you choose.
D. Select a couple of students to be "game wardens," checking on the legality of the "keepers" listed on the
students' worksheets.
E. Ask the students the following questions:
1. Were any illegal fish kept? Why might a fisherman try to bend the law a bit?
2. Why shouldn't he or she?
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask the students to prepare graphs of their catches. Compare legal limits in state versus federal waters.
IV. Extensions
A. Invite a game warden as a resource speaker to class. Ask him or her to tell of the education and training
required for his or her job description and to tell of interesting experiences he or she has had.
B. Find out more about the monitoring process. Visit a fish hatchery or tagging station. Ask a wildlife
biologist to demonstrate the tests he or she makes on tagged fish (age using scales or otoliths, size,
weight, range from release point, etc.).
RESOURCES
Cook, J. Coastal Concepts. Dauphin Island Sea Lab Special Report # 87-003.
Local Fish and Game, Wildlife Resources, or Marine Resources Departments.
Robins, C. Atlantic Coast Fishes. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA, 1986.
5-20
-------
STUDENT SHEET
LET'S GO FISHING!
6-8
ling 30"
ling 33"
king mackerel 22"
Spanish mackerel 14"
Spanish mackerel 11"
bluefin tuna 28"
bigeye tuna 10 Ib.
yellowfin tuna 6 Ib.
white marlin 66" FL
sailfish 56" FL
red snapper 16"
vermillion snapper 10"
lane snapper 8"
misty grouper 10"
Nassau grouper 21" TL
black seabass 9"
Mako shark 50"
black seabass 11"
jewfish 300 Ib.
red snapper 18"
scamp 6"
nurse shark 46"
lane snapper 7"
redfish 36"
bluefin tuna 24" FL
king mackerel 19"
mutton snapper 13"
ling 27"
ling 38"
king mackerel 20"
Spanish mackerel 20"
red drum 12"
bluefin tuna 72"
bigeye tuna 6 Ib.
yellowfin tuna 8 Ib.
sailfish 58" FL
swordfish 65 Ib.
red snapper 14"
yellow snapper 11"
gray snapper 12"
Warsaw grouper 12"
black grouper 20" TL
amberjack 27"
blacktip shark 35"
amberjack 30"
red snapper 16"
red snapper 15"
scamp 18"
nurse shark 34"
lane snapper 8"
red drum 34"
bigeye tuna 8 Ib.
king mackerel 23"
mutton snapper 14"
ling 34"
cobia 33"
king mackerel 24"
red drum 18"
redfish 20"
bluefin tuna 24"
bigeye tuna 7 Ib.
blue marlin 85" FL
swordfish 60 Ib.
blue marlin 90"
gray snapper 14"
mutton snapper 10"
red snapper 15"
speckled hind 7"
scamp 6"
jewfish 100 Ib.
sand shark 30"
amberjack 36"
red snapper 17"
red snapper 14"
gag grouper 19"TL
tiger shark 60"
redfish 43"
cobia 33" FL
sailfish 58"
blue marlin 88"
mutton snapper 9"
speckled trout 15"
speckled trout 16"
striped bass 16"
5-21
-------
STUDENT SHEET
LET'S GO FISHING!
6-8
striped bass 1 8"
black bass 10"
walleye 6"
sauger12"
white bass 10"
yellow bass 12"
crappie 10"
crappie 13"
bream 6"
bream 7"
bream 8"
bream 9"
bream 11"
rainbow trout 10"
rainbow trout 13"
smallmouth bass 13"
largemouth bass 15"
speckled trout 1 3"
pompano 12"
striped bass 1 5"
striped bass 1 2"
black bass 16"
walleye 11"
sauger 14"
white bass 15"
yellow bass 13"
crappie 11"
crappie 10"
bream 6"
bream 7"
bream 8"
bream 1 0"
bream 12"
rainbow trout 9"
rainbow trout -14"
smallmouth bass 12"
largemouth bass 16"
pompano 16"
pompano 11"
striper 1 8"
striper 11"
black bass 14"
sauger 10"
sauger 15"
white bass 13"
crappie 9"
crappie 8"
crappie 8"
bream 7"
bream 8"
bream 9"
bream 10"
bream 13"
gar 15"
gar 20"
gar 24"
bream 12"
Assign half the class to be in federal waters, the other half in state waters. Assign certain lakes and reservoirs by
rows or lottery.
5-22
-------
STUDENT SHEET
LET'S GO FISHING!
6-8
A SAMPLE STATE RECREATIONAL FISHING CHART
en
N)
CO
SPECIES
Amberjack
Black Grouper
Bluefish
Cobia (Ling)
Croakers
Dolphin (Mahi Mahi)
Flounder
Jack Crevalle
King Mackerel
Pompano
Red Drum (Red Fish)
Sheepshead
Snapper(Red)
Snapper (Vermillion)
Spanish Mackerel
Speckled Trout
Tarpon
Tuna (Yellowfin)
Wahoo
ZONE WHEN
3, 4 year round
4 year round
1,2,3 April - October
2, 3, 4 April - October
1 year round
3, 4 May - October
1,2 year round
1,2,3 April - October
2, 3, 4 April - October
2 April - October
1, 2 year round
1, 2 October - March
3, 4 year round
3,4 year round
2,3
1,2 year round
1,2 July-October
4 May - September
4 May - September
BEST
May-August
February - April
May-June
April - May
year round
July - October
November- February
July-August
July - October
April - October
October - November
December - March
May - September
May - September
April - October
September - December
August
May - September
May - September
SAMPLE STATE
28" FL/3
20" TL/5
none
37" TL/2
none
none
none
none
none/2*
12"TL/none
16"min-26"maxTL/3
none
14"TL/7**
8" TL/none
May- June
14"TL/10
60" TL***
none
none
FEDERAL
Size/Bag Limit Size/Bag Limit
same
same
none
33" FL/2
none
none
none
none
20" FL/2
none
CLOSED
none
same
same
none/10 12" FL/10
none
none
7 IDS.
none
TL = Total Length, measure tip of snout to tip of tail.
LEGEND FL = Fork Length, measure tip of snout to fork in tail.
* = When federal season is closed, King Mackerel Bag Limit is reduced to 1 per person.
** = Bag Limit of 10 other snapper species combined (Gray, Mutton, and Yellowtail only) in addition to a limit of 7 Red Snapper.
*** = $50, tag required to possess, kill, or harvest each tarpon.
Zones: 1 = Bays, shorelines, wharves, inland waters, etc. 2 = Inshore waters of Gulf, off or near jetties, in surf, etc. (0-1 mile).
3 = Offshore blue water in open Gulf (1-9) miles). 4 = Deep water (10-60 miles).
NOTE: Bag Limits are PER DAY. Sample state waters = 0-3 miles; neighboring state waters = 0-9 miles. Federal waters = state boundary-200 miles.
ALL information subject to change. Contact State Marine Resources 968-7576.
-------
STUDENT SHEET
6-8
LET'S GO FISHING!
FISH
SIZE
KEPT OR THROWN BACK
5-24
-------
PICTURES, PEOPLE, AND POLLUTION
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Art, Biology, Language Arts
TIME:
one school day field trip plus 50
minutes in class
MATERIALS:
disposable camera for each group
of five students
garbage bags
notebook for each student
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Chart types of marine litter, the causes, effects, and solutions for
this problem.
2. Create a photo essay.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Certain visions and words automatically come to mind when describing
a beach, lake, river, or pond: long expansions of snow white sand;
sparkling, clean water with gulls methodically diving in and out; and rivers
overflowing with an abundance of fish and other seafood.
The ocean covers about 70 percent of the Earth's surface. It is home to millions offish, crustaceans, mammals,
microorganisms, and plants. It is a vital source of food for both animals and people. Fishermen catch over 90
million tons of fish each year. Fish are the principal source of protein for many developing countries.
People also depend on the sea for many of their medicines. Marine animals and plants contain many chemicals
that can be used to cure human ailments: an estimated 500 sea species yield chemicals that could help treat
cancer.
Unfortunately, people have treated the sea as a dumping ground for thousands of years. Tons of garbage and
sewage are dumped into the ocean each year. Industrial waste is also dumped into the sea. Types of marine
pollution include heavy metals, toxic chemicals, pesticides, fertilizers, sewage, oil, and plastics.
Marine pollution frequently originates on land, entering the sea via rivers and pipelines. This means that coastal
waters may be dirtier than the open seas, with estuaries and harbors badly affected. Some pollution enters the
marine environment from the air when poisonous gases and aerosol particles drop into the sea. Additional
pollution is actually created at sea by activities such as dredging, drilling for oil and minerals, and shipping.
Terms
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
water pollution: the act of making water impure; the state of water being impure.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Collect magazine pictures and articles or newspaper articles on types of marine litter.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show a video about marine pollution.
B. Use the magazine or newspaper articles and pictures to lead a discussion on types of marine pollution.
5-25
-------
//. Activity
A. The students will be divided into groups of four or five and taken on a field trip to a local beach, lake, or
river to photograph types of marine litter. Each group will be given a disposable camera.
B. Students will collect and chart the types of marine litter found to use for a school-wide display on marine
litter.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have each group compile a photo-essay to present to the class.
B. Have the students prepare and display their collection of marine litter for the entire school to view.
IV. Extensions
A. Students can display their collection of marine letter at a local library or even another school.
B. Students can present their displays and photo essays at the school P.T.A.
RESOURCE
Marine Pollution: http://www.panda.org/research/facts/fct_marine.html
5-26
-------
PLASTIC WASTE
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Chemistry, Ecology, Social Studies
TIME:
50 minutes
MATERIALS:
plastic waste from home
outside or plastic litter
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Describe the effects of plastic waste on aquatic wildlife.
2. Identify specific actions they can take to help remedy the problem.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Plastics are made from synthetic resins such as acrylic, cellophane,
celluloid, Formica™, and nylon, which are moldable when they are heated. ^ ""
For this reason, plastics can be made into different shapes and put to a variety of uses. Some plastics become
resistant to heat after they have been molded. This type can be used for cooking since it does not melt from the
heat.
Plastics are extremely versatile, cheap to make, and lasting. For these reasons, plastics have revolutionized life
in the twentieth century. Houses, offices, factories, cars—all contain items made from plastic. Because of their
many benefits and favorable properties, the use of plastics is unlikely to decline.
The advantages of using plastics, however, can lead to disadvantages for the environment. The fact that plastic
is cheap means that very often it is used to make low-value items such as bags and bottles that people do not
bother to keep. It is also used by manufacturers and shops for packaging. This means that it usually gets thrown
away as soon as people get their purchases home.
People throw away thousands of tons of plastic each year. It is estimated that by the year 2000, the amount of
plastic we throw away will increase by 50 percent. Examples of plastic pollution include plastic holders for
beverage cans, plastic bags, and lost or discarded fishing line. As a result of plastic pollution, millions of mammals,
birds, reptiles, and fish die every year.
Plastic waste creates particularly severe problems at sea, where it entangles marine wildlife and gets eaten. A
recent US report revealed that 100,000 marine mammals die each year because they eat or become entangled
in plastic rubbish. Entangled plastic may kill slowly over a period of months or years, biting into the animal,
wounding it, and causing it to lose blood or even limbs. Worldwide, 75 seabird species are known to eat plastic
articles, which remain in their stomachs, blocking digestion, and possibly causing starvation. The world's sea
turtle population has been greatly affected by plastic pollution. Turtles choke on plastic bags that they have
mistaken for jellyfish. Plastic litter can be found on land as well as in the marine environment. Plastic holders for
beverage cans, plastic bags, and lost or discarded fishing line on land can also be damaging to wildlife.
Terms
aquatic life: plants, animals, and microorganisms that spend all or part of their lives in water.
litter: rubbish discarded in the environment instead of in trash containers.
marine: of or relating to the sea.
nonbiodegradable: materials that cannot be broken down by livings things into simpler chemicals.
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
5-27
-------
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Have students collect and save every piece of plastic waste produced in their home for a two-day period.
B. Have students clean all plastics at home before bringing them to school.
C. If possible, enlarge the plastic code system to poster size or make a transparency of it.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Discuss plastics in background information. Ask students questions about places where they have seen
plastics lying around.
//. Activities
A. Ask students to separate their plastics into categories according to the Plastic Code System and list
them on the Plastic Code Analysis Sheet. Have them classify the plastics in terms of how they might be
perceived by aquatic wildlife as food, e.g., very likely to be perceived as food, somewhat likely, or
unlikely. Have the students with plastic code 1 items hold them up for the class to see. Repeat with each
code number so students have a good idea of which items belong in each category. Identify the species
that might attempt to eat the plastic.
B. Ask the students to hypothesize about how these materials might affect aquatic animals. Provide literature
for them to check their hypothesis.
C. Ask students to summarize what they have learned about the potential hazards to aquatic wildlife from
plastic waste material.
D. Ask students to list their collected litter by classifications given to plastics by the American Plastics
Council. Which were most prevalent? Why?
//. Follow-Up
A. Invite the students to survey the school yard for plastic litter. Then have them separate the plastics into
categories and identify them. Why might these certain types of plastics be found on a school campus?
Investigate the negative impact on animals in the community. If there is damaging plastic litter in the
school yard ask the students to create an action plan that will increase awareness of the problem and
help take care of it by setting up a plastic recycling depot.
///. Extensions
A. Have students contact local environmental, animal welfare, and wildlife groups to see what is being
done about the impact of litter on local wildlife and if specific help is needed.
B. Have students establish a litter patrol. Target areas in your school yard. Establish scheduled tours of
these areas to pick up plastic and other forms of litter.
RESOURCES
Aquatic Project Wild. Western Regional Environmental Education Council, 1987. Project WILD and Aquatic
WILD, PO Box 18060, Boulder, CO 80308-8060, (303) 444-2390.
EPA Environmental Fact Sheet: http://es.inel.gov/techinfo/facts/epa/plstc4fs.html
Plastic Pollution: http://www.panda.org/research/facts/fct_plastic.html
5-28
-------
TEACHER SHEET
PLASTIC WASTE
6-8
Plastic Container Code System
(found on the bottom of coded containers)
Code
Abbreviation
Full Name
Percentage
of Total
Bottles
Can Be
Transparent
Typical
Containers
A
PET
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
20 - 30%
Yes
soft drink,
instant coffee
A
HDP
High Density
Polyethylene
50 - 60%
No
milk, laundry
detergent
A
V
Vinyl
5-10%
Yes
liquid dish
soap,
peanut butter
A
LDP
Low Density
Polyethylene
5- 10%
No
grocery bags,
coffee can lids
A
pp
Polypropylene
5- 10%
Yes
deli tubs,
bottle caps,
straws
A
PS
Polystyrene
5-10%
Yes
foam cups,
trays, egg
cartons
A
OTHER
Other resins or
a mixture of
resin types
5-10%
Yes
catsup and
syrup bottles
Materials Generated in MWS by Weight, 1988
Yard Wastes (17.6%)
31.6 Million Tons
Food Wastes (7.4%)
13.2 Million Tons—
Other (11.6%)
20.8 Million Tons
Plastics (8.0%)
14.4 Million
Paper (40.0%)
71.8 Million Tons
Metals (8.5%)
15.3 Million Tons
Glass (7.0%)
12.5 Million Tons
(Source: Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1990 Update: U.S. EPA)
5-29
-------
STUDENT SHEET
PLASTIC WASTE
6-8
Plastic Code Analysis
NUMBER
SYMBOL
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
LETTER
CODE
PETE
HOPE
V OR PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
OTHER
PRODUCT
In this column, write the
name of the product.
OBSERVABLE
PACKAGE
PROPERTIES
Flexible/Rigid
Transparent/Opaque
Translucent/Color
White crease
when crushed
5-30
-------
POLLUTION... POLLUTION... POLLUTION
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List specific types of water pollution.
2. Design a poster or T-shirt logo depicting specific types of water
pollution.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SUBJECT:
Art, Chemistry
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
poster board
markers
magazines for pictures
Household chemical, fertilizers, and heavy metals are all hazardous
materials. Worldwide, over 70,000 different chemicals are used daily, and each year between 50 and 1000 new
synthetic compounds are introduced. More than six billion tons of waste are disposed of annually in the United
States. Of that, 270 million tons—enough to fill the New Orleans Superdome 1500 times—are hazardous.
Some of this waste is chlorine, which destroys aquatic habitat by upsetting the levels of the water and killing
certain species of blue-green algae. Pesticides such as DDT have brought several bird species to the brink of
extinction. Heavy metals, such as mercury, in water supplies can have a damaging effect on unborn fetuses.
The list of hazardous materials could go and on. Some specific types are described in the following information.
Many of the shelves, coasts, lakes, and estuaries within U. S. waters, particularly near urban centers, contain
polluted sediment. Heavy metals, radioactive waste, organic chemicals, and nutrients have been introduced to
these environments through natural processes, by intentional disposal, and by accidental spills. The contaminants
are derived from both point sources, such as industrial discharge and sewage treatment plants, and non-point
sources, such as agricultural and urban runoff and atmospheric deposition. The presence of such materials in
the Nation's coastal waters and lakes and their accumulation in sediment have created problems associated
with health and safety, biological resources, and recreational activities. Dredging and environmentally sound
disposal of contaminated and non-contaminated material is essential to the commercial viability of many U.S.
ports. There is considerable public concern and political attention focused on the impact of past and present use
of our waters as waste disposal sites.
It's easy to blame industry for putting toxic chemicals in the ocean, but have you looked under your sink or on the
basement shelf lately? As much as 25 percent of all toxic waste originates in the home. Anything we put down
the sink or toilet will eventually make its way to the ocean. Toxic chemicals are present in many cleaners, paints,
antifreezes, solvents, and prescription drugs.
About 97 percent of marine litter comes from people who unthinkingly or intentionally throw garbage onto beaches
or into the water. The other 3 percent is lost fishing gear. Pollution is not only an eyesore , it can injure, or even
kill, marine wildlife. Animals often become entangled in ropes, six-pack rings, nets, and other refuse. Plastic
bags, plastic fragments, and foam pieces are often mistaken for food. In one study in which 58 seabirds were
sampled near the British Columbia coast, 75 percent had plastics in their stomachs.
When the Exxon Valdez ran aground, it spilled 42 million liters of oil. However, according to the Southam News
Agency Environment Project, every year in Canada alone, 300 million liters of motor oil "vanish" into the
environment. That's equivalent to seven and one-half Exxon Valdez disasters each year. Where does the oil go?
In reality, oil spills or engines leaking onto roads and driveways, or spilled fuel from automobiles and boats, all
must go somewhere. These petroleum products are most often washed down storm drains where they ultimately
flow out to the ocean. Oil spilled directly in the sea is another serious problem. It is estimated that 10 million liters
of oil enter Georgia and Juan de Fuca Straits from the bilges of ships and pleasure boats each year.
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Air pollution is not just a problem to the air - it's also a problem to the ocean. Car exhaust, wood burning,
industrial emissions, sprayed herbicides and pesticides all add contaminants to the air which fall back to Earth
when it rains. These polluting particles often fall directly in the ocean since most human populations live near the
coast. Once air-borne pollutants enter the ocean, they can be absorbed by animals and plants in the plankton
and enter ocean food chains.
Human sewage can contain intestinal bacteria, disease-producing organisms, viruses and eggs of intestinal
parasites. About half of the dry weight of human solid waste is bacteria. One of the bacteria present in the feces
of humans and other animals is the coliform bacteria, Escherichia coll, or £. coli. Ocean water samples are
tested for the presence of E. coli using a "coliform count." Beaches are often closed and shellfish harvesting
prohibited due to high coliform counts.
Terms
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
marine pollution: pollution found in the oceans, bays, or gulfs.
ADVANCED PREPARATION
A. Show a video on marine animals and their habitat.
B. Gather materials/products that cause pollution and magazines with pictures of products of pollution.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Have a discussion using many visuals (especially actual products of pollution), pictures, or slides to help
students identify types of pollution.
//. Activities
A. Have students do research to identify specific types of pollution. Research should include the following:
1. Disposal of pollutants.
2. Intended use of pollutants.
B. Students will design a poster or T-shirt depicting types of pollution.
///. Follow-Up
A. Students will turn in a written report on water pollution and its effects on the environment.
IV. Extensions
A. Students may present their reports in class.
B. Clubs might adopt the logo to be placed on their club T-shirt (Example: Science Club).
RESOURCES
365 Ways to Save Our Planet. Page a Day Calendar. Workman Publishing, New York.
Hazardous Waste: http://www.runet.edu/~geog-web/GEOG340/HazWasteProb.html
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Marine Pollution: http://www.panda.org/research/facts/fct_marine.html
Pollution: http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/docs/natplan/pollution.html
http://oceanlink.island.net/marpoll.html
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SALT TOLERANCE OF PLANTS
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Botany.Math, Geography
TIME:
The experiment runs over a six-
week period; in-class time 2-3
periods
MATERIALS:
four plants per pair of students
markers
poster paper
salt
rulers
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Identify plants which can tolerate various levels of salt.
2. Demonstrate the steps of the scientific method by working through
a classroom experiment.
3. Compare classroom results to actual plants found in a wetlands
habitat.
4. Locate geographic areas of natural wetlands.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Salt marshes are a type of coastal wetland that occurs in temperate
estuarine environments. These areas are flooded by incoming tides
carrying saltwater. Salt marshes can also receive an inflow of freshwater from rivers, runoff, or groundwater.
Freshwater inflow is important in diluting the salinity of the system. Salinity is the major stressor in this type of
wetland system and limits species to those that have evolved adaptive mechanisms for living in a salty environment.
Plants that have adapted to living in salty environments are called halophytes.
Salt marshes are flooded during high tide. As the tide recedes, land becomes exposed again. During this time
the marsh often receives freshwater runoff. The plants in the high marsh, or irregularly flooded part of the marsh,
are only covered on extremely high tides. The plants of the low marsh, or regularly flooded part of the marsh, are
flooded daily by high tides. This produces an obvious distribution of plants that are adapted to specific conditions
within the marsh. Plants are found in distinct zones as a result of salinity and tidal fluctuations. Plants living in the
low marsh are limited to species that are extremely tolerant of water-logged soils.
Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternaflora) is an example of a species that grows in the low marsh. Irregularly
flooded marsh vegetation is more diverse. Species that grow in this area include salt marsh hay (Spartina
patens), salt grass (Distichlis spicata), black grass (Juncus gerardii), and black needle rush (Juncus roemerianus).
Both smooth cordgrass and black needle rush have a "short" and "tall" form. In both species, the tall forms
occupy the areas closer to open water (low marsh). The short forms occupy the areas that are less frequently
flooded (high marsh).
Terms
habitat: the arrangement of food, water, shelter, and space suitable to animal's needs.
marsh: wetland dominated by grasses.
population: the organisms inhabiting a particular area or biotope.
salinity: an indication of the amount of salt dissolved in water.
wetland: an area that is regularly wet or flooded and has a water table that stands at or above the land surface
for at least part of the year.
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Contact any wetlands research area, if possible, and request information on the plants associated with
the various water levels found in wetlands. Display in the classroom any posters or resource information
that may be available.
B. Discuss background information with students. Show a film by Bill Nye, the Science Guy, about wetlands.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Explain the importance of wetlands to students. Ask them to think about various reasons why some
plants might not grow in a wetland environment.
//. Activity
A. Students will work with a partner. Each pair will need four plants of the same species and as close to the
same size as possible. Make sure that each group uses different types of plants so that many different
groups are represented.
B. Students will measure each plant and various mixtures of water and saltwater over a period of time. The
experiment must last at least one month for results to be effective.
C. Keeping accurate records is extremely important so that the resulting graphs are accurate and easily
comparable.
D. At the end of the experiment, each pair produces a graph of the data that has been collected. Use
different colors to represent each of the four plants. Line graphs and bar graphs work well and are easy
to see at a glance.
E. As a class, compare which plants grew better than others and therefore were better able to tolerate the
salt.
///. Follow-Up
A. If possible, take a field trip to a local wetlands area. Any marsh, bog, or similar area will do. Observe the
plants that are located in the area.
B. Each pair will produce a poster of plants found in a typical wetlands environment.
IV. Extensions
A. Use a world map and locate areas which may have natural wetlands and then research them to see if
the habitats are still undisturbed.
B. Students will write letters to local, state, and government agencies that govern the destruction of wetlands,
either for development or agriculture. Students will research programs that affect wetlands and remember
the EPA wetlands hotline: 1-800-832-7828.
RESOURCES
The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service Publications, 1994.
Bill Nye the Science Guy videos. Available from Bill Nye, Outreach Dept., KCTS, 401 Mercer, Seattle, WA
98109.
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Dennison and Berry, Wetlands: Guide to Science. Law, and Technology. Noyles Publications,
Park Ridge, NJ, 1993.
Irby, B., McEwen, M., Brown, S., and Meek, E., Marine Habitats. University Press of
Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS.
Project Wet: Curriculum and Activity Guide. Watercourse and Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, 1995. Obtain from Project Wet: Water Education for Teachers, 201 Culbertson Hall, Montana
State University, Bozeman, MT 59717-0057 (Fax: 406-994-1919; e-mail: rwwet@msu.oscs.montana.edu).
Tidal Salt Marshes: http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu/info/wetlands/types3.htmWsur
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STUDENT SHEET
SALT TOLERANCE OF PLANTS
6-8
Directions: Record your procedures and observations on this sheet. Write the actual dates (every three days) at
the top of the chart. You will graph your results on the following sheet. (NaCI is sodium chloride, or salt.)
Date
Plant 1
water only
height
color
Plant 2
water & NaCI
Plant 3
water &
NaCI
Plant 4
water &
NaCI
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SEA LEVEL RISING
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Earth Science, Math, Geography,
Language Arts
TIME:
5 class periods plus a day for field
trip
MATERIALS:
notebook and pencil for
information gathering
appropriate materials (suggested
by students) for writing and
presenting proposals
(overhead transparencies,
computer-generated visuals,
pictures, samples taken, etc.)
teacher sheets
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List suggestion strategies for coping with possible effects of sea-
level rise in coastal areas.
2. Investigate and graph the sea-level stages from one year to the
next.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases (Example: methane, nitrous oxide, ozone in the
troposphere and stratosphere, and chlorofluorocarbons) are resulting from
human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels. Increased carbon
dioxide levels could cause the climate to warm. Scientists refer to this
process as global warming. Global warming could result in changes in
rainfall patterns, changes in sea level, and changes in ecosystems. This
amounts to a serious environmental threat has never before been
experienced in human history.
The global mean sea level may have already risen by around 15 centimeters during the past century. Climate
change is expected to cause a further rise of about 60 centimeters (2 feet) by the year 2100. Forecasts of a rising
sea level are based on tentative climate model results, which indicate that the Earth's average surface temperature
may increase by 1.5-4.5°C over the next 100 years. This warming would cause the sea to rise in two ways:
through thermal expansion of ocean water and through the shrinking of ice caps and mountain glaciers. Sea
level would not rise by the same amount all over the globe due to the effects of the Earth's rotation, local
coastline variations, changes in major ocean currents, regional land subsidence and emergence, and differences
in tidal patterns and sea-water density. Higher sea levels would threaten low-lying coastal areas and small
islands. The forecasted rise would put millions of people and millions of square kilometers of land at risk.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. This activity could be used during a unit on current environmental issues.
B. Prior to the activity, students should have studied global warming and sea-level rise in other coastal regions.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. This activity may be conducted in any coastal area.
B. Students will take a field trip to a shore to gather data for this activity.
C. They can observe (1) a marsh area, (2) a ship-building or industrial area, (3) a waterfront area, (4) a
residential area, or (5) an unpopulated beach.
D. At each area, the teacher will indicate the height to which the sea level might rise if it rose two feet.
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Students will understand that this amount of sea-level rise cannot be accurately determined at this time,
and that an educated guess will have to be made. This should not affect the impact of the activity.
E. For the marsh area, students will note how the predicted sea-level rise would affect plants and
animals. They will also note if there is sufficient undeveloped upland area for the marsh to move further
inland.
F. For the other areas, students will concentrate on buildings and other structures that would be affected
and the economic impact in terms of job loss, etc.
//. Activity
A. In class, students will use the information they gathered to develop a long-term strategic plan for the
area.
B. They will form three planning teams—one representing the marsh area, one the ship building or industrial
area, and one the waterfront property.
C. Each team will elect a "Coastal Planning Manager."
D. Using ideas from coastal action plans for sea-level rise in other coastal areas and their own ideas,
teams will develop a series of proposals to help deal with the problems they identified.
E. Each team will present their proposals to the class. (Teams may decide on the manner in which they
want to record and present the proposals.)
F. The class may suggest modifications to the proposals. When proposals are finalized, they will be typed
and copied for each student.
///. Follow-Up
A. Students can present proposals to local government officials. They can urge the officials to consider the
possible effects of sea-level rise in long-range planning.
B. Using a computer, students can print out their finalized proposals in large type or banner-style. They can
then post these in a highly visible area of the school.
C. Students can start an "Environmental Solutions" display. Beginning with sea-level rise strategies, they
would list and display solutions for each environmental crisis they study.
IV. Extensions
A. Ask students to imagine they are a city official in a coastal area. Have them describe the problems they
envision concerning sea-level rise and strategies they would suggest for coping with them.
B. Have students identify the causes of the predicted rise in sea level. What strategies could they suggest
for reducing the possibility that a rise in sea level will occur?
C. Have students describe the ideal coastal city, taking into account the predicted rise in sea level. Have
them draw a map showing the locations of structures in their city.
RESOURCES
Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
Dubuque, Iowa, 1992.
Climate Change and Sea-Level: http://www.unep.ch/iucc/fs102.html
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Cownaw, Gregory. "The Significance of Rising Sea Levels," The Science Teacher. January, 1989.
Global Warming: http://se.eorc.nasda.go.jp/GOIN/JMA/htdocs/jmamajor/gwarm.html
Earth Science. Prentice Hall.
Handout titled "Planning for Relative Sea Level Rise," and The Rising Seas. Video (28 min.), Educational
Dimensions/McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Marine Law Institute, University of Maine School of Law, April, 1992.
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
Methane
16%
SEA LEVEL RISING
Chloroflourocarbons
20%
Ozone
8%
Nitrous Oxide
6%
Carbon Dioxide
50%
Relative contribution to global warming (percent of expected climate change) by anthropogenic
(human-caused) releases of gases into the atmosphere. Notice that while far less methane and
flourocarbons are released than carbon dioxide, they still are very powerful "greenhouse" gases.
Source: World Resources Institute and the United Nations Environment Programme.
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TEACHER SHEET
SEA LEVEL RISING
6-8
Industrial
Processes
24%
Deforestation
14%
Agriculture
13%
Energy Use
49%
Contributions to global warming by different types of human activities in 1990.
Source: Data from World Resources Institute.
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TEACHER SHEET
SEA LEVEL RISING
6-8
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Countries with the highest greenhouse gas emmissions in 1989. These countries account for two-thirds of all
global warming.
* The European Community (EC) is comprised of 12 countries in Western Europe.
Source: Data from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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WAVE ACTIONS
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. List ways in which the actions of waves affect shorelines.
2. Predict the impact of beach erosion when coastal vegetation is
removed.
3. Compare high-energy wave environments with low-impact tidal
zones.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Atremendous amount of energy exists in ocean waves. Awave is formed
when the water's surface is disturbed. Waves consist of two motions: the
forward progress of the energy of the wave (this energy originally came
from the wind) and the circular motion of the water particles, which are
being displaced by the moving energy.
SUBJECTS:
Earth Science, Physical Science
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
1 plastic basin per group
sand
variety of small plants (monkey
grass, etc.)
small houses (such as those from
a Monopoly™ game)
drawing paper
markers or colored pencils
one aquarium for demonstration
purposes
teacher sheets
There are different levels of energy attributed to various shorelines. This variation in tidal energy causes the
formation of different habitats and, therefore, a significant difference in the organisms found living there. Waves
and local currents interact with the shoreline, creating a high-energy environment.
The sediments that form our beaches are constantly moved and reshaped by winds, waves, and currents. A 50-
meter wide beach can be created or removed by a single violent storm. Similarly, barrier islands and sandbars
appear and disappear over time.
Early inhabitants of coastal areas recognized that the coastal beaches were hazardous places on which to live,
and they settled on the bay side of barrier islands or as far upstream on coastal rivers as was practical. Modern
residents, however, place high value on living on beach front property.
Construction on beaches and barrier islands, however, can cause irreparable damage to the whole ecosystem.
Vegetation on beaches holds shifting sands in place. Damaging or removing beach vegetation to make way for
construction promotes beach erosion and eliminates habitats for indigenous coastal species.
Terms:
crest: something forming the top of something else, such as the crest of the wave.
indigenous: native to or living in a specific area.
longshore current: a current that moves parallel to the shore.
trough: the lowest point in a wave; also a channel for water; a long channel or hollow.
wave frequency: the number of waves that pass a certain point in a given amount of time.
wave height: the distance from a wave's trough to its crest.
wavelength: the distance from a certain point on a wave, such as the crest, to the same point on the next wave.
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ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Discuss the shoreline with your students. List the vocabulary words on the board and discuss each definition.
B. Prepare plastic trays with sand and divide plants into group size numbers for the student groups.
C. Set up an aquarium of soil, freshwater, and plants. Leave this in the classroom as a demonstration of a calm
lake environment with low tidal impact.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Show students the materials and have them design (as a group) how they will use them to represent a
shoreline.
B. Ask the students if they have ever been to a shore. List on the board some of the characteristics that
they noticed. Pay particular attention to whether or not plants are mentioned.
C. Have students make a visual comparison between the particles of sand and some gravel from a local
area.
//. Activity
A. Divide students into cooperative groups of four students. Each group will use one basin, sand, and
plants to design a beach-front environment. They may use any features (such as Monopoly™ houses,
etc.) to make the beaches as individual as they wish.
B. Fill the basin with water up to the created shoreline.
C. Ask students what the main differences are between their shoreline and the simulated lake environment
in the teacher demonstration.
D. The students will tilt the basin back and forth, very slowly at first, to simulate the actions of waves. As the
intensity gets greater, they will notice any changes in the beach environment.
E. Next, have the students remove all plants, and have some groups flatten out any dunes that had been
created. They may want to leave buildings in place. Create wave action again with the tilting of the
basin. Pay close attention to any changes in the shoreline.
///. Follow-Up
A. Ask your students to look for newspaper articles that are related to beach erosion. Read and discuss
them in class.
B. Have the students turn in (by group) a written description of their shoreline and the consequences of
wave action on it.
IV. Extensions
A. Take a field trip to a local shoreline, if possible. Have students draw what they see and compare this to
their classroom shore.
B. Ask the students to use reference materials to discover the various animals that live in an active high-
energy wave zone and design a bulletin board to reflect these animals and how they have adapted to
such a dynamic environment.
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RESOURCES
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodsworth Saigo, Environmental Science: A Global Concern. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
Duxbury, Alison B. and Alyn C. Duxbury, Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque,
Iowa, 1996.
Ocean Waves: http://www.users.interport.net/~jbaron/waves.html
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
WAVE ACTIONS
Parts of a Wave
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TEACHER SHEET
WAVE ACTIONS
6-8
Water Movement in a Wave
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5-50
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ROLE-PLAYING GAME
6-8
SUBJECTS:
Ecology, Drama
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
copies of the illustrations of the
farm and proposed
development
copies of the character
descriptions
student sheets
OBJECTIVES
Students will be able to:
1. List ways that development can impact wetlands and its habitants.
2. Present the interests of townspeople affected by development.
3. Present the reasons for the state, county, or town to purchase
land or change zoning laws to preserve wetland as a student
learning center.
BACKGROUND
Wetlands provide a healthy habitat for many different species of plants
and animals. They depend on this environment for their survival. The
total percentage of wetlands is decreasing every year at a rapid rate. This depletion is caused by many factors,
most all caused by humans. Humans have blocked rivers, which are the main source for the water in these
areas. The dams are built to provide energy, water, and food to the inhabitants upstream. Another reason that
wetlands are disappearing is development. The moist rich soil is very attractive to farmers. Most farmers do not
realize the effect they are directly having on the environment. Birds and other species of wildlife that once lived
in the wetland are forced to find somewhere else to live.
Terms
development: a process by which the natural environment is altered to serve the needs of humans.
proposal: a plan for some activity that must be approved by one or more other people.
wetland: an area that is wet or flooded and has a water table that stands at or above the land surface for at least
part of the year.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Discuss with students the importance of wetlands and the diversity of organisms that live there.
B. Photocopy the illustrations of the Old Tillage Farm and the proposed development. A sketch or enlarged
photocopy of both situations could also be hung on the board for marking up at the public meeting.
C. Discuss the Robert's Rules of Order for the actual town meeting.
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the Stage
A. The purpose of this activity is to have students play the roles of townspeople with conflicting interests at
a public hearing on a new development that may have a negative impact on local wetlands.
B. Stress how their decision could affect different aspects of the environment in the future.
//. Activity
A. Hand out the illustrations of the Old Tillage Farm and the proposed development.
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B. Next, read the situation to the class.
C. Assign the character roles to different students (or have them draw character names). Students who
don't have specific roles to play can be townspeople.
D. Give them time to develop and become their characters as well as develop their positions on the issues.
Students should talk with each other in character and develop relationships with other townspeople
having similar feelings.
E. When it is time for the public meeting, the planning commission chair (either the teacher or an appointed
student) should introduce the chair of the Waterton Zoning Board of Adjustment and start the meeting by
having the developer present his proposal. Each person should take a turn presenting his/her views.
The planning commission chair should decide how much exchange is allowed during the discussion.
Alternatives to the developer's proposal should be sketched and discussed. The meeting should end
with the chair of the Waterton Zoning Board of Adjustment reaching a decision that tries to protect the
wetland ecosystems and address the needs and concerns of the community.
///. Follow-Up
A. Discuss the town meeting. Talk about issues that were brought up and how important they were to the
real issue of development. How realistic was the town meeting?
IV. Extension
A. Visit a city council meeting in your area. Write a report predicting what effects a proposed development
in the area may have on the environment.
RESOURCE
This wetland "Role Playing Game" is reprinted with the permission of the author, Catherine Kashanski, Vermont
Agency of Natural Resources, Water Quality Division, 9 Bailey Avenue, Montpelier, VT 05401. The copyright for
the illustrations used here belong to the artist: © Libby Waler Davidson. All rights reserved.
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STUDENT SHEET ROLE-PLAYING GAME
6-8
THE SITUATION
Waterton is a small rural community of 950 residents. Its village center has a general store, hardware store, and
a small service station. Most people in Waterton know each other or at least know of each other. No major
change or development has occurred in town up until this time-growth has been slow and incremental. Recently,
however, the Old Tillage Farm was sold to a development company in order to pay inheritance taxes when
Sarah Tillage died. The developer has plans to subdivide the land and build 14 new houses. The farm includes
Perch Pond, a shallow pond with a large marsh and shrub swamp on its northern end, as well as a wet meadow
wetland located on Creeping Creek, downstream of the pond. The proposed development calls for filling the
wetland along Perch Pond to make a lawn and to dredge the pond to make it deeper for swimming. In order to
reach four of the homes, a road would be built across the downstream wetland, filling in about a half acre. As
currently proposed, the developer would need a variance to have this many houses built on this land. The zoning
allows for five-acre lots and the farm is only 55 acres total. The townspeople are divided over the development
and will discuss the site plan at tonight's planning commission meeting. This meeting is held jointly with the
Zoning Board of Adjustment, which has to approve or disapprove the variance request. People have been
talking and preparing for this meeting for weeks.
CHARACTER DESCRIPTIONS:
AMY TILLAGE: You are the oldest child of Sarah and Paul Tillage and had to sell the family farm when your
mother died recently. Your father died awhile ago. You hated to sell it, but you don't live in Waterton anymore.
You and your siblings couldn't afford the inheritance tax without selling the farm. Unfortunately you didn't talk to
the Appletrys and the Foleys before you sold the land to Alterland Development Company. Both of these neighbors
were interested in buying portions of the farm. You have heard that they are upset with you. You are going to the
planning commission meeting to see if there is any information you can offer that would help protect some of the
characteristics of the farm that you love-the pond where you caught small fish and frogs, the wetland adjacent
to the pond where you watched ducks raise their ducklings, the wetland along Creeping Creek where you picked
irises, and the woodlot where you had trails and hiding places.
JOHN APPLETRY: You and your wife, Molly, own the house and orchard across the road from the Tillage Farm.
You are outraged at the developer's plans for the farm. You don't blame Amy Tillage for selling the place, but you
are somewhat hurt that she didn't think to find out if you were interested in some of the land. You had asked
Sarah once about leasing her corn field and putting some more apple trees in there. Your kids played in and
explored the wetland and pond beyond the cornfield-catching insects and having cattail sword battles when
they were little, hunting ducks when they were older. You are attending the planning commission meeting to
comment on the site plan for the project. You are opposed to agricultural land changing to high-density suburban
residences.
BILL DOZER: You are a representative from Alterland Development Company and the project manager for the
Tillage Farm site. You are from a city far away and feel this may work against you in such a small, close-knit
community. You have invited Peggy Perc to the meeting as she is from the neighboring town and is an Alterland
Development Company investor. Your plan calls for 14 houses to be built on the Tillage Farm. You have proposed
more than you need to build in order to give yourself a better negotiating position. Since Waterton is a small
community with no industry, you feel your housing plan can help the area by adding to the tax base. You are
aware that filling the wetlands will probably be an issue, but you have a backup strategy: You could build another
pond down by the road to replace the wetland you fill. A pond by the road would be good for fire protection and
is certainly more useful in your mind than the area through which the road will pass. That area doesn't even have
water in it in August.
PEGGY PERC: You live in a neighboring town and are an investor in Alterland Development Company. Bill
Dozer has asked you to attend the Waterton planning commission meeting with him. Bill wants your sense of
what the planning commission members and the zoning board of adjustment members are thinking after he
makes his proposal. He thinks that since you are from the area, you will have a better feel for how people are
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reacting. Actually, you already know what some people are feeling because when you stopped in the Waterton
General Store for your Sunday paper, you heard discussions. You know the Appletrys are mad and the Foleys
are upset. You also know that Phoebe Byrd will be ready to speak about the wetland issues that will come up at
the meeting. You think that Bill ought to be ready with different development proposals that will use less land.
You think that the project will still make money for the company even if he builds fewer, more-expensive houses.
MARY FOLEY: You and your husband, Peter, own the horse farm across the road from the Tillage Farm. Like
the Appletrys, you and Peter would also have tried to buy some of the farm. You are interested in owning the
wooded area north and east of Perch Pond. It would give you more land on which to ride your horses. You are
hoping that there is still a chance for you and the Appletrys to buy some of the land, especially if the development
company is not allowed to build all the houses it has proposed.
SUSAN BREADLOAF: You own and run the general store in town. You have heard many discussions around
the coffee pot at your store about the plans for the Tillage Farm. You know that the Appletrys and Foleys are
really upset about the proposed development and are going to fight the project. You aren't sure what to think
about it. You don't like to lose farmland or see places like Perch Pond become off-limits to the local kids. Your
son used to go to the pond with the Appletry kids when he was younger. But your son will finish high school soon
and you haven't saved much money for college, so you would love to have the added business more people
would bring.
DICK RHODES: You are the road commissioner for Waterton and have lived in the town all your life. You haven't
been too involved in the discussions about the proposed development on the old Tillage Farm, but you have
heard about the Appletrys and the Foleys being upset. Your friend, Willy Variance, is the chair of the Zoning
Board of Adjustment, so you have seen a draft of the site plan. You think it would cost a lot of money to fill in the
wetland in order to put a road through it. The cows cross the stream at the wooden bridge below the wetland,
and you think that is where a road should be built.
PHOEBE BYRD: You are a member of the areaAudubon chapter and a local expert on plants and animals. You
were horrified to learn about the development planned for the Old Tillage Farm, especially the amount of wetland
to be filled. You haven't been to Perch Pond and the adjacent marsh for a while, but you do know that a marsh
wren, a rare bird, has nested in this wetland at least once. You will talk at the planning commission meeting to
explain how important wetlands are and to ask that the commission not allow the project as it is planned.
HANK BOARDMAN: You do logging as well as operate a portable sawmill. You are familiar with the Old Tillage
Farm because you cut some trees for firewood for Sarah Tillage. You think that the developer ought to be able to
do as he chooses with the land although you don't like the idea of so many new people coming into town. Since
you might get work clearing land or working on the custom houses, though, it might be good for you.
WILLY VARIANCE: You are the chair of the Waterton Zoning Board of Adjustment, and your group must decide
if Alterland Development Company will be allowed to build 14 houses on the Old Tillage Farm. You have heard
that many people are coming to the meeting to hear the plans and to make comments about them. You are ready
to listen to everyone's comments and try to make a decision that will be the best for your town.
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STUDENT SHEET
ROLE-PLAYING GAME
6-8
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uttimwi|1,>,i|i»\»M*»"'>i»lh»i//ini>.
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STUDENT SHEET
6-8
ROLE-PLAYING GAME
5-56
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WATER FILTRATION
6-8
OBJECTIVES
The student will do the following:
1. Define potable and identify water that is potable.
2. Depict an illustration of the water treatment cycle.
3. Identify problems with treating dirty water.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Wetlands serve as highly effective surface water purification systems by
reducing the effects of sedimentation in rivers, lakes, and estuaries. When
turbulent, sediment-laden water encounters masses of wetland plants, it
loses its energy and adds its sediments to the wetlands soil. These
sediments may carry potentially harmful substances such as excess
nutrients, which may lead to eutrophication, as well as pesticide residues
and heavy metals with the potential to bioaccumulate.
SUBJECTS:
Art, Chemistry, Language Arts
TIME:
2 class periods
MATERIALS:
two 2-liter plastic soda bottles
scissors
1/4 cup topsoil
water
plastic quart container with lid
paper coffee filter
builder's sand
crushed charcoal briquettes
clock
teacher sheet
student sheets
The real "workhorses" in this natural water purification plant are the
microbes. These tiny organisms are able to take many types of toxins and break them down into harmless
substances. Those which cannot be broken down are likely to become sequestered within ever-increasing volumes
of organic debris. These systems are so effective that they are often utilized by wastewater treatment plants.
How To Purify Water
Boiling is probably the best way to purify water. There is some debate about how long water needs to be boiled
before it is safe to drink. Opinions vary from three minutes of a rolling boil to even just a few seconds. There are
many water purification devices on the market; all use one or more of the following techniques to clean water:
Micropore filter, tiny holes that big germs can't pass through. This will stop larger microorganisms, such as
amoeba and giardia, but bacteria and viruses will pass through.
Iodine: a filter, usually in the form of a membrane, containing a potent form of iodine that latches on to
microorganisms as they pass through and kills them. Viruses are killed quickly; the larger germs may
require several minutes to be effectively neutralized.
Charcoal: does not have much anti-bacterial effect, but it will remove bad odors and tastes, and some
chemical pollutants. It is sometimes provided as an addition to the regular water purification device.
The flashlamp system is a new method still being developed. The high-intensity light generated by the flashlamp
system has the ability to actually break DNA strands, and in doing so alter the chemical composition of a substance
to render it both harmless and unable to reproduce. Moreover, the sheer intensity of the light produces a kill rate
that can effectively decompose viral and microbe contaminants. Treating recirculated water with light is attractive
because it does not contribute mineral salts or toxic residues that limit the potential for subsequent reuse of
treated water.
hydrologic (water) cycle: the cycle of the Earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the Earth and back that
includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies and groundwater.
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microbe: a microorganism (microbiological organism).
potable: fit or suitable for human consumption, as in potable water.
ADVANCE PREPARATION
A. Prepare an overhead of the attached water treatment cycle.
B. Prepare a water filter using a plastic liter soda bottle with the bottom cut off, the label peeled off, and a one-
hole stopper carrying a short length of glass tube inserted into the small end of the soda bottle. Put a little
cotton wool in the bottom and then a layer of small clean pebbles. Wash some coarse sand well and place a
layer above the pebbles. Next wash some fine sand and make a thicker layer in the filter. Grind up some
wood charcoal and make it into a paste with water. Spread the charcoal paste evenly over the surface of the
sand. Secure some very muddy water and pour in the top of the filter. Collect the filtrate in a clean glass
placed below the filter. (See diagram.)
PROCEDURE
/. Setting the stage
A. Conduct the above experiment and ask for volunteers to drink the potable water.
B. Ask the class to brainstorm ideas of what potable water is. Ask them what word they might confuse with
potable.
C. Give the class the correct definition of potable water for their notes. Ask the class to brainstorm ways
their school gets potable water.
D. To introduce the water treatment cycle, read The Borrowers A float by Mary Norton.
E. Produce the overhead and compare it to the borrowers' journey and the conducted experiment
F. Have students illustrate cartoons about the borrowers' journey down the drain, thorough a pipe and into
a river.
//. Activity
A. Explain to the students how they will recreate the water treatment system for their classroom.
B. Divide the class into cooperative groups.
C. Have each group make muddy water by mixing 1/4cupoftopsoil with water in a quart container. Put the
lid on the container and shake.
1. Now make a water filter by cutting the top off a soda bottle about 4 inches below the spout (the
teacher should help). Turn the top upside down and rest it in the remainder of the bottle.
2. Wet some sand and put a 1-inch layer in the coffee filter.
3. Put a 1-inch layer of crushed charcoal on top of the sand. Then cover with another 1-inch layer of
wet sand.
4. Slowly pour about 1 cup of muddy water into your filter. Be sure to leave some muddy water so you
can compare it to the filtered water.
5. Time how long it takes the water to begin filtering. Is the water that passed through the filter cleaner
than the water in the other container?
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D. Have the groups record their findings and present them on the attached chart.
///. Follow-Up
A. Have the students answer the following questions.
1. Compare the muddy water and the filtered water, explaining how sand can clean the water.
2. What parts of this experiment represent steps used by water treatment plants?
3. Why could or couldn't you use it to make a powdered drink?
IV. Extensions
A. Have groups draw new cartoons that depict the borrowers' journey through the class filter system.
B. Brainstorm problems that could arise in the class's filter system.
RESOURCES
Johnson Cynthia C. Waterwaysa Division of Public Information St. Johns River Water Management District,
1991.
Norton, Mary. The Borrowers Afloat. ISBN 0-15-2105340-4.
Water Purification Techniques: http://www.achilles.net/~petert/water.html
Polygon Industries Inc., author: Water Purification: http://www.polygon1.com/waterpurification.html
Water Purification Capabilities: http://hermes.ecn.purdue.edu:8001/http_dir/Gopher/agen/agen521/Lessons/
Wetlands/purification.html
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STUDENT SHEET WATER FILTRATION
6-8
Directions: Draw a diagram of your filter, then record the data you collect.
Filter Set-Up:
Step 1: Cut the soda bottle off 10 cm below the spout. Turn the top upside down in the rest of the bottle. Put
a coffee filter in the bottle.
Step 2: Wet some builder's sand and put a 2.5 cm layer in the coffee filter.
Step 3: Put a 2.5 cm layer of crushed charcoal on top of the sand, then cover with another 2.5 cm layer of wet
builder's sand.
Step 4: Slowly pour 250 mL of muddy water into your filter. Save some muddy water to use as a comparison.
Step 5: Time how long it takes the water to begin filtering and record what the water looks like.
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STUDENT SHEET
WATER FILTRATION
6-8
Time
Time 0
30 seconds
1 minute
1 minute, 30 seconds
2 minutes
2 minutes, 30 seconds
3 minutes
3 minutes, 30 seconds
What the Water Looked Like
Please answer the following questions:
1. How did the filter clean the muddy water?
2. Is the water potable? Why or why not?
3. What could still be in the water?
4. What parts of your experiment represent steps used by water treatment plants?
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TEACHER SHEET
6-8
WATER FILTRATION
_ Cut
~10cm
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TEACHER SHEET
WATER FILTRATION
01
en
Co
SURFACE IMPOUNDMENT
\
MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY
LEAKING UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
DEEP-WEi .INJECTION
Industrial and Commercial Contamination Sources
-------
TEACHER SHEET
WATER FILTRATION
ABANDONED WELL
01
O)
PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS
BDTA8LE WATERWESOURC
Municipal and Rural Contamination Sources
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0
(St
THE WATER SOURCEBOOK
GLOSSARY
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GLOSSARY
abandoned well: any well (drinking water, oil and gas, etc.) which is not used for a long period of time, is not
maintained properly, and/or is not properly sealed when its useful life is over.
acidity: the strength (concentration of hydrogen [H+] ions) of an acidic substance; measured as pH.
acid rain (or acid precipitation): rain with a pH of less than 5.6; results from atmospheric moisture mixing
with sulphur and nitrogen oxides emitted from burning fossil fuels or from volcanic activity; may cause
damage to buildings, monuments, car finishes, crops, forests, wildlife habitats, and aquatic life.
The Act to Prevent Pollution From Ships: legislation regulating the discharge of oil, noxious liquid sub-
stances, or garbage generated during normal operations of vessels.
adhesion: force of attraction between two unlike materials.
aeration: the process of exposing to circulating air.
aerial photography: high altitude pictures taken from an aircraft or satellite.
aerobic: living or occurring in the presence of oxygen.
agricultural sewage: waste produced through the agricultural processes of cultivating the soil, producing
crops, or raising livestock..
agriculture: the science, art, and business of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock;
farming.
airborne pollutants: contaminants borne by air that cause harm to human health or the environment.
algae: any of a large group of simple plants that contain chlorophyll; are not divisible into roots, stems and
leaves; do not produce seeds; and include the seaweeds and related freshwater and land plants.
algal bloom: a heavy growth of algae in and on a body of water; usually results from high nitrate and phos-
phate concentrations entering water bodies from farm fertilizers and detergents; phosphates also
occur naturally under certain conditions.
alternative: a chance to choose between two or more possibilities; one of the two or more possible choices.
alum: as used in drinking water treatment, aluminum sulfate; added to water in drinking water treatment
facilities to cause dirt and other particles to clump together and fall to the bottom of settling basins.
amendments: revisions or changes (as to laws).
anaerobic bacteria: any bacteria that can survive in the complete or partial absence of air.
Aqua Lung: a trademark for a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba).
aquacade: an entertainment spectacle of swimmers and divers, often performing in unison to the accompani-
ment of music.
aquaculture: the science, art, and business of cultivating marine or freshwater food fish or shellfish, such as
oysters, clams, salmon, and trout, under controlled conditions.
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aquamarine: a transparent blue-green variety of beryl, used as a gemstone.
aquanaut: a person trained to live in underwater installations and conduct, assist in, or be a subject of
scientific research.
aquaplane: a board on which one rides in a standing position while it is pulled over the water by a motorboat.
aquarelle: a drawing done in transparent water colors.
aquarist: one who maintains an aquarium.
aquarium: a tank, bowl, or other water-filled enclosure in which living aquatic animals and, often, plants are
kept.
Aquarius: a constellation in the equatorial region of the Southern Hemisphere near Pisces and Aquila.
aquatic life: plants, animals, and microorganisms that spend all or part of their lives in water.
aqueduct: a conduit designed to transport water from a remote source, usually by gravity.
aquifer: an underground layer of unconsolidated rock or soil that is saturated with usable amounts of water (a
zone of saturation).
Army Corps of Engineers: Branch of the U.S. Army; responsible for maintaining and regulating inland
waterways.
artesian well: a well in which the water comes from a confined aquifer and is under pressure. One type of
artesian well is a free-flowing artesian well where water just flows or bubbles out of ground without
being pumped.
atmospheric transport: the movement of air pollutants from one region to another by wind; may be hun-
dreds of miles.
autotroph: an organism that can make its own food (usually using sunlight).
bacteria: Bacteria are single-cell microbes that grow in nearly every environment on Earth. They are used to
study diseases and produce antibiotics, to ferment foods, to make chemical solvents, and in many
other applications.
bacterial water pollution: the introduction of unwanted bacteria into a water body.
bag limit: the number of a certain fish that can be caught each day.
bay: a large estuarine system (Example: Chesapeake Bay).
benthic zone: the lower region of a body of water including the bottom.
biocontrol agent: an organism used to control pests Example: lady bugs used to control aphids in a garden).
biodegradable: capable of being decomposed (broken down) by natural biological processes.
biological diversity: a wide variety of plant and animal life.
bioremediation: the use of oil-eating organisms such as bacteria and fungi to remove pollutants.
biosolids: solid materials resulting from wastewater treatment that meet government criteria for beneficial
use, such as for fertilizer.
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bivalve: a mollusk that has two shells hinged together, such as the oyster, clam, or mussel.
blackwater: domestic wastewater containing human wastes.
blue baby syndrome: a pathological condition, called methemoglobinemia, in which blood's capacity for
oxygen transport is reduced, resulting in bluish skin discoloration in infants; ingestion of water con-
taminated with nitrates or certain other substances is a cause.
bog: a poorly drained freshwater wetland that is characterized by a build-up of peat.
bottom lands: low-lying land along a waterway.
brine: water saturated with or containing large amounts of a salt, especially of sodium chloride.
calcium carbonate: a powder occurring in nature in various forms, as calcite, chalk, and limestone, which is
used in polishes and the manufacture of lime and cement.
carcinogenic: describing a substance that tends to produce cancer.
catch basin: a sedimentation area designed to remove pollutants from runoff before being discharged into a
stream or pond.
caution: a warning against danger.
centrifugal force: the force that causes something to move outward from the center of rotation.
cesspool: a covered hole or pit for receiving untreated sewage.
channelization: the process of channeling or carving a route.
chemical: related to the science of chemistry; a substance characterized by a definite chemical molecular
composition.
chemical pollution: introduction of chemical contaminants into a water body.
chlorination: water disinfection by chlorine gas or hypochlorite.
chlorine: a chemical element, symbol Cl, atomic number 17, atomic weight 35.453; used as a disinfectant in
drinking and wastewater treatment processes.
cholera: an acute, often fatal, infectious epidemic disease caused by the microorganism Vibrio comma, that
is characterized by watery diarrhea, vomiting, cramps, suppression of urine, and collapse.
Clean Water Act: water pollution control laws based upon the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
with amendments passed in 1977, 1981, and 1987; main objective is to restore and maintain the
"chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters."
closed season: a time when a certain fish cannot be caught.
closed system: a system that that functions without any materials or processes beyond those it contains
and/or produces itself.
cloud: a visible mass of tiny bits of water or ice hanging in the air, usually high above the earth.
cohesion: the force of attraction between two like materials.
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conforms: bacteria found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals; used as indicators of fecal contami-
nation in water.
communities: related groups of plants and animals living in specific regions under relatively similar condi-
tions.
compost: an aerobic mixture of decaying organic matter, such as leaves and manure, used as fertilizer.
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or
Superfund): legislation passed in 1980 and amended in 1986 by the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA); provides for short-term actions called removal actions in response to
accidents and improper handling of hazardous materials which pose an immediate threat to human
health and safety. It also provides for long-term actions called remedial actions for cleanups of other
sites which pose no immediate threat to public safety.
condensation: the act or process of reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid or solid state.
cone of depression: the cone-shaped area formed when the spaces in the rock or soil are emptied as water
is withdrawn from a well.
confined aquifer (artesian aquifer): an aquifer with a dense layer of compacted earth material over it that
blocks easy passage of water.
conservation: act of using the resources only when needed for the purpose of protecting from waste or loss
of resources.
conservation farming: the management of farm activities and structures to eliminate or reduce adverse
environmental effects of pollutants and conserve soil, water, plant, and animal resources.
conserve: to save a natural resource, such as water, through intelligent management and use.
constructed wetlands: wetlands that are designed and built similar to natural wetlands; some are used to
treat wastewater. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment consist of one or more shallow
depressions or cells built into the ground with level bottoms so that the flow of water can be controlled
within the cells and from cell to cell. Roots and stems of the wetland plants form a dense mat where
biological and physical processes occur to treat the wastewater. Constructed wetlands are being used
to treat domestic, agricultural, industrial, and mining wastewaters.
contaminant: an impurity, that causes air, soil, or water to be harmful to human health or the environment.
contaminate: to make impure (not pure) by contact or mixture; to introduce a substance into the air, water, or
soil that reduces its usefulness to humans and other organisms in nature.
contamination: the state of being contaminated or impure (not pure) by contact or mixture; the state of
having a substance introduced into the air, water, or soil that reduces its usefulness to humans and
other organisms in nature.
contour plowing: a system of plowing along the contour lines of the land to prevent soil erosion.
convection current: the transfer of heat by the mass movement of heated particles.
cooling towers: a tower-like device in which atmospheric air circulates and cools warm water, generally by
direct contact (evaporation).
corrosivity: ability to dissolve or break down certain substances, particularly metals.
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"cradle to grave": phrase used to describe regulations that are part of the Resources Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), which requires that hazardous wastes be tracked from their points of origin to
their proper disposal; these regulations are designed to protect groundwater, as well as other re-
sources, from contamination by improper treatment, storage, and disposal of solid wastes and are
aimed at ending irresponsible "midnight dumping."
crest: something forming the top of something else, such as the crest of a wave.
cubic feet: the volume of a cube whose edge is some number of feet in measure.
cubic meters: the volume of a cube whose edge is some number of meters in measure.
cumulative: increasing or enlarging by successive addition; acquired by or resulting from accumulation.
debris: dead organic material (leaves, twigs, etc.) and sediment.
decompose: to decay or rot; a result of microbial action.
decomposition: the process of rotting and decay which causes the complex organic materials in plants and
animals to break down into simple inorganic elements which can be returned to the atmosphere and
soil.
defecate: to void excrement or waste through the anus.
de-foaming agents: chemicals that are added to wastewater discharges to prevent the water from foaming
when it is discharged into a receiving water body.
degradable: capable of decomposition; chemical or biological.
depression storage: the storage of water in low areas such as puddles, bogs, ponds, and wetlands.
desalination: the purification of salt or brackish water by removing the dissolved salts.
detergent: a synthetic cleansing agent resembling soap; has the ability to emulsify oil and remove dirt;
contains surfactants that do not precipitate in hard water.
detritus: loose fragments or grains that have been worn away from rock.
digestion: decomposition of organic waste materials by the action of microbes; the process of sewage
treatment by the decomposition of organic matter.
dilution: the act of making thinner or more liquid by adding to the mixture; the act of diminishing the strength,
flavor, or brilliance of by adding to the mixture.
discharged: released into a water body.
disinfect (disinfected): to cleanse of harmful microorganisms.
disposal: a disposing of or getting rid of something, as in the disposal of waste material.
dissolved oxygen (DO): oxygen gas (02) dissolved in water.
dissolved solids: materials that enter a water body in a solid phase and dissolve in water.
distillation: the process of heating a liquid or solid until it sends off a gas or vapor and then cooling the gas
or vapor until it becomes a liquid.
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distribution box: a place where one pipe or line enters and exits through several pipes or lines; they are
used in municipal drinking water systems to distribute water to homes, in municipal wastewater
systems to retrieve wastewater, and by electric companies to distribute power.
divining rod: a forked branch or stick used in an attempt to locate subterranean water or minerals; it is said
to bend downward when held over a source.
domestic sewage: waste produced through the functioning of a household.
downstream: in the direction of a stream's current.
dowsing: to use a divining rod in an attempt to find underground water or minerals.
drainage basin: an area drained by a main river and its tributaries.
drainage system: a network formed by a main river and its tributaries.
drainfield: the part of a septic system where the wastewater is released into the soil for absorption and
filtration.
dredging: the cleaning, deepening, or widening of a waterway using a machine (dredge) that removes
materials using a scoop or suction device.
drought: a lack of rain or water; a long period of dry weather.
duck stamp: required, for a fee, of all duck hunters over age 16 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; a
conservation program aimed at preserving wetlands.
ecology: a branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environments; the
totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment.
ecosystem: an ecological community together with its physical environment, considered as a unit.
effluent: waste material, such as water from sewage treatment or manufacturing plants, discharged into the
environment.
electroplating: to coat or cover with a thin layer of metal using electricity.
elements: substances such as iron, sodium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen with distinctly different atoms
which serve as some of the 108 basic building blocks of all matter.
The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986 (SARA Title III): law requiring
federal, state and local governments and industry which are involved in either emergency planning
and/or reporting of hazardous chemicals to allow public access to information about the presence of
hazardous chemicals in the community and releases of such substances into the environment.
emission: a substance discharged into the environment.
endangered animal species: a species of animal identified by official federal and/or state agencies as being
faced with the danger of extinction.
environment: the sum of all external conditions and influences affecting the development and life of organ-
isms.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): the U.S. agency responsible for efforts to control air and water
pollution, radiation and pesticide hazards, ecological research, and solid waste disposal.
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epidemic diseases: diseases that spread rapidly and extensively by infection among many individuals in an
area.
erosion: the wearing away of the earth's surface by running water, wind, ice, or other geological agents;
processes, including weathering, dissolution, abrasion, corrosion, and transportation, by which
material is removed from the earth's surface.
estuarine: of an area where a river empties into an ocean; of a bay, influenced by the ocean tides, which has
resulted in a mixture of salt water and fresh water.
estuarine intertidal emergents: herbaceous vegetation that grows in saltwater marshes.
estuarine intertidal forested/shrub: a saltwater wetland containing larger woody plants.
estuarine intertidal unconsolidated shores: beaches and sand bars.
estuarine subtidal: a habitat of open water and bay bottoms continuously covered by salt water.
estuarine unconsolidated bottom habitats: sandy bottom area in open water estuaries.
estuary: the area where a river empties into an ocean; a bay, influenced by the ocean tides, resulting in a
mixture of salt water and fresh water.
eutrophic: pertaining to a lake containing a high concentration of dissolved nutrients; often shallow, with
periods of oxygen deficiency.
eutrophication: a naturally occurring change that take place after a water body receives inputs of nutrients,
mostly nitrates and phosphates, from erosion and runoff of surrounding lands; this process can be
accelerated by human activities.
evaporate: to convert or change into a vapor with the application of heat.
evaporation: the act or process of converting or changing into a vapor with the application of heat.
evapotranspiration: combination of evaporation and transpiration of water into the atmosphere from living
plants and soil.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act): the law-to restore and maintain the "chemical,
physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters."
feedlots: confined areas where livestock are quartered and fed, often these are holding areas where animals
are fattened-up prior to being shipped to market.
fertilizer: any one of a large number of natural and synthetic materials, including manure and nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium compounds, spread or worked into the soil to increase its fertility.
fill: material added to a wetland area to make it suitable for building.
filtration: the process of passing a liquid or gas through a porous article or mass (paper, membrane, sand,
etc.) to separate out matter in suspension.
fish kill: the sudden death of fish due to the introduction of pollutants or the reduction of the dissolved oxygen
concentration in a water body.
fishery: a place engaged in the occupation or industry of catching fish or taking seafood from bodies of water;
a place where such an industry is conducted.
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FL (fork length): the length of a fish from its mouth to the fork in its tail.
flocculation: the process of forming aggregated or compound masses of particles, such as a cloud or a
precipitate.
flood conveyance: the transport of floodwaters downstream with minimal, if any, damage.
floodplain: a low, flat area on either side of a river that can accommodate large amounts of water during a
flood, lessening flood damage further downstream.
flooding: an overflowing of water, especially over land not usually submerged.
fluoride: a binary compound of fluorine with another element; added to drinking water to help prevent tooth
decay.
food chain: a succession of organisms in a community that constitute a feeding order in which food energy is
transferred from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed
upon by a higher member.
food web: the connections among everything organisms in a location eat and are in turn eaten by.
fossil fuel: a hydrocarbon fuel, such as petroleum, derived from living matter of a previous geologic time.
fresh water: water containing an insignificant amount of salts, such as in inland rivers and lakes.
gaining streams: streams that appear from the ground or cracks in rocks because they are flowing directly
out of an aquifer.
gallon: a unit of liquid capacity equal to four quarts (about 3.8 liters).
glycerin: a sweet, thick liquid found in various oils and fats and can be used to moisten or dissolve some-
thing.
gill: an aquatic respiratory organ (as on fish) for obtaining oxygen dissolved in the water.
grade: the slope of the surface of the earth.
gradient: the degree of inclination , or the rate of ascent or descent, in a highway, road, river, etc.
gravity: the force of attraction, characterized by heaviness or weight, by which terrestrial bodies tend to fall
toward the center of the earth.
green zones: areas along river- and streambanks, wetlands, lakes, and ponds where there is high productiv-
ity and diversity.
greywater: domestic wastewater that does not contain human wastes such as tub, shower, or washing
machine water.
groundwater: water that infiltrates into the earth and is stored in usable amounts in the soil and rock below
the earth's surface; water within the zone of saturation.
groundwater discharge: the flow or pumping of water from an aquifer.
groundwater recharge: the addition of water to an aquifer.
gully: a trench worn in the earth by running water.
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habitat: the arrangement of food, water, shelter, and space suitable to animal's needs.
halite: a white or colorless mineral, sodium chloride or rock salt.
hardness: the amount of calcium carbonate dissolved in water.
hazardous chemicals: chemical compounds that are dangerous to human health and/or the environment.
hazardous waste: waste containing chemical compounds that are dangerous to human health and/or the
environment.
heat capacity: the heat required to raise the temperature of a substance one Celcius degree.
heavy metals: metallic elements Example: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc)
which are used to manufacture products; they are present in some industrial, municipal, and urban
runoff.
herbaceous: describes animals that are strictly plant-eating.
heterotroph: an organism that is not capable of making its own food.
holding pond: an animal waste treatment method which uses a shallow pond to temporarily store animal
wastes for land application.
holding tanks: a container where wastewater is stored before it is removed for treatment; confined livestock
operations have holding tanks to store animal wastes for land application at a later time.
humidity: the degree of wetness, especially of the atmosphere.
hydrocarbons: substances containing only hydrogen and carbon, such as methane, alkane, or ethylene.
hydroelectric: that generation of electricity which converts the energy of running water into electric power.
hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S): a flammable, toxic, colorless gas with an offensive odor (similar to rotten eggs).
hydrolic: operated, moved, or brought about by means of water.
hydrologic (water) cycle: the cycle of the earth's water supply from the atmosphere to the earth and back
which includes precipitation, transpiration, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, and storage in water bodies
and groundwater.
hydropower: any means of harnessing power from water.
impermeable: impassable; not permitting the passage of a fluid through it.
impurity: something that, when mixed into something else, makes that mixture unclean or lowers the quality.
induced recharge: replenishing a water body or aquifer by transporting water from somewhere else and
putting it into the water body or aquifer.
industrial pollution: pollution caused by industry.
infiltration: the gradual downward flow of water from the surface of the earth into the soil.
injection wells: a well in which fluids (such as wastewater, saltwater, natural gas, or used chemicals) are
injected deep in the ground for the purpose of disposal or to force adjacent fluids like oil into the
vicinity of oil producing wells.
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inorganic material: material derived from nonorganic, or nonliving, sources.
inorganic nitrogen: nitrogen not derived from organic matter.
inorganic phosphorus: phosphorus not derived from organic matter.
irrigation: to supply (dry land) with water by means of ditches, pipes, or streams.
karst: a topography formed over limestone, dolomite, or gypsum and characterized by sinkholes, caves, and
underground drainage.
lacustrine: refers to lake or river habitats.
lagoon: as a wastewater treatment method, an animal waste treatment method which uses a deep pond to
treat manure and other runoff from a livestock operation, may be aerobic or anaerobic (both use
bacteria to break down wastes).
landfill: a large, outdoor area for waste disposal; landfills where waste is exposed to the atmosphere (open
dumps) are now illegal; in "sanitary" landfills, waste is layered and covered with soil.
landscaping: improving the natural beauty of a piece of land by planting or altering the contours of the
ground.
land use: how a certain area of land is utilized (Examples: forestry, agriculture, urban, industry).
leachate: the liquid formed when water (from precipitation) soaks into and through a landfill, picking up a
variety of suspended and dissolved materials from the waste.
leaching: the removal of chemical constituents from rocks and soil by water.
leaking underground storage tank (LUST): an underground container used to store gasoline, diesel fuel,
home heating oil, or other chemicals that is damaged in some way and is leaking its contents into the
ground; may contaminate groundwater.
legislation: a proposed or enacted law or group of laws.
limiting factor: a factor whose absence exerts influence upon a population and may be responsible for no
growth, limited growth (decline), or rapid growth.
liner: a clay or plastic material placed between garbage and soil in a landfill to prevent rotting garbage from
coming in contact with groundwater.
litter: rubbish discarded in the environment instead of in trash containers.
littoral zone: region in a body of water that sunlight penetrates.
longshore current: a current that moves parallel to the shore.
losing streams: streams which seem to disappear because they flow into an aquifer.
macroinvertebrates: organisms that are visible to the naked eye and lack a backbone.
mariculture: the cultivation of marine organisms in their natural habitats, usually for commercial purposes.
marine: of or relating to the sea.
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marine intertidal: a coastal saltwater wetland flooded by tidewaters.
marine pollution: pollution found in the oceans, bays, or gulfs.
The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (Ocean Dumping Act): legislation regu-
lating the dumping of any material in the ocean that may adversely affect human health, marine
environments, or the economic potential of the ocean.
marsh: an area of low-lying wetland.
maximum contaminant levels: the highest content levels of certain substances allowable by law for a water
source to be considered safe.
meander: to follow a winding course, such as a brook meandering through the fields.
membrane: a soft pliable sheet or layer, often of plant or animal origin.
mercury: a poisonous metallic element, Hg, atomic number 80, atomic weight 200.59, existing at room
temperature as a silvery, dense liquid.
Mesopotamians: people from the ancient country of Mesopotamia located in southwest Asia between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
microbe: a microorganism; a very tiny and often harmful plant or animal.
microbial digestion: breakdown and use of a substance by microorganisms.
microbiology: the science and study of microorganisms, including protozoans, algae, fungi, bacteria, and
viruses.
microorganisms: organisms too small to be seen with the unaided eye, including bacteria, protozoans,
yeasts, viruses, and algae.
midnight dumping: a term used for illegal disposal of hazardous wastes in remote locations often at night,
hence the term "midnight."
mill tailings: rock and other materials removed when minerals are mined; usually dumped onto the ground or
deposited into ponds.
mineral: a naturally occurring substance (as diamond or quartz) that results from processes other than those
of plants and animals; a naturally occurring substance (as ore, petroleum, natural gas, or water)
obtained usually from the ground for human use.
miscible: capable of being mixed.
mixture: two or more substances mixed together in such a way that each remains unchanged (sand and
sugar form a mixture).
moisture: a small amount of liquid that causes wetness.
molecules: the smallest portions of a substance having the properties of the substance.
monitoring: scrutinizing and checking systematically with a view to collecting data.
monofilament: a single large filament, or threadlike structure, of synthetic fiber, such as a monofilament
fishing line.
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mulch: a protective covering of various substances, especially organic; placed around plants to prevent
evaporation of moisture and freezing of roots and to control weeds.
municipality: a political unit, such as a city or town, incorporated for local self-government.
municipal sewage: sewage originating from urban areas (not industrial).
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA): law that requires environmental impact statements be
submitted for any major construction projects that uses U.S. federal money.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): part of the Clean Water Act requiring munici-
pal and industrial wastewater treatment facilities to obtain permits which specify the types and
amounts of pollutants that may be discharged into water bodies.
national water quality standards: maximum contaminant levels for a variety of chemicals, metals, and
bacteria set by the Safe Drinking Water Act.
natural resource: something (as a mineral, forest, or kind of animal) that is found in nature and is valuable to
humans.
negative charge: an electrical charge created by having more electrons than protons.
nitrates: used generically for materials containing this ion group made of nitrogen and oxygen (NO3");
sources include animal wastes and some fertilizers; can seep into groundwater; linked to human
health problems, including "blue baby" syndrome (methemoglobinemia).
nitric acid (HNO3): a component of acid rain; corrosive; damages buildings, vehicle surfaces, crops, forests,
and aquatic life.
nonbiodegradable: materials that cannot be broken down by livings things into simpler chemicals.
non-compliance: not obeying all the federal and state regulations that apply.
non-permeable surfaces: surfaces which will not allow water to penetrate, such as sidewalks and parking
lots.
nonpoint source pollution (NPS): pollution that cannot be traced to a single point (Example: outlet or pipe)
because it comes from many individual places or a widespread area (typically, urban, rural, and
agricultural runoff).
nutrient: an element or compound, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, that is necessary for plant
growth.
offshore dumping: the disposal or dumping of waste material off or away from the shore.
The Oil Pollution Act: legislation that imposes substantial penalties and liability for oil spills in the ocean;
violators are responsible for the cost of the cleanup and restoration of natural resources.
organic material: material derived from organic, or living, things; also, relating to or containing carbon
compounds.
oil slick: a smooth area on the surface of water caused by the presence of oil.
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organism: any living being; plants and animals.
oxygen depletion: the reduction of the dissolved oxygen level in a water body.
package plants: a small, semi-portable prefabricated wastewater treatment system that services an apart-
ment complex, trailer park, camp, or self-contained business that is not connected to a city sewer
system and is not on a site appropriate for a septic system.
palustrine aquatic beds: inland areas which contain floating or submerged aquatic vegetation.
palustrine emergents: plants growing in inland marshes and wet meadows.
palustrine forested: inland areas such as forested swamps or bogs.
palustrine shrub: inland wetland area with shrub growth.
palustrine unconsolidated bottom: muddy bottom of open water ponds.
percolate: to drain or seep through a porous substance.
permeable: passable; allowing fluid to penetrate or pass through it.
permeability: the property of a membrane or other material that permits a substance to pass through it.
pesticide: any chemical or biological agent that kills plant or animal pests; herbicides, insecticides, fungi-
cides, rodenticides, etc. are all pesticides.
petroleum products: products derived from petroleum or natural gas.
pH: a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; the pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 7
is neutral and values less than 7 are acidic and values greater than 7 are basic or alkaline; pH is an
inverted logarithmic scale so that every unit decrease in pH means a 10-fold increase in hydrogen ion
concentration. Thus, a pH of 3 is 10 times as acidic as a pH of 4 and 100 times as acidic as a pH of 5.
phosphate: used generically for materials containing a phosphate group (PO43~); sources include some
fertilizers and detergents; when wastewater containing phosphates is discharged into surface waters,
these chemicals act as nutrient pollutants (causing overgrowth of aquatic plants).
photodegradable: plastic that will decompose into smaller pieces under certain kinds of radiant energy,
especially ultraviolet light.
plankton: minute animal and plant life in a body of water.
point source pollution: pollution that can be traced to a single point source, such as a pipe or culvert
(Example: industrial and wastewater treatment plant, and certain storm water discharges).
polar: of or relating to the poles or ends of a magnet.
polarity: having a positive or negative charge.
pollutant: an impurity (contaminant) that causes an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biologi-
cal characteristics of the air, water, or land that may be harmful to or affect the health, survival, or
activities of humans or other living organisms.
pollution: contaminants in the air, water, or soil that cause harm to human health or the environment.
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pollution prevention: preventing the creation of pollutants or reducing the amount created at the source of
generation, as well as protecting natural resources through conservation or increased efficiency in the
use of energy, water, or other materials.
pond: a body of water usually smaller than a lake.
population: the organisms inhabiting a particular area or biotope.
porosity: the property of being porous, having pores; the ratio of minute channels or open spaces (pores) to
the volume of solid matter.
positive charge: an electrical charge created by having fewer electrons than protons.
potable: fit or suitable for drinking, as in potable water.
precipitation: water droplets or ice particles condensed from atmospheric water vapor and sufficiently
massive to fall to the earth's surface, such as rain or snow.
primary treatment: the first process in wastewater treatment which removes settled or floating solids.
pristine: describes a landscape and/or a water body remaining in a pure state.
privy: an outhouse; a latrine.
protozoans: small single-cell microbes; frequently observed as actively moving organisms when impure
water is viewed under a microscope; cause a number of widespread human illnesses, such as
malaria, and thus can present a threat to public health.
pruning: trimming or cutting off undesired or unnecessary twigs, branches, or roots from a tree, bush, or
plant.
purification: the process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates.
quadrillion: the cardinal number represented by 1 followed by 15 zeros.
quota: the number or amount constituting a proportional share.
radioactive: having the property of releasing radiation.
radioactive pollution: the introduction of a radioactive material.
radon: a colorless, radioactive, inert gaseous element (atomic number 86) formed by the radioactive decay of
radium; exposure to high levels causes cancer.
recharge: replenish a water body or an aquifer with water.
recharge areas: an area where water flows into the earth to resupply a water body or an aquifer.
reclaim: to return to original condition.
red tide: a reddish discoloration of coastal surface waters due to concentrations of certain toxin-producing
algae.
reforestation: replanting trees and establishing a forest after forest harvesting or destruction.
regulation: a governmental order having the force of law.
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renewable resource: a resource or substance, such as a forest, that can be replenished through natural or
artificial means.
reservoir: a body of water collected and stored in a natural or artificial lake.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): legislation passed in 1976 aimed at protecting the
environment, including waterways, from solid waste contamination either directly, through spills, or
indirectly, through groundwater contamination.
restoration: reestablishing the character of an area such as a wetland or forest; cleaning up a contaminated
area according to specifications established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
reverse osmosis: a process where water is cleaned by forcing water through an ultra-fine semi-permeable
membrane which allows only the water to pass though and retains the contaminants; these filters are
sometimes used in tertiary treatment and to pretreat water in chemical laboratories.
ridge planting: a conservation farming method where seeds are planted in ridges which allows warmer soil
temperatures and traps rainwater in the furrows between the ridges.
riparian area: the area along a waterway.
river: a large natural stream emptying into an ocean, lake, or other water body.
riprap: large rocks placed along the bank of a waterway to prevent erosion.
riverine habitats: tidal and non-tidal river systems that feed into wetlands.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899: legislation regulating the discharge of refuse of any kind into navigable
waters.
rough (scavenger) fish: non-sport species offish that tolerate polluted water.
runoff: water (originating as precipitation) that flows across surfaces rather than soaking in; eventually enters
a water body; may pick up and carry a variety of pollutants.
Safe Drinking Water Act: a regulatory program passed by the U.S. Congress in 1974 to help ensure safe
drinking water in the United States; sets maximum contaminant levels for a variety of chemicals,
metals, and bacteria in public water supplies.
saline intrusion: the saltwater infiltration of freshwater aquifers in coastal areas, when groundwater is
withdrawn faster than it is being recharged.
salinity: an indication of the amount of salt dissolved in water.
salt marsh: an area where salt water from an ocean, bay, or gulf meets fresh water from a river.
salt water: water associated with the seas distinguished by high salinity.
sanitary landfill: rehabilitated land in which garbage and trash have been buried.
saturated air: air that contains as much moisture as it is possible to hold under existing conditions.
saturated zone: underground layer in which every available space is filled with water.
saturation: the state of being infused with so much of a substance (Example: water) that no more can be
absorbed, dissolved, or retained.
G-15
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secondary treatment: the wastewater process where bacteria are used to digest organic matter in the
wastewater.
sediment: insoluble material suspended in water that consists mainly of particles derived from rocks, soil,
and organic materials; a major nonpoint source pollutant to which other pollutants may attach.
sediment pollution: the introduction of sediment into a water body.
sediment pond: a natural or artificial pond for recovering the solids from effluent or runoff.
septic system: a domestic wastewater treatment system (consisting of a septic tank and a soil absorption
system) into which wastes are piped directly from the home; bacteria decompose the waste, sludge
settles to the bottom of the tank, and the treated effluent flows out into the ground through drainage
pipes.
settling: the process of a substance, such as dregs or sediment, sinnking or being deposited.
settling tank: a vessel in which solids settle out of water by gravity during drinking and wastewater treatment
processes.
sewage contamination: the introduction of untreated sewage into a water body.
sewage outfall: the point of sewage discharge, often from a pipe into a body of water, in turn called the
outfall area.
sewer system: an underground system of pipes used to carry off sewage and surface water runoff.
silage: livestock food prepared by storing and fermenting green forage plants in a silo.
silt: particles of small size left as sediment from water.
sinkhole: a natural depression in a land surface connected to a subterranean passage, generally occurring in
limestone regions and formed by solution or by collapse of a cavern roof.
siphon: a bent pipe or tube through which liquid can be drawn by air pressure up and over the edge of a
container; to draw off by a siphon.
slope: to take a slanting direction, such as a bank sloping down to a river; a piece of slanting ground, such as
a hillside; the upward or downward slant, such as that of a roof.
slough: a stagnant swamp, marsh, bog, or pond, especially as a part of a bayou, inlet, or backwater.
sludge: solid matter that settles to the bottom of septic tanks or wastewater treatment plant sedimentation;
must be disposed of by bacterial digestion or other methods or pumped out for land disposal or
incineration.
solar radiation: radiation emitted by the sun.
solution: the result of solving a problem; a liquid in which something has been dissolved.
solvent: a liquid capable of dissolving another substance (Examples: paint thinner, mineral spirits, and
water).
stormwater runoff: surface water runoff that flows into storm sewers or surface waters.
stream: a body of water flowing in a channel, as a brook, rivulet, or river.
G-16
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stream use classification: a system for classifying streams according to the intended use of the water
(Examples: recreation, industrial cooling, irrigation).
strip mine: an open mineral mine (Examples: coal, copper, zinc, etc.) where the topsoil and overburden is
removed to expose and extract the mineral.
subsidence: the compacting and sinking of an area.
substance: a material of a particular kind or constitution.
substrate: the substance acted upon by an enzyme or a fermenter, such as yeast, mold, or bacteria.
suffocate: to die due to the lack of oxygen.
sulfuric acid: the acid (H2SO4) formed when sulfur oxides combine with atmospheric moisture; a major
component of acid rain.
supersaturation: the state of being infused with more of a substance (Example: water) than is normally
possible under given conditions of temperature and pressure.
surface tension: the elastic-like force in a body, especially a liquid, tending to minimize, or constrict, the area
of the surface.
surface water: precipitation that does not soak into the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or
transpiration. It is stored in streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands, oceans, and reservoirs.
swamp: land having soils saturated with water for at least part of the year and supporting natural vegetation
of mostly trees and shrubs.
taxa: one of the hierarchical categories into which organisms are classified.
temperate climates: climates that are neither hot nor cold; mild.
terrain: the characteristic features of a tract of land's surface; topography.
terrarium: a box, usually made of glass, that is used for keeping and observing small animals or plants.
thermal pollution: the increase in temperature of a body of water due to the discharge of water used as a
coolant in industrial processes or power production; can cause serious damage to aquatic life.
TL (total length): the length of a fish from its mouth to the end of its tail.
toilet dam: a device that is placed inside the tank portion of a toilet to reduce the amount of water the tank
will hold by partitioning off part of the tank.
topographic map: a map showing the relief features or surface configuration of an area, usually by means of
contour lines.
topography: the detailed mapping or description of the features of a relatively small area, district, or locality;
the relief features or surface configuration of an area.
topsoil: the rich upper layer of soil in which plants have most of their roots.
toxic: having the characteristic of causing death or damage to humans, animals, or plants; poisonous.
toxic chemical: a chemical with the potential of causing death or damage to humans, animals, or plants;
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poison.
toxin: any of various poisonous substances produced by certain plant and animal cells, including bacterial
toxins, phytotoxins, and zootoxins.
transpiration: direct transfer of water from the leaves of living plants or the skins of animals into the atmo-
sphere.
treatment: a substance with which to treat water or a method of treating water to clean it.
treatment plant: facility for cleaning and treating fresh water for drinking, or cleaning and treating wastewater
before discharging into a water body.
tributary: a stream or river that flows into a larger river or lake.
trough: the lowest point in a wave; also a channel for water; a long channel or hollow.
turbidity: the cloudy or muddy appearance of a naturally clear liquid caused by the suspension of particulate
matter.
turbine: a device in which a bladed wheel is turned by the force of moving water or steam; connected by a
shaft to a generator to produce electricity.
typhoid (fever): an acute, highly infectious disease caused by the typhoid bacillus, Salmonella typhosa,
transmitted by contaminated food or water and characterized by bad rashes, high fever, bronchitis,
and intestinal hemorrhaging.
ultraviolet light: similar to light produced by the sun; produced by special lamps. As organisms are exposed
to this light, they are damaged or killed.
unconfined aquifer: an aquifer without a confining layer above it; the top surface of water in an unconfined
aquifer is the water table.
underground storage tanks: large tanks buried underground for storing liquids (Examples: gasoline, heating
oil); potential source of groundwater contamination if the tanks leak.
unit: a fixed quantity (as of length, time, or value) used as a standard of measurement; a single thing,
person, or group forming part of a whole.
unsaturated zone: an area underground between the ground surface and the water table where the pore
spaces are not filled with water, also know as the zone of aeration.
upstream: toward the source of a stream or current.
urban area: an area that is highly populated, such as a city or town.
wastewater: water that has been used for domestic or industrial purposes.
wastewater treatment: physical, chemical, and biological processes used to remove pollutants from waste-
water before discharging it into a water body.
waterborne disease: a disease spread by contaminated water.
water conservation: practices which reduce water use.
water cycle: see hydrologic cycle.
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water pollution: the act of making water impure or the state of water being impure.
water quality: the condition of water with respect to the amount of impurities in it.
watershed: land area from which water drains to a particular water body.
water system: a river and all its branches.
water table: the upper surface of the zone of saturation of groundwater.
G-19
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THE WATER SOURCEBOOK
FACTSHEETS
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THE WATER CYCLE
Water is perhaps the ultimate example of recycling. Water constantly renews its purity by cycling itself from a
liquid (or a solid) into vapor and back again. The change to a vapor removes most impurities and allows water
to return to Earth in its clean form. (Exception: acid rain, see F-51, Surface Water Issues.)
The study of water, or hydrology, starts with the water cycle, or the process by which water renews itself.
Since the cycle is continuous, it doesn't really have a beginning, but a convenient place to start studying it is with
precipitation (rain, snow, sleet and hail). When precipitation falls to earth, several things can happen. It can be
absorbed into the soil. This is called infiltration. This process allows water to seep into the earth and be stored
underground as groundwater. Precipitation can also become runoff, flowing into rivers and streams. Water
can evaporate, or it can be returned to the atmosphere by transpiration through plants. Since it is often
difficult to separate these two processes, they are often lumped together and called evapotranspiration.
Precipitation can also be stored. An ice cap is a form of storage. In temperate climates, water is found in
depression storage or surface water—puddles, ditches, and anywhere else that runoff water can gather. This is
a temporary form of storage. Water will evaporate from the surface and will infiltrate into the ground below it. It
will be absorbed by plants and transpired back into the air. It will flow to other areas. This "cycling" of water is
continuous.
A number of factors such as soil type, slope, moisture conditions, and intensity of storm event affect how water
travels through this cycle. For example, when rain falls, some of it will infiltrate into the ground, but this rate of
infiltration may be fast or slow. If the soil is already wet and saturated, much of the rain will become runoff. If the
soil has low moisture content, a large percentage of it may be absorbed. The type of soil will also impact the rate
of infiltration. Clay or packed soil allows little water to seep in. Sandy or loose soils allow more infiltration.
The rate of rainfall is a factor to consider. If rain is hitting the ground faster than it can infiltrate, it becomes runoff.
The grade or slope can also influence runoff. Water infiltrates very little on steep grades. Human-made structures
can reduce infiltration even further. Virtually no water infiltrates through paved roads and parking lots, so almost
all of it becomes runoff. This affects the entire water cycle.
F-1
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F-2
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WATERSHEDS
Watersheds have a big impact on the water cycle. A watershed, also called a drainage basin, is the area in
which all water, sediments, and dissolved materials drain from the land into a common body of water, such as a
river, lake or ocean. A watershed encompasses not only the water but the surrounding land from which the water
drains. This can be an area as large as the Mississippi River drainage basin or as small as a backyard.
A watershed may be either a large or small area, and its characteristics can greatly affect how water flows
through the watershed. For example, the flow in a particular stream may fluctuate dramatically with rainfall
because of the characteristics of the watershed. Heavy storms may cause streams to rise rapidly. Human-made
features of the watershed like dams or large paved areas can change stream flow and alter the watershed. If the
topography is steep, changes in stream flow due to runoff can be significant.
In some watersheds, stream flow may take a long time to respond to rainfall runoff. On heavily vegetated,
relatively flat terrain, infiltration is great, or runoff is slowed by vegetation. Eventually, however, runoff will make
its way through the watershed and become stream flow. In these areas, stream flow will rise slowly, but also
recede slowly.
The stream flow characteristics of a watershed can be a key to evaluating the quality of the water in the watershed.
Streams start out in higher elevations, and flow downward, eventually finding their way to the sea. But they don't
travel in straight lines. Their paths vary. The terrain may be steep in some areas, causing rapid flow, and flat in
other areas, allowing the water to get deeper and spread out. These grade changes create different habitats in
the stream which support different forms of life and change the quality of water in the watershed.
Water quality is critically impacted from everything that goes on within the watershed. Mining, forestry, agriculture,
and construction practices, urban runoff from streets, parking lots, chemically treated lawns, and gardens, failing
septic systems, and improperly treated municipal sewage discharges all affect water quality. Reducing pollution
and protecting water quality requires identifying, regulating, monitoring, and controlling potential pollutants. Some
examples of control practices include protecting streambanks and shorelines by maintaining vegetated buffer
strips, treating all wastes to remove harmful pollutants, or using grass-lined catchment basins in urban areas to
trap sediment and pollutants.
F-3
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THE COMMUNITY WATER ENVIRONMENT
Community water environments, have their own water "cycle within a cycle" based on the factors within the
community that affect water uses and flow.
Rainfall, soil composition, terrain, large surface bodies of water, human-made structures, pollution sources,
surface water, weather patterns, and other factors can all have an impact on the "community" water environment.
For example, a desert community may have a water environment with very little rainfall, while a marine coastal
climate like the Northwest will see months of rain. An urban community will have its water environment affected
by fast runoff due to paved areas, high water consumption due to large populations, water contaminants from
industrial operations, urban runoff, domestic sewage, and construction. A rural area may have its water environment
affected by lakes and streams that put large amounts of water into the air through evaporation or forests that
contribute water vapor through evapotranspiration. Agriculture often uses large amounts of water for irrigation
and watering livestock. Agricultural practices can also pollute the rural water environment with fertilizers and
pesticides, if improperly applied, or animal wastes if improperly managed.
In most urban communities, water is withdrawn from either a surface waterbody like a lake, reservoir, or stream,
or from a underground aquifer. This water is usually treated at a drinking water treatment plant and distributed
to individual homes, businesses, and industries through a vast network of underground pipes. Water is then
used by citizens, businesses, and industries. Used water either flows into a drain and travels to a wastewater
treatment plant though a network of sewer pipes or is deposited onto the ground. For example, water used to
wash the car or water the lawn may either soak into the ground or flow over the earth and run into nearby
waterbody or a network of storm drains which flow into a nearby waterbody. Some storm drains are connected
to wastewater treatment plants. At the wastewater treatment plant, most pollutants are removed and the treated
water is released into a nearby surface waterbody and the cycle begins again.
In rural areas, water is usually withdrawn directly from the ground through a well and piped into the house and
other buildings via a network of pipes. Used water is either deposited onto the ground where is soaks in or runs
off or it flows through pipes into a septic tank. Wastewater in the septic tank undergoes treatment and flows from
the tank into a series of pipes called a drainfield where it percolates into the soil.
In both urban and rural communities the primary source of water is from precipitation which is either stored as
surface water or groundwater. In special cases, some communities store water in water towers.
F-5
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WATER QUALITY
Every time water completes its cycle from vapor to liquid or solid and back to vapor again, its quality is renewed.
However, water quality can be damaged by any number of pollutants in the air, on land, or from other water
supplies. The amount of water available for use depends on its quality, and the availability of water dictates
where we can live, build cities, and create industry.
On the average, every American uses about 150 gallons of water a day. That makes daily water consumption in
the United States in 1996, approximately 39 billion gallons per day. It's no wonder that in some highly populated
areas, water supplies are getting tight. Some areas, such as Southern California, have water conservation laws
in effect to manage limited water supplies.
Each time we use water, we change its quality by adding substances to it. These materials are such things as
municipal sewage, toxic chemicals, solvents, automotive oils, fertilizers, detergents, pesticides, and even extra
heat. Some materials, even in small quantities, can damage water quality to the point to make it unusable. A
single quart of motor oil, for example, could pollute as much as 250,000 gallons of water.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Water may have different quality "standards," depending on its use. For example, water can be of high enough
quality for livestock to drink but not be pure enough for humans to consume. Or, water may provide a fine
environment for bass, bluegill and other lake fish while not being cold enough or having enough oxygen content
to support trout. Water quality is often in the "eye of the beholder."
Laws involving water quality date back as far as 1914. The first Federal law dealing exclusively with water quality
was passed in 1948. Under this law, the states retained primary responsibility for water quality standards and
protection. The Federal government supplied money primarily for research. The law provided only weak
punishments for offenders. During the 1960s, amendments provided for Federal water quality standards, Federally
approved state standards, and increased funding for research. However, as water pollution increased in many
areas of the country, public concern resulted in passage of three more very important environmental laws.
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) required federal agencies to consider the environmental
impacts of their actions. All federal agencies must prepare environmental impact statements to assess the
impacts of major federal actions, such as large building or industrial projects. Because of NEPA, federal
undertakings have been conducted in a manner to ensure protection of all natural resources, including water.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) which was passed in 1972 and amended in 1977,
1981, and 1987 provides the basis for water quality standards today. The Clean Water Act (CWA) also established
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), a permitting program which has assisted in
reducing discharges of pollutants to surface waters. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), passed in 1974 and
amended in 1986 and 1996, requires public drinking water systems to protect drinking water sources, provide
water treatment, monitor drinking water to ensure proper quality, and notify the public of contamination problems.
The Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for implementing or authorizing states to implement the
NPDES permitting program, establishing drinking water standards, and enforcing other provisions of the CWA
and SDWA.
LAND USE AND WATER QUALITY
Land use can have a tremendous effect on water quality. Farmlands can be the source of sediment, fertilizer,
pesticides, and animal waste pollution. When forests are cut down, they can be major sources of sediment
pollution. Cities pose numerous water quality problems due to: the demand for clean water, industrial and
commercial pollutants, and human and pet wastes, and urban runoff from lawns and paved areas.
So it's important that when we decide to use land for a specific purpose, we take into account water quality, not
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just in the immediate area but within the whole watershed. This means considering the amount of water available
as well as how it must be processed before and after use. For example, crops require tremendous amounts of
water. If there's not enough rainfall to support their growth, crops must be irrigated, which means transporting
water from lakes, streams, or wells. Irrigation may require so much water that aquatic life in lakes and streams
may be adversely impacted, or the water table may be lowered, causing wells and wetlands to dry up. Another
good example is the case of a computer chip manufacturer in California. The manufacturing plant owner/operator
may take great care to avoid discharging dangerous pollutants, but still come under attack by environmentalists
for the amount of water it uses in an area where water supplies are severely limited. To avoid such attacks or
criticism, the plant owner/operator can make sure that it withdraws water only during periods of high flows after
rain and storm events.
Certain land use practices can minimize negative impacts to the environment. For example, planting trees and
other vegetation to protect soil and reduce erosion, fencing livestock to prevent access to streams, properly
treating animal wastes, minimizing use of fertilizers and pesticides, properly treating all waste products from
industries, using less harmful chemicals and other products in homes, businesses, and industries, and reducing,
reusing and recycling commercial products can all help reduce water pollution.
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WATER POLLUTION
Water has the remarkable ability to renew and cleanse itself. When waste materials are deposited into a receiving
stream, they often settle out, break down, or become diluted in the stream. However, pollution can occur if too
much of a substance or too many substances are discharged so that it overwhelms the capacity of the stream to
assimilate the substance(s) or cleanse itself. Water pollution may also occur if even just a little of a highly toxic
substance is discharged into a receiving stream (e.g., dioxin).
Water pollution can be classified into two main categories: point source pollution and nonpoint source pollution.
The difference between the two categories is simple. Point source pollution is any type of pollution that can be
identified as coming from a clearly established source. This may be a factory, a previously polluted stream, or
other source that is obviously causing pollution. Point source pollution problems are often simpler to control
because it's easier to see the cause of the pollution and to do something about it.
Nonpoint source pollution problems are more difficult to resolve because they often cannot be traced to one
specific location. Nonpoint source pollution includes sediment from rainwater runoff or fertilizer pollution as
storms wash nutrients from fields. Nonpoint source pollution can be runoff from animal wastes, construction
sites or mines, and leachate from landfills. Nonpoint source pollution could even be acid rain from atmospheric
pollutants that falls to earth in polluted rain or snow and contaminates waterbodies.
There are six major types of water pollutants:
*Biodegradable wastes
*Plant nutrients
*Heat
*Sediments
"Hazardous and toxic chemicals
"Radioactive wastes
Biodegradable wastes include human and animal wastes, food scraps, and other types of organic materials.
Biodegradable wastes can cause water pollution by providing nutrients for bacteria. If there are excessive nutrients,
aerobic (oxygen-consuming) bacteria multiply too rapidly, consuming the oxygen in a stream and making it
uninhabitable for some species of fish and other aquatic life. In fact, if the bacteria grow too fast, they consume
enough oxygen so that virtually everything in the water dies, leaving only anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that do
not require oxygen to live) that create foul smelling gases.
Biodegradable wastes can also cause water pollution by spreading disease-causing bacteria. This type of pollution
was the cause of typhoid fever and cholera epidemics that led to the development of public water treatment
systems.
Many of the nutrients used to bring the earth to life can "overfeed" a waterway to death. Sources of nutrient
pollution are sewage and septic runoff, livestock waste, fertilizer runoff, detergents, and industrial wastes.
Some of these are point source causes, while others are nonpoint source.
Nutrients like phosphates and nitrates stimulate plant growth, and are primary ingredients in fertilizers. These
compounds occur naturally, but in excess quantities they can cause great damage. Approximately 80 percent of
nitrates and 75 percent of phosphates added to lakes and streams in the U.S. are the result of human activities.
Natural nitrates and phosphates usually are limiting factors in the growth of plant life. In other words, they
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occur in limited amounts that help govern the growth of different organisms and keep nature in balance. But
when excess amounts of these nutrients are introduced into a waterway, some plant species can experience
explosive growth, literally choking off other life forms.
When soluble inorganic nitrogen concentrations in water reach just 0.3 parts per million and inorganic phosphorus
concentrations reach 0.01 parts per million, algae "blooms," or multiplies rapidly. The algal blooms can become
so severe that an entire lake can be fouled with a green, foul-smelling slime. Clear water can become so cloudy
that visibility is restricted to a depth of a foot or less, destroying the aesthetics of the lake.
Once a bloom occurs, its negative effects can multiply rapidly. The green slime can foul up boat propellers and
make swimming unpleasant. Nutrients can also cause weeds and other undesirable plants to flourish, increasing
the problem. The algal bloom impairs water quality, and if the waterway is a source for municipal water supplies,
it can be expensive to remove impurities and odors. Masses of algae can wash up on shore, decaying and
producing hydrogen sulfide gas, which smells like rotten eggs. Certain marine algae can also release toxics that
concentrate in fish and shellfish which cause human digestive problems. In fact, in some areas it is dangerous
to eat foods like oysters at certain times of the year because of "red tide," a phenomenon caused by a marine
algal bloom.
When an algal bloom clouds water, it can block sunlight from other plants and aquatic life, killing them or limiting
their growth. And as the algae die, the bacteria which feed on them can deplete oxygen levels in the water to the
point where it cannot support other life forms. This condition leads to eutrophication. Eutrophication is a
naturally-occurring process of changes that take place after a waterbody receives inputs of nutrients, mostly
nitrates and phosphates from erosion and runoff of surrounding lands. Usually this process occurs slowly over
millions of years. Human activities can accelerate this process and the results can be very serious. Eutrophication
caused Lake Erie to "age" nearly 15,000 years between 1950 and 1975.
Heat, or thermal pollution, can be a deadly water pollutant. An important relationship exists between the
amount of dissolved oxygen in water and its temperature. The warmer the water, the less dissolved oxygen.
Thermal pollution can be natural, such as in hot springs or shallow ponds during summer months, or it can be
human-made, when water used to cool power plants or other industrial equipment is discharged back into
streams. The amount of oxygen in water affects the life it can support. Some sport fish, such as trout, need cold
water with high levels of dissolved oxygen and cannot live in warm water. Other nongame fish like carp and
suckers thrive in warm water and can take over habitats from other fish if waters become too warm. This can
result in greatly reduced diversity of fish species important for the environmental health of the stream.
Thermal pollution has been such a problem that most states have passed laws requiring power plants and
industries to cool water before releasing it back into streams.
Sediment is one of our most destructive water pollutants. America's water is polluted by more than one billion
tons of sediment annually. Every day, Americans lose about one million dollars because of sediment pollution.
Sediment is mineral or organic solid matter that is washed or blown from land into lakes, rivers, or streams. It
can be point source or nonpoint source pollution. Typically, it comes from nonpoint source causes. Sources of
sediment pollution include construction, row cropping, livestock operations, logging, flooding, and runoff from
city streets, parking lots, and buildings. Sediment by itself can be a dangerous pollutant, but it is also considered
serious because other contaminants such as heavy metals and toxic chemicals can be transported with it.
The effects of sediment pollution can be devastating. It can clog municipal water systems. Lakes or reservoirs
can receive so much sediment that they actually fill in. Sediment can turn a deep lake into a shallow wetland
area over time. Fine sediment can blanket the bottoms of lakes and rivers, smothering aquatic life such as fish
eggs and insects and damaging fish gills. This can disrupt the entire food chain, and cause great damage to an
ecosystem. Sediment can also be detrimental before it settles, while it is still suspended in water. It can make
water cloudy, or turbid. High turbidity makes water aesthetically unpleasant and can destroy recreational
opportunities. Some species offish, such as smallmouth bass, will not thrive in a highly turbid aquatic environment,
and studies indicate that high turbidity decreases fishing success.
Sediment in water can also create thermal pollution problems. Sediment darkens water, and allows it to absorb
more solar radiation. This raises water temperatures to the point where it may not support some forms of life. At
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the same time, sediment blocks light from reaching aquatic plant life, slowing or stopping plant growth. And
since plants add oxygen to water, oxygen levels can be reduced to the point that fish kills can occur.
This type of damage to the ecosystem is cumulative. As plants and fish die, the waterway loses its ability to
break down wastes and materials that are naturally washed into it. These materials begin to accumulate and
form another source of pollution.
Chemical pollution is usually human-made. Modern nations rely on thousands of organic and inorganic chemicals
in industry, agriculture, and the home. These materials provide many benefits, and new chemical compounds
are constantly being developed to improve existing processes.
But with modern chemicals come modern pollution problems. Improperly used or disposed of, reasonably safe
chemical compounds cause toxic reactions. The effects of such toxics can be short term or long term and are
regarded as a major national and international health concern.
Toxic water pollution is most often linked to point source causes, such as improperly treated industrial discharges
or accidents in transportation (such as oil spills). But it can also come from nonpoint source causes. These
include runoff from both urban and rural areas, and atmospheric transport.
Hard-surfaced roads and parking lots and urban areas collect toxics such as lead, oil, cadmium (from tires) and
other pollutants, which can be washed into streams through storm drains. These materials can cause immediate
toxic effects as well as long-term effects by accumulating in sediment or in living organisms. In the 1970s, many
people suffered severe health problems from eating swordfish and tuna containing high levels of mercury, which
accumulated in the fish over a long period of time. In agricultural areas, pesticides containing toxic compounds
are applied to crops to improve crop quality and increase yields. Their proper use has helped eliminate hunger
in many parts of the world. But improper application of pesticides can create serious water pollution problems,
because runoff from fields can introduce large amounts of toxics into waterways. Pesticides can also cause
groundwater contamination. Techniques of integrated pest management that involve a combination of biological
control (natural predators) and reduced application of pesticides can help eliminate some of the potential problems
of excessive pesticide application.
The cost of disposing of toxic chemicals created by industry is high. Federal and state laws require careful
monitoring of industrial processes and specific storage and disposal procedures of these materials. This cost
has caused some unscrupulous people to illegally dispose of toxic chemicals, a process called "midnight dumping."
Pollution from this source may go undetected for years, and when discovered, it can be very difficult to determine
the source. Legislation adopted since the late 1970s has imposed large fines and jail sentences for people
caught illegally dumping toxic wastes.
Another, perhaps surprising, source of toxic water pollution comes from individuals. Household chemicals such
as cleaners, dyes, paints, pesticides, and solvents are a large source of toxic water pollution, particularly in
urban areas. Many of these materials are simply poured down drains or flushed down toilets with no regard to
their consequences. And while the toxic chemicals from one household may not seem like much, they can
cause problems. In fact, a single quart of used motor oil can pollute a quarter of a million gallons of water. And
homeowners may use ten times the amount of pesticides per acre as farmers do. The amount of toxics released
by an entire city—one person at a time—can be staggering. EPA and other agencies have published educational
materials to explain ways to properly apply and dispose of pesticides. (See "A Citizen's Guide to Pesticides,"
U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 3rd Edition, OPA 008-89, Washington, D.C., 1989.)
Radioactive pollution can be human-made or natural. It can come from wastewater discharges from factories,
hospitals or uranium mines, or it can come from naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes in water like radon.
Radiation accumulates in the body, and children are more sensitive to the effects of radiation than adults. Radiation
can cause cancer, and in high concentrations, death.
Facilities that use radioactive materials are highly regulated and carefully monitored to prevent pollution. However,
one of the potential problems of radiation pollution is stored radioactive wastes. Tons of waste have accumulated
over the years, and the waste will remain dangerous for centuries. Unless suitable storage methods are found,
these wastes could pollute groundwater or streams through improper storage. Work continues to create ways to
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safely dispose of radioactive wastes.
WATER CONTAMINATION (NATURAL DISASTERS)
Water pollution can also come from natural occurrences. Storms can create large amounts of runoff that carry
pollutants into water supplies. Fires destroy ground cover and cause sediment pollution. Earthquakes can break
sewer lines and cause pollution from human-made sources, or they can even change river courses, destroying
some aquatic habitats while creating others. Naturally occurring elements in soils can cause water pollution
when they leach into water in concentrations that exceed water quality standards or criteria. For example, desert
soils are naturally high in concentrations of salt, boron, and other trace elements. Irrigation can cause these
elements to wind up in high concentrations in the water supply, causing pollution that is a danger to crops and
wildlife.
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WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION
Different pollution sources have different methods of prevention. The fight against biodegradable wastes and
bacterial water pollution is almost as old as human beings. Epidemic diseases such as cholera killed hundreds
of thousands of people before the link to polluted water supplies was established. In third world countries, the
lack of clean water still results in critical health problems.
Proper sewage treatment is key to stopping bacterial pollution. Modern municipal sewage treatment plants
typically are capable of controlling bacterial pollution, unless storm water loads overwhelm the treatment systems.
Private septic systems, however, can be a significant problem. Well-designed and properly operating septic
systems will safely treat wastewater, but a failing system can lead to pollution of both ground and surface water.
The Environmental Protection Agency reports that many waterbome diseases are caused by old or poorly operating
septic systems. Systems should be periodically pumped out and cleaned, with the removed material disposed
of properly.
Proper management of livestock and domestic animal wastes can eliminate bacterial pollution problems affecting
both humans and animals. Well designed and properly managed animal waste management systems prevent
water pollution and use the wastes to fertilize crops and condition soil. Special devices like "pooper-scoopers"
are now required in larger cities to collect and dispose of pet waste before it washes into nearby water bodies.
Since many sources of nutrient pollution are human-made, they have the potential to be controlled. It has
been estimated that fertilizer use has increased more than 15 times since 1945. There is discussion of reducing
the use of high phosphate and nitrate fertilizers in areas where nutrient pollution is a problem, even though crop
yields would be reduced. Land management practices, such as crop rotation to reduce fertilizer requirements,
and biological pest control, are other options.
Homeowners can also adopt more environmentally sound lawn and garden practices. In many places, chemical
tests indicate that individuals use 10 to 50 times more fertilizer than necessary for good plant health. Substituting
compost as a mulch and fertilizer for gardens and landscaping can eliminate this potential pollution source. Care
should also be taken when using fertilizer. (Composting also reduces waste going into landfills.)
Good sewage treatment plants only remove about 50 percent of the nitrogen and 30 percent of the phosphorus
from domestic sewage. This still allows an estimated 200 to 500 million pounds of phosphates into waterways
every year. The use of lower phosphate detergents has been encouraged to reduce this, along with providing
more advanced sewage treatment systems to remove more nutrients before water is released.
Proper management of livestock can reduce nutrient pollution from animal wastes. Catch basins in feedlots can
trap nutrient pollution. Federal and local wastewater release regulations govern industrial releases of many
materials that could contribute to nutrient pollution.
Heat or thermal pollution from human-made sources can be controlled by requiring power plants and industry
to have cooling towers, holding ponds, and other facilities that allow water to cool before being released back
into lakes or streams.
Because many causes of sediment pollution are nonpoint source, finding solutions to the problem can be
difficult. In some cases, solutions are ongoing activities like dredging sediment deposits and water filtration.
Over 2 trillion gallons of drinking water are filtered annually to remove silt.
Many causes of sediment water pollution can be reduced or eliminated through proper land management,
particularly for activities that create erosion, such as agriculture, construction, mining, or logging. Farming
accounts for the largest amounts of sediment pollution. However, careful land management can cut erosion and
sediment problems dramatically.
Bare earth erodes quickly, since there is no plant cover to protect soil from rainfall or wind. Construction sites
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and strip mined areas can lose soil to erosion at a rate up to 70 tons per acre per year—fifteen times higher than
the normal rate from croplands. Many federal and local laws require construction and mining companies to
reclaim land instead of leaving it bare to the ravages of erosion—and subsequent sediment pollution. In some
cases, certain harmful land use practices have been eliminated completely.
Since sediment pollution is often caused by nonpoint sources, new ways of identifying sources have been
created. Aerial photography is now being used to determine land use in specific areas, identify drainage patterns,
and erosion rates. Information can be quickly gathered in this manner and steps taken to reduce problems.
Better livestock management practices have also been used to reduce sediment pollution from livestock runoff.
Runoff is channeled into lagoons, where sediment settles before water is released into streams. The nutrient-
rich sediment is then used to fertilize croplands. And proper management of croplands and logging areas can
reduce runoff, improving crop yields and making reforestation easier.
Increased concerns over chemical pollution have created strict regulations for most companies, ranging from
large plants to small businesses such as dry cleaners, which use potentially toxic solvents. Since the effects of
some toxics have not yet been determined, it is expected that even more regulations will be created in the future
to limit the material that can be released into the nation's waterways. The introduction of many new chemicals
for industrial, mechanical, and other uses presents difficult challenges in determining their safety and impact on
the environment. This creates a major challenge for industry to keep up with changing regulations and develop
ways to meet new requirements.
Control of air emissions that cause acid precipitation are critical to eliminating this pollution problem. Burning of
fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gasoline are prime contributors. The use of non-polluting methods of electric
generation, such as hydroelectric, thermal, and solar, can help, as can making sure automobiles are adequately
tuned, tires are properly inflated, and pollution control devices are working. Reformulated gasoline is also
designed to reduce these emissions.
Solid wastes buried in landfills can cause pollution problems if harmful leachate percolates into aquifers and
contaminates groundwater supplies. Newer landfills are being constructed with double liners and monitoring
wells to prevent leachate from reaching groundwater supplies and detect leaks before they become a problem.
Solving past problems will take research and work. One way to reduce this dilemma is to reduce the amount of
waste going into landfills through recycling and by using products with less packaging and discardable materials.
RIPARIAN AREAS
Riparian areas are the green zones along the banks of rivers and streams. These are some of the most productive
ecosystems in nature, and display a wide diversity of plant and animal life. In the south, "bottom lands" are an
example of riparian areas. These areas are important for flood storage, water quality, cover and shade for plants
and animals.
Because of their value, rights to riparian lands are a subject of great interest, especially on public lands. Federal
and state agencies have created a variety of land management programs designed to protect public riparian
lands. These include leaving vegetation strips along fish bearing streams to prevent stream erosion and maintain
habitats. Livestock may be prohibited from riparian lands during summer months to keep them from "camping" at
the water's edge and destroying vegetation or causing animal waste pollution. In some areas, beavers have
been introduced into ecosystems to provide "natural engineering" to rehabilitate eroding streams. Land uses
around riparian areas must be taken into account.
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Not all water pollution can be avoided. Some manufacturing processes, farming, and other activities create
pollutants that can contaminate water. In cases where water pollution is expected to happen, companies and
individuals can use best management practices to control pollutants and keep them from causing damage to
water supplies.
Examples of best management practices include the agricultural practice of collecting animal wastes in a lagoon
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to settle before discharging wastewater into streams. It may also mean waiting until certain times to spray
pesticides or apply fertilizers to prevent runoff. Best management practices can mean taking water quality into
account when planning a housing development or new factory, or it may mean controlling wastewater discharges
and storm water discharges in conjunction with stream flow. Best management practices may mean planning
wastewater treatment for a mine in advance of mining operations. Operators of saw mills can reduce pollution by
storing their materials and processing their products indoors so they do not come in contact with storm water
runoff. Airport employees can reduce storm water runoff pollution by using deicing chemicals only in designated
collection areas and by cleaning oil and grease spills from pavement immediately. Best management practices
are designed to keep any unavoidable water pollution in as much control as possible.
INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS
Individual actions can also have a big impact on pollution problems. One very effective way to reduce water
pollution is to simply reduce water consumption. This can be done by changing a few habits. For example, put
a bottle of water in the refrigerator rather than letting water run from the tap until it gets cold. Wash full loads.
Turn off the water while brushing your teeth. Take shorter showers. Install low flow showerheads and toilets,
faucet aerators, and/or toilet dams. Wash the car using buckets of water instead of a hose. And finally, water
plants in early morning or late evening only when they really need it. Better yet, choose plants which require less
watering. Other ways to reduce water pollution are to keep litter, pet wastes, and debris out of street gutters and
storm drains as they flow directly to waterbodies. Apply lawn and garden chemicals sparingly according to
package directions. Homeowners can substitute biocontrol agents, like praying mantises or ladybugs, for
pesticides. Other natural insect repellents include plants like mint (which discourages ants), garlic, and marigolds.
The use of herbicides should also be avoided.
Virtually every liquid in an automobile is a serious pollutant, and care should be taken to avoid spilling oil,
antifreeze, or other fluids from automobiles. In some cases, it may be more ecologically sound to have repairs
done by a reputable garage than to attempt messy do-it-yourself work (especially if a community does not have
proper disposal centers). Dispose of used oil and antifreeze properly by taking them to a local service station or
recycling center.
Household cleaners can add toxics or nutrients to water. In most cases, harsh chemicals are not necessary to
do an effective cleaning job, and less damaging substances can be substituted. Baking soda can be used as a
scouring powder and water softener to increase the cleaning power of soap. Soap biodegrades safely without
adding phosphates or dyes to water like many detergents. Borax cleans, deodorizes, and disinfects. An all-
purpose cleaner made of a teaspoon of liquid soap, two teaspoons of borax and a teaspoon of vinegar in a quart
of water is an effective grease cutter. A quarter cup of baking soda followed by a half cup of vinegar makes a
good drain cleaner. Consumers should also take care in disposing of potentially dangerous household chemicals
like batteries, nail
polish, drain cleaner, and paint. Do not dispose of any unused portions of these items down drains, toilets, or
storm sewers. Many communities offer regular hazardous waste pickups to collect these items. If your community
doesn't have one, ask your local government to establish one. The EPA Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act hotline (1-800-424-9346) can supply more information.
Citizens can also become more politically involved. For example, encourage local government officials to enforce
construction/sediment ordinances in your community or encourage city officials to use sand instead of salt to
deice roads. Participate in public meetings to plan water policy. Organize litter clean-up campaigns and hold
local fairs to educate your community about water resource issues.
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WATER QUALITY LEGISLATION
Laws involving water quality date back as far as 1914. The first Federal law dealing exclusively with water quality
was the Water Pollution Control Act, passed in 1948. Under this law, the states retained primary responsibility for
water quality standards and maintenance. The Federal government supplied money primarily for research.
There were no water quality standards established, and the law provided only weak punishments for offenders.
During the 1960s, amendments provided for water quality standards for interstate waterways, Federally approved
state standards, and increased funding for research. However, as water pollution increased in many areas of the
country, public concern resulted in passage of two more very important environmental laws.
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) required federal agencies to consider the environmental
impacts of their actions. All federal agencies must prepare environmental impact statements to assess the
impacts of major federal actions, such as large building or industrial projects. Because of NEPA, federal
undertakings have been conducted in a manner to ensure protection of all natural resources, including water.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) which was passed in 1972 and amended in 1977,
1981, and 1987, provides the basis for water quality standards today. The Clean Water Act allowed the Federal
government to assume a lead role in cleaning up the nation's waterways. National goals for pollution elimination
were set, and the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) was established. The NPDES
permitting system made pollution discharge without a permit illegal. Generators of pollution to surface waters
(sources) must apply for NPDES permits, which are issued by EPA or EPA-approved state agencies. The limits
on what the generators may release vary from small amounts (for suspended biodegradable organic material
and solids) to none allowed (for some toxics). The stringency of the requirement is greatest for the most dangerous
water pollutants. The public is invited to participate in the permit issuance process through public notice of
proposed permits, and opportunity to comment or request a public hearing.
The Clean Water Act also established four national policies for water quality:
1. Prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts
2. Assist publicly owned treatment works with Federal grants and loans
3. Support area-wide waste treatment planning at Federal expense
4. Create a major research and development program for treatment technology
Future amendments to the Clean Water Act are likely to make ecosystem protection as important as providing
potable water for human use. Amendments are also likely to establish water quality standards for lakes and to
focus more specifically on preventing storm water nonpoint source pollution.
Other federal laws that deal with water quality are the Safe Drinking Water Act & Amendments of 1986 and 1996,
the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, the Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, and the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899.
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WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Wastewater is water that has been spent or used in a domestic waste, agricultural, or industrial process. After
water is used, it must often be treated to avoid polluting another body of water. Almost any use adds contaminants
to water that must be removed before it can be returned to the environment.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESS
Wastewater treatment is designed to kill dangerous bacteria and reduce or remove chemicals and solids before
water is returned to lakes and streams or groundwater.
Wastewater treatment may be a simple process or it may be complex, depending on how many pollutants are
added to water during use. Water from a household may require minimal treatment before it can be returned to
natural bodies of water, while industrial wastewater may need several processes before it is safe to release.
Municipal and home treatment systems have been in use for years to prevent health risks from wastewater.
Laws enacted in the 1960s, 70s, and 80s began placing more stringent controls on water released from industrial
plants to reduce pollution from these wastewater sources. Since this water quality "wake-up call," anti-pollution
laws have progressively become more strict about protecting water quality.
Most municipalities with wastewater treatment systems are required to have two stages of treatment. In the
primary treatment stage, screens and settling tanks remove most of the solids in the water. Solids make up
about 35. percent of the pollutants in wastewater. In the secondary treatment stage, bacteria are used to digest
the remaining pollutants in the water. The activated sludge process mixes microorganisms and oxygen with
wastewater to speed up the digestion process. A trickling filter process allows the wastewater to trickle down
through a layer of rock and gravel covered with bacteria that break down pollutants. Large settling tanks then
allow most of the remaining solid material to settle out, and some systems will run the water through sand filters
to further cleanse it. Finally, the water is disinfected with chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet light and discharged. By
the time it is discharged, about 85 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids
(TSS) should be removed from the wastewater. The solids remaining in the treatment plant are rich in nutrients
and can often be used on farm and forest lands as fertilizer.
In some cases, tertiary (advanced) treatment of wastewater is done. This is a third stage of treatment that is
designed to remove more of the impurities from wastewater. This step may involve filtering the wastewater
through carbon or sand filters to remove solids or even allowing the water to flow into a natural or constructed
wetland area to purify it further.
In 1988, the wastewater from more than 144 million people received secondary or more advanced levels of
wastewater treatment. More than 23 million households had on-site disposal systems such as septic tanks.
MICROBIAL DIGESTION OF WASTES IN WASTEWATER
Microorganisms need nutrients to survive, and they can process the nutrients in wastewater, providing a very
effective method of treatment. Anaerobic bacteria break down waste materials without oxygen
or aeration. Aerobic bacteria break down waste material with oxygen. Both types reduce concentration of
nutrients, making it safe to dispose of wastewater. Aerobic bacteria break down wastes without as much odor,
but require more surface area (for aeration) than do processes using anaerobic bacteria. Both types of bacteria
are usually present in wastewater treatment systems.
BIOSOLIDS
The solids recovered during wastewater treatment are not worthless; in fact, they can be used as high quality
fertilizers in many cases. Wastewater solids, or sludge, meeting strict criteria for beneficial use are called biosolids.
The nutrient rich biosolids can be spread on croplands.
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Biosolids must be treated before disposal or use. Primary sludge is combined with microorganisms for partial
digestion, and then it is thickened by using centrifugal force, gravity, or pressure to remove water. It is then
collected and transported to the site of disposal or spreading.
NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATION SYSTEM (NPDES)
The single most important provision of the Clean Water Act is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). The Clean Water Act requires that each source of water pollution—cities, factories, power
plants, animal feedlots, and so on—treat their wastewater as necessary to meet effluent discharge limits and
performance standards set by the EPA or EPA before releasing the wastewater to streams or lakes. Generators
of pollution (sources) must apply for NPDES permits, which are issued by EPAor EPA-approved state agencies.
The limits on what the generators may release vary from small amounts (for suspended solids) to none allowed
(for some toxics). The stringency of the requirement is greatest for the most dangerous water pollutants. Each
pollution source is evaluated separately, and it may take a number of years for a permit to be issued, depending
on what is to be discharged.
NPDES also makes it illegal to discharge pollutants without a permit, and sets civil and criminal penalties for
violations. Criminal penalties can include fines of up to $100,000 per day of violation and imprisonment of up to
30 years for repeat offenders. Civil fines can be up to $25,000 per day per violation.
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ALTERNATIVE WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS
Smaller communities may have different approaches to wastewater treatment. Some communities, hotel
complexes, or apartment buildings use package plants to process wastes. These prefabricated units utilize
procedures similar to those used by as full-scale plants. Lagoons are another form of treatment. Lagoons allow
solid wastes to settle, and then rely on a biological interaction of sunlight, algae, and oxygen to clean wastewater.
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS TO TREAT WASTEWATER
In some cases, constructed wetlands can be used to treat wastewater. They can be used to treat domestic,
agricultural, industrial and mining wastewaters. They generally cost less than conventional wastewater treatment
systems and operating costs are very low. They are also more aesthetically pleasing than wastewater plants and
attract desirable wildlife.
Wastewater to be treated flows into a constructed cell that has been lined to prevent leaks and assure adequate
water for wetland plants. Flow is distributed evenly across the cell. Plants such as cattails, phragmites, and
bulrushes are planted in the cell, and their roots produce a dense mat of materials through which the wastewater
circulates. Chemical, biological, and physical processes filter out contaminants from the wastewater. A second
cell may be added for more treatment. It may be unlined to allow water to filter and can contain attractive wetland
plants like irises, elephant ears, and arrowheads. Plants transpire water into the atmosphere and provide oxygen
for bacteria and other organisms to break down biodegradable wastes.
Wetlands may or may not discharge treated waters into surface waters, depending on their size, design, and
local site conditions.
RAPID INFILTRATION
Rapid infiltration is a wastewater treatment method that can be used in areas where solid permeability is moderate
to high. A basin area can be flooded with appropriately pre-treated wastewater and allowed to infiltrate into the
ground. The ground then filters the wastewater as it infiltrates into the groundwater or into the local surface
waters. After a basin is filled, it is allowed to drain and dry, which restores aerobic soil conditions and helps treat
the wastewater as it infiltrates.
OVERLAND FLOW
Overland flow is a process where water is allowed to flow down a sloped surface, usually planted with thick
grasses. Soils are nearly impermeable, which forces the water to flow through the vegetation, where physical,
chemical, and biological processes treat it. It is then collected into runoff channels and discharged.
SLOW RATE IRRIGATION/SILVICULTURE
These two processes are related in that in both, wastewater is used to irrigate land and is used to treat wastewater.
Slow rate irrigation allows wastewater to flow onto land parcels at a rate that doesn't overburden the land's ability
to allow the water to infiltrate and process impurities. Silviculture is the practice of using large areas of land as a
treatment site for wastewater and planting the land with crops or trees that will flourish during the treatment. Both
processes are based on ancient ideas and practices of wastewater treatment that have proven themselves for
centuries.
AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture is the practice of using aquatic plant and animal species to treat wastewater, similar to the use of
wetlands for this purpose. An aquaculture area might be constructed with a number of ponds for different levels
of wastewater treatment. Each pond contains specific plant and animal life for wastewater treatment, and
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wastewater may be allowed to flow from one pond to another as it is being treated. Plant life may be harvested
or maintained in the ponds to maximize system performance. Aquaculture systems have been able to remove
impurities such as heavy metals from wastewater.
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SEPTIC TANKS AND SEPTIC SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
Septic systems are the wastewater treatment method for most Americans in rural areas. Septic systems typically
consist of an underground septic tank that collects wastewater from a home. Solids from wastewater are allowed
to settle in the tank, and bacteria in the tank digest some of the heavier solids and household grease and oils.
During the decomposition, gas is produced and usually vented through a pipe in the roof of the home. The
partially treated water, or effluent, flows out of the tank into a distribution box where it is channeled into a series
of perforated pipes or open tile. Water percolates out of the pipes into the system's drainfield, where it is filtered
and treated by organisms in the soil. Eventually, treated wastewater returns to the groundwater supply.
Well operating septic systems will safely treat wastewater, but a failing system can lead to pollution of both
ground and surface water. The Environmental Protection Agency reports that many waterborne diseases are
caused by old or poorly designed septic systems. Systems should be periodically pumped out and cleaned, with
the removed material disposed of properly. To avoid septic system problems, systems should be regularly inspected
and solids pumped out when necessary. Avoid putting solids such as coffee grounds, disposable diapers, cigarette
butts, plastics, and other bulky wastes into the septic system. Pouring liquid fats and grease down the kitchen
sink can cause problems as these wastes solidify and block the system's operation. Use of a kitchen sink
garbage disposal should also be avoided unless the septic system has been designed to accommodate extra
wastes. A garbage disposal can increase loads on the system by as much as 50 percent. Keep toxic and
hazardous chemicals like paint thinner, petroleum products, and pesticides out of the septic system. Systems
don't break down these materials, and pouring them into a septic system is like pouring them directly into the
groundwater supply.
Alternatives to septic systems may be used when soil does not readily allow systems to work or there are too
many households in an area to provide adequate septic fields. Alternatives to septic fields are also used as ways
to conserve water. Some systems separate blackwater (water predominantly from toilets or associated with
human waste) from graywater (water from showers, dishwashers, etc.). Blackwater requires more treatment,
while graywater may need only minimal treatment before it can be used for other household purposes, such as
watering the lawn. Other alternatives to septic systems include devices such as incinerating, chemical, or
composting toilets, which process wastes before they are released; and holding tanks that are regularly pumped
out instead of processed on site. Water conservation methods like low-flow faucets and shower heads, energy
efficient appliances, and other products also reduce septic system loads.
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COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Wastewater treatment for industrial plants may be more complex than that for residential areas due to hazardous
pollutants added to wastewater during manufacturing. Many plants have invested millions of dollars into their
own wastewater treatment facilities. Even small businesses such as dry cleaners, gas stations, restaurants, and
photo labs may have specialized treatment processes to clean wastewater. For example, a photo lab may have
an electroplating system to remove silver from wastewater. The silver can then be processed and sold back to
photographic film companies for use in making new film.
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS
Public wastewater treatment plants were not designed for industrial wastes, especially toxic substances. Toxic
wastes from industrial plants can actually damage public systems by killing useful bacteria. So modern industrial
plants separate their wastewater into several categories for treatment:
*Wastewater that can be treated and reused within the plant
*Wastewater that can be treated in a wastewater treatment plant designed to accommodate the needs of industry
*Wastewater that can be sent to public treatment facilities, either directly or after treatment at the industrial site
*Wastewater that is so toxic that it must be treated on site or disposed of as hazardous waste
New techniques for treating industrial wastewater are continually being developed. These can include chemical
reactions to remove hazardous materials from the wastewater. New processes even use ultraviolet radiation to
kill microorganisms or break down chemicals into more common biodegradables.
MINING WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS
Mining is an industry that can create severe water pollution problems from sediment, chemicals, metals, and
acids. Federal law now requires mines to treat wastewater before releasing it into waterways. Since most mine
sites are remote, lagoons are a common form of treatment. Lagoons (which must be lined to prevent groundwater
pollution) allow sediment to settle out, eliminating a major water contaminant, and depending on the type of
mining, other water treatment processes can be applied as necessary. These may include adding lime to reduce
acidity, removing heavy metals, or skimming off oils or petroleum wastes. Constructed wetlands have also been
used to treat mining wastewater.
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OTHER WASTEWATER TREATMENT ISSUES
RECLAMATION AND REUSE OF WASTEWATER
For industry and municipalities, water use efficiency means cost efficiency. Wastewater treatment is expensive,
so most industries analyze water use as carefully as they do any other raw material. Many industrial plants have
wastewater treatment plants to treat wastes that can't be handled by public treatment plants, but they may also
treat wastewater for reuse instead of paying for additional water or discharge. Efficient uses of reclaimed water
in industry can be for heating or cooling, irrigation, or materials processing. Many municipalities also reclaim
wastewater with calcium, fluoride, and argon for other uses.
STORM WATER TREATMENT
Storm water runoff can be a serious wastewater treatment problem because large amounts of runoff can overload
wastewater treatment systems and cause untreated water to be released into streams. Another problem with
storm water runoff is chemical contamination from industrial sources or simply from the greases and oils it picks
up when flowing across parking lots and roadways. The debris, chemicals, and other pollutants in the storm
water runoff may be deposited, untreated, into our waterways. The result can be the closing of beaches; no
swimming, fishing, or boating; and injury to the plants and animals that live in or use the water.
Provisions of the Clean Water Act Amendments of 1987 are designed to reduce pollution from storm water.
These amendments require certain industries and municipalities, with populations exceeding 100,000, to have
permits for storm water runoff and to prepare and implement storm water pollution prevention plans. Such plans
describe how they will prevent storm water from becoming polluted in the first place. Making sure that potential
pollutants are not left outside uncovered, cleaning up spills right away, and planting grass and other vegetation
as quickly as possible after soils are disturbed can all be part of a storm water pollution prevention plan.
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DRINKING WATER
WATER SUPPLY
The world's supply of water is 326 million cubic miles. If it were poured on the United States, it would submerge
the country to a depth of 90 miles. But only a small portion of the world's water supply is usable fresh water. In
fact, of the Earth's total water supply, less than one-half of one percent is usable fresh water. Only 0.03 percent
is surface water. Of every 10,000 gallons of water on Earth, fewer than 50 are potentially usable fresh water;
only 3 gallons are found in surface water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and streams.
The United States is water "rich." We have 39,400,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs, and over 35,000 square
miles of estuaries. The Great Lakes cover 98,000 square miles and contain about 1/5th of the world's fresh
water supply. About four percent of the U.S. land mass is covered by surface water.
The United States has nearly 60,000 community water supply systems, but only 20 percent of these systems
use surface water as their primary source. Groundwater is the primary source of water for 80 percent of U.S.
communities—nearly half of the entire U.S. population.
INTRODUCTION TO DRINKING WATER
Water is vital for life. Our bodies are approximately 75 percent water. Water makes up 83 percent of our blood,
transports body wastes, lubricates body joints, keeps our temperature stable, and is a part of every living cell in
our bodies. On the average, every American uses about 150 gallons of water a day. With a 1996 U.S. population
of approximately 260 million, that makes daily water consumption in the United States over 39 billion gallons
per day. It's no wonder that in some highly populated areas, water supplies are getting tight. Some areas, such
as Southern California, have water conservation laws in effect to manage limited water supplies. One aqueduct
in California is over 450 miles long and transports water from its source to Los Angeles where it is needed.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), setting up a regulatory program among local,
state, and federal agencies to help ensure safe drinking water in the United States. The Safe Drinking Water Act
states that public water systems must provide water treatment, monitor drinking water to ensure proper quality,
and provide public notification of contaminant problems. Regulations implementing the act established drinking
water standards (maximum contaminant levels and treatment technique requirements) for a variety of chemicals,
metals, and pathogens. Amendments continue to strengthen the act and enhance drinking water quality. Significant
penalties are imposed for non-compliance.
The SDWA applies to all public water systems, defined as having at least 15 service connections or "regularly"
serving at least 25 individuals. States are required to enact their own drinking water regulations that are at least
as stringent as Federal standards. SDWA protects drinking water supplies through required treatment, testing,
and reporting. The SDWA established a permitting program for underground injection wells. It also requires
protection of aquifers and groundwater and surface water sources for drinking water supplies.
The SDWA requires that maximum contaminant levels or treatment technique requirements be established
for specific inorganic chemical, organic chemicals, bacteria, and radioactive elements. SDWA also sets secondary
(non-enforceable) standards for parameters that affect aesthetic qualities relating to public acceptance of
drinking water. These include color, corrosivity, foaming agents, odor, and metals. EPA is continually in the
process of selecting new contaminants for which to establish drinking water standards.
RESERVOIRS FOR SUPPLY/DAM CONSTRUCTION ON STREAMS - TVA
Reservoirs from dams serve a variety of water needs. They provide ways of storing large supplies of water for
industrial and residential use. They control floods and other natural disasters that can cause water pollution.
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They generate power and provide sources for recreation. While creating dams removes certain types of habitats,
it also creates new habitats which support thousands of species of wildlife.
Since 1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority has been charged with developing and managing water resources
in the Tennessee Valley. This has meant constructing more than 30 dams, including the largest dams east of the
Mississippi River. TVA has also assumed management of a number of dams already constructed in the area
before the agency came into existence.
TVA's role in protecting and improving water quality differs from that of any other federal, state, or local water
quality program. TVA monitors water quality to identify problems and detect changes. TVA research programs
study the relationships among water quality and land use, wastewater treatment, stream flow, and other factors.
Reservoir water quality management plans identify better ways to protect and use the Valley's water resources.
Monitoring for problems and changes, working with others to correct identified problems, demonstrating new
solutions, and planning to prevent pollution are cornerstones of TVA's approach to water quality management.
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DRINKING WATER TREATMENT
Water is in its purest form the moment it condenses from vapor into a liquid, but it quickly picks up impurities.
Rain or snow can pick up dust, smoke, and other particles in the air. Runoff water dissolves minerals and carries
small particles of soil. Streams can carry sediment, human-made pollutants and other materials. Once water is
used by humans, it picks up even more pollutants and impurities before it is returned to nature. The need for a
supply of clean water required water treatment methods to be developed, so that it can be safely used.
Since very early times, people have created ways to remove debris from drinking water to make it look and taste
better. Ancient Egyptian inscriptions describe water purification by boiling, exposure to sunlight, charcoal filtration,
and settling in an earthen jar. The Chinese were the first to discover the purifying effect of boiling water, and as
early as 400 B.C., Hippocrates, the father of medicine, recommended boiling water and straining it through cloth
to remove particles.
However, it wasn't until the 1850s that scientists suspected that disease could be spread through water. The rise
of microbiology identified a number of diseases that were transmitted by water supplies, and the first attempts
were made to disinfect drinking water by using chlorine. Around the turn of the century, Middlekerke, Belgium
became the first city to install a permanent chlorine disinfection system. Chlorination was first used in the United
States in 1908 to destroy bacteria in drinking water. The widespread use of Chlorination wiped out waterborne
diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
Obviously, water used for drinking requires more treatment than wastewater, which is returned to a lake or
stream. But the two can have an impact on each other. The extent to which drinking water must be treated
depends on the quality of the raw water supply, so a community downstream from other cities may find its water
quality affected by the wastewater released by those cities.
Drinking water from a well may require little or no treatment before it is used. Water from a lake exposed to
recreational activities or sewage contamination may need significant treatment before it can be used as drinking
water. The Safe Drinking Water Act requires EPA to establish national drinking water standards and implement
source water protection to help ensure water quality.
Conventional water treatment for drinking water consists of the following steps:
*Water is pumped from the water source, such as a lake, river, or reservoir and is strained to keep fish and large
objects out of the system.
*Alum or other materials are added to the water to cause the dirt and other particles to coagulate, or clump
together and fall to the bottom of settling basins.
*The then-clear water is filtered through layers of sand, charcoal/anthracite, and gravel to remove more impurities.
"Chlorine is added to kill bacteria remaining in the water. Most water systems add fluoride to help prevent tooth
decay. Other chemicals (lime or phosphate) may be added to adjust the pH of the water.
"Finally, the treated water is pumped through pipelines to homes and businesses or it is stored for future use. At
various points in the process, water is monitored to make sure it meets the requirements of the Safe Drinking
Water Act, which measures some contaminants in concentrations as low as parts per quadrillion.
Public water supply systems in the United States produce more than 34 billion gallons of drinking water per day.
The United States' more than 60,000 community water supply systems are valued at over $175 billion. The
price in a 1990 survey of water in North America was $1.66 per 1000 gallons; however, the average price, in
1996, increased to approximately $2.00 per 1000 gallons.
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DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATION
Drinking water can be contaminated from a variety of sources and by a variety of contaminants. Contaminants
can come from runoff from precipitation, spills of hazardous chemicals, leaking underground storage tanks,
animal wastes, leachate from landfills, excess fertilization of farmland and other sources. Groundwater protection
from pollution is especially important since groundwater is a major source of drinking water. Individuals can
pollute their own drinking water from wells if they overuse pesticides on their lawns, dump even small amounts
of petroleum products, flush household chemicals into a septic field, or fail to keep their septic systems functioning
properly.
WELLHEAD CONTAMINATION
Wellhead contamination is the contamination of a well from pollutants that come from around the well itself.
Wellhead pollution protection requires the protection of the area around the well from pollutants that could affect
the groundwater and therefore, the well water supply. Awellhead protection area (WHPA) can be established for
any type of aquifer and can include the well's cone of depression, recharge area, and surrounding aquifer. A
growing number of states and communities are starting to create wellhead protection areas to guard against
contamination of well water. These areas may be large or small, depending on the characteristics of the aquifer
and the potential hazards that could threaten groundwater. States and communities can apply for wellhead
protection grants from EPA and other organizations to protect groundwater supplies.
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OTHER ISSUES: DRINKING WATER
DESALINATION
Since seawater makes up over 97 percent of the Earth's water supply, it is a readily available and plentiful water
source. However, because of its salinity, seawater is unsuitable for drinking, and it must be treated before it can
be used. Desalination is a relatively expensive process that is principally used in arid and coastal areas where
water is so scarce that the process becomes cost effective. One desalination process is simple evaporation,
where water vapor from saltwater is collected and allowed to recondense as fresh water. Another process is
reverse osmosis, in which water is filtered through membranes with holes large enough to allow water molecules
to pass through, but small enough to the keep the larger salt molecules from following. The salt can then be
collected and used for other purposes.
As water supplies become tighter, desalination becomes more cost effective and more practical to use. Some
desalination plants are operating in Southern California to meet the area's tremendous water demand.
WELLHEAD PROTECTION
Amendments in 1986 to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) called for wellhead protection programs to identify
the land area around wells and wellfields that need protection and to set up measures to protect these areas
from contaminants. The SDWA also calls for contingency plans to locate alternate drinking water supplies in the
event that a well or wellfield does become contaminated. Under the 1996 Amendments to the SDWA, the
wellhead protection concept, was extended to address surface water intakes in what is called source water
protection.
SDWA applies to public water sources, but individuals who use private wells need to have their own groundwater
protection strategies. Such strategies include not dumping household wastes that could pollute groundwater,
making sure septic systems are in proper working condition, and avoiding overfertilization of lawns or excessive
accumulation of livestock wastes that could damage groundwater supplies.
Federal and state laws protect groundwater supplies. SDWA sets specific goals for implementation of groundwater
protection. SDWA requires states to prohibit the use of underground injection wells for waste disposal except by
permit. Permit applicants are required to satisfy the state that underground injection would not endanger drinking
water sources, and permit holders are required to inspect, monitor, and keep records on injection well use.
LEAD IN PIPES
Lead is a cumulative poison and can interfere with the formation of red blood cells, reduce birth weight, cause
premature birth, delay physical and mental development in babies and young children and impair mental abilities
in children in general. In adults, lead can increase blood pressure and interfere with hearing. At high levels of
exposure, lead can cause anemia, kidney damage, and mental retardation. Health effects from lead generally
depend upon total exposure to all sources. Pregnant women are also at risk if exposed to high concentrations
of lead. Since lead is a very soft, easy to work with metal, it was often used in pipes before it was determined
that lead in pipes could poison human beings. Lead solder was also used to help seal pipes to prevent leaks.
The SDWA amendments of 1986 ban future use of lead pipe and solder in all public drinking water systems
because of the possibility of leaching. This provision of the SDWA requires the use of "lead-free" pipe, solder,
and flux in the installation or repair of any public water system or any plumbing in a residential or non-residential
facility connected to a public water system. Solders and flux are considered to be lead-free when they contain
less than 0.2 percent lead. (Before this ban took effect in 1986, solders used to join water pipes typically
contained about 50 percent lead.) The Lead Ban requires that any lead solders carry a warning label indicating
that they are not to be used in connection with potable water plumbing. Pipes, pipe fittings, faucets, and other
fixtures are considered lead-free under the Lead Ban when they contain less then 8 percent lead. In 1988,
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SDWA was amended by the Lead Contamination Control Act (LCCA) requiring that a number of activities be
conducted by Federal and other parties to identify and correct lead-in-drinking-water problems at schools and
day care facilities. One principal activity to be conducted by EPA was the development of a guidance document
and testing protocol that could be used by schools to determine the source and degree of lead contamination
problems and how to remedy such contamination if found.
At the time the LCCA was passed, considerable attention was being given to water coolers with lead-linked
tanks. The law defined these sources as "imminently hazardous consumer products." As a result, the legislation
specifically stated requirements to result in the repair, replacement, or recall and refund of these water coolers
and attached civil and criminal penalties to the manufacture and sale of any drinking water cooler containing
lead.
Lead contamination of tap water is also regulated by EPA's Lead and Copper Rule. This drinking water regulation
requires that: certain action levels be met as calculated via measurements taken at customer's taps; treatment
technique requirements be met; and if necessary, public education materials be distributed to customers. EPA
also requires that public notification be given to customers of water systems which exceed EPA action levels, to
inform them of the harmful effects of lead.
NITRATE CONTAMINATION
Nitrate contamination can make water taste and smell bad and cause algal growth, but except in excessive
concentrations, is not dangerous for adults and older children. However, in infants, stomach acids are not strong
enough to prevent some forms of bacterial growth. Bacteria can convert benign nitrates into harmful forms that
bind with hemoglobin in the blood to prevent oxygen from getting to the rest of the body. The result is
methemoglobinemia, which can cause "blue baby" symptoms and can be fetal.
Nitrates get into drinking water from fertilizers, animal wastes, malfunctioning septic systems, air deposition to
surface water, and normal vegetation decay. The nitrates may reach drinking water by runoff air deposition into
surface water, runoff into sinkholes, soil leaching into groundwater, and improperly protected wellhead areas.
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WATER CONSERVATION
On the average, every American uses about 150 gallons of water a day. That makes daily water consumption in
the United States in 1996, approximately 39 billion gallons per day. It's no wonder that in some highly populated
areas, water supplies are getting tight. Some areas, such as Southern California, have water conservation laws
in effect to manage limited water supplies.
Of the 150 gallons each of us uses every day only, one half-gallon is used for drinking. The other 149 and a half
gallons go for cleaning, cooking, flushing, watering the lawn, washing cars, and other uses. One very effective
way to reduce water pollution is to simply reduce water consumption. Wastewater treatment plant operators
report that they treat millions of gallons of water that shouldn't have been used in the first place.
Effective personal water conservation can be done by changing a few habits. A bottle of water in the refrigerator
for drinking saves water over letting water run into the sink until it gets cold. Peel fruits and vegetables and then
rinse them. That can save two gallons every minute. A dishwasher uses less water than washing by hand—
about six gallons a load. And washing an entire load of dishes—or clothes—saves water over washing several
partial loads.
New washing machines can reduce water consumption by one third, or more than 400 gallons monthly for a
family of four. But the most water use occurs in the bathroom. Simply turning off the water while brushing your
teeth could save as much as ten gallons per person per day. Taking a shower instead of a bath can save about
25 gallons, and new low-flow shower heads can reduce consumption even more.
A large percentage of the water used every day is flushed down the toilet. New toilets use less than one-third
the water of old models, and older toilets can still work effectively with less water. Devices like toilet dams block
part of the water in the tank and reduce the amount used with each flush. If installing a toilet dam sounds too
difficult, the same effect can be achieved simply by putting a water-filled plastic bottle in the toilet tank. This
displaces water and means that less is used. Don't use a brick; it can break apart and clog pipes.
Repair leaks immediately. Even a small drip can waste hundreds of gallons of water a day—and add to the
treatment loads of the sewer or septic system. Watering the lawn or garden is more efficient in the early morning
or at night when the sun won't cause as much evaporation. It is best to water lawns and plants early in the
morning. Washing the car with a running hose will use more than 100 gallons of water. Using a bucket and
sponge cuts that by 90 percent.
XERISCAPE
Xeriscape is a water conservation approach to landscaping design, installation, and maintenance. It was
developed in 1981 in Colorado in response to prolonged drought. Xeriscape landscaping is a package of seven
common-sense steps for making a landscape more water-efficient. These are:
Step 1 - Planning and design. In the planning stage, begin with a basic map and analyze the site
characteristics. Incorporate shade into the design and plan for different uses of the area such as
public and private areas. Note the water-use zones and estimate the amount of water needed for each
one. Once a design scheme and a water management arrangement are in place, develop a master
plan and fit plants into the design. This will include selecting new plants and possible renovation of the
existing landscape for improved water conservation.
Step 2 - Soil analysis. Evaluate the planting soil, including its structure, texture, water holding capac-
ity, and drainage. Let the physical and chemical characteristics of the existing soil be your guide in
determining the type of soil improvement needed.
Step 3 • Appropriate plant selection. Select plants appropriate to the site and the imposed stresses
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of the environment. Drought tolerance is important in a Xeriscape-type landscape, but it should not
be the only criteria. Some plants are drought tolerant but cannot tolerate wet soil or heavy shade.
Additional important criteria to consider inclue (a) mature size and form, (b) growth rate, (c) texture,
(d) color, and (e) functional use.
Step 4 - Practical turf areas. Use turf for a function or aesthetic benefit, such as in a recreational
area, an erodible slope, or as a welcome mat to the home. Select a turfgrass that is adapted to the site
and has good drought resistence.
Step 5 - Efficient irrigation. When irrigation is required, make every drop count by watering effi-
ciently to prevent run-off or evaporative loss. Let your plants tell you when they need water, and avoid
watering according to a set schedule or habit. Hand watering individual plants and drip irrigation on
ornamentals requires 30% - 50% less water than sprinkler irrigation. Water plants between 9 p.m. and
9 a. m. to avoid evaporative loss of water.
Step 6 - Use of mulches. Use fine-textured, organic non-matting mulches when possbile. Fall leaves,
pine straw, pine bark nuggets, and shredded hardwood bark are excellent choices. Mulch as large an
area as possible under trees and shrubs. Islands of unplanted mulch require no water and little routine
maintenance.
Step 7 - Appropriate maintenance. Keep plants healthy, but do not encourage water-demanding
growth. Once plants are established, reduce the amount of nitrogen applied as well as the application
rate and frequency of application. Avoid plant stress by mowing properly, by thinning shrubs instead of
shearing, and by controlling weeds and pests before they affect plant health.
For more information on xeriscape, please call the American Water Works Association at 800-559-9855, web
site at http:\\www.waterwiser.org, or e:mail bewiser@waterwiser.org.
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SURFACE WATER
When runoff from precipitation occurs, it goes downhill, eventually winding up at a point where it gathers, such
as a stream, lake, river, pond, wetland, ocean, or reservoir. This is surface water, or water you can see.
Surface waters are a major source of the usable water on the planet. Surface waters supply water for drinking,
recreation, transportation, crop irrigation, and power generation. Most of our major cities have grown up around
large bodies of surface water. More than 80 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by water, but less than 0.03
percent of all water is found in surface water bodies other than oceans.
The world's supply of fresh water is 326 million cubic miles. If it were poured on the United States, it would
submerge the country to a depth of 90 miles. The United States is water "rich." We have 39,400,000 acres of
lakes and reservoirs, and over 35,000 square miles of estuaries. The Great Lakes cover 98,000 square miles
and contain about 1/5th of the world's fresh water supply. About four percent of the U.S. land mass is covered by
surface water.
Even though the U.S. is water rich this water is not distributed evenly across the country. For example, the
western parts of the country contain large desert areas and limited fresh water supplies.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Surface water can be broken down into five major categories:
• Oceans
• Lakes
• Rivers and Streams
• Estuaries
• Wetlands
Oceans cover two-thirds of the earth's surface. These saltwater bodies also contain much of the world's plant
and animal life. The resources of the world's oceans are vast, and although ocean water is too salty to drink, the
plant and animal resources of the ocean are harvested for food and hundreds of other uses.
Lakes are bodies of fresh water contained within a larger land mass. Lakes can be natural or human- made.
Lakes are used by humans for many purposes, such as water storage, flood control, recreation, and fisheries.
The number of lakes has increased as humans have created them to provide clean, fresh water resources.
Rivers and Streams are created from runoff water and water that previously infiltrated and is now coming up out
of the ground and entering the stream as well. Streams, therefore, are made up of two distinct water sources—
runoff and groundwater. The fast-moving action of rivers and streams causes the mixing of water and air, which
allows oxygen to be dissolved into the water. This process, aeration, gives rivers and streams the oxygen levels
they need to support wide varieties of life. If oxygen levels drop, then streams can lose their ability to be habitats
for many life forms. Rivers are often used to dilute pollution, such as water released from wastewater treatment
plants.
Estuaries form where rivers meet oceans. This unique environment serves as a spawning ground or nursery for
many animal species. Shellfish are a good example of creatures who thrive in estuaries. Estuaries are rich in
commercial fishing and recreational opportunities, but because of their complexity and their location at the end
of rivers, they can be seriously affected by deposits of sediment and pollutants. They can also be adversely
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affected when channel dredging changes the salt/freshwater balance in the estuary. Some estuaries, such as
the Chesapeake Bay and Puget Sound, have become seriously polluted.
Wetlands are lands that are periodically covered with water. They may be known as swamps, marshes, bogs,
and sloughs. They can be coastal (saltwater) or freshwater. The true importance of wetlands is just being
realized. Wetlands keep surface waters clean by filtering out sediment and trapping pollutants. Coastal wetlands
cushion drier lands from the full impact of storms. They help control floods by temporarily storing runoff waters.
They also provide breeding grounds for many of the fish species that make up a $9 billion or more food market.
Wetlands have traditionally been regarded as wastelands, and since colonial times, over half the wetlands in the
United States have been destroyed. But new Federal and state regulations are protecting wetlands and regulating
the way they are used.
TYPES OF AQUATIC HABITATS
Aquatic habitats are as diverse as the types of surface water. A single stream or body of water may be home to
a number of habitats, and during the life of the body of water, habitats may change, due to natural processes or
human-made pollution.
The major determinant of aquatic habitats is the amount of dissolved oxygen in water. Cold, fast-running mountain
streams that run over rocks and splash down slopes dissolve high amounts of oxygen, making them perfect
habitats for fish like trout, which require high levels of oxygen. As waters level out and become more still, they
absorb heat from the sun and lose oxygen content. Trout may not be able to survive in them, but other fish like
bass and sunfish like crappie and bluegill thrive. If water gets too warm and oxygen content gets lower, then'Yough"
fish like carp and suckers move in.
Plant life also thrives around lakes and streams. The immediate area around a waterbody is known as a
riparian area because it supports so much plant life. Like almost everything else in nature, riparian areas also
benefit wildlife and fish populations, providing cover and shade to keep water from getting too warm and losing
oxygen content. On public waterways, riparian areas are carefully managed to keep water ecosystems balanced.
Wetland areas have their own unique habitats. They are such complex areas that hundreds of species of plants
and animals live there. They are nurseries for many species of animals and provide food to nourish our most
productive fishing beds. Over half of all rare and endangered animal species are either located in wetland areas
or are dependent on them. About 66 percent of the commercial fish catch taken along the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts depend on wetlands for survival.
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SURFACE WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Under the Clean Water Act, water quality standards are based on three key components: an antidegradation
statement (stating under what conditions water quality may be lowered), stream use classifications, and water
quality criteria, or the degree of water quality needed to support a designated use for a stream. Water quality
criteria can include dissolved oxygen content, turbidity, chemical and nutrient contents, and other factors.
Stream use classifications can include:
• Domestic water supply
• Industrial water supply
• Fish and aquatic life
• Recreation
• Irrigation
• Livestock watering
• Wildlife
• Navigation
Streams may be divided into segments with a different set of uses established for each segment. Different uses
dictate different levels of water quality.
Criteria used in assessing water quality include:
• Dissolved oxygen
• pH
• Hardness, or mineral content
• Total dissolved solids
• Solids, floating materials and deposits
• Turbidity or color
• Temperature
• Coliforms
• Taste and odor
• Toxic substances
• Other pollutants
Depending on the designated stream use, only certain criteria may be used. To evaluate drinking water quality,
all eleven criteria are taken into account, but fewer are used to protect livestock watering and wildlife uses.
Individual criterion requirements may also vary with different uses. A trout stream requires 6 mg/l dissolved
oxygen on content. For other fisheries, 5 mg/l is sufficient. Allowances may be made down to 3 mg/l based on
site-specific conditions and according to designated uses (e.g., for irrigation or livestock watering).
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Water quality monitoring depends on stream use, land management, and state and federal regulators. Under
the Clean Water Act, the owner or operator of a facility covered by a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit is required to monitor effluent or wastewater quality at regular intervals, maintain complete
and accurate records, and report the results. Regulators can also monitor water quality at such sites to determine
compliance with permit requirements and notify the operator of any violations. Industrial plant operators or land
managers may also choose to monitor water quality frequently if changes in quality have an adverse affect on
operations or on plant and animal life.
Water quality monitoring measurements can include on-site chemical tests to detect pollutants, laboratory water
analysis, observations of plant and animal life in the area, and even catching fish for field or laboratory analysis.
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Even if other indicators show no problems, changes in fish health may signal a pollutant or ecosystem imbalance
that needs to be corrected.
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LAND USE AND WATER QUALITY
Land use can have a tremendous effect on water quality. Farmlands can be the source of sediment, fertilizer and
animal waste pollution. Forests may not be the source of pollutants, but they can be damaged severely by water
pollution. Human activities affecting forests (forestry practices such as clear cutting and road construction that
cause erosion and sedimentation) can impact water quality. Cities pose numerous water quality problems due to
high water demand, industrial pollutants, nonpoint source pollution, and human wastes.
So it's important that when we decide to use land for a specific purpose, we take into account water quality, not
just in the immediate area, but downstream and upstream as well. This means considering the amount of water
available as well as how it must be processed before and after use.
For example, crops require tremendous amounts of water. If there's not enough rainfall to support crop growth,
they must be irrigated, which means transporting water from lakes, streams, or wells. Irrigation may require so
much water that aquatic life in lakes and streams may be affected, or the water table may be lowered, causing
wells to dry up. The complete water cycle must be considered for irrigation. Irrigation drainwater must be properly
discharged or recycled to avoid causing pollution as well.
Another good example is the case of a paper mill on a small mountain river. Paper production requires lots of
water, and the wastewater discharged back into the stream contains a large number of pollutants, including
some toxic chemicals. A paper company might come under attack from environmental groups for this mill but
receive praise for how mills are operated in other areas on larger rivers. One reason is the amount of water
available for use. The small mountain river doesn't have enough flow to support the operation of the paper mill.
AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS
Agriculture can create serious demands on water supplies and cause several serious types of pollution, as salts
and trace elements are leached from the soil. Runoff and seepage of agricultural chemicals like fertilizer, herbicides,
and pesticides introduce nutrients, toxics, and sometimes bacteria into waterways and groundwater. Sediment,
however, is the major pollution source from this land use.
Animal wastes can enter streams, ponds, or lakes in pasture lands in which animals have direct access to water,
or wastes can be washed into streams by rain or enter groundwater through the soil. Animals produce large
amounts of waste (cattle create about ten tons of manure per head yearly, swine about two tons), so pollution
problems can be severe around large livestock farms. Nutrients, sediment, bacteria, and organic toxics can all
come from these "natural" sources of pollution.
One practice for reducing erosion and sediment pollution from agriculture is conservation tillage. Instead of
plowing under the residue from a previous crop and exposing bare soil, conservation tillage uses a disc or other
device to cut through the residue so seeds can be planted. This process allows a protective layer of vegetation
to remain on top of the soil to retard erosion and to retain more water in the soil. One negative is that this
process may require increased use of herbicides. Another process, called ridge planting, puts seeds in ridges of
plowed soil. This method allows warmer soil temperatures for planting and traps rainwater in the furrows between
the ridges. Biological pest control or integrated pest management (IPM) can be used to reduce the amount of
pesticides needed to protect crops. In IPM, predators like ladybugs or praying mantises are introduced to
control the pest that is causing crop damage.
Agricultural extension services also provide soil testing to farmers so that fertilizers can be properly used. The
tests indicate which nutrients may be needed for the type of soil and the crop being used so that excess fertilization
does not occur. Not only does this practice reduce pollution, it can reduce the cost of producing a crop.
Other best management practices include crop rotation, which may replace a row crop with a grain or other plant
that covers more ground and reduces erosion. Planning field layouts can also reduce erosion and sediment
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pollution by changing the direction of rows or creating runoff channels that allow sediment to settle before the
runoff water is released into streams.
There are several best management practices that can be applied to reduce pollution. Examples are diversion
channels to direct runoff to a safe outlet, grassed waterways to prevent erosion by small channels, and sediment
basins to collect runoff and sediment. These are called structural best management practices.
Management practices are often used. This type of best management practice involves making management
decisions that will reduce the potential for pollution. For example, integrated pest management is used to scout
for pests and pesticides are applied only when the number of pests reaches a threshold beyond which it is
economical for pesticide use. This requires less pesticides and permits natural predators to assist with pest
control.
Waste management systems can be used to convert animal wastes to reusable resources such as fertilizer or
methane for energy. A ton of animal manure can be equal to about 100 pounds of high quality chemical fertilizer.
There is no one single system that is best for animal waste operations. Depending on the size and type of
livestock and the potential for pollution, systems may need to be customized to a particular location. Considerations
for system design include local environmental regulations, the number of animals, type of confinement, fertilizer
needs, location of water sources, and the location of residences around the livestock operation.
A waste management system has four basic components: collection, transportation, storage, and disposal. For
some farms, a system may provide collection and transportation functions, with the wastes delivered to another
location for storage, and disposal. Collection methods vary, ranging from scraping to washing and flushing.
Transportation methods include conveyors, pumps, wagons or manure spreaders.
Collection and storage methods are based on the principles of either keeping wastes for later use or providing a
safe method for their treatment and disposal. Proper storage facilities are important because wastes can lose
nutrients and fertilizer value. A common treatment facility is a lagoon. Aerobic lagoons break down waste
materials without oxygen or aeration. Aerobic lagoons break down waste material with oxygen. Aerobic lagoons
create less odor than anaerobic lagoons, but require more surface area. Both types reduce the concentration
of nutrients, making it safe to dispose of wastes by irrigation. Disposal or land application should be done at the
time and in a manner that reduces the potential for runoff.
Other alternatives include collection of wastes and drying them for use as household fertilizers or even additions
to silage for animal feeds, or as alternative fuel for energy. Dead animals may be composted or processed and
used for soil amendments or fertilizer and animal food.
URBAN IMPACTS
Densely populated urban areas, which are covered by non-permeable surfaces like streets, sidewalks and
buildings, create a great deal of runoff. The high concentrations of people in these areas tend to produce
greater quantities and varieties of pollutants, including nutrients, bacteria, and toxic chemicals. Automobiles
and manufacturing are two primary sources of toxics.
Less densely populated suburban areas have three primary water contamination problems. The first is runoff
and seepage of lawn and garden chemicals. These chemicals are often used in much higher concentrations
than in agriculture, and they can wash off into storm sewer systems or percolate through soil into groundwater.
Faulty septic systems are another source of pollution, which can produce nutrient, bacteria, and even toxic
contamination. Many household chemicals like pesticides, herbicides, solvents, paints, and cleaners are so
toxic that they would require specialized disposal in industrial situations. A third source of pollution is runoff from
streets, driveways, and parking lots. This runoff contains large amounts of petroleum contaminants, as well as
bacteria and nutrients.
Control of both point source and nonpoint source pollution in urban and suburban areas is increasing. Tremendous
investment by government and industry has helped control pollution problems immensely. Municipal sewage
treatment facilities have grown faster than the nation's population. However, more improvements are still needed
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to make sure that wastewater treatment systems can keep up with needs. Federal and state laws, beginning
with the landmark 1972 Clean Water Act, are continually being developed that limit what types of contaminants
can be released into wastewater systems. These controls have stopped many of the fish kills and other problems
associated with pollution in the 1970s. Many urban area lakes that were considered "dead" are now healthy
enough to support many fish species and other aquatic life. Phosphate based detergents are banned by some
communities.
Prior to 1992, urban runoff was controlled primarily by voluntary means. Federal regulations now require cities
with a population of greater than 100,000 and certain types of industries to develop and implement plans to
control storm water pollution. Cities have adopted new practices like leaf collection and street cleaning at critical
times, that can reduce the flow of sediment and other contaminants into waterways. City planning places new
emphasis on water conservation and source control, particularly in areas where water supplies may be limited.
Detention-retention ponds have been incorporated into some water control systems to allow contaminants to
settle, and to feed rainwater into runoff channels at a controlled rate.
In some cases, building codes limit construction based on water demand. A single new household consumes
more than a hundred thousand gallons of water each year, placing more demand on water supplies and on
wastewater and sewage treatment systems.
Education programs designed to teach people proper use of water and disposal of potential pollutants are also
having a positive impact. These programs show people the staggering amounts of water they consume each
day, and steps they can take to reduce consumption. Less consumption means less wastewater that has the
ability to carry pollutants.
INDUSTRIAL IMPACTS
Industrial impacts on water can be severe. Industry can introduce toxic chemicals into a stream or lake, either
through manufacturing or through an accidental spill. Thermal pollution from power plants or factories can raise
water temperatures and change the ability of the water to support life. Nutrients from detergents or other organic
chemicals can cause nutrient pollution that chokes the life out of waterways.
Since most industrial pollution is point source pollution, cleanup efforts can be focused and effective. NPDES
point source pollution control requires any industry that discharges a pollutant into a water supply to have a
permit specifically to do so. Severe penalties are established for failure to have a permit or exceeding permit
limits. Many industries are required to treat wastewater before releasing it back into streams.
Construction is an industry that can create nonpoint source pollution as well as point source pollution. Construction
contaminates water in two ways. Sediment pollution can be created when plant cover is removed, with erosion
occurring at much greater rates than for undisturbed land. Toxics from construction materials, such as paint,
solvents, acids, and glues can also pollute water.
Construction must take into account both short term and long term water pollution management practices.
Construction removes vegetation from the ground, inviting erosion and sediment pollution. Practices to reduce
this include temporary measures such as diverting water flow through trenches or sediment ponds that allow silt
and other materials to settle before water runs off into streams. Hay bales, mulch, and other materials may also
be used as temporary controls, as well as the planting of temporary grasses to control erosion before more
permanent landscaping can be done. Perennials or other long lasting vegetation can be used to provide more
permanent ground cover for sites that won't be landscaped.
One key to success in best management practices for construction is proper site planning. The type of soil, the
location of streams, and the topography of the area must all be considered before the construction process
begins. Permanent measures may have to be taken to ensure that slow erosion doesn't create problems several
years in the future. These measures may include: storm drains, "riprap," a permanent layer of stone that retards
water flow and enhances infiltration, or even construction of grassed or lined waterways that convey excess
storm water away from developing areas or critical slopes. The construction process itself may be modified to
include a stone "pad" at the construction entrance to reduce the transportation of mud off the building site by
vehicles or runoff.
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FORESTRY IMPACTS
Forests are one of the least-polluting land uses. However, chemicals like insecticides used on tree farms can
soak into groundwater or wash into streams. Logging can cause erosion and sediment pollution, particularly if
care is not taken in cutting logging roads and planning loading and stacking areas. Forestry has different
environmental impacts in different parts of the country.
Forestry practices have been modified voluntarily and by law to reduce their pollution potential. To reduce soil
erosion, many logging companies now employ buffer zones and streambank protection procedure which reduce
erosion and other impacts on the land. Many forest product companies have found that proper land management
can actually increase their profits by increasing forest yields.
For softwoods like pine, which are used for paper production and lumber, forest product companies manage
their own "plantations" of timber, replanting several trees for every one cut down. This has increased the amount
of usable timber available in the U.S., and has reduced the potential of pollution. Site planning is now an
important consideration. Logging road paths may wind around hills to reduce erosion and allow natural growth
to quickly "retake" the land after cutting is finished.
MINING IMPACTS
Improper mining can threaten ground and surface water supplies. Sediment, toxics, and rubble from mines are
water contaminants. Rainwater running through discarded mine material (tailings) can become acidic, poisoning
aquatic plant and animal life.
Mining is one activity that is specifically regulated as a potential source of pollution. Since 1965, more than three
million acres of land have been disturbed by strip mining activities. Severe problems have been created by
erosion and acidity. However, mined lands must now be "reclaimed," or restored to acceptable condition after
operations are complete.
The practices included in this process are preplanning to determine how the site will be used after operations are
finished, stabilization of the site while work is in progress so that it does not create an immediate source of
pollution, creation of storm water control and storage, and re-creation of natural beauty by replanting the site.
Since mining can destroy topsoil, new soil or nutrients may need to be added before plants can thrive, or
different vegetation requiring less nutrients may be used to start growth.
Underground mines can be pollution sources, particularly for groundwater. These are also subject to reclamation,
and laws require that steps be taken to keep sediment or toxics from entering waterways.
COMMERCIAL BUSINESS IMPACTS
We normally think of major industries as creating the most pollution, but small businesses can also be pollution
sources. In fact, many small businesses pollute, but do not realize it. Local garages that dump waste oil and anti-
freeze instead of collecting it can be serious contributors to water pollution. A single quart of oil can pollute as
much as 250,000 gallons of water. Photo labs can be sources of heavy metal pollution, such as silver. Dry
cleaners use a variety of solvents that can be toxic. And trash created by businesses that goes into landfills can
ultimately result in water pollution.
Many smaller businesses have voluntarily adopted approaches to prevent or reduce pollution. Recycling of
automotive wastes is becoming standard practice for many garages, and other businesses regularly practice
recycling a variety of materials to reduce cost and waste. Businesses such as photo labs that have installed
systems that recover silver used in electroplating and thereby reduce potential water pollution. Laws regarding
toxic substances also apply to small businesses, and many wastes that used to be dumped into water supplies
are now collected for proper disposal.
RECREATION IMPACTS
Recreation can impact surface water in a number of ways. The improper use of our waterways or overuse by too
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many people can impair surface waters, destroy habitats, and cause injury or death to wildlife. Litter dumped in
and around our waterways can not only cause pollution, but can be mistakenly eaten by wildlife.
Boats cause water pollution through leakage or spilling of petroleum products. Boaters can also damage habitats
or hurt endangered species, such as the West Indian Manatee, which lives primarily in warm waters around the
coast of Florida. As of 1996, approximately 2000 of these notoriously gentle mammals remain. Yet, each year,
many die or suffer injuries at the hands of boaters.
To stem the tide of deaths and injuries to manatees and other aquatic wildlife, state regulations often require
safeguards to be implemented, such as boater education and strict speed limits in certain areas. For it is only
through the proper management of recreation areas, education to help people protect these areas, and laws that
require appropriate human behavior in these areas, that we can begin to protect our aquatic resources from
human recreational impacts.
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OTHER SURFACE WATER ISSUES
ACID RAIN
The water cycle helps renew water as a pure resource. But the flow and cycling of water can also help spread
pollution sources.
Acid precipitation is a prime example. Air pollution from industrial sources and automobiles releases sulphur
oxides and nitrogen oxides into the air. When mixed with water vapor, they form sulfuric and nitric acids, which
fall to the ground in the form of acid rain, snow, fog, or dew. Acid precipitation, commonly called "acid rain," can
cause damage to buildings, car finishes, crops, forests, wildlife habitats, and aquatic life.
This acid precipitation can also pollute clean waterways through runoff. Increased acidity of water can negatively
affect fish and other aquatic life. The effects of acid precipitation may not be felt for many months or years.
Acidic snowmelt may create acid "shock" in a stream and cause serious fish kills in the spring.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Water pollution is identified in two categories. Point source pollution is contamination that comes from a
single, clearly identifiable source, such as a pipe which discharges material from a factory into a lake, stream,
river, bay, or other body of water. Point source pollution could also include stormwater runoff that is channeled
from a drain directly into a waterway, or even a polluted tributary that regularly adds contaminants to a body of
water. Point source pollution is relatively easy to identify.
Nonpoint source pollution is more difficult to identify. This is pollution which originates over a broad area from
a variety of causes. Examples of nonpoint source pollution include: improper application of pesticides and
fertilizers; sediment from construction and logging; leachate from landfills and septic tanks; petroleum-based
products from streets and parking lots; and atmospheric fallout. Because of its dispersed sources, nonpoint
source pollution can be difficult to control.
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GROUNDWATER
Groundwater begins with precipitation that seeps into the ground. The amount of water that seeps into the
ground will vary widely from place to place, depending on the slope of the land, amount and intensity of rainfall,
and type of land surface. Porous, or permeable, land containing lots of sand or gravel will allow as much as 50
percent of precipitation to seep into the ground and become groundwater. In less permeable areas, as little as
five percent may seep in. The rest becomes runoff or evaporates. Over half of the fresh water on Earth is stored
as groundwater.
As water seeps through permeable ground, it continues downward until it reaches a depth where water has filled
all the porous areas in the soil or rock. This is known as the saturated zone. The top of the saturated zone is
called the water table. The water table can rise or fall according to the season of the year and the amount of
precipitation that occurs. The water table is typically higher in early spring and lower in late summer. The porous
area between the land surface and the water table is known as the unsaturated zone.
AQUIFERS
Water-bearing rock, sand, gravel, or soil that is capable of yielding usable amounts of groundwater is called an
aquifer. The water yield from an aquifer depends greatly on the materials that make it up. Mixtures of clay, sand,
and fine particles yield small amounts of water because the spaces between the particles don't allow water
absorption and flow. Materials sorted into distinct layers will yield high amounts of water from coarse-grained
materials like large sand grains and gravel, but low amounts from fine-grained sand, silt, or clay. Bedrock aquifers
will yield substantial amounts of water if there are large openings or cracks in the rock. The capacity of soil or
rock to hold water is called its porosity; the capacity for water to move through the aquifer is called permeability.
There are two types of aquifers: confined, or artesian aquifers, and unconfined, or water table aquifers. Artesian
aquifers contain groundwater that is trapped under impermeable soil or rock and may be under pressure. Artesian
wells are wells that pierce artesian aquifers. The water in these wells usually rises toward the surface under its
own pressure. If the water level in the well is higher than the land surface, it may be a flowing artesian well. A
well in an unconfined aquifer has the same water level as the water table around it.
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
Water that seeps into an aquifer is known as recharge. Recharge comes from a variety of sources, including
seepage from rain and snow melt, streams, and groundwater flow from other areas. Recharge occurs where
permeable soil allows water to seep into the ground. Areas in which this occurs are called recharge areas. They
may be small or quite large. A small recharge area may supply all the water to a large aquifer. Streams that
recharge groundwater are called losing streams because they lose water to the surrounding soil or rock.
GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE
Groundwater can leave the ground at discharge points. Discharge happens continuously as long as enough
water is present above the discharge point. Discharge points include springs, stream and lake beds, wells,
ocean shorelines, and wetlands. Streams that receive groundwater are called gaining streams because they
gain water from the surrounding soil or rock. In times of drought, most of the surface water flow can come from
groundwater. Plants can also contribute to groundwater discharge, because if the water table is close enough to
the ground, groundwater can be discharged by plants through transpiration.
GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
Groundwater usually moves slowly from recharge areas to discharge points. Flow rates within most aquifers
can be measured in feet per day, though in karst bedrock the rate of flow can be measured in miles per hour.
Flow rates are faster when cracks in rocks or very loose soil allow water to move freely. However, in dense soil,
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groundwater may move very slowly or not at all.
Groundwater typically moves in parallel paths, or layers. Since groundwater movement is slow, it doesn't create
enough turbulence to cause mixing the way surface waters mix when a river or stream empties into another
waterbody. That is, layers of groundwater remain relatively intact. This can be an important factor in locating
and determining the movements of contaminants that might enter the groundwater supply. But eventually
contaminants will disperse through part or all of an aquifer.
Wells affect groundwater flow by taking water out of an aquifer and lowering the nearby water table. Removed
water is recharged from the water table, and the lowered water table caused by the well is called a cone of
depression. The cone of depression from a well may extend to nearby lakes and streams, causing the stream
to lose water to the aquifer. This is known as induced recharge. Streams and wetlands have been completely
dried up by induced recharge from well pumping.
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GROUNDWATER PROBLEMS
SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
Groundwater contamination can come from a number of natural and human-made sources. These can include:
*Leaks and spills at factories and commercial facilities
Spills and leaks can result from accidents, lack of employee training, improper planning, and inadequate
maintenance. They are especially problematic if proper procedures are not in place to clean them up once they
occur. Materials which can cause problems if spilled, include gasoline, other petroleum products, hazardous
chemicals, and a variety of other materials.
It's difficult to eliminate accidental spills, but they can be reduced and the damage they cause can be minimized
by proper design and maintenance of facilities and proper employee training. The Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986 (SARA Title III) requires states, communities, and businesses to have
plans for responding quickly in the event of an accidental spill. Workers must be informed as to what hazardous
chemicals they may be working with, and what to do in case of an accident. This act has prevented or reduced
many instances of groundwater contamination.
improper hazardous waste disposal
Improper industrial waste disposal can come from a variety of sources, including major industrial plants and
small businesses. The local dry cleaner uses a number of solvents and hazardous chemicals for cleaning clothes,
and these must be handled as carefully as any other hazardous waste to prevent groundwater contamination.
Industrial wastes can create groundwater pollution problems that take years to resolve.
The disposal of hazardous industrial wastes is now carefully regulated under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), which requires industry to have a "cradle to grave" system of tracking hazardous wastes.
This system is designed to prevent inadvertent (and sometimes purposeful) release of hazardous materials into
the environment by requiring businesses to report hazardous wastes and account for their proper disposal
(except for some small quantity generators). The law establishes severe penalties for noncompliance. Another
Federal law, the 'Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or
Superfund) responds to environmental threats from improper disposal of hazardous wastes and sets standards
for cleanup—even for sites that were contaminated years ago where the source of contamination may not be
easily identifiable.
Individuals can also be sources of hazardous waste pollution. If you dump oil in your driveway, pour paint thinner
in the toilet, or dispose of wastewaterwith hazardous cleaners in the bathtub, you could be a source of hazardous
pollution. Ways to avoid this are to recycle oil and other petroleum based chemicals at service stations or
recycling centers. Avoid using hazardous chemicals when possible and substitute more environmentally friendly
materials. Many communities sponsor household chemical disposal days so that individuals can take solvents
and other hazardous wastes to a site for proper disposal.
Improper use and disposal of pesticides
Pesticides used on farms and even on individual lawns can create serious groundwater pollution. Improper
pesticide use can cause people and animals to become ill, kill plants, and have adverse effects on aquatic life in
nearby streams. Improper pesticide use can include excessive or ill-timed application, improper storage, or
improper disposal of excess pesticides. If you overuse pesticides on your yard, you could be polluting your own
groundwater. It's been estimated that individuals use over 100 times as much pesticides and fertilizer on their
yards as farmers use on the same amount of land.
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Avoiding pesticide pollution of groundwater is relatively easy. Follow instructions carefully. Reduce pesticide use
in areas known to be recharge areas for groundwater. Use natural pest control methods rather than chemicals.
Homeowners can substitute biocontrol agents, like praying mantises or ladybugs, for pesticides. Other natural
insect repellents include plants like mint (which discourages ants), garlic, and marigolds.
*Leachate from landfills
If landfills are not properly constructed, liquid from decomposition of materials, or leachate, can leak out of the
landfill into an aquifer. Leachate can contain high levels of bacteria, hazardous chemicals, metals, and ammonia.
Runoff water from landfills after rains can also carry pollution to groundwater recharge areas—and hence into
groundwater.
New landfill construction methods are designed to prevent pollution of groundwater. Landfills are now built with
liners to prevent leachate from seeping through soil into aquifers. Leachate collection systems store the liquid
away from the water table. Clay caps prevent rainwater runoff from carrying pollutants from the landfill into the
groundwater.
*Septic systems
Septic systems can be a source of groundwater pollution if too many systems are located in an area, if a system
is overloaded or not working properly, or if a system is improperly used for disposal of chemicals or other
materials. If a septic system is not working properly, it can contaminate groundwater with bacteria, viruses, and
hazardous cleaning materials or household chemicals. Even properly working well-maintained septic systems
can contribute nitrates to groundwater. These can show up in well water around the septic system.
Methods of preventing groundwater pollution from septic systems include proper system installation and
maintenance. If the concentration of households in an area is too great, then a public sewer and waste treatment
system may be necessary. Dumping hazardous chemicals into septic systems should also be avoided.
*Saline Intrusion
In coastal areas, too much demand on potable groundwater can create induced recharge from ocean waters,
resulting in saline intrusion into groundwater supplies. This can also happen in times of severe drought. (Induced
recharge can not only contaminate groundwater, but enough induced recharge has been known to dry up wetland
areas and destroy habitats for wildlife.)
Careful planning of coastal communities and water conservation are ways to avoid saline intrusion into groundwater
supplies.
*Salts and chemicals used to deice roads
In northern climates, tons of salt and other chemicals are used for deicing roads, and these can create groundwater
contamination problems. Runoff from storage areas and highways can seep into the ground and cause high
levels of chlorides in well water. Prevention of pollution from this source can be through protection of storage
areas, minimal salt use, and substitution of other materials, such as sand or gravel.
"Liquid waste storage lagoons
Storage lagoons are used by industries, farms, cities, and mines as a way of preventing pollution by allowing
solid wastes to settle before wastewater is released. However, storage lagoons can cause groundwater pollution
if they leak or overflow. They can be sources of bacterial or chemical groundwater pollution.
Groundwater contamination from lagoons can be avoided through proper installation and maintenance and by
locating lagoons away from sensitive groundwater areas.
*Fertilizers
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Like pesticides, misuse of fertilizers can cause groundwater pollution. Overuse can allow nitrates from fertilizer
to seep into the water table. In sensitive groundwater areas, rainfall seepage can cause fertilizer to migrate and
contaminate an aquifer.
Careful use can avoid or minimize these problems.
*Animal wastes
Animal wastes are sources of bacteria and nitrates. They can contaminate groundwater if too many animals are
located in too small a lot, or if the lot has improper drainage. Lagoons used to trap animal wastes can be a
source of groundwater pollution if they leak or if the water table is too close to the land surface. Proper siting of
animal lots, along with regular cleaning and avoiding overloading, can prevent animal waste pollution. Wastes
can be recovered and used as fertilizer.
*Leaking underground storage tanks
Leaking underground tanks are a potentially large groundwater pollution problem. And no one is really sure how
large the problem will be. It's been estimated that the locations of only half of all the underground storage tanks
are known in the U.S. Many of these are old, corroded, and beginning to leak and cause problems. Underground
storage tanks are commonly found at service stations, where gasoline pollution is a potential problem. Many
stations have replaced old steel tanks and piping, with fiberglass tanks and piping that don't corrode.
Federal law now requires that owners/operators of USTs prevent the release of product into the environment.
This may require the owner/operator to install storage tanks that have a secondary containment system should
the primary tank fail. Careful monitoring of tank inventories can be used to detect leaks and correct them, and
tanks that are no longer in use must be closed by either removing them or filling them with inert materials.
*Pipeline breaks
Pipeline breaks can be sources of localized groundwater pollution. Breaks can be severe enough so that they
are immediately detected, or they may be small and cause significant groundwater contamination before they
are noticed. Pipeline breaks can cause pollution from sewage, petroleum products, or other chemicals. They
can occur around roadways due to vibration from vehicles, or they can even be caused by plant roots, which
slowly crack pipes and cause leaks. Careful inspection of pipelines and regular maintenance can reduce pollution
problems from this source.
Inadequately sealed wells or abandoned wells
It's sometimes difficult to imagine wells, our chief way of tapping into groundwater supplies, as a source of
groundwater pollution, but they can be pathways for pollutants to enter the groundwater system. If a well isn't
sealed or cased properly, polluted water from runoff can enter at the well cover or along its walls and be channeled
directly into groundwater. Open abandoned wells can be a significant source of groundwater pollution. And if a
well is deep enough to reach a layer of groundwater that is otherwise protected by impermeable soil from
pollution from surface seepage, it can create severe contamination of an otherwise pure water source.
Groundwater pollution from wells can be prevented by properly sealing wells which will no longer be used with
concrete or earth. Well covers and tight casings are used as temporary measures. Procedures have also been
developed to properly seal and plug abandoned wells.
"Underground injection wells
Underground injection wells are a method of waste disposal. Wastes disposed by this method include industrial
chemicals, sewage effluent, cooling water, storm water, and saltwater. Typically, injection wells inject wastes
below sources of drinking water, but if injection wells have leaks or are used improperly, they can inject wastes
directly into a usable groundwater supply.
Injection wells are carefully monitored by state and federal regulations to prevent pollution. Businesses using
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injection wells are required to have permits for their use and to comply with permit conditions.
*Radon contamination
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive element that has been linked to cancer in humans. It occurs in certain
geologic areas, and can be an air or water pollutant. Radon can collect as a gas in a basement, or it can
contaminate well water. Test kits for radon detection are available for individual use. Once detected, radon can
be removed from a home or a water well.
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COASTAL WETLANDS
IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL WETLANDS
Coastal wetlands provide a wide variety of important functions, including:
Water quality. Some wetlands contribute to improving water quality by removing excess nutrients and many
chemical contaminants. These improvements occur due to uptake by the plants and binding with soil particles.
Barriers to waves and erosion. Coastal wetlands reduce the impact of storm tides and waves before they
reach upland areas.
Flood storage. Coastal wetlands can store floodwater and release it slowly, lowering flood peaks.
Sediment control. Reduced flood flow provided by coastal wetlands allows floodwater to deposit sediment,
instead of transporting sediment into waterways where it can pose a water quality problem.
Wildlife habitat. Coastal wetlands can support wide varieties of wildlife (i.e., provide nesting areas, produce
food, provide spawning areas).
Fish and shellfish. Coastal wetlands are important spawning and nursery areas for fish and shellfish, and
provide sources for commercial fishing.
Sanctuary for rare and endangered species. Protection of wetlands often means providing survival habitats
for endangered animals. Nearly half of the threatened and endangered species in the U.S. rely directly or
indirectly on wetlands for their survival.
Aesthetic value. The natural beauty of wetlands is a source of visual enjoyment, and can be appreciated
through observation, art, and poetry.
Education and research. The rich ecosystems of wetlands are natural locations for biological research and
observation.
Recreation. Wetlands provide sites for hunting, fishing, canoeing, and observing wildlife.
Food production. Wetlands have potential for the production of plant products, including marsh vegetation, and
for aquaculture. Wetlands also produce great volumes of food in the form of decaying plant and animal matter
or detritus. Detritus is consumed by many aquatic invertebrates and fish which are food for game fish, waterfowl,
and mammals.
Water supply. With the growth of urban areas, wetlands are becoming more valuable as sources for water
supply.
COASTAL HABITATS
Coastal saltwater wetlands contain a number of habitats. Marine intertidal habitats are near the shoreline and
are flooded by tidewaters. Estuarine sub-tidal habitats are open water and bay bottoms that are continuously
covered by saltwater. Estuarine intertidal emergents are salt marsh areas that are covered by herbaceous
vegetation during the growing season. Estuarine intertidal forested/shrub habitats contain larger woody plants.
Estuarine intertidal unconsolidated shores are beaches and sand bars, and estuarine unconsolidated
bottom habitats are open water estuaries. Riverine habitats are tidal or non-tidal river systems that feed into
wetlands.
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ESTUARIES
Estuaries form where rivers meet oceans. Estuaries are deep water tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands
that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have open or at least some access to the open ocean. Ocean water
in estuaries is partly diluted by freshwater runoff from rivers, but the salinity of still waters in estuary wetlands
may be occasionally higher than that of the ocean due to evaporation.
BAYS
Bays are large estuarine systems. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States and one of
the most productive biological systems in the world. The bay is approximately 200 miles long and ranges from 4
to 30 miles wide, but averages a depth of only about 28 feet. This makes it ideal for shellfish and other productive
fish species, but it also makes it sensitive to natural changes in temperature and wind and human-made pollution.
Other key bays in the United States include Puget Sound in Washington, Long Island Sound in New York,
Albemarle Sound and Pamlico Sound in North Carolina, and San Francisco Bay in California.
A WETLAND BENEFIT- FOOD SUPPLY
Coastal wetlands are critical to human food supplies. About 66 percent of the commercial fish catch taken along
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts depends on wetlands for survival. Coastal wetlands produce millions of tons of
organic matter that provide food for invertebrates, shellfish, and small fish that are in turn food for larger commercial
fish such as bluefish and striped bass. Most freshwater fish feed upon wetland-produced food and use wetlands
as nurseries for their young. Waterfowl hunters spend hundreds of millions of dollars annually to harvest wetland-
dependent birds. Wetlands also provide blueberries, cranberries, and wild rice. And wetlands have further potential
for contributing to the food supply, through the harvesting of marsh vegetation and aquaculture.
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FRESHWATER WETLANDS
Like saltwater coastal waters, freshwater wetlands offer a variety of benefits, including:
Water quality. Some wetlands contribute to improving water quality by removing excess nutrients and many
chemical contaminants. These improvements occur due to uptake by the plants and binding with soil particles.
Flood conveyance. Wetlands can form natural floodways that allow floodwater to move downstream without
causing damage (i.e., contains flood flows within a corridor that should not be developed).
Flood storage. Freshwater wetlands can store floodwater and release it slowly, lowering flood peaks.
Wildlife habitat. Inland wetlands can support wide varieties of wildlife (i.e., provide nesting areas, produce
food, provide spawning areas).
Sanctuary for rare and endangered species. Protection of wetlands often means providing survival habitats
for endangered animals. Nearly half of the threatened and endangered species in the U.S. rely either directly or
indirectly on wetlands for their survival.
Aesthetic value. The natural beauty of wetlands is a source of visual enjoyment, and can be appreciated
through observation, art, and poetry.
Recreation. Wetlands provide sites for hunting, fishing, canoeing, and observing wildlife.
Education and research. The rich ecosystems of wetlands are natural locations for biological research and
observation.
Water supply. With the growth of urban areas, wetlands are becoming more valuable as sources for water
supply. Some wetlands help recharge groundwater supplies.
Food production. Wetlands have potential for the production of marsh vegetation and aquaculture for humans;
they provide detritus, plants, and insects as food for animals.
Timber production. Properly managed, wetlands can provide good sources of timber.
Historical value. Some wetlands were locations for Indian settlements and provide significant historical and
archeological value.
WETLAND HABITATS
Freshwater wetland habitats include palustrine forested, or forested swamps and bogs; palustrine shrub, or
shrub wetlands; palustrine emergents, or inland marshes and wet meadows; palustrine unconsolidated
shores, or freshwater shores and sand bars; palustrine unconsolidated bottom, or open water ponds;
palustrine aquatic beds, or floating aquatic or submerged vegetation; lacustrine (lake) habitats; and riverine
(river) habitats.
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DESTRUCTION OF WETLANDS
It is estimated that over 200 million acres of wetlands existed in the United States, at the time of European
settlement. In 1975, wetlands were estimated to be 99 million acres. Iowa, for example, has lost 99 percent of
its wetland areas. Many wetlands have been converted to agricultural areas, and wetlands have also been lost
to real estate development, mining, and drained for timber production. Laws used to encourage wetlands
destruction for "useful purposes."
Wetlands are still being destroyed at an alarming rate, but there is a new awareness of wetlands value, and an
increased interest in preserving wetland areas. Some wetlands have been restored, and governments and
private groups have begun purchasing wetland areas for conservation and preservation.
PROTECTION OF WETLANDS
I
Because so many acres of wetlands have been lost, Federal and state governments have worked hard to
establish ways to protect and revitalize remaining coastal areas and wetlands. Private concerns have also
worked toward wetland preservation.
Approaches toward wetlands protection have included acquisition of wetland areas, both by governments and
private groups such as The Conservation Foundation and The Nature Conservancy. Buying duck stamps at the
post office also raises money for wetlands conservation. Economic incentives for wetland preservation have
included tax reductions and deductions for wetland donation; economic disincentives to wetland destruction
have also been put in place. A provision of the Food Security Act eliminates farm program benefits for farmers
using wetlands converted into farmlands.
Specific regulation of wetlands comes with Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, amended in 1987. Under this
law, the discharge of dredged or fill materials into the waters of the U.S. requires a permit from the Army Corps
of Engineers. This has prevented the loss of many wetlands, but it is not a comprehensive program for protection.
For example, some isolated yet ecologically valuable wetlands are not regulated.
Most coastal states have laws in place to protect coastal wetlands, but fewer than 20 states have enacted
provisions to protect inland wetland areas. The National Estuary Program (NEP) was established in 1985, to
address problems affecting the estuaries, such as loss of habitat, contamination of sediments by toxic materials,
depletion of oxygen, and bacterial contamination. As of 1996, 28 of the nation's largest estuaries were listed
under the NEP. Management plans for each estuary are due to be completed and steps taken to restore their
environmental—and economic—benefits. Another important planning effort is the advanced identification (ADID)
of wetlands in the United States.
RESTORED WETLANDS FOR HABITAT
Close to half of all rare and endangered animal species are either located in wetland areas or dependent on
them. Government agencies have recently undertaken restoration of wetlands in large-scale projects. One example
is the restoration of thousands of acres of floodplain marsh along Florida's Kissimmee River. Some wetland
habitats, such as freshwater marshes can be relatively easy to reproduce and regenerate, while others, such as
high salt marshes and forested wetlands, may be more difficult and take generations to recreate.
The restoration of wetland habitats is a young and very complex science that will take years to understand fully.
Wetland restoration must overcome a variety of problems, such as financial considerations, invasion of unwanted
vegetation, proper water recharge and sediment control, and interaction of wetlands with adjacent waterways.
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COASTAL AND COASTAL WETLANDS ISSUES
EROSION
Erosion poses a problem for shorelands by removing soils and sediment that support plant and animal life.
Erosion can strip away important sediment layers and change the habitat's ability to support life. Extreme erosion
can create stream flows that drain coastal wetland areas.
DREDGING AND COASTAL WETLAND LOSS
Dredging, filling, and draining of wetlands have destroyed hundreds of thousands of acres of coastal habitat.
Also, dredged materials from navigation channels are often deposited alongside streams in wetland areas. For
many years, it was thought good land practice to improve wetland "wastelands" by filing them in or draining them
for mosquito control.
Wetlands are now protected by Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Under this law, the discharge of dredged or
fill materials into the waters of the U.S. requires a permit from the Army Corps of Engineers. In order to receive
permit authorization, the activity must comply with 40 C.F.R. Section 404 (b)(1) guidelines which stipulate that no
discharge can be permitted if a practicable alternative exists that is less damaging to the aquatic environment or
if significant degradation would occur. This has prevented the loss of many wetlands; however, wetland loss and
degradation continue to be a significant environmental concern.
RED TIDE
Red tide is a natural phenomenon brought on by too many nutrients in the water which can cause uncontrolled
growth of microscopic organisms or type of plankton called dinoflagellates. These organisms can multiply to the
point where water actually looks red. The organisms contaminate shellfish, making them unsafe for human
consumption. Red tide also causes fish kills, can damage vegetation, and as of the mid 1990s, has become a
toxic threat to endangered aquatic species such as Florida's West Indian Manatee.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION IN BAYS
Nonpoint source pollution is a problem for bays and other waterways, but in bays, its consequences can be
more severe. Since bays are typically shallow, nonpoint source sediment pollution can quickly fill and clog
waterways and wetland areas. Sediment can also bring about conditions that can reduce oxygen levels and kill
marine life. Nutrient pollution from farmlands can also create havoc in bays. Algal blooms from nonpoint source
pollution can have similar effects of reducing oxygen levels and killing existing life. Toxic pollution can quickly
settle into shallow bay waters and infiltrate productive fishing and spawning beds, killing or contaminating fish
and plant life.
DEVELOPMENT OF COASTAL AREAS
Coastal development has been and continues to be a major threat to wetlands. Coastal property has high real
estate value, and developers find it difficult to preserve wetland areas when faced with profit potential from
private wetland areas. And even if wetlands aren't destroyed during development, the additional pollution from
development can disrupt the delicate environmental balance of wetlands, changing habitats forever. The nation's
largest estuary, the Chesapeake Bay, suffers many environmental problems as a result of extensive development
within its watershed.
OCEAN DUMPING AND SPILLS
Ocean dumping and accidental spills pose a severe pollution problem, and many coastal areas have received
significant environmental damage. A number of federal laws are now in place to protect the coastal environment.
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Some of these laws are described below.
*The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, was the beginning of laws protecting the oceans. This act was established
to prohibit throwing, discharging, or depositing any matter, other than matter flowing in streets and sewers and
passing in a liquid state, into navigable waters.
*The Water Pollution Control Act (WPCA) of 1948, was passed by Congress because there was evidence of
health dangers that damaged beaches and shellfish beds, and could cause typhoid fever, diarrhea, and dysentery.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) of 1956, amended the WPCA. It authorized grant monies to
communities to build sewage treatment plants.
* The 1969 National Environmental Policy Act's main goal was "to create and maintain conditions under which
man and nature can exist in productive harmony and fulfill the social, economic, and other requirements to
present and future generations of Americans." (Covering the Coasts: A Reporter's Guide to Coastal and Marine
Resources, page 81) One requirement under this act is for applicable federal agencies to prepare an environmental
impact statement (EIS). An EIS is a detailed statement which describes how a project may significantly affect
the environment and living things' habitats.
*London Dumping Convention Act of 1972, placed limits on the amount of industrial and municipal waste dumped
into international waters. The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972, (also called
the Ocean Dumping Act), implements the London Dumping Convention Act, in United States' waters.
The Clean Water Act of 1972, amended the FWPCA. It established the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). Under the national permitting program, EPA or EPA authorized states issue permits limiting
the pollutants from industrial and municipal discharges into United States' waters.
*Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, provided establishment of the National Estuary Research Reserves for
research and environmental education. The goal of this act is to "preserve, protect, develop, enhance, and
restore where possible, the coastal resources." (Covering the Coasts: A Reporter's Guide to Coastal and Marine
Resources, page 96)
*Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, imposes a moratorium that protects marine mammals and their products
for any purpose other than for scientific research or education. This means that no person has the right to "take"
(harass, hunt, capture, or kill) or import any marine mammal.
"International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships of 1973 and 1978, known as MARPOL was
not effective until 1983, after several modifications. MARPOL's intent was to end "the deliberate, negligent, or
accidental release of ...harmful substances from ships" and to "achieve the complete elimination of international
pollution of the marine environment...of harmful substances." (Covering the Coasts: A Reporter's Guide to Coastal
and Marine Resources, page 100)
"Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (also called Magnuson Act), was established for the
conservation and management of all fishery resources within the United States.
"Endangered Species Act of 1973, was established to protect endangered or threatened species. This is
accomplished by federal agencies ensuring that their actions do not jeopardize endangered or threatened species
or do not adversely affect critical habitats.
"Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988, amended the MPRSA. It was established to prohibit ocean dumping of
sewage sludge and industrial wastes into waters, effective after December 31, 1991. No sludge or sewage
dumping after August 18, 1989, without a MPRSA permit and an enforcement or compliance agreement is
allowed. This act enforces that no new dumping of industrial and municipal waste is allowed .
"The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, was established in response to the Exxon Valdez spill off Alaska's coast in 1989.
This act addresses all oil discharges into navigable waters and shorelines, imposing liability limits for vessels
where gross negligence or misconduct has been demonstrated.
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WATER TESTING
Water quality tests are performed on various types of water or wastewater for a variety of reasons. Surface
water quality testing is typically performed by states, who are required by the Clean Water Act Amendments of
1987 to assess their waters every two years. Citizens may also conduct stream or other surface water monitoring
programs. Wastewater that is discharged from industrial facilities, wastewater treatment plants, and some
municipal storm sewers must be tested and meet certain requirements, as spelled out in National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits.
The Safe Drinking Water Act and corresponding regulations are designed to protect groundwater and sources of
drinking water supplies. Groundwater monitoring is often performed to determine impacts from activities conducted
in the surrounding area. For example, groundwater monitoring may be required in the aquifer(s) above deep
injection wells or in the aquifer beneath a landfill to determine if injected or leachate is migrating into the aquifer(s).
More intensive groundwater monitoring can be required if aquifers are designated as underground sources of
drinking water. As well, monitoring programs for either groundwater or surface waters often form an important
part of source water protection programs.
To ensure public health, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental (or public health)
agencies require rigorous testing of water supplies by public water systems. Tests for various parameters are
conducted on water samples from different points in the drinking water treatment process: (1) on raw, untreated
source water, (2) during treatment processes, (3) on finished water exiting the treatment plant, (4) within the
distribution system, and (5) at the tap (for some parameters, such as lead and copper). Citizens may also want
to conduct in-home tap testing for particular drinking water contaminants. To protect citizens against waterborne
diseases, local health departments test water in community pools and spas.
As consumer and environmental awareness increases, citizens want to know more and more about their water
quality. Many resources are available to assist in performing tests on water and wastewater samples. The Code
of Federal Regulations (CFR) specifies that certain methods be used in conducting water and wastewater testing.
However, these regulations are written in complex terms and can prove difficult for non-technical persons to
understand. Also, a book titled Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater is used as an
industry-wide, comprehensive guide for conducting water quality testing.
Water testing companies have responded to the quest for consumer knowledge by designing simple, inexpensive,
ready-to-use test kits (containing necessary materials and instructions). These kits can be mail-ordered by
individuals, schools, or other organizations and allow affordable testing for many water quality parameters. Only
a few companies are listed on this sheet; there are many more nationally-known water quality testing companies.
Also, many smaller companies exist, who may provide excellent technical service (perhaps, on-site) to local
customers. Check the Yellow Pages of the telephone directory under Environmental or Ecological Services,
Water Purification Equipment, or Water Testing. State environmental agencies, local health departments, and
public water suppliers may also provide technical assistance and direction in the area of water quality testing.
The following resources may be used to assist in conducting water quality testing:
References:
Code of Federal Regulations. 40 CFR Part 136, Appendix A and Part 141, Subpart(C). Available at cost from
the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 202-512-1800.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association, 1015
Fifteen Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20005.
Water Testing Companies: Carolina Biological Supply Company, 2700 York Road, Burlington,
NC 27215, 800-334-5551.
Hack Company, P.O. Box 389, Loveland, Colorado 80539-0389, 800-227-HACK.
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LaMotte Chemical Products Company, P.O. Box 329, Chestertown, MD 21620, 800-344-3100.
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WATER RELATED CAREERS
Water related careers offer rewarding and challenging work. Water related careers include:
*Chemistry. Chemists analyze water and determine contaminants that affect its quality. This may involve testing
at water treatment plants or analysis of groundwater to see if pollutants have moved through groundwater
supplies. Chemistry requires a college education, and quite often, post-graduate work to qualify for more advanced
jobs.
*Engineering. Water can be a focus of engineering studies. Major engineering projects require environmental
impact studies and city development may be based on the ability to engineer around available water supplies.
Engineers also control surface water flow for navigation, recreation, and power generation.
"Utilities. Wastewater treatment and management is a field growing in importance and complexity as we work to
clean water even more before returning it to nature. Water specialists for utilities become involved with plant
operations, planning, emergency procedures, and maintenance of the nation's drinking water and wastewater
plants.
"Forestry. Forests and wetlands contain many water resources. How we manage them will govern the quality of
our water supplies in the future. Forestry activities related to water can include timber harvest planning to avoid
pollution problems, watershed protection, and water analysis to identify and control pollution problems. Forestry
experts may work at the Forest Service, State Forester's Offices, colleges or universities, or other private
organizations.
"Agriculture. Water is essential for agriculture, and as water supplies dwindle, their management in agriculture
becomes more important for irrigation purposes and to prevent pollution from agricultural sources. Agricultural
activities could include genetically engineering crops that require less water to produce and control of nonpoint
source pollution. Careers related to agriculture may include farming, or employment at a local agricultural
extension service or soil conservation service.
"Biology. Since water is necessary for all life, biologists must consider water supplies and water quality in
determining the health of ecosystems and humans. For example, biologists can be involved in drinking water
and wastewater treatment, land management, and aquatic resource management careers. Specialized jobs
include fisheries biologists, limnologists, aquatic entomologists, or malacologists.
There are many other water-related jobs and careers. These include service in the Coast Guard, Marines, Army
Corps of Engineers, or Navy; working for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Geological Survey,
state environmental agencies, state or local health departments, state geological surveys, as well as other
environmental agencies or private environmental protection organizations; commercial fishing, wastewater
treatment plant technician, construction (such as plumbing or septic system installation), service in the merchant
marines, meteorologist or weather person, lifeguard; fishing or rafting guide, and others. Many jobs and careers
have either a direct or indirect relationship to water or water supplies.
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1996 U.S. EPA NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING
WATER REGULATIONS
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations are enforceable drinking water standards expressed as Maximum
Contaminant Levels (MCLs) or treatment technique requirements. The MCL is the maximum permissible level
of a contaminant in water which is delivered to any user of a public water system. A treatment technique is a
drinking water treatment requirement established in lieu of an MCL, typically used when setting an MCL would
be too difficult or when compliance with an MCL would be too costly.
An action level is not an MCL, it is simply a level that triggers additional action. If a certain contaminant is
measured at or above the action level for that contaminant, treatment may be required or recommended by EPA.
Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) MCL. in mg/l
Benzene 0.005
Carbon Tetrachloride 0.005
1,2-Dichloroethane 0.005
Trichloroethylene 0.005
p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075
1, 1-Dichloroethylene 0.007
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 0.2
Vinyl Chloride 0.002
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.07
1, 2-Dichloropropane 0.005
Ethylbenzene 0.7
Chlorobenzene 0.1
o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6
Styrene 0.1
Tetrachloroethylene 0.005
Toluene 1.0
trans-1, 2-Dichloroethylene 0.1
Xylenes (Total) 10.0
Dichloromethane 0.005
1, 2, 4-Trichlorobenzene 0.07
1,1,2-Trichloroethane 0.005
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Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) MCL. in mg/l
Alachlor 0.002
Atrazine 0.003
Carbofuran 0.04
Chlordane 0.002
Dibromochloropropane 0.0002
2,4-D 0.07
Endrin .002
Ethylene dibromide 0.00005
Heptachlor 0.0004
Heptachlor epoxide 0.0002
Lindane 0.0002
Methoxychlor 0.04
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 0.0005
Pentachlorophenol 0.001
Toxaphene 0.003
2, 4, 5-TP 0.05
Benzo (a) pyrene 0.0002
Dalapon 0.2
Di (2-ethylhexyl) adipate 0.4
Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 0.006
Dinoseb 0.007
Diquat 0.02
Endothall 0.1
Glyphosate 0.7
Hexachlorobenzene 0.001
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 0.05
Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2
Picloram 0.5
Simazine 0.004
2, 3, 7, 8-TCDD (Dioxin) 3x10'8
(Aldicarb, Aldicarb Sulfone, and Aldicarb Sulfoxide have been remanded back to EPA for further
regulation.)
Inorganic Chemicals MCL. in mg/l
Antimony 0.006
Arsenic 0.05
Asbestos* 7 Million Fibers/Liter
Barium 2
Beryllium 0.004
Cadmium 0.005
Chromium 0.1
Cyanide 0.2
Fluoride 4.0
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate (as N) 10
Nitrite (as N) 1
Total Nitrate/Nitrite (as N) 10
Selenium 0.05
Thallium
0.002
*Fibers longer than 10 micrometers
(Nickel has been remanded back to EPA for further regulation.)
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Radionuclides MCL
Gross alpha particle activity 15 pCi/L
Combined radium-226 and radium-228 5 pCi/L
Tritium 20,000 pCi/L
Strontium 8 pCi/L
Beta particle and photon radioactivity 4 millirem/year
Radioactivity (Total, for 2 or more radionuclides) 4 millirem/year
Radon (proposed for regulation in drinking water; action level for indoor air is 4 pCi/l)
Other Contaminants MCL
Total Coliform Bacteria No more than 1
(depends on system size; includes repeat sample or 5% sampling
requirements for fecal coliform bacteria) of monthly samples
containing coliforms
Total Trihalomethanes, annual average of four quarterly samples 0.10 mg/l
(only for systems serving > 10,000 people)
Alternate Requirements
Lead and Copper Rule - for all public water systems, treatment requirements depend on system size.
Contaminant Treatment Technique or Other
Requirements
Lead Below action level of 0.15 mg/l or
treatment
techniques and/or public education
Copper
Below action level of 1.3 mg/l or
treatment techniques and/or public
education
Acrylamide 0.05% Based on 1 ppm (or equivalent)
Epichlorohydrin 0.01 % Based on 20 ppm (or equivalent)
Surface Water Treatment Rule - requires filtration for all surface water systems and groundwater
systems under the direct influence of surface water.
Contaminant Treatment Technique or Other
Requirements
Giardia lamblia Filtration/Disinfection
Legionella Filtration/Disinfection
Turbidity Filtration or other requirements
Viruses Filtration/Disinfection
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Unregulated Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) -
Monitoring Requirements
Chloroform 1, 2, 3-Trichloropropane
Bromodichloromethane ' 1,1,1, 2-Tetrachloroethane
Chlorodibromomethane Chloroethane
1,1-Dichloropropene m-Dichlorobenzene
1,1-Dichloroethane o-Chlorotoluene
1, 1,2, 2-Tetrachloroethane p-Chlorotoluene
1,3-Dichloropropane Bromobenzene
Chloromethane 1, 3-Dichloropropene
Bromomethane 1, 2, 3-Trichlorobenzene
n-Propylbenzene Isopropylbenzene
tert-Butylbenzene sec-Butylbenzene
Bromochloromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane
Naphthalene n-Butylbenzene
1, 3, 5-Trimethylbenzene Hexachlorobutadiene
2, 2-Dichloropropane 1, 2, 4-Trimethylbenzene
1, 2, 3-Trichlorobenzene p-lsopropyltoluene
Fluorotrichloromethane
Unregulated Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs)
Monitoring Requirements
Aldrin Butachlor
Carbaryl Dicamba
Dieldrin 3-Hydroxycarbofuran
Methomyl Metolachlor
Metribuzin Propachlor
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1996 U.S. EPA NATIONAL SECONDARY
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
Secondary Drinking Water Standards are not MCLs, but unenforceable federal guidelines regarding
taste, odor, color and certain other non-aesthetic effects of drinking water. EPA recommends them to
the States as reasonable goals, but federal law does not require water systems to comply with them.
States may, however, adopt their own enforceable regulations governing these contaminants. To be
safe, check your State's drinking water rules.
Contaminants Suggested Level
Aluminum 0.05 - 0.2 mg/l
Chloride 250 mg/l
Color 15 color units
Copper 1 mg/l
Corrosivity Non-corrosive
Fluoride 2.0 mg/l
Foaming agents 0.5 mg/l
Iron 0.3 mg/l
Manganese 0.05 mg/l
Odor 3 threshold odor number
pH 6.5 - 8.5
Silver 0.1 mg/l
Sulfate 250 mg/l
Total dissolved solids (IDS) 500 mg/l
Zinc 5 mg/l
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WATER SOURCEBOOK REFERENCES AND
GENERAL PUBLICATIONS
(for definitions, terms and other information)
Funk and Wagnall's Encyclopedia. Funk and Wagnall's Corporation, Mahwah, NJ, 1993.
Webster's II: New Riverside University Dictionary. The Riverside Publishing:Company, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, MA, 1988.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. New College Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, MA, 1978.
The Facts on File Dictionary of Environmental Sciences. Stevenson, L. Harold and Bruce C. Wyman, Facts on
File, Inc., 460 Park Avenue South, New York, NY, 1991.
Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 12th Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1993.
Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Field Study Training Program. Volume 1, 4th Edition, California
State University, Sacramento, CA, 1994.
Lee, C.C., Ph.D., Environmental Engineering Dictionary. Government Institutes, Inc., Rockville, MD, 1989.
Gray, Peter, The Dictionary of the Biological Sciences. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1967.
Guide to Environmental Issues. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OSWER, 520/B-94-001, Washington,
D.C., April 1995.
Biology of Microorganisms. 5th Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1988.
Mitch , William J. and James G. Gosselink, Wetlands. 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1993.
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WATER & AQUATIC LIFE - GENERAL RESOURCES
American Water Resources Association web site: www.uwin.siu.edu/awra
American Water Works Association web site: www.awwa.org
Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst web site: www.wisc.edu/farmasyst
Freshwater Foundation web site: www.freshwater.org
National Wildlife Federation web site: www.nwf.org
Sierra Club web site: www.sierraclub.org
U.S. EPA web site: www.epa.gov
U.S. EPA Office of Water web site: www.epa.gov/OW or e:mail at OW-GENERAL@epamail.epa.gov
Water Education Foundation web site: www.water-ed.org
Water Environment Federation web site: www.wef.org
Pollution Prevention Clearinghouse: 202-260-1023
Acid Rain Hotline: 617-674-7377
Radon Hotline: 800-767-RADON
Water Resources Center: 202-260-7786
EPA National Center for Environmental Publications and Information: 800-490-9198
National Technical Information Service: 800-553-6847 or 703-487-4650
U.S. Geological Survey: 800-USA-MAPS
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service: 800-THE-SOIL
National Lead Information Center: 800-LEAD-FYI
Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402, 202-512-1800.
American Water Resources Association, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 220, Bethesda, MD, 20814-2192. (Provides
posters and booklets on water use at nominal cost).
Earthfax - USGS news releases, project and product information: 703-648-4888
American Water Works Association, 6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO, 80235-3098. (Operates Blue
Thumb campaign to preserve water resources.)
America's Clean Water Foundation, 750 First Street, N.E., Suite 911, Washington, D.C., 20002-4241. (Develops
and distributes educational materials.)
National Water Information Clearinghouse, U.S. Geological Survey, 423 National Center, Reston, VA, 22092-
0001. (Supplies federal water data.)
Nebraska Groundwater Foundation, P.O. Box 22558, Lincoln, NE, 68542-2558. (Clearinghouse for general
groundwater information and produces Children's Groundwater Festival.)
Water Education Foundation, 717 K Street, Suite 517, Sacramento, CA, 95814-3408. (Focuses on water use in
western states; provides information to teachers and others.)
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Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1994. (Publications, slides, videos,
available for rent or purchase.)
Water Pollution Control Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314, (703) 684-2400. (Produces The
Water Quality Catalog: A Source Book of Public Information Materials.)
National Estuary Program Directors and Coordinators list
State Forestry Agencies list
MOTE Marine Laboratory list: 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, (941) 388-4441.
Camp McDowell Environmental Center, Route 1, Box 330, Nauvoo, AL 35578
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
Executive Summary of the National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress, (a.k.a. "the 305(b) Report"),
published every 2 years, EPA.
GTV Interactive Videodiscs, "Planetary Manager," grades 5-12.
Liquid Assets: A Summertime Perspective on the Importance of Clean Water to the Nation's Economy. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 800-R-96-002, Washington, D.C., May 1996.
National Geographic. "Our Most Precious Resource: Water," August 1980.
National Geographic. "Beneath the Tasman Sea," January 1997, (beautiful photographs of sea life).
National Geographic. "Man and Manatee," September 1984, (endangered aquatic mammalian species).
National Geographic Special Edition: Water. November 1993.
National Geographic Video. "Water: A Precious Resource," general audience, 23 min., 1980.
Water Poster Series, USGS, Box 25286, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225,
800-USA-MAPS
"Environmental Product Catalog: Books, Posters, Pamphlets, Resource Kits, and More", Terrene Institute, 4
Herbert Street, Alexandria, VA22305. 703-548-5473 (phone) or 703-548-6299 (fax). (This institute offers various
water-related information for teachers and students. Call and request a catalog.)
Water. Water Everywhere (an environmental science curriculum), Hack Company, P.O. Box 389, Loveland, CO,
80539-0389. 1-800-227-HACK; Literature No. 9274.
Radio Expeditions: Water - Thirsting for Tomorrow. National Geographic Society and National Public Radio,
Soundelux Audio Publishing, Novato, CA, ISBN 1-55935-233-7. (Audiocassettes, CDS, and Teacher's Kit
available). 800-555-2875.
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DRINKING WATER RESOURCES
Safe Drinking Water Hotline: 800-426-4791
National Drinking Water Clearinghouse: 800-624-8301
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
Drinking Water Fact Sheets (Series on Drinking Water Regulations) - available from the Safe Drinking Water
Hotline.
EPA Bottled Water: Helpful Facts and Information, Office of Water, EPA 570/9-90-GGG, September 1990.
Liquid Assets: A Summertime Perspective on the Importance of Clean Water to the Nation's Economy. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 800-R-96-002, Washington, D.C., May 1996.
Drinking Water Activities for Teachers and Students. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water,
810-B-95-001, Washington, D.C., January 1995.
A Citizen's Guide to Pesticides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OPTS, OPA008-89,3rd Edition, September
1989.
Kroehler, Carolyn J., What Do The Standards Mean? A Citizen's Guide to Drinking Water Contaminants. 8-90-
2M, Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA, 1990.
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SURFACE WATER RESOURCES
National Small Water Flows Clearinghouse: 800-624-830-1
Adopt-A-Stream, P.O. Box 435, Pittsford, NY, 14534-0435. (Organizes volunteer programs to clean up and
monitor water quality.)
American Rivers, 801 Pennsylvania Avenue, S.E., Suite 400G, Washington, D.C., 20003-2167. (Seeks to preserve
and restore America's river systems.)
Freshwater Foundation, 725 County Road 6, Wayzata, MN 55391-9611. (Provides educational programs and
freshwater research.)
Izaak Walton League of America, 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Level B, Arlington, VA 22209-2318. (Operates Save
Our Streams program and provides publications.)
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
Wetzel, Robert G. and Gene E. Likens, Limnological Analyses. W. B. Saunders, Company, Philadelphia, PA,
1979.
Technical Support Document for Water Quality-based Toxics Control. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water, EPA 505/2-90-001, PB91-127415, Washington, D.C., March 1991.
Acid Rain: A Student's First Sourcebook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, 800-R-96-002, Washington, D.C., December 1994.
A Guide to Freshwater Ecology. Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, Austin, Texas, July 1993.
National Geographic. "The Great Lakes' Troubled Waters," July 1987.
National Geographic. "South Florida Water: Paying the Price," July 1990.
National Geographic. "The Colorado: A River Drained Dry," June 1991.
National Geographic. "Lake Tahoe - Playing for High Stakes," March 1992.
National Geographic. "Mississippi: River Under Siege," November 1993.
National Geographic. "The Amazon," February 1995.
National Geographic. "The Imperiled Nile Delta," January 1997.
"Nonpoint Source NEWS-NOTES", c/o Terrene Institute, 4 Herbert Street, Alexandria, VA 22305, orwww.epa.gov
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GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
American Groundwater Trust: 800-423-7748
The Groundwater Foundation 402-434-2740 (phone) or 402-434-2742 (fax); P.O. Box 22558, Lincoln, Nebraska
68542; www.groundwater.org.
Groundwater Protection Council: www.site.org
National Groundwater Association: www.h2o-ngwa.org
EPA Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water: www.epa.gov/owow/ogwdw
Safe Drinking Water Hotline: 800-426-4791 (also has groundwater publications)
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
EPA: Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water, EPA 800-F-93-005, September 1993.
National Geographic. "Ogallala Aquifer: Wellspring of the High Plains," March 1993.
Protecting Ground-Water Supplies Through Wellhead Protection. EPA: Office of Water, EPA 570-09- 91-007,
May 1991.
Citizen's Guide to Groundwater Protection. EPA: Office of Water, EPA 440-6-90-004, April 1990.
Case Studies in Wellhead Protection: Ten Examples of Innovative Wellhead Protection Programs, EPA: Office of
Water, EPA813-R-92-002, December 1992.
Wellhead Protection: A Guide for Small Communities. EPA: Office of Research and Development, Office of
Water, EPA 625-R-93-002, February 1993.
"Protecting Our Groundwater", Office of Water, EPA813-F-95-002, May 1995 (color pamphlet and mini-poster).
Groundwater Protection: Saving the Unseen Resource. The Final Report of the National Groundwater Policy
Forum and A Guide to Groundwater Pollution: Problems. Causes, and Government Responses bv the
Conservation Foundation. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C., 1987.
COASTAL RESOURCES
Coastal Encounters Nature Center: 912-638-0221 ore:mail coastalkids@www.technonet.com
See appendix pages S-1 thru S-6
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
National Geographic. "Tide Pools: Windows Between the Land and Sea," February, 1986.
National Geographic. "The Coral Reefs of Florida are Imperiled," July 1990.
National Geographic. "Chesapeake Bay: Hanging in the Balance," June 1993.
National Geographic. "Puget Sound," June 1995.
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National Geographic. "Exploiting the Ocean's Bounty: Diminishing Returns," November 1995.
Covering the Coast: A Reporter's Guide to Coastal and Marine Resources. National Safety Council, Environmental
Health Center, 1019 19th Street, NW, Suite 401, Washington, D.C. 20036,
202-293-2270.
Living with the Shore, series by Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.
The Beaches are Moving: The Drowning of America's Shoreline
Living with the West Florida Shore
Living with the Alabama-Mississippi Shore
Living with the Louisiana Shore
Living with the Texas Shore
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WETLANDS RESOURCES
EPA Wetlands Hotline: 800-832-7828
See appendix pages T-1 thru T-6
Wetlands Posters are available through Wetlands Hotline or by contacting EPA Region 4, Wetlands Section, 100
Alabama Street, Atlanta, GA 30303-3104.
Articles, Books, Publications, Videos & Computer Courseware
"Stream of Conscience...Natural Solutions for Clean Water" (videotape), The Georgia Conservancy, 1776
Peachtree Street, NW, Suite 400 South, Atlanta, GA 30309.
"Wetlands, Georgia's Vanishing Treasure" (videotape), The Georgia Conservancy, 1776 Peachtree Street, NW,
Suite 400 South, Atlanta, GA 30309.
National Geographic. "Our Disappearing Wetlands," October 1992.
Wetlands Heritage of Georgia. Cooperative Extension Service, The University of Georgia, College of Agriculture,
Athens, Georgia.
Southeast Wetlands: Status & Trends. Mid 1970's to Mid 1980's. U.S. Government Printing Office, SSOP,
Washington, D.C. 20402-9328, ISBN-0-16-045537-5,1994 Cooperative Publication: U.S. Department of Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service.
"Adopt-A-Wetland", Office of Water, April 1990, EPA-832-R-90-100.
Why Develop A State Wetland Conservation Plan?, contact Wetlands Hotline
Private Landowner's Assistance Guide, contact Wetlands Hotline
"Teacher's Guide to the Study of Wetlands," contact Wetlands Hotline
Wetlands and Agriculture: Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, contact the Wetlands Hotline
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199, 601-
634-4217.
Recognizing Wetlands. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, VA 22161, 703-487-4650.
Animal Waste Treatment by Constructed Wetlands. Tennessee Valley Authority, Water Quality Department,
Haney Building 2C, 1101 Market Street, Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801,
615-751-3164.
Mitch, William J. and James G. Gosselink, Wetlands. 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1993.
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