WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
14010 EJE 12/71
Mine Spoil Potentials
for Water Quality
and Controlled Erosion
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY1
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of pollution
in o~ur Nation's waters. They provide a central source of
information on the research, development and demonstration,
activities in the Environmental Protection Agency, through
inhouse research and grants and contracts with Federal, State,
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial
organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Chief, Publications Branch
(Water), Research Information Division, R&M, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. 20^60.
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Mine Spoil Potentials
for Water Quality and Controlled Erosion
by
Division of Plant Sciences
College of Agriculture and Forestry
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
for the
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Project Number
No. 14010 EJE
December, 1971
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not
signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
Extensive geologic and soils information and classification provide the
basis for applying adapted chemical, physical, and mineralogical measure-
ments to selected rock and soil profiles involved in surface mining, and
for expanding results to other points or regions for prevention of acid,
sediment, and other pollution.
With Mahoning sandstone, the common weathering depth of 6 meters contains
essentially no disseminated pyrite. The originally gray quartzose pyritic
sandstone weathers brown, and plant nutrients Ca, Mg, and K are removed
by acid leaching. Moderate liming and fertilization of the brown rock
and soil enable ground covers to protect spoil surfaces and assure quality
waters.
Weathering in spoils, and laboratory simulations, both with and without
appropriate chemoautotrophic organisms, reflect rock textures, mineral
species, and pyrite oxidation with release of acid. Resulting net acidity
or basicity influences soil and water quality.
Old barren spoils confirm that pH is the prime variable associated with
lack of vegetation but available water is limiting on sandy, stony
spoils.
Fissile iron ore spoils 70 to 130 years old showed that rooting depths
and available water capacities were superior to original soils. Site
quality for trees or pasture, and water quality were not significantly
different between spoils and natural soils.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project 14010 EJE under the
sponsorship of the Office of Water Programs, Environmental Protection
Agency.
iii
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CONTENTS
Section
I Conclusions
II Recommendations
III Introduction
IV Geological Considerations
V Soil Considerations
VI Methods Adapted to Mine Spoils
VII Field Locations
VIII Sulphur and Potential Acidity
IX Chemistry and Mineralogy of Profiles
X Rock Weathering
XI Evidences from Old Mine Spoils
XII Microbiological Interactions
XIII Interactions with Plant Covers
XIV Acknowledgments
XV References
XVI Publications
XVII Glossary
XVIII Appendices
1
5
9
11
27
31
45
47
59
115
125
151
163
165
167
173
175
179
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FIGURES
PAGE
1 SURFACE MINING PROVINCES IN WEST VIRGINIA 12
2 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPAL AREAS OF MINING
IN PRESTON COUNTY 19
3 GEOLOGIC SECTION OF PRESTON COUNTY 21
4 CROSS SECTION SHOWING VARIABILITY OF BEDS BETWEEN
UPPER FREEPORT COAL AND SALTSBURG SANDSTONE 23
5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEASURED ACIDITY AND TOTAL
SULFUR ' 37
6 COMPARISON OF LIME REQUIREMENTS BY CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
TITRATION AND BY SOIL TEST METHODS 39
7 PRESTON COUNTY SAMPLE AND FIELD STUDY SITES 46
8 TOTAL SULFUR PROFILES IN UPPER FREEPORT OVERBURDEN 49, 50
9 TOTAL SULFUR PROFILES IN LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE
UNEXPOSED TO NATURAL WEATHERING 51
10 TOTAL SULFUR PROFILES IN SELECTED SHALE OVERBURDENS 52
11 EXCHANGEABLE CATION PROFILE OF LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE
AT SITE A 72
12 EXCHANGEABLE CATION PROFILE OF LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE
AT SITE L 73
13 X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF WEATHERED AND
UNWEATHERED LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE 105
14 X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM (ROUNDED) SHOWING MINERALOGY OF
ROCK AT SITE H 106
15 X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM (ROUNDED) SHOWING MINERALOGY OF
SOIL AT SITE H 108
vi
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FIGURES (continued)
PAGE
16 X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF SOIL AT
SITE E 109
17 X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF SOIL AT
SITE L 110
18 ACCUMULATIVE ACIDITY GENERATED BY SIMULATED WEATHERING
OF THREE ROCK TYPES 116
19 ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF IRON AND ALUMINUM DURING
SIMULATED WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK TYPES 117
20 ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM DURING
SIMULATED WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK TYPES 118
21 ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF POTASSIUM DURING SIMULATED
WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK TYPES 119
22 FRESH EXPOSURE OF UPPER FREEPORT OVERBURDEN 123
23 FRESH EXPOSURE OF BAKERSTOWN OVERBURDEN 124
24 IRON AND SULFATE CONTENT OF LEACHATES FROM COLUMNS
HAVING PYRITE BURIED AT TWO DEPTHS 158
25 OXYGEN UPTAKE OF THREE SUBSTRATES, STERILE, AND
INOCULATED WITH AUTOTROPHIC IRON AND SULFUR
OXIDIZING MICROORGANISMS 160
26 MAP OF WEST VIRGINIA SHOWING THE PRODUCTION OF COAL
BY COUNTIES AND PERCENTAGE OF COAL PRODUCTION BY
SURFACE MINING 204
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TABLES
No.
1 Sulphur in three different rock types, before
and after treatment with concentrated l^C^. 35
2 Sulphur in three different rock types, before and
and after treatment with concentrated ^2^2 and
washing to remove sulphates. 36
3 Statistical comparison of acidity generated by
sample treatment with H^O- with percent total
sulfur in three groups of samples. 57
4 Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location A. 60, 61
5 Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location L. 62, 63, 64
6 Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location C. 65, 66
7 Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location E. 67, 68
8 Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location H. 69, 70
9 Percent total calcium in rock chip samples from
selected locations. 74, 75, 75
10 Percent potassium in rock chip samples from
selected locations. 77, 78, 79
11 Total iron oxide (Fe203) in rock chip samples
from selected locations. 81, 82, 83
12 Percent free iron oxides (Fe20 ) in rock chip
samples. 84, 85, 86
viii
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TABLES (continued)
No. Page
•L3 Total manganese (ppm) in rock chip samples from
selected locations. 88, 89, 90
14 Free Mn and free Al (ppm) in rock chip samples
from selected locations. 91, 92, 93
15 Total Cu (ppm) in rock chip samples from
selected locations. 95, 96, 97
16 Some chemical properties of Dekalb soil taken
from three locations (A, C and H). 98, 99
17 Some chemical properties of soils taken from two
locations (E and L). 100
18 Mechanical analysis of soil profiles. 102, 103
19 Mineral composition of clay fractions of two
soil profiles. Ill
20 Comparison of three rock types in terms of total
content of five cations and total release by
simulated weathering. 121
21 Chemical analyses of eight old mine soils and one
surface soil in West Virginia. 127
22 Bulk density, coarse particle size analysis and
textural analysis for 8 spoils. 129
23 Moisture retention on a volume basis at four
tensions and available water by volume in
percent and inches per foot of depth 132
24 Properties of 26 year old vegetated Pittsburgh
mine spoils. 134
25 Bulk densities of near-surface spoil and associated
surface soils. 136
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TABLES (continued)
No. Page
26 Bulk density in grams per cc for spoil from surface
mining of coal at 3 selected locations. 137
27 Mean particle size distribution including coarse
fragments for the Chestnut Ridge spoil. 138
28 Mean particle size distribution including coarse
fragments with depth for the Peters spoil. 139
29 The nitrogen content of spoil versus associated
soils.
30 Profiles (pH) of Peters mine spoil in grass pasture
near Gladesville. 142
31 Profiles (pH) of Chestnut Ridge mine spoil in
forest. ' 143
32 Summary of cation-exchange and related characteristics
of spoil and of the A and B horizons of contiguous
soils. 144
i i
33 Accumulated acre-inches water intake of spoil and
adjacent soil 145
34 Summary of relative mineralogical ratings. 146, 147
35 Total iron content of funnel (F) and bottom (B)
leachates (ppm). 155
36 Sulfate content of funnel (F) and bottom (B)
leachates (ppm). 156
37 pH of funnel (F) and bottom (B) leachates. 157
38 Lime requirement by soiltest vs titration 205, 206
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SECT TON I
CONCLUSIONS
1. When exploratory test cores and rock chip samples (from rotary
drilling of blast holes) are available, it is feasible to study
soil and rock properties in advance of surface mining to obtain
information needed to guide replacement of the different earth
materials most advantageously for water quality and controlled
erosion.
2. Studies of coal overburdens in advance of surface mining are most
useful when rock structure, stratigraphy, and soils are known
well enough to permit generalizations regarding the areal extent
of properties measured and rates of change in any specified
direction. Our results to date are keyed to Surface Mining
Province 2, centered principally in Preston County, West Virginia.
3. Oxidation of pyritic minerals accounts for, most acidity below
pH 4.0 in variable mine spoils, and presently available native
or introduced plants give inadequate ground cover for pollution
control unless rooted partly in materials with pH in water slurry
greater than 4.0.
4. Greatest concentrations of pyritic sulphur can be tolerated most
in clay shales and least in medium or coarse-grained sandstones.
This general relationship to rock textures is influenced strongly
by essential mineralogy, exchangeable bases, and accessory
minerals, especially carbonates.
5. Grain size and dissemination of pyrite influence reaction rate
and extent of acid damage. Fine grain size and widespread dis-
semination characterize some sandstones and explain why small
pyrite percentages can be serious unless neutralizing ions or
compounds are present. On the other hand, prominent macroscopic
pyrite crystals, balls, cleats, wedges, and layers on rock
cleavages often have little influence on acidity or toxicity in
mine spoils and waters. This is explainable in terms of surface
for reactions to occur which (for similar shapes) is inversely
proportional to a linear dimension of the particles.
6. In addition to grain size, the reaction rate of pyrite should be
influenced by accessibility to exchange of solutes and oxygen.
Partial weathering, resulting in coating with iron oxides, prob-
ably reduces rates of further oxidation. Lack of accessibility
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to Thiobacillus organisms, restricted by oxide coatings or slight
permeability of embedding rock, stagnates pyrite oxidation. These
tendencies are supported by theory, recent publications, and ob-
servations in this study, but quantitative data on oxidation rates
in the field are not yet available.
7. A weathered zone is recognized in many stratigraphic sections
below soil profiles. In the common case of Lower Mahoning sand-
stone in Preston County, this weathered zone penetrates consist-
ently to a depth of about 6 meters (20 feet) or deeper along
fracture planes within which essentially all pyrite has been
destroyed, and the rock color is dominated by yellow and brown
(high chroma) of ferric oxide. This provides a depth of material
suited to placement on the surface of mine spoils which has no
potential mineral acidity or toxicity, although it is leached
free of acid soluble plant nutrients. However, it is only weakly
buffered since clay percentages are minor and clay species are
dominated by kaolinite. Thus, moderate applications of lime and
fertilizer enable plants to provide cover, and 25% or more fines
between weathered rock fragments hold sufficient available water
to support deep-rooted plant species.
8. A weathered zone relatively free of pyrite is the rule in other
lithologies of Preston County, but the depth is uncertain and
needs to be determined.
9. Since weathered rock formerly rich in pyrite was intensely leached
with sulphuric acid during weathering, other subdivisions of
geologic sections often contain superior reserves of plant nutri-
ents. In these cases, sufficient information about acid versus
basic potentials, and plant nutrient levels should identify place-
ment of spoils that would assure better soil and water than ex-
clusively using rock from the weathered zone.
10. When fine-grained pyrite is abundant (FeS2 more than about 0.5%)
and significant free carbonates are present, especially in slowly
permeable clayey soils, sufficient soluble salts (mostly sulphates)
may accumulate that plant growth will be inhibited and waters
damaged by concentrations of soluble salts. In humid Preston
County, West Virginia, accumulations of this type are temporary
except where drainage is impeded.
11. Rock and soil colors provide useful field clues to properties and
reactions that influence soil and water quality in mine soils.
Standard Munsell soil color charts provide a useful means of ex-
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pressing colors consistently for interpretion. With Mahoning and
Saltsburg sandstones in Preston County, high chromas (greater than
2) indicate staining with iron oxides and likely absence of pyrite
or other minerals that are unstable in strongly oxidizing environ-
ments. Low chromas (less than 2) occuring well below the subsoil
indicate rock that has not weathered and may contain such minerals
as pyrite. Alternatively, low chromas can indicate rocks that
contain extremely low contents of iron regardless of the oxida-
tion state. However, in lithologies studied, all low chroma soil
and sandstone materials that are essentially void of iron occur
in the highly weathered zone and are a result of acid leaching.
12. When pulverized pyrite was buried under 3 inches (7.6 cm) or more
of normal, slightly acid (pH 6.7) soil in a miniature lysimeter,
its rate of oxidation and acid formation was 10 to 25% as great
as for pyrite within 1/2 inch (1.2 cm) of the surface. A similar
trend should occur under field conditions.
13. In miniature lysimeters filled with 4 feet of normal, loamy (pH
6.7) soil, essentially no acidity nor iron drained out the bottom
during 24 weeks with pulverized pyrite buried at 6 depths, from
1/2 inch (1.2 cm) to 36 inches (91 cm). Base exchange by the soil
neutralized the acid and retained the iron.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Surface miners of Upper Freeport coal in Surface Mining Province
2 should leave only rock and soil from the top 20 feet of the
stratigraphic section in the surface foot of the graded spoil.
Also, in particular, all thick bedded light gray sandstone (color
chroma less than 2 and color value greater than 6) should be
buried under at least 6 inches (15 cm) of yellow or brown sand-
stone or soil (chroma greater than 2).
2. Mine spoils with pH of 4.5 or less by field kit methods should be
sampled for testing by an established laboratory before liming,
fertilizing, and seeding to forages or ground covers. When such
samples are submitted to West Virginia University Soil Testing
Services, testing should include calcium, magnesium, total sul-
phur, color chroma, and lime requirement adjusted for mine spoils,
as well as pH, available phosphorus, and available potassium.
Moreover, within two years after stand establishment, additional
tests should be made and surface treatments applied as recommended
to assure stands and good-quality waters.
3. Sulphur profiles and pyrite modes should be determined in strati-
graphic sections from the surface down to all major coals being
surface mined or considered for surface mining. The sites for
such profile studies must be correlated not only with properly
identified coals, but with lithologic properties of different
subsections of the overburden and local or regional sedimentary
trends.
4. Mine spoils should be defined, classified, and mapped more pre-
cisely in terras of rock types, water holding relations, profile
chemistry, profile mineralogy, and rock weathering trends as well
as surface acidity, stoniness and slope. The start that has been
made toward inclusion of mine spoils within the comprehensive
system of classification for soils at all 6 categoric levels
should be pursued and tested as an aid to revegetation and proper
management for varied uses without water pollution.
5. Acid neutralizing capacities from carbonates, exchangeable bases,
and weatherable minerals should be determined in selected soil
and rock profiles in conjunction with determinations of pyrite
and potential acidities. In this way, net acidity or basicity
for each section can be established and water quality predicted
for particular mine spoils.
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6. The hydrogen peroxide method for determining potential acidity,
which has worked well with some sandstones and shales, should be
tested with a wider range of materials and possibly modified for
improved precision and more general usefulness.
7. Methods of distinguishing organic sulphur from pyritic forms
should be further tested in shales of variable organic matter
and mineralogy as well as coals, and total potentials as well
as rates of release of acid from organic forms should be
determined.
8. Improved information should be obtained about available water-
holding capacities to be expected in mine spoils derived from
different geologic materials. With such information, it should
be possible to adjust the placement of certain materials in favor
of higher water-holding capacities without introducing undesirable
acidity or toxicities. In this connection, special attention
should be given to the influence of coarse fragments, including
their patterns of porosity.
9. The influence of depth of burial of pyritic material under dif-
ferent kinds of rock or soil should be determined more precisely
under laboratory and field conditions in relation to micro-
biological activity and associated physical and chemical variables.
10. Major research effort should be oriented toward formulation of
guidelines for sequential placement of available materials to
create the best possible soils and water for anticipated future
use of mine spoils. For example, some spoils are likely to be
needed for camp sites, trailer courts, or for sludge disposal.
In all cases, it would be helpful to plan in advance for such
uses. Thus, pollution from sewage and related problems could be
prevented.
11. Studies of chemistry and mineralogy of lithologic sections in
advance of surface mining should include selection and analysis
of materials suspected as likely sources of particular toxic
elements. For example, we have some suggestions that copper may
be soluble in toxic concentrations somewhere in strata being
studied, but mineral sources and chemical conditions favoring
solubility are not known. In this connection, some sludges con-
sidered for filtering in certain mine spoils are known to contain
toxic or near toxic concentrations of copper. If accidentially
combined, high copper sludges and spoils could result in toxic
waters. Other potentially toxic elements that should be con-
sidered include mercury, cadmium, selenium and molybdenum.
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12. Special workshops should be developed for selected surface miners
and field technicians to discuss and review in surface mining
regions such subjects as: (1) identification of common rocks,
minerals and notable sedimentary features; (2) recognition of
prominent soil characteristics; (3) evidences of physical and
chemical reactions occurring in different rocks and spoils;
(4) identification of certain plants and their interactions with
mine spoils; (5) use of Munsell color books and other aids to
understanding soil, rock and water chemistry; (6) liming,
fertilizing and seeding mine soils; (7) long-range management of
mine soils based on comprehensive classification, mapping and
on-site investigations.
13. In Surface Mining Province 1, special attention should be given
to rock properties that control breakdown into fine particles,
and erodibility or gravity slippage on steep slopes. Attention
should be given also to plant nutrients needed for vigorous
ground covers, but physical stability demands high priority.
Rock textures, clay mineral species, exchangeable cations and
intergrain cementation should be emphasized with carefully
identified and correlated samples representing stratigraphic
sections involved in surface mining on steep slopes.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
This study was initiated because surface mine spoil reclamation in
West Virginia was hampered by a lack of physical, chemical, and
mineralogical information about the particular soil and rock material
being exposed and placed in spoil deposits in connection with rapidly
expanding coal stripping operations. The shortage of information was
resulting in delayed or unsuccessful attempts at proper revegetation,
with consequent erosion of fine spoil particles and continual exposure
of buried material, which in some cases weathered to produce mineral
acidity and associated bio-toxic chemicals in soil, runoff and
seepage waters.
The West Virginia Department of Natural Resources had authority to
require operators to bury potentially acid-forming or toxic earth
materials in spoils, and operators were agreeable to carrying out
specified requirements, but information was lacking as to which over-
burden strata were inherently undesirable at or near spoil surfaces.
The lack of information about characteristics of the rock in par-
ticular geologic sections and how it would react in the environment
of spoil deposits thus appeared to be the cause of serious pollution
from mine spoils, and no studies promised to remedy the situation.
However, active exploration by companies in process of expanding new
areas and willingness by these operators as members of the West
Virginia Surface Mine Association, to provide test cores, core logs,
maps, rock chip samples from blast hole borings, and free access to
mining properties provided excellent opportunities to obtain samples
and associated information needed to help determine characteristics
of soils and diverse rock types.
The general goals of this research has been to provide sufficient
information about coal overburdens and spoils to enable operators to
place, treat, and manage variable spoils in the most favorable manner
to assure water and soils of good quality during surface mining and
thereafter.
Specific objectives identified in the project proposal were:
1. To determine certain physical and chemical properties
of coal overburden strata that influence suitability
of mine spoil for soil formation and unpolluted run-
off or seepage water.
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2. To determine processes and rate of physical and chemical
change of important spoil properties by natural or induced
weathering.
3. To determine interactions between growing plants and
properties of spoil and water. This will also include
interactions between plants and microorganisms and the
influence of microbes on mineral mobility.
A. To determine effectiveness of plant cover, microorganisms
and related practices in prevention of erosion, sedimenta-
tion, and in reducing acidity and chemical pollution of water
from characterized spoil.
5. To improve precision of spoil classification.
This research is unconventional and sometimes unique because it does
not fit completely within the bounds of established disciplines. The
group of coworkers on this project provided interrelated competence
in geology, soils, chemistry, microbiology, and general conservation.
Such a group should be able to discover and formulate solutions to
water quality problems with mine spoils because their viewpoints and
approaches are unhampered by artificial disciplinary boundaries.
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SECTION IV
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction
The following discussion and maps summarize the geological considera-
tions controlling plans for the methodical study of present or likely
future mine spoils throughout West Virginia and the selection of the
area for commencing a concentrated study during the initial two-year
period of research on Mine spoil potentials for water quality and
controlled erosion.
The area of principal concentration during the initial phase of study
was selected to include the rock section exposed in Preston and parts
of Monongalia, Taylor, Mineral, Grant, Tucker and Upshur Counties, or
Surface Mining Province 2 (Figure 1) - Some additional study of mine
spoils was conducted on the eastern edge of Surface Mine Province 3
and correlative rocks exposed locally on high knobs of Surface Mine
Province 2 (Figure 1).
The geologic section and the historicity of coal-mining activity are
similar throughout the area of Surface Mine Province 2, i.e., coals
(Kittanning (locally), Upper Freeport, Bakerstown and Pittsburgh)
with suitable overburden, quality and thickness have been mined by
underground methods during this century. Currently surface mining
of the above coals as well as others (Upper Kittanning, Lower Freeport,
Mahoning, Brush Creek, Harlem, Elk Lick and Little Pittsburgh coals)
has increased at the expense of underground methods, and it is antici-
pated that future contributions to the coal economy of the respective
counties by surface mining will continue to increase (Appendix C).
The study of mine spoils, described in the following paragraphs, was
concentrated in Preston County during the 1969-1971 biennium for the
following reasons:
1. The stratigraphic section, reflecting the depositional
and the structural history of the Allegheny Mountain
Section of the Appalachian Plateau in Preston County,
is representative of the larger area included in Surface
Mining Province 2.
2. The expansion of surface mining in Preston County in
recent years exposed the section for methodical study
and sampling of highwalls and spoil banks. In addition,
core logs and cores were made available in the flurry
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Horizon of the Pittsburgh Coal
Base of the Pennsylvanian System
Limit of cool minable by surface methods
Direction of thickening
of basins of deposition
Surface mining provinces
Area of mine spoil research,
1969 - 1971
\
FIGURE 1. SURFACE MINING PROVINCES IN WEST VIRGINIA
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of exploration activity to prove reserves of coal for mining
by underground methods and for extension and development of
surface mines.
3. The area of Surface Mining Province 2, including Preston
County, was subjected to subdued folding (upwarps and
downwarps) more intense than other areas of the Pennsylvanian
and Permian Systems in West Virginia. The Upper Freeport,
the principal coal of Preston County, and other coals and
overlying sandstones are exposed on relatively steep slopes
leading to upland farming areas. Surface mining has dis-
turbed rather large areas of the farming culture where the
overburden is 80 feet (24 meters) thick above the various
coals.
A. Mining companies with large land holdings in the area have
cooperated fully in providing core, highwall, blast hole,
and spoil samples and free access to mining records and
properties.
Surface Mining Provinces
Mine spoil research is complicated locally by the diverse nature of
the depositional history of at least 6150 feet (1880 meters) (maximum)
of rocks of Pennsylvanian and Permian age in West Virginia. Es-
sentially the section is composed principally of quartz and clay with
varying quantities of durable sand to fine pebble gravel-sized
(generally less than 50 percent of the section) fragments of quartz,
quartzite and lesser quantities of chert and other stable rock types,
superimposed on the finer elastics. These materials were transported
by running water in a northerly direction and distributed in a delta
complex by meandering streams and distributaries encroaching inexorably
on numerous thinner organic (coal) and chemical (limestone) deposits.
Contemporaneous diagenetic as well as subsequent secondary changes oc-
curred to accumulate concentrations of compounds of iron, manganese,
and the alkaline earths as well as minor quantities of rarer compounds.
Generally, the preferred orientation of diagenetic and secondary ac-
cumulations is attributed to the movement, sizing, and distribution
of the elastics, however, analysis of trends of concentration of com-
pounds in the deposition of a delta complex must await the extrapolation
of detailed physical and chemical data from studies similar to that
described on the following pages.
The Pennsylvanian and Permian Systems of West Virginia can be divided
into three surface mining provinces based on generalizations of the
13
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physiographic, stratigraphic and structural geology of the State
(Arkle, 1971) (Figure 1). Surface Mining Province 1 includes the
units of the more rapidly subsiding and older basin of deposition of
southern West Virginia while Surface Mining Provinces 2 and 3 are
restricted to the more stable basin of deposition in northern and
western West Virginia. A summary of the characteristics of the
respective surface mining provinces follows.
Surface Mining Province 1 is a maturely, deeply dissected plateau
area extending northeast across southern and central West Virginia
into Randolph County. Except for larger cities and municipalities
such as Charleston and Beckley, the population is concentrated along
narrow meandering stream valleys. Steep slopes extend from the nar-
row valleys to inaccessible and rugged ridges, ranging in relief from
600 feet (180 meters) in the Charleston area to as much as 1400 feet
(420 meters) farther east in the New River Gorge.
The beds (Pocahontas, New River, Kanawha and Charleston in ascending
the section) represent the earlier of two basins of coal deposition
during Pennsylvanian time. The basin subsided intermittently and
deepened to the southeast. The sediments, essentially a wedge of
fine to coarse elastics, were derived from older rocks of the Ap-
palachian region to the south. The coal-bearing facies, the base of
which is the southeastern exposure of Pennsylvanian rocks, thins
rapidly from the thickest section in southeastern West Virginia to
the northwest into massive marine (early) and deltaic (late) sand-
stones and finally disappears in the subsurface of western West
Virginia. The basal New River-Pocahontas formations, 1750 feet (525
meters) in McDowell County, are represented by 400 feet (120 meters)
of quartzose sandstones (80 to 100 percent) at Charleston, West
Virginia, a distance of 65 miles (104 km). The rate of thinning is
about 20 feet per mile (3.8 meters per kilometer) to the northwest.
The northwestern boundary of Surface Mining Province 1 drawn on the
1.50 percent sulphur line of composite coal analyses (Lotz, 1970),
nearly coincides with the boundary derived from geological considera-
tions (Arkle, 1969, pp. 62-66) including the disappearance of all
commercial coals to the northwest.
In addition to the fine-to-coarse elastics in the form of shale and
sandstone (the section is approximately 50 percent sandstone) and
inconspicuous underclays, a few thin irregular marine and fresh-water
limestones are almost entirely confined to the Kanawha formation.
It is notable that the sandstones and siltstones, cemented with
siderite (FeCO^) and shales, contain numerous small to large (up to
4 feet (1.2 meters) thick or in diameter) sideritic lenses, nodules
and stringers, particularly the Kanawha formation.
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Of the 70 named coals, some 45, responsible for 70 percent of the coal
production in West Virginia, are considered to be commercial coals in
some areas of Surface Mining Province 1. The coals responsible for
much of the coal production of southern West Virginia are the Poca-
hontas 3, 4 and 6, Fire Creek, Beckley, Sewell, Eagle, Powellton,
Campbells Creek, Peerless, Cedar Groves (Alma, Lower Cedar Grove, and
Cedar Grove), Winifrede, Coalburg, Stockton, No. 5 Block and North
Coalburg in ascending the section. These as well as numerous other
coals of the section, spaced in relatively close intervals on the
steep hillslopes, are amenable to surface mining and largely account
for the stark devastation of local areas of the countryside of Surface
Mining Province 1. The development of coals, conforming to the
northwest shift of the basinal configuration in time, reach maximum
development farther and farther to the northwest in ascending the
section.
Interestingly, the oldest coals, exposed on the southeast, are semi-
bituminous, high-carbon, and low-sulphur coals with volatile matter
ranging from 13 to 18 percent. The volatile matter increases to
greater than 34 percent with a commensurate decrease in carbon content
and increases in sulphur content to 1.50 percent in ascending the
section to the northwest in the direction of maximum coal development
of the youngest coals in Surface Mining Province 1.
Surface Mining Provinces 2 and 3 are in a maturely dissected plateau
area, confined to western and northern West Virginia. The area is
generally readily accessible hill country. Steep slopes rise from
narrow bottom land 500 to 600 feet (150 to 180 meters) to narrow
sinuous ridges. The Ohio and Monongahela Rivers have modified
contiguous areas. Farther east, the relief increases and the area
becomes more mountainous. Broad upland areas, incised by streams of
fairly high gradient, forming precipitous slopes and valley walls,
are surrounded by rugged mountainous areas.
The beds (Pottsville, Allegheny. Conemaugh and Monongahela of
Pennsylvanian age and the Dunkard of Permian age) were deposited in
the younger and more restricted of the two basins of coal deposition
in West Virginia. This basin shelved in an oval pattern in south-
western West Virginia and subsided gently to the northeast in eastern
Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and Maryland.
For this discussion, the section is divided into two groups, each
depicting its own unique geologic characteristics. The Lower Group
(Surface Mining Province 2) includes the beds of the Pottsville,
Allegheny and Lower Conemaugh to the top of the Saltsburg sandstone
15
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above the Bakerstown coal and the Upper Group (Surface Mining Province
3) includes the remainder of the section (Lower Conemaugh, Monongahela,
and Uunkard) or the beds to the end of the Appalachian (Paleozoic)
deposition.
The beds of the lower group (Surface Mining Province 2) are a series
of alternating gray shale and sandstone (Pottsville 36 to 86 percent;
Allegheny 4 to 48 percent; and Lower Conemaugh up to 60 percent).
Fresh-water limestone and marine shale were deposited only in the
northern most reaches of West Virginia until marine incursions de-
posited limestone and shale farther to the southwest during Brush
Creek and Cambridge time (lower Conemaugh). Marine incursions con-
tinued into the upper group with the deposition of the Ames limestone
and shale above the Harlem coal (upper Conemaugh), the last recorded
incursion of the sea in the Appalachian regions. Flint refractory
grade clays up to several feet thick and associated coals, reflecting
a relatively stable depositional basin, are confined to beds of the
lower group in Hancock, Taylor, Preston, Mineral and Randolph Counties.
Coals are thin, poorly developed, absent, or of small areal extent in
the lower group in West Virginia with the exception of the somewhat
irregular Kittannings (3), Freeports (2), Mahoning, Brush Creek, and
Bakerstowns (2) in Surface Mining Province 2 which nearly coincides
with the Allegheny Mountain Section plus contiguous areas short
distances to the west. Of the 10 named coals, 9 are considered to be
commercial coals locally and all are amenable to surface mining at
some place in the Province.
Structural activity in the Allegheny Mountain Section resulted in a
series of en echelon folds (upwarps and downwarps) trending to the
northeast. It is believed that deformation was active during the
deposition of the beds resulting in a garbled sequence of locally
developed coals and associated sandstones, located near the surface
of synclines (downwarps) and conversely thinning or eroded over the
anticlines (upwarps). The changeable characteristics, including
thickness, and sulphur content (high or low) of the bituminous coals
(volatile matter 32 to 36 percent) and associated rocks of Surface
Mining Province 2 reflect the complexity of the depositional and
structural history of the Allegheny Mountain Section.
In addition to the larger area of Surface Mining Province 2, beds of
the lower group are exposed along the Burning Springs anticline, a
sharp narrow, north-south trending structure, in Pleasant County and
in the northern extremities of the Northern Panhandle (Hancock County) ,
West Virginia (Figure 1). Surface mining of the Upper Freeport has
16
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been conducted at the former and surface mining of the Lower Freeport
clay and coal and the Mahoning coal has been conducted at the latter
site. The coals are relatively thin and the areas involved are small.
No further mention of the lower group of rocks in these areas will be
made in connection with Surface Mining Province 2 here.
The beds of the upper group (Surface Mining Province 3) (upper
Conemaugh, 550 feet (165 meters); Monongahela, 450 feet (135 meters);
and Dunkard, 1180 feet (360 meters) have a composite thickness of
over 2200 feet (660 meters). The facies relationship depicts a series
of alternating red and gray shales intercalated with sandstone, coal,
clay-shale and fresh-water limestone shifting alternately back and
forth in time from northeast to southwest. Northward, the beds of a
given section are entirely gray or predominantly so, consisting of
clusters of mudstone (shale), clay-shale, fresh-water limestone, coal,
roof shale, and thin- to massive-bedded sandstone (up to 15 percent)
in ascending order; this is the lacustrine-swamp or gray facies
(Arkle, 1959) which contains the principal development of coals in
Surface Mining Province 3. To the southwest of the gray facies
development, the section loses limestones first and then coal. Gray
shale intertongues with dusky red and yellow shale and the sandstones
become more massive and tend to coalesce vertically with other sand-
stones attaining thicknesses of as much as 100 feet (up to 37 percent
of the section); this is transitional facies. Localized surface
mining areas in Province 3 in central and southwestern West Virginia
are generalizations of locations of usually only one prospective and
not more than two coals in the transitional facies development.
Farther to the southwest, these units grade laterally into dusky red
and yellow shale alternating with argillaceous massive- to thin-
bedded sandstone containing pebbly zones (more than 30 percent of the
section); this is the alluvial or red facies. The large area adjacent
to the surface mining limits of Surface Mining Province 3 and barren
of prospective mineable coals in central and southwestern West Virginia
is attributed to the development of red facies.
Of the 37 named bituminous coals in the upper group, only 10 are con-
sidered to be mineable. In ascending the section, the Harlem, Elk
Lick and Little Pittsburgh coals are only commercially mineable
locally high in the hills of Surface Mining Province 2. The Pittsburgh,
a remarkable stratigraphic marker, is the principal coal of northern
West Virginia and Surface Mining Province 3 and is responsible for
about 25 percent of the annual coal production of West Virginia. It
has been largely removed by underground and surface methods of mining
in areas of local distribution in high areas of Preston and Mineral
Counties of Surface Mining Province 2. In addition to the Pittsburgh,
17
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the Redstone, Sewickley, Uniontown, Waynesburg, Waynesburg "A", and
Washington in ascending 550 feet of section are prospective coals
locally for surface mining along the Ohio and Monongahela Rivers and
their tributaries. The coals all occur below drainage in tributaries
east of the Ohio River and west of the Monongahela River in the
Dunkard Basin (Figure 1) a broad synclinorium exposing the youngest
rocks of the Appalachians in Wetzel, Marshall, Ohio, and Monongalia
Counties in West Virginia. The Jollytown, Dunkard, Fish Creek,
Hostetler, Nineveh Gilmore and Windy Gap Coals, all thin and impure,
are locally distributed along the axis of the Dunkard Basin.
The coals of Surface Mining Province 3 are considered to be high-
sulphur, i.e., greater than 1.50 percent, and high volatile, i.e.,
32 to 36 percent coals. The volatile matter and sulfur content of
coals of the upper group, viz., the Little Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
Redstone, and Sewickley, decrease to the east on limited exposures,
mostly mined, high in the hills of Surface Mining Province 2.
Geology of the Pennsylvanian System of Preston County
The land forms of Preston County are the result of complex forces
that have acted through successive periods of the geologic past. The
major anticlines (Figure 2), the Chestnut Ridge on the west and the
Briery Mountain in east central Preston County were folded exposing
resistant sandstones of Pottsville age (generally with thin non-
commercial coals) (Figure 3), which form conspicuous northeast trending
linear land forms of Chestnut Ridge, Laurel Ridge, Brushy Knobs, Snaggy
Mountain, and Backbone Mountain. The area of principal study is
between the two major structures where less intensely folded structures
expose younger, less resistant rocks of the Allegheny, Conemaugh and
basal Monongahela Groups. The regional relief of Preston County is
2200+ feet. The elevation rises from 800 feet (240 meters) A.T. along
the Cheat River in the northwest to an elevation in excess of 3300 feet
(990 meters) A.T. on Backbone Mountain in the southeast corner of
Preston County.
Subsequently, the Cheat River of the Monongahela River Drainage dis-
sected the upland plateau and developed deeply entrenched valleys.
The streams have beveled local base levels, forming pleasant glades on
massive sandstones. These same sandstones when exposed above drainage
support steep-walled valleys. Steep hillslopes, exposing series of
underclays or locally developed fresh-water limestones, thin to thick
irregular coals, two zones of marine shale, locally thin limestone,
the Brush Creek and Ames above the Brush Creek and Harlem coals,
respectively, gray shale, and thin- to massive-bedded sandstones, rise
from the stream bottoms to pleasant rolling upland areas, generally
18
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Pennsylvanion Pre - PennsyIvanian Pittsburgh Coal
Sy ncline
Anticline
Areos disturbed
by surface mining
FIGURE 2. GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPAL AREAS OF MINING IN
PRESTON COUNTY
19
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underlain by massive sandstone, which supports a farming culture.
Figure 2 generalizes the areas disturbed by surface mining of several
coals, viz., the Lower Kittanning, Upper Kittanning, Lower Freeport,
Upper Freeport, the Mahoning and Brush Creek, locally Bakerstown,
Harlem and Pittsburgh coals. The Upper Freeport coal contributed
most importantly to coal production by underground mining methods
since mining commenced in about 1888. Locally, the Bakerstown coal
has been of secondary importance in the production of coal by under-
ground mining methods. Two coals, the Lower Kittanning near Newburg
and the Pittsburgh at Scotch Hill have been mined extensively by
underground methods in areas of local development and local exposure
(Figure 2), respectively. All of the coals listed above have been
mined in small drift mines in the past (for household purposes) .
Relatively small areas (included within the larger area disturbed
by surface mining) have been mined by underground mining methods and
relatively few areas of coal (perhaps 2 square miles), having adequate
overburden and suitable thickness and physical and chemical char-
acteristics, are known to exist in Preston County. Geological
considerations, including fairly intense inclinations of the rocks and
large areas of "no coal," as well as high labor costs make the develop-
ment and amortization of even small fixed plants (100,000 to 500,000
tons annually) difficult, and limit the productivity, particularly at
the present time. Conversely, the larger area underlain with as many
as 9 coals with varying amounts of overburden, thickness, and physical
and chemical characteristics can be mined more efficiently by methods
of surface mining because of the higher productivity and lower cost
of amortization of highly mobile equipment. For example, local
developments of the Upper Kittanning and Lower Freeport above drain-
age, both marginal coals, have been mined in conjunction with surface
mining of the Upper Freeport coal, an interval of about 100 feet, in
the Bruceton Mills-Brandonville area of Preston County. The Mahoning
and the Brush Creek coals are only locally of marginal mineable
thickness above the Upper Freeport or below the Bakerstown coals (the
interval in either case is about 100 feet, 30 meters), and the Harlem
and Pittsburgh coals, interval 260 feet (78 meters), are only locally
available high in the hills of Preston County.
Mining of coal by surface methods in Preston County commenced with the
advent of World War II. The production of coal by surface methods
was about 200,000 tons annually in 1950. The coal-burning Albright
Power Station was completed at Albright by the Allegheny Power System
in the middle 1950fs. The production of coal by methods of surface
mining, disturbing a large area of the land surface in Preston County,
has increased several times in the intervening years (Appendix C).
20
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GEOLOGIC SECTION OF PRESTON COUNTY
NAME OF COAL
T
NTERVALS
INDUSTRIAL AND
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
P'T T SBURGH
HARLEM
BAKERSTOWN
BRUSH CREEK
MAHONING
UPPER FREEPORT
LOWER FREEPORT
UPPER KITTANNING
LOWER KITTANNING
CLARION
QUAKER-TOWN
90
8 7
1 80
50
SALTSBURG BUILOIHS SANDSTONE
} MAHONING SANDSTONE
CLAY
CLAY
1
> :';: INDUSTRIAL AND
' CONSTRUCTION SAND
LIMESTONE
INDUSTRIAL AND
CONSTRUCTION SAND
FLAGSTONE
:•: INDUSTRIAL AND
CONSTRUCTION SAND
SHALE
BUILDING SANDSTONE
HAIIINI lONtf
* SAND FROM CRUSHED SANDSTONE
FIGURE 3. GEOLOGIC SECTION OF PRESTON COUNTY
21
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Robert V. Hidalgo (1969, p. 309-320) investigated the sulphur-clay
mineral relationships at two locations of the Upper Freeport coal in
Preston County; Robert Cheek (1969, p. 279-304) investigated the
sulphur facies of the Upper Freeport coal in northwest Preston County;
and Walter B. Ayres, Jr. (1970, p. 10) interpreted the geology of
the section (Figure 4) between the Upper Freeport coal and Saltsburg
sandstone in the area of principal study. Although much of the
analytical data is confined principally to the sulfur distribution
in the Upper Freeport coal, the interpretations may be applicable to
the study of spoil material. The findings of these investigations
are included with comments in the following paragraphs.
An enumeration of some of the primary, penecontemporaneous and sub-
sequent structural features, imposed during the deposition of the
sediments or superimposed secondarily at a later time are discussed
although they are not clearly understood.
The detrital minerals, i.e., the transported minerals or those derived
from pre-existing rocks, are principally quartz and clay minerals,
some feldspar and minor quantities of a suite of ubiquitous fine-
grained heavy minerals.
Natural zones of weakness, present along horizontal bedding and
angular cross laminations of layered rocks, and the granular sedi-
ments, are initially porous. The primary porosity is altered sub-
sequently with the introduction secondarily of alteration products
such as clay and micaceous minerals, quartz, carbonates (calcite and
siderite), iron (hematitie, limonite, and pyrite) and manganese. The
lack of cementation or the filling of interstices of granular material
is measured by the permeability, i.e., the ability of a substance to
transmit a fluid. Sandstones, the most permeable rocks of Preston
County, are altered by the degree of cementation. Zones of weakness
were imposed during deposition by readjustments called block slumping
and during the transformation to consolidated rock by structural ad-
justments called slickensides, usually prevalent in the shales.
Finally, sets of joints, called cleats in coal, usually nearly at
right angles to the bedding, were developed during the folding of the
Appalachian Mountains. It is in this complex system of varying
porosities, slump blocks, slickensides and joint sets that the
authigenic minerals, i.e., minerals formed in the place of occurrence,
were formed. Authigenic minerals are formed in several different ways.
Some are precipitated from solution in water at the same time that
the sediment is being deposited; others are formed by the action of
pressure and solution in the pores and adjacent areas of granular
rocks at a considerable distance below the surface; and others are the
result of surface weathering of minerals which may be either detrital
or authigenic.
22
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to
Sandstone
Shale
Morine shale
Carbonaceous shale
Clay
Coal
100
50
BAKERSTOWN COAL
BRUSH CREEK COAL
UPPER FREEPORT COAL
a. a. a. a. a a.
5-9
Section
One mile
Freeport Coal Company
Core
Vertical exaggeration SOX
FIGURE 4. CROSS SECTION SHOWING VARIABILITY OF BEDS BETWEEN UPPER FREEPORT
COAL AND SALTSBURG SANDSTONE
-------
Authigenic minerals recognized by the field geologist in West Virginia
are iron minerals, viz., hematite (iron oxide), limonite (hydrous iron
oxide), and pyrite (iron disulphide) and manganese minerals and the
alkaline earths, principally carbonates, calcite (calcium carbonate),
dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate) .
The carbonates are disseminated in pores, as cement in granular rocks
and concentrated along zones of weakness, viz., joints, slickensides,
and other zones of weakness, as limestone and siderite lenses, nodules,
and concretions, particularly in shale. The net result of the weather-
ing of the carbonates is to buffer, to inhibit and finally to neutral-
ize the acid forming components of the associated rocks.
The most important acid-forming mineral in the section is pyrite, less
commonly raarcasite. Pyrite occurs in practically all of the rocks in-
cluding coal and associated rocks represented in unweathered samples
in West Virginia except for those that are red in color, containing
hematite or iron oxide formed in an oxidizing environment. It is
generally more plentiful in the dark to black rocks (carbonaceous
shale to bone coal in the Coal Measures) than those that are light
gray to grayish green. Pyrite occurs as coatings and shales in pores,
interstitial materials, and along zones of weakness and is finely
disseminated as cubes and in combination with numerous other complex
geometric forms. Pyrite was formed in place (authigenic) and is an
indicator of reducing conditions often in the presence of organic
matter. A considerable number of samples contain pyrite fragments
with carbon attached and have structures which indicate replacement
of plant remains (the organic sulfur component) by the pyrite (Martens,
1939, p. 16).
Headlee (1955, p. 23-35) sampled and analyzed the total, pyritic,
organic (selected) and sulfate (limited) sulfur in 3-inch (7.6 cm)
increments across the face of the Upper Freeport (59 inches, 150 cm,
thick) and Bakerstown (37 inches, 94 cm, thick) coals of Preston
County as a part of a larger study of the characteristics of the
mineable coals in West Virginia. Averages, or the total, pyritic,
organic and sulfate sulfur of all small samples for the Upper Freeport
coal were 0.90, 0.44, 0.44 and 0.04 percent and for the Bakerstown
were 1.75, 1.24, 0.60 and 0.01 percent, respectively. He observed
the great lateral and vertical variations in the pyritic sulfur and
the small variations in the organic sulfur of the coals of West
Virginia.
Cheek (1969, p. 270) observed (1) that sulphur content of the Upper
Freeport coal decreases as the thickness of the coal increases; (2)
that the sulphur is higher in bone coal than in coal at the top and
24
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bottom of the coal seam; and (3) that the sulphur is higher in coal
with a sandstone roof than coal with a shale roof. He further con-
cluded that high sulphur reflects a swamp with good water circulation
unimpeded by a dense and intense vegetation. He presumed that the
primary pyrite formed in the presence of sulfate and iron bacteria
in the coal swamp, whereas the organic sulphur was incorporated in
proteinaceous cells in plants during their growth. Later, secondary
pyrite was introduced into the coal along fractures and cleats from
porous and permeable rocks of the overburden, principally sandstone.
Of the three common clay minerals, illite (mica), kaolinite, and
montmorillonite, illite, a potassium aluminum silicate, is the prevalent
clay mineral in the shales associated with coals of Preston County.
Hidalgo (1969, p. 309) proposed a possible trend of increasing illite
and decreasing kaolinite with increasing sulphur in samples of the
Upper Freeport coal having greater than 1 percent sulfur. The pyrite
formation is dependent on sulfide availability at the time of forma-
tion, more so than on iron availability. The iron organic complexes
are concentrated in the clay colloid detrital fraction and are
preferentially oriented according to sizes favoring illite.
Cross section A-A1 (Ayres, 1970, p. 10) (Figure 4) illustrates the
relationships of the various lithologies and the lithologies and
the complexity of depositional environments during sedimentation from
the beginning of the Upper Freeport swamp to the end of the alluviation
of the sand which subsequently became the Saltsburg sandstone.
Gross aspects of the cross section show lateral variations in thick-
ness of coals (Upper Freeport, Brush Creek and Bakerstown) from very
thick to complete disappearance of all coals laterally. Most mineable
coals tend to have higher ash and sulphur contents and other impurities
concentrated at the bottom and top, reflecting the abatement and com-
mencement of detritus after the beginning and at the close of swamp
development, as well as influences of secondary additions of sulfur at
the top of the coal and along zones of weakness within the coal. The
average of 42 samples (A.R.) of the mining section of the Upper Free-
port coal shows 8.40 percent ash and 1.69 percent sulphur in Preston
County; the average of 8 samples (A.R.) of the Bakerstown coal shows
6.75 percent ash and 2.00 percent sulphur (Hennen, ejt al., 1914, p.
364-366).
The remainder of the section is fine elastics (detrital) essentially
clay, micaceous minerals and quartz, forming gray, slightly calcareous
shale above the Brush Creek coal, to local developments of darker and
carbonaceous shale. Thick lenticular bodies of medium-grained sand-
25
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stone, ranging from highly argillaceous to nearly quartzose sandstone
locally, are superimposed on the shales. The detrital mineral feldspar
is present in small percentages in the sandstone in all stages of
disintegration. There was probably more feldspar originally, but it
has been altered to kaolinite, sericite and other hydrous silicates.
Locally, the cross section shows that surface mining of the Upper
Freeport-Bakerstown coals, in intervals of about 200 feet, if
economically feasible, would produce a highwall composed principally
of shale. Generally, the cross section indicates that a higher per-
centage of spoils would be composed of shale in a surface mine in
Bakerstown coal than in the Upper Freeport coal while conversely a
higher percentage of sandstone would compose the spoils of a surface
mine in the Upper Freeport. Field studies of highwalls of surface
mines in Preston County substantiate the observation of the cross
section. In the case of the surface mines in the Upper Freeport coal,
the Mahoning sandstone is either directly above the coal or is
separated by a thin section of shale from the coal while in the case
of the surface mines in the Bakerstown coal, a thick section of shale
separates the Saltsburg sandstone from the coal.
The analyses of data from highwalls, spoil banks and cores in the
following pages considers approaches to the reclamation of spoils
from the surface mining of the various seams of coal in Preston County
and adjacent areas.
26
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SECTION V
SOIL CONSIDERATIONS
General (West Virginia)
Since surface mining is substituting mine spoils for pre-existing
soils, it is instructive to consider potentials of the mine spoils
relative to the standard of natural soils prior to mining.
On a generalized basis, most West Virginia soils in the regions of
surface mining have been classified at the Great Group level as
Dystrochrepts, Hapludults and Fragiudults (Soil Survey Staff, 1960;
U. S. map, 1969). These general categories mean that soil profiles
are medium or low in organic matter and are low in basic cations
(less than 35% saturated with exchangeable bases at the contact with
underlying rock or at 40 inch (100 cm) depths) and that soil profiles
vary from slight (Dystrochrepts) to strong (Hapludults and Fragiudults)
subsoil differentiation and clay accumulation. Significant areas of
Hapludalfs are recognized where subsoil saturation with bases exceeds
35%, constituting the distinction from Hapludults.
Textures, coarse fragments (greater than 2 mm), depths to bedrock,
available water capacity, internal profile drainage, surface stoniness,
and land slope are other major features that influence natural soil or
land quality and its influence on runoff, erosion and water quality.
Any generalization of these properties is likely to be criticized as
inadequate or misleading when local or specific cases are considered,
but we believe it may be helpful to suggest what we consider to be
the most common range within the several soil properties mentioned:
1. Textures - intermediate, i.e., loams, silt loams and clay
loams.
2. Coarse fragments - significant, i.e., commonly 25 to 75%
of the soil mass by volume, influencing available water
capacities proportionally.
3. Depths to bedrock - moderately deep, i.e., 50 to 100 cm
(20 to 40 inches) (less on ridgetops and deeper on slopes
of colluvium).
4. Available water capacity - medium to low, i.e., 0.08 to
0.12 cm per cm (or inches per inch) of depth, including
influence of coarse fragments.
27
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5. Internal profile drainage - moderately limiting, i.e., good
to poor, with common impedence by horizontal bedrock or by
fragipans or claypans.
6. Surface stoniness - moderate, i.e., surface stones dominate
land use on significant areas.
7. Land slope - steep, i.e., significant on most land and
dominating land use of the southern region, Surface Mining
Province 1. (Figure 1)
Specific (Preston County)
The four Great Groups of soils mentioned under the General discussion
were represented at sites studied in Preston County. Representative
profiles of three Great Groups were selected for detailed descriptions
and sampling. These descriptions are included in Appendices, pp. 182
to 203. Series represented, as indicated in descriptions, were Dekalb,
Gilpin, Cookport, Wharton and variants of Dekalb, Cookport and
Westmoreland (no profile description). One Dekalb variant was slightly
outside the series definition in depth to bedrock (less than 20 inches,
50 cm) and also in having a slight excess of clay in the subsoil
(Control section). The Cookport variants were fine silty rather than
fine loamy in the subsoil (control section) as required for Cookport.
These soils might be considered members of the Tilsit series, but they
are not so designated here because this series has not been recognized
in Preston County nor at the latitude and elevation represented. Some
Westmoreland observed is a variant which has more red color in the
subsoil than defined for the series. The Wharton is an upland claypan
soil. The series closely resembles the Cookport except it does not
have the fragipan as described in the Cookport and Cookport variants.
Wharton has somewhat impeded drainage as can be seen from the mottling
described in the profile descriptions.
The soils described, except the Westmoreland variant, were found over
the Lower Mahoning sandstone, the prominent sandstone overburden of
the Upper Freeport coal. Soil differences that account for the dif-
ferent Great Groups and the more detailed series distinctions apparently
are traceable to textural and mineralogical variations in the parent
rock. Land slope and rock fractures formed by geologic folding may
have contributed to genesis of the particular soils represented. Low
versus high chroma mottling in Cookport and Cookport variant subsoil
and immediately underlying rock has attracted special attention and
study because of the marked similarity of the subsoil color contrast
at the base of the zone of rock weathering. However, as presented in
28
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detail elsewhere (Grube, et. £l. , 1971) the chemical and mineralogical
cause of the subsoil mottling was found to be contrary to that at the
base of rock weathering.
Details involving soils are presented in following sections. Ap-
pendices include morphological descriptions of soil profiles (pp. 182
to 203).
Summary
Soil classification, based on soil profile properties, has been
generalized for the West Virginia Surface Mining Provinces as a basis
for judging environments before and after surface mining. And on a
local basis, specific soil profile properties and classification has
been identified which reflect rock characteristics and help explain
weathering reaction and water quality to be expected in known
sequences of mine spoils.
29
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SECTION VI
METHODS ADAPTED TO MINE SPOILS
The field sampling, laboratory subsampling, and analytical laboratory
methods used in studies of coal overburden materials were adapted
from standard techniques used by geologists and soil scientists in
coal, rock, and soil analysis. Some methods were modified to ac-
commodate particular objectives of this project, and to improve pre-
cision and accuracy where no procedures were recognized as singularly
applicable to mine spoils.
Samples of rock strata between the soil and a surface mineable coal
seam were obtained by collecting expelled material from rotary drill-
ing of blast holes. Cooperation of company drilling crews allowed
acquisition of "rock chips" in 32 cm (12.5 inch) increments as drill-
ing proceeded. The rock fragments from each interval were collected
on a shovel and then poured into a one-pint, waxed paper, ice cream
carton. The drilling equipment normally was located on a bench a few
feet below the natural land surface, the soil and highly weathered
rock having been removed with a bulldozer. Sampling from the drilling
bench up to the adjacent soil surface was done by hand, in graduated
increments. The soil profiles were sampled by morphological horizons
according to accepted methods (Soil Survey Staff, 1951, 1960). At
several sites overburden samples were obtained by hand collection at
intervals on a fresh high wall using an extension ladder.
Sulphur
The Leco Induction Furnace with Automatic Sulfur Titrator was used
for most sulphur analyses. A 0.5 gram sample was used, except where
sulphur was above 1.0%, then 0.1 gram was used. Potassium iodate
titrant concentrations of 1.29 x 10~4 M and 5.18 x 10~3 M were used
The low concentration was appropriate from 0.000 to 0.025% sulfur
in a 0.5 g sample; the more concentrated titrant, from 0.005% to 1.0%
sulfur in a 0.5 g sample. In addition, a low-sulfur crucible was used
in conjunction with the dilute titrant to increase precision in samples
low in total sulfur.
In samples of pulverized sandstone, which constituted the majority of
the samples processed, the presence of sulfate was determined
qualitatively by testing a water extract with concentrated barium
chloride for precipitation of barium sulphate.
31
-------
_ _AfJ-.5L-9JL Base Potent!al
Recognition that rock strata may contain base-rich components (mainly
as carbonates), as well as acid-producing compounds, dictated an
evaluation of acid-base balances. The procedure used for bases was
a modification of that used to measure the neutralization equivalence
of agricultural limestone (Jackson, 1958). Thus, the "neutralization
potential" of individual samples could readily be measured by compar-
ing the total quantity of basic components with the total quantity of
acid that could be expected from oxidation of the pyritic materials
in the sample. Calculation assumes that the amount of pure calcium
carbonate required to neutralize the sulfuric acid resulting from
oxidation of pyrite in a material containing 0.1% sulfur, all pyritic,
is 6,250 pounds per thousand tons of material.
Potential Acidity with Peroxide
Pretreatment of sample (if carbonates are present or suspecjt^ed^
Ten grams (-60 mesh) of each sample should be treated with 0.5N HC1
and allowed to set for 12 hours or overnight, followed by washing
with distilled and deionized H20 (3 times with 25 mis of H20). Then
wash twice with acetone to remove the H20 and any residual MgCOo.
Place the sample in an oven set at 40°C or in a vacuum desicator
which contains a desicant such as silica gel until dry.
Procedure
1. Weigh accurately 2.0 gms of sample (-60 mesh) and transfer
to a 300 ml tall form beaker.
2. Add 24 mis of (30 to 35%) H202 to the beaker and place on
a hotplate at approximately 40 to 50°C to get the reaction
started. As soon as sample starts to react, remove from
hotplate and allow reaction to go to completion.
Initial reaction may be quite turbulent when samples contain
0.1% sulfur or greater.
3. After initial reaction is completed, add 12 mis of HoO,-, and
allow to react, place on hotplate at approximately 90°C for
30 minutes to destroy any excess peroxide in solution that
has not reacted.
32
-------
4. Filter through Whatman No. 42 filter paper into a 250 ml
flask and dilute the volume to 100 mis by washing sample
with distilled and deionized H20. The residue in the filter
paper can now be discarded.
5. The 100 mis of solution is now heated to boiling to drive
off any dissolved C02. The flask is stoppered and allowed
to cool to room temperature.
6. The titrant used is 0.01 N NaOH that is free of C02 and
protected from the atmosphere after it has been prepared
and standardized with KHCgH404.
7. The 100 mis of solution is now titrated to pH 7.0 using a
glass electrode pH meter, or Bromothymol Blue, which changes
from yellow to blue at pH 6.0 to 7.6, and with experience
provides close agreement with meter readings.
8. Calculations - (mis of NaOH) x (Normality of NaOH) x (50) =
meq/100 gms.
The stoichiometric reaction of pyrite in an oxidizing environment for
generating acidity is: 4FeS2 + 1502 + 14H20 = 4Fe(OH)3 + 8H2S04.
This reaction proceeds slowly and in three stages with the first and
second stages being the rate determining steps.
(1) 2FeS2 + 702 + 2H20 -> 2FeS04 + 2H S04
(2) 4FeS04 + 2H2S04 + QZ -> 2Fe2(S04)3 + 2^0
(3) Fe(S04)3 + 6H20 -> 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H,,SOA
In nature the reaction may proceed slowly over a long period of time
through intermediate steps, dependihg on activity of microbes, con-
centration of Fe(lll), partial pressure of 02, and other environmental
variables. Attempts have been made in the laboratory to generate
acidity by simulating natural weathering. Over time spans of several
weeks, the simulated weathering releases only a fraction of the
potential acid and is still quite time consuming.
Several attempts were made to utilize strong oxidizing agents such
as KMn04, HN03, K2Cr2Oy and HO to oxidize the pyrite in spoil
materials. Preliminary results indicated that to get a titratable
measure of acidity, using a standard base as the titrant, only the
H202 might be satisfactory.
33
-------
The first experiment with three replicates of each rock type, indicated
that it was feasible to use H?0 to oxidize certain rock materials and
get a measure of resulting acidity (Table 1). The rocks were weathered
Mahoning sandstone (high chroma sandstone), unweathered Mahoning sand
stone (low chroma sandstone), and Uffington shale (low chroma shale) -
Amount of acidity was calculated using the stoichiometry mentioned.
Efficiency of the \\^2 oxidation of the sulfur for the three different
types of material varied most between replications of high chroma sand
stone samples which contained the lowest amount of sulfur.
The data in Table 2 (obtained by the procedure given early in this
section, with 9 replicates of each rock type) indicate that the H^
procedure does give a measure of the amount of acidity that can be
produced by these rock samples. For the low chroma sandstone and low
chroma shale samples, the replicate efficiencies ranged only from
83.6% to 86.2%. However, for the high chroma sandstone the efficiency
ranged from 22.0% to 94.5%.
Theoretical acidity (62 meq x Difference in total sulphur) agrees
generally with the actual acidity that was found by titration. For
the low chroma shale, some discrepancies may be caused by interactions
with clay minerals.
Linear correlation and regression was run using percent total sulphur
(before) as the independent variable and the actual titratable acidity
in meq H/100 gm as the dependent variable. There was a close agree-
ment between the two and the relationship is shown in Figure 5.
The reactions depicting the oxidation of FeS2 to H2SOA were the same
for the ^02 procedure as those previously shown; however, when using
H202 as the oxidizing agent, there was an excess of 0~ and the rate
determining steps proceeded rapidly. The entire reaction was com-
pleted in less than an hour.
Lime Requirement^
An experiment was designed to investigate the relationship of the
soiltest method with direct titration of the spoil material with
Ca(OH)2. Sixty-two samples were taken from 13 different spoils in
Preston and Monongalia counties area. The samples were air dried and
ground to pass a 2 mm sieve. Then they were split, using a stainless
steel riffle. Half of the material was sampled and sent to the soil
testing laboratory while the other half of the spoil material was
sampled for the Ca(OH) method.
-------
Ui
Table 1
Sulphur in three different rock types, before and after treatment with
concentrated H_0 .
% Total Sulfur Efficiency meq H+/100 gm
Sample Before After Difference % Theoretical Actual
High
Low
Low
chroma
chroma
chroma
sandstone
sandstone
shale
0.008
0.673
0.493
0.0015
0.158
0.157
0
0
0
.0065
.515
.336
75
76
68
.0
.5
.1
0
31
20
.372
.93
.83
-0.69
29.15
22.88
Note: Determinations made by preliminary methods.
-------
Table 2
Sulphur in three different rock types, before and after treatment with
concentrated #2^2 anc* washing to remove sulphates.
% Total Sulfur Efficiency meq H /100 gin
Sample Before After Difference % Theoretical Actual
High chroma
Low chroma
Low chroma
sandstone
sandstone
shale
0.005
0.647
0.965
0.
0.
0.
0025
095
144
0
0
0
.0029
.552
.822
58
85
85
.0
.3
.2
0.
34.
50.
18
2
9
-0.02
32.5
44.4
Note: Final method as described.
-------
50
40
U)
o
o
o>
E
'**'
>•
^
a
30
20
10
r2=0.995 (significant at .05)
Y = 0.1748 + 47.1088 X
0.2
0.4 0.6
TOTAL SULFUR (%)
0.8
1.0
FIGURE 5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEASURED ACIDITY AND TOTAL SULFUR
-------
The buffer method used in the soil testing laboratory was developed by
C. M. Woodruff (Woodruff, 1948). The solution used is calcium
acetate buffered by p-nitrophenol. An excess of the buffered solution
(at pH 7.0) is added to the sample and allowed to equilibrate for an
hour and then the pH of the solution is read and lime requirement is
based upon the drop in pH of the buffered solution. By^allowing the
buffer solution to stand in contact with the sample, Ca from the
solution saturates the exchange complex and H goes into solution,
thus lowering the pH.
The method of titration with Ca(OH)2 was developed by L. E. Dunn
(Dunn, 1943). The lime-requirement determination is based on
titration curves. The 0.04 N_ Ca(OH)2 is standardized with KHCgH^O^
and protected from the atmosphere. Calculations convert the amount
of Ca(OH)0(0.04N) directly to tons of lime per acre (2,000,000 Ibs).
2 ~
Each sample was subsampled 7 times and Ca(OH)2 was added at the rates
of 1/2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 tons of lime per acre. Then the samples
were aerated and incubated for 6 days with the pH being checked daily,
following which a titration curve was constructed by plotting pH
values on the ordinate and tons of lime per acre on the abscissa.
The lime requirement was read from these titration curves.
The effect of this treatment was similar to liming the samples. The
exchange complex is saturated with Ca"1""*" but unlike the soiltest method
the solution is not buffered thus it gives a more direct measure of
how much lime will be needed to neutralize the acidity.
Linear correlation and regression was performed using the soiltest
data as the independent variable. The peculiar "stacking" of points
occurs because soiltest readings are taken in 0.75 ton steps. The
correlation was significant at the .001 level and a prediction of the
Ca(OH)2 lime requirement can be made with confidence using soiltest
readings and the regression equation (Figure 6).
The high "lime requirements" indicated by the buffer method are
caused by the empirical correction factor of 1.5 used to compensate
for incomplete contact and delayed reaction with pulverized limestone,
and perhaps partly by some degree of pyrite oxidation by the N02
group attached to the phenol at the paraposition in the buffer
solution.
38
-------
UJ
«
w
t: 4
CM
CO
0
r2 =0.923 (significant at .001)
Y=—0.3988+0.5185 X
6 9
SOIL TEST METHOD (Tons/Acre)
12
FIGURE 6. COMPARISON OF LIME REQUIREMENTS BY CALCIUM HYDROXIDE TITRATION AND BY SOIL
TEST METHODS
-------
Simulated Weathering
1. The humid air method with continuous flow and periodic
flushing with water to remove acid, solutes and fine solids,
was adapted from the method described by Caruccio (1967).
This method has demonstrated that unweathered Lower Mahoning
sandstone releases titratable acid as well as salts, whereas
the weathered sandstone is inert; and underlying dark shales
release salts which result from neutralization of sulfuric
acid released by pyrite weathering (Section X).
2. The miniature lysimeter or leaching column with interceptor
funnels at different depths, with assured Thiobacillus
inoculation, and periodic water additions to induce leaching.
This method is being used to determine the influence of depth
of burial on rate of acid development from pulverized pyrite
(Section XII).
3. Acid Production by Repeated Hot Water Extractions: Several
trials were carried out to determine if the Soxhlet extrac-
tion technique, used on various biological materials, might
have useful application in extraction of acid from coal and
coal overburden materials. Pulverized coal or rock was placed
in the extraction chamber of the apparatus and distilled and
deionized water used as the solvent. Electric hotplates were
used to boil the water for 24 hours. The water solution was
removed from the apparatus, cooled to 25°C, and pH and
titratable acidity or alkalinity were measured using a Fisher
Auto Titrimeter. An endpoint of pH 7.0 was reached using
0.200N NaOH or 0.200N HC1. Except in two samples relatively
high in carbonates, the major fraction of acidity or alkalinity,
accumulated over a number of successive extractions, was re-
covered in the first extract. This strongly suggests initial
removal of soluble salts, with only small amounts of acidity
generated by successive boiling water extractions.
After six days of extraction, there was little change in acid
production, except for the initial large quantity in the first
or second treatment, from five Upper Freeport coal samples and
seven Lower Mahoning sandstone samples. However, when four of
the sandstone samples were carried through twenty-five days of
treatments, there was a definite trend toward lower pH in the
extract along with gradually increasing release of acidity.
40
-------
Mine Spoil Classification
In recent years, very little work has been done on strip mine spoil
classification. At the present time, West Virginia strip mines are
mapped as "strip-mine spoil" (Patton e_t al., 1959) and West Virginia
and Pennsylvania strip mine spoils are only classified by properties
considered at the lower categories of the soil classification system,
according to surface pH, slope and stoniness (Davis, 1965).
Some preliminary work has been done in West Virginia on classification
of strip-mine spoils into the present USDA soil classification system
(Patton, 1966). However, strip-mine spoils were not classified into
the higher categories. Based on the profile descriptions used in this
study, strip mine spoils would be classified in the Entisol order.
The central concept of Entisols is that of soils that have little or
no evidence of development of pedogenic horizons (Soil Survey Staff,
1960). Strip-mine spoils were not classified into any of the other
higher categories.
"The purpose of any classification is so to organize our knowledge
that the properties of objects may be remembered and their relation-
ships may be understood most easily for a specific objective," (Cline,
1949). Classification assists in short-range and long-range planning
and management.
Preliminary classification and testing for revegetation treatments
is a temporary expedient which should be followed by long-range clas-
sification of the soil for future management and use. Long-range
classification and mapping will provide the much needed basis for
proper subsequent treatment and management or conversion to special-
ized uses.
Prompt systematic classification and mapping is especially important
because of the following reasons: (1) Mined areas need continued
attention and management different from most other land. (2) In many
cases, mined land has special potentials because of its slope or soil
properties. (3) We have now reached the point in research knowledge,
public awareness and extent of mined land that scientific classifica-
tion for future planned use is necessary. If revegetation and manage-
ment of strip mine spoils is made easier and more effective, then
more land can be put into production and other profitable uses.
An objective of this project is to research the possibility of defining
a new suborder and other categories while staying within the boundaries
of the comprehensive classification system. Since pH values near the
41
-------
surface vary so much within the first few years, strip-mine spoils
that have been revegetated for at least five years are emphasized in
this project. As with other soils, it is anticipated that the pH of
the top 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) will not be used as a diagnostic
property for classification except perhaps at the phase level. More-
over, the profile "control section" will need to be defined, possibly
10 to 40 inches (25 to 100 cm) within which preliminary information
will indicate that pH and related diagnostic properties are stable
enough over time to permit a scientific classification to provide a
useful basis for use and management to prevent erosion. The control
section is defined as arbitrary depths of soil material within which
certain diagnostic horizons and other characteristics are used as
differentia in the classification of soils. The thickness is specific
for each characteristic being considered but may be different for
different characteristics.
The suborder "Spolents" is here suggested as a new category to include
recently deposited earth materials resulting from surface mining or
other earth moving operations, or deposits of solid wastes accumulated
with some phase of mining or other industrial activity, or deposits
involved in such activities as sanitary landfills. Generally, the
earth materials being classified will be vegetated to some degree or
will be significantly influenced by microorganisms, but it appears
unnecessary to exclude any earth materials because of apparent or
assumed absence of biological influences.
The term, "Spolents" is derived from two words. The ending "-ents"
comes from the order Entisols. The beginning "Spol-" comes from the
Latin spoliare.
The following outline is a proposed classification scheme for strip
mine spoil.
(1) Order: Entisols
(2) Suborder: Spolents
(3) Great Groups: a. Udspolents (humid climate)
b. Uspolents (dry climate)
(4) Subgroup: a. Typic Udspolents (mixed)
b. Fissile Udspolents (shaly)
c. Plattic Udspolents (sandstone)
d. Cubic Udspolents (thick-bedded)
42
-------
(5) Family:
(6) Series:
Texture, mineralogy, carbonates or acidity,
temperature
a. Profile color
b. Surface texture
c. Activity of surface weathering
d. Inclusions such as coal, nodules,
concretions, fossils, limestone
(7) Phase:
a. Slope
b. Stoniness
c. Land use
(1) Woodland
(2) Forages
d. Surface pH
The adjectives Typic, Fissile, Plattic, and Cubic for the subgroups
have only been temporarily defined. After field work has been com-
pleted, each category will be defined more precisely.
43
-------
SECTION VII
FIELD LOCATIONS
Some attention has been given to statewide problems of mine spoil
properties and its placement and management. This has involved trips
to Kanawha, Boone, Logan, Raleigh and adjoining counties of Surface
Mining Province 1 to observe mining operations and results.
In northern West Virginia, we have observed operations involving
Pittsburgh and Sewickley coals along the eastern edge of Surface
Mining Province 3, and have included some such spoil samples in our
laboratory studies, but have done no intensive sampling or study of
representative stratigraphic sections.
In Surface Mining Province 2, we have observed operations and reclama-
tion in Tucker, Grant and Mineral Counties as well as throughout
central and northern Preston County. However, intensive field studies
and sampling have been centered in central Preston County (Figure 7) ,
which appears to typify much of Surface Mining Province 2, as dis-
cussed in Section IV. Sampling sites and test cores are readily
referred to ground surface points on standard 7 1/2 minute USGS
Topographic Maps.
Stratigraphic cross section A - A' (Figure 4) was derived from study
of solid test cores, extending as deep as 300 feet. Other test cores
studied cover much of the same area as sites A through L (except J) ,
with additional test cores extending southward from G toward the mouth
of Muddy Creek at the Cheat River.
Some additional information about sites A through Z is summarized in
appendices A and B including detailed soil profile descriptions at
several locations.
Summary
Some attention has been given to statewide problems of mine spoil
properties and its placement and management, but intensive field study
and sampling have been limited to central Preston County, typifying
much of Surface Mining Province 2. Within Preston County, coals and
overburdens have included the Lower Kittanning, Upper Freeport,
Mahoning, Brush Creek, Bakerstown, Harlem and Pittsburgh, with greatest
attention centered on the Upper Freeport, because of widespread
problems in reclaiming its sandstone overburden, the Lower Mahoning
sandstone, throughout Province 2.
45
-------
FIGURE 7. PRESTON COUNTY SAMPLE AND FIELD STUDY SITES
46
-------
SECTION VIII
SULFUR AND POTENTIAL ACIDITY
It has been well documented that the oxidation of pyrite is the major
concern in considering water pollution and lack of vegetative cover on
surface mined lands. Although the quantities and morphological types
of pyrite in various coals have been shown to influence the ground
water quality (Caruccio, 1967), the scientific literature is barren
of quantitative information about pyritic materials in rock strata
that constitutes surface mine spoil. The immediate concern of this
investigation was to determine the amount of pyrite in rock strata
between a strippable coal seam and the land surface. It was assumed
that this information would help explain why certain spoils were
easily revegetated and produced little acid drainage water, while
others were so acid that revegetation was considered impossible. In
northern West Virginia, the spoil resulting from surface mining the
Upper Freeport seam has been placed in the latter category, therefore,
much of the effort of this investigation was aimed toward characteriza-
tion of the strata overlying the Upper Freeport in this area.
Sulfur Distribution in Overburden Material
Because the relatively humid climate in northeastern U. S. causes
intense leaching within the upper few meters at the land surface, it
was postulated that sulfate forms of sulfur, being soluble, would ap-
proach being negligible in occurrence. Under this assumption, and
also the fact that sandstones are low in organic materials except for
coal veins, we proceeded with chemical analysis of Upper Freeport
overburden rock for total sulfur. Figure 8 illustrates the distribu-
tion of total sulfur between the land surface and the Upper Freeport
coal at sixteen borings from nine different locations within the
Preston County area of investigation. The consistent occurrence of a
zone, essentially free of sulfur, penetrating about six meters from
the land surface is evident from these data.
Changes in chemical and physical properties of geologic materials due
to natural weathering action have long been recognized (Krumbein and
Pettijohn, 1966). The depth from the land surface to which these
forces penetrate has been shown to range from tens of centimeters in
the arctic to hundreds of meters in the tropics (Oilier, 1969). Data
obtained in the course of this project indicate a uniform depth range
of four to eight meters in northern West Virginia; however, along
local fractures oxidized minerals are found to depths of sixteen
meters. Except in steep slopes where erosion is severe, the weathered,
47
-------
pyritic sulfur free zone is a bountiful source of spoil material that
will not produce significant quantities of acid when exposed as spoil.
The Upper Freeport coal is directly overlain by dark-colored shale,
infrequently reaching a few meters thickness in the area of this
study. Above this shale, or infrequently directly over the coal, the
sandstone, extending to the C horizon of the soils, consists of two
zones: the lower, unweathered, dull gray portion; and the upper,
weathered zone characterized by the brighter colors of oxidized iron.
Reference to Munsell color charts (Soil Survey Staff, 1951) aids
consistent characterization of the weathered zone of the rock as
"high chroma," and the unweathered zone as "low chroma," many of the
samples being of the hue, 10YR. Low chroma, as with soils, refers to
chromas of 2 or lower.
The acquisition of several thousand feet of 4.6 cm solid test cores
from forty-five boring sites in north central Preston County has al-
lowed us to determine that the Lower Mahoning sandstone is a prominent
stratum overlying the Upper Freeport coal in regions not readily ex-
posed as old high walls or current mining operations. Chemical
analyses for total sulfur in selected increments throughout this
stratum, where one or more overlying sedimentary materials intervene
between it and the land surface, show a composition similar to that
displayed by unweathered Lower Mahoning obtained during blast hole
drilling operations. Figure 9 presents the total sulfur content for
several cores where this sandstone was sampled.
The samples from core S-2 were specifically chosen to include black
partings, presumed to be small local coal lenses; the greater sulfur
content of these sections is apparent. Figure 10 illustrates the
changes in sulfur with depth in several predominantly shale over-
burdens. These data indicate more total sulfur in the weathered zone
of these shales than in that of the Lower Mahoning sandstone shown in
Figure 8. The Harlem coal seam (Site W) is relatively close to the
land surface; this situation emphasizes that low sulfur material is
not necessarily always present in near-surface strata. The material
represented at Site T is also shale, but varies widely in total sulfur
content. The lower four meters of material, lying just over the coal,
is high in organic matter and of easily recognizable black color. The
composition emphasizes the need to bury this kind of material to pre-
vent pollution problems. The composition of the material overlying
the Kittanning seam is shown by Site 0, and that the sulfur content is
not prohibitive of ready revegetation is borne out by discussion in
Section XIII.
48
-------
Site C
10
.001
Site A
.01
Sulfur (%)
£ 10
20
Coal
.001
.01
Sulfur (%)
-i.
5 10
Site E-l
Coal
.001
.01
Sulfur
£ 10
.001
Site E-2
.01 .1
Sulfur (%)
£ 10
Q.
-------
£ 10
0.
0>
Q
.001
Site H-l
Coal
.01 ,1
Sulfur (%)
Site H-2
£ 10
Coal
.001
.01
Sulfur (%)
1
£ 10
Sit e I
Coal
001
.01 I
Sulfur (%)
Sit e J
£ 10
Q.
0>
Q
.001
.01 I
Sulfur (%)
Site K-l
£ 10
Coal
.001 .01 I
Sulfur (50
Site K-2
£ 10
Coal
001
.01 .1
Sulfur 00
Site L-1
£ 10
a.
w
Q
20
001
Site L-2
Coal
.01 .1
Sulfur (%)
FIGURE 8 (CONTINUED). TOTAL SULFUR PROFILES IN UPPER FREEPORT
OVERBURDEN
50
-------
Core FP-16
.001
Core F P- i
.01 .1
Sulfur (%)
50r
a 60
70
.001
.01
Sulfur (%)
Core S-2
30
40
50 -
1
.001
Core FP-I 8
.01 I
Sulfur (%)
£ 10
20
30
Coal
001
.01 .1
Sulfur (%)
FIGURE 9. TOTAL SULFUR PROFILES IN LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE
UNEXPOSED TO NATURAL WEATHERING
51
-------
Site 0-2
£ 10
CL
Q
20
001
Site 0-1
£ 10
Q.
-------
Petrographic Evidence of J?yjri_te
Petrographic observations of thin sections indicate that pyrite occurs
throughout most rocks buried deeper than about 6 meters below the
present land surfaces. Feldspars throughout the sections have altered
to kaolinite and (or) dickite or they appear to be in process of such
alteration. Persistence of kaolinite from the unoxidized to the
oxidized rock and soil zones is apparent. Pyrite, on the other hand,
appears relatively stable at depths below about 9 meters, but is
sparse or absent in the top 6 meters where segregated hydroxides are
prominent. Several modes of occurrence of the pyrite are recognizable
and have been distinguished.
Modes of Occurrence of Pyrite and Associated Minerals
Study of thin sections of the acid sandstones indicates that several
modes of occurrence of pyrite can be distinguished. These modes in-
clude:
1. Euhedral (both single crystals and clusters) pyrite along
boundaries between individual sand grains (mostly quartz
but some feldspar grains). Some replacement of quartz and
feldspars is involved.
2. Euhedral crystals along hairline cracks within individual
sand grains. In some cases, the crystals appear to be
merely embedded within the grain with no crack evident, but
it is assumed cracks were present and some were removed by
sectioning. Replacement of quartz or feldspar by pyrite is
indicated since crystals are larger than observable hairline
cracks. Preferential replacement of feldspars compared to
quartz is apparent in some cases.
3. Euhedral crystals disseminated among small (generally silt
sized) grains. It seems likely that these crystals are
secondary and not detrital although they have not clearly
replaced silt grains. Probably they have grown in voids
in the original sediment.
A. Crystals (or clusters) with mosaics of secondary kaolinite
"books" usually bordering feldspar grains. The kaolinite
appears to have formed from feldspars which enclosed the
pyrite. More precisely, the pyrite formed before the
kaolinite formed by diagenesis in a strongly reducing and
slightly acid to alkaline environment. Persistence of the
53
-------
kaolinite in the weathered near-surface environment and in
all horizons of the present soils indicates stability of the
kaolinite through a wide range of geochemical conditions.
5. Crystals attached to the walls of voids within the rock but
only partially filling the voids. Obviously, these crystals
grew from material moving in through the void and (or) from
material on the surface of the grain bordering the void
(quartz or a feldspar).
6. Pyrite embedded within amorphous products of near-surface
weathering. Usually the amorphous material is brown, yellow
or black and may prevent positive identification of the
pyrite. However, opacity to intense light and variable de-
grees of reflectance of indirect light suggest likely
presence of some pyrite crystals. Sections across the
strongly stained material sometimes reveal embedded pyrite
crystals.
The pyrite occurrences identified in acid sandstones all appear to be
secondary to sedimentation.
The size of crystals and clusters observed is highly variable. Some
reflecting surfaces that are too small for positive identification
may be pyrite grains smaller than 2 microns in diameter. These small
faces appear black. The total mass of such material may be small but
its reactivity may be high. Crystals approximating 5 microns diameter
are readily identified. The diameter of some individual crystals or
clusters is as great as 100 microns or even larger, but 5 to 50 microns
is a common range.
Morphological forms such as those suggested by Neavel (1966) for pyrite
in coal may have applications in our work, especially when variable
shales as well as sandstones are included. In Neavel's terminology,
most of the pyrite in our sandstones is euhedral, either isolated or
aggregated. The dendritic (colloform or plumose), cleat (straight or
ramifying), and blebs (cell imprinted or no cell imprints) forms may
apply to some pyrite observed in the finer textured sediments and in
coaly horizons or partings.
The statement in recent literature that pyrite forms prominent in
sandstones like the Mahoning (Upper Freeport coal overburden) are not
reactive, hence, non-acid forming, is interesting but obviously was
not intended to be interpreted in an absolute sense. Our thin-section
54
-------
observations suggest that accessibility of pyrite to the near-surface
weathering agents is a variable influencing rates of acid formation
as well as type of pyrite and grain size. It seems likely that within
the zone of weathering, the degree of encasement of the pyrite within
weathering products such as iron, aluminum and manganese hydroxides
should have a marked influence on the rate of pyrite oxidation regard-
less of the chemical or biological steps involved. Appearances sug-
gest, also, that crystals which have grown from hairline cracks within
sand grains are less accessible to weathering agents than crystals on
grain boundaries or lining larger voids.
Acid Producing Potential of Pyritic Materials
The acidity that may develop from the oxidation of pyrite in over-
burden materials has been determined in two ways. Using the
stoichiometry between pyrite and potential sulphuric acid (Hanna and
Grant, 1962; Singer and Stumm, 1970) it can be calculated that for
material containing 0.1% sulfur, all as pyrite, complete oxidation
will yield a quantity of sulfuric acid that will require 6,250 pounds
of calcium carbonate to neutralize one thousand tons of material.
Analyses for total sulfur in old (5 to 30 year old) spoils indicate
that considerable sulphur remains for at least this long. To be
sure, it has not been demonstrated that the persistent sulfur content
is entirely pyritic. In fact, with many kinds of old samples, much
of the sulphur may be in organic or other forms. If so, this might
influence the failure of the peroxide method to give consistent re-
sults with old spoils, as indicated in following paragraphs.
The potential acidity that a spoil material can develop has been
demonstrated for some materials by direct chemical measurement.
Treatment of pulverized ( 250 u) spoil materials with 30% ^2Q2 re~
suits in the oxidation of reduced sulfur to titratable sulfuric acid.
An equivalence between titratable acidity generated upon H^O^ treat-
ment and total sulfur content has been shown in a comparative study
involving selected sandstone and shale samples. Statistical treatment
of the data (Table 3) shows the close relation between total sulfur
and titratable potential acidity in 69 shale and sandstone samples.
However, with 44 samples of old spoil, representing a wide variety
of materials in terms of texture, organic content, and degree of
weathering, no consistent relationship was obtained.
Certain aspects of determining potential acidity by a l^O. method in
old spoils that demand future investigation are (1) amounts of sulfate,
organic, and pyritic sulfur forms, (2) effect of organic matter in
55
-------
decomposing the H202 before it can act upon the pyrite, (3) effect of
elements such as aluminum, calcium and iron released during weathering
of the old spoils. Data obtained from analyses of fresh sandstone and
shale samples show that the hydrogen peroxide oxidation procedure out-
line in Section VI can be effectively used to measure the amount of
acid that certain rock specimens can be expected to generate upon pro-
longed exposure to weathering.
Summary
Total sulphur determinations, (reflecting pyritic and organic sulphides)
supported by petrographic observations and acid measurement by treatment
with hydrogen peroxide, have established that unweathered Lower Mahoning
sandstone and underlying shales, although of non-marine origin, contain
sufficient finely disseminated pyrite to account for observed mineral
acidity and toxicity of mine spoils and waters in central Preston County,
West Virginia. However, within the weathered zone of the sandstone,
commonly recognized by brown and yellow iron oxide colors (high chromas)
pyrite has been destroyed by oxidation. The remaining rock is acid and
low in soluble compounds, but it retains no reserve of potential acidity
nor associated toxicity. Weathering depth in this particular rock has
been approximately 6 meters, and deeper along old fracture planes. Dif-
ferent weathering depths are expected in other lithologies.
Additional details about sulphur and weathering depth are being pub-
lished elsewhere (Grube et a_l. , in process, 1971b).
56
-------
Table 3
Statistical comparison of acidity generated by sample treatment with H-O^ with
percent total sulfur in three groups of samples.
Sample Type
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Old Spoil
No. of
Samples
35
34
69
44
Range of
Total Sulfur
%
.009 - .810
.025 - 2.90
.009 - 2.90
.001 - .780
Meq H+/100g (Y)
r2 Y = a
a
.728 -0.641
.864 -4.4018
.862 -2.5368
.056 2.2442
vs % Total
+ b X
b
37.5875
43.6002
42.3889
6.4894
Sulfur (X)
c.i.Mm
6.9
20.6
11.0
3.8
-------
SECTION IX
CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY AND WEATHERING OF PROFILES
The rock chip samples taken from locations A, C, E, H and L (see
Section VII) were analyzed for pH, exchangeable bases, exchangeable
aluminum, free aluminum, manganese and iron, total iron, total calcium,
potassium, copper, manganese and zinc. These analyses were carried out
for several reasons: (1) to measure native acidity of rock material;
(2) to determine the potential of this material to produce acidity;
(3) to establish areas (depth) rich in pyritic or other potentially
toxic material; (4) to evaluate nutrient contents which could become
available to plants due to weatharing of these rocks; and (5) to com-
pare properties of rock material with that of the soils which are
presently found above these unweathered rocks at the above mentioned
locations.
Samples were ground to pass a 60 mesh sieve. Rock chip and soil pH
measurements were made with a glass electrode pH meter, using 2:1 rock
chip:water ratio and 1:1 soil:water ratio with a 30-minute equilibration
period. Ammonium acetate (pH 7) extractable Ca, Mg, and K; and KC1
extractable Al were determined using a Perkin-Elmer 403 Atomic Absorp-
tion instrument.
Rock chip samples, taken in 32 cm (12.5 inch) increments, were analyzed
for distribution of exchangeable bases, Al and pH, at several locations
(Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). Rock chip samples started below the soil with
sample increment No. 1 (3 to 5 feet (90 to 150 cm) below original land
surface), and continued to near the coal seam.
£H
At Site A (Table 4) and Site L (Table 5) the pH of rock chip samples
ranged from 5.3 to 5.8 within the weathered zone (samples 1 to 20),
and in the unweathered zone, from 6.3 to 8.0 for the A series (samples
21 to 38) and 6.6 to 7.3 for the L series (21 to 48). No significant
difference in pH with depth was observed at the other three locations
(C, E and H) (Tables 6,7,8). At these locations pH was in the acid
range. High pH at A and L (unweathered zone) may have resulted from
alkaline earth cations or carbonates deposited during sedimentation.
Exchangeable Bases
The top 20 feet (6 meters) of rock material at all five locations
were low in exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg and K) and low in pH. Below
this depth, exchangeable bases at locations A, L and H increased several
59
-------
Table 4
Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location A.
Depth
Increments
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
PH
5.3
5.5
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.9
5.7
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.8
5.1
5.2
Ca
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.40
0.50
0.80
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.70
0.50
0.30
0.20
0.70
K
.15
.11
.07
.15
.20
.20
.16
.16
.18
.17
.17
.17
.22
.16
.12
.12
.15
Mg
.05
.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.30
.30
.40
.34
.30
.30
.28
.10
.10
.10
.20
Al
0.60
0.75
0.28
0.47
0.61
0.23
0.50
0.30
0.19
0.33
0.29
2.28
0.42
0.95
0.71
0.57
0.00
60
-------
Table 4 (continued)
Depth
Increments
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
PH
6.0
5.2
6.3
7.7
7.7
7.5
8.0
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.2
7.0
7.5
7.5
7.3
7.6
6.9
7.0
7.1
6.3
Ca
1.50
1.10
1.50
3.40
2.80
2.80
3.90
2.80
2.80
3.30
3.30
3.30
2.60
3.10
2.80
3.10
2.00
2.00
1.80
1.30
K
.17
.18
.14
.15
.17
.17
.16
.15
.16
.18
.17
.17
.16
.20
.16
.20
.17
.17
.18
.22
Mg
.40
.38
.42
1.10
.90
.90
1.25
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.25
1.25
1.00
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.00
.70
.70
.42
Al
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
61
-------
Table 5
Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location L.
Depth
Increments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
PH
5.3
5.1
5.1
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.6
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.9
5.5
Ca
0.85
0.45
0.25
0.375
0.55
0.40
0.20
0.22
0.20
0.19
0.35
0.70
1.0
0.95
0.55
0.65
0.52
K
0.23
0.17
0.19
0.18
0.13
0.11
0.13
0.17
0.24
0.17
0.27
0.22
0.26
0.23
0.23
0.21
0.15
Mg
0.18
0.12
0.16
0.17
0.22
0.12
0.07
0.12
0.14
0.1
0.22
0.45
0.64
0.52
0.48
0.32
0.20
____
Al
4.85
1.65
2.70
1.45
1.30
0.60
0.08
0.20
0.32
0.20
0.80
0.90
0.20
0.32
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
62
-------
Table 5 (continued)
Depth
Increments
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
pH
6.1
6.5
6.6
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.1
6.6
7.1
6.8
6.7
7.1
7.1
7.3
6.7
7.1
7.3
7.1
6.7
Ca
1.1
4.2
4.2
5.5
5.2
4.12
4.6
1.15
3.65
1.62
1.62
3.15
2.72
5.21
2.95
4.4
3.45
3.02
2.62
K
0.23
0.24
0.16
0.12
0.21
0.14
0.17
0.19
0.18
0.25
0.25
0.23
0.24
0.19
0.23
0.22
0.19
0.23
0.21
Mg
0.42
1.34
1.25
2.58
2.52
1.17
1.47
0.33
1.17
0.48
0.48
1.1
0.85
2.2
1.52
1.85
1.32
0.9
0.8
Al
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
63
-------
Table 5 (continued)
Depth
Increments pH Ca K Hg
38 6,8 1.4 0,21 0,42 0.00
39 6.6 2.48 0.22 0.9 0.00
40 7.0 4.42 0.17 1.65 0.00
64
-------
Table 6
Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location C.
Depth
Increments
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
PH
5.1
5.1
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.4
5.5
5.7
5.6
5.3
5.2
Ca
0.60
0.80
-.60
0.80
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
0.80
0.80
0.00
1.00
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.60
K
0.22
0.18
0.14
0.20
0.20
0.16
0.18
0.24
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.22
0.22
0.20
0.22
0.17
Mg
0.32
0.44
0.36
0.56
0.49
0.49
0.52
0.52
0.36
0.40
0.32
0.56
0.48
0.36
0.36
0.28
Al
0.47
0.47
0.23
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
65
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Depth
Increments
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
PH
5.4
5.2
5.0
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.1
5.3
5.1
5.0
5.3
5.1
4.7
4.9
Ca
0.60
0.90
0.70
0.70
0.60
1.10
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.70
1.20
K
0.18
0.24
0.24
0.17
0.20
0.22
0.21
0.21
0.20
0.17
0.24
0.14
0.20
0.20
Mg
0.44
0.29
0.28
0.24
0.48
0.40
0.28
0.36
0.28
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.29
Al
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0,00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
66
-------
Table 7
Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) in rock chip samples
from location E.
Depth
Increments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
PH
4.8
5.2
5.0
5.1
5.4
4.8
5.3
5.2
5.4
6.1
5.2
5.6
5.3
5.5
5.9
6.3
, 6.2
Ca
0.45
1.00
2.20
2.70
1.60
2.20
0.75
1.20
0.90
1.00
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
1.00
0.90
K
0.41
0.35
» 0.28
0.40
0.38
0.38
0.48
0.36
0.39
0.32
0.42
0.27
0.22
0.20
0.31
0.20
Mg
0.50
1.00
1.78
1.98
1.30
1.94
0.41
1.20
0.70
0.80
0.88
0.74
0.54
0.70
1.00
0.88
Al
4.20
3.80
1.75
0.67
0.50
0.70
0.90
0.00
0.70
0.68
0.33
0.33
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
67
-------
Table 7 (continued)
Depth
Increments
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
pH
6.4
6.0
6.4
6.3
6.5
6.0
6.5
6.3
5.6
5.2
5.4
6.1
5.0
4.4
4.6
4.7
4.4
4.9
5.3
Ca
1.20
1.00
0.90
1.00
1.45
1.60
0.90
1.45
0.60
0.60
0.75
1.95
1.80
1.45
1.30
1.60
1.45
2.10
2.70
2.70
K
0.20
0.22
0.20
0.15
0.24
0.24
0.28
0.30
0.33
0.27
0.16
0.28
0.32
0.40
0.05
0.04
0.24
0.1
0.61
0.57
Mg
1.12
1.00
0.60
0.74
1.30
1.38
1.52
0.64
0.64
0.60
0.74
1.64
1.58
1.78
0.24
0.16
1.06
0.20
2.16
2.00
Al
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
68
-------
Table 8
Exchangeable bases (meq/lOOg) In rock chip samples
from location H.
Depth
Increments
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
PH
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.4
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.7
4.9
4.5
4.1
4.5
Ca
0.65
0.80
0.65
0.30
0.50
0.80
0.40
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.20
0.45
0.65
0.30
0.40
1.60
K
1.10
0.85
1.40
1.20
1.25
1.50
0.70
0.95
0.40
0.70
0.60
0.60
0.90
0.80
0.80
0.70
0.75
Mg
0.1
0.15
0.10
0.07
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.15
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.20
0.07
0.20
1.20
Al
1.3
1.0
1.7
1.4
1.7
1.4
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
0.8
69
-------
Table 8 (continued)
Depth
Increments
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
pH
6.0
5.0
5.1
5.3
4.8
4.6
4.2
4.0
3.7
3.0
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.2
4.0
Ca
2.30
2.00
2.10
2.10
1.50
1.70
1.50
1.00
1.40
1.10
1.40
1.20
1.20
1.40
1.60
K
0.45
0.75
0.80
0.50
0.60
0.60
0.55
0.70
1.00
0.65
1.00
0.70
0.80
0.85
0.50
Mg
1.60
1.50
1.50
1.60
1.10
1.25
1.00
0.65
0.80
0.65
1.10
1.25
1.40
1.60
1.80
Al
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
2.7
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
70
-------
fold. Increase in sulfur content was also observed at these loca-
tions below the 20 feet depth. Petrographic studies of this material
showed the presence of pyrite. Lack of bases in the weathered zone
and accumulation of bases below twenty feet indicates that the high
concentration of hydrogen ions in the upper horizons removed Ca, Mg
and K from the upper weathered zone (Figures 11 and 12). High con-
centration of hydrogen ion and absence of pyrite in the upper layer
was a result of weathering.
According to Jenny (1950) and Keller and Frederickson (1952). the
presence of hydrogen ions around silicate minerals intensifies the
weathering process. The decomposition of silicate minerals is ac-
complished through exchange reactions in which H ions replace metallic
ions, which weakens the structure and accelerates additional weathering.
There seems to be no doubt that hydrogen ions furnished by the oxida-
tion of pyrite initiated disruption of crystal structures of minerals
of argillaceous rock and this resulted in increasing the contents of
exchangeable Al (Tables 4 to 8) and free iron oxides (to be discussed
later) in the upper horizons.
Chemical Analyses of Rock Chip Samples
Elemental analyses of rock chip samples were carried out to help
determine the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the rock.
This type of information is of importance to the fundamental inter-
pretations of the chemical processes of soil development and as a
background to soil fertility and toxicity interpretations. Informa-
tion gained from these analyses also contributes to formulation of
optimum plans for revegetation and control of soil erosion and water
pollution.
An important factor controlling the rate of breakdown of rocks and
minerals and genesis of secondary products is the quantity and quality
of water percolating through the weathering environment. Weathering
reactions are accelerated by repeated flushings of rainwater which
remove soluble constituents from the mineral surfaces.
Calcium and Potassium
Total Ca and K in rock chip samples collected from various locations
are given in Tables 9 and 10. In general, the upper twenty feet
(6 meters) of rock chip samples at all locations contained only small
amounts of Ca. Generally, Ca varied between 0.05 and 0.2 percent.
The upper zones at all locations were also low in sulfur, pH and ex-
changeable Ca. Below the weathered zone, total Ca in rock chip samples
71
-------
N3
Q.
-------
2 GL
Q
0
Site L-l
0
20
0
;;?::;:A~:""Y
VAI
Co + Mq
2468
Ex.ck. Cations(meq/ioo g)
10
FIGURE 12. EXCHANGEABLE CATION PROFILE OF LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE AT SITE L
-------
Table 9
Percent total calcium in rock chip samples
from selected locations.
Depth
Increments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Locations
A C
0 . 1
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.15
0.3
1.2
2.6
0.15
0.55
0.45 0.10
0.1 0.10
o.i o.io
E
0.45
0.20
0.10
0.35
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.25
0.35
0.25
0.10
0.30
0.40
0.15
0.25
0.40
H
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.05
L
0.20
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.10
0.15
0.09
0.12
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.15
0.14
74
-------
Table 9 (continued)
Depth
Increments
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Locations
A
0.05
0.55
2.3
0.7
2.05
1.8
0.3
1.07
1.55
0.65
1.25
0.75
1.55
3.05
1.55
0.75
1.40
0.75
0.65
C
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
E
0.35
0.20
0.30
0.15
0.10
0.30
0.20
0.15
0.30
0.15
0.14
0.05
0.10
0.45
0.40
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
H
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.25
0.30
0.30
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
L
0.06
0.06
0.20
0.10
1.02
1.05
0.20
0.22
0.03
0.18
0.03
0.03
0.20
0.22
1.00
0.25
0.80
0.38
3.60
75
-------
Table 9 (continued)
Depth
Increments
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Locations
A C E H
0,65 0.10 — —
0.65 0.05 -— — —
0.05 — —
0.01 — — — —
— ~ 0.05 -—
— — 0.10
— - 0.10 — —
-— 0.10
0.10 —
_. — ____
____ — , — _,___ __„_
— — 0.10 — — — —
L
4,50
0.88
0.40
1.45
0.60
0.25
1.40
0.40
0.15
0.20
0.22
0.70
76
-------
Table 10
Percent potassium in rock chip samples from
selected locations.
Depth
Sequence C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 1.8
14 2.1
15 1.4
16 1.8
17 1.55
Locations
E
2.4
2.4
3.2
4.2
1.7
4.2
1.0
2.5
1.8
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.5
2.1
1.8
H
1.10
0.85
1.40
1.20
1.25
0.50
0.70
0.95
0.40
0.70
0.60
0.60
0.90
0.80
L
0.70
0.50
0.65
0.50
0.50
0.22
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.30
0.60
0.85
0.75
0.72
0.50
0.40
0.22
77
-------
Table 10 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
3A
35
36
Locations
C
1.15
1.65
1.40
1.15
1.35
1.65
1.40
1.55
1.70
1.35
1.55
2.10
2.10
1.70
1.95
E
2.4
1.3
0.7
1.2
2.0
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
3.1
2.3
0.9
2.4
2.4
0.3
0.7
2.1
H
0.80
0,70
0.75
0.45
0.75
0.80
0.50
0.60
0.60
0.55
0.70
1.00
0.65
1.00
0.70
0.80
0.85
0.50
____
L
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.22
0.37
0.90
0.40
0.22
0.30
0.30
0.27
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.52
0.50
0.62
0.30
0.50
78
-------
Table 10 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
C
1.55
1.95
1.70
1.40
1.20
0.90
1.10
Q.80
CMQ
0.40
Locations
E H L
0.50
0.45
0.52
0.22
0.25
0.22
1.17
1.17
1.17
1.42
1.15
0.75
79
-------
at locations A and L increased several fold. This was also reflected
by high pH values and prominence of Ca among the exchangeable cations
in lower zones at these locations, as well as the presence of free
carbonates. Leaching of basic ions had not occurred in these regions.
Accumulation of free carbonates probably occurred during the deposi-
tion of sedimentary material.
At the other three locations (C, E and H), Ca concentration of the
lower zones did not vary significantly from the upper zones. The
absence of free carbonates at these three locations indicates a dif-
ference in the conditions during deposition of the sedimentary material.
From these low total Ca results one could easily visualize that expos-
ing lower rock strata which are rich in pyrite at locations C, E and
H will increase the difficulty of revegetation. These results also
help in explaining the varying degrees of difficulty in establishing
plant cover on apparently similar spoil materials.
Data in Table 10 show the distribution of total K relative to changes
in rock depth. It is generally high at locations E and C; however,
distribution of K shows no specific trend relative to changes in rock
depth. Mica was distributed unevenly throughout the rock as indicated
by X-ray diffraction patterns and by petrographic studies. Since no
other K bearing minerals, e.g., feldspars, were observed in rock chip
samples, it appears that K contents are contributed largely by the
mica components of the rock material. The slight difference in the
exchangeable K in weathered and unweathered zones can be explained on
the basis that acid leaching of this rock material intensified weather-
ing of mica in the weathered horizons, and this may have replenished
exchangeable K in this zone. Mine spoil material derived from both
weathered and unweathered zones, Sites E and C, may be capable of sup-
plying adequate amounts of K to plants so that additional K at the time
of revegetation may not be needed.
Total and Free Fe, Total_Mn_ and Cu, and Free Mn and Al
Colored compounds, especially iron oxides, are clearly visible and
often are interpreted in the field, especially in distinguishing
between highly weathered and nonweathered rocks and in determining
soil drainage or wetness. Like Al and Mn, iron oxides are affected
by the processes of weathering and have an importance in studies of
soil genesis (McKeague and Day, 1966). Iron and Mn are not only plant
nutrients, but they also play a part in controlling the availability
of phosphorus to plants under acid conditions. Determinations of Fe,
Mn and Al in the rock strata and soil profile help, therefore, in
describing the type, the distribution, the direction and the extent
80
-------
Table 11
Total iron oxide (Fe20~) in rock chip samples
from selected locations.
Depth
Sequence
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Locations
A C
0.58
1.44
1.61
4.03
2.73
1.87
1.82
3.17
1.87
2.01
2.89
1.44 2.9
2.30 2.9
2.30 2.6
2.30 3.1
1.16 2.0
E
3.50
3.25
4.40
5.80
4.60
3.30
3.60
2.55
5.35
6.12
5.60
1.90
1.35
2.50
3.50
1.90
2.25
H
3.6
3.8
2.5
1.4
0.9
6.6
0.5
0.7
2.5
0.8
1.1
1.5
1.9
1.6
L
7.74
4.00
6.66
6.73
8.31
4.00
2.00
4.87
1.79
1.00
2.00
1.57
1.29
2.00
3.01
3.58
2.50
81
-------
Table 11 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Locations
A
3.17
1.73
2.16
5.76
3.03
4.95
2.74
2.74
1.15
2.84
3.31
4.03
2.74
2.30
1.73
3.60
1.87
C
2.0
2.1
2.1
4.0
3.4
1.1
1.2
1.3
0.9
1.4
3.7
3.1
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
E
2.10
1.25
1.00
2.80
2.60
4.90
2.50
1.35
1.90
1.80
3.50
2.55
2.05
6.05
4.80
0.30
0.30
0.15
0.03
H
1.5
1.3
2.9
0.7
2.7
5.4
1.8
1.5
0.4
0.8
1.1
2.8
1.6
2.5
1.3
1.9
1.9
0.8
_•«.
L
1.79
4.44
2.93
1.14
2.86
1.79
0.28
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.78
0.71
0.71
0.78
1.57
4.87
2.72
0.64
0.86
82
-------
Table 11 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
37
38
39
AO
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Locations
AC EH
2.59 2.6 0.35
2.88 4.0
4.0
3.7
2.0
3.4
2.0
1.4
1.4
1.6
L
0.83
0.71
4.58
13.47
4.58
5.59
6.16
5.01
4.58
4.73
4.00
3.44
83
-------
Table 12
Percent free iron oxides ^6203) in rock chip samples.
Depth
Sequence
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Locations
A
__ _ _
0.32
0.49
1.44
1.59
1.75
1.09
1.82
1.80
1.47
1.36
1.66
0.85
1.82
1.75
1.47
0.88
1.55
C E
3.4
1-9
3.6
4.8
4.3
2.0
3.0
2.1
4.2
3.5
1.8
1.2
0.79 1.3
1.10 2.2
0.76 1.1
0.75 0.9
1.13 1.4
1.30 0.9
H
_
0.87
1.51
1.49
0.58
0.38
0.17
1.38
0.47
1.96
0.47
1.10
1.34
1.44
1.51
1.37
L
2.22
2.29
0.64
1.79
2.29
1.23
0.61
1.27
0.80
0.24
0.61
0.61
0.64
1.43
1.14
1.14
0.50
0.53
F
3.00
2.28
2.80
2.50
2.45
1.90
1.70
2.38
2.75
2.45
2.17
2.75
2.50
2.20
0.85
0.75
0.50
0.30
84
-------
Table 12 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Locations
A
0.63
1.51
2.64
0.65
1.60
0.47
0.51
• 0.79
1.06
0.61
0.79
0.27
0.24
0.19
0*51
0.34
0.27
0.32
C
0.79
1.30
1.13
1.37
0.61
0.84
1.22
0.79
" 1.33
0.65
1.12
1.22
0.84
0.58
1.24
1.40
E
1.0
0.2
1.0
1.3
4.8
2.2
0.2
0.7
0.3
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.00
0.00
H
0.42
0.38
0.35
1.01
1.51
0.39
1.20
0.59
1.03
0.19
0.86
0.02
0.37
0.19
0.23
0.44
0.22
L
0.54
0.37
1.23
0.65
0.84
0.53
1.14
0.38
1.00
1.00
0.14
0.05
1.00
0.45
0.65
0.24
1.29
1.00
0.86
F
0.15
0.50
0.40
0.65
0.85
0.40
0.25
0.37
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.65
0.48
0.20
85
-------
Table 12 (continued)
Depth
Sequence
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
A C
1.48
1.53
1.50
1.37
0.26
1.30
1.33
1.48
1.53
Locations
E H L
1.00
0.50
0.97
0.40
0.43
0.45
0.21
1.14
0.21
0.22
0.20
F
0.70
0.50
0.25
____
86
-------
of weathering and may be used to interpret fertility problems related
to phosphate availability and toxic levels of Fe, Mn and Al.
Total and Free Iron
Free and total iron oxides are listed in Tables 11 and 12. Although
distribution of free iron oxides is somewhat erratic with rock depth,
the overall trend is a decrease in the unweathered rock. This is not
an unusual property of rock material. With the exception of the E
location, free iron oxide contents vary between 0.5 and 3.0%. This
can be considered normal for this type of rock material in a weathered
zone. It is interesting that at location L, only a small fraction of
the total iron oxide is present in free iron oxide form, while at
other locations, between 50 and 85% of the total iron oxide is present
in the free iron oxide form in the weathered zone (Tables 11 and 12).
The increase in the free iron oxide/total iron ratio indicates more
advanced weathering in the upper zones at location A, C, £ and H. This
also indicates that further exposure of this zone will not produce more
reactive iron and as a result, maintenance of phosphorus availability
may be eased.
Considering total levels of iron oxides at F, exposure of this material
may result in increasing levels of free iron oxides, which could inten-
sify phosphate fixation if proper liming is not carried out prior to
applying phosphorus fertilizers.
Since quantities of pyrite found at each location were too low to ac-
count for total amounts of iron oxides, some of the total iron must
have come from another source. Mica which was common in these rocks,
(petrographic observations) is believed to have contributed to the
remaining amount of total iron oxides.
Total and Free Mn
Free and total Mn concentrations in the rock were generally low
(Tables 13 and 14), with the only major variability found in the upper
weathered zone at L. It is interesting to note that in most cases,
between 80 and 95% of the total Mn is present in free Mn form. This
means that most of the total Mn is present in easily reducible form.
At H (Table 13), total Mn concentrations are as low as 10 ppm. Ad-
dition of lime to this spoil may lead to insufficient amounts of
available Mn for some plants. On the other hand, manganese toxicity
to plants may occur at L under very acid conditions.
87
-------
Table 13
Total manganese (ppm) in rock chip samples
from selected locations.
Depth
Increments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Locations
L C
550
425
620
900
300
150
100
150
150
100
100
100
50 200
50 120
250 200
500 80
620 160
E
100
250
300
1000
500
500
100
200
400
630
550
450
250
150
250
250
300
H
60
440
320
40
20
40
20
10
10
10
20
20
40
10
88
-------
Table 13 (continued)
Depth
Increments
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Locations
L
200
1050
820
200
550
620
100
150
50
100
100
100
100
100
300
670
450
100
125
C
160
200
120
200
280
360
120
120
240
80
200
80
400
80
80
200
E
150
250
150
1000
450
150
350
350
450
650
1000
350
350
450
250
000
000
H
10
20
160
340
210
300
100
40
40
20
20
40
10
40
4G
60
40
40
....
89
-------
Table 13 (continued)
Depth Locations
Increments L C E
37 100 560 000
38 100 360
39 670 320
40 2250 280
41 670 360
42 350 400
43 500 200
44 300 160
45 250 80
46 400
47 300
48 200 80
90
-------
Table 14
Free Mn and free Al (ppm) in rock chip samples
from selected locations.
Depth A £ E H
Increments Al Mn Al Mn Al Mn Al Mn
1
2 550 50
3 660 20
4 770 50 1100 40
5 1100 50 1980 220
6 1100 100 1650 310
7 770 40 820 40
8 1100 250 550 10
9 880 300 2860 10
10 660 100 780 10
11 660 50 790 10
12 770 250 770 10
13 550 40 550 100 770 10
14 850 320 660 55 770 10
15 880 190 660 125 880 40
16 770 80 550 25 990 75
17 660 100 770 140 1430 100
91
-------
Table 14 (continued)
Depth A £ 1 I*
Increments Al Mn Al Mn Al Mn Al Mn
18 440 310 770 125 — 880 10
19 440 725 550 180 —_ — 880 10
20 550 250 880 100 ___ 660 40
21 550 125 550 170 440 50
22 330 80 660 100 660 75
23 440 190 440 50 770 300
24 660 50 550 100 550 50
25 330 50 550 100 880 20
26 330 50 550 50 660 40
27 440 50 770 220 220 10
28 440 50 550 50 220 10
29 550 100 880 175 — 1210 20
30 1320 200 550 10
31 440 50 550 10
32 550 1Q
33 440 50 880 40 440 10
34 440 50 440 10
35 550 100 660 55 440 10
36 660 100 880 175
92
-------
Table 14 (continued)
Depth A £ £ K
Increments Al Mn Al Mn < Al Mn Al Mn
37 660 50 880 500
38 880 50 770 320
39 880 240
40 990 250
41 880 180
42 770 335
43 550 170
44 i 990 100
45 ,.:•... 1540 25
46 —- —^
47
48 1540 10
93
-------
Free Al
Distribution of free Al in rock at various depths and locations is
shown in Table 14. The high concentration of free Al, in addition
to free Mn and Fe oxides in the upper 20 feet of rock strata, indi-
cates intensive weathering. There is a relatively wide range in the
amounts of free Al between locations studied; however, free Al con-
tents are generally low below 20 feet at several locations and are
clearly related to the exchangeable Al (Tables 4 to 8). Evidently
free Al in the weathered zones of this rock material resulted from
reactions of clay minerals with the acids produced by the oxidation
of the sulfides. Free Al present at this stage may not pose difficult
problems in the establishment of cover crops provided proper treatment
with lime is carried out in advance of revegetation.
Total Cu
Data in Table 15 show distribution of Cu in rock material at several
locations. Concentration of Cu varied with location, between 4 and
26 ppm at location H and over 100 ppm at location C. In normal soils,
over 50 ppm Cu is considered very high and below 10 ppm is considered
low. At other locations, Cu was between 20 and 50 ppm. According to
Mitchell (1964) the total content of trace elements can be a good
indication of their potential availability to plants. Study of several
West Virginia soils show Cu content between 10 and 20 ppm, which is
acceptable for normal plant growth. Soils which will develop from
weathering of rock at location C will certainly contain higher amounts
of Cu. The implications of this on Cu availability to plants will
emerge later, but it is relevant at this point to mention that applica-
tion of waste materials such as sewage sludges, in which Cu content may
be around 1000 ppm may make revegetation difficult on such mine spoils
as C. Plants grown on C rock in the greenhouse showed yellowing of
leaves which may be an indication of Cu toxicity. Unfortunately,
chemical analyses of plants were not carried out. Future studies should
include chemical analyses of plants grown on mine spoil material.
Chemical Characteristics of Several Soil Profiles
Exchangeable Bases and Al
Soils at all locations, except E and C, were very low in exchangeable
bases (Ca, Mg and K). Oxidation of the pyrite has resulted in leaching
of parent rock with sulfuric acid before exposure to soil forming pro-
cesses. As a result, these soils (except E and C, which were recently
limed) are high in exchangeable Al (Tables 16 and 17). It is interesting
94
-------
Table 15
Total Cu (ppm) in rock chip samples
from selected locations.
Depth
Increments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Locations
C •- E
50.5
40.0
55.0
45.0
50 . 0
45.0
25.0
40.0
40.0
35 . 0
25.5
30.5
94 50.5
122 25.0
142 30.5
338 30.5
60 45.0
L
50
25
45
45
52
30
15
35
25
30
25
10
30
30
30
10
15
H
—
—
—
12
12
20
20
20
12
12
6
20
12
12
6
4
4
95
-------
Table 15 (continued)
Depth
Increments
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Locations
C
42
88
198
318
122
376
206
180
150
118
72
6
202
296
126
136
E
30.5
10.0
45.0
40.0
20.0
20.0
25.0
45.0
5.0
20.0
20.0
30.5
50.0
30.5
55.0
20.0
20.0
5.0
40.0
L
25
10
10
5
15
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
55
28
28
25
25
25
H
6
6
12
6
12
12
4
12
12
12
20
42
20
24
20
22
26
12
96
-------
Table 15 (continued)
Depth
Increments
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
C
304
82
154
76
94
108
122
76
72
25
Locations
E L
20.0 20
20
25
18
25
35
40
35
25
_MWW ••«.
H
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
^«
97
-------
Table 16
Some chemical properties of Dekalb soil taken from three locations (A, C and H).
so
oo
Exchangeable Cations per
Location
and
Horizon
A
Al
A2
B
c:
Ap
A3
B
C
H
Apl
Depth
Inches
0-2
2-8
11-18
0-6
6-10
12-18
18-22
0-2
PH
in H20
(1:17
5.1
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.5
Organic
Matter
%
10.6
5.7
1.1
5.2
3.6
2.0
0.4
8.4
Total
Fe70_
2%3
1.5
1.8
2.4
2.4
2.9
2.9
2.9
1.43
Free
Fe-0.,
2%3
1.4
1.4
1.9
2.1
2.0
2.3
1.3
1.43
CEC per
100 g
Meq
16.4
5.8
6.6
10.0
6.6
6.2
6.2
9.5
Ca
Meq
4.90
1.30
1.10
7.80
1.70
0.95
0.95
3.30
Mg
Meq
0.250
0.050
0.050
0.650
0.050
0.050
0.050
0.20
K
Meq
0.185
0.100
0.150
0.485
0.235
0.150
0.130
0.26
Al
Meq
0.80
1.12
1.70
0.25
1.60
2.00
1.90
1.3
100 g
Base
Satura-
tion %
32.6
25.0
19.1
25.0
30.1
18.5
18.2
39.5
-------
Table 16 (continued)
vo
vo
Exchangeable Cations per
Location
and
Horizon
Ap2
B21
B22
C
Depth
Inches
2-7
7-13
13-21
21-27
pH
in H70
(1:1)
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.3
Organic
Matter
%
4.1
1.3
1.5
0.6
Total
Fe,0-
2%3
2.09
2.32
2.17
2.43
Free
Fe.O,
2%3
1.29
1.29
1.40
1.20
CEC per
100 g
Meq
8.0
8.0
9.5
11.5
Ca
Meq
0.92
0.20
0.21
0.21
Mg
Meq
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.06
K
Meq
0.11
0.09
0.12
0.14
Al
Meq
2.0
2.8
4.0
2.2
100 g
Base
Satura-
tion %
13.5
3.9
3.8
3.6
-------
Table 17
Some chemical properties of soils taken from two locations (E and L).
o
o
Exchangeable Cations per 100 g
Location
and
Horizon
E
Ap
Bl
B2T
BX1
BX,
L
Al
A3
B2T
ffil
BX2
Depth
Inches
0-20
20-30
30-48
48-54
54-68
0-18
18-30
30-48
48-66
66-107
PH
in HO
(1:17
5.7
5.5
5.2
4.7
4.7
3.9
4.0
4.2
4.0
4.1
Organic
Matter
4.
3.
2.
2.
0.
6.
4.
1.
0.
0.
0
4
9
8
1
9
2
1
2
1
Total
Fe2%3
4.9
6.0
5.4
7.2
6.8
3.7
5.2
5.1
7.4
8.0
Free
Fe 0,
2%3
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.5
1.9
2.1
3.3
2.8
2.0
CEC per
100 g
Meq
14.
15.
15.
17.
18.
7.
7.
7.
5.
5.
5
2
5
5
5
1
0
4
4
8
Ca
Meq
11.
10.
3.
2.
2.
1.
0.
2.
1.
0.
20
20
80
30
40
10
40
00
10
80
Mg
Meq
0.30
0.20
0.05
0.15
0.30
0.14
0.08
0.15
0.14
0.13
K
Meq
0.10
0.09
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.28
0.15
0.16
0.15
0.15
Al
Meq
0.1
0.7
3.1
4.5
5.9
3.6
2.9
4.2
3.4
3.8
Base
Satura-
tion %
0.7
4.6
20.0
25.7
31.9
50.7
41.4
56.7
63.0
65.5
-------
that the soils are similar to the rock, between 70 and 100 per cent
of the total iron being present as free iron oxide in the upper
horizons, while the lower horizons show a marked decrease in free
iron oxide compared to total iron content. Soils at locations E and
L, which are high in total iron oxide, show a very small fraction of
the total iron as free iron oxide. Low free iron oxide content of E
and L soils suggest less intensive weathering of this soil. Mechanical
analyses for these two soils, as discussed later, do not support this
contention. Variation in the free iron oxide/total iron could be due
to variation in the source of iron in the parent rock. Biotite minerals
which carry iron are more resistant to weathering than pyrite, and may
have influenced the free iron oxide concentration at the above mentioned
locations. Petrographic analyses of parent rock at E and L locations
showed presence of mica.
Mechanical Analysis
Table 18 shows results obtained for mechanical analyses of soils at
five locations. Results at E and L are based on an air dry, organic
matter-free basis; at locations A, C and H on the basis of air dry
weight with organic matter included.
The particle size distribution of the soils at locations A, C and H
were similar, with slight variability in the sand and clay contents
of the H soil, which contained more sand and less clay. In these soils
total clay contents ranged from 14 to 24%, being rather uniform with
depth. These soils were well drained and consisted of coarse texture
which reflected the influence of parent rock.
Soils developed at locations E and L showed greater variability in
sand and clay fractions. Soil at E location contained less sand and
more clay than the soil at location L. Both soils showed an increase
in clay in the lower horizons, indicating illuviation of clay material.
However, lack of prominent clay skins indicated that textural dif-
ference in parent rock may, in some cases, have contributed to greater
percentages of clay in the lower horizons (B horizon). There are some
evidences, such as the decrease in sand in the B horizon of the E soil,
which indicated a probable textural variation in the soil parent rock.
This may explain differences in the development of different soils at
locations E and L. From the results of mechanical analyses, one could
visualize the influence of texture of parent rock on the development of
these soils.
101
-------
Table 18
Mechanical analysis of soil profiles.
Depth
Location Horizon Inches
A A! 0-2
A2 2-8
B 11-18
C Ap 0-6
A3 6-10
B 12-18
C 20-21
H Apl 0-2
Ap2 2-7
B21 7-13
B22 13-21
C 21-27
E Ap 0-20
BX 20-30
B2T 30-48
BXj^ 48-54
BX2 54-68
Total Sand
41.8
44.8
43.2
36.0
41.0
36.8
38.6
42.8
42.8
45.7
64.0
54.1
20.3
24.1
11.9
6.7
13.3
Total Silt
28.0
30.9
36.0
38.0
34.0
30.0
41.6
31.2
34.2
24.5
32.8
31.8
58.6
49.0
57.1
58.8
54.2
Total Clay
19.6
23.9
20.3
21.0
17.9
24.5
19.8
18.50
18.50
17.86
19.90
14.00
21.1
26.9
30.9
34.4
32.5
102
-------
Table 18 (continued)
Depth Total Sand Total Silt Total Clay
Location Horizon Inches % % %
L A 0-18
1
A3 18-30
B2T 30-48
BX 48-66
1
BX 66-107
2
33.6
31.2
32.8
41.1
41.6
42.1
44.6
37.1
35.1
40.0
24.3
24.2
30.1
24.0
18.0
103
-------
MineralogicaJL Characteristics
Clay minerals are of major importance in influencing the physical and
chemical characteristics of soils and other earth material. They may
play an important part in the mechanical stability of extreme slopes
and consequently soil erosion or slippage. Since knowledge of the
minerals in the clay fraction would contribute toward a fundamental
understanding of the chemical and physical properties of mine spoil
material and its reaction to weathering or practices, detailed
mineralogical studies of rock and soils were carried out.
Mineralogical analyses were carried out on coarse clay (2 to 0
medium clay (0.2 to O.Ofyi) and fine clay (O.OSp) fractions separated
from rock and also from soils. Magnesium saturated samples of each
size fraction were glycerol saturated and parallel-oriented on glass
slides for X-ray diffraction analysis (Jackson, 1956). Diffraction
patterns were obtained also on K saturated samples after the following
treatments: (a) K saturation and air drying; (b) K saturation and
heating at 110°C; (c) K saturation and heating at 300°C; and (d) K
saturation and heating at 550°C.
Dif f ractograms were made with a Siemens Crystallof lex IV, X-ray dif-
fractoraeter, using nickel-filtered copper radiation, and a scintilla-
tion detector.
For differential thermal analyses (DTA) , the clay samples were saturated
with Mg. The samples were heated from 25°C to 1000°C at a rate of 15°C
per minute.
X-ray patterns of oriented, Mg saturated, glycerol solvated clays
separated from rock material from two locations (L and H) are shown
in Figures 13 and 14. The strong peaks at 7 and 10 A indicate that
kaolinite and mica are the dominant clay minerals in rock at both
locations.
Differential thermal analysis indicated the clay fraction of the rock
contained 30 to 40% kaolinite. Total K analyses of rock material showed
18 to 30% mica. Small peaks at about 14.4 A in the upper zones reflect
small amounts of vertniculite at both locations. After K saturation
the 14.4 A unit cells collapsed to 10 A, confirming presence of vermic-
ulite. Samples taken from lower depths (unweathered zone, rich in
pyrite) showed no 14 A peak. It is also evident from Figure 14 that
mica contents increase with increase in depth. These findings indicate
that vermiculite formed during or shortly after pyrite oxidation which
104
-------
Rock
0.2-2jj Fraction
Mg Sat'd, 25°C.
Depth (m)
4.6-5.8
8.8-10.0
5A
20
7A 10A 14A
10
29 CuK*
FIGURE 13. X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF WEATHERED AND
UNWEATHERED LOWER MAHONING SANDSTONE
105
-------
SITE H
Rock
0.2-2;j Fraction
Mg Sat'd, 25°C.
Mg sot'd
0-5
«b
•>*.
^
5-20
28-45
5A
20
7A 10A 14A
10
20 CuK*
0
FIGURE 14. X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM (ROUNDED) SHOWING MINERALOGY OF ROCK
AT SITE H
106
-------
may have removed K from mica. Fine clay ( .2u) separated from rock
showed a peak at 17.7 A indicating the presence of montmorillonite.
This was observed in fine clay separated from both weathered and un-
weathered zones. Apparently during pyrite oxidation, some montmor-
illonite, which is not very stable under acid conditions, was not des-
troyed.
Mineralogy and Mottling of Soils
Distribution of mineral species in soil clays with depth is given in
Figures 15, 16 and 17 and Table 19. X-ray diffraction analysis of the
Mg-saturated samples from H location showed vermiculite as the dominant
clay mineral in all horizons and at all depths (Figure 15). Kaolinite
ranked second in abundance in all horizons in this soil. Mica and
montmorillonite clay mineral were absent in the upper horizons as no
10 A and 17.7 A peaks were observed. Increase in the intensities of
10 A and 17.7 A peaks with depth indicated presence of mica and mont-
morillonite at lower depths.
o
Soils taken from locations E and L showed that kaolinite (7 A peak in
Figure 16 and 17) was the principal clay mineral with smaller amounts
of vermiculite and mica (14 and 10 A peaks respectively in Figures 16
and 17) in the upper horizons. In the lower horizons the amount of
vermiculite decreased and mica increased. A small but prominent peak
at 18 A was also present at lower depths (Figure 17 and Table 19).
This indicates presence of montmorillonite. Mineral ratings in Table
19 were developed from chemical, DTA and X-ray diffraction determina-
tions .
Mineral contents of all soil profiles are strongly influenced by the
underlying parent rock (Figures 13 and 14), which contains kaolinite,
mica and small amounts of vermiculite and montmorillonite. In general,
kaolinite and mica are the major clay minerals, followed by vermiculite
and montmorillonite in the lower soil horizons. In the upper horizons
where intensive weathering has taken place, kaolinite and vermiculite
are the dominant clay minerals with minor amounts of mica and traces
of montmorillonite. It is of interest that in all these profiles,
there is an alteration continuum. In weathered rock and B horizons,
there is expanding vermiculite which collapses on K saturation.
Vermiculite in A horizons of all soils collapses only on heating to
300 or 550°C. The reason for the prominence of the vermiculite in the
A horizon is not certain. Probably, as has been shown by other workers
(Douglas, 1965; Hathaway, 1955; Rich and Obenshain, 1955; and Rich,
1958), the increase in the proportion of vermiculite to mica nearer
the surface resulted from the removal of weathering products in
107
-------
SITE H
Soil
0.2-2}i Fraction
Mg Sat'd, 25°C.
0-5
5-20
n>
ts
20-32
32-53
53-68
5A
7A 10A 14A
20
10
26 CuK*
0
FIGURE 15. X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM (ROUNDED) SHOWING MINERALOGY OF SOIL AT
SITE H
108
-------
SITE E
Soil
0.2-2jj Fraction
Mg Sat'd, 25°C.
20
0-20
20-30
30-48
48-56
56-68
5A 7A IDA 14A
10
26 CuK*
E
o
QL
a>
Q
FIGURE 16. X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF SOIL AT SITE E
109
-------
SITE L
Soil
0.2-2>j Fraction
Mg Sat'd, 25° C.
/V
r
•v \
B
XI
5A
7A 10A 14A
20
10
26 CuK*
FIGURE 17. X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM SHOWING MINERALOGY OF SOIL AT SITE L
110
-------
Table 19
Mineral composition of clay fractions of two soil profiles.
Kaol.
Loca-
tion
E
1
i
1
L
Horizon
Ap
Bl
B2t
BXl
Bx,
Hi- Chroma
Lo-Chroma
A
1
A3
B
2
Bxl
Hi-Chroma
Lo-Chroma
2-.2u
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
.2u
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
Mica
2-.2u
1
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
2
3
3
3
3
.2u
—
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Vermic. Mont.
2-.2u
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
.2u 2-.2u
2
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
2 1
1
2
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
—
.2u
1
1
2
2
2
2
—
1
1
1
2
1
—
Amorph .
2-.2u .2u
P
P
P
P
P
A
—
P
P
P
P
A
—
P
A
A
A
A
A
P
P
P
A
A
A
P
Quartz
2-.2u .2u
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Key: Amorphous and Quartz: P = Present; A = Abundant; — = Absent; Layer Silicates;
1 = Traces; 2 = Low; 3 = Medium; 4 = High (up to 50%)
Absent;
-------
solution and continuous replenishing of vermiculite by weathering of
mica. This interpretation is supported by increase in mica with in-
creasing depth of soil profile (Figures 15, 16 and 17).
The reason for the presence of montmorillonite (least prominent clay
mineral) under acid weathering conditions is not certain. It has been
accepted that (2:1) layer silicate minerals such as montmorillonite
are stable only in basic soils or under essentially saturated con-
ditions, but where leaching is severe as in southeastern United States,
kaolinite type minerals are expected. Considering the low pH values
of these soils and weathered rocks, it is assumed that montmorillonite,
occurring originally in parent rock below the water table, was encased
and protected by stable crystalline or amorphous fines during pyrite
oxidation and soil development.
In the course of morphological studies of soils at several locations,
vertically elongated, low chroma (gray) tongues were observed in
subsoils (B horizons) and in underlying sandstones at locations E and
L. The physical appearance of this sandstone in the weathered zone
was similar to that of the low chroma sandstone in the unweathered
zone (pyrite rich) and could be mistaken for pyritic sandstone by mine
operators. As a result, physical, chemical and mineralogical studies
were carried out to determine the nature and source of this material.
Detailed results of this investigation are given in a paper by Grube
_e£ al_. (1971). Conclusions derived from this study are summarized as
follows: Field observations showed that the low chroma surfaces of
the sandstone may be continuous with vertically elongated low chroma
zones in overlying subsoils. Chemical studies of this low chroma
sandstone showed very low percentages of total sulphur (0.001%), total
iron (1.10%) and free iron (0.50%). Similar total sulphur (0.001%)
and more iron (total, 3.71%; free, 1.61%) were found in the high chroma
interior. Mineralogical studies of low chroma and high chroma subsoil
showed that low chroma material is devoid of mobile minerals (mont-
morillonite and amorphous), and rich in less mobile kaolinite and mica
(Table 19). On the other hand, high chroma material contains more
amorphous fines as well as appreciable amounts of vermiculite and
montmorillonite.
From these studies, it was concluded that low chroma material in the
soil and weathered rock is mainly a result of localized leaching of
colored compounds (oxides and hydroxides of iron). In the field, it
should be remembered that low chroma sandstone or soil occurring
naturally on outside surfaces of rock or soil fragments, is not likely
to contain pyrite or toxic acid. It is the low chroma (gray) un-
weathered sandstone interiors which are pyritic and potentially toxic.
112
-------
Applicability of Mineralogical Data
Results indicate that mica has weathered to vermiculite in soil pro-
files and weathered rock materials studied. Moreover, vermiculite
clay carries high negative charge and as a result increases cation
exchange capacity. This prevents rapid leaching of exchangeable ele-
ments (either toxic or favorable) to ground water. Clay minerals like
vermiculite and montmorillonite would also serve as a "buffer" by their
reactions with the acid produced by the oxidation of sulfides. The
reaction of acid with clay minerals may increase Al activity in solu-
tion when Ca contents are low. This requires limestone applications
for establishment of cover crops.
Since clay minerals play a prominent part in determining physical and
chemical properties, there is an urgent need for quantitative clay
mineral information in correlated mine spoil materials. Such data
should afford a means of discriminating spoils with sufficient buffer-
ing and water retention capacity to inhibit leaching of toxins and to
favor maintenance of desirable pH and nutrient levels for initial and
for long-time growth of cover plants.
Summary
Soil and rock profile studies from the land surface to depths as great
as 62 feet (20 meters) indicate changes within the weathered zone and
soil in addition to pyrite oxidation. Exchangeable Al becomes rel-
atively high whereas exchangeable Ca, Mg and K and pH are low. Micas,
which associate with kaolinite in the dominantly quartzose unweathered
sandstone, change first to collapsible vermiculite and then to a non-
collapsible form. Small percentages of montmorillonite, first dis-
covered after removal of all free oxides, together with amorphous fines,
tend to eluviate from surface soils and through certain spaced gray
(low chroma) zones of subsoil and weathered rock. Zn concentrations
occur within ranges common in productive soils. Mn has been generally
low, usually in readily extractable form, but possibly in plant-toxic
concentrations in some strongly acid materials. Copper concentrations
have shown wide ranges, from possibly deficient to toxic for plant growth
and may pose some problems in revegetation. Potassium levels, generally
related to'micas, are highly variable. Mg rates very low for plant
growth in the weathered zone, is higher but variable in unweathered
sandstone, and is relatively high in dark shales over the Upper Freeport
coal. Quartz and kaolinite persist throughout the soil and rock pro-
files with no' apparent change. Genesis of the kaolinite is uncertain.
It occurs as secondary books, replacing minerals such as feldspars.
Pyrite genesis in the sandstone involved replacement of quartz, mica or
other minerals deposited in original sediments.
113
-------
SECTION X
ROCK WEATHERING
Simulated Weathering Experiment
This part of the project involved the use of specially designed cells
(modified plastic shoe boxes), similar to those described by Caruccio
(1967), to contain selected rock materials during simulated weathering.
Two hundred grams of one of the rock types, low chroma sandstone and
high chroma sandstone or low chroma shale were placed in a cell and
exposed to a continuous flow of moist air. The cells were leached
twice a week for the first eight washings and once a week for the next
six washings using the following scheme: To each cell 100 mis of dis-
tilled and deionized t^O was added to 50 ml increments. The sample was
allowed to soak for 10 minutes after each increment and then the cell
was gently agitated to thoroughly wash the sample before the water was
drained. After the sample was washed with both increments of water, the
washings were centrifuged and the volume of each was recorded. Any
residue from the sample left in the centrifuge tubes was returned to
the proper cell. The data for the three sample types were the mean of
three replicates; individual measurements were essentially the same.
Conductivity measurements were taken with a Wheatstone Bridge and a
pipette cell with a constant of one. Then the washings were split with
half being saved to be analyzed for Al, Fe, Ca, Mg and K. The other
half was analyzed for the potentially free acidity of the rock material
according to the method of Rainwater and Thatcher (1960).
The conductivity of the distilled and deionized water was checked each
time the cells were leached and subtracted from the conductivity of the
washings. The initial washings were highest in electrolytes for all
samples and then the conductivity decreased to its lowest point on day
22. The low chroma sandstone and low chroma shale were quite close in
all readings and on day 55 until the end of the experiment both samples
showed a steady increase in electrolyte content of their washings. The
high chroma sandstone sample was very low in all readings with its high
point being on day 44.
The potentially free acidity that was produced by the low chroma sand-
stone and low chroma shale was low when compared to amounts produced
from the same samples by the peroxide method (See Section VI). The
amounts of acidity produced by the high chroma sandstone was comparable
for both methods. The low chroma sandstone had the largest and quickest
release of acids even though the low chroma shale has the largest
115
-------
DAYS
FIGURE 18. ACCUMULATIVE ACIDITY GENERATED BY SIMULATED WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK TYPES
-------
DAYS
FIGURE 19. ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF IRON AND ALUMINUM DURING SIMULATED WEATHERING OF
THREE ROCK TYPES
-------
HCSS: Ca & Mg <001 on all days
bo 3 0.4 -
20
40
60
DAYS
FIGURE 20. ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM DURING SIMULATED WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK
TYPES
-------
.20
.16
M
O
2 .12
vo
.08
.04
20
LCSH-
40
60
DAYS
FIGURE 21. ACCUMULATIVE RELEASE OF POTASSIUM DURING SIMULATED WEATHERING OF THREE ROCK TYPES
-------
percentage of total sulfur. Both low chroma sandstone and low chroma
shale showed a steady increase in acidity produced at the end of the
experiment (Figure 18).
The total amount of Fe released (Figure 19) was highest for the low
chroma sandstone sample. Both the high chroma sandstone and low
chroma shale released very little Fe, but in release of Al (Figure 19),
the high chroma sandstone sample is highest with the low chroma sand-
stone being the next highest. This could be the result of the high
chroma sandstone sampled being weathered.
The release of basic cations was as expected with the low chroma
shale being highest in amount of Ca (Figure 20) and K (Figure 21),
The low chroma sandstone released a large amount of both elements but
the high chroma sandstone released only trace amounts; however, the
low chroma sandstone was higher in release of Mg then the low chroma
shale and the high chroma sandstone released the least (Figure 20).
The data in Table 20 indicate that the release of elements during
weathering is slow. The low chroma sandstone had the fastest rate
of weathering. This may seem contradictory to what has been previously
stated but when comparing the amount released with the total amount of
each element, it is quite evident that this is correct. The low chroma
shale has a very slow release for all elements except Ca. The high
chroma sandstone had the lowest total amount of all elements and the
slowest release except for Al, which indicated a previous weathered
condition.
General Observations
Observable disintegration of sandstones and shales in mine spoils
indicates rock differences that are not fully understood. Some stones
disintegrate quickly, whereas others that appear similar persist.
Since secondary quartz growth is commonly evident, petrographically,
it is likely that some resistant Lower Mahoning sandstone is ef-
fectively cemented with secondary quartz although cementation is not
sufficient for classification as a quartzite.
Most shales that disintegrate readily are fine textured (clays),
whereas the most resistant shales (or siltstones) contain higher
proportions of silt and may be partially cemented either with car-
bonates or quartz.
120
-------
Table 20
Comparison of three rock types in terms of total content of
five cations and total release by simulated weathering.
Sample
High chroma
sandstone
Low chroma
sandstone
Low chroma
shale
Al
Total Released
384.7 0.043
487.3 0.032
906.1 0.012
Meq/100 gm
Fe
Total Released
23.3 0.002
47.7 0.062
129.4 0.002
Mg
Total Released
3.55 0.001
9.26 0.800
27.98 0.65
Ca
Total Released
3.77 0.001
4.37 0.715
7.73 1.030
K
Total Released
12.68 0.052
17.08 0.103
27.98 0.158
-------
Freeze-thaw and wet-dry sequences or cycles and falling water drops
have been used to separate sandstones and shales into groups differing
in relative stability, but calibrations against field behavior in
spoils have not yet been established.
Figures 22 and 23 illustrate evidences of rock weathering visible in
fresh high walls. Figure 22 represents a typical exposure of Upper
Freeport overburden with the dominant Lower Mahoning sandstone. Frag-
mentation of originally massive sandstone and unloading planes in the
weathered zone are apparent, as is the brown high-chroma color depicted
by the darker upper zone. The break between the unweathered and
weathered sandstone is sharp in this illustration, as is the break
between the sandstone and the approximately five feet of shale directly
overlying the coal seam. The depth of the lower limit of the weathered
zone coincides with the depth at which large changes in chemical com-
position occur as shown in Figures 8 and 16-21.
Figure 23 represents an exposure of materials, dominantly shale, over-
lying the Bakerstown coal seam. The change in color chroma from
the weathered zone to the unweathered zone, although readily observed
in the field, is less distinctly shown by photography. The lower
limit of the weathered zone, approximately at the midpoint of the
illustration, does however correspond to changes in rock composition
indicated by laboratory analyses. The normally fissile shales also
do not show the vivid unloading planes exhibited by weathering in
massive sandstones, therefore, physical size and shape of rock fragments
shows less variation in weathered and unweathered sections.
122
-------
FIGURE 22. FRESH EXPOSURE OF UPPER FREEPORT OVERBURDEN
123
-------
FIGURE 23. FRESH EXPOSURE OF BAKERSTOWN OVERBURDEN
124
-------
SECTION XI
EVIDENCES FROM OLD MINE SPOILS
Barren Coal Spoils
The objectives of this phase of the project were to study certain old,
barren spoils considered by the Soil Conservation Service to be diffi-
cult to vegetate; to isolate the problems; and to determine if there
were any significant similarities between spoils resulting from the
surface mining of the same coal horizon.
Bakerstown spoil, BK-1, (above Site P, Figure 7) was located in the
Whetsell settlement one mile southeast of Caddeli; The 17.3 acres
(7 ha) stripped were graded in 1959, then limed, fertilized and planted
twice to grasses and legumes. About 35% of the spoil is covered with
vegetation, but sites selected for study were barren.
i i
i
BK-2 was located near Site T (Figure 7), one mile northeast of Albright
in Preston County. The spoil had been limed, fertilized and planted
twice after it was graded in 1958, but both plantings failed.
The Pittsburgh spoils, P-l and P-2, were located one mile (1.6 km) west
of Smithtown in Monongalia County. P-l is a 9.0 acre (36 ha) tract
that was graded in 1964 and had an average pH of 3.8. It was relatively
free of stones and had never been limed or planted. P-l has a low high-
wall approximately 10 feet (3 m) high and the entire area has been
severely weathered as evidenced by the rows of sand that line the bench.
'l
P-2 was 6.7 Acres (2.7 ha) in size and had an average pH of 3.8 when
graded in 1964. It has never been limed or planted. The highwall was
approximately 30 feet high and intensely weathered as evidenced by the
colluvial buildup at its base.
S-l, a spoil resulting from surface mining of the Sewickley coal horizon,
was located two miles west of Westover in Monongalia County. It con-
sisted of 6.5 acres (2.6 ha) of material that was relatively free of
stones. The spoil was, graded in 1962, at which time the pH averaged
3.8.
Sewickley spoil, S-2, was located 300 yards (275 m) diagonally across
the road from S-l, and consisted of 3.2 acres (1.3 ha). The average
pH was 4.6 when graded in 1965. It was scheduled for planting in 1966,
but due to a drop in pH the planting was deferred.
125
-------
UF-1 (Upper Freeport -1) was located two miles (3.2 km) south of
Dellslow in the Morgan District of Monongalia County. The spoil had
never been limed or planted and 80% of the 10.9 acres (4.4 ha) had a
pH of 4.0 when graded in 1965. A covering of black shale was left on
about 50% of the bench surface.
UF-2 was located in the Valley Point area of Preston County (Site D,
Figure 7). The spoil was graded in 1960 and was extremely stony as
well as quite acid, with a pH of 4.0. The 11.5 acres (4.6 ha) had not
been limed or planted, but volunteer vegetation was slowly invading
part of the outer slope.
An Ernest clay loam surface soil located near UF-1 in Monongalia County
was sampled and included in the analyses since it is one of the most
productive acid upland soils in this area. It was used for comparisons
with mine spoils.
The chemical analyses performed were the standard procedures of West
Virginia University Soil Testing Laboratory, except for the lime re-
quirement which was done by direct Ca (OH) titration, with 48 hours
allowed for equilibration. An incubation of a 1:1 spoil:water sus-
pension was used to determine if the pH of the spoil material would
change with prolonged soaking. After five weeks, with pH determined
weekly, there were no appreciable changes in pH, so the experiment was
terminated.
Differences in chemical composition of spoils resulting from the sur-
face mining of different coal horizons were notable (Table 21). The
pH was similar and quite low, with the UF-2 having the highest and
BK-2 having the lowest pH. The Bakerstown spoils were the highest in
all nutrients and the Upper Freeport spoils were lowest in all nutrients
except available K.
The Bakerstown spoils differed appreciably in the amount of nutrients
present. BK-1 was low in P and Ca but medium in K and Mg. The mean
pH was 3.0 with a standard deviation of 0.3. With a low pH and a low
amount of Ca, it should be noted that Mg was quite high. An Ernest
clay loam surface soil was low in Ca but was also low in Mg and the
data in Table 1 show that the Ernest clay loam has about 12 times more
Ca than Mg on a milliequivalent basis.
BK-2 was medium in P, K and Ca while testing high in Mg. The mean lime
requirement was a ton more per acre than for BK-1 and the pH was 2.8.
126
-------
Table 21
Chemical analyses of eight old mine soils and one surface soil in West Virginia.
Lime
Sample
BK-1
BK-2
H*
NJ
-T-1
P-2
S-l
S-2
UF-1
UF-2
ERNEST
pH
Readings
X
3.0
2.8
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.0
3.4
5.0
S D
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.7
0.2
Requirement
Tons/ 1000
Tons
X
3.29
4.33
1.97
2.06
3.75
3.10
2.00
1.22
2.71
S D
0.85
1.14
1.36
0.76
0,59
0.35
1.02
0.64
pH
Lbs/1000
Tons
x S D
30 6
60 30
7 3
11 2
14 1
17 1
15 3
13 3
16
K
Lbs/1000
Tons
X
101
112
19
18
46
37
49
48
175
S D
46
35
7
17
9
15
12
12
—
Ca
Lbs/1000
Tons
X
180
1640
233
343
310
397
80
107
960
S D
131
2531
10
61
50
67
36
70
Mg
Lbs/1000
Tons
X
169
279
38
106
153
188
20
24
48
S D
30
226
50
114
58
106
5
30
NOTE: Lime requirement by titration to pH 6.5. x is the mean of six replicates and S D is the
Standard Deviation.
-------
The tests for Mg and Ca and their large standard deviations from the
mean indicates the heterogeneity of the spoil material. The unusually
large amounts of Mg on BK-1 and 2 indicates the need for more intensive
study of the chemical properties of these spoils.
The Sewickley spoils showed close agreement in all analyses. The
interesting aspect again was the amount of Mg contained in material
that had such a low pH. The Pittsburgh spoil, P-2, exhibited this
same characteristic.
The Upper Freeport spoils differed in pH and lime requirement and were
very low in all nutrients (Table 21). They only compared favorably to
the Ernest clay loam in available P but even this was very low. Only
BK-1 and BK-2 compared favorably with the Ernest clay loam in all
nutrients although several spoils contained higher amounts of Mg.
Smith £t al. (1971), compared the bulk density of iron-ore spoils to
the bulk density of adjacent natural soils. The mean bulk density of
the natural surface soils was 1.02 g/cc. Using this bulk density and
that of Ernest clay loam as a standard, comparisons were made with the
strip mine spoils studied.
The uncorrected bulk densities indicated small differences between
the mean bulk density of spoils resulting from the same coal horizon
(Table 22). Only the Upper Freeport spoils differed appreciably. All
spoils had higher mean bulk densities than the bulk density of natural
soils. Excluding the material 6.35 mm (0.25 inch) brought the mean bulk
densities into closer agreement with the mean bulk density of natural
surface soils.
The particle size data in Table 22 indicates the effects of weathering.
Large differences between the Sewickley spoils in the particle size
distribution cannot be explained by the effects of erosion since S-2
was more highly eroded than S-l.
The Bakerstown spoils were in close agreement in their particle size
distribution.
Most of the material on all spoil areas was found in the 2 mm (0.08
inch) fraction. The next largest amount of material was in the 6.35
mm (0.25 inch) fraction. The Pittsburgh spoils showed the highest
degree of physical weathering with over 64% of the material being 2
mm (Table 22).
128
-------
Table 22
Bulk density, coarse particle size analysis and textural analysis for 8 spoils.
Bulk Density
Sample
BK-1
BK-2
P-l
P-2
S-l
S-2
UF-1
UF-2
ERNEST
Actual
g/cc
X
1.47
1.42
1.52
1.49
1.45
1.41
1.38
1.60
-1.12
S D
0.10
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.17
0.05
0.16
0.18
0.01
Particle Size Analysis
Corrected ^>6.35 mm
g/cc %
X
1.25
1.22
1.36
1.39
1.17
1.31
1.13
1.34
1.12
S
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
D x
11 28.0
16 25.0
13 21.2
04 15.9
10 32.8
04 14.7
10 30.5
16 32.4
01
2-6.35 mm <(2 mm
7 7
So /O
x x S
34.0 37.8 9
37 . 5 39 . 1 8
13.4 65.4 17
21.2 62.9 15
30.1 37.0 10
25.7 49.7 12
22.8 46.7 18
16.2 51.4 15
—
Textural Analysis
0.05-2 mm
%
D
.0
.3
.8
.6
.4
.8
.1
.3
—
x
23.2
20.3
64.1 ,
56.1
36.4
31.7
60.5
68.3
29.8
0.002-
0.05 mm
%
x
46.6
44.1
21.9
25.2
40.3
44.5
20.1
18.2
40.0
<0.002 mm
%
x
30.2
35.7
14.0
18.7
23.3
23.7
19.3
13.5
30.2
S D
4.1
13.2
3.4
6.6
2.2
2.7
10.3
5.3
3.4
NOTE: Corrected bulk densities apply to the fraction finer than 6.35 mm. S D means Standard
Deviation.
-------
The Sewickley spoils were relatively uniform and the two means agreed
closely in the percentages of each soil separate. They were both clas-
sified as loam soils.
The Pittsburgh spoils were similar in the textures found at each site
on the two spoils. The textures for each were sandy loam, although
the mean percentages of the soil separates on each area differed con-
siderably. Two samples from P-2 were sandy clay loams, but this was
due to an alluvial deposit at this site.
The Freeport spoils were both sandy loams and the individual samples
from each were in close agreement except for two samples and UF-1.
These were taken on a slope of approximately 10% at a point about 25
feet from the base of the highwall. Evidently, they contained fine
material that was being washed down the slope.
Textures of the Bakerstown spoils were relatively variable, but the
mean of each was a clay loam. The standard deviations indicated the
heterogeneity of spoil material subjected to severe weathering and
erosion.
Table 22 shows certain trends in spoil physical properties resulting
from strip mining of different coal horizons. Bulk densities cal-
culated to exclude coarse 6.35 mm (0.25 inch) fragments reduced some
variances. The volume and weight of the 6.35 mm (0.25 inch) material
was subtracted from the total weight and volume of each sample and
then the corrected bulk density was calculated on the remaining weight
and volume of each sample. The Pittsburgh spoils had 15.9% and 21.2%
respectively of material 6.35 mm (0.25 inch), whereas the other spoils,
except S-2, had more material in this size range. This indicated that
fines of the Pittsburgh spoils were more compacted than the other spoils.
The particle size analyses showed that the Pittsburgh spoils had a
greater percentage of the 2 mm (0.08 inch) material than the other
spoils. They were the only spoils with 60% of the material in the 2
mm (0.08 inch) fraction. Using this as a measure of weathering, the
Pittsburgh spoils had weathered more rapidly than the others. This
does not imply that the Pittsburgh spoils will eventually develop into
the best soil for supporting vegetation.
Considering the textural analyses of the 2 mm (0.08 inch) fraction,
it is evident that the Pittsburgh and Upper Freeport spoils will become
sandy soils. This is a result of the sandstone parent material. The
Sewickley spoils exhibited a loam texture.
130
-------
Total porosity is presented as 0 bar tension in Table 23. All spoils
were low in total porosity compared to an Ernest clay loam surface soil,
primarily because of coarse fragments. At the 1/3 bar tension, all
Bakerstown and Upper Freeport spoils agreed more closely, but the
Pittsburgh and Sewickley spoils differed more than for 0 tension.
The differences in water holding ability between P-l at the 1/3 bar
tension can be explained by the 4% difference in the amount of clay
between the two areas. The differences between the two Sewickley
spoils cannot be explained on the same basis. This difference remained
as the tension was increased to 1 bar, but at the 15 bar tension most
of the differences were minimized.
In spoils, the available water (water capacity above that held at the
15 bar tension) at 0 bar tension approached the available water stored
in the Ernest clay loam at zero tension. There was only 0.3% dif-
ference between UF-2 and the Ernest at zero tension, but as the tension
was increased to 1 bar only BK-1, P-2 and S-2 approached the amount of
moisture that was held by the Ernest clay loam.
All spoils had rapid drainage capacity (i.e., porosity drained at 1/3
bar) with the Bakerstown spoils having the slowest and the Upper Free-
port spoils having the fastest. All spoils would have "gravelly" or
"stony" modifying their textural names if they were to be described
like soils. Kohnke (1968) has suggested textural relations to available
water as follows:
"Field capacity and wilting point determine the maximum
amount of available moisture in the soil. These amounts
vary from 5% of the total volume for gravelly soils and
10% for sandy soils to 15 and 20% for loams, silt loams
and clay loams."
A favorable comparison can thus be drawn between the available water
found on the eight spoils and gravelly or sandy soils which should have
5 to 10% of the total volume as available water. In fact, the spoils,
except for UF-1, had more available water at the 1 bar tension than the
norm for gravelly soils, although the 1/3 bar tension is considered a
closer approximation of field capacity.
Additional details about old barren coal spoils are being published
elsewhere (Sobek and Smith, in press, 1971).
131
-------
U)
NJ
Table 23
Moisture retention on a volume basis at four tensions and available water by volume
in percent and inches per foot of depth.
Moisture Retention
Sample
BK-1
BK-2
P-l
P-2
S-l
S-2
UF-1
UF-2
ERNEST
0 Bar
%
44.5
46.4
42.6
43.8
45.3
46.8
47.9
39.6
56.4
1/3
19
19
14
20
16
21
11
12
32
Bar
%
.3
.9
.2
.0
.1
.9
.4
.8
.0
1 Bar
%
17.1
17.5
11.2
15.6
13.2
17.3
10.4
10.3
26.8
15 Bar
%
8.7
11.3
4.1
6.3
7.2
8.7
5.8
4.4
14.0
0
%
35.8
35.1
38.5
37.5
38.1
38.1
42.1
35.2
42.4
Bar
inches
4.30
4.21
4.62
4.50
4.57
4.57
5.05
4.22
5.09
Available Water
1/3
%
10.6
8.6
10.1
13.7
8.9
13.2
5.6
8.4
18.0
Bar
inches
1.27
1.03
1.21
1.64
1.07
1.58
0.67
1.01
2.16
1
%
8.4
6.2
7.1
9.3
6.0
8.6
4.6
5.9
12.8
Bar
inches
1.01
0.74
0.85
1.12
0.72
1.03
0.55
0.71
1.54
-------
Vegetated Coal Spoils
Some surface mine spoils resulting from operations during World War
H have exhibited remarkable vegetative cover since reclamation. An
area left barren after recovery of the Pittsburgh coal near Canyon,
Monongalia County, in 1943, and treated as a test plot by the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station in 1944 was selected for follow-up studies
under the project reported here. The investigation in 1944 determined
that the Canyon spoil was "very strongly to strongly acid" and rep-
resented an area that was quite toxic to vegetation (Tyner and Smith,
1945). These investigators found that the five tons per acre of lime-
stone that was applied, followed by a second application 2 years later
was sufficient to establish a good stand of many different forage
species. Combinations of N, P, K fertilizers and manure aided estab-
lishment of cover. As far as could be determined, no follow-up
fertilization program was carried out; however, the landowner has used
the spoil as a pasture, and the present vegetative cover as well as
total nitrogen have been influenced by the animal manure.
Table 24 presents some chemical properties of the spoil as found during
recent study. The nitrogen percentages and total quantities accumulated
during 26 years are comparable with natural cultivated soils of this
area. Analyses for total sulfur indicate enough sulfur to create ex-
cessive acidity and toxicity if present as reactive pyrite. However,
considerable coal is present in the spoil, indicating that the remain-
ing sulfur is likely in organic form and is not converted to mineral
acid until the coal is destroyed by oxidation. The spoil pH appears to
be barely high enough for the more tolerant forage species to survive;
better growth could be obtained if lime was applied to the present
pasture. Site 1, with pH below 4.0 has only very sparce vegetative
cover, but it is protected from erosion.
Iron Ore Spoils
Sites and Experimental Procedures
Sites included in the study were as follows: Three units, Chestnut
Ridge, Quarry Run and Johnson Hollow are located in Coopers Rock State
Forest in northeastern Monongalia County, West Virginia. The spoil
source consisted of dark gray and brown shales derived from the Potts-
ville group of the Pennsylvanian system. The age of these spoils is
estimated to be between 85 and 130 years. An additional three units,
Glen, Massey and Peters occur in the Gladesville area of western Preston
County, West Virginia, about 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Morgantown.
These spoils are estimated to be between 70 and 85 years old.
133
-------
Table 24
Properties of 26 year old vegetated Pittsburgh mine spoils.
Depth
Site (in)
I 0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
II 0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
III 0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
PH
(1:1)
3.7
3.4
3.5
3.8
3.7
3.5
4.6
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.4
4.4
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.2
4.1
Approx.
Bulk Density
0.72
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.32
1.33
0.72
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.32
1.33
0.72
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.32
1.33
Nitrogen
(%)
0.44
0.22
0.18
0.12
0.80
0.05
0.38
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.47
0.28
0.17
0.15
0.11
0.13
Sulfur
(%)
0.475
0.755
0.265
0.185
0.120
0.080
TOTAL
0.355
0.190
0.360
0.080
0.085
0.100
TOTAL
0.420
0.390
0.465
0.320
0.093
0.425
TOTAL
Nitrogen
Ibs/Acre
709
498
436
340
252
144
2379
619
340
299
272
330
330
2190
766
634
423
408
330
390
2951
134
-------
Relative water intake rates by dry and wet spoil and contiguous soil
were determined at the Peters, Quarry Run and Johnson Hollow units as
follows: At 5 points at each site,; forest litter or grass sod was re-
moved from the spoil or soil surface and a core 3 3/4 inches (9.5 cm)
in diameter and 2 inches (5 cm) long was removed. In the resulting
hole, the amount of water required to maintain a constant depth of 1
inch for 15, 30, 60 and 120 minute intervals was measured. Such
measurements provided dry intake rate data. The area around each hole
was then saturated with water and, after one hour, the water intake of
the wet spoil and soil was determined as before. Actual intake rates
were calculated in terms of acre-inches of water per unit of core area.
Mineralogy of Chestnut Ridge spoil and B horizons of contiguous soils
was studied by standard processing and X-ray diffraction procedures.
Moisture tension changes were determined periodically (usually weekly)
during 4 growing seasons on paired spoil and soil sites at two loca-
tions, one north facing and one south facing, under woodland. Measure-
ments were made with plastic impregnated gypsum resistance blocks
(Bouyoucos type) imbedded at different depths in profiles. Moisture
tension values so obtained are relative.
Statistical significance of differences between adjacent means in the
several means was tested by standard analysis of variance. Levels of
significance were calculated, using F and LSD tests.
Bulk Density
Table 25 shows comparisons for 6 units. The bulk density means for
iron ore spoil were significantly greater than those of contiguous
soils. For comparisons with typical surface coal mine spoil from three
prominent coals now being mined in northern West Virginia, Table 26 is
provided. The low value for sample number 7 (Canyon) is due to the
presence of loose, fine coal particles.
Particle Size
Tables 27 and 28 include coarse particles as well as fine separates.
These data provide a test at 2 units as to whether near-surface
weathering and soil formation have caused major changes since spoil
deposition. Coarse particles (>2 mm) averaged 60% by weight for Peters
and 43% for Chestnut Ridge, which are higher than normally found in
Gilpin, Dekalb and related surface soils.
135
-------
Table 25
Bulk densities of near-surface spoil and associated surface soils.
Neighborhood Unit
Coopers Rock Chestnut Ridge
Coopers Rock Quarry Run
Coopers Rock Johnson Hollow
Gladesville Glen
Gladesville Massey
Gladesville Peters
Mean
Bulk Density
Spoil
gros/cc
1.48
1.52
1.42
1.39
1.58
1.41
1.47
Calculated
Porosites
Soil
gms/cc
0.90
1.13
0.90
1.01
1.12
1.13
1.03
Spoils
%
44
43
46
48
40
47
45
Soil
%
66
57
66
63
58
57
61
NOTE: Each value is the mean of 4 replicates.
136
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Table 26
Bulk density in grains per cc for spoil from surface mining of
coal at 3 selected locations.
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Canyon
Monongalia Co.
Pittsburgh Coal
gms/cc
1.612
1.638
1.633
1.396
1.393
1.583
0.963
1.481
1.439
1.664
Arthurdale
Preston Co.
Upper Freeport Coal
gms/cc
1.634
1.772
1.815
1.723
1.691
1.663
1.875
1.751
1.579
1.692
Kingwood
Preston Co.
Baker st own Coal
gms/cc
1.430
1.518
1.010
1.546
1.342
1.274
1.238
1.449
1.437
1.253
Average
1.480
1.719
1.350
137
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Table 27
Mean particle size distribution including coarse fragments for the
Chestnut Ridge spoil.
Coarse Fraction
Depth >2.0 mm 2
inches percent
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-17
17-23
Mean
56.8
59.3
48.5
47.2
45.7
35.5
29.9
41.8
40.7
46.8
31.7
34.7
42.2
43.1
Sands
.0 to .05 mm
percent
18.0
16.2
18.1
22.0
21.8
24.5
24.7
19.4
18.1
16.1
23.5
21.0
18.3
20.1
Silt
.05 to .002
percent
17,8
15.5
19.8
18.3
18.9
22.2
23.9
21.3
22.6
20.4
25.4
25.0
21.3
21.0
Clay
mm <^. 002 mm
percent
7.4
9.0
13.6
12.5
13.6
17.8
20.5
17.5
18.6
16.7
19.4
19.3
18.2
15.6
NOTE: Each value is the mean of 8 replicates.
138
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Table 28
Mean particle size distribution including coarse fragments
with depth for the Peters spoil.
Coarse Fractions Sands
Depth ^> 2.0 mm 2.0 to. 05 mm
inches percent percent
0-1
1-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-11
11-14
14-17
17-20
20-23
Mean
47.2
47.7
53.3
58.3
64.8
61.1
64.2
66.2
69.1
66.4
59.8
14.9
15.7
12.9
10.3
8.7
9.7
9.3
8.2
7.6
7.9
10.5
Silt
.05 to .002 mm
percent
29.6
25.4
21.4
18.6
15.2
17.0
16.7
14.7
13.2
14.9
18.7
Clay
<.002 mm
percent
8.3
11.2
12.4
12.8
11.3
12.2
11.6
10.7
10.1
10.8
11.1
NOTE: Each value is the mean of 8 replicates.
139
-------
Mean percentages of coarse particles in the spoils were not signifi-
cantly influenced by depth to 23 inches (58 cm). Apparently, intensity
of weathering near the surface has not been sufficient to significantly
reduce coarse particle percentages (Tables 27 and 28).
Nitrogen and Organic Matter
Summary nitrogen data for the 6 inch (15 cm) depth are given in Table
29. The nitrogen content of spoil, although it was always lower than
in contiguous soils, varied from 82% to 97% of that in adjacent soil.
Approximate average rates of increase varied from 18 to 31 pounds per
acre (20 to 35 kg/ha) annually. On the Peters and Massey spoils, white
clover could account for part of the nitrogen accumulated.
Appreciable nitrogen continued downward in spoil at least to a depth
of 23 inches. Amounts found in Peters spoil below 6 inches were
similar to undisturbed soils in this region (Jencks, 1969).
Acidity (pH)
Differences in pH with depth (Tables 30 and 31) were not consistent
enough for statistical significance. Differences in original rock
composition would account for moderate, random pH variations at each
of the 2 locations, and for the mean difference of 0.8 units between
the 2 locations.
Except for a few extremely low values in the Chestnut Ridge spoil, pH's
in the iron ore spoils were similar to those in Dekalb and Gilpin soils.
The 6 extremely low pH values recorded for Chestnut Ridge spoil may re-
flect the presence of significant quantities of pyrite in the rock,
similar to some coal overburdens.
Cation Exchange and Exchangeable Bases
Cation exchange capacities, exchangeable bases and related data are
presented in Table 32. Cation exchange capacities and levels of ex-
changeable bases were lower in the top inch of spoil than in Dekalb
and Gilpin soils. Below A or 5 inches in spoil, cation exchange
capacities, exchangeable base levels and base saturation were higher
in spoils than in a comparable depth in soils. Higher values in the
top inch of soils is associated with organic matter.
140
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Table 29
The nitrogen content of spoil versus associated soils.
liitro gen /acre
Unit
Chestnut Ridge
Glen
Johnson Hollox^
Massey
Peters
Quarry Run
(6-inch
Spoil
pounds
2,430
2,533
1,900
1,756
2,438
2,520
depth)
Soil
pounds
2.844
3,105
2,046
2,069
2,765
2,596
Significance
of
treatment
difference
HS
HS
NS
S
s
NS
Dominant
present
vegetation
Forest
Forest
Forest
Grass
Grass
Forest
Probably
dominant
vegetation
over
time
Forest
Forest
Forest
Grass
Grass
Forest
Estimated
age
(years)
85-119
72-83
85-131
72-83
72-83
85-119
Approx.
acre
increase
annually
in spoil
pounds
23
31
18
23
31
25
NOTE: Each value is the mean of 4 replicates.
-------
Table 30
Profiles (pH) of Peters mine spoil in grass pasture near Gladesville.
Depth
Inches
0-1
1-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-11
11-14
14-17
17-20
20-23
Mean
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
1A
.05
.15
.15
.15
.15
.20
.15
.05
.10
.10
.22
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
IB
.85
.45
.25
.10
.10
.05
.10
.15
.15
.25
.25
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2A
.55
.85
.95
.95
.90
.80
.80
.75
.75
.70
.90
Pit
215
5.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
90
90
80
82
70
70
78
80
75
70
88
Designations
3A 3B
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
.00
.75
.75
. 50
.45
.45
.50
.40
.30
.40
.55
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
.75
.45
.40
.40
.25
.10
.20
.25
.10
.05
.30
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5A
.00
.20
.00
.95
.90
.00
.00
.15
.05
.00
.02
5B
5.
5.
5.
5.
5 .
5.
5.
5.
4.
4.
5.
45
15
20
20
10
20
20
05
85
95
13
Mean
5.69
5-24
5.19
5.13
5.07
5.06
5.09
5.07
5.01
5.02
5.16
-------
Table 31
Profiles (pl-1) of Chestnut Ridge mine spoil in forest.
Depth
Inches
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-17
17-23
Mean
1A
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
.23
.08
.15
.13
.24
.20
.24
.31
.35
.35
.30
.40
.60
.28
IB
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
.62
.32
.40
.60
.50
.34
.41
.38
.42
.50
.95
.81
.65
.53
2A
4.42
4.15
4.40
4.60
4.60
4.64
4.66
4.60
4.55
4.60
4.62
4.46
4.48
4.52
Profile Number
2B 3 A 3B
4.28
4.24
4.27
4.35
4.41
4.50
4.60
4.59
4.60
4.30
4.65
4.65
4.60
4.46
4.26
4.30
4.49
4.55
4.66
4.76
4.12
4.89
4.80
4.78
4.92
3.16
5.07
4.52
4.25
4.62
4.62
4.51
4.30
3.80
4.41
4.60
3.10
4.88
5.06
5.10
4.99
4.48
4A
4.36
4.50
4.42
4.38
4.23
4.34
4.23
4.16
4.20
4.51
4.18
4.25
4.44
4.32
4B
4.21
3. 85
4.50
4.45
4.52
4.52
4.44
4.55
3.85
4.20
4.45
3.99
4.31
4.30
Mean
4.33
4.26
4.41
4.45
4.43
4.39
4.39
4.51
4.23
4.51
4.64
4.35
4.65
4.42
-------
Table 32
Summary of cation-exchange and related characteristics of spoil and of
the A and B horizons of contiguous soils.
Peters Unit
Spoil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Soil
Depth
in.
0-6
0-1
1-4
4-5
5-10
10-18
Soil
Horiz.
Total
material pH
Organic
carbon
Cation-
-------
Table 33
Accumulated acre-inches water intake of spoil and adjacent soil.
Peters Unit
Time
Mins.
15
30
60
120
Spoil
Dry
2.4
3.2
4.7
8.0
Wet
2.8
4.4
8.0
15.0
Soil
Dry
3.8
6.2
11.1
22.0
Wet
6.2
11.7
22.4
42.1
Johnson Hollow Unit
Spoil
Dry
6.0
9.4
15.4
25.0
Wet
1.9
2.7
4.3
7.8
Soil
Dry
8.4
14.3
25.5
42.6
Wet
3.7
5.4
9.7
18.2
Quarry Run Unit
Spoil
Dry
6.4
10.6
18.6
31.1
Wet
3.51
5.83
11.4
20.4
Soil
Dry
10.4
16.7
27.0
43.0
Wet
3.2
6.1
11.0
17.7
Wl
-------
Table 34
Summary of relative mineralogical ratings.
Chestnut Ridge Spoil
Assumed Parent Material
Silt
Coarse Clay (2-0.2 micron)
Fine Clay «0.2 micron)
Chestnut Ridge, Normal Subsoil
Assumed Parent Material
Silt
Coarse Clay (2-0.2 micron)
Fine Clay «0.2 micron)
Peters (Gladesville) Spoil
Assumed Parent Material
Silt
Mica
2
3
3
3
2
2
1
-
2
2
Kaolinite Vermiculite
2
3 1
3 1
3 1
2
2 2
3 3
3 3
2
2 1
Quartz Unknown
2
3
3
1
2
2
1
1
2
3
-------
Table 34 (continued)
Coarse Clay (2-0.2 micron)
Fine Clay (<0.2 micron)
Peters (Gladesville) Normal
Sub-soil
Assumed Parent Material
Silt
Coarse Clay (2-0.2 micron)
Fine Clay «0.2 micron)
Mica
2
2
2
2
3
2
Kaolinite
2
2
-
2
2
3
2
Vermiculite
2
2
-
1
3
2
Quartz
2
1
2
3
2
1
Unknown
1
-
-
-
1
1
Key: 3 = Abundant; - = Absent
-------
Mineralogy
Ratings for 2 units obtained by standard X-ray diffraction techniques
(Jackson, 1956) are given in Table 34. The clay-size «2 micron)
fraction of rock fragments assumed to be parent material of the iron
ore spoil contained no vermiculite or other 14 angstrom minerals.
Mica, kaolinite and quartz were, however, present in all samples. In
the fine separates of both spoils and subsoils, vermiculite appeared
and was prominent in the clay and fine clay (<0.2 micron) fraction of
subsoils and in Peters spoil. Mica was absent in Chestnut Ridge fine
clay whereas vermiculite was prominent. These results are in accord
with the theory that micas in parent material weather to vermiculite.
Similarity of the mineralogy in the comparatively young Peters spoil
and contiguous mature (Gilpin) subsoil, both under pasture, suggests
that Peters mineralogy may be inherited from disintegration of parent
rock. The disappearance of mica in Chestnut Ridge (Dekalb) normal
subsoil but not in spoils reflects the much longer time involved for
normal, mature soil formation than occurred since exposure of the iron
ore spoils. Persistance of mica in Peters (Gilpin) subsoil may be
related to the higher pH inherited from slightly calcareous shales.
Infiltration, dry and wet
Dry and wet water infiltration data for iron ore spoil and adjacent
soils are summarized for 3 units in Table 33. Considerable variation
occurred but replication established higher final infiltration rates
for soil than for spoil, at the Peters and Johnson Hollow units. Also,
both wet and dry cumulative intake at these 2 units were higher for
soils than for spoils. No difference between spoil and soil was found
at the Quarry Run unit. The higher water intake by soils is related to
the subangular blocky structure in natural subsoils in contrast to the
massive matrix of weathered shaly spoil.
Field Moisture Trends and Rainfall
Field moisture tension measurements taken during 4 growing seasons
showed that retention of moisture down to 1 foot (30 cm) was similar
in both spoils and soils. During low rainfall seasons, spoils held
more plant available moisture below 2 to 3 feet (60 to 90 cm) than
soils, a factor important to deep-rooted plants. Even when rainfall
was normal and the moisture retention below 2 to 3 feet in soils was
adequate, spoil material held more reserve moisture.
148
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Root Distribution and Development
Soil profiles terminated with bedrock at about 33 inches (84 cm),
whereas spoil material was deeper, thus allowing deeper penetration
of roots. Approximately 95% of the plant roots in soil was found in
the top 24 inches (64 cm), whereas in spoil only about 57% was found
in this depth with the remainder being distributed throughout to a
depth of 72 inches (183 cm). Root numbers were higher in spoils than
in soils, 1012 in spoils (to 72 inches) as compared to 720 in soils
(to bedrock). Few roots were found below 72 inches in spoils.
Forest Site Quality Ratings
Forest site quality comparisons show that there were no consistently
significant differences between spoils and natural soils during the
time represented. It must be considered that these old spoils now
contain nitrogen and organic matter that have accumulated gradually
because of tree establishment, a soil productivity factor that was
not originally present.
Topography, Erosion, and Drainage Water Quality
Gradients of Quarry Run and Johnson Hollow are between 300 and 500
feet per mile (56 and 94 m per km). Water flow is rapid and fine
particles are continually being removed leaving pebbly Pottsville
sandstone exposed to scouring. If any mine spoil eroded into these
channels, it was carried downstream into Cheat River. Normal flow
was found to be free of sediment. Water samples collected at near-normal
flow were clear, with pH of 6.3 and very low in soluble salts (100 ppm).
Iron and nitrogen contents were very low (1.0 ppm). Sulfate level was
low (16 ppm) .
The Gladesville area drains into Brains Creek, upper reaches of which
have low gradients where this small stream is perched on erosion-
resistant sandstone. Below the iron ore spoils, there is no evidence
of sediment eroded from spoils. Samples from spoil seepage and run-
off were clear, with pH of 5.6 and very low soluble salts (less than
100 ppm). Iron, nitrogen, and sulfate contents were very low.
Additional details about old iron ore spoils are being published else-
where (Smith, Tryon and Tyner, 1971).
149
-------
Summary
Samples from old spoils that have remained barren for 5 to 10 years
indicated acidity (pH 3.5) was the primary influence preventing
revegetation. Nutrient levels ranged from very low to medium with
highest quantities of nutrients in Bakerstown spoils.
Bulk densities, coarse fragments, textures and water retention capac-
ities indicated ranges which should accommodate plant growth, although
drouthiness would be expected with the most sandy and stony spoils,
especially with shallow rooting species.
Twenty-five year old spoils near Morgantown (Canyon) from surface
mining of Pittsburgh coal are satisfactorily covered with forage
grasses and legumes and contain near normal percentages of soil organic
matter, although analyses for total sulphur indicated 0.5 to 1.2%.
This is enough sulphur to create excessive acidity and toxicity if
present as reactive pyrite. However, considerable coal is present in
the spoil, which probably means the sulphur remaining is in organic
forms and is not converted to mineral acids until the coal is destroyed
by oxidation.
Iron ore spoils of shaly lower Pennsylvanian, moderately acid materials,
abandoned 70 to 130 years prior to sampling provided evidences that the
natural soils were superior in bulk densities (lower), porosity (higher),
soil structure development, infiltration, nitrogen or organic matter,
surface texture (more loamy), and smoother land surfaces. On the other
hand, mine spoils were superior in depth for plant rooting, total avail-
able water holding capacity, certain plant nutrients, and gentler slopes
on benches. Forest site quality, pH and soil mineralogy were not
greatly different between natural soils and mine spoils.
150
-------
SECTION XII
MICROBIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS
The chemoautotrophic bacteria Thiobacillus ferroxidans, Thiobacillus
thiooxidans and Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans have been isolated repeatedly
from acidic coal mine effluents. Of these, Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans
and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans are probably the most important species
in promoting the formation of the acidic drainage. These organisms
have been isolated not only from bituminous coal deep mine effluents,
but also from drainage from surface mine operations (Singer and Stumm,
1970). The organisms have been shown to be capable of oxidizing the
sulfide ores pyrite and/or marcasite (Beck and Brown, 1968) with the
evolution of considerable quantities of sulfuric acid and soluble iron
which eventually precipitates as ferric hydroxide also known commonly
as "yellow boy." The organisms involved obtain energy for cell growth
through such oxidations; the carbon for cell growth is obtained from
atmospheric C02, hence the term chemoautotroph.
Thiobacillus thiooxidans is incapable of oxidizing the iron disulfides
and as such plays a minor role in the oxidation of the sulfide ores.
The organism is readily grown on elemental sulfur or thiosulfate.
Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans has recently been proven capable of growth
on several sulfuritic materials. At present there is some controversy
as to whether or not Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans should be designated
a separate species from Thiobacillus ferroxidans. Whatever the out-
come, it is still evident that the organisms remain prominent in the
formation of acid mine drainage.
Several of the surface mine spoil materials (also known as overburden)
have been shown by chemical, physical, and microscopic analysis to
contain pyritic material. Pyrite has been observed in sandstone strata,
shale strata and also in the coal itself. The pyrite as such in these
materials makes them susceptible to microbial attack by the previously
mentioned chemoautotrophic bacteria with the subsequent production of
acidic end products. It is the acid-producing nature of these spoil
materials which necessitates the use of some precautions in replace-
ment if reclamation is to be successful.
Experimental Methods
Effect of Buried Depth on the Oxidation of Pyrite
For this study, columns of plastic pipe 48 inches (122 cm) high with
6 inches (15.2 cm) inside diameter were employed. The columns were
151
-------
filled with a soil obtained at Site A. This soil was described and
identified as a Dekalb loam, thin variant (Appendix B). Chemical and
mineralogical information about this soil is included in Section IX.
Mineralogy of this soil is "mixed" by soil survey terminology. How-
ever, quartz dominated the sand and silt fractions, and kaolinite is
the most abundant clay species. A 1/8 inch (3 mm) layer, 6 inches
(15.2 cm) in diameter, of pyritic material was placed in each of six
columns at a specified depth. The depths included were "surface"
(1/2 inch (1.3 cm) below soil surface), 3 inches (7.6 cm), 6 inches
(15 cm), 1 ft. (30 cm), 2 ft. (61 cm), and 3 ft. (91 cm) subsurface.
A seventh column containing no pyritic material was included as a
control. The pyrite used ranged from 0.25 mm to 1 mm in particle
size, and was placed in a uniform layer over the complete area of the
inside of column at the specified depths.
Beneath the pyritic monolayer a funnel packed lightly with glass wool
was installed to collect leachate from the immediate area of the reac-
tion site. The funnel was connected to the outside of the column
through a short length of surgical tubing attached to a 1/4 inch (6.4
mm) diameter plexiglass tube fixed through the cylinder wall. One liter
of distilled water was applied to the surface of each cylinder at two-
week intervals; approximately 850 ml of this was recovered. Drainage
from the funnels was collected in two-hole stoppered 250 ml Erlenmeyer
flasks connected to the plexiglass drain tube by a short length of
Tygon tubing. Evaporation was minimal. Remaining drainage passed
through the length of the column for collection and analysis.
All analyses (Fe*"1", Fe total, SO^) were performed using the HACH AC-
DR colorimeter, with the exception of pH which was measured using a
Beckman zeromatic pH meter. Analyses were performed using the pro-
cedures and reagents outlined in the HACH instructional manual. When
necessary, dilutions of the leachate were prepared, and meter readings
multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the true content. Ferric
ion content was obtained by subtracting ferrous ion from total iron
content.
A check for viable cells in leachates was performed by inoculating 9K
medium (Silverman and Lundgren, 1958) with leachates. A reddish brown
deposit on the walls of the test tube was considered positive evidence
of growth of the iron oxidizing organisms. No enumerations were run.
Manometric Studies
An adaptation of the HACH BOD apparatus was adopted for this study.
Four different energy sources were placed in the BOD bottles which
152
-------
contained 155 ml of sterile 9K mineral salt solution. These subtrates
included 4 grams gray Sewickley sandstone (from near Smithtown) with 18%
sulfur, impure coal with 4% sulfur, 2 grams of ferrous iron as ferrous
sulfate, and 2 grams elemental sulfur. A bottle containing only the
salt solution was included as a check. Two series of bottles were
used, one was inoculated with 5 ml fresh acid mine drainage (from a
deep mine) known to contain the microorganisms in sufficient quantities,
and the other received 5 ml of sterile deionized distilled water.
Twenty percent KOH solution served as the C02 absorbant. After equil-
bration to 20 °C the manometers were sealed. Readings were taken over
a period of 48 days.
An identical study is under way, with the exception that a C0£ buffer
(See Pardee method in Umbreit, et^ _al., 1964) has been substituted for
the KOH CO2 absorbent.
Formation of Acid Spots Under Laboratory Conditions
In order to investigate properties of acid spots, pieces of spoil
material approximately 1 1/2 inches (3.8 cm) diameter were placed in
weathered sandstone mine spoil material (pH 4.7), in greenhouse flats.
Spoil materials used were a pyritic shale, metallic pyrite, and high
sulfur gray sandstone. Duplicate samples were used, one receiving 200
ml distilled water weekly and the other receiving 400 ml per week. In
each end of the flat one piece of spoil material was buried 1/2 inch
(1.3 cm) below surface while the other remained on the surface. All
samples were seeded with a mixed culture of Thiobacillus thiooxidans,
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans.
Oxidation of Carbonate-Rich vs. Non-Carbonate Pyritic Sandstone
Pairs of sandstone samples of nearly equal sulfur content were selected.
One set of samples contained carbonates and the other did not. Samples
with carbonates were: A-9, 0.001% S; A-34, 0.275% S; A-35, 0.720% S.
Samples without carbonates: H-10, 0.001% S; H-19, 0.285% S; H-35,
0.750% S. Two grams of each spoil sample were placed in 100 ml of
sterile 9K mineral salts solution in a 250 ml screw cap Erlenmeyer
flask. The flasks were inoculated at room temperature. One set of
flasks was withdrawn from the shaker each week and the pH of the solu-
tion checked with a Beckman Zeromatic pH meter with a combination glass
electrode. Flasks were shaken for as long as five weeks. Several
flasks containing elemental sulfur and several containing FeSO/^ . 7H 0
were also tested to verify oxidation.
153
-------
Results and Discussion
The results of the study to determine the effect of buried depth on
the oxidation of pyrite are given in Tables 35, 36, 37, and Figure 24.
Except for columns one and two the data are incomplete due to a failure
of the apparatus. Spaces in Tables 35 to 37 marked X represent a lack
of drainage from that funnel. The funnels either became clogged or the
drainage passed by them without collection. A funnel larger than the
two inch diameter funnel employed filled with fine sand to provide
capillary continuity to the outlet, will be used when the apparatus is
reconstructed. Columns one and two best illustrate that oxidation was
suppressed when the pyrite was buried 3 inches (7.6 cm) below the sur-
face of the soil column. The total iron measurements (Table 35)
indicate that considerably more iron was solubilized at the surface
than at the 3 inch depth. It is also apparent from the graphs (Figure
24) that the highest iron contents were reached between the sixth and
seventh leachings (12 to 14 weeks). The readings were 7500 ppm total
iron and 1000 ppm total iron for columns one and two, respectively.
The sulfate contents (Figure 24) of the leachates correspond well with
the iron content.
The drainage from the base of the columns in all cases contained little
or no iron. Contrary to the characteristic reddish orange color and
low pH of the funnel drainage, the drainage from the base was almost
colorless and of nearly neutral pH (Table 37). Sulfate content of the
base drainage was also reduced but not absent after passing through the
remainder of the column.
It is apparent that the iron had precipitated out of solution or re-
placed exchangeable bases inside the soil column due to the increasing
pH or exchangeable bases afforded by the soil used (pH 6.7). Then the
sulfate moved downward as a near neutral salt, as evidenced by the
relatively high pH values of the leachates.
Iron values were higher in the base leachates where the pyrite was
closer to the bottom of the column. The presence of this iron is
explainable on the basis that it did not travel as far through the soil
column and did not totally precipitate or attach to cation exchange
sites in the column. Some iron was also present in the leachate from
the control tube, but the quality is insignificant.
The quantities of total iron and sulfate solubilized from the pyrite
are sufficient to warrant some special handling in replacement during
regrading and reclamation. Since the microorganisms which catalyze
the solubilization of the sulfide ores are strict aerobes, it is recom-
154
-------
Ui
en
Table 35
Total iron content of funnel (F) and bottom (B) leachates (ppm).
1
Leaching
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
F
80
85
14
325
800
2000
7500
1500
2800
330
2200
1400
8
0
Tr
0
Tr
8
0
8
3
Tr
0
0
0
2
F
75
0
0
138
228
1000
1000
550
650
440
475
250
B
0
0
4
0
3
0
8
Tr
Tr
25
0
0
Column No.
3 4
F
X
X
0
48
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B
0
0
0
0
3
Tr
Tr
16
Tr
0
0
0
F
Tr
X
X
X
X
38
3
1100
222
460
625
250
B
0
0
3
0
1
Tr
19
18
12
11
5
4
5
F
45
0
X
X
X
X
X
1600
360
180
350
80
B
0
Tr
3
5
5
10
20
33
25
25
25
13
F
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
6
B
0
48
3
0
4
5
10
43
30
19
16
13
7
F
0
0
0
0
4
11
16
0
25
18
21
23
-------
Table 36
Sulfate content of funnel (F) and bottom (B) leachates (ppm).
1
Leaching
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
F
1500
1425
2375
1875
4250
8750
25000
4500
10000
7000
6500
5000
B
125
100
125
500
300
325
250
425
700
750
800
1000
2
F
1200
1300
1225
2000
2250
6250
2900
3000
3500
3000
2000
2000
B
75
250
425
800
500
700
375
425
500
480
475
475
Column No.
3 4
F
X
X
1025
3750
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B
50
100
175
3500
400
3000
500
700
650
525
850
700
F
1750
X
X
X
X
0
375
6000
2100
3400
3500
2200
B
50
725
825
200
725
150
750
1000
1125
1175
1250
1750
5
" F
1725
1125
X
X
X
X
X
18000
8500
4200
3250
1500
6
B
1300
1250
1275
400
45
750
825
1625
2250
2275
2500
3125
F
775
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3900
X
X
X
B
625
3125
1400
350
1500
4000
3500
4375
3750
3000
2500
2250
7
F
100
60
Tr
0
125
Tr
0
Tr
0
0
0
0
-------
Table 37
pH of funnel (F) and bottom (B) leachates.
1
Leaching
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
F
4.5
2.5
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.4
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.2
B;
6.6
5.9
7,0
6.5
6.4
6.8_
7.3
7.0
7.1
7.3
7.6
7.1
2
F
4.9
4.4
4.7
2.5
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.7
2.2
2.6
2.5
2.8
B
6.8
6.4
6.7
6.7
6.5
7.8
7.1
7.7
7.9
7.5
7.7
7.2
Column No.
345
F
X
X
3.6
2.8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
B F
5.4 5.6
6.1 X
6.5 X
6.8 X
6.6 2.8
8.2 3.6
7.5 3.5
8.1 2.4
7.9 2.4
7.7 2.4'
7.9 2.5
7.3 2.5
B F
6.0 5.5
6 .4 4 . 3
6.8 X
6.8 X
6.6 X
7.8 X,
7.4 X
7.8 2.3
7.6 2.2
7.4 2.4
7.6 2.5
7.5 2.5
B
4.1
6.6
7.1
6.9
6.7
7.4
6.6
7.9
7.6
7.3
7.6
7.7
6
F -
6.0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3.4
X
X
X
B
5.9
6.3
6.9
6.9
6.7
7.8
6.7
4.1
4.3
4.0
4.4
4.3
7
F
6.3
6.7
8.0
6.6
6.4
8.2
7.2
7.2
7.0
7.3
7.5
7.0
-------
Ln
CO
20
10
o
o
o
o
w
FIGURE 24.
24
IRON AND SULFATE CONTENT OF LEACHATES FROM COLUMNS HAVING PYRITE BURIED AT TWO
DEPTHS
-------
mended that highly pyritic spoil materials (pyritic shales, sandstones,
etc.) be set aside during removal of overburden and then be buried as
deeply as possible where anaerobic (reducing) conditions would most
probably exist. This would lead to some abatement of acidic drainage
from surface mining operations. Partial evidence for this can be
gained from the data of columns one and two.
Other evidence for the microbial activity on spoil materials is illus-
trated in Figure 25. The graphs represent the oxygen uptake in the
presence of various substrates. It is apparent that the biological
system exhibits considerably more activity than the sterile system.
The pH values of the medium upon termination of the study showed that
acid had been produced in the system.
It can be seen from Figure 25 that the biological system exhibits a
marked increase in activity over the non-biological system. All curves
show an increase in oxygen uptake at approximately 15 days into the
study. This is the usual time encountered for the attainment of good
cultural activity of the autotrophic iron and sulfur oxidizers.
The marked increase in activity of the system containing coal may be
due to the activities of organisms other than the autotrophic popula-
tion. Reports of heterotrophic growth on coal are not uncommon (Koburger,
1964) , and heterotrophic organisms have been isolated from the acid mine
drainage used as the inoculum for this study (Millar, 1971).
Acid spots were produced under laboratory conditions on the pyritic
shale and metallic-like pyrite. No acid spots formed around the gray
sandstone at either moisture level.
The results of the oxidation studies of carbonate vs. non-carbonate
spoil material show that acid production did not occur to any great ex-
tent in either series of flasks. There was no significant change in pH
over a five-week period. The pH increased slightly for some of the
carbonate containing A series both inoculated and uninoculated. The
failure of the organisms to establish growth and acid production may
have been due to the presence of the carbonates. Silverman (1967) re-
ported resistance of a pyrite containing calcium carbonate to bacterial
oxidation. This same pyrite when treated with HC1 became susceptible
to oxidation. These facts point to the possibility that liming a spoil
might be beneficial not only through raising the pH toward neutrality
but also by introducing a sufficient quantity of calcium carbonate to
be inhibitory to the bacterial oxidation of pyritic materials. The max-
imum pH tolerated by these iron and sulfur oxidizing autotrophs is ap-
proximately 5.0.
159
-------
800
S 600
-------
Lack of sufficient growth may also have been due to insufficient quanti-
ties of oxidizable substrate. The only sandstone sample to support sig-
nificant growth was Sewickley overburden containing 18% sulfur, a con-
siderably larger quantity than the .750% sulfur content of H-35, the
highest used in the oxidation studies.
Summary
Specially designed miniature lysimeters simulating mine soil land have
been tested for rating the activity of chemoautotrophic iron and sulphur
oxidizing bacteria on pyrite or rock materials containing variable per-
centages of pyrite.
Malfunction of some deeply buried interception funnels indicates needed
improvements of design, but partial data show that burial of pyrite at
a 3 inch (7.6 cm) depth in natural loamy soil of pH 6.7 reduces the rate
of release of ferrous iron and sulphate compared to 1/2 inch (1.3 cm)
depth of burial. Moreover, percolation downward through the 4 foot
(122 cm) column of soil removed most of the acid and iron, presumably
by reaction with exchangeable cations in the soils.
There is some evidence, as suggested by others, that alkaline earth car-
bonates may inhibit bacterial oxidation activity, possibly by preventing
pH of 5.0 or less as needed to favor sulphur and iron oxidizing organ-
isms. In some particular rock materials an insufficient quantity of
accessible oxidizable substrate may have prevented microbial growth even
through appreciable percentages of pyritic sulphur (0.20 to 0.75%) were
present.
Slightly modified lysimeters appear promising fpr calibrating different
rock materials and for determining likely effects of burial depth in
different kinds of soils or rocks available in problem spoils under
natural field conditions.
Manometric methods also allow characterization of relative values of
different materials as substrates for chemoautotrophic microorganisms.
161
-------
SECTION XIII
INTERACTIONS WITH PLANT COVERS
The effectiveness of vegetative cover in reducing water pollution from
disturbed land areas has been well documented. Observations made during
the course of this project have been primarily related to the thrifti-
ness of plants in local spoil areas composed of specific types of rock
materials.
Although there has been little time since the verification of a sulfur-
free zone in coal overburden that would allow operators to selectively
place this material in positions favorable to establishing vegetation,
in several Upper Freeport spoils the sulfur-free rock has "accidentally"
been placed on the spoil surface in localized spots. Likewise the acid-
producing low chroma massive sandstone occurs in various size fragments
on the surface of many spoils.
Overburden materials of some other coal seams, such as the Lower
Kittanning and Bakerstown, contain bases, present as carbonates, fre-
quently in sufficient quantity to effectively neutralize acid formed
from oxidation of pyritic sulfur, which is present at levels comparable
to those in Lower Mahoning sandstone or greater. The higher resulting
pH of many of these spoils, along with higher quantities of plant
nutrient elements derived from breakdown of shales, and improved water
holding capacity obtained in the finer textured weathering products has
resulted in highly acceptable revegetation programs on most spoils of
these coal seams.
An example of complete failure of revegetation efforts on an older
Bakerstown spoil near Albright, Preston County, can be attributed to
the inopportune placement of black, highly pyritic shales from just
above the coal seam on the spoil surface during the mining operation.
The particularly toxic shale in this location attains a thickness of
at least 5 meters, and although base status is comparable with over-
lying strata, the sulfur content is consistently between one and six
percent, requiring tremendous quantities of neutralizing material
wherever oxidation attacks finely divided forms of the pyrite.
Spoils resulting from surface mining of Lower Kittanning coal in north-
eastern Preston County have been planted with forage mixtures of birds-
foot trefoil and grasses with great success. The overburden material
between the coal seam and the original soil is shale containing, below
the weathered zone, the equivalent of 6 tons (average) of calcium
carbonate per thousand tons of material. This same material averages
163
-------
0.236% total sulfur, with the major portion being within 2 meters of
the coal seam. Inasmuch as the basic carbonates solubiiize rapidly in
acid whenever formed from pyrite oxidation, the net pH of the spoil and
drainage waters remains near neutrality.
Spoils composed of Lower Mahoning sandstone have been partially covered
with thriving stands of birdsfoot trefoil and tall fescue where moderate
amounts of lime and fertilizer have also been applied. Localized spoil
areas consisting of the weathered (high chroma) sandstone, which has
been shown to be free of pyrite, can be depended upon to serve as an
acceptable growing medium if the plant nutrients removed during the
weathering processes over geologic time are replaced, and some lime is
applied to counteract the natural acidity the leaching processes have
produced. Areas of spoil dominated by the low chroma, pyritic sand-
stone are found to be barren of vegetative cover except where extremely
heavy rates of lime have been applied. Most of the spoils resulting
from mining the Upper Freeport seam consist of a mixture of high chroma,
weathered sandstone and low chroma, pyritic sandstone. Where adequate
lime and fertilizer have been applied, and seeding time was at the
optimum part of the growing season, excellent ground cover has been
obtained with the grass/legume mixtures commonly used. Areas contain-
ing a large percentage of coarse rock fragments (nearly always of low
chroma, and pyritic) and devoid of finer particles could be expected
to remain barren.
Observation of several Upper Freeport spoils and a few formerly highly
acidic Pittsburgh spoils suggests that rapid establishment of vegetative
cover of any type tends to reduce the rate of generation of acid in the
spoil. This would be expected, theoretically, because of increased
carbon dioxide and reduced oxygen concentrations associated with res-
piring roots or decomposing organic matter.
Although with proper practices, forage grasses and legumes, seeded
alone or in combination with trees, are providing quick cover needed
to control erosion and sedimentation on many spoils, it is apparent
in this region that native trees will soon convert most mine spoil
lands to woodland unless tree seedlings are controlled. In this con-
nection, it appears that some landowners who prefer forages rather
than woodland on gentle slopes have failed to realize that vigorous
forage stands and growth require repeated applications of lime and
fertilizers as well as proper grazing and clipping management. More-
over, wise use of mine spoil land is to be expected only when capa-
bilities of particular spoils are well understood, the same as with
other soils.
164
-------
SECTION XIV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following organizations have assisted in this work: (1) West
Virginia Steering Committee for Surface Mine Research; (2) West Virginia
Surface Mine and Reclamation Association; (3) West Virginia Department
of Natural Resources; (4) West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey;
(5) United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service;
(6) West Virginia University Soil Testing Laboratory.
Valuable consultations and advice were provided, in response to our
requests, by: Frank W. Glover, John L. Gorman, Milton T. Heald, Boyd
J. Patton, G. G. Pohlman, Keith 0. Schmude, Edward H. Tyner, Collins
Veatch, and others.
The following people participated in the preparation of this paper:
Thomas Arkle, Jr., Alan C. Donaldson, Water E. Grube, Jr., Everett M.
Jencks, John J. Renton, John C. Sencindiver, Rabindar N. Singh, Richard
Meriwether Smith, Andrew A. Sobek, Harold A. Wilson and David A.
Zuberer.
Assistants in the field and laboratory work included: James Ali,
Mingteh Chang, Arden Christiansen, Steven Grimm, David Maine, Karel
R. Schubert, John W. Sturm, and Linda Thompson.
The support of the project by the Office of Water Programs, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, and the help provided by Benton Wilmoth,
Grant Project Officer, and Ronald D. Hill, is gratefully acknowledged.
165
-------
SECTION XV
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of 1967, for sale by U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
20242 (1969).
Woodruff, C. M. (1948) Testing soils for lime requirement by means of
a buffered solution and the glass electrode. Soil Sci. 66:53-63.
(1950) Estimating the nitrogen delivery of soil from
the organic matter determination as reflected by Sanborn Field.
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 14:208-212.
171
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SECTION XVI
PUBLICATIONS
Anonymous, "Mine spoil potential for plant growth and water quality."
West Virginia Agriculture and Forestry, 2, No. 4, pp. 3-4 (1969).
Ayres, Walter B., Jr., "An investigation of growing structures during
Conemaugh Time;" unpublished report; files of the Geology Depart-
ment, West Virginia University (1970).
Grube, W. E., Jr., Smith, R. M., Jencks, E. M., Singh, R. N., "Weathering
in a Pennsylvanian sandstone: Its significance in pollution from
strip mines," submitted to Nature for publication.
Grube, W. E., Jr., Smith, R. M., and Singh, R. N., "Interpretations of
mottled profiles in surficial Ultisols and fine-grained Pennsylvanian
age sandstones," Joint Meeting of Commissions V and VI of the ISSS,
Stuttgart-Hohenheim, Germany (1971).
Grube, W. E., Jr., Smith, R. M. and Singh, R. N., "Properties of over-
burden materials related to spoil bank soil chemistry," mimeo
handout of talk presented at Acid Mine Drainage Workshop, Athens,
Ohio (1971).
Singh, R. N., Grube, W. E., Jr., Jencks, E. M, and Smith, R. M.,
"Morphology and genesis of dystrochrepts as influenced by the
properties of Mahoning sandstone," (Paper presented verbally, ab-
stract published), Agronomy Abstracts, p. 141 (1970).
Singh, R. N. , Smith, R. M., Grube, W. E., Jr., and Jencks, E. M.,
"Principles influencing the usefulness of chemical testing of mine
spoils," mimeo handout of talk presented at Acid Mine Drainage
Workshop, Athens, Ohio (1971).
Sobek, A. A. and Smith, R. M., "Properties of barren mine spoil,"
Proceedings of the West Virginia Academy of Science, 43, (in press).
Smith, R. M., Grube, W. E., Jr., Jencks, E. M., and Singh, R. N., "Soil
profiles before and after surface mining," mimeo handout of talk
presented at Acid Mine Drainage Workshop, Athens, Ohio (1971).
Smith, R. M., Tryon, E. H. and Tyner, E. H., "Soil development on mine
spoil," West Virginia University Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 604T (1971).
173
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SECTION XVII
GLOSSARY
Alfisols - Mineral soils that have a light colored surface horizon
generally low in organic matter and an argllllc (clay accumula-
tion) subsurface horizon which is at least 35 percent base
saturated.
Bone coal - Argillaceous coal; or carbonaceous shale in coal seams.
Chroma, color - The relative purity, strength, or saturation of a color;
directly related to the dominance of the determining wave length
of the light and inversely related to grayness.
Clastics - Any of a group of rocks composed mainly of fragemnts derived
from pre-existing rocks and transported mechanically to its place
of deposition, such as shales, siltstones, sandstones, and con-
glomerates.
Control section - Arbitrary depths of soil material within which certain
diagnostic horizons, features, and other characteristics are used
as differentiae in the classification of soils.
Cubic Udspolents - Thick-bedded Spolents of a humid climate (tentatively
defined).
Diagenesis - The reconstruction processes, collectively, operating in
sedimentary rocks during or immediately after their deposition to
produce changes in them, and caused by the weight of the overlying
strata, hot waters, etc.
Dystrochrepts - Inceptisols having a light colored surface horizon and
low base saturation.
Entisols - Soils that have little or no evidence of development of
pedogenic horizons.
Facies - An assemblage of mineral, rock, or fossil features reflecting
the environment in which a rock was formed.
Fissile Udspolents - Shaley Spolents of a humid climate (tentatively
defined).
175
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Fragiudalfs - Alfisols of a humid climate having a brittle, loamy sub-
surface pan.
Free Al - Aluminum extractable by the dithionite-citrate method as
described by Jackson (1958).
Free Fe - Iron extractable by the dithionite-citrate method as des-
cribed by Jackson (1958).
Free Mn - extractable by the dithionite-citrate method as described by
Jackson (1958).
Hapludalfs - Alfisols of a humid climate that have simple or minimum
horizonation.
Hapludults - Ultisols of a humid climate that have simple or minimum
horizonation.
Hue, color - The dominant spectral, color, related to the dominant wave-
length of light.
Inceptisols - Soils with one or more diagnostic horizons that do not
represent significant illuviation or eiuviation of clays.
Kaolinite books - Fine mosaiclike masses of crystals apparently replacing
feldspars.
Pedogenic - Having to do with the formation of soil.
Penecontemporaneous - Living, existing or occurring at nearly the same
time.
Plattic Udspolents - Sandstone Spolents of a humid climate (tentatively
defined).
Slickensides - Polished and grooved surfaces produced by one mass sliding
past another.
Spolents - An Entisol soil composed of spoil material (tentatively
defined).
Surface Mining - Removal of mineral or other resources from the earth
by first removing overlying soil and rock materials; in this re-
port auger mining is not included.
176
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Typic Udspolents - Humid climate Spolents of mixed sandstones and
shales (tentatively defined).
Ultisols - Soils of humid areas characterized by the presence of an
argillic subsoil horizon which is less than 35 percent saturated
with bases.
Value, color - The relative lightness or intensity of color and ap-
proximately a function of the square root of the total amount of
light.
177
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SECTION XVIII
APPENDIX A
Preston County Sites Where Rock Chip, High Wall, Spoil and Soil Samples
Have Been Obtained and/or Studied in Place
A - One mile south and one-half mine west of Valley Point; Upper Free-
port coal; drainage into lower Glade Run, active 1969-1971.
B - One and one quarter miles west of Valley Point; Upper Freeport coal;
drainage into upper second west fork of Glade Run; graded and planted
to locust and autumn olive in 1969.
C - Three-fourth mile south and one mile west of Valley Point; Upper
Freeport coal; drainage into west fork of Glade Run; active 1969-
1971.
D - One-half mile south of Valley Point; Upper Freeport coal; drainage
into Fickey Run; spoil graded and unplanted.
E - Two and one-half miles south and one and one quarter miles east of
Brandonville; Upper Freeport coal; drainage into lower first order
tributary of Little Sandy Creek; active 1969-1971.
F - One and one-half mile south and one quarter mile west of Lenox;
Upper Freeport coal; drainage into Little Lick Run; active 1969-
1970, spoil partially graded and planted 1970-1971.
G - One and one quarter miles south and one and one-half miles west of
Valley Point; Upper Freeport coal; drainage into Glade Run; active
1969-1971.
H - Two and one quarter miles west of Valley Point; Upper Freeport coal;
drainage into Severn Run; active 1969-1970, grading started 1971.
I - One-half mile toward Lenox from site F; Upper Freeport coal; drain-
age into Little Lick Run; active 1969-1970, grading started 1971.
J - One and one-half miles west of Manown; Upper Freeport coal; drain-
age into north fork of Squires Creek; active 1969-1970, grading
started 1971.
179
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K - One quarter mile toward Lenox from site F; Upper Freeport coal;
drainage into Little Lick Run; active 1969-1970, grading started
1971,
L - One-half mile south and one-half mile west of Valley Point; Upper
Freeport coal; drainage into Glade Run; active 1969-1970, graded
and planted to forage mixture 1971.
M - Three quarter mile south and one-half mile west of Herring; Upper
Freeport coal; drainage into Bull Run; active 1969-1971, partially
graded and planted to locust trees prior to 1969.
N - Two miles east and two and one-half miles north of Brandonville;
Upper Freeport coal; drainage into tributary of Big Sandy Creek;
active 1970, grading started 1971.
0 - Two and one-half miles east and two miles north of Brandonville;
Lower Kittanning coal; drainage into Glade Run, a first order trib-
utary of Big Sandy Creek; active 1969-1971, partially graded and
planted to forage species.
P - One mile east and one mile south of Caddell; Lower Kittanning coal;
drainage into Buffalo Run; graded and planted 1970.
Q - One mile south and one quarter mile east of Valley Point; Bakerstown
coal; drainage partly into Fickey Run and partly into Muddy Creek;
graded and revegetated to forage mixture 1969.
R - One quarter mile north and one quarter mile east of Lenox; Bakers-
town coal; drainage into tributary of Muddy Creek; active 1969-1970,
graded 1971.
S - One mile south and one-half mile west of Lenox; Bakerstown coal;
drainage partly into Crab Orchard Run and partly into Little Lick
Run; active 1971.
T - One-half mile north and one and one-half miles east of Albright;
Bakerstown coal; drainage into Roaring Creek; active 1971.
U - One and one quarter miles south and two miles west of Howesville;
Bakerstown coal; drainage into tributary of Birds Creek- active
1970, graded 1971.
180
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V - One and one quarter miles south and one-half mile east of Caddell;
Bakerstown coal; drainage into Buffalo Run; graded and planted to
forage species 1970.
W - Three quarter mile south and one quarter mile west of Lenox; Harlem
coal; drainage into Crab Orchard Run; active 1970-1971.
X - Three quarter mile south and three quarter mile east of Valley
Point; Harlem coal; drainage partly into Fickey Run and partly
into Muddy Creek; graded and revegetated to forage mixture 1969.
Y - One and one quarter miles south and three quarter mile west of
Glade Farms; Brush Creek coal; drainage into Hog Run; active 1970-
1971, partly graded 1971.
Z - Three-fourth mile south and one-half mile east of Caddell; Mahoning
coal; drainage into Buffalo Run; graded and revegetated to forage
mixture 1970.
181
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Descriptions
Site A
DATE: September 30, 1969
LOCATION: On strip mine south of Valley Point
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Taylor, Gorman, Smith
SLOPE: 3 to 8 percent
Horizons:
Ap
A3
0-6" (0-15 cm)
6-10" (15-25 cm)
B2
10-18" (25-46 cm)
R
18-22" (46-66 cm)
22" + (66 cm+)
—Dark grayish brown (19YR 4/2) loam; weak,
fine, granular structure; very friable; 5
percent sandstone fragments; common roots;
clear, wavy boundry.
—Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) fine
sandy loam; weak, fine granular structure;
very friable; 5 percent sandstone frag-
ments; common roots; clear, wavy boundry.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) light sandy
clay loam; weak, fine to medium, subangular
blocky structure; friable to firm; 15 per-
cent sandstone fragments; few roots; clear,
wavy boundary.
—Thin platy sandstone with 5 percent sandy
loam inclusions in cracks and between thin
strata; massive soil structure; gradual,
wavy boundary.
—Sandstone.
Series: Dekalb, thin variant
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
182
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site C
DATE: September 30, 1969
LOCATION: West of Valley Point, above active Strip Mine
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Taylor, Gorman, Smith
SLOPE: 3 to 8 percent
Horizons:
Apl 0-2" (0-5 cm)
Ap2 2-10" (5-25 cm)
B2 10-18" (25-46 cm)
B3 18-21" (46-53 cm)
21-24" (53-61 cm)
—Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) loam;
weak, fine, granular structure; very friable;
5 percent sandstone fragments; many roots;
clear, wavy boundary.
—Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) loam; weak,
fine, granular structure; firm in place;
very friable when broken out; 5 percent
sandstone fragments; common roots; clear,
wavy boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) channery loam;
weak, fine to medium, subangular blocky
structure; friable; 25 percent sandstone
fragments; few roots; clear, irregular
boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) very channery
loam; weak, fine subangular blocky structure;
friable; 60 percent sandstone fragments;
occasional roots; gradual, wavy boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) fine sandy loam;
massive structure; 10 percent fines similar
to those in B3 horizon; gradual, wavy
boundary.
183
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Appendix B
Site C - Continued
Horizons:
R 24" + (61 cm+) —Sandstone.
Series: Dekalb
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
184
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site E-l
DATE: October 17, 1969
LOCATION: Appalachian Coal, stripping operation, approximately 3 miles
north of Centenary church and one mile east of the Brandon-
ville to Terra Alta Pike. Preston County, W. Va.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Singh, Christiansen, Grube, Jencks and Smith
SLOPE: 2 percent
VEGETATION: Mixed legume (Birdsfoot trefoil) and grass meadow.
Horizons:
Ap 0-8" (0-20 cm) —Dark brown (10YR 3/3) silt loam; moderate,
medium and fine, granular structure, fri-
able moist; somewhat irregular fingering
into Bl; common roots; clear boundary.
Bl 8-12" (20-30 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay
loam; weak, medium, subangular blocky and
granular structure; common roots; gradual
boundary.
B2t 12-19" (30-48 cm) —Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) silty clay
loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky
structure; friable moist; discontinuous
clay skins; common roots; clear, smooth
boundary.
Bxl 19-22" (56-69 cm) —Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6 to 6/8) silty
clay loam; common, distinct brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6) and light gray (10YR 6/2 mottles;
weak, medium, subangular blocky structure
with massive ped interiors; firm moist;
fine concretions; few roots; gradual,
irregular boundary.
185
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Appendix B
Site E-l - Continued
Horizons:
Bx2
22-27" (56-69 cm)
27" + (69 cm+)
IlBx 40-46" (102-117 cm)
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 to 5/8) silty
clay loam; common, distinct yellowish
brown (10YR 5/6), light gray (10YR 7/2)
and black (10YR 2/1) mottles; weak platy
and subangular blocky structure with mas-
sive ped interiors; firm moist; fine brown
and discontinuous black concretions and/or
concretions of black coatings; few roots;
abrupt boundary.
—Gray and brown sandstone with dark brown
or black coatings on some bedding surfaces
and fractures; firm; bedding 2 to 4 inches
thick; variable depth.
—(This horizon was described 15 feet north
of the previously described pedon.) Brownish
yellow (10YR 6/6) silty clay loam; common,
prominent light gray (10YR 7/2) mottling;
coarse blocky or prismatic structure cutting
across weak platy atructure or horizontal
planes (possibly inherited in part from
siltstone or shale bedding); firm moist;
light gray color appeared to be a coating
of thickness 0 to 10 mm on the exterior of
coarse blocky, prismatic and platy peds;
coating appeared too porous to be clay skins.
Series: Cookport, fine silty variant.
Great Group: Fragiudults
186
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site E-2
DATE: April 16, 1970
LOCATION: Above mouth of Beaver Creek into Little Sandy Creek, Preston
County. Level upland within Upper Freeport outcrop.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Arnold, Grube, Smith
SLOPE: 1 to 2 percent
VEGETATION: Meadow of orchardgrass, red clover and birdsfoot trefoil.
Horizons:
Ap 0-7" (0-18 cm) —Brown (10YR 3.5/3) silt loam; moderate,
fine granular structure; friable; many
fibrous roots; abrupt, wavy boundary.
Bl 7-16" (18-41 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay
loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky
structure; friable; 5 percent inclusions
of earthworn casts or rodent diggings of
Ap horizon; air dry color is very pale
brown (10YR 7/4) with concretionary material
and traces of mottling and 5 percent small
stone fragments +2 mm; common roots; clear
to gradual boundary.
B21t 16-20" (41-51 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay
loam; very pale brown (10YR 7/3) and white
(10YR 8/2) mottles especially at boundary
with the B23t horizon; moderate, medium,
subangular blocky structure; circular
channels, probably crayfish burrows, partly
filled with Ap soil, penetrate the horizon
carrying water which seeped into the soil
plot; common roots; clear boundary.
187
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Appendix B
Site E-2 - Continued
Horizons:
B22t 20-23" (51-58 cm)
B3t 23-39" (58-99 cm)
39-42" (99-107 cm)
Series: Wharton
Great Group: Hapludults
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay;
many prominent light gray (10YR 7/2) mot-
tles; yellowish red (SYR 4/8) and dark
reddish brown (5YR 2/2) iron and manganese
concretionary material cementing part of
this horizon and underlying horizon in
vertical or oblique zones; few roots.
—Strong brown (7.SYR 5/6) silty clay;
many prominent white (10YR 8/2) to black
(10YR 2/1) mottles; black (10YR 2/1) and
dark reddish brown (SYR 2/2) iron and
manganese concretionary bands and coatings;
moderate, medium, subangular blocky to
angular blocky structure; friable to firm
moist; many white (10YR 8/2) clay skins;
very few roots.
—Pale brown (10YR 6/3) siltstone bedded
1/2 to 1 inch thick; somewhat mottled with
yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) to white (10YR
8/1) on cleavage planes and some fractures
coated with black (10YR 2/1) and dark
reddish brown (SYR 2/2).
188
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site E-3
DATE: April 18, 1970
LOCATION: Near the top of the ridge approaching the southeast fence
corner and gate at UFE. See UFE II and I for other details
of locations.
DESCRIBED AND SAMPLED BY: Grube and Smith
VEGETATION: Like UFE II
SLOPE: Like UFE II
Horizons;
Ap 0-9" (0-23 cm)
Bl 9-14" (23-36 cm)
B21t 14-24" (36-61 cm)
B22t 24-28" (61-71 cm)
—Like UFE II; not sampled.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) heavy silt
loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky
structure; 10 percent siltstone fragments;
inclusions of Ap in earthworm casts; com-
mon roots.
—Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) silty clay
loam; few, faint light gray (10YR 7/2) to
black (10YR 2/1) mottles; 10 percent red-
dish brown (2.SYR 4/4) coarse shale frag-
ments +2 mm and -20 mm.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay;
common light gray (10YR 6.5/1) to reddish
brown (2.SYR 4/4) mottles; weak, angular
blocky structure; 10 percent shale or
siltstone fragments +2 mm; common clay
skins.
189
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Appendix B
Site E-3 - Continued
Horizons:
Bm 28-30" (71-76 cm)
B3 30-32" (76-81 cm)
R 32-33"+ (71-84+ cm)
Series: Wharton
Great Group: Hapludults
—Cemented, indurated continuous pan of
empty iron-manganese concretionary material
dominantly reddish brown (SYR 2/2) shading
to black and to layers of brownish yellow
(10YR 6/6); some concretion interiors are
empty, others contain small silty mud balls
of pinkish gray (7.5YR 6/2); grayish brown
(10YR 5/2), and light brownish gray (10YR
6/2) that look much like earthworm casts.
--Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay
loam to silty clay; light gray (10YR 6/1
to 7/1) mottles; massive structure; some
siltstone controlled layering.
—Siltsone; mottles on broken faces of light
gray (10YR 6/1), strong brown (7.5YR 5/8),
reddish brown (SYR 4/4) and minor black
(7.5 YR 2/0) coatings; firm.
190
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site F
DATE: February 5, 1970
LOCATION: 1/2 mile south of Lennox, Kingwood Mining, active site, job
3.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Grube, Alt, Smith
SLOPE: 2 percent
VEGETATION: Orchardgrass and miscellaneous forbs. Possibly an old
orchard.
Horizons:
Ap
0-10" (0-25 cm)
B2
10-17" (25-43 cm)
B3
17-22" (43-56 cm)
—Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam
with 10 percent inclusion of pale brown
(10YR 6/3) heavy silt loam; medium granular
structure; friable moist; very few small
shale (siltstone) particles +2 mm diameter;
noticeable earthworm casts and canals; com-
mon roots; abrupt boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5.5/6) silty clay
loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky
structure with slightly lighter color value
on ped faces; friable moist; 5 percent in-
clusions of A horizon grayish brown (10YR
5/2) silt loam; few clay skins; grass roots
and earthworms present; clear boundary.
—Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) shaly silty
clay loam; weak, medium to fine, subangular
blocky structure with slightly lighter color
values on ped faces; friable moist; 35 per-
cent silty shale fragments mottled with
colors from white (10YR 8/2) to dark yellowish
brown (10YR 4/4); few grass roots.
191
-------
Appendix B
Site F - Continued
Horizons:
C 22-26" (56-66 cm) —Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) very shaly
silt loam; massive soil structure; 50
percent siltstone mottled light brownish
gray (2.5YR 6/2) to pale yellow (2.SYR
7/4) to black (N 2/0) on cleavage planes.
R 26-30" (66-76 cm) —Siltstone, mottled light brownish gray
(2.SYR 6/2), pale yellow (2.SYR 7/4) and
black (N 2/0) on cleavage planes, with 5
to 10 percent massive silt loam fines
between bedding planes.
Series: Gilpin
Great Group: Hapludults
192
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site H
DATE: October 23, 1969
LOCATION: Preston County - Rockville operation - Kingwood Coal
Permit No. 9369.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Smith, Sponaugle, Taylor, Gorman
SLOPE: 3 to 8 percent
VEGETATION: Old field.
Horizons:
Apl 0-2" (0-5 cm)
Ap2 2-7" (5-18 cm)
B21 7-13" (18-33 cm)
B22 13-21" (33-53 cm)
21-27" (53-69 cm)
—Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) loam;
moderate, fine, granular structure; very
friable; 5 percent sandstone fragments;
clear, wavy boundary.
—Dark brown (10YR 4/3) loam; moderate,
fine, granular structure; very friable; 5
percent sandstone fragments; clear, wavy
boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) loam; weak,
fine subangular blocky structure; friable;
15 percent sandstone fragments; clear, ir-
regular boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) channery loam;
weak, fine and medium, subangular blocky
structure; 40 percent sandstone fragments;
gradual irregular boundary.
—10 percent yellowish brown (10YR 5/6)
loam to fine sandy loam; massive; friable
to firm; 90 percent thin bedded sandstone;
gradual, irregular boundary.
193
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Appendix B
Site H - Continued
Horizons:
R 27" + (69 cm+) —Hard, somewhat broken sandstone.
Series: Dekalb
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
194
-------
APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site I
DATE: February 24, 1970
LOCATION: Freeport coal operation on Alexander's permit, 1/2 mile
south of Lennox. Drainage into Little Lick Run.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Grube and Smith
SLOPE: 5 percent, on upland bench
VEGETATION: Short grass, closely utilized, dominantly orchardgrass.
Horizons:
Ap
0-7" (0-18 cm)
Bl
7-12" (18-30 cm)
B2
12-20" (30-51 cm)
—Dark brown (10YR 3/3) silt loam or very
fine sandy loam; moderate, medium to fine,
granular structure; friable moist; ir-
regular fingering into Bl; 5 to 10 per-
cent coarse fragments of fine-grained
sandstone smaller than 3 inches diameter;
common roots; abrupt boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) channery loam
or channery very fine sandy loam; weak,
medium, subangular blocky to granular
structure; friable moist, 10 percent sur-
face soil inclusions; 20 percent coarse
fragments of bedded fine grained sandstone;
common roots; gradual boundary.
--Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 to 5/8) loam
or very fine sandy clay loam; weak, medium,
subangular blocky structure; friable moist;
fine roots; gradual boundary.
195
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Appendix B
Site I - Continued
Horizons:
B3
20-30" (51-76 cm)
30-36" (76-91 cm)
Rl
R2
R3
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 to 5/8) very
channery loam to very channery very fine
sandy loam marginal to very channery clay
loam; weak, medium, subangular blocky
structure; friable moist; 50 percent coarse
fragments less than 3 inches diameter with
bedding planes partially coated with black
and rock interiors as well as some fines
mottled with very pale brown (10YR 7/3 to
7/4); very few, fine roots.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/8) to reddish
yellow (7.SYR 6/6) very channery fine sandy
clay loam; common, distinct mottles of
very pale brown (19YR 7/3 to 8/3); 75 per-
cent fine-grained thin bedded sandstone
fragments; discontinuous clay films; very
few, very fine roots.
—Fine grained, thin bedded sandstone with
10 percent fine sandy loam or fine sandy
clay loam fines between peds; bedding planes
partially coated with black; rock interior
and fines mottled yellowish brown (10YR
5/8), reddish yellow (7.SYR 6/6), yellowish
red (SYR 5/6) and weak red (2.SYR 5/2) to
reddish brown (2.SYR 5/4).
—Fine grained, moderately thin bedded
sandstone with 5 to 10 percent fine sandy
clay loam fines between bedding planes;
dominant color reddish brown (SYR 5/3)
with mottles from white (SYR 8/1) to black.
70-75" (1.78-1.91 m) —Fine grained sandstone like R2 but tend-
ing toward thicker beds, less fines, and
bigger slabs between fractures.
42-48" (1.07-1.22 m)
53-58" (1.36-1.47 m)
Series: Dekalb
Great Groups: Dystrochrepts
196
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site J
DATE: April 14, 1970
LOCATION: 1/2 mile west of Mt. Phoebe, Preston County on Upper
Freeport operation of Mary Ruth Coal Company.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Grube and Smith
VEGETATION: Woodland with small trees and shrubs remaining. Moss,
rhododendron, oaks, sassafras.
Horizons:
01 and 02 5"-0 (13 cm-0) —Undifferentiated, loose, undecomposed
leaves and decomposed organic matter held
together by abundant fine roots; mineral
fraction dominantly sand; clear boundary.
A2 0-1" (0-3 cm) —White (N 9/0) medium to coarse sand mixed
with decomposed organic matter and including
10 percent of brown (10YR 5/3) loamy material;
dominantly structureless, single-grained; 5
percent sandstone fragments +2 mm.
A3 1-5" (3-13 cm) —Brown (10YR 4/3) loam containing very
little silt; moderate, fine, granular struc-
ture; very friable; 10 percent sandstone
fragments +2 mm; 5 percent dark granules of
high organic materia; common roots.
B21 5-12" (13-30 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/5) channery heavy
loam; moderate, medium to fine, granular
structure; very friable; 25 percent sand-
stone fragments +2 mm; sandstone fragments
mottled very light gray (10YR 4/4) or broken
faces; common roots.
197
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Appendix B
Site J - Continued
Horizons;
B22 12-20" (30-51 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) very channery
heavy loam to clay loam; moderate, medium,
granular to subangular blocky structure;
friable; 50 percent medium textured sand-
stone fragments of mottled light gray
(10YR 7/1) to dark yellowish brown (10YR
4/4); common roots.
R 20-25" (51-64 cm) —Medium textured sandstone with 10 percent
fines between bedding planes; freshly broken
faces dominantly brownish yellow (10YR 6/6)
but grading from light gray (10YR 7/2) to
olive yellow (SYR 6/6).
Series: Dekalb
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
198
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site K
DATE: April 9, 1970
LOCATION: Kingwood Mining operations, probable northern extension of
UFF (Job 3) or southern extension of UFI (Alexanders).
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Singh, Grube, Smith, Veatch
VEGETATION: Short grass (redtop), weeds (cinquefoil), moss, scattered
hawthorn and other small trees. Old scattered nearby
trees are oaks and maples. Possibly an old orchard.
Horizons;
02 2"-0 (5 cm-0) —Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) loam; moderate,
fine granular structure; friable, held firmly
by fibrous roots; few sandstone fragments +2
mm diameter; clear boundary.
Al 2-8" (5-20 cm) —Brown to dark brown (10YR 3.5/3) loam;
moderate, fine granular structure; friable
to loose; 10 percent sandstone fragments
up to 3 inches diameter; 5 percent inclusion
of pale brown material apparently originally
earthworm casts or rodent diggings; common
fibrous roots.
B21 8-18" (20-46 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) channery loam
marginal to channery clay loam; moderate,
fine granular structure; friable; 5 to 10
percent inclusions of brown or dark brown
material, apparently earthworm casts and
rodent diggings; 20 percent sandstone frag-
ments to 4 inches diameter; noticeable
quantities of medium or coarse sand with
apparently very little silt; common fibrous
roots and a few coarse (woody) tree roots;
gradual boundary.
199
-------
Appendix B
Site K - Continued
Horizons:
B22 19-30" (46-76 cm)
30-36" (76-91 cm)
Series: Dekalb
—Brownish yellow (5.5/6) channery loam
containing more coarse sand than the B21;
moderate to weak, fine granular structure;
friable; 25 percent brown mottled, medium
to coarse grained sandstone with partial
coatings of dark brown to black; fibrous
and woody roots but fewer than B21; abrupt
boundary but depth somewhat variable.
—Medium to coarse sandstone with 5 percent
sandy loam between bedding planes; mottles
of very pale brown (10YR 8/3) to yellowish
brown (10YR 5/8) with significant black
coatings on bedding planes and on some
grains.
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
200
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site L
DATE: May 14, 1970
LOCATION: Preston County, west of Valley Point.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Pyle, Grube and Smith
SLOPE: 2 percent
VEGETATION: Maples, fire cherry, blueberry, teaberry, and greenbrier.
Horizons:
Al 0-7" (0-18 cm) —Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) to
dark brown (10YR 3/3) loam; moderate to
strong, fine, granular (or crumb) structure
with some platelike structures; very fri-
able; 5 percent channery sandstone frag-
ments smaller than 2 inches wide; many
roots; clear boundary.
A3 7-12" (18-30 cm) —Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) loam;
moderate, fine to medium, granular struc-
ture; very friable; less than 5 percent
channery sandstone fragments 1 to 5 inches
in length; common fine roots; clear
boundary.
B2 12-19" (30-48 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 to 5/8) clay
loam marginal to loam; faint mottling in
lower two inches; moderate, medium, granu-
lar structure with some subangular blocky
structure; friable; 5 to 7 percent coarse
channery sandstone fragments to 2 1/2
inches; few roots; clear boundary.
201
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Appendix B
Site L - Continued
Horizons:
Bxl 19-26" (48-66 cm)
Bx2 26-42" (66-170 cm)
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/8) clay loam;
common mottles of light gray (10YR 7/1)
and black (10YR 2/1); firm; mottling and
brittleness indicative of fragipan but
less distinct than for underlying horizon;
15 percent channery sandstone fragments to
4 inches; clear boundary.
—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6 to 5/8) to
light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) and
brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) clay loam; many
continuous light gray (10YR 7/1) streaks
and common black (10YR 2/1) and dark brown
(10YR 3/3) mottles; firm and brittle; some
of the gray streaks are traceable bounding
surfaces of large prisms, the tops and
bottoms of which are not clearly defined;
many vesicular openings some of which have
dark brown to black coatings and a reti-
culate pattern, apparently partially fill-
ing old root channels; 15 percent channery
fragments finer than 4 inches.
Cx and 5 42-52" (107-132 cm)—Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) and dark brown
(10YR 3/3) very channery clay loam to very
channery sandy loam; prominent light gray
(10YR 7/1) and common black (10YR 2/1)
mottles; variable proportions of fines and
weathered bedded sandstone between 50 per-
cent and 95 percent; very slowly permeable.
Series: Cookport
Great Group: Fragiudults
202
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APPENDIX B
Soil Profile Description
Site, test core FP25
DATE: October 23, 1969
LOCATION: Preston County, Northwest of Cuzzart on rounded hill
(elevation 2208 ft.) above surface mining operations.
Profile is near site of core borings FP25 and 25a.
SAMPLED AND DESCRIBED BY: Smith, Sponaugle, Taylor, Gorman
VEGETATION: Brushy old field.
Horizons:
Apl 0-2" (0-5 cm) —Very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2)
channery coarse silt loam; weak, fine,
granular structure; very friable; 20
percent rock fragments; clear, wavy
boundary.
Ap2 2-8" (5-20 cm) —Dark brown (10YR 3/3) channery loam;
weak, fine to medium, granular structure;
very friable; 20 percent rock fragments;
clear, wavy boundary.
B2 8-16" (20-41 cm) —Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) very channery
loam; weak, fine to medium, subangular
blocky structure; friable; 50 percent rock
fragments; gradual, irregular boundary.
C 16-27" (41-69 cm) —Thin bedded sandstone (1 to 3 inches
thick) interbedded with soft, weathered,
yellowish brown siltstone; few mica flakes,
variable 10 to 15 percent yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6) loam in crevices and pockets.
Series: Dekalb, thin variant
Great Group: Dystrochrepts
203
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APPENDIX C
KJ
o
—'— '—si—''
LEGEND \ 81 100Z 1969
COl'NTIES WITH LIMITED COAL RESERVES )l' COAL PRODUCTION 139,315.720
NO PRODUCTION REPORTED TS! 864
ygj25% COAL PRODUCTION BY 14,547,427
/ j! SURFACE MINING
COUNTIES WITH NO COAL RESERVES h>mo] :
I--X.J '
Short Tons
Short Tons
/43
I
328J
PERCENT OF COAL
PRODUCTION BY
SURFACE MINING METHODS
10.4
PENNSYLVANIA
.L^SYI-VANIA^ ------
YEARS BY THE
OF THE LEGISLATURE OF WEST
VIRGINIA IN 1971.
I A PERIOD OF TWO V- -- .L.T r..__ ._._-,
nrriiTAD CPCCTAW ! -4' l"0866 ? ~~\ MARYLAND /^X
REGULAR SESSION /• — .O-^O^ONCAL i A ; 2415 ! A "-11^-Lr '. "•-. ,.. / cn« /rV_ y»a£4»'
^,
i'="'»°"», 2M /
3708 — e . . , , ;
. - >. -
====.>
JPUTNAM)
P ^r^T'-'r^''^1-
1 J ' > JI)') -I
\ M C OOwtLL/
MAP
OF
WEST VIRGINIA
SHOWING
COAL PRODUCTION BY COUNTIES
AND THE PERCENTAGE OF COAL
PRODUCED BY SURFACE MINING IN
1169.
(Production to the nearest thousands of
tons and to nearest percent)
j i
FIGURE 26. MAP OF WEST VIRGINIA SHOWING THE PRODUCTION OF COAL BY COUNTIES AND PERCENTAGE
OF COAL PRODUCTION BY SURFACE MINING
-------
APPENDIX D
Table 38
Lime requirement by soiltest vs titration.
Sample
SCS-1
SCS-2
SCS-3
SCS-4
SCS-5
SCS-6
SCS-7
SCS-8
SCS-9
SCS-10
SCS-11
SCS-12
SCS-13
SCS-14
SCS-15
S-l-1
S-l-2
Soiltest
3.00
3.75
3.00
3.75
4.50
9.00
3.00
4.50
1.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
1.50
4.50
3.00
8.25
6.00
Tons /Acre
Titration Sample
0.75
1.20
0.90
1.20
3.00
4.50
1.50
1.50
0.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
0.50
1.50
1.00
4.20
3.70
S-2-2
S-2-3
S-2-4
S-2-5
S-2-6
P-l-1
P-l-2
P-l-3
P-l-4
P-l-5
P-l-6
P-2-1
P-2-2
P-2-3
P-2-4
P-2-5
P-2-6
Soiltest
6.75
6.00
6.75
7.50
7.50
9.75
4.50
3.00
3.75
3.00
3.00
4.50
7.50
3.75
5.25
3.75
3.75
Titration
2.60
3.00
2.90
4.00
3.90
4.60
2.40
1.20
1.60
1.20
1.10
2.00
3.90
1.50
2.70
1.50
1.90
205
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APPENDIX D
Table 38 (continued)
Sample
S-l-3
S-l-4
S-l-5
S-2-1
UF-1-5
UF-1-6
BK-1-1
BK-1-2
BK-1-3
BK-1-4
BK-1-5
BK-1-6
BK-2-1
BK-2-2
Soiltest
9.00
9.00
8.25
6.00
3.00
3.00
9.75
8.25
6.75
5.25
6.75
6.00
11.25
10.50
Tons /Acre
Titration Sample
4.00
4.30
4.00
3.00
0.90
0.90
4.80
4.60
2.10
2.10
2.90
2.60
4.90
4.90
UF-1-1
UF-1-2
UF-1-3
UF-1-4
BK-2-3
BK-2-4
BK-2-5
BK-2-6
UF-2-1
UF-2-2
UF-2-3
UF-2-4
UF-2-5
UF-2-6
Soiltest
7.50
6.75
3.75
3.75
5.25
10.50
9.00
8.25
5.25
3.75
2.25
3.00
2.25
2.25
Titration
3.10
3.00
1.80
1.60
1.90
5.40
4.00
3.50
2.60
1.70
0.80
1.50
0.90
0.80
206
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1
5
^cce.ssion Number
2
Organization Division of
College of
Subject
Plant
Agricu
Field &^ Croup
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Sciences
Iture and Forestry
West Virginia University
Morgantown, W. Va. 26506
Title
MINE SPOIL POTENTIALS FOR WATER QUALITY AND CONTROLLED EROSION
10
Authors)
Grube, Walter E., Jr.
Jencks, Everett M.
Singh, Rabindar N.
Smith, Richard M.
Wilson, Harold A.
IX Project Designation
EPA.OWP Project No. 14010 EJE
21
Note
22
Citation
23
Descriptors (Starred First)
*Strip mines, *0verburden, *Chemical Properties, *Physical Properties
*Geologic Formations, *Soils, *Weathering, Soil Formation
25
Identifiers (Starred First)
Mahotiing sandstone, old spoils, Pyritic sandstone
27
Abstract
Extensive geologic and soils information and classification provide the basis for
applying adapted chemical, physical and mineralogical measurements to selected rock and
soil profiles involved in surface mining, and for expanding results to other points or
regions for prevention of acid, sediment and other pollution.
With Mahoning sandstone the common weathering depth of 6 meters contains essentially
no disseminated pyrite. The originally gray quartzose pyritic sandstone weathers brown, and
plant nutrients Ca, Mg, and K are removed by acid leaching. Moderate liming and fertili-
zation of the brown rock and soil enable ground covers to protect spoil surfaces and
assure quality waters.
Weathering in spoils, and laboratory simulations, both with and without appropriate
chemoautotrophic organisms, reflect rock textures, mineral species, and .pyrite oxidation
with release of acid. Resulting net acidity or basicity influences soil and water quality.
Old barren spoils confirm that pH is the prime variable associated with lack of
vegetation but available water is limiting on sandy, stony, spoils.
Fissile iron ore spoils 70 to 130 years old showed that rooting depths and available
water capacities were superior to original soils. Site quality for trees or pasture, and
water quality were not significantly different between spoils and natural soils. This
report was submitted in fulfillment of Project 14010 EJE under the sponsorship of the
Office of Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency. (Smith-West Virginia)
Abstractor
Richard Meriwether Smi
Institution
:h West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia
WR:102 (REV. JULY 19691
WRSI C
SEND TO: WATER RESOU R C ES SC I EN Tl Fl C INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
6U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1972 484-483/59 1-3
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