WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 15080EBZ 12/70
Effects of Oil Pollution
on Waterfowl
A Study of Salvage Methods
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY • WATER QUALITY OFFICE
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
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EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON WATERFOWL
A STUDY OF SALVAGE METHODS
by
Lynn A. Griner, D.V.M., Ph.D
Pathologist and Director of the Health Department
Zoological Society of San Diego
and
Robert Herdman
Zoological Society of San Diego
for the
Water Quality Office
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Grant #14-12-574
December, 1970
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price BO cents
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the
Environmental Protection Agency and
approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommenda-
tion for use.
-11-
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SECTION I
ABSTRACT
A study was made of salvage methods for waterfowl subjected to oil pollution.
Mallard ducks were the primary test species used. Aspects of the pathology of
some of the waterfowl species involved in the Santa Barbara oil slicks were
also investigated.
Although some refined petroleum products contain toxic compounds, the Santa
Barbara crude used as a test oil in this study produced no apparent ill effects.
Polycomplex A-ll was found to be a rapid and effective cleansing agent for the
removal of oil from bird plumage. Oil on bird plumage alters feather structures
by replacing the small air pockets between barbules of the feather, thereby
decreasing buoyancy and insulation. Removal of oil from down feathers is more
difficult than from the contour feathers.
Ducks and geese are more amenable to treatment and post-treatment care than
are the more aquatic fowls, such as grebes, loons, auks and murres. Confinement
times should be as brief as possible, as the incidence of mycotic and other
infectious diseases increases under long periods of close confinement.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Research Grant No. 14-12-574
between the Federal Water Quality Administration and the University of California
at San Diego.
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CONTENTS
Section Page
1 Abstract i
II Introduction I
111 Review of Literature 2
IV Materials and Methods
Physical Layout 4
Oiling Method 4
Cleansing Agents 5
Artificial Waxes 5
Water Uptake 5
Feather Structure 7
Pathology 7
Internal Oil 9
Blood Chemistry 9
Bacteriological Examination 9
V Results
Duck Behaviour after Oiling 10
Cleaning Methods 10
Skin and Cloacal Temperature 10
Body Weights II
Water Uptake 16
Feather Structure 18
Pathology - Birds from Santa Barbara 18
Pathology - Birds from Nye Beach, Oregon 25
Western Grebe Comparison 26
Pintails 26
Oral Administration of Oil 26
Blood Chemistry 28
Data Analysis - Santa Barbara 28
VI Conclusions 30
VII Recommendations 33
VIII Acknowledgments 34
IX References 35
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FIGURES
Page
I. Cloacal and skin temperatures of oiled ducks washed in Larodan-127 12
2. Skin temperatures of Mallard ducks washed in Pol/complex 13
3. Cloacal temperatures of Mallard ducks washed in Pol/complex 14
4. Cloacal and skin temperatures of oil-no treatment ducks 15
5. Body weights of Mallard ducks washed in Pol /complex 17
6. Structure of a normal feather 19
7. Normal feather 20
8. Oiled feather 20
9. Oiled feather washed in Pol/complex 21
10. Oiled feather washed in Pol/complex and treated with lanolin 21
II. Oiled feather washed in Larodan 22
12. Section through the intestine of a Western grebe showing trematodes
in the mucosa and cestodes in the lumen 27
13. Rehabilitation pen for oiled birds 32
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TABLES
No. Page
I. Experimental design of the Mallard duck experiments 6
2. Santa Barbara birds used for pathology work 8
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SECTION
INTRODUCTION
This project developed from a meeting held in Santa Barbara, California,
on March 4, 1969, with Mr. Warren Shanks of U.S. Sport Fisheries &
Wildlife Service, and representatives of the California Fish & Game
Department. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss methods that might
be employed to salvage waterfowl contaminated with oil which had spilled
onto the ocean surface at Santa Barbara from a leak in an offshore Union Oil
Company well. The objectives of the project were:
I. To determine factors contributing to the death of waterfowl which had
become contaminated with oil.
2. To determine methods which might be used to remove contaminating oil
from the plumage of waterfowl.
3. To study alterations in feather structure following oil contamination and
oil removal and to determine value of wax substitution to feather structure.
4. To determine methods for management and treatment of cleansed birds that
would contribute to increased viability.
5. To determine the pathologic effects of the oil on waterfowl.
6. To attempt to analyse records made on contaminated waterfowl at Santa
Barbara by "A Child's Estate" zoo and the Union Oil Company.
The objectives and actual experiments were designed in a loose manner to
permit adaptations as the studies proceeded, and to accommodate unforeseen
situations that might develop. The project was financed by the Federal Water
Quality Administration, and was administered by the University of California
at San Diego, Pathology Department, in cooperation with the Health Depart-
ment of the Zoological Society of San Diego. All work was conducted at
the San Diego Zoo.
The project personnel included: Principal investigator, Lynn A. Griner, D.V.M.,
Ph.D., comparative pathologist, San Diego Zoo, associate pathologist-in-
residence, University of California, San Diego; Robert Herdman, research
assistant; Murray Malcom, animal caretaker.
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SECTION III
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The uropygial or preen gland is the only sebaceous gland found in birds. This
gland secretes an oily substance that the bird distributes over its plumage by
means of the beak when preening. During preening, the bird oils and waxes
the feathers and arranges the feather structures and feather layers.
The serious hazard of oil pollution to waterfowl has been reviewed by Hawkes
(1961), Erickson (1963), Boos (1964), Beer (1968), and Hartung (1967).
Odham (1967), studied the chemical structure of the preen gland wax of 10
species of waterfowl. He found considerable variation in the structure of the
preen gland waxes and postulated that the chemical structure might be used in
systematics. In his studies he prepared synthetic fatty acids of known config-
uration. Later Odham (1968) formulated a three component cleansing agent
(Larodan 127) for use in cleansing oil from feathers and at the same time water-
proofing them with a synthetic feather wax.
Many methods and agents have been used to remove contaminating oil from the
plumage of birds, some of which are perhaps more damaging than the oil, since
some solvents and detergents are toxic or irritating. Some birds can remove
much of the contaminating oil by preening. Hartung and Hunt (1966) claimed
that in some situations birds can remove sufficient oil to produce toxic effects
through ingestion.
In their study of the toxicity of oils, they found that a number of industrial oils
were toxic to waterfowl when administered by stomach tube. The oils studied
were: a light fuel oil with less than 1% phenolic compounds; a diesel oil containing
less than 1% organically bound phosphorus and phenols; a simple sulfretted low
additive SAE IOW motor oil; a sulfretted SAE IOW-30 motor oil of high detergent
content; a high pressure cutting oil additive containing 30% chlorine and 10%
phosphorus; and a cutting oil formulated with 10% of this additive and 10% tri-
glycerides, and 80% mineral oil. No crude oils were used. Some of the effects
observed were lipid pneumonia, gastrointestinal irritation, fatty change in liver
and adrenal hyperplasia. All of the oils used produced undesirable results.
Following the Torrey Canyon grounding and release of "sour" Kuwait crude oil,
Beer (1968) reported on post mortem findings in auks dying during attempts at
rehabilitation. It was stated that practically all birds which died were emaciated,
with a complete loss of subcutaneous and visceral fat. This would suggest that
some time had lapsed between the birds' involvement in the oil spill and autopsy,
or that the birds were in poor condition when they became involved, or both. The
patterns of mortality and pathologic changes suggested to Beer that there was
severe stress and that a powerful irritant or poison was present in the gut. It is
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readily accepted that the combined stress of involvement in the oil, and
cleaning and rehabilitation, would have deleterious effects on the birds.
Beer also described the attempted rehabilitation of oiled sea birds resulting
from the Torrey Canyon disaster. He believed that some of the cleansing agents
acted as irritants. It was also recognized that the maintenance of auks in
artificial environments has generally been unsuccessful.
The metabolic rates of ducks covered with known quantities of oils were
measured indirectly by Hartung (1967). Regression analyses of the metabolic-
rate-temperature plots enabled him to assess the heat conductivities of ducks
with normal and oiled plumage. Mortalities in ducks at very low temperatures
occurred only after body fat reserves had been exhausted. Oiled birds usually
had a reduced food intake, and their increased metabolic rate would result in
an accelerated rate of fat depletion and early starvation. The increased energy
metabolism in oiled ducks appeared to be due to a breakdown in insulation. The
studies by Hartung, using ducks, indicate that oiled ducks can survive extended
exposure to low temperatures as long as they have readily available energy
stores. This indicates the urgency of increasing food consumption by contaminated
birds.
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SECTION IV
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Physical Layout
Mallard ducks were the principal subjects used in these experiments. One
hundred and three Mallard ducks were supplied by the McGraw Foundation
of Dundee, Illinois. They were shipped to San Diego via air freight. The
ducks were divided into six groups of twenty birds and housed in eight feet by
twelve feet wire enclosures. The pens were six feet high and were covered
with two inch poultry netting. The floor of the pens was covered with four
inches of decomposed granite. Each pen of birds was supplied with a four foot
poultry feeder, a galvanized waterer, and a thirty inch by thirty inch by six
inch epoxy-covered plywood swimming tank. A group of thirty-six cross-bred
ducks (wild x domestic) trapped at Carlsbad Lagoon, were used in some of the
experiments. Permission for the capture of these birds was granted by the Fish
and Game Department. These birds were obtained prior to the receipt of the
mallards from the McGraw Foundation.
In addition to the above birds, twelve wild pintail ducks were taken from the
waterfowl exhibits within the Zoo. These birds were migratory fowl wintering at
the Zoo. All birds were fed a ration of equal parts of a complete poultry mash
without grit, and milo. The poultry mash was formulated by the San Diego
Poultry Cooperative. The feed was given ad lib.
The mallards and cross-bred ducks were given two weeks to acclimate after capture
and shipment. During this time, body weights and skin and rectal temperatures
were recorded three times on each of the one hundred and three mallards. These
recordings were made prior to assigning birds to specific experimental groups.
In order to establish a normal temperature and body weight pattern for the birds,
temperature readings were obtained by rectal and skin probes on a battery-
powered telethermometer and body weights were made, using a hanging spring
balance autopsy scale, accurate to 5 grams.
Oiling Method
The oil used in these experiments was supplied by the Union Oil Company, and
was obtained from the offshore well that had leaked oil into the ocean at Santa
Barbara. Oil to a depth of approximately one-eighth of an inch was layered over
the surface of one of the swimming tanks, containing approximately five inches of
domestic water. The density of the oil increased after twenty-four hours exposure to
the air, due apparently to the loss of some volatile components. For this reason,
the oil used to contaminate the experimental ducks was exposed to the air for a
minimum of twenty-four hours. This procedure produced an oil more comparable to
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that which occurred at Santa Barbara. The birds used in this experiment were
placed in the oil and water and left for approximately ten minutes.
Cleansing Agents
Two cleansing agents were used to remove oil from the birds. These agents were
Pol/complex A-ll and Larodan 127. Pol/complex A-ll, a product of Guardian
Chemical Corporation, is a water-soluble organic formulation which contains no
hydrocarbons. For removal of oil from the ducks' plumage, Polycomplex was used
as a 1% solution. Larodan 127 is a 3-component cleansing and waxing system,
consisting of surface-active monoglyceride crystals, to which is added about 1%
of liquid Pur-cellin oil. Larodan 127 is produced by Skandinavisk Olje, Goteborg,
Sweden. The liquid Pur-cellin oil used in Larodan 127 is manufactured by Dagoco
Chemical Company in Germany. In washing oil from bird plumage, Larodan 127
was used full strength, as recommended.
In one experiment, to determine the value of Polycomplex as a cleansing agent,
sixty mallards were oiled in the manner previously described. The experimental
design and use of these sixty birds is presented in Table I. The oiled birds were
immersed in the solution, care being taken to keep their heads out of the Polycomplex.
The birds were scrubbed, using the hand, in the direction of the feathers. In more
severe cases, some ruffling of the feathers was necessary. After washing, the birds
were rinsed in clean water. In addition, five normal unoiled ducks were washed in
Polycomplex.
Artificial Waxes
Two preparations, lanolin and spermacetti wax, were used as substitutes for normal
feather wax on birds washed with Polycomplex. One percent solutions of lanolin
and spermacetti wax were made in Hexane. These solutions were layered over the
surface of water in a large plastic basin. After washing the mallards in Polycomplex,
the test birds (see Table I) were immersed once in the respective preparations and per-
mitted to air dry. The efficacy of this treatment was tested by water uptake of the
plumage.
In a second experiment, to determine the efficacy of Larodan 127 as a cleansing
agent, thirty mallards were oiled in the manner described. The design of the experi-
ment and use of the birds is shown in Table I. The oiled birds were placed in the
Larodan, and cotton sponges, saturated in Larodan, were used to help remove the oil.
The plumage was stroked with the sponges along the grain of the feathers. After
washing with Larodan, the birds were rinsed in clear water.
Water Uptake
In addition to the above experiments designed to test cleansing agents, thirty mallards
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Table I Experimental design of the Mallard duck experiments
Sixty Mallards - Oiled
10 washed with Pol/complex
- 5 hours after oiling
5 treated with lanolin
5 without lanolin
45 washed with Pol /complex
- 24 hours after oiling
15 treated with lanolin
15 without lanolin
15 treated with spermacetti
5 oiled - no further treatment
5 - no oil, but washed in Pol /complex
Thirt/ Ducks - Oiled
30 washed in Larodan (full strength)
- 24 hours after oiling
Fifteen Ducks - Oiled
15 oiled - no further treatment
15 untreated controls
Water
Uptake
15
15
15
5
5
15
15
15
Temp
5
5
5
5
5
8
Weight
5
5
5
5
Blood
Chemistry
4
4
5
5
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•were allocated to two lots of fifteen birds each. In lot number one the fifteen
birds were oiled but received no further treatment. These birds were used for
water uptake studies of plumage and blood chemistry determinations were made
on five of the fifteen. The fifteen mallards in lot number two served as untreated
controls.
The efficacy of the cleansing and waxing procedures was tested by the water up-
take of plumage. The purpose of this study was to determine approximate amounts
of water that would remain in the plumage of oiled, Polycomplex-washed plus lanolin,
and Polycomplex-washed plus spermacetti, unwashed, and normal ducks. For this
experiment each bird was weighed then immersed in water for two minutes. They
were then removed and water was permitted to drain for one minute before re-
weighing. The difference in respective weights indicated the amount of water re-
tained in the plumage.
Feather Structure
Lateral breast feathers were carefully plucked by means of thumb forceps applied to
the base of the calamus of five normal mallard ducks, and five mallards that had been
dipped in oil, five oiled ducks following a wash in Polycomplex, five oiled ducks
following a wash in Larodan, and five oiled ducks washed in Polycomplex and treated
with lanolin.
The feathers were mounted on microscope slides by means of cover slips. A small
amount of cement was applied to the four corners of cover slips and the cover glasses
were then placed on the slides over the feathers, care being taken to keep the
cement off the feather. Application of slight pressure to the cover glass flattened
the feathers on to the slide. The feathers were examined microscopically and micro-
photographs were made.
Pathology
Gross and histopathologic studies were made on thirty-two waterfowl involved in
the oil pollution incident at Santa Barbara, California in January of 1969. This
group of birds included ten which were dead on arrival at "A Child's Estate" zoo;
four which died shortly after washing; nine which died four to seven days after treat-
ment; and nine which died ten to fourteen days after treatment. Table 2 presents a
listing of these birds by species and time after treatment. A group of four California
murres was received from Nye Beach in Oregon. These birds had been involved in a
small local oil spillage. Complete details were not included with the bird shipment.
The body cavities of the two above groups of birds were opened after death, and
the entire carcass placed in containers of buffered 10% Formalin. The birds were
then shipped to the San Diego Zoo hospital for further examination. Each bird was
identified by species and given an oil pollution accession number. They were then
opened and the viscera examined for gross lesions. Tissue samples were taken from
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Table 2 Santa Barbara birds used for pathology work
Species
Western Grebe
Gull
Surf Scoter
Common Loon
Common Murre
Eared Grebe
Dead on
arrival
7
2
1
Just after
treatment
1
1
2
4-7 days
after
treatment
6
1
2
10-14 days
after
treatment
4
4
!
Total
Birds
17
2
3
1
8
1
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heart, spleen, proventriculus, venfriculus, multiple sites of intestine, lung,
kidney, brain and frequently the adrenal. These tissues were embedded in
paraffin, cut into sections 3-5 microns thick and stained by Harris1 alum
hematoxylin method. The slides were examined for histologic alterations.
Smears of intestinal contents of some birds were stained by Sudan III and
examined for oil globules.
Internal Oil
One seagull and three cormorants were brought in to the Zoo hospital from local
beaches. All were in weakened condition. The gull and two of the cormorants
had spots of oil on their plumage and were washed in Polycomplex. They died
shortly thereafter and post mortem examinations were made. Pathologic studies
were made on all experimental birds which died during the course of this study,
and on six mallard ducks that were euthanized following force-feeding of oil.
The treatment of the latter birds is shown in the following tabulation:
Amount of oil Time sacrificed
Species O.P.* administered after treatment
Mallard 42 I cc 24 hours
Mallard 44 I cc 72 hours
Mallard 46 I cc 120 hours
Mallard 41 3 cc 24 hours
Mallard 43 3 cc 72 hours
Mallard 45 3 cc 120 hours
Blood Chemistry
Blood was drawn from the brachial vein of four mallards washed with Polycomplex,
four washed with Larodan, five oiled ducks and five normal controls, to determine
blood glucose and blood urea nitrogen level. These two tests were made by means
of Dextrostix and Azostix methods, made by Ames Laboratories, to determine
whether changes related to the oiling had occurred in the function of the liver and
kidney.
Bacteriological Examinations
Bacteriological studies were limited to attempts to isolate enteric pathogens. Small
(approximately 1/2 gram) aliquots of feces or intestinal content were inoculated
into bottles containing 50 ml of Selenite broth. Following overnight incubation at
37 C, transfers of the culture were made to differential culture media plates.
Colonies showing morphological characteristics of enteric pathogens were transferred
to triple sugar iron agar slants. Colonies which produced reactions on this media
characteristic of pathogens, were sub-cultured in sugar fermentation tubes, and
checked for biochemical reactions.
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SECTION V
RESULTS
Duck Behaviour after Oiling
The ducks used in the oiling experiments showed no outward signs of fear of
the oil. Many birds entered the "oil pool" without hesitation, began bathing
and drinking. The ducks after oiling appeared similar to the average oiled
cases seen at Santa Barbara. The birds just after oiling displayed a dis-
turbance in coordination and equilibrium. When they tried to walk, some
would fall, others tried to stabilize their balance by flapping their wings,
only to fall backwards in the process. After several attempts at walking,
most ducks sat quietly and preened. Some birds bathed and a significant
number drank water. Some shaking of the body and plumage was noticed.
Cleaning Methods
Approximately two gallons of one percent Polycomplex was required to wash one
duck. Polycomplex removed most of the oil from the sixty mallards used in this
experiment. Little difference was noted in the time required to clean birds
washed twenty-four hours after oiling from those washed five hours after treating.
A thorough washing could generally be completed in ten to fifteen minutes. In a
few cases, where spots of oil were thick and tarry, some difficulty was experienced
in removing all of the oil. After the oil was washed from the feathers there was
evidence that the feathers had been stained a darker color.
Larodan 127 proved to be less effective as a cleansing agent. Approximately one-
half gallon of Larodan was required to wash each bird. To conserve on Larodan,
the washing process was started in that used on a previous duck and completed in
fresh Larodan. Total washing time was over fifteen minutes for each bird. An
oil residue was still discernible after washing. The outer layer of contour feathers
was moderately well cleaned, but the underlying down remained oily. Larodan
did not have a good cutting or dispersing action on the oil. Most of the oil had
to be removed by rubbing with sponges. Considerable difficulty was experienced
in removing oil from the down feathers. Staining of the feathers after Larodan
washing was more apparent than when Polycomplex was used. The washing
process was more tedious.
Skin and Cloacal Temperature
Skin and cloacal temperatures were taken on all ducks over a period of three weeks
prior to any treatment. These temperature readings served as control temperatures
for comparison, with temperatures taken after treatment. Skin temperatures of
mallard ducks prior to oiling and under variable ambient temperatures, ranged from
99.0 F to 109.0 F, with an overall average of 104.4 F- The cloacal temperatures
10
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of the same group of mallards, and under the same ambient temperatures,
ranged from 101.0 F to 110.0 F, with an average of 107.4 F. For five ducks
which were oiled but received no further treatment, the pre-oiling tempera-
ture averaged 105.2 F, with a range of 104.0 F to 108.2 F. Immediately
after oiling, temperatures ranged from 103.6 F to 107.8 F, with an average
of 105.2 F- From this point on, over a thirty-day period the skin temperatures
showed a moderate decline, with a range from 100.0 F to 105.6 F and an
average of 102.2 F after oil treatment, as shown in Fig. I. Twenty oiled
mallards were washed in Polycomplex, ten of them five hours, and ten of them
twenty-four hours after oiling, and half of each group received a lanolin treat-
ment. A slight decline in skin temperature was seen in each group during the
first six days. All groups returned to the normal temperature range during the
following three-week period.
The same group of ducks had an insignificant elevation of cloacal temperature,
possibly due to handling, during the first twenty-four hours after washing, followed
by a decline in average temperature of approximately I F during the following six
days. Thereafter their cloacal temperatures remained near the pre-treatment
normal. This is in contrast to the oiled but no treatment group. The effects of
the above treatments on skin and cloacal temperatures are presented in Figs.2 and
3.
Skin and cloacal temperatures of sixteen ducks washed in Larodan are presented
in Fig.4. The average skin and cloacal temperatures for three readings over a
ten-day period prior to oiling, range from 103.6 F to 104.0 F and 106.8 F to
107.6 F respectively. Oiling and washing with Larodan had little or no effect
on these two temperatures. Both skin and cloacal temperatures declined only a
fraction of a degree and returned to normal.
Skin and cloacal temperatures of pintail ducks were recorded five times between
November 24 and December II. On December 8 these birds were oiled, then
washed in Polycomplex on December 9. Temperature records were stopped on
December II because two of them had died. The average skin temperatures for
three readings prior to oiling ranged from 102.3 F to 104.2 F. Three days after
oiling and washing, the average skin temperature was 101.1 F. For the same
period the cloacal temperatures ranged from 107.0 F to 108.8 F and three days
after oiling and washing the average temperature was 105.3 F. This decline of
approximately 2 F may have some significance.
Body Weights
On August 28, five days after arrival of the mallards, the body weights ranged
from 715 to 1170 grams, with an average of 1048 grams. The average body weights
declined to 1025 grams on September 4 and 1022 grams on September 8, before
any of the birds had been oiled. The average body weights on September 23 for
sixteen ducks which had received no treatment, was 1141 grams, indicating that
II
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Fig. 1 CLOACAL AND SKIN TEMPERATURES OF OILED DUCKS
WASHED IN LARODAN-127
tr
h-
cc
LJJ
Q.
^
LJJ
h-
109n
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
CLOACAL
SKIN
OIL
OIL
i
I
I
I
10
15 20
SEPT
25 30
DATE
10 15
OCT
20
12
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Fig. 2 SKIN TEMPERATURES OF MALLARD DUCKS WASHED IN POLYCOMPLEX
UJ
DC
ID
DC
LU
Q_
LU
108 r-
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
OIL
Polycomplex washed
24 hrs. No Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
24 hrs. Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
5 hrs. No Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
5 hrs. Lanolin
I I
27 30 1
AUG
I
I
I
I
10
15
SEPT
DATE
20
25
30
1 5
OCT
13
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Fig. 3
CLOACAL TEMPERATURES OF MALLARD DUCKS WASHED IN POLYCOMPLEX
109 r
OIL
UJ
cc
cc
LU
Q_
LU
Polycomplex washed
24 hrs. No Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
24 hrs. Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
5 hrs. No Lanolin
Polycomplex washed
5 hrs. Lanolin
106 h
105
27 1 5
AUG
10 15 20
SEPT
DATE
25 30 5
OCT
14
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Fig. 4
CLOACAL AND SKIN TEMPERATURES OF OIL-NO TREATMENT DUCKS
LU
cc
cc
LU
Q_
S
LU
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
CLOACAL
SKIN
25 30
AUG
10
15 20
SEPT
DATE
25 30
5
OCT
15
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body weight loss was leveling off at or near the time that the first birds were
oiled. Oiling and washing in Pol/complex had no effect on body weights
of the twenty ducks used in this experiment., as can be seen in Fig.5. By
September 15, six days after oiling, the average body weights had started to
increase and the rate of increase continued until September 23, when the
weights leveled off or declined slightly.
Body weights of eight ducks which were oiled and received no further treat-
ment, followed the same general pre-oiling trend of weight loss as for all
other groups of birds. The weights of these birds showed an increase from 1018
grams prior to oiling on September 8, to 1028 grams on September 9 and up to
1100 grams on September 15, but then declined to 1020 grams on October 5. This
increase in weight can probably be attributed to oil on the feathers and to the
dirt and sand that adhered to the feathers. The decrease in weight to the level
of the washed ducks may be due to loss of some oil and dirt by preening. These
birds showed no clinical ill effects from oil and there were no death losses.
The sixteen ducks washed in Larodan had an average body weight of 1142 grams
on September 23 prior to oiling. One week after oiling and washing, their
average weight had declined to 1106 grams and by October 15 their weight had
increased to an average of 1160 grams. From these experiments it is apparent
that the stress of oiling and washing resulted in a short term weight loss, but
that the effects of the stress were of short duration, as evidenced by recovery
of lost weight and a continued weight gain. It is also apparent that the oil itself
had no toxic effects.
Water Uptake
The purpose of the water uptake test was to provide some qualitative data which
could be used to evaluate the cleansing agents and the feather treatment methods.
The results show that the plumage of normal ducks would retain on the average
29.3 grams of water. The range of water retention for the normal ducks was 15 to
45 grams. The five ducks which had not been oiled but had been washed in Poly-
complex, had an average water uptake of 30 grams, which is comparable to the
normal ducks. Ducks which were oiled but not cleaned had an average water
uptake of 41 grams, with a range of 30 to 60 grams. The water uptake of oiled
ducks washed in one per cent Polycomplex, ranged from 30 to 150 grams, with an
average of 76 grams. Lanolin treatment of Polycomplex-washed ducks decreased
the average water uptake by approximately twelve per cent. However, the range
was wider, varying from 30 to 180 grams. Only two of the fifteen ducks retained
more than 100 grams of water. The median for this group was 50 grams.
Spermacetti treatment of the Polycomplex-washed plumage was less efficient as a
water repellent than was lanolin. The average water uptake of spermacetti-treated
Polycomplex-washed ducks was greater by three per cent than for the Polycomplex-
washed group. The results for spermacetti-treated ducks reveal an average water
retention of 79 grams with a range of 60 to 125 grams and a median of 70 grams.
According to these tests, Larodan treatment of oiled ducks was the least effective
16
-------
Fig. 5 BODY WEIGHTS OF MALLARD DUCKS WASHED IN POLYCOMPLEX
1100 -
CD
I-
X
o
LU
Q
O
03
Polycomplex washed
5 hours after oiling
Polycomplex washed
24 hours after oiling
1000 -
900
17
-------
from the standpoint of water retention by treated plumages. The average
water uptake for the Larodan-treated ducks was 142 grams, with a range of
60 to 195 grams. The median for this group was 150 grams.
Feather Structure
Normal, oiled, washed, and treated feathers were examined microscopically,
to determine effects of oil and treatments on feather structure. A normal feather
(Fig.6) has a long central shaft, supporting smaller branches or barbs angling
toward the tip of the feather. The branches form the vane of the feather. The
central shaft has two parts: (I) a hollow base or calamus; (2) a solid shaft or
rachis. The barbs have additional branches called barbules. The barbules on
the two sides of the feather are dissimilar; the anterior barb (toward the tip of
the feather) has small branches called barbicels, which bear hamuli along the
middle portion of the underside. The posterior barbules have no hooks but they
form ridges in which the hamuli hook. (See detailed drawing in Fig.6). Fig.7
illustrates the latticework and regular spaces created by the barbules and barbicels.
Fig.8 shows an oiled feather which has not been washed. It is apparent that the
oil has dislocated many of the barbule and barbicel attachments, leaving compara-
tively large spaces which have been filled with oil. This disruption of the fine
feather structure decreases the amount of air retained in the plumage, decreasing
the buoyancy and insulation of the bird. Oil adhering to the feather structure
permits water to penetrate deeper into the plumage.
Feathers washed in Polycomplex showed similar disarrangement of latticework but
only a few areas had the "oil film" adhering to the vane. (Fig.9) Feathers
treated with lanolin could not be readily differentiated from those that were
simply washed in Polycomplex. (Fig. 10)
Down feathers occupy the area under the contour feathers; they help in insulation
and inhibit water resorption. The feather itself lacks a vane and only has a short
rachis. When oiled, these feathers clump and mat together. It is likely that con-
tamination of the down feathers breaks down the insulation by permitting water to
penetrate to the skin.
Feathers removed from mallards which were oiled then washed in Larodan, showed
a much greater amount of oil coating the barbs and barbules. (Fig. 11) This oil
appeared thicker, and small particles of dirt and extraneous material adhered to
the feathers. Several feathers, removed two weeks after treatment, were much
cleaner and showed little oil between barbules. Structurally these feathers
appeared nearly normal. Oiled feathers may lose a great part of their insulation
effectiveness when the down feathers are matted and when the contour feathers
are structurally disarranged.
Pathology - Birds from Santa Barbara
Carcasses of thirty-two waterfowl were received from Santa Barbara for pathology
18
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RACHIS
-CALAMUS
BARB
ANTERIOR
BARBULE
VANE
BARB
POSTERIOR
BARBULE
HAMULUS
STRUCTURE OF A NORMAL FEATHER
19
-------
Fig. 7 Normal feather
Fig. 8 Oiled feather
20
-------
Fig.9 Oiled feather washed in Pol/complex
Fig. 10 Oiled feather washed in Pol/complex and treated with lanolin
21
-------
Fig. II Oiled feather washed in Larodan
22
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studies. Of these, ten were dead on arrival, four died very soon after treat-
ment, nine died four to seven days after treatment, and nine died ten to
fourteen days after treatment. It is assumed that all were cleaned in Poly-
complex. Gross and microscopic examinations were made on all of these
specimens.
The ten birds in group ™M which were dead on arrival at the treatment center
consisted of one male California gull, one female Ring-billed gull, one male
Surf scoter and seven Western grebes (four females and three males). The
California gull was emaciated. The gall bladder contained a large quantity of
whitish-green, gritty precipitate, and the liver had a marked retention of bile
pigment. Many cestodes were present in the small intestine and a few nematodes
were present in the proventriculus. Emaciation and heavy parasitic load were
contributing factors to the death of this bird. No evidence of oil toxicity or
pneumonia was observed. Emaciation was pronounced in the Ring-billed gull.
The proventriculus contained a few trematodes, and the intestine contained
nematodes and trematodes. Multiple small granulomatous lesions were found in
the intestinal mucosa and they appeared to be associated with embedded parasites.
There was also evidence of a few intestinal ulcers. These pathologic findings,
along with the stress of being contaminated with oil and its inability to feed
normally, contributed to the bird's death. The Surf scoter was in a fair state of
nutrition, but like the Ring-billed gull, the intestines contained many parasites
and small intestinal parasitic granulomas. The ventriculus was completely empty
and there was no evidence of recent food ingestion. Advanced emaciation was
noted in only one of the Western grebes; however, none of them was observed to
contain normal fat deposits. The most interesting observation was that the ventri-
culus of all of the grebes contained a firm mass of dry, deeply bile-stained
feathers and no evidence of food material. A marked excess of bile was found
throughout the alimentary canal. These two observations would indicate that little
or no food had been recently ingested. All but one of the grebes were found to
have a heavy cestode infestation of the intestine. A few parasites, including
nematodes and trematodes, were found embedded in the glands of the proventriculus
of most of the grebes. Inflammatory responses to these parasites were minimal.
Moderate degrees of peribiliary hepatitis were observed in most of these birds.
One of the grebes was found to have a hepatitis associated with what micro-
scopically appears to be toxoplasma or an unidentified protozoa. Moderate
interstitial nephritis with a few tubular microcalculi were observed in three grebes.
Glomerular enlargement and hyalinization were noted in one of the grebes.
Vascular congestion was the only finding observed in the respiratory system. In
general, it can be concluded that malnutrition due to reduced or total loss of
food intake, along with heavy parasitism, played a role with the stress of oiling,
in the death of the birds.
The birds in group ^2, dying soon after treatment, consisted of one male Surf
scoter, one female Common loon, and two male Common murres. In general, the
findings in this group were similar to the first. There was no evidence of oil
toxicity in the liver or kidney. The Surf scoter was in a poor state of nutrition.
23
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A chronic thickening of the intestinal lamina propria with a few granulo-
matous foci due to parasites, was observed. A moderate degree of focal
interstitial nephritis was also noted. The alimentary canal of the Common
loon was empty. There was considerable bile present in the gall bladder
and intestine. A focal peribiliary hepatitis of little significance was
observed. Malnutrition was a major factor in the death of this bird. A
portion of fish was present in the proventriculus of one of the two murres, but
this bird was severely emaciated. This bird also appeared to be anemic.
The other murre was in a better state of nutrition. The proventriculus con-
tained many nematodes, but only a few were found in the intestine. Focal
peribiliary hepatitis was also noted. Malnutrition played a role in the death
of these birds.
The composition of group ^3, nine birds dying four to seven days after treatment,
was one male Surf scoter, two Common murres, and six Western grebes. All of
these birds were in a fair to poor state of nutrition. The Surf scoter was
emaciated, the alimentary canal contained no feed. A few cestodes were
present in the intestine, and on the serosal surface were a number of small
cysts containing small nematodes. The lungs were congested. Severe patholo-
gic changes were observed in the kidneys. These lesions were characterized by
infarction, necrosis, and interstitial inflammation. Glomerular enlargement and
fibrosis were also observed. Trematodes were seen in the renal pelvis. Death
can be directly attributable to the renal disease. A chronic granulomatous
proventriculo-esophagitis was found in the female Common murre. These lesions,
which also involved the anterior or cervical air sacs, were characterized by
periarteritis and infiltration of mononuclear cells into the serosa and wall of the
proventriculus and esophagus. The lesions were suggestive of a mycotic infection
but no fungi were observed. No parasites of consequence were found. The
lungs and kidneys were normal. The male murre was found to have a similar, but
more advanced, inflammatory disease involving the proventriculus, air sacs, and
lungs. Granulomatous lesions were marked in the lung and many myceliae, of
what may be aspergillus, were present in these lesions. The bile ducts were
thickened and hemorrhagic lesions were noted in the duodenum. An interstitial
nephritis with microcalculi was noted. It appears that both murres suffered from
a mycotic infection of air sacs and lungs.
The six Western grebes in group *3, like those of group ^1, had a mass of dry,
bile-stained feathers filling the ventriculus, indicating reduction in feed intake
and regurgitation of bile. All of these birds had many cestodes in the intestine.
Focal biliary hepatitis was noted in five of the six; and, in two, there were
lesions of some severity. Occasional parasites were also seen in the proventriculus.
Focal broncho-pneumonia of undetermined cause was noted in three grebes, and
one of these also had an airsacculitis. Moderate interstitial and glomerular
nephritis were noted, with some microcalculi. A possibility of a hemato-
protozoa was observed in the heart of one grebe.
From the pathologic study of the group *3 birds, it would appear that respiratory
24
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infections may become established soon after the birds were brought in to
the holding pens, and that a reduced feed intake contributes to the lowered
resistance of the waterfowl.
The species composition of the nine birds in group ^4 was four male Common
murres, one male Eared grebe and four Western grebes (three males and one
female). These birds died ten to fourteen days after washing and treatment.
A severe mycotic pneumonia and airsacculitis were the primary pathologic
alterations in three of the murres. The lungs of the fourth murre contained a few
focal areas of broncho pneumonia. The mycotic infection had spread into the
heart and liver of two murres and into the esophagus and proventriculus of
another murre. A few nematodes were seen in the proventriculus of the murres.
The murre with the least pulmonary involvement was found to have a general-
ized suppurative nephritis. The pattern of the pathologic changes suggest that
this was an ascending renal infection.
The ventriculus of the Eared grebe contained no feathers but was distended with
gravel. Cestodes were abundant within the intestine. Along the serosal surface
of the intestine were many cysts and foci of granulomatous inflammation,, resulting
in a peritonitis with multiple adhesions. Amyloid has been laid down in the liver
and kidney; in addition, focal granulomas were observed in the liver.
The Western grebes of group ^4 were in a poor state of nutrition. The ventriculus
contained dry, bile-stained feathers. Two of the four grebes harbored many
cestodes and a few trematodes in the intestine, and in one of these no other
pathologic changes of significance were noted. The other had a biliary cirrhosis,
probably related to a hepatic protozoa as well as early focal broncho pneumonia.
Granulomatous hepatitis of bacterial origin was found in one of the grebes. The
fourth Western grebe also had a parasitized intestine with focal granulomas of the
mucosa and, in addition, a generalized mycotic airsacculitis and an ascending
nephritis. From this group of birds, it appears that the incidence of mycotic and
other infectious diseases increases with time in the captive environment. It should
be mentioned that no pathologic alterations were present in the brains of the birds
from Santa Barbara. There was also no evidence of toxic changes in any of the
tissues.
Pathology - Birds from Nye Beach, Oregon
The four murres involved in a local oil pollution at Nye Beach, Oregon, included
one male Common murre and three California murres (one male and two female).
The Common murre was emaciated. A few nematodes were in the glands of the
proventriculus. A moderate cestode infestation was found in the intestines. A
few sarcocyst-like structures were found in the proventriculus. The heart of this
murre contained focal areas of myocardial degeneration but no cause was apparent.
The liver, lungs, kidneys and brain were normal. A female California murre had
25
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a few nematodes in the proventriculus and in the muscular layers were observed
sarcocyst-like structures. This bird also had some peribiliary hepatitis. No
parasites of significance were discernible in the other two California murre.
Both birds had interstitial nephritis of considerable distribution.
Western Grebe Comparison
In order to determine the significance of the masses of dry, bile-stained feathers
in the ventriculus of the Western grebes, a request was made that a small group
of normal Western grebes be collected for post mortem examination. Mr. Ronald
Clawson arranged for the collection of five Western grebes from Tule Lake. All
of these birds were in a good state of nutrition. Fat was deposited in both sub-
cutaneous tissues and in the body cavities. Post mortem examination of the
ventriculi revealed the presence of feathers in this organ. The feathers, however,
were gray in color and moist, due to the presence of recently ingested fish in
various stages of digestion. There was no evidence of bile in the contents. It is
therefore evident that feathers form a portion of the normal content of the ventri-
culus of Western grebes. However, when the feathers are dry and bile-stained,
and when no evidence of feed is present, it is proposed that this can be inter-
preted to indicate that feed intake has ceased or has been depressed when these
birds are involved in oil-polluted waters.
It was further noted that small oval red nodules in the glandular portion of the
proventriculus (Fig. 12) contain nematodes, and that most of the grebes are para-
sitized, but that the parasites have little pathologic significance. Four of the
five grebes carried considerable numbers of cestodes and trematodes in their
intestines. Focal biliary hepatitis and interstitial nephritis can be expected in
many normal grebes.
Pintails
Four of the twelve wild pintails used in the oiling and washing procedure using
Polycomplex, died. These birds were in a fair to poor state of nutrition. No gross
or microscopic lesions of consequence were found. The cause of death could not
be ascertained. The only conclusion that can be considered is that the stress and
shock of the capture and handling during oiling and washing added to their
general poor condition and was sufficient to cause their death.
Oral Administration of Oil
As previously stated, six mallards received oral administrations of oil, three
receiving I cc and three receiving 3 cc. One bird of each group was sacrificed
at twenty-four, seventy-two and one hundred-twenty hours following treatment.
Considerable amounts of oil were observed in the feces of these birds during the
first twenty-four hours. Gross oil in the feces was also observed during the first
twenty-four hours, of other birds that were placed in the oil bath.
Necropsy of the mallards in this experiment revealed no evidence of gross patho-
logic changes. Oil could be seen on the intestinal mucosa of those ducks
26
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Fig. 12 Section through the intestine of a Western grebe showing
trematodes in the mucosa and cestodes in the lumen.
27
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sacrificed at twenty-four hours; and the oil was demonstrated microscopically
in the intestinal contents. Lesser amounts of oil were demonstrable in the
intestine of the birds sacrificed at seventy-two and one hundred-twenty hours.
Tissues were prepared for histopathologic examination by the standard paraffin
block method with H & E stain, and by frozen sections with Sudan III stain.
Microscopic examination of these tissues revealed no pathologic processes of
significance. In the frozen section, oil globules were present in abundance along
the intestinal mucosa and between the mucosal villa of the two ducks sacrificed
at twenty-four hours. Progressively fewer oil globules were noted in the
intestine of those ducks killed at seventy-two and one hundred-twenty hours.
Paraffin sections of the lungs of all six ducks were observed to contain focal peri-
bronchial nodules of macrophages, histiocytes and lymphocytes. The cytoplasm
of these macrophages contained brownish-black pigment particles. Some of the
particles seen in these cells had a morphology indicative of a crystaline material.
Smaller but similar nodules were observed in the lungs of many of the other ducks
used in these experiments.
Blood Chemistry
Blood analysis for glucose and urea nitrogen were employed as tests for the toxic
effects of oil on the liver and kidney. Blood urea nitrogen could also indicate an
increase in catabolism of body protein during the process of emaciation, when
feed intake is insufficient to maintain the normal metabolic rate. The results of
thirty-six blood glucose determinations on eighteen ducks prior to any treatment
showed a range of 90 to 130 mg per cent. The same range in blood glucose was
observed in the thirty-six determinations made following oiling and washing in
Polycomplex and Larodan. There was no evidence that the treatment of the ducks
produced toxic effects that would cause a change in the blood glucose levels.
Blood samples from the same ducks were used for measuring blood urea nitrogen.
The same level, 10 mg per cent, was found for all birds before and after treatment.
Bacterial cultures made from feces of normal ducks and intestinal contents of birds
dying during this study did not produce colonies of known enteric pathogens. It
would appear that enteric pathogens were not a problem in this study.
Data Analysis - Santa Barbara
Two reports of birds handled during the Santa Barbara oil disaster were obtained for
analysis. The Union Oil Company kept records of all birds maintained at the
Carpenteria cleaning station, and records were also kept at "A Child's Estate" zoo.
The first entry at Carpenteria was dated February 3, 1969, the last entry March
II, 1969. During this time 812 birds were treated: 62% were Western grebes, 11%
were loons, 8% scoters; the other 19% were mainly cormorants, murres and Eared
grebes. Unfortunately, due to incomplete recording of bird deaths and disposition,
28
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a survival percentage would be misleading. Most birds died, the Western
grebe having the greatest mortality, while the gulls seem to have the highest
survival ratio.
"A Child's Estate" zoo records showed that 558 birds were treated: 38% were
Western grebes, 13% loons, 12% Surf scoters, 11% cormorants and 4% murres.
The remaining 22% were mainly Eared grebes, Ruddy ducks and gulls. Again
a percent survival would be misleading. Only twenty birds were indicated as
being released in the report. There were one hundred and five birds in which
neither death or release had been recorded.
Most of the birds treated died within the first ten days; however, several birds
lived longer than twenty days. Grebes showed the longest survival time. An
Eared grebe lived twenty-five days before dying, and several Western grebes
lived twenty days.
29
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SECTION VI
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this investigation strongly indicate that the oil from the Union
Oil Company well at Santa Barbara did not produce toxic changes in the
birds studied. Literature pertaining to other oil pollution studied however,
indicates that there do exist petroleum products that are toxic to waterfowl
and other aquatic life. It is therefore concluded that when oil spillage occurs,
it may be advantageous to identify the petroleum product involved, and to
assay it for known toxic constituents.
The species of waterfowl that are involved or might be involved in oil polluted
waters, will influence management methods. Management methods will of
necessity have to be varied according to the types of birds involved. It appears
that fowl which are both terrestrial and aquatic (ducks, geese) can be handled
and cared for more readily than those species which are almost entirely aquatic
(grebes, loons, murres etc.) This might also be restated on the basis of diet:
that is, those species which have a herbiverous or omniverous diet are more
readily managed than those which have a carniverous diet.
The removal of contaminating oil from bird plumage was more effectively
achieved by the use of one per cent Polycomplex. This product dispersed the
oil with less effort and manipulation of the birds' plumage than did Larodan.
The use of a sonic machine, as tried at Santa Barbara, may perhaps reduce the
time required to cleanse the oil from the birds' feathers.
One per cent lanolin in Hexane as a surface film on water, produced some water-
proofing of feathers washed in Polycomplex. Further study of lanolin at 0.5 or O.I
per cent might prove to be of greater value since feathers treated at 1.0 per cent
were somewhat too oily. On the basis of water uptake by plumage, lanolin
applied after Polycomplex was superior to Larodan.
Preening of oiled feathers made ingestion of oil possible, and if the oil contained
toxic substances this would further reduce the potential salvage of contaminated
fowl. No evidence was found to indicate that oil pollution impaired the ducks'
ability to regulate and/or maintain a normal body temperature. This conclusion
was also reached by Hartung, providing feed intake equaled metabolic needs and
that the stored caloric reserves were not depleted.
For successful salvage of oiled waterfowl it is essential that feed intake equal to
basal metabolic needs, be established as soon as possible. For fish-eating species
this will present a management problem. Little difficulty was experienced in
getting ducks to accept grain and complete poultry rations. The post mortem and
histopathologic studies of birds from Santa Barbara indicate the need for a good
30
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plan of nutrition to offset catabolic loss from stress and anorexia.
The longer the aquatic species were held in close confinement, the greater
was the incidence of pulmonary mycosis. It is also probable that the internal
parasite load of normal birds involved in oil polluted waters might increase the
rate of expenditure of stored metabolic reserves leading to emaciation and
increased susceptibility to infectious processes. It is therefore imperative that
management programs include a supply of acceptable or normal foodstuffs such
as live fish, for the more aquatic species.
It would seem desirable to have a ready source of supply of Polycomplex or any
other form of cleansing agent that may be found to be efficacious, so that it
could be placed into immediate usage when further oil spillages occur. A
facility for the care and treatment of aquatic fish-eating birds should be of
sufficient size to prevent over-crowding and to also provide a shallow source of
clean water which could be supplied with small fish. Such a facility could be
designed for fresh or salt water areas. A sketch of a possible treatment area is
included. (Fig. 13)
The sides and back of the thirty by fifty foot rehabilitation pen could be wire
netting to a height of six or seven feet. The top of the pen for a distance of twenty
or so feet from the back could be covered by wire or nylon netting, or a more
permanent cover that could also supply sun and rain protection as might be required.
The front and side wings of the pen should have a water impounding structure of
wood, metal or other material that would be able to impound water to a depth of
about two feet. The impounded water should project back into the pen for a dis-
tance of eight to ten feet and thus provide a beach-like area. Wire netting two
feet high should extend across the top of the water impounding structure. As
birds recover sufficiently to fly over this netting and out into open water, they
could be considered sufficiently recovered for release. The impounded water could
be supplied with a fresh source of water by means of a pump. The impounded water
should be stocked with a constant supply of suitable fish or other forms of aquatic
animal life that may be available for food. During the period of heavy bird
losses associated with the oil spill at Santa Barbara, there was some concern re-
garding the finding of small marine fish that contain a thiaminase enzyme. Many
marine and fresh water fish contain thiaminase, which when added to the diet of
ranch mink and fox, produce an encephalopathy which can be prevented by cooking
of the fish or addition of thiamine to the diet. No evidence was found in the
literature to indicate that this disease condition occurs in birds. Many waterfowl
normally feed almost exclusively on small fish, without clinical evidence of central
nervous system disturbances. The absence of information indicating pathologic effects
of thiaminase from fish on fish-eating birds, would discount the concern which had
been expressed in feeding live fish to birds involved in polluted water.
31
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PLASTIC TOP
NETTING
SUPPORT FOR
WIRE NETTING
WIRE NETTING
to
CO
3D
m
CD
CO
N>
30'
20'
50'
WATER
-H
TOP
-a
m
O
O
i—
m
D
E
JJ
D
TOP VIEW
-------
SECTION VII
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the Federal Water Quality Administration prepare
plans for waterfowl management facilities for the cleaning and care of oiled
birds. Plans for several types of facilities to care for the different types of
waterfowl should be developed. Suggestions for such a plan are included in
the conclusions.
It is recommended that no attempt be made to remove the intestinal parasites
by means of anthelmintic, since such drugs would in all probability add further
stress and upset the feed intake.
It was noted that many birds at Santa Barbara were dried using towels and heat
lamps. It is possible that these efforts do more damage than good. Structural
impairment to the feather can easily occur, and our results show that ducks are
able to maintain body temperatures with adequate food intake. It is suggested
therefore that the birds dry normally, thus reducing the possibility of further
feather damage and also eliminating further behavioral stress problems. For
successful salvage of waterfowl involved in areas of oil polluted waters, it is
imperative that the birds be induced to return to a normal rate of food consumption.
There appears to be little need for increased environmental temperatures if
treated birds can be induced to feed. Increased temperatures in a rehabilitation
area may also increase the possibilities for infections with mycotic or other agents.
It is recommended that in the advent of future oil spillages, oil samples be
immediately submitted for chemical analysis so that management of soiled birds
can utilize the information so obtained.
If oil of a highly toxic nature is involved in polluting a water area, efforts should
be directed toward a rapid clean up. Depending on local situations, it may be
possible to devise methods such as distress calls to prevent birds from entering the
polluted area.
33
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SECTION VIII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered by the
following:
Mr. Ronald Clawson of United States Department of the Interior, Federal
Water Quality Administration, supplied the normal Western grebes for comparison
studies. Mr. Clawson also assisted in a general advisory capacity and in
reviewing the manuscripts.
The crude oil from the Santa Barbara oil wells, used in these experiments, was
supplied by the Union Oil Company of California.
Mr. Edward Green of the California State Fish and Game Department, advised
and assisted in the trapping of waterfowl at Carlsbad Lagoon.
The McGraw Foundation generously donated the mallard ducks, which were the
primary subjects used in these studies.
Mr. Thomas Olson's assistance in tissue preparation and laboratory studies is
gratefully acknowledged, and Mrs. Audrey Logerwell was of great assistance in
preparing and typing this manuscript.
34
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES
Beer, J.V., 1968. Post mortem findings in oiled Auks dying during attempted
rehabilitation. Suppl. Field Studies 2:123-129.
Boos, G., 1964. Oil on the Seas. Bird Notes 31:185-8
Erickson, R.C., 1963. Oil pollution and migratory birds. Atlantic Naturalist
18 (I): 5-14
Hartung, R., 1967. Energy metabolism in oil-covered ducks. J .Wildl.Mgmt.
31: 798-804
Hartung, R., and Hunt, G.S., 1966. Toxic ity of some oils to waterfowl. J.
Wildl.Mgmt. 30: 564-70 ~~
Hawkes, A.L., 1961. A review of the nature and extent of damage caused by
oil pollution at sea. Trans.W. Am.Wildl. and Nat.Resources Conf. 26:343-355
Odham, G., 1967. Studies on feather waxes of waterfowl. Arkin for Remi. 27:295-
307
Odham, G., 1968. Oiled waterbirds - new possibilities for rehabilitation.
Personal Communication.
35
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC:
Lynn A. Griner; Robert Herdman. Effects of Oil Pollution on Waterfowl. A study of
Salvage Methods, Final report FWQA, Contract FWPCA 14-12-574. October 1970.
ABSTRACT
A study was made of salvage methods for waterfowl subjected to oil pollution. Mo I lord
ducks were the primary test species used. Aspects of the pathology of some of the water-
fowl species involved in the Santa Barbara oil slicks were also Investigated.
Although some refined petroleum products cor
crude used as o test oil in this study produced r
ain toxic compounds, the Santa Barbara
i apparent ill effects.
Polycomplex A-ll was found to be a rapid and effective cleansing agent for the removal
of oil from bird plumage. Oil on bird plumage alters feather structure by replacing the
small air pockets between barbules of the feather, thereby decreasing buoyancy and in-
sulation. Removal of oil from down feathers is more difficult than from the contour feathers
Ducks and geese are more amenable to treatment and post-treatment care than are the
more oquatic fowl, such as grebes, loons, auks and murres. Confinement times should be
as brief as possible os the incidence of mycotic and other infectious diseases increases
under long periods of close confinement.
This report was submitted In fulfillment of Research Grant No. 14-12-574 between the
Federal Water Quality Administration and the University of California at San Diego.
ACCESSION NO.
KEYWORDS
Oil Pollution
Waterfowl
Cleansing Agents
Physiologic Effects
Pathologic Effects
Salvage
Management
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
Lynn A. Griner; Robert Herd.
Salvage Methods. Fino
Effects of Oil Pollution on Waterfowl . A study of
port FWQA, Contract FWPCA 14-12-574. October 1970.
ABSTRACT
A study was made of salvage methods for waterfowl subjected to oil pollution. Mallard
ducks were the primary test species used. Aspects of the pathology of some of the water-
fowl species involved in the Santo Barbara oil slicks were also investigated.
Although some refined petroleum products coi
crude used as a test oil in this study produced
ain toxic compounds, the Santa Barbara
t apparent ill effects.
Polycomplex A-ll was found to be o rapid and effective cleansing agent for the removal
of oi I from bird plumage. Oil on bird plumage alters feather structure by replacing the
small air pockets between barbules of the feather, thereby decreasing buoyancy and in-
sulation. Removal of oil from down feathers is more difficult than from the contour feathers.
Ducks and geese are more amenable to treatment and post-treatment care than are the
more aquatic fowl, such as grebes, loons, auks and murres. Confinement times should be
as brief as possible as the incidence of mycotic and other infectious diseases increases
under long periods of close confinement.
Thi-
Fedei
report was submitted in fulfillment of Research Grant No. 14-12-574 between the
al Water Quality Administration and the University of California at San Diego.
ACCESSION NO.
KEYWORDS
Oil Pollution
Waterfowl
Cleansing Agents
Physiologic Effects
Pathologic Effects
Salvage
Management
BIBLIOGRAPHIC:
Lynn A. Griner, Robert Herdmon. Effects of Oil Pollution on Waterfowl . A study of
Salvage Methods. Final report FWQA, Contract FWPCA 14-12-574. October 1970.
ABSTRACT
A study was made of salvage methods for woterFowl subjected to oil pollution. Mallard
ducks were the primary test species used. Aspects of the pathology of some of the water-
fowl species involved in the Santa Barbara oil slicks were also investigated.
Although some refined petroleum products contain toxic compounds, the Santa Barbara
crude used as a rest oil in this study produced no apparent III effects.
Polycomplex A-ll was found to be o rapid and effective cleansing agent for the removal
of oil from bird plumage. Oil on bird plumage alters feather structure by replacing the
small air pockets between barbules of the feather, thereby decreasing buoyancy and in-
sulation. Removal of oil from down feathers is more difficult than from the contour feathers.
Ducks and geese are more amenable to treatment and post-treatment care than are the
more oquatic fowl, such as grebes, loons, auks and murres. Confinement times should be
os brief os possible as the incidence of mycotic and other infectious diseases increases
under long periods of close confinement.
This report was submitted In fulfillment of Research Grant No. 14-12-574 between the
Federal Water Quality Administration and the University of California at San Diego.
ACCESSION NO.
KEY WORDS
Oil Pollution
Waterfowl
Cleansing Agents
Physiologic Effects
Pathologic Effects
Salvage
Management
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