APPLY PESTICIDES CORRECTLY
A GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL APPLICATORS
REGULATORY
PEST CONTROL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PESTICIDE PROGRAMS
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments 1
Preface 2
Introduction 3
Regulated Pests: 4
Pest Movement 4
Pest Introduction 4
Pest Establishment 4
Regulatory Pest Control Programs 5
Quarantines 5
Domestic Quarantines 5
International Quarantines 5
Ports-of-Entry Inspection 6
Survey and Detection 6
Early Detection 6
Cooperative Plant Pest Survey and Detection Program 7
Pest Management Programs 7
Eradication of Infestation 7
Containment of Infestation 7
Retardation of Spread 7
Reducing or Preventing Pest Destruction 7
Resistant Varieties 7
Biological Control 7
Cultural Control 8
Mechanical-Physical Control 9
Sanitation 9
Chemical Control 9
Integrated Pest Management 9
Specialized Applications 11
Commodity Fumigation 11
Pests in Fumigated Commodities 11
Nature of Fumigated Commodities 11
Tightness of Fumigation Chamber 11
Circulation 11
Personal Safety in Fumigant Application 12
Aerial Application 12
Selection of Aircraft 12
Weather 12
Personal Safety in Aerial Application 13
Vat-Dipping and Spray-Dipping of Livestock 13
Pretreatment 13
Vat-Dip Treatment 13
Spray-Dip Treatment 14
Posttreatment 15
Personal Safety in Vat-Dipping and Spray-Dipping 15
Mechanical Toxicant Delivery System 15
Laws and Regulations Affecting Regulatory Pest Control 16
Legislative Authority 16
Federal ProgramsAPHIS 16
Federal ProgramsPHS 16
Federal ProgramsFWS 16
State and Local Programs 16
Pesticide Labels and Labeling 16
Labeling Exemptions 16
Registrations Sought by Regulatory Agencies 17
Residues in Food or Feed 17
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Page
Environmental Impact 18
Pesticide Selection 18
Domestic Animals 18
Wildlife 18
Bees 18
Sensitive Areas 18
Pests 19
Barberry 19
Blackbirds and Starlings 19
Boll Weevil 20
Burrowing Nematode 20
Cattle Fever Ticks 20
Cattle Scabies 21
Cereal Leaf Beetle 21
Citrus Blackfly 21
Equine Infectious Anemia 22
Giant African Snail 22
Golden Nematode 22
Grasshoppers 22
Gypsy Moth 23
Hog Cholera 23
Imported Fire Ant 23
Japanese Beetle 24
Khapra Beetle 24
Mediterranean Fruit Fly 24
Mexican Fruit Fly 25
Mormon Cricket 25
Pink Bollworm 25
Predators 26
Screw/worms 26
Sea Lampreys 26
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis 26
West Indian Sugarcane Root Borer 26
Witchweed 27
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manual has been developed by the Program
Support Branch, Operations Division, Office of
Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, with extensive assistance from the Animal
and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture; Public Health Service, U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Fish
and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the In-
terior; and several State regulatory agencies. The
project leader was Sally A. McDonald, North
Carolina State University. Editor was Mary Ann
Wamsley, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Major contributors were:
Mark Atwood, Iowa Department of Agricul-
ture,
Al Dwight Black, Maine Department of
Agriculture,
William E. Currie, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency,
Alfred Elder, North Carolina Department of
Agriculture,
Burton R. Evans, University of Georgia,
Robert Fringer, New Jersey Department of
Agriculture,
Ed Imai, Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Don D. Miller, Animal and Plant Health In-
spection Service, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture,
Daniel Robinson, California Department of
Food and Agriculture,
F. Nelson Swink, Fish and Wildlife Service,
U.S. Department of the Interior,
Gerald T. Weekman, North Carolina State
University,
John Wood, Animal and Plant Health Inspec-
tion Service, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture,
John Yashuka, Public Health Service, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare.
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PREFACE
Federal regulations establish general and specific
standards that you must meet before you can
legally use certain pesticides. Your State will pro-
vide material which you may study to help you
meet the general standards.
This guide contains information you must know
to meet the specific national standards for ap-
plicators who are engaged in regulatory pest con-
trol. Because the guide was prepared to cover the
entire Nation, some information important to your
State may not be included. The State agency in
charge of your training can provide the other
materials you should study.
This guide will give you information about:
characteristics of regulated pests, including
how they spread and become established,
t regulatory pest control strategies and
methods,
laws and regulations affecting regulatory
pest control,
personal safety,
environmental impact of regulatory pest
control, and
examples of some Federal-State coopera-
tive programs for control of regulated
pests.
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INTRODUCTION
Destructive insects, diseases, weeds, and other
pests are a constant threat to the Nation's crops,
livestock, other agricultural resources, and public
health. There are three main types of control for
these pests:
prevention keeping a pest from becoming
a problem,
suppression reducing pest numbers or
damage to an acceptable level, and
eradication removing a pest completely
from a crop, an area, or geographic loca-
tion.
Regulatory pest control programs are designed
to:
prevent the entry of foreign pests into the
United States,
control any newly discovered outbreaks of
foreign pests before they become widely
established,
prevent or reduce the spread of pests that
become established,
suppress periodic outbreaks of native pests
or public health vectors too widespread for
farmers, ranchers, and other local groups
to handle by themselves.
The agency responsible for plant, animal, and
other agricultural regulatory pest control at the
Federal level is APHIS the Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service in the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Within APHIS are two basic
units:
Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs
(PPQ), and
Veterinary Services (VS).
PPQ's plant protection work involves five major
functions:
maintaining inspections at international
ports of entry,
conducting plant pest surveys,
establishing and maintaining international
and domestic plant pest quarantines,
carrying out plant pest control operations,
and
conducting research and development on
new methods of plant pest control.
VS's animal protection program has six major
functions:
maintaining animal and animal product in-
spection at international ports of entry,
eradicating outbreaks of any foreign animal
pests which get past the border defenses,
fighting domestic animal diseases of eco-
nomic and/or human health significance,
continuing research and development on
new control methods,
assuring safe and effective veterinary
medications, and
providing for humane care of animals.
The Public Health Service (PHS) is another
Federal agency involved in regulatory pest control.
Its mission is the prevention of spread of human
diseases and pests which carry human diseases
(vectors). Vessels, aircraft, or other vehicles arriv-
ing at a U.S. port from a foreign port are subject
to inspection by public health regulatory officials.
The inspectors search for infestations of rodents,
insects, or other pests; contaminated food or
water; or any other unsanitary condition that must
be controlled to prevent the introduction, transmis-
sion, or spread of communicable disease. Any
vehicles which contain known vectors of those
diseases must be treated with a pesticide at the
port of entry.
Public Health regulatory officials also have the
authority to conduct comprehensive management
programs to eradicate escaped or established vec-
tors of quarantined human diseases. State and
local health departments usually work cooperatively
with the PubNc Health Service to carry out these
programs.
A third Federal agency involved in regulatory
pest control is the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).
One of its missions is to reduce the agricultural
losses caused by wildlife and to protect human
health and safety from threats posed by wildlife.
FWS policy is to reduce levels of damage and not
to eradicate any species. Most species of animals
being regulated under the FWS control programs
are protected by State or Federal laws and are ex-
cepted from protection only when causing damage.
Regulatory officials seeking pesticide certification
in Category IX (Regulatory Pest Control) should be
familiar with the general functions of PPQ, VS,
PHS, and FWS.
Much regulatory work is performed cooperatively
between States and APHIS, PHS, or FWS. Pest
management programs are jointly planned, fi-
nanced, and executed. State regulatory agencies
are the principal cooperators, but State Experiment
Stations, county and city agencies, universities,
State and local public health agencies, Extension
Services, and industry often participate. Work on
State land and privately owned land is done under
State authority.
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REGULATED PESTS
The types of organisms which may become
regulated pests include:
insects,
mites, ticks, and spiders,
fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasmas,
parasitic seed plants, and nematodes,
weeds,
snails and slugs, and
vertebrate pests such as birds, reptiles,
amphibians, and mammals.
Federal, State, or local governments regulate a
pest if it may interfere with:
agricultural and material production, tran-
sit, storage, or use,
human health, comfort, or leisure, or
the life cycle of beneficial plants or
animals.
Several criteria help to determine whether a pest
should be regulated:
The pest must pose a major threateither
actual or expected.
Consideration must be given to whether
there are any other control actions which
would be reasonable, effective, and less
disruptive.
The regulatory objective must be obtain-
able.
The economic or societal gains must out-
weigh the costs of regulation.
Pest Movement
Most pests move within the environment.
"Natural spread" is the movement the pest makes
without the help of man. Pests can move on their
own, travel with their hosts, or be carried by air,
water, soil, or animals. When man or his activities
move a pest, "artificial spread" occurs. Most pests
move long distances by being carried either in or
on people, or in infested articles and host materials
moved by people.
Regulatory pest control programs usually attempt
to restrict or prevent both natural and artificial
spread of pests.
creased travel of people also increases the possibili-
ty of pest introduction into new areas. It is im-
possible to intercept every entry of potential pests.
Fortunately, the introduction of an organism into
an area does not always insure its establishment as
a pest.
Pest Establishment
Establishment is the survival and reproduction of
a pest colony in a new environment. In their native
habitat, the population growth and adverse effects
of potential pests are often limited by cultural or
environmental conditions. These include disease,
predators, parasites, and other factors. However,
organisms introduced into a new habitat where
those natural controls are absent may often multi-
ply rapidly and become pests.
Ordinarily it is difficult for a pest to become
established in a new area, because a complicated
set of conditions must exist for the establishment
to take place.
Introduction must occur into a favorable
environment suitable climate, available
host or nutrients, lack of effective natural
enemies, and little natural resistance or
competition.
The pest, upon arrival in the new place,
must be healthy. It must arrive in sufficient
numbers to survive natural attrition and be
able to reproduce.
Some pests require specific conditions,
such as alternating seasons or alternate
hosts at different life stages. The new en-
vironment must provide these conditions in
the correct sequence.
The more specific the pest's requirements are, the
less likely it is that it will become established.
Pest Introduction
Introduction is the entrance of a pest into an
area where it is not presently established. The
possibility of pest introduction into new areas has
increased as the speed of transportation and the
quantity and variety of commodities transported
throughout the world have increased. The in-
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REGULATORY PEST CONTROL
PROGRAMS
The best management strategy would be to con-
trol pest populations at the point of origin. Unfor-
tunately, such control is not practiced in many
countries and may not be possible or practical in
some areas of the world. Therefore, the United
States must protect its plants, animals, resources,
and people from pests introduced from abroad.
To obtain effective control, pest management
strategies should be flexible. Control is easier and
less costly if implemented when pest populations
occur in a limited area and are not well established.
A specific management strategy should be de-
signed for each pest species. The plan must be
based upon a thorough knowledge of several inter-
related factors:
identification of the pest species, its
biology and life cycle, the way it spreads,
and its method of affecting man;
identification of host species and their
distribution;
location of established infestations, their
size and extent;
identification of natural limiting factors
such as climate, geographical barriers,
parasites, and predators;
identification of effective cultural, biolog-
ical, mechanical-physical, and other non-
chemical control methods;
identification of effective chemical control
agents, their various formulations, the best
method for applying them, and their possi-
ble effects on the environment;
determination of whether the societal or
economic benefits to be gained through
the control of the pest outweigh the mone-
tary and environmental costs.
Regulatory officials should work closely with af-
fected State and local groups to plan and carry out
pest control programs. Safeguards should be taken
to protect the health of people and domestic
animals, crops, wildlife, and other environmental
values. All programs involving chemical pesticides
should be reviewed and critically studied for their
impact on the environment.
Regulatory pest control programs are conducted
to suppress, contain, or eradicate pests. Six major
strategies are used in the management of regulated
pests:
prevention of entry (inspection and quaran-
tine),
survey and detection of pests,
eradication of infestation,
containment of infestation,
retardation of spread, and
reduction of pest impact on plant and
animal hosts.
Quarantines
International and domestic pest quarantines are a
key method for controlling the movement of pests.
They govern the importing, exporting, and inter-
and intrastate movement of:
pests harmful to plants and animals,
pests that are a threat to public health,
plant and animal products and other mate-
rials that might harbor and spread such
pests.
Domestic Quarantines
When a new and potentially destructive pest is
found in the United States, emergency regulations
are put into effect to prevent artificial spread. A
formal quarantine is invoked if the pest cannot be
eradicated quickly and artificial spread is likely to
occur. Entire States or only parts of States may be
under regulation. Regulated areas should be
redefined as necessary to reflect changes in
infestations. Areas remain under regulation until
APHIS, PHS, and State officials determine that:
the pest is no longer a menace,
the pest is infesting an area too large for
effective quarantine action, or
no effective control technology is available.
International Quarantines
Quarantines may also be invoked to prevent in-
troduction of foreign pests which are new to the
United States or are not widespread here.
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Ports-of-Entry Inspection
Agricultural quarantine inspection at U.S. ports
of entry is the Nation's major line of defense
against foreign pests that affect agriculture. Public
Health regulatory officials at ports of entry are
responsible for preventing the introduction of pest
vectors and disease agents of importance to
human health. These regulatory inspectors are sta-
tioned at all major air, sea, border, and offshore
ports. They examine imported cargoes of plants
and animals, and plant and animal products.
Treatments or other management safeguards are
sometimes necessary.
Cooperating closely with other Federal and State
agencies, inspectors also look for "hitchhiking"
pests on incoming carriers (aircraft, ships, and
vehicles) and miscellaneous nonagricultural cargo.
Customs inspectors examine incoming passengers'
baggage and refer all agricultural items to inspec-
tors who intercept those items that might spread
insects, diseases, and other pests to the United
States. Military personnel trained in entry re-
quirements help inspect incoming military cargo at
U.S. military bases.
Inspectors also work in foreign countries to pre-
clear agricultural commodities for export to the
United States. At the request and expense of
foreign exporters, they inspect and supervise treat-
ment of animals and plants to meet U.S. entry re-
quirements.
Inspectors also certify U.S.-grown products to
meet import requirements of other countries'. This
inspection helps U.S. exporters avoid the expense
of having shipments refused entry abroad because
of pest risk. It also helps prevent spread of U.S.
pests in foreign countries.
Such information is sometimes collected with the
use of biometric surveys. These are surveys con-
ducted on relatively small, scientifically selected
sites. Survey results are then statistically applied to
a large sample area. They are similar to a Gallup or
Harris opinion poll. Biometrically designed surveys
are the fastest, most efficient method of detecting
pest infestations, spread, and population. For ex-
ample, a survey of this type used to detect
Japanese beetle infestations in and around a major
city might use only 5 traps per square mile com-
pared to the usual 201 per square mile. This per-
mits surveying a larger area 1,500 square miles
compared to the usual 80 square miles with no
decrease in efficiency.
Biometrics has been introduced into nearly every
area of regulatory pest control work. Statistical
methods provide fast, low-cost solutions to prob-
lems. Biometric surveys are commonly used:
to detect pest introduction or establish-
ment near ports of entry,
to trace natural or artificial spread of
into new areas,
to measure the success of pest control
programs, and
to monitor pesticide use.
A biometric survey may not be useful in monitor-
ing an eradication program. Because it indicates
only approximate locations and numbers, it may
not detect every individual population of the pest.
Regulatory survey and detection activities fall in-
to three broad categories:
"early detection" pest trapping,
the Cooperative Plant Pest Survey and
Detection Program, and
surveys conducted before and after pest
management programs.
Survey and Detection
Pest surveys provide essential information about
both destructive and beneficial organisms. Informa-
tion collected on pests should include:
identification and habits,
incidence (number of pests per unit area),
distribution (location of the infestation and
the boundaries of the infestation),
hosts, and
damage caused.
Data collected on beneficial organisms should in-
clude:
identification,
incidence,
distribution,
host or prey, and
effectiveness.
Early Detection
Surveys, using blacklight and other trapping
devices, help detect the presence of pests that are
new to an area. Such surveys are conducted at
ports of entry and at many other locations through-
out the country. This early detection is essential to
prevent the establishment and spread of pests.
Eradication is much easier when infestations are
discovered early.
Surveys around international airports and sea-
ports detect foreign pests that have slipped
through the quarantine barrier. Border States
cooperate with APHIS and PHS to conduct these
surveys. In other locations, the surveys are con-
ducted by State and local regulatory agencies to
detect the spread of pests from one area to
another within the United States.
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Cooperative Plant Pest Survey and
Detection Program
This is a joint Federal-State program through
which agricultural workers across the Nation pro-
vide up-to-date information on pest conditions in
their localities. Cooperators include APHIS and all
State agricultural agencies State Extension Ser-
vices, Agricultural Experiment Stations, agricultural
college faculties, and State plant and animal
regulatory services. Commercial organizations and
many other agricultural workers also assist. The in-
formation collected is published and distributed na-
tionwide in the weekly Cooperative Plant Pest
Report. Included in the report are pest distribution
maps, crop and livestock damage figures, and
other technical data.
Pest Management Programs
Surveys are an integral part of pest management
programs. Data on pest reproduction levels, popu-
lation buildups, and pest spread are essential for
planning quarantine and treatment activities.
Detection surveys identify new areas of infestation.
Delimiting surveys define the limits of the infesta-
tion. These surveys provide the information that is
necessary for implementing any regulatory pro-
gram. Evaluation surveys measure the results of
control activities.
Eradication of Infestation
If a pest is newly introduced, the immediate ob-
jective usually is to eradicate it. The best time to
do this is while the population is small, not wide-
spread, and not well established. This is also the
case when an infestation begins to spread to a new
area. Eradication may be difficult or almost impos-
sible after the population grows larger and infests a
large area. Usually all available means are used to
eradicate the pest. Many of these methods are
described below under "Reducing or Preventing
Pest Destruction."
Containment of Infestation
When eradication is not immediately possible
because of environmental concerns or lack of tech-
nology, it is best to try to contain the infestation.
Quarantines and any available control methods
should be used while additional methods or envi-
ronmental safeguards are being developed.
Retardation of Spread
When it is not possible or feasible to eradicate
an established pest, the objective may be to slow
the spread of infestation. The methods used may
be the same as for eradication, but they usually are
less intensive. Quarantines may be strengthened to
reduce artificial spread.
Reducing or Preventing Pest
Destruction
If the population of a regulated pest increases to
a point where damage becomes a problem, intensi-
fied control efforts may be needed. Usually, this
action is taken when the pests threaten high-value
crops or livestock, recreational or residential areas,
human health, or other valuable resources. Cul-
tural, chemical, and other control measures are
used to reduce the population to a point where the
damage level is acceptable and available natural
controls can operate.
The control program should take advantage of
natural control factors such as climate and natural
enemies of the pest. In addition, each pest man-
agement system should include the most effective
and safest factors of one or more of the following
techniques.
Resistant Varieties
Some types of plants and animals resist pests
better than others. By using resistant types, we
make the environment less favorable for pests. This
makes it easier to control or eradicate the pests.
For example, resistant varieties are used as part of
regulatory pest control programs for burrowing
nematode, a pest of citrus. Rootstocks of citrus
species which show resistance to the burrowing
nematode have been isolated and field tested. They
will soon be available to commercial nurserymen.
Biological Control
Regulated pests which originate in other coun-
tries may be suppressed by importing natural
enemies from their native environment. This tech-
nique is most common for insects, mites, and
some weeds. Imported natural enemies may them-
selves become pests, so extensive studies must be
made.
Predators and Parasites Releasing more of
a pest's natural enemies into the target area can in-
crease pest control. Organisms known to attack
pests in their native environment can be imported
or reared in laboratories, and released in infested
areas. No parasites or predators should be released
until they are determined to be harmless to man,
animals, plants, and other beneficial organisms.
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Many kinds of parasites and predators of the gypsy
moth have been imported from Europe and Asia
and released in the infested areas in this country.
Several species have become established and are
helping to reduce pest numbers. However, they
have not always been able to prevent serious out-
breaks and resultant damage.
Sterile Males Males of some pest species
may be reared and sterilized in laboratories and
released in large numbers into infested areas to
mate with native females. These matings produce
infertile eggs or sterile offspring and help reduce
the pest population. The release of sterile males is
one of the primary techniques used in the regula-
tory pest control program for screwworms. The
technique has been successfully applied in south-
eastern and southwestern United States, Puerto
Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The continuous
release of sterile males is the primary method used
to create a barrier zone between the United States
and Mexico to keep the screwworms from reenter-
ing the United States.
Pathogens Bacteria, viruses, and fungi may
be introduced into an infested area to control pests
by causing disease. These disease agents, like
parasites and predators, are often found in the
pest's native environment and are imported or
reared in the laboratory for release.
The use of pathogens is an important part of the
regulatory pest control program for Japanese
beetles. Japanese beetles are subject to attack by
two bacteria which cause the fatal milky disease.
Preparations containing spores of the contagious
bacteria are produced commercially and released in
infested areas. One treatment of grub-infested turf
will usually insure establishment of the milky
disease. However, several seasons may be required
before the disease reaches its greatest effective-
ness and before a reduction in beetle population is
evident. The disease may need to be introduced
again after several years.
Cultural Control
Planting, growing, harvesting, and tillage prac-
tices may help or harm pests. Other practices such
as crop rotation, pasture rotation, time of planting,
and use of trap crops also affect pests.
Crop Rotation Taking infested fields out of
production and fallowing or planting an alternate
crop may deprive pests of host plants on which to
feed and reproduce. Crop rotation is an important
part of the regulatory pest control program for the
golden nematode. Many farmers withhold their
lands from potato, tomato, and other host crop
production.
Pasture Rotation Keeping livestock and
other host animals out of infested pastures for
specific time periods may deprive pests of food and
keep them from completing their life cycle. Pasture
rotation is an important practice in the regulatory
pest control program for cattle fever ticks. Taking
host animals out of infested pastures for at least 9
months will cause the ticks to starve to death.
Trap Crops Primary or secondary host crops
planted early may draw pests away from the main
crop. Destruction of such crops breaks the repro-
ductive cycle of the pest before the main crops are
established. Trap crops are used in the regulatory
pest control program for boll weevil. A crop of cot-
ton is planted early in the season to attract the boll
weevils. This early crop is destroyed or treated with
a systemic insecticide to control the pests before
the primary crop is established.
Delay of Planting Delaying the date of
planting may reduce the population of certain pests
by eliminating the host plant needed for food and
reproduction when the pest population is at its
peak. This technique is used in the regulatory pest
control program for the pink bollworm. Planting
dates for cotton are set by each State in coopera-
tion with the growers. The planting date must be
as late in the season as possible. For the method
to be successful, all the growers in the area must
comply. Planting is timed so that the first bolls
form well after the peak of spring bollworm
emergence.
Early Plowup Plowing soon after harvest
eliminates crop debris and other hosts that may
provide food and shelter for new pest generations
or overwintering pests. Early plowup may also pre-
vent some weed pests from setting seed. This
technique is part of the regulatory pest control pro-
gram for witchweed. Witchweed-infested land
planted to tobacco, vegetables, or other early
harvested crops is plowed or disked after harvest.
This destroys crabgrass (hosts) and any witchweed
plants before they produce seed.
Fall or Spring Tillage Cultivation at specific
times may reduce pest populations by:
destroying the pests directly,
destroying host plants, or
exposing the pests to sun, wind, and
natural predators.
Cultivation is often used to control weed pests. Fall
or spring tillage is part of the regulatory pest con-
trol program for grasshoppers. Working the crop-
land soil in fall or early spring reduces grasshopper
numbers by burying the eggs so deeply that young
grasshoppers cannot reach the surface after hatch-
ing or by exposing the eggs to the drying action of
sun and wind.
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Mechanical-Physical Control
Traps, barriers, gunning, and many types of at-
tractants and repellents are all used in regulatory
pest control. These methods are used extensively
for controlling vertebrate pests. They are also used
to survey for other pest species.
Traps Traps are highly selective tools used in
vertebrate pest control. Steel or leg-hold traps have
been used traditionally, but may injure nontarget
animals that are captured. Padding the jaws may
reduce this problem. The "conibear" trap is more
"humane" in that its victim is quickly killed. It has
fairly wide application. Live traps are generally
more humane than steel traps, but are more costly
to operate and are less efficient (especially for the
larger predators). The trap line must be checked
daily so captured animals will not starve or die of
dehydration.
Barriers There are several types of barriers,
but all are designed to prevent pests from passing
through. These include fenced areas and barriers
which cover openings, stop tunneling, and prevent
gnawing. Materials used include sheet metal, hard-
ware cloth, concrete, asbestos board, and similar
materials. This kind of approach is especially effec-
tive in control of rodents in structures.
Gunning Gunning, though highly selective, is
expensive and time-consuming. It works best in
combination with other methods. It will often take
larger predators not controlled by traps or toxic
devices. Aerial gunning for coyotes has become a
highly effective control tool.
Attractants Many techniques, such as light
and sound, are used to attract pests to a trap.
Predator calling can increase the efficiency of gun-
ning control efforts on larger predators.
Repellents Repellents include a great variety
of devices aimed at keeping pests from doing
damage. Automatic exploders, noisemakers, re-
cordings of scare calls, ultrasonics, moving objects,
lights, and electric fences are some of the repel-
lents used regularly. The efficacy of some of these
devices may be questionable and may be highly
dependent on correct placement.
deterrent to pest infestations. Sanitation is one of
the major aspects of regulatory pest control of boll
weevil. The aim is to reduce the number of boll
weevils that survive after harvest and enter hiber-
nation sites. Cotton stalks are destroyed early in
the fall, as long before frost as possible. Other
sanitation methods followed are:
fields are cultivated cleanly,
ditch banks are plowed and rows in the
field are turned,
weed clusters are removed,
dense undergrowth is removed from near-
by woods,
litter around farm buildings is destroyed.
Sanitation is also important in the control of
animal disease vectors. Fly control in and around
barns and livestock pens, for example, is greatly
aided by prompt manure removal and other sani-
tary techniques.
Chemical Control
Chemicals are generally the fastest way to con-
trol pests. In many instances, they are the only
weapons available. Identification of the best
pesticide for the job is an important responsibility
for regulatory pest control officials. Often a single
pesticide is sold in several, formulations. The
regulatory official should choose the formulation
which will best meet the requirements for each
situation.
Considerations in making a choice should in-
clude:
effectiveness against the pest,
whether the product is registered for the
intended use,
the plant, animal, or surface to be treated,
the application equipment available or pro-
posed method of application,
cost,
the danger of drift and runoff.
potential injury to applicator,
presence of endangered species, if any,
effect on nontarget organisms such as
wildlife and humans, and
type of environment the application must
be made in such as agricultural, forest,
urban.
Sanitation
Removing sources of food and shelter helps to
suppress some pests. Sanitation also serves as a
Integrated Pest Management
Integrated pest management (IPM) programs
should be cooperative Federal-State-producer-
industry undertakings. The objective is to develop
-------
Integrated Control
and implement a pest control system using a com-
bination of pest control techniques resistant
varieties, biological, cultural, mechanical-physical,
sanitation, and chemical control methods. Advan-
tages of the integrated approach may include more
effective pest control, lower production costs, and
reduced use of chemical pesticides. Regulatory
agencies should cooperate with other Federal agen-
cies, the Cooperative Extension Service, State ex-
periment stations and universities, and local
growers and ranchers to establish IPM programs
and pilot projects.
10
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SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS
A variety of pesticides and pesticide application
equipment are used in regulatory pest control pro-
grams. Many of the programs are carried out in
cooperation with affected farmers, ranchers, or
other local groups who often provide the applica-
tion equipment and may make the applications.
Other pest control work may be done by commer-
cial applicators under contract to regulatory agen-
cies.
Sometimes, however, regulatory pest control of-
ficials must apply pesticides. These applications
may require the use of specialized equipment
designed for efficient control of some regulated
pests. Such areas of specialty include, but are not
limited to:
commodity fumigation,
aerial application,
vat-dipping and spray-dipping of livestock,
and
use of mechanical toxicant delivery
systems.
Commodity Fumigation
Commodity fumigation is necessary for the treat-
ment of infested commodities or other items that
move from regulated areas. Because fumigation is
a complex process, correct procedures vary ac-
cording to the situation. The following, however,
are some basic principles of fumigation.
Pests in Fumigated Commodities
The type of fumigation needed depends in part
on:
the kind of pest present, and
the life cycle stage of the pest at the time
of treatment.
If only adult pests are present and there is air
space throughout the load, low dosages and short
exposures are usually adequate. But if eggs, larvae,
cysts, or pupae are present, higher dosages or
longer exposure periods may be required.
Immature forms of some pests are more resistant
to fumigation than adults are. Both dosage and ex-
posure period usually must be increased:
when pests are embedded in commodities
(such as the weevil in sweet potatoes and
fruit flies in citrus), or
when pests are in closely packed or dry,
sorptive commodities (such as the granary
weevil in flour).
Nature of Fumigated Commodities
Commodities or objects which require fumigation
range from loosely packed and nonsorptive (such
as scrap iron) to closely packed and highly sorptive
(such as ground alfalfa hay). Loosely packed, non-
sorptive materials allow gas to circulate easily
throughout the load. Pests in all stages of develop-
ment can be reached by the fumigant and may be
relatively easy to kill. Pests in closely packed,
highly sorptive materials are much harder to kill
because the fumigants cannot circulate well. Close-
ly packed materials have little air space for the gas
to enter. Dry, highly sorptive commodities absorb
the gas as it enters the mass. Fumigation treat-
ments should be designed to allow for these '
factors.
Tightness of Fumigation Chamber
Many types of atmospheric-pressure fumigation
chambers are used to fumigate commodities. All
such chambers must be tightly sealed to be effec-
tive. The tightness of the seal cannot be judged
Fumigation Chamber
visually. Use an approved method to determine
whether chambers are tight enough.
Circulation
Many fumigants used to treat regulated pests re-
quire circulation. Circulation is necessary to prevent
possible injury to the commodities, to comply with
tolerances set by the Environmental Protection
Agency, and to achieve maximum pest control.
The gases must be mixed with air and circulated so
that they quickly come in contact with all of the
material to be treated. Without adequate circula-
11
-------
tion, the gas would be trapped by the part of the
load it contacted first.
There must be space above or below the load to
allow air and gas to mix and circulate properly as
the fumigant is introduced. Otherwise, gas concen-
trations will become too high at first.
Overloading and Underloading Overloading
of fumigation chambers prevents or slows the cir-
culation of the gas. This may cause:
uneven concentrations of gas,
incomplete kill of pests, and
increased injury to susceptible com-
modities.
Underloading disrupts the circulatory system.
There will be too much gas in the area through
which the flow passes and too little gas elsewhere
in the chamber.
Nature of Commodities Consider the nature
of the commodities when arranging loads for fumi-
gation. When you load dry, porous commodities
such as hay, straw, and corncobs, leave a few in-
ches of space between the load and side walls of
the chamber. Whenever possible, leave space be-
tween tiers of bags, bales, etc. Products may be
placed directly against the walls of the fumigation
chamber if:
they do not absorb gas rapidly, and
they allow enough space between individ-
ual items to permit air to move downward
freely.
Fully Loaded Chambers Directions for
fumigation usually assume that the chamber will be
fully loaded. Using normal dosages to treat partial
loads may cause illegal residues. Use appropriate
size chambers whenever possible. Otherwise, add
empty crates or other objects to simulate normal
loads.
Pers9nal Safety in Fumigant
Application
Most fumigants used in regulatory pest control
are highly toxic to humans. Be careful to follow all
label instructions for safety and protective clothing
and equipment. Too much exposure to fumigants
may make a person seem drunk. The signs and
symptoms of fumigant poisoning are:
poor coordination,
slurring words,
confusion, and
sleepiness.
Repeated exposure to the fumigant methyl bro-
mide, which is often used in regulatory pest con-
trol, can cause permanent internal injury without
early signs or symptoms of poisoning. The operator
may receive a fatal dose before any symptoms
appear.
Aerial Application
Aircraft are generally used to disperse pesticide
sprays, baits, dusts, granular formulations, and
some biological control agents over large areas. In
large control programs, electronic systems may
guide the aircraft and record the area treated.
Regulatory pest control officials directly involved in
aerial application of pesticides should be familiar
with the information in the USDA/EPA manual
"Aerial Application". It is available through State
regulatory agencies and State Extension Services.
Selection of Aircraft
In selecting aircraft for a specific program, con-
sider such factors as:
the total acreage to be treated,
the size of individual blocks,
the time allotted for completion,
available airstrips,
ferry distances,
the type of terrain, and
the number of personnel available to man-
age the operation.
It is impractical to use large, fast aircraft on blocks
less than 2 or 3 miles long. Small aircraft should
not be used when the number required would con-
gest the airstrip or when long ferry distances are
involved.
Weather
Weather plays an important role in aerial applica-
tion. Winds may carry pesticides away from the
target area. High temperatures may cause fine
sprays to evaporate or drift away without reaching
the target. The best weather for aerial application
of pesticide sprays and dusts is usually from dawn
until mid-morning and in early evening.
During late spring, summer, and early fall,
temperature inversions commonly occur in early
morning. A temperature inversion exists in still air
that:
is coolest at ground level,
gets warmer up to a certain height, and
gets cooler from that point on up.
12
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Do not attempt aerial application during a tempera-
ture inversion. Pesticide particles released into the
cool air layer at ground level during an inversion
have little upward movement. The slightest air
movement can cause the particles to drift for great
distances before they settle out.
Unless the program is an emergency, it is best
not to apply sprays or dusts in the late evening.
When evening applications are planned, it is impor-
tant to know when it will be too dark to work safe-
ly. No pilot should take off with a load of pesti-
cides unless he can complete the round trip before
dark. Even though the airport may be lighted for
safe landing after dark, the pilot must have time to
complete the application in daylight.
An exception is the application of certain
specialized chemicals to control winter-roosting
starlings and blackbirds. Some of these com-
pounds require cold temperatures and rain in order
to be lethal. Also, they must be applied after dark
when the birds are in the roost. Therefore, the use
of these compounds is restricted to weather which
would not be suitable for any other aerial pesticide
applications.
Personal Safety in Aerial Application
Pilots, ground crew, and flagmen all need to
avoid unnecessary contact with the pesticides be-
ing handled and applied. The onset of poisoning
symptoms during flight could cause a serious acci-
dent. Aerial applicators should pay particular atten-
tion to safety and protective clothing and equip-
ment precautions listed on the pesticide label.
Pilots should not load or mix pesticides.
Vat-Dipping and Spray-Dipping of
Livestock
Vat dipping is the only allowable method for
treating sheep and goats for regulated pests. It is
the preferred method for treating cattle, horses,
and most other species of animals. Cattle and
swine may be treated with a spray-dip machine.
Use of engine-driven tank-type spray equipment
with constant mechanical mixing of bath is general-
ly not acceptable. Easily restrained horses and
other specified animals may be treated this way in
some cases. Hand-powered sprayings are not ac-
ceptable in regulatory pest control.
Pretreatment
Animals should be examined to determine if their
physical condition is such that they can be safely
treated. Otherwise, acute toxic reactions may result
in losses. Divide the animals into groups according
to age or size and treat each group separately. It
may be necessary to handtreat young or weak
animals. Whenever practical, delay treatment of
young animals until they are 1 month old. Do not
allow dams to nurse their young until after the dip
has drained from udder and teats.
Rest the animals before treatment. Allow them
to drink their fill of water so they will be less likely
to drink the dip and be poisoned. Avoid rough
handling of animals before, during, and after treat-
ment. After driving animals to the treatment area,
allow them to rest and cool off. Remove caked
mud, excessive filth, or heavy accumulations of
dust from animals. These coverings may keep the
pesticide from reaching the pests.
Vat Dip Treatment
Submerge each animal completely. Use a dip-
ping fork to insure that the head is submerged at
least once. The dipping fork is necessary to assure
proper handling of the animals and to help protect
Large Vat for
Cattle, Horses,
Sheep, Goats
13
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the operator from exposure to the pesticide. Do
not dip animals that are wet with rain, snow, or
ice. They will carry additional water into the vat
and dilute the bath.
Keep the bath reasonably clean, because pesti-
cides settle out more rapidly if the bath is dirty.
Small Vat for Sheep, Goats
Spray-Dip Machine for Cattle
Skim hair and other materials from the surface
regularly. The amount of bottom sediment must be
monitored. If it reaches 10 percent, empty and
clean the vat. Be sure to follow APHIS guidelines
for disposing of the vat contents.
The amount of pesticide added must be carefully
measured according to the calibration instructions
for the vat. Maintaining the proper concentration
of pesticide in the vat is extremely important. Ex-
cessive concentration may poison or kill treated
animals. Weak concentrations may not destroy all
the pests. Never allow the bath volume to fall
below the 7/8 level, because all replenishment
ratios are based on this amount. The bath can be
replenished as often as convenient at any point
above the 7/8 level. Replenish the bath with a
premixed solution of water and pesticide at the
proper dosage.
Mix the bath thoroughly:
when it is first filled,
each time it is replenished, and
after any period of nonuse.
Spray-Dip Treatment
The principal advantage of the spray-dip over the
dipping vat is that it is easy to move from farm to
farm. Thus, it is useful in treating small herds when
the owner does not have access to a dipping vat.
Ticks and scabies mites can be eradicated by
treatment with a spray-dip machine if particular
care is taken to assure complete wetting of the
animal, including the head, face, inside of ears,
brisket, underside, between the thighs, around the
scrotum or udder, under the tail, and the switch of
the tail. The spray-dip machine will not be effective
unless its use is very carefully supervised.
Each animal should receive three 20-second
bursts of spray with a few seconds pause between
bursts to allow it to breathe. If necessary, the time
spent in the machine may be increased to assure
that all of the animal's skin is wet. Animals under
14
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the age of 8 weeks should be given only two
10-second sprayings with an intermediate pause.
Replenishment and cleaning requirements for
spray-dip machines are similar to those for dipping
vats. Closely follow calibration instructions for the
machine to assure proper dosages.
Posttreatment
Animals should be rested, fed, and watered after
treatment. Do not allow the pesticide to drip on
the feed or into the water. Hold the animals over-
night before hauling or handling them. In hot
weather, try to protect animals from direct ex-
posure to the sun. In cold weather, give animals
access to an open shed or windbreak. Keep ani-
mals on their feet until dry; if they lie down, they
may freeze to the ground. After the pesticide has
drained off, animals may be driven a short distance
to warm them, but avoid vigorous exercise. Rain
following treatment may wash off some of the
pesticide and reduce the effectiveness of treat-
ment.
Personal Safety in Vat-Dipping and
Spray-Dipping
Operators dipping or spray-dipping livestock are
at risk of harmful exposure to pesticides. The
greatest hazard is that of being splashed by pesti-
cides during mixing and treatment. All operators
should wear enough protective clothing and equip-
ment to avoid exposure to the pesticides. Follow
the safety and protective clothing and equipment
instructions on the label.
on the case holder and the cyanide is forced into
its mouth. On the basis of hundreds of recorded
pulls, 71 percent of the animals were recovered.
They were generally less than 50 yards from the
M-44.
Mechancial Toxicant Delivery
System
The M-44 is a mechanical device for delivering
sodium cyanide. It was developed by the FWS spe-
cifically for the control of coyotes. It consists of:
a case holder wrapped with fur, cloth, or
wool,
an ejector mechanism,
a case loaded with 12 grains of sodium
cyanide, and
a 5- to 7-inch hollow stake.
The stake is driven into the ground, the ejector unit
is cocked and placed in the stake, and the case
holder containing the case of cyanide is screwed
onto the ejector unit. A fetid bait, usually made
from fish, brains, or blood, is carefully spread on
the case holder. An animal attracted by the bait
will try to pick up the baited case holder. The ejec-
tor mechanism is released when the animal pulls up
15
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LAWS AND REGULATIONS
AFFECTING REGULATORY PEST
CONTROL
Legislative Authority
Federal Programs APHIS
The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS) and the Federal agricultural regulatory
pest control program are provided for by congres-
sional acts. The acts provide the Secretary of Agri-
culture with authority to:
establish quarantines and regulations
against imports that are likely to carry agri-
cultural pests not known to be present or
widely distributed in the United States,
establish quarantines and regulations to
carry out cooperative Federal-State sup-
pression, containment, or eradication
measures against designated agricultural
pests which become established in the
United States, and
provide exporters, on request, with certifi-
cation that their plant and animal products
meet import requirements of other coun-
tries.
Federal Programs PHS
The Public Health Service (PHS) and the Federal
public health regulatory pest control programs are
provided for by congressional acts. The acts pro-
vide the Surgeon General with authority to:
establish quarantines and regulations
against imports and vessels likely to carry
pests of public health importance not
known to be present or widely distributed
in the United States, and
establish quarantines and regulations to
carry out cooperative Federal-State sup-
pression, containment, or eradication
measures against designated pests of
public health significance which become
established in the United States.
Federal Programs FWS
The Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the
Federal animal damage control program are pro-
vided for by congressional acts which provide the
Secretary of the Interior with the authority to:
develop and insure the use of ecologically
sound, socially acceptable animal damage
control activities, and
assist in reducing conflicts between man
and wildlife.
State and Local Programs
State regulatory pest control programs are pro-
vided for by authority of the individual State legis-
latures. Consult appropriate State statutes for
details.
Pesticide Labels and Labeling
Regulatory pest control officials should know
and understand:
the general format and terminology of pes-
ticide labels and labeling,
basic instructions, warnings, terms, sym-
bols, and other information commonly
found on pesticide labels,
the difference between general and
restricted use classification,
the penalties for misuse of pesticides under
Federal and State laws.
Labeling Exemptions
Whenever possible, regulatory officials should
choose a pesticide which has label directions that
cover the intended use. However, some emergency
situations in regulatory pest control may require the
use of a pesticide in a manner inconsistent with its
labeling. For example, a newly introduced pest may
not be listed on any pesticide label. Or the product
registered for use against the pest may not be
registered for use on the crop or animal which the
pest is attacking. Federal law authorizes the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administrator
to allow any Federal or State agency to alter label
directions in emergencies. This is called a Section
18 exemption. Three types of exemptions are
possible:
specific exemption,
quarantine-public health exemption, and
crisis exemption.
Specific Exemption Specific exemptions
must be requested in writing by the head of the
Federal agency or the Governor of the State in-
volved, or by a designee. They are used when the
pest problem is anticipated and there is enough
time to apply for the exemption in writing.
Quarantine-Public Health Exemption This
type of exemption may be issued for Federal or
State programs concerned with preventing the in-
troduction or spread of a foreign pest of agricul-
tural or public health importance into or throughout
the United States. "Foreign pests" are those not
known to be established in the United States but
which threaten to become established or have
recently become established. This exemption must
16
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also be requested in writing by the head of a
Federal agency, the Governor of a State, or a
designee.
Crisis Exemption A crisis exemption may be
issued by the State or agency itself when an un-
predicted outbreak of a pest occurs and the situa-
tion is so critical that there is no time to apply for a
specific exemption. Such exemptions may not be
granted for any pesticide which has been sus-
pended or cancelled for the use in question. The
State or agency issuing the crisis exemption should
notify EPA by phone before issuing the exemption.
Within 10 days of the issuance, EPA must be given
written details of the crisis and any plans for fur-
ther pesticide applications. If the applications will
continue for more than 15 days, the issuing State
or agency must apply for a specific exemption.
Registrations Sought by Regulatory
Agencies
Regulatory agencies also may seek the registra-
tion of pesticides which are necessary for the safe
and effective control of regulated pests but which
may not be registered through normal channels.
Two major types of registrations are available to
regulatory agencies:
Special Local Needs State Registration
Most State regulatory agencies have the authority
to issue "special local needs" registrations allowing
the use of pesticides against pests which are found
within the State. Such a registration may be
granted only if no other pesticide is currently
registered and available for that use. The pesticide
to be registered must have a Federal tolerance
established if crops or livestock will be treated and
sold. This is often called a 24(c) registration. Com-
plete regulations and guidelines for this registration
are available from the EPA Pesticide Registration
Division.
APHIS Treatment Manual Supplemental La-
beling Registration To allow flexibility in the
use of pesticides against regulated pests, APHIS
treatment manuals can be specified as part of the
supplemental pesticide product labeling. The treat-
ment manuals must carry complete instructions for
the use being cited. EPA reviews the APHIS treat-
ment manual for accuracy and completeness and
then registers the manual as supplemental labeling.
The pesticide label(s) contain a statement such as:
"Also for use in accordance with the
recommendations and instructions issued
by the United States Department of Agri-
culture in the Animal and Plant Health In-
spection Service treatment manuals for
regulatory pest control programs on
(name of pest) .
To be used only by or under the direction
of Federal/State regulatory pest control of-
ficials."
Residues in Food or Feed
Laws establish legal tolerance levels for pesticide
residues in food and feed. Regulated pests in or on
crops and livestock may have to be controlled with
pesticides. To avoid illegal residues:
use only chemicals registered for use on
that crop or animal, and
use them at the recommended dosage.
Follow use directions exactly. Be particularly sure
to observe the interval between treatment and
harvest, slaughter, or grazing. If a nonregistered
pesticide must be applied under an emergency ex-
emption, find out whether the treated crops or
animals may still be sold for food or feed.
Pesticides to be applied on crops and livestock
must be chosen with care. Some fumigants can
build up residues in commodities after repeated ap-
plications. Some pesticides can affect chemical or
physical properties of a commodity, including
taste, odor, appearance, ripening rate, viability,
and vitality. When treating storage areas and ware-
houses that house food and feed, use pesticides
registered for such areas. Otherwise, you may con-
taminate the stored products.
17
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Chemical control of regulated pests need not be
damaging to the environment. In most cases, it is
beneficial. As a regulatory pest control official, one
of your most important tasks is to assess the im-
pact of your pesticide programs on the environ-
ment. Be sure to pass the information on to other
regulatory agencies, other Federal and State agen-
cies, and private industry. The information serves
as a basis for developing new chemicals and
methods of control that will avoid or minimize
residue levels in the environment.
Pesticide Selection
Several pesticide products may be effective
against the target pest. Choose the one that will
cause the least -damage to the environment while
giving adequate control. If possible, select a
pesticide and formulation that:
« will control the pest for the desired period
of time and then break down into nontoxic
byproducts, and
can be applied to the target easily with lit-
tle drift and runoff.
Domestic Animals
Keep nontarget animals and pets from coming in
contact with regulatory pesticide applications. Do
not allow dairy and meat animals, poultry, horses,
sheep, goats, and other domestic animals to eat
plants or drink water that are contaminated with
pesticides. Take special precautions with baits or
traps that might be attractive to nontarget animals
and pets. In most instances, correct placement and
timing will protect nontarget species.
Bees
Honeybees and other beneficial pollinators can
be harmed by some pesticide applications. Careful
planning and good communications between regu-
latory pest control officials and beekeepers can
greatly reduce bee losses. Use these commonsense
precautions:
notify beekeepers before an application is
to be made,
choose a pesticide which minimizes toxicity
to bees,
when working near known hives, choose
formulations and methods that are the
least toxic to bees (aerial applications are
more hazardous to bees than ground
sprays),
treat at dusk to avoid foraging bees and
other pollinators,
do not apply pesticides while target plants
are in flower, and
do not treat large areas or repeat applica-
tions at short intervals.
Sensitive Areas
Be especially careful when applying pesticides
near or over areas where people live and work.
Take special precautions to avoid accidental
poisoning of humans or pets and to avoid con-
taminating such things as drinking water and swim-
ming pools. If possible, choose formulations that
do not leave unsightly residues. When you plan to
apply pesticides or release biological agents in or
near an urban area, consider informing the public
beforehand.
Wildlife
Consider both the immediate and long-term ef-
fects on wildlife before making any application.
Animals may be affected by pesticides either
directly or indirectly. Incorrect application pro-
cedures could cause direct kills of susceptible non-
target fish, birds, mammals, and other wildlife. In-
direct effects may result from repeated use of
materials that build up in the food chain over time.
This build-up may reduce the animals' ability to
reproduce and may be fatal to predators at the top
of the food chain.
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PESTS
Federal and State regulatory agencies conduct
programs:
to control pests already established in the
United Statesboth those which occur na-
tionwide and those that are limited to cer-
tain sections of the country, and
to prevent the entry of more than 1,300
species of foreign pests that are considered
a significant threat.
Detailed information on the many regulated pests
is available from the Public Health Service (PHS),
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and
State regulatory agencies.
Both APHIS and FWS cooperate with State
regulatory agencies in control programs for many
regulated pests. The following are some examples
of current cooperative programs.
Many regulatory programs for control of pests in
animals are not covered by the Federal pesticide
laws. These programs, such as treatment of inter-
nal diseases, have not been included in this
manual. However, control of animal diseases often
involves the use of pesticides to control disease
vectors. A few of those programs are listed here.
Regulatory pest control officials directly involved
in controlling animal disease vectors, such as in-
sects, mites, and ticks, should be familiar with the
information in the USDA/EPA manual for certified
applicators entitled "Agricultural Pest Control
Animal". Officials directly involved in use of dis-
infectants should be familiar with the information in
the USDA/EPA manual for certified applicators en-
titled "Apply Pesticides Correctly: HowTo Use
Antimicrobial Pesticides".
None of the current Public Health Service
regulatory programs are Federal-State cooperative
programs. Regulatory pest control officials directly
involved in controlling pests of public health impor-
tance should consult Federal, State, and local of-
ficials for information on regulated public health
pests in their region. They should also be familiar
with information in the USDA/EPA manual for cer-
tified applicators entitled "Public Health Pest
Control".
All three of these USDA/EPA manuals are avail-
able through State regulatory agencies and State
Extension Services.
Barberry
Certain species of barberry bushes may be in-
fected with the black stem rust, a fungus that
causes a destructive disease that attacks wheat,
oats, barley, rye, and some grasses. The disease
takes food and water from host plants, reducing
yield and quality.
OVERWINTER
ON BARBERRY
LATE SPRING
SPORES 'PRODUCED ON
BARBERRY LEAF INFECT WHEAT
SPORES
PRODUCED
ON STEM OF
WHEAT INFECT
BARBERRY
LATE SUMMER
BLACK STEM RUST OF WHEAT DISEASE CYCLE
The cooperative eradication program in the Mid-
west consists of searching for and destroying rust-
susceptible bushes. This destroys a vital link in the
life cycle of the disease-causing fungus. Federal
and State quarantines regulate the movement of
susceptible species of barberry, preventing reestab-
lishment of bushes in the eradication area. When
an area is considered "barberry free", it is placed
on a maintenance program an informal, periodic
inspection program. More than 97 percent of the
original 1,073,000-square-mile infested area is now
on such a program.
Blackbirds and Starlings
Blackbirds and starlings:
pull winter wheat and early corn sprouts,
consume and contaminate feed at livestock
feedlots,
are suspected to play a role in transmis-
sible gastroenteritis (TGE) in hogs, and
damage fall grain crops.
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Starling
In addition, the organism that causes histoplas-
mosis, a disease of humans, grows in the accumu-
lated droppings from their large winter roosts.
Control efforts to reduce these problems take the
form of chemical and mechanical repellents and
pesticides. The FWS has helped to develop and
implement the use of several avicides.
Boll Weevil
The boll weevil is one of the world's most
destructive insect pests and the major pest of cot-
ton. Estimated cotton losses, plus the cost of the
control work, exceed $300 million annually.
Cpntrol work began in the Big Bend region along
the Texas-Mexico border, and in the El Paso area.
Since then, control programs have been started in
Texas' High Plains in cooperation with the State of
Texas, the Plains Cotton Growers Association, and
Mexico. Pesticides are applied in the fall to kill
weevils before the diapause stage. Good pest man-
agement has increased control effectiveness with
reduced use of pesticides. Methods in use include:
cultural control.
good sanitation,
use of pesticides only when needed, and
use of systemic insecticides in trap crops
near hibernation sites.
Burrowing Nematode
The burrowing nematode is an eelworm that
lives in the soil. It attacks the roots of citrus,
bananas, and many other tropical and subtropical
plants. On citrus, the pest causes a degenerative
disease known as spreading decline. Burrowing in-
to the young rootlets, it feeds and reproduces on
them. Destruction of rootlets causes trees to
decline in vigor, reducing yield and quality of the
fruit.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture joined the
State of Florida in a cooperative control program.
APHIS conducts surveys and makes laboratory
analyses of the root samples collected; the State
handles the control and regulatory work. A co-
operative program has found a few citrus root-
stocks with some resistance to the nematode.
These rootstocks are commercially available.
Cattle Fever Ticks
Cattle fever ticks may spread a severe and often
fatal cattle disease known as cattle tick fever,
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A CATTLE FEVER TICK
20
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southern cattle fever, red water, splenic fever, or
Texas fever. Cattle tick fever caused great losses to
cattlemen each year before the tick was finally
eradicated from the United States.
A Cooperative Federal-State quarantine at the
Mexican border prevents the ticks from entering
the United States on infested cattle or other hosts.
Cattle crossing the border must be free from ticks
and are given a precautionary dipping in an
acaricide. Occasionally, infestations are found out-
side the quarantine zone. These are usually due to
strays, smuggled animals, or movement of infested
animals. These infestations are eradicated by
systematic dipping of cattle and horses in the in-
fested area for a period of 5 to 12 months. A single
dip treatment should kill the ticks on an animal, but
it does not prevent reinfestation by ticks still on the
ground.
Cattle Scabies
Scabies is a contagious skin disease of cattle
which may be caused by several types of mites.
The disease is produced when tiny parasitic mites
Scabies Mite
pierce the animal's skin to feed. A discharge from
the wound oozes onto the surface of the skin and
forms scabs or crusts. The affected areas may also
become infected with bacteria. Cattle with scabies
lick, rub, and scratch themselves to relieve intense
itching. They lose weight and condition. Occa-
sionally, animals die from heavy infestations of
scabies mites.
A cooperative Federal-State eradication program
has eliminated the disease from large sections of
the United States. Outbreaks still occur in South-
western, Western, and Midwestern States. The co-
operative program involves State quarantines of in-
fected feedlots or herds, supported as necessary by
Federal quarantines. Infected or exposed cattle are
dipped or spray-dipped with a miticide to kill the
mites. Each outbreak must be reported and investi-
gated to determine the origin of the infestation and
any possible spread.
Cereal Leaf Beetle
The cereal leaf beetle is a destructive pest of
wheat, oats, barley, and other small grains. Heavy
feeding by the adults and larvae reduces crop
yields and turns the plant yellowish-white.
A cooperative Federal-State program was started
to help prevent spread, suppress populations, and
reduce damage caused by the beetle in heavily in-
fested areas. A Federal quarantine helped prevent
long-range artificial spread. It was revoked, how-
ever, because of the natural spread of the flying in-
sect. The regulatory effort has switched from the
use of pesticides to biological controls. Parasites of
the beetle's egg and larvae tiny wasps known to
attack the beetle in Europe are being reared and
released in infested areas. This is expected to
reduce small grain losses and delay natural spread
of the pest to the west. To detect any spread of
the beetle, biometric surveys are conducted each
year in the major small-grain-producing States west
of the Mississippi River.
Citrus Blackfly
The citrus blackfly is one of the most destructive
pests of citrus. Brief infestations can redi&e citrus
production by as much as 50 percent. Uncontrolled
infestations can cause total crop failure within 2
years.
Federal, Texan, and Mexican regulatory officials
have been jointly fighting a small but stubborn out-
break in the lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas and
adjoining areas of Mexico. They are working to
prevent a wholesale spread of citrus blackfly to this
country. There are quarantines on each side of the
border, and parasites are being released throughout
the infested area of Texas and Mexico. Insecticides
are used on any outbreak of citrus blackfly in the
United States. Intensive surveys are conducted an-
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nually in the citrus areas of both nations to detect
any new infestations. Parasites have recently been
released in Florida to eradicate small infestations
there.
Equine Infectious Anemia
Equine infectious anemia (EIA), or swamp fever,
is an infectious viral disease of horses, mules, and
asses. The disease may be spread directly from
animal to animal or through biting flies, biting lice,
and mosquitoes. EIA has been reported in all sec-
tions of the United States. In 1976, more than
10,000 confirmed cases were reported. Control or
eradication of the disease is now possible through:
a specific test for the disease,
quarantine and disposal of infected
animals, and
rigorous vector control.
A cooperative Federal-State regulatory program
has been started to test horses, mules, and asses
for the disease and to promote vector control in
stables and pastures.
Giant African Snail
The giant African snail is a destructive agricul-
tural and "suburban" pest. It damages crops,
lawns, and ornamentals. In addition, it leaves un-
sightly slime trails and is a health hazard. In
Hawaii, damage to crops and ornamentals and
control work by homeowners amount to hundreds
of thousands of dollars each year. An outbreak of
the snail in Florida has been declared eradicated.
Infested and adjacent properties were cleared of
debris and treated with a molluscicide bait. Federal
and Floridian regulatory officials conduct biometric
surveys to detect any spread of the pest.
Golden Nematode
The golden nematode is one of the world's most
damaging pests of potatoes. It also attacks
tomatoes and eggplants. This tiny eelworm attacks
plant roots, depriving them of food and water.
Heavy infestations can reduce crop yields as much
as 60 percent or more.
Since the pest was first discovered on Long
Island, many infestations have been eradicated.
Regulatory officials from New York State and
APHIS are cooperating in an eradication program
in the remaining areas of infestation. Much of the
affected acreage has been removed from agricul-
tural production through housing developments;
the remainder has either been chemically treated or
taken out of potato production (planted to nonhost
crops).
A resistant variety of potato is showing promise
in reduction of this pest. Chemical treatment is by
soil fumigation, since the unhatched nematode is
protected by both the shell of the egg and the
tough, leathery cyst of the female. Two or three
treatments are necessary to kill all the nematodes
in the area. Biometric surveys are carried out in all
major potato-growing areas of the United States to
detect any infestations of the nematode. Recent
outbreaks in several upstate New York counties
have been detected and are being treated.
Grasshoppers
The grasshopper is one of the few native pests
subject to a regulatory control program. Grasshop-
pers are found throughout the United States, but
usually are major pests only in the Midwestern and
Western States. During serious outbreaks, they
can completely devastate range and cropland.
Annual surveys throughout the Midwestern and
Western States are used to evaluate grasshopper
infestations. The results are distributed to farmers,
ranchers, State officials, and other agricultural
workers.
When outbreaks threaten rangeland, Federal
regulatory officials join interested States in large-
scale cooperative programs to suppress the grass-
hopper population. Aerial applications of insecti-
cides are the main control method. In general, ultra
low volume (ULV) insecticide sprays give the most
satisfactory results.
Cultural control practices are a good supplement
to the chemical control program in cropland areas.
Working the soil in late fall or early spring helps to
reduce grasshopper hatch. Altering planting date
timing and sowing less susceptible crops are also
22
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important when large outbreaks are predicted.
Natural biological controls can also be used.
Some of the more important natural enemies of
grasshoppers include: blister beetles, ground
beetles, spiders, rodents, birds, and bacterial and
fungal diseases.
Gypsy Moth
The gypsy moth is a highly destructive pest of
forest and ornamental trees. Damage is caused by
the caterpillars (larvae) feeding on leaves. Repeated
loss of leaves can kill hardwood trees; some soft-
woods do not survive a single attack. Weakened
trees are subject to secondary attack by diseases
and other insects.
For many years, Federal-State quarantine and
control activities kept moths confined to New
England, New York, and Pennsylvania. An eradica-
tion program was started in the infested area but
was stopped because of pesticide residue prob-
lems.
The gypsy moth has been spreading rapidly and
is now established throughout the Northeast.
Small, isolated outbreaks have been found in other
States. Recreational vehicles and mobile homes
have been pinpointed as an important source of
long-distance spread.
The present cooperative program consists mainly
of:
enforcement of Federal-State quarantines,
control work at infested campgrounds and
mobile home parks to minimize artificial
spread,
use of biological control (especially
parasites, predators, and disease agents) in
infested areas,
use of chemical controls to suppress or
eradicate new infestations, and
nationwide surveys to detect spread into
uninfested areas.
Hog Cholera
Hog cholera is an infectious, contagious viral
disease that affects swine only. Before the United
States eradication program was begun in 1962, hog
cholera cost the swine industry $50 million an-
nually.
The cooperative Federal-State eradication pro-
gram is based on:
locating disease outbreaks through a
detection and reporting system,
containing the disease with State and
Federal quarantines, and
eliminating the virus by destroying infected
and exposed swine herds.
One purpose of the quarantine is to control
possible vectors of the virus. Suspected vectors are
house flies, stable flies, and horse flies. Vector
control techniques include cultural practices and
sanitation programs as well as intensive insecticide
use. Hog cholera is believed to have been eradi-
cated from the United States as of 1977. However,
the FederaJ-Sta'te cooperative program continues to
survey intensively for new outbreaks.
Imported Fire Ant
The imported fire ant is a small, aggressive in-
sect. When disturbed, it is quick to attack both
people and animals. Its painful, burning sting
causes blisters that take as long as 10 days to heal
and may develop infection. The ants' large mounds
or nests (as high as 3 feet and an equal distance
across) interfere with farming and ranching in rural
areas and with use and maintenance of property in
urban and suburban locations.
The cooperative program between infested
Southeastern States and APHIS consists of:
survey,
control,
quarantine, and
monitoring activities.
A specially developed bait, containing an insec-
ticide, is used to kill the ants. It is usually applied
by aircraft in spring and fall treatments. Federal
regulatory officials join in control activities only
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after State or local agencies request assistance.
Treatment programs are carefully planned to
achieve control without treating estuaries, wildlife
refuges, and other sensitive areas. To further pro-
tect the environment, monitoring is an integral part
of this pest control program. After each treatment,
samples are collected from selected sites and
analyzed for the presence of insecticide residues.
This program may be altered soon because of
possible registration restrictions imposed on the in-
secticide bait currently in use.
Fluctuations in pest numbers and other factors may
alter the regulatory control program for this pest.
Khapra Beetle
The khapra beetle is one of the world's most
destructive pests of stored grain. When left undis-
turbed, an infestation can multiply rapidly and
destroy an entire warehouse of grain.
Japanese Beetle
The Japanese beetle is a destructive lawn,
garden, and agricultural pest. Adults feed on more
than 275 kinds of plants, including grapes,
peaches, apples, soybeans, and many ornamentals.
JUNE | JULY | AUG. | SEPT. ! OCT.
BEETLES FEED ON FOLIAGE AND FRLJI
Life Cycle of the Japanese Beetle
The grubs (larvae) do extensive damage to turf in
pastures, lawns, and golf courses. The infestation
is limited mainly to States east of the Mississippi
River. Isolated outbreaks have been discovered and
eradicated in the Western States.
Control involves:
eradicating isolated infestations, and
preventing artificial spread of the beetle.
Infestations near commercial and military airports
are treated (as necessary) to prevent beetles from
"hitchhiking" on departing aircraft.
Control of the Japanese beetle can be accom-
plished by:
applying chemical insecticides to the soil to
kill the grubs,
applying insecticidal sprays to foliage and
other vegetation to suppress adult beetle
populations, and
applying biological agents such as milky
spore disease to the soil to control the
grubs.
All known infestations of the khapra beetle in the
United States have been eradicated. No other
country has ever eradicated khapra beetles after
the pest became established. Eradication involved:
extremely close cooperation among
APHIS, the affected States, and Mexico,
and
development of new ways to fumigate
grain storage facilities.
Control measures used against other storage
pests are not effective against the khapra beetle.
The larvae crawl into cracks and crevices and other
protected places in infested structures, making
them impossible to reach with space sprays. Only
fumigants capable of deep penetration can combat
the beetle. The dosages of these fumigants must
be higher than amounts commonly used for grain
sanitation.
A Federal-State-Mexican cooperative program
conducts yearly surveys to detect any infestations
of the pest. Special attention is given at ports-of-
entry to shipments of imported grain products and
other commodities that might harbor the beetle.
Mediterranean Fruit Fly
The Mediterranean fruit fly is a voracious pest,
attacking more than 200 kinds of fruits and vegeta-
bles. Heavy infestations can result in complete crop
loss. "Medfly" has been found in the United States
on several occasions. Each time, it has been
eradicated.
Intensive surveys are conducted annually in high-
risk areas principally Florida, California, Arizona,
and Texas. When an infestation is found, an inten-
24
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sive eradication program begins immediately. The
control is usually an insecticide applied aerially or,
in some cases, with ground equipment. Low
volume concentrates or wettable powders are the
formulations most often used. Aerial applications
help maintain the treatment schedule, especially
when large acreages are involved. Aerial applica-
tions may not be appropriate in urban areas. Sterile
flies have recently been used to eradicate isolated
Medfly infestations.
Mexican Fruit Fly
The Mexican fruit fly attacks citrus and other
fruits. Larvae feed in the fruit, making it unfit for
humans to eat. Heavy infestations can totally ruin a
crop. The fly invades from Mexico and is found
each year in the lower Rio Grande Valley.
areas. They also supervise the fumigation of fruit
for export to the United States.
Intensive surveys are maintained in Texas and
California to detect fruit flies which may enter on
contraband fruit. When the first fly is trapped, a
control program begins in that area. In Baja Califor-
nia, large-scale releases of sterile male flies are
made each year to prevent establishment of the
pest in the United States.
Mormon Cricket
The Mormon cricket is another native pest sub-
ject to a suppression program. This large, wingless,
long-horned grasshopper is a serious pest of range
and cropland in 16 Midwestern and Western
States. It attacks more than 250 species of range
plants and all cultivated crops.
The cooperative Federal-State program is design-
ed to keep cricket populations at a nondamaging
level. All known infested areas are observed close-
ly. At the first sign of population buildup, control
work begins.
Mormon crickets can be most effectively con-
trolled during migration. If the crickets migrate in
bands, they should be controlled. Control work
should begin soon after the crickets begin to
migrate from the breeding areas. It should be com-
pleted before the females begin laying eggs.
Chemical controls are usually baits or sprays ap-
plied by air or ground equipment.-
A Federal quarantine helps to prevent spread
from the Valley to noninfested areas of the United
States. Fruit moving to citrus-producing areas from
the quarantined areas in Texas must first be
fumigated.
In Mexico, U.S. regulatory personnel help main-
tain road stations to intercept rail or automotive
shipments of infested fruit moving north to border
Pink Bollworm
Pink bollworm larvae feed on cotton bolls, reduc-
ing yields and quality of lint, seed, and oil. Heavy
infestations can result in complete loss of a crop.
The overwintering larvae hibernate within the seed
and in old bolls left in the field, sometimes web-
bing in debris, soil cracks, etc. The pink bollworm
has become established in the Southwestern
United States and eastward to Texas and Loui-
siana. Much of the U.S. cotton crop still has not
been infested.
Federal and State quarantines help prevent artifi-
cial spread of the pest. Surveys in noninfested cot-
ton areas detect any extension of the generally in-
25
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tested area and locate new infestations as soon as
possible. Cultural controls, when properly carried
out, are an effective and frequently used way to
reduce or eliminate infestations. Planting dates
should be as late as possible and harvest dates
should be as early as possible. Stalks should be
shredded and fields should be plowed to a depth of
at least 6 inches before the pest has gone into its
overwintering stage. Insecticide sprays may be
used to supplement the cultural control program.
Sterile male moths are being released in some
areas to prevent establishment of bollworm popula-
tions.
Predators
Large predators, especially coyotes, can cause
high losses to livestock. The FWS, working
through cooperative State programs, is attempting
to reduce damage levels. Control is aimed at reduc-
ing damage and not at eliminating predators. Inte-
grated pest management methods used in these
programs include trapping, M-44's, and aerial
gunning.
Screwworms
Screwworms are the larvae (maggots) of the
screwworm fly. They are a serious pest of warm-
blooded animalslivestock, pets, wildlife, and even
humans. They closely resemble common blowfly
maggots. But unlike blowfly maggotswhich feed
on dead or diseased tissuescrewworms consume
the healthy flesh of the warmblooded animals they
infest. They can seriously injure, maim, or kill in-
fested animals. The larvae grow from nearly micro-
scopic size to about one-half inch in length, and in
the process greatly enlarge the wound. Screw-
worms caused great damage to livestock before
they were eradicated from the United States.
The Federal-State cooperative control program is
based on the release of millions of sexually steril-
ized screwworm flies into infested and barrier
zones. When native fertile flies mate with sterile
flies, they lay eggs that do not hatch. Thus,
screwworm populations drop with each generation
until eradication is achieved. The continuous
release of sterile flies throughout the United States-
Mexico border area creates a barrier zone against
migrating screwworm flies which might reinfest the
United States.
Sea Lampreys
Control of predatory sea lampreys is vital to
reestablishing and maintaining valuable fish stocks
in the Great Lakes. The objective of the control
program is to suppress sea lamprey abundance to a
level where they will not limit restoration of an op-
timum fishery.
The FWS destroys larval sea lamprey through
periodic applications of selective pesticides to
streams where they spawn. The FWS operates
electric weirs (trapping devices) on eight Lake
Superior streams to assess annual changes in the
abundance of sea lamprey.
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) or horse
sleeping sickness is a viral disease carried by mos-
quitoes and other bloodsucking pests. VEE is fatal
to about 60 percent of all infected horses, mules,
and related animals. Other warmblooded animals,
including humans, are subject to low-grade infec-
tion. VEE is rarely fatal to humans.
VEE invaded the United States in the summer of
1971, crossing the U.S.-Mexican border into
southern Texas. A cooperative Federal-State pro-
gram brought the outbreak under control. The pro-
gram consisted of quarantines, mass vaccination of
horses, and pesticide applications to control mos-
quitoes and other vectors. The disease was
eradicated late in 1971. A cooperative Federal-State
program continues intensive surveillance to detect
any outbreaks of VEE. The control of this disease
is under the jurisdiction of both animal and public
health regulatory officials.
West Indian Sugarcane Root
Borer
The West Indian sugarcane root borer is a
destructive pest of citrus and sugarcane. It also at-
tacks many other commercial crops including seed
corn, sweet potatoes, cotton, and peppers. Both
adults and larvae of the pest damage citrus trees.
Adults (beetles) feed on tender, young foliage. Lar-
vae (grubs) girdle trees, tunnel into roots, and feed
on rootlets. Larval damage can kill trees.
Federal regulatory officials and the State of
Florida are cooperating in a program to prevent
spread of the borer and reduce its damage. The
work includes:
State quarantines to regulate the move-
ment of articles that might spread the pest,
surveys to detect any new outbreaks or
spread, and
soil and foliage insecticide treatments in
citrus groves to kill the larvae and beetles.
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Fluctuation in pest numbers and other factors may
alter the regulatory control program for this pest.
Witchweed
Witchweed is a parasitic seed plant that attacks
the roots of corn, sorghum, sugarcane, and many
other crops of the grass family. Heavy infestations
can cause severe damage. This pest was first
discovered in the United States in adjoining areas
of North and South Carolina. A cooperative
Federal-State control program has successfully
confined it to those two States.
Under the program, Federal and State quaran-
tines regulate the movement of articles that might
spread the pest. Post-emergence applications of
herbicides are made each season to keep witch-
weed plants from producing seed. Biometric and
mail surveys in noninfested areas help detect
unknown infestations.
The newest control technique involves injecting
ethylene gas below the soil surface. The gas trig-
gers germination of about 90 percent of the witch-
weed seeds. The resulting plants are destroyed in
one of two ways:
host plants are removed before treatment
so the weed seedlings die from lack of
food and water, or
herbicides are used to kill the weeds before
they produce seeds.
Recent advances in control technology, including
a highly selective experimental herbicide, have
made it feasible to start a witchweed eradication
program.
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OU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1978 720-335/6113 1-3
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