vxEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region II
Final Report
December 1992
Characterization
of Use Impairments of the
U.S. Virgin Islands and
Puerto Rico
Prepared for:
Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
ISLA
DESECHEO'
ISLA
MONA
ISLADE
CULEBRA
PUERTO RICO
ST. THOMAS
ST. JOHN
ISLADE
VIEQUES
ISLA CAJA
DE MUERTOS
ST. CROIX
-------
vxEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region II
Final Report
December 1992
Characterization
of Use Impairments of the
U.S. Virgin Islands and
Puerto Rico
Prepared for:
Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
ISLA
MONA
ISLA DE
CULEBRA
PUERTO RICO
ST. THOMAS
ISLA DE
VIEQUES
ISLA CAJA
DE MUERTOS
ST. JOHN
ST. CROIX
-------
FINAL REPORT
CHARACTERIZATION OF USE IMPAIRMENTS
OF THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS AND PUERTO RICO
Prepared for:
Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
Prepared by:
Tetra Tech, Inc.
10306 Eaton Place, Suite 340
Fairfax, VA 22030
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CONTENTS
Section Page
Tables vii
Figures ix
Acknowledgments xiii
Executive Summary xv
1. Introduction 1-1
1.1 Background Information 1-1
1.2 Purpose and Objective 1-1
1.3 Technical Approach 1-2
2. Physical Setting 2-1
2.1 Coastal Features, Climate, and Oceanographic Data 2-3
2.1.1 Puerto Rico 2-3
2.1.2 U.S. Virgin Islands 2-8
2.2 Ecological Habitats 2-10
2.2.1 Puerto Rico 2-13
2.2.2 U.S. Virgin Islands 2-21
2.3 Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Species 2-27
2.3.1 Wildlife 2-27
2.3.2 Fish and Shellfish 2-27
2.4 Land Use and Demographics 2-30
2.4.1 Land Use 2-30
2.4.2 Population 2-36
2.4.3 Economy 2-37
3. Sources of Marine and Estuarine Pollution 3-1
3.1 Point Source Pollution 3-3
in
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CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
3.2 Nonpoint Source Pollution 3-11
3.2.1 Stormwater and Agricultural Runoff 3-11
3.2.2 Discharges from Boating Vessels 3-12
4. Levels of Marine and Estuarine Pollution 4-1
4.1 Toxics 4-1
4.1.1 Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico 4-1
4.1.2 Sediments of Puerto Rico 4-9
4.1.3 U.S. Virgin Islands Data 4-10
4.1.4 Toxics in Edible Fish Tissue 4-11
4.2 Biological Pathogens and Biotoxins 4-13
4.2.1 Human Pathogens in the Marine and Estuarine Environment 4-13
4.2.2 Human Pathogens in Seafood 4-16
4.2.3 Biotoxins in Seafood 4-17
4.2.4 Diseases in Marine and Estuarine Organisms 4-18
4.3 Nutrients 4-20
4.3.1 Nutrient Loading from Point Sources 4-21
4.3.2 Nutrient Loading from Nonpoint Sources 4-22
4.4 Sediments 4-25
4.4.1 Sediment Loading from Point Sources 4-27
4.4.2 Sediment Loading from Nonpoint Sources 4-30
4.5 Thermal Pollution 4-30
5. Evaluation of Use Impairments 5-1
5.1 Damage to Ecological Health and Productivity 5-1
5.1.1 Impact Due to Nutrients 5-4
5.1.2 Impact Due to Sediments 5-5
5.1.3 Impact Due to Thermal Pollution 5-7
5.1.4 Impact Due to Boating 5-10
IV
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CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
5.2 Damage to Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and
Shellfish Populations 5-11
5.2.1 Impacts to Fish and Shellfish Populations 5-11
5.2.2 Impacts to Wildlife Populations 5-20
5.3 Impacts to Recreational and Commercial Use 5-27
5.3.1 Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish 5-27
5.3.2 Swimming 5-38
5.3.3 Hazards to Commercial Navigation and Recreational Boating 5-45
5.3.4 Aesthetics 5-46
5.4 Economic Impacts Due to Use Impairments 5-50
5.4.1 Estuarine and Marine Habitats 5-51
5.4.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Populations 5-51
5.4.3 Boating Industry 5-52
5.4.4 Swimming, Fishing, and Beach Closures 5-52
5.4.5 Conclusions 5-53
6. Conclusions 6-1
6.1 Summary of Evaluations 6-1
6.2 Ecological Habitat Health and Productivity 6-3
6.3 Fish and Wildlife Populations 6-4
6.4 Health Effects Related to the Ingestion of Contaminated Fish/Shellfish 6-4
6.5 Swimming 6-4
6.6 Boating 6-5
6.7 Aesthetic Enjoyment 6-5
6.8 Recommendations 6-5
7. References 7-1
Appendix A - Annotated Bibliography A-l
Appendix B - Profiles of Organizations B-l
Appendix C Wildlife Critical Habitats C-l
Appendix D - 304(1) Report for Puerto Rico D-l
Appendix E Photographs of Pollution Problems E-l
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VI
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TABLES
mber Page
1. Summary of Major Hurricanes and Tropical Storms Passing Over or Near Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands ....................................... 2-2
-2. Physical Data on Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands .................... 2-4
1-3. Areal Coverage of Mangrove Forest in Puerto Rico ....................... 2-18
2-4. Fish and Invertebrates of Commercial Importance in the U.S. Virgin Islands and
Puerto Rico ................................................ 2-31
2-5. Leading Crops Acreage, Production Data and Market Value in 1982 ............ 2-33
2-6. Use of Land in Puerto Rico in 1958 and 1967 .......................... 2-35
2-7. U.S. Virgin Islands Population, by Place of Birth and Year and Immigration (1980) . . . 2-37
2-8. Population and Median Age, by Area and Sex: 1960 to 1980 ................. 2-38
2-9. Estimates of Population Change: 1970 to 1990 .......................... 2-38
2-10. Principal Industries and Economic Factors ............................. 2-39
2-11. Source's of Puerto Rico's Income, 1984 .............................. 2-40
2-12. Agriculture in Puerto Rico: 1982-1987 ............................... 2-41
2-13. Agriculture in the U.S. Virgin Islands: 1982-1987 ....................... 2-42
2-14. Puerto Rico's Employment, 1982 .................................. 2-42
3-1. Sources of Coastal Wastewater Discharges in Puerto Rico .................... 3-6
3-2. Summary of Coastal Wastewater Discharges in the U.S. Virgin Islands ............ 3-8
4-1. Summary of the Number of Toxic Compounds Having Available STORET Data Sets for
Toxics in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1985-1991 ................ 4-2
4-2. Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 1 ...................................
4-3. Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 2 ................................... 4-5
vn
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TABLES (CONTINUED)
Number Page
4-4. Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 3 4-6
4-5. Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 4 4-7
4-6. Toxics Found in the U.S. Virgin Islands 4-12
4-7. Human Pathogens Likely to Be Associated with Sewage Sludge 4-14
4-8. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico Region 1 4-21
4-9. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico Region 2 4-22
4-10. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico Region 3 4-23
4-11. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 4 4-24
4-12. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. Croix 4-25
4-13. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. John 4-26
4-14. Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. Thomas 4-27
4-15. Summary of Nutrient Loading from Coastal and Municipal Sources 4-28
4-16. Summary of Nutrient Loading from Rivers to Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico 4-29
4-17. Summary of Sediment Loading from Rivers to Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico 4-31
5-1. Microbial, Infectious, and Biotoxigenic Diseases Transmitted by the Ingestion of
Fish and Swimming 5.29
5-2. Exposure Parameter Values Used to Estimate Exposure to Subsistence and
Recreational Fishermen from Ingestion of Fish 5-38
5-3. Potential Noncarcinogenic Hazards Associated with Ingestion of Mercury-Contaminated
Fish by Subsistence and Recreational Fishermen Along the Coast of Puerto Rico 5-39
viii
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 - Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico xvii
2. Support Status of Waterbodies of the U.S. Virgin Islands xvii
1-1. Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands Base Map 1-4
2-1. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in Puerto Rico 2-15
2-2. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 1 of Puerto Rico . . . 2-16
2-3. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 2 of Puerto Rico . . . 2-19
2-4. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 3 of Puerto Rico . . . 2-19
2-5. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 4 of Puerto Rico . . . 2-21
2-6. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands 2-22
2-7. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. Croix 2-23
2-8. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. John 2-25
2-9. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. Thomas 2-26
2-10. Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of Puerto Rico 2-28
2-11. Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of the U.S. Virgin Islands .... 2-29
3-1. Sources of Point and Nonpoint Pollution Along Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico 3-2
3-2. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from Puerto Rico's 304(1) Report 3-4
3-3. NPDES Outfall Locations Which Impact Waterbodies 3-5
3-4. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from the Virgin Islands 304(1) Short List Report . . . 3-10
3-5. Oil Spill Sites 3-13
5-1. Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico 5-2
5-2. Support Status of Waterbodies of U.S. Virgin Islands 5-3
IX
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Number Page
5-3. Support Status of Recreational Fishing Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico 5-13
5-4. Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in Puerto Rico Potentially Due to Marine Pollution . . 5-14
5-5. Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in the U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Due
to Marine Pollution 5-15
5-6. Exceedances of Mercury Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic
Life 5-16
5-7. Exceedances of Copper Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life 5-16
5-8. Exceedances of Aluminum Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic
Life 5-17
5-9. Exceedances of Cyanide Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life 5-17
5-10. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Acute AWQCs and Commonwealth Standards for the
Protection of Aquatic Life for Silver, Zinc, Dissolved Oxygen, and pH 5-18
5-11. Localized Exceedances of Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
for Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, Lead, and Nickel 5-18
5-12. Wildlife Critical Habitats in Puerto Rico Potentially Degraded by Marine Pollution . . . 5-22
5-13. Wildlife Critical Habitats in U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Degraded by Marine
Pollution 5-25
5-14. Distribution Percentage of Contaminated and Commercially Important Fish Species
Associated with Ciguatera in Puerto Rico 1980-1991 5-31
5-15. Total Number of Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico from 1980-1990 5-32
5-16. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Shellfish Harvesting 5-33
5-17. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Shellfish 5.33
5-18. Puerto Rico Exceedances of AWQCs for Ingestion of Fish for Mercury and Thallium . . 5-36
5-19. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming 5-41
5-20. Support Status of Recreational Swimming Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico 5-42
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Numher Page
5-21. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming 5-44
5-22. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact of Water . . . 5-47
5-23. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental
Contact of Water 5-48
6-1. Coastal Areas Degraded from Anthropogenically Produced Pollution 6-2
XI
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XII
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This document was prepared under Environmental Protection Agency contract no. 68-C1-0008 to Tetra
Tech, Inc., under the direction of Robert M. Nyman, Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch, Region
n. We thank all of the many people (too many to list individually) who contributed to this project by
providing literature, published and unpublished data and reports, information on organizations, and
contacts and by reviewing earlier drafts.
xni
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XIV
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This project was conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop an accurate
assessment of the environmental conditions of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Specifically, the
purpose of the project was to characterize the use impairments present in the coastal waters and adjacent
land areas due to environmental changes and to identify the cause of the impairments. Habitats of
concern in the area extended from the outer boundary of the Exclusive Economic Zone to the head of tide
in the estuaries, including the back bays, lagoons, and wetland areas. Water quality and aquatic habitats
surrounding the coasts of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are threatened by a variety of
anthropogenically produced impacts. The destruction of these habitats could result in degradation of
adjacent habitats because of the complex interactions occurring between the marine and terrestrial
ecosystems. Furthermore, damaged ecosystems ultimately affect human health and economic
development. To effectively evaluate the causes of the pollution and its effects on the environment, the
available data were categorized into three components: Sources of Marine and Estuarine Pollution, Levels
of Marine and Estuarine Pollution, and Evaluation of Use Impairments.
The sources and types of marine and estuarine pollution addressed in this report included: (1) point
sources, such as the discharge of treated and partially treated effluents into coastal waters by municipal,
industrial, and power-generating facilities (via distinct pipes) and (2) nonpoint sources, such as residential,
urban, and industrialized stormwater runoff; agricultural runoff; and releases from vessels (e.g., oil
spills). The effects of thermal pollution, sedimentation, biological pathogens, and nutrient enrichment
were also found to be important sources of anthropogenic stress affecting coastal ecosystems in these
islands. Anthropogenic pollution has been significantly increasing since 1965. Over 85 percent of marine
pollution is derived from land-based sources. Because the currents around these islands are generally
weak, pollutants are not easily flushed away, which can compound the problem.
Over one-half of the waterbodies listed in the reports required under § 305(b) of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act of 1972 and amendments) for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands were degraded because of poorly treated wastewater being discharged from inadequate
sewer/water treatment systems. Such systems have become the major point source problem in the
Caribbean. Another factor contributing to the degradation has been urban and industrial stormwater
runoff. Many of the waterbodies near major Puerto Rican coastal cities have been impaired. For
agricultural lands, the primary nonpoint source pollutants are nutrients, sediments, animal waste, salts,
pesticides, and herbicides. Over 40 waterbodies listed in Puerto Rico's report required under § 304(1)
of the Clean Water Act were listed as being impaired by runoff from agricultural lands.
Several types of marine and estuarine pollution were identified, including toxics, biological pathogens,
nutrients, sedimentation, and thermal pollution. Toxic chemicals of concern included heavy metals,
organics, various pesticides such as DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Key pollutants of concern for the islands were identified by analyzing statistically
summarized data retrieved from EPA's Storage and Retrieval System (STORET) and comparing them
with Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs) and sediment criteria derived from AWQCs. The
selected nutrients and priority pollutants of concern included total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen,
ammonia, nitrate and nitrite, dissolved oxygen, pH, methylene chloride, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate,
aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, cyanide, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium,
silver, thallium, and zinc. Methylene chloride, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, and phenols were the only
organic chemicals detected at significant concentrations above 1 microgram per liter (/xg/L). The highest
levels of these chemicals were detected near San Juan Harbor. In addition, several other organic
XV
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chemicals, including a number of pesticides, were detected at relatively low levels in surface waters and
sediments around the coast of Puerto Rico. Elevated levels of heavy metals, particularly aluminum,
copper, cyanide, and mercury, were also detected rather frequently in the marine and estuarine waters
of Puerto Rico.
Additional data were obtained from the Waterbody System (WBS), 305(b) reports for Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Island, the Toxics Release Inventory System (TRIS), the Permit Compliance System
(PCS), and scientific reports from researchers and agencies. Most of the data found and evaluated were
from Puerto Rico; no recent organic or heavy metal monitoring data were available for characterizing the
water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Impairments to the marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from
pollution were evaluated by determining the losses incurred by specific designated uses: ecological
habitats, fish and wildlife populations, consumption of fish/shellfish, swimming, boating, and aesthetic
enjoyment of the islands. Statistical summaries of the support status of the major waterbodies of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, obtained from the WBS and the 1990 305(b) reports, are presented in
Figures 1 and 2. A significant percentage of the waterbodies are only partially supporting their
designated uses. Puerto Rico's 1990 305(b) report identified over 100 impaired waterbodies, and the
U.S. Virgin Islands' 1990 305(b) report identified 23 impaired waterbodies. Major cities of Puerto Rico
whose coastal waters have been impacted as a result of anthropogenically produced pollution include San
Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanica, Arecibo, Aguadilla, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez.
In the U.S. Virgin Islands, coastal waters around Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor, and Cruz
Bay have been impaired.
Impairments to Ecological Habitats
The effects of nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, thermal pollution, and boating on the ecological
habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were evaluated. Nutrient enrichment is primarily a
concern for the health of coral reefs because excessive nutrients can cause algal blooms, which can be
detrimental to the corals. Poorly treated sewage, increased turbidity, poorly planned development,
sediment runoff, and hurricanes have destroyed seagrass beds throughout vast expanses in Puerto Rico
and surrounding islands. Increased sedimentation in coastal areas due to land development, however, is
the primary cause of coral reef and seagrass bed degradation in the Caribbean. Such degradation is also
the result of direct excavation or burial during dredging operations as well as anchor damage.
Differences in percent of live coral cover between coral reefs of La Parguera-Lajas and coral reefs in the
vicinity of Bahia de Ponce were attributed to the resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin
at the latter site. Sediment discharges from Rio Gunajibo and Rio Yaguez have also decreased percent
live coral cover on the western portions of the Escolla Negro reefs. Temperatures of 4 to 6 °C above
ambient levels have been found at specific sites around the islands as a result of thermal effluents from
power facilities. Tropical marine and estuarine organisms on mangrove-root communities and coral reefs
are sensitive to such elevated water temperatures. Thermal effluents in waters with temperatures 4 to 6°C
above ambient levels have been lethal to corals. Finally, negligent boating practices have caused
significant physical damage to various ecological habitats, primarily coral reefs and seagrass beds,
because of physical abrasions caused by boats, boat propellers, and anchors.
XVI
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Classification
goals supported
58%
31% Classification
goals supported
Classification goals
partially supported
42%
Classification goals
partially supported
69%
Classification goals
partially supported
87%
LAKES AND
LAGOONS
Classification
goals supported
13%
ESTUARIES
Figure 1. Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
Classification
goals not
supported
2.4%
64.6%
Classification
goals
supported
Classification
goals
threatened
13%
Classification goals
partially supported
20%
ESTUARIES,
HARBORS AND BAYS
Classification goals
partially supported
69.5%
3QO/ Classification goals
.O/O.
not supported
7.4%
Classification goals
threatened
88.8%
Classification
goals
supported
12.2%
Classification
goals
threatened
12.2%
Classification goals
not supported
6.1 %
Classification
goals
supported
Figure 2. Support Status of Waterbodies of the U.S. Virgin Islands
xvii
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Impairments to Fish and Wildlife Populations
Fishery landings have been decreasing in recent years in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in both
catch per unit effort and size of the individual species. Although a large percentage of the fish stock
depletion is due to overfishing, it is believed that the effects of pollution on nursery grounds and on the
species population are contributing to the low catches seen in the area. Major marine ecological
disturbances (MMEDs), have been occurring frequently throughout the Caribbean since the 1980s,
possibly because of the increased stress placed on the environment by pollution.
Maps were generated that illustrate areas of potential concern based on a comparison between ambient
levels of priority pollutants along the coastal areas of Puerto Rico (no data were available for the U. S.
Virgin Islands) and AWQCs for marine life. The following priority pollutants exceeded the acute
AWQCs in at least one sample station in the coastal regions of Puerto Rico: mercury, copper, aluminum,
cyanide, silver, and zinc. In addition, nickel, lead, and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exceeded chronic
AWQCs.
Development is one of the major problems facing critical coastal wildlife habitats. Impacts from
industrial, recreational, agricultural, and housing developments constructed in the surrounding coastal
regions are prevalent in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Of the 74 critical coastal wildlife areas
originally listed for Puerto Rico, 12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded by anthropogenically produced
pollution and may require monitoring or mitigation to improve the ecosystem. Twenty-three critical
coastal wildlife areas were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands, and over one-half of these habitats were
listed as being stressed by anthropogenic pollution.
Impairments to Recreational and Commercial Uses of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands
Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish. Several chemicals present in the ambient water along the
coast of Puerto Rico (no data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands) have the ability to bioaccumulate
in fish tissue. Water quality monitoring data were used to evaluate the potential risk associated with the
ingestion of fish or shellfish from the coastal regions. Mercury and thallium were the only two pollutants
that exceeded the AWQCs for fish ingestion. In isolated locations, the estimated risk associated with
ingestion of mercury-contaminated fish exceeded the acceptable level for subsistence fishermen by a factor
of 10,000 and for recreational fishermen by a factor of 1,000. The problems due to mercury
contamination in Puerto Rico are consistent with those in the United States, where over 70 percent of all
fish advisories are based on mercury contamination. In addition, levels of thallium slightly exceeded the
AWQCs for ingestion of fish in the San Juan Harbor area.
Ciguatera, a poisoning caused by the consumption of fish containing a potent biotoxin, has been
increasing in the Caribbean. An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Tosteson 1990). The incidence of fish poisoning due to
ciguatera has increased by at least 10 reported cases per 10,000 residents per year since the late 1970s.
This problem affects both the human population and the fishing industry and may be related to adverse
changes in environmental conditions.
Swimming. Other human health problems of concern in these islands are infectious diseases that may
he contracted while swimming in waters polluted by improperly treated sewage. Areas where levels of
fecal coliform bacteria in coastal waters exceeded the swimming criteria in Puerto Rico included San
Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez. Coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands
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where the fecal coliform criteria were exceeded included Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor,
Gallows Bay, Fisherman's dock, Salt River Marina, Buccaneer Beach, and Cruz Bay. Numerous coastal
locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded the fecal coliform standards by factors ranging
from 10 times the standard to 1000 times the standard (e.g., Christiansted Harbor). Numerous beach
closings attributed to pathogen problems have occurred in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Boating. Pathogens released by sewage effluents from boats within marinas are of concern to the islands'
boating industry, in addition to floatables, oil pollution, and sedimentation of channels through runoff.
Floatables, such as plastic containers and garbage bags, have been a persistent problem in San Jose
lagoon, ultimately impeding boat traffic throughout the lagoon. A few boating waterways have also been
impacted by sedimentation, especially Christiansted Harbor and Gallows Bay.
Aesthetic Enjoyment of the Islands. Although evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands is difficult because of the subjective nature of aesthetics, increased
anthropogenic pollution has probably resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands. Specific
pollution problems of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands identified during this study that may
reduce aesthetic enjoyment include improperly disposed solid waste generated by residents and industry,
such as empty containers and debris; abandoned cars and boats; oil spills; unpleasant odors from
effluents; and raw sewage in surface water.
Corrective Actions and Additional Studies
The economies of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico are based on tourism. In 1991, the visitor
expenditure in the U.S. Virgin Islands was $708,100,000 and the visitor expenditure in Puerto Rico was
$1,390,800,000 (CTO 1991). Any interruption of tourism has the potential to severely disrupt the
functioning of the island economies by creating unemployment and lowering property values, in addition
to lost tourism revenue. Economic expenditures related to use impairments of estuarine and marine
habitats are based on tourist-derived income that may be adversely affected not only by the loss of
aesthetically pleasing vistas such as beaches and coral reefs but also by other factors. Reduced
recreational and commercial species populations resulting from exposure to biotic and abiotic diseases
leads to limited human consumption of seafood and losses to the fishing industry. Costs associated with
exposure to pathogens and contaminants during swimming and while eating affected fish and shellfish are
probably significant for the fishing and tourist industries as people reduce their consumption of seafood
and take their vacations at more pristine sites elsewhere. However, loss of revenues associated with these
use impairments cannot be adequately quantified at this time given the available data. Further studies will
need to be conducted in order to determine the economic loss to tourism and industries indirectly affected
by tourism decline. The Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) has reported declines in tourism,
however, it is not clear whether the declines are due to economic recession or use impairments identified
in this study. Increases in eco-tourism and visitor preference studies do indicate that pristine beaches and
coastal wildlife habitat are important to the tourism industry and, ultimately, the economies of the islands.
Inadequate sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been identified as one of the primary point source
pollution problems in the Caribbean and a significant contributor to coastal habitat degradation in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Some of the sewage treatment facilities need to be updated with
modern technology and brought up to the carrying capacities required for the populations being served.
Illegal hookups and broken lines need to be identified and repaired. It may also be necessary for sewage
effluents to be released through ocean diffusers so pathogens and nutrients are dispersed and not
concentrated in a single waterbody.
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According to the 1990 Needs Survey Report to Congress (USEPA, 199le) for documented needs, Puerto
Rico is ranked 11th out of 53 states (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin
Islands) for the amount of money needed to provide adequate publicly-owned secondary wastewater
treatment plants. The estimated cost (in dollars for January 1990) to provide basic services (e.g.,
secondary treatment) to Puerto Rico is $346 million. For total wastewater treatment projects, Puerto Rico
ranks 15th with a total cost of $1.1 billion.
The following additional remedial actions and management measures may further reduce impairments to
coastal and estuarine waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands:
• NPDES permit levels need to be monitored frequently, and permit limits need to be enforced.
• Proper management practices dealing with coastal construction need to be adopted and
enforced to help alleviate stormwater runoff.
• The benefits of various solid waste management strategies such as recycling, incineration,
creation of artificial reefs using old vehicles and boats, etc. need to be evaluated.
• Management measures for the boating industry need to be implemented. These may include
restricting the number of boats in critical coastal areas, instituting better waste management
practices by monitoring the fecal counts in the moored areas, and constructing docking areas
in critical coastal areas.
• Urban and agricultural stormwater runoff should be reduced by implementing better
management practices designed to retain sediment and pollutants.
• Critical coastal wildlife areas should be routinely monitored, and appropriate procedures to
analyze the causes of wildlife and aquatic marine life kills should be developed and
implemented.
• Fisheries management strategies need to be adopted.
• Oil spill sources need to be investigated and management measures enforced to curtail these
releases.
• Effluent limits should be established that prevent the elevation of the receiving water
temperature above 32 °C for prolonged periods based on the factors of both flow and
temperature of the effluent.
• Data gaps found in the assessments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (e.g., no
toxics data for the U.S. Virgin Islands) need to be addressed through additional studies.
• A regular monitoring and reporting program for the coastal areas, examining biota, water,
and sediment quality, should be implemented to identify problems early.
• Scientific research should be undertaken to help develop mitigation procedures and
management practices that will help stop the degradation of the coastal regions.
XX
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Water quality and aquatic habitats surrounding the coasts of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are
threatened by a variety of anthropogenic impacts. Habitats of concern include beaches, mangrove-fringed
estuaries, seagrass beds, hard grounds, mud bottoms, wetlands, and coral reefs. The destruction or
impairment of any of these habitats will result in deleterious impacts to adjacent habitats because of the
complex interactions occurring between these and other marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore,
damaged habitats ultimately affect human health and economic development.
Direct impacts to the habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands resulting from human activities
include:
• Destruction and disturbance of special aquatic and wildlife areas (including uncontrolled
human access and intense recreational use of ecologically sensitive areas);
• Impediments to natural river courses;
• Boating impacts (e.g., groundings, propeller damage, anchor damage);
• Diver impacts;
• Overfishing and overharvesting of other living resources;
• Disturbances associated with sand, gravel, and mineral mining;
• Military activities; and
• Dredge-and-fill activities.
Indirect impacts to these habitats include water quality degradation due to:
• Sewage outfalls and septic tanks;
• Industrial outfalls;
• Oil spills from tanker releases and small boats;
• Litter;
• Thermal effluents;
• Agricultural runoff;
• Urban, residential, and industrial stormwater runoff; and
• Other ocean disposal activities.
These indirect sources of toxics, pathogens, nutrients, sedimentation, and thermal pollution may be more
serious in terms of long-term effects due to difficulties encountered in reducing or eliminating excessive
contaminants from point and/or nonpoint sources.
1.2 Purpose and Objective
This study follows other work performed for the Region II office of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency to examine use impairments in areas of concern under its jurisdiction. The goal of the study is
to provide guidance in the allocation of funds and development of specific programs to improve water
quality and coastal habitats. Like its predecessors (e.g., Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the
New York Bight, Swanson et al. 1991), this study includes an analysis of the ecological as well as
economic impacts where use of a particular resource has been reduced or lost.
l-l
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The purpose of this report is to evaluate existing data and characterize the impairments affecting uses of
the waters surrounding Puerto Rico and the U.S Virgin Islands. The focus of this study is to identify
and possibly quantify the causes and extent of degradation in the marine and estuarine waters of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from the outer boundary of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to the
head of tide in the estuaries, including back bays, lagoons, and wetland areas. The impairments to these
areas that have resulted from activities occurring outside the study area (e.g., discharges occurring
upstream of the head of tide) have also been included in the study. This study will aid in focusing EPA's
financial and human resources for environmental protection and restoration on the most pressing threats
that may cause impairment of the important aquatic habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
1.3 Technical Approach
Resource use impairments evaluated in this report include:
• Ecological habitat health and productivity;
« Fish and wildlife populations;
• Health effects related to ingestion of contaminated fish/shellfish;
• Swimming;
• Boating; and
• Aesthetics.
Estimating impacts to resource use impairments included the evaluation of over 200 technical documents
and government reports (e.g., reports required under §§ 305(b) and 304(1) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (Clean Water Act of 1972 and amendments) and compilation of data from several on-line
databases (e.g., Waterbody System (WBS), Permit Compliance System (PCS), STORET-WQ, STORET-
TISSUE, and Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System (TRIS)). The types of information used for this
study included government documents, scientific studies, management plans, and interviews with scientists
knowledgeable of the marine pollution problems of Puerto Rico and the U.S Virgin Islands. An
annotated bibliography of pertinent references used in this investigation for evaluating resource use
impairments is presented in Appendix A. Profiles of government agencies, nongovernmental agencies,
and research institutions with planning/development and marine conservation responsibilities in the study
area are presented in Appendix B.
In general, impacts to resource use impairments were estimated by:
(1) Analyzing point source data presented in technical documents (e.g., 305(b) reports) and PCS,
and nonpoint source data estimated using various nonpoint source models, STORET data, and
technical documents;
(2) Evaluating water and sediment quality data for toxics, pathogens, nutrients, sedimentation,
and thermal pollution; and
(3) Analyzing resource impairment data including 305(b) reports, Critical Wildlife Habitat
Evaluation reports, Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs) exceedances, fish harvesting
records, boating records, beach closures, human health risk assessment estimates, and
information from other technical and government reports.
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An attempt was made to relate impairments to known sources of pollution. General remediation strategies
for beginning to correct certain impacts to various resources also were evaluated. In several instances,
data gaps that prevented the complete quantification of an impairment were found. In particular, data
gaps exist with respect to the economic impacts of the impairment and the costs associated with
remediation.
In evaluating resource use impairments of the various islands within the study area, distinct differences
between habitats were found. In addition, the availability of data varied significantly within the study
area. Therefore, the study area was subdivided into island groups and coastal regions. For this report,
Puerto Rico was divided into four coastal regions (north, east, south, and west), as shown in Figure 1-1.
The following small islands surrounding Puerto Rico also were included in the study area: La Cordillera,
Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Monito, and Desecheo. However, very little information was available for
evaluating use impairments to these small islands. The three major islands that constitute the U.S. Virgin
Islands (i.e., St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas) were evaluated independently. When appropriate and
possible, use impairment data and results were presented geographically and/or by the coastal region or
island in order to identify specific impaired areas.
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REGION 1
16 KM
I 1
0 10 MILES
ST. THOMAS
ST. CROIX
Figure 1-1. Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands Base Map
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2. PHYSICAL SETTING
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands lie in the subtropics between 18° 31' and 17° 4' north latitude
and 68° 02' and 64° 34' west longitude (see Figure 1-1). These islands (with the exception of St. Croix)
are part of an island arc volcanic chain of islands formed by the subduction of one tectonic plate below
another. St. Croix is the result of an upthrust of ocean floor and is composed primarily of Cretaceous
metasedimentary rocks capped by limestone facies of more recent origin (Whetten 1966). These islands
are typified by steep mountainous or hilly slopes with little flat land suitable for agriculture or urban and
residential development. Suitable flat plains are confined to coastal areas, thereby isolating most of the
population and industrial development to the coast. To the north lie the Atlantic Ocean and the Puerto
Rico Trench, which reaches depths of 8,384 m. To the south lies the Virgin Island Basin, which reaches
depths of 4,116 m (IRF 1985).
Winds are typically very steady out of the northeast (the Trade Winds), averaging about 4 m/s (Calvesbert
1970). Currents and waves are driven by the predominant and steady Trade Winds and therefore flow
steadily from east to west (the North Equatorial Current). Nearshore flow patterns, however, may be
more complex because of local physical features, semidiurnal and diurnal tidal cycles (mean tidal range
0.24-0.30 m), and local wind patterns (IRF 1985). No upwelling is thought to occur around these
islands, except possibly during strong tropical storms or hurricanes.
The air temperature is warm (24 to 27 degrees Celsius) and varies little throughout the day or throughout
the year: the annual mean daily average difference ranges from 5 to 14 °C (Calvesbert 1970). The small
temperature fluctuation is a result of fairly constant seawater temperatures and small island land masses.
Warmest water temperatures occur in August and range from 27 to 28 °C. In the coldest month
(February), temperatures range from 25 to 26 °C (Calvesbert 1970).
Rainfall is primarily orographic because of the rise and cooling of warm water-laden air masses that pass
over areas of high elevation. Rainfall typically falls in intense cloudbursts, which may deposit up to 70.9
cm in a 24-hour period, while the 1-hour rainfall can be as much as 25.6 cm (Calvesbert 1970, NOAA
1989a). These intense rain showers lead to frequent flooding, even during months with lower average
monthly rainfall. A poorly defined seasonal variation in rainfall is evident, with December or January
to April generally being considered dry months and May through November or December being
considered wet months. Rainfall quantity and seasonal distribution vary regionally due to elevation and
the location of areas behind mountainous barriers. High-elevation wet areas typically receive over
254.0 cm of rainfall annually, while arid areas may receive as little as 50.8 cm annually (Calvesbert
1970). Because of the constant high temperatures and steady winds, both evaporation and humidity are
high. In areas of low rainfall, evaporation may exceed precipitation, resulting in the formation of
hypersaline ponds along the coast.
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands also lie within the broad path of Caribbean hurricanes, which
typically pass from the southeast to the northwest. Hurricanes and tropical storms occur from June to
December, but most occur in the months of August and September. Although major hurricanes may
strike these islands directly only every 10 to 30 years, hurricanes and large tropical storms that pass to
the south and north may result in torrential rainfall, causing flooding, property damage, loss of human
lives, and impacts on the coastal biota. At least 12 major hurricanes and tropical storms have passed over
or near these islands (Table 2-1). Such hurricanes and storms not only cause physical damage to
ecological habitats, especially coral reefs (Glynn et al. 1964, Rogers et al. 1982, Rogers et al. 1983,
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TABLE 2-1. SUMMARY OF MAJOR HURRICANES AND TROPICAL STORMS PASSING
OVER OR NEAR PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
Hurricane
San Roque"
San Ciriaco*
San Felipe*
San Nicholas*
San Cipria*
Santa Clara*
(Betsy)
Edithb
Davidc-d
Tropical storm
Frederic0-"1
Tropical storm
GerF
Floyd0
Tropical storm
Klaus'
Tropical storm
Chrisf
Hugo"41
Date(s)
16-17 Aug 1893
8 August 1899
13 September 1928
10-11 September 1931
26-27 September 1932
12 August 1956
26-27 September 1963
30 August 1979
4 September 1979
8-9 September 1981
4-5 September 1981
6-7 November 1984
24-25 August 1984
18-19 September 1989
Maximum
Rainfall Winds
(cm) (km/hr) Area of Impact
Puerto Rico
194 Puerto Rico
413 Puerto Rico
233 Puerto Rico
311 Puerto Rico
233 Puerto Rico
20.3 144-169 South shore of Puerto
Rico
18.9 85 St. Croix and
St. Thomas
53.3 119-148 St. Croix and
St. Thomas
14.3-24.5 222 Puerto Rico,
St. Thomas, St. Croix
and St. John
•Source: Calvesbert (1970).
bSource: Glynn et al. (1964).
°Source: Rogers et al. (1982).
dSource: Rogers et al. (1983).
"Source: NOAA (1981).
'Source: NOAA (1984).
•Source: Rogers et al. (1991).
••Source: NOAA (1989b).
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Edmunds and Witman 1991, Rogers et al. 1991), but they also bring heavy rainfall, which washes
sediments and pollutants into coastal areas, where they may cause further damage.
2.1 Coastal Features. Climate, and Oceanographic Data
2.1.1 Puerto Rico
Basic island physical statistics are presented in Table 2-2. Puerto Rico is the largest and westernmost of
this group of islands (8,860 km2) and is the easternmost island of the Greater Antilles. Several small
islands lie off the coast of the main island. Vieques, the largest of these islands (129.5 km2), is as large
as some of the Virgin Islands. A small group of cays and several small islands known as La Cordillera
extend out from the northeast corner of the main island toward another large island, Culebra. Off the
west coast lie the islands of Mona, Monito, and Desecheo. Along the south coast, many coral-, sand-,
and mangrove-covered cays may be found, as well as one fairly large island, Isla Caja de Muertos.
The main island of Puerto Rico is mountainous, with the highest elevation reaching 1,065 m. Since
rainfall is primarily orographic, it tends to vary with elevation, with the highest rainfall recorded in the
El Yunque mountains in the northeast (greater than 787.5 cm) (Calvesbert 1970). Annual rainfall in the
coastal areas tends to be less and ranges from less than 137.8 cm on the south coast to almost 354.4 cm
on the east coast at Yabucoa and Humacao (NOAA 1989a). Because of the small size of the watersheds
and the intensity of rainfall events, even in the "dry" season, peak river flows are high in every month
with significant rainfall. Region-specific information is provided below.
Region 1 - North Coast
The north coast region of Puerto Rico is typified by a long, broad shelf draining the ridge of high
mountains to the south. Rainfall in mountainous areas to the south produces numerous rivers that drain
to the coast. These rivers drain about 58 percent of the total island runoff. The combination of a
relatively flat, broad coastal area and large rivers results in the formation of large coastal wetlands, basin
mangrove forests, and estuaries. The mouths of these rivers/estuaries (with the possible exception of Rfo
Espfritu Santo), are protected by a sand bar, which allows for the stagnation of the lower salt layer
intrusion and low oxygen conditions in bottom waters (Negr<5n and Citrdn 1979). The north coast
mangrove forests are some of the largest and most extensive on the island, accounting for 3,935 hectares
(ha) or 44 percent of the total mangrove forests (EQB 1990).
Although mangroves are well developed along the north coast, well-formed coral reefs are lacking as a
result of a number of physical factors. These factors include a narrow, steeply sloping sea shelf, heavy
sediment loads discharged by the numerous rivers along the coast, and a heavy wave energy regime due
to the exposure of the north coast to the open Atlantic Ocean. However, some coral reef development
is evident on the northeast shore, mainly as thin crustal growth over rock reefs (Goenaga and Cintrdn
1979). Reefs possibly degraded due to anthropogenic influences have been reported from Isla de Cabras
near Bayamdn and to the east, offshore of San Juan (Goenaga and Cintro'n 1979). Nearshore areas are
typically hard pavement areas covered by isolated encrusting hard corals, soft corals, algal turfs, sponges,
and tunicates interspersed by patches of fine to coarse sand. Near river mouths, hard substrate and sand
may be replaced or covered by finer clays and silts. The extent of seagrass beds along the north coast
has not been determined, but patches of seagrass have been reported to occur.
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TABLE 2-2. PHYSICAL DATA ON PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
Oceans"
(shore km)
Estuaries*
(ha)
Freshwater wetlands"
(ha)
Rivers"
(km)
Lakes*
(ha)
Tidal wetlands*
(ha)
Agriculture*
(ha)
Forest"
(ha)
Coral reefs
(ha)
Mangroves*
(ha)
Seagrass beds
(ha)
Puerto Rico
698
45,582
NA
5,429
4,509
9,292
409,220
299,350
NA
8,953
NA
U.S. Virgin Islands
278
7,797
0
0
0
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Source: Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (1990), except as indicated.
NA = not available.
"Data from Table 11-3 of the Region II Risk Ranking Project (USEPA 1990a).
Seagrass beds typically occur in protected embayments where environmental conditions of light, sediment,
and wave energy permit their growth. The northwestern portion of the coast to Arecibo is typified by
a nearly continuous limestone cliff that forms the shore or is separated from the ocean by a beach of rock,
sand, or cemented sand dunes (Kaye 1959). An interesting feature of this area is the submerged marine
caves off Bajura in the municipality of Isabela (Goenaga and Cintrd'n 1979). East of Arecibo, the
northern coast is composed of a low-lying alluvial plain dotted with large mangrove wetlands and lagoons
(Kaye 1959). The largest continuous mangrove area is the Pinones-Torecilla Forest (2,031 ha), found
to the east of the capital city of San Jose" (EQB 1990). Several undeveloped, as well as a few developed,
recreational beaches may be found (NOAA 1978).
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Annual rainfall along the north coast ranges from 127.0 to 190.5 cm, although rainfall increases with
elevation toward the mountains (Calvesbert 1970). Measurable rainfall occurs in all months (5.1 cm),
with the month of April typically being the driest and August and September the wettest. Monthly
average temperatures range from 23.9 to 27.2 °C, with December through March being the coldest
months and July, August, and September the warmest (NOAA 1989a). Winds are typically out of the
east northeast, but these winds may be modified by diurnal land and sea breezes. Surface currents along
the north coast generally flow westward, but they may be modified by wind, waves, bathymetry, coastal
configuration, and coastal riverine discharges. Occasional eastward current flows have also been noted
(Kaye 1959, Puerto Rico Nuclear Center 1975). Typical current velocities are 0.07 m/s, predominantly
in a westerly direction, with onshore current directions observed less than 8 percent of the time (Tetra
Tech 1986a). Density stratification has been noted to occur in nearshore waters and may be related to
the presence of nearby freshwater riverine discharges (Tetra Tech 1986b). No seasonality of the
stratification has been determined (Tetra Tech 1986a, 1986b, 1986c, 1987a).
Region 2 - East Coast
The east coast region of Puerto Rico is typified by a narrow shelf that drains the steepest and highest
mountain area of Puerto Rico. The shoreline alternates between rocky headlands and broad alluvial plains
fronted by sandy beaches (Kaye 1959). The urban centers of Fajardo, Naguabo, Humacao, and Yabucoa
are found on the large alluvial plains bordering major rivers. At the mouths of these rivers (with the
exception of the Rfo Guayane"s near Yabucoa), basin mangroves are found. The largest area of
mangroves may be found in the area of the Roosevelt Roads U.S. Naval Base—Puerto Medio Mundo (495
ha) and Ensenada Honda (113 ha) (EQB 1990). Fairly well developed reefs are found along this coast,
with the best reef development noted around islands and cays located off the coast and away from major
river discharges, e.g., Isla Pineros, Cayo Santiago (Goenaga and Cintr6n 1979).
Annual rainfall along the coast ranges from about 127.0 to 203.2 cm, although rainfall in the mountains
to the west may exceed 254.0 cm (Calvesbert 1970). The annual average coastal temperature ranges
from 25.5 to 26.1 °C, with monthly average temperatures of 23.3 to 23.8 °C occurring in December
through March and monthly averages reaching 26.7 to 27.2 °C in July through September (NOAA
1989a). Winds are dominated by the easterly Trade Winds and blow toward shore at 4 to 6 m/s.
Because of the strong and steady Trade Winds, diurnal wind patterns are not as noticeable as on the east
coast (Calvesbert 1970).
The insular shelf off the east coast is quite broad, and it extends outward and includes the islands of
Culebra and Vieques. Tides are diurnal and mixed diurnal/semi-diurnal and have a range of about 0.2 m
(Tetra Tech 1987b). Offshore circulation is complicated as the westward-flowing North Equatorial
Current passes around the island of Vieques and encounters the east coast of Puerto Rico. Flow is
generally east and northwest through the Sonda de Vieques (Vieques Sound) and then northwest through
Pasaje de San Juan (San Juan Passage), which separates Fajardo from La Cordillera (Tetra Tech 1987b).
Counterflows in bottom waters and flow reversals have also been observed in Pasaje de San Juan (Tetra
Tech 1987c). Flow through Radas Roosevelt Pasaje de Vieques may be southwest or northeast depending
on the tide. However, nearshore current directions and speed will be modified by local bathymetry, tidal
variations, coastline configuration and orientation, winds, waves, and the nearshore currents' interaction
with larger currents. Current measurements made near Humacao indicate the southwest as the
predominant drift to the currents with 50th percentile current speeds of 0.06 to 0.08 m/s (Tetra Tech
1987b).
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Region 2 - La Cordillera. Culebra. and Vieques
La Cordillera is a group of rocky islets and a few larger islands designated as a Natural Reserve. Two
of the larger islands, Cayo Lobos and Palominos, are privately owned. No rivers or streams exist on
these islands, although ephemeral ponds on Cayo Icacos attract a variety of bird life. Coral reef
development is good, and patches of seagrass likely occur where conditions allow. Mangroves are not
extensive, with only 1.98 ha reported (EQB 1990). Isla de Culebra is a fairly large island (25.9 km2).
The highest point on the island occurs on Mount Resaca (197 m). A large number of undeveloped
beaches occur on the island, although Playa Flamenco is developed (NOAA 1978). Well-developed coral
reefs and seagrass beds probably occur, but recent descriptions of these habitats are lacking. Mangrove
wetlands occur behind several beaches, along bays and inlets, and on offshore islands (97 ha total) (EQB
1990). The island of Vieques is a long, narrow island (129.5 km2) approximately 16 km east of the main
island of Puerto Rico. The island is mostly level with a central hilly section rising to 299 m on Mt.
Pirata. No permanent rivers or streams are found on this island, but several nearshore lagoons occur.
Coral reef development is good, and mangrove forests occur along the coast behind sandy beaches and
along bays and inlets (265.9 ha total) (EQB 1990). Bahfa Fosforescente on Vieques has been designated
as a Natural Reserve. Ensenada Sombe is a developed beach on Vieques (NOAA 1978).
Rainfall data for these outlying islands are incomplete (with recent data available for Vieques only), but
rainfall patterns are likely similar to those of the U.S. Virgin Islands to the east. Rainfall in the La
Cordillera is probably slight because of the lack of areas of high elevation. Rainfall in Culebra and
Vieques is probably greater, likely exceeding 50.7 cm annually in coastal areas (Calvesbert 1970).
Rainfall is generally higher near areas of higher elevation. Temperature records are also incomplete
(limited data are available for Vieques only), but temperature variation is probably similar to that of other
coastal areas, with low monthly means near 24.4 °C in winter and higher temperatures near 26.6 °C
observed in July, August, and September. Winds are dominated by the east and east northeast Trade
Winds, which may be modified by local land and sea breezes where conditions permit. Currents in the
eastern offshore islands are the result of the modification of the North Equatorial Current as it drives
through the Sonda de Vieques and Radas Roosevelt Pasaje de Vieques.
Region 3 - South Coast
The south coast of Puerto Rico consists of a broad alluvial plain to the east, merging into a coastline of
broad alluviated valleys, broken up by large, rocky headlands to the west (Kaye 1959). A number of
beaches, bays, mangrove cays, and coral reefs are present. Coral reef development is most extensive on
the south coast and includes the reefs of Guayama, reefs in the Puerto de Jobos area, reefs near Ponce
and Guayanilla, and the reefs of La Parguera (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). An extensive submerged shelf
reef also extends along the edge of the insular shelf along the south coast (Morelock et al. 1977). The
insular shelf is wider than that of the north coast, except near Tallaboa and Guayanilla Bay, where an
extensive submarine canyon system cuts through the shelf (Morelock et al. 1979). Mangrove coverage
on the south coast has been estimated at 2,291 ha (EQB 1990). The largest stands occur within the Bahfa
de Jobos (Jobos Bay) Special Planning Area, which includes Mar Negro and Cayos Caribe (656.8 ha
total), and within the Special Planning Area of the Southwest, which includes the large mangrove of La
Parguera (41 ha) (EQB 1990). These mangroves occupy narrow fringes along the coast or cover small
cays offshore. Well-developed basin and river mangroves do not occur due to the arid climate and
extensive dry season on the south coast (Cintrdn et al. 1978). Seagrass areas have been identified in
Jobos and Guayanilla Bays (Vicente and Rivera 1982) and La Parguera (Glynn et al. 1964, Goenaga and
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Citr6n 1979); however, seagrass beds are likely to occur wherever suitable environmental conditions
allow.
Rainfall is generally lower on the south coast than on the rest of the island, ranging from less than
76.2 cm to about 177.8 cm, with most of the coast receiving less than 101.6 cm (Calvesbert 1970). In
the mountains, however, annual rainfall may exceed 254.0 cm, resulting in frequent flooding. Rain may
fall throughout the year, but the wettest month tends to be September and the driest months tend to be
January, February, and March. Evaporation along the south coast is also very high and may exceed
precipitation during the driest months. This evaporation results in the formation of saline and hypersaline
lagoons along the coast, explaining the lack of development of the large basin mangroves typical of the
north coast (Cintrdn et al. 1978). Coastal monthly mean temperatures range from 24.4 to 27.8 °C
(NOAA 1989a). Highest monthly mean temperatures are observed in June through September, while
coldest monthly mean temperatures are observed in January (NOAA 1989a). Winds and waves on the
south coast are generally milder than those of the north coast. Winds are typically out of the northeast
because of the influence of the strong Trade Winds, with some variation to southeast in the afternoons
because of persistent sea breezes (Calvesbert 1970). Currents are the result of tidal modification of the
strong westward flow of the North Equatorial Current. Tidal ranges are approximately 0.7-0.8 m (Tetra
Tech 1990). Because of the complexity of the south coast (bays, islands, islets, and cays), currents are
typically complex, with occasional nearshore and offshore currents observed as well as complete diurnal
current reversals. Measured current speeds vary from 0 to 0.3 m/s (Tetra Tech 1981, 1987d, 1990).
Region 4 - West Coast
The southern portion of the west coast of Puerto Rico consists of alternating stretches of rocky headlands
and alluvial stretches, with a limestone cliff from Aguadilla to the northern coast (Kaye 1959). These
features are related to the broad insular shelf that is part of the southwest coast, which narrows to the
north of Mayagiiez and then closely follows the coast. Along the southwest coast are fringing coral reefs,
and several fairly well developed reefs are located offshore on the broad insular shelf (Morelock et al.
1983). Further north along the narrow insular shelf, reefs are less well developed (Goenaga and Cintrdn
1979). Mangrove forests are confined to the southwest coast (699 ha total) (EQB 1990). Cano
Boquerdn, an extensive basin and river mangrove forest (234 ha), is the largest (EQB 1990). Seagrass
beds along this coast have not been quantitatively assessed, but they probably exist where conditions
permit.
Rainfall ranges from 88.9 to 152.4 cm per year in the coastal area (Calvesbert 1970). Annual rainfall
increases along the coast from south to north as well as from coastal areas to the mountains, where annual
rainfall may exceed 254.0 cm (Calvesbert 1970). Coastal air temperatures are typical of the coastal areas
discussed previously, with monthly averages ranging from 23.9 to 27.2 °C (NOAA 1989a). Winds are
typically dominated by the easterly-northeasterly Trade Winds, but the afternoon sea breezes may reverse
the direction of winds to a westerly, onshore flow (Calvesbert 1970). Offshore currents on the west coast
are variable as a result of the isolation of the west coast from the predominant east-west flow of the North
Equatorial Current. Therefore, current flow along the coast may be northward, southward, or westward,
although currents to the north and northwest appear to predominate (Tetra Tech 1985a). Offshore current
speeds range from 0 to 0.2 m/s (Tetra Tech 1985a, 1987e).
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Region 4 - Offshore Islands: Mona. Monito. and Desecheo
Isla de Mona lies approximately 64 km to the west of Puerto Rico in Canal de la Mona (Mona Channel)
and is about the same distance from the Dominican Republic on the island of Hispaniola. The area of
the island is about 54 km2, and a small satellite island, Monito, is located 9 km to the northwest. The
north and east coasts of Mona and all of the coast of Monito consist of vertical limestone cliffs rising
from about 20-m water depths to elevations nearly as high as 100 m above sea level in some places (Colin
1979). Below the cliffs, the bottom becomes a nearly level rocky plain. Coral reef development is best
along the south and west coasts of Mona, where fringing reefs occur (Colin 1979). Mangrove
development is limited to a 1.2-ha mangrove forest on the southwest coast behind a sandy beach (Uvero-
Sardinera) (Cintrdn et al. 1978). The island of Desecheo lies about 19 km off Punta Higuero on the west
coast of Puerto Rico and lacks the vertical cliffs of Mona and Monito. Extensive submarine caves are
present here, and a well-developed reef is located in about 15-30 m of water on the southwest side of the
island (Colin 1979). Information on rainfall and temperature for these islands is limited. Annual rainfall
probably does not exceed 88.9 cm on average, with maximum mean monthly rainfall not exceeding 10.2
cm during the wettest periods (Cintrdn et al. 1978). Monthly mean temperatures are similar to those of
other coastal areas and range from 24.4 to 27.8 °C.
2.1.2 U.S. Virgin Islands
The U.S. Virgin Islands, the westernmost group of the lesser Antilles (including Vieques and Culebra),
lie east and southeast of Puerto Rico. The British Virgin Islands lie only a few kilometers to the north
and east. The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of St. Croix, about 56 km to the south of Puerto Rico, and
St. John and St. Thomas to the north and include numerous smaller islands and islets. These islands are
similar in character to the Puerto Rican Islands of Vieques and Culebra (i.e., no permanent rivers or
streams, similar rainfall and temperature), but are far more developed. Island-specific information is
provided below.
St. Croix
St. Croix is the largest of the three U.S. Virgin Islands (217 km2). Although the island is hilly, a large,
relatively flat expanse of land lies on the southern coast and nearly bisects the island in the center, while
two ranges of hills occupy the east and west ends of the islands. The insular shelf on St. Croix is quite
narrow on the west and northeast ends and then widens to incorporate Buck Island and continues to be
quite broad around the east end. The insular shelf on the south shore is fairly broad and shallow,
especially on the eastern end. The highest point is Mount Eagle (355 m) on the west end. No permanent
rivers or streams are found on the island, but small mangrove lagoons occur (IRF 1985). The most
extensive mangrove forest was once found on the south coast, but it has largely been displaced by the
development of the South Shore Industrial Complex around Krause Lagoon. Although quantitative data
are not available, other fairly extensive mangrove forests are present on the north coast in Salt River and
on the southeast coast in Great Pond (IRF 1985).
The coral reefs of St. Croix are probably the best developed of the U.S. Virgin Islands, especially the
reefs off of the eastern end of the island, which include the reefs of Buck Island National Monument off
the northeast coast (Adey et al. 1981). An exceptional emergent barrier reef occurs along the northeast
coast (Tague Reef), and submerged barrier reefs are found along parts of the insular shelf. On the
northwest coast the insular shelf is narrow and dips steeply. Well-developed submerged barrier reefs are
located along the northwest coast. The southeast coast is dotted with numerous fringing reefs at
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headlands and barrier reefs that protect sandy bays. Reef development along the southwest and west
coasts, with hard pavements and sand predominating, is poorest, with only a few poorly developed patch
reefs occurring.
Rainfall in St. Croix averages 111.8 cm annually, with rainfall distribution ranging from 50.8 to 63.5 cm
on the drier east end to probably greater than 127.0 cm at higher elevations on the west end (Calvesbert
1970). Mean monthly rainfall ranges from a low of 2.5 to 5.1 cm in January through April, with most
rainfall occurring in August and September (15.2 cm), although single showers have been known to
quickly deposit over 25.4 cm of rainfall on occasion (Calvesbert 1970). Temperatures are similar to
coastal temperatures reported for Puerto Rico, ranging from 24.7 to 27.7 °C (NOAA 1989a). Winds are
dominated by the Trade Winds, except where local topography allows for the diurnal influence of land
and sea breezes. Currents are controlled primarily by the east-west flow of the North Equatorial Current
and are modified by diurnal tides with mean tidal range of 0.24 m (Tetra Tech 1985b). On the south
coast in the vicinity of the South Shore Industrial Complex, westerly flows predominate on the flood tide,
with southwesterly flows during weak ebb tides and strong ebb tides (Tetra Tech 1985b). Easterly flows
occur less than 20 percent of the time, and onshore flows occur less than 5 percent of the time (Tetra
Tech 1985b). Because of the complex coral reef development in nearshore areas and the presence of
several nearshore islands on cays, these typical currents may be modified by local winds, waves,
bathymetry, coastal configuration, and coastal stormwater discharges. Density stratification is probably
very weak, and no seasonal pattern has been identified (Tetra Tech 1985b).
St. John
St. John is the smallest of the three main U.S. Virgin Islands (51.8 km2). Bordeaux Mountain, in the
eastern area of the island, is the highest peak at 395 m. Slopes are steep and very little flat land can be
found. No permanent rivers or streams exist, although there are well-protected bays and freshwater and
saline lagoons (Rogers and Teytaud 1988). Most of the island (68 percent) is designated as the Virgin
Islands National Park under the concurrent jurisdiction of the Virgin Islands government and the U.S.
National Park Service. Coral reef development is not as extensive as in St. Croix, but fairly well
developed fringing reefs are present along the shores of several bays (e.g., Lagoon Point-Johnson Reef
in Coral Bay; Great Lameshur Bay) (Rogers and Teytaud 1988). Fringe mangrove forests occur along
nearshore lagoons and inner bays. Seagrass beds and algal plains of varying development occur in many
of these bays (Beets et al. 1986).
Annual rainfall averages 111.8 cm per year, with 5.1 cm per month or less typically falling during the
dry season and as much as 15.2 cm per month falling in the wet months of September and October
(NOAA 1989a). Mean monthly temperature ranges from 25.0 to 27.8 °C (NOAA 1989a). Currents in
nearshore areas are complex because of the irregularity of the shoreline. These currents are the result
of modification of the predominant westward flow of the North Equatorial Current by local patterns of
wind, waves, coastline configuration, bathymetry, and stormwater discharges.
St. Thomas
St. Thomas is similar to St. John, with rugged terrain, an irregular coastline, and little flat land. Crown
Mountain is the highest point (472 m). No streams or rivers are present, but several lagoons and bays
are located throughout the island (IRF 1985). Only Hassel Island in St. Thomas Harbor and a small area
around Crown Mountain have been included in the Virgin Islands National Park. Fringing reefs
associated with bays, fringing mangroves associated with salt ponds, and seagrass-covered bays occur
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along the coast (IRF 1985). The best-developed mangrove forest on the island occurs in Mangrove
Lagoon and Benner Bay in Jersey Bay on the south coast (IRF 1985).
Annual rainfall averages 111.8 cm, with monthly rainfall ranging from 5.1 cm during dry months to
15.2 cm during the wettest month, September (NOAA 1989a). However, heavy rainfall of short duration
can occur at any time of the year, resulting in extensive flooding. Approximately 45.7 cm of rain fell
in a 24-hour period in March 1983 in Charlotte Amalie in St. Thomas, resulting in severe flooding
(NOAA 1983). Monthly mean temperature ranges from 25.0 to 27.8 °C (NOAA 1989a).
Currents in nearshore areas are complex as a result of the interaction of the predominant North Equatorial
Current with local winds, waves, tides, coastal configuration, bathymetry, and coastal stormwater
discharges. IRF (1981) conducted a circulation study and summarized the results of several investigations
of the water circulation in the area of Southwest Roads between Saba Island and the south coast of
St. Thomas. The study indicated an inshore diurnal reversing current flow of longer duration to the
northwest than to the southeast. Worst-case conditions occurred in nearshore areas when strong southeast
winds turned weak surface ebb flows toward shore (IRF 1981). IRF (1977b) also conducted a study of
water circulation in Perseverance Bay. This study indicated that flow through Perseverance Bay during
an ebb tide was predominantly eastward and westward during flood tides (IRF 1977b). Weak density
stratification has been observed off the coast, but seasonal patterns in density stratification have not been
identified (Tetra Tech 1985c).
2.2 Ecological Habitats
Coastal marine environments in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands include a variety of supratidal,
intertidal and subtidal habitats with a range from hard-bottom to soft-bottom substrates. The most
distinctive of these habitats and perhaps the most widely studied are the coral, mangrove, and seagrass
communities. These communities are highly productive ecosystems that provide habitat for a variety of
organisms including important commercial species. Coral, mangrove, and seagrass communities are not
distinct entities, but are considered to be interconnected with each other and with other marine, estuarine,
and terrestrial habitats (Cintrdn and Schaffer-Novelli 1983). For example, seagrass beds serve as
secondary feeding grounds for many coral reef animals and protect coral reefs by trapping sediment and
lowering the potential for sediment resuspension and transport. Coral reefs, in turn, dissipate wave
energy and protect seagrasses. Coral reefs also provide refuge for many animals that feed in seagrass
and mangrove areas. Riverine mangroves trap sediments carried by the river waters, thereby protecting
seagrass beds and coral reefs from excessive sediment loads. In addition, the export of mangrove leaf
litter provides an important food source for organisms inhabiting seagrass and coral reef communities,
and mangroves serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many animals that spend their adult lives in
seagrass, coral reef, or open-water areas.
This section briefly describes the general character and types of coral, mangrove, and seagrass
communities that are found in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Following
these general descriptions, an overview of the distribution and character of these communities in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is provided.
Coral Communities
The foundation of the coral community is the coral polyp. These animals are generally colonial
organisms of the order Scleractinia (scleractinian or stony corals), which are capable of secreting a
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calcium carbonate skeleton. The reef-building or hermatypic corals have a mutualistic symbiotic
relationship with zooxanthellae (intracellular algae), which may contribute substantially to the nutrition
of the polyps. Corals may also rely on plankton, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter for nourishment.
The dependence of some coral species on their photosynthetic symbionts results in their dependence on
adequate light penetration for growth and reproduction.
Coral communities may exist under a variety of conditions of water depth, bottom substrate, water
quality, wave energy, and currents, but well-developed coral communities usually occur in tropical and
subtropical waters of low turbidity, low terrestrial runoff, and low levels of suspended sediment. Corals
may occur scattered in patches attached to hard substrates, but areas where coral organisms are actively
building toward the water surface are termed coral reefs. Major reef-building coral genera of the
Caribbean include Acropora, Montastraea, Forties, Diploria, Siderastrea, and Agarida. Elkhorn coral
(Acropora palmata) and boulder star coral (Montastraea annularis) are generally the most numerous
species, although in some regions other species (e.g., staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis) may be more
common. In addition to the reef-building corals, coral communities may contain (or even be dominated
by) coralline algae and a variety of gorgonian corals, such as the sea rod, Plexaura flexuosa, and sea
fans, Gorgonia spp.
The structural complexity of an actively building coral reef provides habitat for a variety of coral reef
organisms, including algae, sponges, mollusks, bryozoans, fish, crustaceans, and sea urchins. Many of
these reef organisms are of commercial importance and include the spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), a
variety of groupers (e.g., Nassau grouper, Epinephelus striatus), and numerous species of fish that serve
as a food resource for the local human inhabitants.
The general coral reef types that have been observed in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands include:
• Fringing reefs: Emergent reefs extending directly from shore. These reefs are often found
as extensions of headlands or points.
• Fringing barrier reefs: Emergent reefs adjacent to the shore, but separated from the shore
by an open lagoon.
• Submerged-barrier reefs: Submerged fringing reefs that have not developed to the surface.
• Patch reefs: Small circular or irregular reefs that rise directly from the bottom and are
distinct from other reef sections.
Coral communities are often described on the basis of species composition and abundance. The
percentage of living coral tissue covering the substratum is calculated from measurements taken from the
surface of the coral colony underlying multiple line or belt quadrat transects placed across a reef site.
The following discussion of coral habitats for the different islands contains information on percent cover
of living coral tissue obtained from various transect surveys. It should be noted, however, that these are
only estimates of coral cover because there are many difficulties associated with determining coral
community structure (e.g., Weinburg 1981). In particular, the percentages given by Beets et al. (1986)
are high because the stony coral cover was estimated and not measured by quadrat or transect techniques
(G. Garrison, Virgin Islands National Park, St. Thomas, personal communication, September 14, 1992).
Hermatypic corals are susceptible to adverse changes in environmental conditions, storm damage, and
diseases (Peters 1984, Rogers 1985, Goenaga 1991). Hence, coral communities are constantly changing
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and their coral cover may be different from that cited in this report. For current information on coral
reefs of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Dr. Carlos Goenaga (Department of Biology,
University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez) and Dr. Caroline Rogers (Virgin Islands National Park, St.
Thomas) should be consulted.
Mangrove Communities
The term mangrove is used to describe woody plants, belonging to several unrelated families, that possess
adaptations that allow them to grow in salty, waterlogged and hypoxic or reduced substrates. Three
"true" or "strict" mangrove species are found in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. True
mangroves are those species whose special morphological and physiological adaptations allow them to
colonize and dominate the structure of the ecosystem. They show a complete fidelity to the mangrove
environment and do not intrude into terrestrial environments. These species include the red mangrove
(Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), and the white mangrove (Laguncularia
racemosd). The buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) is considered a mangrove associate. It colonizes low
salinity mangrove environments but it also grows on dry rocky and sandy coasts exposed to salt spray
(Dr. Gilberto Cintrdn, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, VA, personal communication, January
6, 1993).
Each of these mangrove species has special environmental requirements and adaptations that determine
its distribution, areal extent, and response to pollution stresses. Generally, these adaptations are reflected
by the distinctive zonation patterns observed within mangrove forests. The most important factors
controlling the structure and species composition of the mangrove appear to be salinity tolerance and seed
dispersal mechanisms (Cintrdn and Schaeffer-Novelli 1983). The structure, species composition, and
areal coverage of mangrove forests may fluctuate as a result of storm damage or changes in patterns of
seawater exchange within the mangrove as the result of the creation and destruction of sediment barriers
on the seaward fringe (Cintrdn et al. 1978).
The mangrove forest typically supports a variety of intertidal life among and on the aerial roots of the
mangrove trees, and birds and reptiles find refuge in the forest canopy. Open water spaces in the
mangrove forest may also function as feeding areas for a variety of birds and fishes. Mangrove forests
provide an important feeding, nursery, and spawning area for many fishes and species of shrimp.
Organisms associated with the mangrove prop roots include barnacles, sponges, oysters, and mussels.
Mangrove forests vary greatly in structural and functional characteristics as a result of the vegetation's
response to environmental factors that vary in quality, time, and intensity (Cintrdn-Molero and Schaeffer-
Novelli 1992). Lugo and Snedaker (1974) developed a classification scheme that relates forest structure
and functional characteristics to local hydrologic and geomorphic factors,. In each category forest stands
subject to similar tidal characteristics and hydroperiods reach similar levels of development and share
similar functional attributes. Cintrdn et al. (1985) reviewed and simplified the original classification to
three types: riverine, fringe, and basin mangroves.
These physiographic types, all of which occur in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are described
briefly below (Dr. G. Cintrdn, personal communication, January 6, 1993):
• Riverine forests: These forests occur along the margin of river estuaries where nutrient
inputs are high and salinities low. These stands reach the most luxuriant development and
have highest productivities.
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• Basin forests: This type develops in those portions of the coastal floodplains influenced by
seawater. Basin forests need inputs or rainwater or runoff for their best development. In
dry areas salts accumulate due to evapotranspiration and hypersaline lagoons and bare areas
develop. Salt Ponds are small mangrove basins where flushing occurs sporadically and salts
accumulate. They are common in the smaller islands where the climate is dry and
watersheds are small.
• Fringe forests: Fringe mangroves occur along protected shorelines or around overwash
islands. They develop in environments with salinity close to that of seawater and subject to
the low nutrient levels typical of tropical sea water. Runoff and rainwater are not as critical
for the maintenance of these forests since they are generally well flushed by tides.
Seagrass Communities
Most Caribbean seagrass communities are typified by three species: turtle grass (Thalassia testudinwri),
manatee grass (Syringodiumfiliforme), and shoal grass (Halodule wrightii). A fourth genus (Halophila)
does not generally occur in mixed beds of the species, but may be found in shallow turbid water or to
depths of 50 m in clear water because of its adaptation to low light intensity (Ogden 1980). Manatee and
shoal grass are generally the first to colonize bare sediments. Turtle grass becomes established later and
gradually becomes the dominant seagrass (Williams 1987). Species of macroalgae are often interspersed
between the grass blades, and the grass blades themselves are often colonized by epiphytes.
Puerto Rico, however, has one of the most diverse seagrass floras in the North Atlantic Ocean. Seven
species have been found: (1) turtle grass, T. testudinum; (2) sea vines, Halophila decipiens;
(3) Halophila baillonis; (4) Halophila engelmannii; (5) manatee grass, Syringodiumfiliforme; (6) shoal
grass, Halodule wrightii; and (7) widgeon grass (ditch grass), Ruppia maritima (Vicente 1992).
The seagrass community includes an enormous variety of algae, plankton, mollusks, crabs, shrimp,
urchins, and fish. Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and West Indian manatees (Tricheus manatus) feed
heavily on turtle grass. Commercially important species that live among the seagrass include the mollusk
queen conch (Strombus gigas), the chicken liver sponge (Chondrilla nucula), and the white sea urchin
(Tripneustes ventricosis), which is prized for its edible ovaries. In addition to having high productivity
and supporting a variety of biota, seagrass beds contribute to shoreline stabilization by trapping
sediments.
2.2.1 Puerto Rico
Presently an island-wide assessment of the character and areal extent of ecological habitats is poorly
documented in Puerto Rico. However, qualitative descriptions of major reef areas and limited
quantitative information were compiled by Goenaga and Cintrdn (1979). The areal extent of mangrove
coverage in Puerto Rico has been monitored using aerial photographs over the last few decades (NOAA
1978, EQB 1990), but the methods used have not been standardized (e.g., inclusion or exclusion of open
water, inclusion or exclusion of open, reseeded areas) and therefore allow for only a qualitative
assessment of the recent trends in mangrove coverage on the island. It has been estimated, however, that
historical losses of mangrove forests were significant as a result of official government policy in the late
1930s and the early 1940s that encouraged the conversion of mangrove forests to dry land. In 1941, a
total of 1,000 ha of mangroves were filled for the construction of the Roosevelt Roads Naval Base
(Carrion, 1992). Upon the creation of Puerto Rico's Department of Natural Resources (DNR) in the
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early 1970s, it was estimated by the DNR that an estimated net loss of 600 ha of mangrove forests had
occurred during 1973 and 1974 (Carrion, 1992). Conservation policies have allowed the DNR to
purchase approximately 2,000 ha of mangrove wetlands. In addition to government efforts, conservation
groups have bought over 280 ha of fresh and brackish swamp forest at a cost of $1.2 million to establish
the first freshwater swamp forest reserve in Puerto Rico (Carrion, 1992).
Limited information is available on the character of specific mangrove areas (e.g., Kolehmainen et al.
1974, Cintrdn et al. 1978, Lugo 1990a, Zucca 1982). Even more limited information is available on the
character and areal extent of Puerto Rico's seagrass resource, and the information is limited primarily
to descriptions of algae and seagrass beds in the vicinity of proposed municipal marine wastewater outfalls
and descriptions of the seagrass communities of Jobos and Guayanilla Bays on the south coast of the
island (Vicente 1975, Vicente and Rivera 1982). Based on the information available from these sources,
a descriptive map was created to identify the locations of these communities to the extent possible (Figure
2-1). A general description of these communities, by region, is provided below.
Region 1
Coral Communities. The coral communities of the north coast of Puerto Rico consist primarily of
scattered stony coral colonies, gorgonian corals, and poorly developed reefs in hard pavement areas along
the coast (Wood et al. 1975a, 1975b; Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979; Yoshioka and Yoshioka 1989, 1991).
The percent cover of living stony coral tissue in this region is generally low and where quantitative
observations have been made has not exceeded 7 percent (Figure 2-2). Poorly developed reefs have been
noted near Bayamdn along Islas de Cabras, as well as encrusting growth on rock reefs off San Juan
(Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). Coral reefs are better developed along the coast of the eastern portion of
Region 1, with patch reefs formed off Punta Las Marfas and Boca de Cangrejos near Carolina, from
Punta Iglesias to Punta San Augustfn, and in Ensenada Comezdn, and fringing reefs off Punta Miquillo
and Punta Picua (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). Historically, coral coverage in this region has been low
because of the discharge of sediments from the large rivers in the region and the heavy exposure to waves
from the open Atlantic Ocean (Kaye 1959). Goenaga (1991) noted that reefs off Arecibo and Dorado,
and all reefs from San Juan to Las Cabezas de San Juan, have suffered considerable damage as the result
of human activities. Sedimentation from extensive dredging and organic pollution from sewage treatment
plants in Torrecilla Lagoon virtually destroyed the well-developed reefs northwest of Boca de Cangrejos
(G. Cintrdn, personal communication, cited in Goenaga 1991).
Mangrove Communities. The mangrove communities in Region 1 are some of the largest and most
extensive on the island because of the presence of large, permanent rivers and the broad, nearly flat
alluvial plain of the north coast. However, the largest of these mangrove areas is adjacent to the
expanding area of San Juan and is being encroached upon (Rodrfguez 1981). Thirty mangrove areas have
been identified in Region 1 from Punta Agujereada east to Punta Picua (EQB 1990). The areal coverage
of these mangrove areas has been estimated at 3,935 ha (43.9 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage).
(See Table 2-3.) The largest of these areas is the Torrecilla-Pifiones mangrove (2,032 ha) near the urban
area of San Juan.
Seagrass Communities. Limited information on the extent and character of seagrass communities is
available for Region 1. However, seagrass areas composed of turtle and manatee grass have been noted
near Tortuguero (Wood et al. 1975b), in Ensenada Boca Vieja, and east of Punta Salinas near Bayamdn.
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NJ
I/I
LEGEND
CORAL REEFS
MANGROVES
Q SALT PONDS
v SEAGRASS
16 KM
I 1
0 10 MILES
Figure 2-1. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in Puerto Rico
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Source: Tetra Tech 1986a, 1986b, 1987a
Figure 2-2. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 1 of Puerto Rico
San Juan Harbor
Coral Communities. With the exception of a few isolated coral colonies of Montastrea annularis
associated with large basket sponges and soft corals, at the bay entrance at depths of 15 hi, there are at
present no corals within the bay (Stoner and Goenega 1987).
Mangrove Communities. Extensive mangrove areas occur along San Juan Harbor at the confluence of
Rfo Puerto Nuevo and the Martfn Pena canal in the area of the Constitution Bridge Mudflats (Cardona
and Rivera 1988). Total mangrove coverage in this area (Cano Martfn Pena and Rfo Nuevo mangrove
areas combined) is estimated at 172 ha (EQB 1990). Mangrove areas also occur on the Palo Seco
Peninsula in the northwest sector of San Juan Bay (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
Seagrass Communities. Extensive seagrass communities do not appear to occur within San Juan Harbor
at present, but dense stands of die red alga Gradlaria have been noted (Stoner and Goenaga 1987). Beds
of Halophila have been noted in deeper coastal waters off the mouth of the harbor (Tetra Tech 1986a).
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Region 2
Coral Communities. The coral communities of Region 2 are occasionally well developed and form patch
and fringing coral reefs, especially in offshore areas in the islands of La Cordillera and on cays offshore
of Fajardo, Ceiba, and Humacao (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). The percent live stony coral cover on
these reefs where quantitative observations have been made ranges from 6 to 100 percent (Figure 2-3).
Descriptions of the coral communities of the offshore islands of Culebra and Vieques are limited to
reports on the coral reefs in U.S. Navy target practice areas on the island of Vieques (Antonius and
Weiner 1982). Antonius and Weiner described well-developed fringing and patch reefs along the eastern
tip of Vieques in Bahfas Icacos and Salinas. Goenaga (1991) reported recent degradation as the result
of anthropogenic impacts to inshore reefs at Fajardo, Humacao reefs, and the annular reef off Puerto
Yabucoa.
Mangrove Communities. Twenty mangrove areas along the Region 2 coast from Rfo Mameyes to Punta
Candelero have been identified, with an estimated areal coverage of 1,666 ha, or 18.6 percent of the total
Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990) (Table 2-3). The two mangrove areas on the Roosevelt Roads Naval
Base (Puerto Medio Mundo and Ensenada Honda) constitute the largest mangrove area on the eastern
coast (608 ha). The islands of La Cordillera Harbor contain only about 2 ha of mangrove. Nine
mangrove areas, with an estimated areal extent of 97 ha (1.1 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage),
have been identified on the islets and main island of Culebra (EQB 1990). On the island of Vieques, 10
mangrove areas have been identified, with an areal coverage of 266 ha, 3 percent of the total Puerto
Rican coverage (EQB 1990).
Seagrass Communities. Information regarding the seagrass communities of Region 2 is limited.
However, turtle grass and manatee grass have been noted in Bahfa las Cabezas (Tetra Tech 1987c) and
off Humacao (Tetra Tech 1987b), and turtle grass has been noted in Laguna Grande (Cardona and Rivera
1988), Cabo de San Juan, from Medio Mundo to Punta Lima (Goenaga and Cintr6n 1979), and in waters
off Cayo Icacos in La Cordillera (Almy and Carrion-Torres 1963). Descriptions of the seagrass
communities of the islands of Culebra and Vieques are not available.
Region 3
Coral Communities. The coral communities of the south coast are generally well developed, and in some
areas, such as La Parguera, they form extensive fringing and patch reefs (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979,
Goenaga 1991). Soft coral communities on the south coast have also been described by Yoshioka and
Yoshioka (1989, 1991). The submerged-shelf edge along the south coast also supports well-developed
reef communities, especially along the western portion of the coast off La Parguera (Morelock et al.
1977, Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979, Weinberg 1981). The percent live stony coral cover on these reefs
where quantitative observations have been made ranges from 1 percent at a reef east of the jetty at Puerto
Las Mareas to 100 percent at Arrecife Turromote, La Parguera (Figure 2-4). Areas of reduced live coral
cover occur in the area of Puerto Las Mareas and Ponce because of the influx of terrigenous sediments
from rivers (Tetra Tech 1981, Acevedo and Morelock 1988, Acevedo et al. 1989). The low percent coral
cover on the west wall of Guayanilla Canyon (2 percent) was attributed to the resuspension of sediments
by increased shipping traffic into Guayanilla Bay (Morelock et al. 1979). Inshore Ponce reefs, all reefs
off Guayanilla and Tallaboa Bays, and all reefs off and fringing Gua"nica were considered by Goenaga
(1991) to have been recently damaged by human activities and to exhibit low coral cover. The most
extensive reef complex in Puerto Rico comprises the patch reefs and coral cays of La Parguera (Morelock
et al. 1977). These reefs were considered by Goenega and Cintrdn (1979) to have been subjected to
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TABLE 2-3. AREAL COVERAGE OF MANGROVE FOREST IN PUERTO RICO
Areal Extent (ha)'
Location*
Regi
Maleia Alta
Jaclnto
Bejuraa
Punta Sardine
Rio Guajataca
Penan Brual
Maraciryo (Caauy)
Carrlzales
Cano Tlburone*
Pal net Altas
La Boca
La Esperania
Tlerras Nuevas
Punta Mar Chlqulta
Clbueo
Cerro Gordo
Rio La Plata
Mameyal
Rio Cocal-San Pedro
Rio tayanon
Las Cucherlllas
Pueblo Vlejo
Rio Puerto Nuevo
Cano Martin Pena
Laguna San Jose
Boca de Cangrejos
Plnenes-Terrecilla
Vac la Talega
Ancon
Rfo Herrera
Rio Esplrltu Santo
Punta PI cue
Regii
Rio Maiaeyes
Punta La Senders
Rio Juan Martin
El Convento
laguna Aguas Prietas
Laguna Grande
Rio Fajardo
Bahia Denajagua
Puerto Medio Nundo
Ensenada Honda, Ceiba
Rio Daguao
Bahia Algodones
Bahia LlM
Rio Santiago
Rio Blanco
Rio Anton Ruit
Morrlllo
Literal de Huiacao
Punta Candelero
Punta Guayanet
1988- 198V
Ian 1
7.19
7.59
14.78
6.79
5.99
12.78
NO
14.78
136.20
29.56
19.57
3.99
5.99
7.59
77.89
39.14
18.37
26.36
166.15
0.00
64.31
45.93
89.07
82.68
154.17
192.52
2,031.75 1,
4.39
172.94
210.45
283.18
an 2
50.72
9.18
16.38
22.77
21.97
76.68
128.61
69.50
494.84
113.43
188.12
133.00
4.39
2.00
6.39
277.59
3.99
5.19
16.78
24.76
1974*
6.94
NO'
16.15
ND
ND
ND
15.08
10.01
44.04
6.40
17.48
9.77
ND
ND
221.93
ND
13.21
28.54
117.54
15.21
29.62
19.89
13.48
64.87
67.46
78.87
381.04
ND
31.23
131.32
264.90
37.50
10.01
10.33
29.36
18.15
42.97
62.72
ND
412.10
217.53
164.01
123.98
7.61
ND
NO
295.07
NO
NO
12.41
ND
Areal Extent (ha)
Location 1988-1989
La Cordillera
Region
Punta Tuna
Punta Viento
Punta Gullarte
las Mareaa
Punta Pozuelo-
Cayos Carl be
Puerto de Jobos
Mar Negro
Punta Arenas
Cayos la Barca
and Pajaroa
Cayo de Ratones
Cayo Mata
Bahia de Jauca
Punta Petrena
Punta Cay 1 to
Playa Cortada
Cayo Berber! a
Punta Pastillo
Capitaneje
Boca Chica
Punta Cabullon
and Cayos Frloa
Caja de Muertos
la Gauncha
Las Salinas
Bahia de Tallaboa
Bahia Guayanllla
Puerto de Guayanilla
Cana Gorda
Faro de Guanica
Bahia de Guanica
Ensenada La* Pantos
Punta Mangallllo
Bahia Mont a I va
Bahia Fosforescente
La Parguera
Bahia Sucia
2.00
3
5.19
44. n
9.59
49.52
308.34
111.04
238.05
63.90
73.09
17.58
23.57
14.78
190.91
7.99
30.36
29.16
75.49
7.19
2.00
115.63
3.26
27.96
11.18
55.52
19.97
64.31
50.72
5.19
25.96
3.60
2.40
134.60
22.77
411.37
35.15
* Regions identified in Figure 2-1 .
* Data in cuerdas converted to hectares
using the
conversion factor O.393 ha/cuerda.
1974 Location 1988-1989
ND
6.40
44.44
HO
4.00
96.08
313.02
47.91
26.56
65.79
17.35
21.35
24.56
185.30
ND
13.52
31.09
ND
ND
NO
41.11
NO
ND
13.61
34.56
18.68
130.7V
43.00
6.81
12.81
4.67
5.61
38.43
27.22
418.24
40.04
dNOAA
•ND =
Regi or
Cano Boqueron
Refugio de Ares
Bahia de Bogueron
Punta Guaniojuilta
Punta la Mela
Puerto Real
Punta Ostione*
Joyuda
laguna Joyuda
Cano Corazones
Cano Boquilla
Espinar
Isla da
Flaavnco
Playa Resaca
Playa Brava
Playa large
Puerto del Mangier
San lldelfonso
Ensenada del Ceawnterio
Ensenada Honda
laguna Cornel io
Isla Culebrita
Cayo Nerte
lala de
Punta Arenea-
Laguna (I an I
laguna Playa Grande
Enseneda Honda
laguna Tanuel
Bahia Chlva
Salinas Sur-Cayo Cone jo
Bahia Tapon
Puerto Ferro
Puerto Nosqufto-Scafce
Vieojues Norte
Areal Extent (ha)
1974
i 4
234.25
19.17
25.96
6.79
60.31
97.06
31.55
47.13
123.82
34.35
17.58
Culefara
,
23.16
2.40
13.98
8.79
17.58
17.58
3.19
6.79
1.60
1.20
0.80
Viaqje*
54.72
25.56
65.50
9.18
8.79
4.7V
8.39
25.96
35.94
27.16
201.92
21.89
ND
4.00
23.22
69.53
NO
29.63
83.01
24.95
NO
5.20
1.12
4.00
2.72
4.14
5.20
3.36
ND
NO
ND
ND
78.47
22.69
33.90
10.81
13.48
NO
8.01
18.95
40.17
ND
Isla Nona)
Mangle de Nona
1978.
No Data.
1.20
1.21
Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (199O).
-------
120
Mainland
La Cordillera
Source: Tetra Tech 1987b, 1987c
Figure 2-3. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 2 of Puerto Rico
11U
(D
o
15 80
o
O
cu
.> 60
•^
3^
T3
0> 40
OJ
HI 20
^ s
. s
s i
f 3
1 1
3 °
S1 •* „
-I o
s. *
| £ |
_ i j f
* 5 a
i •
i i
s _
!
s
<£
3
1
-
s
J s S
i $ 1
i J 11
1 *
£
"3
.a
i
S
§
U)
i
S «
i ? i
*ii
•B i >
i 1 1 i n-
i * * IH * j
o 1 c£«fs£
jSl*
II H
• In
° (Bahla Rincon] [ Ponce
Source: Tetra Tech 1981, 1986c, 1987d, 1990
Figure 2-4. Estimated Percent Live Coral
s. 1- i f s §
5JMII
— rt g J o
s i s °- «
!!lll!
1 s
I
f 4
I I
II
£ & |
8 | 1
5 1 1
. *
a
£
£
M
5
•8
o
*1
"J 4
I
to
i
CO
1
[ LaParguera ]
Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 3 of Puerto Ric
2-19
-------
comparatively little pressure from industry and development. They are also located in an area fringed
by mangroves, which filter the limited amount of terrestrial runoff that occurs in the area. However,
human encroachment into the mangrove areas and increased recreational use of this area are cause for
concern (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
Mangrove Communities. Thirty-six mangrove areas have been identified in Region 3 from Punta Tuna
to Bahfa Sucia, with an estimated area! coverage of mangroves of 2,291 ha, or 25.6 percent of the total
Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990) (Table 2-3). These forests are generally not of the riverine or basin
type typical of the other coasts because of the generally drier, warmer climate and the ephemeral nature
of south coast rivers. These forests tend to be of the fringing type along the coast and the fringe
overwash type on the many small cays off the coast. Numerous salt pond areas also occur along the
south coast because of the lower precipitation and higher evaporation in this region. The area of La
Parguera contains an estimated 568 ha of mangrove forest, the largest area on the south coast (EQB
1990). Mar Negro, part of the Jobos Bay National Estuarine (JOBANE) Research Reserve, is
characterized by mangrove fringe, which protects the shoreline, lagoons and channels. Cayos Caribes,
also within the Reserve, is a chain of 17 tear-shaped islets. This area is of particular interest because of
its proximity and interaction with seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs (NOAA, 1990). The Jobos
Bay Reserve covers 1,130 ha of the southern coastal plain of Puerto Rico. North of the Reserve are
commercial sugarcane farms, and to the east and west is the Aguirre State Forest (NOAA, 1990).
Seagrass Communities. Although seagrass beds occur mainly on the south coast as a result of the
protection afforded by the numerous coral reefs (Vicente 1975), only limited information on the character
and extent of seagrass communities is available for Region 3. Turtle grass and manatee grass have been
noted in the area of Puerto Las Mareas and Jobos Bay (Tetra Tech 1981, Vicente and Rivera 1982).
Three hundred West Indian Manatees are known to forage in the Cayos Caribes area of Jobos Bay, the
second largest population on the island (NOAA, 1990). Turtle grass has been noted in the area of Punta
Petrona (Cardona and Rivera 1988), Ponce (Tetra Tech 1990), Guayanilla Bay (Vicente and Rivera
1982), Guanica (Cardona and Rivera 1988), and La Parguera (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979).
Region 4
Coral Communities. The coral communities of Region 4 range from poor to well developed, depending
primarily on their relationship to terrigenous sediment sources (Morelock et al. 1983, Goenaga 1991).
A submerged-bank reef off the southwestern portion of the coast of Region 4 (Escollo Negro) has a well-
developed reef area with relatively high (almost 82 percent) live coral cover (Loya 1976). (See Figure
2-5). The reefs off Mayagiiez have lower coral cover because of the stress induced by terrigenous
sediment input from local riverine discharges in the area (Morelock et al. 1983), although live coral cover
at Manchas Exteriores reaches 18 percent (Tetra Tech 1985a). Along the northern portion of the coast
of Region 4, a submerged-shelf edge reef extends from Punta Cadena to Punta Higiiero (Goenaga and
Cintrdn 1979), and a system of fringing reefs occurs from Punta Higuero to Punta del Boquerdn (Kaye
1959). Two patch reefs have also been reported near Aguadilla, with 4 to 10 percent live coral cover
(Tetra Tech 1987e).
Mangrove Communities. Eleven mangrove areas have been identified in Region 4 of Puerto Rico, with
an estimated areal extent of 699 ha, or 7.8 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990). (See
Table 2-3.) Salt Ponds are found along the southwest coast of this region because of the similarities in
climate to Region 3. The largest mangrove area is Cano Boquerdn (234 ha), which functions as an
important bird refuge.
2-20
-------
East Escollo Negro
Source: Tetra Tech 1985a, 1987e
Mayaguez
Aguadilla
Figure 2-5. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 4 of Puerto Rico
Seagrass Communities. Although seagrasses probably occur where suitable environmental conditions
permit, no information regarding the presence or character of seagrass beds in Region 4 has been
identified.
2.2.2 U.S. Virgin Islands
Presently the areal extent of coral, mangrove, and seagrass communities in the U.S. Virgin Islands is
poorly documented. Figure 2-6 illustrates the locations of these communities; however, map preparation
was hindered by the limitation of the information available from a number of documents and maps. A
general description of these communities on each of the U.S. Virgin Islands is provided below.
St. Croix
Coral Communities. Adey et al. (1981) stated that "the 4,000 year old eastern and southeastern bank
barrier reef of St. Croix is one of the best developed reef systems in the tropical-Atlantic Caribbean
2-21
-------
iru-
LEGEND
CORAL REEFS
MANGROVES
SALT PONDS
SEAGRASS
+
irsa-
ts-vr
2.0 MILES
Figure 2-6. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands
-------
area." They further stated that "with a length of 37 km, it is the most extensive reef on the Puerto
Rican-Virgin Island shelf." Adey et al. (1981) suggested that this reef is the largest reef structure in U.S.
territory, with the possible exception of U.S.-controlled Indo-Pacific island reefs. This area includes the
extensive fringing, patch, and deep reefs of Buck Island Reef National Monument and the fringing reef
of Tague Bay. A submerged-shelf edge reef occurs along the narrow north coast shelf, which is broken
only by the Christiansted and Salt River submarine canyons. The percent live coral cover, based on
quantitative observations, ranged from a few percent in areas of the south coast to almost 50 percent
(Figure 2-7). In areas where the coverage of staghorn coral was complete, coverage of 100 percent was
possible. Staghorn and elkhorn corals, however, have recently succumbed to white band disease off St.
Croix, as well as throughout the Caribbean (Gladfelter 1982, Rogers 1985). This disease of unknown
etiology has killed up to 95 percent of the elkhorn corals off Tague Bay (Peters 1988).
60
CD50
O
O
(040
O
O
CD
.£? 30
CD 20
to
"•^
LLHo
Airport Reef Channel Reef Halfpenny Reef Isaac Reef SRC West Wall
Mannings Bay Cane Garden Bay Robin Reef Salt River Canyon East Wall
Source: Adey et al. 1981, Rogers et al. 1983, Rogers et al. 1984, Tetra Tech 1985b
Figure 2-7. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. Croix
2-23
-------
Hurricane Hugo struck the U.S. Virgin Islands in September 1989, passing directly over St. Croix. Hugo
battered St. Croix for over 12 hours, with a maximum surface wind of 223 km per hour and heavy
rainfall (14.3 cm to 24.5 cm recorded on St. John), and it devastated portions of coral reefs and seagrass
beds off St. Croix (Gladfelter et al. 1991). Other recent storms that have affected U.S. Virgin Islands
reefs include Hurricane David and Tropical Storm Frederic in 1979, Tropical Storm Klaus in 1984, and
Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, with Klaus and David probably the most destructive prior to Hugo (Rogers
et al. 1991). In 1992, percent live stony coral cover was estimated at 26 percent for a reef at Buck Island
(Ginger Garrison, Virgin Islands National Park, personal communication, September 14, 1992).
Mangrove Communities. Very limited information on the mangrove forests of St. Croix is available.
Formerly the largest mangrove area on the island was to be found in the area now occupied by the South
Shore Industrial Complex. Currently, the best mangrove stands occur in the area of Great Pond on the
south coast. Many of the mangroves of St. Croix are associated with salt ponds because of the lack of
permanent rivers and the high evaporation rate relative to rainfall. A well-developed mangrove forest
also fringes the shoreline of Salt River, and the mangroves are threatened by the expansion of boat-
docking facilities.
Seagrass Communities. Well-developed seagrass communities occur throughout the island. The presence
of turtle, manatee, and shoal grass has been noted in Manning Bay on the south coast (Tetra Tech 1985b)
and in Tague Bay Lagoon (Williams 1987, 1990). The presence of Halophila has been noted in the Salt
River submarine canyon (Williams 1988a).
St. John
Coral Communities. Beets et al. (1986) provide a semiquantitative description of the marine communities
of bays within the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve of St. John that includes
descriptions of coral communities. The percent live coral cover was reported to range from less than 5
percent to 70 percent (Figure 2-8). The best developed reef is Johnson's Reef on the east coast and in
Haulover Bay. The areas with the greatest coral cover appear to be those that receive the least terrestrial
runoff and/or are exposed to sufficient wave energy to quickly disperse excessive sediment loads
(Hubbard et al. 1987). The most recent estimates of percent live stony coral cover for a reef on the north
side of St. John was 15.6 ± 4.9 percent in 1988. In 1992, live stony coral coverage was 11.0 + 1.5
percent for a reef on the south side of St. John and 19.2 +1.5 percent for a reef on the northeast side
of St. John (Ginger Garrison, Virgin Islands National Park, personal communication, September 14,
1992).
Severe damage to reefs at St. John by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 was documented on the basis of long-term
line transect, video transect, and photoquadrat studies at sites off Yawzi point, a rocky point that
separates Little and Great Lameshur Bays. Rogers et al. (1991) found fragmented and overturned coral
colonies and a significant decrease in total living coral cover from about 20 to 12 percent, with increased
coverage by macroscopic algae and no measurable recovery by the live corals in the 12 months following
the initial post-storm survey. The dominant reef-building coral there, Montastraea annularis, decreased
by 35 percent. Edmunds and Witman (1991) observed similar levels of patchy destruction to coral
colonies nearby. Tropical storm Klaus caused a significant reduction in mean percent live coral cover
from 26 to 21 at Fish Bay, St. John, in 1984 (Rogers and Zullo 1987).
2-24
-------
V^J
70
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>
O go
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T330
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C % <=
i I i
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ll
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-------
(ft
LLho
Red Point
Flat Cav
—'-•• . . _ . „ _ . .
Perseverance Bay Black Point Brewers Bay
Source: Rogers et al. 1982, Rogers et al. 1983, Tetra Tech 1985c
Figure 2-9. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. Thomas
because of a need to assess this resource to determine possible impacts of continued human development
in the area (IRF 1977a, Rogers 1982). Hurricane Hugo damaged portions of coral reefs and seagrass
beds off St. Thomas in 1989, but quantitative observations are lacking (Gladfelter et al. 1991).
Mangrove Communities. Only limited information on the mangrove forests of St. Thomas is available.
Numerous small mangrove areas are found along the coast, often in association with salt ponds. The
largest mangrove system on the island is found in Mangrove Lagoon-Benner Bay on the southwest coast
(IRF 1985). Several cays within the bay are mangrove covered, and mangroves fringe the shoreline in
some areas. These mangroves are threatened with further encroachment of the human inhabitants and
human-induced pollution stresses (IRF 1977b). The mangrove and salt pond of Perseverance Bay have
also been described (IRF 1977b).
Seagrass Communities. Limited information on the seagrass communities in St. Thomas indicates that
beds of turtle and manatee grass are common and have been noted near Saba Island, in Perseverance Bay
and Brewers Bay (Rogers 1982), and in Lindberg Bay (Zeiman 1975).
2-26
-------
2.3 Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Species
This section discusses the commercially important and endangered species found on the islands and the
surrounding coasts, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and marine species. The species
and their habitats are described in conjunction with the critical ecosystems associated with their life
histories. These habitats have been determined to be important through research conducted by the
governments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. This research also identified any areas
degraded by pollution. Most of the information for wildlife and fishes is presented in tabular and map
formats to facilitate a geographic understanding of critical habitats.
2.3.1 Wildlife
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have developed wildlife assessment reports that evaluate the
status of critical habitats, potential degradation, and the types of pollution and sources that have impaired
critical habitats. These reports, as well as other government documents, have been used extensively to
evaluate the potential impacts to wildlife (IRF 1976; Department of Natural Resources 1985, Cardona
and Rivera 1988, NOAA 1988, IOC/UNEP 1989). A study researching the critical wildlife habitats,
Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas of Puerto Rico (IOC/UNEP), was conducted in 1978. In 1988 Puerto
Rico's Coastal Zone Management Program conducted a follow-up study (Cardona and Rivera 1988) to
assess changes in the original habitats of the critical coastal wildlife areas (CCWAs) listed in the first
report. Critical coastal wildlife areas are defined as areas that support endangered, threatened, or rare
species and are located no farther than 1 km from the coast. Habitat reduction from coastal development
is one of the major problems facing these critical habitats (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
Information on CCWAs for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is compiled in Appendix C. Sites
are mapped in Figures 2-10 and 2-11, respectively. Tables C-l and C-2 in Appendix C list the potential
sources of marine pollution and habitat destruction and their potential impacts on species in the CCWAs
for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively. CCWAs degraded as a result of human
activities are identified. Information concerning the source of pollution that degraded the ecosystem is
in Section 5.2, the use impairment section. For each area, a status description has been given to help
identify the areas that are in need of mitigation or monitoring. Primary status indicates that the CCWA
has not been degraded, and secondary status indicates that the area has been dramatically affected and
needs to be monitored. Pending status indicates that the area is important because although it is not being
used at this time by endangered species it is a type of habitat that may be used in the future.
Additionally, an area may be listed as primary but degraded, which indicates that monitoring is required
to ensure the preservation of the CCWA. Detailed descriptions of each CCWA are presented following
each of the tables. The threatened and endangered species presently using the coastal wildlife areas are
listed in Table C-3 of Appendix C.
2.3.2 Fish and Shellfish
This section describes the types of commercially important fishes found within the limits of the islands.
The fishing industry in these islands has always been able to support the local economy and the fishermen
who depended on it for their livelihood. Recently, however, there has been a noticeable decline in the
catches and the populations of species are declining, as reported by the local fishermen. The demand
placed on the fisherman to catch larger quantities of fishes has increased, and the demand is always
greater than the supply in these areas (Koester 1986). Scientists believe that the decline is the result of
overfishing and additional stresses placed on the environment by anthropogenically produced pollution.
2-27
-------
Figure 2-10. Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of Puerto Rico
Map* Location Map* Location
I TorreciUa Piriones 38
2 TorreciUa A1U 39
3* Constitution Bridge Mudflats 40
4 Pslo Seco Peninsula (Calsio) 41
5 Buchanan Haystack Hilli (Bayamon) 42
6 Fort Buchanan Pond 43
7 San Pedro Swamp (Toa Baja) 44
8* Lakea/Foresu ofDorado Beach 45
9 Cibuco Swamp 46
10 Tomigufro Lagoon/Cabo Caribe Swamp
11* Like Pueno Nuevo 50
12* Tiburones Swamp 51
13* La Tembladera Lagoon 52
U- Camzales Mangrove 53
15 Guajataca Cliffs 54
16 BelUca Creek 55
17 Bano Colo 56
18 Cayura 57
19 Pozo Honda 58
20* Sibsneus Swamp 59
21 Guanajibo Mangrove 60
22* Jovuda Lagoon 61
23 Cuevai Lagoon 62
24 Guuuguilla Lagoons 63
25 Bogueron Refuge 64
26 Cabo Rojo Sail FliU 65
27* Cartagena Lagoon 66
28 U Paraguera 67
29 Guanica Stale Forest-West 68
30 Guancia Lagoon 69
31 Guanico Forest 70
32 San Jacinlo Salt Flats 71
33 Lluverai 72
34* Cabullon Mangrove 73
35 Caja de Muenoa and Momllito l&landa 74
36 Fnoi Ciy
37 Berbena Cay
* Indicate* habitata that are degraded by pollution
Punta Petroni Mangrove
CarocoWaCay
Punia Arenas
Mar Negro
Punta Pozuela
Pandora Mountain Range
Humacoa Swamp
Rooaevelt Roada Naval Baae
-™ FajanJo Couliine
49* Aguaj Prietai Lagoon
en Eruada Comezon
Citeaga Baja
Culebra's Surrounding Islets
Flameoco Peninsula
Flamenco Lagoon
Conielitii Lagoon
Recac* Mountain
Reaaca Beach
Brava Beach
Lirga B«ach and Zom Lugooo
Puerto de Manglar
Cemeateno Bay
LosCanoa
East Point of Vieques
Coneja Iiland
Emenada Honda Mangrove
Chivi Swamp
Yaouel Lagoon
Tapon Bay
Moaquiio Bay. Easeoadi Sombe and Ferro Bay
Wect Viequea
Monita Island
Mooa Island
Deaecbo Island
Palmoa Pond
2-28
-------
Figure 2-11. Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of the U.S. Virgin Islands
Map # Location
1 Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
2 Southern Shelf Edge
3 North Central and West Shelf
4 Sandy Point
5 Manning Bay Mangrove Area
6 West Coast Shelf
7 East End Reef (Lang Bank)
8 South Shelf Edge
9 Coral Bays and Environs
10* St. Thomas Harbor and Crown Bay
11* LindbergBay
12* Fortuna Bay
13* Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays
14* Water Bay
15* Vessup Bay
16* Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
17* Christiansted Harbor
18* Altoona Lagoon
19* Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey
20* Manning Bay
21* Cruz Bay
22* Great Cruz Bay
23* Enighed Pond
* Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.
2-29
-------
The reduction in the catches because of exploitation or the effects of pollution, as well as the destruction
of ecosystems essential to the life histories of the fishes, is further discussed in Section 5.2, the use
impairment section. Information pertaining to monitoring and possible remedial actions also is discussed
in Section 5.2.
Table 2-4 lists the commercially important fish species found in the coastal regions of Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands. For the most part, these fishes generally can be divided to define the various
populations (e.g., reef or pelagic fishes). Because some species of fish spend various stages of their lives
in more than one area of the coastal regions, however, a definite division is difficult. Reef fishes inhabit
areas of hard rock and coral reefs on the continental and island shelves and ocean banks. Reef fishes
include grunts, snapper, parrots, squirrels, and groupers. Most species are long-lived with slow growth
rates. Fifty percent of fishes consumed are reef species. There are 30 species of commercially important
reef fishes. Demersal fishes require a broad, muddy bottom and depend on the estuary for part of their
life cycle. Some of the demersal species in the Caribbean include croakers, seatrout, catfishes, snappers,
parrots, and porgies. Coastal pelagic fishes include fishes found in the coastal waters or around the
continental shelves of the islands where there is a high density of plankton, usually around the upwellings
and the river discharges or the areas of sewage outfalls. They are subdivided into two groups: clupeoids
(e.g., sardines and herrings) and the larger pelagics such as butterfish, scads, halfbeaks, jacks, and
bluefish. The ocean pelagic fishes include numerous large fishes such as sharks, tuna, billfish, dolphin,
kingfish, and flying fishes. They are found mainly in the open ocean. The commercially important
invertebrates (e.g., crustaceans and mollusks) are included together because of the wide range of habitats
used throughout their lives. Spiny lobsters, conch, whelk, and shrimp are some of the commercially
important invertebrate species in the Caribbean.
2.4 Land Use and Demographics
This section discusses land uses, demographic information, and economic conditions for Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands.
2.4.1 Land Use
Puerto Rico
The land of Puerto Rico includes primarily urban, residential, agricultural, and undeveloped land. About
75 percent of Puerto Rico's land area consists of hills or mountains too steep for intensive commercial
cultivation. There are a few natural lakes and many artificial lakes. The inland transportation network
consists primarily of roads. The principal port and leading cargo-handling facility is in San Juan, the
capital of Puerto Rico. Ponce is the second largest port, and other major cities include Bayamon,
Carolina, Mayaguez, and Caguas. A description of land uses by region follows. (Specific information
regarding percent land use was not available for Puerto Rico.)
• Region 1 of Puerto Rico contains two large urban centers, San Juan and Arecibo, and some
smaller urban and residential areas on the outskirts of San Jose and along the coast.
Although agriculture has decreased in importance relative to industry, much of the available
land is still used for agricultural activities. These activities include the cultivation of
pineapples and sugarcane, cattle raising (both dairy and beef), and commercial forestry.
2-30
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TABLE 2-4. FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE
IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS AND PUERTO RICO
Common Name
Scientific Name
PELAGIC FINFISHES:
cero mackerel
king mackerel - kingfish/longmouth
blue runner - hardnose
bar jack - carang
black jack
greater amberjack
DEMERSAL FINFISHES:
queen triggerfish - ole wife
blue-striped grunt
white grunt
French grunt
tomate
small-mouth grunt
Spanish grunt
Caesar grunt
sailor's choice
juvenile grunts
margate
mutton snapper - virgin snapper
dog snapper
grey snapper
schoolmaster - mango snapper
yellowtail snapper
mahogany snapper - burn tail
queen and French angelfish - flatfish
grey angelfish - flatfish
rock beauty
red hind - hind
graysby - butter socks
coney - butter fish
mutton hamlet
Nassau grouper
black grouper
tiger grouper
porgies
sea bream
doctorfish and tang
yellow goatfish - queen mullet
spotted goatfish
Spanish hogfish - Spanish piper
parrotfish - goutou
trunkfish - shellfish
Scomberomorus maculatus
S. cavalla
Caranx fusus
C. ruber
C. lugubris
Seriola dumerili
Batistes vetula
Haemulon sciurus
H. plumieri
H. flavolineatum
H. aurolineatum
H. chrysargyreum
H. macrostomum
H. carbonarium
H. parra
H. spp.
H. album
Lutjanus analis
L. jocu
L. griseus
L. apodus
Ocyurus chrysurus
L. mahogoni
Pomacanthus spp.
P. arcuatus
Holocanthus tricolor
Epinephelus guttatus
Petrometopon cruentatum
Cephalopholus fulva
Alphestes afer
Epinephelus striatus
Myctoperca bonaci
M. tigris
Sparidae
Archosargus rhomboidalis
Acanthurus spp.
Mulloidichthys martinicus
Pseudupeneus maculatus
Bodianus rufus
Scaridae
Ostraciontadae
2-31
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TABLE 2-4. (Continued)
Common Name
Scientific Name
DEMERSAL FINFISHES (Cont.)
portfish
sea chubs
spadefish
barracuda
Snook
white mullet - cramo
squirrel fish
mojarra - sand diggers
MOLLUSKS:
queen conch
whelk
CRUSTACEANS:
spiny lobster
Anisotrumus virginicus
Kyphosus spp.
Chaetodipterus faber
Sphyraena barracuda
Centropomus undecimalis
Mugil curema
Holocentridae
Gerreidae
Strombus gigas
Cittarium pica
Panulirus argus
Source: Boulon 1986
Region 2 includes the urban areas of Fajardo, Nagaubo, Humacao, and Yabucoa, as well as
the U.S. naval facility at Roosevelt Roads. Commercial ports are located at Fajardo,
Naguabo, and Humacao; an industrial port is located in Yabucoa. Both Humacao and
Yabucoa have developed industrial areas. La Cordillera, Culebra, and Vieques are primarily
rural/residential or underdeveloped. The islands of La Cordillera are uninhabited for the
most part. Culebra has a small population (including a number of illegal squatters) that
engages in farming and cattle raising. The island of Vieques is also rural/residential in
character, but over half the island is controlled by the U.S. Navy. Local inhabitants engage
in fishing and farming.
Region 3 includes the major urban centers of Guayama and Ponce and the industrial port
center of Bahfa de Gu£nica. Smaller commercial ports also exist in Guayama and Ponce.
Power plants are situated in Aguirre in Bahfa de Jobos and Bahfa de Guayanilla. Some of
the lower coastal land is dedicated to farming. State forests occupy lands near Guanica.
Region 4 has the urban areas of Mayaguez and Aguadilla. Facilities in Mayaguez include
industrial and commercial ports, and Aguadilla has a commercial port. Farming also
occupies some of the suitable coastal land. The offshore islands of Mona, Monito, and
Desecheo are exclusively park areas for the protection and enjoyment of nature and wildlife.
Mona has a small research and ranger station, and a primitive road crosses the island.
2-32
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Urbanization increased in land area while agricultural lands decreased over the past 50 years (Lugo et
al. 1980). Approximately, 66,613 ha of farmland were lost from 1972 to 1980 (or 8,337 ha/yr) (USEPA
1990a). In 1982, there were 21,820 farms in Puerto Rico. The average size was 17.8 ha. Table 2-5
shows the acreage, production data, and market value for the leading crops in 1982. Coastal wetland area
increased by 2630 ha from 1975 through 1990 (174 ha/yr), but development pressure may change that
trend (USEPA, 1990a). Forest land steadily decreased on Puerto Rico from the 1700s to the 1960s by
809,400 ha (USEPA 1990a). Some forest land was reforested between 1980 and 1985 (227,036 ha)
(USEPA 1990a). According to data presented by EPA (USEPA 1990a), based onUSDA Forest Service
reports (USDA 1982), total forest area increased from 279,000 ha in 1980 to 300,000 ha in 1985, about
4,000 ha annually. This increase occurred primarily because reversion of cropland and pasture to forest
exceeded forest clearing for nonforest uses. However, all new forests are classified as secondary forest,
which accounted for 58 percent of the island's forests in 1982. Abandoned coffee shade is the next
largest forest class, and abandoned and active coffee shade combined totaled 82,000 ha. During the
USDA study period, about 8,000 ha was cleared for relatively permanent nonforest uses such as
residences and rights-of-way.
TABLE 2-5. LEADING CROPS ACREAGE, PRODUCTION DATA,
AND MARKET VALUE IN 1982
Crop
Coffee
Sugarcane
Fruits and nuts
Grains
(Rice)
Vegetables
Pineapples
Ornamental plants
Tobacco
Area (ha)
32,133
16,143
21,509
1,062
889
2,621
1,214
334
98
Output
243,900 cwt
1.32 M metric tons
NA
141, 000 cwt
138,000 cwt
NA
39,900 metric tons
NA
167,000 kg
Value
($M)
$39.3
26.7
14.1
9.7
9.6
9.5
8.8
0.26
3
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce 1991
= Not Available
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U.S. Virgin Islands
The U.S. Virgin Islands comprise over 50 islands, with three islands of significant size, population, and
commercial importance: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix.
St. Thomas is 20.9 km long and 6.4 km wide, approximately 83 square km (km2) in total area. St.
Thomas has the territorial capital, Charlotte Amalie, which has one of the largest harbors in the entire
Caribbean. The island is mountainous and little cultivated, but it has many snug harbors. Its land use
is predominately residential (26 percent), with urban, resort, and agricultural uses accounting for 4
percent; underdeveloped land accounts for 61 percent. Because of the steep slopes of the interior,
development is concentrated in relatively flat areas along the coast.
St. John, a few kilometers east of St. Thomas, is 14 km long and 6 km wide, with an area of 52 km2,
68 percent of which is national park (8,094 ha). St. John is also mountainous and has fine beaches and
dense vegetation. Residential and resort development appears small (4 percent) and is confined to the
east and west of the island, not incorporated into the National Park. Cruz Bay is the most intensively
developed settlement, with harbor facilities for small ships and boats.
St. Croix, the largest of the islands, lies 64 km south of St. Thomas and St. John. The island measures
36.5 km in length and 10.6 km across at its widest point, with an area of 212.9 km2. St. Croix is
relatively flat, with a terrain suitable for sugarcane cultivation. It is predominately underdeveloped (59
percent); however, most of the development is confined to coastal areas near sensitive marine habitats.
Agricultural uses occupy 12 percent of the total land area, a percentage higher than that of any other
island of the Virgin Islands. Residential, urban, and resort development accounts for almost 16 percent,
again near coastal areas. Christiansted, on the north coast, is the major population and urban center.
Christiansted has harbor facilities and receives major tourist cruise ships on a regular basis. Fredricksted,
on the west coast, is a smaller residential center with a single pier for smaller ships. The South Shore
Industrial Complex contains a major oil refinery, an alumina plant, and tanker docking facilities.
A Virgin Islands land use survey was conducted in 1989 by the Department of Planning and Natural
Resources, Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands (Colman et al. 1989). The land use survey was based
on aerial photography analysis. Table 2-6 summarizes the land use classifications for the three main
Virgin Islands. The classifications are defined below:
• Agricultural land includes all land dedicated to agriculture such as dairy farming, cattle
grazing, crop production, tree farming, and agricultural field and experiment stations.
• Retail/Commercial includes shopping centers, gas stations, clusters of shops, office buildings,
and auto dealerships/servicing.
• Resorts/Hotels includes hotels, condos, and apartments used by tourists, guest houses,
cottages, and campsites.
• Industrial/Commercial uses range from watch assembly and other light manufacturing to oil
refining, electrical generation, and water desalination.
• Public Facilities includes publicly owned or used facilities such as airports, schools, fire
stations, churches, sewage treatment plants, landfills, prisons, and universities.
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• Urban is characterized by highly mixed land use activities, very dense development, and a
high concentration of population. Census tract boundaries were used to delineate the limits
of urban use near the major cities.
• Waterfront Marine includes those uses which depend on a location on the shoreline or in
coastal waters such as cruise ship docks, cargo and container ports, oil terminals, marinas,
boatyards, and mooring areas.
• Parks/Dedicated Open Space depicts those uses of land and water that are dedicated to
recreational activities or land conservation, or a combination of the two. It includes land
within the park system, tennis courts, baseball fields, and beaches, as well as land owned by
nonprofit organizations such as the Nature Conservancy.
• Undeveloped includes land not included under other uses. This land could have the potential
to be developed. It is not necessarily "unusable" land such as steep slopes.
• Residential includes the total acreage developed for residential use.
A significant portion of the land of the Virgin Islands is zoned for residential uses. In total, the
residential land uses constitute the largest zoning category. Over 60 percent of the land area of St. Croix,
over 80 percent of St. Thomas, and over 90 percent of the nonfederal land on St. John is zoned
residential. These percentages are higher than those presented in Table 2-6 because not all of the zoned
area has been developed. Low-density residential uses are the most significant in terms of land coverage.
The pattern of development and density has been guided by the zoning law, which defines low density
as one or two structures per acre.
TABLE 2-6. USE OF LAND IN PUERTO RICO IN 1958 AND 1967
1958
Use
Urban
Cultivated
Pasture
Forest
Federal Land
Other Uses
Total
Area (ha)
38,896
316,234
276,625
187,304
39,283
27,426
885,555
Percent of
Total
4.4
35.7
31.2
21.3
4.4
3.1
100
1967
Area (ha)
45,997
264,365
341,139
155,009
39,174
40,104
885,555
Percent of
Total
5.2
29.8
38.5
17.5
4.4
4.6
100
Source: Lugo et al. 1980.
2-35
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2.4.2 Population
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico, with a 1990 census population of 3,552,037, had more people than 27 of the states. The
1990 census total represented a 10.2 percent increase over the total in 1980, with an average growth rate
of 1.0 percent over the past 10 years.
Tables 2-7 through 2-9 describe population changes and characteristics for Puerto Rico. In 1990, Puerto
Rico was 48 percent male and 52 percent female and the median age was 28.5. Fully 29 percent of the
population was below 29 years of age and 50 percent was under 25, compared to 41 percent for the
states. The birthrate steadily declined from 38.9 live births per 1,000 population in 1950 to 18.9 live
births from 1983 to 1984. The death rate was nearly one-third lower than the U.S. norm in 1981 (Puerto
Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990). According to the 1990 census, the population was two-
thirds urban and one-third rural. San Juan, Puerto Rico's capital and largest city, had a 1990 census
population of 437,745, followed by Bayamon, 220,262; Ponce, 187,749; Carolina, 177,806; and Caguas,
133,447 (Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990).
Three main ethnic strands are the heritage of Puerto Rico: the Taino Indians, most of whom fled or
perished after the Spanish conquest; black Africans, imported as slaves under Spanish rule; and the
Spanish themselves. Of the 199,542 residents in 1980 who were born on the U.S. mainland, most were
of Puerto Rican extraction. Of the 63,351 persons born on neither the mainland nor the island, most
were West Indians from Cuba or the Dominican Republic. Approximately half were naturalized U.S.
citizens. Approximately 98 percent of the people living in Puerto Rico are native.
As of 1985, Puerto Rico had 1,782 public and 818 private elementary and secondary schools and 69
higher education facilities including the University of Puerto Rico (9 campuses with 45,000 students),
Inter-American University, and World University. Educational expenditures by the government, per
pupil, ranked 10"1 in the world (Munro 1988).
U.S. Virgin Islands
Tables 2-7 through 2-9 describe the population changes and characteristics for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Of the residential population, 45 percent are native born, of which 35 to 40 percent are from other
Caribbean islands; 12 percent are from the U.S. mainland; and 5 percent are from Europe (Munro 1988).
The population continues to increase, unlike the population of Puerto Rico, which appears to have
stabilized.
The population of the Virgin Islands was approximately 97,000 in 1990, almost equally divided between
St. Thomas (48,166 in 1990) and St. Croix (50,139 in 1990), with only 3,500 permanent residents on
St. John (U.S. Department of Commerce 1991). Additional 1990 census information (e.g., median age
of males for 1990) is unavailable for the U.S. Virgin Islands. The composition of the population has
undergone changes in the last two decades, with an increasing number of people migrating from the
continental United States and Puerto Rico, particularly to St. Croix. The native population is referred
to as West Indian. St. Thomas has been a trading center for the Caribbean for over 300 years and is the
most cosmopolitan of the islands. St. John is the least urban of the islands. St. Croix has been the most
affected by the population migration from the mainland United States. As of 1985, the Virgin Islands
had 34 elementary and secondary schools and 1 college.
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TABLE 2-7. U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS POPULATION, BY PLACE OF BIRTH
AND YEAR OF IMMIGRATION (1980)
Category Population
Total resident population 96,567
Native born 43,234 (45 %)
Born in United States 11,964(12%)
Born in Puerto Rico 4,993 (5%)
Born elsewhere 30,371(31%)
Immigrated:
1975-1980 7,080
1970-1974 7,054
1960-1969 13,566
Before 1960 3,031
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 1980.
2.4.3 Economy
Puerto Rico
Since the industrial program "Operation Bootstrap" was initiated in 1948, manufacturing has become the
most important sector of Puerto Rico's economy, accounting for 45 percent of the national income
(Munro 1988). Table 2-10 lists the principal manufacturing industries and the commodities produced.
These include Pharmaceuticals, textiles, clothing, electrical and electronic equipment, and petrochemicals.
Agriculture contributes approximately 3 percent to the national income with the main activities including
dairy; livestock production; and cultivation of sugar, tobacco, coffee, pineapples, and coconuts. Chief
exports are chemicals, petroleum products, clothing and textiles, and machinery (Munro 1988). The U.S.
mainland is the chief trading partner. Tourism is of major importance to the economy, accounting for
$1.04 billion in 1988 (Munro 1988).
In 1940, agriculture employed 43 percent of the workforce; by 1982, fewer than 5 percent of Puerto
Rican workers had agricultural jobs. The greatest decline was in the sugar industry. Production peaked
at 1.2 x 10* metric tons in 1952, when 150,000 cane cutters were employed. By 1978, production was
0.3 x 10* metric tons, with fewer than 20,000 cutters in the fields, and the industry was heavily
subsidized. In 1982, production fell below 0.09 x 10s metric tons. The hilly terrain makes
mechanization difficult, and manual cutting contributes to production costs, making them higher than
those of Hawaii and Louisiana. Despite incentives and subsidies, tobacco is no longer profitable and
coffee production, well adapted to the highlands, falls short of domestic production although half the crop
2-37
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TABLE 2-8. POPULATION AND MEDIAN AGE, BY AREA AND SEX: 1960-1990
Area and Sex
Puerto Rico
Male
Female
Virgin Islands
Male
Female
Population (thousands)
1960 1970 1980 1990
2349.5
1162.8
1186.6
32.1
15.9
16.2
2712.0
1329.9
1382.2
62.5
31.3
31.3
3196.5
1556.7
1639.8
96.6
46.2
50.4
3522.0
1705.6
1816.4
*
*
*
1960
18.5
18.0
18.9
20.7
20.3
21.2
Median Age (years)
1970 1980
21.6
20.9
22.2
23.0
23.1
23.0
24.6
23.7
25.5
22.5
21.1
23.6
1990
28.5
27.6
29.6
*
*
*
Source: Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990, U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.
* 1990 data are not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
TABLE 2-9. ESTIMATES OF POPULATION CHANGE: 1970-1990
Area
Net
Number
Change
Percent
Births (1000s)
Deaths
(1000s)
Net migration
(1000s)
1970-1980
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
484.5
34.1
17.9 744.0
54.6 26.6
193.7
5.0
-65.9
12.5
1980-1988
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
95.0
6.6
3.0 546
6.9 20.1
185
4.4
-267.0
-9
1980-1990
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
325.5
*
10.2
*
Source: Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990, U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.
* 1990 data are not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
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TABLE 2-10. PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
Principal industries
Manufactured goods
Chief agricultural crops
Livestock
Nonfuel minerals
Commercial fishing
Manufacturing
Pharmaceuticals, chemicals,
machinery, metals.electric
equipment, petroleum, food,
apparel
Coffee, plantains, bananas, yarns,
taniers, pineapples, peas, peppers,
pumpkins, coriander, lettuce,
tobacco
Cattle, pigs, poultry
Cement
Tourism, rum, alumina,
petroleum refining, watch
industry, textiles, electronics
Rum, textiles, Pharmaceuticals,
perfume
Truck garden produce
Negligible
Sand and gravel
Negligible
Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
is exported. Pineapple growing, managed by the Puerto Rican Land Authority, was also unprofitable in
the 1970s. Converting sugarcane lands to rice production is a long-term agricultural goal.
Table 2-11 describes the contributing components of the Puerto Rican economy in 1984. Manufacturing,
government, finance, and real estate were the largest contributors. Table 2-12 presents the employment
breakdown by economic component. Table 2-13 presents the agricultural component in more detail.
Tables 2-13 and 2-14 show that between 1982 and 1987 the total number of farms decreased and the
productive acreage decreased, yet the total number of small farms increased.
Virgin Islands
Table 2-10 lists the major industries and manufactured goods of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.
Tourism is the Virgin Islands' principal industry, particularly on St. Thomas, where the deep natural
harbor at Charlotte Amalie is ideally suited for cruise ships. Two-thirds of the U.S. Virgin Islands'
income is derived from tourism (U.S. Virgin Islands Bureau of Economic Research, St. Thomas,
personal communication, September 14, 1992). Tourism accounted for $662.8 million in 1988 (Munro
1988). In addition to contributing to government tax revenues, tourists directly and indirectly support
a wide variety of occupations, such as accountants, merchants, and yacht captains. The Virgin Islands
National Park on St. John and the Coral World underwater observatory off the northeast coast of St.
Thomas attract many visitors. Manufacturing is important on St. Croix, where the major industries are
oil refining, alumina refining, and the manufacture of watches and clocks, woolen textiles and garments,
rum, fragrances, and Pharmaceuticals. Although sugar plantations were established in the 17th century,
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TABLE 2-11. SOURCES OF PUERTO RICO'S INCOME, 1984
Source Percent
Manufacturing 40
Government 13
Finance, real estate, insurance 13
Trade 12
Services 9
Transportation, public utilities 8
Agriculture 3
Construction, mining 2
Total 100
Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
sugar production has been phased out and an estimated 15 km2 of land has been released for vegetable,
sorghum, and fruit production. Agriculture is not well developed, and much of the island's food has to
be imported from the United States. Chief exports include petroleum products, alumina, chemicals,
clocks, watches, meat, and rum. The main trading partner is the U.S. mainland (Munro 1988).
Tables 2-13 and 2-14 describe the agricultural changes and economic contribution from 1982 to 1987.
The number of farms increased, as did the acreage in production. Milk, cattle, and hogs were the three
most significant agricultural contributions.
2-40
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TABLE 2-12. AGRICULTURE IN PUERTO RICO: 1982-1987
Total Farms Total Fanned Area % Total Area
(Hectares)
Item 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987
Dairy 21,820 20,245 — — — —
Coffee — — < 4 43.7 47.2
Cattle — — 4-8 20.2 18.9
Sugarcane — — > 8 32.9 30.8
Fruits/Nuts — — 385,672 348,139 — —
Pineapples — — — — — —
Vegetables — — — — — —
Amount
Unit
—
l,000cwt
—
1,000 tons
(metric)
—
1,000 tons
(metric)
hectares
Harvested
1982 1987
— —
243.9 246.2
_ _
1,326 1,062
— —
40 63
2,630 2,425
Sales
1982
152,126
39,302
28,579
26,663
14,060
9,534
9,547
($1000)
1987
157,864
41,766
30,206
26,643
20,643
15,495
8,236
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.
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TABLE 2-13. AGRICULTURE IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS: 1982-1987
Item
Milk
Cattle
Hogs
Tomatoes
Mangoes
Total Fanned
Area % of Total Amount
Total Farms (Hectares) Area Harvested Sales
1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982
259 267 ----- - 923
— - < 1.2 29 30 — — 489
_ _ 1.2-3.6 34.7 30.3 - - 130
_ _ 48 9.3 12 3.2 ha 6.5 ha 34
27 28 > 8 - - 205,000 171,000 -
($1000)
1987
1,043
614
125.3
114
44
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.
TABLE 2-14. PUERTO RICO'S EMPLOYMENT, 1982
Area of Employment
Percent
Agriculture: farms
Agriculture: forestry, fisheries
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing
Transportation, public utilities
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Finance, real estate, insurance
Service industries
Government
Other establishments
4
21
3
4
11
4
12
33
2
Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
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3. SOURCES OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE POLLUTION
An increase in anthropogenic waste and human-induced physical stress (e.g., dredging) has altered the
aquatic habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Anthropogenic pollution has increased since
1965 (Wernicke and Towle 1983, EQB 1990, DPNR 1990), and the effects of the pollution are
compounded because the currents around the islands are generally weak, increasing the pollutants'
retention time (IRF 1976). Types of point source pollution include treated and partially treated
wastewater discharged into coastal waters by municipal, industrial, and power-generating facilities via
distinct pipes. Nonpoint sources of pollution include stormwater runoff from residential, urban, and
industrialized areas; agricultural runoff; and releases from vessels (including oil spills). Scientists have
found that over 85 percent of the marine pollution is the result of land-based sources (Reid 1981).
Industrial sources of pollution in the Caribbean include petrochemical industries, refineries,
pharmaceutical companies, sugar mills, breweries, canneries, metal and electroplating plants, seafood
processing facilities, rum processing facilities, and other industries. Figure 3-1 illustrates some of the
point and nonpoint sources of pollution and their general location in Puerto Rico. Similar information
is not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
This section identifies types of point sources (Section 3.1) and nonpoint sources (Section 3.2) of pollution
impairing coastal waters in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The polluted coastal waterbodies,
the types of pollution, and the sources of pollution are identified. Information on point and nonpoint
sources of pollution was obtained from the Waterbody System (WBS), Puerto Rico's and the U.S. Virgin
Islands' 305(b) reports, the Toxics Release Inventory System (TRIS), and the Permit Compliance System
(PCS). Descriptions of these databases and reports are provided below.
• WBS. Information in WBS includes a list of waterbodies and associated identification
number, general location, support status, degree of impairment, source of pollution,
classification, and water quality assessment information (USEPA 199la). Data files from
WBS for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were analyzed to obtain impairment status
and source information.
• 305(b) Reports. The Water Quality Inventory is a report published every 2 years by the
individual states and U.S. territories. This report, which is required under § 305(b) of the
Clean Water Act, describes the specific water quality of the navigable waterbodies and waters
of the contiguous zone.
• TRIS. TRIS is a series of databases containing information on the estimated releases of toxic
chemicals into the environment. Over 300 chemicals and their estimated releases are
recorded in the system. The information is collected annually as instructed by Tide III of the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986. Only facilities with
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes ranging from 20 to 39 (i.e., most industrial
facilities) are required to report their releases.
• PCS. PCS is a database that lists the facilities with NPDES permits and specifies their level
of compliance with their permit limits. PCS was used to obtain facility identification
information and NPDES permit levels for facilities that have impaired waterbodies listed in
the 305(b) reports.
3-1
-------
LEGEND
REFINERIES (Sg SAND EXTRACTION
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES © UNTREATED SEWAGE
RECREATIONAL MARINAS (SM) SUGAR MILLS
THERMOELECTRICAL PLANTS (§) SEDIMENTATION
INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES @ TREATMENT PLANTS
Figure 3-1. Sources of Point and Nonpoint Pollution Along Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico
A response to the requirement of § 305(b) of the CWA is § 304(1), which requires States to develop lists
of impaired waters, identify the pollutant and source, and specify the remedial action needed. Section
304(1) reports were used extensively in this section to identify point and nohpoint sources that have been
identified as significantly impairing waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The § 304(1)
report consists of three lists (referred to in this report as the short, mini, and long lists), which are
described by § 304(1) of the Clean Water Act as follows:
Short List (A)(i): A list of waters the State does not expect to achieve numeric water quality
standards for § 307(a) toxic pollutants after technology-based requirements have been met, due
to either point or nonpoint source pollution. This list is a subset of the (A)(ii) list described
below and could be a very short list where a State has a few or no numeric criteria for § 307(a)
toxics, even if water quality impairments due to toxicity are occurring in many of the State's
waterbodies.
Mini List (A)fii): A comprehensive list of waters impaired by point or nonpoint source discharges
of toxic, conventional, and nonconventional pollutants. This list should reflect all waters needing
additional control actions, whether the problem is toxicity or some other impairment.
3-2
-------
Long List (B): A list of waters the State does not expect will achieve "applicable standards" after
technology-based requirements have been met, due entirely or substantially to point source
discharges o/§ 307(a) toxic pollutants and narrative "free from toxidty" standards.
The U.S. Virgin Islands reported waterbodies only for the short list, whereas Puerto Rico reported
waterbodies for all three of the § 304(1) lists. In this assessment, information from the short and mini
lists was used to identify both point and nonpoint sources since these sources may be targeted for future
controls in order to reduce impairments to waterbodies.
3.1 Point Source Pollution
Point source pollution is defined for this study as permitted wastewater discharges to rivers, coastal
waters, and estuarine waters by municipal, industrial, and power-generating facilities. These facilities
discharge heavy metals, nutrients, toxic organic chemicals, heated effluents, and oxygen-demanding
substances. Listed in the 1990 305(b) report were 94 NPDES-permitted effluents in Puerto Rico and 14
NPDES-permitted effluents in the U.S. Virgin Islands that have been identified as impairing waterbodies.
Since the 1990 305(b) report some of these dischargers have been deactivated.
Information on point sources for Puerto Rico was obtained from the 304(1) short list and mini list
(presented in Appendix D), WBS, and TRI. Locations of impaired waterbodies listed on the 1990 304(1)
short list and NPDES-permitted dischargers that were listed as the sources of the pollution are presented
in Figure 3-2. Locations of NPDES effluents that have impaired waterbodies listed on the mini list are
presented in Figure 3-3. All of the coastal wastewater discharges of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands are presented in Tables 3-1 and 3-2, respectively. Ninety-four NPDES-permitted effluents were
identified as impairing waterbodies in Puerto Rico. Over half of these NPDES-permitted facilities
released wastewater sewage that had not been properly treated. Inadequate sewer/water treatment systems
have been identified as one of the major point source problems in the Caribbean (Wernicke and Towle
1983, DPNR 1990). These facilities tend to break down, leak, and experience trouble with excessive
runoff. In 1974, fewer than 10 percent of the sewer systems had treatment facilities. At this time there
is no indication that the treatment systems have substantially improved or that they are keeping pace with
the growth of the population. Inadequate operation and maintenance of treatment plants are compounded
by broken pipes and illegal hook-ups. Waterbodies near most of the major cities of Puerto Rico,
including San Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanico, Arecibo, Aquadilla, Ponce, and Mayaguez,
have been impacted by the release of partially treated wastewater sewage.
Pathogenic problems arising from inadequate sewage/water treatment facilities are one of the major types
of point source pollution in Puerto Rico. Illegal connections to the storm sewer systems (76 in 1989)
compound the impacts due to the introduction of raw sewage (EQB 1990). In the last federal inspection
of Puerto Rico's sewage treatment plants, August 1991, 16 out of 46 (35 percent) failed the inspection.
Nine of the facilities that failed were from the Humacao area. EPA addressed the situation by citing
more than 93 treatment plants, which were exceeding the discharge limits set by EPA (1990c). Most of
these plants are in poor condition, and 52 of the 93 plants are now in court because of the violations.
Information on point sources for the U.S. Virgin Islands was obtained from the § 304(1) short list, WBS,
and TRI. Locations of the 23 impaired waterbodies on the short list and the sources of the marine
pollution (NPDES numbers) are presented in Figure 3-4. Four waterbodies named in WBS as impaired
by point sources were not included on the § 304(1) short list: WBS #VI019, sewage outfall at
3-3
-------
ISLA
\T»f
16 KM
I 1
0 10 MILES
Figure 3-2. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from Puerto Rico's 304(1) Report
-------
I SLA
NOTE: All unmarked coastal areas
are classified as SB.
16 KM
I 1
0 10 MILES
SA
SB
SC
Figure 3-3. NPOES Outfall Locations Which Impact Waterbodies
-------
TABLE 3-1. SUMMARY OF COASTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGES
IN PUERTO RICO
Location
Sewage Treatment Plants
1 Isabella (PRASA)C
1 Isabella STP (PRASA)
2 Camuy STP (PRASA)
4 Arecibo (PRASA)
5 Barceloneta STP (PRASA)
6 Dorado STP (PRASA)
7 Bayamon STP (PRASA)
8 Carolina (PRASA)
7 Puerto NueVo
Industrial
4 Puerto Rico Distillers
7 Bacardi Corporation
7 Bacardi Corporation
Electrical Utiliites
7 Puerto Rico Electric
Sewage Treatment Plants
9 Fajardo STP (PRASA)
9 Heritage Communities STP
10 Roosevelt Roads STPf
12 Manaubo STP (PRASA)
Industrial
1 1 Yabucoa Sun Oil Co.
1 1 Phillips Puerto Rico Core Inc.
NPDES
Permit No.
Region 1
PR0022250
PR0022080
PR0023744
PR0023710
PR0021237
PR0023850
PR0023728
PR0023752
PR0021555
PR0000680
PR0000591
PR0000591
PR0001301
Region 2
PR0021709
PR0021539
PR0020010
PR0020656
PR0000400
PR0022322
NPDES
Permitted
Flow*
(MGD)
1.00
1.00
3.02
8.00
8.30
1.22
25.00
45.00
72.00
1.00°
0.07
0.40
650.0
1.6
0.10
0.937
0.30
4.00
2.10
Annual
Average
FIowb
(MGD)
1.02
d
1.13
4.11
6.02
1.32
25.30
12.65
38.05
e
0.444
0.118
402.7
2.30
0.18
0.38
d
1.59
0.41
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Maxb
(MGD)
1.26
d
1.50
6.20
7.82
1.82
33.59
17.40
50.25
e
0.530
0.174
453.7
3.43
0.06
0.66
d
2.87
0.52
3-6
-------
TABLE 3-1. (continued)
Location
Sewage Treatment Plants
14 Guayama STP (PRASA)
16 Santa Isabel STP (PRASA)
Second Unit Pastille
17 Ponce STP
19 Guanica (PRASA)
Industrial
15 Corp. Azucarera de Puerto Rico
17 V.C.S. National Packing Co.
17 Sun Harbor Caribe
14 SK&F Lab Corp.
18 Union Carbide
18 Commonwealth Oil Petrochemical
18 Commonwealth Oil Petrochemical
Electric Utilities
15 Aguirre
18 South Coast 1-6
Sewage Treatment Plants
21 Mayaguez RWWTP (PRASA)
22 Rincon (PRASA)
23 Aguadilla STP (PRASA)
21 Starkist Caribe
21 Starkist Caribe
21 National Packing
21 Neptune Packing
NPDES
Permit No.
Region 3
PR0025445
PR0023761
PR0023116
PR0021563
PR0020486
PR0000167
PR0021962
PR0021 105
PR0021997
PR0000418
PR0000345
PR0000345
PR0001660
PR0001147
Region 4
PR0023795
PR0020788
PR0023736
PR0022012
PR0022012
PR0000230
PR0021954
NPDES
Permitted
Flow"
(MGD)
10.00
1.00
0.01
18.00
0.33
31.38
1.73
1.32
0.087
4.2
14.90
62.00
652.00
566.00
22.5
0.28°
8.00
2.00
2.00
2.44
0.015
Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)
2.42
0.746
d
11.53
0.655
7.45
0.798
d
0.058
0.164
0.652
d
607.36
684.51
8.07
e
3.50
1.11
1.11
d
d
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Max"
(MGD)
3.74
1.034
d
13.34
1.17
9.17
1.10
d
0.084
0.577
0.859
d
651.6
775.5
10.94
c
4.86
1.65
1.65
d
d
3-7
-------
TABLE3-1. (continued)
NPDES
Location Permit No.
21 Bumble Bee Puerto Rico, Inc. PR0022110
21 Mayaguez Water Treatment Co. PR0023043
NPDES
Permitted
Flow4
(MGD)
2.50
4.32
Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)
1.58
2.01
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Max*
(MGD)
2.09
3.21
Isla de Culebra
No coastal discharge reported
Sewage Treatment Plant
25 Vieques (PRASA)
Isla de Vieques
PR0020931
0.50
Isla Mona
No coastal discharges reported
Source: USEPA (1990a); J. Gorin, July 3 1991, personal communication.
"Peak flow allowed under the existing NPDES permit.
bBased on data between April 1990 and April 1991.
"Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority.
dData unavailable.
elnactive.
fOutfall 001A.
TABLE 3-2. SUMMARY OF COASTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGES
IN THE U.S. VIRGIN LANDS
NPDES
Permitted
Location
NPDES
Permit No.
Flow*
(MGD)
Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)
Mean Monthly
Daily Max"
(MGD)
St. Thomas
Sewage Treatment Plants
1
2
3
3
3
Charlotte Amalie
Frenchman's Reef
Cowpet Bay West
Cowpet Bay East
Nadir Estate
VI0020044
VI0039829
VI0039853
VI0039900
VI0020125
3.400
2.230
0.035
0.026
0.170
2.200
0.027
0.020
c
c
1.69
0.032
0.022
c
3-8
-------
TABLE 3-2. (continued)
Location
NPDES Annual
Permitted Average Mean Monthly
NPDES Flow* Flow* Daily Maxb
Permit No. (MGD) (MGD) (MGD)
St. Thomas
Industrial
4 Coral World Inc.
— " FAA
— d American Yacht Harbor
— d Sapphire Bay
— d Watergate Villas
— d D&C Development
— d Water Bay Management
— d KR Development
— d Yacht Haven Hotel and Marina
— d Frank McCarthy
— d Sea Cliff Beach Resort
— d Bayside Resort
Electrical Utilities
1 V.I. Water and Power
VI0040291
VI0020150
VI0039870
VI0039944
VI0040134
VI0040185
VI0040193
VI0040215
VI0040088
VI0040096
VI0040177
VI0040312
VI0000060
0.001
0.010
0.064
0.004
0.066
1.000
0.026
0.020
0.030
0.004e
0.020
0.057
10.000
c
c
0.015
0.024
0.051
c
0.014
C
c
e
c
0.049
c
c
c
0.257
0.031
0.057
C
0.015
C
c
e
c
0.053
c
St. John
Sewage Treatment Plants
5 Cruz Bay
6 Cancel Bay
Industrial
— d Gallos Point Development Corp.
VI0039942
VI0039837
VI0040037
0.020
0.265
0.036
0.037
0.166
0.020
c
0.212
0.540
St. Croix
Sewage Treatment Plants
8 St. Croix
Industrial
— d Hess Oil
— d Electrical Utilities
7 V.I. Rum Industries
VI0020036
VI0000019
VI0000051
VI0020052
4.000
™c
c
0.115
c
c
—__c
0.084
2.8
__c
c
0.087
Source: USEPA 1990a, PCS.
'Peak flow allowed under the existing NPDES permit.
bBased on data between April 1990 and April 1991.
'Data not available.
dLocation not available
'Inactive facility.
3-9
-------
ST. CROIX '
WATER
CLASSIFICATIONS
I SA
SC
NOTE: All area* not marked SA or SC ora
considered SB.
+
a-vr
h
o
3.2 KM
H
ZO MILES
Figure 3-4. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from the Virgin Islands 304(1) Short List Report
-------
the St. Croix POTW; WBS #VI035, Krumb Bay; WBS #VI068, Frenchman's Bay; and WBS #VI100,
Virgin Islands Rum Industries Ltd. outfall. Additional information incorporated into the map includes
the associated NPDES numbers obtained from the WBS. Fourteen NPDES-permitted facilities were
identified as impairing waterbodies in the U.S. Virgin Islands. No waterbodies or point sources were
identified on the mini list. In addition, no priority pollutants listed in § 303(c) of the CWA have been
identified as impairing designated uses in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USEPA 199Ib). The U.S. Virgin
Islands' list of impaired waters is relatively short compared to that of Puerto Rico. Water quality is noted
as "generally good" but "declining" in the § 305(b) report (EQB 1990). The decline is the result of an
increase in municipal point sources and an increase in nonpoint sources resulting from construction along
the coast (EQB 1990).
The NPDES effluents listed in Figure 3-3 for Puerto Rico and Figure 3-4 for the U.S. Virgin Islands
have been identified as impairing specific waterbodies, as presented in these figures. Although some of
the NPDES effluents are discharged to interior rivers, loadings from these degraded rivers may ultimately
impact estuarine and coastal areas. These coastal areas are used for swimming, fishing, recreation, and
support of aquatic life and wildlife. The degradation of these specific designated uses caused by the point
sources listed in Figures 3-3 and 3-4 is discussed in Section 5. The waterbody classifications presented
in Figures 3-3 and 3-4 and defined below indicate the general designated uses of the coastal waterbodies.
• Class SA waters include coastal waters that should not be altered so that the existing water
characteristics and the natural phenomena are not changed;
• Class SB waters include coastal waters that are intended for uses in which the human body
may come into direct contact with the water (e.g., swimming);
• Class SC waters are coastal waters in which incidental contact with water by the human body
may occur (e.g., while boating); and
• Class SE coastal waters include surface waters of exceptional water quality and ecological
value, whose existing characteristics should not be changed in order to preserve the existing
habitat's superior water quality.
3.2 Nonpoint Source Pollution
Nonpoint source pollution comes from diffuse sources and is related to the activities that occur on the
land surface. The quantity and type of pollutants leaving the land surface are directly related to the
specific land use. The primary nonpoint source problems in the islands can be characterized as follows:
• Urban, residential, and industrial stormwater runoff;
• Agricultural runoff; and
• Discharge from vessels (including oil spills).
3.2.1 Stormwater and Agricultural Runoff
Stormwater from urban, residential, and industrial land uses is generated from runoff from roadways,
parking lots, lawns, rooftops, and industrial yards. Numerous waterbodies in Puerto Rico have been
impaired by urban and industrial stormwater runoff, as listed in the § 304(1) report presented in
3-11
-------
Appendix D. Many of these waterbodies are near major coastal cities of Puerto Rico such as San Juan.
Typical pollutants released to surface water from stormwater runoff include sediment, metals (primarily
copper, cadmium, zinc, and nickel), petroleum hydrocarbons from vehicle emissions, pesticides and
fertilizers from lawn care, pollutants from septic systems, and pollutants specific to certain industrial
processes and practices. Runoff from port facilities also may contain fuels and oils from the
transportation systems used to support the ports, sediments, and industrial chemicals. Runoff from
construction activities, as well as dredging, primarily generates sediments, both clean and contaminated.
Disturbed land in transitional uses such as construction often has significant erosion potential unless
siltation fence, hay bales, or other sediment control measures are installed.In the U.S. Virgin Islands,
Manning Bay and College Cove were listed as being impaired from landfill runoff and construction
runoff, respectively, as shown in Figure 3-4 (map numbers 9 and 12).
For agricultural lands, the primary nonpoint source pollutants are nutrients, sediment, animal wastes,
salts, pesticides, and herbicides. Over 40 waterbodies in Puerto Rico were listed as being impaired by
runoff from agricultural lands, as listed on the § 304(1) mini list in Appendix D. Most of these
waterbodies consist of rivers and streams in the interior of the island. However, significant increases in
nutrient loadings to these rivers from agricultural runoff will ultimately impact coastal areas.
Nutrients from soil erosion, animal wastes, or improperly applied fertilizers can affect water quality.
Excessive nutrients can lead to an imbalance in the natural nutrient cycle and can cause eutrophic
conditions and oxygen depletion. Soluble nutrients such as nitrate often reach surface water in runoff or
percolate easily through soils to groundwater, where they can present a health hazard to humans. Other
nutrients, such as phosphorus, can attach to soil particles and enter surface waters through the
sedimentation process. Heavy metals and other toxics also can bind to sediment and organic material.
Sediment is washed off the land surface and can cause impacts to aquatic habitats through deposition.
3.2.2 Discharges from Vessels
Discharges associated with vessels in marinas and port facilities could contain petroleum hydrocarbons,
waste oils, sewage, cleaning solvents, and wash water from shipping containers. The boating industry
generates 50 percent of the waste oil produced on the islands. Incidental oil spills in marinas have
compounded the pollution-related problems in the boating industry. Wernicke and Towle (1983) found
significantly higher levels of tributyltin (TBT) in areas where boats are scraped and repainted. (TBT
constituted 10 percent of the paint in the old antifouling paints.) Although improper disposal of solid
waste represents a relatively small portion of the nonpoint source pollution problem associated with the
boating industry, this problem has been increasing over time. The total garbage volume generated in
1980 by the boating industry in St. Thomas alone was 39,917 metric tons (Wernicke and Towle 1983).
Oil spills along the coastal regions of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands and elsewhere in the
Caribbean contribute significantly to the nonpoint source pollution problem of the islands. These spills
have lasting effects on the marine environment. Figure 3-5 summarizes the major oil spills that have
impacted the coastal areas of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (IOC/UNEP 1989). In 1986 alone,
vessel casualties resulted in over 3.8 x 106 liters of oil, 5.1 x 10s liters of hazardous substances, and
2.8 x 104 liters of other substances spilled into the Caribbean marine environment (IOC/UNEP 1989).
In addition, it is estimated that 6.7 percent of the total offshore oil production in the Caribbean is lost
through spills into the marine environment (IOC/UNEP 1989). Fifty percent of the oil pollution
impacting Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands originates from these spills, which occur in the
Caribbean and are carried in from the North Atlantic Gyre System via the Caribbean Current, the Gulf
Stream, and the Gulf Loop (IOC/UNEP 1989). The remaining 50 percent of the spilled oil is from local
3-12
-------
LEGEND
1 - Guanica (1962).
2 - Guayanilla Bay (1970).
3 - Bahia Sucia (1977)
4 - North Eastern (1979)
5 — Bahia Ensenada
6 — San Juan Harbor
7 - Krause Lagoon, St. Croix (1979)
8 - Catano Beach (1991)
9 - Guonica (1991)
Figure 3-5. Oil Spill Sites
boating traffic and ballast washings (Wernicke and Towle 1983). Refer to Table C-4 in Appendix C for
selected spill data for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (1987-1991), which were obtained from the U.S.
Coast Guard's National Response Center Database. Washing discharges are thought to be the major
source of oil pollution in the marine environment, causing an accumulation of tar balls that can be
detrimental to aquatic organisms that ingest them (IOC/UNEP 1991a). Tar balls fouling beaches also
present problems for tourists and hotels. Just recently, an oil spill occurred releasing 946 liters of oil
onto Catano Beach. A large section of the beach had to be closed during clean-up efforts.
3-13
-------
3-14
-------
4. LEVELS OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE POLLUTION
Marine and estuarine pollutants of agricultural, industrial, and residential origin include toxics, biological
pathogens, nutrients, sediments, and thermal inputs. The purpose of this section is to present the
observed levels of these agents and to provide a general description of their potential effects on the
aquatic environment. Data collected on the levels of each type of pollutant are summarized below for
each region. Data gaps associated with characterizing the extent of marine and estuarine pollution are
also discussed. This section is limited to a qualitative description of potential effects of marine and
estuarine pollution. The quantitative evaluation of the impact of this pollution on the environment and
human health in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is discussed in Section 5. Geographic
information regarding levels of marine and estuarine pollution also is presented in Section 5.
4.1 Toxics
Toxic substances, toxics, or toxicants are defined as compounds capable of producing an adverse response
in a biological system. This section describes concentration levels of several compounds, measured for
regions of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and presents a list of toxics of concern based on a
comparison of water and sediment concentrations with Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs)
(USEPA 1986a) and sediment criteria developed from the AWQCs. Data from STORET-WQ and
STORET-TISSUE (USEPA 1992) were evaluated and analyzed in order to categorize the levels of toxics
in ambient water, sediments, and fish tissue. Any pertinent information from scientific papers or agency
reports was integrated with STORET water quality data to fill data gaps (EQB 1990, Coulston et al.
1991). Data for water and sediment analyses from Puerto Rico are presented in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2;
data for water and sediments from the U.S. Virgin Islands are in Section 4.1.3. Fish tissue data are
discussed in Section 4.1.4.
Data on the levels of toxics in surface water and sediments in marine and estuarine environments obtained
from STORET-WQ and other sources contained notable gaps, including a complete lack of data for the
U.S. Virgin Islands, a partial lack of sediment data for Puerto Rico, and an overall lack offish tissue data
(Table 4-1). No recently collected (i.e., after 1980) organic or heavy metal data were available from
STORET-WQ for the U.S. Virgin Islands, partly because of the relatively insignificant levels of toxics
found along the coastal waters of these islands during extensive sampling of the coastal water and
sediments of St. Thomas and St. John between 1974 and 1979. Most of the limited sediment data
available for Puerto Rico were from samples obtained from dredged material. These samples failed to
yield detectable levels of organic toxicants. Most of the available toxics monitoring data collected
between 1985 and 1991 were for surface waters along the coast of Puerto Rico. Despite these limitations,
the data are useful for a preliminary toxics categorization study to help identify the needs of the region.
4.1.1 Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico
Out of the approximately 80 organic compounds analyzed in water samples, methylene chloride, bis(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate, and phenols were the only organic chemicals detected at concentrations above
1 /ig/L. The highest levels of these chemicals were detected near San Juan Harbor. Methylene chloride
was found at maximum concentrations of 2,400 /*g/L, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate at 390 /zg/1, and phenols
(total) at 23 /xg/L. In addition, several other organic chemicals were detected at relatively low levels in
surface water including several pesticides, PAHs, and PCBs. Some of the pesticides detected in surface
water along the coastal waters of Puerto Rico (all at concentrations below 0.01 /ig/L) include the
following:
4-1
-------
TABLE 4-1. SUMMARY OF THE NUMBER OF TOXIC COMPOUNDS HAVING
AVAILABLE STORET DATA SETS FOR TOXICS IN PUERTO RICO
AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS IN 1985-1991
Number of Compounds Analyzed
Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands
Water Column
organics
metals
pesticides
Sediment (dredged material)
organics
metals
pesticides
Fish Tissue
Region
1"
82
26
34
59°
13"
-
Region
2'
62
19
30
53
32
Region
3'
71
27
25
-
-
Region
4"
38
19
22
-
-
-
•Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992), retrieved January 6, 1992.
bSource: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992), retrieved January 13, 1992.
Tive additional samples were taken from suspended solids in the water column.
dAll 13 metal samples were taken from suspended solids in the water column.
• ODD, DDE, and DDT;
• Aldrin;
• Dieldrin;
• Endrin;
• Heptachlor;
0 Methoxychlor;
• Malathion;
• Parathion; and
• Diazinon.
In addition to the pesticides, toluene and benzene were detected in post-1985 water samples along the
coast of Region 4 at levels below 3.0 fig/L. PCBs were detected in Regions 1 through 4 at concentrations
of less than 0.1 /xg/L. Overall, these pesticides and PCBs are fairly ubiquitous but were found at very
low levels. Localized "hot spots" or sites having significantly high levels of these chemicals, however,
may be present in surface waters, but were not found in the STORET data (USEPA 1992).
Fourteen heavy metals were detected rather frequently in the marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico.
The highest levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, mercury, nickel, thallium, and zinc were
found along the coastal areas of Region 1, primarily near San Juan Harbor. The highest levels of
aluminum, beryllium, copper, lead, and silver were detected in Region 3. The highest levels of selenium
were found in Region 4. As will be discussed later in this section, several of these heavy metals may
4-2
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potentially impair aquatic life and may cause risks to human health from ingestion of contaminated fish.
Water monitoring for inorganics in Puerto Rico has declined somewhat in the last few years. Monitoring
for iron, zinc, magnesium, and boron has been reduced to one time per year because the levels from
monitoring in 1980 to 1989 showed no signs of detrimental effects on the environment (EQB 1990).
Within San Juan Harbor, water samples were collected at five stations during each fall from September
1985 to October 1988 for metals analyses (USEPA, 1989a). Metals concentrations were reported to have
violated class "SC" water quality standards for 15 samples due to high zinc concentrations. Levels of
copper, lead, mercury, and selenium exceeded their class "SC" standards in seven, one, three, and three
samples, respectively. Five water quality stations and sixteen sediment quality stations were sampled
during the September 1985 and October 1988 surveys and were analyzed for volatile organic compounds,
nonvolatile organics, pesticides, and PCBs.
Toxics of Concern
Statistical summaries of estuarine and marine water monitoring data were calculated from all data
provided in STORET-WQ. To identify key toxics of concern for surface water, a screening analysis was
performed by comparing the statistical summary data with Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs)
(USEPA 1986a). The primary toxics of concern detected in surface water from Puerto Rico Regions 1
through 4 are presented in Tables 4-2 through 4-5, respectively. A compound was selected as a chemical
of concern if the maximum concentration detected at any station location within the coastal region
exceeded a chronic and/or acute AWQC for the protection of marine life and/or the AWQC derived for
ingestion of fish tissue. AWQCs for the organics and metals are based on the protection of aquatic
organisms and their uses. They are established by EPA after extensive review of laboratory results of
toxicity tests on aquatic animals and plants typically under both acute and chronic exposure. For
additional discussion of the development of the AWQCs, see USEPA (1986a). Chemicals selected in this
process were further evaluated quantitatively in Section 5 to identify specific areas along the coast with
elevated levels of toxics. A general description of the toxicity of metals, pesticides, and other organics
to aquatic life is provided below.
Metals
Most of the compounds in Tables 4-2 to 4-5 are heavy metals. The toxicity of metals generally varies
with pH and hardness of the water. The toxicity of a given metal can vary considerably from species to
species, although few studies have targeted tropical aquatic organisms. At elevated levels, metals act by
inhibiting enzyme activity in organisms (Kennish 1992). Many organisms, including aquatic species,
possess metal lothioneins, proteins that bind heavy metals to aid in the protection of the organism from
metal toxicity (Hamilton and Mehrle 1986). However, pathological effects can be detected before the
metal loth ionein binding capacity is saturated (e.g., Calabrese et al. 1984, Petering and Fowler 1986).
Sorenson (1991) has reviewed the effects of several heavy metals on fish. Selenium is considered to be
one of the most toxic metals to fish, although low levels are essential in the fish diet. Selenium (Se)
accumulates in fish liver tissues (Sorenson 1991). Excessive or insufficient Se levels in fish cause anemia
(Sorenson 1991), and Se has been associated with tissue damage. Morphological alterations are caused
by exposure to arsenic under both laboratory and environmental conditions. Lead accumulates in fish
scales, fin rays, vertebrae, and opercula because these areas are active sites of calcification
(Sorenson 1991). In addition to hematological, neuronal, and muscular effects analogous to those shown
in mammals, fishes show lordoscoliosis, pigment pattern alterations, and coagulation of surface mucous
4-3
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TABLE 4-2. SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 1
Compound
Methyl ene Chloride
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Mean
Detection Concentration
Frequency 0*g/L)
9/15
8/70
76/96
200/209
32/57
709/734
712/735
749/770
94/154
682/710
226/245
44/62
262/282
22/38
820/825
223/229
22/22
191
18
4
9.78
5.28
13.95
4.92
9.04
25.94
6.52
1.14
29.48
1.68
35.25
65.77
9.32
115
Standard Maximum
Deviation Concentration
Oig/L) 0*g/L)
613
63
4
33.40
4.32
232.54
23.72
16.53
20.20
16.89
14.75
42.66
4.48
40.27
109.53
32.18
69.81
2400
390
23
200
20
4980
393
261
60
144
231
145
33.4
100
1740
200
400
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
when they are exposed to lead. Lead inactivates enzymes essential to hemoglobin formation. Fish may
produce excess mucous when exposed to lead and other metals including Zn, Fe, Cu, Cd, Hg, Mn, Co,
Ni, Au, Ag, and Al (NAS 1972). The mucous coatings on fish contain metal complexing agents that
enhance the binding of metals to the fish. Lead produces muscle spasms and loss of equilibrium in fish.
Zinc is necessary for fish health in low concentrations, but elevated exposure to zinc may cause
behavioral changes; respiratory and cardiac changes; histopathologic alterations to the gill, liver, and
skeletal muscle; enzymatic alterations; and inhibition of spawning (Sorenson, 1991). Exposure to
cadmium alters plasma levels of ions, glucose, and lactate. Cadmium also causes anemia and
abnormalities in red blood cells. Although copper is an essential element to fish, spawning may be
4-4
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TABLE 4-3. SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 2
Compound
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
14/14
34/34
5/5
157/157
156/156
164/164
10/25
150/150
29/29
5/5
50/50
172/172
40/40
5/5
Mean Standard Maximum
Concentration Deviation Concentration
(Mg/L) Otg/L) Gig/L)
6.62
2.63
5.00
0.74
1.82
11.27
33.20
2.47
0.24
5.0
.39
84.62
4.64
116
5.50
0.0
1.14
5
44.48
21.16
6.15
0.45
0
.48
115
8.60
21.90
24
5
7
37
468
50
35
2.5
5
1.5
645
35
140
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
affected at elevated levels of exposure. Toxicity to marine species is less than that to freshwater species
possibly because of the reduction in toxicity observed with increasing water hardness. Mercury is very
toxic to fish primarily because it binds to sulfhydryl groups on enzymes. Mercury stimulates the
production of mucus, to which much of the mercury binds until the mucus is sloughed off (Sorensen,
1991). Acute toxicity to thallium in saltwater aquatic species occurs at concentrations as low as
2,130/ig/L(USEPA1986a).
Heavy metals may also affect the various life stages of corals (gametes, planulae, or larval settlement).
Exposure of the Indo-Pacific species Podllopora damicornis and Montipora verrucosa to solutions of
copper sulfide at concentrations of 100 /xg Cu/L resulted in 100 percent mortality after 24 hours (Evans
1977). Exposures of 48 hours to concentrations of 10 /tg Cu/L caused stress to some of the corals, which
subsequently died by the sixth day of exposure (Evans 1977). A study on nickel showed a significant
effect on the settlement ability of planulae (larvae) of the Pacific coral P. damicornis 9 days after
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TABLE 4-4. SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 3
Compound
Methylene Chloride
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
1/37
11/11
47/47
31/54
438/445
406/443
435/460
13/13
401/428
63/94
52/68
105/131
492/495
62/62
18/18
Mean Standard Maximum
Concentration Deviation Concentration
(/tg/L) (/ig/L) (Mg/D
5.26
4.0
10.83
7.24
12.76
7.55
7.77
10.0
13.39
0.30
31.10
3.95
74.33
9.97
163.28
0
3.32
10.59
6.82
189
45.60
17.45
0
39.93
0.24
27.24
7.03
101
10.06
202.15
5.26
10
38
50
3966
917
304
10.
290
1.5
98
42
902
36
865
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
exposure to 1 ppm Ni+ + concentrations (Goh 1991). Fifty percent mortality of planulae exposed to nickel
was observed 17 hours after prior exposure to 9 ppm for 48 hours (Goh 1991). All planulae exposed to
9 ppm for 96 hours eventually died. Heyward (1988) demonstrated complete or partial reductions in
fertilization success rates in corals exposed to copper sulphate (> 0.5 mg/L or 0.1 mg/L, respectively)
and zinc sulphate (at 1.0 mg/L) in laboratory tests. Heavy metals have been found in corals off Florida
(Glynn et al. 1989, Howard and Brown 1984).
Tributyltin (TBT) has been used as an antifouling agent in marine boat paints (Champ 1986). Adverse
effects on molluscs (imposex, the manifestation of male morphological sex characteristics in females,
resulting in sterility and localized extinctions) and reduced growth, survival, and reproduction in other
nontarget species of temperate benthic invertebrates have been found in marinas and other TBT-
4-6
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TABLE 4-5. SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 4
Compound
Methylene Chloride
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
1/1
5/5
16/16
3/3
94/94
95/95
98/98
8/8
91/91
3/3
24/24
106/106
19/19
3/3
Mean
Concentration
-------
Pesticides
The pesticides found in the Puerto Rico studies—aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin—belong to a class of
compounds called cyclodienes. These compounds are very toxic to aquatic life, especially fish (Kennish
1992). The toxicity data for total DDT and DDE indicate acute toxicity to saltwater aquatic life at as low
as 4 /ig/L and 14 /xg/L, respectively (USEPA 1986a). Studies on reef corals exposed to mixtures of p,p'-
DDT, dieldrin, and Aroclor 1254 demonstrated no mortality at 10,100-jtg/L and l,000-/ig/L
concentrations. However, the corals responded by decreasing their rate of photosynthesis while
increasing their rate of respiration (McCloskey and Chesher 1971). Occasionally, the ratio of the rate
of photosynthesis to respiration dropped below 1.0. A drop in this ratio below 1.0 may profoundly affect
coral communities whose diurnal O2 balance is close to 1.0 (McCloskey and Chesher 1971). Laboratory
exposures of corals to herbicides at concentrations comparable to those measured in corals collected from
a site at Biscayne National Park off Southeast Florida (Glynn et al. 1984) have produced bleaching and
mortality (Glynn et al. 1989). The field-collected corals showed no signs of unusual morbidity or
mortality despite the high tissue burden of pesticides and trace metals. Solbakken et al. (1985) found
differences in the uptake and elimination rates of lindane and a phthalate ester for a brain coral, Diploria
strigosa, noting that the poor elimination rate of the phthalate ester could lead to long-term effects.
Hawker and Connell (1991) proposed a tolerance level of 10 ftg/L for corals exposed to pesticides and
herbicides, based on limited data, but noted that other organisms such as phytoplankton and algae may
have much lower tolerance levels.
Marine fishes are susceptible to toxicity exerted through brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition by
the organophosphorus insecticide malathion. Toxicity of malathion related to levels of AChE inhibition
have been reported for several marine fish species. The effects of repeated exposure to malathion or any
of the other organophosphorus insecticides (for instance parathion) may be additive, and inhibition of
AChE by more than 35 percent may be expected to result in damage to aquatic organisms (USEPA
1986a). It should be noted, however, that pesticides were detected at concentrations below 0.01 /xg/L
in surface water. Therefore, impacts due to exposure to pesticides may not be significant. (None of the
pesticides were selected as chemicals of concern.)
Other Organics
Toxicity to saltwater aquatic life from exposure to phenol occurs at concentrations as low as 5,800 jig/L
(USEPA 1986a). Marine diatoms are sensitive to concentrations of PCBs as low as 0.1 part per thousand
million (ptm) (Kennish 1992). PCBs may inhibit the growth of phytoplankton and potentially alter
phytoplankton communities in estuaries (Kennish 1992). Much work has been done on sublethal and
lethal effects of oil hydrocarbons and chemical dispersants on tropical marine organisms. Corals are
among the most vulnerable members of coral reef communities, with seagrasses, mangroves, and pelagic
organisms also vulnerable (see Hawker and Connell 1991 and Thorhaug 1991 for reviews). While corals
may not show any effects following short-term exposures, contact with water-accommodated fractions
of oil hydrocarbons for long periods may produce impaired development of gonads, atrophy of mucous
secretory cells and muscle bundles, and degeneration of zooxanthellae (Peters et al. 1981). Corals readily
take up a variety of hydrocarbons, including pesticides, into their tissues and do not appear to depurate
them easily (Peters et al. 1981, Knap et al. 1982). Organic toxicants can be passed along in the food
chain from corals to predatory fishes, urchins, or mollusks (e.g., Ogden 1977, Knowlton et al. 1990).
Extensive damage was done to intertidal and subtidal flora and fauna of nearshore coral reefs, seagrass
beds, and mangroves following an oil spill off the San Bias islands in Panama (Jackson et al., 1989).
4-8
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4.1.2 Sediments of Puerto Rico
Sampling programs in 1974 for Region 1 indicated the presence of DDT and its metabolites, dieldrin,
and PCBs at average concentrations in sediments of 4 to 20 ng/g for the pesticides and 100 ng/g for total
PCBs. These compounds, however, were not detected in recent samples of dredged material. No
significantly high levels were found in sediment data that had been previously entered into the STORET
database. Again, however, localized "hot spots" of these chemicals may occur in sediments that are not
represented in the STORET database. In addition, sediment samples from dredged material may not
represent concentrations in recently deposited surface sediments that are in contact with the aquatic
environment.
Sampling in Region 1 showed concentrations of thallium, nickel, silver, zinc, antimony, selenium,
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, and lead associated with suspended solids in
the water column. In general, the average values reported for metals in Puerto Rico Region 1 were about
twice the levels measured for St. Thomas and St. John within the period 1972 to 1979. Average zinc
levels were 300 times higher in Puerto Rico Region 1 than in the U.S. Virgin Islands in the late 1970s.
No suspended solids data were collected for the other regions.
Toxics of Concern
Few data exist to evaluate toxics of concern for sediments. Marine and estuarine sediment monitoring
data were analyzed statistically and summarized from all data provided by STORET-WQ. Key toxics of
concern for sediments were evaluated by comparing the statistical summary data with derived sediment
criteria. Sediment criteria were derived from AWQCs for a few pesticide compounds and PCBs to
determine whether these chemicals may present a threat to aquatic life (USEPA 1988). None of the
detected levels exceeded these criteria. However, the lack of sediment data and the lack of available
toxicity criteria prevent any clear evaluation of sediment quality.
Based on available data, the region of greatest concern was San Juan Harbor, where discharges from a
sewage treatment plant had degraded water quality prior to redirection of the plant outfall. Studies of
the benthic community performed about 2 years after elimination of sewage treatment plant discharges
showed little sign of habitat impairment (Stoner and Goenaga, 1987). Diverse species inhabited the
harbor despite a history of discharge of untreated or partially treated municipal and industrial wastes and
frequent dredging (Stoner and Goenaga, 1987). Although species diversity is similar to that of other
tropical estuaries, no historic data for San Juan Harbor are available for comparison (Stoner and Goenaga,
1987). The redirection of sewage outfalls further out in the ocean may result in potential adverse effects
on other species, such as corals (USEPA 1983). Sediments may remain in contact with coral reefs for
extended periods through resuspension of contaminated sediments deposited in coral areas (Dodge et al.
1974). In addition to the stresses imposed on corals and other reef organisms to remove sediments
deposited on tissue surfaces (Rogers 1990), studies have shown that sediments containing oil hydrocarbons
and heavy metals can cause sublethal and lethal effects on these organisms (Bak and Elgershuizen 1976,
Thompson and Bright 1977, Szmant-Froelich et al. 1981, Kendall et al. 1983).
Metals
Sampling data for Region 1, which allowed comparison of suspended sediment and water only for
concentrations of metals, showed that suspended sediments were enriched up to about one thousand times
above the concentrations associated with filtered water. Sediments therefore can trap large portions of
4-9
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the metals and deposit them in estuaries and bays. Although most of the experimental evidence of metal
toxicity has been collected for aquatic exposure, because concentrations in sediments are high, only a
small fraction must become available to the biota to produce a deleterious effect. Elevated concentrations
in pore water may contribute significantly to sediment toxicity, especially where organisms burrow in
sediments. Factors influencing the bioavailability of sediment-bound contaminants are not fully
understood and, thus far, potential biological responses cannot be predicted solely on the basis of
concentration data (Langstrum 1990).
Pesticides
Although benthic invertebrates are generally more tolerant of pesticides than other types of organisms
tested, benthic species can bioaccumulate pesticides and other organic compounds and transfer them up
the food chain (e.g., Fiore et al. 1989, Farrington 1991, Gardner et al. 1991, O'Connor 1991).
Organics
Benthic fauna are typically exposed to higher concentrations of the organic compounds associated with
sediments. Uptake of organic compounds such as PCBs by benthic organisms may result from exposure
to pore water or through direct contact with contaminated sediments (Farrington 1991). Since these
animals are a food source for others, their accumulation of organic compounds and metals from sediments
may represent a major vector in the transport of such toxics to fish. For many toxic materials, sediments
represent both the primary repository and the principal source of contamination to the food chain
(Landrum and Robbins 1990).
Sediments collected from contaminated areas have produced toxicity to aquatic organisms in a wide range
of laboratory bioassays (Swartz 1987, Lamberson and Swartz 1988). Laboratory experiments on Mytilus
edulis (mussels) and Nephtys incisa (polychaetes) collected from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, showed
histopathological changes to the gills and epidermis, respectively, when animals were exposed to
suspended sediments containing 50 percent contaminated sediment dredged from Black Rock Harbor
diluted with sediment from a reference site (Yevich et al. 1987). The dredged material from Black Rock
Harbor contained high concentrations of organic and inorganic pollutants including 6,400 ng/g PCBs,
1,000 to 12,000 ng/g PAHs (molecular weights between 166 and 302), 2,900 fig/g copper, 1,480 fig/g
chromium, 1,200 /ig/g zinc, 380 jig/g lead, 140 /ig/g nickel, 24 /xg/g cadmium, and 1.7 fig/g mercury
(Yevich et al. 1987). Exposure to suspended sediments at concentrations reduced by approximately
50 percent by dilution with reference sediments resulted in histopathological changes to the gills of
100 percent of the study mussels after 14 days of exposure (Yevich et al. 1987). Exposure of N. incisa
to the diluted dredged sediments resulted in histopathological changes in the epidermis in 18 percent of
the test organisms after 42 days of exposure. The test animals and field-sampled animals from locations
near where the dredged materials had been dumped showed elevated tissue levels of organic pollutants.
4.1.3 U.S. Virgin Islands Toxics Data
As previously discussed, no recently collected (i.e., since 1980) organic or heavy metal monitoring data
were available for use in characterizing the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore, other
sources were exhausted to fill this data gap. Suspended sediment samples for eight metals—arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, aluminum, and mercury—taken between 1972 and 1979 revealed
low levels (3 to 40 mg/kg dry wt. and 13,000 mg/kg for aluminum) for St. Thomas and St. John. No
pesticides or PCBs were detected during this period for these islands. More recently, a study conducted
4-10
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in 1986, Toxic Substances in Coastal Waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands, examined water and sediment
samples for heavy metals for nine station locations in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Table 4-6 summarizes the
types of inorganics detected in surface water and sediments, as well as possible sources of these
contaminants. No monitoring data were summarized in this report, however. The results of this study
indicated that the levels of inorganics in sediments and surface water were not significant enough to
impair aquatic life or human health. Because of these findings, similar monitoring project proposals
havenot been funded by the U.S. Virgin Islands. No toxics of concern were identified for the Virgin
Islands. Because of the lack of evidence of contamination in sediment and water samples of the Virgin
Islands, no estimates offish tissue concentrations were performed.
4.1.4 Toxics in Edible Fish Tissue
EPA databases containing fish tissue data, such as STORET-TISSUE and the National Study of Chemical
Residues in Fish (NSCRF) (USEPA 1990b), were accessed to determine whether any fish tissue data were
available for Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands. No fish tissue data were available from these
sources. Limited information on fish tissue contamination was found in two government reports, which
are summarized below. However, none of these studies reported actual fish tissue concentrations.
• NOAA (1991a) detected concentrations of mercury above the U.S. EPA limits in fish caught
at Guayanilla Bay, Puerto Rico. However, no fishing bans were reported in the Puerto Rico
1990 305(b) report.
• The U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Fish and Wildlife conducted a limited study dealing
with the accumulation of toxics in fish tissue (DPNR 1990). This study concluded that there
is little need for concern over the problem of toxics in fish tissue in the U.S. Virgin Islands
(DPNR 1990).
Since actual fish tissue data are not available, levels of toxics of concern in fish tissue were modeled
using ambient surface water quality data and available bioconcentration factors (BCFs). Toxics evaluated
in this assessment were identified by comparing ambient surface water concentrations with available
AWQCs for the ingestion of fish. Mercury and thallium were the only chemicals present in surface water
that exceeded AWQCs for ingestion of fish. Mercury concentrations in fish tissue were estimated using
a BCF of 3,760 which is approximate for coastal and estuarine waters and mean concentrations of
mercury in surface water from different coastal regions of Puerto Rico. Modeled concentrations of
mercury in fish from coastal waters of Puerto Rico ranged from 0.9 mg/kg to 4.2 mg/kg. No BCF was
available for modeling fish tissue concentrations of thallium.
Evaluation of the human health risks associated with exposure to mercury is discussed in Section 5.3.1.
Human exposures to mercury have been associated with the production of c-mitosis and chromosomal
alterations in cells of the kidney and brain (NAS 1991). Neurological damage as a result of exposure
may result in clinical signs and symptoms of paresthesia, incoordination, tremor, and epileptic seizures
(NAS 1991). Mercury can also inhibit enzymes by binding to sulfhydryl groups. Children of mothers
exposed to relatively low levels of mercury, as determined by blood and hair samples, may suffer from
mental retardation.
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TABLE 4-6. TOXICS FOUND IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
Waterbody
Parameter
Found in
Water
Parameter
Found in
Sediments
Sources
1 Christiansted Harbor
2 Salt River
3 HOVIC West
Copper
Copper
4 Martin Marietta (Limetree Antimony
Bay)
5 St. Croix POTW Mercury
6 Public Dump (Manning Bay) Mercury
Copper, lead, and
mercury
Copper, zinc,
chromium, mercury,
cadmium, nickel, and
antimony
Antimony, arsenic,
chromium, and
selenium
Cadmium
Boatyard, yacht
harbor, and unknown
sources
Atmospheric and
yacht harbor
Shipping, refinery
Unknown sources,
aluminum production
Atmospheric
Atmospheric,
landfill leaching
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Frederiksted Harbor
Lindberg Bay
St. Thomas STP
Benner Bay
Mangrove Lagoon
Long Bay
Careening Cove
Cruz Bay
Hawksnest Bay
Great Cruz
Coral Bay
Mercury
Selenium
Nickel
Mercury
Selenium
Mercury
Copper and zinc
Zinc
Mercury
Atmospheric
Selenium Unknown sources,
WAPA outfall
Natural?
Atmospheric
Nickel Unknown sources,
natural
Copper, lead, and Yacht harbor
zinc
Copper, lead, and Boatyard
zinc
Atmospheric
Unknown sources
Yacht harbor
Nickel Atmospheric,
natural
Source: DPNR 1990.
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4.2 Biological Pathogens and Biotoxins
Diseases caused by pathogens associated with anthropogenically contaminated waters have been well
documented (Cabelli et al. 1983, Milliken and Lee 1990, Coulston et al. 1991, McNeill 1992). Human
infectious diseases associated with swimming in polluted waters and ingestion of contaminated shellfish
include hepatitis, typhoid, cholera, skin diseases, and acute gastroenteritis (AGI). The most common
form of disease in humans that is associated with exposure to biological pathogens in the marine
environment is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk viruses, other viruses, and various species of bacteria.
Other bacteria in the tropics are also considered health risks and are of concern (Ortiz-Roque and Hazen
1987, Dahling et al. 1988). Ciguatera, a poisoning syndrome of concern in the Caribbean, is caused by
ingestion of fish contaminated with biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates (NAS 1991). Diseases caused
by pathogens and related to anthropogenic pollution stresses also have been documented in finfish,
shellfish, and other marine organisms (Sindermann 1990, Peters 1988).
4.2.1 Human Pathogens in the Marine and Estuarine Environment
The abundance of dinoflagellates and certain bacteria has been linked to increases in pollution
(particularly nutrient loadings) from agricultural runoff, urban runoff, and sewage discharge (Table 4-7).
In 1981, less than 10 percent of the sewage in the Caribbean was treated; most was discharged untreated
into rivers, oceans, harbors, and latrines (NOAA 1988). Annual population growth is currently estimated
at 4.5 percent, which should continue until the end of the century. Urban sewage services have failed
to keep up with this growing demand. More than half of the Caribbean countries report that 50 percent
of the population have no sewer services (NOAA 1988).
Measurements of fecal coliform in ambient water are used as standards for evaluating pathogen water
quality. Studies have indicated, however, that fecal and total coliform counts do not correlate well with
the various viruses and bacteria found in the coastal waters, particularly in the tropics (McNeill 1992),
with the exception of Salmonella (IOC/UNEP, 1991b). Caribbean scientists doubt the validity of a test
based solely on fecal counts. A new method, using enterococcus bacteria, Escherichia coli, and fecal
streptococci, has been suggested (IOC/UNEP, 199Ic). Another recent concern has been the ability of
certain human pathogenic bacteria to enter a nonculturable state after exposures to heavy metals, toxic
chemicals, or adverse temperature conditions. The bacteria retain their viability and infectivity, however,
and special techniques using direct fluorescent monoclonal antibody staining and DNA gene probes may
be necessary for accurate determination of public health safety in marine and estuarine waters (Hasan et
al. 1991; McNeill 1992). Ambient water quality will be evaluated using available fecal coliform and
enterococcus data for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Exceedances of various pathogen
standards are discussed in Section 5.
Fecal contamination can occur from at least three different sources: fecal pollution from sewage
discharge into the environment, including waste from boats; industry or retail processing; and changes
in the environment (NOAA 199la). There is documented evidence that higher densities of coliforms are
present in mooring areas (i.e., marinas).
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TABLE 4-7. HUMAN PATHOGENS LIKELY TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE
AND TRANSMITTED BY WATER CONTACT
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
Helminths
Aeromonas hydrophila
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Staphylococcus aureus
Salmonella spp.
Shigella spp.
Vibrio spp.
Mycobacterium spp.
Bacillus anthacis
Clostridium perfringens
Yersinia spp.
Campylobacter spp.
Pseudomonas spp.
Leptospira spp.
Listeria monocytogenes
Escherichia coli
Clostridium botulinum
Poliovjrus
Coxsackie A and B
Echovirus
Adenovirus
Reovirus
Parvovims
Rotavirus
Hepatitis A
Norwalk and related
gastroenteric viruses
Entamoeba histolytica
Acanthamoeba spp,
Giardia spp.
NaeglertQ fouleri
Echinococcus granulosus
Hymenolepis nana
Taenia saginata
Fasciola hepatica
Ascaris lumbricoides
Enterobius vermicularis
Strongyloides spp.
Trichuris trichiura
Toxocara canis
Trichostrongylus spp.
Ancylostoma duodenale
Source: Kennish 1992 and McNeill 1992.
Ambient fecal coliform data for coastal waters off Puerto Rico from 1985 to the present were obtained
from STORET and are summarized below by coastal region (USEPA 1992):
Fecal Coliforms
(coliforms/100 mL)
Region 1
Region 2
Region 3
Region 4
Mean
624
8,297
247
1,018
Maximum
730,000
850,000
45,000
60,000
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The highest fecal coliform counts were found near major coastal cities. Enterococcus monitoring data
also were available for Region 1 of Puerto Rico. The mean enterococcus count was 117 CFUs/100 mL,
while the maximum enterococcus count was 4,800 enterococci/100 mL. As discussed in Section 5, the
levels of fecal coliform and enterococcus in ambient coastal water of Puerto Rico indicate significant
impairments to water quality and the need for better treatment methods of sewage treatment plant (STP)
effluents.
San Juan has been an area of particular concern for the last few years. Prior to 1985, the Puerto Nuevo
sewage treatment plant's effluent was discharged directly into San Juan Harbor (USEPA 1989a). Fecal
counts ranged from 4 to 12,800 fecal coliforms/100 mL. The standards for fecal counts were exceeded
in the canals and rivers, and these numbers have been constantly increasing since 1985. Martin Pena
Canal had the highest levels of fecal coliform in the study area. Remedial actions were recommended
to alleviate the input of fecal coliforms into this channel.
In San Juan Harbor, water samples were collected each fall from September 1985 to October 1988 at 22
stations for determination of total coliform, fecal coliform, and enterococci bacteria concentrations.
Bacterial concentrations ranged from 9 to 116,000 coliforms/100 mL, with highest concentrations
occurring in the Martin Pena Canal and Puerto Nuevo River and lowest densities in the Condado Lagoon
(USEPA 1989a). The class "SC" standard of 10,000 total coliforms/100 mL has been exceeded in the
inner bay and canal/river areas. The fecal coliform standard of 2,000 fecal coliforms/100 mL has been
exceeded only in the canal/river area. Puerto Rico does not have a standard for enterococci. However,
counts have exceeded the EPA criterion for marine waters of 35 enterococci/100 mL in the outer bay,
inner bay, and canal/river areas. The number of bacterial counts exceeding the criterion in the canal and
river appears to have increased between 1985 and 1988. Sediment samples collected at 16 stations during
the fall surveys were analyzed for the abundance of Clostridium perfringens. Counts for samples
collected during 1985-1987 were underreported by a factor of 0.6 due to analytical problems that were
observed for samples collected during 1988. Clostridium counts were highest in the canal and at inner
bay stations close to the canal during April and October 1988.
Recent (i.e., after 1985) fecal coliform and enterococcus data for the U.S. Virgin Islands were not
available in STORET. Other data sources were used to quantify ambient levels of pathogens along the
coastal areas of the U.S. Virgin Islands. A recent study (1989-1990) conducted by Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston, .Bacteriological Studies to Evaluate the Safety of Recreational Waters in the U. S. Virgin Islands,
examined 15 sites weekly from December 1989 to June 1990. The sample sites included:
• St. Croix - Christiansted Harbor, Salt River Estuary, Columbus Landing, Colony Cove
Beach, Tide Beach, Reef Beach, and Yacht Club located in Teague Bay;
• St. Thomas - Brewers Bay, Linberg Bay, Charlotte Amalie Harbor, Frenchman's Reef Resort
Beach, and St. Thomas Harbor; and
• St. John - Trunk Bay, Cruz Bay, and Lameshur Bay.
Multiple samples were collected from each sample station. Additional information from the Department
of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) and the Division of Environmental Protection was
incorporated into this report. These agencies take monthly samples as part of the U.S. Virgin Islands
beach monitoring program.
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Fecal counts varied greatly between the different habitats of the U.S Virgin Islands. Pristine areas
recorded counts of zero, whereas the counts in the polluted areas near marinas and urban areas were as
high as 200,000 fecal coliforms/100 mL. It should be noted, however, that the unusually long lag time
between sample collection and analysis produced lower-than-expected results (Coulston et al. 1991). Test
evaluations showed that five areas exceeded the limits for the specified classification, as discussed in
Section 5. This study also tested for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. The
commercial ports of Cruz Bay, Christiansted, and Charlotte Amalie tested excessively high for
Staphylococcus aureus.
This study also evaluated the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococcus (FC/FS). This ratio helps to
determine the source of pollution when a waterbody is being affected by both sewage discharge and
runoff. The ratio determines whether the waters are affected by a human fecal source or an animal/plant
source. A ratio that is greater than 4 indicates human fecal contamination, and a ratio of less than 0.07
indicates an animal or plant source (Geldreich 1976). The FC/FS ratio for the sample sites ranged from
zero to 9.4. These ratios were higher in areas used frequently by humans (e.g., harbors and marinas).
St. Thomas Harbor, Yacht Haven Marina, and Salt River Marina had ratios indicative of a human fecal
source; Cruz Harbor's ratio implied that the contamination was from an animal or vegetable pollution
source. Contamination was associated with channels and canals leading into the harbors and densely
populated areas around cities. Christiansted Harbor's Public Works Department has a serious problem
associated with the amount of pollution in die harbor. Occasionally, the department pumps raw sewage
into the bay because of malfunctioning pumps. These pumps are supposed to transport sewage to the
South Shore treatment plant, but periodically the sewage is diverted into the harbor. This practice causes
periodic spikes in the fecal coliform counts, but the monthly standard mean is never exceeded.
A survey conducted by DPNR in the Virgin Islands found a correlation between the amount of rainfall
and the fecal coliform counts (DPNR 1990). Because of stormwater runoff and subsequent facility
flooding, raw sewage runs into die ecosystems during heavy storms. Hurricane Hugo had a devastating
effect on the area. Many of the beaches were closed for months because fecal tests indicated that bacteria
levels were too high for human safety. These levels were the result of disabled treatment plants.
Monitoring data from these areas were requested, but were not received.
While specific pathogens were not identified in the above studies, other studies have shown that human
pathogens can be found in waters with high sewage loadings. A summary of some of the pathogens of
concern is presented in Table 4-7. Plusquellec et al. (1991) also noted that the sea surface microlayer
was enriched in indicator bacteria relative to subsurface waters at sewage-polluted sites so that evaluations
of bathing waters should take into consideration this possible concentration at the surface that could
directly contact the mouth, ears, eyes, and nose of swimmers and could produce highly contaminated
aerosols.
4.2.2 Human Pathogens in Seafood
Human pathogens, such as Hepatitis A virus and Norwalk viruses, present in sewage could contaminate
the edible tissues of various fish, crab, shrimp, and other invertebrate species (e.g., Panulirus argus,
Cittariumpica, Strombus gigas) found in marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands. The marine and estuarine environment also harbors species of Vibrio bacteria that are
opportunistic pathogens. Gastroenteritis may be caused by consumption of seafood containing V.
parahaemolyticus, and consumption of V. vulnificus may result in an acute, frequently fatal septicemia
(blood poisoning) in susceptible individuals having liver disorders, diabetes, or immune system
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dysfunction (Blake et al. 1979, Pollak et al. 1983, Jacket et al. 1984, NAS 1985, 1991, Grimes 1991).
Non-01 strains of V. cholerae can cause a cholera-like disease. There have been other reports of human
diseases caused by estuarine and marine bacteria (Grimes, 1991).
These organisms are not routinely monitored in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, however, nor
are studies conducted to relate the diseases to the ingestion of sewage-contaminated fish and shellfish.
Diseases could occur, but they may not be observed or linked to pathogenic seafood. Seasonal variations
in populations may occur (Boulon 1987). There have not been any prohibitions against consuming fish
and shellfish from contaminated waters in these islands. More information on the human health effects
of sewage-contaminated fish and shellfish is presented in Section 5.4.
4.2.3 Biotoxins in Seafood
Biotoxins are toxic chemicals produced by living organisms that may cause adverse human health effects
if ingested. The primary disease associated with ingestion of fish contaminated with biotoxins is a
poisoning syndrome known as ciguatera (NAS 1991). Ciguatera poisoning is well documented in the
Caribbean and has been increasing in recent years (CFMC 1985, 1990; Escalona de Motta et al. 1986;
Tosteson 1990). Carangids or jacks have been found to be more toxic than groupers and snappers, but
the largest fish are usually the most dangerous to consume because the toxin is accumulated up the food
chain. Ciguatera has been recognized as a serious health problem in the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto
Rico.
Although ciguatera is usually linked to the demersal food chain, studies have shown that the kingfish, a
pelagic fish, was linked to poisonings (Koester 1986). A recent study conducted by Tosteson et al.
(1988) examined the incidence of ciguatera in barracuda. This study found that 29 percent of the fish
caught in the northeastern Caribbean contained elevated levels of biotoxins. Seasonal variability did
occur. Peak values occurred in late winter, early spring, and fall (60-70 percent of the fish were toxic).
Extracted toxins appear to be contained in the viscera and the central nervous system of the fish, thus
making the fish unmarketable. Scientists have proposed that a dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, is
responsible for the occurrence of ciguatoxic fish in the marine environment (Yasumoto et al. 1979). This
dinoflagellate may significantly increase in population during disturbances or stress in the environment,
particularly during periods of increased nutrient loading (Yasumoto et al. 1979, CFMC 1990). A slight
increase in ciguatera cases was noted off the south coast of Puerto Rico following Hurricane David
(Rogers 1985).
An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands (Escalona de Motta et al. 1986, Tosteson 1990). The incidence of fish poisoning due to
ciguatera has increased by at least 10 reported cases per 10,000 residents per year since the late 1970s
(Jacket 1981). A problem associated with statistical information concerning the disease is that many
people do not report its occurrence because of widespread poverty and the concomitant lack of medical
attention.
Other dinoflagellates (e.g., Protogonyaulax catenella [= Gonyaulax catenella], P. tamarensis [= G.
excavata], Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa) produce neurotoxins, known as saxitoxins, that may
be concentrated in edible filter-feeding shellfish (NAS 1991). These dinoflagellates may bloom,
producing "red tides" that can kill fish and some invertebrates but are concentrated in some shellfish
without harming them. These biotoxins cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Other dinoflagellates
may also cause illness in humans by neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) (Steidinger 1983, Kennish
4-17
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1992). Although such biotoxins are primarily problems in temperate coastal waters of the United States,
some of the conditions suspected of contributing to dinoflagellate blooms, such as increased nutrient
loading from sewage disposal, are found in marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands.
4.2.4 Diseases in Marine and Estuarine Organisms
Like humans, other vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants are susceptible to pathogen-caused diseases, and
the prevalence of such diseases has been associated with adverse environmental conditions, both natural
and anthropogenically induced. Known pathogens of marine and estuarine organisms include viruses,
bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Pollution may affect the action of a pathogen either by assisting its
proliferation in the environment or by increasing the susceptibility of organisms to endemic opportunistic
pathogens by altering normal defense mechanisms that protect the organism from disease. Numbers of
Vibrio anguillarutn increased in the water column and sediments in the vicinity of a discharge of
wastewater from a sugar plant (Colwell and Grimes 1984) and at polluted sites on the coast of Denmark
(Larsen and Willeburg 1984). A number of studies have demonstrated that immune responses in fish and
invertebrates can be compromised by exposure to toxic compounds or other adverse environmental
conditions (e.g., Anderson et al. 1984, Anderson 1990, Weeks et al. 1990).
A variety of viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases of commercially important fish and shellfish have been
associated with marine and estuarine pollution. While most studies of diseases in these organisms have
been conducted in temperate areas (see Sinderman 1990 for a review), a number of suspected pathogen-
related disease outbreaks have occurred in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
These include fish kills, mass mortalities of sea urchins, white and black band diseases of stony corals,
and bleaching of zooxanthellate invertebrates (Peters 1984, Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1990a).
There are no regular monitoring programs, however, for such phenomena in these islands. A slime-
mold-like protist, Labyrinthula sp., has been implicated as the pathogen in a wasting disease that has
recently caused high mortality in Thalassia testudlnwn (turtle grass) beds of Florida Bay (Zieman et al.
1989). Seagrass mortalities due to this pathogen have not been reported off Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands. Patiiogens and biotoxins, in conjunction with tissue contamination from PCBs and other
chemicals, have been implicated in die 1987-1988 mass mortality of bottlenose dolphins off the Atlantic
coast of the United States (Geraci 1989), but their roles in diseases and stranding mortalities of cetaceans
in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have not been studied (Caribbean Stranding Network 1991).
Also, Caribbean green turtles have experienced a recent outbreak of debilitating fibropapillomas, but the
cause is still under investigation.
Numerous species of fish died in the Caribbean, off Florida, and off the Bahamas in 1980 (Williams and
Bunkley-Williams 1990b). Several mass mortalities of herrings (Harengula jaguana) occurred in the
Caribbean during the 1980s, including one event off Puerto Rico in 1980. Fish were observed swimming
near the surface and appeared lethargic (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1990b). The mortalities did not
occur at the same time, but affected populations were widely scattered in time and space. Wanner water
temperatures could not be linked to all of the mortalities, and examinations of fish taken from St. Kitts,
West Indies, in 1987 did not reveal any pathogens or parasites, although more tests may have been
necessary to detect viruses. While there have not been any specific reports of other diseases and lesions
in fish from waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, studies of temperate fish species from
sites contaminated by sewage or industrial wastes have linked fin erosion, epidermal ulcers, hepatic
neoplasms, and increased parasitism to such environmental stresses (Sindermann 1990).
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Coral reef organisms off Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have been affected by several disease
phenomena, but again few thorough studies have been conducted. Peters (1984) observed widely
scattered cases of black band disease (BBD) on faviid corals off the west coast of Puerto Rico and
St. Croix in 1980 and 1981. BBD occurs as a black mat, from a few millimeters to 4-5 cm thick,
consisting of fine filaments of the cyanobacterium Phormidiwn corallyticum and other microorganisms,
that separates living coral tissue from bare skeleton (Riitzler et al. 1983). The disease starts at a site of
physical injury and then moves across the coral surface a few millimeters per day, apparently causing
necrosis of the coral tissues by a toxic exudate. While normally rare on reefs (Edmunds 1991), extensive
outbreaks of BBD have occurred at the Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary and other sites and may be
the result of nearshore nutrient loading (Antonius 1988, Peters 1988). This cyanobacterium has also been
associated with diseases in octocorals (Feingold 1988) and the loss of extensive beds of sea fans
(Gorgonia spp.) elsewhere in the Caribbean (Guzmdn and Cortes 1984, Peters 1988). A green alga has
been identified as the causative agent in tumors of sea fans (Morse et al. 1977, Laydoo 1983). These
tumors appeared to be associated with anthropogenic stress off Bonaire and Trinidad, but have also been
found in these octocorals off La Parguera, a relatively pristine site (E.H. Williams, Jr., University of
Puerto Rico, personal communication, September 19, 1992).
Stony corals of the family Acroporidae (staghorn and elkhorn corals) have been affected by white band
disease (WBD), in which the tissue sloughs off the skeleton at the rate of a few millimeters per day.
Peters (1984) observed bacterial aggregates in both apparently healthy and affected coral colonies off
Tague Bay, St. Croix, in 1980 and 1981, with more bacterial aggregates found in the colonies showing
signs of disease, but the etiology is still unknown. Gladfelter (1982) suggested that the loss of these
corals from reefs off St. Croix could have devastating consequences for the islands. Approximately 95
percent of the Acropora palmata at Tague Bay had died by October 1986. Similar losses of these corals
have occurred throughout the Caribbean (Davis et al. 1985, Rogers 1985). The role of natural and
anthropogenic environmental stresses in the development of this disease has not been determined, although
a "stress-related necrosis" has been recognized in corals of these and other species showing similar
disease signs (Peters 1984).
Several episodes of bleaching of corals, other cnidarians, and sponges occurred off the U.S. Virgin
Islands and Puerto Rico, as well as throughout the rest of the Caribbean, during the 1980s (Williams and
Bunkley-Williams, 1990a). This bleaching was the result of loss of the dinoflagellate algal cells known
as zooxanthellae that live within tissues and give the animals a brown color. Normally the zooxanthellae
mutually aid in the metabolic functions of their host animals, using wastes produced by their hosts in
photosynthesis to manufacture nutrients used by the host cells. Loss of the zooxanthellae resulted in
reduced skeletal accretion or growth, reduced reproduction, and tissue necrosis in stony corals in many
areas, although other affected hosts recovered their zooxanthellae within a few weeks. A pathogen was
suspected due to the synchronicity of the bleaching events, but elevated seawater temperatures and
localized environmental perturbations such as sedimentation and nutrient loading were also implicated
(Williams and Bunkley-Williams, 1990a).
In 1983-1984, the long-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, was affected by a suspected water-borne
pathogen, resulting in the loss of 90-95 percent of the urchins throughout the Caribbean, including Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Lessios 1988, Peters 1988). The loss of the herbivorous urchins
altered reef habitats as thick mats of fleshy and filamentous macroalgae covered reefs, with declines in
coral species, crustose coralline algal cover, and clionid sponges (Carpenter 1990). The causative agent
was not identified (Peters 1988). Localized mortalities in small remnant or recruiting populations of these
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urchins are still occurring, and mortalities of other species of urchins were noted off Puerto Rico in the
winter of 1984-1985 (Williams et al. 1986).
The Caribbean Aquatic Animal Health Program (CAAHP) has been established at the University of
Puerto Rico, under the direction of Dr. Ernest H. Williams, Jr., to investigate disease phenomena in
freshwater, estuarine, and marine organisms. The program also receives support from the Department
of Natural Resources of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Division of Fish and Wildlife of the U.S.
Virgin Islands, Sea Grant of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Caribbean Fisheries
Management Council, and Auburn University (Williams and Bunkley-Williams, 1987). In addition to
tracking reports of morbidity and mortality in diverse aquatic organisms through the Marine Ecological
Disturbance Information Center network (MEDIC) and performing research to identify the causes of
disease, the CAAHP also operates the Caribbean Marine Mammal Stranding Network to investigate the
causes of marine mammal strandings for the region.
4.3 Nutrients
This section presents monitoring and loading data on nutrients resulting from both point and nonpoint
source pollution. Ambient concentrations of nutrients in nearshore coastal waters are a function of
nutrient loading from point and nonpoint sources and the removal rate of nutrients from the water column
through sedimentation, advection, and dispersion. Therefore, ambient nutrient levels may be an
indication of the level of point and nonpoint nutrient loading.
Since nutrient enrichment is primarily a concern for the health of coral reefs, the discussion in this section
is limited to the effect of nutrients on coral reefs. The growth of mangrove forests is typically linked to
the supply of nutrients, and therefore nutrient enrichment may actually improve mangrove forest
productivity (Odum et al. 1982). Tropical seagrasses also appear to be nutrient-limited (Williams 1987,
1990), although excessive nutrient input to seagrass beds could lead to eventual replacement of the
seagrass with phytoplankton and/or benthic algae and periphyton (Zieman 1982). Coral reefs, however,
may be very sensitive to nutrient enrichment. Nutrients enhance the growth of benthic algae, which
interfere with coral larval recruitment and may overgrow live coral colonies (Birkeland 1977). If nutrient
enrichment enhances phytoplankton biomass, the reduction in light penetration can adversely affect corals
that have symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae), which contribute to overall coral productivity and skeletal
extension.
Nutrient data obtained from STORET are summarized in this section. Nutrients evaluated include total
phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate and nitrite, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Tables 4-8
through 4-11 summarize nutrient levels in ambient water along coastal Regions 1 through 4 of Puerto
Rico, respectively. Tables 4-12, 4-13, and 4-14 summarize nutrient levels in ambient waters for the
islands of St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas. Generally, higher nutrient levels were found along the
coastal areas of Puerto Rico than in areas along the coast of the U.S. Virgin Islands. This may the result
of differences in coastal nutrient loading from these islands, or it may be attributed to the location of the
sampling areas. The data reported for Puerto Rico may have been collected from nearshore, estuarine,
or lagoon areas, which tend to have higher nutrient concentrations. Sampling in the U.S. Virgin Islands
may have been focused on offshore waters.
To determine whether nutrient loading is responsible for the elevated nutrient concentrations observed
in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, nutrient loadings from coastal point and nonpoint sources were
determined. Estimation of both point and nonpoint nutrient loadings will allow for a comparison of the
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TABLE 4-8. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 1
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Secchi Depth Transparency
(m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(TKN)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate and Nitrite
(NO2 + N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency"
1071/1071
1052/1052
1021/1022
192/192
22/22
726/726
19/20
958/1028
303/373
928/988
Mean
27.6
11.1
141
7.7
4.1
3.9
0.082
5.49
0.586
2.35
Standard
Deviation
2.4
155
1938
0.4
2.8
11.6
0.093
69.9
1.50
38.2
Maximum
39.0
5025
62037
8.7
7.95
210
0.40
1772
15.0
782
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 6, 1992.
'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
reported.
bDO percent saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
relative importance of these two sources. This analysis will aid in the determination of the sources of
use impairments and will allow for the recommendation of appropriate corrective actions.
4.3.1 Nutrient Loading from Point Sources
The PCS database was explored for data on nutrient concentrations and nutrient loading from NPDES-
permitted coastal and estuarine point source discharges. No data on nutrients were identified for facilities
in Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands except for one loading value for total phosphorus from the
Fajardo municipal facility in Region 2 of Puerto Rico. Therefore, typical values of nutrient
concentrations in treated municipal wastewater were used to estimate nutrient loading to coastal and
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TABLE 4-9. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 2
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
-------
TABLE 4-10. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 3
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
pH (lab)
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
-------
TABLE 4-11. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
PUERTO RICO - REGION 4
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(TKN)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate and Nitrite
(NO2 + NO3 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
143/143
149/149
142/142
12/12
123/123
117/118
122/122
18/19
141/141
Mean
28.3
5.6
71.8
7.8
6.9
0.350
1.43
0.157
0.199
Standard
Deviation
1.9
1.9
24.5
0.2
7.9
0.923
4.14
0.131
0.412
Maximum
32.0
9.7
118
8.1
40.0
6.55
27.4
0.41
3.97
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of
records reported.
bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
Region 2. Nutrient loading data were, available for three rivers in Region 2. The river discharge and
nutrient loading to Region 2 were second-lowest, with a total annual average discharge of 6 m3/s of
water, 132 kg/d of TP, and 662 kg/d of nitrogen (USEPA 1992). The most significant river source of
nutrients to Region 2 was Rio Guayane"s, which discharges to Puerto Yabucoa.
Region 3. Nutrient loading data were available for six rivers in Region 3. The total annual average
loading was 4 m3/s of water, 74 kg/d of TP, and 616 kg/d of nitrogen (USEPA 1992). Nutrient loading
was greatest from Rio Maunabo, which discharges to the southeast coast of Puerto Rico.
Region 4. Nutrient loading data were available for three rivers in Region 4. The second-highest nutrient
loadings were estimated for this region, although much higher loading's were estimated for Region 1.
Total annual average loading of water, TP, and nitrogen were estimated to be 17 m3/s, 284 kg/d, and
2,591 kg/d, respectively (USEPA 1992).
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TABLE 4-12. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. CROIX
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
Secchi Depth Transparency
(m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
884/884
736/736
734/734
287/796'
944/957
50/179
0/2
37/203
Standard
Mean Deviation
27.5
6.3
78.5
3.7
2.9
0.028
0.063
1.4
1.1
13.9
2.6
13.5
0.090
0.104
Maximum
33.0
13.2
167
25.0
200
1.00
1.00
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
reported.
bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
"Secchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in many of
the reported observations.
The estimated regional nutrient loading from rivers was generally less than or nearly equal to the
estimated loading from coastal municipal point sources with the exception of Region 2, for which the
estimated river loading was much greater. This indicates that coastal point sources may be a significant
contributor to coastal nutrient enrichment.
4.4 Sediments
Coastal water turbidity and sedimentation are a function of point and nonpoint loading of sediments, the
relative importance of sedimentation and resuspension, and advection and dispersion of suspended
sediments. Therefore, ambient suspended sediment levels, water turbidity, and water transparency may
be an indication of the level of point and nonpoint sediment loading, although sediment resuspension also
may be an important factor.
4-25
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TABLE 4-13. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. JOHN
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation6
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency"
521/521
500/500
496/496
165/532°
659/659
97/178
13/186
Mean
27.3
6.6
82.0
3.1
1.3
0.050
0.211
Standard
Deviation
1.6
1.3
16.5
2.6
1.9
0.128
1.04
Maximum
32.5
13.4
170
19.0
22.0
1.00
10.1
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
'The number of unqualified (STORE! Remark codes) values reported over the total number of
records reported.
"DO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
°Secchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in
many of the reported observations.
Sedimentation was evaluated by analyzing turbidity and Secchi depth transparency data provided in
STORET (Storet 1992). Tables 4-8 through 4-11 summarize turbidity and Secchi depth transparency data
for ambient water along coastal Regions 1 through 4 of Puerto Rico, respectively. Tables 4-12, 4-13,
and 4-14 summarize monitoring data for these parameters in ambient waters for the islands of St. Croix'
St. John, and St. Thomas, respectively. The interpretation of the Secchi depth transparency data is
complicated by the reporting of Secchi disk transparency equal to the water depth of the station, which
occurred when Secchi disk measurements were made in shallow areas that were transparent to the bottom
depth. Such reporting exerts a negative bias on the data, and when many of the observations are qualified
as transparent to bottom depth (as is the case in the U.S. Virgin Islands), the mean Secchi transparency
is lower than would be expected. However, the mean coastal water turbidity, based on the available
STORET data (USEPA 1992), is somewhat greater for Puerto Rico than for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
This may be the result of a difference in sediment loading to the coastal waters of these islands, or it may
be attributed to differences in the location of sampling stations between these two areas.
4-26
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TABLE 4-14. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. THOMAS
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
107/107
107/107
106/106
14/108C
134/134
16/36
2/36
Standard
Mean Deviation
27.1
6.4
79.5
2.7
0.8
0.022
0.646
1.5
0.56
7.6
1.1
0.9
0.050
2.33
Maximum
29.4
9.0
115
7.0
5.4
0.30
0
10.1
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
reported.
bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
cSecchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in many of the
reported observations.
To determine whether sediment loading is responsible for the elevated turbidity and reduced transparency
observed in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, suspended sediment loading from the coastal waters of
Puerto Rico was determined. Sediment loading to the coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands was also
determined to test the hypothesis that elevated sediment levels in Puerto Rico are due to increased
sediment loading. Estimation of both point and nonpoint sediment loading will aid in the determination
of sources of use impairment and will allow for the recommendation of appropriate corrective actions.
4.4.1 Sediment Loading from Point Sources
The PCS database was explored for data on total suspended solids (TSS) loading from permitted NPDES
coastal discharges. No data on TSS loading from point sources have been identified for Puerto Rico or
the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore, estimates of TSS loading were made based on permitted average
wastewater discharge and effluent limits for TSS (Table 4-15).
4-27
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TABLE 4-15. SUMMARY OF NUTRIENT LOADING FROM
COASTAL AND MUNICIPAL SOURCES
Municipal
Point Source
REGION 1
Isabela
Camuy
Hatillo
Arecibo
Barceloneta
Dorado
Bayamon
Carolina
Puerto Rico
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Heritage
Roosevelt Roads
Maunabo
TOTAL
REGION 3
Arroyo
Guayama
Santa Isabel
Ponce
Guanica
TOTAL
REGION 4
Mayaguez
Aguadilla
Ramey
TOTAL
Flow
(m3/s)
0.04
0.13
.02
0.35
0.36
0.05
1.10
1.97
3.15
7.17
0.07
0.004
0.04
0.01
0.124
0.03
0.44
0.04
0.79
0.01
1.31
1.0
0.39
0.11
1.5
Total
Phosphorus*
(kg/d)
7
22
0
61
63
9
189
341
545
1,237
151d
0.8
7
2.3
22.1
5.3
76
8
1.36
2.5
227.8
170
68
19
257
Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen" (kg/d)
14
45
3.8
121
126
18
379
681
1090
2,478.8
24
1.5
14
4.5
44
11
151
15
273
5
455
341
136
38
515
Total Suspended
Solidsc (kg/d)
104
337
52
907
933
130
2,851
5,106
8,165
18,584
182
11
106
34
333
79
1,136
114
2,044
37
3,410
2,555
1,022
284
3,861
'Based on permitted average flow and
bBased on permitted average flow and
"Based on permitted average flow and
dBased on actual loadings from PCS.
effluent concentration of 2 mg P/L.
effluent concentration of 4 mg N/L.
effluent concentration of 30 mg/L.
4-28
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TABLE 4-16. SUMMARY OF NUTRIENT LOADING FROM RIVERS TO
COASTAL WATERS OF PUERTO RICO
River Name
(Rio)
REGION 1
Guajataca
Grande de Arecibo
Grande de Manati
Outlet Laguna Tortuguero
Cibuco
de la Plata
Piedras
Grande de Loiza
Espiritu Santo
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Humacao
Guayanes
TOTAL
REGION 3
Maunabo
Chico
Portugues
Guayanilla
Grande de Patillas
Cerrillos
TOTAL
REGION 4
Guanajibo
Grande Anasco
Culebrinas
TOTAL
Total Total Kjeldahl Nitrate
Flow Phosphorus Nitrogen Nitrogen Ammonia
(m3/s) (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d)
1.98
11.55
326.7
0.62
2.63
37.31
0.65
0.88
0.93
383.25
1.27
1.95
2.88
6.10
1.10
0.16
0.53
0.25
1.07
1.05
4.16
3.17
7.53
6.43
17.13
4
90
319
0.9
46
81
35
18
7
600.9
18
77
37
132
27
7
9
16
5
9
733
99
71
113
283
74
497
792
59
217
303
108
71
52
2,173
76
178
181
435
112
45
38
82
78
35
390
246
292
546
1,084
131
647
874
40
285
162
41
46
9
2,235
25
111
90
226
35
7
70
23
22
67
224
188
892
427
1,507
10
51
114
15
29
58
53
10
17
357
23
43
16
82
5
23
8
45
5
3
89
63
46
63
172
4-29
-------
The pattern of estimated sediment loading from point sources followed that of nutrients, with most
sediment discharge estimated for Region 1 and with Regions 4 and 3 running a close second and third,
respectively. The lowest estimated sediment discharge was for Region 2.
4.4.2 Sediment Loading from Nonpoint Sources
The STORET database was explored for data on TSS loading from rivers to the coastal waters of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. No data on TSS loading from the U.S. Virgin Islands were identified.
Estimated sediment loadings from various rivers to coastal waters of Puerto Rico are presented in Table
4-17.
The estimated sediment loading from rivers in Puerto Rico was greatest for Region 4. The second-highest
estimate was for Region 1 on the north coast. Sediment loading to Region 3 was third-highest, with the
lowest estimate for Region 2. Estimated sediment loading from rivers ranged from 16 to 59 times greater
than sediment loading from point sources, with the exception of estimates for Region 1, which were only
about 5 times greater.
Land use information for the U.S. Virgin Islands is available and will be used to estimate sediment
loading to coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Estimates of sediment loading from nonpoint
sources allows for comparison with estimates derived for coastal point source discharges.
4.5 Thermal Pollution
Tropical marine organisms usually live closer to their maximum thermal limit than do temperate species
(Johannes and Betzer 1975). Temperature stress to tropical coastal marine communities may be the result
of unseasonably warm or cold water temperatures or human-induced stress due to the discharge of heated
effluents. Corals may be the most sensitive to temperature stress. Johannes (1975) reviewed the
literature on the effects of thermal effluents on corals and concluded that water temperatures 4 to 6 °C
above ambient levels were lethal to corals and that corals cease to feed at temperatures only 1.5 to 3.0
°C above ambient levels. As previously discussed, mean temperatures of the coastal waters of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, based on the available STORET data, ranged from 27.1 to 28.3 °C
(USEPA 1992). Ambient temperature data for coastal and estuarine waters were obtained from STORET.
Tables 4-8 through 4-11 summarize temperature data for ambient water along coastal Regions 1 through
4 of Puerto Rico, respectively. Tables 4-12, 4-13, and 4-14 summarize temperature data for ambient
waters for the islands of St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas, respectively. Maximum temperatures
ranged from 29.4 °C in St. Thomas to 39.0 °C in Region 1 of Puerto Rico (USEPA 1992).
4-30
-------
TABLE 4-17. SUMMARY OF SEDIMENT LOADING FROM RIVERS
TO COASTAL WATERS OF PUERTO RICO
River
REGION 1
Guajataca
Grande de Arecibo
Grande de Maaati
Outlet - Laguna Tortugueco
Cibuco
de la Plata
Camuy
Piedras
Grande de Loiza
Espmtu Santo
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Humacao
Guayanes
TOTAL
REGION 3
Mannabo
Guamant
Chico
Portugues
Guayanilla
Tallaboa
Grande de Patillas
Cerrillos
TOTAL
REGION 4
Guanajibo
Grande de Anasco
Culebrinas
TOTAL
Total Suspended Solids
(kg/d)
490
17,237
55,338
127
3,357
6,895
8,437
4,445
181
181
96,688
3,901
7,257
8,618
19,776
14,515
37,195
54
626
626
1,089
73
889
55,067
9,072
105,233
58,060
172,365
4-31
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4-32
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5. EVALUATION OF USE IMPAIRMENTS
This section presents an evaluation of impairments to marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Impairments to rivers, which may ultimately impact estuarine environments,
are also addressed. The extent of impairment to waterbodies is evaluated for the following designated
uses:
• Ecological habitats (Section 5.1);
• Marine aquatic life and wildlife (Section 5.2);
• Ingestion of fish and shellfish by humans (Section 5.3.1);
• Swimming (Section 5.3.2);
• Commercial navigation and recreational boating (Section 5.3.3); and
• Aesthetic enjoyment of the islands (Section 5.3.4).
Marine pollution sources that have impaired waterbodies are evaluated along with a qualitative assessment
of remediation and management options. Specific facilities that have impaired waterbodies in Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands were identified in Section 3 and will not be repeated in this section.
This section also attempts to address the economic costs associated with use impairments occurring in
marine and estuarine waters of these islands. Unfortunately, appropriate studies addressing specific
economic costs of beach closures, fish catch reductions, revenues lost because of decreased diving and
tourism, and other aspects have not been conducted in the Caribbean and would probably vary with the
locality, even in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore, it is difficult to assign a specific
dollar amount to any particular impact. Data gaps and factors for consideration in economic impact
analyses are identified, where possible, to assist in future evaluations of economic losses as the result of
coastal pollution and habitat degradation.
Overall statistics on impairments to waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are reported
in the 305(b) reports and Waterbody System (WBS). Figures 5-1 and 5-2 present the current support
status of different waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively, as presented in
their 305(b) reports. Support status categories include the following: fully supporting designated uses,
partially supporting designated uses, waterbody is currently supporting the designated use but is
threatened, and not supporting the designated use. The designated uses of these waterbodies may include
swimming, fishing, and support of aquatic life.
5.1 Damage to Ecological Habitat Health and Productivity
This section evaluates use impairments to marine ecological habitats including coral reefs, mangroves,
and seagrass beds. Damage to these habitats has occurred primarily because of nutrients, sediments,
thermal pollution, and boating. Only limited quantitative data for providing overall quantitative
information on impairments to these ecological habitats were available. In addition, information on the
areal extent of these habitats was poor with the exception of the mangrove forests of Puerto Rico (Tetra
Tech 1991). Thus, no current status information or baseline data were available for evaluating the
percent decline of these habitats. Field investigations that have evaluated the health of isolated portions
of these ecological habitats were available and have been summarized in the sections below. These
studies tended to focus on areas that are currently being impaired by marine and estuarine pollution.
5-1
-------
Classification
goals supported
58%
Classification goals
partially supported
42%
COASTAL
WATERS
Classification goals
87% Partia"y supported
31 % Classification
goals supported
Classification
goals supported
13%
ESTUARIES
Classification goals
partially supported
69%
LAKES AND
LAGOONS
Figure 5-1. Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
5-2
-------
Classification
goals not
supported
2.4%
64.6%
Classification
goals
supported
Classification
goals
threatened
13%
Classification goals
partially supported
20%
ESTUARIES,
HARBORS AND BAYS
3QO/ Classification goals
• O /O x . .
not supported
Classification goals
partially supported
69.5%
7.4%
Classification goals
threatened
2.2%
Classification
goals
threatened
8.8%
Classification
goals
supported
COASTAL
AREAS
12.2%
Classification goals
not supported
OCEANS
6.1%
Classification
goals
supported
Figure 5-2. Support Status of Waterbodies of U.S. Virgin Islands
5-3
-------
5.1.1 Impact Due to Nutrients
Limited quantitative evaluations of impairments to ecological habitats have been made in Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands. Limited information for San Juan Harbor and Bahia de Ponce in Puerto Rico
and for Christiansted Harbor in St. Croix is presented below.
Puerto Rico
Bahia de Ponce. Differences in percent live coral cover between coral reefs of La Parguera-Penuelas (23
percent) and coral reefs in the vicinity of Bahia de Ponce (4 to 10 percent) were attributed to the
resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin (Acevedo and Morelock 1988). The percent live
coral cover in Bahia de Ponce on Isla Cardona, Bajo Tasmanian, and Cayo Ratones was 4, 6, and 10
percent, respectively. Nutrient enrichment, due to the discharge of municipal wastewater effluent from
the Ponce Regional Sewage Treatment Plant, was proposed as the cause of enhancement of filamentous
algae and macroalgae observed among the coral communities of Cayo Arenas, Cayo Viejo, and Las
Hojitas (Tetra Tech 1990). However, quantitative data on live coral cover are not available for these
reefs.
Water quality data for Bahia de Ponce summarized in Tetra Tech (1990) indicate that nutrient
concentrations were generally low. Phosphate concentrations ranged from below detection levels
(< 0.005 mg/L) to 0.140 mg/L, TKN ranged from < 0.004 to 0.165 mg/L, nitrate ranged from <0.010
to 0.080 mg/L, and ammonia ranged from < 0.004 to 0.018 mg/L. These concentrations, with the
possible exception of phosphate concentrations, do not indicate severe water quality problems due to
nutrients. The regional wastewater outfall in Bahfa de Ponce is planned to be moved to an offshore
location beyond the sensitive area of nearshore coral reefs.
San Juan Harbor. Twenty-two water quality stations were sampled in the fall and spring from September
1985 to October 1988. Throughout the study period, the majority of the nutrient concentrations measured
were below the limits of detection (USEPA 1989a). Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (organic nitrogen plus
ammonia nitrogen) was the most abundant form of nitrogen measured. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
concentrations reached a maximum value of 5.9 mg/L at a station in the inner bay during 1986.
Ammonia concentrations ranged up to 1 mg/L, nitrate up to 0.3 mg/L, and nitrite up to 0.05 mg/L. No
evidence of use impairment due to nitrogen loads is presented in the report (USEPA 1989a). The highest
mean phosphorus levels observed in the waters of San Juan Harbor were measured in 1985 (0.11-0.12
mg/L), and the lowest levels (approximately 0.03 mg/L) were observed during 1986 (USEPA 1989a).
No evidence of use impairment due to phosphorus loads is presented in the update report.
U.S. Virgin Islands
St. Croix. Dodge et al. (1984), in an investigation of coral skeletons as phosphorus pollution indicators,
sampled coral heads from three sites in St. Croix. One site was in a relatively pristine area of Buck
Island National Monument, and the other two sites were in Christiansted Harbor, one on Long Reef near
a sewage outfall and the other at Round Reef near the mouth of the harbor. Christiansted Harbor had
also historically been subjected to extensive dredging from 1963 to 1967 and to dredging at a reduced
level up to the time of sample collection. The elevated phosphorus content of the corals in Christiansted
Harbor and reduced calcification rates were attributed to sewage pollution and dredging activities. The
reduction in calcification attributable to sewage pollution cannot be ascertained. Presently, the outfall in
Christiansted Harbor functions as an emergency overflow and is not frequently in use.
5-4
-------
Although little information regarding the impact of nutrients on the coastal environments of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands is available, the elevated concentrations of nutrients reported in STORET for
coastal waters of Puerto Rico indicate that there is great potential for habitat degradation due to increased
nutrient loading to coastal waters. The sources of these nutrients appear to be discharges from both
coastal rivers and municipal wastewater treatment plants located along the coast. The coastal waters of
the U.S. Virgin Islands do not appear to be nutrient enriched, as a result of the lack of permanent rivers
(a function of island size) and the smaller municipal wastewater load (a function of population size).
Although it is premature to develop management strategies without further investigation to identify
specific problem areas and the relative contribution of nutrient sources, reductions in nutrient loading to
coastal waters may involve improved soil management and fertilizer use reductions in agricultural areas,
as well as elimination of phosphate detergents. Where sewage outfalls empty into areas of coral reefs,
these outfalls should be diverted to areas farther offshore with better dispersion characteristics. To reduce
the total loading of wastewater, reuse of treated wastewater should also be considered. However,
selection of management techniques will depend on the nutrient(s) causing use impairment and the relative
cost-effectiveness of each management alternative.
5.1.2 Impact Due to Sediments
Sediments will adversely affect coral reefs (through sedimentation and increased turbidity) and seagrass
beds (primarily through increased turbidity). Rogers (1990) cited increased sedimentation in coastal areas
due to land development as the primary cause of coral reef degradation. The impact on seagrass beds
resulting from sedimentation has not been studied as extensively as the impact on coral reefs. Generally,
threats to seagrass beds in the Caribbean result from direct excavation or burial during dredging
operations (Hubbard 1987) and from anchor damage (Williams 1988c). In addition, poorly planned
development, sediment runoff, increased turbidity, poorly treated sewage, and hurricanes have destroyed
seagrass beds throughout vast expanses in Puerto Rico and surrounding islands (Vicente et al. 1990;
Vicente and Rivera 1982; Vicente et al. 1980). Mangrove forests are typically resistant to extensive
damage from sediments, with the possible exception of mangrove seedlings, which may be smothered by
excessive sediment loads (Lugo 1990a). Therefore, this section focuses on the impact of sediments on
coral reefs and seagrass beds.
Coastal changes such as elimination of terrestrial vegetation, landfilling, and dredging operations, as well
as sediment resuspension by tugboat traffic, increase sediment particle suspension in the water column.
These changes cause greater turbidity which, in turn, decreases light penetration and limits the vertical
distribution of seagrasses (Vicente et al. 1980). According to a model developed by Vicente et al.,
sediment degradation could be mitigated by restoring shoreline terrestrial vegetation, transplanting
seagrasses into landfilled and dredged areas, reducing tugboat traffic, and lessening the turbidity effect
of thermal additions with the use of cooling ponds or cooling towers (Vicente et al. 1980).
Unsound agricultural and developmental practices that allow soil to run off the land into the waterways
continues to damage mangrove forests and coral reefs (Carrion, 1992). These activities become a primary
source of sediments when proper management practices are not required and enforced. An example of
the effects from sedimentation due to construction can be seen in the coastal area surrounding the
St. Thomas Airport. If proper sediment erosion control plans were required and these requirements were
enforced, many problems would not occur. Solutions such as requiring silt fences, straw bales, or check
dams that retain sediment are available.
5-5
-------
Puerto Rico
Guavanilla. Morelock et al. (1979) compared live coral cover, Secchi transparency, suspended sediment
concentrations, and sedimentation rates at a coral reef in La Parguera that was not severely impacted by
sediments with coral reefs in Punta Ventana, Tallaboa, and Guayanilla Canyons. Live coral coverage
was 11.6 percent on the east wall and 19 percent on the west wall of Punta Ventana Canyon, which was
similar to the coral cover of the La Parguera shelf edge reef (19 percent). Live coral cover, however,
was 2 percent on the west wall of Guayanilla Canyon and 3 percent on the west wall of Tallaboa Canyon,
both of which were stressed by sediment. Morelock et al. (1979) attributed the chronic sediment stress
to resuspension of bottom sediments due to heavy shipping traffic.
Vicente and Rivera (1982) compared the depth limit of the turtle grass Thalassia testudinum in Jobos and
Guayanilla Bays on the south coast of Puerto Rico. They concluded that the turtle grass of Guayanilla
Bay did not grow in the deeper waters of the bay because of excessive turbidity and decreased light
penetration, which were a result of the industrialization of the bay. Jobos Bay, on the other hand, did
not suffer from reduced light penetration and seagrasses grew to greater depths there. However, Vicente
and Rivera (1982) did not provide an estimate of the reduction in seagrass productivity or in the areal
limitation of the seagrass in Guayanilla Bay as a result of anthropogenically increased turbidity in the bay.
Their study does indicate that increased turbidity in coastal waters of Puerto Rico may have greatly
reduced the original cover of seagrass in areas affected by industrialization, urban runoff, and increased
sediment discharge from rivers.
Ponce. Differences in the percent live coral cover, species diversity, and depth limit of coral growth
between coral reefs of La Parguera-Penuelas (23 percent) and coral reefs in the vicinity of Bahfa de Ponce
(4-10 percent) were attributed to the resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin (Acevedo
and Morelock 1988). The percent live coral cover in Bahfa de Ponce on Isla Cardona, Bajo Tasmanian,
and Cayo Ratones was 4, 6, and 10 percent, respectively. Average Secchi disk depths at Bajo Tasmanian
and Isla Cardona, Cayo Ratones, the La Parguera shelf edge reef, and the Turromote and Enrique Reefs
were 3.5, 18, 25, and 15 m, respectively. Generally, coral cover was reduced near the source of
terrigenous sediment and coral cover and diversity increased with increased distance from the Ponce
basin. Acevedo et al. (1989) attributed the terrigenous sediment in the Ponce basin to land clearing
activities for agriculture, urbanization of the coastline, dredging, and increased ship traffic.
Escollo Negro (Negro Bank). Loya (1976) described differences in the structure of the east and west
portions of the Escollo Negro reefs. The east reef had a live coral cover of 79 percent, but the west reef
had a live coral cover of only 30 percent. This difference was attributed to topographic differences
between the reefs that allowed the east reef to quickly shed sediments. The source of the sediments was
attributed to sediment discharge from Rfo Guanajibo and Rfo Yaguez.
Mayagiiez. Morelock et al. (1983) describe the sediment facies of the Anasco-Mayagiiez shelf and coral
reefs. They attribute the decline of coral reefs in recent years to increases in river discharge of sediments
from the Afiasco, Mayagiiez, and Guanajibo Rivers. They attribute increased sediment loading from these
rivers to clearing of land for sugar cane farming and urbanization and industrialization of the island.
These few scattered reports indicate that sediments are a significant source of stress to coastal marine
habitats. The source of these sediments is primarily coastal rivers, although coastal point source
discharges are an additional (although very small) source. The island of Puerto Rico is typified by steep
slopes. About 20 percent of the land area has slopes of 0 to 5 percent, while approximately 70 percent
5-6
-------
of the land area has slopes from 16 to greater than 50 percent (Lugo et al. 1980). Problems of severe
and moderate erosion occur over 48 and 22 percent, respectively, of the island (Lugo et al. 1980).
Although forest cover has increased in recent years, agricultural expansion has reduced the original forest
cover to only about 35,200 ha (Lugo et al. 1980). Agricultural expansion since the 1890s and
channelization of the coastal rivers has resulted in increased delivery of sediments to coastal areas.
Although with the industrialization of the island the importance of agriculture has decreased, Dunne
(1979) has pointed out that much of the sediment exported from rural agricultural tropical catchments is
derived from primitive roads and footpaths.
Management measures to mitigate or reduce the input of sediments to coastal waters, rivers, and
reservoirs should focus on improved soil conservation practices in agriculture, best management practices
during road and building construction, and consideration of maintaining or restoring natural vegetation
and the natural waterbody meanders and coastal lagoons that have been removed or filled in to
accommodate shipping and development. Maintaining or improving the natural filtration capabilities of
coastal mangrove forests would also reduce the sediment loads to coastal waters.
U.S. Virgin Islands
St. John. Although concern about the effect of increased sediment loads due to human development is
felt on all three of the U.S. Virgin Islands, most studies have focused on the coastal area of St. John.
Hubbard et al. (1987) used a simple model to relate discharge from various sub-basins on the island with
coral cover in the bays receiving the discharge. Where the watershed area-to-bay area ratio was greater
than 4, good reef development in the bay was not likely to occur, although bays that were exposed to
offshore waves were more likely to develop in areas potentially receiving larger inputs of sediment. The
distance of the reef from the "gut" or channel that delivers the stormwater and sediment to the coastal
area was also a factor explaining the degree of development of various reefs. Over the long term, there
appeared to be a gradual decline in reef growth rate possibly due to increased erosion following the
period of intensive sugarcane farming in the 1700s and 1800s. However, with the exception of a slight
decrease in growth rate of corals in Hawksnest Bay likely due to land clearing for development, which
subsequently recovered, no reef degradation could be linked to specific development activities.
Although it does not appear that significant degradation to marine communities due to sediments is
occurring in the U.S. Virgin Islands, management strategies were proposed by Hubbard et al. (1987) to
prevent excessive sediment loading to coastal communities. These recommendations included limiting
development in major water drainages by limiting the acreage of development, locating the development
as high in the watershed as possible to reduce the amount of water draining through the development,
protecting buffer areas such as mangrove and salt ponds in the lower parts of the drainage basin,
constructing detention and retention basins to reduce peak flows and trap sediments, and confining the
exposure of sediments during construction to the driest seasonal periods. Development of drainage basins
that empty into low-energy embayments was also discouraged.
5.1.3 Impact Due to Thermal Pollution
The USEPA PCS database was searched for NPDES permit monitoring information on the thermal
discharge and temperature of power plant effluents to coastal marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Temperature and thermal monitoring data from January 1988 to December
1991 and permit limits were retrieved for all three coastal power-generating facilities in Puerto Rico:
the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) Palo Seco Steam Plant in Bayamon (NPDES permit
5-7
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number PR001031), the PREPA Costa Sur Plant in Guayanilla (NPDES permit number PR0001147), and
the PREPA Route Number 3 Plant in Salinas (Aguirre Power Plant, NPDES permit number PR0001660).
Temperature data were also retrieved for the Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority (VIWPA)
facilities in St. Thomas (NPDES permit number VI0000060) and in St. Croix (NPDES permit number
VI0000051).
Thermal effluents from power facilities are the main concern with respect to thermal pollution of the
coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Ambient water quality along the coastal areas
of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands where power facilities discharge thermal effluents was
compared to the Puerto Rico water quality criterion of 34 °C (94°F) to evaluate the extent of impairments
from thermal effluents. Levels in excess of the temperature water quality criterion may be lethal to coral.
Power facilities in Puerto Rico are primarily located in Regions 1 and 2. The mean and maximum
temperatures for Region 1 (retrieved from STORET-WQ, USEPA 1992) were 27.6 °C and 39.0 °C,
respectively. The mean and maximum temperatures in Region 2 (retrieved from STORET-WQ, USEPA
1992) were 28.3 °C and 35.0 °C, respectively. The maximum temperatures detected in Regions 1 and
2 both exceeded the temperature water quality standard of 34 °C, although the average temperature
monitored at any given station location did not exceed the standard. Periodic temperature elevations,
however, may result in impacts to coral reefs along the coastal waters of Regions 1 and 2. Temperatures
monitored in coastal waters in Regions 3 and 4 did not appear to be elevated above ambient levels.
Power facilities that discharge to coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands are located in St. Thomas and
St. Croix. The data retrieved from STORET-WQ indicated that the mean and maximum water
temperatures in St. Thomas were 27.1 °C and 29.4 °C, respectively (USEPA 1992). None of the
monitored water temperatures exceeded the temperature water quality standard of 34 °C. In addition,
the water temperatures of St. Croix did not appear to be significantly elevated above ambient levels.
Thermal discharges to coastal marine waters may elevate ambient temperatures above those suitable for
many marine and estuarine organisms. Since the density of water depends on its temperature and salinity,
the ability of a thermal discharge to significantly affect the ambient water temperature depends on a
number of factors, which include the temperature of the effluent, the effluent flow rate, the salinity of
the effluent, the dispersion characteristics of the receiving water, and the ambient water temperature.
Thus, in an enclosed marine bay where water circulation is poor and the receiving waters are cool relative
to a relatively large nonsaline discharge, the waters may mix slowly with the warm effluent, which will
result in the effluent floating on denser seawater. If the effluent mixes well with the receiving water, the
discharge is relatively large, and the circulation is poor, the temperature may be elevated significantly
above ambient. The amount that the ambient temperature changes will depend on the heat discharged,
which is a function of both effluent temperature and flow. Therefore, it is important to know not only
the effluent temperature, but the effluent flow as well.
Puerto Rico
Region 1. The PREPA Palo Seco Steam Plant discharges to Ensenada Boca Vieja. The power plant has
a maximum permitted flow of 650 MOD (28.5 m3/s) of cooling water and a maximum discharge
temperature limit of 12.79 °C above the ambient water temperature. Maximum discharge over the
monitoring period was typically much less than the permitted flow, and no violations of the temperature
limit were noted. Maximum thermal discharge was typically less than 3000 MBTU/hr.
5-8
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Region 3. The PREPA Costa Sur Plant in Guayanilla discharges to Guayanilla Bay. The power plant
has a maximum cooling water discharge of 566 MOD (24.8 m3/s) and a maximum limit of 11.8 °C above
the ambient water temperature. Very few violations of the temperature limit occurred. However, the
plant typically discharged up to 200 MOD (8.8 m3/s) more than the permitted maximum flow. Therefore,
a thermal discharge of over 5,000 MBTU/hr occurred on occasion. However, the plant does not have
a maximum thermal discharge limit.
Kolehmainen et al. (1974) determined that the heated power plant discharge did not cause mortality of
the large mangrove trees growing in the bay (in water 7 to 9 °C above ambient), but significant changes
did occur in the mangrove-root communities as a function of the elevation of water temperature.
Attached blue-green algae, barnacles, a polychaete, sponge, tree oyster, mussel, and bryozoan were all
found in temperatures above 37 °C. Kolehmainen et al. (1974) also emphasized that much of the original
cover of mangrove forest was physically removed during industrialization of the coastal area surrounding
the bay for shipping and for construction of the power plant.
Turtle grass beds in Guayanilla Bay are under stress (Vicente et al. 1980). As thermal effluents stress
turtle grass in Guayanilla (Vicente 1977), a decrease in biomass of plant material would be observed with
consequences on substrate stability and leaf production, as well as a decrease in the biotic viability of the
plant and energy for upper trophic levels (Vicente et al. 1980). The PREPA Route 3 power plant
(Aguirre) discharges to Jobos Bay. The power plant has a maximum cooling water discharge limit of 652
MGD (28.6 m3/s). No temperature or thermal limits were identified by the PCS system. The maximum
discharge temperature was typically 10 to 12 °C above the ambient receiving water temperature. Flow
was not reported, but the maximum thermal discharge occasionally exceeded 4,000 MBTU/hr.
U.S. Virgin Islands
St. Thomas. The VIWPA power plant in St. Thomas discharges to Lindberg Bay on the south coast.
The maximum permitted effluent temperature is 11.1 °C above ambient. In 1990 and 1991 frequent
violations of this limit of up to 24.2 °C above ambient were noted. These elevated temperatures suggest
that significant impacts to the marine environment may be occurring.
St. Croix. The VIWPA power plant in St. Croix discharges to Christiansted Harbor on the north coast.
The plant's discharge is regulated in four separate pipes. Three of the pipes have effluent temperature
limits of 35 °C and 11.1 °C above ambient. One pipe has an effluent limit of 45 °C. The average and
maximum temperature discharge of pipe number 1 frequently exceeded effluent limits in 1988 and less
frequently thereafter. The maximum temperature discharge of pipe number 2 exceeded the 45 °C limit
infrequently. The average effluent temperature of pipe number 3 regularly exceeded the established
effluent limit of 35 °C. The maximum effluent temperature of pipe number 4 infrequently exceeded the
35 °C limit. Again, significant impacts to the marine environment may be occurring.
Effluent limits that prevent the elevation of the receiving water temperature to 32 °C or more for
prolonged periods should be established. Effluent limits should be based on thermal discharge, which
incorporates the factors of both flow and temperature of the effluent. To maintain effluent heat discharge
within these limits, additional cooling of the effluent before discharge may be required. This may involve
the construction of additional cooling ponds or towers. Such construction, however, may inadvertently
result in further physical destruction of sensitive coastal habitats such as mangroves. It may be more
sensible to attempt to use energy conservation measures and reductions in peak electricity demand to
reduce the maximum effluent heat discharged to the coastal environment.
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5.1.4 Impact Due to Boating
Boating affects sheltered coastal habitats as well as coral reefs and seagrass beds. Oil hydrocarbons,
untreated sewage disposal, and trash are the primary concerns for harbors and marinas. The damage
caused to coral reefs and seagrass beds is mainly the result of physical abrasion caused by the boat, boat
propeller or propulsion system, and anchor. Although few data have been collected and published on this
problem for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, the popularity of jet skis, increased use of
motorboats and sailboats for recreational activities, and an expanding flotilla of cruise ships throughout
the Caribbean have resulted in more incidences of physical damage and water quality perturbations to
these sensitive habitats (Allen 1992).
Prop dredging by outboards and jet skis has extensively torn up seagrass beds in the outback country of
the Florida Keys (Curtis Kruer, presented at Coral Reef Coalition First Annual Conference, March 19-22,
1992, Key West, FL). Of growing concern is the number of medium-sized and large cruise ships that
are capable of entering shallow areas and inflicting serious damage to coral reefs with multiton anchors
and long anchor chains. Not only do the anchors and chains scrape off living coral tissue and other
organisms and crush corals as they are dropped on them, but the clouds of pulverized coral dispersed into
the water column and sediments stirred up by the sweeping of the anchor chain across the bottom as the
ship swings also severely stress corals (Allen 1992). Rogers et al. (1988) assessed the impact of
recreational activity, including boats, on coral reefs within the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere
Reserve on St. John. An assessment of coral damage in Windswept and Hawksnest Reefs indicated that
much of the coral destruction was caused by heavy swells, although extensive damage was caused to
specific reefs by grounded boats. More than 10 percent of the boats anchored in coral communities and
seagrass beds were noted to have caused extensive damage. Approximately half of the boats surveyed,
however, were anchored in barren sand, mud, or hard pavement areas. Thus, much of the damage
caused was attributed to the anchor chain. Based on an average chain length of 7.7 m and 30,000 boat
anchorages per year, it was estimated that there was a potential for 60 ha of the bottom to be damaged
each year. Recommendations for management included minimum depth or minimum distance from shore
requirements for anchoring, restrictions on the number of boats entering protected bays, and visitor
education programs.
Williams (1988c) determined that an extensive decline in the areal coverage of seagrass beds had occurred
in Francis and Maho Bays over the past two decades. Seagrass beds covered 54,692 m2 of these bays
in 1986. The mean density of the seagrass Thalassia (turtle grass) leaf shoots ranged from 1.8 to 4.6
g dry wt/m2. Seagrass productivity was lower than was typical of similar environments in the U.S.
Virgin Islands. These seagrass beds were also heavily grazed by the endangered green sea turtle, and
extensive damage to seagrass beds due to boat anchors was observed. Seagrasses were heavily stressed,
and Williams (1988c) predicted the largest decline of the green sea turtle population in U.S. territory if
the decline in the extent and productivity of these seagrass beds continued. Williams (1988c)
recommended restricting anchorages to a depth deeper than the average depth in which seagrasses are
found and suggested the use of permanent anchor buoys.
In October 1988, the 134-m cruise ship Wind Spirit dropped its anchor on a coral reef in Francis Bay off
St. John, destroying a 250 m2 area of coral (Allen 1992). Although anchor damage is rarely witnessed
at the time it occurs, a Virgin Islands National Park biologist and local residents documented the incident
and damage. The U.S. Government filed suit against Windstar Cruises for negligence in the protected
area (the litigation is still pending, according to Allen 1992). New restrictions limiting cruise ship
anchoring within park boundaries have been instituted, but illegal anchoring apparently continues.
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Although the Virgin Islands National Park superintendent has written to several cruise lines to
communicate concerns about marine resource damage, the president of the International Council of Cruise
Lines stated that he was unaware of problems caused by anchors and chains in the Caribbean.
Some mitigation practices have been suggested to assist in alleviating the impact of boating on ecological
habitats. These practices include enforcing restricted access to sensitive areas, providing permanent
moorings and warning buoys at popular sites (projects now under way in the Virgin Islands National Park
and elsewhere), instituting better waste management practices, constructing docking areas, and instituting
educational programs for the boating public. Waste disposal limits could be based on the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, § 312 (USEPA 1989b), which requires that all boats have necessary sanitary
devices and that the number of boats in a particular area be restricted. The solid waste needs to be
collected and disposed of properly. Collection stations for waste oil need to be established at marinas
and at heavily used recreational facilities. Waste oil could then be recycled into fuel for power plants.
Recreational boating could be less destructive to ecosystems if appropriate anchorages, moorings, and
docks were constructed around the natural habitats frequently used for enjoyment.
Member Lines of the Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association (FCCA) report that they have gone well
beyond compliance with specific environmental regulations and have implemented their own systems and
programs that promote a healthier environment (Michele Paige, personal communication, November 11,
1992). The MARPOL V regulation (International Conference on Marine Pollution), adopted
internationally in December 1988, imposes strict regulations on ships for the disposing of garbage.
According to the FCCA, the cruise industry has gone to great lengths and expense to update its ships with
incinerators and to land garbage at special shoreside facilities. It is clearly in the best interest of the
cruise industry to limit environmental harm and preserve the pristine islands that attract so many visitors.
5.2 Damage to Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Populations
This section evaluates use impairments to fish and wildlife populations. Section 5.2.1 presents use
impairments to fishes and other aquatic life. Section 5.2.2 presents use impairments to wildlife, including
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, which use the marine environment.
5.2.1 Impacts to Fish and Shellfish Populations
The fishing industry contributes to the food supply, economy, and health of island populations, and it
provides recreational and economic opportunities. Damage to the recreational and commercial fish
populations is analyzed below through evaluation of population dynamics, fish kill events, and water
quality problems. Potential sources of impairments to fish and aquatic life are evaluated, and remediation
and management strategies are assessed.
There is widespread belief, within the scientific community and government agencies, that the fishing
areas around the islands are overfished and under considerable stress from pollution (NOAA 199 Ib). In
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fishery landings have been decreasing in recent years, in both
catch per unit effort and the size of the individual species (CFMC 1985). The average catch per trap
went from 146 kg in 1976 to 62.6 kg hi 1980 (CFMC 1990), a 57 percent decrease. From 1979 to 1982
fishermen reported a decline in landings, as well as in the catch per trap (Boulon 1986). In fact, the
fishing population decline in the U.S. Virgin Islands represents the most dramatic example of stock
depletion in the Caribbean (NOAA 1988). The fishing grounds of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto
5-11
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Rico have been extensively overfished close to the shores. Most of the fishing grounds have been
extended increasingly farther from the coast. Only areas considered polluted (i.e., many metropolitan
harbors) have not been completely overfished (Wernicke and Towle 1983).
Many of the economically important fish species have been declining since the 1970s. Reef fish are used
by many industries, including commercial, recreational, and artisanal fishermen, as well as the scientific
community. Local fishermen indicate that there is a definite decrease in the variety of species (e.g., a
decline in redtail and spotlight parrot), as well as an absence in general of the greatly needed bait fish.
Other declining species include the Atlantic swordfish, bluefin tuna, snapper, and grouper, all of which
have been overfished and are at historically low levels (NOAA 199 Ib). Reef fishes are highly susceptible
to overfishing because they are long-lived slow growers, they are easy to capture, and they have delayed
reproductive abilities. In the Caribbean, the Nassau grouper has practically disappeared. Important
invertebrates such as shrimp, queen conch, spiny lobsters, stone crabs, and soft and hard corals are now
being included in the list of stressed species in the Caribbean. The populations of spiny lobsters can be
used as an example of the recent decline. The annual spiny lobster landings for Puerto Rico have
averaged 159 metric tons over the past 23 years, varying from a low of 119 metric tons in 1972 to a high
of 257 metric tons in 1979. A sharp decline in the catch of spiny lobsters was experienced in 1988, when
a total of only 72 metric tons was collected compared to a high of 257 metric tons in 1979 (NOAA
1991b).
An assessment of different waterbodies in Puerto Rico that are not supporting recreational fishing goals
is presented in Figure 5-3. (No such data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.) This information
was obtained from the 305(b) report for Puerto Rico; however, several discrepancies were found between
the 305(b) report and information obtained from WBS, which presents impairment information for
specific waterbodies. For example, more impaired waterbodies are listed in WBS for Puerto Rico than
are listed in the 305(b) report. Based on data provided in WBS, numerous waterbodies along different
coasts are not supporting fishable goals. The major rivers not supporting or partially supporting their
fishable goals include Rio Grande Manati, 18.3 km; Rio La Plata, 15.4 km; Cano Merle, 12.7 km; Cano
de Santiago, 11.6 km; and Cano Martin Pena, 8.0 km. The 457-ha San Juan Lagoon is the only lagoon
listed as not supporting fishable goals. Several major canals (quebradas), which discharge to other
waterbodies such as rivers, also were only partially supporting fishable goals, including Quebrada los
Cedra, 19 km; Quebrada Boqueron, 18.5 km; Quebrada Boqueron, 17.2 km; and Quebrada del Oro,
16km.
Episodic fish kills and major marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) have been reported in the 305(b)
reports and WBS for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Descriptions and locations of the fish kill
events are depicted in Figures 5-4 and 5-5 for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively.
MMEDs are typically short-term events that result in the deaths of 1,000 or more individuals. MMEDs,
which represent major breakdowns in the ecosystem, have occurred frequently throughout the Caribbean
since the 1980s (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1990b). In 1980, millions of Caribbean fish and
invertebrate species died.
In Puerto Rico, numerous fish kills were listed in the 1990 305(b) report. Three of the fish kills were
contained within inland waters (e.g., Guayamo Lake). Increased nutrient levels and low dissolved oxygen
(4 mg/L), possibly due to sewage, were the suspected causes of the mortalities. The 305(b) report also
listed a moderate fish kill in the San Jose Lagoon. Wastewater discharges from the communities near
the Martin Pena Channel were responsible for the fish and shellfish deaths in San Juan Lagoon (Map
#10). WBS identified four additional kills not mentioned in the 305(b) report. Three of the four fish
5-12
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Met or partially met
the fishable goals
93°/c
7%
Fishable goals
not attainable
Fishable
goals
supported 53.9%
COASTAL
WATERS
34.7%
Fishable goals
partially supported
11.4%
Fishable goals
not attainable
Fishable goals supported
61%
ESTUARIES
12%
Fishable goals
partially
supported
Fishable goals
not met
27%
LAKES AND
LAGOONS
Figure 5-3. Support Status of Recreational Fishing Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
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© ©
10 MILES
ir«r
MAPI Location
Type
Son*
1 La Paraguara Major
2 Southwui Coast Modarata
3 Guanabana Modarata
4 Mavaginz Minor
5 Aguadilla Modarata
6 Isabella Major
7 Aracibo Major
8 Dorado Baach Major
9 San Juan Harbor Major
10 San Josa Lagoon Modarata
11 Humacoa Major
12 Rio Coamo/Lagoon Major
Htetngutt sp.
Ptttcanus ocadtnttlis
Ptl*c*ma occidtnttUt
Ruddy turnstona
NuRwroua hah spacws
Numaroua tiah spaci«a
Nunwrout fish tpaciM
Ptlfctma occidtnttHl
Numaroua fish tpaciw
Numaroua tiah apacMa
Pfitctnus occidtnttlit
Numaroua tiah tpacwa
Unknown
BotuUam and paaticidaa
Botuliam and paaticidaa
Unknown
Raw Mwaga
Raw »waoa
Raw aawag*
PeaticidM
Waauwattr
Wutawaiar
Unknown
EfDiMnt from Chevron, Inc.
Dr. Errwat Williarna. Jr.
Dr. Ernut Williama. Jr.
Dr. Ernut Williama. Jr.
FWS
was
WBS
WBS
FWS
30SIW raport
30S
-------
45-or
I7-M-
MAP f Location
Typ.'
Spec*.
Source
1 Bvon Bluff
2 Fairplain Gut
3 North Shore
Minor
Major
Major
4 Billy French Salt Pond Major
5 Eniohtd Pond Major
Ziphhn sp.
Ti/tpa sp.
Sharka and Hvtngui* sp.
nunwroua apaciaa
nunwroua apacwa
Unknown
Raw sewage
OilspiU
Raw aawaga
Raw sewage
Univ. of Puerto Rico
305(bl rapon
305(bl report
305(b) report
30Slbl report
Typ« of kill:
Minor - 1 to 99 fish
Moderate - 100 to 999 fish
Major - 1000 or more fiah
Figure 5-5. Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in the U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Due to Marine Pollution
Water monitoring data were compared with AWQCs for the protection of aquatic marine life in order to
evaluate the quality of coastal and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. As
discussed in Section 2, ambient water quality data for organic toxics, heavy metals, and other
conventional water quality parameters were available for Puerto Rico. The average concentration of each
parameter for each sample station was compared to both acute and chronic AWQCs when data were
available. The locations and levels of AWQC exceedances were plotted on maps for each chemical of
concern (i.e., chemicals that exceeded an AWQC at any one station location in the country), as presented
in Figures 5-6 through 5-11. As discussed in Section 3.1, no recently collected organic or heavy metal
data were available for evaluating the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands (pH and dissolved oxygen
(DO) were the only available parameters).
5-15
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REGION 1
IT4T
LEGEND
1 = Below chronic AWOC (0.025 ug/l)
2 = Exceeds chronic AWOC (< 10X)
3 = Exceeds 10X chronic AWOC (< acute AWQC
>> = Exceeds acute AWOC (2.1 ug/l) (< 10X)
5 = Exceeds 10X acute AWQC (<100X)
Figure 5-6. Exceedances of Mercury Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
REGION 1
ir«r
LEGEND
1 = Below acute AWQC (2.9 ug/l)
2 .= Exceeds acute AWQC ( <10X)
3 = Exceeds 10X acute AWQC ( <10QX)
4 - Exceeds 100X acute AWQC ( <1000X).
5 = Exceeds 1000X acute AWQC ( <10000X)
Figure 5-7. Exceedances of Copper Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
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16 EM
H
0 10 MILES
LEGEND
1 = Below chronic AWOC (36 UG/L)
2 = Exceeds chronic AWQC (< acute AWOC)
3 = Exceeds acute AWOC (69 ug/l)
(< 5X acute AWQC)
4 = Exceeds 5X acute AWQC (< 10X)
5 = Exceeds 10X acute AWQC (< 15X)
Figure 5-8. Exceedances of Aluminum Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
ISLA 1C CULOM
LEGEND
1 = Below acute AWOC (1 ug/l)
2 = Exceeds acute AWOC (< 5X)
J - Exceed. SX acute AWQC (< 10X)
4 - Excwd. 10X acute AWQC (< 15X)
5 - Excmds 15X acute AWOC (< 20X)
Figure 5-9. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Cyanide Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
5-17
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REGION 1
LEGEND
IZnl exceed! zinc acute AWOC (95ug/l)
0 - exceeds silver acute AWQC (2.3ug/l)
HEIl - exceedn 5x silver acute AWOC (2.3ug/l)
iDol - dissolved oxygen below 5mg/l
- pH above 8.5
= pH below 7.3
Figure 5-10. Puerto Rico Exceedances of Acute AWQCs and Commonwealth Standards for the
Protection of Aquatic Life for Silver, Zinc, Dissolved Oxygen, and pH
16 KM
0 10 MILES
LEGEND
SM)= Exceeds 10X Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalote chronic AWQC
(3.4 ug /I)
H = Exceeds lead Chronic AWQC
(8.5 ug /I)
H = Exceeds nickel chronic AWQC
(8.3 ug /I)
Figure 5-11. Localized Exceedances of Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life for BSs(2-
ethythexyOphthalate, Lead, and Nickel
5-18
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The results of the comparison between water monitoring data and AWQCs are summarized below.
• Priority pollutants exceeding acute and chronic AWQCs in at least one sample station include
mercury, copper, aluminum, cyanide, silver, and zinc. In addition, nickel, lead, and bis(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate (B2EHP) exceeded chronic AWQCs.
• As shown in Figure 5-6, exceedances of mercury AWQCs were found throughout the Puerto
Rican waterways. The highest levels of mercury were found near Vega Baja, where the acute
AWQC was exceeded by more than a factor of 10 (this exceedance may be due to
contaminated leachate from a nearby landfill). Chronic AWQCs were exceeded by a factor
of 10 in the following areas: San Juan, Fajardo, Guayama, Santa Isabel, Guanica, and
Guayanilla. Levels of mercury slightly exceeding the chronic criterion were found
throughout the coastline and inland rivers.
• As shown in Figure 5-7, exceedances of copper AWQCs also were found throughout the
Puerto Rican waterways. Levels of copper in the San Juan area exceeded the acute AWQC
by more than a factor of 10. Other coastal areas and inland rivers slightly exceeded the acute
AWQC for copper.
• As shown in Figure 5-8, aluminum AWQCs also were exceeded throughout Puerto Rican
waterways. Around the City of Guayanilla, levels of aluminum exceeded the acute criterion
by a factor of 10. Levels of aluminum that were 5 times the acute criterion were found
around the City of Arroyo and in the coastal section of Dorado. Other coastal areas slightly
exceeded the acute AWQC for aluminum.
• As shown in Figure 5-9, cyanide AWQCs were exceeded in several locations throughout
Puerto Rican waterways. Many of the elevated levels of cyanide were found slightly inland
from the coast. Levels of cyanide exceeding the acute AWQCs by a factor of 10 were found
throughout the island. Two rivers, Rio de La Plata and Rio Grande de Loiza, and their
tributaries, as well as other river systems, are lined with sites exceeding the limits. The
outfalls of these rivers are on either side of the San Juan Harbor. Sample stations near
Fajardo also had several locations that exceeded the acute AWQC for cyanide.
• As shown in Figure 5-10, localized exceedances of acute AWQCs for silver and zinc and
other Puerto Rican standards for DO and pH were found. Zinc levels exceeding the acute
AWQC were found in the areas of Fajardo, San Juan, Humacao, Yubocoa, Ponce,
Mayaguez, and Arecibo. Levels of silver exceeding the acute criterion were found around
San Juan and Guanica. Low DO was found in several areas including Guanilla, Guanica,
Mayaguez, San Juan, and Fajardo. This assessment for DO, however, was based on average
levels of DO. Episodic conditions of low DO may occur in other locations. Areas
with high pH values above the Puerto Rican standard include San Juan, Guayanilla, and
Soroco; areas with acid pH were found near Vega Baja and Caguas.
• As shown in Figure 5-11, the San Juan area experienced exceedances of chronic AWQCs for
B2EHP, lead, and nickel. Levels of lead in other areas also exceeded the chronic AWQC.
The problems associated with toxics found in ambient marine water are compounded by the lack of tidal
flushing. In the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, the tidal ranges are small and the currents are
5-19
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insignificant. As a result, tidal exchange is very small, resulting in an increase in the retention time of
pollutants introduced into these waters.
In addition to being affected by toxics, aquatic life has been impacted by nutrient loading. Benner Bay
is an example of an ecosystem that has been degraded as a result of nutrient loading. At one time
thriving populations of corals, shellfish, and fish were found in Benner Bay. Because of the influx of
nutrients into Benner Bay, eutrophication occurred, which resulted in algal blooms displacing grass beds
and living coral reefs. Less than 10 percent of the grass beds that once flourished in the lagoon remain
intact. Most shellfish are reduced in number, whereas the polychaetes (e.g., sabellid worms) and the
jellyfish (e.g., Cassiopea sp.) are thriving. The lagoon heads at Turpentine Run and East Benner Bay
are devoid of any benthic life at this time. The pollution discharged into the area has greatly impacted
the ecosystem because of decreased circulation and exchange.
A mangrove lagoon that served as an important breeding ground for fish is no longer desirable as the
result of the wastewater that is discharged from the Nadir Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) and the
Turpentine Run Development. Nadir STP has discharged excessive levels of nutrients, resulting in
eutrophication. A thick algal mat has developed along the bottom of the lagoon, choking out the majority
of the grasses. Most of this area, specifically the mangrove prop roots, includes spawning areas for the
reef species and nursery ground locations. Similar effects have been seen in the San Juan Harbor area
(USEPA 1989a).
Destruction of the various ecosystems caused by anthropogenically produced pollution has a definite effect
on the fisheries, as discussed above. Sources of marine toxics and sewage identified in Section 3 (see
Figures 3-2 through 3-4), particularly effluents from STPs, need to be controlled. A large percentage
of these facilities are out of compliance with their permits, as discussed in Section 3. A large percentage
of the fish stock depletion also is due to overfishing. Restrictions on commercial and recreational
fisheries are not yet in effect, but such restrictions may need to be instituted. Ecological marine
communities need to be mapped for future use by scientists so that management measures can be
established for the fisheries. The Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC) prepared a
management program to help resolve problems in the fisheries (CFMC 1990). The use of poisons, drugs,
explosives, and other chemicals for fishing in the management area has been prohibited (CFMC 1985),
and several other measures have been proposed to regulate fishing practices:
• Establishing a 3.2-cm mesh size limit for fish traps. This size limit will prevent fishermen
from using a smaller mesh, which would trap juveniles.
• Adding a self-destruct device to all the traps to prevent the loss of fish in derelict traps.
• Placing minimum size limits on the industry.
• Taking measures to ensure the protection of marine species and their habitats, especially the
coral reefs.
5.2.2 Impacts to Wildlife Populations
Information on impacts to wildlife populations and ecosystems has been collected through reports from
governmental agencies (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning
and Natural Resources), educational research, and information acquired from private sources. Several
5-20
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critical habitats have been degraded as a result of anthropogenic pollution. In this study, habitats vital
to the life history of many species were examined in conjunction with pollutants that may be contributing
to species mortalities. Degraded habitats and the subsequent impact to wildlife populations were
evaluated and are discussed in this report.
This section evaluates the impairment to critical coastal ecosystems (e.g., coastal forest, coral reefs) and
presents information concerning threatened species indigenous to these coastal regions. Table 2-6 lists
the species inhabiting these islands that have been designated by the federal government and the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico as threatened or endangered (Department of Natural Resources 1985,
USFWS 1991). Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have developed wildlife assessment reports that
evaluate the status of critical habitats, potential degradation, and the types of pollution and sources that
have impaired critical habitats (CCWAs, discussed in Section 2). These reports, as well as other
government documents, have been used extensively to evaluate the potential impacts to wildlife (IRF
1976, Department of Natural Resources 1985, Cardona and Rivera 1988, NOAA 1988, IOC/UNEP
1989).
Of the 74 CCWAs originally listed in Table 2-4 for Puerto Rico, 12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded
from anthropogenically produced pollution and have been placed on secondary status or degraded primary
status. Secondary status implies that the habitat has been degraded or that the area is valuable but not
critical. Figure 5-12 presents the locations and a brief summary of the 12 degraded CCWAs in Puerto
Rico. (The map numbers are a subset of the 74 CCWAs presented in Section 2.) A short synopsis of
each impaired CCWA in Puerto Rico, including the cause of degradation and the potential sources of the
pollution, is provided below.
• Constitution Bridge Mudflats (Map #3) supports 62 aquatic and 31 terrestrial bird species and
is used for nesting, feeding, and roosting. The yellow-shouldered black bird (Federally
Endangered (FE)), brown pelican (FE), roseate (Federally Threatened (FT)), and least tern
(FT) all use the area. Degradation caused by the development of the Agua-Guagua mass
transit system, channelization of the Puerto Nuevo River, expansion of the docking facility
at San Juan Harbor, and landfill operations have greatly reduced the size of this area. Use
of this space for electrical posts by the Puerto Rico Electric and Energy Authority and the
Municipal Public Works Office has further reduced the acreage. Further pollution and
reduction will occur if the proposed San Juan City Center is approved. In addition, plans are
under way for a $70 million project including a marina, hotel, mall, and docking facilities
large enough to accommodate cruise ships. The proposed project will be located near the
mudflats that were originally constructed to compensate for the loss of the original habitat,
which has been developed.
• The Lakes/Forests of Dorado Beach and Cerromar Beach (Map #8) include numerous lakes
and a large forest. In this area the Caribbean coot (Commonwealth Threatened (CT)),
Puerto Rican bea (FE), and white-crowned pigeon (Rare (R)) are typical inhabitants.
Pesticides from an adjacent golf course are slowly degrading the water quality of this habitat.
The surrounding golf courses remove the aquatic plants to improve the aesthetics of the area.
The construction of a large office complex and luxury houses has resulted in heavy
sedimentation of many lakes in the area.
• Lake Puerto Nuevo (Map #11) was a very valuable breeding area for the ruddy duck (CT),
purple gallinule (R), and Caribbean coot (CT). The ecosystem is now badly degraded and
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Map*
Species Impacted
irtr
Source at Pollution
3* Constitution
Bridge
Mudflats
8* Lutes/Forests of Dorado
Beach and Cerromar
Beach
11* Lake Puerto Nuevo
12* Tiburones Swamp
13* La Tembladen Lagoon
14* Carrizales Mangrove
20* Sabanetas Swamp
Yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE).
brown pelican (FE), roseate tern
(FT), and least tern (FT)
Caribbean coot (CT), Puerto Rican
boa (FE), and white- crowned pigeon
Ruddy duck (CT), purple gallinule
(R), Caribbean cool (CT)
Masked duck (CT), whittling duck
(CT), ruddy duck (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R).
Bahama duck (R)
Caribbean coot (CT) and masked
duck(CT)
West Indian whistling duck (CT)
22*
27*
34*
49*
Joyuda Lagoon
Cartagena Lagoon
Cabulldn Mangrove
Aguas Prietas Lagoon
SI* Cienaga Baja
Ruddy duck (CT). Wer
whistling duck (CT), and flerocarpia
offidnaUi
Ruddy duck (FT), purple gallinule
(R), and brown pelican (FE)
Clotty ibis (R), purple gaUinule (R),
Bahama duck (R), yellow-breasted
crake (CT), Caribbean coot (CT),
least grebe (CT), ruddy duck (CT),
and East Indian whistling duck (CT)
Brown pelican (FE)
White-crowned pigeon (R) and brawn
pelican (FE)
Potential area for endangered species
Agua-Guagut Mats Transit
System, docking facilities in
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Electric and Energy
Authority, and Municipal
Public Works
Dorado Beach Golf Course
and urban development
Surrounding development
water treatment effluents and
degradation from
development
Puerto Rican industrial
sewage sludge injection
project snd industrial use
Agricultural use and
increased traffic on or nearby
road
Urban development and
storm water sewer pipe from
Highway 2
Sugarcane plantations and
commercial development
Urban development and
agricultural use
Degradation due to
agriculture and livestock
Ponce docking facility
Camping facility
Agricultural use and urban
runoff
10 MILES
• Maps numbers for the areas are sporadically listed because they are included in t lift of all critical wildlife areas.
Figure 5-12. Wildlife Critical Habitats in Puerto Rico Potentially Degraded by Marine Pollution
5-22
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has been removed from primary status. Urban development has surrounded the lake, and no
open waters remain. Nutrient enrichment from sewer effluents has caused the proliferation
of cattails and eutrophication. Restoration of this habitat would be costly.
• Tiburones Swamp (Map #12) is a waterfowl area supporting 81 species of birds, 15 of which
are considered rare in Puerto Rico. The masked duck (CT), whistling duck (CT), ruddy duck
(CT), Caribbean coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R), and Bahama duck (R) are some of
the inhabitants. The swamp has been reduced in size by its use as a solid waste disposal
area. Further reduction has occurred from the sugarcane, rice, and pineapple industries'
constant use of the area. The area also was used for an industrial sewage sludge injection
project.
• La Tembladera Lagoon (Map #13) is used by the Caribbean coot (CT), ruddy duck (CT), and
masked duck (CT). Presently under severe agriculture pressure, the lagoon is used as a
watering hole for cattle. This practice is destroying the vegetation, as well as creating
excessive runoff problems. A dirt road passing by 100 m to the north will be expanded and
paved, increasing traffic and thereby causing further degradation.
• Carrizales Mangrove (Map #14) has been completely degraded. There was a population of
West Indian whistling ducks (CT) in this ecosystem, but a stormwater sewer pipe, 2 m in
diameter, now discharges into the western end. This pipe is the result of the extension of
Highway 2. Urban development has been detrimental to the southeast and south central ends.
• Sabanetas Swamp (Map #20) has had a variety of birds; 29 species (e.g., ruddy duck (CT)
and West Indian whistling duck (CT)) have been recorded as using the area. There also is
a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R) and four species of anoles living within the boundaries.
The area is privately owned, and emphasis is placed on commercial growth and not on
preservation. The Department of Natural Resources proposed the area as a natural reserve,
but the proposal was rejected. Renewed emphasis on sugarcane plantations, one type of
proposed development, will result in further degradation of the area.
• Joyuda Lagoon (Map #22) is used by the ruddy duck (FT), the purple gallinule (R), and
recently the brown pelican (FE). Depending on the salinity, the phenomenon of
bioluminescence can occur in the lagoon, making this a tourist attraction. Degradation has
occurred due to increased agricultural runoff and development runoff.
• Cartagena Lagoon (Map #27) is used by more than half of the bird species in Puerto Rico.
The glossy ibis (R), purple gallinule (R), Bahama duck (R), yellow-breasted crake (CT),
Caribbean coot (CT), least grebe (CT), ruddy duck (CT), and East Indian whistling duck
(CT) are some of the threatened species that use the ecosystem. Degradation has occurred
due to nutrient enrichment from the Lajas STP and the diversion of fresh water for irrigation.
This enrichment has resulted in a perfect habitat for cattails and water hyacinths.
Agriculture, cattle, and commercial pressure have increased the degradation of this area.
• Cabullo'n Mangrove (Map #34) is an area that lies east of the Ponce docking facility, not far
from the metropolitan area. Many of the peripheral salt flats are being used for dump sites.
Old cars, scrap metal, and appliances have been found in the area. The brown pelican (FE)
used this area for nesting and roosting.
5-23
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Aguas Prietas Lagoon (Map #49) supported 26 percent of the bird population represented
in this area, including the white-crowned pigeon (R) and the brown pelican (FE). There is
a large camping facility associated with the area, which has degraded the area to secondary
status. This area is also being degraded by a combination of other factors, including solid
waste disposal and pesticide runoff.
Baia (Map #51) is a prime hunting spot where crabbers can collect the blue land
crab. Migratory birds winter in the area. The habitat is used for livestock grazing, resulting
in severe degradation. Defoliation of the mangroves, enrichment, and runoff problems have
occurred. Many of the trees are being cut for use as fence posts.
Few quantitative or qualitative studies regarding the status of CCWAs have been done in the U.S. Virgin
Islands recently. An earlier study, Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Marine Environment,
prepared by the Island Resources Foundation (1976), listed critical coastal areas for the islands. Twenty-
three CCWAs were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands. Over half of these CCWAs were listed as being
stressed by anthropogenic pollution. Information on wildlife species inhabiting the CCWAs was not
provided in the U.S. Virgin Island report. Figure 5-13 illustrates the locations of the degraded CCWAs.
A short synopsis of the sources of pollution for each of the degraded CCWAs for the U.S. Virgin Islands
is provided below.
• St. Thomas Harbor and Crown Bay (Map #10) have been degraded by urban runoff,
development, sewage, dredging, the impacts from the construction of new and established
marinas, and ship traffic.
• Lindbergh Bay (Map #11) has been degraded by urban runoff, sewage effluent problems,
thermal-saline effluents, and an increase in dredging activities.
• Fortuna Bay (Map #12) has endured the effects of urban runoff, from the Estate Bordeaux
development, for many years. This ecosystem was tolerating periodic stress, but recently the
cumulative effects of the runoff have become apparent in the habitat.
• Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays (Map #13) have been affected by the development of the North
Shore Mountain slope area and the subsequent runoff, which has had a detrimental effect on
this ecosystem.
• Water Bay (Map #14) is experiencing the attrition of the nearshore algal beds because of
dredging and siltation from residential development. Both the terrestrial wildlife and marine
species are affected by this degradation.
• Vessup Bay (Map #15) is declining as a result of marinas and their associated pollution (e.g.,
oil and bacteria) and an increase in boat traffic. Sewage disposal and agricultural and urban
runoff are additional sources of stress.
• Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon (Map #16) is being degraded by numerous pollution problems:
sewage disposal, runoff, increasing marina use and boat traffic, canal dredging, and salt pond
filling. All of these activities are performed to meet the demands of commercial
development.
5-24
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I
—1— «i«r
:o MILES
Map*
Location
Source of Pollution
10* St. Thomas Harbor ind Crown
Bay
11* Lindberg Bay
12* Foituna Bay
13* Stumpy and Santa Mane Bayi
14* Water Bay
15* Vessup Bay
16* Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
17* Christianited Harbor
18* Altoona Lagoon
19* Canegarden Bay to Point
Harvey
20* Manning Bay
21* Cruz Bay
22* Great Cruz Bay
23* Enighed Pond
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
marinas and ship traffic
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
thermal-saline effluent
Runoff from Estate Bordeaux
Development of the North Shore
Mountain slope area
Dredging, silution from residential
development
Marinas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff
Mannas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff, filling of ponda, canal draining
Urban runoff, aewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, •"•""*•
and boat traffic
Channel restriction and runoff
Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, boat
traffic, oil spills, air pollution
Garbage, dumping, periodic petroleum
spills
Dredging aad filling, mahnu and boat
traffic, pond filling
Dredging and pond filling
Garbage and solid waste disposal
' Map numbers for the areas are sporadically listed because they are included in a list of all
critical wildlife areas.
Figure 5-13. Wildlife Critical Habitats in U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Degraded by Marine Pollution
5-25
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• Christiansted Harbor (Map #17) and Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey (Map #19) have been
degraded by a combination of types of anthropogenic pollution. Continual problems of urban
runoff, sewage problems, incessant discharging of thermal-saline effluents, dredging and
filling activities in the channels and ponds, and increasing boat traffic and use of the marinas
are all affecting these areas.
• Altoona Lagoon (Map #18) has been affected by the restriction of the natural channel due to
agricultural needs and urban runoff.
• Manning Bay (Map #20) has been degraded by garbage dumping and periodic petroleum
spills into the marine environment.
• Cruz Bav (Map #21) and Great Cruz Bay (Map #22) are experiencing the effects of constant
channel dredging and the filling of the ponds, as well as an increased use of the marinas and
subsequent increase of boat traffic.
• Enighed Pond (Map #23) is an ecosystem that has been degraded due to improper disposal
of solid waste.
Other impaired waterbodies that may be important to wildlife are listed on the 304(1) reports for Puerto
Rico (Figure 3-2 and Appendix D) and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Figure 3-4).
Solid wastes such as plastics, fishing nets, packing from merchant shipping vessels, garbage from cruise
ships, tar, and trash from the petroleum industry contribute greatly to the marine pollution and have been
increasing in the last few years (IOC/UNEP 1989). Wildlife deaths from this debris can occur through
strangulation and drowning. Ingestion of plastic boxes and bags, as well as nylon fishing gear, results
in the illness and undernourishment of wildlife, which may ultimately lead to death (NOAA 1988). Large
numbers of turtles, dolphins, and sea birds have died as a result of ingesting the waste or becoming
entangled in the debris.
Wildlife has been severely impacted by hydrocarbon pollutants released from large oil spills and the
accumulation of incidental spills from boats (IOC/UNEP 1989). Caribbean Marine Resources reported
the problem of endangered turtles feeding on floating tar balls from tanker ballast washings (NOAA
1988). Deceased turtle hatchlings have been reported in tar mats washing up on the shore in Puerto Rico
(USFWS 1991). Data from the Department of Natural Resources (1985) indicate that turtle stranding is
prominent in areas of severe tar contamination.
Reported wildlife kills and beachings in the islands are illustrated in Figure 5-4 and Figure 5-5 for Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively. The deaths of brown pelicans (FE) and other birds have
been reported in the islands. Some of the pelicans' deaths have been attributed to MMEDs. Pesticides
have been linked, indirectly, to a substantial number of avian deaths in recent years. Also, fish kills,
caused by various pollution-related problems, have resulted in deaths of brown pelicans in several
locations including Dorado Beach and Humaco Lagoon. Although the cause of the pelican deaths is
unknown, it has been speculated that they were caused by botulism (i.e., ingestion of rotten contaminated
fish) and/or exposure to pesticides.
In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, the well-being of endangered sea turtles is of particular
importance. Poaching in the islands is one of the prime reasons for the endangered status. The islanders
5-26
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are still collecting the species and profiting from sales to tourist shops. In addition, artificial lighting
from commercial and urban development around the nesting beaches has had an adverse effect on nesting
success. Turtle hatchlings depend on a tropotactic visual orientation system in order to find the most
direct path to the sea (IRF 1978). Under normal conditions, the sea-finding orientation depends on the
brightness differential between the seaward and landward horizons; optimally, the seaward horizon is
brighter. Studies have established that additional lights from commercial and urban development disturb
the hatchlings' orientation direction (IRF 1978). The orientation problem causes them to gravitate to the
surrounding roads and industrial facilities, thus causing an increase in the hatchling mortality rate.
Management measures need to be established to help decrease the effects of many of the impacts
presented in this report, such as the new regulations that were established which banned jet skis and other
jet-powered water vehicles from restricted areas of Condado Lagoon in an effort to decrease damage to
grass beds, coral reefs, and mangrove islands and to improve safety (M. Capo, The San Juan Star, April
16, 1992). Further action, however, should be taken including gathering and researching information
concerning incidental oil spills and improving monitoring of spills. If SO percent of the oil pollution is
generated through incidental spills, the sources of this pollution need to be identified and management
measures to curtail these releases need to be adopted. Regulators and zoning authorities have to be more
aware of the impacts of various projects on the fate of critical areas so that such areas are preserved.
CCWAs that support endangered and threatened species need to be protected from runoff, sewage, and
the encroachment of development. The sources of marine toxics and sewage identified above and hi
Section 3 (see Figures 3-2 through 3-4) need to be controlled, particularly effluents from STPs. A large
percentage of the STP facilities are out of compliance with their permits, as discussed in Section 3.
A recommended plan of action should be developed to assist in the analysis of MMEDs and other
wildlife-related kills. All biota affected by kills should be sampled, including tissue analysis, and water
analyses should be conducted to test for priority pollutants and conventional parameters. A conceited
effort by all the applicable agencies is required to develop this type of management plan. In the event
of a catastrophic kill or a repeat kill caused by land-based pollution, the performance of the agencies will
determine the long-term effects on the environment.
5.3 Impacts to Recreational and Commercial Use
Marine and estuarine pollution may result in significant impacts to recreational and commercial use of
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Potential impacts were evaluated for the following designated
uses:
• Ingestion of fish and shellfish by humans (Section 5.3.1);
• Swimming (Section 5.3.2);
• Commercial navigation and recreational boating (Section 5.3.3); and
• Aesthetic enjoyment (Section 5.3.4).
5.3.1 Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish
Ingestion of fish and shellfish contaminated by toxics and pathogens may result in significant health risks
to the general public, and in particular subsistence and recreational fishermen. Epidemiological studies
on the potential for health risks associated with ingestion of fish contaminated with biotoxins (i.e.,
ciguatera) and pathogens are discussed below. Potential diseases contracted from exposure to microbial,
5-27
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infectious, and biotoxigenic diseases transmitted by ingestion of fish and shellfish are presented in Table
5-1, as well as potential sources of these pathogens. The potential human health effects associated with
ingestion of toxic contaminants in fish tissue are also discussed. Areas with significant levels of toxics
in fish tissue were mapped along with areas showing general water quality problems. In addition,
possible sources of the primary pollutants of concern were identified.
Human Health Effects Associated with Biotoxins
The fear of being poisoned by consuming certain species of fish (see Figure 5-14) containing biotoxins,
which may cause ciguatera (discussed in Section 4), is so great that most of the suspicious species are
rejected when caught by traps, nets, or rods. Thus, ciguatera poisoning ultimately impacts human health,
consumption habits of the islanders, the fishing industry, and possibly tourism. Symptoms associated
with ciguatera include gastrointestinal problems, severe itching, temperature sensory reversal, and various
other nervous disorders. Once the initial stages of the disease are over, the symptoms can recur with
alcohol consumption, the ingestion of nontoxic fishes, and stress. At this time, no known antidote is
available (Tacket 1981). Based on the relative toxicity and immunological and pharmacological assays,
four toxins that are responsible for the disease have been found.
A recent investigation in the U.S. Virgin Islands estimated that there are approximately 446 cases of
ciguatera per 10,000 residents per year (Tacket 1982). In Puerto Rico, it is estimated that there are 50
to 75 cases per 10,000 residents per year (Escalana de Motta 1986). Changes in the incidence of
ciguatera in Puerto Rico over a 10-year study period are illustrated in Figure 5-15. These estimates are
based on the assumption that at least 2.5 to 5 percent of the population will report the disease.
Information from a 10-year study of ciguatera cases in Puerto Rico indicates that the coastal regions of
Bayamon, Metro, Aquadilla, Mayaguez, and Arecibo had high incidence of ciguatera (Fabregas 1991).
Ponce and Fajardo have experienced no reported cases in the last 5 years although there were cases in
previous years.
Section 3 of this report outlined numerous sources of nutrient loading, particularly discharges from
sewage treatment plants (STPs) and nonpoint sources. Bagnis (1987) demonstrated that the population
of dinoflagellate thought to be responsible for ciguatera poisoning does increase in reef communities as
a resultofsewage pollution. Thus, reduction of nutrient loadings would ultimately reduce the potential
for dinoflagellate algal blooms, thereby reducing the incidence of ciguatera. Human activities in the
marine environment, pollution, dredging, and construction that involves the destruction of the coral reefs
also are thought to increase the population size of the dinoflagellate. Human activities other than nutrient
loading that may significantly increase the incidence of ciguatera also need to be researched.
In addition to reduction in nutrient loadings, other techniques have been proposed to reduce the risk
associated with ciguatera. For years scientists have been working on a dockside test to determine the
level of biotoxins in fish species. One possible toxicity test is through a response of the chromatic tissues
to a light or dark background (Tosteson 1990). This test is being researched so that a quick, easy method
is available to determine the levels of biotoxins in fishes. Such a method would reduce the potential for
exposure to biotoxins, as well as increase fishing productivity since certain fish species need not be
discarded simply because of the possibility of their being contaminated with biotoxins.
5-28
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TABLE 5-1. MICROBIAL, INFECTIOUS, AND BIOTOXIGENIC DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY THE INGESTION OF FISH AND SWIMMING
Agent
Route of
transmission"
Source of the agent*
Disease
Fish
Swimming Digestion
Human
Feces
Animal
Feces
Sewage Water
u\
to
Salmonella sp.
Shigella sp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa*
Aeromonas hydrophilcf
Vibrio vulnificus
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Vibrio cholerae (01)
Non-01 V. cholerae
Leptospira sp.c
Campylobacter sp.
Clostridium botulinum
Various species1
Mycobacterium marinum
Viruses
Hepatitus A
Norwalk-like
human rotavirus
Adenovirus, types 3 and 4
Coxsackievirus
Protozoa
Naegleria sp. (pathogenic)
Bird shistosomes
Typhoid and paratyphoid1"
fevers, salmonellosis
Bacillary dysentery
Otitis extema, skin infections4
Infected wounds
Infected wounds'
Gastroenteritis
Cholera*
Cholera-like disease
Leptospirosis (Weil's disease)
Gastroenteritis
Food poisoning (botulism)^
Gastroenteritis
Infected wounds
Infectious hepatitis
Acute, infectious non-bacterial
gastroenteritis
Pharyngoconjunctival fever0
Pleurodynia, others
Primary amoebic
meningoencephal i t i s
Swimmer's and clam digger's itch
+ '
+ "
+ °
+ °
+"
+n
+n
+h
+
+
-------
TABLE 5-1. (continued).
Route of
transmission"
Source of the agent*
Agent
Disease
Swimming
Fish
Ingestion
Human
Feces
Animal
Feces
Sewage Water
Algae
Gonyaulax
Paralytic shellfish poisoning1
Source: Cabelli et al. 1983, cited in Milliken and Lee 1990.
"Water = multiples in environmental waters; Animal = lower animals. All agents in human feces also assumed to be present in sewage.
bRare for recreational route; none for shellfish route since 1959.
Trimarily in fresh water.
dPrimarily from hot tubs and whirlpool baths.
'Less frequent by V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus strains.
Specific toxigenic strains.
'Only since 1973 by 0-1 strains.
hOnly two shellfish-borne outbreaks.
Toxin in food.
JProblem in food processing.
kPossibly caused by enteropathogenic E. coli and A. hydrophila, Yersinia enterocolitica, and the protozoan Giardia lamblia; much less frequent than viral
gastroenteritis.
'Inferred from prospective epidemiological bathing beach study.
•"Other source more important. 'Characteristically associated with use of swimming pools, not natural waterbodies.
"Density probably influenced by nutrient loading. Two questionable outbreaks in fresh water.
"Not a significant source in United States. 'Seed from birds suggested.
"Upper respiratory symptoms from other less toxigenic dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum sp.
"Shellfish poisoning is also due to other dinoflagellates with different toxins.
pUrine not feces.
'Varies with potential agent.
In addition, there are a number of other pollution-associated agents that could cause swimming or shellfish-associated disease, although there is no evidence
that they have done so. They include bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and Clostridium perfringens; most of the enterovirusus; amoebae such as
Entamoeba histolytica; and a number of exotic multicellular parasites.
-------
40
0)
'o
0)
Q.
CO30
O
03
LU
O
h-
0)
o
k_
0
Q_
POCOOOI
SphyraehidM Serranidae LutjankJa* Scombridae Carangidae Labridae
Others
Type of Fish
Figure 5-14. Distribution Percentage of Contaminated and Commercially Important Fish
Species Associated with Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico 1980-1991
Human Health Effects Associated with Pathogens
Ingestion of shellfish contaminated with various bacteria and viruses can result in various diseases
including acute gastroenteritis (AGI), hepatitis, cholera, and a rare but fatal disease known as septicemia
(blood poisoning) (see Table 5-1). The most common form of disease associated with ingestion of
shellfish is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk viruses and various species of bacteria. The incidence of
these bacteria has been correlated with increases in nutrient loading, particularly from agricultural runoff,
urban runoff, and sewage discharge.
Diseases related to the ingestion of sewage-contaminated fish/shellfish are not reported in these islands.
Therefore, an epidemiological approach for evaluating the extent of the impairment from ingestion of
pathogens in fish and shellfish could not be assessed. Rather, the potential for contracting diseases
(particularly AGI) from ingestion of contaminated shellfish was evaluated by comparing fecal coliform
monitoring data for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands with the fecal coliform standard. Puerto
Rico's and the U.S. Virgin Islands' standard for shellfish ingestion is 70 fecal coliform colonies per 100
mL of water (EQB 1983, DPNR 1990). Fecal counts exceeding this limit could significantly contaminate
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100
90
80
0) IV
T3
'in
0)
cn
§ 60
o
O_
(O
0)
tn
co
O
40
30
20
10
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
Years
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Figure 5-15. Total Number of Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico from 1980-1990
the edible tissues of various fishes, crab, shrimp, and other invertebrate species (e.g., Strombus gigas)
that reside in the contaminated ecosystem.
Figures 5-16 and 5-17 present a comparison of the ambient water quality to the fecal coliform standard
for ingestion of shellfish for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively. As shown in these
figures, numerous coastal locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceed the standard by factors
ranging from 10 times the standard to more than 100 times the standard. Some of the cities with coastal
regions that exceed shellfish fecal coliform standards in Puerto Rico include Arecibo, San Juan Fajardo,
Humacoa, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez. The highest fecal coliform levels were found at the mouth
of Grande de Arecibo, which is located near the town of Arecibo along the northern coast of Puerto Rico.
St. Thomas Harbor, Cruz Bay, and Christiansted Harbor are locations along the coast of the U.S. Virgin
Islands with elevated fecal counts. Levels monitored in Christiansted Harbor in St. Croix were over
1,000 times higher than the fecal coliform standard for shellfish harvesting.
As discussed in Section 3, numerous STPs have been listed on the 304(1) report as having significant
problems associated with discharging untreated or partially treated sewage into coastal and near coastal
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LEGEND
= Below fecol conform standard for shellfish
2 - Exceeds fecal eoliform standard for shellfish
(< 10X)
3 — Exceeds 10X fecal eoliform standard for
shellfish. (< 100X)
4 = Exceeds 100X fecal eoliform standard for
shellfish. (< 1000X)
5 - Exceeds 1000X fecal eoliform standard far
shellfish (< 10.000X)
Figure 5-16. Puerto Rico Exceodonce* of Fecal Colrform Counts for Shellfish Harvesting
2552^22
ST. CROIX '
2 = Exceed! fecal eoliform standard for
shellfish (<10x)
3 - Exceeds 10x fecal eoliform standard for
shellfish (<100x)
4 - Exceeds 100x fecal eoliform standard for
shelKish (<1000x)
5 - Exceed! 1000* fecal eoliform standard for
shallfi* (<10000x)
Rgure 5-17. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Feed Coliform Counts for Shellfish
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waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (see Figures 3-2 through 3-4). Upgrading treatment
technologies of STPs such as chlorination or irradiation with ultraviolet light, would significantly reduce
the levels of sewage-related bacteria in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Use of chlorination, however, may result in the discharge of potentially carcinogenic chlorinated aliphatic
hydrocarbons such as trihalomethanes. Increased monitoring of economically important species and the
institution of shellfish bed closures also would reduce the potential of exposure to pathogens. Dr. M.L.
Coulston et al. (1991) suggest a monitoring plan for the queen conch, which is the most economically
important shellfish in the area.
The following is a list of waterbodies and the sources that are cited as the cause for their high fecal
counts and high nutrient loadings.
Waterbodv Source
Cano Cabo Caribe Vega Baja STP
Cano de Santiago Yabucoa STP
Isabela Coast Isabela STP
Rio Caguitas Caguitas STP
Rio Fajardo Fajardo STP
Rio Grande de Jayuya Jayuya STP
Rio Guanajibo San German STP
Rio Guyanilla Guayanilla STP
Rio Gurabo Gurabo STP
Rio Gurabo Juncoa STP
Rio La Plata Toa Alta STP
Rio Maunabo Maunabo STP
Rio Yauco Yauco STP
Isabel Coast Santo Isabel STP
San Juan Harbor Puerto Nuevo STP
Martin Pena Channel Puerto Nuevo STP
Some of the problems associated with STPs include release of untreated or partially treated wastewater
and sewage; facility breakdowns or leaks; inadequately operated and/or maintained facilities; and broken
pipes, which end up releasing raw sewage. Another factor is that illegal hookups are numerous. Badly
needed upgrades to facilities and/or capital improvements for new facilities are needed. Enforcement
must be provided to detect illegal hook-ups.
Human Health Effects Associated with Toxics
As discussed in Section 4, there are several toxics of concern present in ambient water along the coast
of Puerto Rico that have the potential to bioaccumulate in fish tissue. In this assessment, water quality
monitoring data were used to evaluate the potential risk associated with ingestion of fish caught from the
Puerto Rican coastline. First, surface water monitoring data were compared to AWQCs for the protection
of human health from ingestion of contaminated fish. Second, a risk assessment was conducted to
quantify the potential risk to subsistence and recreational fishermen using surface water monitoring data,
bioconcentration factors (BCFs), and assumptions regarding fish uptake. (Subsistence fishermen are
fishermen who obtain most of their daily nutrition from self-caught fish.) At this time, no fish tissue
5-34
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monitoring data are available in STORET-TISSUE for Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands by which
to directly estimate exposure from ingestion of contaminated fish.
As previously discussed, monitoring data for chemicals that may bioaccumulate in fish along the
coastlines of the U.S. Virgin Islands were not available. Monitoring studies conducted in the late 1970s
suggested that the pollutants that typically bioaccumulate in fish tissue are not found at significant levels
along those coastlines. Therefore, many monitoring programs that would have provided data to STORET
were halted.
Comparison of Water Quality with AWQCs for Fish Ingestion. Surface water monitoring data from
STORET (USEPA 1992) were compared to AWQCs for the protection of human health from ingestion
of contaminated fish (USEPA 1986). To perform this analysis, the average concentration for each sample
station and chemical was computed and compared with the appropriate AWQC. Maps showing the
chemical and level of exceedance were generated for each chemical that exceeded the AWQC for any
given sample location. This comparison was performed in order to identify the primary chemicals of
concern with respect to ingestion of fish tissue, evaluate the degree of the potential risk, and identify
areas that were impaired.
As shown in Figure 5-18, mercury and thallium in marine and estuarine waters along the coast of Puerto
Rico were the only two chemicals that exceeded available AWQCs for ingestion of fish. Levels of
mercury exceeded the AWQC for ingestion of fish (0.15 ng/L) in several locations by as much as 100
times the criterion. The problems due to mercury contamination in Puerto Rico are consistent with those
of the United States, where over 70 percent of all fish advisories are based on mercury contamination.
Coastal water areas near the following cities were found to have mercury at levels far exceeding the
AWQC of 0.15 /xg/L: San Juan, Fajardo, Coqui, Guanica, and an area west of Vega Baja.
Many private industries and public works departments directly or indirectly discharge mercury into
waterbodies. An indirect discharger of mercury is the Department of Public Works Dump at Manning
Bay. Levels of thallium slightly exceeded the AWQC in the San Juan Harbor area. It should be noted,
however, that AWQCs were not available for many of the chemicals detected in surface water or for
chemicals detected in sediments. In addition, no toxic chemical monitoring data were available for the
U.S. Virgin Islands, as previously discussed.
Estimated Risks to Recreational and Subsistence Fishermen. Recreational and subsistence fishermen and
their families who may ingest significant quantities offish caught along the coast of Puerto Rico may be
exposed to elevated levels of mercury, as shown in Figure 5-18. USEPA (1989c) guidance entitled
Assessing Human Health Risk from Chemically Contaminated Fish and Shellfish, as well as other EPA
guidance (USEPA 1986b, 1986c, 1988, 1989c, 1989d, 1989e, 1989f, 1989g, 1989h, 1991b, 1991c,
1991d), was used to estimate the potential exposure and risk from ingestion of mercury-contaminated fish.
(Potential exposure and risk from ingestion of thallium could not be assessed at this time because of the
lack of an appropriate BCF.)
Exposure is referred to as the chronic daily intake (GDI), which is expressed in terms of milligrams of
contaminant ingested per kilogram of body weight per day (i.e., mg/kg/day). GDIs were calculated by
combining the exposure point concentration, the concentration contracted over the exposure duration, and
exposure parameter estimates using the following chemical intake equation:
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10 MILES
war
LEGEND
Hg = Exceeds Mercury AWQC (0.15 ug/l)
10xHg = Exceeds 10x Mercury AWQC (< I OCX)
100xHg = Exceeds 10Ox Mercury AWQC (<1000X)
Tl = Exceeds Thallium AWQC (6 ug/l) (< 5X)
Figure 5-18. Puerto Rico Exceedences of AWQCs for Ingestion of Fish for Mercury and Thallium
GDI =
(EPC) (CFJ (CF2) (IR) (EF) (ED) (BCF)
(BW) (AT)
where:
GDI = Chronic daily intake (mg/kg/day);
EPC = Exposure point concentration (/zg/L);
CFt = Conversion factor (10~9 kg/^g);
CF2 = Conversion factor (103 mg/g);
IR = Ingestion rate (g/day);
EF = Exposure frequency (days/year);
ED = Exposure duration (years);
BCF = Bioconcentration factor;
BW = Body weight (kg); and
AT = Averaging time (days).
Exposure parameter values used to estimate exposure of subsistence and recreational fishermen via
ingestion offish caught along the coast of Puerto Rico are discussed below and summarized in Table 5-2.
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EPC: The average and maximum concentrations of mercury estimated for each coastal region
were used as the exposure point concentration.
CFt: This conversion factor, 10"9 kg/jig, is used to convert fish concentration mass units.
CF2: A second conversion factor, 103 mg/g, is used to convert fish ingestion rate mass units.
IR: Pao et al. (1982) estimated that 132 g/day represented the 95th percentile for individuals
consuming finfish averaged over a 3-day period. Pao et al. (1982) estimated that
38 g/day represented the 50th percentile for the consumption of finfish averaged over a
3-day period. SRI (1980) reported that the daily average 95th percentile for fish ingestion
was 41.7 g/day. For recreational fishermen, Pao et al. (1982) estimated that the average
consumption rate is 54 g/day. This value is recommended by EPA (USEPA 1991d) for
use as a standard fish ingestion rate for recreational fishermen. The average fish meal
size is estimated to be 145 grams. It is assumed that a subsistence fisherman consumes
two fish meals per day or 290 g/day. The consumption rate of 290 g/day for a
subsistence fisherman is more than twice Pao et al.'s (1982) 95th percentile estimate and
is conservatively protective of human health.
EF: An exposure frequency of 365 days per year was assumed since the fish ingestion rate is
based on a yearly average (USEPA 1990b).
ED: Approximately 90 percent of the U.S. population lives in the same residence for 30 years
(USEPA 1989a, 199Id). An exposure duration of 30 years was assumed for estimating
exnosure fUSEPA 1989c. 199 Id).
I \~S\~9M~tM. A ft. J.^VJ-XU} *. ^ *T M.\Ai* A K.11 V^VL/V^
exposure (USEPA 1989c, 199 Id).
BCF: To evaluate exposures for this pathway, it was necessary to model fish tissue
concentrations using available surface water data and bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for
mercury. (No BCFs were available for thallium.) Reported BCFs in the literature for
inorganic mercury ranged from 1,800 to 4,994, while BCFs for mercury complexed with
organics ranged from 10,000 to 81,670 (USEPA 1980). The BCF used to derive the
AWQC for mercury was 3,760 which is appropriate for coastal and estuarine waters.
BW: EPA (USEPA 1985b) calculated an average body weight for males and females of 71.8
kg. This value is approximately equal to the consensus value of 70 kg, which is typically
used as the average body weight (USEPA 1989c, 1991d).
AT: The averaging time is equal to 30 years (exposure duration) x 365 days/year.
The potential risks to subsistence and recreational fishermen due to exposure to mercury in fish tissue are
evaluated by comparing the estimated dose (i.e., GDI) with the mercury reference dose (RfD). The RfD
for mercury is 3x10"* mg/kg/day and is based on the results of a chronic rat study (USEPA 199Ic).
Critical effects noted in the study included neurotoxicity and kidney effects. The hazard quotient is used
to quantify the potential for an adverse noncarcinogenic effect to occur and is calculated by dividing the
GDI by the RfD. If the hazard quotient exceeds unity (i.e., 1), then an adverse health effect may occur.
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TABLE 5-2. EXPOSURE PARAMETER VALUES USED TO ESTIMATE
EXPOSURE TO SUBSISTENCE AND RECREATIONAL
FISHERMEN FROM INGESTION OF FISH
Parameter Value Reference
Conversion Factor 1 (CF,)
Conversion Factor 2 (CF^
Ingestion Rate (IR)
Subsistence:
Recreational:
Exposure Frequency (EF)
Exposure Duration (ED)
BCF
Body Weight (BW)
Averaging Time (AT)
103 mg/g
la9 kg//tg
290 g/day
54 g/day
365 days/year
30 years
3,760
70kg
30 years x 365 days
USEPA 1989
USEPA 1989
Assumed
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1989
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1980
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1989
As shown in Table 5-3, the hazard quotients estimated using the mean concentration of mercury in surface
water for all regions of the Puerto Rican coast exceeded unity (i.e., 1). Therefore, there is the potential
for an adverse health effect to occur. In particular, the maximum concentration of mercury of 231 /ig/L
resulted in a hazard quotient more than four orders of magnitude above unity for subsistence fishermen.
This particular station is located along the coastal region of Vega Baja on the northern coast, west of San
Juan.
5.3.2 Swimming
Exposure to elevated levels of toxics and pathogens in the marine and estuarine environment while
swimming may result in increased incidence of various diseases. The primary exposure route associated
with exposure to toxics while swimming is dermal absorption. This exposure route is insignificant with
respect to heavy metals because these metals cannot penetrate the skin. As discussed in Section 3, only
a few organic chemicals were detected in surface water, and these chemicals were detected infrequently
at relatively low levels. Therefore, direct contact with toxics in surface water while swimming does not
appear to be a significant exposure route. This assessment, therefore, focuses on the health threat
associated with swimming from exposure to pathogens and solid wastes, as well as the use impairment
due to beach closures brought on by these threats.
Exposure to pathogens in the marine environment can result in various diseases including acute
gastroenteritis (AGI), hepatitis, typhoid, skin diseases, and cholera. Potential diseases contracted from
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TABLE 5-3. POTENTIAL NONCARCBSTOGENIC HAZARDS' ASSOCIATED WITH
INGESTION OF MERCURY-CONTAMINATED FISH BY SUBSISTENCE AND
RECREATIONAL FISHERMEN ALONG THE COAST OF PUERTO RICO
Region/Statistic"
Mercury
Exposure Point
Concentration
Subsistence
Hazard
Quotient
(CDI/RfD)
Recreational
Hazard
Quotient
(CDI/RfD)
Region 1
Mean Concentration
Maximum Concentration
1.1
231
86
17,722
16
3,300
Region 2
Mean Concentration
Maximum Concentration
0.24
2.5
18
188
3.43
5
Region 3
Mean Concentration
Maximum Concentration
0.3
1.5
23
113
4.2
21
Region 4
Mean Concentration
Maximum Concentration
0.16
0.2
12
15
2.3
2.8
' Ratio of the GDI and the reference dose of 3E-4 mg/kg/day (uncertainty factor of 1,000).
b Statistics generated from data obtained from STORET-WQ (USEPA, 1992). See Figure 1-1 for region locations.
exposure to microbial, infectious, and biotoxigenic diseases transmitted by recreational contact are
presented in Table 5-1, as well as potential sources of these pathogens. The most commonly reported
disease associated with exposure to pathogens while swimming is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk
viruses and various bacteria species. Information from the Department of Epidemiology, Puerto Rico,
ranks gastroenteritis as the second-highest reported disease in Puerto Rico (Fabregas 1991). In Puerto
Rico, outbreaks of waterborne gastroenteritis and hepatitis are increasing as a result of increases in raw
sewage discharges (Toranzes and Fuentes 1990). Surveys conducted by EPA have found an
overwhelming number of viral organisms that may cause AGI in sewage effluents (Dahling et al. 1988).
The microbiological suitability of recreational waters is evaluated by the measurement of fecal coliform.
The standard for fecal coliform related to swimming is 200 colonies/100 mL for Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands. There is epidemiological evidence to suggest, however, that fecal coliform levels do not
correlate well with the incidence of AGI in swimmers (Cabelli et al. 1983). Enterococcus has been found
to be a better indicator of the potential health risk associated with AGI than fecal coliform. Several states
have adopted a criterion of 35 colonies per 100 mL for enterococcus. Very few enterococcus data were
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available for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore, both criteria will be used to evaluate
ambient water quality for pathogens in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Evaluation of fecal coliform and enterococcus levels in ambient water, beach closures, and general
sources are discussed for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the sections below. Specific NPDES
sources and remediation options are also addressed.
Puerto Rico
Figure 5-19 presents a comparison of the fecal coliform water quality standard with available fecal
coliform monitoring data obtained from STORET. A scale of 1 through 4 was established to identify the
level of fecal coliform exceedances in different locations of Puerto Rico: "1" corresponds to station
locations where the fecal coliform counts were below the standard, while "2" through "4" correspond to
varying levels of exceedances (see legend for description). As shown in Figure 5-19, numerous coastal
locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded the fecal coliform standard by factors ranging from
10 times the standard to over 100 times the standard (for comparison, current beach locations are also
presented in Figure 5-19). San Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez are examples
of cities where levels of fecal coliform in coastal waters exceeded the standard. Levels of enterococcus
in coastal waters of Region 1 also exceeded the EPA health-based goal of 35 counts/100 mL. The
average enterococcus count in coastal waters exceeded the health-based goal by a factor of 3, while the
maximum enterococcus count exceeded the health-based goal by two orders of magnitude.
San Juan Harbor has had difficulty with fecal coliform pollution and has been an area of concern in recent
years. A study completed in 1988 determined that the highest bacteriological densities occurred in the
canals and the rivers surrounding the harbor. No counts in the lagoon or the channels exceeded the total
coliform standards during this study. The results of the study indicated that total coliform standards were
exceeded in the inner bay, canals, and rivers. In addition, the fecal coliform standards were exceeded
in the canals and rivers. The health-based enterococcus goal of 35 counts/mL was exceeded in the canals,
rivers, outer bay, and inner bay. There has been a gradual increase in the samples of bacteria densities
exceeding the standards since 1985. This study indicated that uncontrolled runoff and sewage
effluents are the main factors contributing to the degradation. Martin Pena Channel, one of the major
problem areas in San Juan Harbor, drains into the ocean through the San Juan Bay and Boca de
Cangrejos. Seepage and leakage to the channel come from a variety of sources: the San Juan landfill,
stormwater sewer systems, pumping stations, illegal dump sites, residences, and businesses. In this area
there are 10,279 discharges of sewer wastes: 27 percent discharge into the stormwater sewer system, 69
percent discharge into the sanitary sewer system, 4 percent discharge into septic tanks, and 0.03 percent
discharge into latrines. General counts for the fecal pollution increased from 1985 to 1988. EQB (1990)
believes this increase is due to the increase in population and sewage in the harbor area.
Beach closures are instituted as a result of elevated pathogen levels in surface water, trash disposal from
ships, lost commercial fishing gear, and inadequate sewer systems. Condado, Guanica, and Catano
beaches have all been closed recently due to various pollution problems (locations are shown in Figure
5-19). The majority of the closings over the past 10 years in Puerto Rico were due primarily to
pathogenic contamination or oil spills. Guanica and Catano beaches were closed due to pathogenic
pollution exceeding the safety standards. Many of the exposed, windward beaches on the islands are
seriously polluted and cannot be used for recreational purposes due to the impacts from incidental oil
spills. Catano beach was closed because of a 946-L spill, covering at least 46 m along the beach. Tar
balls are also a serious problem in these islands, not only affecting marine animals that may feed on the
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4) CAT/WO BEACH
CLOSED '
2») CONDADO BEACH
CLOSED
irts-
LEGEND
1 = Below fecal colifomn standard.
2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard.
(< 10X)
3 = Exceeds 10X fecal coliform standard.
(< 100X)
4 = Exceeds 100X fecal coliform standard.
(< 1000X)
* = Beach locations
Figure 5-19. Puerto Rico Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming
tar, but also affecting tourists using the beaches, and hotels and rental properties that have to clean the
tar off floors and buildings. Tar balls were reported on swimming beaches of Ballena Bay and Ensenada
Las Pardas in the fall of 1991 ("Tar balls washing ashore at Guanica beaches," The San Juan Star,
Oct. 3, 1991) and near the Roosevelt Roads Naval Base and the south coast of Vieques in the spring of
1992 (M. Capo, "Tar balls said washing up on island beaches," The San Juan Star, April 6, 1992). The
latter event was attributed to an oil spill that had occurred on the island of St. Eustatius 3 weeks earlier
and required extensive cleanup efforts by the Navy and the Coast Guard.
The percentage of waterbodies that did not support swimmable goals in Puerto Rico was examined using
data provided in the 305(b) report, as presented in Figure 5-20. (Swimmable goal data were not available
for the U.S. Virgin Islands.) This type of assessment is based on the Water Quality Standards Regulation
(WQSR) promulgated by EPA and standards set by the individual states (EQB 1983). The support status
of coastal waters, rivers, lakes and lagoons, and estuaries with respect to attaining swimmable goals is
discussed below.
• Puerto Rico's coastal waters met or partially met the swimmable goals 68.7 percent of the
time. Most of the coastal areas that did not support swimmable goals were located along the
south coast (over 64 km of coastline). However, several small sections along the entire coast
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Swimmable goals partially
or fully supported
68.7%
COASTAL
WATERS
Swimmable
goals supported
53%
20%
Swimmable goals
partially supported
31.3%
Swimmable goals
not attainable
Swimmable goals
partially supported
27.9%
Swimmable goals
not met
27%
LAKES AND
LAGOONS
Swimmable
goals
supported 36.4%
35.7%
Swimmable goals
not attainable
ESTUARIES
Figure 5-20. Support Status of Recreational Swimming Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
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did not meet swimmable goals. Exact locations for the coastal areas that were not supporting
swimming were not identified in the 305(b) report for 1990. Municipal sources,
pathogenindicators, nutrient enrichment, and urban runoff were the main causes of the
impairment in coastal areas.
• Rivers in Puerto Rico supported the swimmable goals 51 percent of the time; whereas 32.4
percent of the river kilometers were nonsupportive, and 16.6 percent of the kilometers were
not attainable. The following are the primary impaired rivers and the number of kilometers
that did not support or only partially supported their swimmable goals: Rio Grande de
Manati, 18.3 km; Rio La Plata, 15.4 km; Cano Merle, 12.7 km; Rio Cabuco, 12.6 km; and
Cano de Santiago, 11.6 km. Rivers have been affected by sedimentation, nutrient
enrichment, alteration of flow, and pathogenic pollution.
• Lakes and lagoons met their swimmable goals, listed in total hectares, 53 percent of the time.
Partial support was met 20 percent of the time, and 27 percent of the hectares could not attain
the standards for swimmable goals. San Jose Lagoon, which is 457 hectares, was the only
major lagoon that did not meet swimmable goals. The pollution originated mainly from
municipal and industrial discharges and urban runoff. Nutrients, organic enrichment,
pathogens, urban runoff, and salinity were the pollution types that affected lagoons.
• Full support of swimmable goals was seen in 84.8 percent of the estuarine areas. The
support of swimmable goals was partially obtained in 27.9 percent of estuarine areas, and the
goals were unattainable in 16.3 percent of the estuarine areas. Specific locations of primarily
impaired estuaries could not be identified. Municipal sources, pathogen indicators, nutrient
enrichment, and urban runoff were the main causes of the impairment.
U.S. Virgin Islands
As discussed in Section 4, recent fecal coliform and enterococcus monitoring data were not available for
the U.S. Virgin Islands in the STORET system. To evaluate the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands,
pathogenic monitoring data were obtained from a recent study (1989-1990) conducted by Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston, Bacteriological Studies to Evaluate the Safety of Recreational Waters in the U. S. Virgin Islands.
DPNR and Department of Environmental Protection water quality surveys are included in this report.
These agencies tested a total of 136 sample stations in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Levels of fecal coliform
in coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands were compared to the fecal coliform standard of 200
counts/100 mL. Figure 5-21 presents the waterbodies that were impacted from fecal pollution exceeding
the fecal coliform standard. Fecal coliform standards were exceeded in the following areas of the U.S.
Virgin Islands:
• Christiansted Harbor;
• St. Thomas Harbor;
• Gallows Bay and Fisherman's dock;
• Divi Beach water gut;
• Salt River Marina;
• Bucanner Beach water gut;
• Mill Harbor storm drain and water gut; Christiansted harbor; and
• Cruz Bay.
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2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard for
swimming (<10x)
3 = Exceeds 10x fecal • coliform standard
for swimming (<100x)
4 = Exceeds 100x fecal coliform standard
for swimming (<1000x)
inr
Figure 5-21. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming
Fecal densities were correlated to the type of environment from which the samples were collected.
Increased fecal counts were found in areas of water guts, boat anchorages, and marinas, whereas fecal
counts in the open coastal waterbodies were negligible. Enclosed bays and waterways were affected most
by dumping untreated sewage into the water since there is little tidal flushing; open coastal regions were
not as affected as a result of tidal flushing.
As discussed in Section 4, calculating the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococcus (FC/FS) helps
to determine the source of pollution when a waterbody is being affected by both sewage discharge and
runoff. Evaluation of the FC/FS ratio indicates that one-third of the areas listed above were affected
primarily by human sewage:
• Christiansted Harbor (downtown vicinity);
• Salt River Estuary (marina proximity); and
• St. Thomas Harbor (sewage pump station and marina).
As previously discussed, enterococcus bacteria elevated above 35 counts/100 mL may be of concern to
swimmers (USEPA 1985a); however, these levels are not enforced. Cruz Bay, St. Thomas Harbor, Salt
River Estuary, and Salt River Marina all had enterococcus levels exceeding 35 counts/100 mL. Most of
the contamination was associated with the water guts that led into the harbors and sewage effluents.
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Christiansted Harbor public works department has had a serious problem associated with the amounts of
sewage pollution in the harbor. Occasionally the department pumps raw sewage into the bay because of
a malfunction in the pumps. These pumps normally transport raw sewage to the South Shore STP. The
raw sewage in the bay causes a periodic spike in the fecal coliform count but never causes the geometric
mean to go over the standard. During Hurricane Hugo, in 1990, the island of St. Croix experienced
difficulties with all of its treatment plants. During this period all of the island's beaches were
sporadically closed for short periods of time.
Figures 3-3 and 3-4 identify specific NPDES-permitted effluents that have impaired waterbodies of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. NPDES effluents that discharge to Class SB waters (see Figures 3-3
and 3-4) are impairing waterbodies specifically designated for swimming. The majority of these effluents
are from STPs. In the last federal inspections of Puerto Rico's STPs in August 1991, 16 out of 46 (35
percent) failed the inspections. Nine of the facilities that failed were from the Humaco area (EQB 1990,
USEPA 1990).
STPs need to be updated with modern treatment technologies so that untreated sewage is not discharged
directly into the environment. STPs also need to be brought up to the proper carrying capacities for the
populations being served. Employees need to be properly trained, and illegal hookups (76 in 1989) and
broken lines need to be remediated (EQB 1990). In addition, discharges from the treatment plants should
be placed in an area where there is adequate flow. Limited flow has been shown, in Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston's study (1991), to contribute to several of the pathogenic problems in the islands. For example,
diffusers on ocean outfall pipes may be beneficial in dispersing the effluent so the pathogens are not
concentrated into a single waterbody.
5.3.3 Hazards to Commercial Navigation and Recreational Boating
Commercial and recreational boating practices have been identified as significant sources of marine and
estuarine pollution. In addition, boating practices cause significant physical damage to various ecological
habitats. Marine and estuarine pollution, on the other hand, can actually impair the use of waterways
for commercial navigation and recreational boating. Although this pollution often comes from sources
on the mainland, portions rnay actually be nonpoint source pollution from boats. This section focuses
on the impact of marine and estuarine pollution on the usability of waterways for commercial navigation
and recreational boating. The boating industry has been increasing dramatically, in conjunction with
increases in tourism around the islands. For example, a study performed in the Biosphere Reserve in
1988 determined that the average number of boats using the park for recreational purposes had increased
from 10 per day in 1966 to approximately 80 per day in 1986 (Rogers et al. 1988).
The primary types of marine and estuarine pollution hindering the boating industry include floatables, oil
pollution, sedimentation of the channels through runoff, and pathogenic contamination caused by sewage
effluents and marinas. Floatables have been a relatively minor problem, although this problem has been
increasing. Plastic bags have been reported to have clogged water cooling tanks, causing serious engine
damage, as well as aesthetic degradation (Wernicke and Towle 1983). Floatables, such as plastic
containers and garbage bags, and oil spills have been a persistent problem in San Jose Lagoon, ultimately
impeding boat traffic throughout the lagoon. Protestant Bay has been affected by sewage and floatable
wastes. A few of the boating waterways have also been impacted by sedimentation. Christiansted Harbor
and Gallows Bay, in particular, have suffered extensive damage in the area of their channels. The
original dredging of 4.9 m has been reduced to an average of 1.5 m, resulting in the restriction of boat
traffic.
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Use of waterways for boating also may be impaired by excessive pathogen levels in marine water. As
discussed in Section 5.3.2, direct skin contact with water or accidental ingestion of water, as may occur
while docking, handling motors, or water skiing, may result in exposure to various pathogens related to
diseases such as AGI. Puerto Rico's fecal coliform standard for incidental contact while boating is 2,000
colonies per 100 mL of water (EQB 1983). STORET monitoring data for fecal coliform were retrieved
and compared to the fecal coliform standard for incidental contact in order to identify waterbodies
surrounding Puerto Rico with water quality problems. As shown in Figure 5-22, the cities of Fajardo,
Arecibo, Mayaguez, and Guayama, and the surrounding areas, have fecal coliform levels more than
10 times the standard. These areas have become degraded, resulting in the potential loss of the areas for
recreational use. A similar map (Figure 5-23) prepared for the U.S. Virgin Islands indicates areas
potentially degraded by fecal coliform. Potentially impaired areas in the U.S. Virgin Islands include
Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor (Yacht Haven Marina), Salt River Estuary, and Cruz Bay
(Coulston et al. 1991). Many of the harbors, bays, and marinas of the U.S. Virgin Islands have
periodically experienced high levels of fecal coliform, even though the average levels of fecal coliform
have not exceeded the fecal coliform standard.
As previously discussed, most of the fecal coliform exceedances are due to untreated and partially treated
sewage released from STP outfalls along the coast. Point sources of sewage are presented in Figures 3-3
and 3-4. Upgrading these facilities with the latest treatment technologies would significantly improve the
quality of these coastal waterways.
As discussed in Section 5.1, most of the impacts related to the boating industry involve the destruction
of critical ecosystems. If the ecological damage is excessive, area management may be enacted.
Establishing and publishing limits for the areas and having the limits enforced by the park services is one
alternative. This would decrease the amount of boating in specific areas but would cause a twofold
problem: (1) the boating industry and all of the associated businesses would suffer economically, and
(2) other areas would most likely be impacted from overuse and would soon come under the same
jurisdiction. If restrictions are placed on the recreational waters, the boating industry will be adversely
affected. Vital support services that stem from the boating industry include maintenance, repair, berthing
and storage, engine and electronic sales, marine supply, reservation and brokerage, insurance, sailmaking
and repair, marine advisory, and overnight accommodations for the yachtsman (Lund et al. 1986). All
of these areas will experience economic losses if boating is restricted using area management practices.
5.3.4 Aesthetics
Evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is difficult because
of the subjective nature of this topic. However, increases in anthropogenic pollution have probably
resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands. Specific types of pollution problems of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands that may reduce aesthetic enjoyment include improperly disposed solid
waste generated from residents and industry such as empty containers and debris, abandoned cars and
boats, oil spills, unpleasant odors from effluents, and raw sewage in surface water (Cardona and Rivera
1988, EQB 1990, DPNR 1990). Because of these reduced aesthetics, tourism in Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands could decrease.
Appendix B presents several photos provided by Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands, which show examples
of problems related to improperly disposed waste. These photos include pictures of corroded metal
containers, construction equipment, discarded styrofoam, discharges from underwater effluents, and
abandoned boats within the natural ecosystem. At one time, residents disposed of garbage directly into
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REGION 1
ElA QUA
DC MUEKTOS
REGION 3
10 MILES
IT-45-
LEGEND
1 = Below fecal coliform standard for
incidental contact.
2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard. (< 10X)
3 = Exceeds 10X fecal coliform standard.
(< «OOX)
Figure 5-22. Puerto Rico Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact of
Water (e.g., while boating)
the coastal waters. Although this practice has subsided, garbage continues to erode into the sea over time
since many landfills have exceeded their regulated dumping limit. Another growing concern is the
problem of trash from transient cruise ships in the islands.
Although formerly disposed of by dumping overboard at sea, new regulations in the international
MARPOL Treaty, which restrict the dumping of plastics into the ocean and regulate the dumping of other
types of trash, may increase the solid waste disposal problems. Under this treaty, the Wider Caribbean
is formally recognized by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as a "Special Area." This
means that dumping of any trash is prohibited into areas so designated, with separate provisions for food
waste. Younger and Hodge (1992) discussed the results of the 1991 U.S. coastal cleanups. Seventy
volunteers in the Virgin Islands and 3,000 volunteers in Puerto Rico cleaned 6.5 and 123.9 km of
coastline during this effort. The total amount of debris collected for the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
was 1,814 kg and 36,287 kg, respectively. A number of items of trash were traced to seven cruise lines.
Medical wastes were also a problem, with Puerto Rico having the highest percentage of this type of trash
of all the states (0.65 percent, compared to a nationwide average of 0.16 percent). Medical wastes and
sewage wastes have increased during the last 4 years on Puerto Rico's beaches. A number of animals,
including a bird, sponge, fish, and crabs, were found to be impacted by being entangled or trapped
inside pieces of trash. These cleanups were organized by the Puerto Rico Hotel and Tourism
Association, the University of Puerto Rico Sea Grant College Program, and the St. Croix Environmental
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1 = Below fecal coliform standard for
incidental contact (<2000/100 ml)
2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard
for incidental contact (<10X)
3 = Exceeds 10X fecal coliform
standard for incidental contact
(<100X)
irjr
Figure 5-23. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact
of Water (e.g., while boating)
Association. These efforts should improve the appearance of the coastal habitats, help protect wildlife,
and educate industries and individuals in awareness of marine debris problems and solutions.
Dr. Esther Peters (Tetra Tech, Inc., personal communication, January 1992) noted offensive odors and
breathing difficulties in Guayanilla, Puerto Rico while she was researching coral reef diseases (1980-
1981). Power plants used a high-sulfur-content fuel during this period, which presented serious air
problems for the area. A study done in Mangrove Lagoon, St. Thomas, in 1984 reported that the area
experienced abhorrent odors and degrading water quality in the bay (USEPA 1984). Mangrove Lagoon
is no longer a desirable area for recreational activities due to the wastewater that flows from Nadir STP
and the Turpentine Run development.
La Parguera, a phosphorescent bay, has had problems with pollution over the last few years. A
construction company has plans to develop the overlooking hills, which could result in imminent danger
to the phosphorescence phenomenon (Felix Aporte, personal communication, April 29, 1992). The
ecology of the phosphorescence is fragile and disturbances to the area from runoff may affect the delicate
balance of this ecosystem. A similar bay in Jamaica was totally degraded due to local development.
Several of the critical habitats that have been set aside for the protection of endangered or threatened
species have experienced degradation due to the improper disposal of wastes (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
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Many of these areas are aesthetically important as well, since they represent pristine wilderness areas for
residents who may visit these areas. The presence of solid waste reduces the aesthetic enjoyment of these
areas. The following are examples of degraded critical habitats.
• Cabull6n Mangrove was listed as a primary habitat in 1979, but it has recently been
degraded. Residents have used the salt flats as dump sites. Old cars, appliances, and scrap
metal have been improperly disposed of throughout this critical habitat area.
• Cementerio Bay is being degraded because of squatter encroachment. Proper housing and
waste facilities are unavailable, so the majority of the waste is disposed of directly into the
environment.
• Desecheo Island is affected by two types of anthropogenic pollution. Degradation from
bombing practices has left the natural island habitat destroyed, and scrap metal from the
bombing has been dispersed throughout the ecosystems. Additionally, the National Institutes
of Health released numerous Rhesus monkeys, which tend to destroy the habitat and disturb
the indigenous species (USFWS 1986).
Solid-waste disposal practices are compounding the pollution problem, as well as decreasing the aesthetic
enjoyment of the islands. Although not documented, garbage-infested areas are decreasing the areas that
are usable for tourism. Floatable objects from sewage overflows and illegal dumping contribute to the
degradation of the areas typically used by tourists. The impacts of pollution can have an adverse effect
on an industry that accounts for 40 percent of the gross annual income of these islands (NOAA 1988).
As early as 1970, the solid-waste disposal practices of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were a
serious problem. At this time, the government began to develop strategies for handling the problem.
In 1972 the U.S. Virgin Islands was confronted with a solid waste problem of 159 metric tons a day.
This waste was composed of the following components: 33 percent paper; 20 percent garbage; 20 percent
glass and ceramics; 12 percent metals; 4 percent rubber and plastics; 2 percent grass, leaves, and
agricultural products; 2 percent fabrics and textiles; and 2 percent wood. In less than 12 years, the solid
waste disposal in St. Thomas went from 90.7 metric tons per day to 136 metric tons per day, a 50
percent increase. The per capita waste generated increased from 2.1 kg per day to 2.3 kg per day (an
8 percent per capita increase). The amount of waste generated increased faster than the rate of population
growth. However, many data gaps exist with respect to the total volume of solid waste, the type of
materials, and the locations of the solid-waste disposal sites.
Many problems that can affect the environment arise from solid waste dumping. Some of the current
practices of solid waste disposal in the islands are listed below.
• Sea edge/coastal dumping and burning are practices frequently used by the local population.
Solid waste is burned to eliminate the floatables and the emanating odor. Although no studies
have been conducted concerning this procedure and its environmental effects, it is presumed
to be hazardous. This is the least expensive way for people to dispose of their trash.
• Salt pond and coastal lagoon dumping is another common approach to the disposal of trash,
and it is the most pernicious (Wernicke 1988). The salt ponds and coastal lagoons are natural
sediment traps that help maintain high water quality and low turbidity levels. They protect
the coral reefs, as well as the mangrove areas, which serve as nursery grounds for many fish
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species (CFMC 1990). A significant portion of all salt ponds are used for dumping. The
practice of dumping eventually causes the area to be completely filled in, which leads to
commercial development. This development can change an area that once trapped sediments
into an area with a runoff problem. There has been a reduction in the number of salt ponds
and lagoons on both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (EQB 1990, DPNR 1990).
• Sanitary landfills are the preferred approach for the disposal of solid waste, but there are
problems associated with this practice. The heavy equipment needed for operation tends to
break down, and there is limited covering material (e.g., dirt). Spontaneous and continuous
fires can occur, and there is the possibility that contaminants will leach into the groundwater.
High operational costs also tend to limit this practice.
• Incineration of the solid waste is an effective alternative when proper disposal areas are
lacking. The U.S. Virgin Islands employs an incinerator, supplemented by a landfill for
nonburnables and incinerated ash. At the present time, air pollution is not a problem. Lack
of monitoring data and the possible problems associated with this practice keep it from being
fully utilized.
An alternative to these practices is to implement cost-effective ways to recycle the trash or reduce the
amount produced. One management plan proposed is the implementation of a recycling program. The
following recycling concepts have been suggested:
• Agricultural waste could be used as cattle feed, nutrients for algal culturing, and mulch
and fertilizer;
• Large objects (e.g., vehicles) could be used for artificial reefs. Derelict vehicles line
virtually every roadway in the islands (IRF 1976);
• Bagasse, a sugarcane byproduct, can be used for particle board, bio-gas production, kraft
paper, and box material;
• Glass containers could be recycled into road-building materials; and
• Incineration could be more effectively utilized, and the generated heat could be extracted for
low-pressure steam for industrial use.
5.4 Economic Impacts Due to Use Impairments
The economies of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico are based on tourism. In 1991, the visitor
expenditure in the U.S. Virgin Islands was $708,100,000 and the visitor expenditure in Puerto Rico was
$1,390,800,000 (CTO 1991). When tourists visit the islands, they consume a package of priced goods
and services and unpriced natural amenities. Not all goods consumed by tourists are tradable, and this
greatly contributes to their value. Any interruption of tourism has the potential to severely disrupt the
functioning of the island economies by creating unemployment and lowering property values, in addition
to lost tourism revenue.
The capability to generate employment is one of the primary benefits of tourism to Caribbean economies.
Persons dependent on tourism for a living include those employed in accommodation establishments; taxi
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drivers; workers in bars, restaurants, casinos, and souvenir shops and others working in industries and
public services directly or indirectly dependent on tourism (CTO 1991).
Sorensen (1990) explains that a visit to a beach or a day of recreational fishing may have no admission
fee and thus appear to be "free," but that each visit yields a net value above the cost of access to the
recreation user. In other words, this unpriced natural amenity is the consumer's surplus. When the
recreation site is damaged, a social cost is incurred in the form of a loss of consumer's surplus. Thus,
use impairments could result in a significant loss of consumer's surplus. However, the economic loss
associated with these use impairments cannot be adequately quantified at this time given the available
data. Further studies will need to be conducted in order to determine the economic loss to tourism and
industries indirectly affected by tourism decline. Available information on economic impacts due to use
impairments evaluated in this study is summarized below.
5.4.1 Estuarine and Marine Habitats
Economic expenditures related to impairments to estuarine and marine habitats are based on tourist-
derived income that may be affected by the loss of aesthetically pleasing vistas such as beaches and coral
reefs. The adverse affects of impairments are not limited to aesthetics; they may include offensive odors
and breathing difficulties (refer to section 5.3.4). Expenditures to remedy such a situation could be
significant.
5.4.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Populations
As previously mentioned, the fishing industry contributes to the food supply, economy, and health of
island populations, and it provides recreational and economic opportunities. The reduction of important
recreational and commercial species populations due to exposure to biotic and abiotic diseases, ciguatera
poisoning for example, results in limited human consumption of seafood due to concerns about pathogens
and contaminants. Mass mortalities and reduced species diversity indicate to the public that something
is amiss. Nature-based tourism suffers. Many fish species have been declining since the 1970s, and such
losses are likely to continue.
Koester (1986) examined changes in artisanal fishing practices as the result of the establishment of the
Virgin Islands National Park on St. John in 1956. He concluded that the residents of St. John have
benefitted from the tourist industry, which has created a high demand for lobster, conch, and fish, but
that they have also had to pay a number of costs related to the loss of traditional subsistence pursuits and
the alteration of many other activities (e.g., reduced populations of fish and shellfish as the result of
overfishing; increased regulation of fishing, boating, and hunting activities). Clearly, the replacement
of this island's traditional economy with an open, single industry-dependent economy has brought many
changes over the years, but the actual dollar amount cannot be determined.
IRF (1981) investigated the impacts of the Virgin Islands National Park on the economy of St. Thomas
and St. John, including visitor expenditures, increases in land values attributable to the existence of the
park, employment opportunities, and benefits to local merchants from the operations of the park and its
concessions. IRF found that the boating industry alone contributes $8.6 million (in 1980 dollars) to the
St. Thomas/St. John economy. When asked to what extent their visit was influenced by the fact that St.
John has a National Park, 78 percent of cruise ship visitors said they were largely influenced. This is
an indication of visitor preferences for such a valuable scenic and environmentally sensitive areas.
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5.4.3 Boating Industry
Although commercial and recreational boating practices are vital to the island economies, they have been
identified as significant sources of marine and estuarine pollution and cause significant physical damage
to various ecological habitats. As discussed in Section 5.3, the results of area management restrictions
placed on boating would be (1) the boating industry and all of the associated businesses would suffer
economically, and (2) other areas would most likely be impacted from overuse and would soon come
under the same jurisdiction. Vital support services that stem from the boating industry would thus
experience economic losses.
Commercial and recreational boating activities may also be reduced because floating debris and spill slicks
are aesthetically displeasing. The islands support sail and motor charters for tourists. Plastic sucked into
the engine via the water intake pipe can cause significant damage. Accumulation of trash on some
beaches is a serious problem in Puerto Rico. Collection and disposal of floating debris could be costly.
5.4.4 Swimming, Fishing, and Beach Closures
Costs associated with exposure to pathogens and contaminants during swimming and while eating affected
fish and shellfish are not known, but are probably significant. Not only are expenditures for acute and
chronic medical attention and care required, but there are also losses to the fishing and tourist industries
as people reduce their consumption of seafood and take their vacations at more pristine sites elsewhere.
The institution of fish consumption advisories and bans in the United States has resulted in declines in
self-caught sport fish consumption there (USEPA 1992). The number of beach user days decreased in
1987 for New Jersey and New York as the result of coliform-caused closures and the perception of the
public that beach and water quality was poor (Dynamac Corporation 1989).
Unfortunately, there have not been any studies to collect data necessary to assess the economic impacts
of beach closures, eating contaminated seafood, or curtailed boating activities in these islands, as has been
done on the mainland United States. As noted in the Dynamac Corporation (1989) study of use
impairments in the New York Bight, a beach pollution event affects economics in three ways: (1) levels
of beach expenditures are reduced, affecting many components of the economy, including local
businesses, parking or other fees, concessions, hotels, and other services; (2) employment is reduced; and
(3) diminished recreational activities lead to a lower standard of living or quality of life for the people
who use the beach. A similar breakdown of economic impacts can be developed for each use
impairment. There may also be costs associated with enforcement of closures. The measurement of loss
of quality of life can be determined by how much an individual would be willing to pay for the
opportunity to have clean beaches (water, habitat) for recreation, or the difference between how much
a person is willing to pay for an activity and how much they have to pay. To develop appropriate cost
estimates, studies must address a variety of complex factors and collect long-term data.
The popular Condado Beach was closed temporarily in October 1991, after preliminary tests by the EQB
revealed excessive levels of cadmium, lead, and PCBs. Tests were conducted after residents complained
in August that underwater sand had suddenly turned very dark (M. Capo, "Condado beach strip found
contaminated," The San Juan Star, October 3, 1991). Dyes were used by the EQB in an attempt to find
illegal storm sewer hookups, but none were found ("EQB finds toxins on Condado Beach," The San Juan
Star, October 11, 1991). Based on the recent Condado Beach closures, a beach closure in a major resort
area due to a high coliform count or chemical contamination will have a detrimental effect on the peak
tourist season. Economic losses occur in the tourist industry when beaches are closed. Businesses related
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to the tourist industry are also be affected by closings because of a decrease in the revenues generated
by the beaches. One hotel located in the vicinity of a recent closing was forced to lay off 150 employees
when the beach was closed for an extended period of time.
5.4.5 Conclusion
When considering the adverse effects of use impairments on the tourism-based economy of the islands,
one must consider the direct and indirect costs associated: (1) the cost to clean up the pollution and (2)
the opportunity cost of lost tourism revenue. The expense associated with beach closings due to oil spill
tar balls, for example, extends not only to the effects on marine life, but also to lost beach tourist revenue
and the cost to hotels and rental properties that have to clean up the tar.
The Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) reported that 1991 was a very difficult year for Caribbean
tourism, with 14 countries reporting decreases in tourist arrivals compared to 1990. Depressed economic
conditions in the major tourist-generating market of North America as well as the Gulf crisis have been
the main factors influencing this performance. Unlike land-based tourism, however, the number of cruise
passengers visiting the region in 1991 grew, driven largely by the increased capacity allocated to the
region and the cruise industry's success in marketing its products. The number of cruise passenger visits
to the region during 1991 was 9.4 percent higher than the numbers in 1990. CTO estimates that cruise
visitors to Caribbean ports spent around $550 million ashore in 1990 on shopping, tours, meals and
beverages, and the like. This figure does not include the on-shore expenditures by the ships' crews,
passenger taxes, or the various port charges paid by cruise ships (CTO 1991).
According to CTO, tourism cannot be divorced from its social, cultural, and environmental context.
During 1991, socio-environmental issues assumed a greater prominence in CTO member states. Along
with the overall aims to boost tourist arrivals, provide more tourism-related services and job
opportunities, and enhance gains from the tourism industry, even greater emphasis is now placed on
socioenvironmental tourism impact and assessment programs (CTO, 1991).
The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC) and the
Caribbean Development and Co-operation Committee (CDCC) provided necessary technical assistance
to regional consultants in the execution of formal Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism Studies in 1991. The
CTO provided technical support services to this research. The studies sought to assess the interaction
levels within host countries. These studies also addressed questions pertaining to the perceived impact
of selected life domains-family life, drugs, status of women, and community life - along with factors
influencing attitudes, tourism education, impact on culture and the preservation of local autonomy and
independence. These specific studies were undertaken in Barbados, Curacao, Tobago, and St. Lucia.
By December 1991, the Caribbean Environment Program had produced Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIAs) for Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and
St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The EIA procedure leads to the determination and analysis of both
positive and negative effects of proposed projects, plans, and activities on the environment. Decision
makers are also provided with the information required to introduce environmental protection
considerations into the decision-making process (CTO 1991).
These EIAs are important to regional tourism development because the Caribbean tourism product relies
on the enjoyment and preservation of the environment. The cruise business is expanding rapidly and eco-
tourism and the protection of ecosystems are being strongly promoted. It is widely accepted that
socioenvironmental degradation in any form hampers the growth of tourism in the region (CTO 1991).
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6. CONCLUSIONS
This study determined specific areas impacted by anthropogenically produced pollution and habitat
degradation based on scientific literature, government reports, and other available data.
6.1 Summary of Evaluations
Figure 6-1 illustrates coastal areas in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands that have been degraded
from various types of pollution. These evaluations were based on recorded exceedances of the priority
pollutants of concern at the ecosystem level. The coastal areas were ranked by determining the extent
of degradation (i.e., major, moderate, or minor).
Major areas experienced excessive degradation of the ecosystems and exceedances of 100 times acute
AWQCs established for the protection of marine organisms, 100 times human health AWQCs for
ingestion of fish, and/or 1,000 times the fecal coliform standards. Specifically, the coastal area of San
Juan Harbor and the coastal area surrounding Vega Baja have been severely degraded; these areas
experienced AWQC exceedances of most of the priority pollutants of concern. Excessive nutrients and
sedimentation problems are apparent, and beach closings, fish kills, and oil spills have occurred in the
areas.
Moderate areas are degraded with exceedances of 10 times the acute AWQC for marine organisms or the
human health AWQC for ingestion of fish, 100 times the chronic AWQC, and/or 100 times the fecal
coliform standards. These coastal areas include:
• Christiansted Harbor;
• St. Thomas Harbor and the surrounding coastal area;
• Guanica;
• Ponce;
• Yabucoa;
• Guayama;
• Arecibo; and
• Fajardo.
Minor areas include coastal areas with little or no degradation of the ecosystems due to slight exceedances
of AWQCs or fecal coliform standards. These coastal areas include:
• Mayaguez;
• Aquadilla;
• Guayanilla;
• Charlotte Amalie;
• Cruz Bay; and
• Humacao.
Impairments to the marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from
anthropogenic pollution were also evaluated by determining the losses incurred by specific designated
uses. The following uses were evaluated in this report:
6-1
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ir«r
LEGEND
I!
+
4
i j MAJOR
MODERATE
MINOR
Figure 6-1. Coastal Areas Degraded from Anthropog«ntea*9y Produced Pollution
6-2
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• Ecological habitat health and productivity;
• Fish and wildlife populations;
• Health effects related to the ingestion of contaminated fish/shellfish;
• Swimming;
• Boating; and
• Aesthetic enjoyment of the islands.
Statistical summaries of the support status of the major waterbodies of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands were obtained from the WBS and the 1990 305(b) reports. A significant percentage of the
waterbodies are only partially supporting their designated use. Waterbodies fully supporting their
designated uses for Puerto Rico include 58 percent of coastal waters, 13 percent of estuaries, and
31 percent of lakes and lagoons. In the U.S. Virgin Islands 64.6 percent of estuaries, harbor, and bays;
88.8 percent of coastal areas; and 6.1 percent of oceans were fully supporting their designated uses.
Puerto Rico's 1990 305(b) report identified over 100 impaired waterbodies, and the U.S. Virgin Islands'
1990 305(b) report identified 23 impaired waterbodies. Impaired waters surrounding major cities of
Puerto Rico that have been impacted as a result of anthropogenically produced pollution include San Juan,
Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanico, Arecibo, Aquadilla, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez. In the
U.S. Virgin Islands, coastal waters around Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor, and Cruz Bay are
considered to be impaired.
6.2 Ecological Habitat Health and Productivity
Although the growth of mangrove forests is typically limited by the supply of nutrients, nutrient
enrichment is a concern for the health of coral reefs because excessive nutrients can cause algal blooms,
which can be detrimental. Live coral cover assessments in various coastal communities found numerous
reductions (4 to 23 percent) due to increased nutrients.
Increased sedimentation in coastal areas as a result of land development is cited by Rogers (1990) as the
primary cause of coral reef degradation and threats to seagrass beds in the Caribbean. Such degradation
is the result of direct excavation or burial during dredging operations (Hubbard 1987), as well as anchor
damage (Williams 1988c). Differences in percent live coral cover between healthy coral communities
and affected coral reefs have been attributed to the resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous
origin. Also, sediment discharges from rivers have an effect on the percent live coral cover on some
reefs. The differences have been attributed to topographic differences between the reefs; some were able
to shed sediments faster than others.
Thermal effluents from power facilities are the main concern with respect to thermal pollution along the
coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Temperature elevations that could affect the
coral communities have been detected in some of coastal regions of Puerto Rico. Kolehmainen et al.
(1974) determined that mangrove-root communities significantly changed with the elevation of water
temperatures.
In addition, commercial and recreational boating practices have been identified as significant sources of
marine and estuarine pollution affecting the ecosystems. Negligent boating practices have caused
significant physical damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds because of physical abrasions from boats,
boat propellers, and anchors. More than 10 percent of the boats anchored in coral communities or
seagrass beds have caused extensive damage.
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6.3 Fish and Wildlife Populations
In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fishery landings have decreased in recent years, in both catch
per unit effort and size of the individual species (CFMC 1985). The average catch per trap has gone
from 321 pounds in 1976 to 138 pounds in 1980 (CMFC 1990), representing a 57 percent decrease in
the fisheries in 4 years. The destruction of various ecosystems as a result of anthropogenically produced
pollution has a definite impact on the fisheries. Although a large percentage of the fish stock depletion
is due to overfishing, it is believed that the effects of pollution on nursery grounds and on the populations
are contributing to die low catches seen in the area. The following priority pollutants exceeded the acute
AWQCs in at least one sample station in the coastal regions of Puerto Rico: mercury, copper, aluminum,
cyanide, silver, and zinc. In addition, nickel, lead, and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exceeded chronic
AWQCs. These pollutants could have a detrimental effect on the recreationally and commercially
important species.
Critical coastal habitats impaired as a result of coastal development and anthropogenically produced
pollution were evaluated. Development is one of the major problems facing these habitats. Impacts from
industrial, recreational, agricultural, and housing developments constructed in the surrounding coastal
regions are prevalent in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Of the 74 critical coastal wildlife areas
originally listed for Puerto Rico, 12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded by anthropogenically produced
pollution and may require monitoring or mitigation to improve the ecosystem. Twenty-three critical
coastal wildlife areas were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands, and more than one-half of these habitats
were listed as being stressed by anthropogenic pollution.
6.4 Health Effects Related to the Ingestion of Contaminated Fish/Shellfish
Several chemicals present in the ambient water along the coast of Puerto Rico have the ability to
bioaccumulate in fish tissue. (No data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.) Water quality
monitoring data were used to evaluate the potential risk associated with the ingestion of fish or shellfish
from the coastal regions. Mercury and thallium were the only two pollutants that exceeded the AWQCs
for fish ingestion. In isolated locations, the estimated risk associated with ingestion of mercury
contaminated fish exceeded the acceptable level for subsistence fishermen by a factor of 10,000 and for
recreational fishermen by a factor of 1,000. The problems due to mercury contamination in Puerto Rico
are consistent with those in the United States, where over 70 percent of all fish advisories are based on
mercury contamination. In addition, levels of thallium slightly exceeded the AWQCs for ingestion of fish
in the San Juan Harbor area.
Ciguatera, caused by consumption of fish containing a potent biotoxin, has been increasing in the
Caribbean. An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands (Tosteson 1990). The incidence of fish poisoning due to ciguatera has increased
by at least 10 reported cases per 10,000 residents per year since the late 1970s. This problem affects
bodi the human population and the fishing industry.
6.5 Swimming
There have been numerous beach closings attributed to human pathogen-associated problems in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Areas where levels of fecal coliform in coastal waters exceeded the
swimming criteria in Puerto Rico included San Juan Harbor, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama, Ponce, and
Mayaguez. Coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands where the fecal coliform criteria were exceeded
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included Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor, Gallows Bay, Fisherman's dock, Salt River Marina,
Bucanner Beach, and Cruz Bay. Numerous coastal locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded
the fecal coliform standards by factors ranging from 10 times the standard to 1,000 times the standard.
Pathogens released by sewage effluents from boats within marinas are of concern to the islands' boating
industry, in addition to floatables, oil pollution, and sedimentation of channels through runoff.
Floatables, such as plastic containers and garbage bags, have been a persistent problem in San Jose
Lagoon, ultimately impeding boat traffic throughout the lagoon. A few of the boating waterways have
also been impacted by sedimentation, especially Christiansted Harbor and Gallows Bay.
6.7 Aesthetic Enjoyment
Although evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is
difficult because of the subjective nature of aesthetics, increases in anthropogenic pollution have probably
resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands. Specific pollution problems of Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands that may reduce aesthetic enjoyment include solid waste generated by residents
and industry that is improperly disposed of, such as empty containers and debris; abandoned cars and
boats; oil spills; unpleasant odors from effluents; and raw sewage in surface water (Cardona and Rivera
1988, EQB 1990, and DPNR 1990).
The ecological habitats, marine aquatic life and wildlife, consumption of fish and shellfish, swimming,
boating, and the aesthetic enjoyment of the islands are reasons that consumers visit Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands. The degradation of these resources, resulting in use impairments, will present
problems if it becomes too severe, and once it becomes obvious that coastal areas are impaired, tourism
is likely to decline.
6.8 Recommendations
Inadequate sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been identified as one of the primary point source
pollution problems in the Caribbean and a significant contributor to coastal habitat degradation in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Sewage treatment facilities need to be updated with modern technology
and brought up to carrying capacities adequate for the populations being served. Illegal hookups and
broken lines need to be identified and repaired. It may also be necessary for sewage effluents to be
released through ocean diffusers so pathogens are dispersed and not concentrated in a single waterbody.
According to the 1990 Needs Survey Report to Congress (USEPA 1991), Puerto Rico is ranked 13th out
of 53 states (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) for the amount of
money needed to provide adequate publicly-owned secondary wastewater treatment plants. If states
ranked higher than Puerto Rico, such as California, were taken out of the ranking (because their need
is based on planned expansion and/or reflects a larger state size), Puerto Rico would be ranked much
higher, since the rankings would be based on improvements needed in facilities. The cost (in dollars for
January 1990) to provide basic services (e.g., secondary treatment) to Puerto Rico is $636 million. For
total wastewater treatment projects, Puerto Rico ranks 19th with a total cost of $1.6 billion.
The following additional remedial actions and management measures may further reduce impairments to
coastal and estuarine waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands:
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« NPDES permit levels need to be monitored frequently and permit limits need to be enforced.
• Proper management practices related to coastal construction need to be adopted and enforced
to help alleviate stormwater runoff.
• Benefits of various solid waste management strategies such as recycling, incineration, creation
of artificial reefs using old vehicles and boats, etc. need to be evaluated.
• Management measures for the boating industry need to be implemented. This may include
restricting the number of boats in critical coastal areas, instituting better waste management
practices by monitoring the fecal counts in the moored areas, and constructing docking areas
in critical coastal areas.
« Urban and agricultural stormwater runoff should be reduced by implementing better
management practices designed to retain sediment and pollutants.
• Critical coastal wildlife areas should be routinely monitored, and appropriate procedures to
analyze the causes of wildlife and aquatic marine life kills need to be developed and
implemented.
• Fisheries management strategies should be adopted.
• Information concerning the source of oil spills needs to be researched, and management
measures need to be adopted to curtail these releases.
8 Effluent limits should be established that prevent the elevation of the receiving water
temperature above 32 °C for prolonged periods, based on the factors of both flow and
temperature of the effluent.
• Data gaps found in the assessments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (e.g., no
toxic data for the U.S. Virgin Islands) must be recognized and researched.
• A regular monitoring and reporting program for the coastal areas should identify problems
early.
• Scientific research should be undertaken to help develop mitigation procedures and
management practices that will help stop the degradation of the coastal regions.
Because these islands depend heavily on tourists, it will be important to associate coastal pollution and
habitat remediation efforts with their value to the islands' economies and vice versa. Clean waters and
beaches will attract more tourists, but more tourists will strain existing sewage treatment facilities, add
to the problems already caused by recreational boating and fishing activities, and cause more habitat
degradation as new hotels are built near beaches (Murphy 1986, Gable 1990). Diversification of tourism,
to include mountain hiking or river-based activities inland, could aid in the preservation of marine and
estuarine habitats (Herbert Miller, writer, personal communication, October 1992).
A recent program under the direction of Puerto Rico's Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is the
encouragement of "ecotourism" or "nature tourism" (Carrion 1992). Ecotourism improves ecological
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awareness and increases social and economic gain by developing educational, recreational, and tourist
opportunities within natural areas. The ecotourism program in Puerto Rico includes efforts to curtail
damage to ecological habitats by tourists and residents, protect endangered species, and improve the
aesthetics of the island through the following management goals (Carrion 1992):
• Promote the use of natural areas by improving public access;
• Enhance educational efforts by providing information in brochures, trail signs, and tours on
the ecology of the island's marine, estuarine, and upland habitats;
• Establish programs for collecting and interpreting data on fish and fishing activities, including
a program to monitor and manage sport fishing populations;
• Advise the public against the use of off-road vehicles in mangrove forests, which can damage
roots, animal burrows, and ground-nesting birds;
• Prohibit the cutting of trees and branches in natural areas by picnickers who run out of
charcoal;
• Enforce against the depositing of fill in wetlands areas by tourist businesses (e.g., snack bars,
restaurants, stores) located on the edges of natural forest boundaries; and
• Advise the public against damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds caused by water-sport
activities.
Programs similar to the DNR ecotourism program should be continued and expanded in Puerto Rico and
the Virgin Islands. Additional efforts such as controlled development, multiple use planning, and
zonation to minimize user conflicts and impacts on the environment should be implemented as well.
While some tourists are not environmentally discriminating and will not be affected by mild pollution or
habitat degradation (Agardy 1990), multiple-use planning to protect coastal habitats and resources can
succeed if local inhabitants recognize the value of these areas and understand the economic benefits to
be gained by improving their condition.
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7-22
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APPENDIX A
Annotated Bibliography
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1. Cited Reference:
Acevedo, R., and J. Morelock. 1988. Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral
reef zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico. In Proceedings of the Sixth International
Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia, August 8-12, 1988, Vol. 2, 189-194.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Nutrients
Toxics Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The distribution of hermatypic coral species and species dominance patterns is
discussed from the study of eight reef sites off southwestern Puerto Rico. Photo-
transects were surveyed on four sites at La Parguera where terrigenous sediment
influx was absent and used to develop a standard coral zonation pattern. Four sites
were studied at Ponce where the presence of terrigenous sediments was observed
and results compared between sites for each depth level.
Coral cover and species diversity were greatly reduced near the source of
terrigenous sediment. Both coral cover and coral species diversity increased with
distance from the sediment source.
Loss of light is critical to the deeper coral assemblages, and a chronic increase in
turbidity will move the lower limit of coral growth to much shallower depths. Other
possible effects from sediment influx commonly observed were partial or total burial
of coral colonies, bleaching, and colonization of the coral surface by filamentous
blue-green algae.
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1. Cited Reference:
Adey, W.H., C.S. Rogers, and R.S. Steneck. 1981. The south St. Croix reef: A study
of reef metabolism as related to environmental factors and an assessment of
environmental management. Prepared for the Department of Conservation and
Cultural Affairs, Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
64 pp. + appendices.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Nutrients: Nitrate and nitrite nitrogen,
ammonia nitrogen
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The community metabolism and community structure of the south St. Croix reef,
one of the largest reef structures in the world, is described. Transects were made by
divers, who measured species composition and areal coverage. Dissolved oxygen,
solar radiation, suspended material, and currents were also measured. The effects of
nutrients produced by the reef and sedimentation were discussed in reference to the
reef community structure. Specific recommendations for monitoring were put forth
as part of an effective environmental management strategy.
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1. Cited Reference:
Allen, W.H. 1992. Increased dangers to Caribbean marine ecosystems. BioScience
42 (5): 330-334.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage; cruise ship anchors and intensified tourism
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
impairments to recreational and commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment; coral reefs and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
The increase in cruise ships, in number and size, visiting the Virgin Islands has
threatened the coral reefs and marine environment. The number of cruise ships
anchoring within coral reefs and destroying several meters of the coral reefs has
increased. The increase in the number of tourists has also led to an increase in the
destruction of coral reefs due to snorkelers and divers. In addition, natural disasters,
development of the islands, and pollution are causes of destruction to the coral reefs.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Atwood, D.K., FJ. Burton, J.W. Corrector, G.R. Harvey, A.J. Mata-Jimenez,
A. Vasquez-Botello, and B.A. Wade. 1987. Petroleum pollution in the Caribbean.
In Oceanus, Vol. 30, no.4, ed. P.A. Ryan, pp. 25-32. Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
2. Pollution Type:
Oil spills
Toxics: hydrocarbons, polcyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
impariments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: The wider Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico
B) Habitat: Marine environment, terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
This article discusses reasons for investigating the existence of pollution in the
islands and includes the Gulf of Mexico in its considerations. In 1976, the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) in Paris, the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) in Nairobi, Kenya, and the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization in Rome, all of Which have interests in the
Caribbean/Gulf of Mexico (or "American Mediterranean," as this area is often
called), convened a meeting of scientists from that region in Port of Spain, Trinidad,
to discuss what needed to be done regarding a growing concern over marine
pollution. Although this group recognized numerous local pollution problems in the
region (for example, lack of sewage treatment facilities for coastal urban centers,
and agricultural runoff), their report, as published by the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) in Paris, noted that petroleum pollution was of
region-wide concern and recommended that the organizations present initiate a
research and monitoring program to determine the severity of the problem and
monitor its effects.
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1. Cited Reference:
Beets, J., L. Lewand, and E.S. Zullo. 1986. Marine communities description and maps
of bays within the Virgin Islands National Park/Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere
Reserve research report no. 2. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and
the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Toxics Physical damage
Biological pathogens Nutrients Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and harbors
5. Synopsis:
During the 4-month field work period, February May 1984, every bay within the
Virgin Islands National Park on St. John was investigated and major zones
characterized. Methods used during the investigation were derived by the Working
Group of the Virgin Island Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC).
Descriptions of the bays within the park around St. John were produced and form
the main body of the report.
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1. Cited Reference:
Beekhuis, J.V. 1981. Tourism in the Caribbean: Impacts on the economic, social and
natural environments. Ambio 10(6).
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Oil spills
Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impairments to
recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, beaches, and coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
In less than 50 years the Caribbean has become one of the world's premier tourist
attractions. Tourism provides nearly two million jobs and, for some of the smaller
nations, accounts for as much as 55 percent of the GNP- So far the area is largely
pollution free, but environmental degradation would have serious economic effects.
Regional cooperation is essential to protect the environment but difficult to achieve,
in part because of the very diversity that is one of the area's principal attractions.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Borie, L. 1979. Bugby Hole, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: A land use plan. Prepared
under contract for the Nature Conservancy.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Not applicable
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
Following preliminary planning visits to the site in 1978, the principal site
investigations were carried out during the first 2 months of 1979. To assess
properly the natural and cultural features of the site, a trail crew was employed to
cut narrow trails into the dense vegetation of several portions of the property, taking
care not to disturb potentially valuable vegetation or historic elements. Natural
access points such as existing cleared boundaries, old streambeds, and neighboring
vantage points were also used to gather the desired information about the property.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Boulon, R.H., Jr. 1986. Fisheries habitat of the Virgin Islands region of ecological
importance to the fisheries resources of the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve.
Biosphere Reserve research report no, 9. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the
Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: fisheries
5. Synopsis:
Ten habitat types in eight locations adjacent to the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve
were selected and sampled for their resident assemblages of commercially important
fish species. It is recognized that fishery stocks are distributed and interact without
any consideration of man-made boundaries, and thus areas adjacent to the Biosphere
Reserve may be ecologically important to the fishery stocks within the Biosphere
Reserve. Habitat types that could have high ecological importance can be divided
into two groups: nursery habitats (development and recruitment source for adjacent
habitats) and reproductive habitats (production of eggs and larvae to supply nursery
habitats). However, given the planktonic phase of most reef fish larvae and the
migratory nature of the pelagic species of fish as well as conch and lobster, it is
difficult to assess the actual influence of any particular reproductive site on the
adjacent habitats.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Boulon, R.H. 1987. Basis for long term monitoring offish and shellfish species in the
Virgin Islands National Park. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 22. Prepared
for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, coral reefs, and mangroves
5. Synopsis:
Fish and marine invertebrates in the Virgin Islands are being affected by a number
of stresses. Foremost of these is the heavy fishing pressure exerted on most species.
With a limited shelf area of approximately 160,000 hectacres (St. Thomas and St.
John) and a total of 225 registered commercial fishermen (St. Thomas and St. John)
for 1984-85 (Clavijo et al., 1986), not to mention and unknown number of
recreational fishermen and sport divers, the reef fish, lobsters, conch, and whelk are
being harvested at a rate exceeding replacement. As a result the stocks are declining
at an alarming rate (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (CFMC), 1985), a
fact corroborated by fishery landings data as well as by fishermen. Other stresses
include effects of development (sedimentation, increased runoff, potential toxic
pollutants) and habitat degradation through anchor and boat damage and large
numbers of visitors utilizing and affecting the marine ecosystems.
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1. Cited Reference:
Boulon, R.H., Jr., J. Beets, and E.S. Zullo. 1986. Long term monitoring of fisheries in
the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 13.
Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, harbors, coral reefs, wetlands, and
fisheries
5. Synopsis:
Populations of finfish, shellfish (conch, whelk) and lobsters appear to be declining in
the waters around St. John. Local fishermen are demonstrating this through reduced
catches and smaller individual fish. It is important, therefore, to determine the
status of the populations of these commercially important species. Baseline data on
these populations are needed to establish resource management guidelines and
evaluate the response of these populations to man-made or natural disturbances.
Long-term monitoring of these populations using consistent methodology can
provide the necessary baseline data.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Bunkley-Williams, L., and E.H. Williams, Jr. 1991. Annual report. Sportfish
disease and parasites. Project no. 28. Department of Marine Sciences. Mayaguez,
Puerto Rico.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: infectious diseases, parasites
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
A variety of reports of fish diseases and fish kills are surveyed.
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1. Cited Reference:
Cardona, J.E., and M. Rivera. 1988. Critical coastal wildlife areas of Puerto Rico.
Prepared for the Puerto Rico Coastal Zone Management Program, Department of
Natural Resources, Puerto Rico.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Physical damage
Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1-5)
B) Habitat: Mangroves, lagoons, beaches, marine environment, and
terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
The current status of 73 coastal areas considered critical for threatened, endangered,
gamebird, and aquatic wildlife species survival is compared with their status in
1979. Aspects such as habitat degradation, increase and reduction of areas, and
continued use by their characteristic fauna are examined. Location, administrative
status, and ownership are indicated. General management recommendations are
given where appropriate. Maps illustrating all areas and showing general vegetation
features and characteristic fauna are included.
Some degree of degradation was observed in approximately one-third of the areas.
Loss of habitat occurred in about one-fourth, and encroachment was evident in
nearly half the areas. Habitat losses are equally represented among privately and
publicly owned areas. These and other aspects are briefly discussed for a number of
areas.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. 1985. Fishery management plan, final
environmental impact statement, and draft regulatory impact review for the Shallow
Water Reeffish Fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In cooperation
with the National Marine Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: Ciguatera
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and physical
damage
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Fisheries, marine environment, coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The proposed action is to adopt and implement a fishery management plan for the
shallow-water reeffish fishery within the area of authority of the Caribbean Fishery
Management Council around Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The
objectives of the FMP are to (1) obtain the necessary data for management and
monitoring; (2) reverse the declining trends (i.e., decrease in landings and catch per
unit of effort (CPUE) in the resource); (3) reduce conflicts among harvesters of the
resource; (4) promote compatible, if not uniform, management of the pan-Caribbean
species in the unit, and (5) help solve the ciguatera problem.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. 1990. Amendment no. I to the Fishery
Management Plan for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery, Preliminary regulatory
assessment and regulatory impact review. In cooperation with the National Marine
Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Shallow-Water Reef Fishery
5. Synopsis:
The Fishery Management Plan established regulations to rebuild declining reef fish
species in the fishery and reduce conflicts among fishermen. It established criteria
for the construction of fish traps; required owner identification and marking of gear
and boats; prohibited the hauling of or tampering with another person's traps
without the owner's written consent; prohibited the use of poisons, drugs, other
chemicals, and explosives for the taking of reeffish; established a minimum size
limit on the harvest of yellowtail snapper and Nassau grouper; and established a
closed season for the taking of Nassau grouper.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. 1991. Regulatory amendment to the
Shallow Water Reef, Fishery Management Plan. In cooperation with the National
Marine Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Shallow-Water Reef Fishery
5. Synopsis:
The Shallow-Water Reef Fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands FMP
was implemented on September 22, 1985. The implementing regulations, designed
to stop the declining trend of stocks, included: (1) A minimum mesh size of 1 1/4
inches for fish traps; (2) requirement of a self-destruct panel and/or a self-destruct
door fastening on fish traps; (3) requirement for owners to identify and mark their
gear and boats; (4) prohibition of hauling or tampering with another person's traps
without the owner's written permission; (5) prohibition on the use of poisons, drugs,
other chemicals, and explosives for fishing among other management measures; and
(6) minimum size limits for yellowtail snapper and Nassau grouper.
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1. Cited Reference:
Cintron, G., A.E. Lugo, D.J. Pool, and G. Morris. 1978. Mangroves of arid
environments in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. Biotropica 10:110-121.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 2-4)
B) Habitat: Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
The structure of mangrove vegetation, soil salinity, and topographic relief of the
mangrove ecosystem were studied along the south coast of Puerto Rico, Culebra,
and Mona Island. Tree height was, inversely proportional to soil salinity between 17
and 72 ppt. It was proposed that cyclic rainfall patterns and hurricanes act as
regulators of speed and direction of succession. Droughty periods result in high soil
salinities, mangrove mortality, and expansion of salt flats. Hurricanes set back
succession and reverse successional trends that reduce mangrove areas.
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1. Cited Reference:
Coulston, M.L. 1987. Pilot experimental seagrass transplantation project, south shore,
St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Prepared for the Virgin Islands Port Authority.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Seagrass beds, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Seagrass meadows provide one of the most important and productive habitats in
tropical coastal waters. They serve as a major primary producer of food resources
for a vast number of organisms and a nursery habitat for juvenile fish including
many commercially valuable species. Seagrasses also serve to stabilize inshore
areas by preventing erosion. Because seagrass habitats are so valuable, many local
and federal agencies are requiring habitat restoration programs in nearby areas as
mitigation for seagrass areas being destroyed by dredge-and-fill operations. This
report describes the first large-scale seagrass transplant in the U.S. Virgin Islands.
A pilot experimental seagrass transplantation project was authorized by the Virgin
Islands Port Authority as mitigation for dredge-and-fill operations necessary for the
construction of a liquid bulk terminal on the easterly side of the Martin Marietta
Channel. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers required that the Port Authority
transplant seagrasses from the area to be dredged and filled to nearby shallow,
unvegetated bottoms. The operation was begun on July 3, 1987, with donor and
recipient site surveys. Phase I Report: Survey and Revised Methods is submitted as
Appendix I of this report.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Coulston, M.L., R.H. Ruskin, and G. Baretta. 1991. Bacteriological study to evaluate
the safety of recreational waters in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Prepared for the
Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: bacterial
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to recreational/commercial use and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Valuable marine recreational waters were tested for microbiological indicators of
water quality. The presence and density of selected indicator bacteria and chemical
parameters were determined at selected sites on all three Virgin Islands. In general,
the water quality of all open, coastal, recreational beaches sampled was found to be
satisfactory, based on the microbiological parameters tested. Elevated levels of
bacteria were present in enclosed bays or harbors with poor water exchange
especially near added impacts such as water guts or when associated with a high
number of liveaboard, moored boats. Correlation analyses indicated that
Staphylococcus aureaus had a wide distribution but was not associated with other
microbial indicators and that the presence of microbes was not associated with the
other water quality parameters tested.
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1. Cited Reference:
Damman, A.E. 1985. Assessment offish and shellfish stocks produced in the
Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 10. Virgin Islands
Resources Management Cooperative/Virgin Islands National Park. Prepared for the
U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, fisheries, and marine
environment
5. Synopsis:
The estimation of marine fishery stock parameters is an extremely difficult
undertaking. There is a large and rapidly increasing volume of literature that attests
to this fact. The general kinds of data that have been used to estimate stock size
and its utilization on a sustained basis are both biological and fisheries-derived.
Examples of the biological data types are (1) basic productivity in terms of carbon
fixation and its transfer through the trophic levels, (2) length-weight frequencies of
individual species, and (3) age, growth, and mortality rates. The most widely used
information from fisheries is catch per unit of effort. Effort has been measured in
such units as time, number of boats, gear, and fishermen and the catch by numbers,
weights, or species composition.
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1. Cited Reference:
Davidson, L. 1990. Environmental assessment of the wider Caribbean Region.
UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 121.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides Sedimentation
Oil pollution Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impacts
to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Marine environment and terrestrial environment
S. Synopsis:
After centuries of colonial exploitation, mono^crop agriculture, and military use,
much of the region has been left with severely damaged terrestrial and coastal
marine environments, which today are under further stress because of growing
populations, expanding tourism, waste disposal methods, industrial activities, oil
tanker discharges, deforestation, erosion, and overfishing.
In addition, a number of recent changes in the region are having environmental
consequences. The region has become a dumping ground for hazardous-waste
operators trying to evade new, stringent waste laws in industrialized nations.
Renewed interest in oil exploration has resulted in plans to place significantly more
oil drilling operations in the region. There is a risk of nuclear accidents involving
submarines, especially in areas where tanker traffic is heavy and offshore structures
are prominent.
The increasing potential for environmental disasters spotlights the need for
contingency planning and cooperation between nations.
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1. Cited Reference:
Davis, M., E. Gladfelter, H. Lund, and M. Anderson. 1985. Geographic range and
research plan for monitoring white band disease. Biosphere Reserve research report
no. 6. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative/Virgin Islands National
Park.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: infectious diseases
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Species of Acropora are dominant reef framework builders in the Caribbean. White
band disease (WBD) of these corals has resulted in widespread mortality in a
number of Caribbean localities in the past few years. This report presents the results
of two surveys of the geographic range of WBD: (1) quantitative estimates of
disease-related mortalities in the USVI and (2) qualitative accounts of the extent of
the disease in localities throughout the greater Caribbean.
A research plan for monitoring the ecosystem level and organism level changes due
to WBD is presented. The initial implementation of this plan, including the
establishment and monitoring of a photo transect, is described.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Department of Natural Resources. 1985. Regulation to govern the management of
threatened and endangered species in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. San Juan,
Puerto Rico. August.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This Regulation was adopted for the purpose of designating, protecting, and
conserving species of fish, wildlife, animals, and plants, both terrestrial and aquatic,
that are considered threatened or in danger of extinction.
-------
1. Cited Reference
Department of Planning and Natural Resources. 1990. Water quality assessment report
305(b). Division of Environmental Protection. June.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: heavy metals
Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impacts
to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, beaches, and wetlands
5. Synopsis:
Water quality in the Virgin Islands is generally good but is declining due to an
increase in nonpoint sources such as vessel wastes and uncontrolled runoff. Lack of
adequate resources for water pollution control continues to prevent the
implementation of an effective program that realizes its goals and objectives.
Of the approximately 5.93 square miles of assessed bays, harbors, and estuaries,
3.83 support its designated uses, 0.85 partially supports its designated uses, 0.47
does not support uses, and 0.77 is threatened. Major causes of use impairment are
municipal/domestic point sources and nonpoint sources. Nonpoint source pollution
has increased with the rapid rate of construction along the coastlines, increasing boat
activities, and Hurricane Hugo.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Diaz-Piferrera, M. 1964. The effects of an oil spill on the shore of Gudnica, Puerto
Rico. Abstract. Associated Island Marine Laboratory, 4th Meeting, Curacoa, 18-20
November 1962, pp. 12-13. Deep-sea Res. 11:855-856.
2. Pollution Type:
Oil pollution Toxics
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Mangroves, beaches, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This report discusses the effects of a 10,000-ton spill of crude oil from a tanker that
ran aground on the south shore of Puerto Rico on July 16, 1962. The oil was blown
ashore, affecting distant beaches and offshore coral reefs to the west.
The author had previously done extensive algae tests on the region and was able to
make several comparisons showing the effects after the spill. There was extensive
physical damage to beaches from the combined effects of heavy oil and wave action.
The oil striking mangrove swamps settled among the roots, virtually destroying the
habitat. Also, the death toll of marine organisms was significant.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Dodge, R.E. 1981. Growth characteristics of reef-building corals within and external
to a naval ordnance range: Vieques, Puerto Rico. In The Reef and Man,
Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Vol. 2, pp. 241-248.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The skeletal growth of Montastrea annularis collected from within and outside a
naval ordnance range at Vieques, Puerto Rico, was measured. Growth was
measured from annual increments revealed by X-radiography of medial slabs of the
coral skeletons. Statistical comparison of the growth data reveals a general
similarity between range and control stations, indicating a lack of adverse impacts to
coral growth associated with the anomalous sedimentation/turbidity conditions of the
range.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Dodge, R.E., and G.W. Brass. 1984. Skeletal extension, density and calcification of
the reef coral, Montastrea annularis: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci.
34:288-307.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
Parameters of the annual and subannual skeletal growth of Montastrea annularis
corals were determined by X-radiography and scanning densitometry for each year
in the 10-year period, 1970-79. Three parameters—extension (linear growth), bulk
density, and calcification—were measured, any two of which are sufficient to
describe coral growth. Growth anomalies in corals from Round Reef and the
southern coast are probably related to major dredging activity.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Dodge, R.E., T.D. Jickells, A.M. Knap, S. Boyd, and R.P.M. Bak. 1984. Reef-building
coral skeletons as chemical pollution (phosphorus) indicators. Mar. Poll. Bull.
15:178-187.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients: Total phosphorus
3. Impairment Type:
Unknown
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
Specimens of Montastrea annularis were collected from three reef sites along the
coast of St. Croix, as well as sites in Bermuda and Curacao. Phosphorus
concentrations determined on subsamples dated by density band growth increments
indicate that a record of seawater is preserved which, in certain cases, is consistent
with the location and time history of sewage and other phosphorus pollution
episodes. The method of inclusion of the phosphorus within the skeleton is
uncertain. Possibilities may be tissue content of endolithic algae, trapped detritus,
trapped coral tissue and/or organic matrix, and primary deposition. Since enhanced
phosphorus levels can be detrimental to reef systems, it is important to both
establish baseline levels for comparison and to document enhanced eutrophication
for prediction and management purposes.
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1. Cited Reference:
DuBois, R. 1984. Coastal fisheries management: Lessons learned from the Caribbean,
Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impairments to recreational/commercial use and impacts to fish and wildlife
populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Fisheries and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This study demonstrates the need for more comprehensive approaches to the
management of coastal fish stocks. Caribbean fisheries for spiny lobster and conch,
two highly-valued species occurring throughout the region and known to be under
intense exploitive pressure, were selected for analysis. The approach taken
documents (1) the history of the two fisheries leading up to present exploitation
patterns, both locally and regionally; (2) the importance of conch and lobster
resources to local economies; (3) the socioeconomic effects resulting from their
apparent overexploitation; and (4) the major constraints on their effective
management. Information was derived from existing literature, a questionnaire
distributed to fishery officers throughout the region, and selected interviews and site
visits to the U.S. Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos, Antigua, and Belize, which
confirm the intense harvesting of both conch and lobster stocks, with possible over-
exploitation evident in some cases. The structure and effectiveness of existing
fisheries management programs are compared and analyzed.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Earhart, J.E., A.E. Reilly, and M. Davis. 1988. Initial inventory of the three permanent
forest plots in the Virgin Island National Park. Biosphere Reserve research report
no. 27. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands
Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Forests and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
There is a need to enhance research and improve management techniques in
secondary forest areas in the tropics. Vast areas of secondary forests throughout the
Neotropics have been overlooked as potentially productive area due to lack of
information on basic ecology and silvicultural possibilities. These areas could
potentially be managed for timber and fuelwood in such a manner as to maintain a
high percentage of the ecological integrity while simultaneously relieving pressure
on other more critical primary habitats. This situation is especially true in the
Caribbean where the land pressure situation is critical and only small amounts of
primary forest remain to protect wildlife and watershed resources. Although
substantial strides have been made in the last several years, there continues to be a
paucity of baseline data available on the dynamics of secondary forests in the
Caribbean.
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1. Cited Reference:
Edwards, S.F. 1987. An introduction to coastal zone economics: Concepts, methods,
and case studies. National Marine Fisheries Service. Taylor and Francis, New
York.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife
populations, and impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Coastal lagoons and beaches
5. Synopsis:
Mankind is intensely interested in the recreational opportunities afforded by ocean
beaches. Our collective interests seem to be dominated by swimming and
sunbathing but also include fishing, surfing, SCUBA diving, windboarding, and
certainly strolling. Usage ranges from daily trips to a local town beach to week-
long vacations to distant island resorts. Indeed, coastal tourism and real estate
markets are derived to a large extent from demands for beach recreation.
Coastal states along the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico in the United States are
fringed with coastal lagoons. Many people are moving to these areas in part
because the lagoons and nearby beaches offer excellent recreational opportunities
including swimming, fishing, shellfishing, boating, and bird watching. Ironically,
though, the collective use of the coastal environment is ruining the very
environmental resources that people come to enjoy. An important set of problems
centers on sewage leachate that is transported via groundwater flow into coastal
lagoons, thereby reducing water quality and threatening recreational benefits.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Edmunds, P.J. and J.D. Witman. 1991. Effect of Hurricane Hugo on the primary
framework of a reef along the south shore of St. John, USVI. Mar. Ecol Prog. Ser.
Vol. 78: 201-204.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage—Hurricane Hugo
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. John, USVI
B) Habitat: Marine environment—coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
A study area was established at a 10-m depth in a coral reef community dominant in
the coral Montastrea annularis. The study was established to monitor this species.
Before Hurricane Hugo, this species dominated the study area. After Hurricane
Hugo, a significant percent of the live coral of this species was destroyed. The
damage to the dominant species may lead to other species inhabiting the area as
well.
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1. Cited Reference:
EQB. 1983. Water quality standards regulation. Prepared by the Environmental
Quality Board for the Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, San
Juan, Puerto Rico. March 2, 1983.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals Biological pathogens
Nutrients: total phosphorus, dissolved oxygen
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impairments
to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Not applicable
5. Synopsis:
It is the purpose of these Regulations to: designate the uses for which the various
waters of Puerto Rico shall be maintained and protected, prescribe the water quality
standards required to sustain the designated uses, provide for establishment of
effluent quality Criteria to limit the contaminants that are discharged into the waters,
and prescribe additional measures necessary for implementing, achieving and
maintaining the prescribed water quality.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
EQB. 1990. Goals and progress of statewide water quality management planning,
Puerto Rico 1988-1990. Prepared by the Environmental Quality Board for the
Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: heavy metals Biological pathogens
Nutrients: dissolved oxygen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrate, and nitrate nitrogen
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Marine environment, terrestrial environment, and wetlands
5. Synopsis:
This document covers various responsibilities and goals of the Environmental
Quality Board of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Plans for assessing water
quality of lakes, estuaries, and wetlands are included, along with assessment of
groundwater quality. Public health and aquatic life monitoring and reporting
responsibility are discussed. Finally, the Water Pollution Control Program is
outlined.
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1. Cited Reference:
Fabregas, L.M. 1991. La Ciguatera en Puerto Rico entre los anos 1980 a 1990,
Prepared by the Division de Epidemiologia for Departamento de Salud de Puerto
Rico. ISSN 0889-9029.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Not applicable
5. Synopsis:
This document is the monthly state epidemiology bulletin produced by the Puerto
Rico Department of Health. It lists data in tabular form regarding occurrences of
ciguatera and related health problems for the decade 1980-1990.
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1. Cited Reference:
Gladfelter, W.B. 1982. White-band disease in Acropora palmata: Implications for the
structure and growth of shallow reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci.
32:639-643.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: bacterial (not confirmed)
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
White band disease was described for populations of Acropora palmata. This
disease can cause extensive local mortality of the coral. Current work suggests a
bacterium might be responsible for the disease. Changes brought about by white
band disease-induced decrease in Acropora palmata populations include (1) a
decrease in structural complexity of the reef surface, (2) a decrease in live coral
tissue, (3) a reduction of carbonate deposition for the reef, (4) an increase in both
filamentous and crustose algae, and (5) an increase in abundance and diversity of
small invertebrates.
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1. Cited Reference:
Goenaga, C. 199la. The state of coral reefs in the wider Caribbean. Interciencia
16:12-20.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Oil spills
Physical damage Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2); U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
This review paper summarizes the state of Caribbean coral reefs, including their
socioeconofnic importance, human activities affecting coral reefs, and their capacity
for recovery.
Specific recommendations suggested include (1) compile a detailed bibliography on
factors that contribute to the degeneration of coral reefs, (2) define parameters
known to be related to degradation, (3) monitor polluted and nonpolluted reef
habitats to differentiate between natural and human-induced sources of variation,
(4) establish marine parks, (5) consider restoring damaged areas, and 6) update coral
reef inventories.
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1. Cited Reference:
Goenaga, C. 1991b. The state of Puerto Rican corals: An aid to managers. Report
submitted to Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. May 1991.
2. Pollution Type:
Oil pollution Sedimentation
Nutrients Biological pathogens
Thermal pollution Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This work attempts to give an overview of the biology, taxonomy, and distribution
and state of corals in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands. It is intended for the general
public interested in corals and for managers who wish to evaluate proposed
development within the context of the presence of the important ecosystems created
by particular types of corals. This document does not review all the literature on
any of the topics discussed but will hopefully provide the raw material from which a
management program for corals will be prepared.
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1. Cited Reference:
Goenaga, C., and M. Canals. 1990. Island-wide coral bleaching in Puerto Rico:
1990. Carib. J. Sci. 26:171-175.
2, Pollution Type:
Unknown
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The effects of a bleaching event in the summer of 1990 were documented.
Although only the north, west, and south coasts of Puerto Rico were examined by
the author, communications with other researchers led to the conclusion that the
bleaching event was widespread throughout Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands.
The environmental conditions during this bleaching event were similar to those
documented during the 1987-88 bleaching event (i.e., exceptionally calm seas
coupled with high water transparency and increased water temperature) although the
magnitude of this event did not seem as severe as that of the earlier event.
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1. Cited Reference:
Goenaga, C, V.P. Vicente, and R.A. Armstrong. 1989. Bleaching induced mortalities
in reef corals from La Parguera, Puerto Rico; a precursor of change in the
community structure of coral reefs? Carib. J. Sci. 25:59-65.
2. Pollution Type:
Unknown
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitats
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
This study described the effects of a major bleaching event in the summer of 1987.
Extensive tissue discoloration occurred to all zooxanthellate cnidarians at all depths
of reef front environments at La Parguera. Recovery by almost all taxa was
complete. A hypothesis was put forth that exceptionally calm seas coupled with
high water transparency and increased water temperature were a major factor
causing the expulsion of zooxanthellae.
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1. Cited Reference:
Heatwole, H. 1985. Survey of the mangroves of Puerto Rico...A benchmark study.
Carib. J. Sci. 21:85-99.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Oil pollution
Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-4)
B) Habitat: Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
The areal coverage of mangrove swamps in Puerto Rico was documented by
comparing maps of different dates, aerial photographs, and ground reconnaissances.
Between one-fourth and one-third of the maximum area of mangroves in Puerto
Rico had disappeared by the mid-1960s. Most encroachment on mangroves has
been from the landward side. Regeneration has been almost nil at some sites; at
other sites, it has proceeded at a faster rate than in undisturbed swamps, possibly
due to increased light penetration.
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1. Cited Reference:
Hubbard, D.K. 1987. A general review of sedimentation as it relates to environmental
stress in the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve and the eastern Caribbean in general.
Biosphere Reserve research report no. 20. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the
Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Mangroves, coral reefs, and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This report discusses the impacts of sedimentation on tropical marine environments.
Because of the greater susceptibility of reefs, the majority of the discussion is aimed
at this specific environment. Included are:
(1) a review of the general types of sediment stress that occur in marine
systems;
(2) a discussion of the critical parameters that should be measured in any study
of sediment stress;
(3) a discussion of sources of sediment stress in the Caribbean, including
examples from within the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve, the U.S. Virgin
Islands and the eastern Caribbean; and
(4) a more specific treatment of area-wide problems, along with strategies that
exist or should exist to cope with them.
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1. Cited Reference:
Island Resources Foundation. 1976. U.S. Virgin Islands; Coastal Zone Management,
Marine Environment. Prepared for the U.S. Virgin Islands Planning Office,
Government of the Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Sedimentation
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, terrestrial environment, beaches,
mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sand flats
5. Synopsis:
With greater understanding of the complex interactions of natural coastal systems,
improved plans for maximum multi-use management of the Virgin Islands' limited
coastal resources can be developed. Appropriate resource protection and wise use
are imperative to maintain natural productivity and aesthetic values and to preserve
options for future generations.
This compilation is intended as a first-effort survey of the Virgin Islands' coastal
resources, describing the present level of knowledge of their interactive processes,
values, and capacities and needs for additional information. The report deals with
the major biological and physical components of the marine resource base and their
intrinsic limits to human-induced perturbations.
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1. Cited Reference:
Island Resources Foundation. 1977. Water, sediments and ecology of the Mangrove
Lagoon and Benner Bay, St. Thomas. Technical Report no. 1. Prepared for the
Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs, Division of Natural Resources
Management, U.S. Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Biological pathogens
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Mangroves and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
The mangrove shores, cays, ponds, and waters of the Mangrove Lagoon and Benner
Bay, St. Thomas, are a natural resource of special value. The region once had clear
water, moderate water depth, thriving mangrove stands, and luxuriant grass beds.
Today, after 8 years of accelerated development, the region has markedly changed.
The lagoon is polluted and shoaled; mangroves are dying and grass beds are largely
destroyed. In turn, birds, fish and shellfish are deprived of their food and nursery
grounds. Only a small zone, Bovoni and Patricia Cays and Cas Entrance, remains
intact.
The most important man-induced stresses affecting the region are pollution,
sedimentation, and development of the waterfront and watershed. Pollution of the
bay is caused by sewage from boats and diffuse sources in the watershed and on the
waterfront. Pollution of the lagoon is caused by nutrient-rich runoff from
Turpentine Run and by an overloaded, malfunctioning, and obsolete sewage
treatment plant.
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1. Cited Reference:
Island Resources Foundation. 1989. Virgin Islands land use survey - Final project
report. Prepared for Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Government of
the U.S. Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Not applicable
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Not applicable
5. Synopsis:
A major work product of the land use survey project is a series of maps that depict
the existing land uses in the Virgin Islands. This report, to which the maps are
appended, provides a description of the land use mapping process utilized by the
project as well as limited analysis and recommendations extracted from data
generated during the project. The report also conveys the other work products of
the project, which are:
(1) a description of the land use classification intensity scale system;
(2) a description of a geo-referencing system;
(3) a description of a land use database (including an expanded land use
classification system);
(4) a summary of a seminar on geographic information systems (presented
to DPNR on April 17, 1989); and
(5) a bibliography.
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1. Cited Reference:
Jennings, C.A. 1992. Survey of non-charter boat recreational fishing in the
United States and the Virgin Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci. 50(2): 342-351.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Not applicable
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment; fisheries
5. Synopsis:
A telephone survey was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of telephone surveys in
obtaining recreational (i.e., non-charter boat angling) data for the fishery in the
Virgin Islands. The data obtained are designed to aid the fishery management in
developing and maintaining quality efforts for the fishery.
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1. Cited Reference:
Jemelov, A., and O. Linden. 1981. Ixtoc 1: A case study of the world's largest oil
spill. Ambio 10(6):299-306.
2. Pollution Type:
Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impacts to fish and
wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Gulf of Mexico
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, lagoons, marine
environment, and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
On December 10, 1978, Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) started to drill the Ixtoc I
exploratory well at longitude 92° 13' W and latitude 19° 24' N, about 80 kilometers
northwest of Ciudad del Garment in the Bahia de Campeche. The water depth at the
site is about 50 m. The drilling continued through the first part of 1979 and by the
end of May a depth of 3,600 meters had been reached. Early on June 2, at a depth
of 3,615 meters, the well started to lose drilling mud; circulation was totally lost at
about 3,625 meters. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to regain circulation,
but as the well appeared stable, it was decided to seal it by withdrawing the drill
pipe and inserting a plug in the empty space. One June 3, during the attempts to
seal the well, the extremely high pressure (about 350 kg/cm2) caused mud to flow
up the drill pipe and onto the platform. At 3:30 am the well blew out and caught
fire. The explosion and fire destroyed the platform, which sank to the bottom and
damaged the stack and well casing. This allowed the oil and gas to mix with water
close to the sea floor, beginning the largest marine oil spill in the history of oil
exploration.
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1. Cited Reference:
Jimenez, J.A., R. Martinez, and L. Encarnaci6n. 1985. Massive tree mortality in a
Puerto Rican mangrove forest. Carib. J. Sci. 21:75-78.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage Toxics: heavy metals
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
This paper reports on a massive tree mortality observed in the Pinones-Torrecilla
mangrove complex on the northeastern coast of Puerto Rico. This area is
occasionally flooded by the Rio Grande de Loiza river. The causal factor for this
mortality seems to be the abrupt change in the hydric regime of the forest. The area
is now permanently flooded, and water circulation is practically nil. Water diversion
due to natural clogging of impoundment produced by the dredge spoils was most
likely responsible for this condition. The consequences of this flooding are low
oxygen and high iron and manganese content of the soils.
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1. Cited Reference:
Johannes, R.E. 1975. Pollution and degradation of coral reef communities. In
Tropical marine pollution, ed. E.J.F. Wood and R.E. Johannes, pp. 13-51. Elsevier,
New York.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Biological pathogens: bacterial
Sedimentation Oil spills
Thermal pollution Toxics: chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
This chapter documents stresses to coral reefs of the Caribbean. Problems discussed
include sedimentation, poor land management, dredging, and mill wastes. Other
problems covered include sewage disposal in particular areas, oil pollution, thermal
pollution, chlorinated hydrocarbon, and heavy metal contamination. Some
suggestions regarding pollution control and restocking damaged reefs are presented.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Johannes, R.E., and S.B. Betzer. 1975. Introduction: Marine communities respond
differently to pollution in the tropics than at higher latitudes. In Tropical marine
pollution, ed. E.J.F. Wood and R.E. Johannes, pp. 3-12. Elsevier, New York.
2. Pollution Type:
Thermal pollution Sedimentation
Toxics Oil pollution
Nutrients: total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
The wave of environmental concern, that began in temperate regions is spreading to
the tropics. Environmental degradation is often particularly intense in coastal areas
where population pressure, tourism, and industrialization frequently converge. As
awareness of environmental problems develops, increasing numbers of public
servants, scientists, and the general public begin casting around for solutions. But
far less research on estuarine and coastal marine pollution has been done in the
tropics than in temperate areas. There has been a tendency, accordingly, to look to
temperate-zone models for guidance. An awareness of differences between tropical
and temperate marine environments is essential if we are to minimize similar
occurrences in tropical waters. This report discusses some of those differences,
suggest their implications, and point out areas in which research is needed.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Kennish, M.J. 1992. Ecology of estuaries: Anthropogenic effects. CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton, FL.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons, heavy metals,
polychlorinated biphenyls
Biological pathogens Oil spills Thermal pollution
Nutrients Sedimentation Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Salt marshes, sand flats, mangroves, and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
The principal objective of this book is to examine anthropogenic effects on estuaries.
The volume has been designed as a text for undergraduate and graduate students as
well as a reference for scientists conducting research on estuarine systems.
However, administrators, managers, decision makers, and other professionals
involved in some way with investigations of estuaries can also find value in the
publication. Included are citations of the major research articles and books treating
anthropogenic effects on estuaries.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Kinsey, D.W., and P.J. Davies. 1979. Effects of elevated nitrogen and phosphorus on
coral reef growth. Limnol Oceanogr. 24:935-940.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients: total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate and
nitrite nitrogen
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
Long-term phosphate and nitrogen enrichment of a patch reef at One Tree Island,
Great Barrier Reef, caused >50 percent suppression of reef calcification. This is
attributed primarily to the phosphate. It is suggested that this effect is involved,
together with algal competition and the more usually accepted depression of
temperature, in reducing the growth rate of reefs adjacent to upwellings. It is
possible that the effect was more general during the first half of the Holocene
transgression.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Koester, S.K. 1986. Socioeconomic and cultural role of fishing and shellfishing in the
Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 12.
Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: biotoxins
Toxics
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and fisheries
5. Synopsis:
This report examines the place of fishing in the Virgin Islands biosphere reserve and
the role of fishing in the economy and culture of St. John. Relying principally on
information provided by local fishermen, this report outlines their use of the
biosphere reserve and their observations about it. Specific points to be addressed
include a description of fishermen and their methods, an examination of the
marketing and distribution of locally caught fish, an overview of changes affecting
fishing, and fishermen's perceptions of the ecological transformations and
institutional constraints affecting fishing. This report discusses fishermen's views
and concerns within the context of the Biosphere Reserve Program, offering
suggestions for the development of a Biosphere Reserve management strategy that
actively encourages the participation of these traditional resource users.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Kolehmainen, S., T. Morgan, and R. Castro. 1974. Mangrove-root communities in a
thermally altered area in Guayanilla Bay, Puerto Rico. In: Thermal Ecology I., eds
J.W. Gibbons and R.R. Sharitz, pp. 371-390. AEC Symposium Series (CONF
730505), Augusta, GA.
2. Pollution Type:
Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
The species composition and biomass of sessile and free-living organisms living on
the aerial roots of red mangroves were studied in a thermally altered area in
Guayanilla Bay. The thermal pollution was due to the effluent from nuclear power
plants and other industrial activity.
The species most resistant to thermal pollution were blue-green algae, barnacles, a
polychaete, a sponge, crabs, a tree oyster, a mussel, and a bryozoan. Macroalgae,
coelenterates, echinoderms, and ascidians were the least sensitive groups.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Lund, H., M. Anderson, E. Gladfelter, and M. Davis. 1986. Trends of recreational
boating in the British Virgin Islands: A preliminary assessment of impact from
human activities of anchorages and development of a monitoring program for safe
anchorages. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 5. Prepared for the U.S.
Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals Physical damage
Biological pathogens Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, seagrass beds, harbors, and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Recreational boating is a significant component of the tourist industry of the U.S.
and British Virgin Islands. This report considers the impact of boating on the
marine communities of the islands. The history and growth of the boating industry
in the BVI is are described. An assessment was made of the direct and indirect
impact of boating use of the proposed or existing parks of the British Virgin Islands
and St. Croix, USVI.
A research plan for monitoring the effects of anchoring on seagrass bed
communities and on coral communities is presented. This plan was implemented by
the establishment of long-term monitoring stations at two sites on St. John, USVI
(Great Lameshur and Francis Bays), and two sites in the BVI (The Baths and
Prickly Pear Island, North Sound). There is a brief discussion of studies of the
effects of anchoring on benethic communities.
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1. Cited Reference:
Malins, D.C., M. M. Krahn, D. W. Brown, L. D. Rhodes, M. S. Meyers, B. B. McCain,
and S.L. Chan. 1985. Toxic chemicals in marine sediment and biota from
Mukeliteo, Washington: Relationships with hepatic neoplasms and other hepatic
lesions in English sole (Parophyrus vetulus). Journal of Nat. Cancer Inst. 74(2):
487-494.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Recently, research has shown that neoplasms, particularly liver neoplasms, occur in
bottom-dwelling fish from areas with highly contaminated sediments. Associations
between toxic chemicals and fish diseases, such as neoplasia, have been studied to
only a limited extent. However, a multiyear study of relationships between toxic
chemicals in sediments and diseases in bottom-dwelling fish from Puget Sound
indicated that hepatic neoplasm (e.g., hepatocellular and cholangiocellular
carcinomas) were mainly confined to fish from urban (highly industrialized and/or
highly populated) areas. The studies revealed positive correlations between liver
neoplasms in English sole and concentration of sediment-associated AH and metals.
Subsequent investigations showed that levels of free radical derivatives of certain
nitrogen heterocycles in the liver were significantly higher in English sole that had
hepatic neoplasms and a number of other idiopathic liver lesions than in sole free of
the lesions.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Marszalek, D.S. 1987. Sewage and eutrophication. In Human impacts on coral reefs:
Facts and recommendations, ed. B. Salvat, pp. 77-90. Antenne de Tahiti Museum
E.P.H.E., Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health, impacts to ecological habitat, and impacts to fish and
wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Marine environment, coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
The oceans are the repository for much of the sewage produced by coastal and
inland inhabitants. In the United States alone, more than 30 billion liters of sewage
effluent is discharged into the adjacent oceans each day. The extent to which the
world's oceans can assimilate and recycle such enormous quantities of sewage is yet
unclear. It is clear, however, that the sewage discharged into the coastal zone in
many instances results in degradation of the coastal environment. Sewage pollution
of the marine environment is frequently a consequence of urbanization of the coastal
zone. Coral reefs along the coasts of many lesser developed countries are especially
vulnerable because developing countries typically lack sewage treatment facilities
and are experiencing rapid urbanization.
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1. Cited Reference:
McEachern, J., and E.D. Towle. 1974. Ecological guidelines for island development.
Published with the assistance of the Swedish International Development Authority
and the World Wildlife Fund. Prepared for the International Union of Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources, Merges, Switzerland.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: hydrocarbons Sedimentation
Oil spills Physical Damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
The paper focuses on the development and conservation problems of the generic
"island system," based on a review of the literature and on the authors' personal
observation of islands of Micronesia, the Arctic, and the Caribbean. The study has
been addressed principally to the smaller oceanic islands of the world, volcanic or
coralline, isolated or in groups, rather than to those large island land masses which
have been referred to as "mini-continents." Also excluded are coastal islands lying
immediately adjacent to continental margins. Such islands tend to be dominated by
social and biological links with the proximal continental areas and are best viewed
in that association as a special category requiring different management approaches.
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1. Cited Reference:
Morelock, J., N. Schneidermann, and W.R. Bryant. 1977. Shelf reefs, southwestern
Puerto Rico. Studies in geology no. 4. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 3-4)
B) Habitat: Marine environment, coral reefs, and mangroves
5. Synopsis:
The southwest coast of Puerto Rico has a relatively broad insular shelf compared to
the rest of the island. Off Parguera, the shelf is 8 to 10 km wide and has an
average depth of 15 to 18m from near shore to the shelf break. The general
bathymetry of the area suggests the development of karst topography on Cretaceous
limestones when the shelf was exposed to subaerial erosion during the Wisconsin
glacial epoch. There is a thin sediment cover over this surface, and minor alteration
of the original topography by reef growth.
Reefs on the shelf are aligned approximately east-west and divide the shelf into
distinct sedimentary provinces, which are reef-dominated. The energy, wave
patterns, bathymetry, and sediment transportation are unique in each province.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
Morelock, J., K. Boulon, and G. Caller. 1979. Sediment stress and coral reefs.
pp. 46-58. In Proceedings of the symposium on Energy, Industry, and the Marine
Environment in Guayanilla Bay, ed. J.M. Lopez. CEER-UPR, Mayaguez, PR.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
Geological studies were started at Guayanilla Bay in October 1978 to study the
response of the coral reef system to sediment stress, and to map the sediment facies
of the bay.
Ten coral reef study stations have been established. The data from these form the
basis of this paper. Sediment input is being measured by sediment trap collection,
suspended sediment, and Secchi readings. The ecology of the reef is examined by
diver transects with notes and by measurement from photo-transect mosaics.
Corals are limited by physical factors in the environment, but often exist in areas
where conditions are close to the limit. The reef is a sensitive indicator of
environmental stresses because of its response to the stresses. Beyond this, the reef
can give us a look in time at former baseline conditions where we do not have data
in an area before development has occurred. As the environment degrades, mobile
organisms leave or die and are buried, but the coral is frozen in place as a
permanent record. The presence of a dead reef complex implies that a specific
range of conditions once existed or the reef would not have developed. The coral
can be dated and individual corals studied to determine when changes occurred that
caused the death of the reef.
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1. Cited Reference:
NOAA. 1988. Caribbean marine resources: Opportunities for economic development
and management. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Washington, DC.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls Sedimentation
Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and lagoons
5. Synopsis:
Opportunities for improved economic development and management of Caribbean
marine resources are reviewed. Separate chapters are devoted to nearshore marine
habitats, fisheries and mariculture, and geological and nonliving marine resources.
Any sustained improvement depends on indigenous human and institutional
resources. Coastal erosion and lack of adequate planning for resource management
and economic development are problems affecting all marine resource sectors.
Development and management are similarly constrained by the lack of adequate
information on the location, extent, and quality of available resources.
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1. Cited Reference:
NOAA. 1991. Our living oceans: The first annual report on the status of U.S. living
marine resources. NOAA Technical Memo NMFS-F/SPO-1. U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. November.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: biotoxins, bacterial
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Fisheries and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This report is the most comprehensive status review of U.S. marine living resources
ever made. It provides the available scientific information on the health and
abundance of important marine populations based on the latest assessments available
in mid-1991. It addresses most marine and anadromous species having commercial,
recreational, and ecological significance. Besides fmfish and shellfish, it includes
marine mammals, sea turtles, and corals under purview of the U.S. Department of
Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
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1. Cited Reference:
Olsen, D. 1979. Socio-economic survey of recreational boating and fishing in the
U.S. Virgin Islands. Prepared under contract for the U.S. National Marine Fisheries
Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Fisheries
5. Synopsis:
The passage of the so-called "200 mile limit law" (PL-94-265) in 1976 created
regional fishery management councils, which were mandated to develop plans for
the management of the fisheries within their respective jurisdictions. Development
of these plans, which were to be based upon "best available information," led to the
identification of critical gaps in the data base. In the region under the Caribbean
Regional Fisheries Management Council, it became apparent that there was very
little extant information about the fishermen, catch, or economic characteristics of
the recreational sector. Since early information developed in association with
management plans for the spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and the reef fish fisheries
indicated that the commercial sector was harvesting nearly the full maximum
sustainable yield (MSY) level, this information became crucial in identifying
overfishing and, therefore, some sort of allocation formulation would have to be
developed.
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1. Cited Reference:
Pagan, F.A. and H.M. Austin. (1970). Report on a fish kill at Laguna Joyuda, western
Puerto Rico, in the summer, 1967. Carib. J. Sci. 10 (3-4). Sept.-Dec., 1970.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients: dissolved oxygen Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Fisheries, harbors, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
On June 8, 1967, the investigation of a fish kill, which apparently began in the
morning of June 7, was initiated. The investigation was terminated on June 16,
1967. The combination of a severe drought and increased temperature (about 35°C),
rate of evaporation, and salinity and deoxygenated waters were responsible for the
kill. Several species of fish, the blue crab, and one species of peneid shrimp were
mainly affected by the changes leading to the kill.
The effects of the 1967 kill are compared with those of the kill that occurred in
1963.
At least 80 families from the fishing town of Joyuda were affected as a result of the
kill. A comprehensive study of the biotic and abiotic factors of the lagoon is
proposed.
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1. Cited Reference:
Reid, R. 1981. Environment and public health in the Caribbean. Ambio 10(6):
312-317.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: infectious diseases
Toxics: pesticides
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Marine environment and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
Though the Caribbean is a tourist attraction, health conditions related to
environmental factors, reflect the socioeconomic development in the respective
countries. The large disparities in wealth, size, and culture between the countries of
the Caribbean make comparison somewhat difficult. Water resources also present
extreme variations.
Health is an important consideration in the region, and great emphasis is placed on
such environmental services as water supplies, sewage, and solid waste disposal.
There is also a growing awareness of pollution control and occupational health
needs.
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1. Cited Reference:
Reimold, R.J., 1975a. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides and mercury in coastal
biota, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands 1972-1974. EPA-68-02-1254. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons
Biological pathogens: biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and fisheries
5. Synopsis:
Baseline levels of mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbons were determined for
Caribbean coastal biota as part of the USEPA estuarine monitoring program. Forty-
one percent of the 150 environmental samples taken had significant levels of these
compounds.
Concentrations of chlorinated hyrocarbons suggest spatial and temporal variations
within the plant or animal. In some cases residues in biota could be related to the
land-use practices in the sampled watershed.
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1. Cited Reference:
Research Planning Institute, Inc., 1980. Biological changes of mangrove and sand
beach communities at the Peck Slip oil spill site, eastern Puerto Rico. Prepared for
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Marine Pollution
Assessment.
2. Pollution Type:
Oil spills
Toxics
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitats
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2)
B) Habitat: Mangroves and beaches
5. Synopsis:
The barge Peck Slip ran aground on 19 December 1978 off Cabo San Juan in the
northeastern comer of Puerto Rico. After grounding and while being towed back to
Port Yabucoa, a total of 440,000-460,000 gallons of medium-grade distillate were
released. Various quantities of oil washed onto 26 km of shoreline. Scientific and
advisory personnel from federal and Puerto Rican agencies responded rapidly to the
situation. This report concerns follow-up studies of the impacted coastline
undertaken during 30 March to 4 April and 29 to 30 October 1979, 4 months and 10
months after the spill. A detailed literature survey of oil effects on mangroves is
included in order to place the overall impact of this spill in perspective.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rodriguez, A., 1981. Marine and coastal environmental stress in the wider Caribbean
region. Ambio Vol. 10: 283-294.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Biological pathogens Thermal Pollution
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
The Caribbean Sea is not as polluted as the Mediterranean or the Baltic, but
accelerating coastal pollution around urban and industrial areas is causing increasing
stress to the coastal and marine resources of the region. The author presents an
overview of the environmental problems afflicting the Wider Caribbean.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S. 1988. Damage to coral reefs in Virgin Islands National Park and
Biosphere Reserve from recreational activities. Proc. 6th Int. Coral Reef Symp.
2:405-410.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, seagrass beds, and fisheries
5. Synopsis:
Throughout the Caribbean, tourism and coastal development are exerting severe
pressure on the natural resources of many islands and countries. More and more
tourists are visiting parks and protected areas in the region. The purpose of this
study in Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve on St. John, U.S.
Virgin Islands, was to assess degradation of the coral reefs from recreational
activities.
This study focused primarily on evaluating the environmental damage associated
with boating and snorkeling. It was one of several Virgin Islands Resource
Management Cooperative (VIRMC) projects conducted between 1984 and 1987
designed to provide the information necessary to manage the coral reefs, seagrass
beds, and fisheries of St. John.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62:185-202.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves
5. Synopsis:
Unprecedented development along tropical shorelines is causing severe degradation
of coral reefs primarily from increases in sedimentation. Sediment particles smother
reef organisms and reduce light available for photosynthesis. Excessive
sedimentation can adversely affect the structure and function of the coral reef
ecosystem by altering both physical and biological processes. Currently, we are
unable to rigorously predict the responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to
excessive sedimentation from coastal development and other sources. Given
information on the amount of sediment that will be introduced into the reef
environment, the coral community composition, the depth of the reef, the percent
coral cover, and the current patterns, we should be able to predict the consequences
of a particular activity. Models of physical processes (e.g. sediment transport) must
be complemented with better understanding of organism and ecosystem responses to
sediment stress. Specifically, we need data on the threshold levels for reef
organisms and for the reef ecosystem as a whole—the levels above which
sedimentation has lethal effects for particular species and above which normal
functioning of the reef ceases. Additional field studies on the responses of reef
organisms to both terrigenous and calcium carbonate sediments are necessary. To
effectively assess trends on coral reefs, e.g., changes in abundance and spatial
arrangement of dominant benthic organisms, scientists must start using standardized
monitoring methods. Long-term data sets are critical for tracking these complex
ecosystems.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S., and R. Teytaud. 1988. Marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the Virgin
Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report
no. 9. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands
Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation Physical damage
Toxics Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, terrestrial environment, coral reefs,
seagrass beds, and mangroves
5. Synopsis:
This synthesis/summary document has many objectives: (1) to present research that
has been carried out by VIRMC and other investigators in Virgin Islands National
Park as well as the extent of our knowledge of the marine and terrestrial ecosystems
within this protected area; (2) to identify areas where future research is required;
(3) to synthesize information from selected documents with implications for research
and resource management within the Caribbean and specifically within VINP/BR;
(4) to present management recommendations for ecosystems within VINP and the
wider Caribbean; and (5) to provide a basis for making the VIBR more effective in
linking conservation and development (UNESCO Action Plan for Biosphere
Reserves 1984).
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S., and E.S. Zullo. 1987. Initiation of a long-term monitoring program for
coral reefs in the Virgin Islands National Park. Virgin Islands Resource
Management Cooperative (VIRMC), Biosphere Reserve research report no. 17.
Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Sedimentation
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
A long-term monitoring program was initiated for the coral reefs of the Virgin
Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve in recognition of the need for
quantitative baseline data to provide information for resource assessment and
effective management. Major stresses to the reefs in the park include terrigenous
runoff, storm damage, and boat damage.
Transects were established on reefs in Reef, Fish, and Hawksnest Bays. During the
study period, the most conspicuous damage to St. John's reefs resulted from heavy
seas associated with Tropical Storm Klaus in November 1984. The storm resulted
in a statistically significant decrease in the mean percent of live coral cover (from
26 to 21), an increase in diversity and evenness, and a slight decrease in spatial
index at the Fish Bay site. The percent cover by the dominant coral Agaricia
agaricites decreased significantly from 17 to 11. At Reef and Hawksnest Bays (for
which there are only post-storm data), mean percent coral cover was 20 and 26,
respectively. Monitoring of changes in the amount of living coral cover and other
parameters along the transects on reefs in these three bays will allow assessment of
future damage from turbidity and other stresses.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S., L. McLain, and E.S. Zullo. 1988. Recreational uses of marine resources
in the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve: Trends and
consequences. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 24. Prepared for the U.S.
Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Coral reefs and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
Recreational uses of the waters and beaches of Virgin Islands National Park and
Biosphere Reserve on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, have increased dramatically in
the last 10 years. Recreational visits to the park have risen from less than 100,000
prior to 1967 to over 750,000 in 1986. Annual visitation to Trunk Bay beach, the
most heavily used beach in the park, has risen from less than 20,000 people in 1966
to almost 170,000 in 1986. The average number of boats per day in park waters
increased from less than 10 in 1966 to about 80 in 1986.
One consequence has been the degradation of the park's marine resources,
particularly some of the coral reefs and seagrass beds along the north shore of the
island, which receives the heaviest use. Anchor damage and damage from boats
striking or grounding on reefs is evident. Seagrass beds in popular bays have
deteriorated.
Based on field work and examination of National Park Service (NPS) records, this
report documents some of the trends and consequences of increased recreational uses
of the park's resources and some recent efforts to protect them. Its purpose is to
provide a basis for future management actions designed to balance increased
visitation with protection of fragile marine resources.
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1. Cited Reference:
Rogers, C.S., L.N. McLain, and C.R. Tobias. 1991. Effects of Hurricane Hugo (1989)
on a coral reef in St. John, USVI. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Vol. 78:189-199.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage—Hurricane Hugo
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. John, USVI
B) Habitat: Marine environment—coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
In January 1989, a long-term study was designed to record data on the amount of
coral cover in the area before and after a powerful storm. Analysis of data collected
after Hurricane Hugo showed that the total living cover decreased significantly. A
survey of the coral community 12 months later shows no measurable recovery of the
live corals.
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1. Cited Reference:
Stoner, A.W. and C. Goenaga. 1987. Benthic survey of the San Juan Harbor, Puerto
Rico. Final report to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Grant No. X-
81348-01-0.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Oil spills
Toxics: heavy metals Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Marine environment and harbors
5. Synopsis:
This report addresses two topics related to animal populations and communities in
the San Juan Harbor, Puerto Rico: (1) a literature review on benthic invertebrate
and fish faunas of the San Juan marine environment and (2) a systematic collection
and quantitative survey of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna at 16 stations selected by
the USEPA within the San Juan Harbor and two of its channels.
This report is part of a Region II before-and-after study of environmentally stressed
San Juan Harbor, conducted under the directive of the Clean Water Act (section
104(b) - Grants/Cooperative Agreements to Improve Water Quality and Pretreatment
Enforcement). Recently, the discharge from the Puerto Nuevo Sewage Treatment
Plant was diverted from the San Juan Harbor to an ocean outfall via the Bayamon
Sewage Treatment Plant. In September 1985, USEPA personnel made studies of
water column chemistry and sediment quality in the Harbor. Studies of benthic
macroinvertebrate faunas, reported here, were conducted to help provide an
understanding of the marine system's recovery after having been subjected to many
years of poorly treated discharges of heavy metals and other pollutants.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1981. Technical evaluation of Guayama regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 207 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
of secondary treatment requirements for the Guayama Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency
(PRASA). The proposed regional plant would eliminate an existing riverine
discharge and marine discharge of treated effluent (from Patillas and Salinas,
respectively) and two marine discharges of untreated sewage (from Guayama and
Arroyo). The proposed outfall will extend about 1,100 m offshore from Punta Ola
Grande and discharge in about 14 m of water.
The coastal waters in the vicinity of the proposed discharge are subject to
considerable silt loading from the Rio Guamani. According to the applicant,
however, there was "no indication of significant levels of industrial or domestic
levels of pollution...."
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1985a. Technical review of the Mayaguez regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 142 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document is a technical evaluation of the revised application of the City of
Mayaguez (along with several other nearby communities) for a modification of
secondary treatment requirements for the Mayaguez Regional Wastewater Treatment
plant. This plant was to service an area that included the municipalities of
Mayaguez, Anasco, Hormigueros, and a portion of Cabo Rojo. As of 1979, the
level of treatment varied from secondary at Anasco to none at Mayaguez. The
Mayaguez raw sewage was discharged into Mayaguez Bay through a 926-m outfall
in 7 m of water. There is some evidence of stress possibly attributable to this
discharge. The new outfall is 1,914 m and will discharge in 11 m of water. The
applicant asserted that the proposed discharge is not to stressed waters, although
there may be some stress to nearby coral reefs attributable to turbid river discharges.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1985b. Technical review of the St. Croix wastewater treatment plant
(St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands) section 301(h) application for modification of
secondary treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 104 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the St. Croix Wastewater
Treatment Plant. The original application included provisions for inclusion of
distillery wastewater from Virgin Islands Rum Industries Limited (VIRIL). This
application was tentatively denied due to potential violations of U.S. Virgin Islands
water quality standards for dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and color and because it
would adversely impact the ecosystem, notably the local coral reefs and seagrass
beds. The revised application no longer includes the VIRIL wastewater with the
applicant's effluent discharge. It is based on intended outfall repairs that would
divert effluent discharge from the present break in the outfall pipe to the diffuser.
The diffuser is located in approximately 10 m of water, 1,524 m from shore. There
are no planned alterations in the current treatment process.
There is evidence that the coral reefs in the vicinity of the discharge have been
stressed by the "industrial complex upwind of the discharge." Dredging and filling
have been noted as the most significant cause of this degradation, although ship
traffic, which can cause periodic resuspension and deposition of bottom sediments,
may also be important.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1985c. Technical review of the Charlotte Amalie wastewater treatment
plant (St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands) section 301(h) application for modification
of secondary treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. Ill pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Charlotte Amalie
Wastewater Treatment Plant. The applicant proposes to add screening and settling
processes to the present wastewater treatment facility. There are no known
industrial sources to the treatment plant. The outfall discharges in 21 m of water,
approximately 371 m from shore.
Coral reefs in the vicinity of the discharge are subject to significant stress due to
turbidity plumes from the airport construction site, barge traffic, and turbidity and
siltation originating in Charlotte Amalie Harbor and Crown Bay.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1986a. Technical review of the Bayamon regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 147 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
of secondary treatment requirements for the combined effluent from the Bayamon
Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Puerto Nuevo Wastewater Treatment
Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency (PRASA).
Currently, effluent from a Bacardi distillery is combined with Bayamon and Puerto
Nuevo effluent prior to ocean discharge. At the time of the original application
(1985), the level of treatment in the region varied from secondary in some, small
communities and primary at Puerto Nuevo, to none in some of the outlying
communities. Prior to construction of the combined ocean outfall, the Puerto Nuevo
Wastewater Treatment Plant discharged its effluent to the Bahia de San Juan and the
Bacardi distillery discharged its effluent to the nearshore waters of Ensenada de
Boca Vieja. The diffuser is located in approximately 41 m of water and is
approximately 1,097 m from the nearest shore.
There is presently no evidence of stress from other pollutant sources among the
biological communities in the vicinity of the combined ocean outfall.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1986b. Technical review of the Arecibo regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 135 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Arecibo Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PRASA). The service area for the revised application includes the
municipality of Arecibo together with the smaller communities of Islote, Hato
Abajo, Dominquito, Domingo Ruiz, Santana, and Arenalejos. The construction of
the treatment plant, ocean outfall, and diffuser is complete, although the plant is not
operational. The diffuser is located in 21-26 m of water and begins approximately
855 m from shore.
According to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1986c. Technical review of the Carolina regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 108 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document is a technical evaluation of the application for a modification of
secondary treatment requirements for the Carolina Regional Wastewater Treatment
Plant. The wastewater in the area to be served by the Carolina Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant is presently treated in 13 existing facilities employing various
treatment processes ranging from the use of an Imhoff tank through secondary
treatment. All but one of these facilities presently discharge into rivers or other
freshwater bodies. The new outfall is 1,939 m in length and discharges in 29-31 m
of water. According to the applicant, the receiving waters in the vicinity of the
existing Puerto Nuevo, which discharge into Bahia de San Juan, are in an advanced
state of degradation. These waters are exposed to environmental stresses due to
oceanographic processes (mainly high waves). There is no evidence of adverse
effects of anthropogenic pollutant inputs.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1987a. Technical review of the Dorado regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 158 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
of secondary treatment requirements for the Dorado Regional Wastewater Treatment
Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency (PRASA). The
service area for the proposed facility includes the municipalities of Dorado, Toa
Alta, Toa Baja, Vega Alta, and Vega Baja. Construction of the facility had not
begun as of August 1985. The proposed outfall is expected to extend approximately
500 m from the shoreline to the junction of the Y diffuser, which will discharge at a
depth of approximately 30 m.
According to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading. The available evidence is
not sufficiently comprehensive to verify the applicant's statement.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1987b. Technical review of the Humacao regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 151 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Humacao Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PRASA). Two different tentative denials were issued in 1984. A revised
application was prepared in 1985. The service area for the revised application
includes the municipalities of Humacao, Naguabo, and a major part of Las Piedras.
At the time of the original application (1979), wastewater from Humacao and Las
Piedras was treated with Imhoff tanks, and wastewater from Naguabo was treated
with a septic tank. The existing wastewater treatment plants serving these
municipalities would be closed once the regional facility is operational.
Construction on this plant has not begun. The proposed outfall would be 3,500 m in
length and discharge in approximately 11 m of water.
According to the applicant, the waters in the proposed discharge area are "in
general, not stressed by high organic or toxic load." There is reason to suspect that
suspended solids transported to the ocean by Rio Humacao may be stressing coral
reefs in the local area.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1987c. Technical review of the Fajardo regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) revised section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 158 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the proposed Fajardo Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PRASA). The service area for the proposed plant includes the
municipalities of Fajardo, Ceiba, Luquillo, and part of Rio Grande. The existing
wastewater treatment plants serving these municipalities would be closed once the
regional facility is operational. Effluent would be discharged through a multiport
diffuser, at a depth of approximately 20 m, into the Atlantic Ocean near the western
end of San Juan Passage. The proposed diffuser would be located approximately
2,200 m from the nearest shore.
According to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1987d. Technical review of the Guayanilla regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 157 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Guayanilla Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PRASA). This facility was to serve an area that included the
municipalities of Guayanilla, Guanica, Yauco, and Penuelas. At the time of the
original application (1979), Guanica, Guayanilla, and Yauco were served by
individual trickling filter plants discharging to the Bahia de Guanica, the Bahia de
Guayanilla, and the Rio Yauco, respectively. Penuelas was served by an Imhoff
tank that discharged to the Rio Tallaboa. The existing wastewater treatment plants
serving these municipalities would be closed once the regional facility is operational.
Construction on this plant has not begun. The proposed marine outfall would extend
1,215 m from Punta Ventana and discharge to Punta Ventana Submarine Canyon at
a depth of approximately 27 m.
According to the applicant, the waters in the proposed vicinity of the diffuser are
"not measurably stressed by unusually high organic or toxic loads." However, coral
reefs adjacent to the submarine canyon are presently stressed by natural processes,
anthropogenic disturbances, and pollutants discharged from the Bahia de Guayanilla
and the Bahia de Tallaboa.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1987e. Technical review of the Aguadilla regional wastewater treatment
plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 172 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 4)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Aguadilla Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PR AS A). This plant was to service an area that included the municipalities
of Aguadilla, Aguada, Moca, and Rincon. At the time of the original application
(1979), the level of treatment varied from secondary at Moca to none at Aguadilla.
The Aguadilla raw sewage was discharged into the Bahia de Aguadilla through
several outfalls that extended into the bay. Construction of the Aguadilla Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant outfall and diffuser is complete. The diffuser lies
approximately 750 m offshore at a water depth of approximately 16 m.
According to the applicant, conditions in the proposed discharge vicinity include a
balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no measurable stress due
to high organics or toxics loading.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tetra Tech. 1990. Technical review of the Ponce regional wastewater treatment plant
(Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary treatment
requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA. 138 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document summarizes a technical review of the 1989 Information Supplement
for a modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Ponce Regional
Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
Agency (PRASA). The original and revised applications both received tentative
denials from U.S. EPA. The Information Supplement consists of the Ponce Outfall
Extension Feasibility Study, which evaluates the environmental acceptability of
extending the outfall to deeper water. The service area for the information
supplement consists of the municipalities of Ponce, Juana Diaz, and Villalba,
including nearby rural areas and industrial centers. The proposed outfall extension
would extend 4,005 m from the shore and discharge in 105-120 m of water.
The proposed discharge site is located outside Bahia de Ponce, although the existing
discharge site is within this bay. Information submitted by the applicant indicates
that the waters of Bahia de Ponce are stressed by sedimentation from multiple
sources.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tosteson, T.R. 1990. Ciguatera in the northeastern Caribbean. Prepared for the
Department of Marine Sciences, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. Dato Marino, no 7.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: ciguatera
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
An estimated 20,000-30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Besides a host of gastrointestinal problems, ciguatera
causes severe itching, tingling in the extremities, temperature sensory reversal and
various other neurological symptoms, which range widely among ciguatera victims,
and may persist for months. Worst of all, the symptoms, once cleared up, may
recur with alcohol consumption, ingestion of nontoxic fish, and stress. Little is
known about about the cause of ciguatera, and medical treatment is symptomatic; no
antidote is known.
Ciguatera adversely affects the fisheries industry of the Caribbean Basin. A recent
Puerto Rican Supreme Court ruling clears restaurants of liability for serving
ciguatoxic fish since there is no way of detecting the presence of the toxin. The
general population of Puerto Rico has been alerted by the Department of Natural
Resources as to the risks involved in eating certain reef-dwelling fishes, frequently
reported to be poisonous.
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1. Cited Reference:
Tosteson, T.R., D.L. Ballantine, and H.D. Durst. 1988. Seasonal frequency of
ciguatoxic barracuda in southwest Puerto Rico. Toxicom. 26(9):795-801.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impairments
to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 3)
B) Habitat: Marine environment, fisheries
5. Synopsis:
Ciguatoxicity of barracuda head, viscera, and flesh tissues was determined in 219
specimens caught along the southwest coast of Puerto Rico from March 1985
through May 1987. Twenty-nine percent of these specimens were toxic. Monthly
frequencies of ciguatoxic barracuda showed an apparent seasonal variability, with
peak values in the late winter-early spring and fall. Minimal frequencies were
observed during June-July and December. The most frequently toxic tissues in
poisonous animals were the head and viscera. Viscera tissue was the only toxic
tissue found in 31 percent of the poisonous fish assayed, and this tissue was
poisonous in all toxic fish. In no case was a poisonous specimen found to have
toxic flesh alone. Marked temporal variation in frequency of ciguatoxicity suggests
that ciguatera toxins, at least in their active form, are not accumulated in barracuda
tissues for extended periods of time. Variability in barracuda ciguatoxicity may
reflect fluctuations in the toxicity of smaller reef fish prey, seasonal fluctuations in
toxic benthic dinoflagellates, and/or changes in the ability of the barracuda to
detoxify ingested poisons or their precursors.
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1. Cited Reference:
Towle, E., et al. 1978. Report on sea turtle nesting, sighting, eggs and hatchlings for
1978 in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and a recommended research methodology for
dealing with hatchling disorientation on the beach. Prepared for the U.S. National
Marine Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and beaches
5. Synopsis:
Information regarding the mortality of hatching sea turtles is crucial to any proposed
management program, yet it is not available for any population in the Virgin Islands.
There is some evidence that at Sandy Point a significant number of leatherback
hatchlings may fail to locate the sea after emerging from the nest and die on the
beach, either by predation or as a result of dessication.
In all cases studied, sea-finding orientation seems to depend on the fact that there is
nearly always a massive brightness differential between the seaward and landward
horizons under natural conditions, with the seaward horizon being the brighter.
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1. Cited Reference:
Towle, E.L., McElroy, I, and A.R. Teytaud. 1982. Island resource management, the
Virgin Islands experience. A planning study for a Workshop on Environmental
Assessment, Resource Allocation, Carrying Capacity, Growth Management, and
Enhancing Information Transfer for Decision-Making in Smaller Islands. Prepared
for the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program,
MAB 7B Directorate.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
At a 1979 conference on "Environmental Management and Economic Growth in the
Smaller Caribbean Islands," held at the Wildey headquarters of the Caribbean
Development Bank, Barbados, under the primary sponsorship of the U.S., Man and
the Biosphere Program and with U.S./AID, UNESCO, UNEP/ECLA, Caribbean
Development Bank and United Nations cosponsorship, the availability of practical,
appropriate, and up-to-date "guidelines for island resource management" surfaced
repeatedly. It was acknowledged that some island areas are more advanced than
others in this arcane art and that all smaller islands are ill-served by standard,
continentally derived, and too often inappropriate resource management approaches,
planning models, and resource assessment/allocation/development and conservation
strategies.
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1. Cited Reference:
UNEP. 1989. Regional overview of environmental problems and priorities affecting
the coastal and marine resources of the wider Caribbean. CEP Technical Report
No.2. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment
Programme, Kingston.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: bacterial, infectious diseases Oil spills
Toxics: hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals Nutrients
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
to recreational/commercial use, impacts to human health, and physical damage
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment, terrestrial environment, mangroves,
wetlands, coastal forests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
The overview focuses primarily on the problems affecting coastal and marine
resources of the Wider Caribbean region. This focus, however, is not narrowly
defined. The region's environmental well-being is strongly linked not only to social,
cultural and political conditions, but also to economic realities and financial
constraints prevailing in most of the States and territories of the region. The
overview, therefore, recognizes and emphasizes various interrelationships between
the environment and socioeconomic development with respect to the coastal and
marine resources of the region.
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1. Cited Reference:
UNEP. 199 la. Background document for the development of a protocol concerning
land-based sources of marine pollution to the Cartagena Convention for the
protection and development of the marine environment of the Wider Caribbean
region. United Nations Environment Programme (OCA), Vol. 5, April 15.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, hydrocarbons Physical damage
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife
populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Marine environment and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
This document was prepared by the Regional Co-ordination Unit of the Caribbean
Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP/RCU) as a contribution to the initiative of the
Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea (ACOPS) for a global legal
framework for the regulation of land-based sources of marine pollution. This
initiative was undertaken by ACOPS as part of the process leading to the United
National Conference on Environment and Development UNCED-ECO92, Rio de
Janeiro, 1-12 June 1992. By the time of the UNCED Conference, a revised version
of this document was to have been prepared with the relevant updated information.
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1. Cited Reference:
UNEP. 199Ib. Report of the CEPPOL Regional Workshop on Coastal Water Quality
Criteria and Effluent Guidelines for the Wider Caribbean, San Juan, Puerto Rico,
5-15 November 1990. Convened in co-operation with the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. CEP Technical Report No. 8. United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics
Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impacts to fish and
wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This document reports on the results of the Workshop on "Coastal Water Quality
Criteria and Effluent Guidelines for the Caribbean" that took place in San Juan,
Puerto Rico, 5-15 November 1990 as part of the activities of the CEPPOL
Programme.
The workshop was convened by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
(IOC) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP-CAR/RCU) with the
collaboration of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which provided
the necessary funding and assistance for the preparation of the event.
The main purpose of the workshop was to consider a set of scientifically based
environmental quality criteria suitable for the coastal environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region. At present diverse environmental quality criteria are in use
within the region. Most of them are not based on sound scientific rationale, and
some may not be appropriate for the tropical conditions of the region.
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1. Cited Reference:
UNEP. 199 Ic. Report on CEPPOL seminar on monitoring and control of sanitary
quality of bathing and shellfish-growing marine waters in the wider Caribbean.
CEP Technical Report No. 9. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, 1991.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: bacterial, viral, parasitic, infectious diseases, biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment and fisheries
5. Synopsis:
The main objectives of the seminar were the following: (1) to review the present
coastal water pollution by sewage; (2) to examine present monitoring practices of
the area; (3) to analyze the environmental quality criteria and determine their
adequacy to safeguard public health; (4) to recommend measures needed to improve
the contamination of coastal waters; and (5) to formulate a monitoring and research
program leading to the development of environmental quality criteria suitable for the
region and on which a rational public health protection strategy could be based.
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1. Cited Reference:
UNEP. 199Id. The transboundary movement of hazardous and nuclear wastes in the
Wider Caribbean Region A call for a legal instrument within the Cartagena
Convention. Edited by Jim Puckett and Sergio Lopez Ayllon. CEP Technical
Report No. 7. United Nations Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment
Programme, Kingston.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: heavy metals, dioxins, and furans
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
Bordered to the north by the world's largest hazardous waste-producing nation, the
United States, the Wider Caribbean Region lies on the front lines of the international
trade in toxic wastes. Almost every country in the Caribbean region has been
targeted as a waste dumpsite by waste brokers operating from the United States, and
these nations are under increasing pressure to accept the wastes. In fact, during
1990 alone, information became available on at least 21 deals to import a wide
range of waste into the Wider Caribbean countries. Unfortunately, it appears that
the number of offers will continue to increase.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1974. Effect of San Juan's outfall discharges on bathing beach water
quality. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Surveillance and Analysis Division,
Region 2, New York, New York. July 1974.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)
B) Habitat: Beaches, marine environment, fisheries
5. Synopsis:
The Surveillance and Analysis Division, Region 2, New York, in cooperation with
the Environmental Quality Board, Puerto Rico, conducted an extensive investigation
of the ambient water quality associated with the beaches of San Juan, Puerto Rico.
The program, which involved several semidiurnal investigations and special outfall
studies, was conducted between March 9 and 13, 1974. Total and fecal coliform
measurements were used as bacterial indicators of potential health hazards associated
with the use of these beaches for bathing and/or other water contact recreation.
Data gathered indicated areas of degraded ambient water quality in association with
intermittent and continuous outfall discharges. The ambiguity in water quality can
be correlated with several variables: the intermittent nature of a number of the
outfall discharges: the proximity of sampling stations to the outfalls: shore currents:
and time of day or night. Based on the technical information gathered during this
study, it was recommended that a significant portion of the beach area be closed
immediately to bathing and contact recreation and that immediate remedial action be
taken to alleviate both the short- and long-term problems caused by the outfall
discharges.
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1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1983. Ecological impacts of sewage discharges on coral reef communities.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Marine Operations Division: 301 (h)
Program. September 1983.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Sedimentation
Toxics
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
This report provides a synthesis of current information on the ecological impact of
sewage discharges on coral reefs. Three major components of sewage pollution are
addressed: (1) eutrophication associated with high nutrient concentrations in
discharged wastewaters, (2) sedimentation of suspended solids, and (3) toxic
effects. A review of sewage discharge impacts is presented, with emphasis on
nutrient enrichment aspects. The effects of solids deposition on corals are
considered. Finally, the available data are synthesized to develop functional
relationships between discharge characteristics, sedimentation rates, and reef
community impacts.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1984. Draft environmental impact statement for the Mangrove Lagoon/
Turpentine Run Wastewater Facilities Plant. St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. April
1984.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Thermal Pollution
Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Mangroves and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
The Mangrove Lagoon/Turpentine Run basin, located on the eastern end of
St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands, is a 3800-acre area with significant needs for
improved treatment of residential and commercial wastewater flows. Approximately
85 percent of the population of the project area is currently served by sewers
connected to nine individual package treatment plants. Rapid development and
population growth and continuing difficulties with the effective operation and
maintenance of separate and geographically dispersed wastewater treatment plants
have resulted in severe pollution and degradation of the surrounding natural
environment.
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1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1989a. San Juan harbor study. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Services Division. March 19, 1989.
2. Pollution Type:
Nutrients Biological pathogens: bacterial
Toxics: heavy metals
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region I)
B) Habitat: Marine environment and harbors
5. Synopsis:
The Puerto Nuevo Sewage Treatment Plant is a 69-MGD primary treatment facility.
Prior to September 1985, the plant discharged directly to San Juan Harbor and was a
major source of mass loadings of BOD and suspended solids. In September 1985,
the discharge was diverted to the Atlantic Ocean, through the Bayamon outfall. The
San Juan Harbor Study was initiated shortly thereafter to document changes in water
quality resulting from the removal of the Puerto Nuevo discharge from the harbor.
The study consists of biannual sampling surveys conducted in the fall and spring
over a 5-year period to monitor water and sediment conditions in the Harbor
Complex. The Harbor Complex includes San Juan Bay, the Martin Pena Canal, the
tidal portion of the Puerto Nuevo River, the San Antonio Channel, and the Condado
Lagoon. Intensive sampling is conducted in the fall, during which a number of
conventional and toxic parameters are monitored in the water column and sediment.
The data from the first survey, in September 1985, established baseline conditions in
the Harbor Complex. The spring surveys involve diurnal monitoring of the water
column for conventional parameters. The spring sampling was initiated in March
1987.
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1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1989b. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Sections 9 to 20 of the Rivers
and Harbors Act of March 3, 1899. August 1989.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Biological pathogens
Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
to recreational/commercial use.
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
This is a compilation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, River and Harbor
Appropriations Act of March 3, 1899, and titles I, II, and IX of the Water Resources
Development Act of 1986, with all changes through the 100th Congress.
-------
1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1989c. Assessing human health risks from chemically contaminated fish and
shellfish: A guidance manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC. September.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins and furans
Biological pathogens: biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Not applicable
5. Synopsis:
Contamination of aquatic resources by toxic chemicals is a well-recognized problem
in many parts of the United States High concentrations of potentially toxic
chemicals have been found in sediments and in aquatic organisms. Heavy
consumption of contaminated fisheries products by humans may pose a substantial
health risk. This concern has prompted recent studies of catch and consumption
patterns for recreational fisheries and associated health risks (e.g., Puffer et al. 1982;
Humphrey 1983, 1987, 1988; Sonzongi and Swain 1984; Swain 1988).
To protect the health of consumers of fish and shellfish, information is needed on
relative health risks associated with various edible aquatic species, geographic
locations, and consumption rates. In the past, diverse models have been used to
estimate human health risks from exposure to toxic substances in food (e.g., Cordle
et al. 1978; U.S. Office of Technology Assessment 1979; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) 1980b; Food Safety Council 1980, 1982; Connor 1984a;
Tollefson and Cordle 1986). In the present report, a standardized procedure is
recommend for assessing human health risks from consumption of chemically
contaminated fish and shellfish.
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1. Cited Reference:
USEPA. 1990c. Report to Congress on implementation of section 403(c) of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington, DC.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Biological pathogens
Nutrients Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impacts
to human health
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
In response to Congressional requests, USEPA compiled this report, which
accomplishes the following tasks:
(1) describes the 403(c) Program;
(2) includes an inventory of 403(c) Ocean Discharges;
(3) gives 403(c) status by Region;
(4) outlines the Regulations for Discharges to Marine Waters; and
(5) includes a 403(c) Implementation Plan/Schedule.
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1. Cited Reference:
USFWS. 1991. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants. 50 CFR 17,11 and
17.12. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. July 15,
1991.
2. Pollution Type:
Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Not applicable
5. Synopsis:
The list contains the names of all species of wildlife that have been determined by
USFWS to be Endangered or Threatened.
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1. Cited Reference:
Wernicke, W., and E.L. Towle. 1983. Vessel waste control plan for the U.S. Virgin
Islands. Prepared for the Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Department of
Conservation and Cultural Affairs.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics Physical damage
Oil spills Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Waste streams, sewage, waste oil, and trash for 400 boats were determined through
a survey effort (including interviews) of vessels at 11 harbors or anchorages in the
U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. Croix and St. John). Unit waste loads, waste
discharges per boat for various size boats up to 100 feet, were calculated as well as
total discharges of sewage into anchorages. Other significant point and nonpoint
pollution sources at the anchorages were identified and quantified where possible.
Recommendations that would reduce or minimize adverse impacts on coastal water
quality are provided.
Existing legislation, relevant to the control of boat waste discharges, was identified
and assessed in terms of applicability and effectiveness to the Virgin Islands
situation.
Existing agencies dealing with vessel pollution water quality and resource
management were identified and evaluated. Recommendations are provided to carry
out the proposed changes in the management programs; and estimated manpower,
budgetary and implementation time frames are provided, along with some strategic
guidelines for future modifications of public policy.
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1. Cited Reference:
Williams, S.L. 1988. Assessment of anchor damage and carrying capacity of seagrass
beds in Francis and Maho Bays for green sea turtles. Biosphere Reserve research
report no. 25. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin
Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:
Physical damage Oil spills
Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife population and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
B) Habitat: Seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
Seagrass beds are valuable natural resources that are easily disturbed by virtue of
their coastal location. Once disturbed, seagrass beds can take decades to recover
and important functions provided by seagrasses are lost. Such functions include
(1) provision of food, shelter, and nursery areas for many animals including
commercially valuable and endangered species; (2) stabilization of sediments and
thus protection of coastlines from storm damage; (3) active recycling of elements
including heavy and trace metals; and (4) ecological linkages with other ecosystems,
including mangroves, coral reefs and the deep sea. Mitigation procedures that have
been developed for disturbed seagrass beds are imperfect, costly, and labor-intensive.
This report discusses disturbances to seagrass beds in Francis Bay and Maho Bay
within the National Park on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. This study was
undertaken to assess whether the seagrasses in the bays require protection in order to
preserve their ecological functions and the large population of endangered green sea
turtles that reside in the bays and use the seagrasses for food.
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1. Cited Reference:
Williams, E., Jr., and L. Bunkley-Williams. 1990a. The world-wide coral reef
bleaching cycle and related sources of coral mortality. Issued by National Museum
of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. January.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: infectious diseases Sedimentation
Toxics: PCBs, hydrocarbons Nutrients
Thermal pollution Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean
B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
Worldwide "coral reef bleaching complexes" occurred in 1979-80, 1982-83, and
1986-88. Each included a "preceding event" 1 year (1979, 1982, 1986) before the
most extensive ("main event") bleaching began. The 1986-88 complex also
possessed a "following event" (1988). A number of minor bouts also occurred
during each complex. Preceding events may be used to predict main bleaching
events. It is believed that the worldwide coral reef bleaching complex "cycle" has
been caused by the increased global temperatures of the 1980s. The progressive
deterioration of inshore regions, including coral reefs, may have contributed to the
intensity of the events. El Nino southern oscillation (ENSO) events of 1982-83 and
1986-88, on top of these problems, increased overall seawater temperatures, or
provided conditions favoring increased inshore temperatures, to the levels necessary
to bleach and kill coral reef photosymbiotic hosts. Decreased temperatures also
caused minor bouts in 1988, 1989, and possibly other times. Deterioration of coral
reefs has also lowered photosymbiotic hosts' resilience, or resistance to the
bleaching process. The model explaining coral reef bleaching employs increased
global temperatures, increasing deterioration of reefs, and ENSO events. These
conditions are not only well established, but seem almost certain to continue.
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1. Cited Reference:
Williams, E.H., Jr., and L. Bunkley-Williams. 1990b. Recurring mass mortalities of
Caribbean herrings: Implications for the study of major marine ecological
disturbances. J. Aquat. Animal Health 2:230-236.
2. Pollution Type:
Biological pathogens: infectious diseases
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)
B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
Numerous major marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) occurred in the greater
Caribbean region in the 1980s. There have been sporadic mass mortalities of
herrings Harengula spp. throughout this period. Although information is too limited
to suggest a cause, these events seem to represent a recurring MMED, which may
not be limited to the Atlantic. More data concerning past herring mortalities and
specimens from new bouts are solicited through this alert. Approaches used to
understand simple epizootics are not adequate for examining MMEDs. Experimental
work is too limited, and reference specimens are often not available. A correlation
of the observations of many observers is suggested for following these events.
These disturbances seem to be increasing in size and number, may be interrelated,
and may be indicators of global or climatic change or deterioration of the marine
environment. Establishment of an alert and communications center to follow
MMEDs is suggested.
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1. Cited Reference:
Young, D.R., and T.C. Heesen. 1974. Inputs and distributions of chlorinated
hydrocarbons in three Southern California harbors. Southern California Coastal
Water Research Project TM 214. 27 pp.
2. Pollution Type:
Toxics: Pesticides (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls
3. Impairment Type:
Impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:
A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable
B) Habitat: Harbors
5. Synopsis:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT and PCBs were measured in bay mussels
collected in several Southern California harbors (San Diego Bay, Newport Harbor,
San Pedro Harbor). A pattern of increasing DDT concentrations toward Los
Angeles was noted. PCB concentrations, however, were high in all three harbors
and several times higher than in specimens collected in nearby coastal waters. It
was suggested that antifouling paint may have been the predominant source of PCBs
in Southern California harbors in recent years.
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APPENDIX B
Profiles of Organizations
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PROFILES OF ORGANIZATIONS
Appendix B is a compilation of brief profiles of governmental and nongovernmental agencies and research
institutions with planning/development and natural resource conservation responsibilities in Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. These organizations were surveyed through a series of telephone interviews
involving requests for specific information. Many of the people contacted chose to send existing literature
about their organizations or to compose brief statements in answer to the questions, which they sent via
mail or facsimile.
The format of the survey was kept brief to allow each person contacted to elaborate as he or she felt
necessary to best describe the organization in question. First, the correct name and address of the
organization were verified. Second, a statement of objectives was requested. The responses to this request
ranged from broad goals of operation to specific details regarding research activities. Then the
approximate size of the organization was requested, although this question was the most frequently
overlooked if the survey progressed to subsequent correspondence following the initial contact. The
organization was then classified as governmental or nongovernmental. Each person contacted was asked
how his or her organization is interrelated with others, which often led to additional contacts. Finally, the
reporting responsibilities of each organization, if applicable, were listed.
The main government agencies that deal with environmental matters in Puerto Rico are the Environmental
Quality Board (EQB) and the Department of Natural Resources (DNR). The EQB is part of the
Governor's Office, while the DNR has a Secretary who reports to the Governor. The DNR is further
divided into branches with specific responsibilities such as coastal zone management and fisheries
research. The University of Puerto Rico has many programs that involve research on environmental
concerns in the area.
The U.S. Virgin Islands has one main agency that deals with the environment, the Department of Planning
and Natural Resources (DPNR). The government of the U.S. Virgin Islands is divided into two districts,
one for St. Croix and the other for St. John and St. Thomas. The DPNR is likewise divided into two
sections although the information included in the surveys regards the whole territory. The Commissioner
of the DPNR is a member of the Governor's Cabinet. The DPNR is divided into several branches that
have specific tasks, such as the Coastal Zone Management Department, the Department of Public Works,
and the Department of Environmental Protection. Several research institutions and private businesses with
environmental responsibilities in the U.S. Virgin Islands are also included.
The Caribbean-wide and international organizations in the survey include various governmental institutions
with environmental responsibilities. Also included are some private businesses and nonprofit organizations
with specific dealings in the area.
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The following people were contacted regarding information about their organizations but did not respond.
Therefore, profiles of these organizations are not included in the report.
Dr. Julio Cardona
Coastal Zone Management Department
Department of Natural Resources
Puerta de Tierra Station
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
Dr. John C. Ogden
Co-chairman, CARICOMP
Florida Institute of Oceanography
University of South Florida
830 First Street South
St. Petersburg, FL 33701
Dr. Jack Morelock
Department of Marine Sciences
University of Puerto Rico
P.O. Box 908
Lajas, Puerto Rico 00667
Yvonne Sadovy, Director
Fisheries Research Laboratory
Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
Department of Natural Resources
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico
Judy Beretta for Dr. Caroline Rogers
Virgin Islands National Park
P.O. Box 710
St. John, USVI 00830
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1. Name of Organization:
Association of Island Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Department of Marine Sciences
University of Puerto Rico
Mayaguez, PR 00709-5000
(809) 899-2048
3. Contact: Dr. Ernest H. Williams, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
The broad objective of the Association is to advance and promote Caribbean marine
science by the holding of meetings, sharing of information, and facilitating of
cooperative research.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- AIMLC laboratories
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
* Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
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1. Name of Organization:
Bioimpact, Inc., Environmental Consultants
2. Address/Telephone Number:
P.O. Box 132
Kingshill, St. Croix
U.S. Virgin Islands 00851
(809)773-5881
3. Contact: Amy Dempsey, owner/principal investigator
4. Statement of Objectives:
Field investigations and environmental assessment reports in evaluating wise
land/resource use planning.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Coastal Zone Management permitting
- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers permitting
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Environmental Assessment Reports/Environmental Impact Statements for proposed
developments
- Water quality monitoring/environmental monitoring
- Wetland determinations and wetland mitigation
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1. Name of Organization:
Caribbean Association of Environmental Health Officers*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
NUPW Building, 2nd Floor
Dalkeith Road
St. Michael, Barbados
West Indies
(809) 436-7347
3. Contact: Dr. Lenore Harvey, Project Manager
4. Statement of Objectives:
To unite Environmental Health Officers in a professional association and to ensure
that EHOs acquire necessary technical and other specialized skills.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Public health agencies
- Educational institutions offering degree programs in environmental health
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
* Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
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1. Name of Organization:
Caribbean Conservation Association*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Savannah Lodge, The Garrison
St. Michaels, Barbados
West Indies
(809) 426-9635
3. Contact: Michael I. King, Executive Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
CCA was established in 1967 as a regional nongovernmental organization, the aims
of which are the conservation and development of the environment and the
preservation of cultural heritage.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Local and state Caribbean governments
- Educational institutions
- Parks
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
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1. Name of Organization:
Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI)
2. Address/Telephone Number:
1104 Strand Street, Suite 208
Christiansted, USVI 00820
(809) 773-9854
3. Contact: Francine Lang
4. Statement of Objectives:
To support and promote institutional arrangements for collaborative management of
natural resources critical to community development.
5. Size of Organization: 15 employees
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Local governments and communities
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Marine Resource Research reports
- Coral reef monitoring
- Sustainable timber harvest mointoring
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Department of Planning and Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Nasky Center, Suite 231
St. Thomas, USVI 00802
(809) 774-3320
3. Contact: Commissioner Roy E. Adams
4. Statement of Objectives:
Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve natural resources of the Virgin
Islands, those being air, water, and environmental and human health. Oversees
branches of the Department specializing in these areas.
5. Size of Organization: 300-400 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Commissioner is member of Governor's Cabinet
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Each branch of the Department sends annual reports to the Governor and program
reports to US EPA.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Department of Planning and Natural Resources
Division of Coastal Zone Management
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Nasky Center, Suite 231
St. Thomas, USVI 00802
(809) 774-3320
3. Contact: Sue Higgins, Senior Planner
4. Statement of Objectives:
Regulatory agency designed to protect and promote wise use of the coasts of the
Virgin Islands.
5. Size of Organization: 25 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Report to Department of Planning and Natural Resources
- USEPA
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Send annual reports to the Governor and program reports to EPA involving some
Superfund work and emergency management.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Department of Planning and Natural Resources
Division of Environmental Protection
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Nasky Center, Suite 231
St. Thomas, USVI 00802
(809) 774-3320
3. Contact: Leonard Reed
4. Statement of Objectives:
Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve the natural environment of the
Virgin Islands.
5. Size of Organization: 25 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Report to Department of Planning and Natural Resources
- USEPA
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Send annual reports to the Governor and program reports to EPA involving
primarily vessel waste and nonpoint source studies.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Eastern Caribbean Center
2. Address/Telephone Number:
VI Marine Advisory Service
University of the Virgin Islands, Eastern Caribbean Center
Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas
USVI 00802
(809)776-2885
3. Contact: Dr. Norman Quinn, Marine Advisor
4. Statement of Objectives:
To foster the social reconstructive development of the Eastern Caribbean region and
the U.S. Virgin Islands and improve relations between these countries and serve as a
common link through collaborative ventures with appropriate institutions.
5. Size of Organization: 5 employees
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Assist with private agencies and government agencies in study, research, and
technical assistance with conferences
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Research, policy development, and training
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Institute of Tropical Forestry*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
University of Puerto Rico
Call Box 25000
Rio Piedras, PR 00925-2500
(809)763-3939
3. Contact: Dr. Ariel E. Lugo, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
Southern Forest Experiment Station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest
Service.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
-USDA
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Island Resources Foundation*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Red Hook
Box 33
St. Thomas, USVI 00820
(809) 775-6225
3. Contact: Dr. Edward Towle (President)
4. Statement of Objectives:
A research and technical assistance NGO dedicated to the improvement of human
and natural resource management in offshore oceanic islands. Emphasis is on
workable development strategies appropriate for small island resource utilization.
5. Size of Organization: 8 employees
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
-Programs, especially involving the eastern Caribbean
-Coastal and marine resource utilization, land use planning, environmental impact
assessment, national park development, tourism planning, cultural resource
development, natural resource assessment. Assistance to NGOs for institutional
development.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Provide technical assistance, planning, research advisory and information services,
superior reference library including computerized resource management database on
Caribbean insular systems.
* Adapted from:
Island Resources Foundation. 1989. Organizational profiles of who is doing
what in support of programs for sustainable resource development and
environmental management in the eastern Caribbean. A guide to donor
organizations and technical assistance agencies. February 1989.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Laboratory of Professor T.R. Tosteson
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Department of Marine Sciences
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
University of Puerto Rico
Mayaguez Campus
3. Contact: Dr. T.R. Tosteson
4, Statement of Objectives:
Research activities include: ciguatera poisoning of barracuda in the north eastern
Caribbean as well as toxic microalgal/bacterial vectors believed to cause this
poisoning in fish; seasonal changes in the microbial flora of the invertebrate
Palythoa sp. known to produce the toxin palytbxin; the activity and specificity of
macromolecular polysaccharides produced and released by marine microbial
populations.
5. Size of Organization: 8 researchers, including students
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Medical School of the University of Puerto Rico
- Ponce School of Medicine
- University of Miami (Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric
Science
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Biopolymer Research Unit
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
-------
1. Name of Organization:
NMFS, Caribbean Fishery Management Council
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Suite HOB
Banco de Ponce Bldg.
Hato Key, PR 00918
(809) 753-6910
3. Contact: Miguel Rolan
4. Statement of Objectives:
The Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC) is one of eight regional
fishery management councils. The Council's major responsibility is the formulation
of fishery management plans and the designation of the fisheries to be included.
The first management plan was developed for the Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands
spiny lobster. Other plans are being developed for the deep-water reef snapper and
grouper fishery and shallow-water reef fishery. Other functions of the Council are
(1) the preparation from time to time of such amendments as may be considered
necessary for any of the fishery management plans (to attain this the Council must
review on a continuing basis, through adopted monitoring systems, the assessments
and specifications of the plans); (2) the preparation of comments on any application
for foreign fishing; (3) conduct public hearings to allow interested persons to be
heard in the development of fishery management plans; and (4) submission to the
Secretary of Commerce of annual reports or of any other reports as the Council or
the Secretary deem appropriate.
5. Size of Organization: 10 employees
6. Organizational Category: Regional government
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
The staff functions include implementing the Council policies and decisions and
assisting in the development of fishery management plans; and analyzing the
biological, economic, social, and legal implications of management approaches by
coordination with either federal or state agencies or private firms.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
-Formulation of fishery management plans.
-Submission to the Secretary of Commerce of annual reports or of any other reports
as the Council or the Secretary deems appropriate.
-------
1. Name otfDrganization:
Ocean Systems Research, Inc.
2. Address/Telephone Number:
P.O. Box 128 Gallows Bay Station
St. Croix, USVI 00820
(809) 773-3246
3. Contact: - Dr. Mary Coulston
J
4. Statement of Objectives:
Water Testing Lab
-The lab tests drinking, marine recreational, and sewage waters. Certified by the
Environmental Protection Agency and the state to perform this testing.
5. Size of Organization: 2 people (director and an analyst)
Employ several contractors for sampling ^^
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Department of Environmental Planning
- Department of Planning and Natural Resources
- Contracted by the government to perform water testing (surveillance) and to supply
the government with a report.
- For private companies, the public, they also perform this testing on
marine recreational and drinking waters. Reports are also given to the
government.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Provides the Department of Environmental Planning of the Department of Planning
and Natural Resources with official reports on ambient water and the safety of
recreational waters.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Organization of American States, Department of Regional Development*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
1889 F Street NW
Washington, DC 20006
3. Contact: Dr. Kirk P. Rogers, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
The Department of Regional Development is specifically concerned with natural
resource management, conservation, and sustainable development.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- National governments
-OAS
- Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Caribbean Program
P.O. Box 508
Bridgetown, Barbados West Indies
(809) 426-3860
3. Contact: Dr. H. Dyer, Coordinator
4. Statement of Objectives:
PAHO serves member governments throughout the Americas as a specialized
organization of the OAS and as the regional offices for the World Health
Organization. Its general objective is the attainment of the highest level of health
for the region.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- United Nations agency
- State and local governments in the region
- World Health Organization
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Public Works Department
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Estate Anne's Hope
Christiansted, St. Croix, USVI 00820
(809) 773-1789
3. Contact: May Cornwall for Commissioner Leo Francis
4. Statement of Objectives:
Provide environmentally sound infrastructure and services thereto in accordance with
environmental laws and regulations.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Commissioner is member of Governor's Cabinet
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Report to Governor of USVI - split into two districts, one for St. Croix and the
other for St. John and St. Thomas
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Public Works Department
Division of Environmental Services
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Estate Anne's Hope
Christiansted, St. Croix, USVI 00820
(809) 773-1789
3. Contact: May Cornwall
4. Statement of Objectives:
Plan, design, and manage wastewater and solid waste projects to achieve and
consistently satisfy all compliance criteria. Provide environmental assessments and
technical assistance to all operating divisions. Educate and train personnel and the
public on environmental issues.
5. Size of Organization: 9 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Report to Department of Planning and Natural Resources and USEPA
- Part of the Public Works Department
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Operate and maintain infrastructure in accordance with applicable codes and
regulations. The Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) issues
permits to operate and enforces compliance with codes and regulations, i.e., permits.
Report to DPNR and USEPA on discharge monitoring and compliance plans.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Puerto Rico Department of Health
Division of Epidemiology
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Apartado 71423
Correo General
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936-1423
3. Contact: Dr. Kenneth L. Dominguez, M.D., M.P.H.
4. Statement of Objectives:
To provide leadership and direction in activities related to improving the public
health of Puerto Rico. This includes the prevention and control of infectious
diseases (but also involves itself in the surveillance of some noninfectious diseases,
i.e. ciguatera toxin intoxication).
5. Size of Organization: 11 employees in the central office
17 employees in the regional offices
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Provide technical assistance to different levels of the health department, hospitals,
and health centers
- Serve as a liaison for diverse projects involving the Environmental Protection
Agency and the Centers for Disease Control
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
The division of epidemiology is involved in a weekly telephone-based surveillance
system and an ongoing mail-based and computer-based surveillance system. Data
are channeled from the regional level to the central division of epidemiology. The
central division of epidemiology compiles, summarizes, and analyzes the data from
the regions and then reports to the Puerto Rico Department of Health and the
Centers for Disease Control via the National Electronic Telecommunications System
for Surveillance) computer system.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:
P.O. Box 5887, Puerta de Tierra Station
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
(809) 723-3099
3. Contact: Ines Monefeldt, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
The Commonwealth developed the Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program
(PRCMP) to manage the significant land and water resources and the activities that
take place in its territorial waters and in a land area that extends 1,000 meters inland
from Mean High Tide, and further inland where necessary to include key natrual
systems.
5. Size of Organization: approximately 1620 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the Planning Board (PB) are the
primary planning and permitting agencies involved in the coastal zone. The PB is a
part of the Office of the Governor; it has broad regulatory powers over all land use
and development.
- The PB adopted the PRCMP as an element of the island-wide land use plan and is
responsible for issuing certificates of consistency with that plan.
- DNR reviews development proposals and draft environmental assessments referred
to it by PB and other agencies.
- DNR cooperates with EQB in review of erosion plans and in monitoring-the
implementation of such plans.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
DNR reporting responsibilities include: granting of mining concessions; issuance of
permits to drill wells and franchises for the taking of surface and ground waters; the
administration of the maritime zone, coastal waters, and submerged lands; the
management of forest resources; the regulation of sand and gravel extraction,
recreational vessels, hunting, and fishing.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:
P.O. Box 5887, Puerta de Tierra Station
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
(809) 723-3099
3. Contact: Santos Rohena, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:
Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve natural resources of the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
5. Size of Organization: Approximately 6,000 - 8,000 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Oversees several branch agencies including the Coastal Zone Managment
Program and laboratories such as the Fisheries Reseach Laboratory.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
The Secretary of the Department reports to the Governor.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Banco Nacional #431
Ponce de Leon Avenue
Hato Key, Puerto Rico 00913
(809) 767-8181
3. Contact: Pedro Moldonado, Acting Chairman
4. Statement of Objectives:
To preserve, maintain, and enhance the quality of the waters of Puerto Rico
compatible with the social and economic needs of the Commonwealth of Puerto
Rico.
5. Size of Organization: Approximately 400 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Part of the Governor's Office
- Oversee the Water Quality Program
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Clean Water Act Section 205(1) Annual Reports
- Responsible for investigating reported fish kills
- Compose Water Quality Standards Regulations
- Develop point and nonpoint source pollution control programs
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Puerto Rico Sea Grant
2. Address/Telephone Number:
Department of Marine Science
University of Puerto Rico
Box 5000
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00709
(809) 832-4040
3. Contact: Dr. Manuel Hernandez
4. Statement of Objectives:
Sea Grant is dedicated to research, advisory service, and education which is related
to the oceans and the coastal environment. Sea Grant Colleges are found within
universities with the purpose of enriching and supporting the university's academic
program and taking advantage of existing resources within the university. Both the
University of Puerto Rico and the University of the Virgin Islands have Sea Grant
programs.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Federally administered by NOAA, Department of Commerce
- Also receive some local government funding
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Research Planning, Inc.
2. Address/Telephone Number:
1200 Park Street
Columbia, South Carolina 29201
(803)256-7322
3. Contact: Jack S. Moore
4. Statement of Objectives:
Mainly contracted to conduct hazardous spill response work for NOAA.
5. Size of Organization: 18 employees
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- NOAA contracts
- Local Puerto Rican and Virgin Islands government agencies
- Clean Caribbean Corporation
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Environmental Sensitivity Investigation mapping of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin
Islands for sensitivity to hazardous waste spills, focusing mainly on bird nesting
areas and fish hatcheries
- Provide reports of questionnaire summaries to Puerto Rican government regarding
oil spill hot spots
-------
1. Name of Organization:
USEPA, Caribbean Field Office
2. Address/Telephone Number:
1413 Fernandez Juncos Ave.
Santorce, Puerto Rico
3. Contact: Carl Soderberg
4. Statement of Objectives:
The Director of the Caribbean Field Office represents the Regional Administrator in
the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
This position holds the responsibility of coordinating response within the two
governments on matters concerning environmental problems requiring EPA action.
The Office is divided into the Water Management Staff and the Air and Hazardous
Substances Staff.
5. Size of Organization: 20 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
Coordinates with all federal, state, and municipal agencies in Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands, including the governors' offices
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Most of the monitoring is self-monitoring reports in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands with some field inspections by CFO personnel, and quarterly tracking reports
of delegated programs to PR Environmental Quality Board, PR Department of
Health, PR Department of Agriculture and VI Department of Planning and Natural
Resources.
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1. Name of Organization:
U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Islands Directorate*
2. Address/Telephone Number:
US MAB Secretariat
State Department -- OES/ENR/MAB
Washington, DC 20520
3. Contact: Mr. William S. Beller, Directorate Chairman
4. Statement of Objectives:
The Islands Directorate (with a Caribbean focus) is part of the U.S. National
Committee for UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program. Derives
lessons on the management of insular ecosystems from experience of Puerto Rico,
U.S. Virgin Islands.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- United Nations agency
- UNESCO
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (PR)
2. Address/Telephone Number:
USFWS
Fernandez Juncos Ave.
Santorce, Puerto Rico
(809) 851-7219
3. Contact: Felix Lopez
4. Statement of Objectives:
USFWS works with endangered species, wetlands protection, and superfund sites
national resource assessment damage.
5. Size of Organization: 10 biologists (PR/VI)
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Due to the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, USFWS deals with
government agencies going through the permitting process. They deal with anyone
seeking a permit. Through this process, they review Corps of Engineers and
Department of Agriculture (with Food and Securities Act) permits.
- NPDES studies for EPA
- Review federal environmental impact statements.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Review documents.
- Give written comments/recommendations to agencies in some type of report.
-------
1. Name of Organization:
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USVI)
2. Address/Telephone Number:
USFWS
USVI
(809) 775-6762
3. Contact: Ralf Boulon
4. Statement of Objectives:
Division under the Department of Planning and Natural Resources. Apply for
research grants to FWS and the National Marine Fisheries Service. Perform
research and management of four main areas: (1) fisheries; (2) wildlife;
(3) endangered species; and (4) environmental education.
5. Size of Organization: 20-24 employees
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Funding by the Federal Aid division of USFWS allows for research and
management of four main categories for USFWS and NMFS. They are
(1) fisheries—perform studies on sport, commercial and recreational fishing, coral
reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and wetlands; (2) wildlife; (3) endangered
species—mostly leatherback turtle work; and (4) environmental education for public
awareness.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Submit annual reports to USFWS.
Submit quarterly and annual reports to NMFS.
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1. Name of Organization:
U.S. Virgin Islands Sea Grant
2. Address/Telephone Number:
RR #2, P.O. Box 10,000
Kingshill, St. Croix
USVI 00850
(809) 778-0246
3. Contact: Marcia Taylor
4. Statement of Objectives:
Sea Grant is dedicated to research, advisory service, and education which is related
to the oceans and the coastal environment. Sea Grant Colleges are found within
universities with the purpose of enriching and supporting the university's academic
program and taking advantage of existing resources within the university. Both the
University of Puerto Rico and the University of the Virgin Islands have Sea Grant
programs.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category: Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- Federally administered by NOAA, Department of Commerce
- Also receive some local government funding
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
Not applicable
-------
1. Name of Organization:
Virgin Islands Marine Advisory Service (VIMAS)
2. Address/Telephone Number:
VI Marine Advisory Service
University of the Virgin Islands
RR #2, P.O. Box 10,000
Kingshill, St. Croix
USVI 00850
(809) 778-0246
3. Contact: Marcia Taylor, Marine Advisor;
Dr. Laverae Ragster, Director;
Teresa Turner
4. Statement of Objectives:
To promote the wise use and development of the Nation's coasts and oceans through
a program of applied research, education, and advisory service.
5. Size of Organization: 25 employees
6. Organizational Category: Nongovernmental, but receive federal funding
through Sea Grant
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:
- University of Puerto Rico shares Sea Grant funding with VIMAS
- Conduct work with government officials, scientists, fishermen, sociologists
8. Reporting Responsibilities:
- Provide quarterly reports to the University
-------
APPENDIX C
Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas
-------
This Appendix includes a list and a short description of the Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWA) for
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in Tables C-l and C-2, respectively. Following each area listing
is a status description to help identify the areas that are in need of mitigation or monitoring. An asterisk
(*) implies the area is still a primary area for wildlife for the island. At the end of each table is a more
detailed description of the CCWAs and associated environmental impacts. Table C-3 lists the threatened
and endangered species of the CCWAs.
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TABLE C-l. CRITICAL WILDLIFE HABITATS IN PUERTO RICO
POTENTIALLY AFFECTED BY MARINE POLLUTION
Map#
1
2
3*
4
5
6
7
Location
Torrecilla
Pinones
Torrecilla Alta
Constitution
Bridge
Mudflats
Palo Seco
Peninsula
(Catano)
Buchanan
Haystack Hills
(Bayam6n)
Fort Buchanan
Pond
San Pedro
Swamp (Toa
Baja)
Status
Primary
Primary
Primary but
degraded
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Species Impacted
Leatherback and hawksbill sea
turtles (FE)
Pterocarpus qfficinalis, West
Indian whistling duck (CT), and
white-crowned pigeon (R)
Yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE), brown pelican (FE),
roseate tern (FT), and least tern
(FT)
Brown pelican (FE)
Puerto Rican boa (FE)
Ruddy duck (CT)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
black-crowned night heron (R),
magnificent frigate bird (R),
Source of Pollution
Recreational demands
Agua-Guagua Mass Transit
System, docking facilities in San
Juan, Puerto Rico Electric and
Energy Authority, and Municipal
Public Works
8*
10
11*
Lakes/Forests of
Dorado Beach
and Cerromar
Beach
Cibuco Swamp
Tortuguero
Lagoon, Rica
Lake, and Cabo
Caribe Swamp
Lake Puerto
Nuevo
and Puerto Rican boa (FE)
Primary Caribbean coot (CT), Puerto
Rican boa (FE), and white-
crowned pigeon (R)
Pending Potential area for endangered
species
Primary Caribbean coot (CT), brown
pelican (FE), Puerto Rican Boa
(FE), three species of sea
turtles (FE) — green, leather-
back, and hawksbill, yellow-
breasted crake (CT), least grebe
(CT), Pterocarpus qfficinalis
stand
Ruddy duck (CT), purple
gallinule (R), Caribbean coot
(CT)
Dorado Beach Golf Course and
urban development
Prime hunting ground
Surrounding development water
treatment effluents and
degradation from development
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map #
Location
Status
Species Impacted
Source of Pollution
12*
13*
14*
15
16
17
18
19
20*
Tiburones Primary Masked duck (CT), whistling
Swamp duck (CT), ruddy duck (CT),
Caribbean coot (CT), white-
crowned pigeon (R), Bahama
duck (R)
La Tembladera Secondary Caribbean coot (CT) and
Lagoon masked duck (CT)
Carrizales Secondary West Indian whistling duck
Mangrove (CT)
Guajataca Cliffs Primary
Bellaca Creek Primary
White tail tropic bird (R)
Puerto Rican crested toad (FT)
and Puerto Rican boa (FE)
Bario Goto Primary Puerto Rican crested toad (FT)
and Puerto Rican boa (FE)
Cayura Primary Purple gallinule (R), masked
duck (CT). West Indian duck
(CT), ruddy duck (FT), and
brown pelican (FE)
Pozo Honda Secondary Potential area for endangered
species
Sabanetas Secondary Ruddy duck (CT), West Indian
Swamp whistling duck (CT), and
Pterocarpus officinalis
Puerto Rican industrial sewage
sludge injection project and
industrial use
Agricultural use and increased
traffic on or nearby road
Urban development and storm
water sewer pipe from Highway
2
Urban development
Degradation
Sugarcane plantations
Sugarcane plantations and
commercial development
21
22*
23
Guanajibo
Mangrove
Primary
Joyuda Lagoon Secondary
Cuevas Lagoon Primary
upgraded
24
25
Guaniguilla
Lagoons
Boguerdn
Refuge
Primary
upgraded
Primary
Pterocarpus officinalis stand
(R), yellow-breasted crake
(CT), least grebe (CT), brown
pelican (FE), and West Indian
manatee (FE)
Ruddy duck (FT), purple
gallinule (R), and brown pelican
(FE)
Urban development and
agricultural use
Ruddy duck (CT), West Indian Livestock
whistling duck (CT), and Bahama
duck (R)
Brown pelican (FE), Bahama Livestock
duck (R), and ruddy duck (CT)
Yellow-shouldered blackbird Development
(FE)
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TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
Location
Status
Species Impacted
Source of Pollution
26
21*
28
29
30
31
32
33
34*
35
Cabo Rojo Salt
Flats
Cartagena
Lagoon
La Paraguera
Guanica State
Forest-West
Guancia Lagoon
Guanico Forest
San Jacinto Salt
Flats
Lluveras
Cabulldn
Mangrove
Caja de Muertos
and Morrillito
Islands
Primary Migrant poping plover (CT),
snowy plover (CT), yellow-
shouldered blackbird (FT), least
tern (CT)
Primary Glossy ibis (R), purple gallinule
(R), Bahama duck (R), yellow-
breasted crake (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), least grebe (CT),
ruddy duck (CT), and East
Indian whistling duck (CT)
Primary West Indian manatee (FE),
hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
brown pelican (FE), yellow-
shouldered blackbird (FE)
Primary Green sea turtle (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE), and
yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE)
Secondary Potential area for endangered
species
Primary Puerto Rican nightjar (FE),
Puerto Rican crested toad (FT),
yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE), brown pelican
(FE), peregrine falcon (FE)
least tern (CT), West Indian
manatee (FT), Bahama duck
(R), hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
and Puerto Rican dryland anole
Primary Bahama duck (R), coot (R),
common moorhen (R),
sandwich tern (R), royal tern
(R), roseate tern (FT), and
brown pelican (FE)
Primary Brown pelican (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE), Puerto
Rican nightjar (FE), and
hawksbill sea turtle (FE)
Secondary Brown pelican (FE)
Primary All sea turtles (FE), brown
pelican (FE), and roseate tern
(FT)
Degradation due to agriculture
and livestock
Deforestation of the limestone
hills; encroachment of the
commercial industries
Ponce docking facility
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map//
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Location
Frios Cay
Berberia Cay
Punta Petrona
Mangrove
Carocoles Cay
Punta Arenas
Mar Negro
Punta Pozuela
Status
Secondary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Species Impacted Source of Pollution
Brown pelican (FE) Some natural erosion
Brown pelican (FE), green sea
turtle (FE), and roseate tern
(FE)
Brown pelican (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE), and sea
turtles (FE)
Brown pelican (FE)
Brown pelican (FE) and
Bahama duck (R)
West Indian manatee (FE)
All sea turtles (FE); brown
43
44
45
Pandura Secondary
Mountain Range
Humacoa
Swamp
Primary
Roosevelt Roads Primary
Naval Base
pelican (FE), green sea turtle
(FE), hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
West Indian manatee (FE), and
Puerto Rican plain pigeon (R)
Eleutherodactylus coold
Agriculture pressure and
degradation due to the
deforestation of the mountains
Bahama duck (R), West Indian
whistling duck (CT), ruddy
duck (CT), brown pelican (FE),
peregrine falcon (FE), Bahama
duck (CT), masked duck (CT),
least grebe (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), purple gallinule (R),
hawksbill sea turtle (FE), green
sea turtle (FE), West Indian
manatee (FE), and Pterocarpus
forest
West Indian manatee (FE), least
grebe (FE), brown pelican
(FE), yellow-shouldered
blackbird (FE), and white-crowned
pigeon (R)
46
Fajardo
Coastline
Primary Roseate tern (FT), bahama duck
(R), green sea turtle (FE),
hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
Virgin Islands tree boa (FE),
and brown pelican (FE)
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TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map #
49*
50
51*
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
Location
Aguas Prietas
Lagoon
Ensada
Comezdn
Ci£naga Baja
Culebra's
Surrounding
Islets
Flamenco
Peninsula
Flamenco
Lagoon
Cornelius
Lagoon
Resaca
Mountain
Resaca Beach
Brava Beach
Larga Beach and
Zoni Lagoon
Puerto de
Manglar
Cementerio Bay
Los Canos
Status
Secondary
Primary
Seconday
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Species Impacted
White-crowned pigeon (R) and
brown pelican (FE)
White-crowned pigeon (R)
Potential area for endangered
species
Hawksbill sea turtle (FE), green
sea turtle (FE), shiny-backed
skink (CT), brown pelican
(FE), and Bahama duck (R)
Shiny-backed skink (CT)
Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck
(CT),and least grebe (CT)
Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck
(CT), and masked duck (CT)
Peperomia wheeleri (FE)
All sea turtles (FE)
Leatherback and hawksbill sea
turtles (FE)
Bahama duck (R) and ruddy
duck (CT)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
brown pelican (FE),
magnificent frigate bird (R)
White-crowned pigeon (R)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
Bahama duck (R)
Source of Pollution
Camping facility
Development
Agricultural use and urban runoff
Recreational facility, increase in
the access road, increase in size
of garbage dump,and
construction of additional houses
Development of two houses with
installation of power lines
Construction
I
Increased sediment loading by
erosion and runoff from housing
developments
Encroachment of squatters
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
63
Location
East Point of
Status
Primary
Species Impacted
Puerto Rican screech owl and
Source of Pollution
Degraded
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Vieques
Coneja Island Primary
Ensenada Honda Primary
Mangrove
Chiva Swamp Primary
Yanuel Lagoon Primary
Tap6n Bay
Primary
Mosquito Bay, Primary
Ensenada Sombe
and Ferro Bay
West Vieques Primary
Monita Island Primary
Newtons owl (both nearly
extinct), Bahama duck (R),
white-tailed tropic bird, two
unusual geckos Sphaerodactylus
macrolepis ifiigoi and
Sphaerodactylus roosevelti,
leatherback sea turtle (FE),
green sea turtle (FE), hawksbill
sea turtles (FE), American
oystercatcher
One of the largest breeding
areas for brown pelican (FE),
roseate tern (FE), white-tailed
tropic bird (R), and American
oystercatcher (U)
White-crowned pigeon (R) and
sea turtles (FE)
West Indian whistling duck
(FE), Bahama duck (R), least
tern (FT)
Yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE) and variety of avian
species
Waterfowl and shorebirds
Peregrine falcon (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE), all sea
turtles (FE), brown pelican
(FE)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
Bahama duck (R), West Indian
Whistling duck (CT), nesting
turtles (FE), West Indian
mantee (FE)
Ground iguana (FE), sea turtles
(FE-all species), Mona boa
(FT), and many other reptiles,
white-tailed tropic bird, yellow-
shouldered blackbird (FE)
-------
TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
72
Location
Mona Island
Status
Primary
Species Impacted
Ground iguana (FE), sea turtles
Source of Pollution
(FE-all species), Mona Boa
(FT) and many other reptiles,
white-tailed tropicbirds, yellow-
shouldered blackbirds (FE)
73 Desecho Island
74 Palmos Pond
Secondary
Primary
Populations of seabirds
Masked duck (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), brown pelican
Degraded due to bombing and
release of Rhesus monkeys
Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.
CT = Commonwealth Threatened
FE = Federally Endangered
FT = Federally Threatened
R = Rare
U = Uncommon
-------
DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF CRITICAL COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
FOR PUERTO RICO
(1)* Torrecilla-Pinones has a very diverse fauna including a variety of birds, reptiles, fish, and crabs.
This area has remained a critical area even though it is used by at least 1 million people from the
San Juan area. At this time the leather-back sea turtle (FE) and hawksbill sea turtle (FE) are
found nesting in this area.
(2)* Torrecilla Alta is composed of freshwater swamps and marshes with several Pterocarpus officindis
stands dispersed throughout the region. This habitat is currently supporting the West Indian
whistling duck (CT) and the white-crowned pigeon (R).
(3) Constitution Bridge Mudflats supports 62 aquatic and 31 terrestrial organisms. It encompasses a wide
variety of uses; an avifaunal nesting, feeding, and roosting area. The yellow-shouldered
blackbird (Federally Endangered (FE)), brown pelican (FE), roseate (Federally Threatened (FT))
tern, and least tern (FT) all utilize the area. Degradation caused by the development of the Agua-
Guagua mass transit system, channelization of the Puerto Nuevo River, expansion of the docking
facility at the San Juan Harbor, and landfill operations have greatly reduced the size of this area.
Utilization of this space for electrical posts by the Puerto Rico Electric and Energy Authority and
the Municipal Public Works Office has further reduced the acreage. Further pollution and
reduction will occur if the proposed San Juan City Center is approved. In addition, plans are
under way for a $70 million project including a marina, hotel, mall, and a docking facility, large
enough to accommodate cruise ships. The proposed project will be located near the mudflats that
were built to compensate for the loss of the original habitat.
(4)* Palo Seco Peninsula (Catano) supports a diverse population offish, crustaceans, and mollusks which
attracts, in particular, the brown pelican (FE) and many other avian species.
(5)* Buchanan Haystack Hills (Bayamtfn) supports a large population of the Puerto Rican Boa (FE) and,
at this time, it is the only area in Puerto Rico that is a suitable habitat for the boa.
(6)* Fort Buchanan Pond (Bayamtfn) This pond is a breeding, roosting and feeding area for the ruddy
duck (CT), which is a candidate for the Federal Endangered Species List.
(7)* San Pedro Swamp (Toa Baja), at this time, supports 21 different avian species; almost all these
species are water birds. The following birds are found in this area: white-crowned pigeon (R),
black-crowned night heron (R), and the magnificent frigatebird (R). The Puerto Rican boa (FE)
is also found in this area.
(8)* Lakes/Forests of Dorado Beach and Cerromar Beach include numerous lakes and a large forest, all
of which are perfect habitats for various endangered species. In this area the Caribbean coot
(Commonwealth Threatened (CT)), Puerto Rican boa (FE), and the white-crowned pigeon (Rare
(R)) are typical inhabitants. Pesticides from the golf course are slowly degrading the water
quality. The surrounding golf courses remove the aquatic plants to improve the aesthetics of the
area. The construction of a large office complex and luxury houses has resulted in heavy
sedimentation of many of the lakes. The forest, privately owned, is experiencing the pressures
of urbanization from the possibility of construction in the near future. Caribbean Coot (CT),
Puerto Rican boa (FE), white-crowned pigeon (R).
-------
(9) Cibuco Swamp, although it supports rare species, has been listed as having a status that is pending.
This is because there are other critical habitats in the vicinity that are ecologically more beneficial
to the endangered species.
(10)* Tortuguero Lagoon, Rica Lake, and Cabo Caribe Swamp are all critical areas for endangered
species and hard to subdivide. The following species are found within me limits: Caribbean coot
(CT); brown pelican (FE); Puerto Rican boa (FE); yellow-breasted^ crake (CT); least grebe (CT);
and three species of sea turtles (FE); green, leatherback, and hawksbill. A stand of Pterocarpus
officindis (R) is found within the boundaries and the area is a prime hunting spot for water fowl.
(11) Lake Puerto Nuevo, in 1979, was a very valuable breeding area for the ruddy duck (CT), purple
gallinule (R), and Caribbean coot (CT). The ecosystem is now badly degraded and has been
removed from primary status. Urban development has surrounded the lake and no open waters
remain. Nutrient enrichment from the effluent has caused the proliferation of cattails and
restoration at this point would be too costly.
(12) Tiburones Swamp supports the masked duck (CT), whistling duck (CT), ruddy duck (CT),
Caribbean coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R) and Bahama duck (R). The swamp has been
reduced in size by its use as a solid waste disposal area. Further reduction has occurred from
the sugar cane, rice, and pineapple industries* constant use of the area. The area was also used
for an industrial sewage sludge injection project. This area will need to be monitored in the future
because an aquaculture facility will be discharging into the receiving waters.
(13) La Tembladera Lagoon is used by the Caribbean coot (CT), ruddy duck (CT) and masked duck
(CT), at this time. Presently under severe agricultural pressure, .the lagoon is used as a watering
hole for cattle. This practice is destroying the vegetation, as well as creating excessive runoff
problems. A dirt road passing by 100 meters to the north will be expanded and paved, increasing
traffic and thereby causing further degradation.
(14) Carrizales Mangrove has been completely degraded. There was a population of the West Indian
whistling ducks (CT) in this ecosystem, but a stormwater sewer pipe, 7 feet in diameter, now
discharges into the western end. This pipe is the result of the extension of Highway 2. Urban
development has been detrimental to the southeast and south central ends.
(15)* Guajataca Cliffs are used by the white-tailed tropic bird (R) for nesting and raising its young in this
habitat.
(16)* Bellaca Creek supports both the Puerto Rican crested toad (FT) and the Puerto Rican boa (FE).
This is one of the last areas in Puerto Rico which supports these two species.
(17)* Bario Goto has been continually degraded but this area is still listed as a critical habitat because it
supports both the Puerto Rican crested toad (FT) and the Puerto Rican Boa (FE). This ecosystem
needs to be monitored to prevent irreparable harm.
(18)* Cayura has always been known as an area suitable for waterfowl. Many of the endangered or
threatened species use the area; the purple gallinule (R), masked duck (CT), West Indian
whistling duck (CT) and recently the ruddy duck (FT) and the brown pelican (FE) have been seen
within the boundaries.
-------
(19) Pozo Honda is considered important because it is so close to Cayura. Some of the ducks normally
found in Cayura use this area, but only occasionally. Sometimes hunters use the area but to
establish the importance of the area more monitoring needs to be performed.
(20) Sabanetas Swamp supports at least 29 species of birds (e.g., ruddy duck (CT) and West Indian
whistling duck (CT)), at the present time. There is also a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R) and
four species of anoles living within the boundaries. The area is privately owned, and emphasis
is placed on commercial growth and not on preservation. The Department of Natural Resources
proposed the area as a natural reserve, but the proposal was rejected. Renewed emphasis on
sugarcane plantations, a type of proposed development, will result in further degradation of the
area.
(21)* Guanajibo Mangrove supports a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R), the yellow-breasted crake
(CT), the least grebe (CT), the brown pelican (FE), and the West Indian manatee (FE).
(22) Joyuda Lagoon - Within this lagoon the ruddy duck (FT), purple gallinule (R), and recently the
brown pelican (FE) have been seen. With the correct salinity in the lagoon, the phenomenon of
bioluminescence will occur, making this a tourist attraction. Degradation has occurred due to
increasing agricultural use and increase development in the fringing area. Increased agricultural
use has caused an added enrichment to the runoff.
(23)* Cuevas Lagoon is located in the southwestern part of the island and used for cattle grazing even
though the ruddy duck (CT), West Indian whistling duck, and the Bahama duck (R) use the area
to nest.
(24)* Guaniquilla Lagoon is a refuge for many shore and marine birds (e.g., Bahama duck (R) and ruddy
duck (CT)) but cattle graze in the area and should be removed to protect the area.
(25)* Boquerdn Refuge is listed as a primary critical area which is the only breeding area for the yellow-
shouldered black bird (FE) even though it is under great pressure from development. Any
development in this area needs to be restricted.
(26)* Cabo Rojo Salt Flats remains a primary critical habitat although it is under great pressure from
development. Migrant piping plovers (CT), snowy plover (CT), yellow-shouldered black bird
(FT), and least terns (CT) have all been seen.
(27)* Cartagena Lagoon remains a primary area despite the fact that there is degradation because the land
is so valuable. More than half of the bird species found in Puerto Rico have been recorded in
this area. The degradation that was felt was from the nutrient enrichment from the Lajas sewage
treatment plant and the diversion of freshwater for irrigation. This resulted in a habitat that is
perfect for the growth of cattails and water hyacinth. The lagoon could now appropriately be
termed a swamp. The causes for this include agriculture, cattle, and the fact that the area is
owned privately and there is a lot of commercial pressure.
(28)* La Paraguera is a bioluminescent bay that is reported to have supported a total of 66 bird species.
The deforestation of the limestone hills to the north has presented some problems (e.g., runoff
and erosion), as well as the encroachment of the commercial industries. The West Indian
manatee (FE), hawksbill sea turtle (FE), brown pelican (FE), and yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE) are all found in the surrounding area.
-------
(29)* Gudnica State Forest-West provides the necessary habitat for the green sea turtle, West Indian
manatee (FE), and the yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE), all of which are endangered. The
ecosystem is used as a nesting area and a breeding ground for various species.
(30) Gudnica Lagoon is a good area for birds to feed and nest and is located in an ideal position for
migratory purposes. It was drained in the 1950s, for commercial reasons, but could be restored
for a relatively low cost.
(31)* Guanico Forest is ranked as the most important forest in the area. The Puerto Rican nightjar (FE),
Puerto Rican crested toad (FT), yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE), brown pelican (FE), peregrine
falcon (FE), least tern (CT), West Indian manatee (FT), Bahama duck (R), Hawksbill turtle (FE),
and Puerto Rican dryland anole all use this area during their lifespan.
(32)* San Jacinto Salt Flats is known as a diverse avian habitat. The Bahama duck (R), coot (R),
common moorhen (R), sandwich and royal terns (R), roseate tern (FT), and brown pelican (FE)
are all found using this area at some time.
(33)* Lluveras is privately owned land but the commercial industry is applying pressure so they can
develop the area. The brown pelican (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), Puerto Rican nightjar
(FE), and the hawksbill turtle (FE) are all found within the boundaries.
(34) Cabulldn Mangrove is located east of the Ponce docking facility, not far from the metropolitan area.
Many of the peripheral salt flats are being used for dump sites. Old cars, scrap metal, and
appliances have been found in the area. The brown pelican (FE) used this area for nesting and
roosting.
(35) Caja de Muertos and Morrillito Islands are used by all of die endangered sea turtles nesting in this
area. The brown pelican (FE) and the roseate tern (FT) use the area to nest, feed, and rear their
young.
(36) Frios Cay has had some natural erosion occur, so the area should be monitored more frequently to
determine the ecological value of the land. At this time only the brown pelican (FE) has been
sighted within the boundaries.
(37)* Berberia Cay is listed as a primary status because of its capability to be a potentially important
roosting area for birds in case other areas become degraded. At this time the brown pelican
(FE), green sea turtle (FE), and the roseate tern (FE) have been seen in the habitat.
(38)* Punta Petrona Mangrove is used by the brown pelican (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), and all of
the sea turtles (FE).
(39)* Carocoles Cay supports the magnificent frigatebird, along with a large heron population, and the
brown pelican (FE). All of these birds use the area for a breeding ground.
(40)* Punta Arenas supports populations of the brown pelican (FE) and the Bahama duck (R).
(41)* Mar Negro is important because it has been used by fishermen for the harvest of shellfish and fish,
plus it supports the endangered West Indian manatee (FE).
-------
(42)* Punta Pozuela is an area that supports a wide range of endangered species: brown pelican (FE),
green sea turtle (FE), hawksbill sea turtle (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), leatherback turtle
(FE), and the Puerto Rican plain pigeon (FE).
(43)* Pandura Mountain Range is privately owned and sparsely populated. It supports a small frog
species Eleutherodactylus cooki and is located within the Pandura-Guardarraya Coastal Zone
Management Area. Recently there has been some increase in the agricultural activity resulting
in the deforestation of the mountains.
(44)* Humacoa Swamp supports the following species: Bahama duck (R), West Indian whistling duck
(CT), ruddy duck (CT), brown pelican (FE), peregrine falcon (FE), Bahama duck (CT), and
masked duck (CT), least grebe (CT), Caribbean coot (CT), purple gallinule (R), hawksbill sea
turtle (FE), green sea turtle (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), and a Pterocarpus forest.
(45)* Roosevelt Roads Naval Base is a nesting area for the yellow-shouldered blackbird and supports the
West Indian manatee (FE), least grebe (FE), brown pelican (FE), and the white-crowned pigeon
(R).
(46)* Fajardo Coastline is a very populated area and the commercial growth is extensive. This area
needs to be closely monitored to keep the effects of pollution minimized.
(47)* Fajardo Cordillera is an area where sea bird colonies nest. These include the roseate tern (FT),
Bahama duck (R), and the brown pelican (FE). The green sea turtle (FE), the hawksbill sea
turtle (FE), and the U.S. Virgin Islands tree boa (FE) are also found in this area.
(48)* Grande Lagoon and Adjacent Lands is of secondary importance at the present time because it
supports the Lesser Antillean avian species but it is also a potential site for turtle nesting and
needs more monitoring done to examine the area. The brown pelican (FE), magnificent
frigatebird (R), white-crowned pigeon (R), hawksbill sea turtle (FE) all use the area as a nesting
area. This area also supports avian forms from the Lesser Antilles such as the blue-throat caribe,
Antillean crested hummingbird, and Caribbean elaenia.
(49)* Aguas Prietas Lagoon is of secondary importance, even though it supports 26 percent of the bird
population represented in this area, including the white-crowned pigeon (R) and the brown
pelican (FE). There is a large camping facility associated with the area, which has degraded the
area to secondary status. This area is also being degraded by a combination of other factors,
including solid waste disposal and pesticide runoff.
(50)* Ensada Comezdn is a natural reserve made up of private land which supports the white-crowned
pigeon (R) and other avian species. At this time there is encroachment, from development, on
the northeast coast. Although degraded, the area is still a valuable wildlife area.
(51)* Cie"naga Baja is a prime hunting spot where crabbers can collect the blue land crab. Migratory
birds winter in the area. The habitat is used for livestock grazing, resulting in severe
degradation. Defoliation of the mangroves, nutrient enrichment, and runoff problems have
occurred. It was originally believed that the defoliation was being used to increase the pasture
area, but the trees are mostly used for fence posts, resulting in aesthetic and ecological
impairment.
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(52)* Culebra's surrounding islets have the hawksbill sea turtle (FE) and green sea turtle (FE) nesting
in these areas; additionally the shiny-backed skink (CT), brown pelican (FE), and the Bahama
duck (R) use these habitats and are part of a natural refuge.
(53)* Flamenco Peninsula is part of a refuge which supports the shiny-backed skink (CT) and it is a
breeding area for the sooty tern. This area is also used to graze cattle with no apparent effect.
(54)* Flamenco Lagoon supports the largest population of the Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck (CT), and
the least grebe (CT). There was a recreational facility built which caused an increase in the use
of the access road and the garbage dump. Additionally there were houses built adjacent to the
area.
(55)* Cornelia's Lagoon dries up from time to time but still supports the Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck
(CT), and masked duck (CT). These ducks usually nest in the nearby cays and spend the
beginning of the year in this lagoon. The development of two housing complexes along with
the installation of the power lines, accompanying these houses, has degraded the area slightly.
(56)* Resaca Mountain is thought to be perfect habitat for the Culebra giant anole, a species that has not
been seen in decades; although considered extinct on Culebra, other specimens were found in
other areas. The bridled dove and the Puerto Rican screech owl are also abundant. More
importantly the type of habitat is becoming increasingly rare and this is an area where the
endangered, endemic plant Peperomia wheeled (FE) is found.
(57)* Resaca Beach is a 1-kilometer stretch in Culebra Island which has high energy and little human
disturbance. This area is very important for the nesting sea turtles; consequently, all species are
found here. Poaching and cattle grazing were a severe problem and feral dogs, if not
constrained, could present a problem.
(58)* Brava Beach is a 1-kilometer stretch east of Resaca beach which has improved since the assessment
in 1979. It has the same features as the adjacent beach, and it is used as a nesting area for the
(FE) sea turtles.
(59)* Larga Beach and Zoni Lagoon are at the North East end of Culebra Island. These areas are used
for grazing cattle. Sea turtles nest in the area and barbed wire fences are used to keep the cattle
and the off-road vehicles off the nests. The Bahama duck (R) and ruddy duck (CT) are also
found within the boundaries. The hills surrounding this area are privately owned and have been
zoned to allow for the construction of houses. Already an unpaved road has been built.
(60)* Puerto de Manglar is known for its bioluminescence, and the brown pelican (FE) and the
magnificent frigatebird (R) are found there. Right now the hilly areas surrounding the mangrove
area are being developed into smaller parcels for houses. An increase in the sediment loading,
caused by the erosion and runoff from these developments, may have an adverse effect on the
habitat and push it past the point of primary status.
(61) Cementerio Bay is of secondary importance because of the encroachment of squatters. This area
was a breeding area for the white-crowned pigeon (R) and has the capability to be cleaned up.
(62)* Los Canos is a mangrove forest which supports the white-crowned pigeon (R) and the Bahama duck
(R). It is important because the migrant and resident shore birds use the area extensively.
-------
(63)* East Point of Vieques lies within the bombing range of Camp Garcia Marine Base. The area is used
by the following species: Puerto Rican screech owl and Newtons Owl (both nearly extinct),
Bahama duck (R), white-tailed tropicbird, and two unusual geckos (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
ifligoi and Sphaerodactylus rooseveltf), leatherback sea turtle, green sea turtle, and hawksbill sea
turtle (FE). The turtles nest in the north shore of the tip even though the area has become
relatively degraded due to the bombing range.
(64)* Coneja Island is one of the largest breeding areas for the brown pelican (FE), roseate tern (FE),
white-tailed tropicbird (R) and American oystercatcher (U). This area is also close to the
bombing range, and the Navy needs to be informed of the nesting areas to prevent any possible
hits.
(65)* Ensenada Honda Mangrove supports the white-crowned pigeon (R), and many of the endangered
sea turtles are also found within the boundaries.
(66) Chiva Swamp is located on Vieques Island within the United States Marine base of Camp Garcia.
It has been included because of the type of habitat and the possibility that it is a nesting place of
the West Indian whistling duck (FE), Bahama duck (R), and least tern (FT). This area is
inaccessible and has the potential to become a primary critical coastal area.
(67)* Yanuel Lagoon is located on the southeast end of Vieques Island and supports a wide variety of
avian species including the yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE).
(68)* Tap<5n Bay is also located on Camp Garcia Marine Base. This includes a salt pond used by
waterfowl and shore birds. They depend on this area in the winter.
(69)* Mosquito Bay, Ensenada Sombe, and Ferro Bay are located on Vieques' southern coast. The
Ensenada recreational facility lies to the west and has caused an increase in the amount of garbage
and scrap metal dumped in the area. DNR has been patrolling trying to stop this pollution
problem. All birds (terrestrial, wading, shore, and waterfowl) are found in this area. Endangered
species include the Peregrine falcon (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), all of the sea turtles (FE),
and the brown pelican (FE),
(70)* West Vieques supports the largest population of the white-crowned pigeon (R). The type of
ecosystem is perfect for supporting the Bahama duck (R) and the West Indian whistling duck
(CT), and all the sea turtles (FE) nest in the area. The West Indian manatee (FE) is also found
in the area surrounding the habitat. All of the areas are owned by the Navy and are being
preserved.
(71)* Monita Island and (72) Mona Island support a unique population of endemic species, both floral
and faunal. Ground iguana (FE), all of the species of sea turtles (FE), Mona boa (FT), many
other reptiles, white-tailed tropicbirds, yellow-shouldered blackbirds (FE), and many more species
use this area for different stages of their life.
(73) Desecho Island is of secondary importance because bombing and the release of the Rhesus monkey
(National Institutes of Health, USFWS (1986)) have caused a complete degradation of the area,
along with the introduction of rats, cats, and goats, all of which affect the populations of the sea
birds.
-------
(74)* Palmos Pond is located south of highway 3 and north of Pvmta Guilartes' public beach facility.
This pond was just built and is surrounded by sugar cane fields. It was quickly colonized by the
masked duck (CT), Caribbean coot (CT), brown pelican (FE), and black-crowned night heron
(R). The pond is also used as hunting grounds.
-------
TABLE C-2. CRITICAL WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
POTENTIALLY AFFECTED BY MARINE POLLUTION
Map*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10*
11*
12*
13*
14*
15*
16*
17*
18*
19*
20*
21*
22*
23*
Location
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Southern Shelf Edge
North Central and West Shelf
Sandy Point
Manning Bay Mangrove Area
West Coast Shelf
East End Reef (Lang Bank)
South Shelf Edge
Coral Bays and Environs
St. Thomas Harbor and Crown
Bay
Lindberg Bay
Fortuna Bay
Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays
Water Bay
Vessup Bay
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Christiansted Harbor
Altoona Lagoon
Canegarden Bay to Point
Harvey
Manning Bay
Cruz Bay
Great Cruz Bay
EnighedPond
Status
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Swondarv
•"-i-w— /
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Source of Pollution
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
mannas and ship traffic
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
thermal-saline effluent
Runoff from Estate Bordeaux
Development of the North Shore
Mountain slope area
Dredging, siltation from residential
development
Marinas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff
Marinas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff, filling of ponds, canal draining
Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, marinas
and boat traffic
Channel restriction and runoff
Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, boat
traffic, oil spills, air pollution
Garbage, dumping, periodic petroleum
spills
Dredging ™d filling, m8""" and boat
traffic, pond filling
Dredging and pond filling
Garbage and solid waste disposal
* Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.
-------
DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF CRITICAL COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
FOR THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
(1)* Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon is a breeding area and wildlife refuge.
(2)* Southern shelf edge is a productive fishing area.
(3)* North Central and West shelf is a productive fishing area.
(4)* Sandy Point is a productive fishing area.
(5)* Manning Bay Mangrove Area is a wildlife habitat and bird and fish breeding area.
(6)* West Coast Shelf is a productive fishing area.
(7)* East end reef (Lang Bank) is a breeding area for a majority of the wildlife.
(8)* South shelf edge is a productive fishing area.
(9)* Coral Bays and environs are productive fishing areas.
(10) St. Thomas Harbor and Crown Bay have been degraded by urban runoff, development, sewage,
dredging, the impacts from the construction of new and established marinas, and ship traffic.
(11) Lindbergh Bay has been degraded by urban runoff, sewage effluent problems, thermal-saline
effluents, and an increase in dredging activities.
(12) Fortuna Bay has endured the effects of urban runoff from the Estate Bordeaux development for many
years. This ecosystem was tolerating periodic stress, but recently the cumulative effects of the
runoff have become apparent in the habitat.
(13) Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays are affected by the development of the North Shore Mountain slope
area and the subsequent runoff, which has had a detrimental effect on this ecosystem.
(14) Water Bay is experiencing the attrition of the nearshore algal beds because of dredging and siltation
from residential development. Both the terrestrial wildlife and marine species are affected by this
degradation.
(15) Vessup Bay is declining as a result of marinas and their associated pollution (e.g., oil and bacteria)
and an increase in boat traffic. Sewage disposal and agricultural and urban runoff are additional
sources of stress.
(16) Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon is being degraded by numerous pollution problems: sewage disposal,
runoff, increasing marina use and boat traffic, canal dredging, and salt pond filling. All of these
activities are performed to meet the demands of commercial development.
-------
(17) Christiansted Harbor and Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey (18) have been degraded by a
combination of types of anthropogenic pollution. Continual problems of urban runoff, sewage
problems, incessant discharging of thermal-saline effluents, dredging and filling activities in the
channels and ponds, and increasing boat traffic and use of the marinas are all affecting these
areas.
(19) Altoona Lagoon has been affected by the restriction of the natural channel due to agricultural needs
and urban runoff.
(20) Manning Bay has been degraded by garbage dumping and periodic petroleum spills into the marine
environment.
(21) Cruz Bay and Great Cruz Bay (22) are experiencing the effects of constant channel dredging and the
filling of the ponds, as well as an increased use of the marinas and subsequent increase of boat
traffic.
(23) Enighed Pond is an ecosystem that has been degraded due to improper disposal of solid waste.
-------
TABLE C-3. LIST OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
ASSOCIATED WITH THE COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
Listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service"
Green sea turtle
Leatherback sea turtle
Hawksill (carey) sea turtle
Loggerhead sea turtle
West Indian manatee
Brown pelican
Peregrine falcon
Yellow-shouldered blackbird
Piping plover
Roseate tern
Chelonia mydas
Dermochelys coriacea
Eretmochelys imbricata
Caretta caretta
Trichechus manatus
Pelecanus ocridentalis
Falco peregrinus
Agelaius xanthomus
Charadrius melodus
Sterna dougallii
T
E
E
T
E
E
E
E
T
T
Listed by the Commonwealth of Puerto Ricob
Least tern
West Indian whistling duck
White-cheeked pintail
Snowy plover
Crested toad
Eneida's coqui
Golden coqui
Karl Schmidt's coqui
Culebra giant anole
Mona iquana
Puerto Rican boa
Mona boa
Kemp's ridley
Piping plover
Caribbean coot
Ruddy duck
Masked duck
Least grebe
Sterna antillarun
Dendrocygna arborea
Anas bahamensis
Charadrius alexandrinus
Bufo lemur
Eleutherodactylus eneidae
Eleutherodactylus jasperi
Eleutherodactylus karlschmidti
Anolis roosevelti
Cyclura stejnegeri
Epicrates inornatus
Epicrates monensis monensis
Lepidochelys kempii
Charadrius melodus
Fulica caribaea
Oxyura jamaicensis
Oxyura dominica
Tachybaptus dominicus
T = Threatened.
E = Endangered.
"1991.
bCardona and Rivera 1988; S. Silander, personal communication, 27 June 1991.
-------
TABLE C-4. SELECTED SPILL DATA FOR PUERTO RICO, VIRGIN ISLANDS
FROM JANUARY 1987 TO DECEMBER 1991
Material
Diesel
Slack wax
Hydrocarbons with
BNZ & TOL
Corrosive B002 &
B007
Toluene
Sodium Hydroxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Ammonium/Sulfate
Ammonium Lauryl
Diesel
Gasoline
Aluminum Sulfate
Aluminum Sulfate
Diesel
Diesel
Aviation gasoline
Diesel
Amount
7570 liters
4769 liters
13626 liters
8526 kg
11870kg
9462 liters
2630 kg
2295 kg
5677 liters
7570 liters
63588 liters
15897 liters
8251 liters
8327 liters
4920 liters
5677 liters
6435 liters
60560 liters
Location
Maunabo, PR
Macao, PR
Las Marrows, PR
Las Marrows, PR
Guayama, PR
Barceloneta, PR
Puerto Rico
Yabucoa, PR
Toa Baja, PR
Puerto Rico
St. Croix, VI
St. Croix, VI
Rio Grande, PR
Rio Grande, PR
Puerto Rico, PR
Yabucoa, PR
Puerto Rico, PR
San Juan Harbor
Medium
unnamed creek
land
land
storm drain
water
soil
air
air
land
cement
Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
land
Espiripu Sanpo
River
small creek
soil
land
water
Date
1/24/87
3/9/87
7/10/87
8/5/87
10/4/87
10/8/87
12/7/87
12/12/87
5/11/88
5/11/88
5/22/88
5/22/88
5/13/88
6/13/88
6/15/88
8/23/88
9/29/88
10/30/88
-------
TABLE C-4. (Continued)
Material
Hydrochloric Acid
Pepsi Flavoring
Cone.
Diesel
Fuel Oil
Diesel/motor oil
Diesel
Waste oil
Petroleum
Bunker Oila
Diesel
Jet Fuel
Oil/fuel
Gasoline
Jet Fuel
Oil/fuel
Oil/condensate
Kerosene
Oil/fuel
Oil/fuel
Amount
18168 liters
14383 liters
34065 liters
11355 liters
7570 liters
3785 liters
7570 liters
3785 liters
6676760 liters
68130 liters
19076 liters
30469 liters
11355 liters
8425 liters
35958 liters
278391 liters
18925 liters
5677 liters
3785 liters
Location
Atlantic Ocean &
Caribbean Sea
Cedra, PR
Caguas, PR
Vega Alta, PR
Ceba, PR
Yabucoa, PR
Roosevelt, 'PR
Virgin Islands
St. Croix, VI
Caribbean Sea
Catano, PR
Vaga Alta, PR
San Juan, PR
Gadanno, PR
San Juan, PR
Ponze, PR
Manati, PR
Aguirre, PR
Puerto Rico
Medium
Atlantic Ocean
Silver Lake
soil
soil
storm sewer
water ditch
Ensanada Honda
Harbor
West Bay
Christiansted Harbor
Caribbean Sea
Atlantic Ocean
ditch
San Juan Harbor
San Juan Harbor
San Juan Bay
land
land
soil
water
Date
11/29/88
5/1/89
5/18/89
6/7/89
7/3/89
7/11/89
8/4/89
9/17/89
9/20/89
1/24/90
2/5/90
2/16/90
4/26/90
5/21/90
7/17/90
9/28/90
12/21/90
3/13/91
4/6/91
-------
TABLE C-4. (Continued)
Material
Oil/fuel
Oil/fuel
Dichloromethane
Chloroform 65 PPB
Jet Fuel
Unleaded gasoline
Sulfolane
LP7 Raffinate
Gasoline
Ethyl Acetate
Amount
5677 liters
3785 liters
12869 liters
1438304 liters
5166 liters
15897 liters
7570 liters
56775 liters
31037 liters
4379 liters
Location
Aguirre, PR
Puerto Rico
Barceloneta, PR
Ponce, PR
Ceiba, PR
Ponce, PR
Guayama, PR
Guayama, PR
Naranjipo, PR
Barceloneta, PR
Medium
soil
water
concrete dike
Guayanilla Bay
soil
air (burned)
land
land
Juabiama Creek
land
Date
3/13/91
4/6/91
5/7/91
5/24/91
6/29/91
7/3/91
7/14/91
10/9/91
10/22/91
12/18/91
Source: U.S. Coast Guard, National Response Center Database. Retrieved January 6, 1992.
' Material spilled during Hurricane Hugo within a diked containment area which gave way, allowing
material to enter the harbor.
-------
APPENDIX D
304(1) Report for Puerto Rico
-------
IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT;
MINI-LIST (REVISED 7/11 /91 j
NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Arecibo Coastal
Arroyo Coastal
Barceloneta Coastal
Cano Boquilla
Cano Cabo Caribe
Cano Control de Malaria
Cano de Santiago
Cano Martin Pena
Fajardo Coastal
Guanica Coastal
Guanica Coastal
Guayama Coastal
Isabella Coastal
Lago Cidra
Lago Loiza
Laguna Pinones
Laguna San Jose
Laguna Tiburones
Laguna Torrecilla
Mayaguez Coastal
Ponce Coastal
Quebrada Aguas Claras
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Aguas Largas
Blasina
del Oro
Fajardo
Frontera
Guaracanal
Honda
PRNS0001-13.14
PRSS0003-02
PRNS0001-15
PRWK0275
PRNK0062
PRER0085
PREE0166
PREE0091
PRES0002-31
PRSS0003-31
PRSS0003-33
PRSS0003-04
PRNS0001-05
PREL0082
PREL0105
PREN0010
PREN0008
PRSN0017
PREN0009
PRWS0004-04
PRNS0003-16
PRER0138
PREK0168
PREC0094
PRWC0269
PREC0130
PREC0158
PRER0088
PRNR0063
Arecibo regional STP. Unknown pollution sources. Presence of toxics at monitoring station.
Small communities (wastewater), public beach.
Barceloneta STP. Pollution in Rio Grande de Manati and Rio de Grande de Arecibo Basins.
Mayaguez Landfill and agricultural activity.
Trib. Rio Cibuco, Vega Baja STP.
Caribbean Gulf Refining Co., surface runoff.
Yabucoa STP and Yabucoa Sun Oil, urban runoff.
Repeated fish kills occur here. Urban runoff, combined sewers.
Isleta Marina Inc. Pollution in Rio Fajardo, Rio Demajagua and Quebrada Aguas Claras Basins.
Recreational activities.
Guanica STP, urban runoff, small communities (wastewater), Rio Loco outflow.
Unknown pollution source.
Isabella STP. Small communities (wastewater).
Pollution from inflowing tributaries. Small communities (wastewater), livestock enterprises.
Prasa Vista Monte STP.
Pollution from inflowing tributaries. Surface runoff.
Urban runoff, in-place contaminants.
Urban runoff, combined sewers, in-place contaminants.
Old Salinas Landfill.
Urban runoff, in-place contaminants, Quebrada Blasina outflow.
Star Kist, Bumble Bee, Neptune Packing, Mayaguez Water Treatment Co., Pollution in Rio
Yaquez Basin.
Caribe Tuna and National Packing. Ponce Dock Site. Pollution in Rio Jacaguas and Rio Bucana-
Cerrillos Basins.
CEIBA STP. Urban runoff, small communities (wastewater). Estuary (PREE0137) in Federal
Government area.
Trib. Cano Santiago. Yabucoa STP and WTP, Yabucoa Landfill, urban runoff.
Entire stream water quality limited. Urban runoff. Hock Joint Pipe and Sergio Cuevas WTP.
WTP Miradero. Urban runoff.
Livestock enterprises, urban runoff. Prasal Cieba STP (Alcon Labs)
Entire creek is a Superfund site. Industrial lagoons and Prasa Villa Palmira STP
Trib. Rio Piedras. Surface runoff.
Trib. Rio Cibuco. San Juan Cement, G.E. Control and La Ponderosa Deep Well.
-------
IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Quebrada Juan Mendez
Quebrada San Anton
Quebrada Yaurel
Rio Bayamon
Rio Bayamon
Rio Blanco
Rio Bucana-Cerrillos
Rio Bucana-Cerrillos
Rio Caguitas
Rio Camuy
Rio Caonillas
Rio Cialitos
Rio Cibuco
Rio Coamo
Rio Cuesta Arriba
Rio Espiritu Santo
Rio Fajardo
Rio Fajardo
Rio Grande
Rio Grande de Anasco
Rio Grande de Arecibo
Rio Grande de Arecibo
Rio Grande de Jayuya
Rio Grande de Loiza
Rio Grande de I niza
Rio Grande de Patillas
PREC0092
PREC0093
PRSC0185
PRER0081
PRER0083.008
PRER0151
PRSR0224
PRSR0224
PRER0110
PRNR0036
PRNR0046
PRNR0056
PRNE0061
PRSR0210
PRER0073
PRER0118
PRER0133
PRERO133
PRWR0296
PRWR0279
PRNR0040 H-3)
PRNR0048 (01)
PRNR0046
PRER0110
PRFR0104
PRSR0184
Trib. Laguna San Jose. Urban runoff San Juan Metro Area.
Trib. Laguna San Jose. Urban runoff San Juan-Carolina Metro Area.
Phenolics and silver during stream sampling. Agriculture suface runoff, Arroyo Landfill.
From given coordinates to mouth. Urban runoff and surface runoff. Pieryogenics Corp. and
Guaynabo WTP and Landfill.
Vistamonte STP, Prasa WTP Cidra, instrumentation lab, agriculture, livestock enterprises,
surface runoff.
Rio Blanco Heights STP.
Urban runoff, channelization.
Phenolics, arsenic at Station 114000. Agriculture, surface runoff, reservoir construction.
Trib. Rio Grande Loiza Caguas STP and Las Carolinas STP. Storm sewer interconnection
(sanitary and process). San Lorenzo Landfill.
Phenolics found in intensive study. Livestock enterprises.
Trib. Rio Grande Arecibo. Jayuya WTP & STP. Agriculture, small communities (wastewater).
Trib. Rio Grande Manati. Phenolics and Diazinon at Station 35950. WTP Ciales and Ciales
Landfill.
Impact of Vega Baja STP (located in PRNK0062). Surface runoff.
Coamo STP and Coamo WTP. Agriculture, small communities (wastevyaters). Fish kill, Picu-
Garaga-Chevron.
Trib. Rio la Plata, Stream sampling (205 86-001) Zinc and phenolics, WTP Dajaos, livestock
enterprises.
Surface runoff, agriculture, livestock, Rio Grande Landfill, small communities wastewater
treatment plants. Agriculture, livestock. Girl Scout Council STP.
Fajardo STP and landfill.
Ceiba-Fajardo WTP. Livestock enterprises, Ceiba Landfill.
Copper exceeded WQSR.
Phenolics and zinc found at upstream point, agriculture, and Junctas Landfill.
Agriculture, livestock enterprises, surface runoff, small communities (wastewater). Phenolics in
both.
Utuado STP, Utuado WTP, Utuado Landfill, agriculture, surface and urban runoff, small
communities (wastewater). Adjunctus STP and WTP. Lares WTP.
Trib. Rio Grande Arecibo. Jayuya STP and WTP. Jayuya Landfill.
San Lorenzo STP and Landfill, WTP San Lorenzo, WTP Caguas, Secondary School Espino Ward.
Livestock enterprises, San Lorenzo Landfill. Wastewater from Canabancito.
Eli Lilly (PR0021423), Eli Lilly (PR0000361), Crown Cork, Warner Lambert, Iruyillo Landfill.
Pesticides at Station 92000. Agriculture, small communities (wastewater).
-------
IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Rio Guadiana
Rio Guajataca
Rio Guanajibo
Rio Guayames
Rio Guayanilla
Rio Guaynabo
Rio Gurabo
Rio Hondo
Rio Indio and Tribs.
Rio La Plata
Rio La Plata
Rio Loco
Rio Macana
Rio Matilde-Pastillo
Rio Maunabo
Rio Orocovis
Rio Piedras
Rio Piedras
Rio Portugues
Rio Rosario
Rio Santiago
Rio Tanama
PRER0069
PRNR0032
PRWR0262
PRER0165
PRSR0233
PRER0081
PRER0108
PRER0080
PRNR0063
PRER0066
PRER0074
PRSR0242.0244
PRSR0232
PRSR0228
PRER0170
PRNR0056
PREE0086
PRER0088
PRSR0225
PRWR0262
PRER0148
PRNR0041
Trib. Rio la Plata. Total copper, phenolics during intensive study. Naranjito STP and WTP,
Agriculture, livestock enterprises.
From headwaters to Station 10500. Phenolics at Station 10500. WTP Lares. Livestock
enterprises, urban runoff.
San German STP and WTP. Agriculture, small communities (wastewater), and San German
Landfill. Agriculture, Hormigueros Landfill.
Phenolics, metals at Station 83500. Limones Ward H.S. WTP Guayabota. Surface runoff,
small communities (wastewater).
From upstream coordinate to mouth. Guayanilla STP. (PR00227722KPR0022279). and
Guayanilla Landfill, Demaco.
Trib. Rio Bayamon. Tortugo Ward School. Urban runoff, small communities.
Trib. Rio Grande Loiza. Life Saver, Pridco Las Piedras, Gurabo STP and landfill, Juncos STP,
Chesebrough Ponds, Key Pharmaceuticals, Menne, and nine other PS.
Connection to Prasa Bayamon.
Unibon and Morovis STPs, Warner Lambert, Morovis Node, Morovis Sur and Vega Baja WTPs,
livestock enterprises, agriculture, Vega Baja Landfill, and Allied Chemicals, Inc.
Toa Alta STP. Urban runoff, small communities (wastewater).
Comerio STP, WTP and Landfill. Barranquita STP (PR0020311), Aibonito WTP (PR0020281),
livestock enterprises, agriculture, Cidra and Cayey Landfills.
Agriculture, urban runoff, small communities (wastewater), Sabana Grande Landfill).
WTP Macana. Penuelas Landfill, small communities (wastewater).
Proteco Landfill (Superfund site) is in Water Body PRSC0227, Ponce Landfill.
From upstream coordinate to mouth. Maunabo STP. From headwaters to Station 91000.
Phenolics at Station 91000. Manuel Ortiz School, Prasa WTP Matuyas.
Trib. Rio Grande de Manati. Phenolics at Station 30700. Alturas de Orocovis STP, Orocovis
WTP and STP. Agriculture, livestock.
Urban and surface runoff, San Juan Landfill. Rimco and Renico. Phenolics at Station 48800.
Urban runoff, livestock enterprises, small communities (wastewater).
Phenolics at Station 115000. Agriculture, surface runoff, hydromodification. Plata Vieja WTP
Tropical City.
Trib. Rio Guanajibo. Rosario Ward School.
Alberto Culver, Waguabo Landfill.
Trib. Rio Grande Arecibo. Los Angeles and Tanama WTPs. Agriculture, surface runoff, small
communities (wastewater).
-------
IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Rio Usabon
Rio Yaguez
Rio Yauco
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal (Bay)
Santa Isabel Coastal
Ut Rio Aibonito
Ut Rio Blanco
Ut Rio del Ingenio
Yabucoa Coastal (Bay)
PRER0075 (1.2)
PRWE0267
PRSR0235
PRES0002-09
PRES0002-15
PRES0002-13
PRES0002-07
PRSS0003-13
PRER0075
PRER0151
PRER0164
PRES0002-44
Trib. Rio la Plata. For Segment 1: Aibonito Landfill, livestock enterprises, surface runoff. For
Segment 2: livestock, agriculture, urban runoff (Tio-Ricos).
Cerveceria India, urban runoff Mayaguez metro area.
Yauco STP.
Urban runoff, hotel and residential areas.
Hotel and residential area. Urban runoff.
Urban runoff.
Prepa San Juan, Molinos de P.R., Esso Standard Oil, Shell, Texaco, Puerto Nuevo STP, Ochoa
Corp., wastewater, Rio Piedras and Cano Martin Pena Basins.
Santa Isabel STP.
Trib. Rio La Plata. Aibonito Reg. STP, livestock enterprises, agriculture, To-Ricos Poultry and
To-Rocos Hatchery illegal discharges, and Berranquntas Landfill.
Naguabo Diagnostic and Treatment Center, Romon Rivero STP. Urban runoff
Trib. Rio Guayanes. Union Carbide Grafito, R.J. Reynolds.
Discharge of Yabucoa Sun Oil (PR-0000400)
-------
APPENDIX E
Photographs of Pollution Problems
-------
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-1. Great Pond, St. Croix 1988
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-2. Great Pond, St. Croix 1983
-------
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-3. Great Pond, St. Croix 1988
~~Si-j
v
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-4. Graat Pond, St. Croix 19S8
-------
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-5. Coakley Bay 1987
I
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-5, Ar.quilla Landfill 1391
-------
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-7. Rum Outfall, St. Croix 1991
Source: Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands
Figure E-8. Sewage Outfall Leak 1991
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Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA
Figure E-9. View of industries at Guayanilla Bay, July 1980
Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA
Figure E-10. Burning chemical waste dump at Guayanilla Bay, July 1980
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Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA
Figure E-11. Reef at El Negro Bank Reefs off Mayaguez, July 1980. Note healthy
staghorn coral (Acropora palmata], soft corals, and urchins (see Peters 1984)
Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA
Figure E-12. Reef off Guayanilla Bay, August 1981. Few live corals remain due to high
turbidity from resuspension of sediments by ship traffic into the bay and
substratum is heavily bioeroded (see Peters 1984)
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