vxEPA
             United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
              Region II
  Final Report
December 1992
Characterization
of Use Impairments  of  the
U.S. Virgin  Islands and
Puerto Rico
              Prepared for:

              Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
              U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
              Region II
              26 Federal Plaza
              New York, NY 10278
    ISLA

    DESECHEO'
     ISLA
     MONA
                        ISLADE
                                      CULEBRA
              PUERTO RICO
                                       ST. THOMAS
                                ST. JOHN
                                    ISLADE
                                    VIEQUES
                  ISLA CAJA
                  DE MUERTOS
                                             ST. CROIX

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vxEPA
             United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
              Region II
  Final Report
December 1992
Characterization
of Use Impairments of the
U.S. Virgin Islands and
Puerto Rico
             Prepared for:

             Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
             U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
             Region II
             26 Federal Plaza
             New York, NY 10278
     ISLA
     MONA
                                     ISLA DE
                        CULEBRA
              PUERTO RICO
                                      ST. THOMAS
                                    ISLA DE
                                    VIEQUES
                  ISLA CAJA
                  DE MUERTOS
  ST. JOHN
                                            ST. CROIX

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                  FINAL REPORT
  CHARACTERIZATION OF USE IMPAIRMENTS

OF THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS AND PUERTO RICO
                     Prepared for:

           Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch
           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                      Region II
                   26 Federal Plaza
                 New York, NY 10278
                     Prepared by:

                    Tetra Tech, Inc.
               10306 Eaton Place, Suite 340
                   Fairfax, VA 22030

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                                        CONTENTS


Section                                                                                  Page

Tables	   vii

Figures  	   ix

Acknowledgments	  xiii

Executive Summary	   xv

1.      Introduction	   1-1

        1.1     Background Information	   1-1

        1.2     Purpose and Objective	   1-1

        1.3     Technical Approach	   1-2

2.      Physical Setting  	  2-1

        2.1     Coastal Features, Climate, and Oceanographic Data	2-3

               2.1.1   Puerto Rico	  2-3
               2.1.2   U.S. Virgin Islands	  2-8

        2.2     Ecological Habitats	  2-10

               2.2.1   Puerto Rico	  2-13
               2.2.2   U.S. Virgin Islands	  2-21

        2.3     Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Species	  2-27

               2.3.1   Wildlife	  2-27
               2.3.2   Fish and Shellfish	  2-27

        2.4     Land Use and Demographics	  2-30

               2.4.1   Land Use   	  2-30
               2.4.2   Population	  2-36
               2.4.3   Economy   	  2-37

3.      Sources of Marine and Estuarine Pollution	   3-1

        3.1     Point Source Pollution	   3-3
                                              in

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                                CONTENTS (CONTINUED)


Section                                                                                  Page

       3.2    Nonpoint Source Pollution	   3-11

              3.2.1  Stormwater and Agricultural Runoff	   3-11
              3.2.2  Discharges from Boating Vessels	   3-12

4.     Levels of Marine and Estuarine Pollution  	  4-1

       4.1    Toxics	  4-1

              4.1.1  Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico	  4-1
              4.1.2  Sediments of Puerto Rico  	  4-9
              4.1.3  U.S. Virgin Islands Data	   4-10
              4.1.4  Toxics in Edible Fish Tissue  	   4-11

       4.2    Biological Pathogens and Biotoxins 	   4-13

              4.2.1  Human Pathogens in  the Marine and Estuarine Environment	   4-13
              4.2.2  Human Pathogens in  Seafood	   4-16
              4.2.3  Biotoxins in Seafood   	   4-17
              4.2.4  Diseases in Marine and Estuarine Organisms 	   4-18

       4.3    Nutrients   	   4-20

              4.3.1   Nutrient Loading from Point Sources	   4-21
              4.3.2   Nutrient Loading from Nonpoint Sources   	   4-22

       4.4    Sediments	   4-25

              4.4.1   Sediment Loading from Point Sources  	   4-27
              4.4.2   Sediment Loading from Nonpoint Sources	   4-30

       4.5    Thermal Pollution	   4-30

 5.     Evaluation of Use Impairments	  5-1

       5.1    Damage to Ecological Health and Productivity	  5-1

              5.1.1   Impact Due to Nutrients	  5-4
              5.1.2   Impact Due to Sediments   	  5-5
              5.1.3   Impact Due to Thermal Pollution  	  5-7
              5.1.4   Impact Due to Boating	   5-10
                                              IV

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                                 CONTENTS (CONTINUED)


Section                                                                                   Page

       5.2    Damage to Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and
              Shellfish Populations	  5-11

              5.2.1   Impacts to Fish and Shellfish Populations   	  5-11
              5.2.2   Impacts to Wildlife Populations	  5-20

       5.3    Impacts to Recreational and Commercial Use	  5-27

              5.3.1   Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish	  5-27
              5.3.2   Swimming	  5-38
              5.3.3   Hazards to Commercial Navigation and Recreational Boating	  5-45
              5.3.4   Aesthetics	  5-46

       5.4    Economic Impacts Due to Use Impairments	  5-50

              5.4.1   Estuarine and Marine Habitats  	  5-51
              5.4.2   Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Populations	  5-51
              5.4.3   Boating Industry	  5-52
              5.4.4   Swimming, Fishing, and Beach Closures	  5-52
              5.4.5   Conclusions	  5-53

6.     Conclusions	  6-1

       6.1    Summary of Evaluations	  6-1
       6.2    Ecological Habitat Health and Productivity  	6-3
       6.3    Fish and Wildlife Populations	  6-4
       6.4    Health Effects Related to the Ingestion of Contaminated Fish/Shellfish  	6-4
       6.5    Swimming   	  6-4
       6.6    Boating  	  6-5
       6.7    Aesthetic Enjoyment  	  6-5
       6.8    Recommendations	  6-5

7.     References  	  7-1

Appendix A - Annotated Bibliography  	A-l

Appendix B - Profiles of Organizations	B-l

Appendix C  Wildlife Critical Habitats  	C-l

Appendix D - 304(1) Report for Puerto Rico   	D-l

Appendix E  Photographs of Pollution Problems   	E-l

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VI

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                                         TABLES


  mber                                                                                Page

  1.    Summary of Major Hurricanes and Tropical Storms Passing Over or Near Puerto Rico
       and the U.S. Virgin Islands .......................................  2-2

 -2.    Physical Data on Puerto Rico  and the U.S.  Virgin Islands  ....................  2-4

1-3.    Areal Coverage of Mangrove  Forest in Puerto Rico  .......................  2-18

2-4.    Fish and Invertebrates of Commercial Importance in the U.S. Virgin Islands and
       Puerto Rico ................................................  2-31

2-5.    Leading Crops Acreage, Production Data and Market Value in 1982  ............  2-33

2-6.    Use of Land in Puerto Rico in 1958 and 1967 ..........................  2-35

2-7.    U.S. Virgin Islands Population, by Place of Birth and Year and Immigration (1980) . . .  2-37

2-8.    Population and Median Age, by Area and Sex: 1960 to 1980  .................  2-38

2-9.    Estimates of Population Change: 1970 to 1990 ..........................  2-38

2-10.  Principal Industries and Economic Factors  .............................  2-39

2-11.  Source's of Puerto Rico's Income, 1984  ..............................  2-40

2-12.  Agriculture in Puerto Rico: 1982-1987 ...............................  2-41

2-13.  Agriculture in the U.S.  Virgin Islands:  1982-1987  .......................  2-42

2-14.  Puerto Rico's Employment, 1982  ..................................  2-42

3-1.    Sources of Coastal Wastewater Discharges  in Puerto Rico  .................... 3-6

3-2.    Summary of Coastal Wastewater Discharges in the U.S.  Virgin Islands ............ 3-8

4-1.    Summary of the Number of Toxic Compounds Having Available STORET Data Sets for
       Toxics in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1985-1991 ................ 4-2

4-2.    Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 1 ...................................
4-3.   Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 2 ...................................  4-5
                                             vn

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                                  TABLES (CONTINUED)

Number                                                                                Page

4-4.    Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 3	  4-6

4-5.    Summary of Toxic Chemicals of Potential Concern Detected in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 4	  4-7

4-6.    Toxics Found in the U.S. Virgin Islands	  4-12

4-7.    Human Pathogens Likely to Be Associated with Sewage Sludge   	  4-14

4-8.    Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico  Region 1	  4-21

4-9.    Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico  Region 2	  4-22

4-10.  Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico  Region 3	  4-23

4-11.  Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of Puerto Rico - Region 4	  4-24

4-12.  Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. Croix  	  4-25

4-13.  Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. John	  4-26

4-14.  Summary of Conventional Parameters of Potential Concern in Marine and Estuarine
       Waters of the Virgin Islands - St. Thomas	  4-27

4-15.  Summary of Nutrient Loading from Coastal and Municipal Sources	  4-28

4-16.  Summary of Nutrient Loading from Rivers to Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico	  4-29

4-17.  Summary of Sediment Loading from Rivers to Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico	  4-31

5-1.    Microbial, Infectious, and Biotoxigenic Diseases Transmitted by the Ingestion of
       Fish and Swimming	  5.29

5-2.    Exposure Parameter Values Used to Estimate Exposure to Subsistence and
       Recreational Fishermen from Ingestion of Fish	  5-38

5-3.    Potential Noncarcinogenic Hazards Associated with Ingestion of Mercury-Contaminated
       Fish by Subsistence and Recreational Fishermen Along the Coast of Puerto Rico	  5-39

                                            viii

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                                          FIGURES






Number                                                                                  Page




1 -      Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico	xvii




2.      Support Status of Waterbodies of the U.S. Virgin Islands  	xvii




1-1.   Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands Base Map 	  1-4




2-1.   Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in Puerto Rico	   2-15




2-2.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of Region 1 of Puerto Rico  .  . .   2-16




2-3.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of Region 2 of Puerto Rico  .  . .   2-19




2-4.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of Region 3 of Puerto Rico  .  . .   2-19




2-5.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of Region 4 of Puerto Rico  .  . .   2-21




2-6.   Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands	   2-22




2-7.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of St. Croix	   2-23




2-8.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of St. John	   2-25




2-9.   Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal  Waters of St. Thomas   	   2-26




2-10.  Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of Puerto Rico  	   2-28




2-11.  Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of the U.S. Virgin Islands  ....   2-29




3-1.   Sources of Point and Nonpoint Pollution Along Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico  	3-2




3-2.   Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from Puerto Rico's 304(1) Report	3-4




3-3.   NPDES Outfall Locations Which Impact Waterbodies  	  3-5




3-4.   Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from the Virgin Islands 304(1) Short List Report . . .  3-10




3-5.   Oil Spill Sites   	   3-13




5-1.   Support Status  of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico	  5-2




5-2.   Support Status  of Waterbodies of U.S.  Virgin Islands	5-3
                                              IX

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                                 FIGURES (CONTINUED)


Number                                                                                 Page

5-3.    Support Status of Recreational Fishing Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico	  5-13

5-4.    Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in Puerto Rico Potentially Due to Marine Pollution   . .  5-14

5-5.    Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in the U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Due
       to Marine Pollution	  5-15

5-6.    Exceedances of Mercury Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic
       Life	  5-16

5-7.    Exceedances of Copper Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life	  5-16

5-8.    Exceedances of Aluminum Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic
       Life	  5-17

5-9.    Exceedances of Cyanide Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life	  5-17

5-10.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of Acute AWQCs and Commonwealth Standards for the
       Protection of Aquatic Life for Silver, Zinc, Dissolved Oxygen, and pH	  5-18

5-11.  Localized Exceedances of Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
       for Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, Lead, and Nickel	  5-18

5-12.  Wildlife Critical Habitats in Puerto Rico Potentially Degraded by Marine Pollution  .  . .  5-22

5-13.  Wildlife Critical Habitats in U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Degraded by Marine
       Pollution   	  5-25

5-14.  Distribution Percentage of Contaminated and Commercially Important Fish Species
       Associated with Ciguatera in Puerto Rico 1980-1991  	  5-31

5-15.  Total Number of Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico  from 1980-1990	  5-32

5-16.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Shellfish Harvesting	  5-33

5-17.  Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Shellfish  	  5.33

5-18.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of AWQCs for Ingestion of Fish for Mercury and Thallium  . .  5-36

5-19.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming  	  5-41

5-20.  Support Status of Recreational Swimming Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico	  5-42

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                                 FIGURES (CONTINUED)


Numher                                                                               Page

5-21.   U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming	  5-44

5-22.   Puerto Rico Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact of Water . . .  5-47

5-23.   U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedances of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental
       Contact of Water  	  5-48

6-1.    Coastal Areas Degraded from Anthropogenically Produced Pollution	6-2
                                            XI

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XII

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                                  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This document was prepared under Environmental Protection Agency contract no. 68-C1-0008 to Tetra
Tech, Inc., under the direction of Robert M. Nyman, Marine and Wetlands Protection Branch, Region
n.  We thank all of the many people (too many to list individually) who contributed to this project by
providing literature, published and unpublished  data and reports, information on organizations,  and
contacts and by reviewing earlier drafts.
                                             xni

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XIV

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                                   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This project was conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop an accurate
assessment of the environmental conditions of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.  Specifically, the
purpose of the project was to characterize the use impairments present in the coastal waters and adjacent
land areas due to environmental  changes and to identify the cause of the impairments.  Habitats of
concern in the area extended from the outer boundary of the Exclusive Economic Zone to the head of tide
in the estuaries, including the back bays, lagoons, and wetland areas. Water quality and aquatic habitats
surrounding the coasts of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands  are threatened  by a variety of
anthropogenically produced impacts.  The destruction of these habitats could  result in degradation of
adjacent habitats because of the complex  interactions occurring between the marine and  terrestrial
ecosystems.   Furthermore,  damaged  ecosystems  ultimately affect  human  health  and  economic
development.  To effectively evaluate the causes of the pollution and its effects  on the environment, the
available data were categorized into three components: Sources of Marine and Estuarine Pollution, Levels
of Marine and Estuarine Pollution, and Evaluation of Use Impairments.

The sources and types of marine and  estuarine pollution addressed in this report included: (1) point
sources, such as the discharge of treated and partially treated effluents into coastal waters by municipal,
industrial, and power-generating facilities (via distinct pipes) and (2) nonpoint sources,  such as residential,
urban, and industrialized stormwater runoff; agricultural runoff; and releases from vessels (e.g., oil
spills).  The effects of thermal pollution, sedimentation, biological pathogens,  and nutrient enrichment
were also found to be important  sources of anthropogenic stress affecting coastal ecosystems  in these
islands. Anthropogenic pollution has been significantly increasing since 1965.  Over 85 percent of marine
pollution  is derived from land-based sources.  Because the currents around these islands are generally
weak, pollutants are not easily flushed away, which can compound the problem.

Over one-half of the  waterbodies listed in the  reports required under  § 305(b)  of  the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act of 1972 and amendments) for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands  were degraded because  of poorly treated  wastewater being  discharged from  inadequate
sewer/water treatment systems.   Such systems  have become the  major point source  problem in the
Caribbean.  Another  factor contributing  to the degradation  has been urban and industrial stormwater
runoff.   Many of the  waterbodies near major Puerto Rican coastal cities have been  impaired.  For
agricultural lands, the primary nonpoint source  pollutants are nutrients, sediments, animal waste, salts,
pesticides, and herbicides.  Over  40 waterbodies listed in Puerto Rico's report required under  § 304(1)
of the Clean Water Act were  listed as being impaired by runoff from agricultural lands.

Several types of marine and estuarine pollution were identified, including toxics, biological pathogens,
nutrients, sedimentation, and thermal pollution.  Toxic  chemicals of concern included heavy metals,
organics,  various pesticides such  as DDT,  polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),  and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Key pollutants of concern for the islands were identified by analyzing statistically
summarized data retrieved  from EPA's Storage and Retrieval System (STORET) and comparing them
with Ambient Water  Quality  Criteria  (AWQCs) and sediment criteria derived from  AWQCs.  The
selected nutrients and priority pollutants of concern included total phosphorus, total  Kjeldahl nitrogen,
ammonia,  nitrate and nitrite,  dissolved oxygen, pH, methylene chloride, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate,
aluminum, arsenic,  beryllium, cadmium,  chromium, copper, cyanide, lead, mercury, nickel,  selenium,
silver, thallium, and zinc.  Methylene  chloride, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, and phenols were the only
organic chemicals detected at significant concentrations above 1 microgram per liter (/xg/L).  The highest
levels of  these chemicals were detected near San  Juan  Harbor.  In  addition,  several other  organic

                                               XV

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chemicals, including a number of pesticides, were detected at relatively low levels in surface waters and
sediments around the coast of Puerto Rico.  Elevated levels of heavy metals, particularly aluminum,
copper, cyanide, and mercury, were also detected rather frequently in the marine and estuarine waters
of Puerto Rico.

Additional data were obtained from the Waterbody System (WBS), 305(b)  reports for Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Island, the Toxics Release Inventory System (TRIS), the Permit Compliance System
(PCS), and scientific reports from researchers and agencies.  Most of the data found and evaluated were
from Puerto Rico; no recent organic or heavy metal monitoring data were available for characterizing the
water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Impairments to the marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from
pollution were evaluated by determining the losses incurred by specific designated uses:   ecological
habitats, fish and wildlife populations, consumption of fish/shellfish, swimming, boating, and  aesthetic
enjoyment of the islands. Statistical summaries of the support status of the major waterbodies of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands,  obtained from the WBS and the 1990 305(b)  reports,  are presented in
Figures  1 and 2.   A significant percentage  of the waterbodies  are only partially supporting their
designated uses. Puerto Rico's 1990 305(b) report identified over 100 impaired waterbodies, and the
U.S. Virgin Islands' 1990 305(b) report identified 23 impaired waterbodies.  Major cities of Puerto Rico
whose coastal waters have been impacted as a result of anthropogenically produced pollution include San
Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanica,  Arecibo, Aguadilla, Guayama, Ponce,  and Mayaguez.
In the U.S.  Virgin Islands, coastal waters around Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas  Harbor, and Cruz
Bay have been impaired.

Impairments  to Ecological Habitats

The effects  of nutrient enrichment,  sedimentation, thermal pollution,  and boating  on the  ecological
habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were evaluated.  Nutrient enrichment  is primarily a
concern for  the health of coral reefs because excessive nutrients can cause  algal blooms,  which can be
detrimental  to the corals.  Poorly treated sewage, increased turbidity, poorly planned  development,
sediment runoff, and hurricanes have destroyed seagrass beds throughout vast expanses in Puerto Rico
and surrounding islands.  Increased sedimentation in coastal areas due to land development, however, is
the primary  cause of coral reef and seagrass bed degradation in the  Caribbean.  Such degradation  is also
the result of direct excavation  or burial during dredging operations as well as anchor  damage.
Differences in percent of live coral cover between coral reefs of La  Parguera-Lajas and coral reefs in the
vicinity of Bahia de Ponce were attributed to the resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin
at the latter  site. Sediment discharges from Rio Gunajibo and Rio Yaguez have also decreased percent
live coral cover on the western portions of the Escolla Negro reefs.  Temperatures of 4 to 6 °C above
ambient levels have been found at specific sites  around the islands  as a result of thermal effluents from
power facilities. Tropical marine and estuarine organisms on mangrove-root communities and coral reefs
are sensitive to such elevated water temperatures. Thermal effluents in waters with temperatures 4 to 6°C
above  ambient levels have been  lethal  to  corals.   Finally, negligent boating  practices have caused
significant physical damage to various ecological  habitats, primarily coral reefs and seagrass beds,
because of physical  abrasions caused by boats, boat propellers, and anchors.
                                              XVI

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 Classification
 goals supported

 58%
                                                 31% Classification
                                                       goals supported
                         Classification goals
                         partially supported

                           42%
                                                            Classification goals
                                                            partially supported

                                                               69%
                                Classification goals
                                partially supported
                                 87%
                                             LAKES AND
                                              LAGOONS
                                                         Classification
                                                         goals supported
                                                            13%
                                           ESTUARIES
                    Figure 1.  Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
             Classification
             goals not
             supported
               2.4%
 64.6%

Classification
goals
supported
Classification
goals
threatened
13%

Classification goals
partially supported

20%
            ESTUARIES,
       HARBORS AND BAYS
                               Classification goals
                               partially supported

                                69.5%
             3QO/ Classification goals
            .O/O.
                 not supported
     7.4%
Classification goals
threatened
 88.8%
Classification
goals
supported
                              12.2%
                                Classification
                                goals
                                threatened
                                                                12.2%
                                                                Classification goals
                                                                not supported
                                                            6.1 %
                                                          Classification
                                                          goals
                                                          supported
              Figure 2.  Support Status of Waterbodies of the U.S. Virgin Islands
                                                   xvii

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Impairments to Fish and Wildlife Populations

Fishery landings have been decreasing in recent years in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in both
catch per unit effort and size of the individual species.  Although a large percentage of the fish stock
depletion is due to overfishing, it is believed that the effects of pollution on nursery grounds and on the
species population  are contributing to the low  catches seen  in  the area.  Major marine  ecological
disturbances (MMEDs),  have been occurring frequently  throughout the  Caribbean since the 1980s,
possibly because of the increased stress placed on the environment by pollution.

Maps were generated that illustrate areas of potential concern based on a comparison between ambient
levels of priority pollutants along the coastal areas of Puerto Rico  (no data were available for the U. S.
Virgin Islands) and AWQCs for marine life.  The following priority pollutants exceeded the acute
AWQCs in at least one sample station in the coastal regions  of Puerto Rico:  mercury, copper, aluminum,
cyanide, silver, and zinc.  In addition, nickel, lead,  and  bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exceeded chronic
AWQCs.

Development is one of the  major problems facing  critical  coastal wildlife habitats. Impacts from
industrial, recreational,  agricultural,  and housing developments constructed in the surrounding coastal
regions are prevalent in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Of the 74 critical coastal wildlife areas
originally listed for Puerto Rico, 12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded by anthropogenically produced
pollution and may require monitoring or mitigation to improve the ecosystem.  Twenty-three critical
coastal wildlife areas were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands, and over one-half of these habitats were
listed as being stressed by anthropogenic pollution.

Impairments to Recreational and Commercial Uses of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish.  Several chemicals present in the ambient water along the
coast of Puerto Rico (no data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands) have the ability to bioaccumulate
in fish tissue.  Water quality monitoring data were used to  evaluate the potential risk associated with the
ingestion of fish or shellfish from the coastal regions.  Mercury and thallium were the only two pollutants
that exceeded the AWQCs for fish ingestion.  In isolated  locations, the estimated risk associated with
ingestion of mercury-contaminated fish exceeded the acceptable level for subsistence fishermen by a factor
of  10,000 and for  recreational fishermen  by a factor of 1,000.  The problems due to  mercury
contamination in Puerto Rico are consistent with those in the United States, where over 70 percent of all
fish advisories are based on mercury contamination.  In addition, levels of thallium slightly exceeded the
AWQCs for ingestion of fish in the San Juan Harbor area.

Ciguatera,  a poisoning caused by the  consumption of fish  containing a potent biotoxin, has  been
increasing in the Caribbean.   An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in
Puerto Rico and  the U.S. Virgin Islands (Tosteson 1990).  The incidence of  fish poisoning due to
ciguatera has increased by at least  10  reported cases per  10,000 residents per year since the late 1970s.
This problem affects both the human population and the  fishing industry and may be related  to adverse
changes in environmental conditions.

Swimming.  Other human health problems  of concern in these islands are infectious diseases that may
he contracted while swimming in waters polluted by improperly treated sewage.  Areas where levels of
fecal coliform bacteria in coastal waters  exceeded the swimming criteria in Puerto Rico included San
Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama, Ponce,  and Mayaguez.  Coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands
                                              xvm

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where the fecal coliform criteria were exceeded included Christiansted Harbor,  St. Thomas Harbor,
Gallows Bay, Fisherman's dock, Salt River Marina, Buccaneer Beach, and Cruz Bay.  Numerous coastal
locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded the fecal coliform standards by factors ranging
from 10 times the standard to 1000 times the standard (e.g., Christiansted Harbor).  Numerous beach
closings attributed to pathogen problems have occurred in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Boating. Pathogens released by sewage effluents from boats within marinas are of concern to the islands'
boating industry, in  addition to floatables, oil pollution, and sedimentation of channels through  runoff.
Floatables, such  as plastic containers and garbage bags, have  been a persistent problem in San Jose
lagoon, ultimately impeding boat traffic throughout the lagoon. A few boating waterways have also been
impacted by sedimentation, especially Christiansted Harbor and  Gallows Bay.

Aesthetic Enjoyment of the Islands.  Although evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics of Puerto Rico
and  the U.S.  Virgin  Islands is difficult because  of the subjective nature of  aesthetics, increased
anthropogenic pollution has probably resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands. Specific
pollution problems of Puerto Rico  and the  U.S. Virgin Islands identified during this study that may
reduce aesthetic enjoyment include improperly disposed solid waste generated by residents and industry,
such as empty  containers and debris;  abandoned cars and  boats; oil  spills; unpleasant odors from
effluents; and raw sewage in surface water.

Corrective Actions  and Additional Studies

The economies of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico are  based on tourism.  In 1991,  the visitor
expenditure in the U.S. Virgin Islands was $708,100,000 and the visitor expenditure in Puerto Rico was
$1,390,800,000 (CTO  1991).  Any interruption of tourism has the potential to severely disrupt the
functioning of the island economies by creating unemployment and lowering property values, in addition
to lost tourism revenue.  Economic expenditures related to use impairments of estuarine and  marine
habitats are based on  tourist-derived income that may be adversely affected not only by the  loss of
aesthetically pleasing vistas  such as beaches  and  coral  reefs  but also by  other  factors.   Reduced
recreational and commercial species populations resulting from exposure to biotic and abiotic diseases
leads to limited human consumption of seafood and losses to the fishing industry.  Costs associated with
exposure to pathogens and contaminants during swimming and while eating affected fish and shellfish are
probably significant for the fishing and tourist industries as people reduce their consumption of seafood
and take their vacations at more pristine sites elsewhere. However, loss of revenues associated with these
use impairments cannot be adequately quantified at this time given the available data. Further studies will
need to be conducted in order to determine the economic loss to tourism and industries indirectly affected
by tourism decline.   The Caribbean Tourism  Organization (CTO) has reported declines in tourism,
however, it is not clear whether the declines  are due to economic recession or use impairments identified
in this study. Increases in eco-tourism and visitor preference studies do indicate that pristine beaches and
coastal wildlife habitat are important to the tourism industry and,  ultimately, the economies of the islands.

Inadequate sewage treatment plants  (STPs) have been identified as one of the primary  point source
pollution problems in the Caribbean and a significant contributor to coastal habitat degradation in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.   Some of the sewage treatment facilities need to be updated with
modern technology and brought up to the carrying capacities required for the populations being  served.
Illegal hookups and broken lines need to be identified and repaired. It may also be necessary for sewage
effluents to be  released through ocean  diffusers so pathogens  and nutrients are dispersed and not
concentrated in a single waterbody.

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According to the 1990 Needs Survey Report to Congress (USEPA,  199le) for documented needs, Puerto
Rico is ranked 11th out of 53 states (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin
Islands) for the amount of money needed to provide adequate publicly-owned secondary wastewater
treatment plants.  The estimated cost  (in dollars for January  1990) to provide  basic services  (e.g.,
secondary treatment) to Puerto Rico is $346 million. For total wastewater treatment projects, Puerto Rico
ranks 15th  with a total cost of $1.1 billion.

The following additional remedial actions and management measures may further reduce impairments to
coastal and estuarine waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands:

       •   NPDES permit levels need to be monitored frequently, and permit limits need to be enforced.

       •   Proper management  practices dealing with  coastal construction need to  be adopted and
           enforced to help alleviate stormwater runoff.

       •   The benefits of various solid waste management strategies such as recycling, incineration,
           creation of artificial reefs using old vehicles and boats, etc.  need to be evaluated.

       •   Management measures for the boating industry need to be implemented. These may include
           restricting the number of boats in critical coastal areas, instituting better waste management
           practices by monitoring the  fecal counts in the moored  areas, and constructing docking areas
           in critical coastal areas.

       •   Urban and agricultural stormwater  runoff should be reduced by implementing better
           management practices designed  to retain sediment and pollutants.

       •   Critical  coastal wildlife areas should be routinely monitored, and appropriate procedures to
           analyze  the  causes  of wildlife and aquatic marine  life kills should be developed and
           implemented.

       •   Fisheries management strategies need to be adopted.

       •   Oil spill sources need to be investigated and management measures enforced to curtail these
           releases.

       •   Effluent  limits should be  established that prevent the  elevation of the  receiving  water
           temperature  above 32  °C  for prolonged periods based  on the factors of both flow and
           temperature of the effluent.

       •   Data gaps found in the assessments of Puerto Rico  and the U.S. Virgin Islands (e.g., no
           toxics data for the U.S. Virgin Islands) need to be addressed through additional studies.

       •   A  regular monitoring and reporting program for the coastal areas, examining biota, water,
           and sediment quality, should be implemented to identify problems early.

       •   Scientific research   should  be  undertaken  to help  develop  mitigation  procedures and
           management practices that will help stop the degradation of the coastal regions.
                                               XX

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                                     1.  INTRODUCTION

1.1  Background Information

Water quality and aquatic habitats surrounding the coasts of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are
threatened by a variety of anthropogenic impacts. Habitats of concern include beaches, mangrove-fringed
estuaries, seagrass beds, hard grounds, mud bottoms, wetlands,  and coral reefs.   The destruction or
impairment of any of these habitats will result in deleterious impacts to adjacent habitats because of the
complex interactions occurring between these and other marine and terrestrial ecosystems.  Furthermore,
damaged habitats ultimately affect human health and economic development.

Direct impacts to the habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands resulting from human activities
include:

        •  Destruction and disturbance of special aquatic and wildlife  areas  (including uncontrolled
           human access and intense recreational use of ecologically sensitive areas);
        •  Impediments to natural river courses;
        •  Boating  impacts (e.g., groundings, propeller damage,  anchor  damage);
        •  Diver impacts;
        •  Overfishing and overharvesting of other living resources;
        •  Disturbances associated with sand, gravel, and mineral mining;
        •  Military activities; and
        •  Dredge-and-fill activities.

Indirect impacts to these habitats  include water quality degradation due to:

        •  Sewage outfalls and septic tanks;
        •  Industrial outfalls;
        •  Oil spills from tanker releases and small boats;
        •  Litter;
        •  Thermal effluents;
        •  Agricultural  runoff;
        •  Urban, residential,  and industrial stormwater runoff; and
        •  Other ocean disposal activities.

These indirect sources of toxics, pathogens, nutrients, sedimentation, and thermal pollution may be more
serious in terms of long-term effects due to difficulties encountered in reducing or eliminating excessive
contaminants from point and/or nonpoint sources.

1.2  Purpose and Objective

This study follows other  work performed for the Region II office  of the U.S.  Environmental Protection
Agency to examine use impairments in areas of concern under its jurisdiction. The goal of the study is
to provide guidance  in the allocation of funds and development of specific programs  to improve water
quality and coastal habitats.  Like its predecessors (e.g., Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the
New York Bight, Swanson et al.  1991), this  study includes  an analysis of  the ecological as well as
economic impacts where use of a particular resource has been reduced or lost.
                                               l-l

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The purpose of this report is to evaluate existing data and characterize the impairments affecting uses of
the waters surrounding Puerto Rico and the U.S  Virgin Islands.  The focus of this study is to identify
and possibly quantify the causes and extent of degradation in the marine and estuarine waters of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from the outer boundary of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to the
head of tide in the estuaries, including back bays, lagoons, and wetland areas.  The impairments to these
areas that have resulted from  activities  occurring outside the  study area (e.g., discharges occurring
upstream of the head of tide) have also been included in the study.  This study will aid in focusing EPA's
financial and human resources for environmental protection and restoration on the most pressing threats
that may cause impairment of the important aquatic habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

1.3  Technical Approach

Resource use impairments evaluated in this report include:

        •   Ecological habitat health and productivity;
        «   Fish and wildlife populations;
        •   Health effects related to  ingestion of contaminated fish/shellfish;
        •   Swimming;
        •   Boating; and
        •   Aesthetics.

Estimating impacts to resource use impairments included the evaluation of over 200 technical documents
and government reports (e.g., reports required under §§ 305(b) and 304(1) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (Clean Water Act of 1972 and amendments) and compilation of data from several on-line
databases (e.g., Waterbody System (WBS), Permit Compliance System (PCS), STORET-WQ, STORET-
TISSUE, and Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System (TRIS)).  The types of information used for this
study included government documents, scientific studies, management plans, and interviews with scientists
knowledgeable of the marine  pollution  problems of  Puerto Rico  and the U.S  Virgin Islands.  An
annotated bibliography of pertinent references used in this investigation for evaluating resource use
impairments is presented in Appendix A.  Profiles of government agencies, nongovernmental  agencies,
and research institutions with planning/development and marine conservation responsibilities in the study
area are presented in Appendix B.

In general, impacts to resource use impairments were estimated by:

        (1) Analyzing point source data presented in technical documents (e.g.,  305(b) reports) and PCS,
           and nonpoint source data estimated using various nonpoint source models, STORET data, and
           technical documents;

        (2) Evaluating water and sediment quality data for toxics, pathogens,  nutrients, sedimentation,
           and thermal pollution; and

        (3) Analyzing resource impairment  data including 305(b) reports,  Critical  Wildlife Habitat
           Evaluation reports, Ambient  Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs) exceedances, fish harvesting
           records, boating records, beach closures, human  health  risk assessment estimates, and
           information from other technical  and government reports.
                                              1-2

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An attempt was made to relate impairments to known sources of pollution.  General remediation strategies
for beginning to correct certain impacts to various resources also were evaluated.  In several instances,
data gaps that prevented the  complete quantification of an impairment were found. In particular, data
gaps  exist with respect to the economic  impacts of the impairment and the costs  associated  with
remediation.

In evaluating resource use impairments of the various islands within the study area, distinct differences
between habitats were found. In addition, the  availability of data  varied significantly within the study
area. Therefore, the study area was subdivided into  island groups and coastal regions.  For this report,
Puerto Rico was divided into four coastal regions (north, east, south, and west), as shown in Figure 1-1.
The following small islands surrounding Puerto Rico also were included in the study area:  La Cordillera,
Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Monito,  and  Desecheo.  However, very little information was available for
evaluating use impairments to these small islands.  The three major islands that constitute the U.S.  Virgin
Islands (i.e.,  St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas) were evaluated independently. When appropriate and
possible, use impairment data and results were presented geographically and/or by the coastal region or
island in order to identify specific  impaired  areas.
                                               1-3

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 REGION 1
                                                      16 KM
                                               I	1
                                               0       10 MILES
                                                                        ST. THOMAS
                                                                                ST. CROIX
Figure 1-1. Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands Base Map

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                                   2. PHYSICAL SETTING

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands lie in the subtropics between 18° 31' and 17° 4' north latitude
and 68° 02' and 64° 34' west longitude (see Figure 1-1). These islands (with the exception of St. Croix)
are part of an island arc volcanic chain of islands formed by the subduction of one tectonic plate below
another.  St. Croix is the result of an upthrust of ocean floor and is composed primarily of Cretaceous
metasedimentary rocks capped by limestone facies of more recent origin (Whetten 1966). These islands
are typified by steep mountainous or hilly slopes with little  flat land  suitable for agriculture or urban and
residential  development.  Suitable flat plains are confined to coastal areas, thereby isolating most of the
population and  industrial development to the coast.  To the north lie the Atlantic Ocean and the Puerto
Rico Trench, which reaches depths of 8,384 m.  To the  south lies the Virgin Island Basin, which reaches
depths of 4,116 m (IRF 1985).

Winds are typically very steady out of the northeast (the Trade Winds), averaging about 4 m/s (Calvesbert
1970).  Currents and  waves are driven by the predominant and steady  Trade Winds and therefore flow
steadily from east  to west (the North Equatorial Current).  Nearshore  flow patterns,  however, may be
more complex because of local physical features, semidiurnal and diurnal tidal cycles  (mean tidal range
0.24-0.30  m),  and local wind patterns (IRF 1985).  No  upwelling is thought to occur  around these
islands, except  possibly during strong tropical storms or hurricanes.

The air temperature is warm (24 to 27 degrees Celsius) and varies little throughout the day or throughout
the year: the annual mean daily average difference ranges from 5 to  14 °C (Calvesbert 1970). The small
temperature fluctuation is a result of fairly constant seawater temperatures and small island land masses.
Warmest water temperatures  occur  in  August and range from 27 to  28 °C.   In the coldest month
(February), temperatures range from 25 to 26 °C  (Calvesbert 1970).

Rainfall is  primarily orographic because of the rise and cooling of warm water-laden air masses that pass
over areas  of high  elevation. Rainfall typically falls in intense cloudbursts, which may deposit up to 70.9
cm in a 24-hour period, while the 1-hour rainfall can be as much as 25.6 cm (Calvesbert 1970, NOAA
1989a).  These intense rain showers  lead to frequent flooding, even during months with lower average
monthly rainfall.  A poorly defined seasonal  variation in rainfall is evident, with December or January
to  April generally being considered dry months and May through  November or December being
considered wet months. Rainfall quantity and seasonal  distribution  vary regionally due to  elevation and
the  location of areas behind mountainous barriers.   High-elevation  wet areas typically receive over
254.0 cm of rainfall  annually, while arid areas may receive as little as 50.8 cm annually (Calvesbert
1970).  Because of the constant high  temperatures and steady winds, both evaporation and humidity are
high.   In areas of low rainfall, evaporation may exceed precipitation, resulting in the  formation of
hypersaline ponds  along the coast.

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands also lie within the broad path of Caribbean  hurricanes, which
typically pass from the southeast to the northwest.  Hurricanes and tropical storms occur from June to
December, but most occur in the months of August and September.  Although major hurricanes may
strike these islands directly only every 10 to 30 years,  hurricanes and large tropical storms that pass to
the south and north may result in torrential rainfall, causing flooding,  property damage, loss of human
lives, and impacts on the coastal biota. At least 12 major hurricanes  and tropical storms have passed over
or near these islands (Table 2-1).   Such hurricanes and storms not only cause physical damage to
ecological  habitats,  especially coral reefs (Glynn et al. 1964, Rogers  et al.  1982, Rogers et  al. 1983,
                                               2-1

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     TABLE 2-1. SUMMARY OF MAJOR HURRICANES AND TROPICAL STORMS PASSING
               OVER OR NEAR PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
Hurricane
San Roque"
San Ciriaco*
San Felipe*
San Nicholas*
San Cipria*
Santa Clara*
(Betsy)
Edithb
Davidc-d
Tropical storm
Frederic0-"1
Tropical storm
GerF
Floyd0
Tropical storm
Klaus'
Tropical storm
Chrisf
Hugo"41
Date(s)
16-17 Aug 1893
8 August 1899
13 September 1928
10-11 September 1931
26-27 September 1932
12 August 1956
26-27 September 1963
30 August 1979
4 September 1979
8-9 September 1981
4-5 September 1981
6-7 November 1984
24-25 August 1984
18-19 September 1989
Maximum
Rainfall Winds
(cm) (km/hr) Area of Impact
Puerto Rico
194 Puerto Rico
413 Puerto Rico
233 Puerto Rico
311 Puerto Rico
233 Puerto Rico
20.3 144-169 South shore of Puerto
Rico
18.9 85 St. Croix and
St. Thomas
53.3 119-148 St. Croix and
St. Thomas




14.3-24.5 222 Puerto Rico,
St. Thomas, St. Croix
and St. John
•Source: Calvesbert (1970).
bSource: Glynn et al. (1964).
°Source: Rogers et al. (1982).
dSource: Rogers et al. (1983).
"Source: NOAA (1981).
'Source: NOAA (1984).
•Source: Rogers et al. (1991).
••Source: NOAA (1989b).
                                          2-2

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Edmunds  and Witman 1991, Rogers et al. 1991), but they  also bring heavy rainfall, which washes
sediments and pollutants into coastal areas,  where they may cause further damage.

2.1  Coastal Features.  Climate, and Oceanographic Data

2.1.1  Puerto Rico

Basic island physical statistics are presented in Table 2-2.  Puerto Rico is the largest and westernmost of
this group of islands (8,860 km2) and is the easternmost island of the Greater Antilles.  Several small
islands lie off the coast of the main island.  Vieques, the largest of these islands (129.5  km2), is as large
as some of the Virgin Islands. A small group of cays and several small islands known  as La Cordillera
extend out from the northeast corner of the main island toward another large island, Culebra.  Off the
west coast lie the islands of Mona, Monito, and Desecheo.  Along the south coast, many coral-, sand-,
and mangrove-covered cays may be found, as well as one fairly large island, Isla Caja de Muertos.

The main island of Puerto Rico is mountainous, with the highest elevation reaching 1,065 m.  Since
rainfall is primarily orographic, it tends to vary with elevation, with the highest rainfall recorded in the
El Yunque mountains in the northeast (greater than 787.5 cm) (Calvesbert 1970).  Annual rainfall in the
coastal areas tends to be less and ranges from less than  137.8 cm on the south coast to almost 354.4 cm
on the east coast at Yabucoa and Humacao (NOAA 1989a).  Because of the small  size of the watersheds
and the intensity of rainfall events, even in the "dry" season,  peak river flows are high in every month
with significant rainfall. Region-specific information is provided below.

Region 1  - North Coast

The north coast  region of Puerto Rico is typified by  a long,  broad shelf draining the ridge of  high
mountains to the south. Rainfall in mountainous areas to the south produces numerous rivers that drain
to the coast.  These rivers drain about 58 percent of the  total island runoff.  The combination  of a
relatively flat, broad coastal area and large rivers results in the formation of large coastal wetlands, basin
mangrove forests, and estuaries. The mouths of these rivers/estuaries (with the possible exception of Rfo
Espfritu  Santo), are protected by a sand bar, which allows for the stagnation of the lower salt layer
intrusion  and low  oxygen conditions in bottom waters (Negr<5n and  Citrdn  1979).   The north coast
mangrove forests are some of the largest and most extensive on the island, accounting for 3,935 hectares
(ha) or 44 percent of the total mangrove forests (EQB 1990).

Although mangroves are well developed along the north coast, well-formed coral reefs are lacking as a
result of a number  of physical factors. These factors include a narrow, steeply sloping sea shelf, heavy
sediment  loads discharged by the numerous rivers along the coast, and a heavy wave energy regime due
to the exposure of the north coast to the open Atlantic Ocean.  However, some coral reef development
is evident on the northeast shore, mainly as thin crustal growth over rock reefs  (Goenaga and Cintrdn
 1979). Reefs possibly degraded due to anthropogenic influences have been reported from Isla de Cabras
near Bayamdn and to the east, offshore of San Juan (Goenaga and Cintro'n 1979). Nearshore areas are
typically hard pavement areas covered by isolated encrusting hard corals, soft corals, algal turfs, sponges,
and tunicates interspersed by patches of fine to coarse sand. Near river mouths, hard substrate and sand
may be replaced or covered by finer clays and silts. The extent of seagrass beds along the north  coast
has not been determined,  but patches of seagrass have been reported to occur.
                                               2-3

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       TABLE 2-2.  PHYSICAL DATA ON PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS

Oceans"
(shore km)
Estuaries*
(ha)
Freshwater wetlands"
(ha)
Rivers"
(km)
Lakes*
(ha)
Tidal wetlands*
(ha)
Agriculture*
(ha)
Forest"
(ha)
Coral reefs
(ha)
Mangroves*
(ha)
Seagrass beds
(ha)
Puerto Rico
698
45,582
NA
5,429
4,509
9,292
409,220
299,350
NA
8,953
NA
U.S. Virgin Islands
278
7,797
0
0
0
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Source: Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (1990), except as indicated.
NA = not available.
"Data from Table 11-3 of the Region II Risk Ranking Project (USEPA 1990a).


Seagrass beds typically occur in protected embayments where environmental conditions of light, sediment,
and wave energy permit their growth.  The northwestern portion of the coast to Arecibo is typified by
a nearly continuous limestone cliff that forms the shore or is separated from the ocean by a beach of rock,
sand, or cemented sand dunes (Kaye 1959). An interesting feature of this area is the submerged marine
caves  off Bajura in the municipality of Isabela (Goenaga and Cintrd'n  1979).  East of Arecibo, the
northern coast is composed of a low-lying alluvial plain dotted with large mangrove wetlands and lagoons
(Kaye 1959). The largest continuous mangrove area  is the Pinones-Torecilla Forest (2,031 ha), found
to the east of the capital city of San Jose" (EQB 1990).  Several undeveloped, as well as a few developed,
recreational beaches may be found (NOAA 1978).
                                             2-4

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Annual rainfall along the north coast ranges from 127.0 to  190.5 cm, although rainfall increases with
elevation toward the mountains (Calvesbert 1970).  Measurable rainfall occurs in all months (5.1 cm),
with the  month of April typically being the driest and August  and September the wettest.  Monthly
average temperatures range from 23.9 to  27.2  °C, with December through March being  the coldest
months and July,  August, and September the warmest (NOAA 1989a).  Winds are typically out of the
east northeast, but these winds may be modified by diurnal land and sea breezes. Surface currents along
the north coast generally flow westward, but they may be modified by wind, waves, bathymetry, coastal
configuration, and coastal riverine discharges.  Occasional eastward current flows have also been noted
(Kaye 1959, Puerto  Rico Nuclear Center 1975).  Typical current  velocities are 0.07 m/s, predominantly
in a westerly direction,  with onshore current directions observed less than 8 percent of the time (Tetra
Tech 1986a).  Density  stratification has been noted to occur in nearshore waters  and may be related to
the presence of nearby freshwater riverine discharges  (Tetra Tech 1986b).   No seasonality  of  the
stratification has been determined (Tetra Tech 1986a, 1986b, 1986c, 1987a).

Region 2 - East Coast

The east coast region of Puerto Rico  is typified by a narrow shelf that drains the steepest and highest
mountain area of Puerto Rico.  The shoreline alternates between rocky headlands and broad alluvial plains
fronted by sandy beaches (Kaye 1959). The urban centers of Fajardo, Naguabo, Humacao, and Yabucoa
are found on the  large alluvial plains  bordering major rivers.  At the mouths of these rivers  (with  the
exception of the Rfo  Guayane"s  near Yabucoa), basin mangroves  are  found.   The largest area  of
mangroves may be found in the area of the Roosevelt Roads U.S. Naval Base—Puerto Medio Mundo (495
ha) and Ensenada Honda (113 ha) (EQB 1990).  Fairly well developed reefs are found along this coast,
with the best reef development noted around islands and cays located off the coast and away from major
river discharges, e.g., Isla Pineros, Cayo Santiago (Goenaga and Cintr6n 1979).

Annual rainfall along the coast ranges  from about 127.0 to 203.2 cm, although rainfall in the mountains
to the west may  exceed  254.0 cm (Calvesbert 1970).  The annual average coastal temperature ranges
from 25.5 to 26.1 °C, with monthly average temperatures of 23.3  to 23.8 °C occurring in December
through March and  monthly averages reaching 26.7 to 27.2 °C  in July through September (NOAA
1989a).  Winds are dominated by  the easterly Trade  Winds and blow  toward shore at 4 to 6 m/s.
Because of the strong and steady Trade Winds, diurnal wind patterns are not as noticeable as on the east
coast (Calvesbert 1970).

The insular  shelf off the east coast is quite broad, and it extends outward and includes the islands of
Culebra and Vieques. Tides are diurnal and mixed diurnal/semi-diurnal and have a range of about 0.2 m
(Tetra  Tech  1987b).   Offshore circulation is complicated as the  westward-flowing North Equatorial
Current passes around the island of Vieques and encounters the east coast of Puerto Rico.  Flow is
generally east and northwest through the Sonda de Vieques (Vieques Sound) and then northwest through
Pasaje de San Juan (San Juan Passage), which separates Fajardo from La Cordillera (Tetra Tech 1987b).
Counterflows in bottom waters and flow reversals have also been observed in Pasaje de San Juan (Tetra
Tech 1987c).  Flow through Radas Roosevelt Pasaje de Vieques may be southwest or northeast depending
on the tide.  However, nearshore current directions and speed will be modified by local bathymetry, tidal
variations, coastline configuration and orientation, winds, waves, and the nearshore currents' interaction
with larger  currents.   Current  measurements made near Humacao indicate  the southwest  as  the
predominant  drift to the currents with 50th percentile current speeds of 0.06 to 0.08 m/s (Tetra Tech
1987b).
                                              2-5

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Region 2 - La Cordillera. Culebra. and Vieques

La Cordillera is a group of rocky islets and a few larger islands designated as a Natural Reserve. Two
of the larger islands, Cayo Lobos and Palominos, are privately owned.  No rivers or streams exist on
these islands, although  ephemeral ponds on Cayo Icacos attract a variety of bird life.   Coral reef
development is good, and patches of seagrass likely occur where conditions allow. Mangroves are not
extensive, with only 1.98 ha reported (EQB 1990). Isla de Culebra is a fairly large island (25.9 km2).
The  highest point on the island occurs on Mount Resaca (197 m).  A large number of undeveloped
beaches occur on the island, although Playa Flamenco is developed (NOAA 1978).  Well-developed coral
reefs and seagrass beds probably occur, but recent descriptions of these habitats are lacking. Mangrove
wetlands occur behind several beaches, along bays and inlets, and on offshore islands (97 ha total) (EQB
1990). The island of Vieques is a long, narrow island (129.5 km2) approximately 16 km east of the main
island of Puerto  Rico.  The  island is mostly level with a  central hilly section rising to 299 m on Mt.
Pirata. No permanent rivers or streams are found on this island, but several nearshore lagoons occur.
Coral reef development is  good, and mangrove forests occur along the coast behind sandy beaches and
along bays and inlets (265.9 ha total) (EQB 1990). Bahfa Fosforescente on Vieques has been designated
as a  Natural Reserve.  Ensenada Sombe is a developed beach on Vieques (NOAA 1978).

Rainfall data for these outlying islands are incomplete (with recent data available for Vieques only), but
rainfall patterns  are likely similar to  those of the U.S. Virgin Islands to the east.  Rainfall in  the La
Cordillera is  probably slight because of the lack of areas of high elevation.   Rainfall in Culebra and
Vieques is probably greater, likely exceeding 50.7 cm annually  in coastal  areas (Calvesbert  1970).
Rainfall is generally higher near areas of higher elevation.  Temperature records are also incomplete
(limited data are available for Vieques only), but temperature variation is probably similar to that of other
coastal areas, with low monthly means near 24.4 °C in winter and higher  temperatures near 26.6 °C
observed  in July, August, and September.  Winds are dominated by the east and east northeast Trade
Winds, which may be modified by local land and sea breezes where conditions permit. Currents in the
eastern offshore  islands are the result of the modification of the North Equatorial Current as it drives
through the Sonda de Vieques and Radas  Roosevelt Pasaje de Vieques.

Region 3  - South Coast

The  south coast of Puerto Rico consists of a broad alluvial plain to the east, merging into a coastline of
broad alluviated  valleys, broken up by large, rocky headlands to the west (Kaye  1959).  A number of
beaches, bays, mangrove cays, and coral reefs are present.  Coral reef development is most extensive on
the south  coast and includes  the reefs of Guayama, reefs in the Puerto de Jobos area, reefs near Ponce
and Guayanilla, and the reefs of La Parguera (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). An extensive submerged shelf
reef  also extends along the edge of the insular shelf along the south coast (Morelock et al. 1977). The
insular shelf is wider than that of the  north coast, except near Tallaboa  and Guayanilla Bay, where an
extensive  submarine canyon system cuts through the shelf (Morelock et al.  1979).  Mangrove coverage
on the south coast has been estimated at 2,291 ha (EQB 1990).  The largest stands occur within the Bahfa
de Jobos (Jobos  Bay)  Special Planning Area, which includes Mar Negro and Cayos Caribe (656.8 ha
total), and within the Special Planning Area of the Southwest, which includes the large mangrove of La
Parguera (41  ha) (EQB 1990). These mangroves occupy narrow fringes along the coast or cover small
cays offshore.  Well-developed basin and river mangroves do not occur due to the arid climate  and
extensive  dry season on the  south coast (Cintrdn et al. 1978).  Seagrass areas have been identified in
Jobos and Guayanilla Bays (Vicente and Rivera 1982) and La Parguera (Glynn et al. 1964, Goenaga and
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Citr6n 1979); however, seagrass beds are likely to occur wherever suitable environmental  conditions
allow.

Rainfall is generally lower on the south coast than on the rest of the island,  ranging from less than
76.2 cm to about 177.8 cm, with most of the coast receiving less than  101.6 cm (Calvesbert 1970).  In
the mountains, however, annual rainfall may exceed 254.0 cm, resulting in frequent flooding. Rain may
fall throughout the year, but the wettest month tends to be September and the driest months tend to be
January, February,  and March.  Evaporation along the south coast is  also very high and may exceed
precipitation during the driest months. This evaporation results in the formation of saline and hypersaline
lagoons along the coast, explaining the lack of development of the large basin mangroves typical of the
north coast (Cintrdn et al. 1978).   Coastal  monthly mean temperatures range from 24.4 to 27.8  °C
(NOAA 1989a).  Highest monthly mean temperatures are observed in June through September, while
coldest monthly  mean temperatures are observed in January (NOAA 1989a).  Winds and waves on the
south coast are generally milder than those of the north coast. Winds are typically out of the northeast
because of the influence of the strong Trade Winds, with some variation to southeast in the  afternoons
because of persistent sea breezes (Calvesbert 1970). Currents are the result of tidal modification of the
strong westward flow of the North Equatorial Current.  Tidal ranges are approximately 0.7-0.8 m (Tetra
Tech 1990).  Because of the complexity of the south coast (bays,  islands, islets, and cays), currents are
typically complex, with occasional nearshore and offshore currents observed as well as complete diurnal
current reversals.  Measured current speeds vary from 0 to 0.3 m/s (Tetra Tech 1981, 1987d,  1990).

Region 4  - West Coast

The southern portion of the west coast of Puerto Rico consists of alternating stretches of rocky headlands
and  alluvial stretches, with a limestone cliff from Aguadilla to the northern coast (Kaye  1959). These
features are related to the broad insular shelf that is part of the southwest coast, which narrows to the
north of Mayagiiez and then closely follows the coast. Along the southwest coast are fringing coral reefs,
and  several fairly well developed reefs are located offshore on the broad insular shelf (Morelock et al.
1983).  Further north along the narrow insular shelf, reefs are less well developed (Goenaga and Cintrdn
1979).   Mangrove forests are confined to  the southwest coast  (699 ha total) (EQB  1990).  Cano
Boquerdn, an extensive basin and river mangrove forest (234 ha), is the largest (EQB 1990). Seagrass
beds along this  coast have not been quantitatively assessed, but  they  probably exist where conditions
permit.

Rainfall ranges from 88.9 to 152.4 cm per year in the coastal area (Calvesbert 1970).  Annual rainfall
increases  along the coast from south to north as well as from coastal areas to the mountains, where annual
rainfall may exceed 254.0 cm (Calvesbert 1970).  Coastal air temperatures are typical of the coastal areas
discussed previously, with monthly averages ranging from 23.9 to 27.2 °C (NOAA 1989a).  Winds  are
typically dominated by the easterly-northeasterly Trade Winds, but the afternoon  sea breezes may reverse
the direction of winds to a westerly, onshore flow (Calvesbert 1970). Offshore currents on the west coast
are variable as a result of the isolation of the west coast from the predominant east-west flow of the North
Equatorial Current. Therefore, current flow along the coast may be northward, southward, or westward,
although currents to the north and northwest appear to predominate (Tetra Tech 1985a). Offshore current
speeds range from 0 to 0.2 m/s (Tetra Tech  1985a,  1987e).
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Region 4 - Offshore Islands:  Mona. Monito. and Desecheo

Isla de Mona lies approximately 64 km to the west of Puerto Rico in Canal de la Mona (Mona Channel)
and is about the same distance from the Dominican Republic on the island of Hispaniola.  The area of
the island is about 54 km2,  and a small satellite island, Monito, is located 9 km to the northwest. The
north and east coasts of Mona and all of the coast of Monito consist  of vertical limestone cliffs rising
from about 20-m water depths to elevations nearly as high as 100 m above sea level in some places (Colin
1979). Below the cliffs, the bottom becomes a nearly level rocky plain.  Coral reef development is best
along the south and  west  coasts  of Mona,  where fringing reefs occur (Colin 1979).   Mangrove
development is limited to a  1.2-ha mangrove forest on the southwest coast behind a sandy beach (Uvero-
Sardinera) (Cintrdn et al. 1978). The island of Desecheo lies about 19 km off Punta Higuero on the west
coast of Puerto Rico and lacks the  vertical cliffs of Mona and Monito.  Extensive submarine caves are
present here,  and a well-developed reef is located in about  15-30 m of water on the southwest side of the
island (Colin  1979). Information on rainfall and temperature for these islands is limited. Annual rainfall
probably does not exceed 88.9 cm on average, with maximum mean monthly rainfall not exceeding 10.2
cm during the wettest periods (Cintrdn et  al. 1978).  Monthly mean temperatures are similar to those of
other coastal  areas and range  from  24.4 to 27.8 °C.

2.1.2  U.S. Virgin Islands

The U.S.  Virgin Islands, the westernmost group of the lesser Antilles  (including Vieques and Culebra),
lie east and southeast of Puerto Rico. The British Virgin  Islands lie only a few kilometers to the north
and east.  The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of St. Croix, about 56 km to the south of Puerto Rico, and
St. John and St. Thomas to  the north and include numerous smaller islands and islets. These  islands are
similar in character to the  Puerto Rican Islands of Vieques and Culebra (i.e., no permanent rivers or
streams,  similar rainfall and temperature), but are far  more developed.  Island-specific information is
provided below.

St. Croix

St. Croix  is the largest of the three  U.S. Virgin Islands (217 km2). Although the island is hilly, a large,
relatively flat expanse of land lies on the southern coast and nearly bisects the island in the center, while
two ranges of hills occupy the east  and west ends of the islands.   The  insular shelf on St. Croix is quite
narrow on the west and northeast ends and then widens to incorporate Buck Island and continues to be
quite broad  around the east end.  The insular shelf on the south shore is fairly broad and shallow,
especially on the eastern end.  The highest point is Mount Eagle (355 m) on the west end. No permanent
rivers or streams  are found on the island, but small mangrove  lagoons occur (IRF 1985).   The most
extensive  mangrove forest was once found on the south coast, but it has largely been displaced by the
development of the South Shore Industrial Complex around Krause Lagoon. Although quantitative data
are not available, other fairly extensive mangrove forests are present on the north coast in Salt River and
on the southeast coast in Great Pond (IRF 1985).

The coral reefs of St. Croix are probably the best developed of the U.S.  Virgin Islands, especially the
reefs off of the eastern end  of the island, which include the reefs of Buck Island National Monument off
the northeast  coast (Adey et al.  1981). An exceptional emergent barrier reef occurs along the northeast
coast (Tague Reef),  and submerged barrier reefs are  found along parts of the  insular shelf.  On the
northwest coast the insular shelf is narrow and dips steeply. Well-developed submerged barrier reefs are
located  along the northwest  coast.  The southeast coast is dotted  with numerous  fringing reefs  at

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headlands and barrier reefs that protect sandy bays.  Reef development along the southwest and west
coasts, with hard pavements and sand predominating, is poorest, with only a few poorly developed patch
reefs occurring.

Rainfall in St. Croix averages 111.8 cm annually, with rainfall distribution ranging from 50.8 to 63.5 cm
on the drier east end to probably greater than 127.0 cm at higher elevations on the west end (Calvesbert
1970).  Mean monthly rainfall ranges from a low of 2.5 to 5.1 cm in January through April, with most
rainfall  occurring in August and September (15.2  cm),  although single showers  have been known to
quickly  deposit over 25.4 cm of rainfall on occasion (Calvesbert  1970).  Temperatures are similar to
coastal temperatures reported for Puerto Rico, ranging from 24.7 to 27.7 °C (NOAA 1989a). Winds are
dominated by the Trade Winds, except where local topography allows for  the diurnal influence of land
and sea  breezes.  Currents are controlled primarily by the east-west flow of the North Equatorial Current
and are modified  by diurnal tides with mean tidal range of 0.24 m (Tetra Tech 1985b).   On the south
coast in the vicinity of the South Shore Industrial Complex, westerly flows predominate on the flood tide,
with southwesterly flows during weak ebb tides and strong ebb tides (Tetra Tech 1985b). Easterly flows
occur less than 20 percent of the time, and onshore flows occur less than 5  percent of the time (Tetra
Tech 1985b).  Because  of the complex coral reef development in  nearshore areas and the presence of
several  nearshore islands on cays, these  typical  currents may be modified by  local winds, waves,
bathymetry, coastal configuration, and coastal stormwater discharges.  Density stratification is probably
very weak, and no seasonal pattern has been identified (Tetra Tech 1985b).

St. John

St. John is the smallest  of the three main U.S. Virgin Islands (51.8 km2). Bordeaux Mountain, in the
eastern  area of the island, is the highest peak at 395 m.  Slopes are steep and very little flat land can be
found.  No permanent rivers or streams exist, although there are well-protected bays and freshwater and
saline lagoons (Rogers and Teytaud 1988).  Most of the island (68 percent) is designated as the Virgin
Islands  National Park under the concurrent jurisdiction of the Virgin Islands government and  the U.S.
National Park Service.   Coral reef development  is not as  extensive as in  St. Croix, but fairly well
developed fringing reefs are present along the shores of several bays (e.g., Lagoon Point-Johnson Reef
in Coral Bay; Great Lameshur Bay) (Rogers and Teytaud 1988).  Fringe mangrove forests occur along
nearshore lagoons and inner bays.  Seagrass beds and algal plains of varying development occur in many
of these bays (Beets et al. 1986).

Annual  rainfall averages 111.8  cm per year, with 5.1 cm per month or less typically falling during the
dry season and as much as 15.2  cm per month falling in the wet months of September and October
(NOAA 1989a).  Mean  monthly temperature ranges from 25.0 to 27.8 °C  (NOAA 1989a). Currents in
nearshore areas are complex because of the irregularity of the shoreline.  These currents are the result
of modification of the predominant westward flow of the North Equatorial Current by local patterns of
wind, waves, coastline configuration, bathymetry, and stormwater discharges.

St. Thomas

St. Thomas is similar to St. John, with rugged terrain, an irregular  coastline,  and little flat land.  Crown
Mountain is the highest  point (472 m). No streams or rivers are present,  but several lagoons  and bays
are located throughout the island (IRF  1985). Only Hassel Island in St. Thomas Harbor and a small area
around  Crown Mountain have been  included in the Virgin Islands National Park.  Fringing reefs
associated with bays,  fringing mangroves associated with salt ponds, and seagrass-covered bays occur

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along the  coast (IRF 1985).  The best-developed mangrove forest on the island occurs in Mangrove
Lagoon and Benner Bay in Jersey Bay on the south coast (IRF 1985).

Annual rainfall averages  111.8 cm,  with monthly rainfall ranging from 5.1 cm during dry months to
15.2 cm during the wettest month, September (NOAA 1989a). However, heavy rainfall of short duration
can occur at any time of the year, resulting in extensive flooding.  Approximately 45.7 cm of rain fell
in a 24-hour  period in March 1983 in Charlotte Amalie in  St. Thomas, resulting in severe flooding
(NOAA 1983). Monthly mean temperature ranges from 25.0 to 27.8 °C (NOAA 1989a).

Currents in nearshore areas are complex as a result of the interaction of the predominant North Equatorial
Current with local winds,  waves, tides, coastal  configuration, bathymetry,  and coastal  stormwater
discharges. IRF (1981) conducted a circulation study and summarized the results of several investigations
of the water  circulation in  the area of Southwest Roads  between Saba Island and the south coast of
St. Thomas.  The  study indicated an inshore diurnal reversing current flow of longer duration to the
northwest than to the southeast. Worst-case conditions occurred in nearshore areas when strong southeast
winds turned  weak surface ebb flows toward shore (IRF 1981).   IRF (1977b) also conducted a study of
water circulation in Perseverance Bay.  This study indicated that flow through Perseverance Bay during
an ebb tide was predominantly eastward and westward during flood tides (IRF 1977b). Weak  density
stratification has been observed off the coast, but seasonal patterns in density stratification have not been
identified  (Tetra Tech 1985c).

2.2  Ecological Habitats

Coastal marine environments in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands include a variety of supratidal,
intertidal  and subtidal  habitats with a  range from hard-bottom to  soft-bottom substrates.   The  most
distinctive of these habitats  and perhaps the most widely studied are the coral, mangrove, and seagrass
communities.  These communities are highly productive ecosystems that provide habitat for  a variety of
organisms including important commercial species.  Coral, mangrove, and seagrass communities are not
distinct entities, but are considered to be interconnected with each other and with other marine, estuarine,
and  terrestrial  habitats (Cintrdn and Schaffer-Novelli 1983).   For example, seagrass beds serve as
secondary feeding grounds for many coral reef animals and protect coral reefs by trapping sediment and
lowering  the  potential  for sediment resuspension  and transport.  Coral reefs, in turn, dissipate  wave
energy and protect seagrasses. Coral reefs also provide refuge for many animals that feed in seagrass
and mangrove areas. Riverine mangroves trap sediments carried by the river waters, thereby protecting
seagrass beds and coral reefs from  excessive sediment loads. In addition, the export of mangrove leaf
litter provides an important food source for organisms inhabiting seagrass and coral reef communities,
and mangroves serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many animals that  spend their adult  lives in
seagrass,  coral  reef, or open-water  areas.

This  section  briefly describes  the  general character and types  of  coral, mangrove, and seagrass
communities that are found  in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico  and  the U.S. Virgin Islands. Following
these general  descriptions, an overview of the distribution and character of these communities in Puerto
Rico and the  U.S.  Virgin Islands is provided.

Coral Communities

The foundation of the coral community is the coral polyp.   These animals are generally colonial
organisms of the order Scleractinia (scleractinian or stony corals), which  are capable of secreting a

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calcium  carbonate  skeleton.  The reef-building or hermatypic  corals have  a mutualistic symbiotic
relationship with zooxanthellae (intracellular algae), which may contribute substantially to the nutrition
of the polyps. Corals may also rely on plankton, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter for nourishment.
The dependence of some coral species on their photosynthetic symbionts results in their dependence on
adequate light penetration for growth  and reproduction.

Coral communities may exist under  a variety of conditions of water depth,  bottom substrate, water
quality, wave energy, and currents, but well-developed coral communities usually occur in tropical and
subtropical waters of low turbidity, low terrestrial runoff, and low levels of suspended sediment.  Corals
may occur scattered in patches attached to hard substrates, but areas where coral organisms are actively
building toward the water surface are termed coral  reefs.   Major  reef-building coral  genera of the
Caribbean include Acropora, Montastraea, Forties, Diploria, Siderastrea, and Agarida.  Elkhorn coral
(Acropora palmata) and boulder star coral (Montastraea annularis) are  generally the most numerous
species, although in some regions other species (e.g., staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis) may be more
common. In addition to the reef-building corals, coral communities may contain (or even be dominated
by) coralline algae and a  variety of gorgonian corals, such as the sea rod, Plexaura flexuosa, and sea
fans,  Gorgonia spp.

The structural complexity of an actively  building coral reef provides habitat for a variety of coral reef
organisms, including algae,  sponges, mollusks, bryozoans, fish, crustaceans, and sea urchins.  Many of
these  reef organisms are of commercial  importance and  include the spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), a
variety of groupers (e.g., Nassau grouper, Epinephelus striatus), and numerous species of fish that serve
as a food resource for the local human inhabitants.

The general coral reef types that have been observed in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands include:

        •   Fringing reefs:  Emergent reefs extending directly from shore.  These reefs are often found
            as extensions of headlands or points.

        •   Fringing barrier reefs: Emergent reefs adjacent to the shore, but separated from the shore
            by an open lagoon.

        •   Submerged-barrier reefs:  Submerged fringing reefs that have not developed to the surface.

        •   Patch  reefs:  Small circular or irregular reefs that rise  directly from the bottom and are
            distinct from other reef sections.

Coral  communities  are often described on the basis of species composition and abundance.   The
percentage of living coral tissue covering the substratum is calculated from measurements taken from the
surface of the coral colony  underlying multiple line or belt quadrat transects placed across a reef site.
The following discussion of coral habitats for the different islands contains information on percent cover
of living coral tissue obtained from various transect surveys. It should be noted, however, that these are
only estimates of coral cover because there are many  difficulties associated with determining coral
community structure (e.g., Weinburg 1981). In particular, the percentages given by Beets et al. (1986)
are high because the stony coral cover was  estimated and not measured by quadrat or transect techniques
(G. Garrison, Virgin Islands National  Park, St. Thomas, personal communication, September 14,  1992).
Hermatypic corals are susceptible to  adverse changes in environmental conditions,  storm damage, and
diseases (Peters 1984, Rogers  1985, Goenaga 1991). Hence, coral communities are  constantly changing

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and their coral cover may be different from that cited in this report.  For current information on coral
reefs  of Puerto  Rico  and the U.S. Virgin  Islands, Dr. Carlos Goenaga  (Department of  Biology,
University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez) and Dr. Caroline  Rogers (Virgin Islands  National  Park,  St.
Thomas) should be consulted.

Mangrove Communities

The term mangrove is used to describe woody plants, belonging to several unrelated families, that possess
adaptations that allow them  to grow in salty, waterlogged and hypoxic or reduced substrates.  Three
"true" or "strict" mangrove species are found in Puerto Rico and the U.S.  Virgin Islands.  True
mangroves are those species  whose special  morphological and physiological  adaptations allow them to
colonize and dominate the structure of the ecosystem. They show a complete fidelity to the mangrove
environment and do not intrude into terrestrial environments.  These species include the red mangrove
(Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans),  and the white mangrove (Laguncularia
racemosd).  The buttonwood  (Conocarpus erectus) is considered a mangrove associate. It colonizes low
salinity mangrove environments but it also grows on  dry  rocky and  sandy coasts exposed to salt spray
(Dr. Gilberto Cintrdn, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, VA, personal communication, January
6, 1993).

Each of these mangrove species has special environmental requirements and  adaptations that determine
its distribution, areal extent, and response to pollution stresses.  Generally, these adaptations are reflected
by the distinctive zonation  patterns observed  within  mangrove forests. The most important factors
controlling the structure and species composition of the mangrove appear to be salinity tolerance and seed
dispersal mechanisms (Cintrdn and Schaeffer-Novelli 1983).  The structure, species composition, and
areal coverage of mangrove  forests may  fluctuate as a result of storm damage or changes in patterns of
seawater exchange within  the mangrove as the result of the creation and destruction of sediment barriers
on the seaward fringe (Cintrdn et al. 1978).

The mangrove forest typically supports a variety of intertidal life among and on the aerial roots of the
mangrove trees, and birds and reptiles  find refuge  in the  forest canopy.   Open water spaces in the
mangrove forest may also function as feeding areas for a variety of birds and fishes.  Mangrove forests
provide an  important feeding, nursery, and  spawning area for many fishes and species  of shrimp.
Organisms associated with the mangrove prop roots include barnacles, sponges, oysters, and mussels.

Mangrove forests vary greatly in  structural and functional characteristics as a result of the vegetation's
response to environmental factors that vary in quality,  time, and intensity (Cintrdn-Molero and Schaeffer-
Novelli 1992).  Lugo and  Snedaker (1974) developed  a classification scheme that relates forest structure
and functional characteristics to local hydrologic and geomorphic factors,.  In each category forest stands
subject to similar tidal characteristics and hydroperiods reach similar levels  of development and share
similar functional attributes.  Cintrdn et  al.  (1985) reviewed and simplified the original classification to
three types: riverine, fringe,  and basin mangroves.

These physiographic types, all of which  occur in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are described
briefly below (Dr. G. Cintrdn, personal  communication, January 6,  1993):

        •  Riverine forests:  These forests occur along the margin of river estuaries where nutrient
           inputs are high and salinities low.  These stands reach the most  luxuriant development and
           have highest productivities.

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       •   Basin forests: This type develops in those portions of the coastal floodplains influenced by
           seawater. Basin forests need inputs or rainwater or runoff for their best development. In
           dry areas salts accumulate due to evapotranspiration and hypersaline lagoons and bare areas
           develop. Salt Ponds are small mangrove basins where flushing occurs sporadically and salts
           accumulate.   They  are  common  in the smaller islands where the climate is  dry and
           watersheds are small.

       •   Fringe forests:  Fringe mangroves occur along protected shorelines  or  around  overwash
           islands.  They develop in environments with salinity close to that of seawater and  subject to
           the low nutrient levels typical of tropical sea water. Runoff and rainwater are not as critical
           for the maintenance of these forests since they are generally  well flushed by tides.

Seagrass Communities

Most Caribbean seagrass communities are typified by three species:  turtle grass (Thalassia testudinwri),
manatee grass (Syringodiumfiliforme), and shoal grass (Halodule wrightii). A fourth genus (Halophila)
does not generally occur in mixed beds of the species,  but may be found in shallow turbid water or to
depths of 50 m in clear water because of its adaptation to low light intensity (Ogden 1980).  Manatee and
shoal grass are generally the first to colonize bare sediments. Turtle grass becomes established later and
gradually becomes the dominant seagrass  (Williams 1987).  Species of macroalgae are often interspersed
between the grass blades, and  the grass blades themselves are often colonized by epiphytes.

Puerto Rico, however, has one of the most diverse seagrass  floras  in the North Atlantic Ocean.  Seven
species  have  been found:  (1)  turtle grass, T.  testudinum;   (2) sea vines,  Halophila decipiens;
(3) Halophila baillonis; (4) Halophila  engelmannii;  (5) manatee grass, Syringodiumfiliforme;  (6) shoal
grass, Halodule wrightii; and  (7) widgeon grass (ditch grass), Ruppia maritima (Vicente 1992).

The  seagrass community includes an enormous variety of algae,  plankton, mollusks, crabs, shrimp,
urchins, and fish. Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and West Indian manatees (Tricheus manatus) feed
heavily on turtle grass.  Commercially important species that live among the seagrass include the mollusk
queen conch (Strombus gigas), the chicken liver sponge (Chondrilla nucula), and the white sea urchin
(Tripneustes ventricosis), which is prized for its edible ovaries.  In addition to having high productivity
and  supporting  a  variety of  biota, seagrass  beds  contribute to  shoreline stabilization by  trapping
sediments.

2.2.1 Puerto Rico

Presently an island-wide assessment of the character and  areal extent of ecological habitats  is poorly
documented  in Puerto  Rico.    However,  qualitative  descriptions of major  reef  areas  and limited
quantitative information were compiled by Goenaga and Cintrdn (1979).   The areal extent of mangrove
coverage in Puerto Rico has been monitored using aerial photographs over the last few decades (NOAA
1978, EQB 1990), but the methods used have not been standardized (e.g., inclusion or exclusion of open
water,  inclusion or exclusion of open,  reseeded areas)  and therefore allow for  only a qualitative
assessment of the recent trends in mangrove coverage  on the island.  It has been estimated, however, that
historical losses of mangrove forests were significant  as a result of official government policy  in the late
1930s and the early 1940s that encouraged the conversion of mangrove forests to dry land.  In 1941,  a
total of 1,000 ha of mangroves were  filled for  the  construction of the  Roosevelt Roads Naval Base
(Carrion, 1992).  Upon the creation of Puerto Rico's Department of Natural Resources (DNR) in the

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early 1970s, it was estimated by the DNR that an estimated net loss of 600 ha of mangrove forests had
occurred during 1973 and  1974 (Carrion,  1992).  Conservation  policies have allowed the  DNR to
purchase approximately 2,000 ha of mangrove wetlands.  In addition to government efforts, conservation
groups have bought over 280 ha of fresh and brackish swamp forest at a cost of $1.2 million to establish
the first freshwater swamp forest reserve in Puerto Rico (Carrion, 1992).

Limited information is available on the character of specific mangrove areas (e.g., Kolehmainen et al.
1974, Cintrdn et al. 1978, Lugo 1990a, Zucca 1982). Even more limited information is available on the
character and areal extent of Puerto Rico's seagrass resource, and the information is limited primarily
to descriptions of algae and seagrass beds in the vicinity of proposed municipal marine wastewater outfalls
and descriptions of the seagrass  communities of Jobos and Guayanilla Bays on the south coast of the
island (Vicente 1975, Vicente and Rivera 1982).  Based on the information available from these sources,
a descriptive map was created to identify the locations of these communities to the extent possible (Figure
2-1).  A general description of these communities, by  region, is provided below.

Region 1

Coral  Communities.  The  coral communities of the  north  coast of Puerto Rico consist primarily of
scattered stony coral colonies, gorgonian corals, and poorly developed reefs in hard pavement areas along
the coast (Wood et al. 1975a, 1975b; Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979; Yoshioka and Yoshioka 1989, 1991).
The percent cover of living stony coral tissue in this region is generally low  and where quantitative
observations have been made has not exceeded 7 percent (Figure 2-2). Poorly developed reefs have been
noted near Bayamdn along Islas de Cabras, as  well as encrusting growth on rock reefs off  San Juan
(Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979). Coral reefs are better developed along the coast of the eastern portion of
Region 1,  with patch reefs formed off Punta Las Marfas and Boca de Cangrejos near Carolina, from
Punta Iglesias to Punta San Augustfn, and in Ensenada Comezdn, and fringing reefs off Punta Miquillo
and Punta Picua (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979).  Historically, coral coverage in this region has  been low
because of the discharge of sediments from the large rivers in the region and the heavy exposure to waves
from the open Atlantic Ocean (Kaye  1959).  Goenaga (1991) noted that reefs off Arecibo and Dorado,
and all reefs from San Juan to Las Cabezas de San Juan, have suffered considerable damage as the result
of human activities. Sedimentation from extensive dredging and organic pollution from sewage treatment
plants in Torrecilla Lagoon virtually destroyed the well-developed reefs northwest of Boca de Cangrejos
(G. Cintrdn, personal communication, cited in Goenaga 1991).

Mangrove Communities.  The mangrove communities in Region 1  are some of the largest  and most
extensive on the island because  of the presence of large, permanent rivers and the broad, nearly flat
alluvial  plain of the north coast. However, the largest of these mangrove areas  is adjacent to the
expanding area of San Juan and is being encroached upon (Rodrfguez 1981).  Thirty mangrove areas have
been identified in Region 1 from Punta Agujereada east to Punta Picua (EQB 1990).  The areal coverage
of these mangrove areas has been estimated at 3,935 ha (43.9 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage).
(See Table 2-3.) The largest of these areas is the Torrecilla-Pifiones mangrove (2,032 ha) near the urban
area of San Juan.

Seagrass Communities.  Limited information on the extent and character of seagrass communities  is
available for Region 1.  However, seagrass areas composed of turtle and manatee grass have been noted
near Tortuguero (Wood et al. 1975b), in Ensenada Boca Vieja, and east of Punta Salinas near Bayamdn.
                                              2-14

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NJ

I/I
               LEGEND
                CORAL REEFS

                MANGROVES

            Q  SALT  PONDS

            v   SEAGRASS
      16 KM
I	1
0      10 MILES
                                 Figure 2-1. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in Puerto Rico

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 Source: Tetra Tech 1986a, 1986b, 1987a

 Figure 2-2.  Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 1 of Puerto Rico


San Juan Harbor

Coral Communities.  With  the exception of a few  isolated coral colonies of Montastrea annularis
associated with large basket sponges and soft corals, at the bay entrance at depths of 15 hi, there are at
present no corals within the bay (Stoner and Goenega 1987).

Mangrove Communities. Extensive mangrove areas occur along San Juan Harbor at the confluence of
Rfo Puerto Nuevo and the Martfn Pena canal in the area of the Constitution Bridge Mudflats (Cardona
and Rivera 1988). Total mangrove coverage in this area (Cano Martfn Pena and Rfo Nuevo mangrove
areas combined) is estimated at  172 ha (EQB  1990).  Mangrove areas also  occur on the  Palo  Seco
Peninsula in the northwest sector of San Juan Bay (Cardona and Rivera 1988).

Seagrass Communities.  Extensive seagrass communities do not appear to occur within San Juan Harbor
at present, but dense stands of die red alga  Gradlaria have been noted (Stoner and Goenaga 1987).  Beds
of Halophila have been noted in deeper coastal waters off the mouth of the harbor (Tetra Tech 1986a).
                                            2-16

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Region 2

Coral Communities. The coral communities of Region 2 are occasionally well developed and form patch
and fringing coral reefs, especially in offshore areas in the islands of La Cordillera and on cays offshore
of Fajardo, Ceiba, and Humacao (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979).  The percent live stony coral cover on
these reefs where quantitative observations have been made ranges from 6 to 100 percent (Figure 2-3).
Descriptions of the coral communities of the offshore islands of Culebra and Vieques are limited to
reports on the coral reefs in U.S. Navy target practice areas on the island of Vieques (Antonius and
Weiner 1982). Antonius and Weiner described well-developed fringing and patch reefs along the eastern
tip of Vieques in Bahfas Icacos and  Salinas.  Goenaga (1991) reported recent degradation as the result
of anthropogenic impacts to inshore reefs at Fajardo, Humacao reefs, and the annular reef off Puerto
Yabucoa.

Mangrove Communities. Twenty mangrove areas along the Region 2 coast from Rfo Mameyes to Punta
Candelero have been identified, with an estimated areal coverage of 1,666 ha, or 18.6 percent of the total
Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990) (Table 2-3). The two mangrove areas on the Roosevelt Roads Naval
Base (Puerto Medio Mundo and Ensenada Honda) constitute the largest mangrove area on the eastern
coast (608 ha).   The islands  of La Cordillera Harbor contain only about 2 ha of mangrove.  Nine
mangrove areas, with an estimated areal extent of 97 ha (1.1 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage),
have been identified on the islets and main island of Culebra (EQB 1990).  On the island of Vieques,  10
mangrove areas have been identified,  with an areal coverage of 266 ha,  3  percent of the total Puerto
Rican coverage (EQB 1990).

Seagrass  Communities.   Information regarding the seagrass communities  of Region  2 is  limited.
However, turtle grass and manatee grass have been noted in Bahfa las Cabezas (Tetra Tech 1987c) and
off Humacao (Tetra Tech 1987b), and turtle grass has been noted in Laguna Grande (Cardona and Rivera
 1988), Cabo de San Juan, from Medio Mundo to Punta Lima (Goenaga and Cintr6n 1979), and in waters
off  Cayo Icacos in La Cordillera  (Almy and  Carrion-Torres 1963).  Descriptions of the  seagrass
communities of the islands of Culebra and Vieques are not available.

Region 3

Coral Communities. The coral communities of the south coast are generally well developed, and in some
 areas, such as La Parguera, they form extensive fringing and patch reefs (Goenaga and  Cintrdn 1979,
Goenaga  1991).  Soft coral communities on  the south coast have also been described by Yoshioka and
Yoshioka (1989, 1991). The submerged-shelf edge along the south coast also supports well-developed
 reef communities,  especially along the western portion of the coast off La Parguera (Morelock et al.
 1977, Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979, Weinberg 1981).  The percent live stony coral cover on these reefs
where quantitative observations have been made ranges from 1 percent at a reef east of the jetty at Puerto
Las Mareas to 100 percent at Arrecife Turromote, La Parguera (Figure 2-4).  Areas of reduced live coral
cover occur in the area of Puerto Las  Mareas and Ponce because of the influx of terrigenous sediments
from rivers (Tetra Tech 1981,  Acevedo and Morelock 1988, Acevedo et al. 1989). The low percent coral
cover on the west wall of Guayanilla Canyon (2 percent) was attributed to the  resuspension of sediments
by increased shipping traffic into Guayanilla Bay (Morelock et al. 1979).  Inshore Ponce reefs, all reefs
off Guayanilla and Tallaboa Bays, and all reefs off and fringing Gua"nica were considered by  Goenaga
 (1991) to have been  recently damaged by human activities and to  exhibit low coral cover. The most
 extensive reef complex in Puerto Rico comprises the patch reefs and coral cays  of La Parguera (Morelock
 et al. 1977). These reefs  were considered  by Goenega  and Cintrdn (1979) to have been subjected to

                                              2-17

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                                                 TABLE  2-3.  AREAL COVERAGE OF MANGROVE  FOREST  IN PUERTO RICO
Areal Extent (ha)'
Location*
Regi
Maleia Alta
Jaclnto
Bejuraa
Punta Sardine
Rio Guajataca
Penan Brual
Maraciryo (Caauy)
Carrlzales
Cano Tlburone*
Pal net Altas
La Boca
La Esperania
Tlerras Nuevas
Punta Mar Chlqulta
Clbueo
Cerro Gordo
Rio La Plata
Mameyal
Rio Cocal-San Pedro
Rio tayanon
Las Cucherlllas
Pueblo Vlejo
Rio Puerto Nuevo
Cano Martin Pena
Laguna San Jose
Boca de Cangrejos
Plnenes-Terrecilla
Vac la Talega
Ancon
Rfo Herrera
Rio Esplrltu Santo
Punta PI cue

Regii
Rio Maiaeyes
Punta La Senders
Rio Juan Martin
El Convento
laguna Aguas Prietas
Laguna Grande
Rio Fajardo
Bahia Denajagua
Puerto Medio Nundo
Ensenada Honda, Ceiba
Rio Daguao
Bahia Algodones
Bahia LlM
Rio Santiago
Rio Blanco
Rio Anton Ruit
Morrlllo
Literal de Huiacao
Punta Candelero
Punta Guayanet
1988- 198V
Ian 1
7.19
7.59
14.78
6.79
5.99
12.78
NO
14.78
136.20
29.56
19.57
3.99
5.99
7.59
77.89
39.14
18.37
26.36
166.15
0.00
64.31
45.93
89.07
82.68
154.17
192.52

2,031.75 1,
4.39
172.94
210.45
283.18

an 2
50.72
9.18
16.38
22.77
21.97
76.68
128.61
69.50
494.84
113.43
188.12
133.00
4.39
2.00
6.39
277.59
3.99
5.19
16.78
24.76
1974*

6.94
NO'
16.15
ND
ND
ND
15.08
10.01
44.04
6.40
17.48
9.77
ND
ND
221.93
ND
13.21
28.54
117.54
15.21
29.62
19.89
13.48
64.87
67.46
78.87

381.04
ND
31.23
131.32
264.90


37.50
10.01
10.33
29.36
18.15
42.97
62.72
ND
412.10
217.53
164.01
123.98
7.61
ND
NO
295.07
NO
NO
12.41
ND
Areal Extent (ha)
Location 1988-1989

La Cordillera


Region

Punta Tuna
Punta Viento
Punta Gullarte
las Mareaa
Punta Pozuelo-
Cayos Carl be
Puerto de Jobos
Mar Negro
Punta Arenas
Cayos la Barca
and Pajaroa
Cayo de Ratones
Cayo Mata
Bahia de Jauca
Punta Petrena
Punta Cay 1 to
Playa Cortada
Cayo Berber! a
Punta Pastillo
Capitaneje
Boca Chica
Punta Cabullon
and Cayos Frloa
Caja de Muertos
la Gauncha
Las Salinas
Bahia de Tallaboa
Bahia Guayanllla
Puerto de Guayanilla
Cana Gorda
Faro de Guanica
Bahia de Guanica
Ensenada La* Pantos
Punta Mangallllo
Bahia Mont a I va
Bahia Fosforescente
La Parguera
Bahia Sucia












2.00


3

5.19
44. n
9.59
49.52

308.34
111.04
238.05
63.90

73.09
17.58
23.57
14.78
190.91
7.99
30.36
29.16
75.49
7.19
2.00

115.63
3.26
27.96
11.18
55.52
19.97
64.31
50.72
5.19
25.96
3.60
2.40
134.60
22.77
411.37
35.15











* Regions identified in Figure 2-1 .
* Data in cuerdas converted to hectares
using the
conversion factor O.393 ha/cuerda.
1974 Location 1988-1989

ND




6.40
44.44
HO
4.00

96.08
313.02
47.91
26.56

65.79
17.35
21.35
24.56
185.30
ND
13.52
31.09
ND
ND
NO

41.11
NO
ND
13.61
34.56
18.68
130.7V
43.00
6.81
12.81
4.67
5.61
38.43
27.22
418.24
40.04











dNOAA
•ND =
Regi or
Cano Boqueron
Refugio de Ares
Bahia de Bogueron
Punta Guaniojuilta
Punta la Mela
Puerto Real
Punta Ostione*
Joyuda
laguna Joyuda
Cano Corazones
Cano Boquilla
Espinar

Isla da

Flaavnco
Playa Resaca
Playa Brava
Playa large
Puerto del Mangier
San lldelfonso
Ensenada del Ceawnterio
Ensenada Honda
laguna Cornel io
Isla Culebrita
Cayo Nerte

lala de

Punta Arenea-
Laguna (I an I
laguna Playa Grande
Enseneda Honda
laguna Tanuel
Bahia Chlva
Salinas Sur-Cayo Cone jo
Bahia Tapon
Puerto Ferro
Puerto Nosqufto-Scafce
Vieojues Norte

Areal Extent (ha)
1974
i 4

234.25
19.17
25.96
6.79
60.31
97.06
31.55
47.13
123.82
34.35
17.58

Culefara
,
23.16
2.40
13.98
8.79
17.58
17.58
3.19
6.79
1.60
1.20
0.80

Viaqje*


54.72
25.56
65.50
9.18
8.79
4.7V
8.39
25.96
35.94
27.16




201.92
21.89
ND
4.00
23.22
69.53
NO
29.63
83.01
24.95
NO



5.20
1.12
4.00
2.72
4.14
5.20
3.36
ND
NO
ND
ND




78.47
22.69
33.90
10.81
13.48
NO
8.01
18.95
40.17
ND

Isla Nona)

Mangle de Nona










1978.
No Data.

1.20













1.21












Puerto Rico Environmental Quality  Board (199O).

-------
           120
                             Mainland
La Cordillera
Source: Tetra Tech 1987b, 1987c



Figure 2-3. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 2 of Puerto Rico
11U



(D

o
15 80
o
O
cu
.> 60
•^
3^
T3
0> 40
OJ
HI 20





^ s
. s
s i
f 3
1 1
3 °

S1 •* „
-I o
s. *
| £ |
_ i j f
* 5 a
i •
i i
s _
!
s
<£
3
1




















-
s
J s S
i $ 1
i J 11
1 *
£
"3
.a
i
S
§
U)

i
S «
i ? i
*ii
•B i >
i 1 1 i n-
i * * IH * j
o 1 c£«fs£
jSl*
II H
• In
° (Bahla Rincon] [ Ponce
Source: Tetra Tech 1981, 1986c, 1987d, 1990
Figure 2-4. Estimated Percent Live Coral
s. 1- i f s §
5JMII
— rt g J o
s i s °- «
!!lll!




1 s
I
f 4
I I
II

£ & |
8 | 1
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. *
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£
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to
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1





[ LaParguera ]

Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 3 of Puerto Ric
                                         2-19

-------
comparatively little pressure from industry and development.  They are also located in an area fringed
by mangroves, which filter the limited amount of terrestrial runoff that occurs in the area.  However,
human encroachment into the mangrove areas and increased recreational use of this area are cause for
concern (Cardona and Rivera  1988).

Mangrove Communities.  Thirty-six mangrove areas have been identified in Region 3 from Punta Tuna
to Bahfa Sucia, with an estimated area! coverage of mangroves of 2,291 ha, or 25.6 percent of the total
Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990) (Table 2-3). These forests are generally not of the riverine or basin
type typical of the other coasts because of the generally drier, warmer climate and the ephemeral nature
of south coast rivers.  These forests tend to be of the fringing type along the coast and the fringe
overwash type on the many small cays off the coast.  Numerous salt pond areas also occur along the
south coast because of  the lower precipitation and higher evaporation in this region.   The area of La
Parguera contains an estimated 568 ha of mangrove forest, the largest area on  the south coast (EQB
1990).   Mar Negro, part of the Jobos Bay  National Estuarine (JOBANE)  Research Reserve, is
characterized by  mangrove fringe, which protects the shoreline, lagoons and channels.  Cayos Caribes,
also within the Reserve, is a chain of 17 tear-shaped islets.  This area is of particular interest because of
its proximity and interaction with seagrass beds, mangroves, and coral reefs (NOAA, 1990). The Jobos
Bay Reserve covers 1,130 ha of the southern coastal plain of Puerto Rico.  North of the Reserve are
commercial sugarcane farms,  and to the east and west  is the Aguirre State Forest (NOAA, 1990).

Seagrass Communities.  Although seagrass beds  occur mainly on the south coast as a result of the
protection afforded by the numerous coral reefs (Vicente 1975), only limited information on the character
and extent of seagrass communities is available for Region 3.  Turtle grass and manatee grass have been
noted in the area of Puerto Las Mareas  and Jobos Bay (Tetra Tech 1981, Vicente and Rivera 1982).
Three hundred West Indian Manatees are known to forage in the Cayos Caribes area of Jobos Bay, the
second largest population on the island  (NOAA, 1990).  Turtle grass has been noted in the area of Punta
Petrona (Cardona and Rivera 1988),  Ponce (Tetra  Tech 1990), Guayanilla Bay (Vicente and Rivera
1982), Guanica (Cardona and Rivera 1988), and La Parguera (Goenaga and Cintrdn 1979).

Region 4

Coral Communities.  The coral communities of Region 4 range from poor to well developed, depending
primarily on their relationship to terrigenous sediment sources  (Morelock et al. 1983, Goenaga 1991).
A submerged-bank reef off the southwestern portion of the coast of Region 4 (Escollo Negro) has a well-
developed reef area with relatively high (almost 82 percent) live coral cover  (Loya 1976). (See Figure
2-5).  The reefs off Mayagiiez have  lower coral cover because of the stress induced by terrigenous
sediment input from local riverine discharges in the area (Morelock et al. 1983), although live coral cover
at Manchas Exteriores reaches 18 percent (Tetra Tech  1985a).  Along the northern portion of the coast
of Region 4, a submerged-shelf edge reef extends from Punta Cadena to Punta Higiiero (Goenaga and
Cintrdn 1979), and a system of fringing reefs occurs from Punta Higuero to  Punta del Boquerdn (Kaye
1959).  Two patch reefs have also been reported near  Aguadilla, with 4 to 10 percent live coral  cover
(Tetra Tech  1987e).

Mangrove Communities.  Eleven mangrove areas have been identified in Region 4 of Puerto Rico, with
an estimated areal extent of 699 ha, or 7.8 percent of the total Puerto Rican coverage (EQB 1990).  (See
Table 2-3.)  Salt Ponds are found along the southwest  coast of this region because of the similarities in
climate to Region 3.  The  largest mangrove  area is Cano Boquerdn (234 ha), which  functions  as an
important bird refuge.

                                            2-20

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              East Escollo Negro
 Source: Tetra Tech 1985a,  1987e
Mayaguez
Aguadilla
 Figure 2-5. Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of Region 4 of Puerto Rico
Seagrass Communities.  Although seagrasses probably occur where suitable environmental conditions
permit,  no information  regarding the presence  or character of seagrass beds in Region 4 has been
identified.

2.2.2 U.S. Virgin Islands

Presently the areal extent of coral, mangrove, and seagrass communities in the U.S. Virgin Islands is
poorly documented. Figure 2-6 illustrates the locations of these communities; however, map preparation
was hindered by the limitation of the information available from a number of documents and maps.  A
general description of these communities on each of the U.S. Virgin Islands is provided below.

St. Croix

Coral Communities.  Adey et al. (1981) stated that "the 4,000 year old eastern and southeastern bank
barrier reef of St. Croix is one of the best developed reef systems in the tropical-Atlantic Caribbean

                                             2-21

-------
    iru-
  LEGEND
CORAL REEFS
MANGROVES
SALT  PONDS
SEAGRASS
+
irsa-
ts-vr
                                                                                    2.0 MILES
               Figure 2-6. Locations of Major Coastal Ecological Habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands

-------
    area."   They  further stated that "with a length of 37 km, it is the most extensive reef on the Puerto
    Rican-Virgin Island shelf."  Adey et al. (1981) suggested that this reef is the largest reef structure in U.S.
    territory, with the possible exception of U.S.-controlled Indo-Pacific island reefs.  This area includes the
    extensive fringing, patch, and deep reefs of Buck Island Reef National  Monument and the fringing reef
    of Tague Bay. A submerged-shelf edge reef occurs along the narrow north coast shelf, which is broken
    only by the Christiansted and Salt River  submarine canyons.   The percent live  coral cover,  based on
    quantitative observations, ranged from a few percent in areas of the south coast to almost 50 percent
    (Figure 2-7). In areas where the coverage of staghorn coral was complete, coverage of 100 percent was
    possible. Staghorn and elkhorn corals, however, have recently succumbed to white band disease off St.
    Croix, as well as throughout the Caribbean (Gladfelter  1982,  Rogers 1985).  This disease of unknown
    etiology has killed up to 95 percent of the elkhorn corals off Tague Bay (Peters 1988).
    60
 CD50
 O
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 (040
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LLHo
          Airport Reef       Channel Reef       Halfpenny Reef       Isaac Reef        SRC West Wall
                 Mannings Bay      Cane Garden Bay       Robin Reef    Salt River Canyon East Wall
   Source: Adey et al. 1981, Rogers et al.  1983, Rogers et al. 1984, Tetra Tech 1985b

           Figure 2-7.  Estimated  Percent Live Coral Cover in Coastal Waters of St. Croix
                                                  2-23

-------
Hurricane Hugo struck the U.S. Virgin Islands in September 1989, passing directly over St. Croix. Hugo
battered St.  Croix for over  12 hours, with a maximum surface wind of 223 km per hour and heavy
rainfall (14.3 cm to 24.5 cm  recorded on St. John), and it devastated portions of coral reefs and seagrass
beds off St.  Croix (Gladfelter et al.  1991).  Other recent storms that have affected U.S. Virgin Islands
reefs include Hurricane David and Tropical Storm Frederic in 1979, Tropical  Storm Klaus  in 1984, and
Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, with Klaus and David probably the most destructive prior to Hugo (Rogers
et al. 1991). In 1992, percent live stony coral cover was estimated at 26 percent for a reef at Buck Island
(Ginger Garrison, Virgin Islands National Park, personal communication, September 14, 1992).

Mangrove Communities. Very limited information on the mangrove forests of St. Croix is available.
Formerly the largest mangrove area on the island was to be found in the area now occupied by the South
Shore Industrial Complex. Currently, the best mangrove stands occur in the area of Great Pond on the
south coast.  Many of the mangroves of St. Croix are associated with salt ponds because of the lack of
permanent rivers and the high evaporation rate relative to rainfall.  A well-developed mangrove forest
also fringes the shoreline of Salt River, and the mangroves are threatened by the expansion of boat-
docking facilities.

Seagrass Communities. Well-developed seagrass communities occur throughout the island. The presence
of turtle, manatee, and shoal  grass has been noted in Manning Bay on the south coast (Tetra Tech 1985b)
and in Tague Bay Lagoon (Williams 1987, 1990). The presence of Halophila has been noted in the Salt
River submarine canyon (Williams 1988a).

St. John

Coral Communities.  Beets et al. (1986) provide a semiquantitative description of the marine communities
of  bays within the Virgin  Islands  National  Park and Biosphere Reserve of St.  John that includes
descriptions of coral communities. The  percent live coral cover was reported to  range from less than 5
percent to 70 percent (Figure 2-8).  The best developed reef is Johnson's Reef on the east coast and in
Haulover  Bay.  The areas with the greatest coral cover appear to be those that receive the least terrestrial
runoff and/or are exposed  to sufficient wave energy to quickly disperse  excessive sediment loads
(Hubbard et al. 1987).  The most recent estimates of percent live stony coral cover for a reef on the north
side of St. John was 15.6 ± 4.9 percent in 1988.  In  1992, live stony coral  coverage was 11.0 + 1.5
percent for a reef on the south side of St. John and 19.2 +1.5 percent for a reef on the northeast side
of  St. John (Ginger Garrison, Virgin Islands National Park, personal communication,  September 14,
1992).

Severe damage to reefs at St. John by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 was documented on the basis of long-term
line transect,  video transect, and photoquadrat studies at  sites off Yawzi  point,  a rocky point that
separates Little and Great Lameshur Bays.  Rogers et al. (1991) found fragmented and overturned coral
colonies and a significant decrease in total living coral cover from about 20 to 12 percent, with increased
coverage by macroscopic algae and no measurable recovery by the live corals in the 12 months following
the initial post-storm survey. The dominant reef-building coral there, Montastraea annularis, decreased
by  35 percent.  Edmunds and  Witman (1991) observed similar levels of patchy destruction to coral
colonies nearby.  Tropical storm  Klaus  caused a significant reduction in mean percent live coral cover
from 26 to 21 at Fish Bay, St. John, in  1984 (Rogers and Zullo 1987).
                                              2-24

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V^J


70
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 (ft
LLho
                                                                Red Point
Flat Cav
          —'-••	 	.	.	_	.	„	_		.	.	
           Perseverance Bay      Black Point        Brewers Bay
 Source: Rogers et al. 1982, Rogers et al. 1983, Tetra Tech 1985c

      Figure 2-9.  Estimated Percent Live Coral Cover  in Coastal Waters of St. Thomas


because of a need to assess this resource to determine possible impacts of continued human development
in the area (IRF 1977a, Rogers 1982).  Hurricane Hugo damaged portions of coral reefs and seagrass
beds off St. Thomas in 1989, but quantitative observations are lacking (Gladfelter et al. 1991).

Mangrove Communities.  Only limited information on the mangrove forests of St. Thomas is available.
Numerous small mangrove areas  are found  along the coast,  often in association with salt ponds.  The
largest mangrove system on the island is found in Mangrove Lagoon-Benner Bay on the southwest coast
(IRF 1985).  Several cays within the bay are mangrove covered, and mangroves fringe the shoreline in
some areas.  These mangroves are threatened with  further encroachment of the human inhabitants and
human-induced pollution stresses (IRF 1977b).  The mangrove and salt pond of Perseverance Bay  have
also been described (IRF 1977b).

Seagrass Communities.  Limited information on the seagrass communities in St. Thomas indicates that
beds of turtle and manatee grass are common and have been noted near Saba Island, in Perseverance Bay
and Brewers Bay (Rogers  1982), and in Lindberg Bay (Zeiman 1975).
                                            2-26

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2.3  Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Species

This section discusses the commercially important and endangered species found on the islands and the
surrounding coasts, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and marine species.  The species
and  their habitats are described in conjunction with the critical ecosystems associated with their life
histories.  These habitats have been determined to be important through research conducted by  the
governments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin  Islands.   This research  also  identified any  areas
degraded by pollution.  Most of the information for  wildlife and fishes is presented in tabular  and map
formats to facilitate a geographic understanding of critical habitats.

2.3.1 Wildlife

Puerto Rico and  the U.S. Virgin Islands have developed wildlife assessment reports that evaluate the
status of critical habitats, potential degradation, and the types of pollution and sources that have impaired
critical habitats.  These reports, as well as other government documents, have been used extensively to
evaluate the potential impacts to wildlife (IRF 1976; Department of Natural  Resources  1985,  Cardona
and  Rivera 1988,  NOAA 1988, IOC/UNEP  1989).  A study researching the critical wildlife  habitats,
Critical  Coastal Wildlife Areas of Puerto Rico (IOC/UNEP), was conducted in 1978. In 1988 Puerto
Rico's Coastal Zone Management Program conducted a follow-up study (Cardona and Rivera  1988) to
assess changes in the original habitats of the critical coastal  wildlife areas  (CCWAs) listed in the first
report.   Critical coastal wildlife areas are defined as areas that support endangered, threatened, or rare
species and are located no farther than 1 km from the coast. Habitat reduction from coastal development
is one of the major problems facing these critical  habitats (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
Information on CCWAs for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is compiled in Appendix C.  Sites
are mapped in Figures 2-10 and 2-11, respectively. Tables C-l and C-2 in Appendix C list the  potential
sources of marine pollution and habitat destruction and their potential impacts on species in the CCWAs
for Puerto Rico  and  the  U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively.   CCWAs degraded as a result of human
activities are identified.  Information concerning the source of pollution that degraded the ecosystem is
in Section 5.2, the use impairment section.  For each area, a status description has been given to help
identify the areas that are in need of mitigation or monitoring. Primary status indicates that the CCWA
has not been degraded, and secondary status indicates that the area has been dramatically affected and
needs to be monitored.  Pending status indicates that the area is important because although it is not being
used at  this time by endangered species  it  is  a type of habitat that may  be  used in the future.
Additionally, an area may be listed as primary but degraded, which indicates that monitoring is  required
to ensure the preservation of the CCWA. Detailed descriptions of each CCWA are presented following
each of the tables. The threatened and endangered species presently using the coastal wildlife areas are
listed in Table C-3 of Appendix C.

2.3.2 Fish and Shellfish

This section describes the types of commercially important fishes found within the limits of the islands.
The fishing industry in these islands has always been able to support the local economy and the fishermen
who depended on it for their livelihood.  Recently, however, there has been  a noticeable decline in the
catches  and the populations of species are declining, as reported by the local fishermen.  The demand
placed on the fisherman to catch larger quantities of fishes  has increased, and the demand is always
greater than the supply in these areas (Koester 1986). Scientists believe that  the decline is the result of
overfishing and additional stresses placed on the environment by anthropogenically produced pollution.
                                               2-27

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Figure  2-10.  Locations of  Critical  Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs)  of  Puerto  Rico
                          Map* Location                                      Map*  Location
                           I      TorreciUa Piriones                               38
                           2      TorreciUa A1U                                 39
                           3*     Constitution Bridge Mudflats                      40
                           4      Pslo Seco Peninsula (Calsio)                      41
                           5      Buchanan Haystack Hilli (Bayamon)                42
                           6      Fort Buchanan Pond                             43
                           7      San Pedro Swamp (Toa Baja)                      44
                           8*     Lakea/Foresu ofDorado Beach                     45
                           9      Cibuco Swamp                                 46
                           10     Tomigufro Lagoon/Cabo Caribe Swamp
                           11*    Like  Pueno Nuevo                              50
                           12*    Tiburones Swamp                               51
                           13*    La Tembladera Lagoon                          52
                           U-    Camzales Mangrove                             53
                           15     Guajataca Cliffs                                54
                           16     BelUca Creek                                  55
                           17     Bano Colo                                     56
                           18     Cayura                                       57
                           19     Pozo  Honda                                   58
                           20*    Sibsneus Swamp                               59
                           21     Guanajibo Mangrove                             60
                           22*    Jovuda Lagoon                                 61
                           23     Cuevai Lagoon                                 62
                           24     Guuuguilla Lagoons                             63
                           25     Bogueron Refuge                               64
                           26     Cabo Rojo Sail FliU                             65
                           27*    Cartagena Lagoon                               66
                           28     U Paraguera                                   67
                           29     Guanica Stale Forest-West                        68
                           30     Guancia Lagoon                                69
                           31     Guanico  Forest                                 70
                           32     San Jacinlo Salt Flats                            71
                           33     Lluverai                                      72
                           34*    Cabullon Mangrove                             73
                           35     Caja de Muenoa and Momllito l&landa              74
                           36     Fnoi Ciy
                           37     Berbena  Cay

                              * Indicate* habitata that are degraded by pollution
       Punta Petroni Mangrove
       CarocoWaCay
       Punia Arenas
       Mar Negro
       Punta Pozuela
       Pandora Mountain Range
       Humacoa Swamp
       Rooaevelt Roada Naval Baae
-™     FajanJo Couliine
49*    Aguaj Prietai Lagoon
en     Eruada Comezon
       Citeaga Baja
       Culebra's Surrounding Islets
       Flameoco Peninsula
       Flamenco Lagoon
       Conielitii Lagoon
       Recac* Mountain
       Reaaca Beach
       Brava  Beach
       Lirga  B«ach and Zom Lugooo
       Puerto de Manglar
       Cemeateno Bay
       LosCanoa
       East Point of Vieques
       Coneja Iiland
       Emenada Honda Mangrove
       Chivi  Swamp
       Yaouel Lagoon
       Tapon Bay
       Moaquiio Bay.  Easeoadi Sombe and Ferro Bay
       Wect Viequea
       Monita Island
       Mooa  Island
       Deaecbo Island
       Palmoa Pond
                                                                 2-28

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Figure 2-11. Locations of Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWAs) of the U.S. Virgin Islands

                           Map # Location
                           1      Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
                           2      Southern Shelf Edge
                           3      North Central and West Shelf
                           4      Sandy Point
                           5      Manning Bay Mangrove Area
                           6      West Coast Shelf
                           7      East End Reef (Lang Bank)
                           8      South Shelf Edge
                           9      Coral Bays and Environs
                           10*    St. Thomas Harbor and Crown Bay
                           11*    LindbergBay
                           12*    Fortuna Bay
                           13*    Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays
                           14*    Water Bay
                           15*    Vessup Bay
                           16*    Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
                           17*    Christiansted Harbor
                           18*    Altoona Lagoon
                           19*    Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey
                           20*    Manning Bay
                           21*    Cruz Bay
                           22*    Great Cruz Bay
                           23*    Enighed Pond

                           * Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.

                                              2-29

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The reduction in the catches because of exploitation or the effects of pollution, as well as the destruction
of ecosystems essential to  the life histories of the fishes, is further discussed in Section 5.2, the use
impairment section. Information pertaining to monitoring and possible remedial actions also is discussed
in Section 5.2.

Table 2-4 lists the commercially important fish species found in the coastal regions of Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands. For the most part, these fishes generally can be divided to define the various
populations (e.g., reef or pelagic fishes).  Because some species of fish spend various stages of their lives
in more than one area of the coastal regions, however, a definite division is difficult. Reef fishes inhabit
areas of hard rock and  coral reefs on the continental and island shelves and ocean banks.  Reef fishes
include grunts, snapper, parrots, squirrels, and groupers.  Most species are long-lived with slow growth
rates. Fifty percent of fishes consumed are reef species. There are 30 species of commercially important
reef fishes.  Demersal fishes require a broad, muddy bottom and depend on the estuary for part of their
life cycle. Some of the demersal species in the Caribbean include croakers, seatrout, catfishes, snappers,
parrots, and  porgies.   Coastal pelagic fishes include fishes found in the coastal waters or around the
continental shelves of the islands where there is a high density of plankton, usually around the upwellings
and the river discharges or the areas of sewage outfalls.  They are subdivided into two groups: clupeoids
(e.g., sardines and herrings) and  the larger pelagics such as  butterfish, scads, halfbeaks, jacks, and
bluefish. The ocean pelagic fishes include numerous large fishes such as sharks, tuna, billfish,  dolphin,
kingfish, and flying fishes.  They are found mainly in the open  ocean.  The commercially important
invertebrates (e.g.,  crustaceans and mollusks) are included together because of the wide range of habitats
used throughout their lives.  Spiny lobsters, conch, whelk, and shrimp are  some of the commercially
important invertebrate species in the Caribbean.

2.4 Land Use and Demographics

This section discusses land uses, demographic information, and economic conditions for Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands.

2.4.1 Land Use

Puerto Rico

The land of Puerto Rico includes primarily urban, residential, agricultural, and undeveloped land.  About
75 percent of Puerto Rico's land area consists of hills or mountains too steep for intensive commercial
cultivation.  There are a few  natural lakes and many artificial lakes.  The inland transportation network
consists primarily of roads.  The principal port and leading cargo-handling facility is in  San Juan, the
capital of Puerto Rico.  Ponce is the second largest port, and other  major cities include Bayamon,
Carolina, Mayaguez, and Caguas.   A description of land uses by  region follows. (Specific information
regarding percent land use  was  not available for Puerto Rico.)

        •  Region 1 of Puerto  Rico contains two large urban centers, San Juan and Arecibo, and some
           smaller urban  and  residential areas  on the outskirts of San Jose and along the  coast.
           Although agriculture has decreased in importance relative to industry, much of the available
           land is still used for  agricultural activities.   These activities  include the  cultivation of
           pineapples and sugarcane, cattle raising (both dairy and beef), and commercial forestry.
                                              2-30

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     TABLE 2-4.  FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE
                    IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS AND PUERTO RICO
                  Common Name
              Scientific Name
PELAGIC FINFISHES:

cero mackerel
king mackerel - kingfish/longmouth
blue runner - hardnose
bar jack - carang
black jack
greater amberjack

DEMERSAL FINFISHES:
queen triggerfish - ole wife
blue-striped grunt
white grunt
French grunt
tomate
small-mouth grunt
Spanish grunt
Caesar grunt
sailor's choice
juvenile grunts
margate
mutton snapper - virgin snapper
dog snapper
grey snapper
schoolmaster - mango snapper
yellowtail snapper
mahogany snapper - burn tail
queen and French angelfish - flatfish
grey angelfish - flatfish
rock beauty
red hind - hind
graysby - butter socks
coney - butter fish
mutton hamlet
Nassau grouper
black grouper
tiger grouper
porgies
sea bream
doctorfish and tang
yellow goatfish - queen mullet
spotted goatfish
Spanish hogfish - Spanish piper
parrotfish - goutou
trunkfish - shellfish
Scomberomorus maculatus
S. cavalla
Caranx fusus
C. ruber
C. lugubris
Seriola dumerili
Batistes vetula
Haemulon sciurus
H. plumieri
H. flavolineatum
H. aurolineatum
H. chrysargyreum
H. macrostomum
H. carbonarium
H. parra
H. spp.
H. album
Lutjanus analis
L. jocu
L. griseus
L. apodus
Ocyurus chrysurus
L. mahogoni
Pomacanthus spp.
P. arcuatus
Holocanthus tricolor
Epinephelus guttatus
Petrometopon cruentatum
Cephalopholus fulva
Alphestes afer
Epinephelus striatus
Myctoperca bonaci
M. tigris
Sparidae
Archosargus rhomboidalis
Acanthurus spp.
Mulloidichthys martinicus
Pseudupeneus maculatus
Bodianus rufus
Scaridae
Ostraciontadae
                                              2-31

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                                  TABLE 2-4.  (Continued)
                  Common Name
              Scientific Name
 DEMERSAL FINFISHES (Cont.)

 portfish
 sea chubs
 spadefish

 barracuda
 Snook
 white mullet - cramo
 squirrel fish
 mojarra - sand diggers

 MOLLUSKS:
 queen conch
 whelk

 CRUSTACEANS:
 spiny lobster
Anisotrumus virginicus
Kyphosus spp.
Chaetodipterus faber

Sphyraena barracuda
Centropomus undecimalis
Mugil curema
Holocentridae
Gerreidae
Strombus gigas
Cittarium pica
Panulirus argus
Source: Boulon 1986
           Region 2 includes the urban areas of Fajardo, Nagaubo, Humacao, and Yabucoa, as well as
           the  U.S. naval facility at Roosevelt Roads.  Commercial ports are located  at Fajardo,
           Naguabo,  and Humacao; an industrial port  is located in Yabucoa.  Both Humacao and
           Yabucoa have developed industrial areas. La Cordillera, Culebra, and Vieques are primarily
           rural/residential or underdeveloped. The islands of La Cordillera are uninhabited for the
           most part.  Culebra has a small population (including a number of illegal squatters) that
           engages in farming and cattle  raising.  The island of Vieques is also rural/residential in
           character, but over half the island is controlled by the U.S. Navy.  Local inhabitants engage
           in fishing and farming.

           Region 3 includes the major urban centers of Guayama and Ponce  and the industrial port
           center of Bahfa de Gu£nica.  Smaller commercial ports also exist in Guayama and Ponce.
           Power plants are situated in Aguirre in Bahfa de Jobos and Bahfa de Guayanilla. Some of
           the lower coastal land is dedicated to farming. State forests occupy  lands near  Guanica.

           Region 4 has  the urban areas of Mayaguez and Aguadilla.  Facilities in Mayaguez include
           industrial  and  commercial ports,  and Aguadilla has a commercial port.  Farming also
           occupies some of the suitable  coastal  land.  The offshore islands of Mona,  Monito, and
           Desecheo are exclusively park areas for the protection and enjoyment of nature and wildlife.
           Mona has  a small research and  ranger station, and a primitive road crosses the island.
                                             2-32

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Urbanization increased in land area while agricultural lands decreased over the past 50 years (Lugo et
al. 1980).  Approximately, 66,613 ha of farmland were lost from 1972 to 1980 (or 8,337 ha/yr) (USEPA
1990a).  In 1982, there were 21,820 farms in Puerto Rico.  The average size was 17.8 ha. Table 2-5
shows the acreage, production data, and market value for the leading crops in 1982. Coastal wetland area
increased by 2630 ha from 1975 through 1990 (174 ha/yr), but development pressure may change that
trend (USEPA,  1990a). Forest land steadily decreased on Puerto Rico from the 1700s to the 1960s by
809,400 ha (USEPA 1990a).   Some forest land was reforested between 1980 and 1985 (227,036 ha)
(USEPA 1990a). According to data presented by EPA (USEPA 1990a), based  onUSDA Forest Service
reports (USDA 1982), total forest area increased from 279,000 ha in 1980 to 300,000 ha in 1985, about
4,000 ha annually.  This increase occurred primarily because reversion of cropland and pasture to forest
exceeded forest clearing for nonforest uses. However, all new forests are classified as secondary forest,
which accounted for 58 percent of the  island's forests in 1982.   Abandoned coffee shade is the next
largest forest class, and abandoned  and active coffee  shade combined totaled 82,000 ha. During the
USDA study period, about 8,000 ha was  cleared for relatively permanent nonforest uses such as
residences and rights-of-way.
             TABLE 2-5.  LEADING CROPS ACREAGE, PRODUCTION DATA,
                              AND MARKET VALUE IN 1982
Crop
Coffee
Sugarcane
Fruits and nuts
Grains
(Rice)
Vegetables
Pineapples
Ornamental plants
Tobacco
Area (ha)
32,133
16,143
21,509
1,062
889
2,621
1,214
334
98
Output
243,900 cwt
1.32 M metric tons
NA
141, 000 cwt
138,000 cwt
NA
39,900 metric tons
NA
167,000 kg
Value
($M)
$39.3
26.7
14.1
9.7
9.6
9.5
8.8
0.26
3
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce 1991
    = Not Available
                                            2-33

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U.S. Virgin Islands

The U.S. Virgin Islands comprise over 50 islands, with three islands of significant size, population, and
commercial importance: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix.

St.  Thomas is 20.9 km long and 6.4 km wide,  approximately 83 square km (km2) in total area.  St.
Thomas has the territorial capital,  Charlotte Amalie, which has one of the largest harbors in the entire
Caribbean. The island is mountainous and little cultivated, but it has many snug harbors.  Its  land use
is predominately  residential (26 percent), with urban, resort, and agricultural uses accounting  for 4
percent; underdeveloped land accounts for  61  percent.   Because of the steep slopes of the interior,
development is concentrated in relatively flat areas along the coast.

St.  John, a few kilometers  east of St. Thomas, is 14 km long and 6 km wide, with an area of 52 km2,
68 percent of which is national park (8,094 ha).  St. John is also mountainous and has fine beaches and
dense vegetation.  Residential and resort development appears small (4 percent) and is confined to the
east and west of the island, not incorporated into the  National Park.  Cruz Bay is the most intensively
developed settlement, with harbor  facilities for small ships and boats.

St.  Croix, the largest of the islands, lies 64 km south of St. Thomas and St. John. The island measures
36.5 km in length and 10.6 km across at its widest point, with an area of 212.9 km2.  St.  Croix is
relatively flat, with a terrain suitable for sugarcane cultivation. It is predominately underdeveloped (59
percent); however, most of the development is confined to coastal areas near sensitive marine  habitats.
Agricultural uses occupy 12 percent of the total land area, a  percentage higher than that of any  other
island of the Virgin Islands. Residential, urban, and resort development accounts for almost 16 percent,
again near coastal areas.  Christiansted, on the north coast, is the major population and urban center.
Christiansted has harbor facilities and receives major tourist cruise ships on a regular basis. Fredricksted,
on  the west coast, is a smaller residential center with a single pier for smaller ships.  The South Shore
Industrial Complex contains a major oil refinery, an alumina plant, and tanker docking facilities.

A Virgin Islands land use  survey  was conducted in 1989 by  the Department of Planning and Natural
Resources, Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands (Colman et al. 1989).  The land use survey was  based
on  aerial photography analysis. Table 2-6 summarizes the land use  classifications  for the three main
Virgin Islands. The classifications are defined below:

       •   Agricultural land  includes  all  land dedicated  to agriculture  such  as  dairy  farming,  cattle
           grazing, crop production, tree farming, and agricultural field and experiment stations.

       •   Retail/Commercial includes shopping centers, gas stations, clusters of shops, office buildings,
           and auto dealerships/servicing.

       •   Resorts/Hotels  includes hotels,  condos,  and  apartments  used by tourists,  guest houses,
           cottages, and  campsites.

       •   Industrial/Commercial uses range from watch assembly and other light manufacturing to oil
           refining, electrical  generation, and water desalination.

       •   Public  Facilities includes publicly owned or used facilities such as airports, schools, fire
           stations, churches, sewage treatment plants, landfills, prisons, and universities.

                                               2-34

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       •  Urban is characterized by highly mixed land use activities, very dense development, and a
          high concentration of population. Census tract boundaries were used to delineate the limits
          of urban use near the major cities.

       •  Waterfront Marine includes those uses which depend on a location on the shoreline or in
          coastal waters such as cruise ship docks, cargo and container ports, oil terminals, marinas,
          boatyards, and mooring areas.

       •  Parks/Dedicated Open Space depicts those uses of land  and water that are dedicated to
          recreational activities or land conservation, or a combination of the two.  It includes land
          within the park system, tennis courts, baseball fields, and beaches, as well as land owned by
          nonprofit organizations such as the Nature Conservancy.

       •  Undeveloped includes land not included under other uses. This land could have the potential
          to be developed.  It is not necessarily "unusable" land such as steep slopes.

       •  Residential includes the total  acreage developed for residential use.

A significant portion of the  land of the Virgin Islands is zoned  for residential uses.   In total, the
residential land uses constitute the largest zoning category. Over 60 percent of the land area of St. Croix,
over 80 percent of  St. Thomas, and over 90 percent of  the nonfederal  land on  St. John is zoned
residential. These percentages are higher than those presented in Table 2-6 because not all of the zoned
area has been developed.  Low-density residential uses are the most significant in terms of land coverage.
The pattern of development and density has been guided by the zoning law, which defines low density
as one or two structures per acre.
              TABLE 2-6. USE OF LAND IN PUERTO RICO IN 1958 AND 1967
1958
Use
Urban
Cultivated
Pasture
Forest
Federal Land
Other Uses
Total
Area (ha)
38,896
316,234
276,625
187,304
39,283
27,426
885,555
Percent of
Total
4.4
35.7
31.2
21.3
4.4
3.1
100
1967
Area (ha)
45,997
264,365
341,139
155,009
39,174
40,104
885,555
Percent of
Total
5.2
29.8
38.5
17.5
4.4
4.6
100
 Source: Lugo et al. 1980.
                                              2-35

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2.4.2 Population

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, with a 1990 census population of 3,552,037, had more people than 27 of the states. The
1990 census total represented a 10.2 percent increase over the total in 1980, with an average growth rate
of 1.0 percent over the past 10 years.

Tables 2-7 through 2-9 describe population changes and characteristics for Puerto Rico.  In 1990, Puerto
Rico was 48 percent male and 52 percent female and the median age was 28.5.  Fully 29 percent of the
population  was below 29 years of age and 50 percent was under 25, compared to 41 percent for the
states.  The birthrate steadily declined from 38.9 live births per  1,000 population in 1950 to 18.9 live
births from 1983 to 1984. The death rate was nearly one-third  lower than the U.S. norm in 1981 (Puerto
Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990). According to  the 1990 census, the population was two-
thirds urban and one-third rural.   San Juan,  Puerto Rico's  capital and largest city, had a 1990 census
population of 437,745, followed by Bayamon, 220,262; Ponce,  187,749; Carolina, 177,806; and Caguas,
133,447 (Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990).

Three  main ethnic strands are the heritage of Puerto Rico: the Taino Indians, most of whom fled or
perished after the  Spanish conquest; black Africans,  imported as slaves under Spanish rule; and the
Spanish themselves.  Of the 199,542 residents in 1980 who were born on the U.S. mainland,  most were
of Puerto Rican extraction.  Of the 63,351 persons born on neither the mainland nor the island, most
were West Indians from Cuba or  the Dominican Republic.  Approximately half were naturalized U.S.
citizens.  Approximately 98 percent of the people living in Puerto Rico are native.

As of 1985, Puerto Rico had  1,782 public and  818 private elementary and secondary schools and  69
higher education facilities including the University of Puerto  Rico (9 campuses with 45,000 students),
Inter-American University, and World University.  Educational  expenditures by the government, per
pupil, ranked  10"1 in the world (Munro 1988).

U.S. Virgin Islands

Tables 2-7 through 2-9 describe the population changes and characteristics for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Of the residential  population, 45  percent are native born,  of which 35 to 40 percent  are from other
Caribbean islands; 12 percent are from the U.S. mainland; and  5 percent are from Europe (Munro  1988).
The population continues to  increase, unlike the population of Puerto  Rico,  which appears to have
stabilized.

The population of the Virgin Islands was approximately 97,000 in 1990, almost equally divided between
St. Thomas (48,166  in 1990) and St. Croix (50,139  in 1990), with only 3,500 permanent residents on
St. John (U.S. Department of Commerce  1991).  Additional 1990 census information (e.g., median age
of males for  1990) is unavailable for the  U.S. Virgin Islands. The composition of the population has
undergone changes in the last two decades,  with an increasing  number of people  migrating from the
continental United States and Puerto Rico, particularly to St.  Croix.  The native population is referred
to as West Indian. St. Thomas has been a  trading center for the Caribbean for over 300 years and is  the
most cosmopolitan of the islands.  St. John is the least urban of the islands.  St.  Croix has been the most
affected by the population migration from the mainland United States.  As of 1985, the Virgin Islands
had 34 elementary and secondary  schools  and 1 college.

                                             2-36

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        TABLE 2-7.  U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS POPULATION, BY PLACE OF BIRTH
                           AND YEAR OF IMMIGRATION (1980)


                   Category                                         Population

        Total resident population                               96,567

        Native born                                           43,234 (45 %)

        Born in United States                                  11,964(12%)

        Born in Puerto Rico                                   4,993  (5%)

        Born elsewhere                                       30,371(31%)

        Immigrated:

                1975-1980                                    7,080

                1970-1974                                    7,054

                1960-1969                                    13,566

	Before 1960	3,031	

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census 1980.


2.4.3 Economy

Puerto Rico

Since the industrial program "Operation Bootstrap" was initiated in 1948, manufacturing has become the
most important sector of Puerto Rico's  economy, accounting for 45 percent of the national income
(Munro 1988). Table 2-10 lists the principal manufacturing industries and the commodities produced.
These include Pharmaceuticals, textiles, clothing, electrical and electronic equipment, and petrochemicals.
Agriculture contributes approximately 3 percent to the national income with the main activities including
dairy; livestock production; and cultivation of sugar, tobacco, coffee,  pineapples, and coconuts.  Chief
exports are chemicals, petroleum products, clothing and textiles, and machinery (Munro 1988).  The U.S.
mainland is the chief trading partner. Tourism is of major importance to the economy,  accounting for
$1.04 billion in 1988 (Munro 1988).

In 1940, agriculture employed  43 percent of the workforce; by 1982, fewer than 5 percent  of Puerto
Rican workers had agricultural jobs.  The greatest decline was in the sugar  industry. Production peaked
at 1.2 x 10* metric tons in 1952, when 150,000 cane cutters were employed.   By 1978, production was
0.3 x 10*  metric tons, with fewer  than 20,000 cutters in the fields,  and  the industry was heavily
subsidized.   In  1982, production  fell  below 0.09 x  10s metric  tons.   The  hilly  terrain makes
mechanization difficult, and  manual  cutting contributes to  production costs, making them higher than
those of Hawaii  and Louisiana. Despite incentives and subsidies, tobacco is no longer profitable  and
coffee production, well adapted to the highlands, falls short of domestic production although half the crop
                                             2-37

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        TABLE 2-8.  POPULATION AND MEDIAN AGE, BY AREA AND SEX: 1960-1990
Area and Sex
Puerto Rico
Male
Female
Virgin Islands
Male
Female
Population (thousands)
1960 1970 1980 1990
2349.5
1162.8
1186.6
32.1
15.9
16.2
2712.0
1329.9
1382.2
62.5
31.3
31.3
3196.5
1556.7
1639.8
96.6
46.2
50.4
3522.0
1705.6
1816.4
*
*
*
1960
18.5
18.0
18.9
20.7
20.3
21.2
Median Age (years)
1970 1980
21.6
20.9
22.2
23.0
23.1
23.0
24.6
23.7
25.5
22.5
21.1
23.6
1990
28.5
27.6
29.6
*
*
*
Source: Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990, U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.




* 1990 data are not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.









            TABLE 2-9.  ESTIMATES  OF POPULATION CHANGE: 1970-1990
Area
Net
Number
Change
Percent
Births (1000s)
Deaths
(1000s)
Net migration
(1000s)
1970-1980
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
484.5
34.1
17.9 744.0
54.6 26.6
193.7
5.0
-65.9
12.5
1980-1988
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
95.0
6.6
3.0 546
6.9 20.1
185
4.4
-267.0
-9
1980-1990
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
325.5
*
10.2
*




Source: Puerto Rico Commonwealth Health Department 1990, U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.




* 1990 data are not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.
                                          2-38

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              TABLE 2-10.  PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
                                          Puerto Rico
                                        Virgin Islands
 Principal industries



 Manufactured goods




 Chief agricultural crops
 Livestock

 Nonfuel minerals

 Commercial fishing
Manufacturing
Pharmaceuticals, chemicals,
machinery, metals.electric
equipment, petroleum, food,
apparel

Coffee, plantains, bananas, yarns,
taniers, pineapples, peas, peppers,
pumpkins, coriander, lettuce,
tobacco

Cattle, pigs, poultry

Cement
Tourism, rum, alumina,
petroleum refining, watch
industry, textiles, electronics

Rum, textiles, Pharmaceuticals,
perfume
Truck garden produce
Negligible

Sand and gravel

Negligible
Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
is exported. Pineapple growing, managed by the Puerto Rican Land Authority, was also unprofitable in
the 1970s. Converting sugarcane lands to rice production is a long-term agricultural goal.

Table 2-11 describes the contributing components of the Puerto Rican economy in 1984.  Manufacturing,
government, finance, and real estate were the largest contributors. Table 2-12 presents the employment
breakdown by  economic component.   Table 2-13  presents the  agricultural component in more detail.
Tables 2-13 and 2-14 show that between 1982 and 1987 the total number of farms decreased and the
productive acreage decreased, yet the total number of small farms increased.

Virgin Islands

Table 2-10 lists the major industries and manufactured goods of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.
Tourism is the Virgin Islands' principal  industry,  particularly on St.  Thomas,  where the deep natural
harbor at Charlotte Amalie is ideally suited for cruise ships.  Two-thirds of the U.S. Virgin Islands'
income is  derived from tourism (U.S.  Virgin Islands Bureau  of  Economic  Research, St. Thomas,
personal communication, September 14,  1992). Tourism accounted  for $662.8 million in 1988 (Munro
1988).  In addition to contributing to government tax revenues,  tourists directly and indirectly support
a wide variety of occupations, such as accountants, merchants, and  yacht captains. The Virgin Islands
National Park on St. John and the  Coral World underwater observatory off the northeast coast of St.
Thomas attract many visitors. Manufacturing is important on St. Croix, where the major industries are
oil refining, alumina refining, and the manufacture of watches and clocks, woolen textiles and garments,
rum, fragrances, and Pharmaceuticals.  Although sugar plantations were established in the 17th century,
                                              2-39

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               TABLE 2-11. SOURCES OF PUERTO RICO'S INCOME, 1984


            	Source	Percent

                   Manufacturing                                      40

                   Government                                        13

                   Finance, real estate, insurance                        13

                   Trade                                              12

                   Services                                            9

                   Transportation, public utilities                         8

                   Agriculture                                          3

                   Construction, mining                                 2

	Total	100

Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
sugar production has been phased out and an estimated 15 km2 of land has been released for vegetable,
sorghum, and fruit production.  Agriculture is not well developed, and much of the island's food has to
be imported from the United States.  Chief exports include petroleum products, alumina,  chemicals,
clocks, watches, meat, and rum.  The main trading partner is the U.S. mainland (Munro 1988).

Tables 2-13 and 2-14 describe the agricultural changes and economic contribution from 1982 to 1987.
The number of farms increased, as did the acreage in production.  Milk, cattle, and hogs were the three
most significant agricultural contributions.
                                             2-40

-------
                             TABLE 2-12.  AGRICULTURE IN PUERTO RICO: 1982-1987
Total Farms Total Fanned Area % Total Area
(Hectares)
Item 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987
Dairy 21,820 20,245 — — — —
Coffee — — < 4 43.7 47.2
Cattle — — 4-8 20.2 18.9
Sugarcane — — > 8 32.9 30.8
Fruits/Nuts — — 385,672 348,139 — —
Pineapples — — — — — —
Vegetables — — — — — —
Amount
Unit
—
l,000cwt
—
1,000 tons
(metric)
—
1,000 tons
(metric)
hectares
Harvested
1982 1987
— —
243.9 246.2
_ _
1,326 1,062
— —
40 63
2,630 2,425
Sales
1982
152,126
39,302
28,579
26,663
14,060
9,534
9,547
($1000)
1987
157,864
41,766
30,206
26,643
20,643
15,495
8,236
Source:  Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.

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            TABLE 2-13.  AGRICULTURE IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS: 1982-1987

Item
Milk
Cattle
Hogs
Tomatoes
Mangoes
Total Fanned
Area % of Total Amount
Total Farms (Hectares) Area Harvested Sales
1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982 1987 1982
259 267 ----- - 923
— - < 1.2 29 30 — — 489
_ _ 1.2-3.6 34.7 30.3 - - 130
_ _ 48 9.3 12 3.2 ha 6.5 ha 34
27 28 > 8 - - 205,000 171,000 -
($1000)
1987
1,043
614
125.3
114
44
Source:  Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce 1991.
                      TABLE 2-14. PUERTO RICO'S EMPLOYMENT, 1982
 Area of Employment
Percent
 Agriculture: farms
 Agriculture: forestry, fisheries
 Mining
 Construction
 Manufacturing
 Transportation, public utilities
 Wholesale trade
 Retail trade
 Finance, real estate, insurance
 Service industries
 Government
 Other establishments
4
21
3
4
11
4
12
33
2
Source: Worldmark Press 1986.
                                              2-42

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                 3. SOURCES OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE POLLUTION

An increase in anthropogenic waste and human-induced physical stress (e.g.,  dredging) has altered the
aquatic habitats of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Anthropogenic pollution has increased since
1965  (Wernicke  and Towle 1983, EQB 1990,  DPNR  1990),  and the effects of the pollution are
compounded because the currents around the islands are generally weak,  increasing the pollutants'
retention time (IRF  1976).   Types  of  point source  pollution  include  treated and  partially treated
wastewater discharged into coastal waters by municipal, industrial,  and power-generating facilities via
distinct pipes.  Nonpoint sources of pollution include  stormwater runoff from residential, urban, and
industrialized areas; agricultural runoff; and releases from vessels (including oil spills). Scientists have
found  that over 85 percent of the marine pollution is the result of land-based sources (Reid  1981).
Industrial  sources  of  pollution  in  the  Caribbean  include petrochemical  industries,  refineries,
pharmaceutical companies, sugar mills, breweries,  canneries, metal and electroplating plants, seafood
processing facilities, rum processing facilities, and other industries.   Figure 3-1 illustrates some of the
point and nonpoint sources of pollution and their  general location in Puerto Rico.  Similar information
is not available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.

This section identifies types of point sources (Section 3.1) and nonpoint sources (Section 3.2) of pollution
impairing coastal waters in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  The polluted coastal waterbodies,
the types of pollution, and the sources of pollution are identified.   Information on point and nonpoint
sources of pollution was obtained from the Waterbody System (WBS), Puerto Rico's and the U.S. Virgin
Islands' 305(b) reports, the Toxics Release Inventory System (TRIS), and the Permit Compliance System
(PCS). Descriptions of these databases and reports are provided below.

        •   WBS.  Information in WBS includes  a list of waterbodies and  associated identification
            number,  general  location, support  status, degree of  impairment, source of  pollution,
            classification, and water quality assessment information (USEPA 199la).  Data files from
            WBS for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were analyzed to obtain impairment status
            and source information.

        •   305(b) Reports.  The Water Quality  Inventory is a report  published every 2 years by the
            individual states and U.S. territories.  This report, which is required under § 305(b) of the
            Clean Water Act, describes the specific water quality of the navigable waterbodies and waters
            of the contiguous zone.

        •   TRIS. TRIS is a series of databases containing information on the estimated releases of toxic
            chemicals  into the environment.  Over 300 chemicals and their estimated releases are
            recorded in the system. The information is collected annually as instructed by Tide III of the
            Superfund Amendments  and Reauthorization Act  (SARA) of 1986.   Only facilities  with
            Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes ranging from 20 to 39 (i.e., most industrial
            facilities) are required to report their releases.

        •   PCS. PCS is a database that lists the facilities with NPDES permits and specifies their level
            of compliance with their  permit limits.   PCS was used  to  obtain facility identification
            information and NPDES  permit levels for facilities that have impaired waterbodies listed in
            the 305(b) reports.
                                               3-1

-------
             LEGEND
      REFINERIES            (Sg SAND EXTRACTION

      PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES © UNTREATED SEWAGE


      RECREATIONAL MARINAS    (SM) SUGAR MILLS

      THERMOELECTRICAL PLANTS  (§) SEDIMENTATION

      INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES    @ TREATMENT PLANTS
      Figure 3-1.  Sources of Point and Nonpoint Pollution Along Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico
A response to the requirement of § 305(b) of the CWA is § 304(1), which requires States to develop lists
of impaired waters,  identify the pollutant and source, and specify the remedial action needed.  Section
304(1) reports were used extensively in this section to identify point and nohpoint sources that have been
identified as significantly impairing waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The § 304(1)
report consists of three lists (referred to in this  report as the short, mini,  and long lists),  which are
described by § 304(1) of the Clean Water Act as follows:

        Short List (A)(i): A list of waters the State does not expect to achieve  numeric  water quality
        standards for § 307(a) toxic pollutants after technology-based requirements have been met, due
        to either point or nonpoint source pollution.   This list is a subset of the (A)(ii)  list described
        below and could be a very short list where a State has a few or no numeric criteria for § 307(a)
        toxics, even if water quality impairments due to toxicity  are occurring  in many  of the State's
        waterbodies.

        Mini List (A)fii): A comprehensive list of waters impaired by point or nonpoint source  discharges
        of toxic, conventional, and nonconventional pollutants.  This list should reflect all waters needing
        additional control actions, whether the problem is toxicity or some other impairment.
                                                3-2

-------
       Long List (B): A list of waters the State does not expect will achieve "applicable standards" after
       technology-based requirements have been met,  due entirely or substantially to point source
       discharges o/§ 307(a) toxic pollutants and narrative "free from toxidty" standards.

The U.S. Virgin Islands reported waterbodies  only  for the short  list, whereas Puerto Rico reported
waterbodies for all three of the § 304(1) lists. In this assessment, information from the short and mini
lists was used to identify both point and nonpoint sources since these sources may be targeted for future
controls in order to reduce impairments to waterbodies.

3.1  Point Source Pollution

Point source pollution is defined for  this study as permitted wastewater discharges  to rivers, coastal
waters, and estuarine waters by municipal, industrial, and power-generating facilities. These facilities
discharge heavy metals, nutrients, toxic organic  chemicals, heated effluents,  and oxygen-demanding
substances.  Listed in the 1990 305(b) report were 94 NPDES-permitted effluents in Puerto Rico and 14
NPDES-permitted effluents in the U.S. Virgin Islands that have been identified as impairing waterbodies.
Since the 1990 305(b) report some of these dischargers have been deactivated.

Information on point sources for Puerto  Rico  was  obtained from  the 304(1)  short  list and mini list
(presented in Appendix D), WBS, and TRI. Locations of impaired waterbodies listed on the 1990 304(1)
short list and NPDES-permitted dischargers that were listed as the sources of the pollution are presented
in Figure 3-2.  Locations of NPDES effluents that have impaired waterbodies listed on the mini list are
presented in Figure 3-3.  All of the coastal wastewater discharges of Puerto  Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands are presented  in Tables  3-1 and 3-2, respectively. Ninety-four NPDES-permitted effluents were
identified as impairing waterbodies in Puerto  Rico.  Over half of these NPDES-permitted facilities
released wastewater sewage that had not been properly treated. Inadequate sewer/water treatment systems
have been identified as one of the major point source problems in the Caribbean (Wernicke and Towle
1983,  DPNR  1990).  These facilities  tend to break down, leak,  and experience trouble with excessive
runoff. In 1974, fewer than 10 percent of the sewer systems had treatment facilities.  At this time there
is no indication that the treatment systems have substantially improved or that they are keeping pace with
the growth of the population. Inadequate operation and maintenance of treatment plants are compounded
by broken pipes and illegal hook-ups.   Waterbodies near most of the major cities of Puerto Rico,
including San Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanico, Arecibo, Aquadilla, Ponce,  and Mayaguez,
have been impacted by the release of partially treated wastewater sewage.

Pathogenic problems arising from inadequate sewage/water treatment facilities are one of the major types
of point source pollution in Puerto Rico.  Illegal connections to  the storm sewer systems (76 in  1989)
compound the impacts due to the introduction of raw  sewage (EQB  1990).  In the last federal inspection
of Puerto Rico's sewage treatment plants, August 1991, 16 out of 46 (35 percent) failed the inspection.
Nine of the facilities that failed were from the  Humacao area.   EPA addressed the situation by citing
more than 93 treatment plants,  which were exceeding the discharge limits set by EPA  (1990c). Most of
these plants are in poor condition, and 52 of the 93 plants are now in court because of the violations.

Information on point sources for the U.S. Virgin Islands was obtained from the § 304(1) short list, WBS,
and TRI.  Locations of the 23 impaired waterbodies on the short list and the sources of the marine
pollution (NPDES numbers) are presented in Figure 3-4. Four waterbodies named in WBS as impaired
by point sources were not included  on the § 304(1) short list: WBS #VI019,  sewage  outfall  at
                                               3-3

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ISLA
                                                                              \T»f
                                                                   16 KM

                                                            I	1
                                                            0       10 MILES
             Figure 3-2. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from Puerto Rico's 304(1) Report

-------
I SLA
                                 NOTE:   All  unmarked  coastal  areas
                                          are  classified  as  SB.
                                                    16 KM
                                               I	1
                                               0     10 MILES
SA

SB

SC
                     Figure 3-3. NPOES Outfall Locations Which Impact Waterbodies

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TABLE 3-1. SUMMARY OF COASTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGES
                    IN PUERTO RICO



Location

Sewage Treatment Plants
1 Isabella (PRASA)C
1 Isabella STP (PRASA)
2 Camuy STP (PRASA)
4 Arecibo (PRASA)
5 Barceloneta STP (PRASA)
6 Dorado STP (PRASA)
7 Bayamon STP (PRASA)
8 Carolina (PRASA)
7 Puerto NueVo
Industrial
4 Puerto Rico Distillers
7 Bacardi Corporation
7 Bacardi Corporation
Electrical Utiliites
7 Puerto Rico Electric

Sewage Treatment Plants
9 Fajardo STP (PRASA)
9 Heritage Communities STP
10 Roosevelt Roads STPf
12 Manaubo STP (PRASA)
Industrial
1 1 Yabucoa Sun Oil Co.
1 1 Phillips Puerto Rico Core Inc.


NPDES
Permit No.
Region 1

PR0022250
PR0022080
PR0023744
PR0023710
PR0021237
PR0023850
PR0023728
PR0023752
PR0021555

PR0000680
PR0000591
PR0000591

PR0001301
Region 2

PR0021709
PR0021539
PR0020010
PR0020656

PR0000400
PR0022322

NPDES
Permitted
Flow*
(MGD)


1.00
1.00
3.02
8.00
8.30
1.22
25.00
45.00
72.00

1.00°
0.07
0.40

650.0


1.6
0.10
0.937
0.30

4.00
2.10

Annual
Average
FIowb
(MGD)


1.02
	 d
1.13
4.11
6.02
1.32
25.30
12.65
38.05

	 	 e
0.444
0.118

402.7


2.30
0.18
0.38
	 d

1.59
0.41
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Maxb
(MGD)


1.26
	 d
1.50
6.20
7.82
1.82
33.59
17.40
50.25

e
0.530
0.174

453.7


3.43
0.06
0.66
	 d

2.87
0.52
                          3-6

-------
TABLE 3-1. (continued)


Location

Sewage Treatment Plants
14 Guayama STP (PRASA)
16 Santa Isabel STP (PRASA)
Second Unit Pastille
17 Ponce STP
19 Guanica (PRASA)
Industrial
15 Corp. Azucarera de Puerto Rico
17 V.C.S. National Packing Co.
17 Sun Harbor Caribe
14 SK&F Lab Corp.
18 Union Carbide
18 Commonwealth Oil Petrochemical
18 Commonwealth Oil Petrochemical
Electric Utilities
15 Aguirre
18 South Coast 1-6

Sewage Treatment Plants
21 Mayaguez RWWTP (PRASA)
22 Rincon (PRASA)
23 Aguadilla STP (PRASA)
21 Starkist Caribe
21 Starkist Caribe
21 National Packing
21 Neptune Packing

NPDES
Permit No.
Region 3

PR0025445
PR0023761
PR0023116
PR0021563
PR0020486

PR0000167
PR0021962
PR0021 105
PR0021997
PR0000418
PR0000345
PR0000345

PR0001660
PR0001147
Region 4

PR0023795
PR0020788
PR0023736
PR0022012
PR0022012
PR0000230
PR0021954

NPDES
Permitted
Flow"
(MGD)


10.00
1.00
0.01
18.00
0.33

31.38
1.73
1.32
0.087
4.2
14.90
62.00

652.00
566.00


22.5
0.28°
8.00
2.00
2.00
2.44
0.015

Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)


2.42
0.746
	 d
11.53
0.655

7.45
0.798
	 d
0.058
0.164
0.652
	 d

607.36
684.51


8.07
	 e
3.50
1.11
1.11
	 d
	 d
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Max"
(MGD)


3.74
1.034
	 d
13.34
1.17

9.17
1.10
	 d
0.084
0.577
0.859
	 d

651.6
775.5


10.94
	 c
4.86
1.65
1.65
	 d
	 d
         3-7

-------
                                  TABLE3-1. (continued)


NPDES
Location Permit No.
21 Bumble Bee Puerto Rico, Inc. PR0022110
21 Mayaguez Water Treatment Co. PR0023043

NPDES
Permitted
Flow4
(MGD)
2.50
4.32

Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)
1.58
2.01
Mean
Monthly
Daily
Max*
(MGD)
2.09
3.21
                                      Isla de Culebra

                                No coastal discharge reported
Sewage Treatment Plant

25    Vieques (PRASA)
                                      Isla de Vieques
PR0020931
0.50
                                        Isla Mona

                               No coastal discharges reported
Source: USEPA (1990a); J. Gorin, July 3 1991, personal communication.
"Peak flow allowed under  the existing NPDES  permit.
bBased on data between April 1990 and April  1991.
"Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority.
dData unavailable.
elnactive.
fOutfall 001A.

         TABLE 3-2.  SUMMARY OF COASTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGES
                              IN THE  U.S. VIRGIN LANDS



NPDES
Permitted



Location
NPDES
Permit No.
Flow*
(MGD)
Annual
Average
Flow"
(MGD)

Mean Monthly
Daily Max"
(MGD)
St. Thomas
Sewage Treatment Plants
1
2
3
3
3
Charlotte Amalie
Frenchman's Reef
Cowpet Bay West
Cowpet Bay East
Nadir Estate
VI0020044
VI0039829
VI0039853
VI0039900
VI0020125
3.400
2.230
0.035
0.026
0.170
2.200
0.027
0.020
c

	 c
1.69
0.032
0.022
	 c
                                           3-8

-------
                                TABLE 3-2.  (continued)
Location
NPDES Annual
Permitted Average Mean Monthly
NPDES Flow* Flow* Daily Maxb
Permit No. (MGD) (MGD) (MGD)
St. Thomas
Industrial
4 Coral World Inc.
— " FAA
— d American Yacht Harbor
— d Sapphire Bay
— d Watergate Villas
— d D&C Development
— d Water Bay Management
— d KR Development
— d Yacht Haven Hotel and Marina
— d Frank McCarthy
— d Sea Cliff Beach Resort
— d Bayside Resort
Electrical Utilities
1 V.I. Water and Power

VI0040291
VI0020150
VI0039870
VI0039944
VI0040134
VI0040185
VI0040193
VI0040215
VI0040088
VI0040096
VI0040177
VI0040312

VI0000060

0.001
0.010
0.064
0.004
0.066
1.000
0.026
0.020
0.030
0.004e
0.020
0.057

10.000

c
c
0.015
0.024
0.051
c
0.014
C
	 c
	 e
c
0.049

c

c
	 c
0.257
0.031
0.057
C
0.015
C
	 c
	 e
c
0.053

c
St. John
Sewage Treatment Plants
5 Cruz Bay
6 Cancel Bay
Industrial
— d Gallos Point Development Corp.

VI0039942
VI0039837

VI0040037

0.020
0.265

0.036

0.037
0.166

0.020

c
0.212

0.540
St. Croix
Sewage Treatment Plants
8 St. Croix
Industrial
— d Hess Oil
— d Electrical Utilities
7 V.I. Rum Industries

VI0020036

VI0000019
VI0000051
VI0020052

4.000

™c
c
0.115

	 c

c
—__c
0.084

2.8

__c
c
0.087
Source:  USEPA 1990a, PCS.
'Peak flow allowed under the existing NPDES permit.
bBased on data between April 1990 and April 1991.
'Data not available.
dLocation not available
'Inactive facility.
                                            3-9

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                  ST.   CROIX  '
   WATER
   CLASSIFICATIONS
        I   SA

            SC
NOTE: All area* not marked SA or SC ora
   considered SB.
+
                                                   a-vr
                                                                                     h
                                                                                     o
 3.2 KM
H
 ZO MILES
             Figure 3-4. Impaired Waterbodies and Sources from the Virgin Islands 304(1) Short List Report

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the St. Croix POTW; WBS #VI035, Krumb Bay; WBS #VI068, Frenchman's Bay; and WBS #VI100,
Virgin Islands Rum Industries Ltd. outfall.  Additional information incorporated into the map includes
the associated NPDES numbers obtained from the WBS.  Fourteen NPDES-permitted facilities were
identified as impairing waterbodies in the U.S. Virgin Islands.  No waterbodies or point sources were
identified on the mini list.  In addition, no priority pollutants listed in § 303(c) of the CWA have been
identified as impairing designated uses  in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USEPA 199Ib).  The U.S. Virgin
Islands' list of impaired waters is relatively short compared to that of Puerto Rico. Water quality is noted
as "generally good" but "declining" in the § 305(b) report (EQB 1990).  The decline is the result of an
increase in municipal point sources and an increase in nonpoint sources resulting from construction along
the coast (EQB 1990).

The NPDES  effluents  listed in Figure 3-3  for Puerto Rico and Figure  3-4 for the U.S. Virgin Islands
have been identified as impairing specific waterbodies, as presented in these figures. Although some of
the NPDES effluents are discharged to interior rivers, loadings from these degraded rivers may ultimately
impact estuarine and coastal areas.  These coastal areas are used for swimming, fishing, recreation,  and
support of aquatic life and wildlife.  The degradation of these specific designated uses caused by the point
sources listed in Figures 3-3 and 3-4 is discussed in Section 5. The waterbody classifications presented
in Figures 3-3 and 3-4 and defined below indicate the general designated uses of the coastal waterbodies.

        •  Class SA waters include coastal waters that should not be altered so that the existing water
           characteristics and the natural phenomena are not changed;

        •  Class SB waters include coastal waters that are intended for uses  in which the human body
           may come into direct contact with the water (e.g., swimming);

        •  Class SC waters are coastal waters in which incidental contact with water by the human body
           may occur (e.g., while boating); and

        •  Class SE coastal waters include surface waters of exceptional  water quality and ecological
           value, whose existing characteristics should not be changed  in order to preserve the existing
           habitat's superior water quality.

3.2 Nonpoint Source Pollution

Nonpoint source pollution comes from  diffuse sources and is related to the activities that occur on the
land surface.  The quantity and  type of pollutants leaving the land surface are directly related to the
specific land use.  The primary nonpoint source problems in the islands can be characterized as follows:

        •  Urban, residential, and industrial stormwater  runoff;

        •  Agricultural  runoff; and

        •  Discharge from vessels (including oil spills).

3.2.1  Stormwater and Agricultural Runoff

Stormwater from urban, residential, and industrial land uses is generated  from runoff from roadways,
parking lots, lawns,  rooftops, and industrial yards.  Numerous waterbodies in Puerto Rico have been
impaired  by  urban and  industrial stormwater runoff, as  listed  in the § 304(1)  report presented  in

                                               3-11

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Appendix D. Many of these waterbodies are near major coastal cities of Puerto Rico such as San Juan.
Typical pollutants released to surface water from stormwater runoff include sediment, metals (primarily
copper, cadmium, zinc, and  nickel),  petroleum hydrocarbons from vehicle emissions,  pesticides  and
fertilizers from lawn care,  pollutants  from septic systems,  and pollutants  specific to certain industrial
processes and  practices.   Runoff from  port  facilities  also  may  contain fuels  and  oils from  the
transportation systems used to support the ports, sediments, and industrial chemicals.   Runoff from
construction activities, as well as dredging, primarily generates sediments, both clean and contaminated.
Disturbed land in transitional uses such as construction often has significant erosion potential unless
siltation fence,  hay bales, or  other sediment control measures  are installed.In the U.S. Virgin Islands,
Manning Bay and College Cove were listed as being  impaired from landfill  runoff and  construction
runoff,  respectively, as shown in Figure 3-4  (map numbers  9 and 12).

For agricultural lands, the primary nonpoint source pollutants are nutrients, sediment, animal wastes,
salts, pesticides, and herbicides. Over 40 waterbodies in Puerto Rico were listed as being impaired by
runoff from  agricultural lands, as listed  on the § 304(1)  mini list  in  Appendix  D.   Most of these
waterbodies consist of rivers and streams in the interior of the island.  However, significant increases in
nutrient loadings to these rivers from  agricultural runoff will ultimately impact coastal areas.

Nutrients from soil erosion, animal wastes,  or  improperly  applied fertilizers can affect  water quality.
Excessive nutrients can lead to an imbalance  in the natural  nutrient cycle and can cause eutrophic
conditions and oxygen depletion.  Soluble nutrients such as nitrate often reach surface water in runoff or
percolate easily through soils to groundwater, where they can present a health hazard to humans.  Other
nutrients, such as phosphorus, can  attach  to  soil particles  and enter  surface waters  through  the
sedimentation process.  Heavy metals and other toxics  also can bind to sediment and organic material.
Sediment is washed off the land surface and  can cause impacts to aquatic habitats through deposition.

3.2.2  Discharges from Vessels

Discharges associated with vessels in  marinas and port facilities could contain petroleum hydrocarbons,
waste oils, sewage, cleaning solvents, and wash water from shipping containers. The boating industry
generates 50 percent of the waste oil produced on the islands. Incidental oil spills in marinas have
compounded the pollution-related problems in the boating industry.  Wernicke and Towle (1983) found
significantly  higher levels of tributyltin (TBT) in areas where boats are scraped and repainted.  (TBT
constituted 10 percent of the paint in the  old antifouling paints.)  Although improper disposal of solid
waste represents a relatively small portion of the nonpoint source pollution problem associated with the
boating industry, this problem has been increasing over time.  The total garbage volume  generated in
1980 by the boating industry in St. Thomas alone was 39,917 metric tons (Wernicke and Towle 1983).

Oil spills along the coastal regions of Puerto  Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands and elsewhere in the
Caribbean contribute significantly to the nonpoint source pollution problem of the islands.  These spills
have  lasting  effects on the marine environment.  Figure 3-5 summarizes the major oil spills that have
impacted the coastal areas of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (IOC/UNEP 1989).  In 1986 alone,
vessel  casualties  resulted  in over 3.8 x 106 liters of oil, 5.1  x 10s liters of hazardous substances, and
2.8 x 104 liters of other substances spilled into the Caribbean marine environment (IOC/UNEP 1989).
In addition, it is estimated  that 6.7 percent of the total offshore oil production in the Caribbean is lost
through spills  into the marine environment (IOC/UNEP  1989).   Fifty  percent of the oil pollution
impacting Puerto  Rico  and the U.S. Virgin Islands originates from these spills, which  occur in the
Caribbean and  are carried in  from the North Atlantic Gyre  System via the Caribbean Current, the  Gulf
Stream, and the Gulf Loop (IOC/UNEP 1989).  The remaining 50 percent of the spilled oil is from local

                                              3-12

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           LEGEND
   1  - Guanica (1962).
   2  - Guayanilla  Bay (1970).
   3  - Bahia Sucia  (1977)
   4  - North Eastern  (1979)
   5  — Bahia Ensenada
   6  — San  Juan  Harbor
   7  - Krause Lagoon, St. Croix  (1979)
   8  - Catano Beach  (1991)
   9  - Guonica (1991)
                                   Figure 3-5.  Oil Spill Sites
boating traffic and ballast washings (Wernicke and Towle 1983).  Refer to Table C-4 in Appendix C for
selected spill data for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (1987-1991), which were obtained from the U.S.
Coast Guard's National Response Center Database.  Washing discharges are thought to be the major
source of oil  pollution in the marine environment, causing an accumulation of tar balls that can be
detrimental to aquatic organisms that ingest them (IOC/UNEP 1991a).  Tar balls fouling beaches also
present problems for tourists and hotels.  Just recently,  an oil spill occurred releasing 946 liters of oil
onto Catano Beach.  A large section of the beach had to be closed during clean-up efforts.
                                              3-13

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3-14

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                  4. LEVELS OF MARINE AND ESTUARINE POLLUTION

Marine and estuarine pollutants of agricultural, industrial, and residential origin include toxics, biological
pathogens, nutrients, sediments,  and thermal  inputs.   The  purpose of this section  is to present  the
observed levels of these agents  and to provide a general description of their potential effects on  the
aquatic environment. Data collected on the levels of each type of pollutant are summarized below  for
each region.  Data gaps associated with characterizing the extent of marine and estuarine pollution  are
also discussed.  This section is  limited to  a qualitative description of potential effects of marine and
estuarine pollution.  The quantitative evaluation of the impact of this pollution on the environment and
human health in Puerto Rico and the  U.S. Virgin Islands is discussed in Section 5.  Geographic
information regarding levels of marine and  estuarine pollution also is presented in Section 5.

4.1    Toxics

Toxic substances, toxics, or toxicants are defined as compounds capable of producing an adverse response
in a biological system.  This section describes concentration levels of several compounds, measured  for
regions of Puerto Rico and the  Virgin Islands, and presents a list of toxics of concern based on a
comparison of water and  sediment concentrations with  Ambient  Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs)
(USEPA  1986a)  and sediment  criteria developed from the AWQCs. Data  from STORET-WQ and
STORET-TISSUE (USEPA 1992) were evaluated and analyzed in order to categorize the levels of toxics
in ambient water, sediments, and fish tissue. Any  pertinent information from scientific papers or agency
reports was integrated with STORET water quality data to  fill data gaps (EQB  1990, Coulston  et al.
1991). Data for water and sediment analyses from  Puerto Rico are presented in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2;
data for water and sediments from the U.S. Virgin Islands  are in Section 4.1.3.  Fish tissue data  are
discussed in Section 4.1.4.

Data on the levels of toxics in surface water  and sediments in marine and estuarine environments obtained
from STORET-WQ and other sources contained notable gaps, including a complete lack of data for  the
U.S. Virgin Islands, a partial lack of sediment data for Puerto Rico, and an overall lack offish tissue data
(Table 4-1).  No recently collected (i.e., after  1980) organic or heavy metal  data were available from
STORET-WQ for the U.S. Virgin Islands,  partly  because of the relatively insignificant levels of toxics
found  along  the  coastal waters  of these islands  during extensive sampling of the coastal water and
sediments of St. Thomas and St. John between  1974  and  1979.  Most of the  limited sediment data
available for Puerto Rico were from samples obtained from dredged material.  These samples failed to
yield detectable levels  of organic toxicants.  Most of  the  available  toxics  monitoring data collected
between 1985 and 1991  were for surface waters along the coast of Puerto Rico.  Despite these limitations,
the data are useful for a preliminary toxics  categorization study to help identify the needs of the region.

4.1.1  Coastal Waters of Puerto Rico

Out of the approximately 80 organic compounds analyzed in water samples, methylene chloride, bis(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate, and phenols were the only  organic  chemicals detected at  concentrations  above
1 /ig/L. The highest levels of these chemicals were detected near San Juan Harbor.  Methylene chloride
was found at maximum concentrations of 2,400 /*g/L, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate at 390 /zg/1, and phenols
(total)  at 23 /xg/L.  In addition, several other organic chemicals were detected  at relatively low levels in
surface water including several pesticides, PAHs,  and PCBs. Some of the pesticides detected in surface
water  along the  coastal waters  of Puerto  Rico (all at concentrations below 0.01  /ig/L)  include  the
following:

                                               4-1

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          TABLE 4-1. SUMMARY OF THE NUMBER OF TOXIC COMPOUNDS HAVING
              AVAILABLE STORET DATA SETS FOR TOXICS IN PUERTO RICO
                         AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS IN 1985-1991
                                           Number of Compounds Analyzed	

                                           Puerto Rico                     U.S. Virgin Islands

Water Column
organics
metals
pesticides
Sediment (dredged material)
organics
metals
pesticides
Fish Tissue
Region
1"

82
26
34

59°
13"

-
Region
2'

62
19
30

53

32

Region
3'

71
27
25

-


-
Region
4"

38
19
22


-
-
-
•Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992), retrieved January 6, 1992.
bSource: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992), retrieved January 13, 1992.
Tive additional samples were taken from suspended solids in the water column.
dAll 13 metal samples were taken from suspended solids in the water column.


       •   ODD, DDE, and DDT;
       •   Aldrin;
       •   Dieldrin;
       •   Endrin;
       •   Heptachlor;
       0   Methoxychlor;
       •   Malathion;
       •   Parathion; and
       •   Diazinon.

In addition to the pesticides, toluene and benzene were detected in post-1985 water samples along the
coast of Region 4 at levels below 3.0 fig/L.  PCBs were detected in Regions 1 through 4 at concentrations
of less than 0.1 /xg/L.  Overall, these pesticides and PCBs are fairly ubiquitous but were found at very
low levels. Localized "hot spots" or sites having significantly high levels of these chemicals, however,
may be present in surface waters, but were not found in the STORET data (USEPA 1992).

Fourteen heavy metals were detected rather frequently in the marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico.
The highest levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, mercury, nickel, thallium, and zinc were
found along the coastal areas of Region  1, primarily near San Juan Harbor.  The highest levels of
aluminum, beryllium, copper, lead, and silver were detected in Region  3. The highest levels of selenium
were found in Region 4. As will be discussed later in this  section, several of these heavy metals may
                                            4-2

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potentially impair aquatic life and may cause risks to human health from ingestion of contaminated fish.
Water monitoring for inorganics in Puerto Rico has declined somewhat in the last few years. Monitoring
for iron, zinc, magnesium, and boron has been reduced to one time per  year because the levels from
monitoring in 1980 to 1989 showed no signs of detrimental effects on the environment (EQB 1990).

Within San Juan Harbor, water samples were collected at five stations during each fall from September
1985 to October 1988 for metals analyses (USEPA, 1989a). Metals concentrations were reported to have
violated class "SC" water quality standards for 15 samples due to high zinc concentrations.  Levels of
copper, lead, mercury, and selenium exceeded their class "SC"  standards in seven, one, three, and three
samples, respectively.  Five water quality stations and sixteen sediment quality stations were sampled
during the September 1985 and October 1988 surveys and were analyzed for volatile organic compounds,
nonvolatile organics, pesticides, and PCBs.

Toxics of Concern

Statistical summaries of estuarine and  marine water monitoring data were calculated from all data
provided in STORET-WQ. To identify key toxics of concern for surface water, a screening analysis was
performed by comparing the statistical summary  data with Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQCs)
(USEPA 1986a). The primary toxics of concern detected in surface water from Puerto Rico Regions 1
through 4 are presented in Tables 4-2 through 4-5, respectively. A compound was selected as a chemical
of concern if the maximum concentration detected  at any  station  location within the  coastal  region
exceeded  a chronic and/or acute AWQC for the protection of marine life and/or  the AWQC derived for
ingestion  of  fish tissue.  AWQCs for the organics and metals are based on the protection of aquatic
organisms and their uses. They are established by EPA after extensive review of laboratory results of
toxicity tests on aquatic animals  and  plants typically under both acute  and chronic exposure.   For
additional discussion of the development of the AWQCs, see USEPA  (1986a). Chemicals selected in this
process were further evaluated quantitatively  in Section 5 to  identify specific areas along the coast with
elevated levels of toxics.  A general description of the toxicity  of metals, pesticides, and other organics
to aquatic life is provided below.

Metals

Most of the compounds in Tables  4-2 to 4-5  are heavy metals.  The toxicity of metals generally varies
with pH and  hardness of the water. The toxicity of a given metal can vary considerably from species to
species, although few studies have targeted tropical aquatic organisms. At elevated levels, metals act by
inhibiting enzyme activity in organisms (Kennish 1992).  Many organisms, including aquatic species,
possess metal lothioneins, proteins  that bind heavy metals to  aid in the protection of the organism from
metal toxicity (Hamilton and Mehrle 1986).  However, pathological effects can be detected before the
metal loth ionein binding capacity is saturated (e.g., Calabrese et al.  1984,  Petering and Fowler 1986).

Sorenson  (1991) has reviewed the  effects of several heavy metals on fish.  Selenium is considered to be
one of the most toxic metals to fish, although low levels  are essential in the fish diet.  Selenium (Se)
accumulates in fish liver tissues (Sorenson 1991).  Excessive or insufficient Se levels in fish cause anemia
(Sorenson 1991), and Se has been  associated  with tissue damage.  Morphological alterations are caused
by exposure  to arsenic under both laboratory and environmental conditions. Lead accumulates in  fish
scales, fin rays,  vertebrae, and   opercula   because  these  areas  are active  sites of calcification
(Sorenson 1991). In addition to hematological, neuronal, and muscular effects analogous to those shown
in mammals, fishes show lordoscoliosis, pigment pattern alterations, and coagulation of surface mucous

                                               4-3

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     TABLE 4-2.  SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
               DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                             PUERTO RICO - REGION 1
Compound
Methyl ene Chloride
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Mean
Detection Concentration
Frequency 0*g/L)
9/15
8/70
76/96
200/209
32/57
709/734
712/735
749/770
94/154
682/710
226/245
44/62
262/282
22/38
820/825
223/229
22/22
191
18
4
9.78
5.28
13.95
4.92
9.04
25.94
6.52
1.14
29.48
1.68
35.25
65.77
9.32
115
Standard Maximum
Deviation Concentration
Oig/L) 0*g/L)
613
63
4
33.40
4.32
232.54
23.72
16.53
20.20
16.89
14.75
42.66
4.48
40.27
109.53
32.18
69.81
2400
390
23
200
20
4980
393
261
60
144
231
145
33.4
100
1740
200
400
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
when they are exposed to lead. Lead inactivates enzymes essential to hemoglobin formation. Fish may
produce excess mucous when exposed to lead and other metals including Zn, Fe, Cu, Cd, Hg, Mn, Co,
Ni, Au, Ag, and Al (NAS 1972).  The mucous coatings on fish contain metal complexing agents that
enhance the binding of metals to the fish.  Lead produces muscle spasms and loss of equilibrium in fish.
Zinc is necessary  for fish health  in low concentrations, but elevated  exposure to zinc may  cause
behavioral changes; respiratory and cardiac changes; histopathologic alterations to the  gill, liver, and
skeletal muscle;  enzymatic alterations; and  inhibition of spawning (Sorenson, 1991).  Exposure to
cadmium  alters plasma  levels of ions,  glucose, and  lactate.  Cadmium also causes anemia and
abnormalities  in red blood cells.  Although  copper  is an essential element to fish, spawning may be
                                           4-4

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      TABLE 4-3.  SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
                 DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 2
Compound
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
14/14
34/34
5/5
157/157
156/156
164/164
10/25
150/150
29/29
5/5
50/50
172/172
40/40
5/5
Mean Standard Maximum
Concentration Deviation Concentration
(Mg/L) Otg/L) Gig/L)
6.62
2.63
5.00
0.74
1.82
11.27
33.20
2.47
0.24
5.0
.39
84.62
4.64
116

5.50
0.0
1.14
5
44.48
21.16
6.15
0.45
0
.48
115
8.60
21.90

24
5
7
37
468
50
35
2.5
5
1.5
645
35
140
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
affected at elevated levels of exposure. Toxicity to marine species is less than that to freshwater species
possibly because of the reduction in toxicity observed with increasing water hardness.  Mercury is very
toxic to fish primarily because it binds to  sulfhydryl groups on  enzymes.   Mercury stimulates  the
production of mucus, to which much of the  mercury binds until the mucus is  sloughed off (Sorensen,
1991).   Acute toxicity to thallium  in saltwater aquatic species occurs at concentrations as low as
2,130/ig/L(USEPA1986a).

Heavy metals may also affect the various life stages of corals (gametes, planulae, or larval settlement).
Exposure of the Indo-Pacific  species Podllopora damicornis and Montipora verrucosa to solutions of
copper sulfide at concentrations of 100 /xg Cu/L resulted in 100 percent mortality after 24 hours (Evans
1977).  Exposures of 48 hours to concentrations of 10 /tg Cu/L caused stress to some of the corals, which
subsequently died by the sixth day of exposure (Evans 1977). A study on nickel showed a significant
effect on the settlement ability of planulae  (larvae) of the Pacific coral P. damicornis  9 days after
                                            4-5

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      TABLE 4-4.  SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
                DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 3
Compound
Methylene Chloride
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
1/37
11/11
47/47
31/54
438/445
406/443
435/460
13/13
401/428
63/94
52/68
105/131
492/495
62/62
18/18
Mean Standard Maximum
Concentration Deviation Concentration
(/tg/L) (/ig/L) (Mg/D
5.26
4.0
10.83
7.24
12.76
7.55
7.77
10.0
13.39
0.30
31.10
3.95
74.33
9.97
163.28
0
3.32
10.59
6.82
189
45.60
17.45
0
39.93
0.24
27.24
7.03
101
10.06
202.15
5.26
10
38
50
3966
917
304
10.
290
1.5
98
42
902
36
865
Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.
exposure to 1 ppm Ni+ + concentrations (Goh 1991).  Fifty percent mortality of planulae exposed to nickel
was observed  17 hours after prior exposure to 9 ppm for 48 hours (Goh 1991). All planulae exposed to
9 ppm for 96 hours eventually died.  Heyward (1988) demonstrated complete or partial reductions in
fertilization success rates in corals exposed to copper sulphate (> 0.5 mg/L or 0.1 mg/L, respectively)
and zinc sulphate (at 1.0 mg/L) in laboratory tests.  Heavy metals have been found in corals off Florida
(Glynn et al. 1989, Howard and Brown 1984).

Tributyltin (TBT) has been used as an antifouling agent in marine boat paints (Champ 1986).  Adverse
effects on molluscs (imposex, the manifestation of male morphological sex characteristics in females,
resulting in sterility and localized  extinctions) and reduced growth, survival, and reproduction in other
nontarget species of  temperate benthic invertebrates have been found  in marinas and other  TBT-
                                            4-6

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      TABLE 4-5.  SUMMARY OF TOXIC CHEMICALS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
                 DETECTED IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                                PUERTO RICO - REGION 4
Compound
Methylene Chloride
Phenols (total)
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Selenium
Aluminum
Detection
Frequency
1/1
5/5
16/16
3/3
94/94
95/95
98/98
8/8
91/91
3/3
24/24
106/106
19/19
3/3
Mean
Concentration

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Pesticides

The  pesticides  found in the  Puerto  Rico studies—aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin—belong to a class of
compounds called cyclodienes.  These compounds are very toxic to aquatic life, especially fish (Kennish
1992). The toxicity data for total DDT and DDE indicate acute toxicity to saltwater aquatic life at as low
as 4 /ig/L and 14 /xg/L, respectively (USEPA 1986a).  Studies on reef corals exposed to mixtures of p,p'-
DDT,  dieldrin,  and  Aroclor  1254 demonstrated  no  mortality  at  10,100-jtg/L  and  l,000-/ig/L
concentrations.   However,  the corals responded  by decreasing their  rate  of photosynthesis  while
increasing their rate of respiration (McCloskey and Chesher 1971).  Occasionally, the ratio of the rate
of photosynthesis to respiration dropped below 1.0.  A drop in this ratio below 1.0 may profoundly affect
coral communities whose diurnal O2 balance is close to 1.0 (McCloskey and Chesher 1971). Laboratory
exposures of corals to herbicides at concentrations comparable to those measured in corals collected from
a site at Biscayne National Park off Southeast Florida (Glynn et al.  1984) have produced bleaching and
mortality (Glynn et al. 1989).   The field-collected corals showed  no  signs  of unusual morbidity or
mortality despite the high tissue burden of pesticides and trace metals.   Solbakken et al. (1985)  found
differences in the uptake and elimination rates of lindane and a phthalate ester for a brain coral, Diploria
strigosa, noting that the poor elimination rate of the phthalate ester could lead to long-term effects.
Hawker and Connell (1991) proposed a tolerance level of 10 ftg/L for corals exposed to pesticides  and
herbicides, based on limited data, but noted that other organisms such as phytoplankton and algae may
have much lower tolerance levels.

Marine fishes are susceptible to toxicity exerted through brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition by
the organophosphorus insecticide  malathion.  Toxicity of malathion related  to levels of AChE inhibition
have been reported for  several marine fish species. The effects of repeated exposure to malathion or  any
of the other organophosphorus  insecticides (for instance parathion)  may be additive, and inhibition of
AChE by more than 35 percent  may be expected to result in  damage  to aquatic organisms  (USEPA
1986a).  It should be noted, however, that pesticides were detected  at concentrations below 0.01 /xg/L
in surface water.  Therefore, impacts due to exposure to pesticides may not be significant.  (None of the
pesticides were selected as chemicals of concern.)

Other Organics

Toxicity to saltwater aquatic life from exposure to phenol occurs at concentrations as low as 5,800 jig/L
(USEPA 1986a).  Marine diatoms are sensitive to concentrations of PCBs as low as 0.1 part per thousand
million (ptm)  (Kennish 1992).   PCBs may  inhibit the growth of phytoplankton and potentially alter
phytoplankton communities in estuaries (Kennish 1992).  Much work has been done on sublethal  and
lethal effects of oil hydrocarbons and chemical dispersants on tropical marine organisms.  Corals are
among the most vulnerable members of coral reef communities, with seagrasses, mangroves, and pelagic
organisms also vulnerable (see Hawker and Connell 1991 and Thorhaug 1991 for reviews).  While corals
may not show any effects following  short-term exposures, contact with  water-accommodated  fractions
of oil hydrocarbons for long periods  may produce impaired development of gonads, atrophy of mucous
secretory cells and muscle bundles, and degeneration of zooxanthellae (Peters et al. 1981). Corals readily
take up a variety of hydrocarbons, including pesticides, into their tissues and do not appear to depurate
them easily (Peters  et al. 1981, Knap et  al.  1982).  Organic toxicants can be passed along  in the food
chain from corals to predatory fishes, urchins, or mollusks (e.g., Ogden 1977, Knowlton et al.  1990).
Extensive damage was done to  intertidal  and subtidal flora and fauna of nearshore coral reefs, seagrass
beds, and mangroves following an oil spill off the San Bias islands in Panama (Jackson et al., 1989).
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4.1.2 Sediments of Puerto Rico

Sampling programs in  1974 for Region 1 indicated the presence of DDT and its metabolites, dieldrin,
and PCBs at average concentrations in sediments of 4 to 20 ng/g for the pesticides and 100 ng/g for total
PCBs.  These compounds,  however, were not detected in recent samples of  dredged material.  No
significantly high levels were found in sediment data that had been previously entered into the STORET
database. Again, however, localized "hot spots" of these chemicals may occur in sediments that are not
represented in the  STORET database.  In addition, sediment  samples from dredged material may not
represent concentrations  in recently deposited surface sediments  that are  in contact with the aquatic
environment.

Sampling in  Region 1 showed concentrations of thallium, nickel, silver, zinc,  antimony,  selenium,
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, and lead associated with suspended solids in
the water column.  In general, the average values reported for metals in Puerto Rico Region 1 were about
twice the levels measured for St. Thomas and St. John within the period 1972  to 1979.  Average zinc
levels were 300 times higher in Puerto Rico Region 1 than in the U.S. Virgin Islands in the late 1970s.
No suspended solids data were collected for the other regions.

Toxics of Concern

Few data exist to evaluate toxics of concern for sediments.  Marine and estuarine sediment monitoring
data were analyzed statistically and summarized from all data provided by STORET-WQ.  Key toxics of
concern  for sediments  were evaluated by comparing the statistical summary data with derived sediment
criteria.   Sediment criteria were derived from AWQCs for a few pesticide compounds and PCBs to
determine  whether these chemicals  may present a threat to aquatic life (USEPA 1988).  None of the
detected levels exceeded these criteria.  However, the lack of sediment data and the lack of available
toxicity criteria prevent any clear evaluation of sediment quality.

Based on available data, the region of greatest concern was San  Juan  Harbor, where discharges from a
sewage treatment plant had degraded water quality prior to redirection of the plant outfall.  Studies of
the benthic community performed about 2 years after  elimination of sewage treatment plant discharges
showed  little sign of habitat impairment (Stoner and  Goenaga,  1987). Diverse  species inhabited the
harbor despite a history of discharge of untreated or partially treated municipal and industrial wastes and
frequent dredging  (Stoner and Goenaga,  1987).  Although  species diversity is  similar to  that of other
tropical estuaries, no historic data for San Juan Harbor are available for comparison (Stoner and Goenaga,
1987).  The redirection of sewage outfalls further out in the ocean may result in  potential adverse effects
on other species, such  as corals (USEPA 1983).  Sediments may remain in contact with coral reefs for
extended periods through resuspension of contaminated sediments deposited in coral areas (Dodge et al.
1974).   In addition  to the stresses  imposed on corals and  other  reef organisms to  remove sediments
deposited on tissue surfaces (Rogers 1990), studies have shown that sediments containing oil hydrocarbons
and heavy metals can cause sublethal and lethal effects on these organisms (Bak and Elgershuizen 1976,
Thompson and Bright  1977, Szmant-Froelich  et al. 1981, Kendall et al. 1983).

Metals

Sampling data for Region  1,  which  allowed  comparison of  suspended sediment and  water only for
concentrations of metals, showed that suspended sediments were enriched up to about one thousand times
above the concentrations associated  with filtered water.  Sediments therefore can  trap large portions of

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the metals and deposit them in estuaries and bays.  Although most of the experimental evidence of metal
toxicity has been collected for aquatic exposure, because concentrations in sediments are high, only a
small fraction must become available to the biota to produce a deleterious effect. Elevated concentrations
in pore water  may contribute significantly to sediment toxicity,  especially where organisms burrow in
sediments.   Factors  influencing  the  bioavailability of sediment-bound  contaminants  are  not  fully
understood and, thus far, potential biological responses cannot be predicted solely on the basis of
concentration data (Langstrum  1990).

Pesticides

Although benthic invertebrates are generally  more tolerant of pesticides than other types of organisms
tested, benthic species can bioaccumulate pesticides and other organic compounds and transfer them up
the food chain (e.g., Fiore et al. 1989,  Farrington 1991, Gardner et al. 1991, O'Connor  1991).

Organics

Benthic fauna  are typically exposed to higher concentrations of the organic compounds associated with
sediments.  Uptake of organic compounds such as PCBs by benthic organisms may result from exposure
to pore water  or through direct contact with contaminated sediments (Farrington 1991).  Since  these
animals are a food source for others, their accumulation of organic compounds and metals from sediments
may represent a major vector in the transport of such toxics  to fish.  For many toxic materials,  sediments
represent both the  primary  repository and the principal  source of contamination to the food chain
(Landrum and Robbins 1990).

Sediments collected from contaminated areas have produced toxicity to aquatic organisms in a wide range
of laboratory bioassays (Swartz  1987, Lamberson and Swartz 1988).  Laboratory experiments on Mytilus
edulis (mussels) and Nephtys incisa (polychaetes) collected from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, showed
histopathological changes  to the  gills  and epidermis, respectively,  when animals were exposed to
suspended sediments containing 50 percent contaminated sediment dredged from Black Rock Harbor
diluted with sediment from a reference site (Yevich et al. 1987).  The dredged material from Black Rock
Harbor contained high concentrations of organic and inorganic  pollutants including 6,400 ng/g PCBs,
1,000 to 12,000 ng/g PAHs (molecular weights between 166 and 302), 2,900 fig/g copper, 1,480 fig/g
chromium, 1,200 /ig/g zinc, 380 jig/g lead, 140 /ig/g nickel, 24 /xg/g cadmium, and 1.7 fig/g mercury
(Yevich et al.  1987).  Exposure to suspended sediments at  concentrations  reduced  by   approximately
50 percent by  dilution with reference sediments resulted in histopathological changes to the  gills of
100  percent of the study mussels after 14 days of exposure (Yevich et al.  1987).  Exposure of N. incisa
to the diluted dredged sediments resulted in histopathological changes in the epidermis in 18  percent of
the test organisms after 42 days of exposure.  The test animals and field-sampled  animals from locations
near where the dredged materials  had been dumped showed elevated tissue levels of organic pollutants.

4.1.3  U.S.  Virgin Islands Toxics Data

As previously discussed, no  recently collected (i.e., since 1980)  organic or heavy metal monitoring data
were available for use in characterizing the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore,  other
sources were  exhausted to  fill  this data gap.  Suspended  sediment samples for eight metals—arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, aluminum, and mercury—taken between 1972 and 1979 revealed
low  levels (3 to 40  mg/kg dry wt. and  13,000 mg/kg for aluminum) for St. Thomas and St. John.  No
pesticides or PCBs were detected during this period for these islands.  More recently,  a study conducted

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in 1986,  Toxic Substances in Coastal Waters of the  U.S. Virgin Islands, examined water and sediment
samples for heavy metals for nine station locations in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Table 4-6 summarizes the
types of  inorganics detected in  surface water and  sediments, as well as possible sources  of these
contaminants.  No monitoring data were summarized in this report, however.  The results of this study
indicated that the levels of inorganics in  sediments and surface water were not significant enough to
impair aquatic life or human health. Because of these findings,  similar monitoring project proposals
havenot been funded by the U.S. Virgin Islands.  No toxics of concern were identified for the Virgin
Islands.  Because of the lack of evidence of contamination in sediment and water samples of the Virgin
Islands, no estimates offish tissue concentrations were performed.

4.1.4  Toxics in Edible Fish Tissue

EPA databases containing fish tissue data, such as STORET-TISSUE and the National Study of Chemical
Residues in Fish (NSCRF) (USEPA 1990b), were accessed to determine whether any fish tissue data were
available for Puerto Rico or the  U.S.  Virgin Islands.  No fish tissue data were available from these
sources.  Limited information on fish tissue contamination was found in two government reports, which
are summarized  below. However, none of these studies reported  actual fish tissue concentrations.

       •  NOAA (1991a) detected concentrations of mercury above the U.S. EPA limits in fish caught
           at Guayanilla Bay, Puerto Rico. However, no fishing  bans were reported in the Puerto Rico
           1990 305(b) report.

       •  The U.S.  Virgin Islands Department of Fish and Wildlife conducted a limited study dealing
           with the accumulation of toxics in fish tissue (DPNR 1990). This study concluded that there
           is little need for concern over the problem of toxics in fish tissue in the U.S. Virgin Islands
           (DPNR 1990).

Since  actual fish tissue data are  not available,  levels of toxics of concern in fish tissue were  modeled
using ambient surface water quality data and available bioconcentration factors (BCFs). Toxics evaluated
in this assessment were identified by comparing ambient  surface water concentrations with available
AWQCs for the ingestion of fish.  Mercury and thallium were the only chemicals present in surface water
that exceeded AWQCs for ingestion of fish. Mercury concentrations in fish tissue were estimated using
a BCF of 3,760 which is approximate for coastal  and estuarine waters  and mean  concentrations of
mercury in  surface water from different  coastal regions of Puerto Rico.   Modeled concentrations of
mercury  in fish from coastal waters of Puerto Rico ranged from 0.9 mg/kg to 4.2 mg/kg.  No BCF was
available for modeling fish tissue concentrations of thallium.

Evaluation of the human health risks associated with exposure to mercury is discussed in Section 5.3.1.
Human exposures to mercury have been associated with the production of c-mitosis  and chromosomal
alterations in cells of the kidney and brain (NAS 1991).  Neurological damage as a result of exposure
may result in clinical  signs and symptoms  of paresthesia, incoordination, tremor, and epileptic seizures
(NAS  1991). Mercury can also inhibit enzymes by binding to sulfhydryl groups. Children of mothers
exposed to relatively low levels of mercury, as determined by blood and hair samples, may suffer from
mental retardation.
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              TABLE 4-6. TOXICS FOUND IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
     Waterbody
    Parameter
     Found in
      Water
Parameter
Found in
Sediments
      Sources
 1    Christiansted Harbor



 2    Salt River


 3    HOVIC West
Copper
Copper
 4    Martin Marietta (Limetree     Antimony
      Bay)


 5    St. Croix POTW             Mercury

 6    Public Dump (Manning Bay)   Mercury
Copper, lead, and
mercury

Copper, zinc,
chromium, mercury,
cadmium, nickel, and
antimony

Antimony, arsenic,
chromium, and
selenium
                    Cadmium
Boatyard, yacht
harbor, and unknown
sources

Atmospheric and
yacht harbor

Shipping, refinery
Unknown sources,
aluminum production


Atmospheric

Atmospheric,
landfill leaching
7
8
9
10
11
12

13

14
15
16
17
Frederiksted Harbor
Lindberg Bay
St. Thomas STP
Benner Bay
Mangrove Lagoon
Long Bay

Careening Cove

Cruz Bay
Hawksnest Bay
Great Cruz
Coral Bay
Mercury
Selenium
Nickel
Mercury
Selenium




Mercury
Copper and zinc
Zinc
Mercury
Atmospheric
Selenium Unknown sources,
WAPA outfall
Natural?
Atmospheric
Nickel Unknown sources,
natural
Copper, lead, and Yacht harbor
zinc
Copper, lead, and Boatyard
zinc
Atmospheric
Unknown sources
Yacht harbor
Nickel Atmospheric,
natural
Source: DPNR 1990.
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4.2  Biological Pathogens and Biotoxins

Diseases caused by pathogens associated  with anthropogenically contaminated  waters  have been well
documented (Cabelli et al. 1983, Milliken and Lee 1990, Coulston et al. 1991, McNeill 1992). Human
infectious diseases associated with swimming in polluted waters and ingestion of contaminated shellfish
include hepatitis, typhoid, cholera, skin diseases, and acute gastroenteritis (AGI).  The most common
form of disease  in humans  that is associated with exposure to biological  pathogens in  the marine
environment is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk viruses, other viruses, and various species of bacteria.
Other bacteria in the tropics are also considered health risks and are of concern (Ortiz-Roque and Hazen
1987, Dahling et al.  1988).  Ciguatera, a poisoning syndrome of concern in the Caribbean, is caused by
ingestion of fish contaminated with biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates (NAS 1991). Diseases caused
by pathogens and related to anthropogenic pollution stresses also  have been  documented in finfish,
shellfish, and other marine organisms (Sindermann 1990, Peters 1988).

4.2.1   Human Pathogens in the Marine and Estuarine Environment

The  abundance  of  dinoflagellates  and  certain  bacteria  has been  linked  to  increases in  pollution
(particularly nutrient loadings) from agricultural runoff, urban runoff, and sewage discharge (Table 4-7).
In 1981, less than 10 percent of the sewage in the Caribbean was treated; most was discharged untreated
into rivers, oceans, harbors, and latrines (NOAA 1988). Annual population growth is currently estimated
at 4.5 percent, which should continue until the end of the century.  Urban sewage services have failed
to keep up with this growing demand.  More than half of the Caribbean countries report that 50 percent
of the population have no sewer services (NOAA 1988).

Measurements of fecal coliform in ambient water  are used as standards for evaluating pathogen water
quality.  Studies have indicated, however, that fecal and total coliform counts do not correlate well with
the various viruses and bacteria found in the coastal waters, particularly in the tropics (McNeill 1992),
with the exception of Salmonella  (IOC/UNEP, 1991b). Caribbean scientists doubt the validity of a test
based solely on fecal counts.  A  new method, using enterococcus bacteria, Escherichia coli,  and fecal
streptococci, has been suggested  (IOC/UNEP, 199Ic). Another recent concern has been the ability of
certain human pathogenic bacteria to enter a nonculturable state after exposures to heavy metals, toxic
chemicals, or adverse temperature conditions. The bacteria retain their viability and infectivity, however,
and special  techniques using direct fluorescent monoclonal antibody staining and DNA gene  probes may
be necessary for  accurate determination of public health safety in marine and estuarine waters  (Hasan et
al. 1991; McNeill 1992).  Ambient water quality will be evaluated using available fecal coliform and
enterococcus data for Puerto Rico  and  the  U.S. Virgin Islands.  Exceedances  of various pathogen
standards are discussed in Section 5.

Fecal contamination  can occur  from  at  least three different sources:  fecal  pollution from sewage
discharge into  the environment,  including waste from boats; industry or retail processing; and changes
in the environment (NOAA 199la).  There is documented evidence that higher densities  of coliforms are
present in mooring areas (i.e., marinas).
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   TABLE 4-7. HUMAN PATHOGENS LIKELY TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE
                          AND TRANSMITTED BY WATER CONTACT
   Bacteria
 Viruses
      Protozoa
                                                                         Helminths
 Aeromonas hydrophila

 Klebsiella pneumoniae

 Staphylococcus aureus

 Salmonella spp.

 Shigella spp.

 Vibrio spp.

 Mycobacterium spp.

 Bacillus anthacis

 Clostridium perfringens


 Yersinia spp.

 Campylobacter spp.

 Pseudomonas spp.

 Leptospira spp.

 Listeria monocytogenes

 Escherichia coli

 Clostridium botulinum
Poliovjrus

Coxsackie A and B

Echovirus

Adenovirus

Reovirus

Parvovims

Rotavirus

Hepatitis A

Norwalk and related
gastroenteric viruses
    Entamoeba histolytica

    Acanthamoeba spp,

    Giardia spp.

    NaeglertQ fouleri
Echinococcus granulosus

Hymenolepis nana

Taenia saginata

Fasciola hepatica

Ascaris lumbricoides

Enterobius vermicularis

Strongyloides spp.

Trichuris trichiura

Toxocara canis


Trichostrongylus spp.

Ancylostoma duodenale
Source:  Kennish 1992 and McNeill 1992.
Ambient fecal coliform data for coastal waters off Puerto Rico from 1985 to the present were obtained
from STORET and are summarized below by coastal region (USEPA 1992):

                     Fecal Coliforms
                     (coliforms/100 mL)
       Region 1
       Region 2
       Region 3
       Region 4
  Mean

    624
  8,297
    247
  1,018
Maximum

730,000
850,000
 45,000
 60,000
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The highest fecal coliform counts were found near major coastal cities.  Enterococcus monitoring data
also were available for Region 1 of Puerto Rico. The mean enterococcus count was 117 CFUs/100 mL,
while the maximum enterococcus count was 4,800 enterococci/100 mL.  As discussed in Section 5, the
levels of fecal coliform and enterococcus in ambient  coastal water of Puerto Rico indicate significant
impairments to water quality and the need for better treatment methods of sewage treatment plant (STP)
effluents.

San Juan has been an area of particular concern for the last few years.  Prior to 1985, the Puerto Nuevo
sewage treatment plant's effluent was discharged directly into San Juan Harbor (USEPA 1989a).  Fecal
counts ranged from 4 to 12,800 fecal coliforms/100 mL.  The standards for fecal  counts were exceeded
in the canals and rivers, and these numbers have been constantly increasing since  1985.  Martin Pena
Canal had the highest levels of fecal  coliform in the study area.  Remedial actions were recommended
to alleviate the input of fecal  coliforms into this channel.

In San Juan Harbor, water samples were collected each fall from September 1985  to October 1988 at 22
stations for determination of total coliform, fecal  coliform, and enterococci bacteria concentrations.
Bacterial concentrations ranged from 9 to  116,000  coliforms/100 mL,  with highest concentrations
occurring in the  Martin Pena Canal and Puerto Nuevo River and lowest densities in the Condado Lagoon
(USEPA 1989a). The class "SC" standard of 10,000 total coliforms/100 mL has been exceeded in the
inner bay and canal/river areas.  The fecal coliform standard of 2,000 fecal coliforms/100 mL has been
exceeded only in the canal/river area.  Puerto Rico does not have a standard for enterococci. However,
counts have exceeded the EPA criterion for marine waters  of 35 enterococci/100 mL in  the outer bay,
inner bay, and canal/river areas.  The number of bacterial counts exceeding the criterion in the canal and
river appears to have increased between 1985 and 1988. Sediment samples collected at 16 stations during
the fall  surveys  were analyzed  for the abundance of Clostridium perfringens.   Counts for samples
collected during 1985-1987 were underreported by a factor of 0.6 due to analytical problems that were
observed for samples  collected during 1988. Clostridium counts were highest in  the canal and at inner
bay stations close to the canal during April and October 1988.

Recent  (i.e., after  1985) fecal coliform and enterococcus data for the U.S. Virgin Islands  were not
available in STORET.  Other data sources were used  to quantify ambient levels of pathogens along the
coastal  areas of the U.S. Virgin Islands.  A recent  study  (1989-1990)  conducted  by Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston, .Bacteriological Studies to Evaluate the Safety of Recreational Waters in the U. S. Virgin Islands,
examined 15 sites weekly from December 1989 to June 1990.  The sample sites included:

        •   St. Croix - Christiansted Harbor,  Salt River Estuary, Columbus Landing, Colony  Cove
            Beach,  Tide Beach, Reef Beach, and Yacht Club located in Teague Bay;

        •   St. Thomas  - Brewers Bay, Linberg Bay, Charlotte Amalie Harbor, Frenchman's Reef Resort
            Beach,  and  St. Thomas Harbor; and

        •   St. John - Trunk Bay, Cruz  Bay, and Lameshur Bay.

Multiple samples were collected from each sample station. Additional information from the Department
of Planning and  Natural  Resources (DPNR)  and the Division of  Environmental Protection was
incorporated into this report.  These agencies take monthly samples as part  of the U.S.  Virgin Islands
beach monitoring program.
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Fecal counts varied  greatly between the different habitats of the U.S Virgin Islands.  Pristine areas
recorded counts of zero, whereas the counts in the polluted areas near marinas and urban areas were as
high as 200,000 fecal coliforms/100 mL. It should be noted, however, that the unusually long lag time
between sample collection and analysis produced lower-than-expected results (Coulston et al. 1991). Test
evaluations showed that five areas exceeded the limits for the specified classification, as discussed in
Section 5.  This study also tested  for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and  Staphylococcus aureus.  The
commercial  ports of Cruz Bay,  Christiansted,  and Charlotte Amalie tested  excessively  high for
Staphylococcus aureus.

This study also evaluated the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococcus (FC/FS).  This ratio helps to
determine the source of pollution  when a waterbody  is being affected by both sewage discharge and
runoff.  The ratio determines whether the waters are affected by a human fecal source or an animal/plant
source. A ratio that is greater than 4 indicates human fecal contamination,  and a ratio of less than 0.07
indicates an animal or plant source (Geldreich 1976).  The FC/FS ratio for the sample sites ranged from
zero to 9.4.  These ratios were  higher in areas used frequently by humans  (e.g., harbors and marinas).
St. Thomas Harbor,  Yacht Haven Marina, and Salt River Marina had ratios indicative of a human fecal
source; Cruz Harbor's ratio implied  that the contamination was from an animal or vegetable pollution
source.  Contamination was associated with channels  and  canals leading into the harbors and densely
populated areas around cities.  Christiansted Harbor's  Public Works Department has a serious problem
associated with the amount of pollution in die harbor.  Occasionally, the department pumps raw sewage
into  the bay because of malfunctioning pumps. These pumps are supposed to transport sewage to the
South Shore treatment plant, but periodically the sewage is diverted into the harbor. This practice causes
periodic spikes in the fecal  coliform counts, but the monthly standard mean is never exceeded.

A survey conducted  by DPNR in the Virgin Islands found  a correlation between the amount of rainfall
and  the fecal  coliform counts (DPNR 1990).  Because of stormwater runoff and subsequent  facility
flooding, raw  sewage runs into die ecosystems during heavy storms.  Hurricane Hugo had a  devastating
effect on the area.  Many of the beaches were closed for months because fecal tests indicated that bacteria
levels  were too high for human safety.  These  levels  were the result of disabled  treatment  plants.
Monitoring data from these areas were requested, but were not received.

While specific pathogens were not identified in the above studies, other studies have shown  that human
pathogens can be found in waters with high sewage loadings.  A summary  of some of the pathogens of
concern is presented in Table 4-7.  Plusquellec et al. (1991) also noted that the sea surface microlayer
was enriched in indicator bacteria relative to subsurface waters at sewage-polluted sites so that evaluations
of bathing waters should take into consideration this possible concentration at the surface that could
directly contact the mouth, ears, eyes, and nose of swimmers and could produce highly contaminated
aerosols.

4.2.2  Human Pathogens  in Seafood

Human pathogens, such as Hepatitis A virus and Norwalk viruses, present  in sewage could contaminate
the edible tissues of various fish, crab, shrimp, and other invertebrate species (e.g.,  Panulirus argus,
Cittariumpica, Strombus gigas) found in marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands.   The marine and  estuarine environment  also harbors  species  of Vibrio  bacteria that are
opportunistic  pathogens.   Gastroenteritis  may be caused by consumption of seafood containing  V.
parahaemolyticus, and consumption of V.  vulnificus may result in an acute,  frequently fatal septicemia
(blood poisoning) in susceptible  individuals having  liver  disorders,  diabetes, or immune  system

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dysfunction (Blake et al.  1979, Pollak et al. 1983, Jacket et al.  1984, NAS 1985,  1991, Grimes 1991).
Non-01 strains of V. cholerae can cause a cholera-like disease.  There have been other reports of human
diseases caused by estuarine and marine bacteria (Grimes, 1991).

These organisms are not routinely monitored in Puerto  Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, however, nor
are studies conducted to relate the diseases to the ingestion of sewage-contaminated fish and shellfish.
Diseases could occur, but they may not be observed or linked to pathogenic seafood. Seasonal variations
in populations may occur (Boulon 1987).  There have not been any prohibitions against consuming fish
and shellfish from contaminated  waters in these islands.  More information on the human health effects
of sewage-contaminated fish and shellfish  is presented in Section 5.4.

4.2.3   Biotoxins in Seafood

Biotoxins are toxic chemicals produced by living organisms that may cause adverse human health effects
if ingested.  The  primary disease associated  with  ingestion  of fish contaminated with biotoxins is a
poisoning syndrome known as ciguatera (NAS 1991).   Ciguatera poisoning is well documented  in the
Caribbean and has been  increasing in recent years (CFMC 1985,  1990; Escalona de Motta et al.  1986;
Tosteson 1990).  Carangids or jacks have been found to be more toxic than groupers and snappers, but
the largest fish are usually the most dangerous to consume because the toxin is accumulated up the food
chain.  Ciguatera has been recognized as a serious health problem in the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto
Rico.

Although ciguatera is usually linked to the demersal food chain, studies have shown that the kingfish, a
pelagic fish, was  linked to  poisonings (Koester 1986).  A recent study  conducted by Tosteson et al.
(1988) examined the incidence of ciguatera in barracuda. This study found that 29 percent of the fish
caught in the northeastern Caribbean  contained elevated levels of biotoxins.  Seasonal variability did
occur.  Peak values occurred in late winter, early spring, and fall (60-70 percent of the fish were toxic).
Extracted toxins appear  to be contained in the viscera  and the central nervous system of the fish, thus
making the fish unmarketable.  Scientists have proposed that a dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, is
responsible for the occurrence of ciguatoxic fish in the marine environment (Yasumoto et al. 1979). This
dinoflagellate may significantly increase in population during disturbances or stress in the environment,
particularly during periods of increased nutrient loading (Yasumoto et al.  1979, CFMC  1990).  A slight
increase in ciguatera cases  was noted off the south coast of Puerto Rico following Hurricane  David
(Rogers 1985).

An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases  of  ciguatera  are reported annually  in Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands (Escalona de Motta et al. 1986, Tosteson 1990).  The incidence of fish poisoning due to
ciguatera has increased by at least 10 reported cases per 10,000 residents per year since the late 1970s
(Jacket 1981).  A problem associated with statistical information concerning the disease is that many
people do not report its occurrence because of widespread poverty and the concomitant lack of medical
attention.

Other dinoflagellates (e.g.,  Protogonyaulax catenella  [= Gonyaulax catenella], P.  tamarensis [= G.
excavata], Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa) produce neurotoxins, known as saxitoxins, that may
be concentrated in  edible  filter-feeding  shellfish  (NAS 1991).  These dinoflagellates may  bloom,
producing "red tides"  that can kill fish and some invertebrates but are concentrated in some shellfish
without harming them.  These biotoxins cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).  Other dinoflagellates
may  also cause illness in humans by  neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) (Steidinger 1983, Kennish

                                              4-17

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1992). Although such biotoxins are primarily problems in temperate coastal waters of the United States,
some of the conditions suspected of contributing to dinoflagellate blooms, such as increased nutrient
loading from sewage disposal, are found  in marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico  and the U.S.
Virgin Islands.

4.2.4 Diseases in Marine and Estuarine Organisms

Like humans, other vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants are susceptible to pathogen-caused diseases, and
the prevalence of such diseases has been associated with adverse environmental conditions, both natural
and anthropogenically induced.  Known pathogens of marine and estuarine organisms include viruses,
bacteria, fungi, and protozoans.  Pollution may affect the action of a pathogen either by assisting  its
proliferation in the environment or by increasing the susceptibility of organisms to endemic opportunistic
pathogens by altering normal  defense mechanisms that protect the organism from disease.  Numbers of
Vibrio anguillarutn increased in  the water column and sediments in the vicinity of a discharge  of
wastewater from a sugar plant (Colwell and Grimes  1984) and at polluted sites on the coast of Denmark
(Larsen and Willeburg 1984).  A number of studies have demonstrated that immune responses in fish and
invertebrates can be compromised by  exposure to toxic  compounds or other  adverse environmental
conditions (e.g., Anderson et  al. 1984,  Anderson 1990, Weeks et al. 1990).

A variety of viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases of commercially important fish and shellfish have been
associated with marine and  estuarine pollution.  While most studies of diseases in these organisms have
been conducted in temperate areas (see Sinderman 1990 for a  review), a number of suspected pathogen-
related disease outbreaks have occurred in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
These include fish kills, mass mortalities of sea urchins, white and black band diseases of stony corals,
and  bleaching of zooxanthellate invertebrates (Peters 1984,  Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1990a).
There are no regular monitoring programs, however, for such phenomena in these islands.  A slime-
mold-like protist, Labyrinthula sp.,  has been implicated as the pathogen in a wasting disease that has
recently caused high mortality in Thalassia testudlnwn (turtle  grass) beds of Florida Bay (Zieman et  al.
1989).  Seagrass mortalities due to this pathogen have not been reported off Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands.  Patiiogens and biotoxins, in conjunction with tissue contamination from PCBs and other
chemicals, have been implicated in die 1987-1988 mass mortality of bottlenose dolphins off the Atlantic
coast of the United States (Geraci 1989), but their roles in diseases and stranding mortalities of cetaceans
in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have not been studied (Caribbean Stranding Network 1991).
Also, Caribbean green turtles  have experienced a recent outbreak of debilitating fibropapillomas, but the
cause is still under investigation.

Numerous species of fish died in the Caribbean, off Florida, and off the Bahamas in 1980 (Williams and
Bunkley-Williams 1990b).  Several  mass mortalities of herrings  (Harengula jaguana) occurred in the
Caribbean during the 1980s, including one event off Puerto Rico in 1980. Fish were observed swimming
near the surface and appeared  lethargic (Williams and Bunkley-Williams 1990b).  The mortalities did not
occur at the same time, but affected populations were widely scattered in time and space.  Wanner water
temperatures could not be linked to all of the mortalities, and  examinations of fish taken from St. Kitts,
West Indies, in  1987 did not reveal any pathogens or parasites, although more tests may  have been
necessary to detect viruses.  While there have not been any specific reports of other diseases and lesions
in fish from waters  of the U.S. Virgin Islands and  Puerto Rico, studies of temperate fish species from
sites contaminated by sewage or  industrial wastes  have linked fin erosion,  epidermal ulcers, hepatic
neoplasms, and increased parasitism to  such environmental stresses (Sindermann 1990).
                                              4-18

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Coral reef organisms off Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have been affected by several disease
phenomena, but again few thorough studies have been conducted.  Peters (1984) observed  widely
scattered cases of black band disease (BBD) on faviid corals off the west coast  of Puerto  Rico  and
St.  Croix in 1980 and 1981.  BBD occurs as a  black mat, from  a few millimeters to 4-5 cm  thick,
consisting of fine filaments of the cyanobacterium Phormidiwn corallyticum and other microorganisms,
that separates living coral tissue from bare skeleton (Riitzler et al. 1983). The disease starts at a site of
physical  injury and then  moves across the coral surface a few millimeters per day, apparently causing
necrosis of the coral tissues by a toxic exudate. While normally rare on reefs (Edmunds 1991), extensive
outbreaks of BBD have occurred at the Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary and other sites and may be
the result of nearshore nutrient loading (Antonius 1988, Peters 1988).  This cyanobacterium has also been
associated with diseases in octocorals  (Feingold 1988) and  the  loss of extensive  beds of sea fans
(Gorgonia spp.) elsewhere  in the Caribbean (Guzmdn and Cortes 1984, Peters 1988).  A green alga has
been identified as the causative agent in tumors of sea fans (Morse et al. 1977, Laydoo 1983).   These
tumors appeared to be associated with anthropogenic stress off Bonaire and Trinidad, but have also been
found  in these octocorals off La Parguera, a relatively pristine site (E.H.  Williams,  Jr., University of
Puerto Rico, personal communication, September 19, 1992).

Stony  corals of the family Acroporidae  (staghorn  and elkhorn corals) have been affected by white band
disease (WBD), in which the tissue sloughs off the skeleton at the rate of a few millimeters per day.
Peters (1984) observed bacterial aggregates in both apparently healthy  and affected  coral colonies off
Tague Bay, St. Croix, in 1980 and  1981, with more bacterial aggregates found in the colonies showing
signs of disease, but the etiology is still unknown.  Gladfelter (1982) suggested that the loss of these
corals from reefs off St.  Croix could have devastating consequences for  the islands. Approximately 95
percent of the Acropora palmata at Tague Bay had died by October 1986. Similar losses of these corals
have  occurred throughout  the Caribbean (Davis  et al. 1985, Rogers 1985).  The role  of natural and
anthropogenic environmental stresses in the development of this disease has not been determined, although
a "stress-related necrosis"  has  been recognized  in corals of these and other species showing  similar
disease signs (Peters 1984).

Several episodes of bleaching of corals, other cnidarians, and sponges occurred off the U.S.  Virgin
Islands and Puerto Rico,  as well as throughout the rest of the Caribbean, during the 1980s (Williams and
Bunkley-Williams, 1990a).  This bleaching was the result of loss of the dinoflagellate algal cells known
as zooxanthellae that live within tissues and give the animals a brown color.  Normally the zooxanthellae
mutually  aid in the metabolic functions of their host animals, using wastes produced by their hosts in
photosynthesis to manufacture nutrients used by  the host cells.  Loss of the zooxanthellae resulted in
reduced skeletal accretion or growth, reduced reproduction, and tissue necrosis in stony  corals in many
areas, although other affected hosts recovered their zooxanthellae within  a few weeks.  A pathogen was
suspected due to the synchronicity  of  the  bleaching events,  but  elevated seawater  temperatures and
localized  environmental perturbations such as sedimentation and nutrient loading were also  implicated
(Williams and Bunkley-Williams, 1990a).

In 1983-1984, the long-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, was affected by a suspected water-borne
pathogen, resulting in the loss of 90-95 percent of the urchins throughout the Caribbean, including Puerto
Rico  and the  U.S.  Virgin  Islands (Lessios  1988, Peters 1988).  The loss of the  herbivorous urchins
altered reef habitats as thick mats of fleshy and filamentous macroalgae  covered reefs, with declines in
coral  species,  crustose coralline algal cover, and clionid sponges (Carpenter 1990).  The causative agent
was not identified (Peters 1988).  Localized mortalities in small remnant or recruiting populations of these
                                              4-19

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urchins are still occurring, and mortalities of other species of urchins were noted off Puerto Rico in the
winter of 1984-1985 (Williams et al. 1986).

The Caribbean Aquatic Animal  Health Program (CAAHP) has been established at the University of
Puerto Rico, under the direction of Dr. Ernest H. Williams, Jr.,  to investigate disease phenomena in
freshwater, estuarine, and marine organisms.  The program also receives  support from the Department
of Natural Resources of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Division of Fish and Wildlife of the U.S.
Virgin Islands,  Sea Grant  of  Puerto Rico  and  the U.S.  Virgin Islands,  the Caribbean Fisheries
Management Council,  and Auburn University (Williams and Bunkley-Williams, 1987).  In  addition to
tracking  reports of morbidity and mortality in diverse aquatic organisms through the Marine Ecological
Disturbance Information  Center  network (MEDIC) and  performing research  to identify the causes of
disease, the CAAHP also operates the Caribbean Marine Mammal  Stranding Network to investigate the
causes of marine mammal strandings for the region.

4.3  Nutrients

This section presents monitoring and loading data on nutrients resulting from both point and nonpoint
source pollution.  Ambient  concentrations of nutrients  in nearshore coastal  waters are a function of
nutrient loading from point and nonpoint sources and the removal rate of nutrients from the water column
through  sedimentation, advection,  and dispersion.  Therefore,  ambient nutrient levels may be an
indication of the level of point and  nonpoint nutrient loading.

Since nutrient enrichment is primarily a concern for the health of coral reefs, the discussion in  this section
is limited to the effect of nutrients on coral reefs. The growth of mangrove forests is typically linked to
the supply of nutrients, and  therefore nutrient enrichment  may actually improve mangrove forest
productivity (Odum et al. 1982). Tropical seagrasses also appear to be nutrient-limited (Williams 1987,
1990), although excessive nutrient input to  seagrass beds  could  lead to eventual replacement of the
seagrass  with phytoplankton and/or benthic algae and periphyton (Zieman  1982). Coral reefs, however,
may be very sensitive to nutrient enrichment.  Nutrients enhance the growth of benthic algae, which
interfere with coral larval recruitment and may overgrow live coral colonies (Birkeland 1977).  If nutrient
enrichment enhances phytoplankton biomass, the reduction in light penetration can adversely affect corals
that have symbiotic  algae (zooxanthellae), which  contribute to overall  coral  productivity and skeletal
extension.

Nutrient data obtained  from  STORET are summarized in this section. Nutrients evaluated include total
phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate and nitrite, dissolved oxygen,  and pH.  Tables 4-8
through 4-11 summarize nutrient levels in ambient water along coastal  Regions 1 through 4 of Puerto
Rico, respectively.   Tables  4-12, 4-13, and  4-14  summarize nutrient levels in ambient waters for the
islands of St. Croix, St. John, and  St. Thomas. Generally,  higher nutrient levels were found along the
coastal areas of Puerto  Rico than in areas along the coast  of the U.S. Virgin Islands. This may the result
of differences in coastal nutrient loading from these islands,  or it may be attributed to the location of the
sampling areas.  The data reported for Puerto Rico may  have been collected from nearshore, estuarine,
or lagoon areas,  which tend  to have higher nutrient concentrations. Sampling  in the U.S. Virgin Islands
may have been focused on offshore waters.

To determine whether  nutrient loading is responsible for the elevated nutrient concentrations observed
in the coastal  waters of  Puerto  Rico, nutrient loadings  from coastal point and nonpoint sources  were
determined. Estimation of both  point and nonpoint nutrient loadings will  allow for a comparison of the

                                              4-20

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     TABLE 4-8. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
                 CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 1
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Secchi Depth Transparency
(m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(TKN)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate and Nitrite
(NO2 + N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency"
1071/1071
1052/1052
1021/1022
192/192
22/22
726/726
19/20
958/1028
303/373

928/988

Mean
27.6
11.1
141
7.7
4.1
3.9
0.082
5.49
0.586

2.35

Standard
Deviation
2.4
155
1938
0.4
2.8
11.6
0.093
69.9
1.50

38.2

Maximum
39.0
5025
62037
8.7
7.95
210
0.40
1772
15.0

782

 Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 6, 1992.

 'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
  reported.
 bDO percent saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
relative importance of these two sources.  This analysis will aid in the determination of the sources of
use impairments and will allow for the recommendation of appropriate corrective actions.

4.3.1  Nutrient Loading from Point Sources

The PCS  database was explored for data on nutrient concentrations and nutrient loading from NPDES-
permitted coastal and estuarine point source discharges.  No data on nutrients were identified for facilities
in Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands except for one loading value for total phosphorus from the
Fajardo  municipal facility in Region  2 of Puerto   Rico.   Therefore,  typical  values  of  nutrient
concentrations in  treated municipal  wastewater were  used to estimate nutrient loading to  coastal and
                                           4-21

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TABLE 4-9.  SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN
                       IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 2
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus

-------
    TABLE 4-10. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
                 CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 3
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
pH (lab)
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus

-------
     TABLE 4-11. SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
                 CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF
                               PUERTO RICO - REGION 4
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation11
pH (lab)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(TKN)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate and Nitrite
(NO2 + NO3 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
143/143
149/149
142/142
12/12
123/123
117/118
122/122
18/19
141/141
Mean
28.3
5.6
71.8
7.8
6.9
0.350
1.43
0.157
0.199
Standard
Deviation
1.9
1.9
24.5
0.2
7.9
0.923
4.14
0.131
0.412
Maximum
32.0
9.7
118
8.1
40.0
6.55
27.4
0.41
3.97
 Source: STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.

 'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of
  records reported.
 bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.

Region 2.  Nutrient loading data were, available for three rivers in Region 2.  The river discharge and
nutrient loading to Region 2 were second-lowest, with a total annual average discharge of 6 m3/s of
water,  132 kg/d of TP, and 662 kg/d of nitrogen (USEPA 1992).  The most significant river source of
nutrients to Region 2 was Rio Guayane"s, which discharges to Puerto Yabucoa.

Region 3.  Nutrient loading data were  available for six  rivers  in Region 3.  The total annual average
loading was 4 m3/s of water, 74 kg/d of TP, and 616 kg/d of nitrogen (USEPA 1992). Nutrient loading
was greatest from Rio Maunabo, which discharges to the southeast coast of Puerto Rico.

Region 4.  Nutrient loading data were available for three rivers in Region 4. The second-highest nutrient
loadings were estimated for this region, although much higher loading's were estimated for Region 1.
Total annual average loading of water,  TP, and nitrogen were estimated to be 17 m3/s, 284 kg/d, and
2,591 kg/d, respectively (USEPA 1992).
                                           4-24

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    TABLE 4-12.  SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
               CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
                              VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. CROIX
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
Secchi Depth Transparency
(m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Ammonia
(NH3 + NH4 -N)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
884/884
736/736
734/734
287/796'
944/957
50/179
0/2
37/203
Standard
Mean Deviation
27.5
6.3
78.5
3.7
2.9
0.028

0.063
1.4
1.1
13.9
2.6
13.5
0.090

0.104
Maximum
33.0
13.2
167
25.0
200
1.00

1.00
 Source:  STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.

 'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
  reported.
 bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
 "Secchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in many of
  the reported observations.
The  estimated regional nutrient loading from rivers was generally less  than or nearly equal  to the
estimated loading from coastal municipal point sources with the exception of Region 2, for which the
estimated river loading was much greater.  This indicates that coastal point sources may be a significant
contributor to coastal nutrient enrichment.

4.4  Sediments

Coastal water turbidity and sedimentation are a function of point and nonpoint loading of sediments, the
relative importance of sedimentation and resuspension, and advection and dispersion of suspended
sediments. Therefore, ambient suspended sediment levels, water turbidity, and water transparency may
be an indication of the level of point and nonpoint sediment loading, although sediment resuspension also
may  be an important factor.
                                            4-25

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      TABLE 4-13.  SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
                CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
                               VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. JOHN
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation6
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency"
521/521
500/500
496/496
165/532°
659/659
97/178
13/186
Mean
27.3
6.6
82.0
3.1
1.3
0.050
0.211
Standard
Deviation
1.6
1.3
16.5
2.6
1.9
0.128
1.04
Maximum
32.5
13.4
170
19.0
22.0
1.00
10.1
  Source:  STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.

  'The number of unqualified (STORE! Remark codes) values reported over the total number of
  records reported.
  "DO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
  °Secchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in
  many of the reported observations.


Sedimentation  was evaluated by analyzing  turbidity and Secchi  depth transparency data provided in
STORET (Storet 1992). Tables 4-8 through 4-11 summarize turbidity and Secchi depth transparency data
for ambient water along coastal Regions 1 through 4 of Puerto Rico, respectively.  Tables 4-12, 4-13,
and 4-14 summarize monitoring data for these parameters in ambient waters for the islands of St. Croix'
St. John,  and St. Thomas, respectively. The interpretation  of the Secchi depth transparency  data is
complicated by the reporting of Secchi disk  transparency equal  to the water depth of the station, which
occurred when Secchi disk measurements were made in shallow areas that were transparent to the bottom
depth.  Such reporting exerts a negative bias on the data, and when many of the observations are qualified
as transparent to bottom depth  (as is the case in the U.S.  Virgin Islands), the mean Secchi transparency
is lower than would be expected. However, the mean coastal water turbidity,  based on the available
STORET data (USEPA 1992), is somewhat greater for Puerto Rico than for the U.S.  Virgin Islands.
This may be the result of a difference in sediment loading to the coastal waters of these islands, or it may
be attributed to differences in the location of sampling stations between these two areas.
                                            4-26

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     TABLE 4-14.  SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS OF POTENTIAL
               CONCERN IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE
                            VIRGIN ISLANDS - ST. THOMAS
Parameter
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)(mg/L)
DO % Saturation1"
Secchi Depth
Transparency (m)
Turbidity (NTU)
Total Phosphorus
(TP)(mg/L)
Nitrate
(N03 -N)(mg/L)
Detection
Frequency*
107/107
107/107
106/106
14/108C
134/134
16/36
2/36
Standard
Mean Deviation
27.1
6.4
79.5
2.7
0.8
0.022
0.646
1.5
0.56
7.6
1.1
0.9
0.050
2.33
Maximum
29.4
9.0
115
7.0
5.4
0.30
0
10.1
 Source:  STORET-WQ (USEPA 1992) retrieved January 13, 1992.

 'The number of unqualified (STORET Remark codes) values reported over the total number of records
  reported.
 bDO % saturation data obtained from STORET; reason for unusually high numbers unknown.
 cSecchi disk transparency exceeded the water depth of the station (i.e., transparent to bottom) in many of the
  reported observations.
To determine whether sediment loading is responsible for the elevated turbidity and reduced transparency
observed in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, suspended sediment loading from the coastal waters of
Puerto Rico was determined.  Sediment loading to the coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands was also
determined to  test the hypothesis that elevated  sediment levels in Puerto  Rico  are due to increased
sediment loading.  Estimation of both point and nonpoint sediment loading will aid in the determination
of sources of use impairment and will allow for the recommendation of appropriate corrective actions.

4.4.1  Sediment Loading from Point Sources

The PCS database was explored for data on total suspended solids (TSS) loading from permitted NPDES
coastal discharges. No data on  TSS  loading from point sources have been identified for Puerto Rico or
the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Therefore,  estimates of TSS loading were made  based  on permitted average
wastewater discharge and effluent limits for  TSS  (Table 4-15).
                                            4-27

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                  TABLE 4-15. SUMMARY OF NUTRIENT LOADING FROM
                           COASTAL AND MUNICIPAL SOURCES
Municipal
Point Source
REGION 1
Isabela
Camuy
Hatillo
Arecibo
Barceloneta
Dorado
Bayamon
Carolina
Puerto Rico
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Heritage
Roosevelt Roads
Maunabo
TOTAL
REGION 3
Arroyo
Guayama
Santa Isabel
Ponce
Guanica
TOTAL
REGION 4
Mayaguez
Aguadilla
Ramey
TOTAL
Flow
(m3/s)

0.04
0.13
.02
0.35
0.36
0.05
1.10
1.97
3.15
7.17

0.07
0.004
0.04
0.01
0.124

0.03
0.44
0.04
0.79
0.01
1.31

1.0
0.39
0.11
1.5
Total
Phosphorus*
(kg/d)

7
22
0
61
63
9
189
341
545
1,237

151d
0.8
7
2.3
22.1

5.3
76
8
1.36
2.5
227.8

170
68
19
257
Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen" (kg/d)

14
45
3.8
121
126
18
379
681
1090
2,478.8

24
1.5
14
4.5
44

11
151
15
273
5
455

341
136
38
515
Total Suspended
Solidsc (kg/d)

104
337
52
907
933
130
2,851
5,106
8,165
18,584

182
11
106
34
333

79
1,136
114
2,044
37
3,410

2,555
1,022
284
3,861
'Based on permitted average flow and
bBased on permitted average flow and
"Based on permitted average flow and
dBased on actual loadings from PCS.
effluent concentration of 2 mg P/L.
effluent concentration of 4 mg N/L.
effluent concentration of 30 mg/L.
                                            4-28

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TABLE 4-16. SUMMARY OF NUTRIENT LOADING FROM RIVERS TO
            COASTAL WATERS OF PUERTO RICO
River Name
(Rio)
REGION 1
Guajataca
Grande de Arecibo
Grande de Manati
Outlet Laguna Tortuguero
Cibuco
de la Plata
Piedras
Grande de Loiza
Espiritu Santo
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Humacao
Guayanes
TOTAL
REGION 3
Maunabo
Chico
Portugues
Guayanilla
Grande de Patillas
Cerrillos
TOTAL
REGION 4
Guanajibo
Grande Anasco
Culebrinas
TOTAL
Total Total Kjeldahl Nitrate
Flow Phosphorus Nitrogen Nitrogen Ammonia
(m3/s) (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d) (kg/d)

1.98
11.55
326.7
0.62
2.63
37.31
0.65
0.88
0.93
383.25

1.27
1.95
2.88
6.10

1.10
0.16
0.53
0.25
1.07
1.05
4.16

3.17
7.53
6.43
17.13

4
90
319
0.9
46
81
35
18
7
600.9

18
77
37
132

27
7
9
16
5
9
733

99
71
113
283

74
497
792
59
217
303
108
71
52
2,173

76
178
181
435

112
45
38
82
78
35
390

246
292
546
1,084

131
647
874
40
285
162
41
46
9
2,235

25
111
90
226

35
7
70
23
22
67
224

188
892
427
1,507

10
51
114
15
29
58
53
10
17
357

23
43
16
82

5
23
8
45
5
3
89

63
46
63
172
                         4-29

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The pattern of estimated sediment loading from point sources followed that of nutrients,  with most
sediment discharge estimated for Region 1 and with Regions 4 and 3 running a close second and third,
respectively.  The lowest estimated sediment discharge was for Region 2.

4.4.2  Sediment Loading from Nonpoint Sources

The STORET database was explored for data on TSS loading from rivers to the coastal waters of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. No data on TSS loading from the U.S. Virgin Islands were identified.
Estimated sediment loadings from various rivers to coastal waters of Puerto Rico are presented in Table
4-17.

The estimated sediment loading from rivers in Puerto Rico was greatest for Region 4. The second-highest
estimate was for Region  1 on the north coast.  Sediment loading to Region 3 was third-highest, with the
lowest estimate for Region 2. Estimated sediment loading from rivers ranged from 16 to 59 times greater
than sediment loading from point sources, with the exception of estimates for Region 1, which were only
about 5 times greater.

Land  use information for  the U.S. Virgin Islands is available and will be used to estimate sediment
loading  to  coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Estimates of sediment loading from nonpoint
sources allows for comparison with estimates derived for coastal point source discharges.

4.5 Thermal Pollution

Tropical  marine organisms usually live closer to their maximum thermal limit than do temperate species
(Johannes and Betzer 1975). Temperature stress to tropical coastal marine communities may be the result
of unseasonably warm or cold water temperatures or human-induced stress due to the discharge of heated
effluents.  Corals may  be the  most sensitive to temperature stress.   Johannes (1975) reviewed the
literature on the effects of thermal effluents on corals and concluded that water temperatures 4 to 6 °C
above ambient levels were  lethal to corals and that corals cease to  feed  at temperatures only 1.5 to 3.0
°C above ambient levels.  As previously discussed, mean temperatures of the coastal waters of Puerto
Rico  and the U.S. Virgin Islands, based on the available STORET data, ranged from 27.1 to 28.3 °C
(USEPA 1992). Ambient temperature data for coastal and estuarine waters were obtained from STORET.
Tables 4-8  through 4-11  summarize temperature data for ambient water along coastal Regions 1 through
4 of Puerto Rico, respectively.  Tables 4-12, 4-13, and 4-14 summarize temperature data for ambient
waters for  the islands of St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas, respectively.  Maximum temperatures
ranged from 29.4 °C in  St. Thomas to 39.0 °C in Region  1  of Puerto Rico (USEPA 1992).
                                             4-30

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TABLE 4-17. SUMMARY OF SEDIMENT LOADING FROM RIVERS
         TO COASTAL WATERS OF PUERTO RICO
River
REGION 1
Guajataca
Grande de Arecibo
Grande de Maaati
Outlet - Laguna Tortugueco
Cibuco
de la Plata
Camuy
Piedras
Grande de Loiza
Espmtu Santo
TOTAL
REGION 2
Fajardo
Humacao
Guayanes
TOTAL
REGION 3
Mannabo
Guamant
Chico
Portugues
Guayanilla
Tallaboa
Grande de Patillas
Cerrillos
TOTAL
REGION 4
Guanajibo
Grande de Anasco
Culebrinas
TOTAL
Total Suspended Solids
(kg/d)

490
17,237
55,338
127
3,357
6,895
8,437
4,445
181
181
96,688

3,901
7,257
8,618
19,776

14,515
37,195
54
626
626
1,089
73
889
55,067

9,072
105,233
58,060
172,365
                       4-31

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4-32

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                          5. EVALUATION OF USE IMPAIRMENTS

This section presents an evaluation of impairments to marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Impairments to rivers, which may ultimately impact estuarine environments,
are also addressed. The extent of impairment to waterbodies is evaluated for the following designated
uses:

        •   Ecological habitats (Section 5.1);
        •   Marine aquatic life and wildlife (Section 5.2);
        •   Ingestion of fish and shellfish by humans (Section 5.3.1);
        •   Swimming (Section 5.3.2);
        •   Commercial navigation and recreational boating (Section 5.3.3); and
        •   Aesthetic enjoyment of the islands (Section 5.3.4).

Marine pollution sources that have impaired waterbodies are evaluated along with a qualitative assessment
of remediation and management options. Specific facilities that have impaired waterbodies in Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands were identified in Section 3 and will not be repeated  in this section.

This section also attempts to address the  economic costs associated with use impairments occurring in
marine and estuarine waters of these islands.   Unfortunately, appropriate studies addressing specific
economic costs of beach closures, fish catch reductions, revenues lost because of decreased diving and
tourism, and other aspects have not been conducted in the Caribbean and would probably vary with the
locality, even in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Therefore, it is difficult to assign a specific
dollar amount to any particular impact.  Data gaps and factors for consideration in economic impact
analyses are identified, where possible, to assist in future evaluations of economic losses as the result of
coastal pollution and habitat degradation.

Overall statistics on impairments to waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are reported
in the 305(b)  reports and Waterbody System (WBS).  Figures 5-1 and  5-2 present the current support
status of different waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively, as presented in
their 305(b) reports.  Support status categories include the following: fully supporting designated uses,
partially supporting designated uses, waterbody is currently supporting the designated  use but is
threatened, and not supporting the designated use. The designated uses of these waterbodies may include
swimming, fishing, and support of aquatic life.

5.1  Damage to Ecological Habitat Health and Productivity

This section evaluates use impairments to marine ecological habitats including coral reefs, mangroves,
and  seagrass beds.  Damage to these habitats has occurred primarily because of nutrients, sediments,
thermal pollution,  and boating.    Only  limited quantitative data for  providing overall quantitative
information on impairments to these ecological habitats were available.  In addition, information on the
areal extent of these habitats was poor with the exception of the mangrove forests of Puerto Rico (Tetra
Tech 1991).   Thus, no current status information or baseline data were available for  evaluating the
percent decline of these habitats.  Field investigations that have evaluated the health of isolated portions
of these ecological habitats were available and have been summarized in the sections below.  These
studies tended to focus on areas that are currently being impaired by marine and estuarine pollution.
                                               5-1

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Classification
goals supported
58%
                       Classification goals
                       partially supported

                         42%
        COASTAL
         WATERS
      Classification goals
87% Partia"y supported
        31 %  Classification
               goals supported
                                                 Classification
                                                 goals supported
                        13%
                                  ESTUARIES
                    Classification goals
                    partially supported
                       69%
     LAKES AND
      LAGOONS
         Figure 5-1.  Support Status of Waterbodies of Puerto Rico

                            5-2

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            Classification
            goals not
            supported
              2.4%
64.6%

Classification
goals
supported
  Classification
  goals
  threatened
  13%

  Classification goals
  partially supported

  20%
            ESTUARIES,
       HARBORS AND BAYS
              3QO/ Classification goals
             • O /O   x      .  .
                  not supported
  Classification goals
  partially supported

  69.5%
                                7.4%
                           Classification goals
                           threatened
  2.2%
  Classification
  goals
  threatened
                                   8.8%
                                 Classification
                                 goals
                                 supported
COASTAL
  AREAS
                                12.2%
                                Classification goals
                                not supported
           OCEANS
  6.1%
Classification
goals
supported
        Figure 5-2.  Support Status of Waterbodies of U.S. Virgin Islands
                                 5-3

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5.1.1  Impact Due to Nutrients

Limited quantitative evaluations of impairments to ecological habitats have been made in Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Limited information for San Juan Harbor and Bahia de Ponce in Puerto  Rico
and for  Christiansted Harbor in St. Croix is presented below.

Puerto Rico

Bahia de Ponce.  Differences in percent live coral cover between coral reefs of La Parguera-Penuelas (23
percent) and coral reefs  in the vicinity of Bahia  de Ponce (4 to 10 percent)  were attributed to the
resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin (Acevedo and Morelock 1988).  The percent live
coral  cover in Bahia de Ponce on Isla Cardona, Bajo Tasmanian, and Cayo Ratones was 4,  6, and 10
percent, respectively.  Nutrient enrichment, due to the discharge of municipal wastewater effluent from
the Ponce Regional Sewage Treatment Plant,  was proposed as the cause of enhancement of filamentous
algae  and macroalgae observed  among  the coral communities of Cayo Arenas,  Cayo Viejo, and Las
Hojitas  (Tetra Tech 1990). However, quantitative data on live coral cover are  not available for these
reefs.

Water quality data for  Bahia  de Ponce  summarized  in Tetra Tech  (1990)  indicate  that nutrient
concentrations were generally low.  Phosphate concentrations ranged from below  detection levels
(< 0.005 mg/L) to 0.140  mg/L, TKN ranged  from  < 0.004 to 0.165 mg/L, nitrate ranged from <0.010
to 0.080 mg/L,  and ammonia ranged from  < 0.004 to 0.018 mg/L. These concentrations, with the
possible exception of phosphate concentrations, do not  indicate severe water quality problems due to
nutrients. The regional wastewater outfall in Bahfa de Ponce is planned to be moved to an offshore
location beyond the sensitive area of nearshore  coral reefs.

San Juan Harbor. Twenty-two water quality stations were sampled in the fall and spring from September
1985 to  October 1988.  Throughout the study period, the majority of the nutrient concentrations measured
were  below the  limits  of detection (USEPA 1989a).  Total Kjeldahl nitrogen  (organic nitrogen plus
ammonia nitrogen) was  the  most abundant form  of  nitrogen measured.   Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
concentrations reached a maximum  value of 5.9 mg/L  at a station in the inner bay during 1986.
Ammonia concentrations  ranged up to 1 mg/L, nitrate up to 0.3 mg/L, and nitrite up to 0.05 mg/L. No
evidence of use impairment due to nitrogen loads is presented in the report (USEPA 1989a). The highest
mean phosphorus levels observed in the waters of San Juan Harbor were measured in 1985 (0.11-0.12
mg/L),  and the lowest levels  (approximately  0.03  mg/L) were observed during  1986 (USEPA  1989a).
No evidence of use impairment due to phosphorus loads is presented  in the update report.

U.S. Virgin Islands

St. Croix. Dodge et al. (1984), in an investigation of coral skeletons as phosphorus pollution indicators,
sampled coral heads from three sites in St. Croix.  One site was in a relatively pristine area of Buck
Island National Monument, and the other two sites  were in Christiansted Harbor, one on Long Reef near
a sewage outfall and the  other at Round Reef near the mouth of the harbor.  Christiansted Harbor had
also historically been subjected to extensive dredging from 1963 to 1967 and to dredging at a reduced
level up to the time of sample collection. The elevated phosphorus content of the corals in Christiansted
Harbor  and reduced calcification rates were attributed to sewage pollution and dredging activities. The
reduction in calcification  attributable to sewage pollution cannot be ascertained. Presently, the outfall in
Christiansted Harbor functions as an emergency overflow and is not frequently in use.

                                              5-4

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Although little information regarding the impact of nutrients on the coastal environments of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands is available, the elevated concentrations of nutrients reported in STORET for
coastal waters of Puerto Rico indicate that there is great potential for habitat degradation due to increased
nutrient loading to coastal waters.  The sources of these nutrients appear to be discharges from both
coastal rivers and municipal wastewater treatment plants located along the coast.  The coastal waters of
the U.S. Virgin Islands do not appear to be nutrient enriched, as a result of the lack of permanent rivers
(a function of island size) and the smaller municipal wastewater load (a function of population size).

Although  it is  premature to develop management strategies  without  further investigation to  identify
specific problem areas and the relative contribution of nutrient sources, reductions in nutrient loading to
coastal waters may involve improved soil management and fertilizer use reductions in agricultural areas,
as well as elimination of phosphate detergents. Where sewage outfalls empty into areas of coral reefs,
these outfalls should be diverted to areas farther offshore with better dispersion characteristics. To reduce
the total loading of wastewater, reuse of treated wastewater should  also  be  considered.  However,
selection of management techniques will depend on the nutrient(s) causing use impairment and the relative
cost-effectiveness of each management alternative.

5.1.2  Impact Due to Sediments

Sediments will adversely affect coral reefs (through sedimentation and  increased turbidity) and seagrass
beds (primarily through increased turbidity). Rogers (1990) cited increased sedimentation in coastal areas
due to land development as the primary cause of coral reef degradation.  The impact on seagrass beds
resulting from sedimentation has not been studied as extensively as the impact on coral reefs. Generally,
threats to  seagrass  beds  in the  Caribbean result from direct excavation  or  burial  during  dredging
operations (Hubbard 1987) and from  anchor damage (Williams  1988c).  In addition, poorly planned
development, sediment runoff, increased turbidity, poorly treated sewage, and hurricanes have destroyed
seagrass beds throughout vast expanses in Puerto Rico and surrounding islands (Vicente et al. 1990;
Vicente and Rivera 1982; Vicente et al. 1980).  Mangrove forests are typically resistant to extensive
damage from sediments, with the possible exception of mangrove seedlings, which may be smothered by
excessive sediment loads  (Lugo 1990a). Therefore,  this section focuses  on the  impact of sediments on
coral reefs and seagrass beds.

Coastal changes such as elimination of terrestrial vegetation, landfilling, and dredging operations, as well
as sediment resuspension by tugboat traffic, increase sediment particle suspension in the water column.
These changes cause greater turbidity which,  in turn, decreases light penetration and limits the vertical
distribution of seagrasses (Vicente et  al. 1980).   According  to a model developed by Vicente et  al.,
sediment  degradation could be mitigated by  restoring  shoreline  terrestrial vegetation, transplanting
seagrasses into landfilled and dredged areas, reducing tugboat traffic, and lessening the turbidity effect
of thermal additions with the use of cooling ponds or cooling  towers (Vicente et al.  1980).

Unsound agricultural and developmental practices that allow soil to run off the land  into the waterways
continues to damage mangrove forests and coral reefs (Carrion, 1992). These activities become a primary
source of sediments when proper management practices are not required and enforced.  An example of
the  effects from sedimentation  due  to  construction can be seen in the coastal area surrounding the
St. Thomas Airport. If proper sediment erosion control plans were required and these requirements were
enforced, many problems would not occur. Solutions such as requiring silt fences, straw bales, or check
dams that retain sediment are available.
                                               5-5

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Puerto Rico

Guavanilla.  Morelock et al. (1979) compared live coral cover, Secchi transparency, suspended sediment
concentrations, and sedimentation rates at a coral reef in La Parguera that was not severely impacted by
sediments with coral reefs in Punta Ventana, Tallaboa, and Guayanilla Canyons. Live coral coverage
was 11.6 percent on the east wall and 19 percent on the west wall of Punta Ventana Canyon, which was
similar to the coral cover of the La Parguera shelf edge reef (19 percent). Live coral cover, however,
was 2 percent on the west wall of Guayanilla Canyon and 3 percent on the west wall of Tallaboa Canyon,
both of which  were stressed by sediment.  Morelock et al. (1979)  attributed the chronic sediment stress
to resuspension of bottom sediments due to heavy shipping traffic.

Vicente and Rivera (1982) compared the depth limit of the turtle grass Thalassia testudinum in Jobos and
Guayanilla Bays on the  south coast of Puerto Rico. They concluded that the turtle grass of Guayanilla
Bay  did not grow in the deeper waters of the bay because of excessive turbidity and decreased light
penetration, which were a result of the industrialization of the  bay.  Jobos Bay, on the other hand, did
not suffer from reduced  light penetration and seagrasses grew to greater depths there. However, Vicente
and Rivera (1982) did not provide an estimate of the reduction in seagrass productivity or in the areal
limitation of the seagrass in Guayanilla Bay as a result of anthropogenically increased turbidity in the bay.
Their study does indicate that increased turbidity  in coastal waters  of Puerto Rico  may have greatly
reduced the original cover of seagrass in areas affected by industrialization, urban runoff, and increased
sediment discharge from rivers.

Ponce.  Differences  in the percent  live coral cover, species diversity, and depth limit of coral growth
between coral reefs of La Parguera-Penuelas (23 percent) and coral  reefs in the vicinity of Bahfa de Ponce
(4-10 percent) were attributed to the resuspension  of bottom sediments of terrigenous origin (Acevedo
and Morelock  1988). The percent live coral cover  in Bahfa de Ponce on Isla  Cardona, Bajo Tasmanian,
and Cayo Ratones was 4, 6, and 10 percent, respectively.  Average Secchi disk depths at Bajo Tasmanian
and Isla Cardona, Cayo  Ratones, the La Parguera shelf edge reef, and the Turromote and Enrique Reefs
were 3.5,  18,  25, and  15  m, respectively.  Generally,  coral cover was reduced near  the source of
terrigenous sediment and coral cover and diversity increased  with  increased distance from the Ponce
basin. Acevedo  et al.  (1989) attributed the terrigenous  sediment in the Ponce basin to land clearing
activities for agriculture, urbanization of the coastline, dredging, and increased ship traffic.

Escollo Negro (Negro Bank). Loya (1976) described differences in the  structure of the east and west
portions of the Escollo Negro reefs. The east reef had a live coral  cover of 79 percent, but the west reef
had  a live coral cover of only  30 percent.   This  difference was  attributed  to topographic differences
between the reefs that allowed the east  reef to quickly shed sediments. The source of the sediments was
attributed to sediment discharge from Rfo Guanajibo and  Rfo Yaguez.

Mayagiiez.  Morelock et al. (1983) describe the sediment  facies of the Anasco-Mayagiiez shelf and coral
reefs.  They attribute the decline of coral reefs in recent years to increases in river discharge of sediments
from the Afiasco, Mayagiiez, and Guanajibo Rivers. They  attribute increased sediment loading from these
rivers to clearing of land for sugar  cane farming and urbanization and industrialization of the island.

These few scattered  reports indicate that sediments are a significant source  of stress  to coastal marine
habitats.   The source  of these  sediments is primarily  coastal rivers,  although coastal point source
discharges are an additional (although very small) source.  The island of Puerto Rico is typified by steep
slopes.  About 20 percent of the land area has slopes of 0 to 5 percent, while approximately 70 percent

                                               5-6

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of the land area has slopes from 16 to greater than 50 percent (Lugo et al. 1980). Problems of severe
and moderate erosion occur over 48 and 22 percent, respectively, of the island (Lugo et al. 1980).
Although forest cover has increased in recent years, agricultural expansion has reduced the original forest
cover to only  about 35,200 ha (Lugo et al.  1980).   Agricultural  expansion  since the  1890s  and
channelization of the coastal rivers has resulted in increased delivery of sediments  to coastal areas.
Although with the industrialization of the island the importance of agriculture has decreased, Dunne
(1979) has  pointed out that much of the sediment exported from rural agricultural  tropical catchments is
derived from primitive roads and footpaths.

Management measures  to mitigate or  reduce the input of sediments  to  coastal waters,  rivers,  and
reservoirs should focus on improved soil conservation practices in agriculture, best  management practices
during road and building construction,  and consideration of maintaining or restoring natural vegetation
and  the natural waterbody  meanders  and coastal  lagoons  that have  been  removed or filled in to
accommodate shipping and development.  Maintaining or improving the natural filtration capabilities of
coastal  mangrove forests would also reduce the sediment loads to coastal waters.

U.S. Virgin Islands

St. John.  Although  concern about the effect of increased sediment loads due to human development is
felt on  all three of the U.S. Virgin Islands, most studies have focused on the coastal area of St. John.
Hubbard et al. (1987) used a simple model to relate discharge from various sub-basins on the island with
coral cover in the bays receiving the discharge.  Where the watershed area-to-bay  area ratio was greater
than 4, good reef  development in the bay was not likely to occur,  although bays that were  exposed to
offshore waves were more likely to develop in areas potentially receiving larger inputs of sediment.  The
distance of the reef from the "gut"  or channel that delivers the stormwater and sediment to the coastal
area was also a factor explaining the degree of development of various reefs.  Over the long term, there
appeared to be a gradual decline in reef growth rate possibly due to increased  erosion following the
period of intensive sugarcane farming in the 1700s and 1800s.  However, with the exception of a slight
decrease in growth rate of corals in Hawksnest Bay likely due to land clearing for development, which
subsequently recovered, no reef degradation could be linked to  specific development activities.

Although it does  not appear that significant degradation to marine communities due to  sediments is
occurring in the U.S. Virgin Islands, management strategies were proposed by Hubbard et al. (1987) to
prevent excessive  sediment  loading to coastal communities.  These recommendations included  limiting
development in major water drainages by limiting the acreage of development, locating the development
as high in  the watershed as  possible to reduce the amount of water draining through the development,
protecting  buffer  areas such as mangrove and salt ponds in  the  lower parts of the drainage basin,
constructing detention and retention basins to reduce peak flows and trap sediments, and confining the
exposure of sediments during construction to the driest seasonal periods.  Development of drainage basins
that empty into low-energy embayments was also discouraged.

5.1.3  Impact Due to Thermal Pollution

The USEPA PCS database  was searched for NPDES permit  monitoring information on  the  thermal
discharge and temperature of power plant effluents to coastal marine and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Temperature and thermal monitoring data from January 1988 to December
1991 and permit limits were retrieved  for all three coastal power-generating facilities in Puerto Rico:
the Puerto  Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) Palo Seco Steam Plant in Bayamon (NPDES permit

                                              5-7

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number PR001031), the PREPA Costa Sur Plant in Guayanilla (NPDES permit number PR0001147), and
the PREPA Route Number 3 Plant in Salinas (Aguirre Power Plant, NPDES permit number PR0001660).
Temperature data were also  retrieved for the Virgin  Islands  Water and Power Authority (VIWPA)
facilities in St. Thomas (NPDES permit number VI0000060) and in St. Croix (NPDES permit number
VI0000051).

Thermal effluents from power facilities are the main concern with respect to thermal pollution of the
coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Ambient water quality along the coastal areas
of Puerto  Rico and the  U.S. Virgin Islands where power  facilities discharge thermal  effluents was
compared to the Puerto Rico water quality criterion of 34 °C (94°F) to evaluate the extent of impairments
from thermal effluents. Levels in excess of the temperature water quality criterion may be lethal to coral.
Power facilities in Puerto Rico are primarily located in Regions 1 and 2.   The mean  and maximum
temperatures for Region  1  (retrieved from STORET-WQ, USEPA 1992) were 27.6 °C  and 39.0  °C,
respectively. The mean and maximum temperatures in Region 2 (retrieved from STORET-WQ, USEPA
1992) were 28.3 °C and  35.0 °C, respectively.  The maximum temperatures detected in Regions 1  and
2 both exceeded the temperature water quality standard of  34 °C, although the average temperature
monitored at any given station location did not exceed the standard.  Periodic temperature elevations,
however, may result in impacts to coral reefs along the coastal waters of Regions 1 and 2.  Temperatures
monitored in coastal waters in Regions 3 and 4 did not appear to be elevated  above ambient levels.

Power facilities that discharge to coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands are located in St. Thomas and
St. Croix.  The data retrieved  from STORET-WQ indicated  that  the mean  and  maximum water
temperatures in St. Thomas  were 27.1  °C and 29.4 °C, respectively (USEPA 1992).  None of the
monitored water temperatures exceeded the temperature water  quality standard of 34 °C.  In addition,
the water temperatures of St. Croix did not appear to be significantly elevated above ambient levels.

Thermal discharges to coastal marine waters may elevate ambient temperatures above those suitable for
many marine and estuarine organisms. Since the density of water depends on its temperature and salinity,
the ability of a thermal  discharge to significantly affect the ambient water temperature depends on a
number of factors, which include the temperature of the effluent, the effluent flow rate, the salinity of
the effluent, the dispersion characteristics  of the receiving water, and the ambient water temperature.
Thus, in an enclosed marine bay where water circulation is poor and the receiving waters are cool relative
to a relatively large nonsaline discharge, the waters may mix slowly with the  warm effluent,  which will
result in the effluent floating on denser seawater.  If the effluent mixes well with the receiving water, the
discharge  is relatively large,  and the circulation is poor, the temperature may be elevated significantly
above  ambient. The amount that the ambient temperature changes will depend on the heat discharged,
which  is a function of both effluent temperature and flow. Therefore, it is important to know not only
the effluent temperature, but the effluent flow as well.

Puerto Rico

Region 1.  The PREPA Palo Seco Steam Plant discharges to Ensenada Boca Vieja. The power plant has
a  maximum permitted flow  of 650 MOD (28.5 m3/s)  of  cooling water and a maximum discharge
temperature limit of 12.79 °C above the  ambient water temperature.   Maximum discharge over the
monitoring period was typically much less  than the permitted flow, and no violations of the temperature
limit were noted.  Maximum thermal discharge was typically less than 3000 MBTU/hr.
                                             5-8

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Region 3. The PREPA Costa Sur Plant in Guayanilla discharges to Guayanilla Bay.  The power plant
has a maximum cooling water discharge of 566 MOD (24.8 m3/s) and a maximum limit of 11.8 °C above
the ambient water temperature.  Very few violations of the temperature limit occurred.  However, the
plant typically discharged up to 200 MOD (8.8 m3/s) more than the permitted maximum flow. Therefore,
a thermal discharge of over 5,000 MBTU/hr occurred on occasion. However, the plant does not have
a maximum thermal discharge limit.

Kolehmainen et al. (1974) determined that the heated power plant discharge did not cause mortality of
the large mangrove trees growing in the bay (in water 7 to 9 °C above ambient), but significant changes
did occur in the mangrove-root communities as a function of the elevation of water temperature.
Attached blue-green algae, barnacles, a polychaete, sponge, tree oyster, mussel, and bryozoan were all
found in temperatures above 37 °C. Kolehmainen et al. (1974) also emphasized that much of the original
cover of mangrove forest was physically removed during industrialization of the coastal area surrounding
the bay for shipping and for construction of the power plant.

Turtle grass beds in Guayanilla Bay are under stress (Vicente et al. 1980).   As thermal effluents stress
turtle grass in Guayanilla (Vicente 1977),  a decrease in biomass of plant material would be observed with
consequences on substrate stability and leaf production, as well as a decrease in the biotic viability of the
plant and energy for upper trophic levels (Vicente et al.  1980).  The PREPA Route 3 power plant
(Aguirre) discharges to Jobos Bay. The power plant has a maximum cooling water discharge limit of 652
MGD (28.6 m3/s). No temperature or thermal limits were identified by the PCS system. The maximum
discharge temperature was typically 10 to 12 °C  above the ambient receiving water temperature.  Flow
was not reported, but the maximum thermal discharge occasionally exceeded 4,000 MBTU/hr.

U.S. Virgin Islands

St. Thomas.  The VIWPA power plant in St. Thomas discharges to Lindberg Bay on the south coast.
The maximum permitted effluent temperature is 11.1 °C above ambient.  In 1990  and  1991 frequent
violations of this limit of up to 24.2 °C above ambient were noted.  These elevated temperatures suggest
that significant impacts to the marine environment may be occurring.

St. Croix.  The VIWPA power plant in St. Croix discharges to Christiansted Harbor on the north coast.
The plant's discharge is regulated in four separate pipes.  Three of the pipes have effluent temperature
limits of 35 °C and 11.1  °C above ambient.  One pipe has an effluent limit of 45 °C.  The average and
maximum temperature discharge of pipe  number 1  frequently exceeded effluent limits  in 1988 and less
frequently thereafter.  The maximum temperature discharge of pipe number 2 exceeded the 45 °C limit
infrequently.  The average effluent temperature of pipe number 3 regularly exceeded the established
effluent limit of 35 °C. The maximum effluent temperature of pipe number 4 infrequently exceeded the
35 °C limit.  Again, significant impacts to the marine environment may be occurring.

Effluent limits that prevent the elevation of the receiving water temperature to 32  °C or more for
prolonged periods should be established.  Effluent limits should be based on thermal discharge, which
incorporates the factors of both flow and temperature of the effluent. To maintain effluent heat discharge
within these limits, additional cooling of the effluent before discharge may be required. This may involve
the construction of additional cooling ponds or towers.  Such construction, however, may inadvertently
result in further physical destruction of sensitive coastal habitats such  as mangroves.  It may be more
sensible to attempt to use energy conservation measures  and reductions in  peak  electricity demand  to
reduce the maximum effluent heat discharged to  the coastal environment.

                                             5-9

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5.1.4 Impact Due to Boating

Boating affects  sheltered coastal habitats as well as coral reefs and seagrass beds.  Oil hydrocarbons,
untreated sewage disposal, and  trash are the primary concerns for harbors and marinas.  The damage
caused to coral reefs and seagrass beds is mainly the result of physical abrasion caused by the boat, boat
propeller or propulsion system, and anchor.  Although few data have been collected and published on this
problem for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, the popularity of jet skis,  increased use of
motorboats and sailboats for recreational activities, and an expanding flotilla of cruise ships throughout
the Caribbean have resulted in more incidences of physical damage and water quality perturbations to
these sensitive habitats (Allen 1992).

Prop dredging by outboards and jet skis has extensively torn up seagrass beds in the outback country of
the Florida Keys (Curtis Kruer, presented at Coral Reef Coalition First Annual Conference, March 19-22,
1992, Key West, FL). Of growing concern is the number of medium-sized and large cruise ships that
are capable of entering shallow areas and inflicting serious damage to  coral reefs with multiton anchors
and long anchor chains.  Not only do the anchors and chains  scrape off living coral tissue and  other
organisms and crush corals as they are dropped on them, but the clouds of pulverized coral dispersed into
the water column and  sediments stirred up by the sweeping of the anchor chain across the bottom as the
ship swings also severely stress corals (Allen 1992).   Rogers et al.  (1988)  assessed the impact of
recreational activity, including boats, on coral reefs within the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere
Reserve on St. John.   An assessment of coral damage in Windswept and Hawksnest Reefs indicated that
much of the coral destruction was caused  by heavy swells, although extensive damage was caused to
specific reefs by grounded boats.  More than 10 percent of the boats anchored in coral communities and
seagrass beds were noted to have caused extensive damage.  Approximately half of the boats surveyed,
however,  were anchored in barren  sand, mud, or hard  pavement areas.   Thus, much of the damage
caused was attributed  to the anchor chain.  Based on an average chain length of 7.7 m and 30,000 boat
anchorages per year, it was estimated that there was a potential for 60 ha of the bottom to be damaged
each year.  Recommendations for management included minimum depth or minimum distance from shore
requirements for anchoring,  restrictions on the number of boats entering protected bays, and visitor
education programs.

Williams (1988c) determined that an extensive decline in the areal coverage of seagrass beds had occurred
in Francis  and Maho Bays over  the past two  decades. Seagrass beds covered 54,692 m2 of these bays
in  1986.  The  mean  density of the seagrass Thalassia (turtle grass) leaf shoots ranged from 1.8 to 4.6
g dry wt/m2.  Seagrass productivity was lower than was typical of similar environments in the U.S.
Virgin Islands.   These seagrass beds were also heavily grazed  by the endangered green sea turtle, and
extensive damage to seagrass beds due to boat anchors was observed.  Seagrasses were heavily stressed,
and Williams (1988c)  predicted the largest decline of the green sea turtle population in U.S. territory if
the decline in  the extent and  productivity of these seagrass beds  continued.   Williams  (1988c)
recommended restricting anchorages to a depth deeper than the average depth in which seagrasses are
found and suggested the use of permanent anchor  buoys.

In October 1988, the 134-m cruise ship Wind Spirit dropped its anchor on a coral reef in Francis Bay off
St.  John, destroying a 250 m2 area of coral (Allen 1992). Although anchor damage is rarely witnessed
at the time it occurs, a Virgin Islands National Park biologist and local residents documented the  incident
and damage.  The U.S.  Government filed suit against Windstar Cruises for negligence in the protected
area (the  litigation is still pending, according to Allen  1992).  New restrictions limiting cruise ship
anchoring  within park boundaries  have been instituted, but  illegal anchoring apparently continues.

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Although  the  Virgin Islands  National Park  superintendent has  written to several cruise lines  to
communicate concerns about marine resource damage, the president of the International Council of Cruise
Lines stated that he was unaware of problems caused by anchors and chains in the Caribbean.

Some mitigation practices have been suggested to assist in alleviating the impact of boating on ecological
habitats.  These practices include enforcing restricted access to sensitive areas, providing permanent
moorings and warning buoys at popular sites (projects now under way in the Virgin Islands National Park
and elsewhere), instituting better waste management practices, constructing docking areas, and instituting
educational programs for the boating public.  Waste disposal limits could be based on the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, § 312  (USEPA 1989b),  which requires that all boats have necessary sanitary
devices and that the number of boats in a particular area  be restricted.  The solid waste needs  to be
collected and disposed of properly. Collection stations for waste oil need to be  established at marinas
and at heavily used recreational facilities.  Waste oil could then be recycled into  fuel  for power plants.
Recreational boating could be  less destructive to ecosystems if appropriate anchorages, moorings, and
docks were  constructed around the natural habitats frequently used for enjoyment.

Member Lines of the Florida-Caribbean Cruise  Association (FCCA)  report that they have  gone well
beyond compliance with specific environmental regulations and have implemented  their own systems and
programs that promote a healthier environment (Michele Paige, personal communication, November 11,
1992).   The   MARPOL  V  regulation  (International Conference on  Marine Pollution), adopted
internationally  in December 1988, imposes strict regulations on ships for the  disposing of garbage.
According to the FCCA, the cruise industry has gone to great lengths and expense to update its ships with
incinerators and to land garbage at special shoreside facilities.  It  is clearly in the best interest of the
cruise industry to limit environmental harm and preserve the pristine islands that attract so many visitors.

5.2  Damage to Wildlife and Commercially Important Fish and Shellfish Populations

This section evaluates use impairments to fish and  wildlife populations.  Section 5.2.1 presents use
impairments to fishes and other aquatic life. Section 5.2.2 presents use impairments to wildlife, including
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, which use the marine environment.

5.2.1  Impacts  to Fish and  Shellfish Populations

The fishing industry contributes to the food supply,  economy, and health  of island populations, and it
provides recreational and economic opportunities.   Damage to the recreational and commercial fish
populations  is analyzed below through evaluation of population dynamics, fish kill events,  and water
quality problems. Potential sources of impairments to fish and aquatic life are evaluated, and remediation
and management strategies are assessed.

There  is widespread belief, within the scientific  community  and government  agencies, that the fishing
areas around the islands are overfished and under considerable stress from pollution (NOAA 199 Ib).  In
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fishery landings have been decreasing in recent years, in both
catch per unit effort and the size of the individual species  (CFMC 1985).  The average catch per trap
went from 146  kg in 1976 to 62.6 kg hi 1980 (CFMC 1990), a 57 percent decrease. From 1979 to 1982
fishermen reported a decline in landings,  as well as in the catch per trap  (Boulon 1986).  In fact, the
fishing  population decline in the U.S. Virgin Islands represents the most dramatic  example of stock
depletion in the Caribbean (NOAA 1988). The fishing grounds of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto
                                              5-11

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Rico have been extensively overfished close to the shores.  Most of the fishing grounds have been
extended increasingly farther from the coast. Only areas considered polluted (i.e., many metropolitan
harbors) have not been completely overfished (Wernicke and Towle 1983).

Many of the economically important fish species have been declining since the 1970s. Reef fish are used
by many industries, including commercial, recreational, and artisanal fishermen, as well as the scientific
community.  Local fishermen indicate that there is a definite decrease in the variety of species  (e.g., a
decline in redtail and spotlight parrot), as well as an absence in general of the greatly needed bait fish.
Other declining species include the Atlantic swordfish, bluefin tuna, snapper, and grouper,  all of which
have been overfished and are at historically low levels (NOAA 199 Ib). Reef fishes are highly susceptible
to overfishing because they are long-lived slow growers, they are easy to capture, and they have delayed
reproductive abilities.  In the Caribbean, the Nassau grouper has practically disappeared.  Important
invertebrates such as shrimp, queen conch, spiny lobsters, stone crabs, and soft and hard corals are now
being included in the list of stressed species in the Caribbean. The populations of spiny lobsters can be
used as an example of the recent decline.  The annual  spiny lobster landings for Puerto Rico have
averaged 159 metric tons over the past 23 years, varying from a low of 119 metric tons in 1972 to a high
of 257 metric tons in 1979.  A sharp decline in the catch of spiny lobsters was experienced in 1988, when
a total of only 72 metric tons was collected compared to a high  of 257 metric tons in 1979 (NOAA
1991b).

An assessment of different waterbodies in Puerto Rico that are not supporting recreational fishing goals
is presented in Figure 5-3. (No such data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.)  This information
was obtained from the 305(b) report for Puerto Rico; however, several discrepancies were found between
the 305(b)  report  and  information obtained from WBS, which presents impairment information  for
specific waterbodies.  For example, more impaired waterbodies are listed in WBS for Puerto Rico than
are listed in the 305(b) report. Based on data provided in WBS, numerous waterbodies along different
coasts are not supporting fishable goals.  The major rivers not supporting or partially supporting their
fishable goals include Rio Grande Manati, 18.3 km; Rio La Plata, 15.4 km; Cano Merle, 12.7 km; Cano
de Santiago, 11.6 km; and Cano Martin Pena, 8.0 km.  The 457-ha San Juan Lagoon is the only lagoon
listed as not supporting fishable goals.   Several major canals (quebradas),  which discharge to other
waterbodies such  as  rivers, also were only partially supporting fishable goals, including Quebrada los
Cedra,  19  km; Quebrada  Boqueron, 18.5 km; Quebrada Boqueron, 17.2 km; and Quebrada del Oro,
16km.

Episodic fish kills and major marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) have been reported in the 305(b)
reports and WBS for Puerto Rico and  the U.S. Virgin Islands. Descriptions and locations of the fish kill
events are depicted in Figures 5-4 and 5-5 for  Puerto  Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively.
MMEDs are typically short-term events that result in the deaths of  1,000 or more individuals. MMEDs,
which represent major breakdowns in  the ecosystem, have occurred frequently throughout the Caribbean
since the 1980s (Williams  and  Bunkley-Williams 1990b).  In 1980,  millions  of Caribbean fish  and
invertebrate species died.

In Puerto Rico, numerous fish kills were listed in the 1990 305(b) report.  Three of the fish kills were
contained within inland waters (e.g., Guayamo Lake). Increased nutrient levels and low dissolved oxygen
(4 mg/L), possibly due to sewage, were  the suspected causes of the mortalities.  The 305(b) report also
listed a moderate  fish kill in the San  Jose Lagoon.   Wastewater discharges from the communities near
the Martin  Pena Channel were responsible for  the fish and shellfish deaths in San Juan Lagoon (Map
#10). WBS identified four additional kills not mentioned in the 305(b) report. Three of the four fish

                                              5-12

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    Met or partially met
    the fishable goals
    93°/c
                           	7%
                           Fishable goals
                           not attainable
                            Fishable
                            goals
                            supported  53.9%
             COASTAL
             WATERS
                            34.7%
                         Fishable goals
                         partially supported
                                           11.4%
                                        Fishable goals
                                        not attainable
      Fishable goals supported

      61%
                                      ESTUARIES
      12%
 Fishable goals
 partially
 supported
                              Fishable goals
                              not met
                 27%
LAKES AND
 LAGOONS
Figure 5-3.  Support Status of Recreational Fishing Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
                               5-13

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                       ©      ©
                                                                                                  10 MILES
                                                                         ir«r
            MAPI Location
                              Type
                                                                                    Son*
            1  La Paraguara       Major
            2  Southwui Coast    Modarata
            3  Guanabana         Modarata
            4  Mavaginz         Minor
            5  Aguadilla          Modarata
            6  Isabella           Major
            7  Aracibo           Major
            8  Dorado Baach      Major
            9  San Juan Harbor    Major
            10 San Josa Lagoon    Modarata
            11 Humacoa         Major
            12 Rio Coamo/Lagoon   Major
Htetngutt sp.
Ptttcanus ocadtnttlis
Ptl*c*ma occidtnttUt
Ruddy turnstona
NuRwroua hah spacws
Numaroua tiah spaci«a
Nunwrout fish tpaciM
Ptlfctma occidtnttHl
Numaroua fish tpaciw
Numaroua tiah apacMa
Pfitctnus occidtnttlit
Numaroua tiah tpacwa
Unknown
BotuUam and paaticidaa
Botuliam and paaticidaa
Unknown
Raw Mwaga
Raw »waoa
Raw aawag*
PeaticidM
Waauwattr
Wutawaiar
Unknown
EfDiMnt from Chevron, Inc.
Dr. Errwat Williarna. Jr.
Dr. Ernut Williama. Jr.
Dr. Ernut Williama. Jr.
FWS
was
WBS
WBS
FWS
30SIW raport
30S
-------
                                                     45-or
                                                 I7-M-
           MAP f Location
                           Typ.'
                                     Spec*.
                                                                              Source
           1 Bvon Bluff

           2 Fairplain Gut

           3 North Shore
Minor
Major
Major
           4 Billy French Salt Pond  Major

           5 Eniohtd Pond       Major
Ziphhn sp.
Ti/tpa sp.
Sharka and Hvtngui* sp.
nunwroua apaciaa
nunwroua apacwa
Unknown

Raw sewage

OilspiU

Raw aawaga

Raw sewage
Univ. of Puerto Rico

305(bl rapon

305(bl report

305(b) report

30Slbl report
          Typ« of kill:
               Minor    -  1 to 99 fish
               Moderate -  100 to 999 fish
               Major    -  1000 or more fiah
Figure 5-5. Reported Fish and Wildlife Kills in the U.S. Virgin Islands Potentially Due to Marine Pollution
 Water monitoring data were compared with AWQCs for the protection of aquatic marine life in order to
 evaluate  the  quality of coastal and estuarine waters of Puerto Rico  and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  As
 discussed in  Section 2,  ambient  water  quality data  for  organic  toxics,  heavy  metals, and  other
 conventional water quality parameters were available for Puerto Rico.  The average concentration of each
 parameter for each sample station was  compared to both acute and chronic AWQCs  when data were
 available. The locations and levels of AWQC exceedances were plotted on maps for each chemical of
 concern (i.e., chemicals that exceeded an AWQC at any one station location in the country), as presented
 in Figures 5-6 through 5-11. As discussed in Section 3.1, no recently collected organic or heavy metal
 data were available for evaluating the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands (pH and dissolved oxygen
 (DO) were the only available parameters).
                                                   5-15

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                                      REGION 1
                                                                 IT4T
             LEGEND
   1  =  Below chronic AWOC (0.025 ug/l)

   2  =  Exceeds chronic AWOC (<  10X)

   3  =  Exceeds 10X chronic AWOC (< acute AWQC

   >>  =  Exceeds acute AWOC (2.1  ug/l) (< 10X)

   5  =  Exceeds 10X acute AWQC  (<100X)
Figure 5-6.  Exceedances of Mercury Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
                                     REGION 1
                                                                 ir«r
            LEGEND
   1 = Below acute AWQC (2.9  ug/l)
   2 .= Exceeds acute AWQC ( <10X)
   3 = Exceeds 10X acute AWQC (  <10QX)
   4 - Exceeds 100X acute AWQC ( <1000X).
   5 = Exceeds 1000X acute AWQC ( <10000X)
      Figure 5-7.  Exceedances of Copper Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life

                                               5-16

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                                                                                     16 EM
                                                                                     H
                                                                               0      10 MILES
             LEGEND
    1  = Below chronic AWOC (36 UG/L)
    2 = Exceeds  chronic AWQC (< acute AWOC)
    3 = Exceeds  acute  AWOC (69  ug/l)
        (< 5X acute AWQC)
    4 = Exceeds  5X acute AWQC (<  10X)
    5 = Exceeds  10X acute AWQC (< 15X)
Figure 5-8. Exceedances of Aluminum Acute and Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life
                                                                                        ISLA 1C CULOM
               LEGEND
         1 = Below acute AWOC (1  ug/l)
         2 = Exceeds acute AWOC (< 5X)
         J - Exceed. SX acute AWQC (< 10X)
         4 - Excwd. 10X acute AWQC (< 15X)
         5 - Excmds 15X acute AWOC (< 20X)
 Figure 5-9.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of Cyanide Acute AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life

                                                5-17

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                                      REGION 1
              LEGEND
      IZnl   exceed! zinc acute AWOC (95ug/l)

       0 - exceeds silver acute AWQC (2.3ug/l)

      HEIl - exceedn 5x silver acute AWOC (2.3ug/l)

      iDol - dissolved oxygen below 5mg/l

          - pH above  8.5

          = pH below  7.3
  Figure 5-10.  Puerto Rico Exceedances of Acute AWQCs and Commonwealth Standards for the
                Protection of Aquatic Life for Silver, Zinc, Dissolved Oxygen, and pH
                                                                                       16 KM

                                                                                0      10 MILES
              LEGEND
    SM)= Exceeds 10X Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
          phthalote chronic AWQC
          (3.4 ug /I)
     H = Exceeds lead Chronic AWQC
          (8.5 ug /I)

     H = Exceeds nickel  chronic AWQC
          (8.3 ug /I)
Figure 5-11.  Localized Exceedances of Chronic AWQCs for the Protection of Aquatic Life for BSs(2-
              ethythexyOphthalate, Lead, and Nickel
                                                5-18

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The results of the comparison between water monitoring data and AWQCs are summarized below.

       •   Priority pollutants exceeding acute and chronic AWQCs in at least one sample station include
           mercury, copper, aluminum, cyanide, silver, and zinc. In addition, nickel, lead, and bis(2-
           ethylhexyl)phthalate (B2EHP) exceeded chronic AWQCs.

       •   As shown in Figure 5-6, exceedances of mercury AWQCs were found throughout the Puerto
           Rican waterways.  The highest levels of mercury were found near Vega Baja, where the acute
           AWQC was  exceeded by more than a  factor of 10  (this exceedance may  be due  to
           contaminated leachate from a nearby landfill).  Chronic AWQCs were exceeded by a factor
           of 10 in the  following areas:  San Juan,  Fajardo, Guayama, Santa Isabel, Guanica, and
           Guayanilla.   Levels  of  mercury slightly  exceeding the  chronic  criterion were found
           throughout the coastline and inland rivers.

       •   As  shown in Figure 5-7, exceedances of copper AWQCs  also were found  throughout the
           Puerto Rican waterways.  Levels of copper in the San Juan area exceeded the acute AWQC
           by more than a factor of 10. Other coastal areas and inland rivers slightly exceeded the acute
           AWQC for copper.

       •   As  shown in Figure 5-8, aluminum  AWQCs also were  exceeded throughout Puerto Rican
           waterways.  Around the City of Guayanilla, levels of aluminum exceeded the acute criterion
           by  a factor of 10.  Levels of aluminum that were 5 times the acute criterion were found
           around the City of Arroyo and in the coastal section of Dorado. Other coastal areas slightly
           exceeded the acute AWQC for  aluminum.

       •   As  shown in Figure 5-9, cyanide AWQCs were exceeded  in several locations throughout
           Puerto Rican waterways.  Many of the elevated levels of cyanide were found slightly inland
           from the coast.  Levels of cyanide exceeding the acute AWQCs by a factor of 10 were found
           throughout the  island.  Two rivers, Rio de La Plata and Rio Grande de Loiza,  and their
           tributaries, as well as other river systems, are lined with  sites exceeding the limits.  The
           outfalls of these rivers are on  either side of the San Juan Harbor.  Sample stations near
           Fajardo also had several locations that exceeded the acute AWQC for cyanide.

       •   As  shown in Figure 5-10, localized exceedances of acute AWQCs for silver and zinc and
           other Puerto  Rican standards for DO and pH were found.   Zinc levels exceeding the acute
           AWQC were found  in  the areas  of Fajardo, San  Juan, Humacao,  Yubocoa, Ponce,
           Mayaguez, and Arecibo.  Levels of  silver exceeding the acute criterion were found around
           San Juan and Guanica.  Low DO was found in several  areas including Guanilla, Guanica,
           Mayaguez, San Juan, and Fajardo. This assessment for DO, however, was based on average
           levels of DO. Episodic conditions of low DO may occur in other  locations.  Areas
           with high pH values above the Puerto Rican standard include San Juan, Guayanilla, and
           Soroco; areas with acid pH were found near Vega Baja and Caguas.

       •   As  shown in Figure 5-11, the San Juan area experienced exceedances of chronic AWQCs for
           B2EHP, lead, and nickel.  Levels of lead in other areas  also exceeded the chronic AWQC.

The problems associated with toxics found in ambient marine water are compounded by the lack of tidal
flushing.  In the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, the tidal ranges are small and the currents are

                                             5-19

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insignificant. As a result, tidal exchange is very small, resulting in an increase in the retention time of
pollutants introduced into these waters.

In addition to being affected by toxics, aquatic life has been impacted by nutrient loading.  Benner Bay
is  an example of an ecosystem that has  been degraded as  a result of nutrient loading.  At one time
thriving populations of corals, shellfish, and fish were found in Benner Bay.  Because of the influx of
nutrients into Benner Bay, eutrophication occurred, which resulted in algal blooms displacing grass beds
and living coral reefs.  Less than 10 percent of the grass beds that once flourished in the lagoon remain
intact. Most shellfish are reduced in  number, whereas the polychaetes (e.g., sabellid worms) and the
jellyfish (e.g., Cassiopea sp.) are thriving. The lagoon heads at Turpentine Run and East Benner Bay
are devoid of any benthic life at this time.  The pollution discharged into the area has greatly impacted
the ecosystem because of decreased circulation and exchange.

A mangrove lagoon that served as an  important breeding ground for fish is no longer desirable as the
result of the wastewater that is discharged from the Nadir Sewage Treatment Plant (STP)  and the
Turpentine Run Development. Nadir STP has discharged  excessive levels of nutrients, resulting in
eutrophication.  A thick algal mat has developed along the bottom of the lagoon, choking out the majority
of the grasses.  Most of this area,  specifically the mangrove prop roots, includes spawning areas for the
reef species and nursery ground locations.  Similar effects have been seen in the San Juan Harbor area
(USEPA 1989a).

Destruction of the various ecosystems caused by anthropogenically produced pollution has a definite effect
on the fisheries, as discussed above.  Sources of marine toxics and sewage identified in Section 3 (see
Figures 3-2 through 3-4), particularly  effluents from STPs, need to be controlled.  A large percentage
of these facilities are out of compliance with their permits, as discussed in Section 3. A large percentage
of the fish  stock depletion also  is due to overfishing.   Restrictions on commercial and recreational
fisheries are not yet in effect, but such restrictions may  need to be instituted.  Ecological marine
communities need to be mapped  for  future  use  by scientists  so that management  measures can  be
established  for  the fisheries.  The  Caribbean Fishery Management Council  (CFMC) prepared  a
management program to help resolve problems in the fisheries (CFMC 1990). The use of poisons, drugs,
explosives, and other chemicals for fishing in the management area has been prohibited (CFMC 1985),
and several other measures have been  proposed to regulate fishing practices:

       •   Establishing a 3.2-cm mesh size limit  for fish traps.  This size limit will prevent fishermen
           from using a smaller mesh, which would trap juveniles.

       •   Adding a self-destruct device to all the traps to prevent the loss of fish in derelict traps.

       •   Placing minimum size limits on the industry.

       •   Taking measures to ensure the protection of marine species and their habitats, especially the
           coral reefs.

5.2.2 Impacts to Wildlife Populations

Information on  impacts to wildlife populations and ecosystems has been collected through reports from
governmental agencies (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning
and Natural Resources), educational research, and information acquired from private sources.  Several

                                              5-20

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critical habitats have been degraded as a result of anthropogenic pollution.  In this study, habitats vital
to the life history of many species were examined in conjunction with pollutants that may be contributing
to species  mortalities.   Degraded habitats and the  subsequent  impact to  wildlife populations were
evaluated and are discussed in this  report.

This section evaluates the impairment to critical coastal ecosystems (e.g., coastal forest, coral reefs) and
presents  information concerning threatened species  indigenous to  these coastal regions.  Table 2-6 lists
the species inhabiting these  islands that  have been designated  by the federal  government and the
Commonwealth  of Puerto Rico as  threatened or endangered (Department of Natural Resources  1985,
USFWS  1991).  Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have developed wildlife assessment reports that
evaluate  the status of critical habitats, potential degradation, and the types of pollution and sources that
have  impaired  critical habitats (CCWAs, discussed  in Section 2).  These reports, as well as other
government documents, have been used extensively to evaluate the potential  impacts to wildlife (IRF
1976, Department of Natural Resources 1985, Cardona and  Rivera  1988,  NOAA  1988, IOC/UNEP
1989).

Of the 74 CCWAs originally listed in Table 2-4 for Puerto Rico,  12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded
from anthropogenically produced pollution and have been placed on secondary status or degraded primary
status. Secondary status implies that the habitat has been degraded or that the area is valuable but not
critical.  Figure 5-12 presents the locations and a brief summary of the 12 degraded  CCWAs in Puerto
Rico.  (The map numbers are a subset of the 74 CCWAs presented in Section 2.)  A short synopsis of
each  impaired CCWA in Puerto Rico, including the cause of degradation and  the potential sources of the
pollution, is provided below.

       •  Constitution Bridge Mudflats (Map #3) supports 62 aquatic and 31 terrestrial bird species and
           is used  for  nesting, feeding, and roosting.  The  yellow-shouldered black bird (Federally
           Endangered (FE)), brown pelican (FE), roseate (Federally Threatened  (FT)), and least tern
           (FT) all use the area.  Degradation caused by the development of the Agua-Guagua mass
           transit system, channelization of the Puerto Nuevo River, expansion of the docking facility
           at San Juan Harbor, and landfill  operations have greatly reduced the size of this area. Use
           of this space for electrical posts  by the Puerto  Rico Electric and Energy Authority and the
           Municipal Public Works Office  has further reduced the acreage. Further pollution and
           reduction will occur if the proposed San Juan City Center is approved.  In addition, plans are
           under way for a $70 million project including a marina, hotel, mall, and docking facilities
           large enough to  accommodate cruise ships.  The proposed project will be located near the
           mudflats that were originally constructed  to compensate for the loss of the original habitat,
           which has been developed.

       •  The Lakes/Forests of Dorado Beach and Cerromar Beach  (Map #8) include numerous lakes
           and a  large forest.  In this  area  the Caribbean coot (Commonwealth Threatened (CT)),
           Puerto  Rican bea (FE), and white-crowned  pigeon (Rare (R)) are typical  inhabitants.
           Pesticides from an adjacent golf course are slowly degrading the water quality of this habitat.
           The surrounding golf courses remove the aquatic plants to improve the aesthetics of the area.
           The construction of a large  office complex  and luxury  houses has resulted  in  heavy
           sedimentation of many  lakes in the area.

       •  Lake Puerto Nuevo (Map #11) was a very valuable breeding area for the ruddy duck (CT),
           purple gallinule (R), and Caribbean coot (CT).   The ecosystem is now badly degraded and

                                              5-21

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               Map*
                                                        Species Impacted
                                                                                           irtr
                                                                                      Source at Pollution
                 3*     Constitution
                        Bridge
                        Mudflats
                 8*     Lutes/Forests of Dorado
                        Beach and Cerromar
                        Beach

                 11*    Lake Puerto Nuevo
                 12*   Tiburones Swamp
                 13*    La Tembladen Lagoon
                 14*    Carrizales Mangrove
                 20*    Sabanetas Swamp
                        Yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE).
                        brown pelican (FE), roseate tern
                        (FT), and least tern (FT)
                        Caribbean coot (CT), Puerto Rican
                        boa (FE), and white- crowned pigeon
                                               Ruddy duck (CT), purple gallinule
                                               (R), Caribbean cool (CT)
                        Masked duck (CT), whittling duck
                        (CT), ruddy duck (CT), Caribbean
                        coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R).
                        Bahama duck (R)

                        Caribbean coot (CT) and masked
                        duck(CT)


                        West Indian whistling duck (CT)
                 22*
                 27*
34*

49*
Joyuda Lagoon


Cartagena Lagoon
                        Cabulldn Mangrove

                        Aguas Prietas Lagoon
                 SI*    Cienaga Baja
Ruddy duck (CT). Wer
whistling duck (CT), and flerocarpia
offidnaUi


Ruddy duck (FT), purple gallinule
(R), and brown pelican (FE)

Clotty ibis (R), purple gaUinule (R),
Bahama duck (R), yellow-breasted
crake (CT), Caribbean coot (CT),
least grebe (CT), ruddy duck (CT),
and East Indian whistling duck (CT)

Brown pelican (FE)

White-crowned pigeon (R) and brawn
pelican (FE)

Potential area for endangered species
                                                                 Agua-Guagut Mats Transit
                                                                 System, docking facilities in
                                                                 San Juan, Puerto Rico
                                                                 Electric and Energy
                                                                 Authority, and Municipal
                                                                 Public Works

                                                                 Dorado Beach Golf Course
                                                                 and urban development


                                                                 Surrounding development
                                                                 water treatment effluents and
                                                                 degradation from
                                                                 development

                                                                 Puerto Rican industrial
                                                                 sewage  sludge injection
                                                                 project snd industrial use


                                                                 Agricultural use and
                                                                 increased traffic on or nearby
                                                                 road

                                                                 Urban development and
                                                                 storm water sewer pipe from
                                                                 Highway 2

                                                                 Sugarcane plantations and
                                                                 commercial development
                                                                 Urban development and
                                                                 agricultural use

                                                                 Degradation due to
                                                                 agriculture and livestock
                                                          Ponce docking facility
                                                          Camping facility
                                                                                  Agricultural use and urban
                                                                                  runoff
                                                                                                                                10 MILES
               • Maps numbers for the areas are sporadically listed because they are included in t lift of all critical wildlife areas.
Figure 5-12.   Wildlife  Critical  Habitats in  Puerto Rico Potentially  Degraded  by Marine Pollution

                                                               5-22

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   has been removed from primary status.  Urban development has surrounded the lake, and no
   open waters remain. Nutrient enrichment from sewer effluents has caused the proliferation
   of cattails and eutrophication.  Restoration of this habitat would be costly.

•  Tiburones Swamp (Map #12) is a waterfowl area supporting 81 species of birds, 15 of which
   are considered rare in Puerto Rico.  The masked duck (CT), whistling duck (CT), ruddy duck
   (CT),  Caribbean coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R), and Bahama duck (R) are some of
   the inhabitants.  The swamp has been  reduced in size by its use as  a solid waste disposal
   area.  Further reduction  has  occurred from the sugarcane, rice, and pineapple industries'
   constant use of the area.  The area also was used for an  industrial sewage sludge injection
   project.

•  La Tembladera Lagoon (Map #13) is used by the Caribbean coot (CT), ruddy duck (CT), and
   masked duck (CT).  Presently under severe agriculture pressure, the lagoon is used as a
   watering hole for cattle.   This practice is destroying the vegetation, as well as creating
   excessive runoff problems.  A dirt road passing by  100 m to the north will be expanded and
   paved, increasing traffic and thereby causing further degradation.

•  Carrizales Mangrove (Map #14) has been completely degraded. There was a population of
   West Indian whistling ducks (CT) in this ecosystem, but a stormwater sewer pipe, 2 m in
   diameter, now discharges into the western  end.  This pipe is the result of the extension of
   Highway 2.  Urban development has been detrimental to the southeast and south central ends.

•   Sabanetas  Swamp (Map #20) has had a variety of birds; 29 species (e.g., ruddy duck (CT)
    and West Indian whistling duck (CT))  have been recorded as using the area.   There also is
    a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R) and four species of anoles  living within the boundaries.
    The area is privately owned, and  emphasis is placed on commercial growth and not on
    preservation. The Department of Natural Resources proposed the area as a natural reserve,
    but the proposal was rejected.  Renewed emphasis on sugarcane plantations, one type of
    proposed development,  will result in further degradation of the area.

•   Joyuda Lagoon (Map #22) is used by the  ruddy duck (FT), the purple gallinule (R), and
    recently  the brown pelican (FE).   Depending on  the salinity, the phenomenon of
    bioluminescence can occur in the lagoon, making this a tourist attraction.  Degradation has
    occurred due to increased agricultural runoff and development  runoff.

•   Cartagena Lagoon (Map #27) is used by more than half of the bird species in Puerto Rico.
    The glossy ibis (R), purple gallinule (R),  Bahama duck (R),  yellow-breasted crake (CT),
    Caribbean coot (CT), least grebe  (CT),  ruddy duck (CT),  and East Indian whistling duck
    (CT) are some of the threatened species  that use the ecosystem.  Degradation has occurred
    due to nutrient enrichment from the Lajas STP and the diversion of fresh water for irrigation.
    This  enrichment  has resulted in a  perfect habitat  for  cattails  and  water  hyacinths.
    Agriculture, cattle, and commercial pressure have  increased the degradation of this area.

•   Cabullo'n Mangrove (Map #34) is an area that lies east of the Ponce docking facility, not far
    from the metropolitan area. Many of the peripheral salt flats are being used for dump sites.
    Old cars, scrap metal, and appliances have been found in the area. The brown pelican (FE)
    used this area for nesting and roosting.

                                      5-23

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           Aguas Prietas Lagoon (Map #49) supported 26 percent of the bird population  represented
           in this area, including the white-crowned pigeon (R) and the brown pelican (FE). There is
           a large camping facility associated with the area, which has degraded the area to secondary
           status.  This area is also being degraded by a combination of other factors, including solid
           waste disposal and pesticide runoff.

                   Baia (Map #51)  is a  prime hunting spot where crabbers can collect the blue land
           crab.  Migratory birds winter in the area. The habitat is used for livestock grazing, resulting
           in severe degradation. Defoliation of the mangroves, enrichment, and runoff problems have
           occurred.  Many of the trees are being cut for use as fence posts.

Few quantitative or qualitative studies regarding the status of CCWAs have been done in the U.S. Virgin
Islands recently.  An earlier study,  Virgin Islands Coastal  Zone Management Marine Environment,
prepared by the Island Resources  Foundation (1976), listed critical coastal areas for the islands. Twenty-
three CCWAs were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Over half of these CCWAs were listed as being
stressed by anthropogenic pollution.  Information on wildlife species  inhabiting the CCWAs was not
provided in the  U.S. Virgin Island report. Figure 5-13 illustrates the locations of the degraded CCWAs.
A short synopsis of the sources of pollution for each of the degraded CCWAs for the U.S. Virgin Islands
is provided below.

       •   St.  Thomas Harbor  and Crown Bay (Map #10) have  been  degraded by urban  runoff,
           development, sewage, dredging,  the impacts from the construction of new and established
           marinas, and ship traffic.

       •   Lindbergh Bay (Map #11) has been degraded by urban runoff, sewage effluent problems,
           thermal-saline effluents, and an increase in dredging activities.

       •   Fortuna Bay (Map #12) has endured the effects of urban runoff, from the Estate Bordeaux
           development, for many years. This ecosystem was tolerating periodic stress, but recently the
           cumulative effects  of the runoff have become apparent in the habitat.

       •   Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays (Map #13) have been affected by the development of the North
           Shore Mountain slope area and the subsequent runoff, which has had a  detrimental effect on
           this ecosystem.

       •   Water Bay (Map #14) is experiencing the attrition of the nearshore algal beds because of
           dredging and siltation from residential  development.  Both the terrestrial wildlife and marine
           species  are affected by this degradation.

       •   Vessup  Bay (Map #15) is declining as a result of marinas and their associated pollution (e.g.,
           oil  and bacteria) and  an increase in boat traffic. Sewage disposal and agricultural and urban
           runoff are additional sources of stress.

       •   Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon (Map #16) is being degraded by numerous pollution problems:
           sewage  disposal, runoff, increasing marina use and boat traffic, canal dredging, and salt pond
           filling.    All  of these activities are  performed to meet  the demands of  commercial
           development.
                                              5-24

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                                                                                                                       I
             —1— «i«r
                                                                                                                        :o MILES
                       Map*
                                            Location
                                                                Source of Pollution
                         10*      St. Thomas Harbor ind Crown
                                  Bay

                         11*      Lindberg Bay
                         12*      Foituna Bay

                         13*      Stumpy and Santa Mane Bayi


                         14*      Water Bay


                         15*      Vessup Bay


                         16*      Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon


                         17*      Christianited Harbor



                         18*      Altoona Lagoon

                         19*      Canegarden Bay to Point
                                  Harvey


                         20*      Manning Bay


                         21*      Cruz Bay


                         22*      Great Cruz Bay

                         23*      Enighed Pond
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
marinas and ship traffic

Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
thermal-saline effluent

Runoff from Estate Bordeaux

Development of the North Shore
Mountain slope area

Dredging, silution from residential
development

Marinas,  boat traffic, sewage and
runoff

Mannas,  boat traffic, sewage and
runoff, filling of ponda, canal draining

Urban runoff, aewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, •"•""*•
and boat traffic

Channel  restriction and runoff

Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, boat
traffic, oil spills, air pollution

Garbage,  dumping, periodic petroleum
spills

Dredging aad filling, mahnu and boat
traffic, pond filling

Dredging and pond filling

Garbage and solid waste disposal
                     ' Map numbers for the areas are sporadically listed because they are included in a list of all
                      critical wildlife areas.
Figure 5-13.   Wildlife  Critical Habitats in U.S. Virgin Islands  Potentially  Degraded by Marine Pollution
                                                             5-25

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       •   Christiansted Harbor (Map #17) and  Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey (Map #19) have been
           degraded by a combination of types of anthropogenic pollution. Continual problems of urban
           runoff, sewage problems,  incessant  discharging of thermal-saline  effluents, dredging and
           filling activities in the channels and ponds, and increasing boat traffic and use of the marinas
           are all affecting these areas.

       •   Altoona Lagoon (Map #18) has been  affected by the restriction of the natural channel due to
           agricultural needs and urban runoff.

       •   Manning Bay (Map #20) has  been degraded  by garbage dumping and periodic petroleum
           spills into the marine environment.

       •   Cruz Bav (Map #21) and Great Cruz Bay (Map #22) are experiencing the effects of constant
           channel dredging and the filling of the ponds,  as well as an increased use of the marinas and
           subsequent increase of boat traffic.

       •   Enighed Pond (Map #23) is an ecosystem that has been degraded due to improper disposal
           of solid waste.

Other impaired waterbodies that may be important to wildlife are listed on the 304(1) reports for  Puerto
Rico (Figure 3-2 and Appendix D) and the U.S.  Virgin Islands (Figure 3-4).

Solid wastes such as plastics, fishing nets,  packing from merchant shipping vessels, garbage from cruise
ships, tar, and trash from the petroleum industry contribute greatly to the marine pollution and have been
increasing in the last few  years (IOC/UNEP 1989).  Wildlife deaths from this debris can occur through
strangulation and drowning.  Ingestion of plastic boxes and bags, as well as nylon fishing gear,  results
in the illness and undernourishment of wildlife, which may ultimately lead to death (NOAA 1988). Large
numbers  of turtles,  dolphins, and sea birds have died as a result of ingesting the waste or becoming
entangled in the debris.

Wildlife has been severely impacted by hydrocarbon pollutants released from large oil spills and  the
accumulation of incidental spills from boats (IOC/UNEP  1989).  Caribbean Marine Resources reported
the problem of endangered turtles feeding on floating tar balls from tanker ballast washings (NOAA
1988). Deceased turtle hatchlings have been reported in tar mats washing up on the shore in Puerto Rico
(USFWS 1991).  Data from the Department of Natural Resources (1985) indicate that turtle stranding is
prominent in areas of severe tar contamination.

Reported wildlife kills and beachings in the islands are illustrated in Figure 5-4 and Figure 5-5 for Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively. The deaths of brown pelicans (FE) and other birds have
been reported in the islands.   Some of the pelicans' deaths have been attributed to MMEDs. Pesticides
have been linked, indirectly, to a substantial number of avian deaths in  recent years.  Also, fish kills,
caused by  various pollution-related problems, have resulted in deaths of brown pelicans in  several
locations including Dorado Beach and Humaco  Lagoon.  Although the cause of the pelican  deaths is
unknown, it has been speculated that they were caused by botulism (i.e., ingestion of rotten contaminated
fish) and/or exposure to pesticides.

In Puerto Rico  and the U.S. Virgin  Islands, the well-being of endangered sea turtles is of particular
importance. Poaching in the  islands is one of the prime reasons for the endangered status.  The islanders

                                              5-26

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are still collecting the species and profiting from sales to tourist shops.  In addition, artificial lighting
from commercial and urban development around the nesting beaches has had an adverse effect on nesting
success.  Turtle hatchlings depend on a tropotactic visual orientation system in order to find the most
direct path to the sea (IRF 1978).  Under normal conditions, the sea-finding orientation depends on the
brightness differential between the seaward and landward horizons;  optimally, the seaward horizon is
brighter. Studies have established that additional lights from commercial and urban development disturb
the hatchlings' orientation direction (IRF 1978).  The orientation problem causes them to gravitate to the
surrounding roads and industrial facilities, thus causing an increase in the hatchling mortality rate.

Management measures need to be established  to  help  decrease  the effects  of  many  of the impacts
presented in this report, such as the new regulations that were established which banned jet skis and other
jet-powered water vehicles from restricted areas of Condado Lagoon in an effort to decrease damage to
grass beds, coral reefs, and mangrove islands and to improve safety (M. Capo, The San Juan Star, April
16, 1992).  Further action,  however, should be taken including gathering and researching information
concerning incidental oil spills and improving monitoring of spills. If SO percent of the oil pollution is
generated through incidental spills, the sources of this pollution need to be identified and management
measures to curtail these releases need to be adopted.  Regulators and zoning authorities have to be more
aware of the impacts of various projects on the fate of critical areas so  that such areas are preserved.
CCWAs that support endangered and threatened species need to be protected from runoff, sewage, and
the encroachment of development.   The sources of marine toxics and sewage identified above and hi
Section 3 (see Figures 3-2 through 3-4) need to be controlled, particularly effluents from STPs. A large
percentage of the STP facilities are out of compliance with their permits, as discussed in Section 3.

A recommended plan of action should be developed to assist in the analysis of MMEDs  and other
wildlife-related kills. All biota affected by kills should be sampled, including tissue analysis,  and water
analyses should be conducted to test for priority pollutants and conventional parameters.  A conceited
effort by all the applicable agencies is required to develop  this type  of management plan.  In the event
of a catastrophic kill or a repeat kill caused by land-based pollution, the performance of the agencies will
determine the long-term effects on the environment.

5.3  Impacts to Recreational and Commercial Use

Marine and estuarine pollution may result  in significant  impacts to recreational and commercial use of
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Potential impacts were evaluated for the following designated
uses:

        •   Ingestion of fish and shellfish by humans (Section 5.3.1);
        •   Swimming (Section 5.3.2);
        •   Commercial navigation and recreational boating (Section 5.3.3); and
        •   Aesthetic enjoyment (Section 5.3.4).

5.3.1  Ingestion of Contaminated Fish and Shellfish

Ingestion of fish and shellfish contaminated by toxics and pathogens may result in significant health risks
to the general public, and in particular subsistence and recreational fishermen.  Epidemiological studies
on the potential  for health risks associated  with ingestion of fish contaminated with  biotoxins (i.e.,
ciguatera) and pathogens are discussed below.  Potential diseases contracted from exposure to microbial,
                                              5-27

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infectious, and biotoxigenic diseases transmitted by ingestion of fish and shellfish are presented in Table
5-1, as well as potential sources of these pathogens.  The potential human health effects associated with
ingestion of toxic contaminants in fish tissue are also discussed. Areas with significant levels of toxics
in fish tissue were mapped along with areas showing general water quality problems.   In addition,
possible sources of the primary pollutants of concern were identified.

Human Health Effects Associated with Biotoxins

The fear of being poisoned by consuming certain species of fish (see Figure 5-14) containing biotoxins,
which may cause ciguatera (discussed in Section 4), is so great that most of the suspicious species are
rejected when caught by traps, nets, or rods. Thus, ciguatera poisoning ultimately impacts human health,
consumption habits of the islanders, the fishing industry,  and possibly tourism.  Symptoms  associated
with ciguatera include gastrointestinal problems, severe itching, temperature sensory reversal, and various
other  nervous disorders.  Once the initial stages of the disease are over, the symptoms can recur with
alcohol consumption, the ingestion of nontoxic fishes, and stress.  At this time,  no known antidote is
available (Tacket 1981). Based on the relative toxicity and immunological and pharmacological  assays,
four toxins that are responsible for the disease have been found.

A recent investigation in the U.S. Virgin Islands estimated that there are approximately 446 cases of
ciguatera per 10,000 residents per year (Tacket 1982).  In Puerto Rico, it is estimated that there are 50
to 75 cases per 10,000 residents per year (Escalana  de Motta 1986).   Changes  in the  incidence of
ciguatera in Puerto Rico over a 10-year study period are illustrated in Figure 5-15.  These estimates are
based  on the assumption that at least 2.5 to 5  percent of the population will  report  the disease.
Information from a 10-year study of ciguatera cases  in Puerto Rico indicates that the coastal regions of
Bayamon, Metro,  Aquadilla, Mayaguez, and Arecibo had high  incidence of ciguatera (Fabregas 1991).
Ponce and Fajardo have experienced  no reported cases in the last 5 years although there were cases in
previous years.

Section 3 of this  report outlined numerous sources of nutrient loading, particularly  discharges from
sewage treatment plants (STPs) and nonpoint sources.   Bagnis  (1987) demonstrated that the population
of dinoflagellate thought to be responsible for ciguatera poisoning does increase in  reef communities as
a resultofsewage pollution. Thus, reduction of nutrient loadings would ultimately  reduce  the potential
for dinoflagellate  algal  blooms, thereby reducing the  incidence of ciguatera.   Human  activities in the
marine environment, pollution, dredging,  and construction that involves the destruction of the coral reefs
also are thought to increase the population size of the dinoflagellate. Human activities other than nutrient
loading that may significantly increase the incidence of ciguatera also need to be researched.

In addition to reduction in nutrient loadings, other  techniques have been proposed to reduce the risk
associated with ciguatera.  For years scientists have been working on a dockside test to determine the
level of biotoxins in fish species.  One possible toxicity test is through a response of the chromatic tissues
to a light or dark background (Tosteson 1990).  This test is being researched so that a quick, easy  method
is available to determine the levels of biotoxins in fishes.  Such a method would reduce the potential for
exposure to biotoxins,  as  well as increase fishing productivity since certain fish  species need not be
discarded simply because of the possibility of their being  contaminated with biotoxins.
                                               5-28

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   TABLE 5-1.  MICROBIAL, INFECTIOUS, AND BIOTOXIGENIC DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY THE INGESTION OF FISH AND SWIMMING
                 Agent
                                                                              Route of
                                                                            transmission"
                                                                            Source of the agent*
             Disease
                Fish
Swimming     Digestion
                                                                                                 Human
                                                                                                  Feces
Animal
 Feces
                                                                                                                             Sewage    Water
u\
to
Salmonella sp.

Shigella sp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa*
Aeromonas hydrophilcf
Vibrio vulnificus
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Vibrio cholerae (01)
Non-01 V.  cholerae
Leptospira  sp.c
Campylobacter sp.
Clostridium botulinum
Various species1
Mycobacterium marinum

Viruses

Hepatitus A
Norwalk-like
 human rotavirus
Adenovirus, types 3 and 4
Coxsackievirus

Protozoa

Naegleria sp.  (pathogenic)

Bird shistosomes
Typhoid and paratyphoid1"
  fevers, salmonellosis
Bacillary dysentery
Otitis extema, skin infections4
Infected wounds
Infected wounds'
Gastroenteritis
Cholera*
Cholera-like disease
Leptospirosis (Weil's disease)
Gastroenteritis
Food poisoning (botulism)^
Gastroenteritis
Infected wounds
                                    Infectious hepatitis
                                    Acute, infectious non-bacterial
                                     gastroenteritis
                                    Pharyngoconjunctival fever0
                                    Pleurodynia, others
Primary amoebic
 meningoencephal i t i s
Swimmer's and clam digger's itch
                                                                                                        + '
                                                                                                        + "

                                                                                                        + °
  + °
  +"
                                                                  +n
                                                                  +n
                                                                                       +h
                                                                          +

                                                                          +

-------
                                                             TABLE 5-1. (continued).
                                                                              Route of
                                                                            transmission"
                                                                                                                  Source of the agent*
              Agent
                                               Disease
                                                                      Swimming
  Fish
Ingestion
Human
 Feces
Animal
 Feces
                                                                                                                                Sewage    Water
  Algae

  Gonyaulax
                                  Paralytic shellfish poisoning1
 Source: Cabelli et al. 1983, cited in Milliken and Lee 1990.

 "Water = multiples in environmental waters; Animal = lower animals. All agents in human feces also assumed to be present in sewage.
 bRare for recreational route; none for shellfish route since 1959.
 Trimarily in fresh  water.
 dPrimarily from hot tubs and whirlpool baths.
 'Less frequent by V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus strains.
 Specific toxigenic strains.
 'Only since 1973 by 0-1 strains.
 hOnly two shellfish-borne outbreaks.
 Toxin in food.
 JProblem in food processing.
 kPossibly caused by enteropathogenic E.  coli and A.  hydrophila, Yersinia enterocolitica, and the protozoan Giardia lamblia; much less frequent   than viral
 gastroenteritis.
 'Inferred from prospective epidemiological bathing beach study.
 •"Other source more important.                                    'Characteristically associated with use of swimming pools, not natural waterbodies.
 "Density probably influenced by nutrient loading.                   Two questionable outbreaks in fresh water.
 "Not a significant source in United States.                          'Seed from birds suggested.
                                                                 "Upper respiratory symptoms from other less toxigenic dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum sp.
                                                                 "Shellfish poisoning is also due to other dinoflagellates with different toxins.
pUrine not feces.
'Varies with potential agent.
In addition, there are a number of other pollution-associated agents that could cause swimming or shellfish-associated disease, although there is no evidence
that they have done so.  They include bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and Clostridium perfringens; most of the enterovirusus; amoebae such as
Entamoeba histolytica; and a number of exotic multicellular parasites.

-------
   40
 0)
'o
 0)
 Q.
CO30

 O
 03
LU
 O
 h-
 0)
 o
 k_
 0
 Q_
                                                          POCOOOI
          SphyraehidM  Serranidae    LutjankJa*   Scombridae   Carangidae    Labridae
Others
                                        Type  of Fish

 Figure 5-14.  Distribution Percentage of Contaminated and Commercially Important Fish
               Species Associated with Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico 1980-1991
 Human Health Effects Associated with Pathogens

 Ingestion of shellfish contaminated with various bacteria and viruses  can result in various diseases
 including acute gastroenteritis (AGI), hepatitis, cholera, and a rare but fatal disease known as septicemia
 (blood poisoning) (see Table 5-1).  The most common form of disease associated with ingestion of
 shellfish is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk viruses and various species of bacteria.  The incidence of
 these bacteria has been correlated with increases in nutrient loading, particularly from agricultural runoff,
 urban runoff, and sewage discharge.

 Diseases related to the ingestion of sewage-contaminated fish/shellfish are not reported in these islands.
 Therefore, an  epidemiological approach for evaluating the extent of the impairment from ingestion of
 pathogens in fish and shellfish could not be assessed.  Rather, the potential for  contracting diseases
 (particularly AGI) from ingestion of contaminated shellfish was evaluated by comparing fecal coliform
 monitoring data for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands with the fecal coliform standard.  Puerto
 Rico's and the U.S. Virgin Islands' standard for shellfish ingestion is 70  fecal  coliform colonies per 100
 mL of water (EQB 1983, DPNR 1990). Fecal counts exceeding this limit could significantly contaminate
                                              5-31

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  100
   90
   80
0)  IV
T3
'in
0)
cn
§  60
o
O_
(O
0)
tn
co
O
   40
   30
   20
   10
           1980
1981
1982
1983
                                         1984
                              1985
                              Years
1986
1987
                                              1988
                                              1989
1990
        Figure 5-15.  Total Number of Ciguatera Cases in Puerto Rico from  1980-1990
 the edible tissues of various fishes, crab, shrimp, and other invertebrate species (e.g., Strombus gigas)
 that reside in the contaminated ecosystem.

 Figures 5-16 and 5-17 present a comparison of the ambient water quality to the fecal coliform standard
 for ingestion of shellfish for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, respectively.  As shown in these
 figures, numerous  coastal locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceed the standard by factors
 ranging from 10 times the standard to more than 100 times the standard. Some of the cities with coastal
 regions that exceed shellfish fecal coliform standards in Puerto Rico include Arecibo, San Juan Fajardo,
 Humacoa, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez.  The highest fecal coliform levels were found at the mouth
 of Grande de Arecibo, which is located near the town of Arecibo along the northern coast of Puerto Rico.
 St. Thomas Harbor, Cruz Bay, and Christiansted Harbor are locations along the coast of the U.S. Virgin
 Islands  with elevated fecal counts.  Levels monitored in Christiansted Harbor in St.  Croix were over
 1,000 times higher than the fecal coliform standard for shellfish harvesting.

 As discussed in  Section 3, numerous STPs have been listed on the 304(1) report as having significant
 problems associated with discharging untreated or partially treated sewage into coastal and near coastal
                                               5-32

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           LEGEND
  = Below fecol conform standard for shellfish

2 - Exceeds fecal  eoliform standard for shellfish
    (< 10X)
3 — Exceeds 10X fecal  eoliform  standard for
    shellfish. (< 100X)
4 = Exceeds 100X fecal eoliform standard for
    shellfish. (< 1000X)
5 - Exceeds 1000X fecal eoliform  standard far
    shellfish (< 10.000X)
   Figure 5-16.  Puerto Rico Exceodonce* of Fecal Colrform Counts for Shellfish Harvesting
                                                                                   2552^22

                                                                 ST.   CROIX   '
2 = Exceed! fecal eoliform standard for
    shellfish (<10x)

3 - Exceeds 10x fecal eoliform standard  for
    shellfish (<100x)

4 - Exceeds 100x fecal eoliform standard for
    shelKish (<1000x)

5 - Exceed! 1000* fecal eoliform standard for
    shallfi* (<10000x)
       Rgure 5-17.  Virgin Islands Exceedances of Feed Coliform Counts for Shellfish
                                                 5-33

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waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (see Figures 3-2 through 3-4).  Upgrading treatment
technologies of STPs such as chlorination or irradiation with ultraviolet light, would significantly reduce
the levels of sewage-related bacteria in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
Use of chlorination, however, may result in the discharge of potentially carcinogenic chlorinated aliphatic
hydrocarbons such as trihalomethanes. Increased monitoring of economically important species and the
institution of shellfish bed closures also would reduce the potential of exposure to pathogens.  Dr. M.L.
Coulston et al. (1991) suggest a monitoring plan for the queen  conch, which is the most economically
important shellfish in the area.

The following is a list of waterbodies and the sources that are cited as the cause for their high fecal
counts and high nutrient loadings.

       Waterbodv                                         Source

       Cano Cabo Caribe                                  Vega Baja STP
       Cano de Santiago                                   Yabucoa STP
       Isabela Coast                                       Isabela STP
       Rio Caguitas                                       Caguitas STP
       Rio Fajardo                                        Fajardo STP
       Rio Grande de Jayuya                               Jayuya STP
       Rio Guanajibo                                      San German STP
       Rio Guyanilla                                      Guayanilla STP
       Rio Gurabo                                        Gurabo STP
       Rio Gurabo                                        Juncoa STP
       Rio La Plata                                       Toa Alta STP
       Rio Maunabo                                      Maunabo STP
       Rio Yauco                                         Yauco STP
       Isabel Coast                                        Santo Isabel STP
       San Juan Harbor                                   Puerto Nuevo STP
       Martin Pena  Channel                               Puerto Nuevo STP

Some of the problems associated with STPs include release of untreated or partially treated wastewater
and sewage; facility breakdowns or leaks;  inadequately operated and/or maintained facilities; and broken
pipes, which end up releasing raw sewage.  Another factor is that illegal hookups are numerous. Badly
needed upgrades to facilities and/or capital improvements for new facilities are needed.  Enforcement
must be provided to detect illegal hook-ups.

Human Health Effects Associated with Toxics

As discussed in  Section 4, there  are several toxics of concern present in ambient  water along the coast
of Puerto Rico that have the potential to bioaccumulate in fish tissue.  In this assessment, water quality
monitoring data  were used to evaluate the potential risk associated with ingestion of fish caught from the
Puerto Rican coastline. First, surface water monitoring data were compared to AWQCs for the protection
of human health from ingestion of contaminated fish.  Second, a risk assessment was conducted to
quantify the potential risk to subsistence and recreational fishermen using surface water monitoring data,
bioconcentration factors  (BCFs),  and assumptions  regarding fish uptake.  (Subsistence fishermen are
fishermen who  obtain most of their daily nutrition from self-caught fish.) At this time, no fish tissue
                                              5-34

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monitoring data are available in STORET-TISSUE for Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands by which
to directly estimate exposure from ingestion of contaminated fish.

As  previously discussed,  monitoring  data  for chemicals that  may  bioaccumulate in  fish along the
coastlines of the U.S. Virgin Islands were not available.  Monitoring studies conducted in the late 1970s
suggested that the pollutants that typically bioaccumulate in fish tissue are not found at significant levels
along those coastlines. Therefore, many monitoring programs that would have provided data to STORET
were halted.

Comparison of Water Quality with AWQCs for Fish Ingestion.  Surface  water monitoring data from
STORET (USEPA 1992) were compared to AWQCs for the protection of human health from ingestion
of contaminated fish (USEPA 1986). To perform this analysis, the average concentration for each sample
station and chemical was  computed and  compared with the appropriate AWQC.  Maps showing the
chemical and level of exceedance were generated for each chemical that exceeded  the AWQC for any
given sample location.  This  comparison was performed in  order to  identify the primary chemicals of
concern with respect to ingestion of fish tissue, evaluate the degree of the potential risk, and identify
areas that were impaired.

As shown in Figure 5-18, mercury and thallium in marine and estuarine waters along the coast of Puerto
Rico  were the only two chemicals that exceeded  available  AWQCs for ingestion of fish.  Levels of
mercury exceeded the AWQC for ingestion of fish (0.15 ng/L) in several  locations by as much as 100
times the criterion.  The problems due to mercury contamination in Puerto Rico are consistent with those
of the United States, where over 70 percent of all fish advisories are based on mercury contamination.
Coastal water areas near the following cities were found to have mercury at levels far exceeding the
AWQC of 0.15 /xg/L:  San Juan, Fajardo, Coqui,  Guanica, and an area west of Vega Baja.

Many private industries and public works departments directly or indirectly discharge mercury into
waterbodies. An indirect discharger of mercury is the Department of Public Works Dump at Manning
Bay.  Levels of thallium slightly exceeded the AWQC in the San Juan Harbor area. It should be noted,
however, that AWQCs  were not available for many of the  chemicals detected in surface water or for
chemicals detected in sediments.  In addition, no toxic chemical  monitoring data were available for the
U.S.  Virgin Islands, as  previously discussed.

Estimated Risks to Recreational and Subsistence Fishermen.  Recreational and subsistence fishermen and
their families who may ingest significant quantities offish caught along the coast of Puerto Rico may be
exposed to elevated levels of mercury, as  shown in Figure 5-18.  USEPA (1989c) guidance  entitled
Assessing Human Health Risk from Chemically Contaminated Fish and Shellfish, as well as other EPA
guidance (USEPA 1986b,  1986c, 1988, 1989c,  1989d, 1989e,  1989f,  1989g,  1989h, 1991b, 1991c,
 1991d), was used to estimate the potential exposure and risk from ingestion of mercury-contaminated fish.
(Potential exposure and  risk from ingestion of thallium could not be assessed  at this time because of the
lack of an appropriate BCF.)

Exposure is referred to  as the chronic daily intake (GDI), which is expressed in terms of milligrams of
contaminant ingested per kilogram of body weight per day (i.e.,  mg/kg/day).  GDIs were calculated by
combining the exposure point concentration, the concentration contracted over the exposure duration, and
exposure parameter estimates using the following chemical intake equation:
                                              5-35

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                                                                                  10 MILES
                                                              war
          LEGEND
 Hg      = Exceeds Mercury AWQC (0.15 ug/l)

 10xHg   = Exceeds 10x Mercury AWQC (< I OCX)

 100xHg  = Exceeds 10Ox Mercury AWQC (<1000X)

 Tl      = Exceeds Thallium AWQC (6 ug/l) (< 5X)
  Figure 5-18. Puerto Rico Exceedences of AWQCs for Ingestion of Fish for Mercury and Thallium
                    GDI  =
(EPC) (CFJ  (CF2)  (IR) (EF) (ED)  (BCF)
                 (BW) (AT)
where:

       GDI  =   Chronic daily intake (mg/kg/day);
       EPC  =   Exposure point concentration (/zg/L);
       CFt   =   Conversion factor (10~9 kg/^g);
       CF2   =   Conversion factor (103 mg/g);
       IR    =   Ingestion rate (g/day);
       EF   =   Exposure frequency (days/year);
       ED   =   Exposure duration (years);
       BCF  =   Bioconcentration factor;
       BW   =   Body weight (kg); and
       AT   =   Averaging time (days).

Exposure parameter values used to estimate exposure of subsistence and  recreational fishermen via
ingestion offish caught along the coast of Puerto Rico are discussed below and summarized in Table 5-2.
                                             5-36

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      EPC:  The average and maximum concentrations of mercury estimated for each coastal region
             were used as the exposure point concentration.

      CFt:   This conversion factor, 10"9 kg/jig, is used to convert fish concentration mass units.

      CF2:   A second conversion factor, 103 mg/g, is used to convert fish ingestion rate mass units.

      IR:    Pao et al. (1982) estimated that 132 g/day represented the 95th percentile for individuals
             consuming finfish  averaged over a  3-day period. Pao  et al. (1982) estimated that
             38 g/day represented the 50th percentile for the consumption of finfish averaged over a
             3-day period.  SRI (1980) reported that the daily average 95th percentile for fish ingestion
             was 41.7 g/day.  For recreational fishermen, Pao et al. (1982) estimated that the average
             consumption rate is 54 g/day.  This value is recommended by EPA (USEPA 1991d) for
             use as a standard fish ingestion rate for recreational fishermen.  The  average fish meal
             size  is estimated to  be  145 grams.  It is assumed that a subsistence fisherman consumes
             two  fish meals  per day or 290  g/day.   The consumption rate  of 290  g/day for  a
             subsistence fisherman is more than twice Pao et al.'s (1982) 95th percentile estimate and
             is conservatively protective of human health.

       EF:   An exposure frequency of 365 days per year was assumed since the fish ingestion rate is
             based on a yearly average (USEPA 1990b).

       ED:   Approximately 90 percent of the U.S. population lives in the same residence for 30 years
             (USEPA 1989a, 199Id).  An exposure duration of 30 years was assumed for estimating
             exnosure fUSEPA 1989c. 199 Id).
I \~S\~9M~tM. A ft. J.^VJ-XU}  *. ^ *T M.\Ai*  A K.11 V^VL/V^

exposure (USEPA 1989c, 199 Id).
       BCF:  To  evaluate  exposures  for  this  pathway, it was  necessary to  model  fish  tissue
              concentrations using available surface water data and bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for
              mercury.  (No BCFs  were available for thallium.)  Reported BCFs in the literature for
              inorganic mercury ranged from 1,800 to 4,994, while BCFs for mercury complexed with
              organics ranged from 10,000 to 81,670 (USEPA 1980).  The BCF used to derive the
              AWQC for mercury was 3,760 which is appropriate for coastal and estuarine waters.

       BW:   EPA (USEPA 1985b) calculated an average body weight for males and females of 71.8
              kg.  This  value is approximately equal to the consensus value of 70  kg, which is typically
              used as the average body weight (USEPA 1989c, 1991d).

       AT:   The averaging time is equal to 30 years (exposure duration) x  365  days/year.

The potential risks to subsistence and recreational fishermen due to exposure to mercury in fish tissue are
evaluated by comparing the estimated dose (i.e., GDI) with the mercury reference dose (RfD).  The RfD
for mercury is 3x10"*  mg/kg/day and is based on the results of a chronic rat study (USEPA 199Ic).
Critical effects noted in the study included neurotoxicity and kidney effects.  The hazard quotient is used
to quantify the potential for an adverse noncarcinogenic effect to occur and is  calculated by dividing the
GDI by the RfD. If the hazard quotient exceeds unity (i.e., 1), then an adverse health effect may occur.
                                             5-37

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         TABLE 5-2. EXPOSURE PARAMETER VALUES USED TO ESTIMATE
                  EXPOSURE TO SUBSISTENCE AND RECREATIONAL
                        FISHERMEN FROM INGESTION OF FISH
 Parameter                                Value                           Reference
Conversion Factor 1 (CF,)
Conversion Factor 2 (CF^
Ingestion Rate (IR)
Subsistence:
Recreational:
Exposure Frequency (EF)
Exposure Duration (ED)
BCF
Body Weight (BW)
Averaging Time (AT)
103 mg/g
la9 kg//tg

290 g/day
54 g/day
365 days/year
30 years
3,760
70kg
30 years x 365 days
USEPA 1989
USEPA 1989

Assumed
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1989
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1980
USEPA 1991
USEPA 1989
As shown in Table 5-3, the hazard quotients estimated using the mean concentration of mercury in surface
water for all regions of the Puerto Rican coast exceeded unity (i.e., 1).  Therefore, there is the potential
for an adverse health effect to occur. In particular, the maximum concentration of mercury of 231 /ig/L
resulted in a hazard quotient more than four orders of magnitude above unity for subsistence fishermen.
This particular station is located along the coastal region of Vega Baja on the northern coast, west of San
Juan.

5.3.2 Swimming

Exposure to elevated levels of toxics and pathogens  in the marine and estuarine environment while
swimming may result in increased incidence of various diseases. The primary exposure route associated
with exposure to toxics while swimming is dermal absorption. This exposure route is insignificant with
respect to heavy metals because these metals cannot penetrate the skin. As discussed in Section 3, only
a few organic chemicals were detected in surface water, and these chemicals were detected infrequently
at relatively low levels. Therefore, direct contact with toxics in surface water while swimming does not
appear to be  a  significant exposure route.  This assessment,  therefore, focuses  on the health threat
associated with swimming from exposure to pathogens and solid wastes, as well as the use impairment
due to beach closures brought on by these threats.

Exposure  to pathogens in  the marine environment  can result  in various diseases  including acute
gastroenteritis (AGI), hepatitis, typhoid, skin diseases, and cholera.  Potential diseases contracted from
                                            5-38

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        TABLE 5-3. POTENTIAL NONCARCBSTOGENIC HAZARDS' ASSOCIATED WITH
           INGESTION OF MERCURY-CONTAMINATED FISH BY SUBSISTENCE AND
            RECREATIONAL FISHERMEN ALONG THE COAST OF PUERTO RICO
 Region/Statistic"
   Mercury
Exposure Point
 Concentration
Subsistence
  Hazard
 Quotient
(CDI/RfD)
Recreational
  Hazard
  Quotient
 (CDI/RfD)
 Region 1
  Mean Concentration
  Maximum Concentration
      1.1
     231
    86
17,722
       16
     3,300
 Region 2
  Mean Concentration
  Maximum Concentration
     0.24
     2.5
    18
   188
        3.43
        5
 Region 3
  Mean Concentration
  Maximum Concentration
     0.3
     1.5
    23
   113
        4.2
       21
 Region 4
  Mean Concentration
  Maximum Concentration
     0.16
     0.2
    12
    15
        2.3
        2.8
' Ratio of the GDI and the reference dose of 3E-4 mg/kg/day (uncertainty factor of 1,000).
b Statistics generated from data obtained from STORET-WQ (USEPA, 1992). See Figure 1-1 for region locations.
exposure to microbial, infectious, and biotoxigenic diseases transmitted by  recreational contact are
presented in Table 5-1, as well as potential sources of these pathogens.  The most commonly reported
disease associated with exposure to pathogens while swimming is AGI, which is caused by Norwalk
viruses and various bacteria species.  Information from the Department of Epidemiology, Puerto Rico,
ranks gastroenteritis as the second-highest reported disease in Puerto Rico (Fabregas 1991).  In Puerto
Rico, outbreaks of waterborne gastroenteritis and hepatitis are increasing as a result of increases in raw
sewage  discharges  (Toranzes  and  Fuentes  1990).   Surveys conducted  by EPA have  found  an
overwhelming number of viral organisms that may cause AGI in sewage effluents (Dahling et al. 1988).

The microbiological suitability of recreational waters is evaluated by the measurement of fecal coliform.
The standard for fecal coliform related to swimming is 200 colonies/100 mL for Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands.  There is epidemiological  evidence to suggest, however, that fecal coliform levels do not
correlate well with the incidence of AGI in swimmers (Cabelli et al. 1983). Enterococcus has been found
to be a better indicator of the potential health risk associated with AGI than fecal coliform.  Several states
have adopted a criterion of 35 colonies per 100 mL for enterococcus. Very few enterococcus data were
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available for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Therefore, both criteria will be used to evaluate
ambient water quality for pathogens in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Evaluation of fecal coliform and enterococcus levels in ambient water, beach  closures, and general
sources are discussed for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the sections below.  Specific NPDES
sources and remediation options are also addressed.

Puerto Rico

Figure 5-19 presents  a comparison of the fecal coliform water quality  standard  with  available fecal
coliform monitoring data obtained from STORET. A scale of 1 through 4  was established to identify the
level of fecal  coliform exceedances in different locations of Puerto Rico: "1" corresponds to station
locations where the fecal coliform counts were below the standard, while "2" through "4" correspond to
varying levels of exceedances (see legend for description). As shown in Figure 5-19, numerous coastal
locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded the fecal coliform standard by  factors ranging from
10 times the standard to over 100 times the standard (for comparison, current beach locations are also
presented in Figure 5-19). San Juan, Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez are examples
of cities where levels of fecal coliform in coastal waters exceeded the standard.  Levels of enterococcus
in coastal waters of Region 1  also exceeded the EPA health-based goal of 35  counts/100 mL.   The
average enterococcus  count in coastal waters exceeded the health-based goal by a factor  of 3, while the
maximum enterococcus count exceeded the health-based goal by two orders of magnitude.

San Juan Harbor has had difficulty with fecal coliform pollution and has been an area of concern in recent
years.  A study completed in 1988 determined that the highest bacteriological densities occurred in the
canals  and the rivers surrounding the harbor.  No counts in the lagoon or the channels exceeded the total
coliform standards during this study. The results of the study indicated that total coliform  standards were
exceeded in the  inner bay, canals, and rivers.  In addition, the fecal coliform standards  were exceeded
in the canals and rivers. The health-based enterococcus goal of 35 counts/mL was exceeded in the canals,
rivers, outer bay, and inner bay.  There has been a gradual increase in the samples of  bacteria densities
exceeding the standards since  1985.  This study indicated that  uncontrolled  runoff and  sewage
effluents are the main factors contributing to the degradation.  Martin Pena Channel,  one of the major
problem areas in  San Juan Harbor,  drains into the ocean through  the San Juan Bay and Boca de
Cangrejos. Seepage and leakage to the channel come from a variety of sources:  the San Juan landfill,
stormwater sewer systems, pumping stations, illegal dump sites, residences, and businesses.  In this area
there are 10,279 discharges of sewer wastes: 27 percent discharge into the stormwater  sewer system, 69
percent discharge into the sanitary sewer system, 4 percent discharge into septic tanks, and 0.03 percent
discharge into latrines. General counts for the fecal pollution increased from  1985 to 1988. EQB (1990)
believes this increase is due to the increase in population and sewage in the harbor area.

Beach  closures are instituted as  a result of elevated pathogen levels in surface water, trash disposal from
ships,  lost commercial fishing  gear, and  inadequate sewer systems.   Condado, Guanica,  and Catano
beaches have all been closed recently due to various pollution problems (locations  are shown in Figure
5-19).   The  majority of the closings  over the past 10  years in Puerto Rico were  due primarily to
pathogenic contamination or oil spills.   Guanica and Catano beaches were closed due to  pathogenic
pollution exceeding the safety standards.  Many of the exposed, windward beaches on  the  islands are
seriously polluted  and cannot be used for recreational purposes due to the impacts from incidental oil
spills.  Catano beach was closed because of a 946-L spill, covering at least 46 m along the beach. Tar
balls are also a serious problem in these islands, not only affecting marine animals  that may feed on the

                                              5-40

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                                                4) CAT/WO BEACH
                                                   CLOSED '
                                                             2») CONDADO BEACH
                                                               CLOSED
                                                             irts-
          LEGEND
   1 = Below fecal colifomn standard.

   2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard.
      (< 10X)
   3 = Exceeds 10X fecal coliform standard.
      (< 100X)
   4 = Exceeds 100X fecal coliform standard.
      (< 1000X)
   * = Beach locations
       Figure 5-19.  Puerto Rico Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming
tar, but also affecting tourists using the beaches, and hotels and rental properties that have to clean the
tar off floors and buildings. Tar balls were reported on swimming beaches of Ballena Bay and Ensenada
Las  Pardas in the fall of 1991 ("Tar balls washing ashore at Guanica beaches," The San  Juan Star,
Oct. 3,  1991) and near the Roosevelt Roads Naval Base and the south coast of Vieques in the spring of
1992 (M. Capo, "Tar balls said washing up on island beaches," The San Juan Star, April 6, 1992).  The
latter event was attributed to an oil spill that had occurred on the island of St. Eustatius 3 weeks earlier
and required extensive cleanup efforts by the Navy and the  Coast Guard.

The percentage of waterbodies that did not support swimmable goals in Puerto Rico was examined using
data provided in the 305(b) report, as presented in Figure 5-20.  (Swimmable goal data were not available
for the U.S. Virgin Islands.) This type of assessment is based on the Water Quality Standards Regulation
(WQSR) promulgated by EPA and standards set by the individual states (EQB 1983).  The support status
of coastal waters, rivers, lakes and lagoons, and estuaries with respect to attaining swimmable  goals is
discussed below.

        •   Puerto Rico's coastal  waters met or partially met the swimmable goals 68.7 percent of the
           time.  Most of the coastal areas that did not support swimmable goals were located along the
           south coast (over 64 km of coastline). However, several small sections along the entire coast
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 Swimmable goals partially
 or fully supported
 68.7%
          COASTAL
          WATERS
        Swimmable
        goals supported
   53%
  20%
 Swimmable goals
 partially supported
                             31.3%
                       Swimmable goals
                       not attainable
                           Swimmable goals
                           partially supported

                               27.9%
                        Swimmable goals
                        not met
                          27%
         LAKES AND
          LAGOONS
Swimmable
goals
supported  36.4%
             35.7%
   Swimmable goals
   not attainable
                                           ESTUARIES
Figure 5-20. Support Status of Recreational Swimming Goals in Waterbodies of Puerto Rico
                                5-42

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          did not meet swimmable goals. Exact locations for the coastal areas that were not supporting
          swimming  were  not identified in the  305(b)  report for 1990.    Municipal sources,
          pathogenindicators, nutrient enrichment,  and urban runoff were  the  main causes of the
          impairment in coastal areas.

       •  Rivers in Puerto Rico supported the swimmable goals 51 percent of the time; whereas 32.4
          percent of the river kilometers were nonsupportive, and  16.6 percent of the kilometers were
          not attainable. The following are the primary impaired rivers and the number of kilometers
          that did  not  support  or only partially supported their  swimmable goals: Rio Grande de
          Manati, 18.3 km; Rio La Plata, 15.4 km;  Cano Merle, 12.7 km; Rio Cabuco, 12.6 km; and
          Cano de Santiago,  11.6  km.    Rivers  have been  affected  by sedimentation,  nutrient
          enrichment, alteration of flow, and pathogenic pollution.

       •  Lakes and lagoons met their swimmable goals, listed in total hectares, 53 percent of the time.
          Partial support was met 20 percent of the time, and 27 percent of the hectares could not attain
          the standards for swimmable goals. San Jose Lagoon, which is 457 hectares, was  the only
          major lagoon that did not  meet swimmable goals.  The pollution originated mainly from
          municipal and industrial  discharges and  urban  runoff.   Nutrients,  organic enrichment,
          pathogens, urban runoff, and salinity were the pollution types that affected lagoons.

       •  Full support of swimmable goals was seen in 84.8  percent of the estuarine areas.   The
          support of swimmable goals was partially obtained in 27.9 percent of estuarine areas, and the
          goals were unattainable in 16.3 percent of the estuarine areas.  Specific locations of primarily
          impaired estuaries could not be identified.  Municipal sources, pathogen indicators, nutrient
          enrichment, and urban runoff were the main causes of the impairment.

U.S. Virgin Islands

As discussed in Section 4, recent fecal coliform and enterococcus monitoring data were not available for
the U.S. Virgin Islands in the STORET system.  To evaluate the water quality of the U.S. Virgin Islands,
pathogenic monitoring data were obtained from a recent study (1989-1990) conducted by Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston, Bacteriological Studies to Evaluate the Safety of Recreational Waters in the U. S. Virgin Islands.
DPNR and Department of Environmental Protection water quality  surveys are included in this report.
These agencies tested a total of 136  sample stations in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Levels of fecal  coliform
in coastal  waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands were  compared to the fecal coliform standard of 200
counts/100 mL. Figure 5-21 presents the waterbodies that were impacted from fecal pollution exceeding
the fecal coliform standard.  Fecal coliform standards were exceeded in the following areas of the U.S.
Virgin Islands:

       •  Christiansted Harbor;
       •  St. Thomas Harbor;
       •  Gallows Bay and Fisherman's dock;
       •  Divi Beach water gut;
       •  Salt River Marina;
       •  Bucanner Beach water gut;
       •  Mill Harbor  storm drain and water gut; Christiansted harbor; and
       •  Cruz Bay.
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    2 = Exceeds fecal coliform standard for
        swimming (<10x)

    3 = Exceeds 10x fecal • coliform  standard
        for swimming (<100x)

    4 = Exceeds 100x fecal  coliform standard
        for swimming (<1000x)
                                             inr
   Figure 5-21. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Swimming
Fecal densities were correlated to the type of environment from which the samples were collected.
Increased fecal counts were found in areas of water guts, boat anchorages, and marinas, whereas fecal
counts in the open coastal waterbodies were negligible. Enclosed bays and waterways were affected most
by dumping untreated sewage into the water since there is little tidal flushing;  open coastal regions were
not as affected as a result of tidal flushing.

As  discussed in Section 4,  calculating the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococcus (FC/FS) helps
to determine the source of  pollution when a waterbody is being affected by both  sewage discharge and
runoff.  Evaluation of the FC/FS ratio indicates that one-third of the  areas listed above were affected
primarily by human sewage:

        •   Christiansted Harbor (downtown vicinity);
        •   Salt River Estuary (marina proximity);  and
        •   St. Thomas Harbor (sewage pump  station and marina).

As  previously discussed, enterococcus bacteria elevated above 35 counts/100 mL may be of concern to
swimmers (USEPA 1985a); however, these levels are not enforced. Cruz Bay, St. Thomas Harbor, Salt
River Estuary, and Salt River Marina all had enterococcus levels exceeding 35 counts/100 mL. Most of
the  contamination was associated with the  water guts that led into the harbors  and sewage effluents.
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Christiansted Harbor public works department has had a serious problem associated with the amounts of
sewage pollution in the harbor.  Occasionally the department pumps raw sewage into the bay because of
a malfunction in the pumps.  These pumps normally transport raw sewage to the South Shore STP.  The
raw sewage in the bay causes a periodic spike in the fecal coliform count but never causes the geometric
mean to go over the standard.  During Hurricane Hugo, in  1990, the island of St. Croix  experienced
difficulties with all  of its treatment plants.   During this  period  all  of the island's beaches  were
sporadically closed for short periods of time.

Figures 3-3 and 3-4 identify specific NPDES-permitted effluents that have impaired waterbodies of Puerto
Rico and the U.S.  Virgin Islands.  NPDES  effluents that discharge to Class SB waters (see Figures 3-3
and 3-4) are impairing waterbodies specifically designated for swimming. The majority of these effluents
are from STPs.  In the last federal  inspections of Puerto Rico's STPs in August 1991,  16 out of 46 (35
percent) failed the  inspections.  Nine of the facilities that failed were from the Humaco area (EQB 1990,
USEPA 1990).

STPs need to be updated with modern treatment technologies so that untreated sewage is not discharged
directly into the environment.  STPs also need to be brought up to the proper carrying capacities for the
populations being served.  Employees need  to be properly trained, and illegal hookups (76 in 1989) and
broken lines need to be remediated (EQB 1990).  In addition, discharges from the treatment plants should
be placed in an area where there is  adequate flow. Limited flow has been shown, in Dr. Mary Lou
Coulston's study (1991), to contribute to several of the pathogenic problems in the islands. For example,
diffusers on ocean outfall pipes may  be beneficial in  dispersing the effluent so the pathogens  are not
concentrated into a single waterbody.

5.3.3  Hazards to  Commercial  Navigation and Recreational Boating

Commercial and recreational boating practices have been identified as significant sources of marine and
estuarine pollution. In addition, boating practices cause significant physical damage to various ecological
habitats.  Marine and estuarine pollution, on the other hand, can  actually impair the use of waterways
for commercial navigation and recreational boating. Although this pollution often comes from  sources
on the mainland, portions rnay actually be  nonpoint source pollution from boats.  This section  focuses
on the impact of marine and estuarine pollution on the usability of waterways for commercial navigation
and recreational boating.  The boating  industry has been  increasing dramatically, in conjunction with
increases  in tourism around the islands.  For example, a study performed in the Biosphere Reserve in
 1988 determined that the average number of boats using the park for recreational purposes had increased
from 10 per day in 1966 to approximately 80 per day  in 1986 (Rogers et al. 1988).

The primary types of marine and estuarine pollution hindering the boating industry include floatables, oil
pollution, sedimentation of the channels through runoff, and pathogenic contamination caused by sewage
effluents and marinas.  Floatables have been a relatively minor problem, although this problem has been
increasing. Plastic bags have been reported to have clogged water cooling tanks, causing serious engine
damage, as well as aesthetic degradation  (Wernicke and Towle  1983).  Floatables, such  as plastic
containers and garbage bags, and oil spills have been a persistent problem in San Jose Lagoon, ultimately
impeding boat traffic throughout the  lagoon.  Protestant Bay has been affected by sewage and floatable
wastes. A few of the boating waterways have also been impacted by sedimentation. Christiansted Harbor
and Gallows Bay, in particular, have suffered extensive damage in the  area of their channels.   The
original dredging of 4.9 m has been reduced to an average of 1.5 m, resulting in the restriction of boat
traffic.

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Use of waterways for boating also may be impaired by excessive pathogen levels in marine water.  As
discussed in Section 5.3.2, direct skin contact with water or accidental ingestion of water, as may occur
while docking, handling motors, or water skiing, may result in exposure to various pathogens related to
diseases such as AGI. Puerto Rico's fecal coliform standard for incidental contact while boating is 2,000
colonies per 100 mL of water (EQB 1983).  STORET monitoring data for fecal coliform were retrieved
and compared to the fecal coliform standard for incidental  contact  in  order to identify  waterbodies
surrounding Puerto Rico with water quality problems. As shown in Figure 5-22, the cities of Fajardo,
Arecibo, Mayaguez, and  Guayama, and the surrounding areas, have fecal coliform levels more than
10 times the standard.  These areas have become degraded, resulting in the potential loss of the areas for
recreational use.  A similar map  (Figure 5-23) prepared for the  U.S. Virgin Islands indicates areas
potentially  degraded  by fecal coliform.  Potentially impaired areas in the U.S. Virgin Islands  include
Christiansted Harbor, St.  Thomas Harbor (Yacht Haven Marina), Salt River Estuary, and Cruz  Bay
(Coulston et al. 1991).  Many of the harbors, bays, and marinas of the U.S. Virgin Islands have
periodically experienced high levels of fecal coliform, even though the average levels of fecal coliform
have not exceeded the fecal coliform standard.

As previously discussed, most of the fecal coliform exceedances are due to untreated and partially treated
sewage released from STP outfalls along the coast. Point sources of sewage are presented in Figures 3-3
and 3-4.  Upgrading these facilities with the latest treatment technologies would significantly improve the
quality of these coastal waterways.

As discussed in Section 5.1, most of the impacts related to the boating industry involve the destruction
of critical  ecosystems.   If the ecological  damage  is  excessive,  area management may be enacted.
Establishing and publishing limits for the areas and having the  limits enforced by the park services is one
alternative.   This would decrease  the amount of boating in specific areas but  would  cause  a twofold
problem: (1) the boating industry and all of the associated businesses would suffer economically, and
(2)  other areas would most likely be impacted from overuse and would  soon come  under the same
jurisdiction.  If restrictions are  placed on the recreational waters, the boating industry will be adversely
affected. Vital support services that stem from the boating industry include maintenance, repair, berthing
and storage, engine and electronic sales, marine supply, reservation and brokerage, insurance, sailmaking
and repair, marine advisory, and overnight accommodations for the yachtsman (Lund et al. 1986).  All
of these areas will experience economic losses if boating is restricted using area management  practices.

5.3.4  Aesthetics

Evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics of Puerto Rico and  the U.S. Virgin Islands is difficult because
of the subjective nature of this topic.  However, increases in anthropogenic pollution have probably
resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands. Specific types of pollution problems of Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands that may reduce aesthetic enjoyment include improperly disposed solid
waste generated from residents and industry such as empty containers and debris, abandoned cars and
boats, oil spills, unpleasant odors from effluents, and raw sewage in surface water (Cardona and Rivera
1988, EQB 1990, DPNR  1990).  Because of these  reduced aesthetics, tourism in Puerto Rico  and the
U.S. Virgin Islands could decrease.

Appendix B presents several photos provided by Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands, which show examples
of problems  related  to improperly disposed waste.  These photos include pictures of corroded metal
containers, construction equipment, discarded  styrofoam,  discharges from underwater effluents,  and
abandoned boats within the natural ecosystem.  At one time, residents disposed of garbage  directly into

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                                   REGION 1
                                          ElA QUA
                                          DC MUEKTOS
                                                   REGION 3
                                                                                      10 MILES
                                                              IT-45-
           LEGEND
   1  = Below fecal coliform standard for
      incidental contact.

   2  = Exceeds fecal coliform standard. (<  10X)

   3  = Exceeds 10X fecal coliform standard.
      (< «OOX)
Figure 5-22.  Puerto Rico Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact of
              Water (e.g., while boating)
the coastal waters.  Although this practice has subsided, garbage continues to erode into the sea over time
since many  landfills have exceeded their  regulated dumping limit.  Another growing concern is  the
problem of trash from transient cruise ships in the islands.

Although formerly disposed  of by dumping overboard  at  sea, new regulations in the international
MARPOL Treaty,  which restrict the dumping of plastics into the ocean and regulate the dumping of other
types of trash, may increase the solid waste disposal problems. Under this treaty, the Wider Caribbean
is  formally recognized by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as a "Special Area."  This
means that dumping of any trash is prohibited into areas so designated, with separate provisions for food
waste.  Younger and Hodge (1992) discussed the results of the 1991 U.S. coastal cleanups.  Seventy
volunteers in the Virgin Islands  and  3,000 volunteers in Puerto Rico cleaned 6.5 and  123.9  km of
coastline during this effort.  The total amount of debris  collected for the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
was  1,814 kg and 36,287 kg, respectively.  A number of items of trash were traced to seven cruise lines.
Medical wastes were also a problem, with Puerto Rico having the highest percentage of this type of trash
of all the states (0.65 percent, compared to a nationwide average of 0.16 percent).  Medical  wastes  and
sewage wastes have increased during the last 4 years on Puerto Rico's beaches.  A  number of animals,
including a bird, sponge, fish, and crabs, were found to be impacted by being entangled  or trapped
inside  pieces  of trash.   These cleanups were organized by the Puerto Rico Hotel and Tourism
Association, the University of Puerto Rico Sea Grant College Program,  and the St. Croix Environmental
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  1 =  Below fecal coliform standard for
       incidental contact (<2000/100  ml)

  2 =  Exceeds fecal coliform standard
       for incidental  contact (<10X)

  3 =  Exceeds 10X  fecal  coliform
       standard for incidental contact
       (<100X)	
                                              irjr
Figure 5-23. U.S. Virgin Islands Exceedences of Fecal Coliform Counts for Incidental Contact
              of Water (e.g., while boating)

Association.  These efforts should improve the appearance of the coastal habitats, help protect wildlife,
and educate industries and individuals in awareness of marine debris problems and solutions.

Dr. Esther Peters (Tetra Tech, Inc., personal communication, January 1992) noted offensive odors and
breathing difficulties in Guayanilla, Puerto  Rico while she was researching coral reef diseases (1980-
1981).  Power plants used a high-sulfur-content fuel during this period, which  presented serious air
problems for the area.  A  study done in Mangrove Lagoon, St. Thomas,  in 1984  reported that the area
experienced abhorrent odors  and degrading water quality in the bay (USEPA 1984).  Mangrove Lagoon
is no longer a desirable area  for recreational activities due to the wastewater that flows from Nadir STP
and the Turpentine Run development.

La Parguera,  a phosphorescent bay, has had problems with  pollution  over the last few  years.  A
construction company has  plans to develop the overlooking hills, which could result in imminent danger
to  the phosphorescence phenomenon (Felix Aporte,  personal communication, April 29,  1992).   The
ecology of the phosphorescence is fragile and disturbances to the area from runoff may affect the delicate
balance of this ecosystem. A similar bay in Jamaica was totally degraded due to local development.

Several of the critical habitats that have been set aside for the protection of endangered or threatened
species have experienced degradation due to  the improper disposal of wastes (Cardona and Rivera 1988).
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Many of these areas are aesthetically important as well, since they represent pristine wilderness areas for
residents who may visit these areas.  The presence of solid waste reduces the aesthetic enjoyment of these
areas.  The following are examples of degraded critical habitats.

        •   Cabull6n  Mangrove was listed as a primary   habitat  in 1979, but it has recently been
           degraded.  Residents have used the salt flats as dump sites. Old cars, appliances, and scrap
           metal have been improperly disposed of throughout this critical habitat area.

        •   Cementerio Bay is being degraded because of squatter encroachment. Proper housing and
           waste facilities are unavailable, so the majority of the waste is disposed of directly into the
           environment.

        •   Desecheo Island is affected  by two types of anthropogenic pollution. Degradation from
           bombing practices has left the natural island habitat destroyed,  and scrap metal  from the
           bombing has  been dispersed throughout the ecosystems. Additionally, the National Institutes
           of Health released numerous  Rhesus monkeys, which tend to destroy the habitat and disturb
           the indigenous species (USFWS 1986).

 Solid-waste disposal practices are compounding the pollution problem, as well as decreasing the aesthetic
 enjoyment of the islands.  Although not documented, garbage-infested areas are decreasing the areas that
 are usable for tourism.  Floatable objects from sewage overflows and illegal dumping contribute to the
 degradation of the areas typically used by tourists.  The impacts of pollution can have an adverse effect
 on an industry that accounts for 40 percent of the gross annual income of these islands (NOAA 1988).

 As early as 1970, the solid-waste disposal practices of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were a
 serious problem.  At this time, the government began to  develop  strategies for handling the problem.
 In 1972 the U.S. Virgin Islands was confronted with a solid waste problem of 159 metric tons a day.
 This waste was composed of the following components:  33 percent paper; 20 percent garbage; 20 percent
 glass and ceramics;  12  percent  metals; 4 percent rubber and plastics; 2 percent  grass, leaves,  and
 agricultural products; 2 percent fabrics and textiles; and 2 percent wood. In less than 12 years, the solid
 waste disposal in St. Thomas  went from 90.7 metric tons per day  to  136  metric tons per day, a 50
 percent increase.  The per capita waste generated increased from 2.1  kg per day to 2.3 kg per day (an
 8 percent per capita increase).  The amount of waste generated increased faster than the rate of population
 growth.  However, many data gaps exist with respect to the total volume of solid waste, the type of
 materials, and the locations of the solid-waste disposal sites.

 Many problems that can affect the environment arise from solid waste dumping.  Some of the current
 practices  of solid waste disposal in the islands are listed below.

        •   Sea edge/coastal dumping and burning  are practices frequently used by the local population.
           Solid waste is burned to eliminate the floatables and the emanating odor. Although no studies
           have been conducted concerning this procedure and its environmental effects, it is  presumed
           to be hazardous. This is the least expensive way for people to dispose of their trash.

        •   Salt pond and coastal lagoon dumping is another common approach to the  disposal of trash,
           and it is the most pernicious (Wernicke 1988).  The salt ponds and coastal lagoons are natural
           sediment traps that help maintain high  water quality and low turbidity levels.  They protect
           the coral reefs, as well as the mangrove areas,  which serve as nursery grounds for  many fish

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           species (CFMC 1990).  A significant portion of all salt ponds are used for dumping.  The
           practice of dumping eventually  causes the area to be completely filled in, which leads to
           commercial development. This development can change an area that once trapped sediments
           into an area with a runoff problem. There has been a reduction in the number of salt ponds
           and lagoons on both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (EQB 1990, DPNR 1990).

       •    Sanitary landfills are the preferred approach for the disposal of solid waste, but there are
           problems associated with  this practice. The heavy equipment needed for operation tends to
           break down, and there is limited covering material (e.g., dirt). Spontaneous and continuous
           fires can occur, and there is the possibility that contaminants will leach  into the groundwater.
           High operational costs also  tend to limit this practice.

       •    Incineration  of the solid  waste  is an effective alternative when proper disposal  areas are
           lacking.  The  U.S. Virgin  Islands employs an incinerator,  supplemented by a landfill for
           nonburnables and incinerated ash. At the present time, air pollution is not a problem.  Lack
           of monitoring data and the possible problems associated with this practice keep it from being
           fully utilized.

An alternative to these practices is to implement cost-effective ways to  recycle the trash or reduce the
amount produced.  One management  plan proposed is the implementation of a recycling program.  The
following recycling concepts have been suggested:

       •    Agricultural waste could  be used as cattle feed,  nutrients for algal culturing,  and mulch
           and fertilizer;

       •    Large  objects  (e.g.,  vehicles) could be  used  for artificial reefs.  Derelict vehicles line
           virtually every roadway in the islands (IRF 1976);

       •    Bagasse, a sugarcane byproduct, can be used for particle board, bio-gas  production, kraft
           paper,  and box material;

       •    Glass containers could be recycled into road-building materials; and

       •    Incineration could be more  effectively utilized, and the generated heat could be extracted for
           low-pressure steam for industrial use.

5.4    Economic Impacts Due to Use Impairments

The economies of the Virgin Islands  and  Puerto Rico are based on  tourism.  In  1991,  the visitor
expenditure in the U.S. Virgin Islands was $708,100,000 and the visitor expenditure in Puerto Rico was
$1,390,800,000 (CTO 1991). When tourists visit the islands,  they  consume a package of priced goods
and services and unpriced natural amenities.  Not all goods consumed by tourists are  tradable, and this
greatly contributes to  their value.   Any interruption  of tourism has  the potential to severely disrupt the
functioning of the island economies by creating unemployment and lowering property values, in addition
to lost tourism revenue.

The capability to generate employment is one of the primary benefits of tourism to Caribbean economies.
Persons dependent on tourism for a living include those employed in accommodation establishments; taxi

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drivers; workers in bars, restaurants, casinos, and souvenir shops and others working in industries and
public services directly or indirectly dependent on tourism (CTO 1991).

Sorensen (1990) explains that a visit to a beach or a day of recreational fishing may have no admission
fee and thus appear to be "free," but that each visit yields a net value above the cost of access to the
recreation user.  In other words, this unpriced natural amenity is the consumer's surplus.  When the
recreation site is damaged, a social cost is incurred in the form of a loss of consumer's surplus.  Thus,
use impairments could result in  a significant loss of consumer's surplus.  However, the  economic loss
associated with these use impairments cannot be adequately quantified at this time given the available
data.  Further studies will need to be conducted in order to determine the economic loss to tourism and
industries indirectly affected by tourism decline.  Available information on economic impacts due to use
impairments evaluated in this study is summarized below.

5.4.1  Estuarine and  Marine Habitats

Economic expenditures related to impairments to estuarine and marine habitats are based on tourist-
derived income that may be affected by the loss of aesthetically pleasing vistas such as beaches and coral
reefs. The adverse affects of impairments are not limited to aesthetics; they may include offensive odors
and breathing difficulties (refer to section 5.3.4).  Expenditures to remedy such a situation could be
significant.

5.4.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Populations

As previously mentioned, the fishing industry contributes to the food supply,  economy, and health of
island populations, and it provides recreational and economic opportunities.  The reduction of important
recreational and commercial species populations due to exposure to biotic and abiotic diseases, ciguatera
poisoning for example, results in limited human consumption of seafood due to concerns about pathogens
and contaminants.  Mass mortalities and reduced species diversity indicate to the public that something
is amiss. Nature-based tourism suffers.  Many fish species have been declining since the 1970s, and such
losses are likely to continue.

Koester (1986) examined changes in artisanal fishing practices as the result of the establishment of the
Virgin  Islands National Park on St. John  in  1956.  He concluded that the residents of St. John have
benefitted from the tourist industry, which has created a high demand for lobster, conch, and fish, but
that they have also had to pay a number of costs related to the loss of traditional subsistence pursuits and
the alteration of many other activities (e.g., reduced populations of fish  and shellfish as the result of
overfishing; increased regulation of fishing, boating, and hunting activities).  Clearly, the replacement
of this island's traditional economy with an open, single industry-dependent economy has brought many
changes over the years, but the actual dollar amount cannot be determined.

IRF (1981) investigated the impacts of the Virgin Islands National Park on the economy of St. Thomas
and St. John, including visitor expenditures, increases in land values attributable to the existence of the
park, employment opportunities, and benefits to local merchants from the operations of the park and its
concessions.  IRF found that the boating industry alone contributes $8.6 million (in 1980 dollars) to the
St. Thomas/St. John economy. When asked to what extent their visit was  influenced by the fact that St.
John has a National Park, 78 percent of cruise ship visitors said they were  largely influenced.  This is
an indication of visitor preferences for such a valuable scenic and environmentally sensitive areas.
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5.4.3  Boating Industry

Although commercial and recreational boating practices are vital to the island economies, they have been
identified as significant sources of marine and estuarine pollution and cause significant physical damage
to various ecological habitats.  As discussed in Section 5.3,  the results of area management restrictions
placed on boating would be (1) the boating industry and all of the associated businesses would suffer
economically, and (2) other areas would most  likely be  impacted from overuse and would soon come
under  the same  jurisdiction. Vital support services that stem from  the boating industry would thus
experience economic losses.

Commercial and  recreational boating activities may also be reduced because floating debris and spill slicks
are aesthetically displeasing. The islands support sail and motor charters for tourists. Plastic sucked into
the engine via the water intake pipe can cause significant  damage.  Accumulation of trash on some
beaches is a serious problem in Puerto Rico.  Collection and disposal of floating debris could be costly.

5.4.4  Swimming, Fishing, and Beach Closures

Costs associated  with exposure to pathogens and contaminants during swimming and while eating affected
fish and shellfish are not known, but are probably significant. Not only are expenditures for acute and
chronic medical  attention and care required, but there are also losses to the fishing and tourist industries
as people reduce their consumption of seafood and take their vacations at more pristine sites elsewhere.
The institution of fish consumption advisories and bans in the United States has resulted in declines in
self-caught sport fish consumption there (USEPA 1992).  The number of beach user days decreased in
1987 for New Jersey and New York as the result of coliform-caused closures and the perception of  the
public that beach and water quality was poor (Dynamac Corporation 1989).

Unfortunately, there have not been any studies to collect data necessary to assess the economic impacts
of beach closures, eating contaminated seafood,  or curtailed boating activities in these islands, as has been
done on the mainland United States.   As noted in the Dynamac Corporation (1989)  study of use
impairments in the New York Bight, a beach pollution event affects economics in three ways: (1) levels
of beach expenditures  are reduced,  affecting many components of the  economy,  including local
businesses, parking or other fees, concessions, hotels, and other services; (2) employment is reduced; and
(3) diminished recreational activities lead to a lower standard of living or quality of life for the people
who  use  the  beach.   A similar breakdown  of  economic  impacts  can be developed for each  use
impairment.  There may also be costs associated with enforcement of closures.  The measurement  of loss
of quality  of life  can be determined by how much an individual would be willing to pay for  the
opportunity to have clean beaches (water, habitat) for recreation, or the difference between how much
a person is willing to pay for an activity and how much they have to pay. To develop appropriate cost
estimates, studies must address a variety of complex factors and collect long-term data.

The popular Condado Beach was closed temporarily in October 1991, after preliminary tests by the EQB
revealed excessive levels of cadmium, lead, and PCBs.  Tests were conducted after residents complained
in August that underwater sand had suddenly turned very dark (M. Capo,  "Condado beach strip found
contaminated," The San Juan Star, October 3,  1991). Dyes were used by the EQB in an attempt to find
illegal storm sewer hookups, but none were found ("EQB finds toxins on Condado Beach," The San Juan
Star, October 11, 1991).  Based on the recent Condado Beach closures, a beach closure in a major resort
area due to a high coliform count or chemical  contamination will have a detrimental effect on the peak
tourist season. Economic losses occur in the tourist industry when beaches are closed. Businesses  related

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to the tourist industry are also be affected by closings because of a decrease in the revenues generated
by the beaches. One hotel located in the vicinity of a recent closing was forced to lay off 150 employees
when the beach was closed for an extended period of time.

5.4.5  Conclusion

When considering the adverse effects of use impairments on the tourism-based economy of the islands,
one must consider the direct and indirect costs associated: (1) the cost to clean up the pollution and (2)
the opportunity cost of lost tourism revenue.  The expense associated with beach closings due to oil spill
tar balls, for example, extends not only to the effects on marine life, but also to lost beach tourist revenue
and the cost to hotels and rental  properties that have to clean up the tar.

The Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) reported that 1991 was a very difficult year for Caribbean
tourism, with 14 countries reporting decreases in tourist arrivals compared to 1990. Depressed economic
conditions in the major tourist-generating market of North America as well as the Gulf crisis have been
the main factors influencing this performance. Unlike land-based tourism, however, the number of cruise
passengers visiting the region in 1991  grew, driven  largely by the increased capacity  allocated to the
region and the cruise industry's success in marketing its products.  The number of cruise passenger visits
to the region during  1991 was 9.4 percent higher than the numbers in 1990.  CTO estimates that cruise
visitors to Caribbean ports spent around $550 million ashore in 1990 on shopping, tours, meals and
beverages, and the like.  This figure does not include the on-shore expenditures by the ships' crews,
passenger taxes, or the various port charges paid by cruise ships (CTO 1991).

According to CTO,  tourism cannot be divorced from its social, cultural, and environmental  context.
During 1991, socio-environmental issues assumed a greater prominence in CTO member states. Along
with the overall  aims to boost tourist  arrivals,  provide more tourism-related  services  and job
opportunities, and enhance gains from the tourism  industry, even greater emphasis is now placed on
socioenvironmental tourism impact and assessment programs (CTO,  1991).

The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC) and the
Caribbean Development and Co-operation Committee (CDCC) provided necessary technical assistance
to regional consultants in the execution of formal Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism Studies in 1991. The
CTO provided technical support services to this research.  The studies sought to assess the interaction
levels within host countries.  These studies also addressed questions pertaining to the perceived impact
of selected life domains-family life, drugs, status of women, and community  life  - along with factors
influencing attitudes, tourism education, impact on culture and the preservation of local autonomy and
independence.  These specific studies were undertaken in Barbados, Curacao, Tobago, and St. Lucia.
By  December 1991, the  Caribbean  Environment Program  had produced  Environmental  Impact
Assessments (EIAs)  for Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and
St. Vincent and the  Grenadines. The EIA procedure leads to the determination and  analysis of both
positive and  negative effects of proposed projects, plans, and activities on the environment.  Decision
makers  are  also  provided  with the  information   required to  introduce environmental  protection
considerations into the decision-making process  (CTO 1991).

These EIAs are important to regional tourism development because the Caribbean tourism product relies
on the enjoyment and preservation of the environment. The cruise business is expanding rapidly and eco-
tourism and  the  protection of ecosystems are  being strongly promoted.   It is widely accepted that
socioenvironmental degradation in any  form hampers the growth of tourism  in the  region (CTO 1991).

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                                      6. CONCLUSIONS
This study determined specific areas impacted  by anthropogenically produced  pollution and habitat
degradation based on scientific literature, government reports, and other available data.

6.1  Summary of Evaluations

Figure 6-1 illustrates coastal areas in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands that have been degraded
from various types of pollution.  These evaluations were based on recorded exceedances of the priority
pollutants of concern at the ecosystem level.  The coastal areas were ranked by determining the extent
of degradation (i.e.,  major, moderate, or minor).

Major areas experienced excessive degradation of the ecosystems and exceedances of 100 times  acute
AWQCs established for the protection of marine  organisms,  100 times human health  AWQCs  for
ingestion of fish, and/or  1,000 times the fecal coliform standards.  Specifically, the coastal area of San
Juan Harbor and the coastal area surrounding  Vega Baja have been  severely degraded; these  areas
experienced AWQC  exceedances of most of the priority pollutants of concern.  Excessive  nutrients and
sedimentation problems are apparent, and beach closings, fish kills, and oil spills have occurred in the
areas.

Moderate areas are degraded with exceedances of 10 times the acute AWQC for marine organisms or the
human health AWQC for ingestion of fish,  100 times the chronic AWQC, and/or 100 times  the fecal
coliform standards.  These coastal areas include:

        •  Christiansted Harbor;
        •  St.  Thomas Harbor and the surrounding coastal area;
        •  Guanica;
        •  Ponce;
        •  Yabucoa;
        •  Guayama;
        •  Arecibo; and
        •  Fajardo.

Minor areas include coastal areas with little or no degradation of the ecosystems due to slight exceedances
of AWQCs or fecal coliform standards. These coastal areas include:

        •  Mayaguez;
        •  Aquadilla;
        •  Guayanilla;
        •  Charlotte Amalie;
        •  Cruz Bay;  and
        •  Humacao.

Impairments  to the marine and estuarine environments of Puerto Rico and the U.S.  Virgin Islands from
anthropogenic pollution were also evaluated by  determining the losses incurred  by specific designated
uses. The following uses were evaluated in this report:
                                               6-1

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                                                 ir«r
LEGEND

I!
+
4

i j MAJOR
MODERATE
MINOR

Figure 6-1.  Coastal Areas Degraded from Anthropog«ntea*9y Produced Pollution
                                   6-2

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       •   Ecological habitat health and productivity;
       •   Fish and wildlife populations;
       •   Health effects related to the ingestion of contaminated fish/shellfish;
       •   Swimming;
       •   Boating; and
       •   Aesthetic enjoyment of the islands.

Statistical summaries of the support status of the major waterbodies of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
Islands were obtained from the WBS  and  the  1990 305(b) reports.  A significant percentage of the
waterbodies are only partially supporting  their designated use.   Waterbodies fully supporting their
designated uses for Puerto Rico  include  58 percent of coastal  waters, 13 percent  of estuaries,  and
31 percent of lakes and lagoons. In the U.S. Virgin Islands 64.6 percent of estuaries, harbor, and bays;
88.8 percent of coastal  areas; and 6.1 percent of oceans  were fully supporting their designated uses.
Puerto Rico's  1990 305(b) report identified  over  100 impaired waterbodies, and the U.S. Virgin Islands'
1990 305(b) report identified  23  impaired  waterbodies.  Impaired waters surrounding major cities of
Puerto Rico that have been impacted as a result of anthropogenically produced pollution include San Juan,
Fajardo, Humacao, Guayanilla, Guanico, Arecibo, Aquadilla, Guayama, Ponce, and Mayaguez. In the
U.S. Virgin Islands, coastal waters around  Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor, and Cruz Bay are
considered to be impaired.

6.2  Ecological Habitat  Health and Productivity

Although the growth of mangrove forests is  typically limited by  the supply of nutrients,  nutrient
enrichment is a concern for the health of coral reefs because excessive nutrients can cause algal blooms,
which can be detrimental. Live coral cover assessments  in various coastal communities found numerous
reductions (4 to 23 percent) due to increased  nutrients.

Increased sedimentation in coastal areas as  a result of land development is cited by Rogers (1990) as the
primary cause of coral reef degradation and threats to seagrass beds in the Caribbean.  Such degradation
is the result of direct excavation or burial during dredging operations (Hubbard 1987), as well as anchor
damage (Williams 1988c).   Differences in  percent live coral cover between  healthy coral communities
and  affected  coral reefs have been attributed to the resuspension of bottom sediments of terrigenous
origin.  Also, sediment discharges from rivers have an  effect on the percent live coral cover on some
reefs.  The differences have been attributed  to topographic differences between the reefs; some were able
to shed sediments  faster than others.

Thermal effluents from power facilities are  the main concern with respect to thermal pollution along the
coastal waters of Puerto Rico and the U.S.  Virgin Islands.  Temperature elevations that could affect the
coral communities have been  detected  in some of coastal  regions of Puerto  Rico.  Kolehmainen et al.
(1974) determined that  mangrove-root communities significantly changed with the elevation of water
temperatures.

In addition, commercial and recreational boating practices have been identified as  significant sources of
marine  and estuarine pollution affecting  the ecosystems.  Negligent boating practices  have caused
significant physical damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds because of physical abrasions from boats,
boat propellers, and anchors.  More than  10 percent of the boats anchored in coral  communities or
seagrass beds have caused extensive damage.
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6.3 Fish and Wildlife Populations

In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fishery landings have decreased in recent years, in both catch
per unit effort and size of the individual species (CFMC 1985).  The average catch per trap has gone
from 321 pounds in  1976 to 138 pounds in 1980 (CMFC  1990),  representing a 57 percent decrease in
the fisheries in 4 years. The destruction of various ecosystems as a result of anthropogenically produced
pollution has a definite impact on the fisheries.  Although a large percentage of the fish stock depletion
is due to overfishing, it is believed that the effects of pollution on nursery grounds and on the populations
are contributing to die low catches seen in the area.  The following priority pollutants exceeded the acute
AWQCs in at least one sample station in the coastal regions of Puerto Rico:  mercury, copper, aluminum,
cyanide,  silver, and  zinc.  In addition, nickel, lead, and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate exceeded chronic
AWQCs.   These pollutants could have a detrimental effect on the recreationally and commercially
important species.

Critical coastal habitats impaired as a result of coastal development and anthropogenically produced
pollution were evaluated. Development is one of the major problems facing these habitats. Impacts from
industrial, recreational, agricultural, and housing developments constructed in the surrounding coastal
regions are prevalent in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Of the 74 critical coastal wildlife areas
originally listed for Puerto  Rico,  12 (19 percent) are listed as degraded by anthropogenically produced
pollution and may require  monitoring  or mitigation to  improve the ecosystem.   Twenty-three critical
coastal wildlife areas were listed for the U.S. Virgin Islands, and more than one-half of these habitats
were listed as being stressed by anthropogenic pollution.

6.4 Health Effects Related to the Ingestion of Contaminated Fish/Shellfish

Several chemicals present  in the ambient water along the coast of Puerto Rico  have the ability  to
bioaccumulate in fish tissue.  (No data were available for the U.S. Virgin Islands.)  Water quality
monitoring data were used to evaluate the potential risk associated with the ingestion of fish or shellfish
from the coastal regions. Mercury and thallium were the only two pollutants that exceeded the AWQCs
for fish  ingestion.   In isolated locations, the  estimated risk associated with  ingestion  of  mercury
contaminated fish exceeded the acceptable level for subsistence  fishermen by a factor of 10,000 and for
recreational fishermen by a factor of 1,000. The problems due to mercury  contamination in Puerto Rico
are consistent with those in the United  States, where over 70 percent of all fish advisories are based on
mercury contamination. In addition, levels of thallium slightly exceeded the AWQCs for ingestion of fish
in the San Juan Harbor area.

Ciguatera,  caused by consumption of fish  containing  a potent  biotoxin, has been increasing  in the
Caribbean.  An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in Puerto Rico and
the U.S.  Virgin Islands (Tosteson 1990). The incidence of fish poisoning due to ciguatera has increased
by at least  10 reported cases per  10,000 residents per year since the late  1970s.  This problem affects
bodi the human population and the fishing industry.

6.5 Swimming

There have been  numerous beach closings attributed to  human  pathogen-associated problems in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.   Areas where levels of fecal  coliform in coastal waters exceeded the
swimming criteria in  Puerto Rico included San Juan Harbor,  Fajardo, Humacao, Guayama,  Ponce, and
Mayaguez.  Coastal  waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands where the fecal  coliform  criteria were exceeded

                                              6-4

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included Christiansted Harbor, St. Thomas Harbor, Gallows Bay,  Fisherman's dock, Salt River Marina,
Bucanner Beach, and Cruz Bay. Numerous coastal locations, particularly near towns and cities, exceeded
the fecal coliform standards by factors ranging from 10 times the standard to 1,000 times the standard.
Pathogens released by sewage effluents from boats within marinas are of concern to the islands' boating
industry,  in  addition  to  floatables,  oil pollution,  and sedimentation of channels through runoff.
Floatables, such as plastic containers and garbage bags, have been  a  persistent problem  in San Jose
Lagoon, ultimately impeding boat traffic throughout the lagoon.  A few of the boating waterways have
also been  impacted by  sedimentation,  especially Christiansted Harbor and Gallows Bay.

6.7  Aesthetic Enjoyment

Although  evaluation of impairments to the aesthetics  of Puerto Rico  and  the U.S.  Virgin Islands is
difficult because of the subjective nature of aesthetics, increases in anthropogenic pollution have probably
resulted in decreased aesthetic enjoyment of the islands.  Specific pollution problems of Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands that may reduce aesthetic enjoyment include solid waste generated  by residents
and industry that is improperly disposed of, such as empty containers and debris; abandoned cars and
boats; oil  spills; unpleasant odors from effluents; and raw sewage in surface water (Cardona and Rivera
1988, EQB 1990, and DPNR 1990).

The ecological habitats, marine aquatic life and wildlife, consumption of fish  and shellfish, swimming,
boating, and the aesthetic enjoyment of the islands are reasons that consumers visit Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands.   The degradation of these resources, resulting in use impairments,  will present
problems  if it becomes too severe, and once it becomes obvious that coastal  areas are impaired, tourism
is likely to decline.

6.8 Recommendations

Inadequate sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been identified as  one of the primary point source
pollution problems in the Caribbean and a significant contributor to coastal habitat degradation in Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Sewage treatment facilities need to be updated with modern technology
and brought up to carrying  capacities adequate for the populations being served.  Illegal hookups and
broken lines need to be identified and repaired.  It may also be necessary for sewage effluents to be
released through ocean diffusers so pathogens are dispersed and not concentrated in a single waterbody.

According to the 1990 Needs Survey Report to Congress (USEPA 1991), Puerto Rico is ranked 13th out
of 53 states (including the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands)  for the amount of
money needed to provide adequate publicly-owned secondary wastewater  treatment plants.  If states
ranked higher than Puerto Rico, such as California,  were taken out of the ranking (because their need
is based on planned expansion and/or reflects a larger state size), Puerto Rico would be ranked much
higher, since the rankings would be based on improvements needed in facilities.  The cost (in dollars for
January 1990) to provide basic services (e.g., secondary treatment) to Puerto Rico is $636 million. For
total wastewater treatment projects, Puerto Rico ranks 19th with  a total cost of $1.6 billion.

The following additional remedial actions and management measures may further reduce impairments to
coastal and estuarine waterbodies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands:

                                               6-5

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       «   NPDES permit levels need to be monitored frequently and permit limits need to be enforced.

       •   Proper management practices related to coastal construction need to be adopted and enforced
           to help alleviate stormwater runoff.

       •   Benefits of various solid waste management strategies such as recycling, incineration, creation
           of artificial reefs using old vehicles and boats, etc. need to be evaluated.

       •   Management measures for the boating industry need to be implemented.  This may include
           restricting the number of boats in critical coastal areas, instituting better waste management
           practices by monitoring the fecal counts in  the moored areas, and constructing docking areas
           in critical coastal areas.

       «   Urban and agricultural stormwater runoff should be reduced by implementing better
           management practices designed  to retain sediment and pollutants.

       •   Critical coastal wildlife areas should be routinely monitored, and appropriate procedures to
           analyze the causes  of wildlife and aquatic marine life kills need to be developed and
           implemented.

       •   Fisheries management strategies should be adopted.

       •   Information concerning the source of oil spills needs to be researched, and management
           measures need to be adopted to curtail these releases.

       8   Effluent limits  should be  established that prevent  the  elevation of the receiving water
           temperature above 32 °C for prolonged  periods, based on the factors of both flow and
           temperature of the effluent.

       •   Data gaps found in the assessments of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (e.g., no
           toxic data for the U.S. Virgin Islands) must be recognized and researched.

       •   A regular monitoring and reporting program  for the coastal areas should identify problems
           early.

       •   Scientific  research should  be  undertaken to  help  develop  mitigation procedures and
           management practices that will  help stop the degradation of the coastal regions.

Because these islands depend heavily on tourists,  it will be important to associate coastal pollution and
habitat remediation efforts with their value  to the  islands' economies and vice versa.  Clean  waters and
beaches will attract more tourists, but more tourists will strain existing sewage treatment facilities, add
to the problems already caused by recreational boating and fishing activities, and cause more habitat
degradation as new hotels are built near beaches (Murphy 1986, Gable 1990). Diversification of tourism,
to include mountain hiking or  river-based activities inland,  could aid in the preservation of marine and
estuarine habitats (Herbert Miller, writer, personal communication, October 1992).

A recent program under the direction of Puerto Rico's Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is the
encouragement  of "ecotourism" or  "nature tourism" (Carrion 1992). Ecotourism improves ecological

                                               6-6

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awareness and increases social and economic gain by developing educational, recreational,  and tourist
opportunities within natural areas.  The ecotourism program in Puerto Rico includes efforts to curtail
damage to ecological habitats by tourists and residents, protect endangered species, and improve the
aesthetics of the island through the following management goals (Carrion 1992):

        •  Promote the use of natural areas by improving public access;

        •  Enhance educational efforts by providing information in brochures, trail signs, and tours on
           the ecology of the island's marine, estuarine, and upland habitats;

        •  Establish programs for collecting and interpreting data on fish and fishing activities, including
           a program to monitor and manage sport fishing populations;

        •  Advise the public against the use of off-road vehicles in mangrove forests, which can damage
            roots, animal burrows, and ground-nesting birds;

        •   Prohibit the cutting of trees and branches  in natural areas by picnickers who run out of
            charcoal;

        •   Enforce against the depositing of fill in wetlands areas by tourist businesses (e.g., snack bars,
            restaurants, stores) located on the edges of natural forest boundaries; and

        •   Advise the public  against damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds caused by water-sport
            activities.

Programs similar to the DNR ecotourism program should be continued and expanded in Puerto Rico and
the Virgin Islands.   Additional efforts such as controlled development, multiple use planning,  and
zonation to minimize user conflicts and impacts on the environment should  be implemented as well.
While some tourists are not environmentally discriminating and will not be affected by mild pollution or
habitat degradation (Agardy 1990), multiple-use planning to protect coastal habitats and resources can
succeed if local inhabitants recognize the value of these areas and understand the economic benefits to
be gained by improving their condition.
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                                             7-14

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                                             7-15

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                                              7-16

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                                             7-21

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     APPENDIX A



Annotated Bibliography

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1. Cited Reference:

  Acevedo, R., and J. Morelock.  1988.  Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral
     reef zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico.  In Proceedings of the Sixth International
     Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia, August 8-12, 1988, Vol. 2, 189-194.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                    Nutrients
     Toxics                           Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


     B) Habitat:   Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:

     The distribution of hermatypic coral species and species dominance patterns is
     discussed from the study of eight reef sites off southwestern Puerto Rico.  Photo-
     transects were surveyed on four sites at La Parguera where terrigenous sediment
     influx was absent and used to develop a standard coral zonation pattern. Four sites
     were studied at Ponce where  the presence of terrigenous sediments was observed
     and results compared between sites for each depth level.

     Coral cover and species diversity were greatly reduced near the source of
     terrigenous sediment. Both coral cover and coral species diversity increased with
     distance from the sediment source.

     Loss of light is critical to the deeper coral assemblages, and a chronic increase in
     turbidity will move the lower limit of coral growth to  much shallower depths.  Other
     possible effects from sediment influx commonly observed were partial or total burial
     of coral colonies, bleaching, and colonization of the coral surface  by  filamentous
     blue-green algae.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Adey, W.H., C.S. Rogers, and R.S. Steneck.  1981.  The south St. Croix reef: A study
     of reef metabolism as related to environmental factors and an assessment of
     environmental management. Prepared for the Department of Conservation and
     Cultural  Affairs, Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
     64 pp. + appendices.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                    Nutrients:  Nitrate and nitrite nitrogen,
                                               ammonia nitrogen


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to  ecological habitat, impairments to recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

     The  community metabolism and community structure of the south St. Croix reef,
     one  of the  largest reef structures in the world, is described. Transects were made by
     divers, who measured species composition and areal coverage.  Dissolved oxygen,
     solar radiation, suspended material, and currents were also measured. The effects of
     nutrients produced by the reef and sedimentation were discussed in reference to the
     reef community structure. Specific recommendations for monitoring were put forth
     as part of an effective environmental management strategy.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Allen, W.H.  1992.  Increased dangers to Caribbean marine ecosystems.  BioScience
     42 (5): 330-334.
2. Pollution Type:

      Physical damage; cruise ship anchors and intensified tourism
      Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
      impairments to recreational and commercial use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment; coral reefs and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:
      The increase in cruise ships, in number and size, visiting the Virgin Islands has
      threatened the coral reefs and marine environment.  The number of cruise ships
      anchoring within coral reefs and destroying several meters of the coral reefs has
      increased. The increase in the number of tourists has also led to an increase in the
      destruction of coral reefs due to snorkelers and divers.  In  addition, natural disasters,
      development of the islands, and pollution are causes of destruction to the coral reefs.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Atwood, D.K., FJ. Burton, J.W. Corrector, G.R. Harvey, A.J. Mata-Jimenez,
     A. Vasquez-Botello, and B.A. Wade.  1987.  Petroleum pollution in the Caribbean.
     In Oceanus, Vol. 30, no.4, ed. P.A. Ryan, pp. 25-32.  Woods Hole, Massachusetts.


2. Pollution Type:

     Oil spills
     Toxics: hydrocarbons, polcyclic aromatic hydrocarbons


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
     impariments to  recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  The wider Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico
     B) Habitat:  Marine environment, terrestrial environment


5. Synopsis:

     This article discusses reasons for investigating the existence of pollution in the
     islands and includes the Gulf of Mexico in its considerations. In 1976, the
     Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) in Paris, the United Nations
     Environment Programme  (UNEP) in Nairobi, Kenya, and the United Nations Food
     and Agriculture Organization in Rome, all of Which have interests in the
     Caribbean/Gulf of Mexico (or "American Mediterranean," as this area is often
     called), convened a meeting of scientists from that region in Port of Spain, Trinidad,
     to discuss what needed to be done regarding a growing concern over marine
     pollution. Although this group recognized numerous local pollution problems in the
     region (for example, lack of  sewage treatment facilities for  coastal urban centers,
     and agricultural runoff), their report, as published by the Intergovernmental
     Oceanographic Commission (IOC) in Paris, noted that petroleum pollution was of
     region-wide  concern and recommended that the organizations present initiate a
     research and monitoring program to determine the severity of the problem and
     monitor its effects.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Beets, J., L. Lewand, and E.S. Zullo.  1986.  Marine communities description and maps
     of bays within the Virgin Islands National Park/Biosphere Reserve.  Biosphere
     Reserve research report no. 2.  Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and
     the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                   Toxics                   Physical damage
     Biological pathogens             Nutrients Oil spills


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment and harbors
5. Synopsis:

     During the 4-month field work period, February  May 1984, every bay within the
     Virgin Islands National Park on St. John was investigated and major zones
     characterized.  Methods used during the investigation were derived by the Working
     Group of the Virgin Island Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC).
     Descriptions of the bays within the park around St. John were produced and form
     the main body of the report.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Beekhuis, J.V. 1981. Tourism in the Caribbean: Impacts on the economic, social and
     natural environments.  Ambio 10(6).


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                          Oil spills
     Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impairments to
     recreational/commercial use



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment, beaches, and coral reefs



5. Synopsis:

     In less than 50 years the Caribbean has become one of the world's premier tourist
     attractions.  Tourism provides nearly two million jobs and, for some of the smaller
     nations, accounts for as much as 55 percent of the GNP-  So far the area is largely
     pollution free, but environmental degradation would have serious economic effects.
     Regional cooperation is essential to protect the environment but difficult to achieve,
     in part because of the very diversity that is one of the area's principal attractions.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Borie, L.   1979.  Bugby Hole, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: A land use plan.  Prepared
      under  contract for the Nature Conservancy.


2. Pollution Type:

      Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:

      Not applicable



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

      Following preliminary planning visits to the site in 1978, the principal site
      investigations were carried out during the first 2 months of 1979.  To assess
      properly the natural and cultural features of the site, a trail crew was employed to
      cut narrow trails into  the dense vegetation of several portions of the property, taking
      care not to disturb potentially valuable vegetation or historic elements. Natural
      access points such as  existing cleared boundaries, old streambeds, and neighboring
      vantage points were also used to gather the desired information about the  property.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Boulon, R.H., Jr.  1986. Fisheries habitat of the Virgin Islands region of ecological
     importance to the fisheries resources of the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve.
     Biosphere  Reserve  research report no, 9.  Prepared for the U.S. Department of the
     Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
      use


4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat: fisheries
5. Synopsis:

     Ten habitat types in eight locations adjacent to the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve
     were selected and sampled for their resident assemblages of commercially important
     fish species. It is recognized  that fishery stocks are distributed and interact without
     any consideration of man-made boundaries, and thus areas adjacent to the Biosphere
     Reserve may be ecologically important to the fishery stocks within the Biosphere
     Reserve.  Habitat types that could have high ecological importance can be divided
     into two groups: nursery habitats (development and recruitment source for adjacent
     habitats) and reproductive habitats (production of eggs and larvae to supply nursery
     habitats). However, given the planktonic phase  of most reef fish larvae and the
     migratory nature of the pelagic species of fish as well as conch and lobster, it is
     difficult to assess the actual influence of any particular reproductive  site on the
     adjacent habitats.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Boulon, R.H.  1987. Basis for long term monitoring offish and shellfish species in the
     Virgin Islands National Park.  Biosphere Reserve research report no. 22.  Prepared
     for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
     Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics
     Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
     use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands
      B) Habitat:   Marine environment, coral reefs, and mangroves
5. Synopsis:

     Fish and marine invertebrates in the Virgin Islands are being affected by a number
     of stresses.  Foremost of these is the heavy fishing pressure exerted on most species.
     With a limited shelf area of approximately  160,000 hectacres (St. Thomas and St.
     John) and a total of 225 registered commercial fishermen (St. Thomas and St. John)
     for 1984-85 (Clavijo et al., 1986), not to mention and unknown number of
     recreational fishermen  and sport divers,  the reef fish, lobsters, conch, and whelk are
     being harvested at a rate exceeding replacement. As a result the stocks are declining
     at an alarming rate (Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (CFMC), 1985), a
     fact corroborated by fishery landings data as well as by fishermen.  Other stresses
     include effects of development (sedimentation, increased runoff, potential toxic
     pollutants) and habitat  degradation through  anchor and boat damage  and large
     numbers of visitors utilizing and affecting the marine ecosystems.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Boulon, R.H., Jr., J. Beets, and E.S. Zullo.   1986.  Long term monitoring of fisheries in
     the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve research report no. 13.
     Prepared for the U.S. Department of the  Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
     Management Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impairments to recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands
     B) Habitat:   Marine environment, harbors, coral reefs, wetlands, and
              fisheries
5. Synopsis:

     Populations of finfish, shellfish (conch, whelk) and lobsters appear to be declining in
     the waters around St. John.  Local fishermen are demonstrating this through reduced
     catches and smaller individual fish. It is important, therefore, to determine the
     status of the populations of these commercially important species.  Baseline data on
     these populations are needed to establish resource management guidelines  and
     evaluate the response of these populations to man-made or natural disturbances.
     Long-term monitoring of these populations using consistent methodology can
     provide the  necessary baseline data.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Bunkley-Williams, L., and E.H. Williams, Jr.  1991. Annual report.  Sportfish
     disease and parasites.  Project no. 28. Department of Marine Sciences.  Mayaguez,
     Puerto Rico.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: infectious diseases, parasites


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
     use
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     A variety of reports of fish diseases and fish kills are surveyed.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Cardona, J.E., and M. Rivera.  1988.  Critical coastal wildlife areas of Puerto Rico.
     Prepared for the Puerto Rico Coastal Zone Management Program, Department of
     Natural Resources, Puerto Rico.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                           Physical damage
     Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1-5)
     B) Habitat:  Mangroves, lagoons, beaches, marine environment, and
        terrestrial environment


5. Synopsis:

     The current status of 73 coastal areas considered critical for threatened, endangered,
     gamebird, and aquatic wildlife species survival is compared with their status in
     1979.  Aspects  such as habitat degradation, increase and reduction of areas, and
     continued use by their characteristic fauna are examined.  Location, administrative
     status, and ownership are indicated. General management recommendations are
     given where appropriate. Maps illustrating all areas and showing general vegetation
     features and characteristic fauna are included.

     Some degree of degradation was observed in approximately one-third of the areas.
     Loss of habitat  occurred in about one-fourth, and encroachment was evident in
     nearly half the areas.  Habitat losses are equally represented among privately and
     publicly owned areas. These and other aspects are briefly discussed for a number of
     areas.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Caribbean Fisheries Management Council. 1985.  Fishery management plan, final
     environmental impact statement, and draft regulatory impact review for the Shallow
     Water Reeffish Fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In cooperation
     with the National Marine Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: Ciguatera
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and physical
     damage
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions  1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Fisheries, marine environment, coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
     The proposed action is to adopt and implement a fishery management plan for the
     shallow-water reeffish fishery within the area of authority of the Caribbean Fishery
     Management Council around Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The
     objectives of the FMP are to (1) obtain the necessary data for management and
     monitoring; (2) reverse the declining trends (i.e., decrease in landings and catch per
     unit of effort (CPUE) in the resource); (3) reduce conflicts among harvesters of the
     resource; (4) promote compatible, if not uniform, management of the pan-Caribbean
     species in the unit, and (5) help solve the ciguatera problem.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Caribbean Fisheries Management Council.  1990. Amendment no. I to the Fishery
     Management Plan for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery, Preliminary regulatory
     assessment and regulatory impact review.  In cooperation with the National Marine
     Fisheries Service.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics
     Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to  ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Shallow-Water Reef Fishery



5. Synopsis:

     The Fishery Management Plan established regulations to rebuild declining reef fish
     species in the fishery and reduce conflicts among fishermen.  It established criteria
     for the construction of fish traps; required owner identification and marking of gear
     and boats; prohibited the hauling of or tampering with another person's traps
     without the owner's written consent; prohibited the use of poisons, drugs, other
     chemicals, and explosives  for the taking of reeffish; established a  minimum size
     limit on the harvest of yellowtail snapper and Nassau grouper; and established a
     closed season for the taking of Nassau grouper.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Caribbean Fisheries Management Council.  1991. Regulatory amendment to the
     Shallow Water Reef, Fishery Management Plan.  In cooperation with the National
     Marine Fisheries Service.
2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics
     Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions  1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:   Shallow-Water Reef Fishery
5. Synopsis:
      The Shallow-Water Reef Fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands FMP
      was implemented on September 22, 1985.  The implementing regulations, designed
      to stop the declining trend of stocks, included:  (1) A minimum mesh size of 1 1/4
      inches for fish traps; (2) requirement of a self-destruct panel and/or a self-destruct
      door fastening on fish traps; (3) requirement for owners to identify and mark their
      gear and boats; (4) prohibition of hauling or tampering with another person's traps
      without the owner's written permission; (5) prohibition on the use of poisons, drugs,
      other chemicals, and explosives for fishing among other management measures; and
      (6) minimum size limits for yellowtail snapper and Nassau grouper.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Cintron, G., A.E. Lugo, D.J. Pool, and G. Morris.  1978.  Mangroves of arid
     environments in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands.  Biotropica  10:110-121.


2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 2-4)

     B) Habitat:  Mangroves


5. Synopsis:

     The structure of mangrove vegetation, soil salinity, and topographic relief of the
     mangrove ecosystem were studied  along the south coast of Puerto Rico, Culebra,
     and Mona Island.  Tree height was, inversely proportional to soil salinity between 17
     and 72 ppt.  It was proposed that cyclic rainfall patterns and hurricanes act as
     regulators of speed and direction of succession. Droughty periods result in high soil
     salinities, mangrove mortality, and expansion of salt flats.  Hurricanes set back
     succession and reverse successional trends that reduce mangrove areas.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Coulston, M.L.  1987. Pilot experimental seagrass transplantation project, south shore,
     St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.  Prepared for the Virgin Islands Port Authority.
2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation                   Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Seagrass beds, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      Seagrass meadows provide one of the most important and productive habitats in
      tropical coastal waters. They serve as a major primary producer of food resources
      for a vast number of organisms and a nursery habitat for juvenile fish including
      many commercially valuable species.  Seagrasses also serve to stabilize inshore
      areas by preventing erosion.  Because seagrass habitats are so valuable, many local
      and federal agencies are requiring habitat restoration programs in nearby areas  as
      mitigation for seagrass areas being destroyed by dredge-and-fill operations.  This
      report describes the first large-scale seagrass transplant in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

      A pilot experimental seagrass transplantation project was authorized by the Virgin
      Islands Port Authority as mitigation for dredge-and-fill operations necessary for the
      construction of a liquid bulk terminal on the easterly side of the Martin Marietta
      Channel.  The U.S. Army Corps  of Engineers required that the Port Authority
      transplant seagrasses from the area to be dredged and filled to nearby shallow,
      unvegetated bottoms.  The operation was begun on July 3, 1987, with donor and
      recipient site surveys. Phase I Report: Survey and Revised Methods is submitted as
      Appendix I of this report.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Coulston, M.L., R.H. Ruskin, and G. Baretta. 1991.  Bacteriological study to evaluate
     the safety of recreational waters in the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Prepared for the
     Department of Planning  and Natural Resources, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, U.S.
     Virgin Islands.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: bacterial
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to recreational/commercial use and impacts to human health



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

      Valuable marine recreational waters were tested for microbiological indicators of
      water quality.  The presence and density of selected indicator bacteria and chemical
      parameters were determined at selected sites on all three Virgin Islands.  In general,
      the water quality of all open, coastal, recreational beaches sampled was found to be
      satisfactory, based on the microbiological parameters tested.  Elevated levels of
      bacteria were present in enclosed bays or harbors with poor water exchange
      especially near  added impacts such as water guts or when associated with a high
      number of liveaboard, moored boats. Correlation analyses indicated that
      Staphylococcus aureaus had a wide distribution but was not associated with other
      microbial indicators and that the presence of microbes was not associated with the
      other water quality parameters tested.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Damman, A.E.  1985.  Assessment offish and shellfish stocks produced in the
     Biosphere Reserve.  Biosphere Reserve research report no. 10.  Virgin Islands
     Resources Management Cooperative/Virgin Islands National Park.  Prepared for the
     U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin  Islands Resource Management
     Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands
      B) Habitat:   Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, fisheries, and marine
               environment
5. Synopsis:
      The estimation of marine fishery stock parameters is an extremely difficult
      undertaking. There is a large and  rapidly increasing volume of literature that attests
      to this fact. The general kinds of  data that have been used to estimate stock size
      and its utilization on a sustained basis are both biological and fisheries-derived.
      Examples of the  biological data types are (1) basic productivity in terms of carbon
      fixation and its transfer through the trophic levels, (2) length-weight frequencies of
      individual species, and (3) age, growth, and mortality rates.  The most widely used
      information from fisheries is catch per unit of effort.  Effort has been measured in
      such units as time, number of boats, gear, and fishermen and the catch by numbers,
      weights, or  species composition.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Davidson, L.  1990.  Environmental assessment of the wider Caribbean Region.
     UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 121.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides                Sedimentation
     Oil pollution                    Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to  ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and  impacts
     to human health
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and terrestrial environment



S. Synopsis:

     After centuries  of colonial exploitation, mono^crop agriculture, and military use,
     much of the region has been left with severely damaged terrestrial and coastal
     marine environments, which today are under further stress because of growing
     populations, expanding tourism, waste disposal methods, industrial activities, oil
     tanker discharges, deforestation, erosion, and overfishing.

     In addition, a number of recent changes in the region are having environmental
     consequences.  The region has become a dumping ground for hazardous-waste
     operators trying to evade new, stringent waste laws in industrialized nations.
     Renewed interest in oil exploration has resulted in plans to place significantly more
     oil drilling operations in the region. There is a risk of nuclear accidents involving
     submarines, especially in areas where tanker traffic is heavy and offshore structures
     are prominent.

     The increasing  potential for environmental disasters spotlights the need for
     contingency planning and cooperation between nations.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Davis, M., E. Gladfelter, H. Lund, and M. Anderson.  1985.  Geographic range and
     research plan for monitoring white band disease.  Biosphere Reserve research report
     no. 6. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative/Virgin Islands National
     Park.
2. Pollution Type:

      Biological pathogens:  infectious diseases



3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs and marine environment



5. Synopsis:

      Species of Acropora are dominant reef framework builders in the Caribbean.  White
      band disease (WBD) of these corals has resulted in widespread mortality in a
      number of Caribbean localities in the  past few years. This report presents the results
      of two surveys of the geographic range of WBD:  (1) quantitative estimates of
      disease-related mortalities in the USVI and (2) qualitative accounts of the extent of
      the disease  in localities throughout the greater Caribbean.

      A research plan for monitoring the ecosystem level and organism level changes due
      to WBD is  presented.  The initial implementation of this plan, including the
      establishment and monitoring of a photo  transect, is described.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Department of Natural Resources.  1985.  Regulation to govern the management of
     threatened and endangered species in  the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.  San Juan,
     Puerto Rico.  August.
2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable



3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     This Regulation was adopted for the purpose of designating, protecting, and
     conserving species of fish, wildlife, animals, and plants, both terrestrial and aquatic,
     that are considered  threatened or in danger of extinction.

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1. Cited Reference

  Department of Planning and Natural Resources.  1990.  Water quality assessment report
     305(b).  Division of Environmental Protection.  June.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: heavy metals
     Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impacts
     to human health


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands
      B) Habitat:  Marine environment, beaches, and wetlands
5. Synopsis:

      Water quality in the Virgin Islands is generally good but is declining due to an
      increase in nonpoint sources such as vessel wastes and uncontrolled runoff.  Lack of
      adequate resources for water pollution control continues to prevent the
      implementation of an effective program that realizes its goals and objectives.

      Of the approximately 5.93 square miles of assessed bays, harbors, and estuaries,
      3.83 support its designated uses,  0.85 partially supports its designated uses, 0.47
      does not support uses, and 0.77 is threatened.  Major causes of use impairment are
      municipal/domestic point sources and nonpoint sources. Nonpoint source pollution
      has increased with the rapid rate  of construction along  the coastlines, increasing boat
      activities, and Hurricane Hugo.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Diaz-Piferrera, M.  1964. The effects of an oil spill on the shore of Gudnica, Puerto
     Rico. Abstract.  Associated Island Marine Laboratory, 4th Meeting, Curacoa, 18-20
     November 1962, pp. 12-13. Deep-sea Res.  11:855-856.


2. Pollution Type:

     Oil pollution                    Toxics
     Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


     B) Habitat:  Mangroves, beaches, marine environment
5. Synopsis:

     This report discusses the effects of a 10,000-ton spill of crude oil from a tanker that
     ran aground on the south shore of Puerto Rico on July 16, 1962.  The oil was blown
     ashore, affecting distant beaches and offshore coral reefs to the west.

     The author had previously done extensive algae tests on the region and was able to
     make several comparisons showing the effects after the spill.  There was extensive
     physical damage to beaches from the combined effects of heavy oil and wave action.
     The oil striking mangrove swamps settled among the roots, virtually destroying  the
     habitat.  Also, the death toll of marine organisms was significant.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Dodge, R.E.  1981. Growth characteristics of reef-building corals within and external
     to a naval ordnance range:  Vieques, Puerto  Rico.  In  The Reef and Man,
     Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Vol. 2, pp. 241-248.
2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 2)

      B) Habitat: Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      The skeletal growth of Montastrea annularis collected from within and outside a
      naval ordnance range at Vieques, Puerto Rico, was measured.  Growth was
      measured from annual increments revealed by  X-radiography of medial slabs of the
      coral skeletons.  Statistical comparison of the growth data reveals a general
      similarity between range and control stations, indicating a lack of adverse impacts to
      coral growth associated with the anomalous sedimentation/turbidity conditions of the
      range.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Dodge, R.E., and G.W. Brass.  1984.  Skeletal extension, density and calcification of
     the reef coral, Montastrea annularis:  St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci.
     34:288-307.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological  habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

     Parameters of the annual and subannual skeletal growth of Montastrea annularis
     corals were determined by X-radiography and scanning densitometry for each year
     in the 10-year period, 1970-79. Three parameters—extension (linear growth), bulk
     density, and calcification—were measured, any two of which are sufficient to
     describe coral growth. Growth anomalies in corals from Round Reef and the
     southern coast are probably related to major dredging activity.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Dodge, R.E., T.D.  Jickells, A.M. Knap, S. Boyd, and R.P.M. Bak.  1984.  Reef-building
     coral skeletons  as chemical pollution (phosphorus) indicators.  Mar. Poll. Bull.
     15:178-187.
2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients:  Total phosphorus
3. Impairment Type:

     Unknown
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      Specimens of Montastrea annularis were collected from three reef sites along the
      coast of St. Croix, as well as sites in Bermuda and Curacao. Phosphorus
      concentrations determined on subsamples dated by density band growth increments
      indicate that a record of seawater is preserved which, in certain cases, is consistent
      with the location and time history of sewage and other phosphorus pollution
      episodes.  The method of inclusion of the phosphorus  within the skeleton is
      uncertain.  Possibilities may be tissue content of endolithic algae, trapped detritus,
      trapped coral tissue and/or organic matrix, and primary deposition.  Since enhanced
      phosphorus levels can be  detrimental to reef systems, it is important to both
      establish baseline levels for comparison and to document enhanced eutrophication
      for prediction and management purposes.

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1. Cited Reference:

  DuBois, R. 1984.  Coastal fisheries management: Lessons learned from the Caribbean,
     Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.


2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

     Impairments to recreational/commercial use and impacts to fish and wildlife
     populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Fisheries and marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     This study demonstrates the need for more comprehensive approaches to the
     management of coastal fish stocks. Caribbean fisheries for spiny lobster and conch,
     two highly-valued species occurring throughout the region and known to be under
     intense exploitive pressure, were selected for analysis. The approach taken
     documents (1) the history of the two  fisheries leading up to present exploitation
     patterns, both locally and regionally;  (2) the importance of conch and lobster
     resources to local economies; (3) the  socioeconomic effects resulting from their
     apparent overexploitation; and (4) the major constraints on their effective
     management. Information was derived from existing literature, a questionnaire
     distributed to fishery officers  throughout the region, and selected interviews and site
     visits to the U.S. Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos, Antigua, and Belize, which
     confirm the intense harvesting of both conch and lobster stocks, with possible  over-
     exploitation evident in some cases. The structure and effectiveness of existing
     fisheries management programs are compared and analyzed.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Earhart, J.E., A.E. Reilly, and M. Davis.  1988.  Initial inventory of the three permanent
     forest plots in the Virgin Island National Park. Biosphere Reserve research report
     no. 27. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands
     Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

      Not applicable



3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Forests and terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

      There is a need to enhance research and improve management techniques in
      secondary forest areas in the tropics.  Vast areas of secondary forests throughout the
      Neotropics have been overlooked as potentially productive area due to lack of
      information on basic ecology and silvicultural possibilities.  These areas could
      potentially be managed for timber and fuelwood in such a manner as to maintain a
      high percentage of the ecological integrity while simultaneously relieving pressure
      on other more critical primary habitats.  This situation is especially true in the
      Caribbean where the land pressure situation is critical and only small amounts of
      primary forest remain to protect wildlife and watershed resources.  Although
      substantial strides have been made in the last several years, there continues to be a
      paucity of baseline data available on the dynamics of secondary forests in the
      Caribbean.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Edwards, S.F.  1987.  An introduction to coastal zone economics: Concepts, methods,
     and case studies. National Marine Fisheries Service.  Taylor and Francis, New
     York.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens
     Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife
     populations, and impairments to recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal  Zone: Not applicable
     B) Habitat:   Coastal lagoons and beaches
5. Synopsis:

     Mankind is intensely interested in the recreational opportunities afforded by ocean
     beaches. Our collective interests seem to be dominated by swimming and
     sunbathing but also include fishing, surfing, SCUBA diving, windboarding, and
     certainly strolling. Usage ranges from daily trips to a local town beach to week-
     long vacations to distant island resorts.  Indeed, coastal tourism and real estate
     markets are derived to a large extent from demands for beach recreation.

     Coastal states along the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico in the United States are
     fringed with coastal lagoons.  Many people are moving to these areas in part
     because the lagoons and nearby beaches offer excellent recreational opportunities
     including swimming, fishing, shellfishing,  boating, and bird watching. Ironically,
     though, the collective use  of the coastal environment is ruining the very
     environmental resources that people come  to enjoy. An important set of problems
     centers on sewage leachate that is transported via groundwater flow into coastal
     lagoons, thereby reducing  water quality and threatening recreational benefits.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Edmunds, P.J. and J.D. Witman.  1991.  Effect of Hurricane Hugo on the primary
     framework of a reef along the south shore of St. John, USVI.  Mar.  Ecol Prog. Ser.
     Vol. 78: 201-204.
2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage—Hurricane Hugo
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  St. John, USVI


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment—coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
     A study area was established at a 10-m depth in a coral reef community dominant in
     the coral Montastrea annularis. The study was established to monitor this species.
     Before Hurricane Hugo, this species dominated the study area. After Hurricane
     Hugo, a significant percent of the live coral of this species was destroyed.  The
     damage to the dominant species may lead to other species inhabiting the area as
     well.

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1. Cited Reference:

  EQB.  1983.  Water quality standards regulation.  Prepared by the Environmental
     Quality Board for the Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, San
     Juan, Puerto Rico. March 2,  1983.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals                            Biological pathogens
     Nutrients: total phosphorus, dissolved oxygen
     Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impairments
     to recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions  1-5)
     B) Habitat:   Not applicable
5. Synopsis:

     It is the purpose of these Regulations to:  designate the uses for which the various
     waters of Puerto Rico shall be maintained and protected, prescribe the water quality
     standards required to sustain the designated uses, provide for establishment of
     effluent quality Criteria to limit the contaminants that are discharged into the waters,
     and prescribe additional measures necessary for implementing, achieving and
     maintaining the prescribed water quality.

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1. Cited Reference:

  EQB.  1990. Goals and progress of statewide water quality management planning,
     Puerto Rico 1988-1990.  Prepared by the Environmental Quality Board for the
     Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: heavy metals            Biological pathogens

     Nutrients: dissolved  oxygen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrate, and nitrate nitrogen


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts  to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to  human health



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment, terrestrial environment, and wetlands


5. Synopsis:

     This document covers various responsibilities and  goals of the Environmental
     Quality Board of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Plans for assessing water
     quality of lakes, estuaries, and wetlands are included, along with assessment of
     groundwater quality.  Public health and aquatic life monitoring and reporting
     responsibility are discussed. Finally, the Water Pollution Control Program is
     outlined.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Fabregas, L.M.  1991. La Ciguatera en Puerto Rico entre los anos 1980 a 1990,
     Prepared by the Division de Epidemiologia for Departamento de Salud de Puerto
     Rico. ISSN 0889-9029.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:  Not applicable



5. Synopsis:

     This document is the monthly state epidemiology bulletin produced by the Puerto
     Rico Department of Health.  It lists data in tabular form regarding occurrences of
     ciguatera and related health problems for the decade 1980-1990.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Gladfelter, W.B.  1982.  White-band disease in Acropora palmata:  Implications for the
     structure and growth of shallow reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci.
     32:639-643.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens:  bacterial (not confirmed)


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

     White band disease was described for populations of Acropora palmata. This
     disease can cause extensive local mortality of the coral.  Current work suggests a
     bacterium might  be responsible for the disease.  Changes brought about by white
     band disease-induced decrease in Acropora palmata populations include (1) a
     decrease in structural complexity of the reef surface,  (2) a decrease in live coral
     tissue, (3) a reduction of carbonate deposition for the reef, (4) an increase in both
     filamentous and crustose algae, and (5) an increase in abundance and diversity of
     small invertebrates.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Goenaga, C.  199la. The state of coral reefs in the wider Caribbean.  Interciencia
      16:12-20.


2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation                    Oil spills
      Physical damage                 Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
      impairments to recreational/commercial use


4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 2); U.S.  Virgin Islands

      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

      This review paper summarizes the state of Caribbean coral reefs, including their
      socioeconofnic  importance, human activities affecting coral reefs, and their capacity
      for recovery.

      Specific recommendations suggested include (1)  compile a detailed bibliography on
      factors that contribute to the degeneration  of coral reefs, (2) define parameters
      known to be related to degradation, (3) monitor polluted and nonpolluted reef
      habitats to differentiate between natural and human-induced sources of variation,
      (4) establish marine parks, (5) consider restoring damaged areas, and 6) update coral
      reef inventories.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Goenaga, C. 1991b.  The state of Puerto Rican corals: An aid to managers. Report
     submitted to Caribbean Fisheries Management Council.  May 1991.
2. Pollution Type:

     Oil pollution                    Sedimentation
     Nutrients                        Biological pathogens
     Thermal pollution                Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:   Coral reefs, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
     This work attempts to give an overview of the biology, taxonomy, and distribution
     and state of corals in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands.  It is intended for the general
     public interested in corals and for managers who wish to evaluate proposed
     development within the context of the presence of the important ecosystems created
     by particular types of corals.  This document does not review all the literature on
     any of the topics discussed but will hopefully provide the raw material from which a
     management program for corals will be prepared.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Goenaga, C., and M. Canals.  1990. Island-wide coral bleaching in Puerto Rico:
      1990.  Carib. J. Sci.  26:171-175.


2, Pollution Type:

      Unknown


3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)

      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

      The effects of a bleaching event in the summer of 1990 were documented.
      Although only the north, west, and south coasts of Puerto Rico  were examined by
      the author, communications with other researchers led to the conclusion that the
      bleaching event was widespread throughout Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands.
      The environmental conditions during this bleaching event were  similar to those
      documented during the 1987-88 bleaching event (i.e., exceptionally calm seas
      coupled with high water transparency and increased water temperature) although the
      magnitude of this event did not seem as  severe as that of the earlier event.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Goenaga, C, V.P. Vicente, and R.A. Armstrong.  1989.  Bleaching induced mortalities
     in reef corals from La Parguera,  Puerto Rico; a precursor of change in the
     community structure of coral reefs? Carib. J. Sci.  25:59-65.


2. Pollution Type:

     Unknown


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitats


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)

     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs


5. Synopsis:

     This study described the effects of a major bleaching event in the summer of 1987.
     Extensive tissue discoloration occurred to all zooxanthellate cnidarians at all depths
     of reef front environments at La Parguera. Recovery by almost all taxa was
     complete. A hypothesis was put forth that exceptionally calm seas coupled with
     high water transparency and increased water temperature were a major factor
     causing the expulsion of zooxanthellae.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Heatwole, H.  1985.  Survey of the mangroves of Puerto Rico...A benchmark study.
     Carib. J. Sci. 21:85-99.
2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                   Oil pollution
     Thermal pollution


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-4)

     B) Habitat:  Mangroves


5. Synopsis:

     The areal coverage of mangrove swamps in Puerto Rico was documented by
     comparing maps of different dates, aerial photographs, and ground reconnaissances.
     Between one-fourth and one-third of the maximum area of mangroves in Puerto
     Rico had disappeared by the mid-1960s.  Most encroachment on mangroves has
     been from the landward side.  Regeneration has been almost nil at some sites; at
     other sites,  it has proceeded at a faster rate than in undisturbed swamps, possibly
     due to increased light penetration.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Hubbard, D.K.  1987.  A general review of sedimentation as it relates to environmental
     stress in the  Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve and the eastern Caribbean in general.
     Biosphere  Reserve research report no. 20. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the
     Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation
      Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Mangroves, coral reefs, and marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      This report discusses the impacts of sedimentation on tropical marine environments.
      Because of the greater susceptibility of reefs, the majority of the discussion is aimed
      at this specific environment.  Included are:
        (1) a review of the general types of sediment stress that occur in marine
            systems;
        (2) a discussion of the critical parameters that should be  measured in any study
            of sediment stress;
        (3) a discussion of sources of sediment stress in the Caribbean, including
            examples from within the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve, the U.S. Virgin
            Islands and the eastern Caribbean; and
        (4) a more specific treatment of area-wide problems, along with strategies that
            exist  or should exist to cope with them.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Island Resources Foundation.  1976. U.S. Virgin Islands; Coastal Zone Management,
     Marine Environment.  Prepared for the U.S. Virgin Islands Planning Office,
     Government of the Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                           Sedimentation
     Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands
     B) Habitat:   Marine environment, terrestrial environment, beaches,
               mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sand flats
5. Synopsis:

     With greater understanding of the complex interactions of natural coastal systems,
     improved plans for maximum multi-use management of the Virgin Islands' limited
     coastal resources can be developed.  Appropriate resource protection and wise use
     are imperative  to maintain natural productivity and aesthetic values and to preserve
     options for future generations.

     This compilation is intended  as a first-effort survey of the Virgin Islands' coastal
     resources, describing the present level of knowledge of their interactive processes,
     values, and capacities and needs for additional information.  The report deals with
     the major biological and physical components of the marine resource base and their
     intrinsic  limits  to human-induced perturbations.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Island Resources Foundation.  1977. Water, sediments and ecology of the Mangrove
     Lagoon and Benner Bay, St. Thomas.  Technical Report no. 1.  Prepared for the
     Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs, Division of Natural Resources
     Management, U.S. Virgin Islands.
2. Pollution Type:

      Toxics                           Biological pathogens
      Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Mangroves and seagrass beds



5. Synopsis:

      The mangrove shores, cays, ponds, and waters  of the Mangrove Lagoon and Benner
      Bay, St. Thomas, are a  natural resource of special value.  The region once had clear
      water, moderate water depth, thriving mangrove stands, and luxuriant grass beds.
      Today, after 8 years of  accelerated development, the region has markedly changed.
      The lagoon is polluted and shoaled; mangroves are dying and grass beds are largely
      destroyed.  In turn, birds, fish and shellfish are deprived of their food and nursery
      grounds.  Only a small  zone, Bovoni and Patricia Cays and Cas Entrance, remains
      intact.

      The most important man-induced stresses affecting the region are pollution,
      sedimentation, and  development of the waterfront and watershed.  Pollution of the
      bay is caused  by sewage from boats and diffuse sources in the  watershed and on the
      waterfront.  Pollution of the lagoon is caused by nutrient-rich runoff from
      Turpentine Run and by  an overloaded, malfunctioning, and obsolete sewage
      treatment plant.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Island Resources Foundation.  1989.  Virgin Islands land use survey - Final project
     report.  Prepared for Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Government of
     the U.S. Virgin Islands.


2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:

     Not applicable



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Not applicable



5. Synopsis:

     A major work product of the land use survey project is a series of maps that depict
     the existing land uses in the Virgin Islands.  This report, to which the maps are
     appended, provides a description of the land use mapping process utilized by the
     project as well as limited analysis and recommendations extracted from data
     generated during the project. The report also conveys the other work products of
     the project, which are:

       (1) a description of the land use classification intensity scale system;
       (2) a description of a geo-referencing system;
       (3) a description of a land use database (including an expanded land use
                   classification  system);
       (4) a summary of  a seminar on geographic information systems (presented
                  to DPNR on April 17, 1989); and
       (5) a bibliography.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Jennings, C.A.  1992.  Survey of non-charter boat recreational fishing in the
     United States and the Virgin Islands. Bull. Mar. Sci. 50(2): 342-351.


2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:

      Not applicable



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat: Marine environment; fisheries



5. Synopsis:

      A telephone survey was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of telephone surveys in
      obtaining recreational (i.e., non-charter boat angling) data for the fishery in the
      Virgin Islands.  The data obtained are designed to aid the fishery management in
      developing and maintaining quality efforts for the fishery.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Jemelov, A., and O. Linden. 1981. Ixtoc 1: A case study of the world's largest oil
     spill.  Ambio 10(6):299-306.


2. Pollution Type:

     Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impacts to fish and
     wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Gulf of Mexico
     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, lagoons, marine
              environment, and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:

     On December 10, 1978, Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) started to drill the Ixtoc I
     exploratory well at longitude 92° 13' W and latitude  19° 24' N, about 80 kilometers
     northwest of Ciudad del Garment in the Bahia de Campeche.  The water depth at the
     site is about 50 m.  The drilling continued through the first part of 1979 and by the
     end of May a depth of 3,600 meters had been reached.  Early on June 2, at a depth
     of 3,615 meters, the well started to lose drilling mud; circulation was totally lost at
     about 3,625 meters.  Several unsuccessful attempts were made to regain circulation,
     but as the well appeared stable, it was decided to seal it by withdrawing the drill
     pipe and inserting a plug in the empty space. One June 3, during the attempts to
     seal the well, the extremely high pressure (about 350 kg/cm2) caused mud to flow
     up the drill pipe and onto the platform. At 3:30 am the well blew out and caught
     fire.   The explosion and fire destroyed the platform, which sank to the bottom and
     damaged the stack and well casing.  This allowed  the oil and gas to  mix with water
     close to the sea floor, beginning the largest marine oil spill in the history of oil
     exploration.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Jimenez, J.A., R. Martinez, and L. Encarnaci6n.  1985.  Massive tree mortality in a
     Puerto Rican mangrove forest. Carib. J. Sci.  21:75-78.
2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage                 Toxics:  heavy metals
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)

     B) Habitat:   Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
     This paper reports on a massive tree mortality observed in the Pinones-Torrecilla
     mangrove complex on the northeastern coast of Puerto Rico.  This area is
     occasionally flooded by the Rio Grande de Loiza river.  The causal factor for this
     mortality seems to be the abrupt change in the  hydric regime of the forest.  The area
     is now permanently flooded, and water circulation is practically nil. Water diversion
     due to natural clogging of impoundment produced by the dredge spoils was most
     likely responsible for this condition. The consequences of this flooding are low
     oxygen and high iron and manganese content of the soils.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Johannes, R.E.  1975.  Pollution and degradation of coral reef communities.  In
     Tropical marine pollution, ed. E.J.F. Wood and R.E. Johannes, pp. 13-51.  Elsevier,
     New York.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                       Biological pathogens: bacterial
     Sedimentation                   Oil spills
     Thermal pollution               Toxics: chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Coral reefs



5. Synopsis:

     This chapter documents stresses to coral reefs of the Caribbean. Problems discussed
     include sedimentation, poor land management, dredging, and mill wastes. Other
     problems covered include sewage disposal in particular areas, oil pollution, thermal
     pollution, chlorinated  hydrocarbon, and heavy metal contamination.  Some
     suggestions regarding pollution control and restocking damaged reefs are presented.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Johannes, R.E., and S.B. Betzer.  1975. Introduction:  Marine communities respond
     differently to pollution in the tropics than at higher latitudes. In Tropical marine
     pollution, ed. E.J.F. Wood and R.E. Johannes, pp. 3-12.  Elsevier, New York.


2. Pollution Type:

     Thermal pollution                Sedimentation
     Toxics                           Oil  pollution
     Nutrients:  total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:   Coral reefs, mangroves,  seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:

      The wave of environmental concern, that began in temperate regions is spreading to
      the tropics.  Environmental degradation is often particularly intense in coastal areas
      where population pressure, tourism, and industrialization frequently converge.  As
      awareness of environmental problems develops, increasing numbers of public
      servants, scientists, and the general public begin casting around for solutions. But
      far less research on estuarine and coastal marine pollution has been done in the
      tropics than in temperate areas.  There has been a tendency, accordingly, to look to
      temperate-zone models for guidance.  An awareness of differences between tropical
      and temperate  marine environments is essential if we are to minimize similar
      occurrences in tropical waters.  This report discusses some of those differences,
      suggest their implications, and point out areas in which  research is needed.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Kennish, M.J.  1992.  Ecology of estuaries:  Anthropogenic effects. CRC Press, Inc.,
     Boca Raton, FL.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons, heavy metals,
     polychlorinated biphenyls

     Biological pathogens              Oil spills                 Thermal pollution
     Nutrients                         Sedimentation            Physical damage

3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


     B) Habitat:   Salt marshes, sand flats, mangroves, and seagrass beds



5. Synopsis:

     The  principal objective of this book is to examine anthropogenic effects on estuaries.
     The  volume has been designed as a text for undergraduate and graduate students as
     well as a reference for scientists conducting research on estuarine systems.
     However, administrators, managers, decision makers, and other professionals
     involved in some way with investigations of estuaries can also find value in the
     publication.  Included are citations of the major research articles and books treating
     anthropogenic effects on estuaries.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Kinsey, D.W., and P.J. Davies.  1979.  Effects of elevated nitrogen and phosphorus on
      coral reef growth. Limnol Oceanogr.  24:935-940.
2. Pollution Type:

      Nutrients: total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate and
      nitrite nitrogen
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      Long-term phosphate and nitrogen enrichment of a patch reef at One Tree Island,
      Great Barrier Reef, caused >50 percent suppression of reef calcification.  This is
      attributed primarily to the phosphate.  It is suggested that this effect is involved,
      together with algal competition and the more usually accepted depression of
      temperature, in reducing the growth  rate of reefs  adjacent to upwellings.  It is
      possible that the effect was more general during the first half of the Holocene
      transgression.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Koester, S.K.  1986. Socioeconomic and cultural role of fishing and shellfishing in the
     Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve.  Biosphere Reserve research report no. 12.
     Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
     Management Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: biotoxins
     Toxics
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
     to recreational/commercial  use


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment and fisheries
5. Synopsis:

     This report examines the place of fishing in the Virgin Islands biosphere reserve and
     the role of fishing in the economy and culture of St. John.  Relying principally on
     information provided by local fishermen, this report outlines their use of the
     biosphere reserve and their observations about it.  Specific points to be addressed
     include a description of fishermen and their methods, an examination of the
     marketing and distribution of locally caught fish, an overview of changes affecting
     fishing, and fishermen's perceptions of the ecological transformations and
     institutional constraints affecting fishing.  This report discusses fishermen's views
     and concerns within the context of the Biosphere Reserve Program, offering
     suggestions for the development of a Biosphere Reserve management strategy that
     actively encourages the  participation of these traditional resource users.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Kolehmainen, S., T. Morgan, and R. Castro.  1974. Mangrove-root communities in a
     thermally altered area in Guayanilla Bay, Puerto Rico.  In:  Thermal Ecology I., eds
     J.W. Gibbons and R.R. Sharitz, pp. 371-390.  AEC Symposium Series (CONF
     730505), Augusta, GA.
2. Pollution Type:

      Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


      B) Habitat: Mangroves
5. Synopsis:
      The species composition and biomass of sessile and free-living organisms living on
      the aerial roots of red mangroves were studied in a thermally altered area in
      Guayanilla Bay.  The thermal pollution was due to the effluent from nuclear power
      plants and other industrial activity.

      The species most resistant to thermal pollution were blue-green algae, barnacles, a
      polychaete, a sponge, crabs, a tree oyster, a mussel, and a bryozoan. Macroalgae,
      coelenterates, echinoderms, and ascidians were the least sensitive groups.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Lund, H., M. Anderson, E. Gladfelter, and M. Davis. 1986.  Trends of recreational
     boating in the British Virgin Islands: A preliminary assessment of impact from
     human activities of anchorages and development of a monitoring program for safe
     anchorages.  Biosphere Reserve research report no. 5. Prepared for the U.S.
     Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
     Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals            Physical damage
     Biological pathogens                      Oil spills


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and
     impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs, seagrass beds, harbors, and marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     Recreational boating is a significant component of the tourist industry of the U.S.
     and British Virgin Islands.  This report considers the impact of boating on the
     marine communities of the islands. The history  and growth of the boating industry
     in the BVI is are described.  An assessment was made of the direct and indirect
     impact of boating use of the proposed or existing parks of the British Virgin Islands
     and St. Croix, USVI.

     A research plan  for monitoring the effects of anchoring on  seagrass bed
     communities and on coral communities  is presented. This plan was implemented by
     the establishment of long-term monitoring stations at two sites on St. John, USVI
     (Great Lameshur and Francis Bays), and two sites  in the BVI (The Baths and
     Prickly Pear Island, North Sound).  There is a brief discussion of studies of the
     effects of anchoring on benethic communities.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Malins, D.C., M. M. Krahn, D. W. Brown, L. D. Rhodes, M. S. Meyers, B. B. McCain,
     and  S.L. Chan. 1985.  Toxic chemicals in marine sediment and biota from
     Mukeliteo, Washington: Relationships with hepatic neoplasms and other hepatic
     lesions in English sole (Parophyrus vetulus).  Journal of Nat. Cancer Inst.  74(2):
     487-494.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

      Recently, research has shown that neoplasms, particularly liver neoplasms, occur in
      bottom-dwelling fish from  areas with highly contaminated sediments.  Associations
      between toxic chemicals and fish diseases, such as neoplasia, have been studied to
      only a limited extent.  However, a multiyear study of relationships between toxic
      chemicals in sediments and diseases in bottom-dwelling fish from Puget Sound
      indicated that hepatic neoplasm (e.g., hepatocellular and cholangiocellular
      carcinomas) were mainly confined to fish from urban (highly industrialized and/or
      highly populated) areas.  The studies revealed positive correlations between liver
      neoplasms in English sole and concentration of sediment-associated AH and metals.
      Subsequent investigations showed that levels of free radical derivatives of certain
      nitrogen heterocycles in the liver were significantly higher in English sole that had
      hepatic  neoplasms and a number of other idiopathic liver lesions than in sole free of
      the lesions.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Marszalek, D.S.  1987.  Sewage and eutrophication. In Human impacts on coral reefs:
     Facts and recommendations, ed. B. Salvat, pp. 77-90. Antenne de Tahiti Museum
     E.P.H.E., Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens             Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health, impacts to ecological habitat,  and impacts to fish and
     wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment, coral reefs
5. Synopsis:

     The oceans are the repository for much of the sewage produced by coastal and
     inland inhabitants. In the United States alone, more than 30 billion liters of sewage
     effluent is discharged into the adjacent oceans each day. The extent to which the
     world's oceans can assimilate and recycle such enormous quantities of sewage is yet
     unclear.  It is clear, however, that the sewage discharged into the coastal zone in
     many instances results in degradation of the coastal environment.  Sewage pollution
     of the marine environment is frequently a consequence of urbanization of the coastal
     zone. Coral reefs along the  coasts of many lesser developed  countries are especially
     vulnerable because developing countries typically lack sewage treatment facilities
     and are experiencing rapid urbanization.

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1. Cited Reference:

  McEachern, J., and E.D. Towle.  1974.  Ecological guidelines for island development.
      Published with the assistance of the Swedish International Development Authority
      and the World Wildlife Fund. Prepared for the International Union of Conservation
      of Nature and Natural Resources, Merges, Switzerland.
2. Pollution Type:

      Toxics: hydrocarbons             Sedimentation
      Oil spills                        Physical Damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
      to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions  1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
      The paper focuses on the development and conservation problems of the generic
      "island system," based on a review of the literature and on the authors' personal
      observation of islands of Micronesia, the Arctic, and the Caribbean.  The study has
      been addressed principally to the smaller oceanic islands of the world, volcanic or
      coralline, isolated or in groups, rather than to those large island land masses which
      have been referred to as "mini-continents."  Also excluded are coastal islands lying
      immediately adjacent to continental margins. Such islands tend to be dominated by
      social and biological links with the proximal continental areas and are best viewed
      in that association as a  special category requiring different management approaches.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Morelock, J., N. Schneidermann, and W.R. Bryant.  1977.  Shelf reefs, southwestern
     Puerto Rico.  Studies in geology no. 4. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists.


2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 3-4)


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment, coral reefs, and mangroves



5. Synopsis:

     The southwest coast  of Puerto Rico has  a relatively broad insular shelf compared to
     the rest of the island. Off Parguera, the shelf is 8 to  10 km wide and has an
     average depth of 15  to 18m from near shore to the shelf break. The general
     bathymetry of the area suggests the development of karst topography on Cretaceous
     limestones when the  shelf was exposed to subaerial erosion during the Wisconsin
     glacial epoch. There is a thin sediment  cover over this surface, and  minor alteration
     of the original topography by reef growth.

     Reefs on the shelf are aligned approximately east-west and divide the shelf into
     distinct sedimentary  provinces, which are reef-dominated.  The energy, wave
     patterns, bathymetry, and sediment transportation are  unique in each province.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Morelock, J., K. Boulon, and G. Caller.  1979.  Sediment stress and coral reefs.
     pp. 46-58.  In Proceedings of the symposium on Energy, Industry, and the Marine
     Environment in Guayanilla Bay, ed. J.M. Lopez. CEER-UPR, Mayaguez, PR.
2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                    Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      Geological studies were started at Guayanilla Bay in October 1978 to study the
      response of the coral reef system to sediment stress, and to map the sediment facies
      of the bay.

      Ten coral reef study stations have been established.  The data from these form the
      basis of this paper. Sediment input is being measured by sediment trap collection,
      suspended sediment, and Secchi readings.  The ecology of the reef is examined by
      diver transects with notes and by measurement from photo-transect mosaics.

      Corals are limited by physical factors in the environment, but often exist in areas
      where conditions are close to the limit.  The reef is  a sensitive indicator of
      environmental stresses  because of its response to the stresses.  Beyond this, the reef
      can give us  a look in time at former baseline conditions where we do not have data
      in an area before development has  occurred.  As the environment degrades, mobile
      organisms leave or die and are buried, but the coral is frozen in  place as a
      permanent record. The presence of a dead reef complex implies that a specific
      range of conditions once existed or the reef would not have developed.  The coral
      can be dated and individual corals  studied to determine when changes occurred that
      caused the death of the reef.

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1. Cited Reference:

  NOAA. 1988. Caribbean marine resources: Opportunities for economic development
     and management.  U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and
     Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Washington, DC.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls             Sedimentation
     Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
     to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:   Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and lagoons



5. Synopsis:

     Opportunities for improved economic development and management of Caribbean
     marine resources are reviewed. Separate chapters are devoted to nearshore marine
     habitats, fisheries and mariculture, and geological and nonliving marine resources.
     Any sustained improvement depends on indigenous human and institutional
     resources.  Coastal erosion and lack of adequate planning  for resource management
     and economic development are problems affecting all marine resource sectors.
     Development and management are similarly constrained by the lack of adequate
     information on the location, extent, and quality of available resources.

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1. Cited Reference:

  NOAA.  1991.  Our living oceans:  The first annual report on the status of U.S. living
     marine resources.  NOAA Technical Memo NMFS-F/SPO-1.  U.S. Department of
     Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. November.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: biotoxins, bacterial
     Physical damage


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
     to recreational/commercial use, and impacts to human health
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


      B) Habitat:  Fisheries and marine environment



5. Synopsis:

      This report is the most comprehensive status review of U.S. marine living resources
      ever made.  It provides the available scientific information on the health and
      abundance of important marine populations based on the latest assessments available
      in mid-1991. It addresses most marine and anadromous  species  having commercial,
      recreational, and ecological significance.  Besides fmfish and shellfish, it includes
      marine mammals, sea turtles, and corals under purview of the U.S. Department of
      Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

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1. Cited Reference:

  Olsen, D. 1979.  Socio-economic survey of recreational boating and fishing in the
      U.S. Virgin Islands.  Prepared under contract for the U.S. National Marine Fisheries
      Service.


2. Pollution Type:

      Not applicable
3. Impairment Type:

     Impairments to recreational/commercial use



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S.  Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Fisheries



5. Synopsis:

     The passage of the so-called "200 mile limit law" (PL-94-265) in 1976 created
     regional fishery management councils, which were mandated to develop plans for
     the management of the fisheries within their respective jurisdictions.  Development
     of these plans, which were to be based upon "best available information," led to the
     identification of critical gaps in the  data base.  In the region under the Caribbean
     Regional Fisheries Management Council, it became apparent that there was very
     little extant information about the fishermen, catch, or economic characteristics  of
     the recreational sector.  Since early  information developed in association with
     management plans for the spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and the reef fish  fisheries
     indicated that the commercial sector was harvesting nearly the full maximum
     sustainable  yield (MSY) level, this information became crucial in identifying
     overfishing and, therefore, some sort of allocation formulation would have to be
     developed.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Pagan, F.A. and H.M. Austin. (1970). Report on a fish kill at Laguna Joyuda, western
     Puerto Rico, in the summer, 1967.  Carib. J. Sci.  10 (3-4).  Sept.-Dec., 1970.
2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients: dissolved oxygen       Thermal pollution
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impairments to recreational/commercial
      use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


      B) Habitat:  Fisheries, harbors, marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      On June 8,  1967, the investigation of a fish kill, which apparently began in the
      morning of June 7, was initiated. The investigation was terminated on June 16,
      1967.  The  combination of a severe drought and increased temperature (about 35°C),
      rate of evaporation, and salinity and deoxygenated waters were responsible for the
      kill. Several species  of fish, the blue crab, and one species of peneid  shrimp were
      mainly affected by the changes leading to the kill.

      The effects  of the 1967 kill are compared with those of the kill that occurred in
      1963.

      At least  80  families from the fishing town of Joyuda were affected as  a result of the
      kill. A comprehensive study of the biotic and abiotic factors of the lagoon is
      proposed.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Reid, R.  1981.  Environment and public health in the Caribbean. Ambio 10(6):
     312-317.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: infectious diseases
     Toxics: pesticides


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health and impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

     Though the Caribbean is a tourist attraction, health conditions related to
     environmental factors, reflect the socioeconomic development in the respective
     countries. The large disparities in wealth, size, and culture between the countries of
     the Caribbean make comparison somewhat difficult.  Water resources also present
     extreme variations.

     Health is an important consideration in the region, and great emphasis is placed on
     such environmental services as water supplies, sewage, and solid waste disposal.
     There is also a  growing awareness of pollution control and occupational health
     needs.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Reimold, R.J., 1975a. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides and mercury in coastal
     biota, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands  1972-1974.  EPA-68-02-1254. U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
2. Pollution Type:

      Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons
      Biological pathogens: biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment and fisheries
 5. Synopsis:
      Baseline levels of mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbons were determined for
      Caribbean coastal biota as part of the USEPA estuarine monitoring program.  Forty-
      one percent of the 150 environmental samples taken had significant levels of these
      compounds.

      Concentrations of chlorinated hyrocarbons suggest spatial and temporal variations
      within the plant or animal. In some cases residues in biota could be related to the
      land-use practices in the sampled watershed.

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1. Cited Reference:

   Research Planning Institute, Inc., 1980.  Biological changes of mangrove and sand
     beach communities at the Peck  Slip oil spill site, eastern Puerto Rico.  Prepared for
     the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Marine Pollution
     Assessment.


2. Pollution Type:

     Oil spills
     Toxics


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitats
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 2)


     B) Habitat:   Mangroves and beaches



5. Synopsis:

     The barge  Peck Slip ran aground on 19 December 1978 off Cabo San Juan in the
     northeastern comer of Puerto Rico.  After grounding and while being towed back to
     Port Yabucoa, a total of 440,000-460,000 gallons of medium-grade distillate were
     released.  Various quantities of oil washed onto 26 km of shoreline.  Scientific and
     advisory personnel from federal and Puerto Rican  agencies responded rapidly to  the
     situation. This report concerns follow-up studies of the impacted coastline
     undertaken during 30 March to 4 April and 29 to 30 October 1979, 4 months and 10
     months after the spill.  A detailed literature survey of oil effects on mangroves is
     included in order to place the overall impact  of this spill in perspective.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rodriguez, A., 1981.  Marine and coastal environmental stress in the wider Caribbean
     region.  Ambio Vol. 10: 283-294.
2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                          Biological pathogens      Thermal Pollution
     Nutrients                        Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions  1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:   Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      The Caribbean Sea is not as polluted as the Mediterranean or the Baltic, but
      accelerating coastal pollution around urban and industrial areas is causing increasing
      stress to the coastal and marine resources of the region. The author presents an
      overview of the environmental problems afflicting the Wider Caribbean.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S.  1988.  Damage to coral reefs in Virgin Islands National Park and
     Biosphere Reserve from recreational activities. Proc. 6th Int. Coral Reef Symp.
     2:405-410.
2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage
     Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Coral reefs, seagrass beds, and fisheries



5. Synopsis:

     Throughout the Caribbean, tourism and coastal development are exerting severe
     pressure on the natural resources of many  islands and countries.  More and more
     tourists are visiting parks and protected areas in the region. The purpose of this
     study in Virgin Islands National Park and  Biosphere Reserve on St. John, U.S.
     Virgin Islands, was to assess degradation of the coral reefs from recreational
     activities.

     This study focused primarily on evaluating the environmental damage associated
     with boating and snorkeling. It was  one of several Virgin Islands Resource
     Management Cooperative (VIRMC) projects conducted between 1984 and  1987
     designed to provide the information necessary to manage the coral reefs, seagrass
     beds, and fisheries of St. John.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S.  1990.  Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation.
      Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.  62:185-202.


2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves



5. Synopsis:

      Unprecedented development along tropical shorelines is causing severe degradation
      of coral reefs primarily from increases in sedimentation.  Sediment particles smother
      reef organisms and reduce light available for photosynthesis.  Excessive
      sedimentation can adversely affect the structure and function  of the coral reef
      ecosystem by altering both physical and biological processes.  Currently, we are
      unable  to rigorously predict the responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to
      excessive sedimentation from coastal  development and other sources.  Given
      information on the amount of sediment that will be introduced into the reef
      environment, the coral community composition, the depth of the reef, the percent
      coral cover, and the current patterns, we  should be able to predict the consequences
      of a particular activity.  Models of physical processes (e.g. sediment  transport) must
      be complemented with better understanding of organism and ecosystem responses to
      sediment stress.  Specifically, we need data on the threshold levels for  reef
      organisms  and for the reef ecosystem as  a whole—the  levels  above which
      sedimentation has lethal effects for particular species and above which  normal
      functioning of the reef ceases.  Additional field studies on the responses of reef
      organisms  to both terrigenous and calcium carbonate sediments are necessary.  To
      effectively assess trends on coral  reefs, e.g., changes in abundance and spatial
      arrangement of dominant benthic organisms, scientists  must start using standardized
      monitoring methods.  Long-term data sets are critical for tracking these complex
      ecosystems.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S., and R. Teytaud.  1988. Marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the Virgin
     Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve.  Biosphere Reserve research report
     no. 9.  Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands
     Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

     Sedimentation                   Physical damage
     Toxics                          Oil spills
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands
     B) Habitat:   Marine environment, terrestrial environment, coral reefs,
              seagrass beds, and mangroves
5. Synopsis:

     This synthesis/summary document has many objectives: (1) to present research that
     has been carried out by VIRMC and other investigators in Virgin Islands National
     Park as well as the extent of our knowledge of the marine and terrestrial ecosystems
     within this protected area; (2) to identify areas where future research is required;
     (3) to synthesize information from selected documents with implications for research
     and resource management within the Caribbean and specifically within VINP/BR;
     (4) to present management recommendations for ecosystems within VINP and the
     wider Caribbean; and (5) to provide a basis for making the VIBR more effective in
     linking conservation and development (UNESCO Action Plan for Biosphere
     Reserves 1984).

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S., and E.S. Zullo.  1987. Initiation of a long-term monitoring program for
     coral reefs in the Virgin Islands National Park.  Virgin Islands Resource
     Management Cooperative (VIRMC), Biosphere Reserve research report no. 17.
     Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource
     Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

      Sedimentation
      Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      A long-term monitoring program was initiated for the coral reefs of the Virgin
      Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve in recognition of the need for
      quantitative baseline data to provide information for resource assessment  and
      effective management.  Major stresses to the reefs in the park include terrigenous
      runoff, storm damage, and boat damage.

      Transects were established on reefs in Reef, Fish,  and Hawksnest Bays.  During the
      study period, the most conspicuous damage to St.  John's reefs resulted from heavy
      seas associated with Tropical Storm Klaus in November 1984.  The storm resulted
      in a statistically significant decrease in the mean percent of live coral cover (from
      26 to 21), an increase in diversity and evenness, and a slight  decrease in  spatial
      index at the Fish Bay site. The percent cover by the dominant  coral Agaricia
      agaricites decreased significantly from 17 to 11. At Reef and Hawksnest Bays (for
      which there are only post-storm data), mean percent coral cover was 20 and 26,
      respectively.  Monitoring of changes in the amount of living  coral cover  and  other
      parameters along the transects on reefs in these three bays will  allow assessment of
      future damage from turbidity and other stresses.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S., L. McLain, and E.S. Zullo.  1988.  Recreational uses of marine resources
     in the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve:  Trends and
     consequences.  Biosphere Reserve research report no. 24.  Prepared for the U.S.
     Department of the Interior and the Virgin Islands Resource Management
     Cooperative.


2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs and seagrass beds



5. Synopsis:

     Recreational uses of the waters and beaches of Virgin Islands National Park and
     Biosphere Reserve on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, have increased dramatically in
     the last 10 years. Recreational  visits to the park have risen from less than 100,000
     prior to 1967 to over 750,000 in 1986. Annual visitation to Trunk Bay beach, the
     most heavily used beach in the  park, has risen from less than  20,000 people in  1966
     to almost 170,000 in 1986.  The average number of boats per day in park waters
     increased from  less than 10  in 1966 to about 80 in 1986.

     One consequence has been the degradation of the park's marine resources,
     particularly some of the coral reefs and seagrass beds along the north shore of the
     island, which receives the heaviest use.  Anchor damage and damage from boats
     striking or grounding on reefs is evident.   Seagrass beds in popular bays have
     deteriorated.

     Based on field work and examination  of National Park Service (NPS) records, this
     report documents some of the trends and consequences of increased  recreational uses
     of the park's resources and some recent efforts to protect them. Its  purpose is to
     provide a basis  for future management actions designed to balance increased
     visitation with protection of fragile marine resources.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Rogers, C.S., L.N. McLain, and C.R. Tobias.  1991.  Effects of Hurricane Hugo (1989)
     on a coral reef in St. John, USVI.  Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Vol. 78:189-199.
2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage—Hurricane Hugo
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone: St. John, USVI


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment—coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      In January 1989, a long-term study was designed to record data on the amount of
      coral cover in the area before and after a powerful storm.  Analysis of data collected
      after Hurricane Hugo showed that the total living cover decreased significantly. A
      survey of the coral community 12 months later shows no measurable recovery of the
      live corals.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Stoner, A.W. and C. Goenaga. 1987.  Benthic survey of the San Juan Harbor, Puerto
     Rico.  Final report to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Grant No. X-
     81348-01-0.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Oil spills
     Toxics: heavy metals            Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 1)


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and harbors
5. Synopsis:
     This report addresses two topics related to animal populations and communities in
     the San Juan Harbor, Puerto Rico:  (1) a literature review on benthic invertebrate
     and fish faunas of the San Juan marine environment and (2) a systematic collection
     and quantitative survey of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna at 16 stations selected by
     the USEPA within the San Juan Harbor and two of its channels.

     This report is part of a Region II before-and-after study of environmentally stressed
     San Juan Harbor, conducted under the directive of the Clean Water Act (section
     104(b) - Grants/Cooperative Agreements to Improve Water Quality and Pretreatment
     Enforcement).  Recently, the discharge from the Puerto Nuevo  Sewage Treatment
     Plant was diverted from the San Juan Harbor to an ocean outfall via the Bayamon
     Sewage Treatment Plant. In September 1985, USEPA personnel made studies of
     water column chemistry and sediment quality in the Harbor.  Studies of benthic
     macroinvertebrate faunas, reported here, were conducted to help provide an
     understanding of the marine system's recovery after having been subjected to many
     years of poorly treated discharges of heavy metals and other pollutants.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1981.  Technical evaluation of Guayama regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for  discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  207 pp.
2. Pollution Type:

      Nutrients                       Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)

      B) Habitat: Marine environment
 5. Synopsis:
      This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
      of secondary treatment requirements for the Guayama Regional Wastewater
      Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency
      (PRASA). The proposed regional plant would eliminate an existing riverine
      discharge and marine discharge of treated effluent (from Patillas and Salinas,
      respectively) and two marine discharges of untreated sewage (from Guayama and
      Arroyo).  The proposed outfall will extend about 1,100 m offshore from Punta Ola
      Grande and discharge in about 14 m of water.

      The coastal waters in the vicinity of the proposed discharge are subject to
      considerable silt loading from the Rio Guamani.  According to the applicant,
      however, there was "no indication of significant levels of industrial or domestic
      levels of pollution...."

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1985a. Technical review of the Mayaguez regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  142 pp.


2. Pollution  Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 2)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document is a technical evaluation of the revised application of the City of
     Mayaguez (along with several other nearby communities) for a modification of
     secondary treatment requirements for the Mayaguez Regional Wastewater Treatment
     plant.  This plant was to service an area that included the municipalities of
     Mayaguez, Anasco, Hormigueros, and a portion of Cabo Rojo.  As of 1979, the
     level of treatment varied from secondary at Anasco to none at Mayaguez.  The
     Mayaguez raw sewage was discharged into Mayaguez Bay through a 926-m outfall
     in 7 m of water. There is some evidence of stress possibly attributable to this
     discharge. The new outfall is 1,914 m and will discharge  in  11 m of water. The
     applicant asserted that the proposed discharge  is not to stressed waters, although
     there may be some stress to nearby coral reefs attributable to turbid river discharges.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1985b.  Technical review of the St. Croix wastewater treatment plant
     (St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands) section 301(h) application for modification of
     secondary treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters. Prepared for
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  104 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  St. Croix, U.S.  Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat: Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
     modification of secondary treatment requirements for the St. Croix Wastewater
     Treatment Plant.  The original application included provisions for inclusion of
     distillery wastewater from Virgin Islands Rum Industries Limited (VIRIL).  This
     application was tentatively denied due to potential violations of U.S. Virgin Islands
     water quality standards for dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and color and because it
     would adversely  impact the ecosystem, notably the local coral reefs and seagrass
     beds.  The revised  application no longer includes the VIRIL wastewater with the
     applicant's  effluent discharge.  It is based on intended outfall repairs that would
     divert effluent discharge from the present break in the outfall pipe to the diffuser.
     The diffuser is located in approximately  10 m of water, 1,524 m from shore.  There
     are no planned alterations in the current  treatment process.

     There is evidence that the coral reefs in the vicinity of the discharge have been
     stressed by the "industrial complex upwind  of the discharge."  Dredging and filling
     have been noted  as the most significant cause of this degradation, although ship
     traffic, which can cause periodic resuspension and deposition of bottom sediments,
     may also be important.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1985c.  Technical review of the Charlotte Amalie wastewater treatment
     plant (St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands) section 301(h) application for modification
     of secondary treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech,  Inc., Bellevue, WA.  Ill  pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                         Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to  ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical  review of the revised application for a
     modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Charlotte Amalie
     Wastewater Treatment Plant.  The  applicant proposes to add screening and settling
     processes to the present wastewater treatment facility. There are no known
     industrial sources to the treatment plant.  The outfall discharges in 21 m of water,
     approximately 371 m from shore.

     Coral reefs in the vicinity of the discharge are subject to significant stress due  to
     turbidity plumes from the airport construction site, barge traffic, and turbidity and
     siltation originating in Charlotte Amalie Harbor and Crown Bay.

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1. Cited Reference:

 Tetra Tech.  1986a.  Technical review of the Bayamon regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  147 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                       Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 1)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
     of secondary treatment requirements for the combined effluent from the Bayamon
     Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Puerto Nuevo Wastewater Treatment
     Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency (PRASA).
     Currently, effluent from a Bacardi distillery is combined with Bayamon and Puerto
     Nuevo effluent prior to ocean discharge. At the time of the original application
     (1985), the level of treatment in the region varied from secondary in some, small
     communities and primary at Puerto Nuevo, to none in some of the outlying
     communities.  Prior to construction of the combined ocean outfall, the Puerto Nuevo
     Wastewater Treatment Plant discharged its effluent to  the Bahia de San Juan and the
     Bacardi distillery discharged its effluent to the nearshore waters of Ensenada de
     Boca Vieja.  The diffuser is located in approximately 41 m of water and is
     approximately 1,097 m from the nearest shore.

     There is  presently no evidence of stress from other pollutant sources among the
     biological communities in the vicinity of the combined ocean  outfall.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1986b.  Technical review of the Arecibo regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  135 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
     modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Arecibo Regional
     Wastewater Treatment  Plant  submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
     Agency (PRASA).  The service area for the revised application includes the
     municipality of Arecibo together with the smaller communities of Islote, Hato
     Abajo, Dominquito, Domingo Ruiz, Santana, and Arenalejos.  The construction of
     the treatment plant, ocean outfall, and diffuser is complete, although the plant is not
     operational. The diffuser is located in 21-26 m of water and begins  approximately
     855 m from shore.

     According to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
     vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
     measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech. 1986c.  Technical review of the Carolina regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental  Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  108 pp.
2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 1)

      B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      This document is a technical evaluation of the application for a modification of
      secondary treatment requirements for the Carolina Regional Wastewater Treatment
      Plant.  The  wastewater in the area to be served by the Carolina Regional Wastewater
      Treatment Plant is presently treated in  13 existing facilities employing various
      treatment processes ranging from the use of an Imhoff tank through secondary
      treatment. All but one of these facilities presently discharge into rivers or other
      freshwater bodies.  The new outfall is  1,939 m in length and discharges in 29-31 m
      of water. According to the applicant, the receiving waters in the vicinity of the
      existing  Puerto Nuevo, which discharge into Bahia de San Juan, are in an advanced
      state of degradation. These waters are exposed to environmental stresses due to
      oceanographic processes (mainly high waves).  There is no evidence of adverse
      effects of anthropogenic  pollutant inputs.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1987a.  Technical review of the Dorado regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue,  WA.  158 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Region 1)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the application for a modification
     of secondary treatment requirements for the Dorado Regional Wastewater Treatment
     Plant submitted by the  Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Agency (PRASA).  The
     service area for the proposed  facility  includes the municipalities of Dorado, Toa
     Alta, Toa Baja, Vega Alta, and Vega Baja.  Construction of the facility had not
     begun as of August 1985. The proposed outfall is expected to  extend approximately
     500 m from the shoreline to the junction of the Y diffuser, which will discharge at a
     depth of approximately 30 m.

     According to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
     vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
     measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading.  The available evidence is
     not sufficiently comprehensive to verify the applicant's  statement.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1987b.  Technical review of the Humacao regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico)  section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech,  Inc., Bellevue, WA.  151 pp.
2. Pollution Type:

      Nutrients                        Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 2)

      B) Habitat:  Marine environment
 5. Synopsis:
      This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
      modification of secondary treatment requirements  for the Humacao Regional
      Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
      Agency (PRASA).  Two different tentative denials were issued in 1984.  A revised
      application was prepared in  1985.  The service area for the revised application
      includes the municipalities of Humacao, Naguabo, and a major part of Las Piedras.
      At the time of the original application (1979), wastewater from Humacao and Las
      Piedras was treated with Imhoff tanks, and wastewater from Naguabo was treated
      with a septic tank.  The existing wastewater treatment plants serving these
      municipalities would be closed once the regional facility is operational.
      Construction on this plant has not begun.  The proposed outfall would be 3,500 m in
      length and discharge in approximately  11 m of water.

      According to the applicant, the waters in the proposed discharge area are "in
      general, not stressed by high organic or toxic load." There is reason to suspect that
      suspended solids  transported to the ocean by Rio Humacao may be stressing coral
      reefs in the local area.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1987c.  Technical review of the Fajardo regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) revised section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.   158 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to  ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 2)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application  for a
     modification of secondary treatment requirements for the proposed Fajardo Regional
     Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
     Agency (PRASA).  The service area for the proposed plant includes  the
     municipalities of Fajardo, Ceiba, Luquillo, and part of Rio Grande.  The  existing
     wastewater treatment plants serving these municipalities would be closed once the
     regional facility  is operational.  Effluent would be discharged through a multiport
     diffuser, at a depth of approximately 20 m, into the Atlantic Ocean near  the western
     end of San Juan Passage.  The proposed diffuser would be located approximately
     2,200 m from the nearest shore.

     According  to the applicant, predischarge conditions in the proposed discharge
     vicinity include a balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no
     measurable stress due to high organics or toxics loading.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech. 1987d.  Technical review of the Guayanilla regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301(h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency. Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  157 pp.
2. Pollution Type:

      Nutrients                        Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)

      B) Habitat: Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
      modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Guayanilla Regional
      Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
      Agency (PRASA).  This facility was to serve an area that included the
      municipalities of Guayanilla, Guanica, Yauco, and Penuelas.  At the time  of the
      original application (1979), Guanica, Guayanilla, and Yauco were served by
      individual trickling filter plants discharging to the Bahia de Guanica, the Bahia de
      Guayanilla, and the Rio Yauco, respectively.  Penuelas was served by an Imhoff
      tank that  discharged to the Rio Tallaboa.  The existing wastewater treatment plants
      serving these municipalities  would be closed once the regional facility is operational.
      Construction on this plant has not begun.  The proposed marine outfall  would extend
      1,215 m from Punta Ventana and discharge to Punta Ventana Submarine Canyon at
      a depth of approximately 27 m.

      According to the  applicant, the waters in the proposed vicinity of  the diffuser are
      "not measurably stressed by unusually high organic or toxic loads."  However, coral
      reefs adjacent to the submarine canyon are presently stressed by natural processes,
      anthropogenic disturbances, and pollutants discharged from the Bahia de Guayanilla
      and the Bahia de  Tallaboa.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1987e. Technical review of the Aguadilla regional wastewater treatment
     plant (Puerto Rico) section 301 (h) application for modification of secondary
     treatment requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared  for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  172 pp.


2. Pollution  Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 4)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the revised application for a
     modification of secondary treatment requirements for the Aguadilla Regional
     Wastewater Treatment Plant submitted by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer
     Agency (PR AS A). This plant was to service an area that included the municipalities
     of Aguadilla, Aguada, Moca, and Rincon. At the time of the original application
     (1979), the level of treatment varied from secondary at Moca to none at Aguadilla.
     The  Aguadilla raw sewage was discharged into the Bahia de Aguadilla through
     several outfalls that extended into the bay.  Construction of the Aguadilla Regional
     Wastewater Treatment Plant outfall and diffuser is complete.  The diffuser lies
     approximately 750 m offshore at  a water depth of approximately 16 m.

     According to the applicant, conditions in the proposed discharge vicinity include a
     balanced indigenous population of marine organisms and no measurable stress  due
     to high organics or toxics loading.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tetra Tech.  1990.  Technical review of the Ponce regional wastewater treatment plant
     (Puerto Rico)  section 301(h) application for modification of secondary treatment
     requirements for discharge into marine waters.  Prepared for U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency.  Tetra Tech, Inc., Bellevue, WA.  138 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)

     B) Habitat:  Marine environment


5. Synopsis:

     This document summarizes a technical review of the  1989 Information Supplement
     for a modification of secondary treatment requirements  for the Ponce Regional
     Wastewater Treatment  Plant submitted by the Puerto  Rico Aqueduct and  Sewer
     Agency (PRASA).  The original and revised applications both received tentative
     denials from U.S. EPA.  The Information Supplement consists of the Ponce Outfall
     Extension Feasibility Study, which evaluates the environmental acceptability of
     extending the outfall to deeper water.  The service area for the information
     supplement consists of the municipalities of Ponce, Juana Diaz, and Villalba,
     including nearby rural areas and industrial centers.  The proposed outfall  extension
     would extend 4,005 m  from the shore and discharge in  105-120 m of water.

     The proposed discharge site is located outside Bahia de Ponce, although the existing
     discharge site is within this bay. Information submitted by the applicant  indicates
     that the waters of Bahia de Ponce are  stressed by sedimentation from multiple
     sources.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tosteson, T.R.  1990.  Ciguatera in the northeastern Caribbean. Prepared for the
     Department of Marine Sciences, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico.  Dato Marino, no 7.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: ciguatera
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health and impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     An estimated 20,000-30,000 cases of ciguatera are reported annually in Puerto Rico
     and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Besides a host of gastrointestinal problems, ciguatera
     causes severe  itching, tingling in the extremities, temperature sensory reversal and
     various other neurological symptoms, which range widely among ciguatera victims,
     and may persist for months. Worst of all, the symptoms, once cleared up, may
     recur with alcohol consumption, ingestion of nontoxic fish, and stress.  Little is
     known about about the cause of ciguatera, and medical treatment is symptomatic; no
     antidote is known.

     Ciguatera adversely affects the fisheries industry of the Caribbean Basin.  A recent
     Puerto Rican Supreme Court ruling clears restaurants of liability for serving
     ciguatoxic fish since there is no way of detecting the presence of the toxin. The
     general population of Puerto Rico has been alerted by the Department of Natural
     Resources as to the  risks involved in  eating certain reef-dwelling fishes, frequently
     reported to be poisonous.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Tosteson, T.R., D.L. Ballantine, and H.D. Durst.  1988. Seasonal frequency of
     ciguatoxic barracuda in southwest Puerto Rico.  Toxicom. 26(9):795-801.
2. Pollution Type:

      Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impairments
      to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region 3)


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment, fisheries
5. Synopsis:
      Ciguatoxicity of barracuda head, viscera, and flesh tissues was determined in 219
      specimens caught along the southwest coast of Puerto Rico from March 1985
      through May 1987.  Twenty-nine percent of these specimens were toxic. Monthly
      frequencies of ciguatoxic  barracuda showed an apparent seasonal  variability, with
      peak values in the late winter-early spring and  fall.  Minimal frequencies were
      observed  during June-July and December.  The most frequently toxic tissues in
      poisonous animals were the head and viscera.   Viscera tissue was the only toxic
      tissue found in 31 percent of the poisonous fish assayed, and this tissue was
      poisonous in all toxic fish.  In no case was a poisonous specimen found to have
      toxic flesh alone.  Marked temporal variation in frequency of ciguatoxicity suggests
      that ciguatera toxins, at least in their active form, are not accumulated in barracuda
      tissues for extended periods of time.  Variability in barracuda ciguatoxicity may
      reflect fluctuations in the  toxicity of smaller reef  fish prey, seasonal fluctuations in
      toxic benthic dinoflagellates, and/or changes in the ability of the barracuda to
      detoxify ingested poisons or their precursors.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Towle, E., et al. 1978.  Report on sea turtle nesting, sighting, eggs and hatchlings for
     1978 in the  U.S. Virgin Islands, and a recommended research methodology for
     dealing with hatchling disorientation on the beach.  Prepared for the U.S. National
     Marine Fisheries Service.


2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations and impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment and beaches



5. Synopsis:

     Information regarding the mortality of hatching sea turtles is crucial to any proposed
     management program, yet it is not available for any population in the Virgin Islands.
     There is some evidence that at Sandy Point a significant number of leatherback
     hatchlings may fail to locate the sea after emerging from the nest and die on the
     beach, either by predation or as a result of dessication.

     In all cases studied, sea-finding orientation  seems to depend on the fact that there is
     nearly always  a massive brightness differential between the seaward and landward
     horizons under natural conditions, with the  seaward horizon being the brighter.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Towle, E.L., McElroy, I, and A.R. Teytaud.  1982.  Island resource management, the
     Virgin Islands experience.  A planning study for a Workshop on Environmental
     Assessment, Resource Allocation, Carrying Capacity, Growth Management, and
     Enhancing Information Transfer for Decision-Making in Smaller Islands.  Prepared
     for the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program,
     MAB 7B Directorate.
2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable



3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: U.S. Virgin Islands


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

     At a 1979 conference on "Environmental Management and Economic Growth in the
     Smaller Caribbean Islands," held at the Wildey headquarters of the Caribbean
     Development Bank, Barbados, under the primary sponsorship of the U.S., Man and
     the Biosphere Program and with U.S./AID, UNESCO, UNEP/ECLA, Caribbean
     Development Bank and United Nations cosponsorship, the availability of practical,
     appropriate, and up-to-date "guidelines for island resource management" surfaced
     repeatedly. It was acknowledged that some island areas are more advanced than
     others in this arcane art and that all smaller islands are ill-served by standard,
     continentally  derived, and too often inappropriate resource management approaches,
     planning models, and resource assessment/allocation/development and conservation
     strategies.

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1. Cited Reference:

  UNEP.  1989. Regional overview of environmental problems and priorities affecting
     the coastal and marine resources of the wider Caribbean.  CEP Technical Report
     No.2.  United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment
     Programme, Kingston.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: bacterial, infectious diseases            Oil spills
     Toxics: hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals               Nutrients
                                                               Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impairments
     to recreational/commercial use, impacts to human health, and physical damage
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands
      B) Habitat:   Marine environment, terrestrial environment, mangroves,
         wetlands, coastal forests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds
5. Synopsis:

     The overview focuses primarily on the problems affecting coastal and marine
     resources of the Wider Caribbean region. This focus, however, is not narrowly
     defined.  The region's environmental well-being is strongly linked not only to social,
     cultural and political conditions, but also to economic realities and financial
     constraints prevailing in most of the States and territories of the region.  The
     overview, therefore, recognizes and emphasizes various interrelationships between
     the environment and socioeconomic development with respect to the coastal and
     marine resources of the region.

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1. Cited Reference:

  UNEP.  199 la.  Background document for the development of a protocol concerning
     land-based sources of marine pollution to the Cartagena Convention for the
     protection and development of the marine environment of the Wider Caribbean
     region.  United Nations Environment Programme (OCA), Vol. 5, April  15.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides, hydrocarbons           Physical damage
     Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, impacts to fish and wildlife
     populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

     This document was prepared by the Regional Co-ordination Unit of the Caribbean
     Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP/RCU) as a contribution to the initiative of the
     Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea (ACOPS) for a global legal
     framework for the regulation of land-based sources of marine pollution.  This
     initiative was undertaken by ACOPS as part of the process leading to the United
     National Conference on Environment and Development UNCED-ECO92, Rio de
     Janeiro, 1-12 June 1992. By the time of the UNCED Conference, a revised version
     of this document was to have been prepared with the relevant updated information.

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1. Cited Reference:

  UNEP.  199Ib.  Report of the CEPPOL Regional Workshop on Coastal Water Quality
     Criteria and Effluent Guidelines for the Wider Caribbean, San Juan, Puerto Rico,
     5-15 November 1990.  Convened in co-operation with the United States
     Environmental Protection Agency.  CEP Technical Report No. 8.  United Nations
     Environment Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics
     Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to human health, and impacts to fish and
     wildlife populations
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     This document reports on the results of the Workshop on "Coastal Water Quality
     Criteria and Effluent Guidelines for the Caribbean" that took place in San Juan,
     Puerto Rico, 5-15 November 1990 as part of the activities of the CEPPOL
     Programme.

     The workshop was  convened by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
     (IOC) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP-CAR/RCU) with the
     collaboration  of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which provided
     the necessary funding and assistance for the preparation of the event.

     The main purpose of the workshop was to consider a set  of scientifically based
     environmental quality criteria suitable for the coastal environment of the Wider
     Caribbean Region.  At present diverse environmental quality criteria are in use
     within the region.  Most of them are not based on sound  scientific rationale, and
     some may not be appropriate for the tropical conditions of the region.

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1. Cited Reference:

  UNEP.  199 Ic.  Report on CEPPOL seminar on monitoring and control of sanitary
     quality of bathing and shellfish-growing marine waters in the wider Caribbean.
     CEP Technical Report No. 9.  United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
     Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, 1991.
2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens: bacterial, viral, parasitic, infectious diseases, biotoxins
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
      to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5) and the U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment and fisheries
5. Synopsis:
      The main objectives of the seminar were the following: (1) to review the present
      coastal water pollution by sewage; (2) to examine present monitoring practices of
      the area; (3) to analyze the environmental quality criteria and determine their
      adequacy to safeguard public health; (4) to recommend measures needed to improve
      the contamination of coastal waters; and (5) to formulate a monitoring and research
      program leading to  the development of environmental quality criteria suitable for the
      region and on which a rational public health protection strategy could be based.

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1. Cited Reference:

  UNEP.  199Id. The transboundary movement of hazardous and nuclear wastes in the
     Wider Caribbean Region   A call for a legal instrument within the Cartagena
     Convention. Edited by Jim Puckett and Sergio Lopez Ayllon.  CEP Technical
     Report No. 7.  United Nations Programme (UNEP) Caribbean Environment
     Programme, Kingston.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: heavy metals, dioxins, and furans
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to human health



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Wider Caribbean


     B) Habitat:  Terrestrial environment



5. Synopsis:

     Bordered to the north by the world's largest hazardous waste-producing nation, the
     United States, the Wider Caribbean Region lies on the front lines of the international
     trade in toxic wastes.  Almost every country in the Caribbean region has been
     targeted as  a waste dumpsite by waste brokers operating from the United States, and
     these nations  are under increasing pressure to accept the wastes. In fact, during
     1990 alone, information became available on at least 21  deals to import a wide
     range of waste into the Wider Caribbean countries. Unfortunately, it appears that
     the number of offers will continue to increase.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA.  1974.  Effect of San Juan's outfall discharges on bathing beach water
     quality.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Surveillance and Analysis Division,
     Region 2, New York, New York.  July 1974.
2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens              Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to human health and impairments to recreational/commercial use
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region  1)


      B) Habitat:  Beaches, marine environment, fisheries
5. Synopsis:
      The Surveillance and Analysis Division, Region 2, New York, in cooperation with
      the Environmental Quality Board, Puerto Rico, conducted an extensive investigation
      of the ambient water quality associated with the beaches  of San Juan, Puerto Rico.
      The program, which involved several semidiurnal investigations and special outfall
      studies, was conducted between  March 9 and 13, 1974.  Total and fecal coliform
      measurements were used as bacterial indicators of potential health hazards associated
      with the use of these beaches for bathing and/or other water contact recreation.

      Data gathered indicated areas of degraded ambient water quality in association with
      intermittent and continuous outfall discharges.  The ambiguity in water quality can
      be correlated with several variables: the intermittent nature of a number of the
      outfall discharges: the proximity of sampling stations to the  outfalls:  shore currents:
      and time of day or night.  Based on the technical information gathered during this
      study, it was recommended that  a significant portion of the beach area be closed
      immediately to bathing and contact recreation and that immediate remedial action be
      taken to alleviate both the short- and long-term problems caused by the  outfall
      discharges.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA. 1983.  Ecological impacts of sewage discharges on coral reef communities.
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Marine Operations Division: 301 (h)
     Program.  September 1983.


2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                        Sedimentation
     Toxics


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat and impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone: Not applicable


     B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:

     This report provides a synthesis of current information on the ecological impact of
     sewage discharges on coral reefs. Three major components of sewage pollution are
     addressed: (1) eutrophication associated with high nutrient concentrations in
     discharged wastewaters,  (2) sedimentation of suspended solids, and  (3) toxic
     effects. A review of sewage discharge impacts is presented, with emphasis on
     nutrient enrichment aspects. The effects of solids deposition on corals are
     considered.  Finally, the available data are synthesized to develop functional
     relationships between discharge characteristics, sedimentation rates, and reef
     community impacts.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA. 1984.  Draft environmental impact statement for the Mangrove Lagoon/
     Turpentine Run Wastewater Facilities Plant.  St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. April
     1984.
2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                       Thermal Pollution
     Biological pathogens
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to human health and impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Mangroves  and terrestrial environment
5. Synopsis:
      The Mangrove Lagoon/Turpentine Run basin, located on the eastern end of
      St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands, is a 3800-acre area with significant needs for
      improved treatment of residential and commercial wastewater flows.  Approximately
      85 percent of the population of the project area is currently served by sewers
      connected to nine individual package treatment plants. Rapid development and
      population growth and continuing difficulties with the effective operation and
      maintenance of separate and geographically dispersed wastewater treatment plants
      have resulted in severe pollution and degradation of the surrounding natural
      environment.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA.  1989a.  San Juan harbor study.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     Environmental Services Division.  March 19, 1989.
2. Pollution Type:

     Nutrients                       Biological pathogens: bacterial
     Toxics: heavy metals


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Region  I)


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment and harbors



5. Synopsis:

     The Puerto Nuevo Sewage Treatment Plant is a 69-MGD primary treatment facility.
     Prior to September 1985, the plant discharged  directly to San Juan Harbor and was a
     major source of mass loadings of BOD and suspended solids.  In September 1985,
     the discharge was diverted to the Atlantic Ocean, through the Bayamon outfall. The
     San Juan Harbor Study was  initiated shortly thereafter to document changes in water
     quality resulting from the  removal of the Puerto Nuevo discharge from the  harbor.

     The study consists of biannual sampling surveys conducted in the fall and spring
     over a 5-year period to monitor water and sediment conditions in the Harbor
     Complex.  The Harbor Complex includes San Juan Bay, the Martin Pena Canal, the
     tidal portion of the Puerto Nuevo River, the San Antonio Channel, and the  Condado
     Lagoon.  Intensive sampling is conducted in the fall, during which a number of
     conventional and toxic parameters are monitored in the water column and sediment.
     The data from the first survey, in September 1985, established baseline conditions in
     the Harbor Complex. The spring surveys involve diurnal monitoring of the water
     column for conventional parameters.  The spring sampling was initiated in  March
     1987.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA.  1989b.  Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Sections 9 to 20 of the Rivers
     and Harbors Act of March 3, 1899. August 1989.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                          Biological pathogens
     Nutrients


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations, impacts to human health, and impairments
     to recreational/commercial use.
4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


     B) Habitat:  Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     This is a compilation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, River and Harbor
     Appropriations Act of March 3,  1899, and titles I, II, and IX of the Water Resources
     Development Act of 1986, with  all changes through the 100th Congress.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA.  1989c. Assessing human health risks from chemically contaminated fish and
     shellfish:  A guidance manual.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
     DC. September.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: pesticides, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated
     hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins and furans

     Biological pathogens: biotoxins


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to human health
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


      B) Habitat:   Not applicable



5. Synopsis:

      Contamination of aquatic resources by toxic chemicals is a well-recognized problem
      in many parts of the United States  High concentrations of potentially toxic
      chemicals have been found in sediments and in aquatic organisms.  Heavy
      consumption of contaminated fisheries products by humans may pose a substantial
      health risk. This concern has prompted recent studies of catch and consumption
      patterns for recreational fisheries and associated health risks (e.g., Puffer et al.  1982;
      Humphrey 1983, 1987, 1988; Sonzongi and Swain 1984; Swain 1988).

      To protect the health of consumers of fish and shellfish, information is needed on
      relative health risks associated with various edible aquatic species, geographic
      locations, and consumption rates.  In the past, diverse models have been used to
      estimate human  health risks from exposure to toxic substances in food (e.g., Cordle
      et al. 1978; U.S. Office of Technology Assessment 1979; U.S. Environmental
      Protection  Agency (EPA) 1980b; Food Safety Council 1980, 1982; Connor 1984a;
      Tollefson and Cordle 1986). In the  present report, a standardized procedure is
      recommend for assessing human health risks from consumption of chemically
      contaminated fish and shellfish.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USEPA. 1990c.  Report to Congress on implementation of section 403(c) of the Federal
     Water Pollution Control Act.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
     Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington, DC.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics                         Biological pathogens
     Nutrients                       Oil spills


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to ecological habitat, impacts to fish and wildlife populations, and impacts
     to human health
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


      B) Habitat:   Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

      In response to Congressional requests, USEPA compiled this report, which
      accomplishes the following tasks:
        (1) describes the 403(c) Program;
        (2) includes an inventory of 403(c) Ocean Discharges;
        (3) gives 403(c) status by Region;
        (4) outlines the Regulations  for Discharges to  Marine Waters; and
        (5) includes a 403(c) Implementation Plan/Schedule.

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1. Cited Reference:

  USFWS.  1991.  Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants.  50 CFR 17,11 and
     17.12.  U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. July 15,
     1991.
2. Pollution Type:

     Not applicable



3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to wildlife populations




4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable


     B) Habitat:  Not applicable



5. Synopsis:

     The list contains the names of all species of wildlife that have been determined by
     USFWS to be Endangered or Threatened.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Wernicke, W., and E.L. Towle. 1983.  Vessel waste control plan for the U.S. Virgin
     Islands.  Prepared for the Government of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Department of
     Conservation and Cultural Affairs.
2. Pollution Type:

      Toxics                           Physical damage
      Oil spills                        Nutrients
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Marine environment
5. Synopsis:
      Waste streams, sewage, waste oil, and trash for 400 boats were determined through
      a survey effort (including interviews) of vessels at 11 harbors or anchorages in the
      U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Thomas, St. Croix and St. John).  Unit waste loads, waste
      discharges per boat for various size boats up to 100 feet, were calculated as well as
      total discharges of sewage into anchorages. Other significant point and nonpoint
      pollution sources at the anchorages were identified and quantified where possible.
      Recommendations that would reduce or minimize adverse impacts on coastal water
      quality are provided.

      Existing legislation, relevant to the control of boat waste discharges, was identified
      and assessed in  terms  of applicability and effectiveness to the Virgin Islands
      situation.

      Existing agencies dealing with vessel pollution water quality and resource
      management were identified and evaluated. Recommendations are provided to carry
      out the proposed changes in the management programs; and estimated manpower,
      budgetary and implementation time frames are provided, along with some strategic
      guidelines for future modifications of public policy.

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1. Cited Reference:
  Williams, S.L.  1988.  Assessment of anchor damage and carrying capacity of seagrass
     beds in Francis and Maho Bays for green sea turtles.  Biosphere Reserve research
     report no. 25. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Virgin
     Islands Resource Management Cooperative.
2. Pollution Type:

     Physical damage                 Oil spills
     Sedimentation
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to fish and wildlife population and impacts to ecological habitat



4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  U.S. Virgin Islands


      B) Habitat:  Seagrass beds


5. Synopsis:

      Seagrass beds are valuable natural resources that are easily disturbed by virtue of
      their coastal location.  Once disturbed, seagrass beds can take decades to recover
      and important functions provided by seagrasses are lost. Such functions include
      (1) provision of food,  shelter, and nursery areas for many animals including
      commercially valuable and endangered species; (2) stabilization of sediments and
      thus protection of coastlines from  storm damage; (3) active recycling of elements
      including heavy and trace metals;  and (4) ecological linkages with other ecosystems,
      including mangroves,  coral  reefs and the deep sea. Mitigation procedures that have
      been developed for disturbed seagrass beds are imperfect, costly, and labor-intensive.
      This report discusses disturbances to seagrass beds in Francis Bay and Maho Bay
      within the National Park on  St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands.  This study was
      undertaken to assess whether the seagrasses in  the bays require protection in order to
      preserve their ecological functions and the large population of endangered green  sea
      turtles that reside in the bays and use the seagrasses for food.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Williams, E., Jr., and L. Bunkley-Williams.  1990a. The world-wide coral reef
     bleaching cycle and related sources of coral mortality.  Issued by National Museum
     of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. January.
2. Pollution Type:

      Biological pathogens: infectious diseases                    Sedimentation
      Toxics: PCBs, hydrocarbons                               Nutrients
      Thermal pollution                                         Physical damage
3. Impairment Type:

      Impacts to ecological habitat
4. Area:

      A) Coastal Zone:  Wider Caribbean


      B) Habitat:  Coral reefs
5. Synopsis:
      Worldwide "coral reef bleaching complexes" occurred in  1979-80, 1982-83, and
      1986-88. Each included a "preceding event" 1 year (1979,  1982, 1986) before the
      most extensive ("main event") bleaching began.  The 1986-88 complex also
      possessed a "following event" (1988).  A number of minor bouts also occurred
      during each complex.  Preceding events may be  used to predict main bleaching
      events.  It is believed that the worldwide coral reef bleaching complex "cycle" has
      been caused by the increased global temperatures of the 1980s.  The progressive
      deterioration of inshore regions, including coral reefs, may have contributed to the
      intensity of the events.  El Nino southern oscillation (ENSO) events of 1982-83 and
      1986-88, on top of these problems, increased overall seawater temperatures, or
      provided conditions favoring increased inshore temperatures, to  the levels necessary
      to bleach and kill coral reef photosymbiotic hosts. Decreased temperatures also
      caused minor bouts in 1988,  1989, and possibly  other times. Deterioration of coral
      reefs has also lowered photosymbiotic hosts' resilience, or resistance to the
      bleaching process.  The model explaining coral reef bleaching employs increased
      global temperatures, increasing deterioration of reefs, and ENSO events.  These
      conditions are not only well established, but seem almost certain to continue.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Williams, E.H., Jr., and L. Bunkley-Williams. 1990b.  Recurring mass mortalities of
     Caribbean herrings:  Implications for the study of major marine ecological
     disturbances. J. Aquat. Animal Health 2:230-236.


2. Pollution Type:

     Biological pathogens:  infectious diseases
3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations



4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Puerto Rico (Regions 1-5)


     B) Habitat:   Marine environment



5. Synopsis:

     Numerous major marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) occurred in the greater
     Caribbean region  in the 1980s.  There have been sporadic mass mortalities of
     herrings Harengula spp. throughout this period.  Although information is too limited
     to suggest a cause,  these events seem to represent a recurring MMED, which may
     not be limited to the Atlantic.  More data concerning past herring mortalities and
     specimens from new bouts are solicited through this alert. Approaches used to
     understand simple epizootics are not adequate for examining MMEDs.  Experimental
     work is too limited, and reference specimens are often not available.  A correlation
     of the observations  of many observers is suggested for following these events.
     These disturbances seem to be increasing in size and number, may be interrelated,
     and may be indicators of global or climatic change or deterioration of the marine
     environment.  Establishment of an alert and communications center to follow
     MMEDs is suggested.

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1. Cited Reference:

  Young, D.R., and T.C. Heesen.  1974.  Inputs and distributions of chlorinated
     hydrocarbons in three Southern California harbors.  Southern California Coastal
     Water Research Project TM 214.  27 pp.


2. Pollution Type:

     Toxics: Pesticides (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls


3. Impairment Type:

     Impacts to fish and wildlife populations


4. Area:

     A) Coastal Zone:  Not applicable

     B) Habitat:   Harbors



5. Synopsis:

     Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT and PCBs were measured in bay  mussels
     collected in several Southern California harbors (San Diego Bay, Newport Harbor,
     San Pedro Harbor). A pattern of increasing DDT concentrations toward Los
     Angeles was  noted. PCB concentrations, however, were high in all three harbors
     and several times higher  than in specimens collected in nearby coastal waters.  It
     was suggested that antifouling paint may have been the predominant source of PCBs
     in Southern California harbors in  recent years.

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     APPENDIX B



Profiles of Organizations

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                               PROFILES OF ORGANIZATIONS
Appendix B is a compilation of brief profiles of governmental and nongovernmental agencies and research
institutions with planning/development and natural resource conservation responsibilities in Puerto Rico
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. These organizations were surveyed through a series of telephone interviews
involving requests for specific information. Many of the people contacted chose to send existing literature
about their organizations or to compose brief statements in answer to the questions, which they sent via
mail or facsimile.

The format of the  survey was kept brief to allow each person contacted to elaborate as he or she  felt
necessary to  best describe the  organization in  question.   First, the correct name and address  of  the
organization were verified. Second, a statement of objectives was requested.  The responses to this request
ranged from broad  goals of operation  to specific  details  regarding  research activities.   Then  the
approximate  size of the organization  was requested, although  this question was the most frequently
overlooked if the survey progressed to subsequent correspondence following the initial contact.  The
organization was then classified as governmental or nongovernmental. Each person contacted was asked
how his or her organization is interrelated with others, which often led to additional contacts. Finally, the
reporting responsibilities of each organization, if applicable, were listed.

The main government agencies that deal with environmental matters in Puerto Rico are the Environmental
Quality  Board (EQB) and the Department of  Natural Resources (DNR).  The  EQB is part  of  the
Governor's Office, while the DNR has a Secretary who reports to the Governor.  The DNR is further
divided  into  branches with  specific responsibilities  such as coastal zone management  and fisheries
research.  The University of Puerto Rico has many  programs that involve research on environmental
concerns in the area.

The U.S. Virgin Islands has one main agency that deals with the environment, the Department of Planning
and Natural Resources (DPNR).  The government of the U.S.  Virgin Islands is divided into two districts,
one for St. Croix and the other for St. John and St. Thomas. The DPNR  is likewise divided into two
sections although the information included in the surveys regards the whole territory. The Commissioner
of the DPNR is a member of the Governor's Cabinet. The DPNR is divided into several branches that
have specific tasks, such as the Coastal Zone Management Department, the Department of Public Works,
and the Department of Environmental Protection. Several research institutions and private businesses with
environmental responsibilities in the U.S. Virgin Islands are also included.

The Caribbean-wide and international organizations in the survey include various governmental institutions
with environmental responsibilities. Also included are some private businesses and nonprofit organizations
with specific dealings in the area.

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The following people were contacted regarding information about their organizations but did not respond.
Therefore, profiles of these organizations are not included  in the report.
Dr. Julio Cardona
Coastal Zone Management Department
Department of Natural Resources
Puerta de Tierra Station
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906

Dr. John C. Ogden
Co-chairman, CARICOMP
Florida Institute of Oceanography
University of South Florida
830 First Street South
St. Petersburg, FL  33701

Dr. Jack Morelock
Department of Marine Sciences
University of Puerto Rico
P.O. Box 908
Lajas, Puerto Rico  00667
Yvonne Sadovy, Director
Fisheries Research Laboratory
Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute
Department of Natural Resources
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico

Judy Beretta for Dr. Caroline Rogers
Virgin Islands National Park
P.O. Box 710
St. John, USVI 00830

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1. Name of Organization:

     Association of Island Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Department of Marine Sciences
     University of Puerto Rico
     Mayaguez, PR  00709-5000
     (809) 899-2048
3. Contact:    Dr. Ernest H. Williams, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     The broad objective of the Association is to advance and promote Caribbean marine
     science by the holding of meetings, sharing of information, and facilitating of
     cooperative research.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      - AIMLC laboratories
 8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Not applicable
* Adapted from Island Resources Foundation,  1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Bioimpact, Inc., Environmental Consultants
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     P.O. Box 132
     Kingshill, St. Croix
     U.S. Virgin Islands  00851
     (809)773-5881
3. Contact:    Amy Dempsey, owner/principal investigator
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Field investigations and environmental assessment reports in evaluating wise
     land/resource use planning.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Coastal Zone Management permitting
     - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers permitting


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Environmental Assessment Reports/Environmental Impact Statements for proposed
     developments

     - Water quality monitoring/environmental monitoring

     - Wetland determinations and wetland mitigation

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1. Name of Organization:

     Caribbean Association of Environmental Health Officers*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     NUPW Building, 2nd Floor
     Dalkeith Road
     St. Michael, Barbados
     West Indies
     (809) 436-7347
3. Contact:   Dr. Lenore Harvey, Project Manager
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To unite Environmental Health Officers in a professional association and to ensure
     that EHOs acquire necessary technical and other specialized skills.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      - Public health agencies
      - Educational institutions offering degree programs in environmental health
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Not applicable
* Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Caribbean Conservation Association*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Savannah Lodge, The Garrison
     St. Michaels, Barbados
     West Indies
     (809) 426-9635
3. Contact:    Michael I. King, Executive Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     CCA was established in 1967 as a regional nongovernmental organization, the aims
     of which are the conservation and development of the environment and the
     preservation of cultural heritage.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Local and state Caribbean governments
     - Educational institutions
     - Parks


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not  applicable
  Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

      Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI)
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     1104 Strand Street, Suite 208
     Christiansted, USVI 00820
     (809) 773-9854
3. Contact:    Francine Lang
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To support and promote institutional arrangements for collaborative management of
     natural resources critical to community development.


5. Size of Organization:     15 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Local governments and communities


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Marine Resource Research reports
     - Coral reef monitoring
     - Sustainable timber harvest mointoring

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1. Name of Organization:

     Department of Planning and Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Nasky Center, Suite 231
     St. Thomas, USVI 00802
     (809) 774-3320
3. Contact:    Commissioner Roy E. Adams
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve natural resources of the Virgin
     Islands, those being air, water, and environmental and human health.  Oversees
     branches of the Department specializing in these areas.


5. Size of Organization:    300-400 employees


6. Organizational Category:   Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Commissioner is member of Governor's Cabinet


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Each branch of the Department sends annual reports to the Governor and program
     reports to US EPA.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Department of Planning and Natural Resources
     Division of Coastal Zone Management
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Nasky Center, Suite 231
     St. Thomas, USVI 00802
     (809) 774-3320
3. Contact:    Sue Higgins, Senior Planner
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Regulatory agency designed to protect and promote wise use of the coasts of the
     Virgin Islands.
5. Size of Organization:    25 employees
6. Organizational Category:    Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Report to Department of Planning and Natural Resources
     - USEPA
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Send annual reports to the Governor and program reports to EPA involving some
     Superfund work and emergency management.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Department of Planning and Natural Resources
     Division of Environmental Protection
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Nasky Center, Suite 231
     St. Thomas, USVI  00802
     (809) 774-3320
3. Contact:    Leonard Reed
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve the natural environment of the
     Virgin Islands.


5. Size of Organization:    25 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Report to Department of Planning and Natural Resources
     - USEPA


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Send annual  reports to the Governor and program reports to EPA involving
     primarily vessel waste and nonpoint source studies.

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1. Name of Organization:

      Eastern Caribbean Center
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     VI Marine Advisory Service
     University of the Virgin Islands, Eastern Caribbean Center
     Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas
     USVI  00802
     (809)776-2885
3. Contact:    Dr. Norman Quinn, Marine Advisor
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To foster the social reconstructive development of the Eastern Caribbean region and
     the U.S. Virgin Islands and improve relations between these countries and serve as a
     common link through collaborative ventures with  appropriate institutions.
5. Size of Organization:    5 employees
6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      - Assist with private agencies and government agencies in study, research, and
      technical assistance with conferences
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      - Research, policy development, and training

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1. Name of Organization:

     Institute of Tropical  Forestry*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     University of Puerto Rico
     Call Box 25000
     Rio Piedras, PR  00925-2500
     (809)763-3939
3. Contact:    Dr. Ariel E. Lugo, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Southern Forest Experiment Station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest
     Service.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     -USDA


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable
  Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Island Resources Foundation*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Red Hook
     Box 33
     St. Thomas, USVI  00820
     (809) 775-6225
3. Contact:   Dr. Edward Towle (President)
4. Statement of Objectives:

     A research and technical assistance NGO dedicated to the improvement of human
     and natural resource management in offshore oceanic islands. Emphasis is on
     workable development strategies appropriate for small island resource utilization.
5. Size of Organization:   8 employees
6. Organizational Category:   Nongovernmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      -Programs, especially involving the eastern Caribbean
      -Coastal and marine resource utilization, land use planning, environmental impact
      assessment, national park development, tourism planning, cultural resource
      development, natural resource assessment.  Assistance to NGOs for institutional
      development.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Provide technical assistance, planning, research advisory and information services,
      superior reference library including computerized resource management database on
      Caribbean insular systems.
* Adapted from:

  Island Resources Foundation.  1989.  Organizational profiles of who is doing
     what in support of programs for sustainable resource development and
     environmental management in the eastern Caribbean. A guide to donor
     organizations and technical assistance agencies.  February 1989.

-------
 1. Name of Organization:

      Laboratory of Professor T.R. Tosteson
 2. Address/Telephone Number:

      Department of Marine Sciences
      Faculty of Arts and Sciences
      University of Puerto Rico
      Mayaguez Campus
 3. Contact:    Dr. T.R. Tosteson
 4, Statement of Objectives:

      Research activities include: ciguatera poisoning of barracuda in the north eastern
      Caribbean as well as toxic microalgal/bacterial vectors believed to cause this
      poisoning in fish; seasonal changes in the microbial flora of the invertebrate
      Palythoa sp. known to produce the toxin palytbxin; the activity and specificity of
      macromolecular polysaccharides produced and released by marine microbial
      populations.


 5. Size of Organization:     8 researchers, including students


 6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental


 7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      - Medical School of the University of Puerto Rico
      - Ponce School of Medicine
      - University of Miami (Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric
      Science
	- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Biopolymer Research Unit	

 8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Not applicable

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1. Name of Organization:

     NMFS, Caribbean Fishery Management Council
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Suite HOB
     Banco de Ponce Bldg.
     Hato Key, PR 00918
     (809) 753-6910
3. Contact:    Miguel Rolan
4. Statement of Objectives:

     The Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC) is one of eight regional
     fishery management councils. The Council's major responsibility is the formulation
     of fishery management plans and the designation of the fisheries to be included.
     The first management plan was developed for the Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands
     spiny lobster.  Other plans are being developed for the deep-water reef snapper and
     grouper fishery and shallow-water reef fishery.  Other functions of the Council are
     (1) the preparation from time to time of such amendments as may be considered
     necessary for any of the fishery management plans (to attain this the Council must
     review on a continuing basis, through adopted monitoring systems, the  assessments
     and specifications of the plans); (2) the preparation of comments on any application
     for foreign fishing; (3) conduct public hearings to allow interested persons to be
     heard in the development of fishery management plans; and (4) submission to the
     Secretary of Commerce of annual reports or of any other reports as the Council or
     the Secretary deem appropriate.	
5. Size of Organization:    10 employees
6. Organizational Category:    Regional government
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     The staff functions include implementing the Council policies and decisions and
     assisting in the development of fishery management plans; and analyzing the
     biological, economic, social, and legal implications of management approaches by
     coordination with either federal or state agencies or private firms.
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     -Formulation of fishery management plans.
     -Submission to the Secretary of Commerce of annual reports or of any other reports
     as the Council or the Secretary deems appropriate.

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 1. Name otfDrganization:

      Ocean Systems Research, Inc.
 2. Address/Telephone Number:

      P.O. Box 128 Gallows Bay Station
      St. Croix, USVI  00820
      (809) 773-3246
 3. Contact: -  Dr. Mary Coulston
                     J
 4. Statement of Objectives:

      Water Testing Lab
      -The lab tests drinking, marine recreational, and sewage waters.  Certified by the
      Environmental  Protection Agency and the state to perform this testing.


 5. Size of Organization:   2 people (director and an analyst)
	Employ several contractors for sampling	^^

 6. Organizational Category:   Nongovernmental


 7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      - Department of Environmental Planning
      - Department of Planning and Natural Resources
      - Contracted by the government to perform water testing (surveillance) and to supply
      the government with a report.
      - For private companies, the public,  they also perform this testing on
      marine recreational and drinking waters. Reports are also given to the
      government.


 8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Provides the Department of Environmental Planning of the Department of Planning
      and Natural Resources with official  reports on ambient water and the safety of
      recreational waters.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Organization of American States, Department of Regional Development*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     1889 F Street NW
     Washington, DC 20006
3. Contact:    Dr. Kirk P. Rogers, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     The Department of Regional Development is specifically concerned with natural
     resource management, conservation, and sustainable development.
5. Size of Organization:
6. Organizational Category:    Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - National governments
     -OAS
     - Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable
  Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)*
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Caribbean Program
     P.O. Box 508
     Bridgetown, Barbados West Indies
     (809) 426-3860
3. Contact:    Dr. H. Dyer, Coordinator
4. Statement of Objectives:

     PAHO serves member governments throughout the Americas as a specialized
     organization of the OAS and as the regional offices for the World Health
     Organization.  Its general objective is the attainment of the highest level of health
     for the region.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - United Nations agency
     - State and local governments in the region
     - World Health Organization


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable
  Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Public Works Department
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Estate Anne's Hope
     Christiansted, St. Croix, USVI  00820
     (809) 773-1789
3. Contact:    May Cornwall for Commissioner Leo Francis


4. Statement of Objectives:

     Provide environmentally sound infrastructure and services thereto in accordance with
     environmental laws and regulations.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     -  Commissioner is member of Governor's Cabinet


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Report to Governor of USVI - split into two districts, one for St. Croix and the
     other for St. John and St. Thomas

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1. Name of Organization:

     Public Works Department
     Division of Environmental Services
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Estate Anne's Hope
     Christiansted, St. Croix, USVI  00820
     (809) 773-1789
3. Contact:    May Cornwall
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Plan, design, and manage wastewater and solid waste projects to achieve and
     consistently satisfy all compliance criteria. Provide environmental assessments and
     technical assistance to all operating divisions.  Educate and train personnel and the
     public on environmental issues.


5. Size of Organization:     9 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Report to Department  of Planning and Natural Resources and USEPA
     - Part of the Public Works Department


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Operate and  maintain infrastructure in accordance with applicable codes and
     regulations.  The Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) issues
     permits to operate and enforces compliance with codes and regulations, i.e., permits.
     Report to DPNR and USEPA on discharge monitoring and compliance plans.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Puerto Rico Department of Health
     Division of Epidemiology
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Apartado 71423
     Correo General
     San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936-1423
3. Contact:    Dr. Kenneth L. Dominguez, M.D., M.P.H.
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To provide leadership and direction in activities related to improving the public
     health of Puerto Rico.  This includes the prevention and control of infectious
     diseases (but also involves itself in the surveillance of some noninfectious diseases,
     i.e. ciguatera toxin intoxication).


5. Size of Organization:               11 employees in the central office
                                      17 employees in the regional offices

6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement  with Other Agencies:

     - Provide technical assistance to different levels of the health department, hospitals,
     and health centers

     - Serve as  a liaison for diverse projects involving the Environmental Protection
     Agency and the Centers for Disease Control


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     The division of epidemiology is involved in a weekly  telephone-based surveillance
     system and an ongoing mail-based and computer-based surveillance system. Data
     are channeled from the regional level to the central division of epidemiology.  The
     central division of epidemiology compiles, summarizes, and analyzes the data from
     the regions and then reports to the Puerto Rico Department of Health and the
     Centers for Disease Control  via the National Electronic Telecommunications System
     for Surveillance) computer system.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     P.O. Box 5887, Puerta de Tierra Station
     San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
     (809) 723-3099
3. Contact:    Ines Monefeldt, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     The Commonwealth developed the Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program
     (PRCMP) to manage the significant land and water resources and the activities that
     take place in its territorial waters and in a land area that extends 1,000 meters inland
     from Mean High Tide, and further inland where necessary to include key natrual
     systems.


5. Size of Organization:     approximately 1620 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - The Department of Natural Resources  (DNR) and the Planning Board (PB)  are the
     primary planning and permitting agencies involved in the coastal zone. The PB is a
     part of the Office of the Governor; it has broad regulatory powers over all land use
     and development.

     - The PB adopted the PRCMP as an element of the island-wide land use plan and is
     responsible for issuing certificates of consistency with that plan.

     - DNR reviews development proposals and draft environmental assessments referred
     to it by PB and other agencies.

     - DNR cooperates with EQB in review of erosion plans and in monitoring-the
     implementation of such plans.

8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     DNR  reporting responsibilities include:  granting of mining concessions; issuance of
     permits to drill wells and franchises  for  the taking of surface and ground waters; the
     administration of the maritime zone, coastal waters, and submerged lands; the
     management of forest resources; the regulation of sand and gravel extraction,
     recreational vessels, hunting, and fishing.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Puerto  Rico Department of Natural Resources
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     P.O. Box 5887, Puerta de Tierra Station
     San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
     (809) 723-3099
3. Contact:    Santos Rohena, Director
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Regulatory agency designed to protect and conserve natural resources of the
     Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
5. Size of Organization:     Approximately 6,000 - 8,000 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Oversees several branch agencies including the Coastal Zone Managment
     Program and laboratories such as the Fisheries Reseach Laboratory.


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     The Secretary of the Department reports to the Governor.

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1. Name of Organization:

     Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Banco Nacional #431
     Ponce de Leon Avenue
     Hato Key, Puerto Rico 00913
     (809) 767-8181
3. Contact:    Pedro Moldonado, Acting Chairman
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To preserve, maintain, and enhance the quality of the waters of Puerto Rico
     compatible with the social and economic needs of the Commonwealth of Puerto
     Rico.


5. Size of Organization:    Approximately 400 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Part of the Governor's Office
     - Oversee the Water Quality  Program


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Clean Water Act Section 205(1) Annual Reports
     - Responsible for investigating reported fish kills
     - Compose Water Quality Standards Regulations
     - Develop point and nonpoint source pollution control programs

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1. Name of Organization:

     Puerto Rico Sea Grant
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     Department of Marine Science
     University of Puerto Rico
     Box 5000
     Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00709
     (809) 832-4040
3. Contact:    Dr. Manuel Hernandez
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Sea Grant is dedicated to research, advisory service, and education which is related
     to the oceans and the coastal environment. Sea Grant Colleges are found within
     universities with the purpose of enriching and supporting the university's academic
     program and taking advantage of existing resources within the university.  Both the
     University of Puerto Rico and the University of the Virgin Islands have Sea Grant
     programs.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Federally administered by NOAA, Department of Commerce
     - Also receive some local government funding


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable

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1. Name of Organization:

     Research Planning, Inc.
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     1200 Park Street
     Columbia, South Carolina 29201
     (803)256-7322
3. Contact:    Jack S. Moore
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Mainly contracted to conduct hazardous spill response work for NOAA.


5. Size of Organization:     18 employees


6. Organizational Category:    Nongovernmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - NOAA contracts
     - Local Puerto Rican and Virgin Islands government agencies
     - Clean Caribbean Corporation


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Environmental Sensitivity Investigation mapping of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin
     Islands for sensitivity to hazardous waste spills, focusing mainly on bird nesting
     areas and fish hatcheries

     - Provide reports of questionnaire summaries to Puerto Rican government regarding
     oil spill hot spots

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1. Name of Organization:

      USEPA, Caribbean Field Office
2. Address/Telephone Number:

      1413 Fernandez Juncos Ave.
      Santorce, Puerto Rico
3. Contact:   Carl Soderberg
4. Statement of Objectives:

     The Director of the Caribbean Field Office represents the Regional Administrator in
     the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the Territory  of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
     This position holds the responsibility of coordinating response within the two
     governments on matters concerning environmental problems requiring EPA action.
     The Office is divided into the Water Management Staff and the Air and Hazardous
     Substances Staff.
5. Size of Organization:    20 employees
6. Organizational Category:    Governmental
7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

      Coordinates with all federal, state, and municipal agencies in Puerto Rico and the
      U.S. Virgin Islands, including the governors' offices
8. Reporting Responsibilities:

      Most of the monitoring is self-monitoring reports in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin
      Islands with some field inspections by CFO personnel, and quarterly tracking reports
      of delegated programs to PR Environmental Quality Board, PR Department of
      Health, PR Department of Agriculture and VI Department of Planning and Natural
      Resources.

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1. Name of Organization:

     U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Islands Directorate*


2. Address/Telephone Number:

     US MAB Secretariat
     State Department -- OES/ENR/MAB
     Washington, DC 20520


3. Contact:    Mr.  William S. Beller, Directorate Chairman


4. Statement of Objectives:

     The Islands Directorate (with a Caribbean focus) is part of the U.S. National
     Committee for UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program. Derives
     lessons on the management  of insular ecosystems from experience of Puerto Rico,
     U.S. Virgin Islands.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - United Nations agency
     - UNESCO


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable
  Adapted from Island Resources Foundation, 1989.

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1. Name of Organization:

     United States Fish and Wildlife Service (PR)
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     USFWS
     Fernandez Juncos Ave.
     Santorce, Puerto Rico
     (809) 851-7219
3. Contact:    Felix Lopez
4. Statement of Objectives:

     USFWS works with endangered species, wetlands protection, and superfund sites
     national resource assessment damage.


5. Size of Organization:     10 biologists (PR/VI)


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Due to the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, USFWS deals with
     government agencies going through the permitting process.  They deal with anyone
     seeking a permit.  Through this process, they review Corps of Engineers and
     Department of Agriculture (with Food and Securities Act) permits.
     - NPDES studies for EPA
     - Review federal environmental impact statements.


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Review documents.
     - Give written comments/recommendations to agencies in some type of report.

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1. Name of Organization:

     United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USVI)
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     USFWS
     USVI
     (809) 775-6762
3. Contact:    Ralf Boulon
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Division under the Department of Planning and Natural Resources. Apply for
     research grants to FWS and the National Marine Fisheries Service. Perform
     research and management of four main areas: (1) fisheries; (2) wildlife;
     (3) endangered species; and (4) environmental education.


5. Size of Organization:   20-24 employees


6. Organizational Category:   Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Funding by the Federal Aid division of USFWS allows for research and
     management of four main categories for USFWS and NMFS.  They are
     (1) fisheries—perform studies  on sport, commercial and recreational fishing, coral
     reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and wetlands; (2) wildlife; (3) endangered
     species—mostly leatherback turtle work; and (4) environmental education for public
     awareness.


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Submit annual reports to USFWS.
     Submit quarterly and annual reports to NMFS.

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1. Name of Organization:

     U.S. Virgin Islands Sea Grant
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     RR #2, P.O. Box 10,000
     Kingshill, St. Croix
     USVI  00850
     (809) 778-0246
3. Contact:    Marcia Taylor
4. Statement of Objectives:

     Sea Grant is dedicated to research, advisory service, and education which is related
     to the oceans and the  coastal environment.  Sea Grant Colleges are found within
     universities with the purpose of enriching and supporting the university's academic
     program and taking advantage of existing resources within the university.  Both the
     University of Puerto Rico and the University of the Virgin Islands have Sea Grant
     programs.


5. Size of Organization:


6. Organizational Category:    Governmental


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - Federally administered by NOAA, Department of Commerce
     - Also receive some local government funding


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     Not applicable

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1. Name of Organization:

      Virgin Islands Marine Advisory Service (VIMAS)
2. Address/Telephone Number:

     VI Marine Advisory Service
     University of the Virgin Islands
     RR #2, P.O. Box 10,000
     Kingshill, St. Croix
     USVI 00850
     (809) 778-0246
3. Contact:     Marcia Taylor, Marine Advisor;
               Dr. Laverae Ragster, Director;
               Teresa Turner
4. Statement of Objectives:

     To promote the wise use and development of the Nation's coasts and oceans through
     a program of applied research, education, and advisory service.


5. Size of Organization:     25 employees


6. Organizational Category:  Nongovernmental, but receive federal funding
                            through Sea Grant


7. Involvement with Other Agencies:

     - University of Puerto  Rico shares Sea Grant funding with VIMAS
     - Conduct work with government officials, scientists, fishermen, sociologists


8. Reporting Responsibilities:

     - Provide quarterly reports to the University

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        APPENDIX C



Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas

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This Appendix includes a list and a short description of the Critical Coastal Wildlife Areas (CCWA) for
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in Tables C-l and C-2, respectively. Following each area listing
is a status description to help identify the areas that are in need of mitigation or monitoring.  An asterisk
(*) implies the area is still a primary area for wildlife for the island.  At the end of each table is a more
detailed description of the CCWAs and associated environmental impacts.  Table C-3 lists the threatened
and endangered species of the CCWAs.

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               TABLE C-l.  CRITICAL WILDLIFE HABITATS IN PUERTO RICO
                    POTENTIALLY AFFECTED BY MARINE POLLUTION
Map#
1
2
3*
4

5
6
7
Location
Torrecilla
Pinones
Torrecilla Alta
Constitution
Bridge
Mudflats
Palo Seco
Peninsula
(Catano)
Buchanan
Haystack Hills
(Bayam6n)
Fort Buchanan
Pond
San Pedro
Swamp (Toa
Baja)
Status
Primary
Primary
Primary but
degraded
Primary

Primary
Primary
Primary
Species Impacted
Leatherback and hawksbill sea
turtles (FE)
Pterocarpus qfficinalis, West
Indian whistling duck (CT), and
white-crowned pigeon (R)
Yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE), brown pelican (FE),
roseate tern (FT), and least tern
(FT)
Brown pelican (FE)

Puerto Rican boa (FE)
Ruddy duck (CT)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
black-crowned night heron (R),
magnificent frigate bird (R),
Source of Pollution
Recreational demands

Agua-Guagua Mass Transit
System, docking facilities in San
Juan, Puerto Rico Electric and
Energy Authority, and Municipal
Public Works





 8*
 10
11*
Lakes/Forests of
Dorado Beach
and Cerromar
Beach

Cibuco Swamp
Tortuguero
Lagoon, Rica
Lake, and Cabo
Caribe Swamp
Lake Puerto
Nuevo
            and Puerto Rican boa (FE)

Primary      Caribbean coot (CT), Puerto
            Rican boa (FE), and white-
            crowned pigeon (R)
Pending      Potential area for endangered
            species

Primary      Caribbean coot (CT), brown
            pelican (FE), Puerto Rican Boa
            (FE), three species of sea
            turtles (FE) — green, leather-
            back, and hawksbill, yellow-
            breasted crake (CT), least grebe
            (CT), Pterocarpus qfficinalis
            stand

            Ruddy duck (CT), purple
            gallinule (R), Caribbean coot
            (CT)
                                                                   Dorado Beach Golf Course and
                                                                   urban development
                                                                  Prime hunting ground
                                                                  Surrounding development water
                                                                  treatment effluents and
                                                                  degradation from development

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                                      TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map #
   Location
                 Status
      Species Impacted
Source of Pollution
  12*
  13*


  14*



   15

   16


   17


   18




   19


  20*
Tiburones         Primary       Masked duck (CT), whistling
Swamp                         duck (CT), ruddy duck (CT),
                               Caribbean coot (CT), white-
                               crowned pigeon (R), Bahama
                               duck (R)

La Tembladera     Secondary     Caribbean coot (CT) and
Lagoon                         masked duck (CT)

Carrizales         Secondary     West Indian whistling duck
Mangrove                      (CT)
Guajataca Cliffs    Primary

Bellaca Creek      Primary
                               White tail tropic bird (R)

                               Puerto Rican crested toad (FT)
                               and Puerto Rican boa (FE)

Bario Goto        Primary       Puerto Rican crested toad (FT)
                               and Puerto Rican boa (FE)

Cayura           Primary       Purple gallinule (R), masked
                               duck (CT). West Indian duck
                               (CT), ruddy duck (FT), and
                               brown pelican (FE)

Pozo Honda      Secondary     Potential area for endangered
                               species

Sabanetas         Secondary     Ruddy duck (CT), West Indian
Swamp                         whistling duck (CT), and
                               Pterocarpus officinalis
                                                             Puerto Rican industrial sewage
                                                             sludge injection project and
                                                             industrial use
                               Agricultural use and increased
                               traffic on or nearby road

                               Urban development and storm
                               water sewer pipe from Highway
                               2

                               Urban development
                                                              Degradation
                                                              Sugarcane plantations


                                                              Sugarcane plantations and
                                                              commercial development
   21
  22*
  23
Guanajibo
Mangrove
                 Primary
Joyuda Lagoon     Secondary
Cuevas Lagoon    Primary
                  upgraded
24

25

Guaniguilla
Lagoons
Boguerdn
Refuge
Primary
upgraded
Primary

Pterocarpus officinalis stand
(R), yellow-breasted crake
(CT), least grebe (CT), brown
pelican (FE), and West Indian
manatee (FE)

Ruddy duck (FT), purple
gallinule (R), and brown pelican
(FE)
                                                             Urban development and
                                                             agricultural use
                               Ruddy duck (CT), West Indian    Livestock
                               whistling duck (CT), and Bahama
                               duck (R)

                               Brown pelican (FE), Bahama      Livestock
                               duck (R), and ruddy duck (CT)

                               Yellow-shouldered blackbird       Development
                               (FE)

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                                       TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
    Location
Status
Species Impacted
Source of Pollution
  26
 21*
  28




  29




  30


  31
  32
  33




 34*


  35
Cabo Rojo Salt
Flats
Cartagena
Lagoon
La Paraguera
Guanica State
Forest-West
Guancia Lagoon


Guanico Forest
San Jacinto Salt
Flats
Lluveras
Cabulldn
Mangrove

Caja de Muertos
and Morrillito
Islands
Primary       Migrant poping plover (CT),
              snowy plover (CT), yellow-
              shouldered blackbird (FT), least
              tern (CT)

Primary       Glossy ibis (R), purple gallinule
              (R), Bahama duck (R), yellow-
              breasted crake (CT), Caribbean
              coot (CT), least grebe (CT),
              ruddy duck (CT), and East
              Indian whistling duck (CT)

Primary       West Indian manatee (FE),
              hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
              brown pelican (FE), yellow-
              shouldered blackbird (FE)

Primary       Green sea turtle (FE), West
              Indian manatee (FE), and
              yellow-shouldered blackbird
              (FE)

Secondary     Potential area for endangered
              species

Primary       Puerto Rican nightjar (FE),
              Puerto Rican crested toad (FT),
              yellow-shouldered blackbird
              (FE), brown  pelican
              (FE), peregrine falcon (FE)
              least tern (CT), West Indian
              manatee  (FT), Bahama duck
              (R), hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
              and Puerto Rican dryland anole

Primary       Bahama duck (R), coot (R),
              common moorhen (R),
              sandwich tern (R), royal tern
              (R), roseate tern (FT), and
              brown pelican (FE)

Primary       Brown pelican (FE), West
              Indian manatee (FE), Puerto
              Rican nightjar (FE), and
              hawksbill sea turtle (FE)

Secondary     Brown pelican (FE)


Primary       All sea turtles (FE), brown
              pelican (FE), and roseate tern
              (FT)
                         Degradation due to agriculture
                         and livestock
                         Deforestation of the limestone
                         hills; encroachment of the
                         commercial industries
                         Ponce docking facility

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                                     TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map//
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Location
Frios Cay
Berberia Cay
Punta Petrona
Mangrove
Carocoles Cay
Punta Arenas
Mar Negro
Punta Pozuela
Status
Secondary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Species Impacted Source of Pollution
Brown pelican (FE) Some natural erosion
Brown pelican (FE), green sea
turtle (FE), and roseate tern
(FE)
Brown pelican (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE), and sea
turtles (FE)
Brown pelican (FE)
Brown pelican (FE) and
Bahama duck (R)
West Indian manatee (FE)
All sea turtles (FE); brown
43
44
45
Pandura           Secondary
Mountain Range
Humacoa
Swamp
Primary
Roosevelt Roads    Primary
Naval Base
             pelican (FE), green sea turtle
             (FE), hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
             West Indian manatee (FE), and
             Puerto Rican plain pigeon (R)
             Eleutherodactylus coold
                                Agriculture pressure and
                                degradation due to the
                                deforestation of the mountains
Bahama duck (R), West Indian
whistling duck (CT), ruddy
duck (CT), brown pelican (FE),
peregrine falcon (FE), Bahama
duck (CT), masked duck (CT),
least grebe (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), purple gallinule (R),
hawksbill sea turtle (FE), green
sea turtle (FE), West Indian
manatee (FE), and Pterocarpus
forest

West Indian manatee (FE), least
grebe (FE), brown pelican
(FE),  yellow-shouldered
blackbird (FE), and white-crowned
pigeon (R)
46
Fajardo
Coastline
Primary      Roseate tern (FT), bahama duck
             (R), green sea turtle (FE),
             hawksbill sea turtle (FE),
             Virgin Islands tree boa (FE),
             and brown pelican (FE)

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TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map #
49*
50
51*
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
Location
Aguas Prietas
Lagoon
Ensada
Comezdn
Ci£naga Baja
Culebra's
Surrounding
Islets
Flamenco
Peninsula
Flamenco
Lagoon
Cornelius
Lagoon
Resaca
Mountain
Resaca Beach
Brava Beach
Larga Beach and
Zoni Lagoon
Puerto de
Manglar
Cementerio Bay
Los Canos
Status
Secondary
Primary
Seconday
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Species Impacted
White-crowned pigeon (R) and
brown pelican (FE)
White-crowned pigeon (R)
Potential area for endangered
species
Hawksbill sea turtle (FE), green
sea turtle (FE), shiny-backed
skink (CT), brown pelican
(FE), and Bahama duck (R)
Shiny-backed skink (CT)
Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck
(CT),and least grebe (CT)
Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck
(CT), and masked duck (CT)
Peperomia wheeleri (FE)
All sea turtles (FE)
Leatherback and hawksbill sea
turtles (FE)
Bahama duck (R) and ruddy
duck (CT)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
brown pelican (FE),
magnificent frigate bird (R)
White-crowned pigeon (R)
White-crowned pigeon (R),
Bahama duck (R)
Source of Pollution
Camping facility
Development
Agricultural use and urban runoff


Recreational facility, increase in
the access road, increase in size
of garbage dump,and
construction of additional houses
Development of two houses with
installation of power lines



Construction
I
Increased sediment loading by
erosion and runoff from housing
developments
Encroachment of squatters

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                                      TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
63
Location
East Point of
Status
Primary
Species Impacted
Puerto Rican screech owl and
Source of Pollution
Degraded
64
65


66



67



68

69




70
71
         Vieques
Coneja Island      Primary
Ensenada Honda   Primary
Mangrove

Chiva Swamp      Primary
Yanuel Lagoon    Primary
Tap6n Bay
Primary
Mosquito Bay,     Primary
Ensenada Sombe
and Ferro Bay


West Vieques      Primary
Monita Island      Primary
Newtons owl (both nearly
extinct), Bahama duck (R),
white-tailed tropic bird, two
unusual geckos Sphaerodactylus
macrolepis ifiigoi and
Sphaerodactylus roosevelti,
leatherback sea turtle (FE),
green sea turtle (FE), hawksbill
sea turtles (FE), American
oystercatcher

One of the largest breeding
areas for brown pelican (FE),
roseate tern (FE), white-tailed
tropic bird  (R), and American
oystercatcher (U)

White-crowned pigeon (R) and
sea turtles (FE)

West Indian whistling duck
(FE), Bahama duck (R), least
tern (FT)

Yellow-shouldered blackbird
(FE) and variety of avian
species

Waterfowl and shorebirds

Peregrine falcon (FE), West
Indian manatee (FE),  all sea
turtles (FE), brown pelican
(FE)

White-crowned pigeon (R),
Bahama duck (R), West Indian
Whistling duck (CT), nesting
turtles (FE), West Indian
mantee (FE)

Ground iguana (FE), sea turtles
(FE-all species), Mona boa
(FT), and many other reptiles,
white-tailed tropic bird, yellow-
shouldered blackbird (FE)

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                                          TABLE C-l. (Continued)
Map#
72
Location
Mona Island
Status
Primary
Species Impacted
Ground iguana (FE), sea turtles
Source of Pollution

                                             (FE-all species), Mona Boa
                                             (FT) and many other reptiles,
                                             white-tailed tropicbirds, yellow-
                                             shouldered blackbirds (FE)
73 Desecho Island
74 Palmos Pond
Secondary
Primary
Populations of seabirds
Masked duck (CT), Caribbean
coot (CT), brown pelican
Degraded due to bombing and
release of Rhesus monkeys
  Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.
CT =  Commonwealth Threatened
FE =  Federally Endangered
FT =  Federally Threatened
R   =  Rare
U   =  Uncommon

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        DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF CRITICAL COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
                                    FOR PUERTO RICO

(1)* Torrecilla-Pinones has a very diverse fauna including a variety of birds, reptiles, fish, and crabs.
       This area has remained a critical area even though it is used by at least 1 million people from the
       San Juan area. At this time the leather-back sea turtle (FE) and hawksbill sea turtle (FE) are
       found nesting in this area.

(2)* Torrecilla Alta is composed of freshwater swamps and marshes with several Pterocarpus officindis
       stands dispersed throughout the region.  This habitat is currently  supporting the West Indian
       whistling duck (CT) and the white-crowned pigeon (R).

(3) Constitution Bridge Mudflats supports 62 aquatic and 31 terrestrial organisms. It encompasses a wide
       variety  of  uses;  an avifaunal nesting, feeding,  and roosting area.   The yellow-shouldered
       blackbird (Federally Endangered (FE)), brown pelican (FE), roseate (Federally Threatened (FT))
       tern, and least tern (FT) all utilize the area.  Degradation caused by the development of the Agua-
       Guagua mass transit system, channelization of the Puerto Nuevo River, expansion of the docking
       facility at the San Juan Harbor, and landfill operations have greatly reduced the size of this area.
       Utilization of this space for electrical posts by the Puerto Rico Electric and Energy Authority and
       the Municipal Public Works Office  has further reduced the acreage.   Further  pollution and
       reduction will occur if the proposed San Juan City Center is approved. In addition, plans are
       under way for a $70 million project including a marina, hotel, mall, and a docking facility, large
       enough to accommodate cruise ships.  The proposed project will be located near the mudflats that
       were built to compensate for the loss of the original habitat.

(4)* Palo Seco Peninsula (Catano) supports a diverse population offish, crustaceans, and mollusks which
       attracts, in particular, the brown pelican (FE) and many other avian species.

(5)* Buchanan Haystack Hills (Bayamtfn) supports a large population of the Puerto Rican Boa (FE) and,
       at this time, it is the only area in Puerto Rico that is a suitable habitat for the boa.

(6)* Fort Buchanan Pond (Bayamtfn) This pond is a breeding, roosting and feeding area for the ruddy
       duck (CT), which is a candidate for the Federal Endangered Species List.

(7)* San Pedro Swamp (Toa Baja), at this time, supports 21 different avian species; almost  all these
       species are water birds. The following birds are found in this area:  white-crowned pigeon (R),
       black-crowned night heron (R), and the magnificent frigatebird (R).  The Puerto Rican boa (FE)
       is also found in this area.

(8)* Lakes/Forests of Dorado Beach and Cerromar Beach include numerous lakes and a large forest, all
       of which are perfect habitats for various endangered species.  In this area the Caribbean coot
       (Commonwealth Threatened (CT)), Puerto Rican boa (FE), and the white-crowned pigeon (Rare
       (R)) are typical inhabitants.  Pesticides from the golf course are  slowly  degrading the  water
       quality. The surrounding golf courses remove the aquatic plants to  improve the aesthetics of the
       area. The  construction of a large office  complex and luxury houses has resulted in heavy
       sedimentation of many of the lakes.  The forest, privately owned, is experiencing the pressures
       of urbanization from the possibility of construction in the near future.  Caribbean Coot  (CT),
       Puerto Rican boa (FE), white-crowned pigeon (R).

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(9) Cibuco Swamp, although it supports rare species, has been listed as having a status that is pending.
       This is because there are other critical habitats in the vicinity that are ecologically more beneficial
       to the endangered species.

(10)* Tortuguero Lagoon, Rica Lake, and Cabo Caribe Swamp are all critical areas for  endangered
       species and hard to subdivide. The following species are found within me limits: Caribbean coot
       (CT); brown pelican (FE); Puerto Rican boa (FE); yellow-breasted^ crake (CT); least grebe (CT);
       and three species of sea turtles (FE); green, leatherback, and hawksbill.  A stand of Pterocarpus
       officindis (R)  is found within the boundaries and the area is a prime hunting spot for  water fowl.

(11)  Lake Puerto Nuevo, in 1979, was a very valuable breeding area for the ruddy duck (CT), purple
       gallinule (R),  and Caribbean coot (CT).  The ecosystem is now badly degraded and  has been
       removed from primary status.  Urban development has surrounded the lake and no open waters
       remain.  Nutrient enrichment from the  effluent has  caused the  proliferation of cattails and
       restoration at this point would be too costly.

(12)  Tiburones  Swamp supports the  masked  duck (CT),  whistling duck (CT), ruddy  duck (CT),
       Caribbean  coot (CT), white-crowned pigeon (R) and Bahama duck (R). The swamp  has been
       reduced  in size by its use as a solid waste disposal area.  Further  reduction has occurred from
       the sugar cane, rice, and pineapple industries* constant use of the area. The area was also used
       for an industrial sewage sludge injection project. This area will need to be monitored in the future
       because an aquaculture facility will be discharging into the receiving waters.

(13)  La Tembladera Lagoon is used by the Caribbean coot (CT), ruddy duck (CT) and masked duck
       (CT), at this time. Presently under severe agricultural pressure, .the lagoon is used as a watering
       hole for cattle. This practice is destroying the vegetation, as well as creating excessive runoff
       problems.  A dirt road passing by 100 meters to the north will be expanded and paved, increasing
       traffic and thereby causing further degradation.

(14)  Carrizales Mangrove has been completely degraded.  There was a population of the West Indian
       whistling ducks (CT) in this ecosystem, but a stormwater sewer pipe, 7 feet in diameter, now
       discharges into the western end.  This pipe is the result of the extension of Highway 2.  Urban
       development has been detrimental to the southeast and south central ends.

(15)* Guajataca Cliffs are used by the white-tailed tropic bird (R) for nesting and raising its young in this
       habitat.

(16)* Bellaca Creek supports both the Puerto Rican crested toad (FT) and the Puerto Rican boa (FE).
       This is one of the last areas in Puerto Rico which supports these two species.

(17)* Bario Goto has been continually degraded but this area is still listed as a critical habitat because it
       supports both the Puerto Rican crested toad (FT) and the Puerto Rican Boa (FE). This ecosystem
       needs to be monitored to prevent irreparable harm.

(18)* Cayura has always been known as an area suitable for waterfowl.  Many of the endangered or
       threatened  species use the area;  the purple gallinule (R),  masked  duck (CT), West Indian
       whistling duck (CT) and recently the ruddy duck (FT) and the brown pelican (FE) have been seen
       within the  boundaries.

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(19) Pozo Honda is considered important because it is so close to Cayura. Some of the ducks normally
       found in Cayura use this area, but only occasionally. Sometimes hunters use the area but to
       establish the importance of the area more monitoring needs to be performed.

(20) Sabanetas Swamp supports at least 29 species of birds (e.g., ruddy duck (CT) and West Indian
       whistling duck (CT)), at the present time. There is also a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R) and
       four species of anoles living within the boundaries.  The area is privately owned, and emphasis
       is placed on commercial growth and not on preservation.  The Department of Natural Resources
       proposed the area as a natural reserve, but the proposal was rejected. Renewed emphasis on
       sugarcane plantations, a type of proposed development, will result in further degradation of the
       area.

(21)*  Guanajibo Mangrove  supports a stand of Pterocarpus officinalis (R),  the yellow-breasted crake
       (CT), the least grebe (CT), the brown pelican (FE), and the West Indian manatee (FE).

(22) Joyuda Lagoon - Within this lagoon the ruddy duck (FT), purple gallinule (R), and recently the
       brown pelican (FE) have been seen. With the correct salinity in the lagoon, the phenomenon of
       bioluminescence will occur, making this a tourist attraction.  Degradation has occurred due to
       increasing agricultural use and increase development in the fringing area. Increased agricultural
       use has caused an added enrichment to the runoff.

(23)*  Cuevas Lagoon is located in the southwestern part of the island and used for cattle grazing even
       though the ruddy duck (CT), West Indian whistling duck, and the Bahama duck (R) use the area
       to nest.

(24)*  Guaniquilla Lagoon is a refuge for many shore and marine birds (e.g., Bahama duck (R) and ruddy
       duck (CT)) but cattle graze in the area and should be removed to protect the area.

(25)*  Boquerdn Refuge is listed as a primary critical area which is the only breeding area for the yellow-
       shouldered black bird (FE) even though it is under  great pressure  from development.  Any
       development in this area needs to be restricted.

(26)*  Cabo Rojo Salt Flats  remains a primary critical habitat although it is under great pressure from
       development.  Migrant piping plovers  (CT),  snowy plover (CT),  yellow-shouldered black bird
       (FT), and least terns (CT) have all been seen.

(27)*  Cartagena Lagoon remains a primary area despite the fact that there is degradation because the land
       is so valuable.  More than half of the bird species found in Puerto Rico have been recorded in
       this area. The degradation that was felt was from the nutrient enrichment from the Lajas sewage
       treatment plant and  the diversion of freshwater for irrigation.  This resulted in a habitat that is
       perfect for the growth of cattails and water hyacinth. The lagoon could now appropriately be
       termed a swamp.  The causes for this include  agriculture, cattle, and the fact that the area is
       owned privately and there is a lot of commercial pressure.

(28)*  La Paraguera is a bioluminescent bay that is reported to  have supported a total of 66 bird species.
       The deforestation of the limestone hills to the north has presented some problems (e.g., runoff
       and  erosion),  as well as the encroachment of the commercial industries.  The West Indian
       manatee (FE), hawksbill sea turtle (FE), brown pelican (FE), and yellow-shouldered blackbird
       (FE) are all found in the surrounding area.

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(29)* Gudnica State Forest-West provides the necessary habitat for the green sea turtle,  West Indian
       manatee  (FE), and the yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE), all of which  are endangered.  The
       ecosystem is used as a nesting area and a breeding ground for various species.

(30) Gudnica Lagoon is a good area for birds to feed and nest and is located in an ideal position for
       migratory purposes.  It was drained in the 1950s, for commercial reasons, but could be restored
       for a relatively low cost.

(31)* Guanico Forest is ranked as the most important forest in the area.  The Puerto Rican nightjar (FE),
       Puerto Rican crested toad (FT), yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE), brown pelican (FE), peregrine
       falcon (FE), least tern (CT), West Indian manatee (FT), Bahama duck (R), Hawksbill turtle (FE),
       and Puerto Rican dryland anole all use this area during their lifespan.

(32)* San Jacinto Salt Flats is known as a diverse avian habitat.  The  Bahama duck (R), coot (R),
       common moorhen (R), sandwich and royal terns (R), roseate tern (FT), and brown pelican (FE)
       are all found using this area at some time.

(33)* Lluveras is privately owned  land but the  commercial industry is applying pressure so they can
       develop the area. The brown pelican (FE), West Indian  manatee (FE),  Puerto Rican nightjar
       (FE), and the hawksbill turtle (FE) are all found within the boundaries.

(34) Cabulldn Mangrove is located east of the Ponce docking facility, not far from the metropolitan area.
       Many of the peripheral salt flats are being used for dump sites.  Old cars, scrap metal, and
       appliances have been found in the area.  The brown pelican (FE)  used this area for nesting and
       roosting.

(35) Caja de Muertos and Morrillito Islands are used by all of  die endangered sea turtles nesting in this
       area. The brown pelican (FE) and the roseate tern (FT) use the area to nest, feed, and rear their
       young.

(36) Frios Cay has had some natural erosion occur, so the area should be monitored more frequently to
       determine the ecological value of the land. At this time only the brown pelican (FE) has been
       sighted within the boundaries.

(37)* Berberia Cay is listed as a primary status because of its capability to be a potentially important
       roosting  area for birds in case other areas become degraded.  At this time the brown pelican
       (FE), green sea turtle (FE), and the roseate tern (FE) have been seen in the habitat.

(38)* Punta Petrona Mangrove is used by the brown pelican (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), and all of
       the sea turtles (FE).

(39)* Carocoles  Cay supports the magnificent frigatebird, along with a large heron population, and the
       brown pelican (FE). All of these birds use the area for a breeding ground.

(40)* Punta Arenas supports populations of the brown pelican  (FE) and the Bahama duck (R).

(41)* Mar Negro is important because it has been used by fishermen for the harvest of shellfish and fish,
       plus it supports the endangered West Indian manatee (FE).

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(42)* Punta Pozuela is an area that supports a wide range of endangered species: brown pelican (FE),
       green sea turtle (FE),  hawksbill sea turtle (FE), West  Indian manatee (FE), leatherback turtle
       (FE), and the Puerto Rican plain pigeon (FE).

(43)* Pandura  Mountain Range is privately owned  and  sparsely populated. It supports  a small frog
       species Eleutherodactylus  cooki and is located within  the Pandura-Guardarraya Coastal Zone
       Management Area. Recently there has been some increase in the agricultural activity resulting
       in the deforestation of the mountains.

(44)* Humacoa Swamp supports the following species: Bahama duck (R), West Indian whistling duck
       (CT), ruddy duck (CT), brown pelican (FE), peregrine falcon (FE), Bahama duck (CT), and
       masked duck (CT), least grebe (CT), Caribbean coot (CT), purple gallinule (R), hawksbill sea
       turtle (FE), green sea turtle (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), and a Pterocarpus forest.

(45)* Roosevelt Roads Naval Base is a nesting area for the yellow-shouldered blackbird and supports the
       West Indian manatee (FE), least grebe (FE), brown pelican (FE), and the white-crowned pigeon
       (R).

(46)* Fajardo Coastline is a very populated area and the commercial growth is extensive.  This area
       needs  to be closely monitored to keep the effects of pollution minimized.

(47)* Fajardo Cordillera is an area where sea bird colonies nest. These include the roseate tern (FT),
       Bahama duck (R), and the brown pelican (FE).  The green sea turtle (FE), the hawksbill sea
       turtle (FE), and the U.S.  Virgin Islands tree boa (FE) are also found in this area.

(48)* Grande Lagoon and Adjacent Lands is of secondary  importance  at the present time because it
       supports the Lesser Antillean avian species  but it is also a potential site for turtle nesting and
       needs more monitoring done  to  examine the area.  The  brown pelican  (FE), magnificent
       frigatebird (R), white-crowned pigeon (R), hawksbill sea turtle (FE) all use the area as a nesting
       area. This area also supports avian forms from the Lesser Antilles such as the blue-throat caribe,
       Antillean crested hummingbird, and Caribbean elaenia.

(49)* Aguas Prietas Lagoon is of secondary importance, even though it supports 26 percent of the bird
       population represented in this  area, including the white-crowned pigeon  (R)  and the  brown
       pelican (FE).  There is a large camping facility associated with the area, which has degraded the
       area to secondary status.   This area is also  being degraded by a combination of other factors,
       including solid waste disposal and pesticide runoff.

(50)* Ensada Comezdn is a natural reserve made up of private land which supports the white-crowned
       pigeon (R)  and other avian species.  At this time there  is encroachment, from development, on
       the northeast coast.  Although degraded,  the area is still a valuable wildlife area.

(51)* Cie"naga  Baja is a prime hunting spot where crabbers  can collect the blue land crab.  Migratory
       birds winter  in the  area.   The  habitat is  used for  livestock grazing,  resulting in  severe
       degradation.  Defoliation of the mangroves, nutrient  enrichment, and runoff problems have
       occurred.  It was originally believed that the defoliation was being used to increase the pasture
       area, but the  trees are mostly used for fence  posts, resulting  in aesthetic and  ecological
       impairment.

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(52)* Culebra's surrounding islets have the hawksbill sea turtle (FE) and green sea turtle (FE) nesting
       in these areas; additionally the shiny-backed skink (CT), brown pelican (FE), and the Bahama
       duck (R) use these habitats and are part of a natural refuge.

(53)* Flamenco Peninsula is part of a refuge which supports the shiny-backed skink (CT) and it is a
       breeding area for the sooty tern.  This area is also used to graze cattle with no apparent effect.

(54)* Flamenco Lagoon supports the largest population of the Bahama duck (R), ruddy duck (CT), and
       the least grebe (CT). There was a recreational facility built which caused an increase in the use
       of the access road and the garbage dump.  Additionally there were houses built adjacent to the
       area.

(55)* Cornelia's Lagoon dries up from time to time but still supports the Bahama duck (R), ruddy  duck
       (CT), and masked  duck (CT).  These ducks  usually nest in the  nearby  cays and spend the
       beginning of the year in this lagoon.  The development  of two housing complexes along with
       the installation of the power lines, accompanying these houses, has  degraded the area slightly.

(56)* Resaca Mountain is thought to be perfect habitat for the Culebra giant  anole, a species that has not
       been seen in decades; although considered extinct on Culebra, other specimens were found in
       other areas.  The bridled dove and the Puerto Rican screech owl are also abundant.  More
       importantly the type of  habitat  is becoming  increasingly rare and this is  an  area where the
       endangered, endemic plant Peperomia wheeled (FE) is found.

(57)* Resaca Beach is  a 1-kilometer stretch in Culebra Island which has high energy and little human
       disturbance.  This area is very important for the nesting sea turtles; consequently, all species are
       found  here.   Poaching  and  cattle grazing were a severe problem and  feral dogs, if not
       constrained, could present a problem.

(58)* Brava Beach is a 1-kilometer stretch east of Resaca beach which has improved since the assessment
       in 1979.  It has the same features as the adjacent beach, and it is used as a nesting area for the
       (FE) sea turtles.

(59)* Larga Beach and Zoni Lagoon are at the North East end of Culebra Island.  These areas  are used
       for grazing cattle.   Sea turtles nest in the area and barbed wire fences are used to keep the  cattle
       and  the off-road vehicles off the nests.   The Bahama duck (R) and ruddy duck (CT) are also
       found within the boundaries.  The hills surrounding this area are privately owned and have been
       zoned to allow for the construction of houses.  Already an unpaved road has been built.

(60)* Puerto de  Manglar  is known for its  bioluminescence, and the brown pelican  (FE)  and the
       magnificent frigatebird (R) are found there. Right now the hilly areas surrounding the mangrove
       area are being developed into smaller parcels for houses.   An increase in the sediment loading,
       caused by the erosion and runoff from these developments, may have an adverse effect on the
       habitat and push it past the point of primary status.

(61)  Cementerio Bay is of secondary importance because of the  encroachment of squatters. This area
       was a breeding area for the white-crowned pigeon (R) and has the capability to be cleaned up.

(62)* Los Canos is a mangrove forest which supports the white-crowned pigeon (R) and the Bahama duck
       (R). It is important because the migrant and resident shore birds use the area extensively.

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(63)* East Point of Vieques lies within the bombing range of Camp Garcia Marine Base. The area is used
       by the following species:  Puerto Rican screech owl and Newtons Owl (both nearly extinct),
       Bahama duck (R), white-tailed tropicbird, and two unusual geckos (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
       ifligoi and Sphaerodactylus rooseveltf), leatherback sea turtle, green sea turtle, and hawksbill sea
       turtle (FE).  The turtles nest in  the north  shore of the tip even though the area  has become
       relatively degraded due to the bombing range.

(64)* Coneja Island is one of the largest breeding areas for the brown pelican (FE), roseate tern (FE),
       white-tailed tropicbird (R) and American oystercatcher (U).   This area is also close to the
       bombing range,  and the Navy needs to be informed of the nesting areas  to prevent any possible
       hits.

(65)* Ensenada Honda Mangrove supports the white-crowned pigeon (R), and many of the endangered
       sea turtles are also found within the boundaries.

(66) Chiva Swamp is located on Vieques  Island within the United States Marine base of Camp Garcia.
       It has been included because of the type of habitat and the possibility that it is a nesting place of
       the West Indian whistling duck  (FE), Bahama duck (R),  and  least  tern (FT).  This area is
       inaccessible and has the potential  to become a primary critical coastal area.

(67)* Yanuel Lagoon is located on the southeast end of Vieques Island  and supports a wide variety of
       avian species including the yellow-shouldered blackbird (FE).

(68)* Tap<5n Bay is also  located on Camp Garcia Marine Base.   This includes a salt pond used by
       waterfowl and shore birds. They depend on this area in the winter.

(69)* Mosquito Bay, Ensenada Sombe, and Ferro  Bay are located on  Vieques'  southern coast.   The
       Ensenada recreational facility lies to the west and has caused an increase in the amount of garbage
       and scrap metal dumped in the area.  DNR  has been patrolling trying to stop this pollution
       problem.  All birds (terrestrial, wading, shore, and waterfowl) are found in this area. Endangered
       species include the Peregrine falcon (FE), West Indian manatee (FE), all of the sea turtles (FE),
       and the brown pelican (FE),

 (70)* West Vieques supports  the  largest population of the  white-crowned pigeon (R).   The type of
       ecosystem is perfect for supporting the Bahama duck (R) and the West Indian whistling duck
       (CT), and all the sea turtles (FE)  nest in the area. The West Indian manatee (FE) is also found
       in the area surrounding  the habitat.  All of the areas are  owned  by the Navy and  are being
       preserved.

 (71)* Monita Island and (72) Mona Island support  a unique population  of endemic  species, both floral
       and faunal.  Ground iguana (FE), all of the species of sea turtles (FE), Mona boa (FT), many
       other reptiles, white-tailed tropicbirds, yellow-shouldered blackbirds (FE), and many more species
       use this area for different stages of their life.

(73) Desecho Island is of secondary importance because bombing and the release of the Rhesus monkey
       (National Institutes of Health, USFWS (1986)) have caused  a complete degradation of the area,
       along with the introduction of rats, cats, and goats, all of which affect the populations of the sea
       birds.

-------
(74)* Palmos Pond is located south of highway 3 and north of Pvmta Guilartes' public beach facility.
       This pond was just built and is surrounded by sugar cane fields. It was quickly colonized by the
       masked duck (CT),  Caribbean coot (CT), brown pelican (FE), and black-crowned night heron
       (R).  The pond is also used as hunting grounds.

-------
        TABLE C-2. CRITICAL WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
POTENTIALLY AFFECTED BY MARINE POLLUTION
Map*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10*
11*
12*
13*
14*
15*
16*
17*
18*
19*
20*
21*
22*
23*
Location
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Southern Shelf Edge
North Central and West Shelf
Sandy Point
Manning Bay Mangrove Area
West Coast Shelf
East End Reef (Lang Bank)
South Shelf Edge
Coral Bays and Environs
St. Thomas Harbor and Crown
Bay
Lindberg Bay
Fortuna Bay
Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays
Water Bay
Vessup Bay
Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon
Christiansted Harbor
Altoona Lagoon
Canegarden Bay to Point
Harvey
Manning Bay
Cruz Bay
Great Cruz Bay
EnighedPond
Status
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Swondarv
•"-i-w— /
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Source of Pollution









Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
mannas and ship traffic
Urban runoff, sewage, dredging,
thermal-saline effluent
Runoff from Estate Bordeaux
Development of the North Shore
Mountain slope area
Dredging, siltation from residential
development
Marinas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff
Marinas, boat traffic, sewage and
runoff, filling of ponds, canal draining
Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, marinas
and boat traffic
Channel restriction and runoff
Urban runoff, sewage, thermal-saline
effluent, dredging and filling, boat
traffic, oil spills, air pollution
Garbage, dumping, periodic petroleum
spills
Dredging ™d filling, m8""" and boat
traffic, pond filling
Dredging and pond filling
Garbage and solid waste disposal
* Indicates habitats that are degraded by pollution.

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         DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF CRITICAL COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
                              FOR THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
(1)* Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon is a breeding area and wildlife refuge.

(2)* Southern shelf edge is a productive fishing area.

(3)* North Central and West shelf is a productive fishing area.

(4)* Sandy Point is a productive fishing area.

(5)* Manning Bay Mangrove Area is a wildlife habitat and bird and fish breeding area.

(6)* West Coast Shelf is a productive fishing area.

(7)* East end reef (Lang Bank) is a breeding area for a majority of the wildlife.

(8)* South shelf edge is a productive fishing area.

(9)* Coral Bays and environs are productive fishing areas.

(10) St. Thomas Harbor and Crown Bay have been degraded by urban runoff, development, sewage,
       dredging, the impacts from  the construction of new and established marinas, and ship traffic.

(11)  Lindbergh Bay has been degraded by urban runoff, sewage effluent problems, thermal-saline
       effluents,  and an increase in dredging activities.

(12) Fortuna Bay has endured the effects of urban runoff from the Estate Bordeaux development for many
       years. This ecosystem was tolerating periodic stress, but recently the cumulative effects of the
       runoff have become apparent in the habitat.

(13) Stumpy and Santa Marie Bays  are affected by  the development of the North Shore Mountain slope
       area and the subsequent runoff,  which  has had a detrimental effect on this ecosystem.

(14) Water Bay is experiencing the attrition of the nearshore algal beds because of dredging and siltation
       from residential development. Both the terrestrial wildlife and marine species are affected by this
       degradation.

(15) Vessup Bay is declining as a result of marinas  and their associated pollution (e.g., oil and bacteria)
       and an increase in boat traffic.  Sewage disposal and agricultural and urban runoff are additional
       sources of stress.

(16) Jersey Bay Mangrove Lagoon is being degraded by numerous pollution problems: sewage disposal,
       runoff, increasing marina use and boat  traffic, canal dredging, and salt pond filling. All of these
       activities are performed to meet the demands of commercial development.

-------
(17) Christiansted Harbor and Canegarden Bay to Point Harvey (18) have  been degraded  by a
       combination of types of anthropogenic pollution. Continual problems of urban runoff, sewage
       problems, incessant discharging of thermal-saline effluents, dredging and filling activities  in the
       channels  and ponds,  and increasing boat traffic and use of the marinas  are all affecting these
       areas.

(19) Altoona Lagoon has been affected by the restriction of the natural channel due to agricultural needs
       and urban runoff.

(20) Manning Bay has been degraded by garbage dumping and periodic petroleum spills into the marine
       environment.

(21) Cruz Bay and Great Cruz Bay (22) are experiencing the effects of constant channel dredging and the
       filling of the ponds, as well  as an increased use of the marinas and subsequent increase of boat
       traffic.

(23) Enighed Pond is an ecosystem that has been degraded due to improper disposal of solid waste.

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               TABLE C-3.  LIST OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
                    ASSOCIATED WITH THE COASTAL WILDLIFE AREAS
Listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service"
Green sea turtle

Leatherback sea turtle

Hawksill (carey) sea turtle

Loggerhead sea turtle

West Indian manatee

Brown pelican

Peregrine falcon

Yellow-shouldered blackbird

Piping plover

Roseate tern
Chelonia mydas

Dermochelys coriacea

Eretmochelys imbricata

Caretta caretta

Trichechus manatus

Pelecanus ocridentalis

Falco peregrinus

Agelaius xanthomus

Charadrius melodus

Sterna dougallii
T

E

E

T

E

E

E

E

T

T
Listed by the Commonwealth of Puerto Ricob
 Least tern

 West Indian whistling duck

 White-cheeked pintail

 Snowy plover

 Crested toad

 Eneida's coqui

 Golden coqui

 Karl Schmidt's coqui

 Culebra giant anole

 Mona iquana

 Puerto Rican boa

 Mona boa

 Kemp's ridley

 Piping plover

 Caribbean coot

 Ruddy duck

 Masked duck

 Least grebe
Sterna antillarun

Dendrocygna arborea

Anas bahamensis

Charadrius alexandrinus

Bufo lemur

Eleutherodactylus eneidae

Eleutherodactylus jasperi

Eleutherodactylus karlschmidti

Anolis roosevelti

Cyclura stejnegeri

Epicrates inornatus

Epicrates monensis monensis

Lepidochelys kempii

Charadrius melodus

Fulica caribaea

Oxyura jamaicensis

Oxyura dominica

Tachybaptus dominicus
T    =  Threatened.
E    =  Endangered.
"1991.
bCardona and Rivera 1988; S. Silander, personal communication, 27 June 1991.

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TABLE C-4.  SELECTED SPILL DATA FOR PUERTO RICO, VIRGIN ISLANDS
              FROM JANUARY 1987 TO DECEMBER 1991
Material
Diesel
Slack wax
Hydrocarbons with
BNZ & TOL
Corrosive B002 &
B007
Toluene
Sodium Hydroxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Ammonium/Sulfate
Ammonium Lauryl
Diesel
Gasoline
Aluminum Sulfate
Aluminum Sulfate
Diesel
Diesel
Aviation gasoline
Diesel
Amount
7570 liters
4769 liters
13626 liters
8526 kg
11870kg
9462 liters
2630 kg
2295 kg
5677 liters
7570 liters
63588 liters
15897 liters
8251 liters
8327 liters
4920 liters
5677 liters
6435 liters
60560 liters
Location
Maunabo, PR
Macao, PR
Las Marrows, PR
Las Marrows, PR
Guayama, PR
Barceloneta, PR
Puerto Rico
Yabucoa, PR
Toa Baja, PR
Puerto Rico
St. Croix, VI
St. Croix, VI
Rio Grande, PR
Rio Grande, PR
Puerto Rico, PR
Yabucoa, PR
Puerto Rico, PR
San Juan Harbor
Medium
unnamed creek
land
land
storm drain
water
soil
air
air
land
cement
Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
land
Espiripu Sanpo
River
small creek
soil
land
water
Date
1/24/87
3/9/87
7/10/87
8/5/87
10/4/87
10/8/87
12/7/87
12/12/87
5/11/88
5/11/88
5/22/88
5/22/88
5/13/88
6/13/88
6/15/88
8/23/88
9/29/88
10/30/88

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TABLE C-4.  (Continued)
Material
Hydrochloric Acid
Pepsi Flavoring
Cone.
Diesel
Fuel Oil
Diesel/motor oil
Diesel
Waste oil
Petroleum
Bunker Oila
Diesel
Jet Fuel
Oil/fuel
Gasoline
Jet Fuel
Oil/fuel
Oil/condensate
Kerosene
Oil/fuel
Oil/fuel
Amount
18168 liters
14383 liters
34065 liters
11355 liters
7570 liters
3785 liters
7570 liters
3785 liters
6676760 liters
68130 liters
19076 liters
30469 liters
11355 liters
8425 liters
35958 liters
278391 liters
18925 liters
5677 liters
3785 liters
Location
Atlantic Ocean &
Caribbean Sea
Cedra, PR
Caguas, PR
Vega Alta, PR
Ceba, PR
Yabucoa, PR
Roosevelt, 'PR
Virgin Islands
St. Croix, VI
Caribbean Sea
Catano, PR
Vaga Alta, PR
San Juan, PR
Gadanno, PR
San Juan, PR
Ponze, PR
Manati, PR
Aguirre, PR
Puerto Rico
Medium
Atlantic Ocean
Silver Lake
soil
soil
storm sewer
water ditch
Ensanada Honda
Harbor
West Bay
Christiansted Harbor
Caribbean Sea
Atlantic Ocean
ditch
San Juan Harbor
San Juan Harbor
San Juan Bay
land
land
soil
water
Date
11/29/88
5/1/89
5/18/89
6/7/89
7/3/89
7/11/89
8/4/89
9/17/89
9/20/89
1/24/90
2/5/90
2/16/90
4/26/90
5/21/90
7/17/90
9/28/90
12/21/90
3/13/91
4/6/91

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                                 TABLE C-4.  (Continued)
Material
Oil/fuel
Oil/fuel
Dichloromethane
Chloroform 65 PPB
Jet Fuel
Unleaded gasoline
Sulfolane
LP7 Raffinate
Gasoline
Ethyl Acetate
Amount
5677 liters
3785 liters
12869 liters
1438304 liters
5166 liters
15897 liters
7570 liters
56775 liters
31037 liters
4379 liters
Location
Aguirre, PR
Puerto Rico
Barceloneta, PR
Ponce, PR
Ceiba, PR
Ponce, PR
Guayama, PR
Guayama, PR
Naranjipo, PR
Barceloneta, PR
Medium
soil
water
concrete dike
Guayanilla Bay
soil
air (burned)
land
land
Juabiama Creek
land
Date
3/13/91
4/6/91
5/7/91
5/24/91
6/29/91
7/3/91
7/14/91
10/9/91
10/22/91
12/18/91
Source:  U.S. Coast Guard, National Response Center Database. Retrieved January 6,  1992.

' Material spilled during Hurricane Hugo within a diked containment area which gave way, allowing
  material to enter the harbor.

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       APPENDIX D



304(1) Report for Puerto Rico

-------
                      IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT;
                                                   MINI-LIST (REVISED 7/11 /91 j
         NAME
                 WBS ID NUMBER
                                                   SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Arecibo Coastal
Arroyo Coastal
Barceloneta Coastal
Cano Boquilla
Cano Cabo Caribe
Cano Control de Malaria
Cano de Santiago
Cano Martin  Pena
Fajardo Coastal
Guanica Coastal
Guanica Coastal
Guayama Coastal
Isabella Coastal
Lago Cidra

Lago Loiza
Laguna Pinones
Laguna San Jose
Laguna Tiburones
Laguna Torrecilla
Mayaguez Coastal

Ponce Coastal

Quebrada Aguas Claras
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Quebrada
Aguas Largas
Blasina
del Oro
Fajardo
Frontera
Guaracanal
Honda
PRNS0001-13.14
PRSS0003-02
PRNS0001-15
PRWK0275
PRNK0062
PRER0085
PREE0166
PREE0091
PRES0002-31
PRSS0003-31
PRSS0003-33
PRSS0003-04
PRNS0001-05
PREL0082

PREL0105
PREN0010
PREN0008
PRSN0017
PREN0009
PRWS0004-04

PRNS0003-16

PRER0138

PREK0168
PREC0094
PRWC0269
PREC0130
PREC0158
PRER0088
PRNR0063
Arecibo regional STP. Unknown pollution sources.  Presence of toxics at monitoring station.
Small communities (wastewater), public beach.
Barceloneta STP. Pollution in Rio Grande de Manati and Rio de Grande de Arecibo Basins.
Mayaguez Landfill and agricultural activity.
Trib. Rio Cibuco, Vega Baja STP.
Caribbean Gulf Refining Co., surface runoff.
Yabucoa STP and Yabucoa Sun Oil, urban runoff.
Repeated fish kills occur here. Urban runoff, combined sewers.
Isleta Marina Inc. Pollution in Rio Fajardo, Rio Demajagua and Quebrada Aguas Claras Basins.
Recreational activities.
Guanica STP, urban runoff, small communities (wastewater), Rio Loco outflow.
Unknown pollution source.
Isabella STP. Small communities (wastewater).
Pollution from inflowing tributaries.  Small communities (wastewater), livestock enterprises.
Prasa Vista Monte STP.
Pollution from inflowing tributaries.  Surface runoff.
Urban runoff, in-place contaminants.
Urban runoff, combined sewers, in-place contaminants.
Old Salinas Landfill.
Urban runoff, in-place contaminants, Quebrada Blasina outflow.
Star Kist, Bumble Bee, Neptune Packing, Mayaguez Water Treatment Co., Pollution in Rio
Yaquez Basin.
Caribe  Tuna and National Packing. Ponce Dock Site. Pollution in Rio Jacaguas and Rio Bucana-
Cerrillos Basins.
CEIBA  STP.  Urban runoff, small communities (wastewater).  Estuary (PREE0137) in Federal
Government area.
Trib. Cano Santiago. Yabucoa STP and WTP, Yabucoa Landfill, urban runoff.
Entire stream water quality limited.  Urban runoff.  Hock Joint Pipe and Sergio Cuevas WTP.
WTP Miradero.  Urban runoff.
Livestock enterprises, urban runoff. Prasal Cieba STP (Alcon Labs)
Entire creek is a Superfund site.  Industrial lagoons and Prasa Villa Palmira STP
Trib. Rio Piedras. Surface runoff.
Trib. Rio Cibuco. San Juan Cement, G.E. Control and La Ponderosa Deep Well.

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                          IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
          NAME
 WBS ID NUMBER
                             SOURCES OF POLLUTION
 Quebrada Juan Mendez
 Quebrada San Anton
 Quebrada Yaurel
 Rio Bayamon

 Rio Bayamon

 Rio Blanco
 Rio Bucana-Cerrillos
 Rio Bucana-Cerrillos
 Rio Caguitas

 Rio Camuy
 Rio Caonillas
 Rio Cialitos

 Rio Cibuco
 Rio Coamo

 Rio Cuesta Arriba

 Rio Espiritu Santo

 Rio Fajardo
 Rio Fajardo
 Rio Grande
 Rio Grande de Anasco
 Rio Grande de Arecibo

 Rio Grande de Arecibo

 Rio Grande de Jayuya
Rio Grande de Loiza

Rio Grande de I niza
Rio Grande de Patillas
 PREC0092
 PREC0093
 PRSC0185
 PRER0081

 PRER0083.008

 PRER0151
 PRSR0224
 PRSR0224
 PRER0110

 PRNR0036
 PRNR0046
 PRNR0056

 PRNE0061
 PRSR0210

 PRER0073

 PRER0118

 PRER0133
 PRERO133
PRWR0296
PRWR0279
PRNR0040 H-3)

PRNR0048 (01)

PRNR0046
PRER0110

PRFR0104
PRSR0184
 Trib. Laguna San Jose. Urban runoff San Juan Metro Area.
 Trib. Laguna San Jose. Urban runoff San Juan-Carolina Metro Area.
 Phenolics and silver during stream sampling.  Agriculture suface runoff, Arroyo Landfill.
 From given coordinates to mouth.  Urban runoff and surface runoff.  Pieryogenics Corp. and
 Guaynabo WTP and Landfill.
 Vistamonte STP, Prasa WTP Cidra, instrumentation lab, agriculture, livestock enterprises,
 surface runoff.
 Rio Blanco Heights STP.
 Urban runoff, channelization.
 Phenolics, arsenic at Station 114000.  Agriculture, surface runoff, reservoir construction.
 Trib. Rio Grande Loiza Caguas STP and Las Carolinas STP. Storm sewer interconnection
 (sanitary and process). San Lorenzo Landfill.
 Phenolics found in intensive study. Livestock enterprises.
 Trib. Rio Grande Arecibo.  Jayuya WTP & STP. Agriculture, small communities (wastewater).
 Trib. Rio Grande Manati. Phenolics and Diazinon at Station 35950. WTP Ciales and Ciales
 Landfill.
 Impact of Vega  Baja STP (located in PRNK0062).  Surface runoff.
 Coamo STP and Coamo WTP.  Agriculture, small communities (wastevyaters).  Fish kill, Picu-
 Garaga-Chevron.
 Trib. Rio la Plata,  Stream sampling (205 86-001) Zinc and phenolics, WTP Dajaos, livestock
 enterprises.
 Surface runoff, agriculture, livestock, Rio Grande Landfill,  small communities wastewater
 treatment plants.  Agriculture, livestock. Girl Scout Council STP.
 Fajardo STP and landfill.
 Ceiba-Fajardo WTP. Livestock enterprises, Ceiba Landfill.
 Copper exceeded WQSR.
 Phenolics and zinc found at upstream point, agriculture, and Junctas Landfill.
Agriculture, livestock enterprises, surface runoff, small communities (wastewater).  Phenolics in
both.
 Utuado STP, Utuado WTP,  Utuado Landfill, agriculture, surface and urban runoff, small
communities (wastewater). Adjunctus STP and WTP. Lares WTP.
Trib. Rio  Grande Arecibo.  Jayuya STP and WTP. Jayuya Landfill.
 San Lorenzo STP and Landfill, WTP San Lorenzo, WTP Caguas, Secondary School Espino Ward.
Livestock enterprises,  San Lorenzo Landfill. Wastewater from Canabancito.
 Eli Lilly (PR0021423), Eli Lilly (PR0000361), Crown Cork, Warner Lambert, Iruyillo Landfill.
 Pesticides at Station 92000.  Agriculture, small communities (wastewater).

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                       IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
         NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
                             SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Rio Guadiana

Rio Guajataca

Rio Guanajibo

Rio Guayames

Rio Guayanilla

Rio Guaynabo
Rio Gurabo

Rio Hondo
Rio Indio and Tribs.

Rio La Plata
Rio La Plata

Rio Loco
Rio Macana
Rio Matilde-Pastillo
Rio Maunabo

Rio Orocovis

Rio Piedras
Rio Piedras
Rio Portugues

Rio Rosario
Rio Santiago
Rio Tanama
PRER0069

PRNR0032

PRWR0262

PRER0165

PRSR0233

PRER0081
PRER0108

PRER0080
PRNR0063

PRER0066
PRER0074

PRSR0242.0244
PRSR0232
PRSR0228
PRER0170

PRNR0056

PREE0086
PRER0088
PRSR0225

PRWR0262
PRER0148
PRNR0041
Trib. Rio la Plata. Total copper, phenolics during intensive study. Naranjito STP and WTP,
Agriculture, livestock enterprises.
From headwaters to Station 10500.  Phenolics at Station 10500.  WTP Lares. Livestock
enterprises, urban runoff.
San German STP and WTP. Agriculture, small communities (wastewater), and San German
Landfill. Agriculture, Hormigueros Landfill.
Phenolics, metals at Station 83500.  Limones Ward H.S. WTP Guayabota. Surface runoff,
small communities (wastewater).
From upstream coordinate to mouth. Guayanilla STP. (PR00227722KPR0022279). and
Guayanilla Landfill, Demaco.
Trib. Rio Bayamon. Tortugo Ward School.  Urban runoff, small communities.
Trib. Rio Grande Loiza. Life Saver, Pridco Las Piedras, Gurabo STP and landfill, Juncos STP,
Chesebrough Ponds, Key Pharmaceuticals, Menne, and nine other PS.
Connection to Prasa Bayamon.
Unibon and Morovis STPs, Warner Lambert, Morovis Node, Morovis Sur and Vega Baja WTPs,
livestock enterprises, agriculture, Vega Baja Landfill, and Allied Chemicals, Inc.
Toa Alta STP.  Urban runoff, small communities (wastewater).
Comerio STP, WTP and Landfill. Barranquita STP (PR0020311), Aibonito WTP (PR0020281),
livestock enterprises, agriculture, Cidra and  Cayey Landfills.
Agriculture, urban runoff, small communities (wastewater), Sabana Grande Landfill).
WTP Macana.  Penuelas Landfill, small  communities (wastewater).
Proteco Landfill (Superfund site) is in Water Body PRSC0227,  Ponce Landfill.
From upstream coordinate to mouth. Maunabo STP.  From headwaters to Station 91000.
Phenolics at Station 91000.  Manuel Ortiz School, Prasa WTP Matuyas.
Trib. Rio Grande de Manati. Phenolics  at Station 30700. Alturas de Orocovis STP, Orocovis
WTP and STP. Agriculture, livestock.
Urban and surface runoff, San Juan Landfill. Rimco and Renico. Phenolics at Station 48800.
Urban runoff, livestock enterprises, small communities (wastewater).
Phenolics at Station 115000.  Agriculture, surface runoff, hydromodification.  Plata Vieja WTP
Tropical City.
Trib. Rio Guanajibo.  Rosario Ward School.
Alberto Culver, Waguabo Landfill.
Trib. Rio Grande Arecibo. Los Angeles and Tanama WTPs.  Agriculture, surface runoff, small
communities (wastewater).

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                        IMPAIRED WATERBODIES AND SOURCES FROM THE PUERTO RICO 304(1) REPORT (continued)
         NAME
WBS ID NUMBER
                             SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Rio Usabon

Rio Yaguez
Rio Yauco
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal
San Juan Coastal (Bay)

Santa Isabel Coastal
Ut Rio Aibonito

Ut Rio Blanco
Ut Rio del Ingenio
Yabucoa Coastal (Bay)
PRER0075 (1.2)

PRWE0267
PRSR0235
PRES0002-09
PRES0002-15
PRES0002-13
PRES0002-07

PRSS0003-13
PRER0075

PRER0151
PRER0164
PRES0002-44
Trib. Rio la Plata. For Segment 1:  Aibonito Landfill, livestock enterprises, surface runoff. For
Segment 2:  livestock, agriculture, urban runoff (Tio-Ricos).
Cerveceria India, urban runoff Mayaguez metro area.
Yauco STP.
Urban runoff, hotel and residential  areas.
Hotel and residential area. Urban runoff.
Urban runoff.
Prepa San Juan, Molinos de P.R., Esso Standard Oil, Shell, Texaco, Puerto Nuevo STP, Ochoa
Corp., wastewater, Rio Piedras and Cano Martin Pena Basins.
Santa Isabel  STP.
Trib. Rio La Plata.  Aibonito Reg. STP, livestock enterprises, agriculture, To-Ricos Poultry and
To-Rocos Hatchery illegal discharges, and Berranquntas Landfill.
Naguabo Diagnostic and Treatment Center, Romon Rivero STP.  Urban runoff
Trib. Rio Guayanes. Union Carbide Grafito, R.J. Reynolds.
Discharge of  Yabucoa Sun Oil (PR-0000400)

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         APPENDIX E




Photographs of Pollution Problems

-------
Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                        Figure E-1. Great Pond, St. Croix 1988
Source:  Photograph courtesy  of Bio-Impacts, U.S.  Virgin Islands




                        Figure E-2.  Great Pond, St. Croix 1983

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Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                        Figure E-3. Great Pond, St. Croix  1988
                                                                                  ~~Si-j
                                                                                    v
Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                        Figure E-4.  Graat Pond, St. Croix 19S8

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 Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                             Figure E-5.  Coakley Bay 1987
I
Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                           Figure E-5,  Ar.quilla Landfill 1391

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 Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                       Figure  E-7.  Rum Outfall, St. Croix 1991
Source:  Photograph courtesy of Bio-Impacts, U.S. Virgin Islands




                        Figure E-8.  Sewage Outfall Leak 1991

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 Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA




             Figure E-9.  View of industries at Guayanilla Bay, July 1980
Source:  Photograph courtesy  of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA




      Figure E-10. Burning chemical waste dump at Guayanilla Bay, July 1980

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    Source: Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA

 Figure E-11.    Reef at El  Negro  Bank Reefs off Mayaguez, July 1980.   Note  healthy
                staghorn coral (Acropora palmata], soft corals, and urchins (see Peters 1984)



   Source:  Photograph courtesy of Dr. Esther C. Peters, Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA
Figure E-12.    Reef off Guayanilla Bay, August 1981.  Few live corals remain due to high
                turbidity from resuspension of sediments by ship traffic into the bay  and
                substratum is heavily bioeroded (see Peters  1984)

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