AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
FOR
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENTS
1. ANALYSIS OF AIR MONITORING DATA
2. EMISSION INVENTORIES AND PROJECTIONS
3. AIR. QUALITY - EMISSION LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
4. ALTERNATIVE EMISSION CONTROL MEASUREf
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX - SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
FOR
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENTS
1. ANALYSIS OF AIR MONITORING DATA
2. EMISSION INVENTORIES AND PROJECTIONS
3. AIR QUALITY - EMISSION LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
4. ALTERNATIVE EMISSION CONTROL MEASURES
Prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX - SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
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AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT
ANALYSIS OF AIR MONITORING DATA
By: K. W. Crawford
J. C. Trijonis
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #1
ANALYSIS OF AIR MONITORING DATA
By: K. W. Crawford
J. C. Trijonis
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PER AT IONS
-------
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
by TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations in fulfillment of
Contract Number 68-02-1384. The contents of this report are reproduced
herein as received from the contractor. The opinions, findings and
conclusions are those of TRW and not necessarily those of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names does not
constitute endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1
1.1 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS 1
1.2 OUTLINE OF SUPPORT DOCUMENT #1 2
1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS1 3
2.0 HI-VOL MONITORING PROCEDURES 7
2.1 HIGH VOLUME SAMPLING 7
2.1.1 Factors Affecting Hi-Vol Accuracy 9
2.1.2 Reproducibility of Hi-Vol Measurements. 13
2.2 PROCEDURES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF HI-VOL SAMPLES 14
2.3 HI-VOL SITE LOCATION 16
2.4 DESCRIPTION OF APCD, NASN, AND CHESS HI-VOL
PROCEDURES 20
2.4.1 Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control
District 21
2.4.2 San Bernardino County APCD 22
2.4.3 Orange County APCD 23
2.4.4 Riverside County APCD 24
2.4.5 Ventura County APCD 24
2.4.6 Summary of APCD Procedures 25
2.4.7 NASN 25
2.4.8 CHESS 26
2.4.9 The Effect of Sampling Frequency 27
3.0 HI-VOL DATA FOR TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER IN
THE LOS ANGELES REGION 29
3.1 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS 29
3.2 COMPARISON OF APCD, NASN, AND CHESS HI-VOL
DATA 35
3.3 FREQUENCY PLOTS FOR REPRESENTATIVE APCD
STATIONS 43
3.4 HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION: ANNUAL GEOMETRIC
MEANS FOR BASE YEAR 1972 57
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - continued
t
Pages
3.5 HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION: EXPECTED MAXIMAL
24 HOUR LEVELS FOR THE BASE YEAR 1972 62
3.5.1 Seasonal Pattern of Total Particulate
Concentrations 72
3.5.2 Analysis of Recent Participate Episodes 73
4.0 CHARACTERIZATION OF HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE METROPOLITAN
LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION 79
REFERENCES 83
APPENDIX A 87
IV
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LIST OF TABLES
Pages
2-1 ADDRESSES OF COUNTY APCD HI-VOL SITES IN THE
LOS ANGELES REGION 18
2-2 ADDRESSES OF NASN HI-VOL SITES IN THE LOS ANGELES
REGION 19
2-3 ADDRESSES OF CHESS HI-VOL SITES IN THE LOS ANGELES
REGION 20
2-4 STATISTICAL ERROR OF APCD, NASN, AND CHESS MONITORING
PROGRAMS 27
3-1 NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR
PARTICULATES . 31
3-2 HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR COUNTY APCD STATIONS
(jug/m3) 36
3-3 HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR NASN STATIONS 37
3-4 HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR CHESS STATIONS 38
3-5 "t" TEST FOR EQUIVALENCE OF APCD AND NASN HI-VOL, DATA . 40
3-6 STATISTICAL PARAMETERS FOR HI-VOL DISTRIBUTIONS AT
TWELVE LOS ANGELES REGION SITES, 1972 54
3-7 COMPARISON OF HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FROM
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS TO PAST MONITORING HISTORY .... 58
3-8 YEARLY MAXIMAL HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION. 70
3-9 COMPARISON OF CALCULATED 24 HOUR MAXIMA TO AVERAGE
YEARLY MAXIMA FROM 1969-1973 71
3-10 PARTICULATE EPISODES IN THE WEST-CENTRAL BASIN DURING
THE 1970's : 74
3-11 PARTICULATE EPISODES IN THE SAN BERNARDINO AREA
1971 to 1973 77
4-1 CHARACTERISTIC MAXIMAL HI-VOL LEVELS FOR THREE SUBAREAS
OF THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL
REGION (FOR BASE YEAR 1972) 81
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LIST OF FIGURES
Pages
1-1 Sub-Areas for Control Strategy Formulation 5
2-1 Hi-Vol Sampler 8
2-2 Statistical Accuracy of Geometric Mean As A Function
of Sampling Frequency 28
3-1 Typical Hi-Vol Frequency Distribution San Bernardino
(July 1971 - June 1973) 32
3-2 Hi-Vol Cumulative Frequency Plot on Log Probability
Paper 33
3-3 Log-Probability Cumulative Frequency Plots of APCD
Data (July 1971 - June 1973) 44
3-4 Expected Annual Geometric Mean Hi-Vol Levels for the 1972
Base Year 60
3-5 Expected Annual Geometric Means for Suspended
Particulate Matter in the Los Angeles Basin for Base
Period 1972 (NASN and CHESS Data) 61
3-6 Expected 24-Hour Max. Hi-Vol Levels for the 1972 Base
Year (for the present APCD Monitoring Frequency) 63
3-7 Suspended Particulate Quarterly Geometric Means
Cug/m-3) 64
4-1 Sub-Areas for Control Strategy Formulation 82
VI
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1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Under contract to the Environmental Protection Agency, TRW Environ-
mental Services has developed a participate implementation plan for the
Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. Specifically, TRW
has investigated strategies for approachir.g and achieving the National
Ambient Air Quality Stan.ciards (NAAQS) for particulates in the Los Angeles
Region. The present report, is the first of four, technical support.
documents associated with the project. This initial support document.
reviews the Ki-Vol sampling method for particulates, evaluates actual
monitoring procedures in the Los Arceles Region, statistically analyzes
existing aercrrietric data, and characterizes total suspended particulate
levels for the Los Angeles Region.
1.1 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Throughout this study, the terms, susfteMded particulates and
aerosol, are used interchangeably. Both refer to suspended particles
(liquid or solid) in air. The basic measurement unit used herein is
o
total mass concentration (jjg/m ); thus, the details of the particle
size distribution are usually neglected.
A distinction is sometimes made here between ambient total sus-
pended particulates and Hi-Vol total suspended particulates. The
former refers to the total particulate mass loading in the atmosphere,
while the latter refers to the mass loading which is measured by a
Hi-Vol monitor. As discussed in Section 2.1.1, Hi-Vol measurements are
sometimes not fully representative of ambient conditions.
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One very important distinction that is made involves the concept
of primary particulates versus secondary particulates, (or alternatively
primary aerosol versus secondary aerosol).* Primary aerosols are
directly emitted; they enter the atmosphere as particles. Secondary
particulates are formed in the atmosphere from the conversion of gases
to particles by chemical reaction processes. The four principal types
of secondary aerosol are sulfate (SO^), nitrate (NO^), ammonium (Nht),
and secondary organics. The gaseous precursors of these aerosols are
sulfur dioxide (S0~), nitrogen oxides (NO ), ammonia (NH.J, and reactive
Lm A 3
hydrocarbons (RHC), respectively.
1.2 OUTLINE OF SUPPORT DOCUMENT #1
This report is organized into four sections. The present section
serves as a general introduction and provides a summary of major
findings and conclusions. Section 2 reviews monitoring procedures with
the objective of establishing error bounds for the aerometric data base.
Section 2 begins with a general review of the Hi-Vol sampling method
for particulates.** Then, the chemical analysis techniques routinely
used with Hi-Vol samples are briefly discussed. Finally, the location
of measuring sites within the Los Angeles Region and the specific
monitoring practices of various agencies are described and evaluated.
Section 3 summarizes the actual Hi-Vol data base for the Los Angeles
Region. The section begins with a brief discussion of statistical
methods. Then, data from the APCD (County Air Pollution Control Districts),
NASN (National Air Surveillance Network), and CHESS (Community Health
Environmental Surveillance System) monitoring programs are presented and
*The reader should not confuse this concept with the terms "primary" and
"secondary" standards. The national primary and secondary standards refer
to the different target levels for total particulate air quality, i.e.,
each standard applies to the sum of both primary and secondary aerosol.
** The NAAQS for total suspended particulates specify the Hi-Vol technique
as the appropriate sampling method.
2
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compared. Hi-Vol frequency distributions are given,for several stations,
and expected annual geometric means (AGM's) and yearly 24 hour maxima
are computed for the 1972 base year. Maps are constructed showing the
spatial pattern of Hi-Vol AGM's and 24 hour maxima. To help provide
a better understanding of the data, the meteorology associated with
particularly high Hi-Vol levels is investigated.
Section 4 synthesizes the data to arrive at an overall characteri-
zation of Hi-Vol levels in the Los Angeles Region. The particulate
spatial pattern (or lack of pattern) is discussed, and the maximal levels
for various subregions are established to serve as targets for control
strategy reductions.
1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The analysis of Hi-Vol air monitoring data in the Los Angeles Region
has resulted in the following conclusions and recommendations:
Conclusions
• Hi-Vol filters generally provide a very efficient means of
entrapping samples of suspended particulate matter. However,
samples are not always fully representative of ambient conditions
due to loss of volatile liquids (such as water or organics) and/or
gain of adsorbed gaseous pollutants (such as SO- or NO,). Hi-Vol
data do not provide information on particle size distribution.
• Specific monitoring practices can significantly affect Hi-Vol
accuracy. Substantially different practices can produce dis-
crepancies on the order of 20%. The reproducibility of individual
Hi-Vol measurements using equivalent procedures is around 5% under
. field conditions.
• The APCD, NASN, and CHESS monitoring programs generally follow
the same sampling guidelines. However, deviations exist in
certain specific practices such as sampling frequency, calibration
procedures, flow rate, analysis delay time, and location. In
some cases, these deviations are enough to cause significant dif-
ferences in measured values.
• The 6 CHESS sites in the Los Angeles Region are located in quiet
suburban areas. Measurements from CHESS monitors are generally
around 20-40% lower than those from APCD and NASN sites which
tend to be in prime exposure urban areas.
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The western part of the basin, near the coast, tends to
experience the highest Hi-Vol levels during the winter season.
In the eastern part of the basin, the summer/fall period tends
to yield the highest Hi-Vol readings. These findings appear
to be consistent with the hypothesis that primary participate
(directly emitted) is relatively more important in the western
basin while secondary particulate (formed by atmospheric re-
actions) is relatively more important in the eastern areas.
The federal secondary air quality standards are exceeded at all
monitoring sites which were analyzed. Ventura and Santa Barbara
Counties as well as the coastal areas of Los Angeles and Orange
Counties typically yield Hi-Vol levels at just about the federal
primary standards. Riverside and San Bernardino Counties and the
inland areas of Los Angeles and Orange Counties yield Hi-Vol
values up to more than twice the federal primary standards.
In the inland areas of greatest particulate pollution, no general
pattern can be discerned in Hi-Vol measurements with the present
level of spatial resolution. The location of each monitoring
site with respect to local sources appears to be important; this
effect produces fluctuations so that no general pattern emerges.
Recommendations
It would be useful to perform experimental studies to gain further
information on the differences between Hi-Vol measured particulates
and actual ambient particulates. These studies should focus on
quantifying the loss of water and volatile organics and the gain
of adsorbed gaseous pollutants under actual field conditions.
A further standardization of Hi-Vol procedures, among various moni-
toring programs is recommended. The establishment of guidelines
for site location with respect to local sources is particularly
important. This standardization could afford more meaningful
comparisons of data from alternative monitoring programs.
The establishment of an ongoing program of data analysis would
allow better use to be made of the considerable quantities of
Hi-Vol data being generated in the Los Angeles Region. Such a
program should continually examine trends in total suspended
particulate levels and in specific aerosol constituents and should
compare these results with the expected impact of source growth
and emission control policy.
For the purpose of control strategy formulation, at least three
general sub-areas of the Los Angeles Region have been identified
(see Figure 1-1). tach sub-area experiences different maximal
annual average Hi-Vol levels (the maximum among the monitoring
sites in those areas). The sub-areas are: A. Ventura and
Santa Barbara.Counties (presently just above the national
primary standard), B. The 4 County Area except Area C (presently
at about twice the national primary standard), and C. The
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1
Figure 1-1 Sub-Areas for Control Strategy Formulation
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Western San Bernardino County Hot-Spot (presently at about
three times the national primary standard). The formulation
and evaluation of control strategies should make distinctions
among these three areas.
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2.0 HI-VOL MONITORING PROCEDURES
In order to draw conclusions from Hi-Vol monitoring data-, >it is
important to know how the measurements were made and what the data re-
present. This section attempts to establish the accuracy of the data
base for the Los Angeles Region by reviewing Hi-Vol sampling procedures
in general and the practices of Los Angeles monitoring programs in parti-
cular.
Section 2.1 describes standard Hi-Vol measurement procedures and
discusses factors which affect the accuracy and reproducibility of results.
Section 2.2 briefly reviews chemical-analytical methods commonly performed
on Hi-Vol samples. In Section 2.3, the principles of Hi-Vol site loca-
tion are described and the specific.locations of sites in the Los Angeles
Region are reported. Finally, Section 2.4 describes and briefly evaluates
the specific procedures of three Hi-Vol monitoring data bases for the
Los Angeles Region: the County APCD, NASN, and CHESS programs.
2.1 HIGH VOLUME SAMPLING
The National Ambient Air Quality Standard for suspended particulates
specifies Hi-Vol sampling as the appropriate monitoring method. The
official reference procedure is published in the Federal Register Vol. 36,
No. 84, Part II, 30 April 1971 (see Appendix A). Comprehensive descrip-
tions of this method are found in References [1] and [2].
A Hi-Vol sampler (illustrated in Figure 2.1) consists of a covered
housing, a filter-holder assembly, a vacuum-sweeper motor, and a flow
meter. The housing is designed to protect the filter surface from weather
and fallout material and to minimize collection of particles larger than
100 microns, (these drop out before reaching the filter surface). Filter
7
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Housing
Hi Volume Sampler and Shelter
Orifice
Gasket
Resistance
Plates
Orifice Calibration Unit
Figure 2-1
Hi-Vol Sampler
8
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pads are usually of the glass fiber type to minimize resistance to air
flow; however, cellulose pads are also used, in particular for some chemical
analyses (such as for certain metals) where high background is a problem
with glass pads. The vacuum motor is typically designed to pump 1.1 to
3
1.7 m /min and is capable of continuous operation without significant drop
in flow due to particulate buildup on the filter pad. The flowmeter
measures a small but constant fraction of the blower discharge.
Sampling with a Hi-Vol consists of weighing a preconditioned
(temperature and humidity) filter pad, drawing air through it for a given
time (usually 24 hours), recording the initial and final flow rates and
times, and reweighing the pad (again after conditioning to set humidity
and temperature). The average concentration of particulate matter is
calculated by dividing the weight gain of the filter pad by the total
volume of air sampled.
2.1.1 Factors Affecting Hi-Vol Accuracy
Hi-Vol filters generally provide a very efficient means of entrapp-
ing samples of suspended particulates. However, the accuracy of Hi-Vol
data (as representative of total aerosol mass) depends on other factors
besides entrapment efficiency. Volatile, liquid aerosols can be lost in
the sampling and analysis procedures, leading to an underestimation of
true aerosol mass. Gaseous pollutants can be adsorbed on the filter,
leading to an overestimate. Measurement techniques of the deposited mass and
air volume are also potential sources for inaccuracy. The factors which
affect Hi-Vol accuracy depend on specific monitoring practices. Several
key factors will be discussed below.
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Choice of Filter Media
Routine Hi-Vol samples are usually collected on glass fiber filters.
The advantages are: (i) low flow resistance while maintaining high collec-
tion efficiency, (ii) less tendency to plug under heavy loading than
cellulose filters, and (iii) low background for organic material. Some
disadvantages are surface alkalinity (which may increase adsorption of
acid gases) and often high metals background.
Fiber filters tend to entrap large particles (>1 Micron) by
mechanical action and small ones (<.l Micron) by Brownian Motion. A
minimum of collection efficiency is observed in the 0.1 to 1 Micron range.
For this reason, and because significant portions of the urban aerosol
fall in the .1 to 1 Micron range [55] the EPA reference procedure calls
for filter standardization by a OOP smoke test* to achieve a 99% collec-
tion efficiency at a nominal partical diameter of .3 Micron 110]. This
level of collection (in the range of minimal efficiency) insures an
extremely high overall filter efficiency E-^J.
The accuracy of glass fiber filters is somewhat dependent on the
chemical nature of the test atmosphere. There may be some alkalinity
associated with glass, and acid gases such as SOp and NCL, and organic
acids may be adsorbed along with particulate matter [H]> D?], 113],
[14]. An apparent increase in loading may then occur. Acid washed filters
are therefore preferred (for example Gelman type A pH6.5 - 7.0). Effi-
ciency of collection on glass (or other fiber filters) is also a function of
particle adherence properties. Dry particles are not retained as well as
* Di-Octyl Phthalate smoke is a synthetic organic material which can be
used to form a laboratory aerosol with nearly uniform spherical size.
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sticky aerosols and those formed under high humidity [12], [15]. Water,
oily, or sooty material may also clog filters and lead to reduced flow
rate and averaging time errors.
Equilibrating Procedures
To obtain reproducible results from Hi-Vol samples, weighing of
filter pads must be done after conditioning at controlled humidity and
temperature. Relative humidity (RH) of 50% and temperature of 20°C are chosen
as the standards for weighing, since most particulate samples lose less
than 1% of their weight between equilibrations at 50% and zero RH [17].
Particulate matter from both urban and rural atmosphere can be hygroscopic
and adsorb water as humidity increases. Some water may be held even at
low relative humidities, perhaps bound to organic acids in surface layers of
a particle. [18].
One attempt to measure the amount of water associated with an aerosol
as it exists in the atmosphere showed around 10% by weight [15]. This
would only represent the water associated with the particulate matter at
the end of the sampling period, not the amount that would remain if the
sample had been equilibrated at 50% RH [18]. Measurements in situ suggest
that the water fraction varies from essentially zero under dry desert
conditions to 30-40% under light smog in Los Angeles [16]. It seems,
however, that ordinary equilibrated Hi-Vol data reflect only small
amounts of weighed water.
Another source of inaccuracy is volatile organic material associated
with the particulate matter which may evaporate during the time lag
between sampling and weighing 120], [21]. The effect is most pronounced
for samples high in organic material. One study showed about 10% of
original organic material was lost during the 12 days between sampling
11
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and weighing [5], [22]. A minimum in delay between sampling and weighing
is necessary to avoid this source of bias, although the effect on total
weight should not exceed a percent or two.
Flow Measurement Techniques
Precision of Hi-Vol data depends heavily upon flow rate measurements.
Average flow rate is calculated either from an average of initial and final
rotometer readings or from an integrated average on instruments equipped
with a continuous recorder. The reproduciibility of manual rotometer
readings [5] is estimated at about ±2.5%.
In the manual rotometer method, nonlinear flow rates may result
in up to 8% bias [6, 7] of the average concentration. Continuous measure-
ment reduces this bias. Accuracy of the calculated average particulate
load for the sampling period is also affected by large differences in
initial and final flow rate. A heavy loading (i.e. moisture, oily
material, or a high episode) at the start of the sampling period may
significantly reduce flow rate for the remainder of the period. More
than a 20% variation in flow rate and a fourfold variation in concentration
during the sampling period are necessary, however, to affect the average
by more than a few percent. As mentioned under calibration, pressure and
temperature must be similar during sampling and calibration. Again,
however, extremes are necessary in order to affect measurement by more
than a few percent.
Calibration Procedures
The usual procedure for calibration of the flowmeter is with a set
of orifice plates and a manometer. The plates themselves are calibrated
against a positive displacement flowmeter. A series of air flows,
measured by the pressure drop across the orifice calibration unit, are
12
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recorded against rotometer readings at the blower discharge. A calibra-
tion curve of rotometer readings vs flow rate is then prepared.
Samplers are calibrated when first set up and usually after replace-
ment of brushes in the motor. The frequency of calibration then depends
on such factors as motor age and flow rate during operation. Orifice
plates are affected mainly by mechanical wear but are only as good as the
original calibration against a flowmeter. This precision is estimated at
about ±4% [3].. If the barometric pressure and/or temperature at the time
of calibration of a sampler are different than those when the orifice
plates were calibrated, the observed flow rates must be corrected [4],
Weight and Time Measurements
Elapsed time is to be measured to approximately ±4 min in 24 hours,
according to the reference method [8]. Even four times this uncertainty
would result in less than ± 1% error in the 24 hour average. Although weights
are recorded to the nearest 0.1 mg , actual reproducibility of clean
filters is approximately ±1.0 mg and exposed filters ± 1.7 mg [5]. The
resulting uncertainty of about ± 2 mg for a 1600 m3 sample containing
o
100 pg/m would be ± 1.25%, providing samples are weighed at controlled
humidity and temperature.
2.1.2 Reproducibility of Hi-Vol Measurements
Several investigators have attempted to estimate the overall re-
producibility of Hi-Vol measurements under a variety of conditions. The
standard deviation of an individual measurement has .been estimated at 3
to 15%, depending on total particulate loading [2]. Lee [23] found that
95% of 450 duplicate Hi-Vols in England were within 5% of each other.
Clements [24] compared duplicate Hi-Vols at NASN sites and found an
13
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average precision of about 4.5% (standard deviation of 6%) for routine
operation. Precision in this study was less at high loadings, although
no difference between filter brands was found. Faoro [25] found duplicate
Hi-Vols to have an average deviation of 3% in EPA tests. Cohen [26]
observed duplicate Hi-Vols to reproduce within 1% under carefully controlled flow
rates. Sixty cfm runs, however, gave 4% lower results than 40 cfm runs. The
authors suggest that higher flow rates sweep away more of the smaller
particles which might be trapped by Brownian motion at lower flow rates.
McKee et. al [61] found a single analysis standard deviation of 3.0% and
interlaboratory standard deviation of 3.7% in controlled collaborative
tests of the Hi-Vol method. These studies suggest that the precision
(1 standard deviation) of an individual Hi-Vol measurement varies from
about 2% under carefully controlled conditions to about 6% under actual
field conditions.
2.2 PROCEDURES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF HI-VOL SAMPLES
After Hi-Vol samples have been weighed to determine total aerosol
mass, the filters can be aliquoted (divided up) for analysis of metals,
inorganic ions, and/or organic material. The procedures used for chemical
analysis of each type of material are outlined below.
Metals
To determine the amount of various metals present, about 25% of the
filter pad is carried through one of two possible procedures:
A) The aliquote is refluxed about 90 minutes in 35% nitric acid, or
B) The filter aliquote is moistened with HNOo, evaporated to dryness,
ashed at 500°C for 30 minutes, and redissolved in nitric acid.
14
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Analysis for individual metals (lead being the major metal ;of interest
for this project) is done on the resulting HNCL solution by atomic adsorp-
tion or spectrography [1]. Lead has also been determined spectrophoto-
metrically using colored dithizone chelate extracted into chloriform.
Precision of an individual lead measurement in the above procedure is 4 to
10% [27], 129]. For lead,.th.e ash. procedure, (B), may show losses due.to
volatilization if temperature and time exceed the specifications; low
apparent lead values may thus result.
Inorganic Ions
About 8% of the exposed filter is refluxed with deionized water for
90 minutes to determine the concentration of inorganic ions. Sulfate (SOT) is
determined from a portion of this extract by a turbidimetric procedure [28]
using BaClp to form a suspended precipitate of BaSO, (barium sulfate). ;
Precision of this method alone is about 10%.
Nitrate (NOq) is measured spectrophotometrically by either the 2-4 xylenol
procedure [31], or the Brucine alkaloid procedure [32]. Precision estimates
for these procedures are about 8% and 7%, respectively.
The water extraction procedure is .probably very efficient for NO,,
since all common nitrates are highly water soluble. S07 may not be completely
extracted, however, since less soluble compounds such as PbSO* might be
present in suspended particulate matter.130].
Organic Material
For organic analysis, about 50% of the filter pad is refluxed in
benzene for 6-8 hours [1]. The solvent is then removed at atmospheric
pressure or under vacuum, and the residue is weighed. Cyclohexane [33] may
15
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also be used for extraction of less polar organic compounds. Tetra-
hydrofuran has been used to extract even larger fractions of the total
organic material present than is extracted by benzene [34].
The accuracy of benzene extraction depends on the nature and total
amount of organic material present [19], Extraction efficiency is probably
greater for directly emitted organic particulates than for the organic
aerosol formed in the atmosphere [40], [60], It is probable that more
than one-half of the highly oxidized secondary organic aerosol material
is not extracted with benzene:[40].
Benzene soluble fractions may also yield a low estimate of organics
because some of the extracted organics may be evaporated with the solvent
in the procedure, [35]. There is also the problem, mentioned earlier,
that volatile organic material may be lost between the time of sampling and
extraction, [20], [21].
2.3 HI-VOL SITE LOCATION
Hi-Vol monitoring results are sensitive to the details of sampling
location. Several locational factors can affect the measurements. For
one, since larger particles have a lower probability of being transported
to higher elevations, total particulate loading tends to decrease with
height, [41]. For this reason, and because human exposure is mostly
associated with air quality near ground level, recommended procedures call
for Hi-Vol sampling at 50 feet or less above ground, [42]. Other sampling
procedures concerned with Hi-Vol location are listed below:
• Samples should be located away from local sources and not be
subject to wind or eddy distortions.
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• Pairs of high-vols should be several feet apart in order to
avoid sampling each other's exhaust [43]. The exhaust should
also be two feet or more off of the ground to avoid stirring
up ground dust, etc.
• A sampler should be located away from the side of a building
or wall so that representative air will not be inhibited from
passing over the sampler, [44].
This report will consider Hi-Vol data from three main sources: County
APCD's (Air Pollution Control Districts), NASN (National Air Sampling
Network), and CHESS (Community Health Environmental Surveillance System).
The location of the sampling sites for each of these sources are listed
in Tables 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3, respectively. The reader is referred to
Figures 3-4 and 3-5 for an illustration of the position of the stations
within the basin. The specifics of the sample locations will be discussed
in the next section which describes the Hi-Vol procedures used by the
APCD's, NASN, and CHESS.
TABLE 2-1
ADDRESSES OF COUNTY APCD HI-VOL SITES IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
COUNTY
Los Angeles
NAME
Central Los Angeles
Lennox
West Los Angeles
West San Fernando
Valley (Reseda)
Azusa
Pasadena
ADDRESS
434 South San Pedro Street
Los Angeles, California
11408 La Cienega Boulevard
Lennox, California
2351 Westwood Boulevard
West Los Angeles, California
18330 Gault Street
Reseda, California
803 Loren Avenue
Azusa, California
1196 East Walnut Street
Pasadena, California
17
-------
COUNTY
NAME
ADDRESS
Orange
San Bernardino
Riverside
Ventura
Anaheim
La Habra
Costa Mesa
San Bernardino
Ontario
Redlands
Rial to
Chi no
Fontana
Upland
Riverside
Oxnard
Ojai
Santa Barbara
Ventura
Thousand Oaks
Moore Park
Port Hueneme
Camarillo
1010 South Harbor Boulevard
Anaheim, California
621 West Lambert Road
La Habra, California
2300 Placential Avenue
Costa Mesa, California
172 West 3rd Street
San Bernardino, California
Airport
216 Brookside Avenue
Redlands, California
Airport
Airport
8384 Cypress
Fontana, California
201 North 1st Avenue
Upland, California
3575 llth Street Mall
Riverside, California (1970-1972)
and
5888 Mission Boulevard
Rubidoux, California (1972-1974)
242 West 2nd Street
Oxnard, California
401 Signal Hill Street
Ojai, California
4440 Calle Real
Santa Barbara, California
3147 Loma Vista Road
Ventura, California
Firehouse-Erbs Road
Thousand Oaks, California
Moore Park College
Moore Park, California
Environmental Data Branch
Civil Engr. Lab.
Port Hueneme, California
70 Palm Drive
Camarillo, California
18
-------
TABLE 2-2
ADDRESSES OF NASN HI-VOL SITES IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
NAME
Anaheim
Burbank
Glendale
Long Beach
Los Angeles
Ontario
Pasadena
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Ana
Torrance
ADDRESS
1010 South Harbor Boulevard
Anaheim, California
228 West Palm Avenue
Burbank, California
145 North Howard Street
Glendale, California
2655 Pine Avenue
Long Beach, California
434 South San Pedro Street
Los Angeles, California
Airport
862 East Valla Street
Pasadena, California
3575 11th Street Mall
Riverside, California
172 West 3rd Street
San Bernardino, California
645 North Ross Street
Santa Ana, California
2300 Carson Street
Torrance, California
19
-------
TABLE 2-3
ADDRESSES OF CHESS HI-VOL SITES IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
SITE NAME
Santa Monica
Thousand Oaks
Anaheim
Garden Grove
Glendora
West Covina
SITE NUMBER
0821
0822
0831
0832
0841
0842
ADDRESS
2526 6th Avenue
Santa Monica, Calif. 90405
1135 Windsor Drive
Thousand Oaks, Calif. 91360
West Cerritos Avenue &
Euclid Avenue, S.
Anaheim, California 92805
12181 West Street
Garden Grove, Calif. 92640
Live Oak & Whitcomb Street
Glendora, California 91740
820 Phillips
West Covina, Calif. 91790
2.4 DESCRIPTION OF APCD, NASN, AND CHESS HI-VOL PROCEDURES
This section outlines the specific monitoring practices of agencies
which generate Hi-Vol data for the Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality
Control Region. Separate descriptions are presented for each of the County
APCD's programs and for the federal NASN and CHESS programs. Later parts
of this report will employ data from all of these sources. However,
heavy emphasis will be placed on the County APCD aerometric data. The
reasons for this emphasis will be discussed in Section 3.1; reference will
be made there to the monitoring procedures described below.
20
-------
2.4.1 Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
Duplicate Staplex* Hi-Vol samplers are operated at all Los Angeles
APCD sites, with flow rates of 35-45 cfm, [45]. Samplers are calibrated
every few months when brushes are replaced or motors serviced. A Meriam
Laminar Flow Element is currently used for calibration. In general,
samplers tend to produce results within - 10% or better upon recalibration after
a year's use, although linearity of flow with rotometer readings tends to
decrease as a sampler ages.
The Los Angeles APCD uses Gelman type A glass fiber filters, (non-
acid washed). Until around 1971, samples were equilibrated to 50% RH at
50°C (the equilibration chamber would not maintain humidity at a lower
temperature). Since 1971, samples have been equilibrated at 50% RH and
20°C for 24 hours. An individual sample has a 1 to 5 day delay from time
of sampling to arrival at Los Angeles, and is then processed within a day
or two. Every thirteenth filter pad from a box of 100 is taken as a blank
for chemical analysis and inspection. SO^ and NO^ are analyzed by the
turbidimetric and 2-4 xylenol procedures, respectively. Pb was analyzed
according to high temperature ash method until 1970, when the
concentrated HN03 extraction method was introduced. Internal laboratory
correlation of results of the two methods was conducted and data for 1970 to
the present are reported on a basis consistent with earlier data, conforming
to specifications of the California ARB. Organic material on High-Vol
samples is not routinely analyzed at this time.
*Staplex Company, Brooklyn, New York
21
-------
Los Angeles APCU Hi-Vol data have been collected since 1965 at
downtown Los Angeles, Lennox, WSFV (West San Fernando Valley-Reseda),
and West Los Angeles. The former two sites were sampled on Monday and
Wednesday until mid-1971, while the latter two sites were sampled on
Wednesday only. From mid-1971 to the present, all stations have been
operated every fifth day concurrently. Pasadena and Azusa sites were
also added at the mid-1971 switch-over. The addresses of Los Angeles
APCD sites are given in Table 2-1..
The sampler at downtown Los Angeles is located on the roof of APCD
Headquarters Building, approximately 85 feet off the ground. "In-house"
comparisons of concurrent roof and 20 foot level Hi-Vol samples suggest a
14 to 22% low bias at the 85 foot level on days of atmospheric stability.
No difference was found on unstable days. The samplers at Azusa, Pasadena,
and Reseda, are on roofs away from the street, but less than 20 feet off
of the ground. The West Los Angeles and Lennox Station are within a few
feet of ground and are set against buildings.
2.4.2 San Bernardino County APCD
The San Bernardino APCD has operated Staplex samples on a 6-day cycle
concurrently at several stations in basin since about 1967, [46], [44].
Samplers are calibrated with orifice plates when brushes are changed, and
generally reproduce within 5-10%. Older or "slower" Hi-Vols are used at
stations within the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR; the flow is around
40 cfm. MSA* (non-acid washed) filter pads are used. Exposed filter pads
*Mine Safety Appliance Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
22
-------
arrive at the laboratory within five days of sampling and are held until
a batch can be analyzed (up to a few weeks). Filters are equilibrated
to 50% RH at 20°C. About six blanks are taken from each 100 filters.
Chemical analyses for SO^, NO^, pb. Fe. and organics are conducted on
quarterly composites. NOg is done by the Colorimetric Brucine Method £32].
Pb is analyzed by HNO^ extraction followed by atomic absorption determination.
All stations are within 20 r'eet of ground except downtown San Bernardino,
which is on top of the County Building (about 90 feet). Addresses
of the stations used in this report are given in Table 2-1.
The stations at Chino, Ontario, and Rialto, are at airports and are generally
in open areas close to the ground. Positions were chosen to avoid direct
aircraft emissions, however. At Ontario, the NASN sampler is within two
feet of APCD sampler, and sits very close to the ground. The station at
Redlands is against a wall at the back of a building, somewhat restricting
free air flow.
2.4.3 Orange County APCD
General Metal Samplers* have been operated at Anaheim since 1970 and
La Habra since 1971, [47]. Costa Mesa was sampled starting in 1972.
Samplers are run every four days concurrently. Orifice plate calibration
is done at about two month intervals when motor brushes are replaced.
Samplers are operated at line voltage, giving flow rates of about 60 cfm.
Comparison of a standard Hi-Vol with an Anderson size fractionating Hi-Vol
operated at 20 CFM showed larger collection efficiency at the lower flow rate.
*General Metal Company, Cleveland, Ohio
23
-------
Gelman Type A non-acid washed filters are used. The standard humidity
and temperature equilibration procedure is followed. Some chemical analyses
for S04 and NO^ were conducted intermittently in 1969 and 1970, but no
continuous data for these ions are available. Pb has been analyzed
routinely on monthly composites by nitric acid extraction and atomic
absorption.
The sampler at Anaheim is located atop a building behind APCD Head-
quarters, about 15 feet above ground. La Habra and Costa Mesa samples are
on top of office trailers, about 12 feet off the ground. The addresses of
the stations are found in Table 2-1 .
2.4.4 Riverside County APCD
Hi-Vol sampling has been conducted by the Riverside APCD since February
1970. The original site at llth Street Mall, in Riverside, was moved to
the roof of APCD Headquarters at 5888 Mission Boulevard, Rubidoux, in July
1972. Since that time, sampling has been conducted every five days.
Information available for this study indicates that standard procedures are
followed according to £3]. Chemical analyses are not performed on Hi-Vol
samples at this time.
Averaged Riverside data used later in this study have been calculated from
individual samples. The 1970 and 1971 data are somewhat suspect since the
months of February 1970, July 1970, April 1971, and July 1971, are missing
from the record.
2.4.5 Ventura County APCD
Micro samplers* are operated every sixth day concurrently at all stations
'£591.- Orifice plate calibration is used. Flow rates at line voltage
*Micro Biological Specialities Company, San Francisco, California
24
-------
are about 50 to 60 cfm. Gelman Type A non-acid washed filters are used.
Samples are weighed a few days after collection without temperature or
humidity equilibration. Pb is analyzed on the monthly composite at Camerillo.
The stations at Oxnard, Ventura, and Camarillo, are atop buildings,
perhaps 35 feet above ground. The sampler at Point Hueneme is closer to
ground level and only about 100 yards from the ocean. High levels of hygroscopic
sea salt may account for Point Hueneme reporting higher values than other stations in
Ventura County.
2.4.6 Summary of APCD Procedures
Since later parts of this report will emphasize APCD data, the various
APCD procedures are summarized below for convenient reference:
t Sampling frequencies vary from every fourth to every sixth day
in the basin. All stations to be used later in the data section
operated continuously between mid-1971 and mid-1973 except
Riverside, which was moved in mid-1972.
• All APCD's except Los Angeles County use orifice plate cali-
bration.
• Flow rates are 50 to 60 cfm in Orange and Ventura Counties
and 35-45 CFM in San Bernardino and Los Angeles Counties.
• Non-acid washed filter papers are used by all APCD's. Gelman
Type A is used by Ventura, Los Angeles, and Orange. MSA
is used by San Bernardino.
• Samples are weighed after equilibration at 20°C to 50% R.H. by all
APCD's except Ventura County.
t Pb is analyzed by HNO-, extraction/atomic absorption at various
stations in the basin. Los Angeles APCD reports values
correlated to a previous reporting method.
2.4.7 NASN
NASN (National Air Sampling Network) data are available for the stations
listed in Table 2-2, and shown in Figure 3-5, [43], [52]. Samples are
v.
\
25
-------
taken every 15 days for a total of 24 per year. Operation of Hi-Vols is
contracted to local technicians (or APCD's); filter pads (Gelman Type A,
non-acid washed) are mailed to RTP in North Carolina for weighing and
chemical analysis. Calibration is done intermittently when motor brushes
wear out (about 450 running hours) and the sampler is sent back to North
Carolina. An approximate three-week delay occurs between sampling and weighing.
Other procedures are followed according to Reference [3].
NASN stations at downtown Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino,
Pasadena, Long Beach, and Santa Ana, are 25 to 100 feet above ground.
The stations at Ontario Airport, Burbank, Glendale, Anaheim, and
Torrance, are at or near ground level. The NASN stations usually re-
present a downtown commercial area (except Ontario Airport).
Further comments about NASN procedures will be found in Section
3 of this report.
2.4.8 CHESS
CHESS (Community Health Environmental Surveillance System) data are
available for 1972 and 1973 for stations listed in Table 2-3 and shown in
Figure 3-5. Procedures are the same as for NASN, and the guidelines of
Reference [3] are followed, [53]. Sampling is usually done every day of the
year (although not all days are reported) [54], [40]. A fractionating
device is used to differentiate particle size, [62],, [55]. The purpose of the
CHESS program is to correlate health effects with respirable size distribution.
Sites in the basin are at ground level and are generally located in quiet
areas and school yarbs-> [53]. The locations could best be described as
urban residential or non-commercial.
26
-------
2.4.9 The Effect of Sampling Frequency
The CHESS program takes more samples per year than APCD's in the Los
Angeles basin, which, in turn, take more than the NASN program. Even if
there were no errors in any individual Hi-Vol measurements, the calculated
annual geometric mean might vary under different sampling programs.
The statistical precision of each monitoring program has been calculated
according to the.method of Hunt [56] using the "students t" distribution
as applied to a log normal distribution. Table 2-4 Tists the results. For
each monitoring program, the interval about the measured AGM for 95%
confidence of containing the "true" AGM is given. It should be noted that
this is a measure of statistical precision only, not measuring error. As
expected, the higher the sampling frequency the better the statistical
accuracy. Also, it can be noted that the greater the geometric standard
deviation, S > the lower the statistical accuracy for given sampling
g
frequency. These general effects are shown in Figure 2-2.
TABLE- 2-4. STATISTICAL ERROR OF APCD, NASN,
AND CHESS MONITORING PROGRAMS
Data
Source
L.A. APCD
Orange APCD
S.B. APCD
Riverside APCD
NASN
CHESS
Approx.
sn
g
1.5
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.4 - 1.8
1.5 - 1.7
#Samples
Year
70
90
60
60
24
230+
Interval About Measured
AGM for 95% Confidence
(as % of AGM)
- 9% .
- 7%
- 14%
- 12%
- 13 - 25%
- 1 ~ 5%
* Annual Geometric Mean
27
-------
1000
Q
UJ
_l
Q-
QL
-------
3.0 HI-VOL.DATA FOR TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICIPATE MATTER
IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
The present section presents and analyzes Hi-Vol data .for the
Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. The data are from
28 .County APCD, 11 NASN and 6 CHESS monitoring sites within the basin, but
most emphasis is placed on APCD measurements. Although data are given
for the years 1967 to 1973, the analysis attempts to derive levels
typical of 1972, (the base year for the implementation planning phase of
this project).
Section 3.1 briefly describes the statistical methodology used to
derive expected annual geometric means and yearly 24 hour maxima from the
data. The method basically involves the use of log probability plots.
Section 3.2 presents and compares measurements from APCD, NASN, and CHESS
monitors. The reasons for emphasizing APCD data are discussed. In
Section 3.3, log probability frequency plots are given for Hi-Vol data at
12 representative APCD stations. These plots, based on data from mid-
1971 to mid-1973, provide a basic indicator of 1972 Hi-Vol levels.
Section 3.4 presents and discusses Hi-Vol AGM's for numerous Los Angeles
sites for the 1972 base year. Section 3.5 presents expected yearly
maxima, again for 1972. A study is also made of the meteorology associated
with maximal Hi-Vol levels in various parts of the basin.
3.1 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS
Routine Hi-Vol air monitoring data typically represent 24-hour
average samples. Because of meteorological fluctuations, the samples
for any location occur in the form of a statistical distribution. National
29
-------
Ambient Air Quality Standards for suspended particulate matter, summarized
in Table 3-1, have been established for two parameters of this distribution,
the yearly maximal 24-hour value and the annual geometric mean (AGM). In
comparing monitoring data to the NAAQS, statistical analyses should be per-
formed to account for the stochastic nature of the data.
In this report, plots on log-probability paper will be used as the
basic statistical tool. A straight line on such paper represents a log
normal distribution, (the case where the logarithim of the data forms a
Gaussian or normal curve). The shapes of aerometric data distributions
generally approximate the shape of a log normal curve and are
"one-tailed" distributions (no data occur less than zero) [48]. Of course,
it is not expected that specific air quality data will be exactly log
normal; deviations from log-normality will be reflected in a curved line
on log probability paper.
The histogram in Figure 3-1 illustrates a typical distribution of Hi-
Vol data. A log-normal distribution, (dashed line), has been plotted for
comparison. Figure 3-2 gives a plot of this same data on log-probability
paper.
Two statistical parameters are used to characterize a log-normal
distribution (the geometric mean, m , and the geometric standard deriva-
tion, S ). These are defined for a set of size N of individual measurements
c., i=l,..., N, as follows:
V
1/N
= exp
30
-------
TABLE 3-1
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR PARTICULATES
Annual Maximum: Not to be
Geometric Exceeded More than
Mean Once a Year
3 3
Primary Standard 75 yg/m 260 yg/m
for 24 hours
O O
Secondary Standard 60 yg/m * 150 yg/m
for 24 hours
* Guide for attainment of the Secondary 24 hour standard.
31
-------
CO
ro
50- -
w -
M
0)
1
GO
"S 30-
&.
w
1
20-
10-
/
/
/
/
i
" /
/
/ S
f
\
\
\
\
\
\
\^
\
. — —
L
\
\
Log-Normal Distribution
S
r, i , ,n--
50 100 150 200 250 300
Concentration (ug/m )
350
Figure 3-1
Typical Hi-Vol Frequency Distribution
San Bernardino (July 1971 - June 1973)
400
-------
SAN BERNARDINO( July 1971-June-1973)
100.
E
3.
10-
.u
5 1.
•
X*
X
X
/
^^
//
'
/
• ••
0 l6 20 40 60 80 98 99.9 99.99
Figure 3-2
Hi-Vol Cumulative Frequency Plot on Log Probability Paper
33
-------
and 1/2
in (s ) •
In c. - In m )
2
(3-2)
For purposes of this report, m will represent the annual geometric mean
3
of particulate concentrations in micrograms per cubic meter (yg/m ). Log
s , the slope of the log-normal line, will be used to estimate the maximum
expected concentrations measured in a given year as well as the number
of days exceeding a given standard.
For a plot such as Figure 3-2, the equation of a best fit straight
line has the form
In (c.) = In (mg) + z.ln (sg), (3-3)
or
c. = rn s zi (3-4)
i g g
Here, z. represents the number of standard deviations that c. occurs away
from the geometric mean. One standard deviation, (z. = +_ 1), would
represent the 84% or 16% points, m is estimated from the 50% point,
(z. = 0). Thus,
and
or
mg = c, (3-5)
In c84% = In m + (1) In (s ),
C84% C84%
The expected maximum value for n measurements is calculated by taking
a z value for (1-1/n) from a n o rma1 err or table, [49], i.e.
* Interpreted as the concentration -to be exceeded once per year.
34
-------
Values of z for 60, 70, 90, and 365 samples per year are 2.39, 2.45, 2.54,
and 2.99 respectively.
3.2 COMPARISON OF APCD, NASN, AND CHESS HI-VOL DATA
As noted previously, three principal sources of Hi-Vol data exist in
the Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region: the county APCD's
and the federal NASN and CHESS programs. The procedures used in each of
these monitoring programs are reviewed in Section 2.4. The present
section compares the data from these programs, discusses discrepancies,
and choses a specific data set to characterize air quality for the purposes
of this study..
Tables 3-2, 3-3, and 3-4 present recent annual geometric means for
Hi-Vol data reported by the APCD, NASN, and CHESS programs respectively.
Data are available for 28 APCD sites, 11 NASN sites, and 6 CHESS sites.
The most striking result of comparing the three data sets is that the
CHESS Hi-Vol values are considerably lower in each of the three counties
with CHESS stations. For instance, Los Angeles County data typically
fall in the range of 75 - 155 yg/m3 for APCD samples and 75 - 130 yg/m
for NASN samples. However, CHESS data in Los Angeles County appear in
the range of 50 - 100 yg/m . The most plausible reason for this dis-
crepancy is that the CHESS data are more representative of residential
areas rather than prime exposure areas. CHESS sites have been chosen
for a health study involving school children and are located in quiet,
suburban areas, [53].
35
-------
TABLE 3-2
HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS.FOR COUNTY APCD STATIONS
(ug/nr)
County
Los Angeles
Riverside
San Bernardino
Orange
Ventura
Santa Barbara
Station
Central LA
Lennox
W.Los Angeles
W.San Fernando
Valley(Reseda)
Azusa
Pasadena
Riverside
San Bernardino
Ontario
Redlands
Fontana
Rialto
Chi no
Upland
Anaheim
La Habra
Costa Mesa
Oxnard
Ojai
Santa Paula
Ventura
Camarillo
Port Hueneme
Simi Valley
Moore Park
Pt. Mugu
Thousand Oaks
»
Santa Barbara
1973
114
124
74
103
121
101
135°
85
88
89
111
153
118B
127
98
113
66
77
66
67
73
80
106
74
62
58
81
NA
1972
130
137
86
143
150
110
140°
108
110
96
136
170
194
-
105
120
67
77
66
76
66
73
97
-
-
-
-
66
1971
162
154
85
115 .
138C
106C
(136°)
117
111
94
100
130
178
-
85
114
-
71
73
-
69
90
-
-
-
-
-
60
1970
136
144 .
91
112
.
-
-
119
107
102
NA
139
NA
-
95
-
-
64
-
-
51
-
-
-
-
-
65
-
1969
154
150
99
117
_
-
-
. 91
134
94
NA
NA
172
-
105
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
92
-
1968
157
148
92
109
.
-
-
121
151
95
NA
151
163
-
95
-
-
.
-
-
•
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1967
145
139
71
135
_
-
-
123
122
133
109
NA
144
111
NA
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
A California ARB Data
B Station Moved from Airport do Downtown Chino after 1972
C Represents July to December only
D Calculated from raw data of Riverside APCD
36
-------
TABLE 3-3
HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR NASN STATIONS
County
Los Angeles
Riverside
San Bernardino
Orange
Station
Central LA
Pasadena
Burbank
Glendale
Long Beach
Torrance
Riverside
San Bernardino
Ontario
Anaheim
Santa Ana
1972
120
90
117
95
96
73
114*
135
117
103
96
1971
133
100
131
85
87
88
120
104
111
116
140
1970
125
111
123
87
95
86
119
118
116
114
127
1969
93
90
88
74
104
68
124
95
109
93
123
1968 1967
129 91
106
103
90 75
114 118
-
116
92 -
116
-
95
CO
* 3 Quarters only.
-------
TABLE 3-4
HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR CHESS STATIONS
CO
00
County
Los Angeles
Orange
Ventura
Station
Santa Monica
Glendora
West Covina
Anaheim
Garden Grove
Thousand Oaks
1973
67
48
64
67
63
35
1972
69
97
99
87
80
59
-------
A cursory examination of the APCD and NASN values cannot yield a
conclusion as to whether or not Hi-Vol values from these two programs are
significantly different. A statistical analysis is required to answer
the question of equivalency for these data. Below, both an "F" test and
"t" test are performed[50],[51]. The "F" statistic* yields an equivalency test
for the geometric standard deviations of the two data distributions. The
"t" statistic** provides an equivalency test for sample geometric means.
These tests are based on the assumptions that both sets of data are log-
normally distributed.
Table 3-5 lists data for geometric means and geometric standard
deviations for APCD and NASN Hi-Vols that are maintained at identical
locations. An "F" statistic test was performed on the standard deviations
* The "F" statistic is defined as
jog (sg2)]
2
where n-| and r\2 are the number of individual samples in the two data
sets and s , and s 2 are the cal n J ' ''
** The "t" statistic is defined by
log
log (mg1) - log (mg2)
where
log (s ) 21
log (sg)
log2 (sg1) log2 (sg2)
n
1
1/2
•39
-------
TABLE 3-5
't" TEST FOR EQUIVALENCE OF APCD AND NASN HI-VOL DATA
Note: tg5% =1.98
Central Los Angeles
Riverside
San Bernardino
Ontario
Anaheim
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
Combined
1967-1972
1970-1971
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
Combined
1968-1972
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
Combined
1968-1972
1969
1970
1971
1972
Combined
1969-1972
AGM
APCD NASN
145
157
154
136
162
130
D
147B
136
121
91
119
117
108
1116
151
134
107
in
110
121B
105
95
85
105
,,
91
129
93
125
133
120
114B
121
92
95
118
104
135
108B
116
109
116
111
117
114B
93
114
116
103
106B
s
g
APCD NASN
1.5A
ft
1.5*
1.43A
ft
1.68M
1.68A
1.7C
1.54
1.37
1.63
1.53
1.518
1.68
1.33
1.61
1.40
1.42
1.46
1.48B
1.49
1.82
1.96
1.85
1.77
1.49
1.77B
1.76
2.16
1.75
1.62
1.43
1.73B
1.62
1.30
1.50
1.37
1.44B
N
APCD NASN
70
70
70
70
70
70
420
71
60
60
60
60
60
300
60
60
60
60
60
300
90
90
90
90
360
24
24
24
24
24
24
144
48
24
24
24
24
24
120
24
24
24
24
24
120
24
24
24
24
96
t.
log
6.5
1.6
0.5
1.1
2.1
A Estimated from 1971 - 1973 log-probability plots
B Geometric values - all years data combined
C Assumed Value.
40
-------
for each location. The "F" test indicated that no significant differences
could be discerned in the APCD and NASN s 's (a 95% confidence limit was
y
required for a "significant difference").
The right hand side of Table 3-5 lists the results rof the "t" test
for equivalency of geometric means. The NASN data and the San Bernardino
County APCD data at Ontario and San Bernardino are statistically equiv-
alent, although the APCD values are slightly higher at both stations. The River-
side APCD mean is also higher than the NASN mean, but again, the difference is
not significant at the 95% confidence level. The Anaheim APCD data are lower than
the NASN data, and the difference is just over 95% significant. The one
location with an extremely significant discrepancy is downtown Los Angeles;
the Los Angeles County APCD values for downtown are around 25% higher than
NASN values.
The difference between NASN and APCD data at Anaheim may best be
assigned to less frequent calibrations of NASN Hi-Vols, [52]. The large
discrepancy at downtown Los Angeles could be due to differences in cali-
bration procedures and/or to the fact that the NASN Hi-Vol was operated as
a higher flow rate, [18].
Although all three Hi-Vol data bases will be used in this report,
the major emphasis will be placed data from the County APCD's in characterizing
air quality for the basin. The reasons for emphasizing APCD data rather
than NASN or CHESS data are the following:
• CHESS data tend to represent "clean urban" (quiet residential
area) concentrations and as such are considerably
lower than APCD data which in many cases represent "prime
exposure" areas. One of the major purposes of this report
41
-------
is to establish how Hi-Vol levels compare to the NAAQS for
particulates. The use of APCD data will give a more con-
servative comparison, (APCD data exceed the standards by
much more than CHESS data). The addition of the six CHESS
sites to the 28 APCD sites would add no further binding
constraints for designing control strategies to meet the
air quality standards.
APCD samples are taken more frequently (60 - 90 days per
year) than NASN samples (24 days per year); they thus
provide a better statistical data base. APCD Hi-Vols are
usually standardized more frequently than NASN samples.
There is a shorter time period between sampling and
weighing for APCD samples. Also, several NASN sites are
higher above ground than recommended.
For the areas with the highest Hi-Vol recordings,
(Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and Riverside Counties),
the APCD results appear somewhat higher than NASN
results, (the difference is statistically very sign-
iffcant only at downtown Los Angeles). Thus, the
APCD results will give a more conservative comparison
of Hi-Vol levels to the federal particulate standards.
The addition of the 11 NASN sites to the 28 APCD sites
would not add further constraints on the degree of
reduction required in control strategies.
42
-------
3.3 FREQUENCY PLOTS FOR REPRESENTATIVE APCD STATIONS
Figures 3-3A through 3-3Q give cumulative frequency distributions
of APCD Hi-Vol data, plotted on log-probability paper. The data are
intended to be representative of 1972 levels; 1972 will be the base
year for the particulate control strategy to be developed in later
reports. Actually, to provide a larger statistical base, data were
used from July 1971 to June 1973. Plots are presented for the twelve
locations listed below:
Los Angeles County
Panel A Lennox
Panel B Downtown Los Angeles
Panel C West San Fernando Valley (Reseda)
Panel D West Los Angeles
Panel E Pasadena
Panel F Azusa
Orange County
Panel G La Habra
Panel H Anaheim
Ventura County
Panel P Oxnard
San Bernardino County
Panel I San Bernardino
Panel J Ontario
Panel K Rialto
Panel L Chino
Riverside County
Panel M, N, 0 Riverside
Rubidoux
Santa Barbara County
Panel 0 Santa Barbara
In each case, straight lines have been drawn to fit the raw dis-
tributional data. In certain cases, such as West Los Angeles, La Habra,
and Anaheim, a straight line fits the data very well, indicating a
nearly log-normal distribution. In other cases, particularly Azusa
43
-------
LENNOX
Panel A
1000
win
finn
400
?nn
inn -
on .
en .
dfl-
on .
10
1000
100
10 .
)5 1.
^
s^
) id
•
^
2
S*
^
) 4
m
^
D 6(
JNTO^
-------
UEST SAN FERNANDO VALLEY
Panel C
CO
uuu —
•> 100
10.
L
10 _
.0$ 1.
.05 1.
x"
•
.^
x
4 10' 2
^f
0 1C
Figu
_f*»
^^
2
re C
<^
X
X
~x^ •
X
X
45 65 80 98 99.9 99'. 99
WEST LOS ANGELES a"e
^
D 40
5-3 -
^^
60
CO
x*^*^
^
80 9
itinued
^^0
^
3 99
^^
9 i
»^
9.99
-------
1000
PASADENA
Panel E
O)
a.
100
10
1000
.05 10 10 20 40 60 80
AZUSA
99.9 99.99
Panel F
E
•^
i
100
10
t
05 1.
•
0 1
D 2
^
0 4^
x^
6C
^
8
\ 9
^
8 99
^
.9 9S
.99
Figure 3-3 - continued
46
-------
1000
LA HABRA
Panel G
100.
10.
.05 1.0 10 20 40 60 80
ANAHEIM
98 99.9 99.99
Panel H
IUU —
inn
in
-
•
5 1
•
x""^
X"
^
0 10 20 40 60 80 98
Figure 3-3 - continued
^
^
^
99.9 99.99
47
-------
Panel I
„ SAN BERNARDINO( July 1971 -June -1973
inn
in
.0
5 1.
0 1
•
\ 2
X
0 4
0 6
X
/
0 80 9
X
3 99
LXX
9 99.99
1000
ONTARIO
Panel J
100
in,
I "
.(
K 1.
s*
0 1C
^
•
2
^
»
0 40
*,
6
ttS1^
0 8C
• x"
^
9!
^
3 9S
/
).9 9
X
9.9
Figure 3-3 - continued
48
-------
RIALTO
Panel K
CO
100
10
•
5 1
X
/
'.0 K
X
) .2
X
0 4
X
0 6
x
0 £
^X
x
*0 98
• X^
/
99
X
9 99
.99
CHI NO
Panel L
100
10
.05 1
/
X
x
X
x'
X
x
X
.0 10 20 40 60 80 98
x
s
99.9 99
.99
Figure 3-3 - continued
.49
-------
1000
Panel M
RIVERSIDEtJan. 1970-Dec. 1971KDowntown)
ioa
10
.05 1.0 10 20 40 60 80 98 99.9 99.99
Figure 3-3 - continued
50
-------
Panel
RIVERSIDEM972 ) (Downtown and Rubidoux)
100
1 ' -
ln
X
-
^^
.X"
•
x^
Sf
x^
X
X^
.Ofe 1.0 10 20 40 60 60 9f
S
s
3 99.9 99
Panel 0
.99
ina
i rv
.05 1
•
x
r
/
• _>
s
^
s
/
i
0 10 20 40 60 80 98 99.9 99.9
Figure 3-3 - continued
51
-------
1000
100-
10-
1000.
OXNARD
Panel P
.05 TO 10 20 40 60 80
SANTA BARBARA
997
999
799
Panel Q
100-
10-
.05 1.0 10 20 40 60 80
Percent
Figure 3-3 - continued
98
99.9 99.99
52
-------
and Riverside, the data appear to follow a concave type curve. In
these cases, a straight line was fitted to the higher readings to
allow projection of maximal Hi-Vol levels.
Table 3-6 summarizes the main results which can be derived from
the distribution plots. The reader is refered to Section 3.1 for a
discussion of statistical methodology. First, Table 3-6 gives a
listing of the cumulative frequency distribution (the percent of
time various Hi-Vol levels are exceeded). The parameter m is the
annual geometric mean as estimated from the plots, (Cg™). Sg is the
geometric standard deviation. Cocc is the expected yearly maximal
Hi-Vol reading, assuming sampling is done every day. c7Q is the
expected yearly maximal Hi-Vol reading, assuming that current practices
of approximately 70 samples per year are followed. Values for each of
these parameters are presented in Table 3-6 for all twelve locations.
The sections which follow will compare and discuss the actual
Hi-Vol levels for these and other locations in the Los Angeles Region.
Section 3.4 will discuss annual geometric means. Section 3.5 will deal
with 24 hour maximal levels.
53
-------
TABLE 3-6
STATISTICAL PARAMETERS FOR HI-VOL DISTRIBUTIONS
AT TWELVE LOS ANGELES REGION SITES, 1972
CENTRAL L.A.
f* f\ti\ r* i «
CONC ng/m
50
100
150
175
200
218
236
249
r =414
L365 4K
C?0 = 336
Mq = 129
Sg = 1.48
WEST SAN3FERN.
CONC ng/m
50
100
150
175
200
225
250
278
302
,
C365 = 446
C7g = 356
Mq = 128
Sg = 1.52
%
2.1
26
61
79
90
92.0
94.2
96.4
VALLEY
7.9
31
64
78
86
89
94.2
96.4
97.8
LENNOX
CONC nq/m
50
100
150
175
200
217
226
259
C365 = 340
C70 = 290
Mq = 134
Sg = 1.37
%
12
12
65
81
90.9
93.1
95.2
97.2
AZUSA
CONC nq/m %
50
100
150
175
200
225
250
255
272
280
C365 = 38°
— \S V ^J _ — —
C7Q = 323
Mg = 150
Sg = 1.37
4.2
25
55
63
74
83
91.7
93.0
95.1
97.2
WEST L.A.
CONC ng/m
50
75
100
125
127
132
140
C365 = 200
C70 = 172
M = 84
S^ = 1.34
Jt
%
5.7
37
73
91.5
92.9
95.0
97.2
PASADENA
CONC MQ/m %
50
100
150
175
183
187
C365 = 247
C70 = 210
Mq = 108
Sg = 1.32
2.8
38
84
93.6
95.0
97.2
-------
TABLE 3-6 - continued
en
ANAHEIM
Q
CONC ng/nT
50
100
150
175
176
210
C365 = 29°
Cgo = 240
M =95
g
Sg = 1.46
ONTARIO
CONC ug/m3
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
213
249
275
C365 = 360
C7Q = 270
M = 112
g
Sn = 1.52
g
*
2.8
54
87
96.7
97.22
98.3
%
14
26
40
58
70
86
92.3
94.5
96.7
98.9
LA HABRA
-»
CONC fig/rn
50
100 .
150
175
200
225
250
270
301
C365 = 460
Cgo = 360
M = 116
9
Sg = 1.59
R I ALTO
CONC fjg/m3
50
100
150
200
250
300
324
350
432
463
610
C365 = 78°
C?0 = 550
Mn =174
9
S = 1 . 72
9
%
2.3
37
74
86
90.9
93.1
94.9
96.0
97.7'
*
7.6 '
27
38
59
72
79
85
90.2
95.7
97.8
98.9
SAN BERNARDINO
•3
CONC /jg/nr
50
100
150
175
200
225
250
284
317
C365 = 540
C70 = 411
M = 116
g
Sg = 1.68
CHI NO
CONC fjg/m3
100
150
200
250
300
324
345
404
533
768
C365 = 110°
C7Q = 710
M = 200
9
S = 1 . 78
g
*
16
46
69
76
87
91.1
92.6
94.8
97.0
%
15
31
46
66
78
82
87
91.2
95.6
98.9
-------
TABLE 3-6 - continued
RIVERSIDE
CONC jug/m3 %
1973
50 7.8
100 30
1 50 56
200 71
250 83
299 95.5
C365 = 620
C7Q = 470
Mn = 140
g
Sn = 1.67
g
OXNARD
CONC jug/m3 %
50 15
100 78
150 98.1
C365 = 20°
C7Q = 166
Mn = 76
g
Sn = 1.38
g
SANTA BARBARA
CONC ug/m3 %
50 23
100 90.5
150 98.3
C365 =200
C7Q - 164
Mn = 64
g
Sn =1.47
g
on
Ov
-------
3.4 HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR
QUALITY CONTROL REGION: ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FOR
BASE YEAR 1972
The previous section presented Hi-Vol frequency distributions for
twelve stations in the Los Angeles Region. These distributions were
derived'from individual 24-hour APCD data for the period July 1971 to
June 1973. Annual geometric means (AGM's) representative of 1972 were
calculated from these distributions and were presented in Table 3-6.
To check that July 1971 - June 1973 was not an extremely unusual
meteorological period for Hi-Vol geometric means, the AGM's which were
calculated from the distribution are compared to historical values in
Table 3-7. Table 3-7 indicates that the calculated AGM's are generally
in agreement with historical values. The only possible exceptions are
the following:
« 1972 was an unusually high year for Hi-Vol data at Reseda
(and possibly Azusa). The AGM's calculated from the July 1971
to June 1973 distribution may be slightly higher than what
would be expected for more typical meteorology. The more
3
typical Reseda AGM may be in the 110 - 125 yg/m range rather
3
than the calculated 128 yg/m . The data base for Azusa is
very limited, (monitoring began in July 1971). The calculated
3
Azusa AGM of 150 yg/m may be slightly higher than typical values.
« 1972 and 1973 gave atypically low values for Hi-Vol data in
downtown Los Angeles. This may be due to control implementation
but may also be due to unusual meteorology. If the latter is
3
the case, the calculated AGM of 129 yg/m would be a low estimate;
a value in the 140 to 155 yg/m range might be more appropriate
for downtown LO~S-Angeles.
.57
-------
TABLE 3-7
COMPARISON OF HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS FROM
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS TO PAST MONITORING HISTORY
HI-VOL ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MEANS (ug/mj)
en
CO
County
Los Angeles
San Bernardino
Riverside
Orange
Oxnard
Santa Barbara
Station
Central L.A.
Lennox
W. Los Angeles
W. San Fernando
Valley (Reseda)
Azusa
Pasadena
San Bernardino
Ontario
Real to
Chi no
Riverside
Anaheim
La Habra
Oxnard
Santa Barbara
Calculated from
Distribution for
6/1971 - 6/1973
129
134
84
128
150
108
116
112
174
200
140
95
116
76
64
1973
114
124
74
103
121
101
85
99
163
-
135
98
113
77
NA
1972
130
137
86
143
150
110
108
no
176
212
140
105
120
77
66
Yearly Measured AGM
1971 1970 1969 1968 1967
162 136 154 157 145
154 144 150 148 139
85 91 99 92 71
115 112 117 109 135
138A - ...
106A - ...
117 119 91 121
124 109 135
136 117 112
191 - 172 163
136B
85 95 105 95
114
71 64 . - . . , .
60 NA
Federal Primary Standard 75 ug/nr.
Federal Secondary Standard 60 ug/m .
A
B
Represents July to December Only.
Represents 1970 and 1971 combined geometric mean.
-------
The annual geometric means for the twelve Los Angeles Region
Stations listed in Table 3-7 are plotted oh a map in Figure 3-4.
Chino and Rialto yielded unusually high annual Hi-Vol levels of
3 3
200 ug/m and 174 ug/m (AGM) respectively. Preliminary investigations
of the cause of these exceptional values has been conducted by the San
Bernardino APCD, [58]. This investigation pointed out that the Chino .
and Rialto stations were directly in line with the large Kaiser Steel-
Edison Electric complex for the typical sea-land breeze wind pattern.
The high Rialto and Chino values appear to reflect the local importance
of that major emission source.
For comparison with the above data, 1972, Hi-Vol AGM values for
NASN, CHESS, and Ventura APCD (other than Oxnard) stations are mapped in
Figure 3-5. These data are generally lower than the APCD data in
Figure 3-4. As noted in Section 3.2, the CHESS sites are in quiet,
isolated, suburan areas. The CHESS stations tend to measure urban
background particulate levels rather than the levels found in urban
centers. The discrepancies between NASN and APCD data were also
discussed in Section 3.2.
59
-------
01
o
Figure 3-4. Expected Annual Geometric Mean Hi-Vol Levels
for the 1972 Base Year
-------
CTl
CAL Air Resources Board Data
Non Symbol means NASN Data
Figure 3-5
Expected Annual Geometric Means for Suspended Particulate Matter
in the Los Angeles Basin for Base Period 1972
(NASN and CHESS Data)
-------
3.5 HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL
REGION: EXPECTED MAXIMAL 24 HOUR LEVELS FOR THE BASE YEAR 1972
Section 3.3 derived expected yearly maximal 24 hour Hi-Vol levels
at twelve Los Angeles Region stations from frequency distributions
based on data from the period July 1971 to June 1973. These data are
mapped in Figure 3-6. As a check on these results, the statistically
derived expected yearly maximum are compared to historical values in
Table 3-8. In the table, C7Q is the calculated expected yearly 24
hour maximum, assuming 70 samples are taken per year (current APCD
procedures). The actual APCD measured maxima are listed for the years
1966 to 1973; NASN data are included for a comparison. C3g5 in the
table is the calculated yearly maximum assuming that samples would be taken
every day.
A cursory examination of Table 3-8 indicates that the calculated
expected maxima in Los Angeles County, (C^Q. based on the 7/71-6/73
distributions), appear to be somewhat lower than the typical observed
yearly maxima. This is especially true if the 20 August 1973 data are
o
included, (on that day maximas ranging from 233-686 ^g/m occurred in
Los Angeles County). To check this conclusion Table 3-9 compares the
calculated C™ to the average measured maxima for 1969-1973. Table 3-9
reveals a consistent underestimate of the yearly maxima in Los Angeles
County. This inconsistency could be due any of three factors: (1) the
7/71-6/73 distributions for Los Angeles County were not representative
at greater Hi-Vol levels because of unusual meteorology, (2) the
projection of the Los Angeles County distributions at the high end was
not well represented by a straight line, or (3) the actual maximas from
1969 to 1973 were atypically high and were not representative of the
62
-------
en
CO
1
Figure 3-6. Expected 24-Hour Max. Hi-Vol Levels for the 1972 Base Year
(for the present APCD Monitoring Frequency)
-------
200
ioo4-
Glendale (NASN)
200
1004-
1968
Chino (APCD)
/5* «J /2<
III
1969
1971
1972
en
200
1004-
ws
Burbank (NASN)
200
100+
Azusa (APCD)
I
ll
200
lOOt I
Reseda (APCD)
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
200
lOOt
1969
Pasadena (APCD)
1970
1971
1972
1973
Figure 3-7
Suspended Particulate Quarterly Geometric Means
-------
200
ioa.
1 o.
200
100+
Torrance (NASN)
200
100..
0 .
200
Santa Ana (NASN)
Lennox (APCD)
100+
Anaheim (NASN)
200
lOOt
Central L.A. (APCD)
200
lOOf
Long Beach (NASN)
1969 1970 1971 1972 1973
1969 1970
1971 1972 1973
Figure 3-7 - Continued
-------
Rialto (APCD)
200
TOO--
\
T
200
TOO--
Ontario (APCD)
200r-
Redlands (APCD)
200
100-
Riverside (NASN)
i
200r-
100--
San Bernardino (APCD)
200
TOO"
Fontana (APCD)
1969
1970 1971 1972 1973
1969 1970 1971 1972
Figure 3-7 - Continued
-------
200 ,-
100 +
Rialto (APCD)
200
100+
Ontario (APCD)
en
200r
100 +
Redlands (APCO)
200
lOOf
Riverside (NASN)
200r-
100 +
San Bernardino (APCD)
1969
1970
1971
1972
200r
100+
1973
1969
1970
Fontana (APCD)
1971
1972
Figure 3-7- Continued
-------
cr>
oo
200,
1001
Torrance (NASN)
Olg
200,
200
1004.
0
200
Santa Ana (NASN)
Lennox (APCD)
lOOf
Anaheim (NASN)
200,
OLE
Central L.A. (APCD)
200
lOOf
Long Beach (NASN)
1969 1970 1971 1972 1973
1969
1970 1971 1972 1973
Figure 3-7 - Continued
-------
200 r
100 +
200
100+
Glendale (NASN)
Burbank (NASN)
200
100 +
OL
200
100+
J
1968
1969
1971
1972
Azusa (APCD)
200
lOOt
Reseda (APCD)
1969 1970
1971
1972
1973
200
100 +
1969
Pasadena (APCD)
1970
1971
1972
1973
Figure 3-7
Suspended Particulate Quarterly Geometric Means
-------
TABLE 3-8
YEARLY MAXIMAL HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
County Station
Los Angeles Central L. A.
Lennox
West L.A.
W. San Per Valley
Azusa
Pasadena
Orange Anaheim
La Habra
San Bernardino San Bernardino
Ontario
Ri al to
Chi no
Riverside Riverside APCD
Oxnard Oxnard
Santa Barbara Santa Barbara
CJQ Calculated
7/71 to 6/73
APCD 336
NASN
APCD 290
APCD 172
APCD 356
APCD 323
APCD 210
APCD 240
NASN
APCD 360
APCD 411
NASN
APCD 275
APCD 550
APCD 710
APCD 395
NASN
APCD 166
APCD 147
1973
412(386)A
262
233(134)?
536(307)*
686(298)7
624(205)A
345
252
360
455
620
402
370
176
NA
1972
310
604
358
177
350
315
207
259
260
301
437
308
342
610
768
359
242
166
NA
1971
408
275
367
227
450
430
240
294
325
356
419
241
211
247
333
609 R
(366)B
241
149
NA
1970
365
203
356
250
312
-
357
224
-
-
314
230
276
248
246
314
114
1969
375
280
291
322
480
-
—
266
261
-
-
245
391
462
600
—
245
•~
1968
295
281
198
190
-
—
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
—
~
—
1967
327
289
224
332
-'
—
-
-
-
-
_
-
•
t
Calculated ;
C365
414
340
200
446
—
290
460
540
360
780
1100
499
200
200
--J
o
A
The number in parenthesis is the next highest day in 1973. All high values from the L.A. APCD in 1973 occurred
in the same unusually high day, 20 August 1973. On 20 August 1973 a rare meteorological condition occurred with
extremely high winds (up to 100 miles per hour) blowing in the South-East desert area for a short time. It has
been postulated that these winds carried dust into the Los Angeles Basin where settling accounted for extreme
Hi-Vol levels, [64].
The next highest value in 1971.
-------
TABLE 3-9
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED 24 HOUR MAXIMA TO
AVERAGE YEARLY MAXIMA FROM 1969 - 1973
.
.
County Station
Los Angeles Central L.A.
Lennox
West L.A.
W. San Fer. Valley
Azusa
Pasadena
Orange Anaheim
La Habra
San Bernardino San Bernardino
Ontario
Ri al to
Chi no
Riverside Riverside
Ventura Oxnard
a Data available only from 1971 to
U n -N 4- -^ -ktf\41^U"ls\ s\in*1>> -Pvt/^m 1 O "7H -4-r\
CyQ Distribution
from Distribution
7/71 - 6/73
336
290
172
356
323
210
240
360
411
275
550
710
395
166
1973.
1QT3
Average of Yearly
APCD Maxima0
1969 - 1973
369
327
222
380
348a
21 7a
304
303a
405
326
443
470
396b
151b
Excludes data on August 20, 1973 in Los Angeles County.
71
-------
the expected maxima. It is not certain which of these factors prevail.
This problem will be discussed further in Section 4.0 where the typical
basin-wide maximum will be characterized.
The following two sections will try to provide some insight into
the meteorology associated with high particulate readings. Section 3.5.1
will discuss seasonal Hi-Vol patterns at various locations. Section
3.5.2 will provide data on specific episodes of exceptional |arnbient
particulate levels.
3.5.1 Seasonal Pattern of Total Particulate Concentrations
Figure 3-7 presents the quarterly Hi-Vol geometric means at 18
Loa Angeles Region stations for the period 1969 to 1971. These
quarterly plots give a rough indication of seasonal particulate mass dis-
tribution. The seasonal distributions fluctuate considerably from
year to year because of the statistical limitations involving the
few number of Hi-Vol measurements taken each season. However, a close
examination of the data reveals the following conclusions:
• The stations in the southwest part of the basin near
the coast (Torrance, Lennox, Downtown Los Angeles,
Reseda, Anaheim, Santa Ana, and Long Beach) tend to
have high values in the winter, typically during the
first quarter.
• The stations in the central valleys (Glendale, Burbank
and Pasadena) do not appear to exhibit strong sea-
sonal patterns.
• The stations in the inland eastern-most parts of the
basin (Azusa, Chino, Rialto, Ontario, Riverside,
Redlands, San Bernardino, and Fontana) tend to have
high readings in the summer and fall months, typically
the third quarter.
These qualitative conclusions are very consistent with known facts
about particulate origins, meteorology, and pollution distributions in
the Los Angeles Region. The Los Angeles aerosol is composed of both
72
-------
primary (directly emitted) particulate and secondary (formed in the
atmosphere by chemical-physical processes) particulate. The.primary
and secondary sources are of the same order of magnitude, (Report #3
of this project will discuss the relative contribution of various
sources in detail). Now, it is known that primary contaminants (e.g.
CO) reach maximal levels in the southwest portion of the basin and
that the highest levels occur during the winter. It is also known
that photochemical smog, a principle source of secondary contaminants,
is most intense in the inland (downwind) portions of the basin and
that summer-fall is the "in-season" for photochemical pollution. The
high values for particulate in the southwest basin during the
winter appear to reflect the importance of the primary aerosol,
(particularly to coastal areas). The high summer-fall values for
particulate in the eastern basin reflect the importance of the
secondary aerosol, (particularly to the eastern area). The fact that
the intermediate, central valley stations demonstrate no strong
seasonal pattern suggests a close overall balance there between primary and
secondary contributions. This evidence does not imply that the western
basin has very little secondary aerosol nor that the eastern basin has
very little primary aerosol; it just an indication of the overall
balance between the two particulate sources and the trend for secondary
pollutants to become relatively more important in downwind areas.
3.5.2 Analysis of Recent Particulate Episodes
To shed further light on the types of days associated with maximal
Hi-Vol levels, data were compiled concerning specific particulate
episodes. Table 3-10 lists data on eight episodes which have occurred
during the 1970's in the west-coastal portions of the basin, (Los Angeles
73
-------
TABLE 3-10
PARTICULATE EPISODES IN THE WEST-CENTRAL
BASIN DURING THE 1970's
Date
01-21-70 1
Central L.A.
Lennox
West L.A.
WSFV
Anaheim (1-22-70)
11-18-70
Central
West L.A.
11-09-71
Central
Lennox
West L.A.
WSFV
Azusa
02-17-72
Central
WSFV
Azusa
02-13-72
Azusa
WSFV
Pasadena
08-10-72
WSFV
Azusa
08-20-73
I
Central
Azusa
WLA
WSFV
Pasadena
Cone.
/jg/m3
365
245
250
312
324
310
200
305
277
223
218
415
295
280
320
280
350
204
300
290
412
686
223
536
624
so=
45
32
36
28
43
22 I
13.0;
40
1.8:
36
27
44
1
35 !
26 !
30 |
27 :
36 :
26 \
\
24 '•
27 '
'72.7
6.3
27
12
NO"
21
3.1
3.8
5.3
50
31
14.4
24
2.5
10
10
43
19
18
26
34
27
21
22
20
-
Pb
5.8
2.9
5.4
16.6
NA
12
12
11
9
12
11
10
9
13
8
8
15
6
4
5
2
3
6
: 3
i
OX CO
(PPM)
.03 26
.03 21
.04 18
.14 22
.04 10
.04 28
.07 24
<.08 24
.08 32
.10 19
.07 33
.19 13
NA 11
.16 17
.15 10
.05 13
.06 29
.05 11
.17 4
.24 5
.09 13
.05 4
.03 10
.08 9
.06 8
Weather & Comments
Low oxident, high humidity, morning
surface inversion, overcast day
Forecast - Night & morning low clouds
and fog, hazy afternoon sunshine
Forecast - Orange County: Dense fog
through midmorn(s)
Low oxident, tail end of a period of
morning surface inversions
Forecast - Strong gusty winds in foot-
hill & valley areas, moderate wind
over most of basin
i
Low oxidant, low inversion ;
Forecast - night & morning low clouds,
fog, hazy sunshine in afternoon
Low-medium oxidant, low inversion, •
night and morining low clouds & fog.
Low oxidant, high CO, low inversion
for wintertime, high humidity, night
and morning low clouds & fog
Medium oxidant, low inversion in i
morning, hazy afternoon sunshine
Low oxidant, surface inversion, morning
inversion nights had been lowering for
several days, cloudy. Followed a long
smog period.
74
-------
and Orange Counties). Measured Hi-Vol levels are listed for stations
which experienced exceptional levels, (relative to that station). Also
given are particulate composition data, oxidant levels, maximal CO one hour
concentrations, and a weather brief, (obtained from the National Weather
Service).
Table 3-10 reveals that six of the eight episodes in the west-coastal
area occurred during the winter. This corroborates the conclusion of
the previous section that Hi-Vol levels reach a maximum in this ares
during the winter season. A low inversion consistently occurred on
the six days. There also appears to be high humidity on all days but
one. Oxidant values are low and CO values are high.
The low inversions, high CO levels, and low OX levels appear to
indicate that primary particulates are probably the major source for
these episodes. This conclusion is supported by atypically high
lead levels, (see Report $3, for average Pb values). However, the
presence of high humidity and large amounts of sulfate (SO^') and
nitrate (N03~) may imply that non-photochemical secondary aerosol is
also important on these days. The interaction of water vapor with
S02, N02, and ammonia is a very plausible source of high sulfate and
nitrate components in the aerosol, [63].
The other two episodes in the west-coastal basin occurred in
August. The relatively low CO and Pb levels do not point toward
primary particulate sources. Photochemical aerosol may have been
dominant on these days. 8-10-72 exhibited medium oxidant, and
although 8-20-73 had low oxidant, it followed a period of intense
photochemical smog.
75
-------
Table 3-11 presents data on recent particulate episodes in the
eastern part of the basin at San Bernardino. Hi-Vol composition data
are not available for these episodes.* There does not appear to be a
strong, consistent pattern in these data. The episode days do not" necessarily
occur in the summer-fall months as did the quarterly maximums. The
fall and winter high days are accompanied by low oxidant and strong
inversions as in the case of the west-coastal basin. The spring "highs"
of 1973 may be associated with photochemical activity. There is a
possibility that these episodes are due to the influence of local
industrial sources. This could account for the lack of overall pattern
since the important weather variable might just be wind direction.
* The San Bernardino APCD performs chemical analysis on quarterly com-
posites only.
76
-------
TABLE 3-11
PARTICULATE EPISODES IN THE SAN BERNARDINO AREA
1971 to 1973
Date
10-14-71
10-27-71
01-21-72
03-07-72
03-13-72
04-26-73
05-22-73
06-16-73
(Cone.)
3
313
413
341
317
437
284
245
360
ox
One Hour
PPM
.11
.04
.02
.05
.06
.21
.20
.16
CO
Max.
8
18
15
9
10
4
6
4
Weather & Comments
i
Medium-low oxidant, low level
inversion
Low oxidant, cloudy day
Low oxidant, strong winter
inversion
Low oxidant, cloudy
Low oxidant, average inversion
Medium oxidant, inversion lift-
ing
Medium oxidant, inversion fall-
ing
Medium oxidant, tail end of an
inversion period
77
-------
4.0 CHARACTERIZATION OF HI-VOL LEVELS IN THE
METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY
CONTROL REGION
Sections 3.4 and 3.5 summarized base year (1972) Hi-Vol levels in
the Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. Figures 3-4
and 3-5 presented data on annual geometric means. Figure 3-6 gave
results for expected yearly 24 hour maxima. The measured Hi-Vol
levels will be discussed and analyzed below with particular attention
given to a comparison with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Figures 3-4 through 3-6 reveal that Hi-Vol levels do not follow
a consistent large scale spatial pattern throughout the basin. It is
true that coastal (generally upwind) areas and Ventura and Santa Barbara
Counties are consistently lower in measured particulate levels. However,
the inland stations show no well defined pattern and it is not possible to
draw meaningful pollution contour maps to the Hi-Vol data at the present
level of spatial resolution (over 30 sites). For instance, in the
eastern Los Angeles County - western San Bernardino County region,
within a radius of about 10 miles, the following scatter of AGM's is
reported:
Azusa 150 ng/m3 (Los Angeles APCD)
Glendora 97 ^ig/m3 (CHESS)
West Co. vina 99 ng/m3 (CHESS)
o
Ontario 110 pg/m (San Bernardino APCD)
Chi no 194 pg/m3 (San Bernardino APCD)
The explanation for this lack of general spatial pattern involves the.
origins of the Los Angeles aerosol. A significant portion of suspended partic-
ulates are primary parti culates, (emitted as an aerosol). It is known that for
primary contaiminants, such as carbon monoxide, that measured levels can be very
78
-------
sensitive to the location of the monitoring instrument; significant
local distortions in ambient levels are produced by nearby sources.
Thus, an explanation for the discrepancy between Glendora and Chino
is that the Glendora site is located in an isolated suburban area,
while IChino is influenced by strong primary sources (probably the
Kaiser-Edison complex) in the western San Bernardino area, {57], [58]. A
similar situation exists in the southwest coastal area of Los Angeles
County. Lennox, downwind of a power plant, refinery, and airport and near a busy
3
intersection, shows an AGM of 134 /jg/m while more "out of the way"
stations at Santa Monica, Torrance, and West Los Angeles yield only
69, 73, and 84 jjg/m respectively.
Some of the aerosol is secondary in nature, (formed by transformation
of gaseous pollutants). It might be expected that this part of the aerosol
would follow more consistent large scale patterns. For the secondary
gaseous pollutant, oxidant, researchers have shown that fairly well
defined contour maps can be drawn. However, it appears for particu-
lates that the material of primary origin produces local fluctuations
which conceal any general spatial pattern.
Another reason for the lack of pattern could be inconsistencies in
monitoring techniques. Section 3.3 pointed out that NASN and APCD data
at the same location are sometimes significantly different. Discre-
pancies in sampling procedures at different sites undoubtedly do produce
some fluctuations; however, the major reason for the spatial variations
would seem to be the influence of local sources as discussed above.
As seen in Figures 3-4 through 3.6, the federal secondary air
3 3
quality standards (60 |ug/m annual average and 150 Mg/m 24 hr. maximum)
are presently violated at all monitoring sites in the Los Angeles Re-
gion (except for the CHESS site at Thousand Oaks). Nearly all sites in
79
-------
Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties also violate
o
the primary annual standard (75 ng/m , AGM). The only exceptions are
3 3
Torrance (73 |jg/m NASN), Santa Monica (69 Mg/m CHESS), and Costa Mesa
3 - 3
(67 ng/m Orange APCD). The maximum AGM value occurs at Chino (200 jug/m ),
with Rialto second at 174 ng/m . About 2/3 of the stations in the four
county sub-area report values in the 95-140 ptg/m range. Ventura County
AGM values tend to fall very near to the primary standard.* Santa Barbara
(64 Mg/m ) is below the primary annual standard.
The expected maximum 24 hour values have been calculated only for
12 stations due to data availability. Indications are that 24 hour
o
maxima fall well below the primary standard (260 ug/m ) in Ventura and
o
Santa Barbara Counties. In the four county area, Chino (710 ug/m ),
Rialto (550 ug/m3), Riverside 470 ug/m ) , and San Bernardino (411 ug/m3)
show particularly high values above the 24 hour standard. As noted in
Section 3.5, the method used to estimate expected maxima appears to give
o
low values for Los Angeles County data. Maxima around 375 ug/m would be
a more conservative estimate for the highest L.A. County station, (See
Table 3-9).
For the purposes of control strategy formulation, it is useful to
determine an overall measured level of parti cul ate mass that characterizes the
basin. The object of control policy is then to reduce this level to the
air quality standards. Of course, since there is such great spatial
variation in aerosol mass, no one level really characterizes the entire
basin. A number of characteristic levels for several subareas thus
. — ' O
* The only exception is Port Hueneme (97 ug/m ); the probable major
source there is sea salt.
80
-------
seems appropriate. In choosing an explicit number of areas a balance
should be struck between simplicity and realism. The fewer the subareas
the easier it is to formulate, implement, and administer a control
program. The greater the number of areas, the more specific and
efficient the control program.
Tentatively, a three-area classification of Hi-Vol levels is proposed
(See Figure 4-1). Table 4-1 lists the three areas along with the character
istic maximal AGM's and 24 hour extrema. It should be emphasized th-..t the
characteristic values in Table 4-1 are not the typical values for the
area but rather the expected high values among all sites in the area.
These characteristic expected maximal values are approximate; the numbers
are rounded to reflect their approximate nature.
TABLE 4-1
CHARACTERISTIC MAXIMAL HI-VOL LEVELS FOR THREE SUBAREAS OF THE
METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
(FOR BASE YEAR 1972)
Area
A-Ventura and Santa
Barbara Counties
B-Los Angeles, Orange,
San Bernardino, and
Riverside Counties
(except area C below)
C-East San Bernardino
County "Hot-Spot"
Characteristic Maximal
AGM
Primary Standard 75 pig/m
Secondary Standard 60 ug/m
80 /jg/m
150 ng/m
200 ng/m
Characteristic Maximal
24 Hour Extremum
Primary Standard 260 Mg/m
Secondary Standard 150 ug/m
180
470
710 ug/m
81
-------
00
ro
Figure 4-1 Sub-Areas for Control Strategy Formulation
-------
REFERENCES
1. Jutze, G. A., and Foster, K.E., "Recommended Standard Method for
Atmospheric Sampling of Fine Participate Matter by Filter-Media/
High Volume Sampling," Air Pollution Control Association J., 17 (1),
p 17 (1967).
2. Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, Intersociety Committee,
American Public Health Association, Inc., p 365 (1972).
3 "Guideline for the Development of a Quality Assurrance Program for
High-Volume Sampl ing," U. S. Environmental Protection Agency R4-73-028b,
June 1973, p 25.
4. IBID (3) p 26.
5. IBID, p 66.
6. Robson, C.D., and Foster, K.E., "Evaluation of Air Particulate Sampling
Equipment,11 Am. Ind. Hygiene Assoc. J., 23, p 404-410 (.1962).
7. Op. Cit. (3) p 70
8. Op. Cit. (3) p 66.
9. "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," U.S. Dept. of Health,
Education and Welfare, Jan. 1969, p 19.
10. Pate, J.B., Tabor, E.C., "Analytical Aspects of the Use of Glass Fiber
Filters for Collection and Analysis of Atmospheric Particulate Matter,"
Am. Ind. Hygiene Assoc. J., 23, 144 0962).
11. Op. Cit.(3) p 35.
12. Mueller, P.K., "Selection of Filter Media: An Annotated Outline,"
13th Conf. Methods On Air Pollution and Industrial Hygiene, Univ. of
Calif, at Berkeley, October 30-31, 1972.
13. Lee, R.E., and Wagman, J., "A Sampling Anomaly In the Determination of
Atmospheric Sulfates," Am. Ind. Hygiene Assoc. J., Vol. 27: 266-71
(1966).
14. Burton, R.M., et al, "Field Evaluation of Hi-Volume Particulate Fractionating
Cascade Impactor,"65th Annual Meeting of Air Pollution Control Association,
June 18-22 (1972), Miami Beach, Florida;
15. Hidy, et al, "Characterization of Aerosols in California (ACHE1),
Intern Report, Phase I, Rockwell International Science Center,
California ARB Contract #358 (1974) p. 283.
16. IBID (15) p 339.
83
-------
17. Tierney, G.P., and Conner, W.D., "Hygroscopic Effects on Weight
Determination of Particles Collected on Glass Fiber Filters,11 Am. Industrial
Hygiene Assoc. J. Vol. 28, p 363 (1967).
18. Margil Wadley, Chemist, LA APCD, Private Conversation 4/19/74.
19. Op . cit. (15), p 307.
20. Op . cit. (3), p 65.
\
21. Peter Mueller, Region IX, EPA, Private Conversation 3/28/74.
22 Op . cit.(3) p 65.
23. Lee, R.E., et al, "Evaluation of Methods of Measuring Suspended
Particulates in the Atmosphere," 162nd National Meeting of the
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., Dec. 12-17, 1971.
24. Clements, H.A., et al, "Reproducibility of the Hi-Vol Sampling Method
Under Field Conditions," 0. Air Pollution Control Asso., Vol. 22,
#12 p. 955 (1972).
25. Faora, R., "Collaborative Study of The Reference Method for Determination
of Suspended Particulates in the Atmosphere," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, APTD-0302, PB 205-892(1972).
26. Cohen, A.L., et al., "Dependence of Hi-Vol Measurements on Airflow
Rate," Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 7, #1, p 61 (.1973).
27. Rainwater, L.E., and Moyers, J.L., "Atomic Adsorption Procedure for
Analysis of Metals in Atmospheric Particulate Matter," Environmental
Science & Technology, Vol. 8, #2, p 152, February (1974).
28. Op. cit. (.2) p.305.
29. Keenan, R.G., et al., "USPHS Method for Determining Lead in Air and In
Biological Materials," Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J, 24, 481-91 (.1963).
30. Op. cit. (2) p 442.
31. Op. cit. (2) p 332.
32. Brown, E. et al, "Collection and Analysis of Water Samples for Dissolved
Minerals and Gases," U.S. Geological Survey Publication, p 119.
33. Op. cit. ( 3) p. 305.
34. Holmes, John, "Photochemical Aerosol Formation in The Atmosphere and
In An Environmental Chamber," presented at 167th Material Meeting of
American Chemical Society, March 31- April 5, 1974, Los Angeles, Calif.
84
-------
35. Op. cit. (15) p 388.
36. Op. cit. (15) p 387.
37. National Air Sampling Network Data, U.S. Environmental Protection;
Agency, 1968.
38. San Bernardino County APCD data, 1969-1973.
39. Op. cit. (15), p 285-289.
40. John Holms, Chemist with California Air Resources Board, private
conversation, 4/4/74.
41. Whitdy, K.T., and Liu, B.Y., "Atmospheric Particulate Data - What Does
It Tell Us About Air Pollution," llth Conf./ Methods of Air Pollution
and Ind. Hygiene, Berkeley, California, 1970.
42. Op. cit. (1), p 18.
43. Steven Bromberg, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, private
conversation, 4/1/74.
44. Gerald Brown, Sr., Instrument Tech. San Bernardino APCD, private
conversation, 4/11/74.
45. Margil Wadley, Chief Chemist, L.A. APCD, private conversations.
46. George Sanderson, chemist, San Bernardino APCD, private conversations.
47. William Bope, chemist, Orange County APCD, private conversations.
48. Larsen, R.I., "A Mathematical Model for Relating Air Quality Measure-
ments to Standards," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of
Air Programs Publication IAP-89, November 1971.
49. Walker, H.M. and Lev, J., "Elementary Statistical Methods," 3rd Edition,
Holt, Rinehart, and Winstor, Inc. 1969, p 353.
50. IBID, p 260.
51. IBID, p 164.
52. Thomas Hartledge, Environmental Protection Agency, private conversation,
4/4/74.
53. Thompson, R., University of California Riverside, private
conversation, 4/5/74.
54. Jose Sun , Environmental Protection Agency, private conversation, 4/2/74.
85
-------
55. Burton, R.M., et al, "Field Evaluation of Hi-Volume Particulate
Fractionating Cascade Impactor," 65th Annual Meeting of Air Pollution
Control Assocation, Miami Beach, Florida, June 18-22 (1972).
56. Hunt, W.F., "Precision Associated with Sampling Frequency of Log-
Normally Distributed Air Pollutant Measurements," J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc, Vol. 22 #9, 687 (1972).
57. Zeldin, M.D., "Oxidant Distribution and Analysis in the San Bernardino
Basin," Technical Report #73-1, San Bernardino APCD, March, 1973.
58. Zeldin, M.D., and Sanderson, G., private conversations 4/11/74.
59. Molnar, Dean, Ventura APCD private conversation 5/2/74.
60. Grosjean, Daniel, Caltech, private conversation 4/14/74.
61. McKee, C.H., et al, "Collaboration Testing of Methods to Measure
Air Pollutants", J. Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 22,
#5 342(1972).
62. Whitby, K.T., Hursar, R.B., Liu, Y.H., J. Colloid Interface Sci.
39,117 (1972).
63. Appell, Bruce, State Industrial Hygiene Laboratories, private
conversation, 4/74.
64. Duckworth, Spencer, Meteorologist, California Air Resources Board,
Personal communication, June 1974.
86
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8191
APPENDIX A
REFERENCE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
SUSPENDED PARTICIPATES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
(HIGH VOLUME METHOD)
Reproduced from Appendix B, "National Primary and Secondary
Ambient Air Standards," Federal Register, Vo! 36, No. 84, Part II,
Friday, April 30, 1971.
B— RtmxNcx MXTUOB roi THI
NATioN or STCPXNU
DC TK>t ATU08PKXU (HIGH
MXTBOD)
1. Principle and XppHcoMIfty.
1.1 Air I* drawn Into a covered housing
end through a filter by meana of a hlgh-flow-
rete blower at a flow rs,te (1.13 to 1.70 m.V
mln.; 40 to W ft.Vrnlc.) that allows sus-
pended particles, having dlunctera of less
than 100 »m. (3tok»a equivalent diameter)
to pass to the filter surface. (1) Particles
within the size range of 100 to O.ldm. diame-
ter are ordinarily collected on glass fiber fil-
ters. The mesa concentration of suspended
partlculatoa In th3 &:i\b!ent air (*g./m.') U
computed by measuring the mans of collected
partioulates end the volume of air sampled.
1.3 This method U applicable to measure-
ment of the maae concentration of suspended
paniculate* lu ambient air. The sire of the
sample collected 1C usually adequate for
other analyses.
2. Range and Sensitivity.
9.1 When the sampler la operated at an
average flow rate of 1.70 m.'/niln. (00 ft.1.
mln.) for 24 hours, an adequate pur.ple will
be obtained even In en atmosphere having
concentrations of suspended parllculatea as
low as 1 uf./m*. If p.'.rtlcuiate !«vf:s are
unusually hlfth, e ehotoobem!ocU I'JioB or »oid amoiie. ma?
bloc.* the filter tU c&usa a icuid drop la
alri.cr» at e rx>aiir.;:.'cr-u\ rtste. Unrjo fog or
hijri humlccty can c 4'J»» Ui« filter to Income
too wet and Mfsrcly reduce the fcirflow
through tt« tuv>r.
S3 Oluu-fToer filton ere comparatively
InMnjJtiTO to ci>a£^M In ralatlre hv.miuity,
but collected paruoulaitea o»n iw hygro-
•oopki. (»)
•i. Prtci*ian. AfyfUfwy. and StaW.i!-!.
4.1 B&aod upcu ooUal>or»itlv« t'Kiltx^, the
relative standaj'd devlavlou (co^^lclent ot
variation) for rlnslo ari*l7st variation (r«-
p^.x.ratory
v»rlatlon (repnxiuclblllty of the tnethod) U
3.7 pervent. (3)
4.3 Th» accuracy with wh'.eh the s».nH)ler
me&eurea the true avenv^e conoenU-i'-lon
depends upon the conetAncy of tfco alrliow
rat« through tli« aampler. The Glrno1^ ret4 la
effected by the concentration end the nature
of tho duat In tba *.tince In caches ryf ±5O
poment of the tr;i« avers? c concentration, de-
pending on the amount oi reduction of air-
flow rmta ana on the varie.Mon ot U>e ma»
ooncnufratlou of dust with time during the
24-hour sampling period. (4|
8. jt't^aratut.
5.1 Sampling.
6.1.1 5ampl.-.r. The spjnpler consists of
thr« unita: (;.) tr.e fftArpl-Ate and 'ra«Ket.
(3) the fliui.- adapter aMrinbly, and (3) the
motor unit. FIRVT» Bl shows an exploded
view of them paru. their relationship to each
other, end how they ere assembled. The
sampler must be capable of pawing environ-
mental air through e 406.A cm.' (03 In.1)
portion of e cloui 204 by SS.4 cm. (8- by
10-ln.) glass-fiber filter et e ra» of at least
1.70 m.'/mln. (50 fl.'/mln.). The motor must
be capable of continuous operation for 24-
hour periods with Input voltojjes ranging
from 110 to 120 volu. 10-80 cycles alternat-
ing current and must have third-wire s»fety
ground. The housing for the motor unit
mey be of nay convenient construction so
lcn.3 as the unit remains eirtlKht and leak-
fr«. The life of the sampler motor can be
extended by lowering the voltage by about
10 percent with, e small "buck or boost"
transformer between the sampler and power
outlet.
8.1.2 Sampler Shelter. It Is Important
that the sampler be properly Installed In a
suitable *h«'.ter. The shelter Is subjected to
extremes of temperature, humidity, and R.I
types of air pollutanu. For these reasons
the materials of the shelter must be chosen
carefully. Properly painted exterior plywood
or heavy f;auge aiumlnum serve well. The
sampler muht be mounted vertically In the
shelter so that the glas.«-flb«r filter Is paral-
lel with the ground. The shelter must h*
provided, with a roof tn that the filter 1» pro-
trcted from precipitation and debris. Tne
Internal a.-nni^Tncnt and configuration of
a suitable shfHfr with a gaMe roof are shown
in Figure 132 Ths clearance area between tin
mam housing nnd the roof at its clr.srst
point should be 6805+133.8 cm.1 (00-30
ln.Jl. The main houMi-.g should b« rectangu-
lar, with dimensions ol about 29 by 36 cm.
(ll'-i by 14 In.).
S.I.3 Rntu/nrtrr. Marked In arbitrary
units, frequently o to 70. and capable of
being calibrated. Other devices of at levt
comparable accuracy msy be used.
FCDHAl ItCISTEB, VOl. 56. NO. 64—FIIDAV, Arlll 30, 1971
87
-------
8192
RULES AND REGULATIONS
8.1.4 Ortfoe Calibration Volt. Consisting
ot » metal tube 7.« cm. (3 In.) ID and 1S.»
em. (6V4 In.) loos with » «taue pressure tap
8.1 cm. (3 In.) from on» end. Sao PlJUf*
B3 The tube end nearwit the preaaur* tap 1*
flanged to »bout 10.8 cm. (4^4 In.) OO V.U21
a male thread of the eame nta* u tho UUet
end of the high-volume air (ampler. A single
metal pl«te 9.2 cm. (3S In.) In diameter aid
O.M cm. (H» In.) thick with a central orifice
3.9 cm. (1H In.) In disaster U held In piaoe
at toe Mr Inlet end with a female threaded
ring. The other tni of tho tube Is flanged to
hold a loose female threaded coupling, which
screws onto the Inlet of the sampler. An IB-
hole metal plate, an Integral put of the unit.
U positioned between the ortQce and sampler
to simulate the resistance of a clean g'.ois-
flbcr tlvr. An orifice calibration unit 1*
shown In Figure B3.
8.1.5 Differential nanometer. Capable of
measuring to at least 40 cm. (16 In.) of
water.
6.1.8 Politic* Displacement Meter. Cali-
brated In cuble meten or cubic feet, to be
used as a primary standard.
8.1.T Barometer. Capable of measuring at-
mospheric pressure to the nearest mm.
6.2 AnolyiU.
6.2.1 filter Conditioning Environment.
Balance room or desiccator maintained at
16* to 36*C. and leu than 60 percent relative
humidity.
6.2.2 Analytical Balance. Equipped with
a weighing chamber designed to handle un-'
folded 30.3 by 2S.4 cm. (8- by 10-ln.) filter*
and having a sensitivity of 0.1 mg.
8.2.3 Light Source. Frequently a table of
the type u»«J to view X-ray films.
6.2.4 Numbering Device. Capable of print-
Ing Identification numbers on the niters.
6. Reagents.
6.1 Filter Media. Glass-fiber filter* having
a collection efficiency of at lent 99 percent
for particles of 0.3 «m. diameter, as measured
by the DOP test, are suitable for the quanti-
tative measurement of concentrations of sus-
pended partlculatea. (5) although some oth«r
medium, such as paper, may be desirable for
some analyses. If a more detailed analysis Is
contemplated, care must be eiercUed to we
filters that contain lov background concen-
trations of the pollutant belru; investigated.
Careful quality control Is required to deter-
mine background values of these pollutants.
7. Procedure.
7.1 Sampling. «
7.1.1 Filter Preparation. Expose each filter
to the light source and Inspect for pLnholea,
particles, or other Imperfections, niters with
visible Imperfections should not be used. A
small brush Is useful for removing particles.
Equlllbrete the Alien In the filter condition-
Ing environment for 24 hours. Weigh the
filters to the nearest milligram; record tare
weight and filter Identification number. Do
not bend or fold the filter before collection
of the sample.
7.1.2 Sample Collection. Open the shelter.
loosen the wing nute, and remove the face-
plate from the filter holder. Install a num-
bered, prer.'elghed, gla6&-nber niter In poal-
tlon (rough tide up), replace the faceplate
without disturbing the niter, and fasten
securely. Underllghtentng will allow air leak-
age, ovcrtlghtenln!! will damage the sponge-
Irubber faceplate g:u>ket. A very light applica-
tion of talcum powtlcr may be uned on the
sponge-rubber faceplate frttncet to prevent
the filter from sticking. D\Lrlng inclement
weather the sampler may be removed to a
protected area for niter change. Clone the
roof of the shelter, run the s»-rr.pler for about
6 minutes, connect the rctarnoter to the
nipple ftu the buck of the sampler, aad read
the rotuneter bail with rotair.Qter In a verti-
cal position. Estlv.Me to tlu> noarejt whole
nii:nh<.r. If tli* ball Is fuictuatlna rapidly.
tip the rotameter and slowly straighten it
until the ball give* a constant reading. Dis-
connect the rot«raetar from the nipple: re-
cord the initial rotameter reading and the
startlnj time and date on toe Ultor folder.
(The rotameter should nvrer be connected
to tee t-ample? eicept vheu the fio-t.ls txlng
artuured.) Sample for 34 hours from ni-.t-
night to midnight and take a final rotorn»t«»
reading. Record the fl.oal rotameter rowings
and ending time snd date on tb* filter folder.
Remove tee faceplate aa deaortbed above and
carefully remove the filter from the holtSir.
touching only thsyouter oddest. Fold the fli--er
lengthwise so that only surfaces with col-
lected ptvrtlculatet ai« In contact, acd plac«
In a marUltv folder. Rword on the folder the
filter number, location, end any otner factors,
such aa meteorological conditions or razing
of nearby building, that i3J;bt aCect the
reculU. If the sample Is d lectlvs, void it at
this time. In order to obtain a valid sample,
the high-volume sampler must be operated
with the eame rotameter and tubing that
were uaed during Its calibration.
7.2 Xnolvrn. Equilibrate the exposed fil-
ters for at hours In the filter conditioning
environment, then rewelgh. After they are
weighed, the filters may be saved for detailed
chemical analysis.
7.3 Maintenance.
7.3.1 Sampler Motor. Replace brushee
before they are worn to the point where
motor damage can occur.
7.3.2 Face-plate Gasket. Replace when the
.margin* of samples are no longer sharp. The
gasket may be sealed to the faceplate with
rubber cement or double-sided adhesive tape.
7.3.3 Rotameter. Clean as required, using
alcohol.
8. Calibration.
8.1 Purpose, since only a small portion
of the total air sampled passes through the
rotameter during measurement, the rotam-
eter must be calibrated against actual air-
flow with the orifice calibration unit. Before
the orlnce calibration unit can be used to
calibrate the rotameter, the orifice calibra-
tion unit Itself must be calibrated against
the positive displacement primary standard.
, 8.1.1 Orifice Calibration Unit. Attach the
orlnce calibration unit to the Intake er.l
of tho positive displacement primary stand-
ard and attach a high-volume motor blower
unit to the exhauct end of the primary
standard. Connect one end of a differential
manometer to the differential pressure tcp
of the orifice calibration unit and leave the
other end open to the atmosphere. Operate
the high-volume motor blower unit so that
a series of different, but constant, airflows
(usually six) are obtained for definite time
periods. Record the reading on the dlfferen-
tlal manometer at each alrSow. The different
constant airflows are obtained by placing a
series of loadplatea. one at a time, between
the calibration unit and the primary stand-
ard. Placing the orifice before the Inlet re-
duces the pressure at the Inlet of the primary
standard below atmouphetlc: therefore, a
correction mu.it be made for the Increase In
volume caused by this decreased Inlet pres-
sure. Attach one end of a second differential
ruanamoter to an Inlet pressure tap of the
primary standard and leave the other open
to the atmosphere. During each of the con-
stant airflow measurements made above,
measure the true Inlet pressure of the
. primary slumlord with this second differen-
tial manometer. Measure atmospheric pres-
sure aucl temperature. Correct the measured
air volume to true air volume as directed In
9.1.1. then ob'.Mn true airflow rate. Q, u
directed In 8.1.3. riot the differential manom-
eter readings of the orinca unit vcnus Q.
B.1.2 Hiv>i-vol\im» Sampler. Assemble a
hli;h-voluiLie sampler with a clean filler In
place and run [or et leudt 6 ininuUas. Ait&ob
a roUiniDter, re«J Ui,- ba.ll, adjust so UiM u>e
boll reads OS. aiid aeal the adjusting mech-
anism so that It cannot b« changed easily.
Uhut off motor, remove the Blur, and attach
the orlflo* calibration unit In Its piaoe. Op-
erate Ut* high-volume sampler at • aeries of
dlCenot. but oontUnt. airflow* (usually alz).
Record the reading of the differential ma-
nometer on the orlflo* calibration unit, and
record the reading* of the rotameter at each
flow. UMiaure atmospheric pressure and tem-
perature. Convert the differential manometer
reading to m.'/min., q, then plot rotameter
reading versus Q.
8.!J Correction /or DIfferencel in Preuur*
or Temperature. See Addendum B.
0. Calculation*.
9.1 Calibration of Orifice.
9.1.1 True Air Volume. Calculate the air
volume measured by the .positive displace-
ment primary standard.
V. = True air volume at atmospheric prea-
— sure, m.1
P. = Barometric pressure, mm. Hg.
P. = Pressure drop at Inlet of primary
standard, mm. Hg.
Vy= Volume measured by primary stand-
ard, m.'
Conoertion foe tort.
Inchea Hg.x35.4=mm. Hg.
Inohw water x 73.48 x 10-'= Inches Rg.
Cubic feat air x 0.0284 = cubic meters air.
B'.l.S True Airflow Rate.
V.
Q=rTow rate, m.'/mln.
T=Tune of now, mln.
9.2 Sample Volume.
8.2.1 Volume Conversion. Convert the Ini-
tial and final rotameter readings to true
airflow rate, Q, using calibration curve of
812
9.2.3 Calculate volume of air lamplet
V=-:
XT
' V = Air volume sampled, m.*
Qi = Initial airflow rate. m.Vmln.
Q> = Ptn&l airflow rate, m.'/mln.
T= Sampling time, mln.
9.3 Calculate molt concentration of im-
pended particulatej
(W«-W.)X10*
S.P.= -
concentration of suspended
partlculatea, «g/m.*
Wi = Initial weight of niter, g.
Wi = Final weight of filter, g.
V = Air volume sampled, m.*
10" = Conversion of g. to Mg.
10. Reference!.
(1) Robson, C. D., and Poater, ,K. B.,
"Evaluation of Air Paniculate sam-
pling Equipment", Am. Irut. Hyg.
Aiaoc. J. 24. 404 (1M3).
(2) Tlerney, O. P., and Conner. W. D.,
"Hygroscopic Ertecta on Weight Deter-
minations of Partloulates Collected on
aiass-Flber yiltera". Am. tnd. Hyg.
AiSOC. J. 21, 333 (1807).
(J) Unpublished data based on a collabora-
tive teat Involving 12 pnrttclpants.
conducted under the direction of the
Methods Standardization Cervices .Sec-
tion of the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration, October, 1870.
(<) Harrison. W. K.. Nader. J. 8., and rug-
man, P. 8., "Constant Flow Regulator*
.for High- Volume Air Sampler", Am.
fiut. Hyp. X«»oc. J. II. 114-120 (1940).
FEDERAL IEOISTEI, VOl. J6, NO. 14—rllDAV. ANIL 30, 1971
88
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #2
EMISSION INVENTORIES AND PROJECTIONS
By: R. L. Tan
R. Y. Wada
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San.Francisco, California
a TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #2
EMISSION INVENTORIES AND PROJECTIONS
By: R. L. Tan
R. Y. Wada
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/,
a TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
, PER AT IONS
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
by TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations in fulfillment of
Contract Number 68-02-1384. The contents of this report are reproduced
herein as received from the contractor. The opinions, findings, and
conclusions are those of TRW and not necessarily those of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names does not
constitute endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1
2.0 1972 EMISSION INVENTORY FOR THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION . 19
2.1 Sources of Data 19
2.2 Policies and Assumptions 20
2.2.1 Air Pollution Control District Inventories . . 20
2.2.2 National Emissions Data System (NEDS) Inventory. 21
2.2.3 Stationary Source NO Emissions 21
/\
2.2.4 Motor Vehicle Emission Factors for Exhaust
Particulates 22
2.2.5 Motor Vehicle Emission Factors for Gaseous
Precursors 22
2.2.6 Aircraft Emissions 22
2.2.7 Suspended Particulate Inventory 22
2.2.8 The 4-County Sub-Area 23
2.2.9 Hydrocarbon Reactivity Factors 23
2.3 1972 Inventory of Particulate Matter Emissions . . . 24
2.3.1 Stationary Sources 27
2.3.2 Gasoline-Powered Motor Vehicles-Exhaust
Particulates 28
2.3.3 Other Mobile Source Particulate Emissions . . 32
2.4 Inventory of Gaseous Precursor Emissions 33
2.4.1 Stationary Sources 33
2.4.2 Motor Vehicle Emissions 33
2.5 Locational Considerations 37
2.6 Present Control Program for Stationary Source
Emissions 48
3.0 EMISSION PROJECTIONS 53
3.1 Sources of Data 53
3.1.1 Stationary Sources and Aircraft 53
3.1.2 Motor Vehicles 54
3.1.3 Uncontrolled Vehicles 55
iii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
Page
3.2 Policies and Assumptions .......... 55
3.3 Emission Inventory Projection Under Present
Controls .............. 60
3.3.1 Petroleum Industry Emissions ...... 60
3.3.2 Organic Solvent Users ......... 60
3.3.3 Chemical, Metallurgical and Mineral .... 61
3.3.4 Agriculture and Incineration ...... 62
3.3.5 Steam Electric Power Plant Fuel Combustion
Emissions ............. 62
3,3.6 Domestic and Commercial Fuel Combustion ... 65
3.3.7 Other Industrial Fuel Combustion ..... 66
3.3.8 Aircraft Emissions ... ....... 75
3.3.9 Mobile Source Projection (other than Aircraft). QQ
3.4. Projected Emission Inventory Under EPA Promulgated
Controls ........... ..... Q
3.5 Projected Emission Inventory Summary Table .... 81
3.6 Discussion ............... 90
APPENDIX A: LOCAL AGENCY EMISSION INVENTORIES .... A-l
APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF RECENT CHANGES IN LOCAL RULES
AND REGULATIONS .......... B-l
APPENDIX C: MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS ESTIMATION
PROCEDURE ..... ....... C-l
APPENDIX D: LOW LEAD AND UNLEADED GASOLINE ..... D-l
APPENDIX E: CATALYTIC MUFFLERS ......... E-l
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-10
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
1972 Emission Inventory Summary - Entire Air Basin .
1972 Emission Inventory Summary - Four County Area .
1977 Emission Inventory Summary for the Entire Air
Basin Under Present Controls ....
1977 Emission Inventory Summary for the Entire Air
Basin Under the EPA Oxidant Plan
1977 Emission Inventory Summary for the Four County
Sub-Area Under Present Controls
1977 Emission Inventory Summary for the Four County
Sub-Area Under the EPA Oxidant Plan
1980 Emission Inventory Summary for the Entire Air
Basin Under Present Controls
1980 Emission Inventory Summary for the Entire Air
Basin Under EPA Oxidant Plan
1980 Emission Inventory Summary, for the Four County
Sub-Area Under Present Controls
1980 Emission Inventory Summary for the Four County
Sub-Area Under the EPA Oxidant Plan
Alternative Hydrocarbon Reactivity Assumptions
1972 Parti cul ate Matter Inventory
Power Plant Emissions
Suspension Factors for Particulate Emissions ....
Automotive Exhaust Particulate Emissions Factors .
Vehicle Population and VMT Distribution as of June, 1.972
Inventory of Gaseous Precursors
South Coast Basin Rules Summary
Percentage Control of Stationary Sources in the South
Coast Air Basin
2
3
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
24
?S
27
29
30
31
35
50
52
-------
LIST OF TABLES
(continued)
Table Page
3-1 Summary of Assumptions Used for Baseline Data (1972)
. Projections to 1977 and 1980 57
3-2 Projected Emissions of Particulates, NO and S0?
from SCE Steam Electric Plants in the BSsin .... 63
3-3 Generating Capacities of SCE (in the Air Basin),
DWP and GPB 63
3-4 Electric Generating Capacity Ratios 63
3-5 Projected Emissions from Steam Electric Plants in
the Air Basin 65
3-6 Pacific Lighting Companies Natural Gas Usage Pre-
dictions 68
3-7 Long Beach Natural Gas Predictions 68
3-8 Breakdown of 1973 SC Gas Company Sales in Air Basin . 69
3-9 Breakdown of 1973 Pacific Lighting Companies Sales
to Air Basin Portion of SC Gas 69
3-10 Summary of Pacific Lighting Companies Breakdown of
Sales to Southern California Gas Company 70
3-11 Projection of Firm Sales in the Air Basin from SC
Gas and Long Beach 71
3-12 Projection of Interruptible Sales in the Air Basin
from SC Gas and Long Beach 71
3-13 Firm and Interruptible Gas Sales Projection in the
Air Basin 72
3-14 Projected Emissions from Domestic and Commercial Fuel
Combustion 73
3-15 Projected Emissions from Industrial Fuel Combustion. . 73
3-16 Emission Factors for Natural Gas Combustion .... 74
3-17 Airports in the Air Basin 77
VI
-------
LIST OF TABLES
(continued)
Table Page
3-18
3-19
3-20
3-21
3-22
3-23
3-24
3-25
3-26
3-27
3-28
3-29
3-30
3-31
3-32
3-33
3-34
Los Angeles County Aircraft Emissions
Orange County Aircraft Emissions
Riverside County Aircraft Emissions
San Bernardino County Aircraft Emissions
Santa Barbara County Aircraft Emissions
Ventura County Aircraft Emissions
1977 Inventory of Particulate Emissions Under Present
Controls
1977 Inventory of Gaseous Precursor Emissions Under
Present Controls
1977 Inventory of Particulate Emissions Under the EPA
Oxidant Control Plan
1977 Inventory of Gaseous Precursor Emissions Under
the EPA Oxidant Control Plan
1980 Inventory of Particulate Emissions Under Present
Controls
1980 Inventory of Gaseous Precursor Emissions Under
Present Controls
1980 Inventory of Particulate Emissions Under the EPA
Oxidant Control Plan
1980 Inventory of Gaseous Precursor Emissions Under
EPA Oxidant Control Plan
Entire Air Basin Summary Inventory Under Present
Controls .
Entire Air Basin Summary Inventory Under EPA Oxidant
Control Plan
4-County Sub-Area Summary Inventory Under Present
Controls
78
78
78
79
79
79
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
91
91
92
vn
-------
LIST OF TABLES
(continued)
Table Page-
3-35 4-County Sub-Area Summary Inventory Under EPA Oxidant
Control Plan 92
A-l 1972 Emissions, Los Angeles County Portion of the
South Coast Basin . A-2
A-2 1972 Emissions, All Counties of the South Coast Air
Basin A-4
C-l LARTS VMT C-4
C-2 Los Angeles Basin Gasoline Vehicle Emissions Per
Million (VMT) C-5
C-3 Los Angeles Basin Gasoline Vehicle Emissions . . . C-5
D-l Vehicle Age Distribution in the Air Basin .... D-3
D-2 Vehicle Age Distribution in the Air Basin in 1977 . . D-3
D-3 Vehicle Age Distribution in Air Basin in 1980 . . . D-3
E-l Particulate Emissions from New Cars Equipped with
Catalytic Mufflers E-3
E-2 Particulate Emission Factors from Old Cars Retrofitted
with Catalytic Mufflers E-3
vm
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1-1 Particulate Emissions in the Entire Los Angeles
Basin 15
1-2 Gaseous Precursor Emissions in the Entire Los Angeles
Air Basin 16
1-3 Particulate Emissions in the Four County Sub-Area. . . 17
1-4 Gaseous Precursor Emissions in the Four County Sub-
Area 18
r-1 Topographical Reference Map for the Metropolitan
Los Angeles AQCR 38
2-2 Power Plant Density Map 39
2-3 Petroleum Refinery Density Map 40
2-4 Industry Density Map 41
2-5 Vehicle Miles Traveled Density Map 42
2-6 Aircraft Activity Density Map 43
2-7 Particulate Emissions Density Map 44
2-8 Reactive Hydrocarbon Emission Density Map 45
2-9 Sulfur Oxides Emission Density Map 46
2-10 Nitrogen Oxides Emission Density Map 47
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
.Under contract to the Environmental Protection Agency, TRW
Environmental Services has developed a particulate implementation plan
for the Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. Speci-
fically, TRW has investigated strategies for approaching and achieving ,
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (MAAQS) for particulates in
the Los Angeles Region. The present report, which compiles and projects
emission inventories for the Los Angeles Region, is the second of four
technical support documents associated with the project.
Several types of emissions are relevant to pollution by airborne
particles, (alternatively called aerosol or particulate pollution). This
report compiles emission inventories for both primary particulates (emitted
as particles) as well as for gaseous precursors of secondary particulates
(formed in the atmosphere by the chemical-physical transformation of gases).
For primary particulates a further distinction is made between total
emissions and the fraction of the total that tends to remain suspended.
Tables 1-1 and 1-2 summarize the emission inventories for the 1972 base
year. Breakdowns by source category are given for total particulates,
suspended particulates, and gaseous precursors (reactive hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides). Table 1-1 is for the entire air
basin. Table 1-2 presents results for the four county sub-area, (Los
Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino, and Riverside counties), where the highest
values of atmospheric particulate tend to occur (see Report #1).
The emission inventories have been projected to 1977 and 1980,
target years for control strategy formulation. The projections have
been made by a study of individual source categories; included in the
analysis are factors such as source growth rate, source attrition,
scheduled control implementation, and changes in process or fuel type.
Two scenarios have been considered: (1) controls presently scheduled by
County APCD's and the federal new car control program, and (2) the above
1
-------
TABLE 1-1. 1972 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY - ENTIRE AIR BASIN
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Agricultural
Stationary Source Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships & Railroads
Miscellaneous (Motor-
cycles, off-road,etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source Total
Total
Parti-
culates
1%
• 7
*
5
13
1
20
3
50%
25%
1
2
7
1
2
13
50%
Suspended
Parti-
culates
1%
7
*
6
13
1
24
4
56%
23%
1
2
8
1
2
7
44%
so2
12%
-
20
3
1
-
49
-
85%
8%
-
2
2
3
-
-
15%
NOX
5%
-
-
-
-
-
22
-
27%
55%
2
9
1
2
4
-
73%
RHC
6%
4
-
-
-
-
-
1
11%
75%
3
1
1
-
8
-
89%
Total Inventory
250 tons/ 213 tons/ 492 tons/ 1423 tons/ 1155 tons/
day day day day day
*Emissions are included under the organic solvent category.
-------
TABLE 1-2. 1972 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY - FOUR COUNTY AREA
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Agricultural
Stationary Source Total
Total
Parti -
culates
1%
8
*
6
5
1
21
1
Suspended
Parti -
culates
2%
9
*
7
6
1
25
1
S02 NOX
13% 5%
-
22
3
-
-
46 20
_ _
RHC
6%
4
-
-
-
-
-
_
43%
51%
84%
25%
10%
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships & Railroads
Miscellaneous, (Motor-
cycles, off-road, etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source Total
28%
1
2
7 '
1
3
15
57%
27%
-
2
8
-
3
9
49%
9%
-
2
3
2
-
-
16%
56%
2
9
1
2
5
-
75%
76%
3
1
1
-
8
-
90%
Total Inventory
211 tons/ 178 tons/ 444 tons/ 1345 tons/ 1094 tons/
day day day day day
*Emissions are included under the organic solvent category.
-------
controls plus the effect of the EPA implementation plan that has been
promulgated for the oxidant air quality standard. Tables 1-3 through 1-10
present the projected emissions for both scenarios and for both the entire
air basin and the Four County sub-area. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 illustrate
the emission projections for primary particulates and gaseous aerosol
precursors in the Four County sub-area while Figures 1.1 and 1.2 are
projections for the entire basin.
1.1 OUTLINE OF SUPPORT DOCUMENT #2
This report is organized in three sections. The present section
serves as a general introduction and provides a summary of the major results.
Section 2 deals with the compilation of the 1972 base year inventory.
Section 3 provides the projections to 1977 and 1980.
The compilation and projection of comprehensive emission inventories
is a task involving considerable uncertainty for virtually every single
source category. In many cases, two or more conflicting emissions estimates
may result from different, reasonable estimation procedures. Often, avail-
able information is not sufficient to assess the confidence level of one
estimate as opposed to another. Thus, the need for broad guidelines in this
regard was recognized, and a set of policies to be used during the course of
this study was assembled. The policies employed and the assumptions made
concerning the base year inventory of particulate matter and gaseous precur-
sor emissions are described in Section 2.2 of this report. An analogous
description of policies and assumptions used for the projected inventories
is contained in Section 3.2.
A unique feature of the inventory presented here is the preparation
of maps indicating the geographical distribution of source types and total
emissions. The maps presented in Section 2.5 are pertinent to the
locational aspects of control strategy formulation.
1.2 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The emission inventory and projection analysis for the Los Angeles
Region has resulted in the following conclusions and recommendations:
-------
Conclusions
Numerous alternative data sources are available for compiling
the 1972 base year inventory of primary suspended particulates,
S02, NOX, and RHC for the Los Angeles Region. Conflict often
exists among the various data sources; this is an indication of
the uncertainties in emission data. Presently, the most
appropriate way to construct an emission inventory for imple-
mentation planning is to use many sources of data, picking the
most reliable sources for each inventory category.
Data are not available for compiling an RHC inventory based
on the aerosol forming potential of organic gases. For the
purposes of this study, an RHC inventory based on oxidant
reactivity seems more appropriate than a total hydrocarbon
inventory.
The size distribution of particulate emissions from various
sources is not well documented. However, estimates of the
fraction of particles below 10 microns for various sources
are available so that suspended particulate emissions can be
distinguished in an approximate way from total particulate
emissions.
Motor vehicles are the major source of RHC and NOX emissions
in the 1972 base year inventory for the Los Angeles Region.
Motor vehicles and stationary source fuel combustion account
for most of the suspended particulate emissions. Stationary
fuel combustion, the chemical industry, petroleum refineries,
and motor vehicles are respectively the most important sources
of S02.
The forecasted substitution of fuel oil for natural gas in
many stationary combustion sources and the scheduled controls
for motor vehicles are the two most significant factors affect-
ing emission projections for 1977 and 1980 in the Los Angeles
Region. Due to the increased use of fuel oil, total emissions
of suspended particulates, SOp and NOX will increase from 1972
to 1977 with present control policies. The motor vehicle
control program will significantly reduce regional RHC emissions
in 1977 and 1980; it will also reverse the upward trend in NOX
emissions, (leading to a decrease between 1977 and 1980).
Stationary combustion will be the largest single source of
suspended particulates and S02 in 1980 and will nearly equal
motor vehicles as an NOX contributor.
The EPA oxidant implementation plan results in significantly
low RHC emissions than present control policy. The EPA oxidant
plan also achieves very slight reductions in particulate and
SOp emissions. However, the catalytic converter retrofit called
for by the EPA plan, (as well as the new car catalytic converters),
will result in the emission of sulfuric acid mist from motor
-------
vehicles. The latter can be controlled by desulfurization
of motor fuels or by S02 scrubber/particulate trap retrofits.
• Large scale emission density maps reveal that RHC, NOX, and
(to some extent) participate emissions are distributed in a
way similar to population and motor vehicle traffic within the
Los Angeles Region. An emission density map for SC^ indicates
the importance of very localized sources for that pollutant.
Recommendations
• Efforts to update emission information for both mobile and
stationary sources should be supported. Further documen-
tation is needed to reduce uncertainties concerning both
source growth rates and source emission factors.
• Of special importance to particulate air quality studies
is the need for RHC emission inventories based on the
aerosol forming reactivity of organic gases. Also of
importance is information on the size distribution of
particulates from various sources. Further effort should
be made to generate data pertinent to these two issues.
• The severe air pollution problem in the Los Angeles Region
will be significantly aggravated by the forecasted sub-
stitution of fuel oil for natural gas in many stationary
combustion sources. It is recommended that national
allocation of clean fuels, such as natural gas, be per-
formed with strong consideration given to air quality
impacts in various regions.
-------
TABLE 1-3. 1977 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE
ENTIRE AIR BASIN UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS
Source Total
Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic & Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agriculture 3
Stationary Source
Total 57%
Suspended
Parti culates
1%
6
-
4
11
1
4
14
13
Parti culates
1%
6
-
5
11
1
4
16
15
S09
'C.
10%
-
2
2
1
-
17
56
NO
X
4%
-
-
-
-
-
4
33
9
RHC
10%
6
-
-
-
-
-
62%
88% 50% 17%
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad,
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source
Total
19%
-
1
10
16%
1
1
11
2
11
43%
2
6
38%
7% 34% 60%
1 3
282
1 2 5
2 1
4 13
12% 50% 83%
Total Inventory
321
tons/day
277
tons/day
591 1742
tons/ tons/
day day
798
tons/day
-------
TABLE 1-4. 1977 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE
ENTIRE AIR BASIN UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT PLAN
Source
Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
FuelCombustio.n
Domestic and Commerci
Industrial
Power Plants
Agriculture
Stationary Source
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, off road
etc.)
Total
Parti culates
1%
6
-
4
12
1
al 4
15
14
3
60%
14%
-
2
-
10
9
2
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear 12
Mobile Source
Total
Total Inventory
40%
301
tons/
day
Suspended
Particulates
1%
6
-
5
12
1
4
16
15
4
64%
14%
-
2
-
11
2
7
36%
266
tons/
day
so2
L
10%
-
2
2
1
-
17
56
-
88%
6%
-
2
3
1
-
12%
585
tons/
day
—x
4%
-
-
-
-
-
4
33
9
-
50%
34%
1
8
1
2
4
-
50%
1742
tons/
day
RHC
< 3%
6
-
-
-
-
-
1
10%
60%
4
2
-
7
17
-
90%
591
ton
day
-------
TABLE 1-5. 1977 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE FOUR
COUNTY SUB-AREA UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Total
Particulates
Suspended
Agricultural
Stationary Source
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad,
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source
Total
Total Inventory
5
4
1
Domestic and Commercial 4
Industrial 16
Power Plants 13
1
51%
21%
1
2
10
13
49%
273
tons/
day
Particul
1%
7
-
6
5
1
5
18
15
1
59%
19%
-
2
11
-
2
7
41%
233
tons/
day
ates SO?
11%
-
2
3
-
-
18
53
-
87%
8%
-
2
1
2
-
-
13%
530
tons/
day
NOx
4%
-
-
-
-
-
4
32
8
-
48%
35%
2
8
2
1
4
-
52%
1614
tons/
day
RHC
10%
6
-
-.
-
-
-
-
16%
62%
3
2
4
-
13
-
84%
741
tons/
day
-------
TABLE 1-6. 1977 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE FOUR
COUNTY SUB-AREA UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT PLAN
Total
Suspended
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Particulates
1%
7
-
5
5
1
Domestic and Commercial 4
Industrial 17
Power Plants 14
Agricultural
Stationary Source
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad
1
55%
15%
1
2
10
-
3
9
Particulates
1%
7
-
5
5
1
5
19
15
1
59%
15%
1
2
11
-
3
S02
11%
-
2
3
-
-
19
53
-
88%
7%
-
2
1
2
-
NOx
4%
-
-
-
-
-
4
32
8
-
48%
36%
1
8
2
1
4
RHC
3%
6
-
-
-
-
™"
-
9%
62%
5
3
2
-
18
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear 14
Mobile Source
Total 45%
41%
12%
52% 91%
Total Inventory
254
tons/
day
223 524 .1614 547
tons/ tons/ tons/ tons/
day day day day
10
-------
TABLE 1-7. 1980 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE
ENTIRE .AIR BASIN UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical 4
Mineral 11
Incineration 1
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial 4
Industrial 12
Power Plants 13
Agricultural 3
Stationary Source
Total 55%
Light Duty Vehicles 15%
Heavy Duty Vehicles 1
Diesel 1
Aircraft 13
Ships and Railroads 1
Miscellaneous 2
(Motorcycles, offroad,
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear 12
Mobile Source
Total 45%
Total Inventory 330
tons/
day
Total Suspended
Particulates
1%
6
Parti culates
1%
6
-
5
12
1
4
14
•14
3
60%
14%
1
1
15
1
2
6
40%
289
tons/
day
S02
9%
-
2
3
1
-
15
57
-
87%
7%
-
2
2
2
-
-
13%
605
tons/
day
MX
4%
-
-
-
-
-
4
34
10
-
52%
28%
1
9
3
2
5
-
48%
1552
tons/
day
RHC
14%
8
-
-
-
-
-
1
23%
48%
3
2
9
-
17
-
77%
634
tons/
day
11
-------
TABLE 1-8 1980 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE ENTIRE
AIR BASIN UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT PLAN
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Source
Total
Total
Particulates
Suspended
Particulates S02
NO,
RHC
1%
6
-
4
12
1
1 4
13
13
1%
6
-
5
12
1
4
14
15
1 0% 4%
-
2
2
2
-
4
15 33
57 10
5%
8
-
-
-
-
-
-
57%
61%
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad,
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
12%
1
2
14
-
3
12%
1
2
15
-
2
6%
-
2
2
2
..
28%
1
9
4
2
2
43%
4
3
12
-
24
11
Mobile Source
Total
43%
39%
12%
49% 86%
Total Inventory
316
tons/
day
283 601 1552 458
tons/ tons/ tons/ tons/
day day day day
12
-------
TABLE 1-9. 1980 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE FOUR
COUNTY SUB-AREA UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS
Total Suspended
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commerci
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Source
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, off road
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source
Total
Total Inventory
Parti culates
1%
7
-
5
4
-
al 4
14
13
1
49%
17%
1
2
14
1
3
5
13
51%
278
tons/
day
Particulates
1%
7
-
6
5
1
5
16
14
1
56%
16%
1
2
15
1
2
7
44%
240
tons/
day
SO?
11%
-
2
3
-
-
17
54
-
87%
7%
-
2
2
2
-
13%
540
tons/
day
NO
5%
4
32
10
29%
1
10
3
1
5
RHC
13%
8
51% 21%
49%
3
3
6
18
49% 79%
1434 567
tons/ tons/
day day
13
-------
TABLE 1-10. 1980 EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY FOR THE FOUR
COUNTY SUB-AREA UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT PLAN
Source Category
Total
Particulates
Suspended
Particulates
NO
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Source
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesel
Aircraft
Ships and Railroads
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, off road,
etc.)
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Source
Total
Total Inventory
T%
7
-
5
4
1
5
15
13
1
52%
13%
1
2
14
1
3
14
48%
265
tons/
day
1%
7
-
6
5
1
5
17
15
1
58%
14%
1
2
15
-
3
7
42%
233
tons/
day
11%
-
2
3
-
-
_
17
55
-
88%
6%
-
2
2
2
-
-
12%
535
tons,
day
5%
RHC
8
4
32
10
51%
28%
1
10
3
2
5
-
12%
46%
4
4
9
25
_
49% 88%
1434 410
tons/ tons/
day day
14
-------
400 r
I
•^
to
z
o
TOTAL, PRESENT CONTROLS
TOTAL, EPA CONTROLS
SUSPENDED, PRESENT CONTROLS
SUSPENDED, EPA CONTROLS
200
1972
1977
1980
Figure 1.1 Particulate Emissions in the
Entire Los Angeles Basin
15
-------
oo
•z.
o
1200
1000
800
600
400
200 +
0
PRESENT CONTROLS
EPA CONTROLS
1972
1977
1980
x S
1700-r
1600 --
o 1500 4-
1400 -4-
n 1
1972
1977
PRESENT AND EPA CONTROLS
1980
CM Q
O ^-~
-------
I
GO
•z.
o
300-r
250-•
200 --
TOTAL, PRESENT CONTROLS
TOTAL, EPA CONTROLS
SUSPENDED, PRESENT CONTROLS
SUSPENDED, EPA CONTROLS
150
1972
1977
1980
Figure 1.3 Particulate Emissions in the Four-
... County Sub Area
17
-------
1200"
1000 ••
800 ••
600--
400 ••
200 ••
0 -
PRESENT CONTROLS
EPA CONTROLS
1972
1977
1980
OO
z
o
-
16004-
1500--
1400..
1972
600--
400 -•
200 ••
0
1977
EPA AND PRESENT CONTROLS
1980
PRESENT CONTROLS
EPA CONTROLS
i I
1972
1977
1980
Figure 1.4 Gaseous Precursor Emissions
in the Four-County Sub Area
18
-------
2.0 1972 EMISSION INVENTORY FOR THE METROPOLITAN
LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
Previously compiled inventories of pollutant emissions for the
Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR are contained in the 1970 California Air
Resources Board Emission Inventory ; the technical support document for
2
the Los Angeles transportation control plan , and the Los Angeles
3
episode contingency plan report. These inventories were examined and
found to be inappropriate for direct application to the present task.
Stationary source information is required on a much more detailed level
than has been reported in the previous documents. Further, a common
reporting basis must be developed for the base year inventory, the pro-
jected inventory, and the controlled inventory indicating effectiveness
of the specific control techniques under consideration. The more detailed
inventory reported here incorporates the results of a variety of studies
performed in this area.
2.1 SOURCES OF DATA
Aggregated data concerning stationary source emissions were obtained
from the six County Air Pollution Control Districts having jurisdiction
in the Los Angeles Region. Data concerning plant-by-plant emissions
from point sources emitting greater than 100 tons/year of any or all
pollutants were obtained through the EPA's National Emissions Data System
(NEDS), as well as from the authors of that data, Pacific Environmental
Services, Inc. of Santa Monica, California. In addition to the "100 ton"
NEDS inventory, a similar inventory of smaller emitters in the 25 to 100
ton per year category was obtained from Pacific Environmental Services;
this latter inventory covered the Los Angeles County area only.
A third source of data concerning present stationary source emissions
was a special preliminary inventory of nitrogen oxides emissions from
stationary sources in the entire air basin, prepared by KVB Engineering,
Inc. for the California Air Resources Board. Finally, both present and
projected emission of S09, NO , and particulate matter are available from
c X
Southern California Edison for its power plants.
Several sources of information were consulted during the preparation
of the mobile source inventory. The County APCD's routinely prepare
19
-------
inventories for mobile sources in addition to stationary sources.
Unfortunately, the techniques used by the various districts are not
uniform, and, in the case of gasoline powered motor vehicles, emission
factors used by the APCD's are in direct conflict with officially
4
published EPA emission factors.
Thus, while the APCD's are the primary source of information in the
stationary source area, alternative sources of information do exist in
the area of mobile source emissions. Here, calculations are performed
for emissions of S09, NO , and reactive hydrocarbons from light and
C. A
heavy duty motor vehicles using published EPA emission factors.
In the case of particulate emissions from motor vehicles, alternative
emission factors were developed specifically for use in the present study.
Finally, estimates of emissions of hydrocarbons and NOV from motorcycles
/\
and off-road engines (tractors, lawn mowers, chain saws, etc.) were
obtained from a study performed for EPA by Automotive Environmental
Systems, Inc(AESi).6
2.2 POLICIES AND ASSUMPTIONS
Inherent in any attempt to compile and reconcile data from a
multitude of sources using a multitude of different estimation techniques
is the necessity of establishing both generalized policies as well as
specific assumptions in order to reduce the task to manageable proportions.
This section is devoted to the documentation of these key points in order
that the resulting inventory may be properly interpreted.
2.2.1 Air Pollution Control District Inventories
The principal function of the County APCD's is the control of
stationary source emissions. To this end, the Los Angeles APCD maintains
a separate full-time staff responsible for the inventory and control of
each source sub-category. Since no other agency is presently in a
position to acquire and maintain such information, the L.A. APCD in most
cases remains the ultimate source of information regarding stationary source
emissions in Los Angeles County. APCD's in the neighboring counties of
Orange, San Bernardino, Ventura, Riverside, and Santa Barbara are likewise
in the best position to assess the emissions from stationary sources with-
in their jurisdictions.
20
-------
Thus, a general guideline established early in the development of this
inventory was that the stationary source inventories developed by the APCD's
would be accepted unless a better alternative could be demonstrated.
2.2.2 National Emissions Data System (NEDS) Inventory
The use of NEDS inventory data was rejected for the present study
due to its presently incomplete nature. An inventory of sources
emitting more than 100 tons per year of pollutants was obtained from EPA,
while an inventory of sources emitting between 25 and 100 tons per year of
pollutants in Los Angeles County only was obtained from Pacific
Environmental Services, Inc. Unfortunately, o.nly 40% of the total
stationary source emissions of particulate matter was accounted for by the
100 ton per year inventory. Thus, it was apparent that a large fraction
of the particulate emissions came from small sources. Since the 25 to
100 ton per year inventory for Los Angeles County was based essentially on
L.A. APCD data, little value was seen in using this data in lieu of an
inventory obtained directly from the APCD.
2.2.3 Stationary Source N0v Emissions
A special preliminary inventory of NOX emissions from stationary
sources in the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR was obtained from KVB Engineering
o
Inc. KVB conducted recent tests of NO emissions from various types of
A
sources and applied the results of these tests toward the compilation
of an NOV inventory. The resulting inventory of industrial NO emissions
X A
was used in lieu of APCD data in this category.
Although NO emissions due to power plant and domestic fuel combustion
A
were also estimated by KVB, here this portion of the inventory was
estimated from utility data. The reason for using utility data is
that the best estimates of projected fuel combustion and emissions due to
utility operations were obtained from Southern California Edison and
Southern California Gas Company. For the sake of consistency, the utility
data was used to estimate base year as well as projected emissions for
this source category.
21
-------
2.2.4 Motor Vehicle Emission Factors for Exhaust Parti dilates
The Los Angeles APCD estimates exhaust particulate emissions by
applying certain simple assumptions to the total gasoline consumed within
the County. The published EPA emission factor (AP-42) for exhaust
particulates is based on only a single series of tests. Since motor
vehicles constituted a very significant source of particulate emissions
in the Los Angeles Regions a new emission factor for exhaust particulates
was developed here based on the results of several studies. A detailed
description of the development of this factor is contained in Section
2.3.2.
2.2.5 Motor Vehicle Emission Factors for Gaseous Precursors
Since assuming responsibility for the control of motor vehicle
emissions, EPA has published emission factors based on its ongoing testing
program and the federal motor vehicle control program for new cars. The
Los Angeles County APCD disputes the use of the published factors at the
present time, due to confusion involving the change from the 7-mode cycle
to the constant volume sampling (CVS) technique. As described in
Section 2.4.2, conversations with key EPA personnel in this area have
resulted in the use of the published EPA emission factors for hydrocarbons
and NO in this study.
A
2.2.6 Aircraft Emissions
Aircraft emission estimates were obtained from both the local APCD's
and EPA. The Los Angeles APCD has been a pioneer in the area of aircraft
testing and landing/takeoff (LTO) cycle development, and has recently
performed a detailed study of aircraft emissions at Los Angeles
12
International Airport under contract to EPA. EPA, on the other hand,
has subsequently published baseline and projected emissions from Los Angeles
International Airport which are substantially lower than APCD estimates.
The reason for the discrepancy is not clear at this time. For the purposes
of the present study, the L.A. APCD estimate has been used.
2.2.7 Suspended Particulate Inventory
Previously compiled inventories of particulate emissions have been
based on total particulate emissions. Yet it may well be argued that it is
22
-------
suspended participates which are measured at sampling stations, and then
ultimately compared with ambient air quality standards. Hence, it is
desirable to express the particulate inventory in terms of the suspended
fraction. Although such a disaggregation leads to the incorporation of
yet another level of uncertainty in the final inventory, it is believed
that by developing such an inventory, the relative contribution of various
source categories to the total problem may be more accurately assessed.
For the purposes of the present study it has been assumed that only
14
particles smaller than 10 microns remain suspended in the atmosphere.
2.2.8 The 4-County Sub-Area
Preliminary examination of air sampling data from the six counties
in the air basin revealed that both Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties
consistently experience particulate levels at or below the primary
National Ambient Air Quality Standard. On the basis of this infor-
mation, it was proposed that the principal control strategy be formulated
for the remaining four counties only (Los Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino,
and Riverside), with Santa Barbara and Ventura treated as special cases
with less stringent controls. Thus, the inventory reported here is pre-
sented for both the entire air basin and the Four-County sub-area. In
addition, a Los Angeles County Inventory is presented for comparison to
the L.A. County APCD inventory given in Appendix A.
2.2.9 Hydrocarbon Reactivity Factors
The reactivity factors used in this study are based on the latest
EPA analysis of smog chamber data, and are identical to the factors used
3
in a recent oxidant contingency plan study. The differences between
this set of reactivities and the set used by the APCD's may be seen from
Table 2.1.
Unfortunately, neither set of reactivities is appropriate from the
standpoint of photochemical aerosol, since both sets are based on oxidant
formation, not aerosol formation. Studies performed by Battelle Columbus
Laboratories16' 17 and the California Air Resources Board indicate that
olefins and/or aromatics play a much more singular role in the formation
of aerosols than in the formation of oxidant. As might be expected, these
23
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TABLE 2-1. ALTERNATIVE HYDROCARBON REACTIVITY ASSUMPTIONS'
Source Type
Stationary Sources
Petroleum Production
and Refining
Petroleum Marketing
Organic Solvents
Others
Motor Vehicles
LDMV Exhaust
HDMV Exhaust
LDMV & HDMV Evaporative
Motorcycles
Diesels
Other Mobile Sources
Jet Aircraft
Piston Aircraft
ARB-APCD
Reactivity
10%
55%
20%..
0-20%
30%
Reactivity Used
Here (EPA)
10%
93%
20%
0-20%
75%
75%
55%
77%
79%
93%
96% (2-stroke)
86% (4-stroke)
99%
90%
75% Exhaust 77% Exhaust
55% Evaporative 93% Evaporative
studies indicate that the use of a single reactivity factor is not
really appropriate for the variety of ambient conditions normally
encountered.
2.3 1972 INVENTORY OF PARTICULATE MATTER EMISSIONS
The 1972 inventory of particulate matter emissions in the Metropolitan
Los Angeles AQCR is presented in Table 2-2. The following discussion
describes the procedures employed in the development of this inventory.
24
-------
TABLE 2-2. 1972 PARTICIPATE MATTER .INVENTORY (TONS/DAY)
Petroleum Refining
(catalyst regenera-
tion)
Organi c Solvent Operations
Chemical Manufacturing
Industrial Spray Booths
Metallurgical Operations
Sand Handling
Melting & Pouring
Mineral Processing
Glass & Frit Mfg.
Asphalt Roofing Mfg.
(batching)
Asphalt Pavement Mfg.
(batching)
Rock, gravel, cement
ops
Other
Incineration Operations
Industrial & Commercial
Domestic
Fuel Combustion
Power Plants
Petroleum Refining Ops
Other Industrial
(interrupt)
Domestic (non-interrupt) 7.7
Agricultural
Debris Burning
Orchard Heaters
Processing Plants
Wild Fires
Stationary Source Total
Los Angel
County
es
Total Suspended
3
9
8
0.4
6.9
2
3
1
1
0.5
0.5
17.7 1
4
6
i 7.7
_
71 ;
3
8.1
7.2
0.4
6.9
1.8
2.7
0.9
0.9
0.4
0.4
7.5
4
6
7.7
70
Entire
Air Basin
Total
3
9.5
8
0.7
11.6
2.4
3
2.9
15.1
8.3
1.1
1.1
26.9
4
8
11.1
0.5
4.2
0.7
3.2
126
Suspended
3
8.1
7.2
0.7
11.6
2.2
2.7
2.4
13.5
7.5
1.0
1.0
26.6
4
8
11.1
0.5
4.2
0.7
ni'1
4-County
Sub-Area
Total
3
9.2
8
0.7
11.6
2.4
3
1.9
2.8
1.2
1.1
1.1
22.3
4
8
10.6
2.2
93
Suspended
3
8.1
7.2
0.7
11.6
2.2
2.7
1.7
2.5
1.1
1.0
1.0
22.1
4
8
10.6
2.2
90
25
-------
TABLE 2-2.
1972 PARTICULATE MATTER INVENTORY (TONS/DAY) (continued)
Los Angeles
County
Source Category
Mobile Sources
Motor Vehicles
Light-Duty
Heavy Duty
Diesels
Miscellaneous (motor-
cycles, off-road, etc)
Motor vehicle tire wear
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Ships & Railroads
Mobile Source Total
Total Inventory
Total
42.7
1.4
3.0
4.2
22.7
9
1
84
155
Suspended
34.7
1.1
2.4
3.4
11.1
8.9
0.8
70
140
Entire
Air Basin
Total
60.9
1.8
4.3
6
32.3
13.5
4.2
1.9
124
250
Suspended
49.3
1.5
3.5
4.9
15.8
13.4
3.4
1.5
94
213
4-County
Sub-Area
Total
58.6
1.7
4,1
5.8
31.1
11.5
3.5
1.5
118
211
Suspended
47.5
1.4
3.3
4.7
15.2
11.4
2.8
1.2
87
178
26
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2.3.1 Stationary Sources
Particulate matter originates from a wide variety of processes, as
evidenced by the fact that Table 2-2 lists emissions under every major source
category. Petroleum refining results in emissions of fine grain particles
escaping during the regeneration of the "fluidized" catalyst. Emissions
listed under organic solvent operations consist mainly of emissions from
industrial spray booths. Metallurgical particulate emissions are due
mainly to the melting and pouring of metals, resulting in the emission of
metallic fumes.which escape from conventional control equipment. Mineral
operations resulting in emissions are glass and frit manufacturing, asphalt
batching, and cement batching.
The largest single source category for particulates is the fuel
combustion category, consisting of power plants as well as industrial :and
domestic combustion of fuel oil and natural gas.
Power plant emissions are estimated by Southern California Edison
0
for their power plants. These emission estimates were scaled up to in-
clude Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (DWP) power plants by
assuming that emissions are proportional to installed electric generating
capacity. The same methodology was used to disaggregate the total
emissions estimates for the Los Angeles County and Four-County inventories.
Table 2-3 contains a summary of this information.
TABLE 2-3 POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
Installed , Estimated
Area Capacity Particulate Emissions*
Los Angeles County 7,810 MWe 17.7 tons/day
4-County Area 9,864 MWe 22.3 tons/day
South Coast Air Basin 11,894 MWe 26.9 tons/day
*Based on Southern California Edison estimate of 19.4 tons/day from
their plants within the Los Angeles Region, with a total installed
capacity of 8,584 MWe.
27
-------
The local air pollution control districts (the Los Angeles County
APCD in particular) are justly proud of their efforts to control emissions
from stationary sources. The regulations summarized in Section 2.6 have
been used as models for much of the nation. As mentioned previously,
the inventories provided by each of the six local air pollution control
districts were used in the compilation of the inventory presented here.
The suspension factors listed in Table 2-4 along with the inventories were
derived subjectively, based mainly on conversations with Los Angeles APCD
engineers, and a limited knowledge of the control efficiency as a function
19
of particle size for various control devices in current use.
Considering that conventional control equipment (filters, baghouses,
electrostatic precipitators) are least efficient in the smaller particle
size ranges (0.1 to Ij^) and that due to ongoing control programs most
sources are controlled in some fashion, it is to be expected that the
bulk of emissions from stationary sources should be in the suspended
particle size range.
2.3.2 Gasoline-Powered Motor Vehicles - Exhaust Particulates
Preliminary analyses indicated that motor vehicles would comprise
a very significant portion of the total particulate inventory regardless
of the estimation procedure employed. It was therefore decided to inquire
as to the basis of the procedures being used and, if possible, improve
upon them.
The Los Angeles County APCD computes automotive particulate emissions
based on gasoline consumption. Assuming an average lead content of 2.5
grams per gallon, this gives a lead factor of 3.1 tons per million gallons.
75% of the lead "burned" is assumed to be exhausted, while the exhausted
lead is assumed to comprise 60% of the total exhaust particulate emissions.
The resulting emissions factor for exhaust particulates is 5.28 tons per
million gallons of gasoline consumed, which in turn results in motor
vehicle exhaust particulate emissions of 42 tons per day in 1972.
The EPA emission factor for exhaust particulates, based on tests
21
conducted by Ethyl Corporation, is 0.34 grams per mile. An examination
28
-------
TABLE 2-4. SUSPENSION FACTORS FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
Source Category Suspension Factor (%) Source*
Petroleum Refining 99 1
Organic Solvent Operations 90 1
Chemical Manufacturing 90 1
Metallurgical Operations 100 1
Mineral Processing 90 5
Incineration 90 2
Fuel Combustion 99 2
Agriculture 99 3
Gasoline Powered Motor Vehicles 81 4
Diesels 81 5
Misc. Internal Combustion Engines 81 5
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear 49 6
Jet Aircraft 99 1
Piston Aircraft 81 5
Ships and Railroads 81 5
*1. Estimate based on conversations with L.A. APCD engineers
2. Estimate based on data presented in AP-68, "Control Techniques for
Particulate Matter." 2Q
3. California Air Environment
4. Based on data presented in this report
5. Assumed
6. Personal communication with Dr. J.P. Subrameni, EPA Region 4, Atlanta,
Georgia.
29
-------
of the documentation for this particular series of tests revealed the
following:
• The factor was derived assuming a seven-mode cycle
rather than the CVS method.
• The factor represented suspended particulate matter
as opposed to total particulate matter.
« The factor applied to older vehicles having 30,000
to 50,000 miles accumulated.
22
A review of studies of exhaust particulate emissions was subsequently
obtained. Table 2-5 summarizes the information extracted from this review.
The available data indicate the following:
t The characteristics of exhaust particulate matter
vary as a function of the age of the exhaust system of
the vehicle, apparently leveling off after 3-5 years.
• Older vehicles emit more than younger vehicles.
• The average particle size is smaller for younger
vehicles than for older vehicles.
t Exhaust particulate emissions are sensitive to
driving mode, and hence to the test cycle used.
TABLE 2-5. AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FACTORS
(grams/mile)
Factors Used In
Ter Harr.l
New
Cars
0.15
) 0.02
97221 .
Old
Cars
0.34
0.06
Hai»i bi
New
Cars
0.18
0.101
0.06
,197322
Old
Cars
0.221
0.09
196522
Filters
Study_
0.31
22
Larsen
Tunnel
Study
0.35
This
New
Cars
0.222
0.18
0.10
0.06
1
Study
Old
Cars
0.482
0.35
0.22
0.09
Total Particulates
Suspended "
Total Lead (Pb)
Suspended Lead (Pb)
Notes:
1) Total lead (Pb) emissions are estimated from Habibi's factors of 0.15 gm/
mile and 0.34 gm/mile for lead salt emissions from new and old cars, assuming
roughly a 2/3 molecular weight ratio between lead and lead salt compounds.
2) The adopted values for the total particulate emission factor are derived
from the other adopted emission factor assuming that non-lead particulates
emitted which are larger than 10 microns are an insignificant fraction of
total emissions. Hence,
total
particulates
suspended
particulates
+ (total lead - suspended lead)
30
-------
For the purposes of the present study, it has been assumed that young
vehicles may be defined as being 0-2 years old, while "mature" vehicles
may be defined as being greater than 3 years old. Thus, from a knowledge of the
vehicle age distribution, a weighted average emission factor for exhaust
particulates may be computed. For the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR, the 1972
vehicle age distribution is shown in Table 2-6.
TABLE 2-6. VEHICLE POPULATION AND VMT DISTRIBUTION AS OF
JUNE, 1972
Model
Year
1972
1971
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
Population Annual
Distribution (%)* VMT
8.0 11,000
9.4 14,000
9.2 13,000
9.9 12,500
8.9 11,500
7.8 10,500
8.2 10,500
8.4 10,000
7.2 9,500
5.9 8,500
4.6 7.500
3.0 6,500
2.5 6,500
1.7 6,500
5.3 6,500
VMT
Distribution (%}
.8.4
12.5
11.4
11.8
9.7
7.8
8.2
8.0
6.5
4.8
3.3
1
1
8
5
1.0
3.3
*Source: R. L. Polk and Company
The weighting factors are therefore 0.209 for young vehicles and 0.791 for
mature vehicles. Using the emission factors shown in Table 2.5, we obtain the
following weighted average emission factors for light-duty motor vehicles:
total exhaust particulates = 0.209 x 0.22 + 0.791 x 0.48 = 0.43 gms/mile
suspended particulates = 0.209 x 0.18 + 0.791 x 0.35 = 0.31 gms/mile
total Pb emissions = 0.209 x 0.10 + 0.791 x 0.22 = 0.19 gms/mile
suspended Pb emissions = 0.209 x 0.06 + 0.791 x 0.09 = 0.08 gms/mile
VMT for the six county area approximately equivalent to the Metropolitan
Los Angeles AQCR has been established from Los Angeles Regional Transportation
2
Study (LARTS) data to be 147 million vehicle miles per day in 1972. Assuming
31
-------
that VMT within the six counties of the basin is distributed proportionate
to carbon monoxide emissions (as estimated by the County APCD's), the
inventory of exhaust particulate emissions have been disaggregated as
follows:
Los Angeles County - 70.3% of air basin total
4-County Sub-Area - 96.3% of air basin total
2.3.3 Other Mobile Source Particulate Emissions
In addition to particulates from vehicular exhaust, tire wear makes
a significant contribution to the particulate inventory. The EPA emission
factor for tire wear of 0.20 grams per mile is based on a Ph.D. thesis by
Dr. J. P. Subramani. Conversations with Dr. Subramani revealed that
according to the same work, only 49% of the particules (by weight) were
less than 10 microns in diameter. Hence, only 49% of the total particulates
from tire wear are assumed to be suspended. This factor yields suspended
particulate ratios of tire wear to exhaust which are consistent with
2?
recent studies.
Particulate emissions from motorcycles were calculated from the
emission factors presented in AP-42, population data from the California
Department of Motor Vehicles, and an assumed annual VMT of 4,000 miles from
the AESi report. Aircraft, ship and railroad particulate emissions were
taken from the Supplement to the Implementation Plan - South Coast Air
Basin, submitted to the ARB by the local APCD's.
Emissions from heavy-duty diesel vehicles were estimated from diesel
fuel consumption data as reported on NEDS. In 1970, diesel fuel consumption
in the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR was 543,556 gallons/day. This consumption
figure was projected to 1972 by applying the diesel truck registration
growth rate between 1970 and 1971 (9.7%/year) to the diesel fuel consumption
resulting in an estimated 653,700 gal /day in 1972. EPA emission factors
(13 lb/1000 gal for particulates, 27 lbs/1000 gal for S02, 37 lbs/1000 gal
for total hydrocarbons, and 370 lbs/1000 gal for NOX) were then applied to
the consumption figure to yield emissions. These emissions were then
disaggregated in the same fashion as LDMV and HDMV emissions.
32
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2.4 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
2.4.1 Stationary Sources
The base year inventory of reactive hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides,
and nitrogen oxides was developed using the inventories reported by the
local APCD's as a starting point. From these, the hydrocarbon inventory
was adjusted to reflect the latest set of EPA reactivities, and the
stationary source NO inventory was replaced by the inventory provided
X
by KVB Engineering. Power Plant emissions were adjusted to reflect
Southern California Edison emissions estimates, since the projected
emissions in this category are based on Edison projections.
2.4.2 Motor Vehicle Emissions
Emissions from light and heavy duty gasoline powered motor
vehicles were calculated using the latest EPA emission factors and
deterioration factors, combined with vehicle population data from R. L.
Polk and Company, and VMT data from the Los Angeles Regional Transportation
Study (LARTS). The procedure for combining this data to produce the final
emissions is described in Appendix C. Since the LARTS VMT data was
disaggregated into freeway and non-freeway categories, computations were
made assuming a 52.5 mph average freeway speed and a 21.9 mph average non-
2
freeway speed. The freeway speed is a "best guess" estimate. A sensi-
tivity analysis was performed to estimate the effect of a 5 mph change in
the freeway speed. Since the speed correction curves (AP-42) are relatively
flat at the high speed end, the resulting sensitivity was found to be
insignificant (2% for hydrocarbons, and 4% for NO ).
X
There is at the present time a controversy between EPA and the
California Air Resources Board concerning the emission factors for
gasoline-powered light duty vehicles. EPA contends that their CVS-II
(constant volume sampling with both cold and hot start cycles) sampling
technique yields emission factors which are more representative of actual
emissions than the ARB's seven-mode cycle. The ARB on the other hand,
contends that there is no cycle which is most representative of actual
driving and that a change in sampling technique would not be a good idea
from the standpoint of comparing new emissions testing data with historical
33
-------
data obtained using the 7-mode cycle. This situation is further confused
by a change in the position taken by EPA regarding the conversion of 7-mode
cycle emission factors to CVS-II emission factors.
In 1971, EPA was directing state and local agencies to apply the
following correction factors to their 7-mode cycle test data to obtain
24
CVS-II emission factors:
HC: 1.38
CO: 1.58
NO : 1.03
X
Then, in 1973 EPA published as part of AP-42 (Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors) motor vehicle emission factors which were
presumably obtained using the CVS-II cycle. These factors, however,
resembled the 7-mode cycle factors more closely than the 7-mode cycle
adjusted according to the conversion factors. Thus, the difference
between the two sets of CVS-II emission factors is quite significant and
will lead to different control strategies, since one set of emission
factors will represent motor vehicles as a much larger percentage of the
total inventory than the other set.
25
Conversations with key EPA personnel indicated that the emission
factors published by EPA in AP-42 are indeed representative of the test
data from EPA's ongoing mobile source testing program. Therefore, at
the direction of the project officer, the factors as published in AP-42
were used in calculating the inventory presented here.
The inventory of gaseous precursor emissions is summarized in
Table 2-7. As may be seen from this table the major sources of sulfur
oxides are power plants and other stationary fuel combustion sources,
chemical plants consisting mainly of sulfur recovery and sulfuric acid
plants, and gasoline powered motor vehicles. (The emissions of S02 from
gasoline-powered motor vehicles is higher than what would be computed from
the EPA emission factor for this category. This is due to the 0.067% S
content of gasoline sold in Southern California, which is about twice that
assumed in AP-42.)26 Likewise, the major sources of nitrogen oxides are
-------
TABLE 2-7.
1972 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSORS (TONS/DAY)
Los Angeles Entire 4-County
County Air Basin Sub-Area
Source Category S09 NOV RHC S09 NOV RHC SO, NO RHC
£ A U X C X
Stationary Sources
Petroleum
Refining-Production 56 67.5 7 60 67.5 7 60 67.5 7
Service Stations 41 71.5 67.1
Org. Solvent Users
Surface Coating 9 11 10
Dry Cleaning 1 2 1
Degreasing 8 11 10
Other 21 22 22
\
Chemical Processing
Petrochemical 0.7
Sulfur Recovery 95 95 95
Pulp and Paper 0.4
Other 2 2 0.4 2 0.4
Metallurgical Proc. 5.7 13 0.5 13 0.5
Mineral Processing 6.4 1.4
Incineration 1.0 1.6 0.3 1.6 0.3
Fuel Combustion
Power Plants 142.8 74.1 - 217.5 112.8 - 180.3 93.5
Industrial 10 80.4 - 27.6 129.7* - 27.6 114.8* -
Domestic (\space 0.2 53.9 - 0.3 77.7 - 0.3 74.1
heaters + comm'l)
Agricultural 1.1 0.7 6.6 1.1
Stationary Source
Total 312 279 87 423 391 133 381 352 117
KVB used emission factors from AP42 for the source category. The
factors have since been updated by EPA. The emission shown here
have been adjusted to include this latest update.
35
-------
TABLE 2-7
Source Category
Mobile Sources
Light Duty
Motor Vehicles
Heavy Duty
Motor Vehicles
Diesel
Misc. (motorcycles,
off-road, etc.)
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Mobile Source
Totals
Total Inventory
1972 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSORS
(TONS/DAY) (CONTINUED)
Los Angeles
County
NO,
3.0 10
3
Ships and Railroads 10 22
RHC
29.2 546 604
0.4 20 22
6.2 85 8
43 67
9
2.4
Entire
Air Basin
NON
RHC
41.4 776 859
0.6 28 32
8.8 121 12
61 95
3.7 13.4 15.9
0.2 6.3 8.1
14.5 26
49 729 712.4 69 1032 1022
361 1008 799 492 1423 1155
4-County
Sub-Area
S02 NOX RHC
39.8 747 827
0.6 27 31
8.5 117 12
59 91
3.4 12.4 9.9
0.2. 6.2 5.8
10.8 24
63 993 977
444 .1345 1094
36
-------
fuel combustion and motor vehicles. Finally, as mentioned previously, the
reactive hydrocarbon inventory has been adjusted to reflect the latest EPA
reactivity factors. The major source of emissions for this pollutant is
gasoline powered motor vehicles.
2.5 LOCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A significant feature of the inventory presented here is the
preparation of maps indicating the geographical distribution of sources
as well as emissions. The most common procedure in the past has been to
report emissions on an aggregated basin-wide basis with no indication of
spatial distribution. The source and emission maps will aide in
evaluating locational aspects of control strategies.
Figure 2-1 gives a topographical reference map of the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Region to aide in interpreting the subsequent figures.
Figures 2-2 through 2-6 present the geographical distribution of the
following source types: power plants, refineries, industrial activity,
automotive mileage, and aircraft activity. Where possible, units have
been chosen to be representative of emission potential, e.g. power
capacity (power plants), barrels throughput (refineries), and vehicle
miles travelled (autos).
Figures 2-7 through 2-10 give approximate 1972 emission maps for
particulates, reactive hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
These maps have been derived by aggregating the individual source maps
(Figures 2-2 - 2-6) according to the emissions from those sources as
given in Tables 2-2 and 2-7. In this aggregation process, it was assumed
that service station and residential emissions were distributed approxi-
mately the same as vehicle miles travelled (Figure 2-5).
Although the maps presented were not designed for a precise
quantitative application, certain qualitative conclusions are immediately
apparent:
• The distribution of RHC and NO approximately parallels
the distribution of vehicular activity, the source of
these emissions.
37
-------
GO
00
••
x^i/iife',^"*^?' '•">••' ^ - ." l — t
«/!«'!?*.; '>>;v. M f o
y s -. •.,' ~"
A . ,. ' V"' ' E—'«. .
.''I :>' *tV- , '. E • •*' ''•
Figure 2-1
Topographical Reference Map for the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR;
including county boundaries
-------
GO
10
FIGURE 2-2 POWER PLANT DENSITY MAP
1 DOT = 100 fHE INSTALLED CAPACITY
DATA SOURCES:
1) SVTHERH CALIFDRT1IA EDISON
2) LOS ANGELES COUNTY AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL DISTRICT 1971 PROFILE Of
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
-------
FIGURE 2-3 PETROLEUM REFINERY DQ6ITY MAP
1 DOT = 10,000 BARRELS/TJAY TWOUGWUT
DATA SOURCE:
BUREAU OF MlrCS, U.S. DEPT. OF IK INTERIOR
MINERAL IMXBTRY SURVEYS, JAMjWRY L WO
-------
FIGURE 2-t INDUSTRY DENSITY MAP
1 DOT = 1 INDUSTRIAL FIRM EMITTING 100
TINS/YEAR OF AIR
(EXCUEING PETROLELM REFINERIES)
DATA SOUiCE:
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEMS (NEDS)
-------
ro
FIGURE 2-5 VEHICLE MILES TOWELLED (VHj) DENSITY MAP
1 DOT = 500,000 VMT
DATA SOURCES:
1) ROBERTS, P., ROTH, P.. MO NELSON C. 'CONTMUNMT
EWSSIONS IN THE LOS ANKLES BASIN — THEIR SOUCES
RATE. MO DISTRIBUTION", APFBOIX A OF DEVQjCCTB*T
OF A SINLATION.HXe. RW ESTIMATINS SROJND LEVEL
ooNcamwnoMs OF PHDHXHEMCAL coimrANrs, SVSTBC
APPLICATIONS INC., NUEH 1£P1.
2) "TRANSPORTATION OOMTROL STRATEGY DEVEUJPMENT FOR
THE HETROPOUTW LOS MCELES REGION* TRM, INC.,
1973.
-------
CO
FIGURE 2-6 AIRCRAFT ACTIVITY DB6ITY MAP
1 DOT = 50 TDNS/bAY AIRCRAFT FUEL CONSUMED
OATA SOURCES:
1) LOS ANGELES AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DISTRICT
2) PERSONAL CCTtUIICATION WITH JMf (eVTTT,
LOS ANGELES COUNTY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
DISTRICT
-------
Figure 2-7. Particulate Emission Density Map.
1 Dot = 2 Tons/Day Total Particulate Emissions
-------
.£»
U1
Figure 2-8. Reactive Hydrocarbon Emission Density Map.
1 Dot = 10 Tons/Day of Reactive Hydrocarbon Emissions
-------
Figure 2-9 Sulfur Oxides Emissions Density Map for the Los Angeles Region
1 Dot = 2 Tons/Day SOX Emissions
-------
Figure 2-10. Nitrogen Oxides Emission Density Map.
1 Dot = 11 Tons/Day NOX Emissions
-------
• Major point sources of participates have, on the whole
been controlled to the point that emissions in this
category are highly dispersed and indistinguishable
from the distribution of vehicle miles travelled, des-
pite the heavy concentration of industry near the
coast. The concentration shown at the location of Los
Angeles International Airport is not quite represent-
ative of the emissions occurring at that location
since emissions are computed for complete landing
and take-off cycles (LTD), which occur over a much
larger geographical area.
• Only sulfur dioxide emissions are significantly con-
centrated in large stationary sources; motor vehicles
do not dominate the inventory for this pollutant.
These large stationary sources (power plants and
petroleum refineries) are located near the coast,
normally upwind from the bulk of the populace within
the basin.
2.6 PRESENT CONTROL PROGRAM FOR STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
The Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District has been
a pioneer in the field of stationary source emission control and has
established itself as a leader in this area. The remaining districts
comprising the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR have followed the example
set by the Los Angeles APCD, and in some cases have established rules
which are even more stringent. Table 2-8 is a summary comparison of
the rules currently in force in the various counties. A brief summary
of the more significant rules enacted within the past two years is
presented in Appendix B. The Rules and Regulations published by the
individual agencies should be consulted if additional information is
required.
The overall effectiveness of the present control program for
stationary sources is summarized in Table 2-9. From this table, it is
evident that significant reductions in stationary source emissions of both
primary particulates and the gaseous precursors of secondary particulates
have been made. The total percentage control listed at the bottom may
create a false impression, however, with regard to the control efficiency
on presently existing sources. These figures include sources that have
been regulated out of existence, such that they do not contribute to the
present levels of particulate matter in the ambient atmosphere (e.g.,
backyard incinerators). Thus, the overall percentage control of sources
now operating within the basin is expected to be less than that shown.
48
-------
The relatively low control level for particulate matter in the organic
solvent category is due mainly to the highly dispersed nature of the sources
which reduces the socio-economic "attractiveness" of applying controls in
this source category. The percentage control of SCL emissions in the chemical
industry category is expected to rise dramatically within the next year in
response to the implementation of Rules 53.2 and 53.3 of the Los Angeles
27
County APCD. (These rules are described briefly in Appendix A). Finally,
Los Angeles County's Rule 65 requires 90% organic vapor recovery during the
loading of stationary storage tanks (such as at gasoline service stations)
28
by 1976. This rule should provide significant reductions in hydrocarbon
emissions by 1977.
49
-------
TABLE 2-8. SOUTH COAST BASIN RULES SUMMARY
San Santa
Rules L.A. Orange Riverside Bernardino Ventura Barbara
Definitions x x x x x x
Authority to Arrest x x x x -
Availability of Emission Data - - x x -
Authority to Construct x x x x - x x
Denial of A/C x x x x x x
Permit to Operate x x x x x x
Permit Fees x x x x x x
Annual Renewal - - x x -
Ringelmann & Opacity x x x x x x
Nuisance x x x x x x
Fugitive Dust - - - x -
Particulate Matter:
Concentration x x x x x x
Weight x x xO) x x x
Specific Contaminants:
Sulfur x x* x* x* x* x
Combustion x** x x x x x
Fluorine - - x x -
Scavenger Plants x x x - x
Sulfur Recovery Units x x x x - x
Sulfuric Acid Units x x x x - x
Exceptions to Opacity Rule x x x x x x
Storage of Petro Products x x x . x x x
Open Fi res x* x* x x x x*
Disposal of Solid x x x(2) x x(3) x
and Liquid Wastes
Oil-Water Separators x x x x x x
Circumvention x x x x x x
Organic Liquid Loading x x* x(4) x x x(4)
Sulfur in Fuels x** x x x x x
Gasoline Specifications x x x x x x
Reduc. of Animal Matter x x x x x* x
Gasoline Loading into Tanks x* x x x x x
Organic Solvents x* x* x x* x* x
New Fuel Burn. Equip. x x* x x x x
Existing Fuel Burn. Equip.:
Oxides of Nitrogen x x(5) x* x* x(6) x
Combustion Contaminants x** x x x x x
Vacuum Producing Systems x x x x x x
Asphalt Air Blowing x x x x x x
Carbon Monoxide x x x x x x
Pumps & Compressors x - - - -
Pressure Relief Valves x - - - -
50
-------
TABLE 2-8 SOUTH COAST BASIN RULES SUMMARY (continued)
Rules
Hearing Board
Orchard Heaters
Emergencies
Abatement
L.A.
x
x
X
X
San Santa
Orange Riverside Bernardino Ventura Barbara
x
x
x
x
x*
x
x
x
x
x
/**
Notes:
*
**
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
More stringent
Less stringent
No Rule
More stringent for process weights of 60,000 Ib/hr or less.
Less stringent for process weights of 70,000 Ib/hr or more.
More stringent for incinerators burning 100 Ibs/hr or less.
More stringent for incinerators burning 100 Ibs/hr or less.
Less stringent for incinerators buring more than 100 Ibs/hr.
Less stringent than Los Angeles and Orange Counties.
More stringent for plants with heat inputs between 500 million
and 1775 million BTU/hr. Less stringent for those having inputs
of 1775 million BTU/hr to 2150 million BTU/hr.
More stringent for plants having heat input rates between 250
million and 1775 million BTU/hr. More stringent for existing
sources having heat inputs between 1775 million and 2150 million
BTU/hr when burning gas, but less stringent when burning oil.
51
-------
TABLE 2-9. PERCENTAGE CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES IN THE SOUTH
COAST AIR BASIN
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent Users
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Agriculture
Total
Reactive
Organic
Gases
71.3%
90.1
0
0
99.7
0
0
Particulate
Matter
76.9%
22.7
34
95.6
97.9
97.9
56.1
68.4
N0y
58.1%
96.6
55.0
32.8
S0y
96.2%
30.7
22.9
0
0
84.5
31.3
CO
99.8%
0
98.8
0
94.4
0
67.1
86.1%
94.9%
58.6%
OQ OO/
OO. Ch
97.5%
Source: Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District, "Supplement to the
Implementation Plan - South Coast Air Basin," August 1973,
revised December 11, 1973.
52
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3.0 EMISSION PROJECTIONS
This section of the report details the assumptions and methods used
in projecting emissions in the Air Basin. Two alternatives are considered:
First, projections are made assuming that only controls presently scheduled
to go into effect by the local APCD's and the federal new car control pro-
gram are implemented; second, projections are made assuming that the EPA-
promulgated implementation plan for achieving the oxidant standard in the
Air Basin is indeed implemented.
3.1 SOURCES OF DATA
3.1.1 Stationary Sources and Aircraft
The availability of data required to compile an emission projection
can best be described as limited in quantity and diverse in quality.
Ideally, projections by the individual categories of sources (such as
petroleum refineries and utility companies) would be available, but this
was true in only one case. The most reasonable alternative was to review
the literature and to contact public agencies and private utilities
possessing the information necessary to the formation of the projections.
The following list summarizes these various sources.
Stationary Sources
A. Literature - "Population and Economic Activity in the United
States and Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Areas"; EPA, 1972.29
- "1973 California Gas Report."30
- "Transportation Control Strategy Development for
the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region," TRW, Inc.,
1973.2
B. Public Agencies - Los Angeles City Department of Water and Power.
- Los Angeles, San Bernardino and Ventura County
Air Pollution Control Districts.
- Los Angeles County Chamber of Commerce.
- University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
53
-------
C. Private Organizations - Southern California Edison Company
- Southern California Gas Company
- Security Pacific National Bank
- Wells Fargo Bank
Aircraft
A. Literature - "Aircraft Emissions: Impact on Air Quality and
Feasibility of Control"; EPA, 1973.3T
B. Public Agencies - Los Angeles International Airport
C. Private Organizations - Southern California Association of
Governments (SCAG).
3.1.2 Motor Vehicles
Emissions from motor vehicles have been previously projected for
2
the purposes of oxidant control strategy development. However, these
projections were made prior to the granting of delays to the auto
manufacturers in meeting the Clean Air Act Standards, and the establish-
ment of interim standards for new car emissions. Hence, new projections
were developed for light-duty vehicles which incorporated this change.
Heavy duty vehicle emissions were projected in a similar fashion to light
duty vehicles. The local APCDs report current emissions for gasoline-
powered motor vehicles where light and heavy duty vehicles are un-
fortunately lumped together. Further, no projections have been made
by these agencies. Therefore, the procedure outlined in Appendix C was
used to project emissions in these source categories.
54
-------
3.1.3 Uncontrolled Vehicles
The most comprehensive study located concerning projected emissions
from uncontrolled vehicles is one done for the California Air Resources
Board by Automotive Environmental Systems, Inc., (AESi) of Hestminster
California. Uncontrolled vehicles are defined by AESi to include:
(1) Exempted automobiles - pre 1955 model year vehicles, vehicles
with engines of less than 50 CID, vehicles of limited production
and foreign origin.
(2) Competition vehicles - vehicles used in road, drag, oval or flat
track, record car or off road racing.
(3) Motorcycles.
(4) Snowmobiles, ATV's and dune buggies.
(5) Lawn and garden equipment, chainsaws and home utilities.
(6) Farm equipment.
(7) Off road heavy duty equipment - construction and earth moving,
mining and quarrying, lumber equipment.
AESi's work included extensive literature searches, surveys of
knowledgeable personnel and emission tests to arrive at emission factors.
For example, in the case of motorcycles, some aspects examined by AESi
were (1) on and off road motorcycles (2) two and four stroke engines (3)
number and annual mileage travelled (from California State Department of
Motor Vehicles, U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Bureau of Land
Management and sales statistics) (4) emissions for off road motorcycles
(by testing) and (5) growth rates of sales.
Emissions were projected by AESi from 1970 to 1980 for each air
quality control region in the State of California.
3.2 POLICIES AND ASSUMPTIONS
To arrive at an emission projection with information obtained from
the sources available, the decision was made not to rely on any one
specific source, but rather to use different ones in different categories
of sources. As a consequence, the following policies were adopted:
55
-------
(1) Petroleum industry emissions - Dr. Richard L. Perrine of UCLA
was consulted regarding trends in petroleum production and
refining operations. TRW's report^ was used for trends in
gasoline marketing.
(2) Organic solvent users; chemical, metallurgical and mineral
industries; incineration and agricultural emissions - For all
these categories, the growth rate or emissions was considered
equal to the growth rate of the individual type of emitter
(i.e. chemical, metallurgical industries). The EPA's
population and economic activity study29 contained growth
rates for certain select industries but was not used because
of its assumption of a Bureau of Census "C" series birthrate,
a figure considerably higher than the actual birthrate. Other
organizations contacted (banks and chamber of commerces) did
not have long term industrial growth rate projections. Thus,
the decision was made to use instead a total employment growth
rate forecasted by the Wells Fargo Bank.32
(3) Steam electric power plant fuel combustion emissions - The
Southern California Edison Company has made projections of its
emissions in the South Coast Air Basin. However, none of the
other utilities contacted has made any projections, so esti-
mates based on Edison's figures were used for them.9
(4) Industrial (excluding steam electric) fuel combustion emissions -
Because industrial facilities in the air basin burn natural gas
(when available), Southern California Gas Company and the "1973
California Gas Report" projections of natural gas supplies were
used along with emission factors to calculate emissions.
Adjustment for combustion of fuel other than natural gas was
made.
(5) Domestic and commercial fuel combustion emissions - All
domestic and commercial fuel combustion is assumed to result
from the use of natural gas. Southern California Gas Company
and the "1973 California Gas Report" projections were used.
(6) Aircraft emissions - Although Los Angeles International is in
the process of projecting its future air traffic activity,
personnel contacted at the facility were unwilling to release
any information. The EPA aircraft emissions report contained
emission projections at Los Angeles International and Van Nuys
Airport for 1975 and 1980. However, these figures were not
acceptable because (a) the baseline data (1970) disagreed with
Los Angeles County APCD figures (which were assumed to be more
accurate) and (b) the report included only two airports out
of a total of 42 in the air basin. As a result of these
difficulties, a SCAG report "Southern California Regional
Aviation System Study"33 was used instead.
The preceding policies and assumptions regarding the projection of the
emission inventory are summarized in Table 3-1.
56
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TABLE 3-1 SUMMARY OF ASSUMPTIONS USED FOR BASELINE DATA (1972)
PROJECTIONS TO 1977 AND 1980
Petroleum
(1) Production
(2) Refining
(3) Marketing
Organic Solvent
(1) Surface Coating
(2) Dry Cleaning
(3) Degreasing
(4) Other
Chemical
Los Angeles
1
9
3
4
4
4
4
(1) Petrochemical
(2) Sulfur Plants
3) Sulfuric Acid Plants
4) Pulp and Paper
(5) Other
Metallurgical
(1)
(2)
Ferrous
Non Ferrous
Mineral
(1) Glass and Frit
(2) Asphalt Batching
(3) Asphalt Roofing
(4) Cement Production
(5) Concrete Patching
(6) Other
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Orange
1
2
3
2
2
4
4
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Riverside San Bernardino Santa Barbara
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
Ventura
1
2
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
-------
TABLE 3-1
SUMMARY OF ASSUMPTIONS USED FOR BASELINE DATA
(1972) PROJECTIONS TO 1977 AND 1980 (CONTINUED)
tn
oo
Incineration
(1) Open Burning
(Dumps)
(.2) Open Burning
(Backyard)
(3) Incinerators
(4) Other
Combustion of Fuel
(1) Steam and Power
Plants
(2) Other Industrial
.(3) Domestic and
Commercial
Agricultural
(1) Debris Burning
(2) Orchard Heaters
(3) Agricultural
Production Pro-
cessing Plants
Los Angeles
2
2
8
2
7
7
2
2
2
Orange
2
2
8
2
. Riverside San Bernardino Santa Barbara
7
7
5
2
2
2
2
8
2
7
7
5
5
5
2
2
2
5
7
7
2
5
2
2
2
2
2
7
7
5
2
2
Ventura
2 '
2
2
5
7
7
5
5
5
Assumption #1:
Assumption #2:
Assumption #3:
There will be no change of emission levels from 1972 because no new oil fields or increased
production from existing fields and refineries is expected.
There were no emissions from these sources in 1972 and none is expected in the future.
The historical 4% per year growth rate in gasoline sales is expected to hold true in the
future. No attempts have been made to assess the impact of possible fuel shortages on
gasoline sales.
-------
TABLE 3-1. SUMMARY OF ASSUMPTIONS USED FOR BASELINE DATA
(1972) PROJECTIONS TO 1977 AND 1980 (CONTINUED.)
Assumption #4: The rate of increase in emissions is equal to the rate of increase in the total
employment of each county, which is given below:
Los Angeles 1.5% per year
Orange 3.5% per year
Riverside 2.5% per year
San Bernardino 2.3% per year
Santa Barbara 2.3% per year
Ventura 2.9% per year
Source: "Moving Ahead - Wells Fargo Looks at California," Wells Fargo Bank, 1973.
Assumption #5: The emissions from these sources are assumed to remain constant
through 1980.
Assumption #6: Emission projections were obtained from Southern California Edison.
Assumption #7: Emission projections were obtained from the 1973 California Gas Report.
Assumption #8: Emissions are assumed to increase at the .same rate as population in each
county, which is shown in Section 3.3.4.
Assumption #9: Emission projections reflecting anticipated expansions from local refineries
(Atlantic Richfield and Standard) were based on figures extracted from the
environmental impact statement associated with the proposed Standard Oil
expansion project, as conveyed to TRW by EPA in private communication. ^2
-------
3.3 EMISSION INVENTORY PROJECTION UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS
3.3.1 Petroleum Industry Emissions
Only three counties in the entire air basin report emissions due to
petroleum production in 1972 (Los Angeles, Orange and Ventura). For these
three counties, emissions are assumed to hold constant through the year 1980.
This assumption may overestimate emissions since production has historically
declined since the mid-1960's. No attempt has been made to account for
possible new techniques of increasing oil production from existing fields
(such as steam injection). Counties reporting no emissions are not
expected to have any changes through 1980.
Except for Los Angeles County, all counties reporting emissions due to
refining process operations are expected to have the same quantity of
emissions through 1980. In Los Angeles County, Standard Oil of California
and the Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) plan to construct facilities to
desulfurize high sulfur fuel oil. Changes in refining processes resulting
from these new facilities are projected to cause a decrease in RHC
emissions of 0.5 tons/day beginning in 1976. For counties having no
refineries, none are assumed to be constructed prior to 1980.
In the case of petroleum marketing, the historical 4% per year increase
2
in gasoline sales is assumed to hold true until 1980. Possible declines
in gasoline sales due to shortages and for conservation measures by the
public have not been assessed. The Los Angeles County APCD vapor recovery
rule (Rule #65) will reduce reactive hydrocarbon emissions from the filling
of service station storage tanks by 90% starting in 1975. (The transfer of
gasoline to vehicular tanks remains uncontrolled.)
3.3.2 Organic Solvent Users
For counties reporting no emissions in 1972, no emissions are assumed
through 1980. Otherwise the following yearly growth rates in emissions
are assumed:
COUNTY PERCENT YEARLY GROWTH
Los Angeles 1.5
Orange 3.5
Riverside 2.5
San Bernardino 2.3
Santa Barbara 2.3
Ventura 2.9
60
-------
These figures are actually the projected yearly increase in total employ-
ment from 1972 through 1980. Thus the rate of increase in emissions is
assumed equal to the rate of increase in total employment. By doing so,
the projections may result in higher emissions than would actually occur,
since much of the increase in employment can undoubtedly be attributed to
light industry and service-oriented occupations.
3.3.3 Chemical, Metallurgical and Mineral
The methodology used for these industries is the same as that employed
in the case of Organic Solvent Users. One exception is sulfur dioxide
emissions from Los Angeles County sulfur .recovery plants which are held
constant (after 1974) at 10 tons/day. This is because of the Los Angeles
County APCD Rule 53.2 which limits S02 emissions from sulfur recovery
plants to
• 500 ppm by volume of sulfur compounds calculated
as sulfur dioxide.
• 10 ppm by volume of hydrogen sulfide.
• 200 pounds per hour of sulfur compounds
calculated as sulfur dioxide.
Emissions from metallurgical industries in San Bernardino County
may not actually increase as rapidly as the projections indicate. This
is because the following information concerning the Kaiser Steel Plant
in Fontana was revealed in conversations with personnel at the San Bernardino
County APCD:35
(1) The plant is the largest stationary point source (excluding
power plants) in the county.
(2) A proposed coke oven desulfurization plant (scheduled to go
into operation in the late 1970's) will probably reduce S0x
emission levels to 1 ton/day.
(3) An on-going dust level reduction program should reduce
particulate emissions by 5 tons/day (scheduled to be
completed by 1977).
The reductions in emissions indicated above were not included in the
projections because of the uncertain nature of- the effectiveness of
control and because the projected changes are not required by law.
61
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3.3.4 Agriculture and Incineration
For counties reporting emissions from agriculture related industries,
no change in emission rates is expected through 1980. There may actually
be declines in this category of emissions in the future because the present
trend of development in the air basin has been towards increased urbanization.
Emissions due to incineration are assumed to increase at the same rate
as population in each county, assuming that the series D-100 projections of
the State's Population Research Unit apply. The projections are
summarized below:
County
Los An<
Orange
San Be>
Riverside
Ventura
Population
leles
nardino
de
•arbara
Steam Electric
1970
7,045,200
1,432,900
685,500
461 ,200
381 ,200
264,700
Power Plant
1975
6,924,500
1,712,000
711,000
527,100
446,200
283,300
Annual Growth Rate
1980
6,963,200
1,970,000
765,100
596,900
523,300
305,800
(%)
- .1
+3.8
+1.2
+2.9
+3.7
+1.6
Fuel Combustion Emissions
The Southern California Edison Company (SCE) has made projections of
emissions of particulates, MOY and S09 from its steam plants in the Los
36
Angeles Basin (Table 3-2). These projections include the expectancy of
fuels available from the proposed ARCO and Standard Oil refineries, and
are based in part on:
• The operation of a new combined cycle unit of 563 MWe at
Edison's Long Beach plant by 1976.
• The operation of a new combined cycle unit of 1416 MWe at
Edison's Huntington Beach plant by 1978.
t The availability of electrical power brought into the
South Coast Air Basin from sources such as Pacific
Northwest hydroelectric, the Four Corners (New Mexico)
coal fired plant and the San Onofre nuclear plant.
• The expected customer demand.
• The expected availability of fuel oil, distillate and
natural gas.
62
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TABLE 3-2. PROJECTED EMISSIONS OF PARTICIPATES, NOX AND S02
FROM SCE STEAM ELECTRIC PLANTS IN THE BASIN
Year Participates NOX S02
1977 31.4 112.8 255.1
1980 32.5 122.0 268.3
Source: S. Moody, SCE, private communication, April 1974.
TABLE 3-3. GENERATING CAPACITIES OF SCE (IN THE AIR BASIN),
DWP AND GPB
Generating Capacity (MWe)
Utility Company County 1972 1977 1980
SCE Los Angeles 4788 5351 5351
Orange 880 2296 2296
San Bernardino 1186 1186 1186
Ventura 2010 2010 2010
DWP Los Angeles 3363 3363 3363
GPB Los Angeles 580 580 580
Note: There are no steam electric plants in Riverside and the
Air Basin portion of Santa Barbara County
Source: M. Ziol and S. Moody, SCE, Private Communication, 1974
TABLE 3-4. ELECTRIC GENERATING CAPACITY RATIOS
Year
PUP Generating Capacity _ 3363 MWe _ n _7Q
SCE Generating Capacity 8864 MWe u>J/y
1077 iQ«n GPB Generating Capacity
iy//, iyou
580 MWe
SCE Generating capacity " 10843 MWe
63
-------
» The fact that if the fuel oil supplied by ARCO is less
than the Los Angeles County APCD requirement of 0.5% (by
weight) sulfur content, Edison will not blend higher
percentage sulfur fuel oil (such as Venezulean) with the
lower percentage grade to just meet the APCD requirement.
The allocation of fuel oil from the new refineries will go to existing
conventional boiler Edison plants, while the 0.1% (by weight) sulfur
distillate will go to the new combined cycle plants a.t Long Beach and
Huntington Beach. Edison predicts that only 2-3% of the fuel it will
use in the future will be natural gas. The Los Angeles City Department of
Water and Power (DWP) has made no emission projections because they expect
to meet future demand by obtaining electricity from sources outside the air
07
basin. Due to the relatively minor contributions of pollutants from the
municipalities of Glendale, Pasadena and Burbank (GPB), no attempt was made
to contact them concerning the availability of emission projections.
Based on information received, the following methodology for predicting
emissions was adopted:
(1) Calculate the generating capacities (excluding gas turbine
units) of SCE in the Los Angeles Basin, DWP and GPB. (These
municipalities are considered as a unit.) (Table 3-3).
(2) Calculate the ratio of the DWP and GPB generating capacities
to that of SCE. (Table 3-4).
(3) Assume that the emissions from GPB is proportional to the
ratio obtained in Step C2). For example, since (GPB generating
capacity/SCE operating capacity) = .05, GPB's emissions for all
projection years equals .05 times those of SCE.
(4) Because of the DWP's proposed policy of bringing power into
the basin, their emissions are assumed to remain constant
through 1980. Since in 1972 (DWP generating capacity/SCE
generating capacity) = 0.379, DWP baseline emissions are
assumed to be equal to 0.379 times SCE's emissions in 1972.
The results of Steps (3) and (4) are shown in Table 3-5.
The methodology outlined above does not account for possible energy
conservation measures adopted by consumers and the.fact that emissions are
not directly proportional to generating capacities (since the emission
characteristics of individual plants differ).
64
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TABLE 3-5. PROJECTED EMISSIONS FROM STEAM ELECTRIC PLANTS
IN THE AIR BASIN (TONS/DAY)
Year County Particulates NO^ S02 '
1977 Los Angeles 25.9 98.5 210.2
Orange 6.6 23.7 53.6
Riverside -
San Bernardino 3.5 12.4 28.1
Santa Barbara -
Ventura 5.9 21.4 48.5
1980 Los Angeles 26.4 103.5 218.2
Orange 6.8 25.6 56.3
Riverside -
San Bernardino 3.6 ' 13.4 29.5
Santa Barbara
Ventura 6.2 23.2 51.0
3.3.6 Domestic and Commercial Fuel Combustion
Emissions from domestic and commercial fuel combustion in the air basin
result from the use of natural gas supplied by the Southern California Gas
Company (SC Gas) and the city of Long Beach (LB). Both SC Gas1 parent
company, the Pacific Lighting Companies (PLC) and LB have made projections
30
of deliveries to domestic and commercial customers (also known as firm
customers) (Tables 3-6 and 3-7). With these projections and EPA emission
factors (Table 3-16), the average daily emissions of particulates, NO and
/\
S02 can be calculated. It is desirable, however, to calculate a county
by county emission projection. The methodology for accomplishing this is
detailed in the following paragraph.
Since PLC sells natural gas to customers other than SC Gas and SC Gas1
service area extends from San Luis Obispo to San Bernardino Counties and
from Fresno to Imperial County (excluding the city of Long Beach), the
initial step was to determine SC Gas1 from deliveries to the air basin
counties. This was done by assuming that the fraction of SC Gas1 total
firm deliveries which went to the air basin counties in 1973 would remain
65
-------
constant until 1980 (Table 3-9). Once these fractions were known, a
county by county projection could be made (LB firm sales were attributed
to Los Angeles County) (Tables 3-11, 13 and 14).
The procedure explained above assumes average temperature years,
and does not account for possible conservation measures by consumers and
the possible switching by interruptible customers to a firm delivery
schedule.
3.3.7 Other Industrial Fuel Combustion
Los Angeles County
All emissions are due either to petroleum refining operations or
other industries" (i.e. chemical, metallurgical). The new desulfurization .
facilities at Standard Oil and ARCO are projected to contribute the follow-
42
ing quantities of combustion emissions:
• Standard Oil (starting in 1976): Particulate +0.3 tons/day
NOX +4.9 tons/day
S02 +5.3 tons/day
• ARCO (starting in 1977): Particulate +0.7 tons/day
NOX +7.2 tons/day
S02 +7.3 tons/day
Otherwise fuel combustion emissions from all other refineries are expected
to remain constant through 1980. In the "other industries" category,
emissions result from the combustion of either natural gas or alternate
fuels (propane, fuel oil, etc.). This is because most industrial facilities
are on an interruptible natural gas supply basis and have alternate fuel
supplies . The projection of natural gas supplies to these interruptible
30
customers has been made by the PLC and LB. This information, along with
emission factors (Table 3-16), allow for the calculation of emissions due
to natural gas combustion. However, the problem remains in attempting to
project emissions from the combustion of alternate fuels.
In 1972, the total emissions from fuel combustion by "other
industries" was:
Particulates: 6.0 tons/day (total particulates minus
petroleum refining operations particulates).
NO : 80.6 tons/day (KVB Engineering, Inc.).
X
SOo: 10 tons/day.
66
-------
Also, in 1972, natural gas supplied to these "other industries" was
70,849 MMcf.2 Using EPA emission factors (Table 3-16), the daily tonnage of
pollutants generated by burning this quantity of natural gas was:
Particulates: 1.7 tons/day
NOX: 17.0 tons/day
S02: 0.06 tons/day
Thus,
6.0 - 1.7 = 4.3 tons of particulate emissions in 1972 were due to the
combustion of alternate fuels.
80.4 - 17 = 63.4 tons of NO emissions in 1972 were due to the combustion
/\
of alternate fuels.
10.0 - .06 = 9.94 tons of SOp emissions in 1972 were due to the combustion
of alternate fuels.
In 1972, 1977 and 1980 the curtailment (difference between demand and supply) of
natural gas to industrial customers is 8502 MMcf, 37,423 MMcf and 32,268 MMcf
respectively (Table 3-13). Then,
1977 curtailment _ 37,423 MMcf _ . .
1972 curtailment 8,502 MMcf 4>H
1980 curtailment 32.268 MMcf . a
1972 curtailment 8,502 MMcf " J-tt
The above ratios reflect the increase in usage of alternate fuels in 1977 and
1980 as compared to 1972. By multiplying 4.4 times the 1972 emissions of
particulates, NO and S09 due to alternate fuels, the resulting figures yield
A £
the 1977 emissions of these pollutants due to the combustion of alternate fuels.
For 1980, the factor of 3.8 is used instead.
Orange, San Bernardino, Santa Barbara, and Ventura Counties
All emissions are from "other industries" (no petroleum refineries) burn-
ing either natural gas or alternate fuels. The procedure outlined for "other
industries" in Los Angeles County was also used here, except for San Bernardino
County S02 emissions which are assumed to hold constant from 1972 through 1980,
since S02 emissions in this category are due mainly to the Kaiser Steel Plant
operation which is not projected to increase its throughput.
The baseline data is obtained by multiplying the quantity of inter-
ruptible natural gas supplied to the county times emission factors
o
(Table 3-16), except for NO where KVB Engineering, Inc. data is used.
/\
67
-------
Table 3-6. PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANIES NATURAL GAS USAGE
PREDICTIONS (in MMcf)
Firm Sales Interrupt!'ble Sales
(Retail & Wholesale) (Industrial & Wholesale)
Year Demand Supply Demand Supply
1977 550,834 550,834 426,824 277,436
1980 585,345 585,345 460,038 331,227
Note: Above figures do not include sales to steam electric plants and oil
companies (payback and exchange)
Source: 1973 California Gas Report.
Table 3-7. LONG BEACH NATURAL GAS USAGE PREDICTION
(in MMcf)
Firm Sales • Interruptible Sales
(Retail & Wholesale) (Industrial & Wholesale)
Year Demand Supply Demand Supply
1977 15,194 15,194 5,498 5,498
1980 15,194 15,194 5,537 5,537
Note: Above figures do not include sales to steam electric plants and oil
companies (exchange and payback)
Source: 1973 California Gas Report.
,68
-------
TABLE 3-8 BREAKDOWN OF 1973 SC GAS COMPANY SALES IN AIR BASIN
(Not including sales to steam electric plants
and oil companies) (MMcf)
County
Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
Source: E. Harris, Southern California Gas Company
Firm Sales
285,910.48
65,914.05
15,572.63
26,010.02
3,511.76
16,414.96
% of Firm
Sales
69.2
15.9
3.8
6.4
0.8
3.9
Interrupt!' ble
Sales
82,412.93
17,935.16
10,185.26
20,383.04
182.26
3,971.29
% of Interruptible
Sales
61.1
13.3
7.5
15.1
0.1
2.9
TABLE 3-9. BREAKDOWN OF 1973 PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANIES SALES
TO AIR BASIN PORTION OF SC GAS (Not including
sales to steam electric plants and oil companies)
SC Gas Company Firm Sales
Pacific Lighting Companies Firm Sales
413,333.9 MMcf
504,013 MMcf
= 0.82
SC Gas Company Interruptible Sales 135,069.4 MMcf
Pacific Lighting Go's Interruptible Sales 328,911 MMcf
= 0.41
69
-------
Table 3-10
Summary of Pacific Lighting Companies Breakdown
of Sales to Southern California Gas Company (By County)
69.21
LOS ANGELES COUNTY
FIRM SALES
15.9%
ORANGE COUNTY
FIRM SALES
PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANIES
FIRM SALES
82%
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GAS CO.
FIRM SALES
3.8%
6.4%
RIVERSIDE COUNTY
FIRM SALES
SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY
FIRM SALES
0.8%
SANTA BARBARA COUNTY
FIRM SALES
3.9%
VENTURA COUNTY
FIRM SALES
61.1%
LOS ANGELES COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
13.3X
ORANGE COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANIES
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
41%
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GAS CO.
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
7.5%
15.1%
RIVERSIDE COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
0.1%
SANTA BARBARA COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
2.9%
VENTURA COUNTY
INTERRUPTIBLE SALES
-------
TABLE 3-11. PROJECTION OF FIRM SALES IN THE AIR BASIN FROM SC
GAS AND LONG BEACH. (in MMcf)
Year
1973
1977
1980
Pacific
Lighting
Companies
Firm Sales
504,013
550,834
585,345
Percent of PLC
Firm Sales to
Air Basin SC
Gas
82%
82%
82%
SC Gas Firm Sales
in the Air Basin
413,290.7
451,683.9
479,982.9
LB Firm
Sales
14,327
15,194
15,194
Total
Firm Sales
427,617.7
466,877.9
495,176.9
TABLE 3-12. PROJECTION OF INTERRUPTIBLE SALES IN THE AIR
BASIN FROM SC GAS AND LONG BEACH (MMcf)
Pacific Lighting Percent of PLC SC Gas in
Conipenios to SC Gas Air Hnsin Long Beach Total
Year Ceni3.jnd Supj^j/ fjlilti_qri^i£Jvi_r_I_3asiji Demand Sun_plj/ Demand Simply Domanc| Supply
1977 426,824 277,436 41% - 174,998 113,749 5,198 5,498 180,496 119,247
1980 460,030 331,227. 41% 188,616 135,803 5,537 5,537 194,153 140,340
71
-------
TABLE 3-13. FIRM AND INTERRUPTIBLE GAS SALES PROJECTION IN THE
AIR BASIN (MMcf)
Year County
1972 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
1977 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
1980 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
Firm
Demand Supply
Inturruptible
Demand Supply Curtailment
;
-
327,759
71,818
17,164
28,908
3,614
17,616
347,342
76,317
18,239
30,719
3,840
18,719
;
-
327,759
71,818
17,164
28,908
3,614
17,616
347,342
76,317
18,239
30,719
3,840
18,719
79,351
15,961
9,000
18,122
120
3,480
112,421
23,274
13,124
26,425
175
5,075
120,781
25,086
14,146
28,481
189
5,470
70,849
14,251
8,036
16,180
107
3,107
74,999
15,129
8,531
17,176
114
3,299
88,513
18,062
10,185
20,506
136
3,938
8,502
1,710
964
1,942
13
373
37,423
8,146
4,594
9,249
61
1 ,776
32,268
7,024
3,961
7,965
53
1,532
72
-------
Parti culates
8.5
1.9
0.4
0.8
0.1
0.5
9.0
2.0
0.5
0.8
0.1
0.5
NOX
44.9
9.8
2.4
4.0
0.5
2.4
47.6
10.5
2.5
4.2
0.5
2.6
so2
C.
0.3
0.1
negl .
negl.
negl .
negl .
0.3
0.1
negl .
negl .
negl.
negl .
TABLE 3-14. PROJECTED EMISSIONS FROM DOMESTIC AND COMMERCIAL FUEL
COMBUSTION (tons/day) *
Year County
1977 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
1980 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
*Figures obtained by multiplying natural, gas usage (Table 3-13) times EPA
emission factors (Table 3-16).
negl. = negligible
TABLE 3-15. PROJECTED EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL
FUEL COMBUSTION (tons/day)
Year County
1977 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
1980 Los Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino
Santa Barbara
Ventura
negl. = negligible
73
Particulates
29.0
. 2-°
0.2
4.7
negl.
1.3
26.0
2.0
0.3
4.2
negl .
1.0
NOX
346.1
26.0
4.0
100.0
8.0
61.0
311.1
23.3
4.0
87.0
6.9
54.0
so2
63.6
negl .
negl .
17.6
negl .
0.4
57.6
negl .
negl .
17.6
negl.
0.3
-------
Pollutant
TABLE 3-16. EMISSION FACTORS FOR NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION
Industrial Domestic and Commercial
(Lbs/106Ft3) (Tons/1Q6Ft3-Day) (Lbs/106Ft3) (Tons/106Ft3-Day)
Parti cul ate
SO.
J
CO
CH4
N00
18.0
0.6
17.0
3.0
175.0*
24.7 x 10"6
-6
0.8 x 10 °
23.3 x 10"6
4.1 x 10"6
239.7 x 10"~6*
19.0
0.6
20.0
8.0
100.0*
26.0 x 10
0.6 x 10
27.4 x 10
11.0 x 10
137.0 x 10
-6
-6
-6
-6
-6*
*Average
Source: Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, EPA, April 1973,
74
-------
3.3.8 Aircraft Emissions
Note: Air carrier airports are defined as ones which primarily
handle commercial passenger and air cargo traffic. The aircraft at these
airports are assumed to be mainly jet driven, with a small fraction being
piston driven. General aviation airports are defined to be ones which
primarily serve small private aircraft, with the majority being piston
driven.
Los Angeles County
There are three air carrier, ten general aviation, and no military
airfields in the county (Table 3-17). It is assumed that the air carrier
airports contribute an overwhelming percentage of the countywide jet
aircraft emissions (in 1970, the Los Angeles County APCD reported that
75% of the total jet aircraft emissions in the county eminated from Los
Angeles International alone) and that these emissions will increase at the
rate of 14% per year, the historical (1960-1970) growth rate of the number
33
of passengers carried. This rate may tend to overestimate emissions
because of the introduction of cleaner jet engines and the increased use
of "jumbo jets." As for piston aircraft emissions, the general aviation
airports are presumed to contribute the majority of these emissions which
are assumed to increase at the rate of 6% per year. This 6% figure is the
33
estimated growth rate of piston aircraft based at general aviation airports.
Orange County
Following the procedure outlined for Los Angeles County, jet aircraft
emissions are assumed to increase at the rate of 14% per year (from Orange
County Airport) and piston aircraft emissions at 6% per year (from the
general aviation airports). No information was available to assess the
present and future impact of the lone military airbase, El Toro Marine
Corps Air Station.
Riverside County
Conversations with personnel familiar with March AFB revealed that
only a minor fraction of the county's aircraft emissions could be
attributed to this facility. Consequently, all emissions were assigned
75
-------
to the eight general aviation airports and were assumed to increase
at the rate of 6% per year.
San Bernardino County
The two military airbases account for a very minor portion of the
total aircraft emissions. All emissions were assigned to Ontario
International (the general aviation airports contribute a negligible
38
quantity of emissions ) and assumed to increase at 14% per year.
Santa Barbara County
There is only one airport in the county (Table 3-17). Since it is an
air carrier airport, emission rates for both jet and piston driven
aircraft are assumed to increase at the rate of 14% per year.
Ventura County
While there are a total of five airports (Table 3-17), only the three
general aviation airports contribute to the emission inventory, since
Oxnard AFB is inactive and Pt. Mugu NAS is used only for periodic train-
ing flights. Emissions are therefore assumed to increase at 6% per year.
The procedure outlined above does not account for the 1979 federal
standards for new jet engines. However, since the average lifetime of
39
a jet engine is 15 years , only 1/15 of the total aircraft in service
would be replaced between 1979 and 1980. It is assumed that all retro-
fitting of JT3D jet engines was completed by 1972 and of JT8D jet engines
by 1973. The growth rates for general aviation and air carrier airports
are historical trends and thus may not be correct because of possible
future changes in the economy.
76
-------
TABLE 3-17. AIRPORTS IN THE. AIR BASIN
County
Los Angeles
Air Carrier
General Aviation Military
Los Angeles International San Fernando
Hollywood - Burbank Whiteman
Long Beach Van Nuys
Santa Monica
Hawthorne
Compton
Torrance
Shepherd
El Monte
Brackett
Orange
Riverside
Orange County
San Bernardino Ontario
Santa Barbara
Ventura
Fullerton
Meadowlark
Capistrano
Fla-Bob
Riverside
Corona
Stony Bridge Ranch
Pern's Valley
Hemet - Ryan
Skylark
Rancho California
Cable
Chino
Fontana
Rial to
Col ton
Tri-City
Redlands
Big Bear City
Santa Barbara
Ventura County
Santa Paula
Santa Susana
Los Alamitos
El Toro MCAS
March AFB
NAS*
Norton AFB
George AFB
Oxnard AFB*
Pt. Mugu NAS
*Inactive
Source: Southern California Regional Aviation System Study, System
Development Corporation/William L. Pereira Associates, 1972,
(Done"for the Southern California Association of Governments).
77
-------
TABLE 3-18. LOS ANGELES COUNTY AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS
(tons/day)
Year Source RHC Particulates NOX S02
1977 Jet Driven 17.3 17.3 19.3 5.7
Piston Driven 3.3 - 4.0
1980 Jet Driven 25.6 25.5 28.6 8.4
Piston Driven 3.9 - 4.8
TABLE 3-19. ORANGE COUNTY AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS
(tons/day)
Year Source RHC Particulates NOX SO
1977 Jet Driven
Piston Driven 2.3
1980 Jet Driven
Piston Driven 2.7
_
2.3
_
2.7
2.4
0.3
3.5
0.3
1.7
0.2
2.5
0.3
0.2
0.3
TABLE 3-20. RIVERSIDE COUNTY AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS
(tons/day)
Year Source RHC Particulates NOx SO
1977 Total (Piston) 2.1 4.3 4.1
1980 Total (Piston) 2.4 5.2 4.9
78
-------
TABLE 3-21
Year Source
1977 Jet Driven
Piston Driven
SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY AIRCRAFT
EMISSIONS (tons/day)
RHC Participates NOX
1.7 2.5 2.9
so2
0.6
1980 Jet Driven
Piston Driven
2.5
3.8
4.3
0.9
TABLE 3-22,
Year Source
1977 Jet Driven
Piston Driven
SANTA BARBARA COUNTY AIRCRAFT
EMISSIONS (tons/day)
RHC
Particulates NOX
0.2 0.2
0.2
SO,
1980 Jet Driven
Piston Driven
0.3
0.2
0.3
1977
TABLE 3-23.
Year Source
Jet Driven
Piston Driven
VENTURA COUNTY AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS
(tons/day)
RHC Particulates NOX
11.5 3.8 1.6
3.1 0.8 :. 0.2
SO,
0.6
1980 Jet Driven 16.9
Piston Driven 3.7
5.6
1.0
2.4
0.2
0.8
79
-------
3.3.9 Mobile Source Projection (other than aircraft)
Light and heavy duty motor vehicle emissions were projected using
the procedure outlined in Appendix C. The present control program for
light-duty vehicles includes the Federal new car control program and
the California Air Resources Board retrofit program requiring VSAD on
all 1966-1970 vehicles. The effect of the latter program by 1977 and
1980 is of course, minimal, since cars of those model years become a
relatively small fraction of the total population.
Diesel emissions were projected by assuming that the growth in
diesel VMT is identical to the growth in VMT as projected by LARTS for
the Los Angeles Metropolitan area. The 9.7% growth rate used to obtain
1972 diesel emissions was not used because it was felt that such a high
rate could not be sustained through 1977 and 1980.
Emissions from miscellaneous uncontrolled vehicles were
projected on the basis of the statewide projection to 1980 made by AESi
as part of that study. The projection to 1977 was made assuming a
linear interpolation between base year and 1980 figures.
Emissions from ships and railroads were assumed to be constant
through 1980. Since this category accounts for such a small part of
the total inventory for each pollutant, little value was seen in
pursuing this subject further.
3.4 PROJECTED EMISSION INVENTORY UNDER ERA-PROMULGATED CONTROLS
By 1977, federal regulations for stationary sources in the South
Coast Air Basin include the installation of vapor recovery systems at
gasoline stations, additional controls on dry cleaning emissions, elimination
of certain industrial solvent compounds, improved control on painting
operation solvent loss and additional restrictions on the loss of organic
40
solvents in general industrial use. These controls will reduce reactive
hydrocarbon emissions at gasoline stations by 81% and reactive hydrocarbon
4 41
emissions from organic solvent users by 33.6%.
80
-------
The projection of light and heavy duty vehicle emissions to 1977
and 1980 is described in Appendix C. Under the promulgated EPA plan
for oxidant control, inspection/maintenance, catalytic converter retro-
fit and VMT reduction measures are required for light-duty vehicles.
Data published in the EPA promulgation (Federal Register, vol. 38,
no. 217, Nov. 12, 1973) indicate a 15%' reduction in hydrocarbon
emissions is anticipated from the inspection/maintenance program, and
a 50% reduction in hydrocarbons is anticipated from cars retrofitted
with catalysts. VMT reduction measures have not been assessed due to
the current uncertainty with regard to their effectiveness as well as
their socio-economic acceptability. Instead, any VMT reduction required
for the purpose of a particulate matter control strategy will be
identified and compared to VMT reduction requirements for oxidant con-
trol in a subsequent volume.
3.5 PROJECTED EMISSION INVENTORY SUMMARY TABLES
Eight tables summarizing the emission inventory projections are contained
in this section, covering the following:
t 1977 Inventory of Particulate Matter Under Present Controls
• 1977 Inventory of Gaseous Precursors Under Present Controls
t 1977 Inventory of Particulate Matter Under the EPA Oxidant
Control Plan
• 1977 Inventory of Gaseous Precursors Under the EPA Control
Plan
• 1980 Inventory of Particulate Matter Under Present Controls
• 1980 Inventory of Gaseous Precursors Under Present Controls
t 1980 Inventory of Particulate Matter Under the EPA Oxidant
Control Plan
• 1980 Inventory of Gaseous Precursors Under the EPA Oxidant
Control Plan
These tables indicate the contribution to the total inventory by each
major source category, as well as the total inventory in tons per day.
81
-------
TABLE 3-24. 1977 INVENTORY OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS UNDER
PRESENT CONTROLS (tons/day)
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Sources
Total
Entire Air Basin
10.0
174.0
9.9
168.0
Four County Area
Total
3.0
18.5
13.4
35.6
2.4
12.2
37.2
41.9
Suspended
3.0
16.7
13.4
32.0
2.2
12.1
36.8
41.5
Total
3.0
18.2
13.4
12.5
2.5
11.6
35.9
36.0
Suspended
3.0
16.4
13.4
11.0
2.3
11.5 ,
35.5
35.6
2.9
136.0
2.9
132.0
Light Duty Vehicles
Keavy Duty Vehicles
Diesels
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Sources
Total
Total Inventory
61.9
2.0
4.9
26.2
5.6
7.2
1.9
36.9
147,0
321.0 .
47.0
1.7
4.0
25.9
4.5
5.9
1.5
18.1
109.0
277.0
59.7
1.9
4.7
22.2
4.6
7.0
1.5
35.6
137,0
273.0
45.3
1.6
3.9
22.0
3.7
5.6
1.2
17.4
101.0
233.0
82
-------
TABLE 3-25. ' 1977 INVENTORY OF- GASEOUS PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
• UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin Four County Area
Source Category S0_2 NO* RHC S0_2 NO^ RHC
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Chemical
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Sources
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesels
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Miscellaneous
i_
60.
-
10.
15.
7.
-
0.
81.
340.
1.
516.
42.
0.
10.
7.
-
_
0
0
0
5
4
6
4
1
0
7
8
1
1
67.
-
0.
0.
-
1.
64.
545.
156.
1.
837
607.
25.
138.
25.
8.
72.
5
6
6
9
0
0
0
1
8
6
3
7
5
6
79
50
-
-
-
0
_
-
-
6
136
476
25
. 13
30
10
103
.0
.6
.4
.6
.7
.9
.0
.7
.5
.8
.6
60.
-
10.
15.
1.
-
0.
81.
291.
1.
465.
41.
0.
9.
6.
-
_
0
0
0
7
4
2
9
1
0
2
8
7
5
67.
-
0.
0.
-
1.
61.
476.
134.
0.
743.
585.
24.
133.
23.
8.
70.
5
5
6
8
1
0
6
3
0
9
7
7
9
3
2
71.1
45.9
-
-
-
0.4
_
-
-
10.4
117.8
459.7
24.1
13.7
19.0
7.7
99.2
(motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads 14.5 26 .0 - 10.8 24.0
Mobile Sources
Total 75.2 904.5 660.5 69.0 870.7 623.4
Total Inventory 591.0 1742.0 798.0 530.0 1614.0 741.0
83
-------
TABLE 3-26. 1977 INVENTORY OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS UNDER
THE EPA OXIDANT CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin
Entire Air Basin
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Sources
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesels
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Total
3.0
18.5
13.4
35.6
2.4
12.2
37.2
41.9
10.0
174.0
41.9
2.0
4.9
26.2
5.6
7.2
1.9
36.9
Suspended
3.0
16.7
13.4
32.0
2.2
12.1
36.8
41.5
9.9
168.0
36.4
1.7
4.0
25.9
4.5
5.9
1.5
18.1
Total
3.0
18.2
13.4
12.5
2.5
11.6
35.9
36.0
2.9
136.0
40.4
1.9
4.7
22.2
4.6
7.0
1.5
35.6
Suspended
3.0
16.4
13.4
11.0
2.3
11.5
35.5
35.6
2.9
132.0
35.1
1.6
3.9
22.0
3.7
5.6
1.2
17.4
Mobile Sources
Total
Total Inventory
127.0
301.0
98.0
266.0
118.0
254.0
91.0
223.0
84
-------
TABLE 3-27. 1977 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin Four County Area
Source Category S02 NOX RHC SO? NOX RHC
Petroleum 60.0 67.5 19.6 60.0 67.5 17.3
Organic Solvent - - 33.4 - - 30.4
Chemical 10.0 0.6 - 10.0 0.5
Metallurgical 15.0 0.6 - 15.0 0.6
Mineral 7.5. - - 1.7
Incineration - 1.9 0.4 - 0.8 0.4
Fuel Combustion
i
Domestic and Commercial 0.4 64.0 - 0.4 61.1
Industrial , 81.6 545.0 - 81.2 476.0
Power Plants 340.4 156.0 - 291.9 134.6
Agricultural 1.1 1.1 6.6 1.1 0.3 0.4
Stationary Sources
Total - 516.0 837.0 60.0 461.0 743.0 48
Light Duty Vehicles 36.9 607.8 347.7 35.6 585.9 335.2
Heavy Duty Vehicles 0.8 25.6 25.0 0.8 24.7 24.1
Diesels 10.1 138.3 13.7 9.7 133.7 13.7
Aircraft
Jet 7.1 25.7 30.5 6.5 23.9 19.0
Piston - 8.5 10.8 - 8.3 7.7
Miscellaneous - 72.6 103.6 - 70.2 99.2
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads 14.5 26.0 - 10.8 24.0
Mobile Sources
Total 69.4 904.5 531.0 63.4 870.7 498.9
Total Inventory 585.0 1742.0 591.0 524.0 1614.0 547
85
-------
TABLE 3-28. 1980 INVENTORY OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS (tons/day)
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Sources
Total
Entire Air Basin
Four County Area
Total
3.0
19.2
14.0
38.3
2.5
12.9
33.5
43.0
Suspended
3.0
17.3
14.0
34.5
2.3
12.8
33.2
42.6
Total
3.0
18.8
14.0
12.8
2.6
12.3
32.5
36.8
Suspended
3.0
16.9
14.0
11.5
2.3
12.2
32.1
36.4
10.3
177.0
10.2
170.0
2.9
136.0
2.9
131
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesels
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Mobile Sources
Total
Total Inventory
50.8
2,1
5.3
38.7
6.7
7.9
1.9
39.6
153.0
330.0
41.7
1.8
4.3
38.3
5.4
6.5
1.5
19.3
119.0
289.0
49.0
2.0
5.1
32.8
5.5
7.7
1.5
38.2
142.0
278.0
40.2
1.7
4.1
32.5
4.5
6.2
1.2
18.6
109.0
240.0
86
-------
TABLE 3-29. 1980 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
UNDER PRESENT CONTROLS (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin Four County Area
Source Category S0_2 HO* RH£ S02 NOX RHC
Petroleum 60.0 67.5 89.1 60.0 67.5 71.1
Organic Solvent - - 53.2 - - 45.9
Chemical 10.0 0.6 - 10.0 0.5
Metallurgical 15.9 0.6 - 15.9 0.6
Mineral 9.1 - - 1.8 -
Incineration - 2.1 0.4 - 1.8 0.4
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial 0.4 64.0 - 0.4 61.1
Industrial 75.5 486.3 - 75.2 425.4
Power Plants 355.0 165.7 - 304.0 142.5
Agricultural 1.1 1.1 6.6 1.1 .0.3 0.4
Stationary Sources
Total 527.0 788 ,149.0 468.0 700.0 118.0
Light Duty Vehicles 41.4 443.3 286.2 39.9 426.9 275.9
Heavy Duty Vehicles 0.9 20.0 18.5 0.9 19.3 17.8
Diesels 10.8 148.1 14.7 10.4 143.2 14.7
Aircraft
Jet 10.4 38.1 45.0 9.6 35.4 28.1
Piston - 10.2 12.7 - 10.0 9.0
Miscellaneous - 78.1 108.3 - 75.5 103.7
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads 14.5 26.0 - 10.8 24.0
Mobile Sources
Total 78.0 763.8 485.4 71.6 734.3 449.2
Total Inventory 605.01552.0 634.0 540.01434.0 567.0
87
-------
TABLE 3-30. 1980 INVENTORY OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS UNDER
THE EPA OXIDANT CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin
Four County Area
Source Category
Petroleum
Organic Solvent
Metallurgical
Mineral
Incineration
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial
Industrial
Power Plants
Agricultural
Stationary Sources
Total
Light Duty Vehicles
Heavy Duty Vehicles
Diesels
Aircraft
Jet
Piston
Miscellaneous
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads
Motor Vehicle Tire Wear
Total
3.0
19.2
14.0
38.3
2.5
12.9
33.5
43.0
Suspended
3.0
17.3
14.0
34.5
2.3
12.8
33.2
42.6
Total
3.0
18.8
14.0
12.8
2.6
12.3
32.5
36.8
Suspended
3.0
16.9
14.0
11.5
2.3
12. -2
32.1
36.4
10.3
177.0
10.2
170.0
2.9
136.0
2.9
131.0
37.1
2.1
5.3
38.7
6.7
7.9
1.9
36.9
34.9
1.8
4.3
38.3
5.4
6.5
1.5
19.3
35.8
2.0
5.1
32.8
5.5
7.7 .
1.5
38.2
33.6
1.7
4.1
32.5
4.5
6.2
1.2
18.6
Mobile Sources
Total
139.0
113.0
129.0
102.0
Total Inventory
316.0
283.0
265.0
233.0
-------
TABLE 3-31 1980 INVENTORY OF GASEOUS PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
UNDER THE EPA OXIDANT CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Entire Air Basin Four County Area
Source Category S0_2 NO* RH£ SO? NOX RHC
Petroleum 60.0 67.5 21.5 60.0 67.5 18.2
Organic Solvent - - 35.0 - - 30.0
Chemical 10.0 0.6 - 10.0 0.5
Metallurgical 15.9 0.6 - 15.9 0.5
Mineral 9,1 - - 1.8 -
Incineration - 2.1 0.4 - 1.9 0.4
Fuel Combustion
Domestic and Commercial 0.4 64.0 - 0.4 61.1
Industrial 75.5 486.3 - 75.2 425.4
Power Plants 355.0 165.7 - 304.0 142.5
Agricultural 1.1 1.1 6.6 1.1 0.3 0.4
Stationary Sources
Total 527.0 788.0 64.0 468.0 700.0 49.0
Light Duty Vehicles 37.0 443.3 194.9 35.7 426.9 187.9
Heavu Duty Vehicles 0.9 20.0 18.5 0.9 19.3 17.8
Diesels 10.8 148.1 14.7 10.4 143.2 14.7
Ai rcraft
Jet 10.4 38.1 45.0 9.6 35.4 28.1
Piston - 10.2 12.7 - 10.0 9.0
Miscellaneous - 78.1 108.3 - 75.5 103.7
(Motorcycles, offroad, etc.)
Ships and Railroads 14.5 26.0 - 10.8 24.0
Mobile Sources
Total 73.6 763.8 394.1 67.4 734.3 361.2
Total Inventory 601.0 1552.0 458.0 535.0 1434.0 410.0
89
-------
3.6 DISCUSSION
The baseline and projected inventories for each pollutant considered
in the preceding analysis are presented in Tables 3-32 through 3-35. Both
total and suspended particulate emissions are projected to increase through
1977 and 1980. The EPA oxidant control plan as well as the EPA new car con-
trol program will result in a reduction in particulate emissions from light
duty vehicles due to the anticipated use of oxidizing catalysts. However,
it must be noted that the character of the remaining particulates from
those vehicles so equipped will change dramatically to a much more toxic
form (sulfuric acid mist).
Sulfur dioxide emissions are projected to increase through 1980, due
mainly to the growth in fuel demand and the current trend toward the use
of low-sulfur fuel oil as a replacement for dwindling natural gas supplies.
S02 emissions are expected to be reduced slightly under the EPA oxidant
control plan due to the oxidizing catalyst retrofit requirement for light
duty vehicles.
Emissions of oxides of nitrogen are projected to increase substantially
through 1977. This behavior is due to the fact that the EPA new car
control program will produce only moderate reductions in NO emissions
X
from 1975 and 1976 model year cars, while growth in the fuel combustion,
aircraft, and uncontrolled vehicle categories is almost enough to offset
the reductions projected for light duty vehicles. By 1980, the full force
of the EPA new car control program should be realized with drastic reductions
in NO emissions from 1977 and later model year vehicles. Hence,
A
significant reductions in NO emissions are projected to occur by 1980.
A
Finally, reactive hydrocarbon emissions are projected to decrease
dramatically as local, state, and federal control programs for oxidant
progress. As stated previously, reductions due to VMT reduction measures
contained in the EPA oxidant control plan have not been included in the
preparation of the preceding projections. Whether such measures are
necessary in full or in part to the success of a control program for
particulate matter will be addressed in a subsequent volume.
90
-------
TABLE 3-32. ENTIRE AIR BASIN SUMMARY INVENTORY UNDER PRESENT
CONTROLS (tons/day) .
Year
1972 1977 1980
Pollutant Inventory Inventory Inventory
Total Particulates 250 321 330
Suspended Particulates 213 277 289
S02 492 591 605
NOX 1423 1742 1552
RHC 1155 798 634
TABLE 3-33. ENTIRE AIR BASIN SUMMARY INVENTORY UNDER EPA OXIDANT
CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Year
1972 1977 1980
Pollutant . Inventory Inventory Inventory
Total Particulates 250 301 316
Suspended Particulates 213 266 283
S02 492 585 601
NOX 1423 1742 1552
RHC 1155 591 458
91
-------
TABLE 3-34. FOUR COUNTY SUB-AREA SUMMARY INVENTORY UNDER PRESENT
CONTROLS (tons/day)
Year
1972 1977 1980
Pollutant Inventory Inventory Inventory
Total Particulates 211 273 278
Suspended Particulates 178 233 240
S02 444 530 540
NOX ' 1345 1614 1434
RHC 1094 741 567
TABLE 3-35. FOUR COUNTY SUB-AREA SUMMARY INVENTORY UNDER EPA OXIDANT
CONTROL PLAN (tons/day)
Year
1972 1977 1980
Pollutant Inventory Inventory Inventory
Total Particulates 211 254 265
Suspended Particulates 178 223 233
S02 444' 524 535
NOX • 1331 1614 1434
RHC 1094 547 410
92
-------
REFERENCES
1. State of California, The Resources Agency, Air Resources Board,
"Air Pollution Control in California 1971", January 1971
2. "Transportation Control Strategy Development for the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Region", TRW Inc., January 1973
3. Episode Contingency Plan Development for the Metropolitan Los
Angeles Air Quality Control Region", TRW Inc., December 1973
4. "Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors", EPA, February 1973
5. Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District, "Supplement to the
Implementation Plan-South Coast Air Basin", August 1973, revised
December 11, 1973
6. Automotive Environmental Systems Inc., "Uncontrolled Vehicle
Emission Study", Report to the California State Air Resources
Board, October 30, 1973
7. Private communication, Murray Levy, Pacific Environmental Services
8. Private communication, KVB Engineering Inc.
9. Private communication, Skene Moody, Southern California Edison Company
10. "1973 California Gas Report"
11. Private communication, Bill McBeth, Los Angeles County APCD
12. Private communication, John Nevitt, Los Angeles County APCD
13. "Aircraft Emission Controls:Impact on Air Quality and Feasibility
of Control", EPA, 1973
14. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health
Service and Environmental Health Service,"Air Quality Criteria for
Particulate Matter", NAPCA Publication No. AP-49, April 1970
15. "The Development of a Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los
Angeles Region, Report #1, Analysis of Air Monitoring Data", TRW
Inc., Preliminary Draft to the EPA, May .1974
16. Wilson, W.E., et. al.,"A Literature Survey of Aerosol Formation
and Visibility Reduction in Photochemical Smog", Battelle Memorial
Institute, August 1, 1969
17. Miller, D.F., et. al.,"A Study of Motor Fuel Composition Effects on
Aerosol Formation, Part II, Aerosol Reactivity Study of Hydrocarbons",
Battelle Columbus Laboratories, February 21, 1972
93
-------
18. O'Brian, R.J., et. al. ."Photochemical Aerosol Formation in the
Atmosphere and in an Environmental Chamber", presented at the
Symposium on Sources and Evolution of the Atmospheric Aerosol,
American Chemical Society, Los Angeles, California, April 1-5. 1974
19. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Control Techniques for
Particulate Air Pollutants", AP-51. 1969
20. Miller, G.E., et. al.."Minimizing Visible Emissions from Agricultural
Burning",California Air Environment, University of California,
vol. 4, no. 1, Fall 1973
21. Ter Haar, G.L., et. al., "Composition, Size and Control of Automotive
Exhaust Particulates, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
vol.22, no.l, January 1972
22. Habibi, K., "Characterization of Particulate Matter in Vehicle
Exhaust", Environmental Science and Technology, vol.7, no.3, March 1973
23. Pierson, W.R. and Brachaczek.W.W., "Airborne Particulate Debris from
Rubber Tires", preliminary draft, presented at the American Chemical
Society Rubber Division Symposium on Ecology, May 7-10, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada
24. Private communication from Eric Stork, Director, Mobile Source
Pollution Control Program. EPA, to Robert Chass, Air Pollution Control
Officer, Los Angeles County APCD, November 17, 1971
25. Private communication, Dr. Thomas Huls, EPA, Ann Arbor, Michigan
26. Campion,R.J., et. al., "Measurement of Vehicle Particulate Emissions",
Society of Automotive Engineers, Automotive Engineering Congress,
February 25 - March 1, 1974, Detroit, Michigan
27. Private communication, George Thomas, Los Angeles County APCD
28. County of Los Angeles, Air Pollution Control District Rules and
Regulations
29. "Population and Economic Activity in the United States and Standard
Metrololitan Statistical Areas", EPA, 1972
30. "1973 California Gas Report"
31. "Aircraft Emissionsrlmpact on Air Quality and Feasibility of Control",
EPA, 1973
32. "Moving Ahead - Wells Fargo Looks at Southern California", Wells Fargo
Bank, 1973
94
-------
33. "Final Report - Southern California Regional Aviation Systems Study",
prepared for the Southern California Association of Governments,
Aviation Study Authority by System Development Corporation/William
L. Pereira Associates
34. Private communication, R. L. Perrine, University of California, Los
Angeles
35. Private communication with various personnel, San Bernardino County
APCD
36. Private communication, Skene Moody, Southern California Edison Company
37. Private communication, Bart Sokolow, Los Angeles City Department of
Water and Power
38. Private communication, W. Stobaugh, San Bernardino County APCD
39. "Air Quality Implementation Plan Development for Critical California
Regions : Sacramento Valley AQCR", TRW Inc., June 1973
40. Federal Register, vol.38, no.217, part II, November 12, 1973
41. County of Los Angeles, Air Pollution Control District Rules and
Regulations
42. Private communication, Morris Goldberg, EPA, Region IX
95
-------
APPENDIX A - LOCAL AGENCY EMISSION INVENTORIES
A-l
-------
TABLE A-l
EMISSIONS
LOS ANGSLE3 COUNTY PORTION
of the
SOUTH COAST BASIN
1972
EMISSION SOURCE
Reactive
Organic
Gases
Particu-
late
Matter
N0x
so*
CO
STATIONARY SOURCES
TONS/DAY
PETROLEUM
Production
Refining
Marketing
SUBTOTAL
. ORGANIC SOLVENT USERS
Surface Coating
Dry Cleaning
Degreasing
Other
SUBTOTAL
C IE-lie AL
Petrochemical
Sulfur Plants
Sulfuric Acid Plants
Pulp and Paper
Other
SUBTOTAL
METALLURGICAL
Ferrous
Non Ferrous
SUBTOTAL
MINERAL
Glass and Frit
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt Roofing
Cement Production
Concrete Batching
Other
SUBTOTAL
INCINERATION
Open Burning (dunps)
Open Burrdng (backyard)
Incinerators
Other
SUBTOTAL
7
2^
31
9
1
B
21
39
3
3
8
9
17
1
6
7
2
1
3
1
7
1
1
2
19
10
31
1
1 .
56
•S-' \
97
6
6
2
• j :
2
2
5
5
1
1
A-2
Date 5-17-73
-------
TABLE. A-
EMISSIONS
LOS ANoyrr,?^ r.rxmTf PORTTDN
of the
SMITH COaST RASTN
1972 (continued)
EMISSION SOURCE
Reactive
Orp.anic
Gases
Particu-
late
Matter
NOx
SOx
CO
STATIONARY. SOURCES
TONS /DAY
COMBUSTION OF FUl'.TS
Steam and Power Plants
Other Industrial
Domestic and Conunercial
SUBTOTAL (Daily Av. Yr,
AGRICULTURE
Debris Burning
Orchard Heaters
Agr. Product Proo. Pits
SITB TOTAL
TOTAL STATIONARY SOURCES
70
9
10
8
27
62
91
65
<+7
203
235
75
10
85
2kk
1
1
11
MOBILE SOURCES
MOTOR VEHICLES
Gasoline Powered
Exhaust
Blowby
Evaporation
Diesel Powered
SUBTOTAL
AIRCRAFT
Jet Driven
Piston Driven
SUBTOTAL
SHIPS AND RAILROADS
TOTAL TRANSPORTATION
ORWD TOTAL
1288
1288
3
2
5
1293
1363
38
- 9
^7
9
9
1
57
119
1088
18
1106
10
3
13
22
11M
1376
33
2
35
3
3
10
W
292
L6910
18
16928
33
117
150
20
L7098
17109
n*« 5-17-73
—
A-3
-------
TABLE A-2 EMISSIONS
ALL COUNTIES
of the
.£CAST_ .AIR. -BASIN.
1972
EMISSION SOURCE
Inactive
Ornanic
Gases
Parti cu-
late
Matter
N0x
sox
co :
STATIONARY SOURCES
TfJNSAAY
PETROLEUM
Production
Refining
Marketing
strprcTAL
ORGANIC SOLVENT USERS
Surface Coating
Dry Clc.:..iinp
Other
SUHTOTAL '
1.5
7
42.1
50.6
45-3
3
3
8
9 '
17
2
19
10
31
i . 1
r**r> •* *-rft i T
Petro chf.-rr.i c al
SD'! fur plants
SuliY'.-ic Acid Plants
Pulp and Paper
Other
SUBTOTAL
METALLURGICAL
Ferrous
Non Ferrous
SUBTOTAL
1.1
-
0.5
12
.- --. -- -J ;
Class and Frit
Asphalt Batching
Asphalt. Roofjng
Cpjriont Production
Concrete Batching
Other
GUuTOTAL
Open Burninn ( dunps )
Open Burning (backyard)
Incinerators
Other
nilJTTOTAL
0.1
31.6 4
0.5
0.5
2.2
0.3 5.^ 2.*
if
56
60.
97
13.5
r • •"
6.4
2
2
|
1.3
2
, !
5
44.6 '
Dat« —LI.-
7-30-73
A-4
Rev. 9-73
-------
TABLE A-2
EMISSIONS
ALL COUNTIES
of the
SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN
1972 (continued)
EMISSION SOURCE
Reactive
Organic
Gases
Particu-
late
Matter
NOX
SOx
CO
STATIONARY SOURCES
TONS /DAY
COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Steam and Power Plants
Other Industrial
Domestic and Commercial
SUBTOTAL (Daily Av. Yr,
AGRICULTURE
Debris Burning
Orchard Heaters
Agr. Product Proc. Pits
SUBTOTAL
TOTAL STATIONARY SOURCES
0.2
6.6
104.2
37.0
5-6
295.2
O.k
332.2
1^7.2
1.1
325.2
5.1*
6.9
67.2
MOBILE SOURCES
MOTOR VEHICLES
Gasoline Powered
Exhaust
Blowby
Evaporation
Diesel Powered
SUBTOTAL
AIRCRAFT
Jet Driven
Piston Driven
SUBTOTAL
SHIPS AND RAILROADS
TOTAL TRANSPORTATION
GRWD TOTAL
185^.6
10.5
1865.1
1969.3
-
67.8
17.7
1.9
87.^
199.5
L597.9
19.7
26.0
16*3.6
1975.8
^9.9
3.9
1^.5
68.3
393.5
2^098.5
232.7
23.3
*3!*.5
M21.7
. 9-73
A-5
-------
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF RECENT CHANGES IN'LOCAL RULES AND REGULATIONS
Rather than describe each rule in detail, only the more significant
changes to the rules which have occureed over the past two years will be
mentioned here. The official Rules and Regulations published by each APCD
may be consulted for more detailed information.
Los Angeles County
(1) Rule lOg. Prohibits open outdoor fires unless a permit has
been issued by the APCO.
(2) Rule 20.1. Requires the denial of authority to construct any
equipment which will emit 100 tons or more per year, of any
contaminant if the emissions will prevent the attainment or
maintenance of any applicable ambient air quality standard.
(3) Rule 50. Reduces the permissible limit of visible emissions
from No. 2 to Mo. 1 Ringlemann.
(4) Rule 52. Reduces the allowable discharge of particulates from
0.3 grain per cubic foot of gas to a value ranging from 0.2
grain per cubin foot for small sources to 0.01 grain per cubic
foot for large sources.
(5) Rule 53.2 and 3 provides for the extension of sulfur compound
limitations to sulfur recovery plants and sulfuric acid units.
These secondary sources had previously been granted variances
if their emissions were less than that which would occur with-
out them from primary sources.
(6) Rule 54. Reduces the maximum permissible discharge of parti-
culate matter from any source from 40 to 30 pounds per hour.
Specifically includes lead and lead compounds.
(7) Rule 57.1-4. Extends open-burning prohibitions to the Upper
Santa Clara River Valley Basin, the Antelope Valley Basin,
the Island Area and the Mountain Area of Los Angeles County.
(8) Rule 58. Reduces the allowable discharge of particulate
matter from large incinerators from 0.3 to 0.1 grain per
standard cubic foot of gas.
(9) Rule 65. Requires collection of the vapors vented during the
filling of stationary gasoline storage containers of more than
250 gallon capacity.
B-l
-------
(10) Rule 66. Induces large users of coating materials to change
to water base or high-solid content materials in order to
decrease emissions of organic solvents.
(11) Rule 72. Requires mechanical seals on pumps and compressors
handling organic materials having a Reid Vapor Pressure of
1.5 pounds or greater.
(12) Rule 73. Specifies requirements for safety pressure relief
valves handling organic materials at pressures above 15 psia
in order to reduce emissions of contaminants into the air.
Orange County
(1) Rule 4. Grants authority to arrest to APCO, and employees
designated by him.
(2) Rule 10. Prohibits open outdoor fires unless a permit
has been issued by the APCO.
(3) Rule 50. Reduces the permissible limit of visible
emissions from No. 2 to No. 1 Ringelmann.
(4) Rule 52. Particulate Matter Concentration. Same as
Los Angeles County.
(5) Rule 53. Reduces the allowable discharge of sulfur
compounds from 2000 to 500 parts per million by volume.
(6) Rule 53.2 Sulfur Recovery Units. Same as Los Angeles
County.
(7) Rule 53.3. Sulfuric Acid Units. Same as Los Angeles Co.
(8) Rule 54. Particulate Matter - Weight. Same As Los Angles Co.
(9) Rule 58. Disposal of Solid and Liquid Wastes. Same as Los
Angeles County.
(10) Rule 59. Effluent Oil Water Separators. Same as Los
Angeles County.
(11) Rule 61. Requires vapor collection and disposal systems
during the loading of volatile organic compounds into mobile
or stationary tanks larger than 250 gallons.
(12) Rule 62. Reduces the allowable sulfur content of natural
gas from 50 to 15 grains of sulfur compounds per 100 cubic
feet of gas.
(13) Rule 66. Organic Solvents. Essentially the same as Los
Angeles County.
B-2
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(14) Rule 67.1. Limits the oxides of nitrogen discharge from
new fuel-burning equipment having a heat input rate of
more than 250 million BTU per hour to 125 ppm for gaseous
fuels and 225 ppm for liquid or solid fuel.
(15) Rule 68. Limits the oxides of nitrogen discharge from
existing fuel-burning equipment. Similar to Los Angeles Co.
(16) Rule 68.1. Limits the discharge from fuel-burning equip-
ment of combustion contaminants, derived from the fuel, to
0.1 grain per standard cubic foot of gas.
(17) Rule 69. Vacuum Producing Devices or Systems. Same as
Los Angeles County.
(18) Rule 70. Asphalt Air Blowing. Same as Los Angeles Co.
Riverside County
(1) Rule 4. Authority to Arrest. Similar to Los Angeles Co.
(2) Rule 50. Ringelmann Chart. Similar to Los Angeles County.
(3) Rule 52. Particulate Matter - Concentration. Same as Los
Angeles County.
(4) Rule 53. Specific Air Contaminants. Reduces the
allowable discharge of sulfur compounds from 0.2 percent
by volume, calculated as sulfur dioxide, to the following
values:
a. 0.05 percent in the West-Central Area.
b. 0.15 percent in areas other than West-Central,
effective 1-1-75.
Combustion contaminants are deleted from this rule. See
Rule 72.2.
(5) Rule 54. Solid Particulate Matter - Weight. Specifies
that the maximum allowable discharge shall be 0.5 pounds
per ton of process weight fed per hour.
San Bernardino County
(1) Rule 5. Provides authority to obtain emission data from
each stationary source operator. Specifies reporting
procedures, compliance schedule requirements, and avail-
ability of emission data to the public.
(2) Rule 6. Requires crankcase control devices to be installed
on 1955 through 1962 motor vehicles.
B-3
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(3) Rule 20.1. Provides for denial of authority to
construct any equipment which will emit more than 100
tons per year of air contaminants in an area where it
would prevent the attainment of a National Air
Quality Standard.
(4) Rule 50A. Visible Emission. Similar to Rule 50 of
Los Angeles County.
(5) Rule 51.1. Provides authority to enforce controls on
fugitive dust.
(6) Rule 52A. Particulate Matter - Concentration. Same as
Rule 52 of Los Angeles County.
(7) Rule 53A. Specific Contaminants. Reduces the allowable
discharge of sulfur compounds, calculated as sulfur
dioxide, from 0.1 percent by volume to 500 ppm by
volume. Reduces the allowable discharge of combustion
contaminants from 0.3 to 0.1 grain per cubic foot of gas.
(8) Rule 53.2. Sulfur Recovery Units. Similar to Los Angeles
County.
(9) Rule 53.3. Sulfuric Acid Units. Similar to Los Angeles
County.
(10) Rule 54A. Solid Particulate Matter - Weight. Similar to
Los Angeles County.
(11) Rule 58A. Disposal of Solid and Liquid Wastes. Same as
Los Angeles County.
(12) Rule 61. Organic Liquid Loading. Same as Los Angeles Co.
(13) Rule 66. Organic Solvents. Same as Los Angeles County.
(14) Rule 68. Fuel-Burning Equipment - Oxides of Nitrogen.
Similar to the Los Angeles County Rule but applies also
to steam-generating equipment having a heat input rate
of 500 million to 1,775 million BUT per hour.
(15) Rule 69. Vacuum Producing Devices of Systems. Same as
Los Angeles County.
(16) Rule 70. Asphalt Air Blowing. Similar to Los Angeles Co.
B-4
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Santa Barbara county
(1) Rule 4. Amended to include requirements for obtaining an
authority to construct.
(2) Rule 9.1. Provides for denial of authority to construct
any equipment which will emit more than 100 tons per year
of air contaminants in an area where it would cause to
exceed or prevent the attainment of the national air
quality standards.
(3) Rule 18-A. Particulate Matter - Concentration. Same as
Los Angeles County Rule 52, but effective only in the
South Coast Basin portion of the County.
(4) Rule 19-A. Specific Contaminants. Reduces allowable
combustion contaminants from 0.3 to 0.1 grain per cubic
foot of gas, in the South Coast Basin portion of the
County.
(5) Rule 21-A. Process Weight Rate. Same as Los Angeles
County Rule 54, but effective only in the South Coast
Air Basin portion of the County.
(6) Rule 28-A. Disposal of Solid and Liquid Waste - South
Coast Basin. Same as Los Angeles County Rule 58.
(7) Rule 36.1. Vacuum Producing Devices or Systems - South
Coast Air Basin. Similar to Rule 69 of Los Angeles Co.
(8) Rule 36.2. Asphalt Air Blowing - South Coast Air Basin.
Similar to Los Angeles County Rule 70.
(9) Rule 39.1. Fuel-Burning Equipment - Oxides of Nitrogen -
South Coast Air Basin. Similar to Rule 68 of Los Angeles
County.
(10) Rule 39.2. Carbon Monoxide - South Coast Air Basin.
Similar to Rule 71 of Los Angeles County.
(11) Rule 40. Agricultural Burning. Implements the Agri-
cultural Burning Guidelines promulgated under Article I,
Subchapter 2, Title 17, California Administrative Code,
as amended on June 21, 1972.
(12) Rule 41. Enforcement. Provides for enforcement of the
agricultural burning regulation.
B-5
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Ventura County
(1) Regulation II. Permits. Amended to include requirements
for obtaining an authority to construct.
(2) Rule 26. Denial of Permits. Requires denial of authority
to construct any source which will emit 100 tons or more
per year of any single air contaminant if the emissions
will prevent attaining or maintaining a National Air
Quality Standard.
(3) Rule 31. Public Disclosure of Data. Specifies that
source emission data shall be available to the public.
(4) Rule 36. Circumvention. Same as Rule 60 of Los
Angeles County.
(5) Rule 50. Opacity. Similar to Rule 50 of Los Angeles
County.
(6) Rule 52. Particulate Matter - Concentration. Similar
to Rule 52 of Los Angeles County.
(7) Rule 53. Particulate Matter - Process Weight. Similar
to Rule 54 of Los Angeles County.
(8) Rule 54. Sulfur Compounds. Limits the maximum discharge
of sulfur compounds, calculated as concentration of SO?,
to 300 ppm by volume from combustion operations and 500 ppm
by volume from any other operations. Limits the maximum
discharge of hydrogen sulfide to 10 ppm by volume. Average
ground level concentrations at or beyond the property line
must not exceed the following:
Containment Concentration (Volume) Averaging Time
S02 0.5 ppm 1 hour
SOp 0.04 ppm 24 hours
hLS 0.06 ppm 3 min
H2S 0.03 ppm 1 hour
(9) Rule 55. Storage of Organic Liquid Petroleum Products.
Similar to Rule 56 of Los Angeles County.
(10) Rule 56. Open Fires. Similar to Los Angeles Rule 57.
Includes guidelines for open burning.
(11) Rule 57. Combustion Contaminants - Specific. Limits the
maximum discharge from any equipment used to dispose of or
process combustible refuse to a two-hour average of 0;08
grains of particulate matter per cubic foot of gas. For
B-6
-------
incinerators burning 200 pounds or less per hour,
particulate matter discharged must not exceed 0.2 grain
per cubic foot of gas. Hydrocarbon or carbonyle emitted
from incinerators must not exceed a volume comcentration
of 25 ppm. Combustion contaminants from any fuel -burning
equipment must not exceed a concentration of 0.1 grain per
cubic foot of gas.
(12) Rule 59. Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions. Maximum NOX emis-.
sions from stationary sources are specified to be 250 ppm,
except for sources having heat input rates less than 250
million BTUper hour and existing turbine power peaking units
at Mandalay. Effective January 1, 1975, the maximum
emissions become 125 ppm for gas fueled sources and 225 ppm
for solid or liquid fueled sources. Excluded from the
1-1-75 limitations are existing sources rated at less than
2150 million BTU per hour and new sources of less than
250 million BTU per hour. The rule also limits the maximum
allowable oxides of nitrogen emissions to 20 tons per day
from any existing source and 140 pounds per hour from any
new source. Owners or operators of sources subject to the
1-1-75 limitations are required to submit compliance .
s to the District for approval.
(13) Rule 61. Effluent Oil Water Separators. Similar to Rule 59,
Los Angeles County.
(14) Rule 63. Organic Liquid - Petroleum Products Loadings.
Similar to Rule 63 of Los Angeles County.
(15) Rule 64. Sulfur Content of Fuels. Specifies that the
sulfur content of fuels burned in the County shall not
exceed the following:
a. 15 grains per 100 cubic feet of natural gas.
b. 50 grains per 100 cubic feet of other gaseous fuels.
c. 0.5 percent by weight of liquid or solid fuels.
(16) Rule 65. Gasoline Specifications. Similar to Rule 63 of
Los Angeles County.
(17) Rule 66. Organic Solvents. Similar to Rule 66 of Los Angeles
County.
(18) Rule 67. Vacuum Producing Devices. Similar to Rule 69 of Los
Angeles County.
(19) Rule 69. Asphalt Air Blowing. Similar to Rule 70 of Los
Angeles County.
B-7
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All Counties
In addition to the above Rules, each of the counties in this air
basin now has a rule similar to Los Angeles County's Rule 20.1.
Rule 20.1 requires the denial of authority to construct any
equipment which will emit 100 tons or more per year of any contaminant
if the emissions will prevent the attainment or maintenance of any
applicable ambient air quality standard.
B-8
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APPENDIX C. MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS ESTIMATION PROCEDURE
The calculation of light and heavy duty vehicle exhaust emission
factors for hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen can be expressed
mathematically as:
n+1
r ~H]pn*"'in^ip
X) Cip-d1r-m'-s<'
i+n-12
where
e = emission factor in grams per vehicle mile for
nP calendar year n and pollutant p,
c. = the 1975 Federal test procedure(C-2)emission rate
nP pollutant p (grams/mile) for the ith^ model year, at
low mileage,
d. = the controlled vehicle pollutant p emission
^ deterioration factor for the ith model year
at calendar year n,
m. = the weighted annual travel of the ith model
in year during calendar year n. (The determination
of this variable involves the use of the vehicle
model year distribution),
s. = the weighted speed adjustment factor for exhaust
'P emission for pollutant p for the ith^ model year
vehicles.
In addition to exhaust emission factors, the calculation of hydro-
carbon gasoline motor vehicle emissions involves evaporative and crank-
case hydrocarbon emission rates. Evaporation and crankcase emissions can
be determined using:
C-l
-------
where,
in
n+1
E
i=n-12
fn = . hi'min
fn = the combined evaporative and crankcase hydro-
carbon emission factor for calendar year n,
h. = the combined evaporative and crankcase emission
1 rate for the itji model year,
m. = the weighted annual travel of the ith model year
during calendar year n.
• A light-duty vehicle is defined as any motor vehicle
either designated primarily for transportation of pro-
perty and rated at 6,000 pounds GVW (gross vehicle
weight) or less or designated primarily for trans-
portation of persons and having a capacity of 12 persons
or less.(C-U A heavy-duty vehicle is any vehicle which
exceeds the above specifications.
• The deterioration factor (D) is the ratio of the
pollutant p exhaust emission factor at x miles to the
pollutant p exhaust emission factor at 4,000 miles.
Factors used in this study were obtained from
reference C-l, where the projected values for deteriora-
tion of exhaust emission controls for 1976 model year
vehicles and beyond were extracted from reference C-3,
and are presumed to represent conservative estimates.
• The weighted annual mileage factor (m) is determined
by the following formula:
vi
min = If—
i+n-12
C-2
-------
where
V. = fraction of total vehicles in use with age i (in years)
(determined from vehicle registration date for the
region in question).
D. = average miles driven by a vehicle of age i
(determined from references C4 and C-5).
• The weighted speed adjustment factor(s) enables the
calculation of a region-wide emission factor that
takes into account variation in average route speed.
This variable is calculated using:(C-l)
sim
I I
Zf.. V.
J J
where,
s. = the weighted speed adjustment factor for exhaust
emission of pollutant p for the ith_ model year,
during calendar year m
f. = the fraction of the total annual vehicle miles
^ traveled at speed j during the calendar year m
v. = the vehicular average speed correction factor for
J average speed j.
(The determination of the average speed j is discussed in Section 2.4.2 of
this volume.)
Having computed the emission factors, the final step is to multiply
the emission factor by the vehicle miles travelled (VMT) to derive total
motor vehicle emissions.
It must be stated at this point that the data developed under this
technique is subject to the following limitations:
• The annual mileage factors (D) used in computing the
weighted annual travel (m), are average values based
on a nationwide study of 1,000 automobiles (C-4).
Whether such a sample is representative of a particular
region is, of course, open to question.
C-3
-------
The emission factors for post-1974 model year
automobiles were developed under the assumption that
they would meet the federal emission standards
(except for 1975 model year vehicles, which were
assumed to meet the interim standards set by the
EPA Administrator).
The deterioration factors for "future" controlled
vehicles, although considered conservative, repre-
sent nothing more than the best engineering estimate
available at this time. Since such vehicles do not
presently exist, no road tests could be performed to
gauge deterioration under actual driving conditions.
TABLE C-l. LARTS VMT - 106 Miles/Day
(a)
HDV/,x
<">
Year Totalv ' Fwy Non-Fwy Fwy. Non-Fwy
1972 147 69.6 74.9 1.1 1.2
1977 168 83.5 81.6 1.3 1.3
1980 180 91.8 85.6 1.4 1.3
(a) Total VMT and Fwy/Non-Fwy split from TRW, Inc., "Transportation
Control Strategy Development for the Metropolitan Los Angeles
Region," January 1973.
(b) HDV fraction from TRW, Inc., "Air Quality Implementation Plan
Development for Critical California Regions," July 1973.
C-4
-------
TABLE C-2. LOS ANGELES BASIN GASOLINE VEHICLE EMISSIONS PER
MILLION (VMT) (tons/day)
1972 1977 1980
™ RHC NOX THC RHC W)x. . THC. . RHC JOx
Baseline
Freeway LDV 5.82 4.86 6.28 2.83 2.32 4.27 1.69 1.29 2.89
HDV 12.88 10.64 14.47 9.04 7.44 11.47 6.51 5.36 8.59
Non-Freeway LDV 8.53 6.95 4.52 4.31 3.47 3,08 2.45 1.96 2.08
HDV 20.46 16.62 10.41 14.53 11.76 8.26 10.45 8.47 6.18
Control Strategy*
Freeway LDV 5.82 4.86 6.28 2.09 '1.76 4.27 1.10 0.92 2.89
HDV 12.88 10.64 14.47 9.04 7.44 11.47 6.51 5.36 8.59
Non-Freeway LDV 8.53 6.95 4.52 2.99 2.46 3.08 1.58 1.29 2.08
HDV 20.46 16.62 10.41 14.53 11.76 8.26 10.45 8.47 6.18
inspection Maintenance, Catalytic Converter Retrofit Measures.
TABLE C-3. LOS ANGELES BASIN GASOLINE VEHICLE EMISSIONS (tons/day)
1972 1977 1980
THC_ RHC NOx THCRHCNOx_ THC RHC NOX
Baseline
Freeway LDV 405.1 338.3 437.1 236.3 193.7 356.5 146.0 118.4 265,3
HDV 14.2 11.7 15.9 11.8 9.7 14.9 9.1 7.5 12.0
Non-Freeway LDV 638.9 520.6 338.5 351.7 283.2 251.3 209.7 167.8 178.0
HDV 24.6 19.9 12.5 18.9 15.3 10.7 13.6 11.0 8.0
Total 1082.8890.5804.0 618.7501.9633.4 378.4304.7463.3
Control Strategy
Freeway LDV 174.5147.0356.5 101.0 84.5265.3
HDV 11.8 9.7 14.9 9.1 7.5 12.0
Non-Freeway LDV 244.0 200.7 251.3 135.2 110.4 178.0
HDV 18.9 15.3 10.7 13.6 11.0 8.0
Total 449.2 372.7 633.4 258.9 213.4 463.3
C-5
-------
The VMT data utilized in the emissions estimation is summarized
in Table C-l. Emission factors for total hydrocarbons, reactive hydro-
carbons and oxides of nitrogen are computed on a tons/day/million VMT
basis, and are shown in Table C-2. This table summarizes the projected
emissions under both present controls and under the EPA-promulgated
transportation control plan for the South Coast Air Basin. The EPA plan
for oxidant control consists of the following measures:
• Vapor recovery at gasoline stations
t Dry cleaning solvent controls and degreasing solvent
controls
• VMT control stragegies with an assumed 14% VMT
reduction (bus/carpool lanes, regional carpooling
system, parking facility review)
• Oxidizing catalyst retrofit
• Mandatory inspection/maintenance program
• "VMT reductions and evaporative emission reductions
necessary from additional control strategies to be
implemented in 1977."
The projected inventories for 1977 and 1980 do not include
consideration of the VMT reductions anticipated in the EPA oxidant control
plan. This is due to the uncertainty regarding whether such reductions
will actually occur.
C-6
-------
References
(C-l) Kirchner, David S. and Donald P. Armstrong, "An Interim Report
on Motor Vehicle Emission Estimation", U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, October 1972, Revised
January 12, 1973.
(C-2) The Federal Register, July 2, 1971.
(C-3) National Academy of Science, "Semiannual Report by the Committee
on Motor Vehicle Emissions of the National Academy of Sciences to
the Environmental Protection Agency", January 1, 1972.
(C-4) Strate, H. E., "Nationwide Personal Transportation Study - Annual
Miles of Automobile Travel", Report No. 2, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, April,'1972.
(C-5) U.S. Department of Transportation, Highway Statistics, Published
Annual by the Highway Statistics Division, Office of Highway
Planning, Federal Highway Administration,, Washington, D.C.
C-7
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APPENDIX D. LOW LEAD AND UNLEADED GASOLINE
A literature searclv ' ' ' ' revealed that American automobile
manufacturers designed over 90% of their 1971 model year light duty
vehicles to perform adequately on a 91 RON gasoline. On the basis of the
vehicle age distribution (Table D-l) over 60% (in 1977) and 90% (in 1980) of
the vehicles registered in the air basin will be of model year 1971 or later.
In addition, California state law requires all vehicles of model year 1972
and later sold in the state to be able to run on a gasoline of 91 RON or
less.
From conversations with key personnel in the petroleum industry^- " '
it was learned that there should be no difficulties in providing a low lead
gasoline of 91 RON or greater to meet expected demand and also to provide
sufficient supplies of non-leaded gasoline to meet any demands without
increasing the aromatic content of the present clear stock by more than
10%. No information concerning the price of unleaded gasoline was
available.
The following conclusions can thus be drawn:
(a) By the year 1977, the vehicle age distribution (Table D-2)
will be such that:
• 26.6% of the vehicles registered will be of model year
1975 or newer and will have catalytic mufflers as
standard equipment.
• 26.6% will be of model years 1972-1974, all of which will
have been retrofitted with catalytic mufflers.
• 8.2% will be of model year 1971, of which 75%^-D~7^ will
have been retrofitted.
0 29.1% will be of model years 1966-1970, of which 20%^D"7^
will have been retrofitted.
(b) By the year 1980, the vehicle age distribution (Table D-3)
will be such that:
o 53.2% of the vehicles registered will be of model year
1975 or later and will have catalytic mufflers as
standard equipment.
D-l
-------
t 23.8% will be of model years 1972-1974, all of which
will have been retrofitted with catalytic mufflers.
• 5.9% will be of model year 1971, of which 75% will
have been retrofitted.
• 7.6% will be of model years 1966-1970, of which 20%
will have been retrofitted.
(c) Because of the projected availability of unleaded gasoline
and assuming that the owners of vehicles equipped with
catalytic mufflers will use unleaded gasoline, there should
be no problem associated with the impairment of the
catalyst by lead.
(d) There should be no appreciable increase in the emissions of
hydrocarbons because of possible increases in the aromatic
content of lead free gasoline, since the catalytic mufflers
are expected to burn up the additional hydrocarbons.(D-4,8)
D-2
-------
TABLE D-l. VEHICLE AGE DISTRIBUTION IN THE AIR BASIN
Years Old Percent
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 +
8.0
9.4
9.2
9.9
8.9
7.8
8.2
8.4
7.2
5.9
4.6
3.0
TABLE D-2. VEHICLE AGE DISTRIBUTION IN THE AIR BASIN IN 1977
Model Year
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
1969
1967
1966
Percent
8.0
9.4
Percent of Model Year Vehicles
Equipped with Catalytic Mufflers
9.
9,
8.
7.
8,
8.4
7.2
5.9
4.6
3.0
26.6
26.6
8.2
29.1
100
100
100
100
100
100
75
20
20
20
20
20
Standard Equipment
Retrofitted
TABLE D-3. VEHICLE AGE DISTRIBUTION IN THE AIR BASIN IN 1980
Model Year Percent
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969-1966
Percent of Model Year Vehicles
Equipped with Catalytic Mufflers
8.0
9.4
9.2
9.9
8.9
7.8
8.2
8.4
7.2
5.9
4.6
3.0
53.2
23.8
5.9
7.6
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
75
20
20
Standard Equipment
Retrofitted
D-3
-------
References
(D-l) Implications of Lead Removal from Automotive Fuels, An Interim
Report of the Commerce Technical Advisory Panel on Automotive
Fuels and Air Pollution, Department of Commerce, June, 1970.
(D-2) A Rational Program for the Control of Lead from Motor Gasoline,
California State Air Resources Board, 1970.
(D-3) Gasoline, Chemical and Engineering News, November 9, 1970.
(D-4) Automotive Fuels and Air Pollution, U.S. Department of Commerce,
March, 1971.
(D-5) Arthur Hocker, California Air Resources Board, private
communications, April 18, 1974.
(D-6) Private communication, April 17, 1974. (Personnel desired to
remain anonymous).
(D-7) Federal Register, Vol. 38, Number 217, Part II, November 12, 1973.
(D-8) R. L. Perrine, University of California, Los Angeles, private
communication, April, 1974.
D-4
-------
APPENDIX E. CATALYTIC MUFFLERS
To reduce HC emissions, federal regulations stipulate that by 1977, all
automobiles in the air basin of model years 1966 through 1974 capable of
performing adequately on 91 RON unleaded gasoline are to be retrofitted
with catalytic mufflers: " ' In addition, to meet federal emission
standards, two major American automobile manufacturers have elected to
install catalytic mufflers as standard equipment on their 1975 model year
cars.
With the introduction of these catalytic devices both as retrofit
and standard equipment, two major questions are raised with regard to the
present study: (1) what are the emission factors for particulates and (2)
what effect does lead in gasoline have on the performance of the catalyst?
Before these questions can be answered, two definitions have to be
made. Old automobiles are defined as those with an average of 50,000
miles on their odometers and range from model years 1966 through 1972.
New automobiles are those with less than 20,000 miles and are of model year
1973. For purposes of comparison, all results discussed later for new
automobiles are assumed to hold true for 1975 and later model year cars.
Emission Factors for Particulates
With new cars equipped with catalytic mufflers only a very limited
quantity of research has been conducted and the results obtained were
diverse/ '' As a result of conversations with Morair ' of the EPA,
(E-2)
it was decided to use factors developed by Campion, et al.v ' of the
ESSO Research and Engineering Company. These factors (Table E-l) are
regarded by Moran as resulting from the most carefully conducted research
programs presently in existance. It must be noted, however, that the
composition of the particulates emitted differs dramatically from the
composition of particulates emitted from vehicles not equipped with
catalytic devices. Over 90% of the catalytic muffler particulate
emissions is in the form of sulfates, sulfuric acid and water bound to
the sulfuric acid (Table E-l), whereas from unequipped vehicles, sulfates
(E-2)
and sulfuric acid compose but a trace amount of particulate emissions. '
E-l
-------
The mechanism causing high sulfate and sulfuric acid levels and low levels
of other participates has been attributed to the catalyst.^ '
The California Air Resources Board's (ARB) preliminary test results
(E-3)
on old cars retrofitted with catalytic mufflers are shown in Table E-2. '
By comparing the ARB figures with those of Campion's, it would appear that
retrofitted old cars emit considerably fewer particulates than new cars.
As a result of discussions with knowledgeable personnel^ ' the differences
in the results were attributed to the ARB's sampling technique, which con-
sisted of a fiberglass paper filter element mounted on the car trunk with a
flexible hose directing exhaust gas from the tailpipe to the filter.
Apparently when the exhaust mixture reached the filter, they were hot
enough such that sulfates, sulfuric acid and water were in a gaseous state
and consequently passed through the filter. The Campion system, on the
other hand, allowed for the "collection of particulate matter from ah
isokinetically sampled portion of diluted exhaust which has been cooled to
90°F by dilution with chilled, dehumidified, filtered air."' ' Another
probable cause of the differences may be in that the ARB did not use the
Federal Test Procedure (which Campion did), but rather a 302 mile route
selected to represent driving patterns within the Los Angeles Basin.
Because of the inaccuracies introduced by the ARB test procedure, the
factors in Table E-l for new automobiles were also used for old automobiles.
Effect of Lead in Gasoline on the Catalyst
In the area of cars equipped with catalytic mufflers, the most
comprehensive study presently available is one by Holt, et al. ~ ' in
which the conclusion was drawn that trace amounts of lead up to the 0.07 -
0.10 grams/gallon range have almost no long term (up to 25,000 miles)
effect on the performance of the catalyst. At higher trace levels,
deterioration effects become increasingly apparent. Brief exposures to
fully leaded fuels (3.5 grams/gallon) temporarily decrease the efficiency
of the catalyst, but if the automobile is run subsequently on unleaded fuel,
the normal efficiency returns. Based on the EPA regulation of a maximum
of 0.05 grams of lead/gallon in unleaded gasoline, there should be no
problems with lead poisoning if only unleaded fuel is used.
E-2
-------
TABLE E-l. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM NEW CARS. EQUIPPED
WITH CATALYTIC MUFFLERS (grams/mile)
Fuel Total Sul-
Catalyst Test Cycle Su1fur,% Particulates Fates Water Platinum
Monolithic m 1972 Federal 0.067^ 0.287^ 0.126^ O.lll^ 0.0002
Noble Metar1' Test Cycle
Pelletizedm 1972 Federal 0.065 0.118 0.036 N/A 0.0002
Oxidation ( ' Test Cycle
N/A = Not Available
(1) Characteristic of Ford Motor Company catalytic mufflers
(2) Characteristic of General Motors Company catalytic mufflers
(3) This is the average content (percent by weight) of sulfur in
Southern California gasoline
(4) Average
Source: Reference E-2
•TABLE E-2. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FROM OLD CARS
RETROFITTED WITH CATALYTIC MUFFLERS (grams/mile)
Vehicle Gasoline Type of Catalyst Particulate
1970 American Motors Matador Non leaded UOP Miniverter 0.0154
Source: Reference E-3
E-3
-------
The only research available concerning old cars retrofitted with
(E-8}
catalytic mufflers is from the ARB. ' These results are again pre-
liminary and seem to indicate that if unleaded fuel is used, there will
be no effects on the catalyst.
The following summarizes the data used to compute overall emissions
of particulate matter and S02 from the projected vehicle mix in the air
basin.
% of Vehicles Equipped % of VMT by Catalyst
Year Program with Catalyst Equipped Vehicles
1977 Present controls 27 32
1977 EPA oxidant plan 65 73
1980 Present controls 53 62
1980 EPA oxidant plan 90 90
This data together with the total LDV VMT data presented in
Appendix C yielded the VMT by both catalyst equipped and non-catalyst
equipped vehicles.
According to data presented by Campion, roughly 30% of the sulfur in
gasoline is converted to sulfate or sulfuric acid by the catalyst. Taking
the appropriate fractions, the following LDV. emissions of S0£ result:
1977 Present controls 42.7 tons/day S0?
1977 EPA oxidant plan 36.9
1980 Present controls 41.4 "
1980 EPA oxidant plan 37.0
The emission factor for particulate matter from catalyst equipped
vehicles was derived assuming that of the two types of catalysts avail-
able (monolithic and pelletized), only Ford Motor Company cars would be
equipped with the monolithic type. Both the GM and the UOP catalysts are
pelletized, hence the emission factor for the GM catalyst was applied to
the remaining vehicle population. From R.L. Polk Company data for 1972,
roughly 25% of the registered passenger cars in the basin are made by
Ford. The weighted average emission factor for catalyst particulates is
therefore
0.25 (.287 gms/mile) + 0.75 (.118 gms/mile) =0.16 gms/mile.
E-4
-------
Since by 1977 and 1980 all non-catalyst equipped vehicles may be
considered "old" ( > 3 years old), the participate emission factor used for
these vehicles is 0.43 gms/mile. (See Section 2.3.2) Particulate emission
factors for the two projections are therefore:
1977 present controls: .323 (0.16) + .677(0.43) = 0.34 gms/mile (76%
suspended)*
1977 EPA oxidant plan: .727 (0.16) + .273 (0.43) = 0.23 gms/mile. (87%
suspended)*
1980 present controls: .616 (0.16) + .384 (0.43) = 0.26 gms/mile (82%
suspended)*
1980 EPA oxidant plan: .901 (0.16) + '.099 (0.43) = 0.19 gms/mile (94%
suspended)*
Projected daily particulate emissions from light duty vehicles are
therefore:
(Tons)
Present Controls EPA Oxidant Plan
Total Suspended Total Suspended
1977 South Coast Air Basin 61.9 47.0 41.9 36.4
1980 South Coast Air Basin 50.8 41.7 37.1 34.9
1977 4-County Area 59.7 45.3 40.4 35.1
1980 4-County Area 49.0 40.2 35.8 33.6
Unfortunately, even though the projections show a net reduction in
total particulates with time as well as under the EPA plan, the character
of the particles has changed dramatically.
* Assumes that emissions from catalyst-equipped vehicles are 100%
suspended.
E-5
-------
References
(E-l) Federal Register, Vol. 38, No. 217s Part 2. November 12, 1973.
(E-2) Campion, R. J., Beltzer, M. and Petersen, W. L. Measurement of
Vehicle Participate Emissions. SAE Paper 740186. 1974.
(E-3) Surveillance of Particulate Emissions from Mobile Sources, Pro-
ject S-4, Status Report 1. California Air Resources Board.
September 1973
(E-4) j. Moran. EPA, Research Park Triangle. Private Communication.
April 1974.
(E-5) S. K. Friedlander. California Institute of Technology. Private
Communication. April 1974.
(E-6) Private Communication with personnel in the research departments
of several oil companies. April 1974.
(E-7) Holt, E. L., Wegg, E. E. and Neal, A. H. Fuel Effects on
Oxidation Catalyst Systems, II. SAE Paper 740248. 1974.
(E-8) Report on Emissions from Vehicles Equipped with UOP's Catalytic
Device. Interim Report No. 2. California Air Resources Board.
November 1973.
E-6
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #3
AIR QUALITY - EMISSION LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
By: J. C. Trijonis
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #3
AIR QUALITY - EMISSION LEVEL RELATIONSHIP
By: J. C. Trijonis
Prepared For
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PERATIONS
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
by TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations in fulfillment of
Contract Number 68-02-1384. The contents of this report are reproduced
herein as received from the contractor. The opinions, findings, and
conclusions are those of TRW and not necessarily those of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names does not
constitute endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
11
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1
1.1 Some Basic Definitions 1
1.2 Outline of Support Document #2 2
1.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 6
2.0 THE ORIGINS OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE
METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION 9
2.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Par-
ticulates -- Annual Average us. 24 Hour Levels 11
2.2 Background Aerosol Levels in the Los Angeles Region ... 15
2.2.1 Hi-Vol Measurements at Non-urban California.
Locations • 18
2.2.2 Sea Salt and Suspended Soil Dust in the Los
Angeles Region 22
2.2.3 Characterization of Total Background Aerosol
Levels in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region .. 26
2.3 Average Composition of Hi-Vol Particulate Samples 29
2.3.1 Aerosol Composition Data 29
2.3.2 Characterization of 1972 Base Year
Compos i ti on 46
2.4 Characterization of Particulate Origins for the Los
Angeles Region 49
2.4.1 Origin Classification - A First Iteration 50
2.4.2 Origin Classification -- Completion of the
Characterization 57
2.4.3 Spatial Features of the Origin Characterization. 61
3.0 THE DEPENDENCE OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE LEVELS ON
CONTAMINANT EMISSIONS 69
3.1 Air Quality Relationship for Non-Background Primary
Parti culates 70
3.2 Sulfate Air Quality Relationship 73
3.2.1 Chemical Transformation Processes 75
3.2.2 Atmospheric Data 78
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
3.2.3 An Operational Relationship for Use in :"
Implementation Planning 86
3.3 Nitrate Air Quality Relationship ..'. 89
3.4 Ammonium Air Quality Relationship 93
3.5 Secondary Organic Air Quality Relationship 94
4.0 BASELINE PARTICIPATE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS FOR THE ;
METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES REGION 97
4.1 Arithmetic Mean Target Levels Corresponding to the
Geometric Mean Standards 100
4.2 Air Quality Forecast for the Baseline Emission
Projections 102
REFERENCES 107
APPENDIX A '. A-l
IV
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table Pages
1-1 Origin Characterization for Annual Mean Hi-Vol Participate
Levels (ug/m3) 4
2-1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulates .... 11
2-2 Overall Degree of Control Required to Meet the Primary
Annual Standard for Particulates 12
2-3 Overall Degree of Control Required to Meet the Primary
24 Hour Standard for Particulates 13
2-4 Suspended Particulate Measurements at Non-urban
California, Locations 19
2-5 Results of Chemical Element Tracer Analysis for Sea Salt
and Soil Dust in the Los Angeles Region 24
2-6 Previously Reported Calculations of Sea Salt and Soil
Dust Levels 25
2-7 Estimates of Average Sea Salt and Soil Dust Levels in the
Los Angeles Region 26
2-8 Estimates of Average Total Background Levels 27
2-9 Completed Background Aerosol Classification Scheme for the
Los Angeles Region 28
2-10 Availability of Composition Data From Long Term
Monitoring Programs 30
2-11 Locations and Data Sources for Aerosol Composition
Breakdown 32
•v
2-12 Data on Average Composition of Hi-Vol Particulate Samples .. 34
2-13 Differences Between APCD and NASN Composition Data 46
2-14 Hi-Vol Particulate Composition: Characterization of the
1972 Base Year 48
2-15 Calculated Secondary Organic Aerosol Levels for Various
Val ues of Ssec 54
2-16 Aerosol Origin Characterization -- First Iteration (Annual
Arithmetic Mean -- jug/m3) 56
2-17 Origin Characterization for Annual Mean Hi-Vol Particulate
Level s (jjg/m3) 62
2-18 General Spatial Patterns in the Aerosol Origin
Characterization 63
4-1 Hypothetical Illustration of the Model for Predicting
Control Strategy Impact on Particulate Air Quality Levels .. 98
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table Page
4-2 Arithmetic Mean Target Levels Corresponding to the Geometric
Mean Standards '. 99
4-3 Ratio of Arithmetic Mean to Geometric Mean vs. Geometric
Standard for Log Normal Distribution V. 101
4-4 Summary of Emission Projections for the 4 County Sub-Area
of the Los Angeles Region 102
A-l Breakdown of Primary Suspended Particulate and S02 Emis-
sions at the Kaiser/Edison Complex A-l
VI
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Sub-Areas for the Background Aerosol Analysis 17
2-2 Locations for the Aerosol Origin Characterization 33
2-3 Total Nitrate Levels in the Los Angeles Region 64
2-4 Estimated Non-Background Secondary Organic Levels in the
Los Angeles Region 65
2-5 Total Sulfate Levels in the Los Angeles Region 66
2-6 Estimated Non-Background Primary Particulate Levels in the
Los Angeles Region 67
3-1 Particulate Emission Density Map for the Metropolitan Los
Angeles Region 71
3-2 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions and Wind Patterns in the Metro-
politan Los Angeles Region 74
3-3 Schematic Illustrations of the dependence of Sulfate Levels
on S02 Input 79
3-4 Historical Relationship between S02 Emissions and S07
Concentrations -- Los Angeles County, 1957 to 1970 81
3-5 Sulfur Dioxide/Sulfate Relationship for 18 U.S. Cities . 83
3-6 Aerometric Relationship between Sulfate and Sulfur Dioxide
in the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR 85
3-7 Average S02 Emissions vs. Average SQ~. Air Quality for Los
Angeles County 7 87
3-8 Aerometric Relationship between Nitrate and NO in the
Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR 92
4-1 Suspended Particulate Air Quality Forecasts for the Base-
line Emission Projections 105
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Under contract to the Environmental Protection Agency, TRW Environ-
mental Services has developed a participate implementation plan for the
Metropolitan Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. Specifically, TRW
has investigated strategies for approaching and achieving the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for suspended particulate matter
in the Los Angeles Region. The present report, the third of four
technical support documents associated with the project, develops a
methodology for relating measured (Hi-Vol) suspended particulate levels
to emissions of both primary particulates and gaseous precursors of
secondary particulates.
1.1 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Throughout this study, the terms, suspended particulates and aerosol ,
i
are used interchangeably. Both refer to suspended particles, (liquid
or solid), in air. The basic measuring unit used ihere is total aerosol
o
mass concentration, (ug/m ); thus, the details of the particle size
distribution are usually neglected.
One very important distinction that is made involves the concept of
primary particulates versus secondary particulates, (or alternatively
primary aerosol versus secondary aerosol).* Primary aerosols are directly
emitted; they enter the atmosphere as particles. Secondary particulates
are formed in the atmosphere from the conversion of gases to particles
by chemical reaction process. The four principal types of secondary
*The reader should not confuse this concept with the terms "primary" and
"secondary" standards. The national primary and secondary standards refer
to different target levels for total particulate air quality, i.e., each
standard applies to the sum of both primary and secondary aerosol.
-------
aerosol are sulfate (SO,), nitrate (NOZ), ammonium (NH.), and secondary
organics. The gaseous precursors of these aerosols are sulfur dioxide
(S02)> nitrogen oxides (NO ), ammonia (NH,), and reactive hydrocarbons
(RHC), respectively.
A distinction is sometimes made between ambient total suspended
particulates and Hi-Vol total suspended particulates. The former refers
to total particulate mass loading in the atmosphere, while the latter
refers to the mass loading which is measured by a Hi-Vol monitor. As
discussed in Support Document #1, Hi-Vol measurements are sometimes not
fully representative of ambient conditions.
A third distinction involves the concept of background particulates
versus non-background particulates. For the purposes of this study, non-
background aerosol is defined as that which"" is subject to direct emission
regulations in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. Conversely, background
aerosol consists of the part which is non-controllable by direct emission
regulations in Los Angeles. In this sense, there are three main back-
ground aerosol sources: natural sources, suspended soil dust from man-
related activities such as traffic or agriculture, and anthropogenic*
sources exterior to the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. This definition
of background sources differs from the more common usage which refers
to natural sources only.
1.2 OUTLINE OF SUPPORT DOCUMENT #2
This report develops an air quality-emission level relationship for
suspended particulates in the Metropolitan "Los Angeles Region. Essentially,
*Man-made
-------
a methodology, or "model", is formulated which predicts Hi-Vol measure-
ments of total suspended particulates as functions of contaminant
emission levels. Included are the effects of four types of pollutant
emissions: primary particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and
reactive hydrocarbons. The methodology is applied to twelve monitoring
sites within the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region.
Although federal air quality standards for particulates have been
established for both long term (annual) and short term (24 hour) concen-
trations, the present analysis addresses only long term annual levels.
Section 2.1 presents justifications fo'r this restriction in scope. The
basic reason is that the annual particulate standard appears to be the
binding constraint.
The first major input to the air quality-emission level model is a
characterization of aerosol origins. Chapter 2 provides this input
through an analysis of aerometric data taken by several monitoring pro-
grams and through the use of recently developed techniques for tracing
aerosol origins. Table 1-1 summarizes the results; the origins of annual
average particulate levels at twelve locations are broken down into
several background and non-background (controllable) categories. There
are many uncertainties involved in the derivation of Table 1-1; Chapter
2 includes discussions which serve to illustrate the limitations in the
analysis.
The second major input for the model is a set of relationships which
describe the dependence of each controllable origin category on contaminant
emission levels. Chapter 3 provides these relationships. The linear
rollback formula is chosen to relate the non-background primary particulate
category to man-made primary particulate emissions in the Los Angeles
3
-------
TABLE 1-1 ORIGIN CHARACTERIZATION FOR ANNUAL MEAN HI-VOL PARTICULATE LEVELS
LOCATION
BACKGROUND CONTR
PRIMARY
Sea
Salt
Suspended
Dust
Primary Han-made
Sources Exterior to
the L.A. Region
I BUT IONS
SECONDARY
S0=
COASTAL
1 . Lennox
2. West Los Angeles
3. Long Beach
8
8
8
16
14
16
3
3
3
4
4
4
N03
Secondary
Organics
TOTAL
BACK-
GROUNDi
NON-BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTIONS
(Anthropogenic Sources within LA Region)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
so--
NO-
NH;
Secondary
Organics
TOTA1
AAM
AREA LOCATIONS
1
1
1
3
3
3
35
33
35
84
36
47
9
5
7
6
6
5
1
1
1
10
9
10
145
90
105
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA LOCATIONS
4. Downtown Los Angeles
5. Pasadena
6. Anaheim
7. Reseda
6
6
6
6
27
21
23
26
3
3
3
->
*j
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
44
38
40
' 43
54
42
36
58
10
9
5
9
11
10
6
7
1
1
1
1
20
20
17
22
140
120
105
140
EASTERN- INLAND AREA LOCATIONS
8. Azusa
9. Ontario
10. San Bernardino
1 1 . Riverside
4
4
4
4
38
34
33
45
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
53
49
48
60
41
24
26
30
11
6
9
8
17
10
12
14
1
1
1
1
37
30
29
37
160
120
125
150
(l2. Chino
45
WESTER:! SAM BERNARDINO COUNTY HOT SPOT
89
35
220
-------
Region. For the non-background secondary aerosol categories, Chapter 3
reviews existing theoretical and empirical evidence pertaining to the
dependence on gaseous precursor emissions. It is found that a great deal
of uncertainty exists concerning this dependence. In the end, a linear
form is assumed for each of the sulfate/S09, nitrate/NO , and organic/RHC
u A
relationships.
The air quality-emission level model is completed by .synthesizing
the origin characterization and the relationships which link controllable
categories to emission levels. Chapter 4 illustrates the model by fore-
casting air quality levels for the baseline emission projections derived
in Support Document #2, [18]. The final report of this project uses the
model to predict the effect of various control strategies on total
suspended particulate levels in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region.
The uncertainties involved in the emission level-air quality relation-
ship developed here should not be underestimated. As documented in the
text of this report, existing data are deficient in many respects both
for characterizing aerosol origins and for estimating the dependence of
secondary aerosol categories on gaseous precursor emissions. Further,
the very aggregated model formulated herein deals only with total emission
levels and cannot account for changes in the emission spatial distri-
bution. Changes in the spatial pattern of emissions is thus another
potential source of error.
Although considerable uncertainty exists, the model developed here
is based on a systematic analysis of existing data. It should provide an
approximate, but useful tool for evaluating the impact of control strategies
on average suspended particulate levels. Further, it provides a framework
for incorporating improvements as further data become available.
-------
1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study of the relationship between measured suspended
particulate levels and emissions of both primary particulates and
gaseous precursors of secondary particulates has resulted in the following
conclusions and recommendations:
Conclusions
• In order to construct a systematic relationship between sus-
pended particulate levels and emissions of primary particulates,
S02, NO , and RHC, two separate analyses must be performed. The
fifst is to characterize the origins (e.g., background, non-
background primary, non-background sulfate, etc.) of suspended
particulate levels at various locations. The second is to de-
termine the dependence of each origin category on emission •
levels.
t Existing aerosol composition data (from the county APCD's, NASN,
and other monitoring programs) are sufficient to support an
approximate aerosol origin characterization for annual arithmetic
means (AAM's) at twelve locations in the Los Angeles Region.
Existing data are not sufficient to characterize aerosol origins
on episode days. The latter result may not be a severe handi-
cap to control policy formulation since it appears that the
annual national standards for particulates are more restrictive
than the 24 hour max. national standards in the Los Angeles
Region.
§ Existing data indicate that background (non-controllable) particu-
late levels are about 30-40 /jg/irr AAM in the coastal areas of the
.Los Angeles Region. Background aerosol levels appear to increase
with distance inland to about 45-60 /jg/m AAM in the eastern-
inland parts of the region. The existence of significant back-
ground levels limits the air quality effectiveness of emission.
controls in the Los Angeles Region.
a Non-background primary particulate contributions generally tend
to be highest in the coastal and central-valley portions of the
Los Angeles Region. The one exception involves the very high
primary contributions estimated for the Western San Bernardino
County Hot-Spot (Chino-Rialto) which is apparently affected by
the Kaiser/Edison complex. Sulfate levels tend,to be uniformly
distributed over the basin at around 10-15 /jg/m AAM,(again the
Hot-Spot is an exception). Measured nitrate and estimated
secondary organic levels tend to increase considerably with
distance inland. The above spatial trends appear to be con-
sistent with known aspects of source distribution, meteorology,
and atmospheric chemistry.
-------
For the purposes of this study, the linear rollback formula
appears to be generally adequate for relating primary suspended
particulate emissions to non-background primary aerosol levels.
In order to assess air quality changes for the special case of
the Western San Bernardino County Hot-Spot, a modification of
the linear rollback approach must be made.
Considerable uncertainty surrounds the relationship between non-
background sulfate air quality and SC"2 emissions. However,
theoretical analysis and empirical data both suggest a slightly
less than linear dependence. At low SC>2 levels, sulfate yield
appears to increase linearly with S02 input. At higher S02
levels, the sulfate yield tends to level off. For the purpose
of this study, (the prediction of total suspended particulate
levels), it appears sufficient to assume a linear relationship.
Very little is known concerning the dependence of nitrate levels
on NOX emissions and the dependence of secondary organic levels
on RHC emissions. In this study a simple linear form is
assumed for each relationship. The main justification is that
there is no evidence to support the use of any specific non-
linear relationship.
Recommendations
In order to improve the aerosol origin estimates, more com-
prehensive data are needed on particulate chemical composition.
Specifically, it is recommended that further sodium and aluminum
data be taken to verify the sea salt and soil dust levels cal-
culated here. Also, it would be very useful to devise and apply
a method for measuring secondary organic particulate levels.
Existing data on ambient organic aerosol, (benzene or cyclo-
hexane solubles), are essentially only measures of primary
organic contributions.
Further research effort should be allocated to determine the
dependence of secondary aerosol levels on gaseous precursor
emissions. Much of the research to date has been directed to-
ward identifying the reaction mechanisms and understanding the
physico-chemical processes. This work should be continued since
it supplies a scientific base for explaining the relationship.
However, it may be possible to obtain reasonable answers in a
shorter time by emphasizing an empirical approach. Ambient and
experimental measurements of NOX (or SC^) input vs. nitrate
(or sulfate) yield may be able to supply a relationship that
is adequate for pre.sent planning purposes.
-------
2.0 THE ORIGINS OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
IN THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION
The development of a systematic relationship between pollutant
emissions and measured suspended particulate levels requires identifi-
cation of the orgins of the suspended particulate matter. The portion
of total particulates that is associated with each general source type
must be determined. This chapter provides the required origin character-
izations for the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR.
The aerosol origin characterization will consist of a breakdown of
annual mean Hi-Vol levels according to the following classification
scheme:
I,
II
Background Contributions
A. Primary
Sea Salt
Soil Dust
Primary Anthropogenic
Sources Exterior to
the Los Angeles
Region
B. Secondary
Sulfate_
Nitrate
Secondary
Organics_
Non-Background Contributions
(Anthropogenic Sources within
the Los Angeles Region)
A. Primary
B. Secondary
Total Primary
Sulfate_
Nitrate
Ammonium
Secondary
Organics
-------
This classification scheme will be completed for 12 locations in the
region which have sufficient aerosol composition data to-support the
origin analysis. The latter part of the classification, (Non-Background),
will be fundamental to control strategy evaluation, since it is this
portion of the aerosol that is subject to emission regulations within
the control region.
It should be noted that federal air quality standards have been
established for both long term (annual geometric mean) and short term
(24 hour maximum) particulate concentrations. However, the present
study will provide an air quality/emission level relationship only for
the long term, annual levels. The justification for this restriction
in scope is discussed in Section 2.1. The basic reason is that the
annual standard appears to be the binding constraint for the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Region.
Section 2.2 provides estimates for the first part of the origin
classification scheme, (Background Contributions). These estimates are
derived from an analysis of suspended particulate levels in nonurban
California locations and from the results of chemical element tracer
techniques as applied to recent measurements within the Los Angeles
Region.
Section 2.3 presents and analyzes aerosol chemical composition data
for twelve locations in the Los Angeles Region. These data are pertinent
to estimating non-background contributions.
Section 2.4 combines the results of Sections 2.2 and 2.3 to complete
the aerosol origin characterization for the twelve sites in the Los
Angeles Region.
10
-------
2.1 NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR PARTICULATES -- ANNUAL
AVERAGE VS. 24 HOUR LEVELS
Table 2-1 summarized the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for suspended particulates. Standards have been established for
both long term (annual geometric mean) and short term (24 hour) concen-
trations. A particulate implementation plan should contain provisions
TABLE 2-1
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS FOR PARTICULATES
Annual Maximum: Not to be
Geometric Exceeded More than
Mean Once a Year
Primary Standard 75 jjg/m3 260 jug/m3
for 24 hours
Secondary Standard 60 jug/m3 * 150 jug/m3
for 24 hours
* EPA guide for the attainment of the
secondary 24 hour standard
for meeting both the short and long term standards. However, in this
study, only the long term (annual geometric mean) standard will be con-
sidered. The justification for this restriction in scope is presented
below.
The main argument for considering only the annual standard is
that it appears to be the binding constraint in the Los Angeles Region, i.e.,
attaining the annual standard implies attaining the 24 hour standard,
(but not vice versa). ** To illustrate this, we first considered the
overall degree of control of man-made particulates (primary and
secondary) that is required to achieve the primary annual standard,
**The only exception to this rule for Los Angeles appears to be the case
where the 24 hour standard is exceeded due almost exclusively to natural
causes, (e.g., a dust storm). In this case, no control strategy applied
to Los Angeles pollution sources can achieve the 24 hour standard.
11
-------
(75 ug/m3, AGM). The left side of Table 2-2 lists the expected 1972
annual arithmetic mean, the background level, and the target AAM for
attaining the primary AGM standard at four monitoring locations in the
Los Angeles Region with severe particulate levels. The right side of
Table 2-2 calculates the overall degree of control required to meet the
primary, annual air quality standard for particulates at each station.
TABLE 2-2 OVERALL DEGREE OF CONTROL REQUIRED TO MEET
THE PRIMARY ANNUAL STANDARD FOR PARTICULATES
LOCATION
Chi no
Azusa
Riverside
Lennox
EXPECTED 1972
AAM Ojg/m3)
220a
160a
150a
145a
BACKGROUND
LEVEL Ojg/m3)
60b
53 b
60b
35b
TARGET AAM FOR
ATTAINING
PRIMARY STD.
(jjg/m3)
80C
80C
80C
80C
OVERALL DEGREE
OF CONTROL
REQUIRED
(220-80) _
(220-60) u7'°
(1 60-80 )_ 7™
(160-53) '*'"
(150-80) _ 700/
(150-60) /B'°
(1 45-80) _ ,r/
(145-35) 59/0
a. From Support Document #1 of this project,' [1].
b. See Section 2.4 of this report, (Table
c. See Section 4.1 of this report.
Next, we consider the overall degree of control required to achieve
the 24 hour primary standard for particulates, (260 ^g/m3). Table 2-3,
which is similar to Table 2-2, summarizes the calculations for the 24
hour standard. These latter results are more uncertain than those in
12
-------
TABLE 2-3 OVERALL DEGREE OF CONTROL REQUIRED TO
MEET THE PRIMARY 24 HOUR STANDARD FOR PARTIGULATES
LOCATION
Chi no
Azusa
Riverside
Lennox
EXPECTED 1972
24 HOUR MAX
(ug/m3)
1000>a
380a
620a
340a
BACKGROUND
LEVEL (ug/m3)
60b
53b
60b
35b
PRIMARY
24 HOUR
STANDARD
260
260
260
260
OVERALL DEGREE
OF CONTROL
REQUIRED
(1000-260) „
(1000- 60) /y/0
(380-260)_;3
(380- 53)
(620-260)
- (620- 60) M/u
(340-260). 26%
(340- 35)
a. From Support Document #1 of this project. These are the
expected 24 hour maxima assuming samples were taken every
day of the year. At present monitoring frequencies, measured
yearly maxima are somewhat lower than these values, [1].
b.
These are
Section 2.4
levels on
poorly
annual mean background levels as
(Table 2-17).
reported in
Background
of this report,
days of maximum particulate levels are very
documented. However, a few recent measurements
indicate that background levels are not particularly
great on days of intense pollution, [2]. Rather, it
may be that background levels are highest on windy days
with higher suspended dust levels, [3], [4]; by their "
nature, these windy days are not days of intense man-
made pollution.
13
-------
Table 2-2 due to the lack of documentation on background levels for
days of maximal particulate pollution, (see Footnote b to Table 2-3).
Although the results must be qualified by the aforementioned
uncertainty, a comparison of Tables 2-2 and 2-3 reveals that considerably
greater degree of control is required to attain the primary annual
standard at each station than is required to attain the primary 24
hour standard. A similar conclusion arises from a comparative analysis
of the secondary annual and 24 hour standards. Even in light of the
uncertainties in the above calculations, it appears sufficient to
formulate particulate control strategies for the Los Angeles Region only
around the annual standards.
Actually, it would be best to calculate the impact of control
strategies on both annual geometric raean and 24 hour maximum
particulate levels. However, relating emission levels to particulate
air quality levels requires detailed documentation of the origins of
suspended particulates. In the course of this study, it was found much
easier to document origins of annual average levels than to document
origins of 24 hour maximal levels. Alternative data sources for annual
averages could be compared and combined. In contrast, it was very difficult
to construct a consistent picture of particulate origins with the
sparse data for rare episode type days. This study will consider only
the long term (annual) standards for suspended particulates.
14
-------
2.2 BACKGROUND AEROSOL LEVELS IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
As a first step in characterizing the origins of annual average
Hi-Vol participate levels in the Los Angeles Region, this section will
derive estimates of background contributions. For the purposes of this
study, the background aerosol will be defined as that resulting from
sources which are not subject to direct emission regulations in the Los
Angeles Region. Thus, the total aerosol minus background will represent
the portion that is subject to direct control. There are three main
types of background sources:
1. Natural Sources
examples: ... sea salt
... naturally occurring soil dust
... secondary organic aerosol from
vegetation related hydrocarbons.
2. Anthropogenic Sources Exterior to the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Region
examples: ... primary particulates emitted in other
California regions or worldwide,
secondary aerosol from S0o» NO or HC
emissions in other areas.
3. Suspended Dust from Man-Related Activities
examples: ... dust from agricultural activity
... suspended soil dust from traffic (street dust),
In compiling a breakdown of the background aerosol into various
categories, it is not always possible to distinguish the contributions
from the three types of sources listed above, (e.g. it may be difficult to
separate natural soil dust from soil dust created by human activities).
Thus, the background aerosol classification given here will not correspond
exactly to the above list of source types. Rather, the following
breakdown will be used to classify the Background aerosol:
15
-------
BACKGROUND AEROSOL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
PRIMARY CONTRIBUTIONS
Sea Salt
Suspended Dust
Anthropogenic Sources Exterior
to the Los Angeles Region
SECONDARY CONTRIBUTIONS
Sulfate
Nitrate
Secondary Organics
Water aerosol is not included in the background classification because
there are indications that, unlike the ambient aerosol, equilibriated
Hi-Vol samples contain negligible amounts of water, (see Support
Document #1 for a discussion).
Background aerosol levels may undergo significant spatial variations
within the Los Angeles Region. The coastal areas should have higher sea
salt concentrations, while the inland agricultural areas should demonstrate
greater soil dust levels. The present analysis estimates background
aerosol concentrations in three general areas: the coastal area, the central-
valley area, and the eastern-inland area, (see Figure 2-1). In Section 2.4,
adjustments will be made, where warranted , for individual monitoring sites
within these general areas.
Two basic types of atmospheric measurements will be used to complete
the background aerosol classification scheme listed above. Section 2.2.1
will review Hi-Vol data at nonurban California locations. These data will
help to quantify background sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organic levels
and will also provide a general indication of overall background
levels for the Los Angeles Region. Section 2.2.2 will use recent measure-
ments of sodium and aluminum concentrations within the Los Angeles Region, [2],
16
-------
Figure 2-1 Sub-Areas For The Background Aerosol Analysis
-------
to estimate sea salt and soil dust contributions. Section 2.2.3 will
combine all the results to complete the classification scheme for the
background aerosol in each of the three subareas of the Los Angeles
Region.
2.2.1. Hi-Vol Measurements at Nonurban California Locations
Table 2-4 summarizes Hi-Vol measurements taken at several nonurban
sites in California. The locations have been distinguished as to marine
and desert environments. Values are given for total suspended particulates
as well as for the sulfate, nitrate, and organic components of the aerosol.
All values are arithmetic means except the data from Reference [5] which were
reported as geometric means.
One striking feature of Table 2-4 is the occurrence of very high
o
particulate levels (180-290 pg/m ) at several marine locations. These high
averages appear to be due to sea salt aerosol resulting from wave action
near the monitoring site. Sea salt is implicated by the singularly high
sulfate levels at most of these sites; it has been estimated that sulfate
comprises around 7% of sea salt aerosol, [5], [7]. The recent value
(30 M9/m ) obtained at San Nicolas Island, [8], appears to be more repre-
sentative of average background levels in areas not subject to very
proximate sea salt sources. The coastal region of Los Angeles should have
average background levels at about this value. Actually, one might expect
greater suspended dust concentrations in the coastal Los Angeles area than
at San Nicolas, due to higher levels of human activity. Thus, the coastal
area of the Los Angeles Region should have a background level of around
30-40 yg/m3.
*San Nicolas Island is located around 130 km southwest of Los Angeles.
For typical wind patterns, San Nicolas should receive essentially no
intrusion of Los Angeles pollution aerosol.
18
-------
TABLE 2-4 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MEASUREMENTS
AT NONURBAN CALIFORNIA, LOCATIONS
LOCATION
DATA
SOURCE
(REFERENCE)
NUMBER 1
OF
SAMPLES
1 AVERAGE
1 TOTAL
SUSPENDED
1 soi
PARTICUL
N03
ATES (jjg/m-3)
ORGAN I CS
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Crescent City
(Lighthouse)
S.E. Farallon Island
(Lighthouse)
Point Pedras Blancos
(Lighthouse)
San Nicolas Island
(150 meter elevation)
San Nicolas Island
(200 meter elevation)
Point Reyes
(USCG Station)
Point Arguello
(USGG Station)
Trinidad
(Lighthouse)
[9]
[9]
[9]
[9]
[8]
DO]
Do]
fil 1
24
46
28
9
22
1
1
49
1
184
184
291
69
30
129
185
44
••^•••W
13.2
13.8
18.6
8.4
5.3
6.2
6.5
2.4
2.3
1.0
2.2
2.0
1.7
0.4
1.0
0.4
^^^^•^^^^^
5.5b
4.1b
2.5b
3.6b
0.6C
4.5C
3.3^
2.5b
DESERT ENVIRONMENT
Amboy
Kramer Jet.
29 Palms
Needles
Baker
Goldstone
[5]
[5]
[5]
[5]
[5]
DO]
140
142
145
141
141
2
31*
46*
61*
38*
44*
46
3.3*
4.5*
5.7*
3.3*
3.8*
1.7
2.2*
4.0*
3.6*
2.4*
2.8*
1.6
3.4*u
3.5*b
4.2*b
4.1*b
4.1*b
4.0C
* Geometric Means
b Extracted with Benzene
c Extracted with Cyclohexane
19
-------
The measurements in the desert environment should give an indication)
of background levels in the eastern-inland areas of the Los Angeles Region.
In terms of an annual arithmetic mean, (AAM),,the .Hi-Vol measurements in
3
the Southern California desert area are typically around 45-55 yg/m .
Actually, in one sense, these values may overstate the background level.
This is because the desert aerosol contains some nonbackground contribu-
tion from Los Angeles Region pollution sources. However, for another
reason, the desert measurements may be less than background levels in the
eastern-inland area of the Los Angeles Region. This is because more in-
tensive agriculture and other human activity occurs in the eastern-inland
area of the Los Angeles Region. These activities may lead to higher dust
levels than the dust levels found in the desert. All considered, the desert
Hi-Vol measurements are indicative of a 45-60 yg/m average background
level in the eastern-inland portion of the Los Angeles Region.
The average background sulfate level in the Los Angeles Region
appears to be around 3-5 yg/m . In the desert environment, arithmetic mean
values tend to be around 4-5 yg/m . The San Nicolas measurements indicate
an average background sulfate level of around 5 yg/m . However, measured SOT
levels in the desert and at San Nicolas both might be slightly higher than
background levels in the Los Angeles Region. The Southern California desert
stations receive some nonbackground sulfate from Los Angeles pollution
sources. Sulfate levels at San Nicolas may be slightly elevated by sea salt
contributions. Allowing for these possibilities, an average background
3
sulfate level of 3-5 .yg/m seems reasonable.
2Q
-------
Measurements at nonurban marine locations yield average nitrate
o
values of around 1-2 yg/m. In the Southern California desert area,
east of the Los Angeles Region, average nitrate values tend to be
o
around 2-4 yg/m. The latter values may not be representative of
background nitrate because of the influence of Los Angales sources. It
is known that nitrate values increase considerably from west to east
in the Los Angeles Region; the high nitrate concentrations in the
eastern part of the Los Angeles Region (around 15 yg/m )* are likely
to cause somewhat elevated levels in the downwind desert area. Thus,
3
the 1-2 yg/m values measured at nonurban marine locations, may be more
representative of average background nitrate concentrations in the
Los Angeles Region.
Measurements in the Southern California desert indicate a back-
ground organic aerosol level of around 3-4 yg/m .** With the exception
of the San Nicolas Island results, most marine environment measurements
support this value. San Nicolas may be an an anomaly due to its distance
out at sea and the island's rather sparse vegetation. Background
organic concentrations appear to be sensitive to the amount of overall
vegetation cover. Recent measurements in highly vegetated remote Cali-
3
fornia locations have yielded organic aerosol levels of around 5-10 yg/m ,
ClO]. Here, the value of 3-4 yg/m will be taken as represented of the
Los Angeles Region.
In summary, the examination of measured particulate levels at
nonurban California locations indicates the following:
* See Section 2.3
** Actually, these measurements are of soluble (in benzene or cyclo-
hexane) organics. However, naturally occurring organic aerosol
is probably highly extractable by these solvents, [17]. It will be
assumed that total background organics are equivalent to soluble
background organics.
21
-------
ESTIMATED TOTAL BACKGROUND LEVELS FOR THE LOS ANGELES REGION;
Coastal Areas 30-40 yg/m3
Eastern-Inland Areas 45-60 yg/m
BACKGROUND LEVELS FOR THREE SPECIFIC COMPONENTS:
Sulfate 3-5 ug/m3
N1 trate 1-2 yg/m3
3
Organics 3-4 yg/m
2.2.2 Sea Salt and Suspended Soil Dust in the Los Angeles Region
It is difficult to use particulate measurements taken within
the Los Angeles Region to determine background levels for that region.
The basic problem is how to distinguish the background aerosol from
the pollution aerosol, (e.g., how does one distinguish between back-
ground sulfate or nitrate and sulfate or nitrate from Los Angeles
pollution sources). However, for some types of background sources,
the chemical element tracer method developed by Friedlander and co-workers
at Caltech,[T2],[7],[13], [14], can be applied to estimate the total
contributions from that source.
The basic idea of the chemical element tracer method is to
estimate the contribution of various sources by measuring the levels
of certain elements which are characteristic of those sources. For
instance, since gasoline powered motor vehicles provide essentially
all of the ambient lead aerosol in urban areas, measured Pb can be
used as an indicator of automotive contributions. The total primary
automotive aerosol contribution is estimated by dividing the ambient Pb
concentration by the fraction of Pb in suspended automotive particulate
emissions. In some cases, more than one source and more than one
22
-------
element are involved; this leads to a system of simultaneous equations,
(one for each element), which are solved for source contributions.
The two background sources to be examined here with the chemical
element tracer method are sea salt and soil dust. The calculations
will use aluminum (Al) and sodium (Na) as tracers. Soil dust and sea
salt, contribute nearly all of the aluminum and sodium to the Los
Angeles aerosol, 03). Sodium constitutes around 2.5% of soil dust
and around 30.6% of sea salt. Aluminum is 8.2% of soil dust and is
a negligible fraction of sea salt, [13]. Thus, if AL and NA represent
measured values of aerosol aluminum and sodium, the level of salt
(SS) and soil dust (SD) present can be found by solving:
.306 SS + .025 SD = NA
(2-1)
Unfortunately, there are few measurements to which Equations 2-1
can be applied. Some data have recently been provided by the ACHEX
Study, [2]. These data are for three days at West Covina and Rubidoux
and for two days at Dominguez Hills and Pomona. These locations were
shown in Figure 2-1.
The result of applying Equations (2-1) to the recent ACHEX data
are presented in Table 2-5. Table 2-5 also gives a qualitative
indication of distance inland for each location. By examining the re-
sults and the trends as to distance inland, the following pattern
emerges: Sea salt levels in the coastal, central-valley, and eastern-
3
inland areas appear to be around 9-11, 8-9, and 5-8 yg/m , respectively.
Soil dust levels appear to follow a pattern of 15-20, 20-30, and 30-35 yg/m .
23
or
and
and
en - '
— fiQO
cc ' 1
~ . 306
.082 SD
AL
[NA -
= AL,
.025
.082
AL]
-------
TABLE 2-5
RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENT TRACER ANALYSIS FOR
SEA SALT AND SOIL DUST IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION*
COSTAL AREA
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA
EASTERN-INLAND AREA
SEA SALT
ESTIMATES
(yg/m3)
SOIL DUST
ESTIMATES
(yg/m3)
9.7
18.5
,
DOMINGUEZ
HILLS
8.9
25.6
,
WEST
COVINA
8.2 5.1
i
29.9 34.6
i
i i
POMONA RUBIDOUX
* Based on ACHEX Data,[2]
DISTANCE INLAND
-------
Table 2-6 presents results obtained by previous researchers using
the chemical element tracer method. With the exception of soil dust
estimates for Riverside, the values in Table 2-6 are somewhat
lower than those obtained above. The reasons for the discrepancy
are not obvious; much of the difference is probably due to the particular
meteorology that occured when the samples were taken.
TABLE 2-6
PREVIOUSLY REPORTED CALCULATIONS OF SEA SALT
AND SOIL DUST LEVELS
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA
EASTERN-INLAND AREA
SEA SALT
ESTIMATES
(vg/m3)
SOIL DUST
ESTIMATES
(yg/m3)
Pasadena: 2.5*
2.3**
Pasadena: 9.8*
Pomona:
Riverside:
Pomona :
Riverside:
5.6**
0.7**
15.1**
35.7**
* Reference [7], (based on an 11 hour sample, 1969)
** Reference Q4], (based on single 24 hour sample, 1972)
In light of the previous results by other researchers, the esti-
mates in Table 2-5 might be somewhat high. However, since the
values in Table 2-5 are based on two to three days data while the
values in Table 2-6 are each based on one day or less data, more
weight should be attached to the former. Overall, the following
estimates for average sea salt and soil dust seem reasonable:
25
-------
TABLE 2-7
ESTIMATES OF AVERAGE SEA SALT AND SOIL DUST
LEVELS IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
COASTAL AREA
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA
EASTERN-INLAND AREA
SEA SALT
(yg/m3)
6-10
4-8
2-6
SOIL DUST
(yg/m3)
10-20
15-25
25-35
Considerable variance has been included in the above estimates as a
reflection of the limited number of sampling days on which they are
based.
2.2.3 Characterization of Total background Aerosol Levels in the
Metropolitan Los Angeles Region
Section 2.2.1 estimated background sulfate, nitrate, and second-
ary organic levels for the Los Angeles Region by analyzing data taken
at nonurban California locations. Section 2.2.2 estimated sea salt
and soil dust levels by using the chemical element tracer method
developed by Friedlander, [13]. The only category in the BACKGROUND
AEROSOL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME (see page 12) which has not been
examined is the contribution from "primary anthropogenic sources
exterior to the Los Angeles Region." It is very difficult to derive
estimates of this latter category from existing data; nearly pure
conjecture must be relied upon. A value in the range of 1-5 yg/m
seems to be about the right order of magnitude,
Using Pb as a tracer for man-made primary emissions, calculations
with San Nicolas data indicate about 2 ug/m for the transported
man-made particulate category. However, it is not certain whether
the San Nicolas value represents sources exterior to the Los Angeles
Region or sources within the Los Angeles Region.
26
-------
Estimates, (although in some cases very approximate). have now
been obtained for the contributions from each category in the BACK-
GROUND AEROSOL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME, (page 12). It is of interest
to compare the total of all these various categories to the total
background levels indicated by nonurban measurements, (Section 2.2.1).
Table 2-8 makes this comparison. Although the variance in the estimates
is large, the agreement of overall levels and of the trends from coast
to inland is extremely good.
TABLE 2-8
ESTIMATES OF AVERAGE TOTAL BACKGROUND LEVELS
AVERAGE TOTAL BACK-
GROUND BY ANALYSIS
OF TOTAL NONURBAN
LEVELS
(Section 2.2.1)
AVERAGE TOTAL BACK-
GROUND BY ADDITION
OF ESTIMATES FOR EACH
CATEGORY IN THE CLASS-
IFICATION SCHEME
COASTAL AREA
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA
EASTERN-INLAND AREA
30-40 yg/m
35-50 ayg/m3
45-60 yg/m3
24-46 yg/nT
27-49 yg/nT
35-57 yg/m3
a: Interpolation of the Coastal and Eastern Inland Results.
27
-------
To summarize, the total average background levels obtained by
analyzing measured particulate levels in nonurban California locations
agree quite well with the total average background levels obtained by
estimating each individual background category. Total background
levels in the Los Angeles Region appear to vary from around 30-40 yg/mw
3
in the coastal area, to around 35-45 ,yg/m in the central-valley area,
•3
to around 45-55 yg/m in the eastern-inland area. An approximate
origin breakdown for each area (according to the BACKGROUND AEROSOL
CLASSIFICATION SCHEME), is as given in Table 2-9 below.
TABLE 2-9
COMPLETED BACKGROUND AEROSOL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
FOR THE LOS ANGELES REGION
SUB-AREA
COASTAL
CENTRAL-VALLEY
EASTERN-INLAND
APPROXIMATE
ANNUAL AVER-
AGE BACK-
GROUND
LEVEL
~35 yg/m
~40 yg/m3
~50 yg/m3
BACKGROUND CLASSIFICATION SCHEME (yg/m3)
PRIMARY
SEA
SALT
8
6
4
SOIL
DUST
16
23
35
MAN-MADE SOURCES
EXTERIOR TO L.A.
REGION
3
3
3
SECONDARY
;o ~
4
4
4
4
NO "
3
1
1
1
SECONDARY
3RGANICS
3
3
3
28
-------
2.3 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES .. ,,
The previous section established estimates of average background
aerosol concentrations in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. The re-
mainder of measured suspended particulate levels originates from man-made
sources within the Los Angeles Region. For the purpose of control stra-
tegy evaluation, it is necessary to classify this (non-background) remainder
according to the following categories:
t Primary Aerosol -- man-made Los Angeles sources
• Secondary Aerosol -- man-made Los Angeles sources
• Sulfates
• Nitrates
• Ammonium
• Secondary Organics
In order to perform this latter classification, information is
required on the chemical composition of the aerosol. This section
develops compositional information for several locations in the Los
Angeles Region. Section 2.3.1 assembles compositional data recorded
by various monitoring programs in recent years. Section 2.3.2 combines
this data with estimates of expected 1972 total suspended particulate levels
(as determined iniSupport Document #1) to yield compositional breakdowns repre-
sentative of the 1972 base year. The following section, 2.4, will use this
compositional breakdown to characterize the origins of annual average aerosol
concentrations at various locations in the Los Angeles Region.
2.3.1 Aerosol Composition Data
For the purpose of the present study, annual average compositional
data are required for lead (Pb), sulfate (SO^), nitrate (NOZ),
ammonium (Nht). and benzene solubles. The lead data will be used to
estimate the contribution of primary, man-made sources. The other data
29
-------
will provide a basis for estimating secondary aerosol levels. Three long
term monitoring programs exist in the Los Angeles Region which measure most
or all of these aerosol constituents: 1) the National Air Surveillance Net-
work (NASN), 2) the Los Angeles County APCD Network, and 3) the San Bernardino
County APCD Network. Table 2-10 summarizes the data which are available
from each program. The availability of data for any particular monitoring site
depends on the year since different stations were established in different
years and since some NASN stations have not operated continuously.
TABLE 2-10. AVAILABILITY OF COMPOSITION DATA FROM LONG TERM MONITORING
PROGRAMS
Monitoring Program
NASN
Los Angeles
APCD
San Bernardino
APCD
Years for which
composition data
are presently
available
1957-1970
1965-1972
1968-1972
Pp
X
X
X
S0=
i
w
y
X
j
NO"
X
X
X
K
X
Benzene Solubles
X
X
As a supplement to the data which are available from these programs,
compositional data will also be used from the following monitoring projects:
• Orange County APCD Monitoring Program
• California Air Resources Board Monitoring System, 09
• University of Southern California Study, (Gordon & Bryan, []6])
t State Air Pollution Research Center Study, (Lundgren, [3])
t Air Resources Board/ Rockwell International Aerosol Characterization
Study, (ACHEX), (Hidy,
The last three of these five programs have been only temporary in nature.
Data from the last two programs, (Lundgren and ACHEX), include a very limited
number of samples and emphasize the summer-fall photochemical smog season.
30
-------
For the first two programs, (Orange APCD and California ARB), compositional
data are available only for lead.
A review of the available data reveals that the existing information
is sufficient to provide an adequate compositional breakdown of annual
average particulate levels at twelve locations in the 4 County Sub-
Areas, of the Los Angeles Region. These locations and the corres-
ponding data sources are listed in Table 2-11. Figure 2-2 illustrates
the position of the twelve locations within the basin. Table 2-11 also
lists other nearby locations for which data are available to supplement
and check the compositional breakdowns. For the purpose of analysis in
later sections of this report, the 12 locations have been distinguished
as to four general areas: coastal area, central-valley area, eastern -
inland area, and west San Bernardino County "Hot Spot", (see Support Document #1, [1],
Tables 2-12A through 2-12L present composition data for each of the
twelve locations. Values are given for measured total suspended particulate,
and composition breakdowns are listed in % for Pb, S07, NOZ, NHt, and
benzene solubles. The chemical analysis methods employed by the various
APCD's and by NASN have been reviewed and briefly evaluated in Report #1,
[]]. The analysis methods usedforthe ARB, Lundgren, ACHEX, and Gordon &
Bryan data are discussed in references D3» [3], Dd], and D6].
Considering the potential errors in sampling and analysis procedures,
the compositional breakdowns from the various data sources appear to be
very consistent. The agreement is most apparent in comparing NASN and APCD
compositional data. Table 2-13 summarizes the average difference between
APCD and NASN data for Pb, SO", and NO" (very little APCD data are available
* O
for NH^ and benzene solubles). The compositional data from other studies are
31
-------
TABLE 2-11 LOCATIONS AND DATA SOURCES FOR AEROSOL COMPOSITION BREAKDOWN
LOCATION
PRINCIPAL DATA SOURCES
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
COASTAL AREA SITES
1 . Lennox
2. West Los Angeles
3. Long Beach
* Los Angeles APCD
* Los Angeles APCD
c NASN
' Torrance: (NASN)
0 Northwest Long Beach:
(Gordon and Bryan)
CENTRAL VALLEY AREA SITES
4. Downtown Los
Angeles
5 Pasadena
6. - Anaheim
7. Reseda
* Los Angeles APCD
0 NASN
8 Los Angeles APCD
0 NASN
9 ACHEX
• Orange Co. APCD
8 NASN
e Los Angeles APCD
0 East and South of Downtown:
(Gordon and Bryan)
' Glendale: (NASN)
e Burbank: (NASN)
EASTERN INLAND AREA SITES
8. Azusa
9. Ontario
10. San Bernardino
11 . Riverside
• Los Angeles APCD
' San Bernardino APCD
e NASN
0 San Bernardino APCD
0 NASN
0 NASN
0 State Air Poll. Res. Ctn.
0 ACHEX
0 California ARB
9 Pomona: (ACHEX)
8 Fontana: (San Bern. APCD)
9 Redlands: (San Bern. APCD)
WEST SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY AREA HOT-SPOT
12. Chino | * San Bernardino APCD
8 Rial to: (San Bern. APCD)
32
-------
GO
CO
Figure 2-2 Locations For The Aerosol Origin Characterization
-------
TABLE 2-12A DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 1. LENNOX
DATA SOURCE
lO* .4r.g=1.;..-
APCD
STATION
L-i-i-.c-
DATES AhD
r:iT2ER OF
SAMPLES
1969-1972
~350 samples
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPEKDED PARTICULARS
(MG/K3)
GEO. I'lEAK ARIT:-!. TEAM
1
146 154
OFPOSITIOI1: OF ASITlf'ETIC liEAii
Pb
4.6X
so=
9. IX
l«3
5.1%
4
—
^EhZEflE SOLLtLES
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
NASN
Torrance
1969-1971
~ 72 samples
78 85
N/A
11.2%
8.2%
0.9%
N/A
-------
TABLE 2-12B DATA ON AVERAGE"COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 2. WEST LOS ANGELES
DATA SOURCE
STATION
DATES AI'B
KUMER OF
SAMPLES
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
GEO. MEAK
ARITH. f'JEAN
OF.POSITIOK OF ATUTI-TETIC MEAN
SO,
ND-i
ZEKZE't SOLUiLES
Los Angeles
APCD
West Los Angeles
1969-1972
-230 samples
90
94
3.3%
10.3%
7.6%
to
en
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
-------
TABLE 2-12C DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 3. LONG BEACH
DATA SOURCE
NASN
STATION
Long Beach
DATES AMD
(U-EER OF
SATPLES
1967-1968
~48 samples
1969-1970
-48 samples
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPEKDED PARTICULATES
(pG/M3)
GEO. r,EAi-: ARIT:-:. r&w
116 132
99 -110
COMPOSITION OF ASITifETIC flEAH
Pb
2.2%
N/A
S0=
10. 9%
10.5%
1*3
4.3%
6.5%
+
i-::-:4
1.9%
0.8%
2ENZEME SOLLC4.ES
9.7%
N/A
SUPPLEflEiiTARY DATA
Gordon and
Bryan
Northwest of
Long Beach
6/71-6/72
-182 days
8.4%
2.2%
6.4%
CO
01
-------
TABLE 2-12D DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 4. DOWNTOWN LOS ANGELES
DATA SOURCE
Los Angeles
APCD
STATION
Downtown Los Angeles
DATES AMD
rur-XER OF
SAf'PLES
1969-1972
~350 samples
1967-196S
—48 samples
1969-1970
~48 samples
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
GEO. IIEAK ° ' ARIT:-!. I',EAH
145 i 155
110 119
1
1 09 1 20
1
1
1
1
CO'POSITIOM OF ARITHMETIC IlEAh
Pb
3.0%
2.8%
N/A
so4
10.0%
10.5%
10.3%
raj
8.3%
5.7%
8.0%
KX4
1.4*
0.6%
3EMZEI-:E SOLUZLES
10.9%
N/A
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
Gordon
and
Bryan
East of Downtown
Los Angeles
South of Downtown
Los Angeles
6/71 - 6/72
-182 days
6/71 - 6/72
-182 days
7.2%
1.5%
9.0%
CO
-------
TABLE 2-12E DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 5. PASADENA
DATA SOURCE
Los Angeles
APCD
NASN
ACHEX
STATION
Pasadena
Pasadena
Pasadena
DATES WD
MJMEER OF
SAMPLES
1972
~70 samples
1968
-24 samples
1970
~24 samples
11 selected
dates,
Spring & FaT
1972
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPEKDED PARTICULATES
WK-0
GEO, MEAK ARIT:-:. T,EAN
1
no 117
106 113
100 -no
74
CWPOSITIOK OF /ttlTU'ETIC MEAiN
Pb
2.8*
3.2*
N/A
1.9%
so4
10.5%
10.1*
11.0%
6.5%
N°3
9.7%
6.5%
9.7%
_ __ _
K-:t
1.0%
0.5%
2EMZEME SOLUBLES
10.7*
N/A
SUPPLEflEiiTARY DATA
NASN
Glendale
1967-1968
-48 samples
1969-1970
-48 samples
83 94
81 -90
I
3.2%
N/A
12.2%
11.1%
5.8%
7.3%
1.7%
0.9%
12.3%
N/A
CO
00
-------
TABLE 2-12F DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 6. ANAHEIM
DATA SOURCE
STATION
DATES AI-D
iXIf'LER OF
SAMPLES
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPbKUEL) PAKTICULATES
GEO. 1'iEAK
AFUT:-:, r,EAM
COKPOSITIOK OF .A.IITIHf'.ETIC tiEAM
SO,
ZEMZEI'IE SOLLtLES
NASN
Anaheim
1969-1970
104
-115
N/A
6.2%
0.7%
N/A
Orange Co.
APCD
Anaheim
1970-1973
96
-105
2.7%
OJ
SUPPLEMENTARY EftTA
-------
TABLE 2-12G DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICIPATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 7. RESEDA
DATA SOURCE
Los Angeles
APCD
STATION
Reseda
DATES AI'D
I.U2ER OF
SAMPLES
1969-1972
~230 samples
KEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
(MG/f,3)
GEO. I-;EAK ARIT:-:, r;EAN
1
122 132
OTPOSITIOh: OF ASITtf'ETIC MEAi^
Pb
3.2%
so=
9.6%
N°3
5.8%
^
ZEKZB-'.E SOLU2LES
SaPPLEMEiiTARY DATA
NASN
Burbank
1968
-24 samples
1969-1970
~48 samples
103 122
106 -120
3.0*
N/A
9.0%
7.5%
6.5%
5.4%
1.1%
0.9%
11.4%
N/A
-------
TABLE 2-12H DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 8. AZUSA
DATA SOURCE
STATION
DATES AMD
KUMEER OF
SAMPLES
MEASURED LE\€L OF TOTAL
SUSPEKDED PARTICULATES
GEO. MEAK
ARITH. r,EAN
COMPOSITION OF ASITI-f'ETlC MEAN
Pb
SO,
SOLU2LES
Los Angeles APCD
Azusa
1972
~70 samples
150
166
1.9*
9.5%
11 .1*
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
-------
TABLE 2-121 DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 9. ONTARIO
DATA SOURCE
San Bern. APCD
NASN
STATION
Ontario
Ontario
DATES ATD
KUMER OF
SAMPLES
1970-1972
~180 sample!
1968
~24 samples
1969-1970
~48 samples
I-EASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PART1CULATES
UAi3)
GEO. I;EAK ARIT:-:. ran
109 120
116 135
114 130
COMPOSITION OF ASITtf'JETIC HEAN
Pb
1.7*
N/A
1.2%
SO^
10.8*
7.3%
7.8%
N03
9.2%
8.7%
7.1%
+
K:-:4
—
0.8%
0.8%
ZECZEME SOLU2LES
8.2%
5.5%
N/A
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
ACHEX
Pomona
5 selected
dates in
October 1972
126
1.7%
7.7%
14.2%
ro
-------
TABLE 2-12J DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 10. SAN BERNARDINO
DATA SOURCE
San Bern. APCD
NASN
San Bern. APCD
STATION
San Bernardino
San Bernardino
Fontana
Redlands
DATES Am
KUKEER OF
SAMPLES
1970-1972
~180 samples
1968
-24 samples
1969-1970
~48 samples
INSURED LE\€L OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
WM3)
GEO. I1EAK ARlTI-i. f'£AN
115 -125
92 108
107 -120
SUPPLEMENTARY EftTA
1971-1972
~120 samples
1970-1972
~180 samples
118 - -130
97 -105
1
COITOSITIOM OF ARITHMETIC HEAi-i
Pb
-1.8%
N/A
1.1%
1.1%
2.2%
so=
9.4%
9.0%
10.9%
10.1%
11.4%
N33
10.6%
8.4%
11.0%
+
Kfy
—
0.7%
0.9%
9.4%
11.7%
-
—
EEhZEME SOLUBLES
10.1%
6.3%
N/A
6.4%
11.9%
-Pi
GO
-------
TABLE 2-12K DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 11 . RIVERSIDE
DATA SOURCE
NASN
Calif. ARE
Lundgren
ACHEX
STATION
Riverside
Riv. Trailer
Riv. Magnolia
Riverside
Riverside
DATES AND
KUMEER OF
SAMPLES
1968
~24 samples
1969-1970
~48 samples
8/72 - 1/73
5/73 - 9/73
25 days, Aug.
1968
10 day, Nov.
1968
12 samples,
Spring & Fall
1972
MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
U/M3)
GEO. MEAN ARIT!-:. MEAN
1
116 130
121 135
176
82
128
COMPOSITION OF A3IT:r.ETIC I1EAM
Pb
N/A
0.8% est.
1.3% est.
0.7%
1.2%
so^
7.5%
8.1%
....
8.5%
10.1%
4.9%
ND3
9.9%
7.8%
....
14.1%
14.2%
*J
1.2%
0.9%
....
—
ZENZEME SOLUBLES
7.3%
N/A
...
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
•
-------
TABLE 2-12L DATA ON AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF HI-VOL PARTICULATE SAMPLES
LOCATION: 12. CHINO
DATA SOURCE
San Bern.
APCD
' . STATION
Chi no
DATES JWD
(-OJMER OF
SAMPLES
1971-1972
--120 sample
" MEASURED LEVEL OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
U/K3) .
GEO. I'iEAK ARITM. t'£AN
1
186 ~200
COMPOSITIOK OF ARITHMETIC MEAN
Ph
0.9*
so=
— -
N°3
8.0%
K:-:;
—
;LEMZE;-:E SOLUBLES
4.8%
-
SUPPLEf'iEuTARY DATA ;
San Bern. APCD
Rial to
1971-1972
~120 samples
150 —165
1
1.1%
10.3%
10.8%
—
6.6%
••
-------
TABLE 2-13. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APCD AND NASN COMPOSITION. DATA .
Constituent
Pb
so;
NO"
Average of Absolute Difference
0.4 /jg/ra3
1.0 ug/m3
1.5 ug/m
Average Level
„ 2. 4 ug/m3
^ 10 ug/nr*
~ 8 jug/m
•Relative Error
~ 1 7%
^10%
,,,19%
somewhat less consistent; in certain instances this may be due to the
small numbers of samples which were taken and/or to sampling during one
type of season only.
2.3.2 Characterization of 1972 Base Year Composition
Since this study will use 1972 as a base year in formulating a
particulate implementation plan, a characterization of total suspended
particulate levels and of particulate origins is required specific to that
year. As an input to the determination of particulate origins, the compo-
sitional breakdown must therefore be found explicitly for 1972. This
section combines the compositional data of the previous section with the
characteristic 1972 total suspended particulate levels as determined in
Support Document #1 [1], to yield the 1972 compositional breakdown.
The compositional data of the previous section involves measurements
taken over several years*; an implicit assumption in the derivation of
1972 values is that major changes in ambient aerosol composition did not
*The compositional data in Table 2-12 are for the years 1967 to 1973. However,
the great majority of measurements which are used are for the shorter time span
of 1969 to 1972.
46
-------
occur during those years. This assumption appears to be justified by
the trends in compositional data. The error in this approximation
appears to be less significant than the errors involved in the chemical
analysis measurements and in the characterization of total suspended
particulate levels.
Table 2-14 presents compositional breakdowns for the 1972 base
year. Values are given for Pb, SOT, NOZ, NH., and benzene solubles
at the twelve locations which were examined in the previous section.
The characteristic annual geometric means and annual arithmetic means
for each station, (rounded to the nearest 5 ug/m ), have been taken
from Support Document #1, [1]. The constituent breakdown in Table 2-14
has been determined by using the % composition data which was given
in the previous section. When only one source of compositional measurements
was available for a particular site, those values were translated directly
to Table 2-14. When more than one data source was available, an aggregate
value was used with weightings according to the number of samples taken
by each data source. For sites with abundant APCD and NASN data, other
data sources were often excluded due to the low number of samples and
to the seasonal biases in some of these other monitoring programs.
47
-------
TABLE 2-14 HI-VOL PARTICULATE COMPOSITION:
BREAKDOWN SPECIFIC TO THE 1972 BASE YEAR
Location
Total Suspended Participates
W9/m
AGM AAM
£i
1 . Lennox
2. West LA
3. Long Beach
135 145
85 90
95 105
Cen
4. Downtown
LA
5. Pasadena
6. Anaheim
7. Reseda
8. Azusa
9. Ontario
10. San
Bernardino
11 . Riverside
130 140
110 120
95 105
130 ' 140
fas
1 50 1 60
110 120
115 125
140 ' 150
Pb
astal Area S
6.7
(4.6?;)
3.0
(3.3*)
2.3 •
(2.2°;)
so;
;'I03
-Hj
Benzene Solubles
tes
13.2
(9. IS)
9.3
(10.35)
11.2
' (10. 7S)
7.4
(5.U)
6.8
(7.6%)
5.6
(5.3?;)
N/A
N/A
1.5
(1.4%)
N/A
U/A •
10.2
(9.7?,)
ral Vallev Sites
4.1
(2.9%)
3.6
(3.05)
2.8
(2.7%)
4.3
(3. IS)
tern Inland A
3.0
(1.9$)
1 .9
(1.6*)
2.0
(1.6%)
1.8
(1.250
14.3
(10.2?)
12.7
(10.5S)
8.7
(8.3%)
12.9
(9.2%)
11.5
(8.3?,)
11.4
(9.5?)
6.5
(6.2%)
8.4
.(6.0%)
1.4
(1.0%)
1.2
(1.05.)
0.8
(10.82)
1 .4
(1.0%)
14.0
(10.0*)
13.3
(11.5?)
--
16.0
(11.4")
rea Sites
15.2
(9.5%)
10.2
(9.5%)
12.6
(10.1*)
11 .7
(7.8?)
17.7
(11.1%)
10.8
(9. OS)
13.1
(10.5%)
15.1
(10. IS)
---
1.0
(0.8%)
1.0
(.8%)
1.5
(1.0*)
---
9.4
(7.8?,)
11 .3 '
(9.0r,)
11.0
(7,3S)
Western San Bernardino County lf'j' *-""t
12. Chino
200 2 20
2.2
(1.0?)
22.0
do.O";;
17.6
(8.0%)
12.1
(5.5%)
( ) Indicates Percentage of Total AAM
48
-------
2.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICULATE ORIGINS FOR THE LOS ANGELES REGION
This section characterizes the origins of annual average Hi-Vol parti>
culate levels in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. The characterization
is derived from calculations involving previously presented data on back-
ground particulate concentrations (Section 2.2) and on total particulate
chemical composition (Section 2.3). The aerosol origins at twelve locations
i
are categorized according to the following classification, scheme:
I,
II.
Background Contributions
A. Primary
B. Secondary
Non-Background Contributions
(Anthropogenic Sources within
the Los Angeles Region)
A. Primary
B. Secondary
Sea Salt
Soil Dust
Primary Anthropogenic
Sources Exterior to
the Los Angeles
Reg i o n
Sulfate_
Nitrate
Secondary
Organics_
Total Primary_
Sulfate_
Nitrate
Ammonium
Secondary
Organics_
49
-------
Section 2.4.1 describes an initial attempt to calculate the contribution
associated with each category in the above list of particulate origins. The
total particulate levels accounted for by this "first iteration" are then
compared to total measured particulate levels. Section 2.4.2 discusses the
discrepancies which remain and makes adjustments so that measured particulate
levels are fully accounted for at each location by the origin classification.
Section 2.4.3 discusses spatial features of the origin characterization.
2.4.1 Origin Classification - A First Iteration
Section 2.2 presented estimates of annual average background aerosol
contributions at coastal, central-valley, and eastern-inland areas of the
Los Angeles Region. Table 2-9 summarized the origins of the background
aerosol. Here, calculations are performed with the background estimates and
with the aerosol composition data of Section 2.3 to yield approximate annual
means for non-background aerosol contributions. These non-background con-
tributions are classified according to primary and secondary origins, with
the latter disaggregated as to sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, and secondary
organics. Calculations are performed for each of the twelve locations which
were examined in Section 2.3.
The following discussion summarizes the methods and assumptions involved
in computing the non-background aerosol contributions. The methodology is
described separately for primary particulates and for each type of secondary
particulate:
Non-Background Primary Contribution
As a first approximation, the contribution of primary anthropogenic
sources within the Los Angeles Region will be computed using lead (Pb)
as a tracer for primary particulate emissions. The total primary contri-
bution at each site will be estimated by factoring the Pb concentration
50
-------
at that site by the ratio of total regional suspended participate
emissions to total regional suspended Pb emissions.
Ambient lead concentrations result almost exclusively from exhaust
emissions from gasoline powered vehicles, [13]. The principal approxi-
mation in the proposed method for computing total, man-made, primary
contributions is that each site is affected by gasoline powered vehicles
and by other primary sources in the same ratio. Of course, this approxi-
mation can be grossly in error for certain cases; primary particulate
levels at some sites may be dominated by automobiles, while primary
contributions at other sites may be more reflective of other sources
such as power plants or industry. In Section 2.4.2, corrections will
be made for certain sites where the approximation appears to be inap-
propriate.
The explicit formula for estimating non-background, primary contri-
butions is developed below:
["Suspended Particulate Emissions'!
| from Gasoline Powered Vehicles J
[Suspended Particulate Emissions "j "
.30*
Thus,
And,
|_from all Primary Sources
Suspended Pb Emissions from"!
Gasoline Powered Vehicles ]
Suspended Particulate Emissions"!
from Gasoline Powered Vehicles j
Suspended Pb Emissions
Suspended Total Primary Emissions
,26**
= .26 x .30 = .078
1
Total, Non-Background
Primary Contribution ".078
[Measured Suspended Pb]
= 12.8 x [Measured Suspended Pb].
(2-1)
* See Support Document #2, 1972 Base Year Inventory, [18]. This value is
for the 4 County Sub-Area of the Los Angeles Region. Each of the twelve
stations to be examined is located in the sub-area.
** See Support Document #2, [18]. This ratio is based on data only from
light duty motor vehicles.
51
-------
Non-Background Sulfate Contribution
The non-background sulfate contribution can be determined for each
location by simply subtracting the background sulfate level from the
total measured sulfate concentration. In Section 2.2, the background
SOfl was estimated to be around 4 jug/m . Thus,
[Non-Background Sulfate] = Annual Mean Sulfate - 4 jug/m
3
(2-2)
Non-Background Nitrate Contribution
The computation for non-background nitrate is entirely analogous
to the sulfate case above. Background nitrate was estimated at around
1 jug /m in Section 2.2. Thus,
[Non-Background Nitrate] = Annual Mean Nitrate - 1 >jg/m
3
(2-3)
Non-Background Ammonium
Background levels of ammonium are not well documented. Mean values
3 3
of around .1 jjg/m and .6 jug/m have been measured at two remote sites
in the California coastal region, [8], [IT]. Here it will be arbitrar-
ily assumed that the ammonium associated with the background aerosol is
3
.3/ig/m . This background level, when compared to the average total
ammonium measured in the Los Angeles Region, is in the same ratio as
background sulfate plus nitrate to total measured sulfate plus nitrate.
The overall results of this study will be very insensitive to this
assumption since ammonium ion represents only a small fraction of total
suspended particulate levels, (on the order of 1%).
Thus,
[Non-Background Ammonium] = Annual Mean Ammonium - ,3>ug/nT
3
(2-4)
Non-Background Secondary Organics
The estimation of non-background secondary organics will be the
most complex and uncertain of the aerosol origin calculations. The
principal aerometric measurement used will be data for "benzene
solubles", BSOL. Total BSOL can be expressed as follows:
BSOL = BSOLbk d + S rm t PRM + SSQ(. • SEC
where
BSOL.. . = background benzene soluble organics,
PRM = primary non-background organics,
52
-------
S = solubility of PRM in benzene,
SEC = secondary non-background organics,
and
sec = solubility of SEC in benzene.
Secondary, non-background organics thus can be found according to
the following formula:
(2-5)
rrp _ 1 fR^ni - R^DI - ^
oLL s . LB^UL ^ULb|
-------
TABLE 2-15 CALCULATED SECONDARY ORGANIC
AEROSOL LEVELS FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF S
sec
LOCATION
Coastal
Area
Central
Area
Eastern
Inland
Area
Long Beach
Downtown LA
Pasadena
Reseda
Ontario
San Bernard
Riverside
Chino
SECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOL (jLig/m'3)
Ssec= '10
20.5
18.2
27.4
33.7
21.4
i no 38 . 2
39.7
29.4
Ssec= -20
10.3
9.1
13.7
16.9
10.7
19.1
19.9
14.7
Ssec= '30
6.8
6.1
9.1
11.2
7.1
12.7
13.2
9.8
S,ec= -50
4.1
3.6
5.5
6.7
4.3
7.6
8.0
5.9
There is another difficulty with this method for calculating
secondary organics, as evidenced by Table 2-15. The relative values
for different stations do not follow the expected pattern. One would
expect that secondary organic aerosol levels, the result of photo-
chemical reactions, would demonstrate a marked increase with distance
inland; other photochemical smog indications, such as oxidant and
particulate nitrate, demonstrate this tendency. It appears that the
uncertainties in the other data, (e.g., BSOL, S , and PRM), are also
significant and preclude the use of equation (2-5) as a general method
for calculating secondary organic levels.
With the above method being not applicable, there appears to be
no way of systematically estimating secondary organic aerosol levels
at the various locations in the Los Angeles Region. Data have been
gathered on organic aerosol concentrations by the California ARB, [22],
and by the ACHEX Study, [10], but these data are only for a very limited
number of days in the photochemical smog season. However, these data
do support a very important qualitative conclusion: secondary organic
aerosol levels on photochemical smog type days tend to be
54
-------
higher than nitrate aerosol levels, (possibly by a factor of 2 or more), [19],
In the absence of reliable, systematic indications of average
secondary organic levels, the first iteration assumption will be that
coastal, central-valley, and eastern-inland areas experience average
non-background secondary organic levels of 10, 20, and 30 jug/m
respectively. The general order of magnitude of these levels is in
line with estimates in references [12], [13] ,,and [14]. The increasing
trend with distance inland is in close correspondence with the trend
of non-background nitrate, (See Table 2-14). However, the assumption
is still rather arbitrary, and the uncertainties involved should be
kept in mind. For stations where it appears .warranted, these assumed
values will be adjusted in the next section, (2.4.2).
Thus, the first iteration assumptions for secondary organics is
as follows:
AREA
NON-BACKGROUND SECONDARY ORGANICS
Central-Valley
Eastern-Inland
Coastal
.3
20 jug/nT
30 jug/m
3
With the above methodologies for estimating non-background primary
aerosol and non-background sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, and secondary organic
aerosol, a first iteration can be made; of the origin characterization. Table
2-16 presents the results of applying the methodologies to each of the
twelve locations listed in Table 2-14. Calculated values have been rounded
3
to the nearest 1 ;ug/m . Background estimates for each area have been taken
from Section 2.2.
The last two columns of Table 2-16 compare the total suspended parti-
culate level at each site to the amount accounted for by the origin
classification. For all sections except Long Beach, Riverside, and Chino,
the relative difference between the actual total suspended particulates and
the total accounted for is less than 8%. The agreement is remarkable considering
55
-------
TABLE 2-16 AEROSOL ORIGIN CHARACTERIZATION -- FIRST ITERATION
(ANNUAL ARITHMETIC MEAN -- yg/m )
LOCATIOfl
1 . Lennox
2. West Los Angeles
3. Long Beach
APPROXIMATE
BACKGROUND AEROSOL
Natural Contribution, Suspended
Dust, and Man-made Sources
Exterior to the L.A. Region
35
35
35
NON-BACKGRO
(Anthropogenic
dust and sourc
Los Angeles Re
PRIMARY SOT
4
UNO CC
, exc
es ex1
gion)
NO-
1NTRIBL
uding
.erior
MHj
1TIONS
suspended
to the
SECONDARY
ORGAN I CS
ACCOUNTED
FOR
ANNUAL
MEAN
TOTAL 1972
ANNUAL
MEAN
RELATIVE
DIFFERENCE
COASTAL AREA
86
38
29
9
5
7
6
6
5
1
1
1
10
10
10
147
95
87
145
90
105
+~\%
+6%
-17%
CENTRAL- VALLEY AREA
4. Downtown Los Angeles
5. Pasadena
6. Anaheim
7. Reseda
40
40
40
40
52
46
36
55
10
9
c
u
9
11
1ID
6
7
1
1
1
1
20
20
20
20
134
126
108
132
140
120
105
140
-4%
+5X
+3%
-6%
EASTERN -INLAND AREA
8. Azusa
9. Ontario
10. San Bernardino
11 . Rivers!^-
50
50
50
50
38
24
26
23
11
6
9
8
17
10
12
14
1
1
1
1
30
30
30
30
WESTERN SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY HOT-SPOT
12. Chino 1 50 1 28
18
17
1
147
121
128
126
30 I 144
160
120
125
150
220
-8%
+1%
+2%
-17%
-35%
-------
the simplicity of many of the assumptions inherent in the origin classifi-
cation. In the next section, the discrepancies between actual TSP and
the amount accounted for by the origin classification will be discussed,
and further analysis will be performed to yield an approximate but com-
plete origin classification for each site.
2.4.2 Origin Classification -- Completion of the Characterization
In order to perform a systematic evaluation of the effect of control
strategies on suspended particulate levels, the total particulate level at
each site should be fully accounted for by the origin classification scheme.
This section analyses the discrepancies in Table 2-16, and adjusts the
values for various origin classes so that the total particulate level at
\
each site is fully accounted for. The adjustments are made in the most
uncertain origin classifications: the non-background secondary organic,
non-background primary, and background categories. Values for sulfate,
nitrate, and ammonium represent direct measurement and are not adjusted.
The following paragraphs discuss the rationale behind the adjustments
which are made for each location. Large changes are made with distinct
reason; but some small changes are rather arbitrary. The only locations
which require very significant alterations are Long Beach, Riverside, and
Chino.
1. Lennox
The .origin characterization for Lennox agrees almost exactly with
o
the total suspended particulate level, (level accounted for = 147/jg/m,
3 3
total level = 145 jjg/m ). To achieve exact agreement, 2 jug/m are sub-
tracted from the non-background primary category. At Lennox, this.
o
category is far and away the largest of the origin classes, and 2 pg/m
represents only a very minor relative change.
/
2. West Los Angeles
3
The level accounted for at West Los Angeles is 95 yg/m , while the
total particulate level is 90 yg/m . To achieve exact correspondence,
57
-------
(IS^ig/m ) is made up for in the non-background primary category.
2 pg/m are subtracted from the non-background primary and background
3
categories, and 1 ;ug/m is subtracted from the secondary organic
category. These adjustments have been chosen to minimize the relative
changes among the origin categories.
3. Long Beach
At Long Beach, major disagreement exists between accounted for and
total particulate levels, (87 and 105 jjg/m respectively). Compared to
other coastal areas, the non-background primary category appears to be
unusually low for Long Beach, a heavily industrialized area. The
Pb measurements which have been used as a tracer for the non-background
primary category may be in error. Stationary sources may
be disproportionately important in Long Beach so that Pb is not an
adequate indicator of primary particulate levels there. To achieve
exact correspondence in the origin classification, the discrepancy
(18 ^ig/m ) is made up for
4. Downtown Los Angeles
3
The accounted for level at Downtown L.A. (134^ig/m ) agrees fairly
well with the total particulate level (140/jg/m ). To achieve exact
3
correspondence, 4 ;jg/m are added to the background category and
2 ug/m are added to the non-background primary category. The back-
ground category is given an extra increase because of the possibility
of higher suspended dust levels existing in the city due to intense
traffic and other activities. The secondary organic category is kept
fixed since it would not be expected that Downtown Los Angeles would
have higher photochemical organics than other central-valley locations
such as Pasadena or Reseda.
5. Pasadena
o
The accounted for value at Pasadena (126pg/m ) is slightly above
3 3
the total particulate level (120/jg/m ). To achieve agreement, 2 jjg/m
3
are subtracted from the background category and 4 jug/m are subtracted
from the non-background primary category. The non-background primary
category is given the largest decrease since the method of estimation
for that category (using Pb as an indicator) may lead to an over-
estimate due to automobiles being an unusually important source in
Pasadena. The secondary organic category is held fixed since it
58
-------
would not be expected that Pasadena has lower photochemical organics
than other central-valley sites.
6. Anaheim
The disagreement at Anaheim is 3 jug/m , (level accounted for =
3 3
108 ug/m , total level = 105 ug/m ). Exact correspondence is attained
by subtracting 3 jjg/m from the secondary organic category. A recent
air monitoring study appears to show that Anaheim has low secondary
organic levels for a central-valley site, 091- This conclusion also
seems to be supported by the low nitrate level at Anaheim.
7. Reseda
The accounted for value at Reseda is 132fig/m while the total
3
particulate level is 140 ;jg/m . There does not appear to be a
3
strong case for making the 8 .ug/m adjustment in any particular
origin class. To minimize relative changes among the origin cate-
3 3
gories, 2 /jg/m are added to the secondary organic category and 3 yg/m
are added to the background and non-background primary categories.
8. Azusa
3
The discrepancy at Azusa is 13 ^ig/m , (level accounted for
3 3
147/jg/m , total level = 160/jg/m ). To attain exact agreement,
3 3
7 ^ig/m are added to the secondary organic category and 3 jug/m
are added to the non-background primary and background categories.
The secondary organic category is given an extra increase because
Azusa experiences particularly intense photochemical smog; this is
evidenced by very high oxidant and nitrate levels, £3]. The division
of the rest of the increase among the non-background primary and
background categories is arbitrary.
9. Ontario
The origin characterization at Ontario agrees almost exactly
with the total suspended particulate level, (level accounted for
33
= 121 jjg/m , total level = 120 yg/m ). To achieve exact correspondence,
3
1 jug/m is subtracted from the background category. This adjustment
has been chosen to minimize the relative change among the origin
categories.
59
-------
10. San Bernardino
3
The accounted for level at San Bernardino (128 ug/m ) is close to
o
the total level (125 ug/m ). Exact correspondence is attained by sub-
3 3
tracting 1 ug/m from the secondary organic category and 2 ug/m from
the background category. These alternations minimize the relative
changes among the origin classes.
11. Riverside
o
The accounted for level at Riverside (126 jug/m ) is significantly
o
lower than the total suspended particulate level (150 ug/m ). To attain
3 3 3
exact correspondence, 7 ug/m , 10 ug/m , and 7 ug/m are added to the
secondary organic, background, and non-background primary categories
respectively. The greatest increase is given to the background category
since suspended dust levels in Riverside may be abnormally high due to
agricultural activity in that part of the region. Secondary organics
may be high at Riverside since the area experiences high photochemical
smog levels (e.g., nitrate data). The non-background primary category
may be higher than estimated due to influences from a large industrial/
utility complex (see Chino discussion below).
12. Chino
o
At Chino, the accounted for level (144 ug/m ) is far below the
total suspended particulate level (220 ug/m ). This is actually ex-
pected because the "Pb tracer method" used to calculate non-background
primary emissions is not appropriate for Chino. The Chino station is
strongly influenced by a local industrial utility complex,* [24], and
the Pb tracer method does not adequately reflect this important source.
Another reason for the discrepancy at Chino is the possibility of
expecially large background levels. Suspended dust levels may be
atypically high due to agricultural activity in that part of the region.
To achieve exact correspondence between accounted for levels and total
suspended particulates, the non-background primary category is increased
3 3
by 61 jug/m , the background category is increased by 10 ,ug/m , and the
3
secondary organic category is increased by 5 jug/m .
* The impact of this major point source can be seen in the high sulfate
reading at Chino. Chino also demonstrates particularly high iron levels.
60
-------
With the addition of the above alterations, the expected 1972
annual mean H-Vol levels at each location are totally accounted for by
the origin classification scheme. Table 2-17summarizes the complete
orgin characterization. The background values in Table 2-17 are taken
from Section 2-2, with modifications according to the above discussion.
The non-background values are as derived in Section 2.4.1, again with modi-
fications as discussed above. Although an attempt has been made to
derive the best orgin characterization that is possible with existing
data, there is still considerable uncertainty in many of the values
given in Table 2-17. The determination of the origin breakdown has
involved several simplistic approximations. It is difficult to per-
form a quantitative error analysis of these approximations; however,
a subjective indication of the errors involved may be useful in
interpeting the results. The most uncertain category appears to be
the non-background secondary organic category. Very little data were
available to support firm conclusions concerning secondary organics.
Subjectively, the error in this category may be as high as 20-40%.
The other categories, (total background, non-background primary, sulfate,
nitrate, and ammonium), are better documented. The error in these
categories should be on the order of 10 to 20%.
2.4.3 Spatial Features of the Origin Characterization
Table 2-18 summarizes the general spatial pattern of the aerosol
origin characterization given in Table 2-17. Table 2-18 indicates a
slight increasing trend of total particulate levels with distance in-
land. This increase is due to higher secondary aerosol levels and
61
-------
TABLE 2-17 ORIGIN CHARACTERIZATION FOR ANNUAL MEAN HI-VOL PARTICULATE LEVELS
LOCATION
BACKGROUND CONTR
PRIMARY
Sea
Salt
Suspended
Dust
Primary Han-made
Sources Exterior to
the L.A. Region
BUT IONS
I SECONDARY
S0=
COASTAL
1 . Lennox
2. West Los Angeles
3. Long Beach
4. Downtown Los Angeles
5. Pasadena
6. Anaheim
7. Reseda
8
8
8
16
14
16
3
3
3
4
4
4
NO'
Secondary
Organics
TOTAL
BACK-
GROUND!
NON-BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTIONS
(Anthropogenic Sources within LA Region)
PR I MAP. Y
SECONDARY
*>;
NO"
HH;
Secondary
Organics
TOTAL
AAM
AREA LOCATIONS
1
1
1
3
3
3
35
33
35
84
36
47
9
5
7
6
6
5
1
1
1
10
9
10
145
90
105
CENTRAL-VALLEY AREA LOCATIONS
6
6
6
6
27
21
23
26
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
44
38
40
43
54
42
* 36
58
10
9
5
9
11
10
6
7.
1
1
1
1
20
20
17
22
EASTERN- INLAND AREA LOCATIONS
8. Azusa
9. Ontario
10. San Bernardino
11 . Riverside
4
4
4
4
33
34
33
45
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
53
49
4R
60
41
24
26
30
11
6
9
a
17
10'
12
14
1
1
1
1
37
30
29
37
140
120
105
140
160
120
125
150
01
ro
12. Chino
'WESTERN SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY HOT SPOT
I 4 M I 3 ' 60
89
M«l "Mi
35
220
-------
TABLE 2-18 GENERAL SPATIAL PATTERNS IN THE AEROSOL ORIGIN
CHARACTERIZATION
SUBAREA
OF THE
LOS ANGELES
REGION
Coastal
Central -Valley
Eastern-Inland
TOTAL SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE LEVEL
(AAM - jig/rn3)
90-145
105-140
120-160
APPROXIMATE CONTRIBUTIONS
BACKGROUND
30%
35%
40%
NON-BACKGROUND
PRIMARY
50%
35%
20%
SECONDARY
20%
30%
40%
to greater background contributions. The higher secondary aerosol
and background levels apparantly more than compensate for a marked
drop in man-made primary particulates with distance inland.
The spatial trends in the aerosol origin categories make sense
in view of the meteorology and emission source distributions in the
Los Angeles Region. The increasing trend of secondary aerosol levels
with distance inland agrees with the distribution of photochemical
smog in the Los Angeles Region. Photochemical smog, as measured by
oxidant levels, demonstrates an increase in severity with
distance inland in the Los Angeles Region, [15]. This increase
is apparently due to the continous production of secondary photo-
chemical pollutants as the air mass moves inland under the typical
daily sea breeze dominated meteorology. As shown in Figures 2-3 and
2-4, measured nitrate levels and estimated secondary organic levels
show marked increases with distance inland. Sulfate levels,
(Figure 2-5 ), are more uniformly distributed throughout the basin.
63
-------
Figure 2-3 Total Nitrate Levels In The Los Angeles Region (fig/m)
-------
CTl
cn
figure 2-4 Estimated Non-Background Secondary Organic Levels in the Los Angeles Region
-------
Figure 2-5 Total Sulfate Levels in The Los Angeles Region
-------
Figure 2-6 Estimated Non-Background Primary Particulate Levels In The Los Angeles Region
-------
The decrease of man-made primary participate contributions with
distance inland, (Table 2-18 and Figure 2-6), is apparently due to a dilu-
tion effect. As shown later in Figure 3-1, primary particulate sources
are more concentrated in the western aid central areas. As the air
mass moves inland under the typical sea breeze wind patterns, the
contributions from these sources are evidently somewhat dispersed.
Contributing to the lower primary particulate levels in inland areas
is the increasing inversion height with distance inland.
As explained in Section 2.2, increases in suspended dust levels
apparently account for greater background levels in the inland areas.
The higher dust levels inland may be due to the concentration of
agricultural activity in the eastern-inland area of the Los Angeles
Region.
68
-------
3.0 THE DEPENDENCE OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE LEVELS ON CONTAMINANT
EMISSIONS
The previous Chapter characterized the origins of annual
average suspended particulate matter at several locations in the
Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. The portion of the aerosol that
is subject to direct emission control in the Los Angeles Region was
classified as non-background. Non-background particulates were
subdivided according to the following origin categories:
• Non-background primary particulates
• Non-background secondary particulates
o Sulfates
o Nitrates
o Ammonium
o Secondary organics
Having identified the contributions from various controllable origin
categories, the final step in determining the relationship between
total suspended particulate levels and emission levels is to find
the functional dependence of each orgin category on emission levels.
The present Chapter discusses these functional relations.
Section 3.1 deals with primary particulates. The linear roll-
back formula is chosen to relate measured non-background primary
particulate levels to man-made emissions of primary particulates in
the Los Angeles Region. Some of the approximations inherent in this
choice are discussed. Sections3.2 through 3.5 deal with non-background
secondary particulates: sulfates, nitrates, ammonium, and organics
respectively. For each type of secondary aerosol a review is made of
existing theoretical and empirical evidence pertaining to the
69
-------
dependence on gaseous precusor emissions. It is found that much
uncertainty exists concerning the relationship between secondary aerosol
levels and precursor, emission levels. In the end, a linear form is
assumed for each of the sulfate/SOg, nitrate/NOx, and organic/RHC
relationships.
3.1 AIR QUALITY RELATIONSHIP FOR NON-BACKGROUND PRIMARY PARTICIPATES
In this study, the simple "linear rollback" technique will.be
used to provide the air quality/ emission level relationship for
primary particulates. That is, non-background* primary particulate
levels at each location will be taken as directly proportional to total
primary suspended particulate emissions from man-made sources in the
region. Expressed mathematically,
E , (3-1)
NBPSP7(ro) EQ
where
NBPSP. = non-background primary suspended particulate level at
location "1",
E = total primary suspended particulate emissions from.
anthropogenic sources in the region,
and the subscript "o" refers to base year values.
The applicability of the linear rollback formula to inert primary
contaminants is supported by the linearity of the equation of advective
diffusion with one main proviso. The proviso Is tliat th.e space and
time distribution of emissions does not change when the total emission
level goes from E to E. For instance, Figure 3-1 gives the geographical
*The reader is reminded that non-background levels have been defined
in Section 2 as those levels attributable to man-made pollution
sources within the control region.
70
-------
1 DOT = 2 TCWS/DAY TOTAL PARTICOATE B1ISSIOI6
Figure 3-1. Particulate Emission Density Map for the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region
-------
distribution of primary participate emissions in the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Region for the 1972 base year. The main theoretical
assumption underlying the rollback formula for primary particulates is
that the spatial pattern remains the same after control strategy
implementation.
The assumption of fixed emission spatial pattern should be fairly well
met by the control strategies proposed in the final report of th.fs study. Large
reductions in primary particulate emissions will be required from all signi-
ficant source categories in order to approach the federal air quality
standards. Thus, the spatial pattern should not change a great deal due
to preferential control of certain types of sources. Further, the
changes in emission pattern that are brought about by nonhomogenous source
growth, (certain parts of the region are growing faster than other parts),
should be outweighed by the large, uniform emission reductions due to the
stringent control strategies. The error in using the rollback formula for
primary particulates should be of lesser uncertainty than many other aspects of
this study. Greater potential for error appears to be involved in other
aspects of the study, (e.g. the origin characterization or the estimation
of control impacts on emissions).
72
-------
3.2 SULFATE AIR QUALITY RELATIONSHIP
Sulfur oxide emissions in the Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR
basically result from stationary source fuel combustion (mostly power
plants) - 49%, sulfur recovery plants - 20%, transportation fuel use -
15%, and petroleum refining - 12%, 1972 Inventory, Support Document
#2. SOp constitutes nearly all of the gaseous sulfur oxide emissions,
although small amounts of S03 are also present, [25]. Both during
emission and while in residence in the atmosphere, the SOp gas can
become oxidized to form sulfate (S07) particulate. The sulfate
aerosol consists mainly of sulfuric acid and corresponding salts such
as ammonium sulfate, (NH.^SO*, [25], [26].
Measured annual average sulfate levels (from Hi-Vols) are rather
uniformly distributed over the 4 County sub-area of the Los Angeles
3
Region, ranging from around 9-15 jug/m , AAM.* The uniformity over
the 4 County area indicates a general balance between dilution effects
and the oxidation of S0? to S07 as the polluted air mass moves in-
land from the source intensive, coastal area, (see Figure 3-2).
Average ambient S02/S07 ratios vary from around 3 or 4 in coastal
areas to around 1.5 or 2 in the eastern, inland areas.** The SO^/
S07 ratios in Los Angeles are distinctly lower than the average
ratio for cities east of the Mississippi, (4.7:1), reported by
Altshuller, [27]. This could result from the high oxidizing potential
of Los Angeles photochemical smog.
* The one notable exception is the Western San Bernardino County
"Hot-Spot", which experiences an AAM of around 20 jjg/m3.
** See data presented in Section 3.2.2.
73
-------
Figure 3-2 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions and Wind Patterns in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region
-------
Not all of the measured sulfate originates from anthropogenic
Los Angeles sources. A background level exists due to natural contri-
butions and to man-made sources exterior to the Los Angeles Region.
In Section 2.2 , the average sulfate background was estimated to be 4
o 3
/xg/m . Thus, out of the typical 9-15 pg/m sulfate annual averages,
only around 5-11 ^g/m are due to man-made sources in Los Angeles.
It is the purpose here to determine how this non-background sulfate
will depend on S09 emissions in the Los Angeles Region.
The relationship between emitted SO^ and ambient S0^~ is very
complex and is the subject of current research; considerable uncertainty
exists at the present state of knowledge, [28], [29], [30]. No definitive
models are available for relating SCL emissions to atmospheric S07 concen-
trations. In the following sections, the general form of the relationship
will be analyzed by considering known aspects of the chemical transformation
processes (Section 3.2.1) and by examining certain atmospheric empirical
evidence (Section 3.2.2). In the end, a linear relation will be adopted;
Section 3.3.3 will present supportive arguments for this assumption.
3.2.1 Chemical Transformation Processes
A variety of avenues exist for oxidizing atmospheric S02 to yield
sulfate aerosol. The chemical and physical processes involved have
been reviewed in references p5 ] and [26]. The relative contribution
of various possible oxidation mechanisms is uncertain. However, three
avenues have been identified which appear to be significant:
75
-------
(1) Photochemically Induced oxidation of SOp to SQ3 in the
gas phase with subsequent reactions yielding sulfuric
acid or sulfates"(Homogeneous gas phase oxidation)
It has been found that irradiation of SCL/clean
air/water vapor systems yields SCL oxidation fates
which are too slow to be significant in urban areas
[29]. [25]. C26], [31 L [32'], [33]. However, the
photolysis of SCL/HC/NO systems can yield substantial
oxidation rates ^[29j, 125J, [26], [34], [35]. This
latter form of photochemically induced reaction may be
a prime source of sulfate production in the Los Angeles
Region [29]. It has been postulated that a principal
oxidation mechanism in this process involves the reaction
of S02 with an ozone-hydrocarbon intermediary, [26],
[36]. Once SOp is oxidized to SO,, subsequent reactions
involving water (and particles) yield sulfuric acid and
sulfates.
(2) Absorption of S02 in acqueous droplets with subsequent
Catalytic oxidatfonT(Homogeneous catalysis in liquids)
Data indicate that numerous substances are . .
effective in catalytically oxidizing S02- Amonq these
are various oxides (of iron,manganese, chromium, vanadium,
lead, aluminum, and nitrogen), and other metallic salts,
W' [37]- The absorption of S02 in aqueous solutions,
followed by catalytic oxidation can be an important
mechanism of sulfate production [29], £5]. For this
oxidation mechanism, atmospheric ammonia may play a
significant role by neutralizing some of the acidity
built up in the aqueous droplet (S02 becomes less sol-
uble as the acidity increases) |25L [37]•
(3) Adsorption of SOg on solid particles and subsequent
reaction with adsorped oxygen.(Heterogeneous gas-
parti cle inTeractions).
There is evidence that adsorption and subsequent
oxidation of S02 on particle surfaces is an important
mechanism of suffate production in ambient atmospheres.
Experimental studies with metal oxide particles (oxides
of aluminum, calcium, chromium, iron, lead, and vanadium)
and carbon have demonstrated this effect feeL [32]» L3sl- A
recent analysis of ACHEX data indicates that Los Angeles
aerometric observations are qualitatively consistent with
the occurrence of this oxidation mechanism, [28]. The ACHEX
study implicates carbonaceous (soot) particles as possible
sites for the process.
76
-------
From the description of the above processes, it is apparent that
several factors are important in determining the degree to which SCL
will be converted to sulfate aerosol. Significant atmospheric factors
are :
• presence of HC and NO
/\
t solar radiation intensity
• temperature
• humidity
t presence of catalysts
• presence of atmospheric ammonia
• presence of absorbing particles (e.g. metal oxides or carbon)
Another very important factor is the residence time in the atmosphere:
the longer the time for reaction - the greater the conversion of S02
to sulfate.
As to the dependence on SCL concentrations, (the main issue of
interest here), it appears that at low SOp concentration all three
mechanisms are such that the rate of oxidation is directly proportional
to S02 concentration, fcg]. Mathematically, the: processes would be
described by a first order rate equation in SO,,. For given values
of other relevant parmeters and for given residence time, the amount
of sulfate produced would be directly proportional to SOp input. How-
ever, at higher SOp concentrations, there are reasons to expect that
the sulfate yield would be less than proportional to SOp input. For
one, at higher SOp and sulfate levels, insufficient ammonia may.be
available to prevent aqueous airborne droplets from becoming strongly
acidic. Since S02 is less soluble in acid solutions, the 'depletion of
NH3 would lead to reduced rates for aerosol sulfate formation in process
77
-------
(2) above [29], [25], [37], Second, theoretical analysis of the gaseous
reactions in mechanism (1) indicates that the relative rate of S0? oxida-
tion to S03 should tend to decrease at higher S02 levels, [29J, [39J.*
The details of this analysis are beyond the scope of this study, and
the interested reader is referred to [39]. Third, mechanism (3) may
yield nonlinear results at high SO,, levels due to saturation of adsorp-
tion sites, [29].
The implications of the above discussion are summarized in Figure
3.3a which gives a qualitative illustration of the dependence of sulfate
levels on S0? input, (for fixed residence time and other parameters).
At small SCL levels, the dependence is nearly linear. For large values
of SCL, nonlinear effects take hold and the relation becomes less than
proportional. The SCL level at which nonlinearities set in will depend
on several of the key parameters described previously, (e.g., amounts of
NH7, HC/NO and adsorbent surface).
0 A
Actually, in a real air basin one would expect a slightly modified
picture. There will exist a background sulfate from natural processes
as well as from man-made emissions exterior to the basin in question.
Thus, the effect of SCL emissions within the basin on sulfate levels
would be as illustrated in Figure 3-3b . Figure 3-3b is similar to
Figure 3-3a , except that the SCL/SO/" curve has a positive intercept
at the background SO," level.
3.2.2 Atmospheric Data
The analysis of actual atmospheric monitoring data provides
an empirical approach for determining the relationship between S0?
* At SOp levels typically found in Los Angeles this effect may not be
significant.
78
-------
Figure 3-3a Hypothetical Experiment
-a
c
ra
(/>
OJ
01
o
d) l/l
-o s-
•i- O)
oo +->
Q O) O)
_J S- E
111 ro
t-i -O i-
>- CD (C
X Q.
i— £ s_
<; 0)
Non-Linear Effects
Linear Sub-region
«C LU TJ
_1 C
Q 3
LU LU O
C£ \— i- I
=D =1 cn
oo u. .^
-------
emissions and ambient sulfate concentrations. Ideally, the method
would use many years of historical data on S02 emissions and correspond-
ing data on ambient S04= levels. Hopefully, the method would be applied
to several locations so that the form of the relationship could be
found for alternative residence times and climatological conditions.
Unfortunately, the ideal empirical method outlined above appears
to be impractical with existing data. Figure 3-4 presents the results
of an attempt to relate historical S04~ levels (from NASN sites) to S02
emissions (from APCD estimates) in Los Angeles County. These results
do not yield a meaningful emission-air quality relationship. The main
difficulties encountered with this method were the following:
• Figure 3-4 shows that there is considerable scatter in
measured SO*" levels for given emission levels. These
fluctuations obscure the relationship between ambient
SO." levels and estimated SCL emission levels. Much of the
fluctuation is probably statistical in nature and is the
result of the small number of annual samples, 24, taken
in the NASN Monitoring program. Some of the scatter is
also due to errors in the emission estimates and possibly
to historical changes in NASN monitoring procedures.
• The use of Los Angeles County APCD air quality data might
have eliminated some of the statistical fluctuations since
the APCD has taken samples at the rate of 50-100 per year.
However, APCD data is available only back to 1965. Also,
the usefulness of long term APCD sulfate data is marred
by an unexplained increase (about 50%) in mean S04~ levels
beginning in 1969. This increase, counter to the de-
creasing trend in SOp emissions, is probably doe to
changes in monitoring equipment and/or techniques, [40].
0 Figure 3-4 shows that yearly average Los Angeles County
SOp emissions have varied from around 250-620 tons/day
in the period under investigation. This range is not
sufficiently wide enough to provide an indication of the
impact of a stringent control strategy. To extrapolate
down to an S02 emission level of around 40-80 tons/day
based on the aata given in Figure 3-4 would involve great
uncertainty.
80
-------
UJ
2:
S7.5
.
™ *60
oo d
,
oTg
a,-**
•66
)0
ESTIMATED LOS ANGELES COUNTY S02 EMISSIONS **
(tons/day)
* Average of NAJjN values for Los Angeles, Burbank, Glendale, Long
Beach and Pasadena. Prior to 1967 data are available for at
most three stations during any given year, and the available
sites changed from year to year. Since all stations demonstrated
the same general sulfate level, around 10-12 ug/m , averages were
taken of all available data.
** Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Reference [4TJ.
Figure 3-4 Historical Relationship Between S02 Emissions and SO!
Concentrations -- Los Angeles County, 1957 to 1970
81
-------
The above results are especially disappointing since the emis-
sion and air quality data base for Los Angeles is among the best .
available. If the application to Los Angeles does not provide useful
results, there is little probability that this method will yield a
definitive air quality/emission level relationship when applied else-
where.
An alternate, more indirect, empirical method for relating
SO- emissions and S0.~ air quality is based solely on air quality data
for both species. A relationship is determined between measured
ambient SCL and sulfate levels. This relationship is'then used as an
approximate model for the dependence of sulfate levels on S02 emissions.
The most comprehensive study of the relationship between annual
average SCL and sulfate concentrations was performed by Altshuller,
[27]. He analyzed NASN data at urban sites from 1964 to 1968. Figure
3-5 presents the SOg/sulfate relationship which he found with data from
18 U.S. cities.* The lines drawn to the data are linear regression
lines for $02 sub-ranges of 6-80 ug/m3 and 100-200 pg/m3.
There is considerable scatter in the data plotted by Altshuller.
This is because the points represent varied locations with different
climatological conditions and S02 residence times. These differences
alter the amount of sulfate associated with given SO,,. However, the
general pattern in Figure 3-4 does appear to verify the qualitative
conclusion derived from an analysis of the chemical process in Section
3.2.1; sulfate initially increases above background in proportion
to SQg increases but levels off as nonlinear processes become important.
For the sites which he studied, AltshulTer appeared to find an average
*Los Angeles was not included.
82
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CO
CO
30
en
20
10
u_
_l
ZD
o o
CD
I
O
I
I
0 20
40
60
80
100
120 140
SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION, /jg/m
160
3
180
Figure 3-5 Sulfur Dioxide/Sulfate Relationship for 18 U. S. Cities
I
200 220
REFERENCE: Altshuller [27J.
-------
background sulfate of around 5 ug/m . The average background level,
the result of long term transport from anthropogenic sources as well
as from natural sources, is indicated by the intercept on the vertical
axis.
In the present project, a similar empirical study was performed
using aerometric data from Los Angeles. Figure 3-6 compares annual
average sulfate and sulfur dioxide at eleven stations in the Metro-
politan Los Angeles AQCR. S(L levels are lower in Los Angeles than
in many eastern cities; all of the Los Angeles SCL averages are below
60 ^ig/tn and within the bottom SOp range of the data which was investi-
gated by Altshuller. The Los Angeles Points show a high sulfate/SCL
conversion ratio; all points in Figure 3-6 lie above the lower
Altshuller regression line in Figure 3-5 . However, the Los Angeles
points are within the scatter of Altshuller's data.
As with Altshuller's results, the raw Los Angeles data in Figure
3.6 show considerable variance. However, if a qualitative distinction
is made as to distance inland, a much more consistent pattern is
revealed. Figure 3-6 demonstrates that for given SCL level, sulfate
increases with distance inland. This apparently reflects increased
residence time under the sea breeze dominated wind pattern. For .
given distance inland, sulfate increased -above background (4 ug/m )*
in a slightly less than linear way with increasing SOp. This non-
linearity is in agreement with the previous discussion of the sulfate/
S02 relationship.
* See Section 2.
84
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20
EASTERN -
INLAND
CENTRAL
15--
— Estimated Background Sulfate
Coastal Stations Hi Eastern - Inland Stations
L—> Central Stations
Intermediate, Central - Eastern Stations
10 20 30
Yearly Average Sulfur Dioxide
40
50
60
Figure 3-6 Aerometric Relationship Between Sulfate and Sulfur
Dioxide in the Metropolitan Los Angeles AGCR
DATA SOURCES:
WLA - West Los Angeles (LA APCD 1969-1972)*
LB - Long Beach (NASN 1968 - 1970)
LEN - Lennox (LA APCD 1969-1972)*
SNT - Santa Ana (NASN 1969)
ANN - Anaheim (NASN 1969)
RES - Reseda (LA APCD 1969-1972)*
PAS - Pasadena (LA APCD 1972)*
DTLA - Downtown Los Angeles (LA APCD 1969-1972)*
SB - San Bernadii.c (SB APCD 1972 & NASN 1968-1969)
FNT - Fontana (SB APCD 1972)
AZ - Azusa (LA APCD 1972)*
*Los Angeles APCD SO, data have been corrected to allow for
systematic round off error; the LA APCD reports all S02 values from
0 to .015 ppm as .01 ppm. 85
-------
It is interesting to note that the sulfate air quality/SO,,
emission data of Figure 3-4 is in qualitative agreement with the data
just discussed. Figure 3-7 averages the data in Figure 3-4 and gives
two emission/air quality points which are means for years below 450
p
tons/day SO emissions and years above 500 tons/day SOp emissions re-
spectively. Although these two points do not support statistically
definitive conclusions, in conjunction with the 4 yg/m background value
they do suggest a slightly nonlinear dependence of sulfate concentrations
on S02 emissions.
3.2.3 An Operational Relationship for Use in Implementation Planning
The above discussions present a consistent picture of the relation-
ship to be expected between annual average sulfate levels and S02
emissions in the Los Angeles Region. The background sulfate level, a
result of man made sources exterior to the Los Angeles Region as well
as natural sources, is around 4 jjg/m . In response to S02 emissions
within the basin, sulfate levels increase initially in a linear way.
Gradually, nonlinear processes become important, and further increases
in sulfate are less than linear.
For the purpose of simplicity in implementation planning, it is
here proposed that a simple linear relation be assumed for the sulfate/
S02 relationship. The assumption will be that measured sulfate, minus
3
the 4 pg/m backgroun
Stated mathematically,
3
the 4 pg/m background, is linearly proportional to total emissions.
86
-------
CT>
15
Averages for years above
500 tons/day S02 emissions
(1957, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65,
66 and 67)
10
o
o
CD
•
00
o
I
Average for years below
450 tons/day S0? emissions
(1963, 64, 68 69 and 70)
— — — —— Estimated Background Sulfate
100
200
300
400
500
AVERAGE LOS ANGELES COUNTY S02 EMISSIONS **
(TONS/DAY)
Figure 3-7 Average S02 Emissions vs. Average SO^ Air Quality for
Los Angeles County
600
* NASN data for Los Angeles, Burbank, Glendale, Long Beach and
Pasadena.
** Los Angeles County APCD Estimates
87
-------
where,
S. = sulfate level at location i,
E = total SOp emission level in the Los Angeles Region,
E = total SOf emission level for the base year (1972),
and S? = background sulfate (4 ug/m ). - • '
The error in the linear model will depend on the station to which it
is applied. The error will tend to be greatest for stations which have
the highest present S02 levels since nonlinear processes become
more important at higher SO- levels. A sensitivity analysis was
performed comparing the nonlinear curves in Figure 3.6 with the
predictions that would result from the linear model. This analysis
3
indicated that the maximum error in the linear model would be 3 jug/m,
3
with most errors typically around 1 pg/m . Although this is a significant
fraction of the ambient sulfate concentration, it is not significant when
compared to the total annual average level of suspended particulates, which
is on the order of 100 yg/m . Since the implementation strategy in this
study will be based on total suspended particulates, the error in the lin-
earity assumption for sulfate should be of minor overall importance. Much
larger errors are encountered in attempting to use present Hi-Vol data to
characterize base year air quality levels for total suspended particulates,
(See Support Document #1).
In further defense of the linearity assumption, it should be
noted that control strategies will be prepared for HC and NO as well as
X
S09. Reducing HC and NO should help to decrease sulfate levels by
£ X
weakening the photochemical oxidation mechanism for SO-. The error in
neglecting the synergistic effect of HC and NO reductions will be
A
directly counter to the error in assuming a linear sulfate/S02 air
quality relation.
-------
3.3 NITRATE AIR QUALITY RELATIONSHIP
Secondary nitrate aerosol is a product of a complex series of
reactions involving gaseous NO emissions. NO , (the sum of NO
A X
and N02), originates essentially from fuel combustion sources and
is emitted mostly as NO, Dal, [42]. In the atomosphere, much of the
NO is oxidized to NOp- Further oxidation processes can take place
which produce secondary nitrate (NO,) aerosol. Some of this second-
ary aerosol is organic nitrate and is included as part of the second-
ary organic origin category. The nitrate category of interest
here is inorganic nitrate. Inorganic nitrate, probably the most
prevelant form of nitrate, feaK consists of nitric acid and nitrate.
salts, particularly ammonium nitrate, [3], [16].
The purpose of this section is to determine how secondary
inorganic nitrate levels in the Los Angeles Region will respond to
changes in NOX emission levels. This problem directly parallels the
subject of previous section which dealt with the sulfate -- S0?
relationship. It was noted in the previous section that con-
siderable uncertainty surrounded the relationship of sulfate levels
and S02 emissions. Unfortunately, much less is known for the case
of the nitrate -- NC^ relationship. The nitrate problem seems to
be a more difficult one to solve, and to compound the trouble, less
research effort seems to have been devoted to the nitrate issue,
[29], [30].
It is not now possible to build a sound theoretical case for the
form of the nitrate — NOX relationship because the important con-
version mechanisms have not been defined and documented. Although
89
-------
there are no definitive results on what specific reaction mechanisms
predominate, there is some evidence that photochemical processes are
significant. As was shown in Figure 2-3, nitrate values are greatest
in the inland portions of the Los Angeles Region which experience
the most intense photochemical smog levels. Also, an analysis of
atmospheric data at Riverside has indicated a correlation between
nitrate levels and photochemical smog, [3]. However, the explicit
photochemical (or other) reactions involved in nitrate reduction are
not well understood.* In the absence of knowledge concerning the
reactions, a systematic theoretical argument cannot be made concerning
the form of the NCL — NO relationship.
•3 X
An alternative method of finding the nitrate -- NOx relation-
ship is the empirical approach based on atmospheric monitoring data.
However, again, less work has been done with nitrates than with
sulfates. No empirical study has been published for NOg -- NOx.that
is equivalent to Altshuller's work with SO^ -- SO^, £7], (See Figure
3-5).**
* Some potentially important reactions have been identified, foo], e.g.,
0 the thermal reaction of N02 + oxygen + water to yield
nitric acid
or 0 the reaction of NO? with ozone or other photochemical
oxidants to yield iL 05 which combines with water to
form nitric acid.
However, more research is needed before the reaction mechanisms can
be described with confidence.
** Possibly this is because NOx data are not available for a N
study. The federal NASN data summaries for 1967 and 1968 report
only N02, (not NO), for nearly all the monitoring sites, [11], [43]
90
-------
An attempt was made in the present study to perform an empirical
analysis of the nitrate -- NO relationship based on data from the
A
Los Angeles Region. Figure 3-8 presents the results of plotting yearly
average NOZ vs yearly average NOx at ten locations. Figure 3-8
reveals that for given NOV, nitrate increases considerably from coast
A
to inland. This apparently reflects the continuous conversion of
NO to NOZ as the air mass moves inland under the typical sea
X 0
breeze dominated wind pattern. As to the dependence of NOZ on NC^ ,
Figure 3-8 is inconclusive. For the coastal and eastern-inland
data, the spread in NO concentrations is not wide enough to
A
justify inferences about the NOZ -- NOx relationship. For the central-
valley stations, a straight line to the estimated NOZ background
level fits well; however, four data points are not sufficient to
make a firm conclusion concerning linearity.
In summary, existing knowledge concerning the dependence of NOZ
concentrations on NO emissions is very poor. Neither theoretical
A
nor. empirical analysis can presently justify sound conclusions as to
the form of the NOZ -- NO relationship. In this study, the
0 X
simplest relationship will be assumed: non-background nitrate
q
(total nitrate minus 1 jjg/m background*) wi 11 be taken as directly
proportional to total NOx emission levels. It should be emphasized
that there is considerable uncertainty in the use of this linear
rollback formula for nitrate -- NO . The principal justification is
A
that there is no firm evidence to support the use of any specific
nonlinear relationship.
Another caveat that should be kept in mind is that the above
relationship between nitrate and NO neglects possible effects on
X
'See Section 2.2 for a discussion of the background value.
91
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EASTERN-INLAND
CENTRAL-VALLEY
COASTAL
^ ESTIMATED NITRATE BACKGROUND
• OS
COASTAL STATIONS
A CENTRAL STATIONS
.10
.15
H-
.20
YEARLY AVERAGE NOV (ppm)
A
EASTERN-INLAND STATIONS
INTERMEDIATE, CENTRAL-EASTERN STATION
DATA SOURCE
WLA
LB
LEN
DTLA
PAS
RES
ANA
AZ
SB
UPL
West Los Angeles
Long Beach
Lennox
Downtown Los Angeles
Pasadena
Reseda
Anaheim
Azusa
San Bernardino
Upland
(LA APCD, 1969-72)
(LA APCD - NOx, NASN-NO".
(LA APCD, 1969-72)
(LA APCD, 1969-72)
(LA APCD, 1972)
(LA APCD, 1969-72)
(Orange APCD-NOx, NASN-NOZ,
(LA APCD, 1972)
(San Ben., APCD, 1972-73)
(San Ben., APCD, 1972-73)
1969-70)
1969-70)
Figure 3-8 Aerometric Relationship Between Nitrate and NOx in the
Metropolitan Los Angeles AQCR
92
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nitrate formation from hydrocarbon (HC) emission level changes. Since
photochemical processes seem to be important in nitrate formation, hydro-
carbon levels may indirectly impact on nitrate levels by governing the
amount of photochemical activity. Since HC emissions will be undergoing
reductions in the future, the neglect of HC effects would appear to yield
conservative results, e.g. actual nitrate levels may be lower than pre-
dicted due to decreased HC emissions and correspondingly decreased photo-
chemical activity. Whether or not the HC effect will be significant is
uncertain.
3.4 AMMONIUM AIR QUALITY RELATIONSHIP
Ammonium ion (NHj) constitutes a small fraction of total suspended
particulate levels in the Los Angeles Region, (about 1%). Non-background
3
ammonium was estimated to be around 1 xig/m in the origin characterization,
(Table 2-17). Here by non-background, we do not imply that the ammonia
(NH3) precursor was necessarily man-made. Rather, non-background ammonium
is defined as that which is associated with non-background sulfate and
nitrate.
The air quality relationship for non-background ammonium will be
taken as simple linear rollback based on non-background sulfate and
nitrate control. That is, the fractional reduction in non-background
NH| will be assumed proportional to the molar fractional reduction of
non-background SOT and NO".* Since ammonium ion is such a small
fractional of total suspended particulate levels, .the prediction of
total particulate levels should be highly insensitive to errors in
the above assumption for the NH^ air quality relationship
*Actually, since two NHa would be associated with one SO^ and only one
NH4 would be associated with a NO^, sulfate reductions are given twice
the weight in the total molar fraction.
93
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3.5 SECONDARY ORGANIC AIR QUALITY RELATIONSHIP
Secondary organic aerosol is one of the products of the photochemical
smog reactions that occur in the Los Angeles atmosphere. The composition
of secondary organic aerosol has not been definitely established,
but there appears to be a general dominance of highly oxygenated
compounds [22],[10], [44]. Likewise, the importance of various
hydrocarbons as precursors of secondary organic aerosol is not fully
understood. However, higher molecular weight aromatics and olefins,
particularly the latter, are evidently most important, [22],[45], [46],
[47], [34].
The purpose here is to determine how secondary organic aerosol
levels will depend on reactive hycrocarbon (RHC) emissions in the
Los Angeles Region. Actually, in this task, we begin at a dis-
advantage. The hydrocarbon reactivity scale used to define RHC
emissions in this study is based on the oxidant forming potential
of hydrocarbon emissions, (See Support Document #2, [18]). However, recent
research has indicated that reactivity ratings based on aerosol forma-
tion can be significantly different from oxidant reactivity ratings
67]. To reformulate the hydrocarbon emission inventory with a new
aerosol reactivity scale was beyond the scope of the present study.
Thus, the use of an inappropriate reactivity scale will be an error
inherent in the present analysis.
The relationship between secondary organic aerosol levels and
RHC emission levels cannot presently be established from a theoretical
analysis of the chemical reactions involved in the transformation
because the chemical reactions are not well understood. One
specific reaction that has been implicated is the combination of
94 .
-------
olefins with ozone, QQ], (22!. However the total basic system of
reactions for secondary organic aerosol formation is still unknown.
The relationship between secondary organic aerosol levels and
RHC emissions also cannot presently be determined from empirical models
based on atmospheric monitoring data. Existing aerometric data is
inadequate for both the precursor (reactive hydrocarbons) and the
end product (secondary organic aerosol). The inadequacies of ambient
monitoring data for reactive hydrocarbons have been previously
discussed [48], [49]. Most measurements of organic aerosol
in the Los Angeles Region consist of data on benzene solubles.
Primary organic aerosol is rather soluble in benzene, but secondary
organic aerosol is highly insoluble, fiy], fig]. Thus, benzene soluble
data provide a poor indication of secondary aerosol levels in
Los Angeles and are inappropriate for use in an empirical model
for secondary organics.
Recent smog chamber experiments are shedding some light on the
relationship between secondary aerosol levels and RHC input. These
experiments show that changing HC mixture has an extremely
complex effect on aerosol formation |y]. However, for a given HC
mixture, preliminary results seem to indicate a linear-proportional
relationship between total HC input and total aerosol formation, [50).
Although these results pertain to total aerosol produced, it appears
reasonable to assume that they also pertain to the organic fraction
of the aerosol (which is of interest here).
In this study, a linear-proportional relationship will be assumed
for the dependence of non-background secondary aerosol levels on total
RHC emissions . Although this assumption is in qualitative agreement with
95
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some recent smog chamber results, its applicability is nonetheless
very uncertain. There are no firm theoretical or atmospheric -
empirical results which support the proportional formula for secondary
organics. The main justification for the linear rollback formula is
that it is the simplest and most obvious one to assume until more
evidence is gathered.
96
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4.0 BASELINE PARTICULATE AIR QUALITY PROJECTIONS
FOR THE METROPOLITAN LOS ANGELES REGION
Chapter 2 characterized the origins of annual average participate
levels at 12 locations in the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region. Chapter 3
provided (linear) relationships linking the contributions from controllable
origin categories to contaminant emission levels. By combining these
results, we obtain a model that yields annual average particulate levels
at each location as functions of total emission levels in the Los Angeles
Region.
Illustration of the Completed Model
Table 4-1 illustrates the application of the air quality/emission
level model. The left side of Table 4-1 presents the 1972 origin clas-
sification for an example location, Downtown Los Angeles. The center
column of the table describes a hypothetical control strategy for primary
particulates, S09, NO , and RHC. The right side of the table gives the pre-
C- /\
dieted impact of the control strategy. In this hypothetical case, the
140 ^ig/m3 AAM in 1972 would be reduced to 78 yg/m3 AAM by the control
strategy.
A Special Case: Chino
In this study, the model will be applied as illustrated above to each
location with one exception. The exception involves the primary particu-
late and sulfate contributions at Chino. For the other eleven locations
and other origin categories, the origin contribution will be factored
(rolled-back) according to total emissions in the Four-County Sub-Area.
However, for non-background primary particulates and sulfate at Chino, an
allowance will be made for localized emissions.
97
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ID
00
TABLE 4-1 HYPOTHETICAL ILLUSTRATION OF
THE MODEL FOR PREDICTING CONTROL
STRATEGY IMPACT ON PARTICULATE
AIR QUALITY LEVELS
Origin Categories
BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTIONS
(Sea Salt, Soil Dust,
Man-Made Sources exterior
to the L.A. Region, and
Background 504, NOo, and
Secondary Organics)
1972 Base Year
Origin Character-
ization for Down-
town Los Angeles
NON-BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTIONS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY:
so! — —
NO
iNri^
Secondary Organics
44
54
10
11
1
20
Hypothetical Control
Strategy (% Reduction
from the 1972 Base
Year Level)
67% Reduction in
Primary Particulate Emissions
50% Reduction in SOp Emissions
50% Reduction in NOEmissions
/\
50% Reduction in S09 & NO
£ A
75% Reduction in RHC Emissions
Air Quality Resulting
from the Control
Strategy
^••^•••^— '"*
44
18
5
5%
TOTAL AAM
140 yg/rrf
78
-------
As explained in Section 2.4.2, the Chino monitoring site appears to
experience a particularly strong influence from a localized source.
This source, evidently the Kaiser Steel/Edison Electric complex, leads
to abnormally high primary particulate and sulfate levels at Chino.
Estimates of the contributions from the localized source are presented
in Table 2-2. The model will be applied in a special way to Chino by
rolling back the localized origin contributions (column III in Table 2-19)
according to emissions from the localized source and by rolling back
the remainder (column II in Table 2-19) according to total emissions
in the Four-County Sub-Area. Appendix A summarizes the techniques used
to forecast emissions for the localized source.
TABLE 4-2
BREAKDOWN OF PRIMARY PARTICULATE AND
SULFATE CONTRIBUTIONS AT CHINO
Primary Suspended
Parti culates
Sul fates
COLUMN I
Total 1972
non-background
level*
(/jg/m3)
89
18
COLUMN II
Typical value
for similar
stations not
strongly influenced
by the localized
source*
(>jg/m3)
30
9
COLUMN III
Contribution
from the
localized
source
(II Minus I)
(jjg/m3)
59 '
9
* See Table 2-17.
99
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The present chapter will illustrate the application of the air
quality/emission level model by forecasting air quality levels for the
baseline emission projections given in Support Document #2 of this project
[18]. These results will be presented in Section 4.2.
Section 4.1 resolves a preliminary issue. The air quality/emission
level model gives predicted particulate air quality in terms of annual
arithmetic means. However, the federal annual air quality standards for
particulates are stated as geometric means. Section 4.1 derives target
annual arithmetic mean levels for the Los Angeles Region which approximate
the geometric mean standards.
4.1 ARITHMETIC MEAN TARGET LEVELS CORRESPONDING TO THE GEOMETRIC MEAN
STANDARDS
National air quality standards for suspended particulates have been
established for both long term (annual) and short term (24 hour) concen-
trations. As explained in Section 3.1, the present study will address
only the long term standards. These standards are expressed in terms of
annual geometric means:
Primary Standard 75 yg/m3 (AGM)
3
Secondary Standard ... 60 yg/m (AGM).
In order to preserve overall linearity, the aerosol origin characterization
was carried out in terms of annual arithmetic means, and the resulting
model of the relationship between suspended particulate levels and emission
levels is appropriate to arithmetic means. A method is required to recon-
cile the outputs of the air quality model, (arithmetic means), with the
form of the air quality standards, (geometric means). The method used
here will be to approximate the geometric mean standards by equivalent
arithmetic mean levels.
100
-------
Table 4-3 gives the ratio of arithmetic mean (AM) to geometric mean
(GM) for log normal distributions with various geometric standard devi-
ations, (S ). In the Los Angeles Region, suspended particulate distributions
TABLE 4-3 RATIO OF ARITHMETIC MEAN TO GEOMETRIC MEAN VS. GEOMETRIC
STANDARD DEVIATION FOR LOG NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS
GEOMETRIC RATIO OF ARITHMETIC MEAN
STANDARD DEVIATION TO GEOMETRIC MEAN
S AM/GM
1.3 1.035
1.4 1.06
1.5 1.09
1.6 1.12
1.7 1.15
1.8 1.19
1.9 1.23
2.0 1.27
typically have values of SQ in the range 1.4 to 1.7, (See Support Document #1, [1]).
Thus, arithmetic means tend to fall approximately 6 to 15% higher than
geometric means.
It is not obvious whether the implementation of control strategies
will significantly alter S values in the Los Angeles Region. Since there
now appears to be no significant correlation between S and total suspended
particulate levels at various locations in the Los Angeles Region, [i],
one might expect that the values for S would not change much with control
strategy implementation. Assuming that S values remain the same,
the arithmetic means would remain about 6 to 15% higher than the geometric
3
means. This implies that the federal primary annual standard (75
3
AGM) is equivalent to around 80-86 yg/m AAM, and that the federal secon-
o 3
dary annual standard (60 yg/m AGM) is equivalent to around 64-69 yg/m
AAM.
101
-------
For the purposes of this study, it will be assumed that the federal
primary annual standard for particulates is equivalent to a target AAM
q
level of 80 ug/m and that the federal secondary annual standard is
3
equivalent to a target AAM of 65 yg/m . These target arithmetic mean
levels are on the "conservative" side of the estimates made above, i.e.,
achieving these target AAM levels will likely result in air quality
slightly better than the federal standards.
4.2 AIR QUALITY FORECASTS FOR THE BASELINE EMISSION PROJECTIONS
Table 4-4 summarizes the emission projections for primary particulates,
SO,,, NO , and RHC that were derived in Support Document #2 of this project,[18],
C- /\
Projections are given for two scenarios: (1) "present controls", (controls
presently scheduled to go into effect by the local APCD's plus the California
ARB and federal new car control programs), and (2) "EPA oxidant plan",
(the present controls plus the controls called for in the EPA-promulgated
plan for'oxidant in the Los Angeles Region, [51]). The values are for the
4 County Sub-Area, (Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino),
TABLE 4-4 SUMMARY OF EMISSION PROJECTIONS FOR THE
4 COUNTY SUB-AREA OF THE LOS ANGELES REGION
--Tons/Day--
Pollutant
Primary Suspended Particulates
so2
N0x
RHC
1972 Base
Year Emissions
tes 178
444
1345
1095
Present Controls
1977 1980
233 240
530 540
1614 1434
741 567
EPA Oxidant Plan
1977 1980
223
524
1614
547
233
535
1434
410
102
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which experiences participate levels well in excess of the air quality
standards and in which the 12 sites of the aerosol characterization are
located.
As demonstrated in Table 4-4,primary suspended particulate and SC^
emissions are forecasted to increase through 1977 and 1980. This is the
result of source growth and of projected switches from natural gas to
fuel oil; these factors will outstrip the presently planned controls for
primary particulates and SCL. Basically due to the same two factors,
NO emissions are also predicted to increase from 1972 base year levels.
X
However, in the late 1970's, the new car controls should reverse the
upward trend in NO emissions. RHC emissions will decrease due to the
A
new and used car control programs. The EPA oxidant plan brings about
even greater reductions in RHC emissions. For details on these projections,
the reader is referred to Support Document #2, [18].
Figure 4-1 presents forecasted air quality levels at eight locations
for the two baseline emission scenarios. The air quality projections have
been derived from the emission projections by using the model outlined in
Section 4.0 with the data in Tables 2-17 and 4-4. As noted in Section 4.0,
the model is applied in a special way to the Chino monitoring site. The
methods of emission projection for the localized Chino source are outlined
in Appendix A.*
*The projected primary particulate and S02 levels for the local Chino
source (assuming no further controls) are as follows:
(Kaiser/Edison Complex)
Emissions as % of 1972 level
1977 1980
Primary Particulates 150% 147%
S02 166% 163%
103
-------
COASTAL AREA
00
a.
72
LENNOX
£uu
100-
n
•-— ==
TGT^.
B/GND
1
Present Controls
§' •
= EPA Oxidant Plan
j.. ... i_
77
80
YEAR
00
a.
LONG BEACH
100--
FGT.
B/GND
72
Present Controls
^ ^
• J ^
EPA Oxidant Plan
77
YEAR
80
CENTRAL — VALLEY AREA
oc
3.
200i
100--
DOWNTOWN L.A.
72
LEGEND:
TGT.
B/GND
1
Present Controls
— HP 1
EPA Oxidant Plan
1 1 .
YEAR
77
80
TGT TARGET FOR PRUiAkY STANDARD
B/CND.
'ESTIMATED BACKGROUND
oo
a.
200
100--
72
ANAHE I M
• =
TGT.
B/GND
— \. —
Present Controls
— 9 — •
EPA Oxidant Plan
1 1
YEAR
77
80
Figure 4-1 Suspended Particulate Air Quality Forecasts for the Baseline Emission
Projections
-------
EASTERN-INLAND AREA
200
100--
72
AZ U SA
*—
TGT.
B/CND
.,-J
Present Controls
— ^__ ^
EPA Oxidant Plan
1 1
200
ONTAR IO
00
a.
100--
77
80
TCT.
B/GND
1
Present Controls
EPA Oxidant Plan
i I
1 1
72
200
RIVERSIDE
100--
77 80
B/GND.
72
Present Controls
EPA Oxidant Plan
77 80
o
en
LEGEND:
TCT.
B/GND
WESTERN SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY HOT-SPOT
-TARGET FOR
PRIMARY STANDARD
'ESTIMATED BACKGROUND
300
e
00
a.
z:
-------
It is apparent that the projected increases in primary particulate,
S09, and NO emissions will lead to a deterioration of suspended participate
t X
air quality at most locations. Reductions in secondary organics (due to
decreases in RHC emissions) are sufficient to keep particulate levels
about constant in the eastern-inland area where secondary organics are
particularly important. The deterioration of air quality is especially
pronounced at Chino; with no further controls, the forecasted increase in
primary particulates and SC^ from the Kaiser Steel/Edison Electric com-
plex will result in considerable worsening of an already severe particu-
late problem.*
In the final report of this study, an implementation plan is formulated
to achieve decreases in primary particulate, SCL, NO , and RHC emissions
Cm /\
by 1977 and 1980. The effect of these emission reductions will again be
calculated using the simple linear model of Section 4.0. The goal will be
to select control strategies that will be sufficient to attain the federal
standards for total suspended particulates in the Los Angeles Region.
*Actually, some significant emission controls are planned for the
Kaiser/Edison complex. They have not been included in the above
projections because the expected emission reductions have not
yet been documented. These controls may be similar to the controls
proposed in the final report of this study.
106
-------
REFERENCES
1. TRW Environmental Services, The Development of a Particulate Imple-
mentation Plan for the Los Angeles Region, Support Document #1, Analysis of
Air Monitoring Data, (Preliminary), Prepared for the Environmental
Protection Agency under Contract #68-02-1384, Redondo Beach, California,
May 1974.
2. White, W., Post Doctoral Research Assistant, Environmental Health
Engineering Department, Caltech, Pasadena, California. Personal
Communication of data from Phase II of the California Aerosol
Characterization Study (ACHEX) performed by Rockwell International
for the California Air Resources Board under Contract #358, July 1974.
3. Lundgren, D. A., "Atmospheric Aerosol Composition and Concentration
as a Function of Particle Size and of Time", Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association, Vol. 20, #9, September 1970.
4. Duckworth, S., Meteorologist, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento,
California. Personal Communication, May 1974.
5. San Bernardino Air Pollution Control District, Final Report ...
Suspended Dust Study,/v 1969.
6. White, W., Post Doctoral Research Assistant, Environmental Health
Engineering Department, Caltech, Pasadena, California. Personal
Communication, July 1974.
7. Miller, M. S., Friedlander, S. K., and Hidy, G. M., "A Chemical
Element Balance for the Pasadena Aerosol", Journal of Colloid and
Interface Science. Vol. 39. No. 1, April 1972.
8. Hidy, G. M., et al., "Observations of Aerosols Over Southern California
Coastal Waters", Submitted to Journal of Applied Meteorology, May 1973.
9. Holzworth, G. C., "Atmospheric Contamination at Remote California
Sites", J. Meteorol, 16, #68, February 1959.
10. Hidy, G. M., et al, Characterization of Aerosols in California,
Interim Report for Phase I, Prepared for the California Air Resources
Board by Rockwell International Under ARB Contract #358, December 1973.
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Quality Data for 1967 from
the National Air Surveillance Networks, APTD-0978, August 1972.
12. Hidy, G. M., and Friedlander, S. K., "The Nature of the Los Angeles
Aerosol", Proceedings of the Second International Clean Air Congress,
Academic Press, p. 391-404, 1971.
107
-------
13. Friedlander, S. K., "Chemical Element Balances and Identification
of Air Pollution Sources", Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 7,
#3, March 1973.
14. Gartrell, G., and Friedlander, S. K., "Relating Particulate Pollution
to Sources: The 1972 California Aerosol Characterization Study",
Horking Paper, W. M. KecK Laboratory of Environmental Engineering,
Caltech, Pasadena, California.
15. California Air Resources Board, "California Air Quality Data",
Quarterly Reports, 1972-1973.
16. Gordon, R. J. and Bryan, R. J., "Ammonium Nitrate in Airborne Particles
in Los Angeles", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 7. July 1973.
17. Grosjean, Daniel, Research Associate, Environmental Health Engineering,
Caltech, Pasadena, California, Personal Communication, June 1974.
18. TRW Environmental Sources, The Development of a Particulate Implementa-
tion Plan for the Los Angeles Region. Support .Document f2, Emission Inventories
and Projections (Preliminary), Prepared tor the tnvironmental Protection
Agency under Contract #68-02-1384, June 1974.
19. Holmes, J., Spectroscopist, California Air Resources Board, El Monte,
California. Personal Communication, July 1974.
20. Ter Haar, G. L., Lenane, D. L., and Brandt, M., "Composition, Size
and Control of Automotive Exhaust Particulates", J. of the Air
Poll. Control Assoc.. Vol. 22. #1, January 1972.
21. Habibi, K., "Characterization of Particulate Matter in Vehicle Exhaust",
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 7, #3, March 1973.
22. O'Brien, R. J., Holmes, J. R., and Bockian, A. H., "Photochemical
Aerosol Formation in the Atmosphere and in an Environmental Chamber",
Presentation before the Division of Environmental Chemistry, American
Chemical Society, Los Angeles, April 1974.
23. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Air Monitoring
Logs, 434 So. San Pedro St., Los Angeles.
24. Zeldin, M., Meteorologist, San Bernardino County Air Pollution Control
District. Personal Communication, May 1974.
25. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Air Quality Criteria
for Sulfur Oxides, AP-50, April 1970.
26. Bufalini, M., "Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide in Polluted Atmospheres -
A Review", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, #8, August 1971.
27. Altshuller, A. P., "Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfate", Environ-
mental Science and Technology. Vol. 7, #8, August 1973.
108
-------
28. Appel , B., "Sulfate and Nitrate Chemistry in Photochemical Smog",
Presentation before the Division of Environmental Chemistry, American
Chemical Society, Los Angeles, April 1974.
29. Roberts, Paul, Graduate Student, Environmental Health Engineering,
Caltech, Pasadena, California, Personal Communication, June 1974.
30. Appel, B., Air and Industrial Hygiene Laboratory, California Department
of Public Health, Berkeley, California, Personal Communication, June 1974
31. Gerhard, E. R. and Johnstone, E. F., "Photo Chemical Oxidation of
Sulfur Dioxide in Air", Ind. Eng. Chem.. Vol . 47. May 1955.
32. Urone, P., Lutsep, H., Nozes, C. M., and Parcher, J. F., "Static
Studies of Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in Air", Environmental Science
and Technology, Vol. 2. 1968.
33. Hall, T. C., Jr., Ph.D. Thesis, University of California at Los Angeles,
1953.
34. Renzetti, N. A. and Doyle, G. J., "Photochemical Aerosol Formation in
Sulfur Dioxide - Hydrocarbon Systems". International Journal of Air
Pollution, Vol. 2. June 1960.
35, Wilson, W. E. Jr. and Levy, A., "Studies of Sulfur Dioxide in
Photochemical Smog", American Petroleum Institute, Project S-ll,
Batelle Memorial Institute, 1968.
36. Leighton, P. A., Photochemistry of Air Pollution, Academic Press,
New York, 1961.
37. Junge, C. E. and Ryan, T., "Study of the S0? Oxidation in Solution
and its Role in Atmospheric Chemistry", Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol . Soc..
Vol . 84, January 1958.
38. Smith, B. M., Wagman, J., and Foh, B. R., "Interaction of Airborne
Particles with .Gases", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol . 3.
1969.
39. Cox, R.A. and Penkett, S.A., "Aerosol Formulation from Sulfur Dioxide
in the Presence of Ozone and Olefinic Hydrocarbons", Journal of the
Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions, 1, Vol.68,
40. Wadley, M., Chief Chemist, Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control
District. Personal Communication, July 1974.
41. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Profile in Air
Pollution Control , 1971.
42. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Quality Criteria for Nitrogen
Oxides, AP-84, January 1971.
109
-------
43. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Quality Data for 1968 from the
National Air Surveillance Networks, APTD-U9/8, August
44. Renzetti, N. A. and Doyle, G. J., "The Chemical Mature of the Particulate
in Irradiated Automobile Exhaust", Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Vol. 8, 1959.
45. Wilson, W. E., Merryman, E. L., and Levy, A., A Literature Survey of
Aerosol Formation and Visibility Reduction in Photochemical Smog,
American Petroleum Institute, Project EF-2, Battelle Memorial Institute,
August 1969.
46. Prager, M. J., Stephens, E. R., and Scott, W. E., "Aerosol Formation
from Gaseous Air Pollutants", Int. Journal of Air and Water Pollution,
Vol. 9. 1965.
47. Miller, D. F., Levy, A., and Wilson, W. E. Jr., A Study of Motor-Fuel
Composition Effects on Aerosol Formation, Part II. Aerosol Reactivity
Study of Hydrocarbons, American Petroleum Institute, Project EF-2,
Battelle Memorial Institute, February 1972.
48. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Air Quality Criteria
for Hydrocarbons. AP-64, March 1970.
49. Dimitriades, B., "Application of Reactivity Criteria in Development
of Control Strategies", EPA Working Paper, Chemistry and Physics
Laboratory, June 1973.
50. Miller, D. F., Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. Personal
Communication, May 1974.
51. Federal Register. Vol. 38, No. 217, Nov. 12, 1973
110
-------
APPENDIX A
A METHOD FOR PROJECTING EMISSIONS AND CALCULATING
CONTROL IMPACTS FOR THE KAISER/EDISON COMPLEX
As noted in the text, (Section 4.0), the air quality/emission level
model developed here is applied to the Chino monitoring site in a special-
ized way. The effect of primary particulate and sulfate emissions from
the Kaiser Steel/Edison Electric complex is treated individually. This
Appendix outlines the method that will be used in this study to project
emissions for the Kaiser/Edison complex and to calculate the impact of
control measures on those emissions.
Table A-l gives a breakdown of suspended particulate and S02 emis-
sions from the Kaiser/Edison complex. There are three main categories,
metallurgical processes at Kaiser, oil/gas combustion at Kaiser, and
oil/gas combustion at Edison. To project primary suspended particulate
TABLE A-l
BREAKDOWN OF PRIMARY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE
AND S02 EMISSIONS AT THE KAISER/EDISON COMPLEX
Primary Suspended
Particulates
so2
EMISSIONS — (TONS/DAY)
KAISER STEEL
Metallurgical
Processes
4.1
14.8
Oil and Gas
Combustion
1.0
5.4
EDISON ELECTRIC
ETIWANDA PLANT)
1.1
12.2
TOTAL
6.2
32.4
REFERENCES
Emission Data: [Al]
Particulate Suspension Assumptions:
A-l
[A2]
-------
and S02 emissions from this complex and to calculate reductions from
various control strategies, the following procedures will be used:
• The emissions from metallurgical processes at Kaiser Steel
will be projected proportional to total metallurgical
emissions in the 4 County Sub-Area.
0 The emissions from oil and gas combustion at Kaiser Steel
will be projected proportionate to total industrial fuel
combustion emissions in the 4 County Sub-Area.
• The emissions at the Edison Etiwanda Plant will be pro-
jected proportional to total power plant emissions in
the 4 County Sub-Area.
REFERENCES - APPENDIX A
A-l. Hilovsky, R., Engineering Department, San Bernardino County Air
Pollution Control District, personal communication, September 1974.
A-2. TRW Environmental Services, "The Development of a Particulate
Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region, Support Document
#2, Emission Inventories and Projections", prepared for the
Environmental Protection Agency under contract #68-02-1384, June 1974
A-2
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #4
ALTERNATIVE EMISSION CONTROL MEASURES
CO
in
By: G. Richard
GO
-------
AN IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATTER IN THE LOS ANGELES REGION
TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT #4
ALTERNATIVE EMISSION CONTROL MEASURES
By: G. Richard
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Region IX - San Francisco, California
TRW/
O TRANSPORTATION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
PEPATIONS
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
by TRW Transportation and Environmental Engineering Operations in fulfill-
ment of Contract Number 68-02-1384. The contents of this report are
reproduced herein as received from the contractor. The opinions, findings,
and conclusions are those of TRW and not necessarily those of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names does not
constitute endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
n
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION . 1
2.0 SUMMARY 3
2.1 Emission Control Region - The Four-County Area . 3
2.2 The Major Pollution Sources 4
2.3 Existing Air Pollution Control 6
2.4 Alternative and Additional Candidate Controls 6
2.4.1 Identification of Candidate Control Measures 8
2.4.2 Effectiveness of the Candidate Control Measures 10
2.4.3 Cost of the Candidate Control Measures 13
2.5 Limitations of the Analysis 15
2.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 17
3.0 GENERAL CONTROL METHODS 21
3.1 Controls for Primary Particulates 21
3.1.1 Mechanical Collectors 23
3.1.2 Wet Scrubbers 27
3.1.3 Electrostatic Precipitators 28
3.2 Controls for Gaseous Precursors 37
3.2.1 Desulfurization of Petroleum Products 37
3.2.2 S02 Removal Technology 46
3.3 Alternative Fuels - A Control for Particulates, SOo, and 50
NOX
3.4 Non Technological Controls 64
3.4.1 Growth Restrictions 65
3.4.2 Relocation 65
3.4.3 Source Usage 66
4.0 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 69
4.1 Baseline Characterization 69
4.1.1 Emissions 69
4.1.2 Emission Control 73
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
4.2 Alternative Control Measures • 75
4.2.1 Particulate - Electrical Precipitators 75
4.2.2 Gaseous Precursors 77
5.0 STATIONARY FUEL COMBUSTION 85
5.1 Baseline Emissions 85
5.2 Current Emission Controls 89
5-3 Alternative Control Measures 91
5.3.1 Control of Particulates ' " 91
.5.3.2 NOV Control 95
A
5.3.3 Control of S02 101
6.0 MINERALS INDUSTRY 113
6.1 Baseline Emissions and Controls 113
6.2 Alternative Control Measures 119
7.0 AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS 123
7.1 Baseline Characterization 123
7.1.1 Aircraft Emissions 123
7.1.2 Emission Controls 126
7.2 Alternative Control Measures 128
7.2.1 Retrofit Alternatives: Turbine Engines 128
7.2.2 Modification of Ground Operations 141
7.2.3 Fuel Alternatives 144
7.2.4 Retrofits for Piston Aircraft 145
8.0 MOTOR VEHICLE 149
8.1 Baseline Emissions and Emission Controls 149
8.2 Alternative Control Measures 155
8.2.1 Fuel Composition 155
8.2.2 -Particulate Trap Devices 167
8.2.3 SQg Scrubbers 171
8.2.4 Fuel Substitution 174
8.2.5 Tire Options 175
IV
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
9.0 ORGANIC SOLVENTS 181
9.1 Baseline Emissions and Controls 181
9.2 Alternative Controls 185
10.0 METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS 187
10.1 Baseline Emissions 187
10.2 Emissions Controls 188
10.3 Alternative Controls 190
11.0 CHEMICAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY 197
11.1 Baseline Emissions 197
11.2 Emission Controls 198
11.3 Alternative Controls 198
-------
LIST OF TABLES
2-1 Major Emission Sources of the Four-County Area, For
Baseyear (1972) and Future Years Under the EPA
Implementation Plan 5
2-2 Summary of Emission Preventions Attainable With Imple-
mentation of the Most Effective Emission Control Op-
tions, Four-County Area, 1977 11
2-3 Summary of Cost for Implementation of Most Effective
Emission Control Options, Four County Area, 1977 14
3-1 Cyclone Efficiency Versus Particle Size Range 25
3-2 Scrubber Capabilities 28
3-3 Control Mechanism for Particle Size Collection 33
3-4 Sulfur Content of Refinery Products for Different Crudes 38
3-5 Onplot Investment for Alternative Desulfurization Schemes 44
3-6 Direct Manufacturing Costs for Alternate Desulfurization
Systems 45
3-7 Process for Desulfurization of Effluent Gas Streams
Processed Principally in the Gas Phase 47
3-8 Lime-Limestone S0¥ Scrubbing Large-Scale Projects 51
A
3-9 Processes Used for Sulfur Removal From Claus Tail Gas 55
3-10 SOg Removal Processes Currently in Test 56
3-11 Capital Cost of Retrofitting S02 Cleanup Technology
In Existing Power Generating Plants 58
3-12 Production Cost of Energy in Fuels, September 1972 61
3-13 Economics of Synthesis of 20,000 Tons/Day of
Methanol (MeOH) From Coal 62
4-1 Emissions from the Petroleum Industry, Present and Future
Four-County Area 70
4-2 Particulate Emissions From Petroleum Industry Operations,
Four-County Area, 1972 71
4-3 S02 Emissions from Operations of the Petroleum Industry
Four-County Area 72
4-4 NO Emissions From Operations of the Petroleum Industry,
Four-County Area 72
vi
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
4-5 Characterization of Control Methods Currently Utilized
In Petroleum Industry for Control of Major Particulate
Emission Sources, Four-County Area, 1972 74
4-6 Impact of Alternative Controls on Emissions From
Petroleum Refineries, 1977 81
4-7 Cost Effectiveness of Alternative Controls for Refinery
Major Emission Sources in Four-County Area, 1977 82
5-1 Emissions of Fuel Combustion, Four-County Area 86
5-2 Summary of Fuel Burning Equipment 87
5-3 Comparison of Pollutants Emitted From Power Plants When
Burning Natural Gas and Fuel Oil 87
5-4 Proportion of Fuel Usage (Percent) as Natural Gas For
Basic Combustion Categories in South Coast Basin 88
5-5 Pollutant Emissions by Fuel Type Consumed for Basic
Combustion Categories in Four-County Area 88
5-6 Summary of NO Emission Rate Reductions Achieved at
Edison Company Utility Boilers when Burning Gas Fuel 90
5-7 Particle Size Distribution of Typical Material Collected
From a Steam Generator Stack During the Burning of
Residual Fuel Oil 92
5-8 The Effect of Particulate Controls on Oil-Burning
Combustion Equipment, 1977 93
5-9 Cost of Particulate Emission Control for Oil-Burning
Combustion Equipment, 1977 94
5-10 The Effect of NO Emission Controls on Fuel Combustion
Equipment, Four-County Area 99
5-11 Impact of Candidate Controls on S02 Emissions From Fuel
Combustion Units in Four-County Area, 1977 104
5-12 Cost of Controls for S02 Emissions From Fuel Combustion
Units in Four-County Area 106
5-13 Impact of Conversion to Methyl-Fuel in Combustion Units
in Four-County Area 108
5-14 Cost of Conversion to Burning to Methyl-Fuel in
Combustion Equipment 108
vi 1
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
6-1 Participate Emissions from Major Mineral Process and
Product Industries in the Four-County Area 114
6-2 Summary of Emission Controls Currently Utilized in
Minerals Industry of Los Angeles County 115
7-1 Emissions From Aircraft, Present and Projected,
Four-County Area 124
7-2 Jumbo Jet Emission Characteristics 125
7-3 General Aviation Piston Emission Characteristics 125
7-4 Aircraft Emissions, Present and Projected Piston and Jet 126
7-5 Effect of Smoke Combustor Retrofit On Emissions in
Los Angeles County 126
7-6 Aircraft Emission Standards 127
7-7 Engine Modifications for Emission Control for Existing
And Future Turbine Engines 128
7-8 Effectiveness of Engine Modification in Control of Emis-
sions from Turbine Engines, By Operating Mode 130
7-9 Basis for Control Method Effectiveness Estimates For
Turbine Engines 132
7-10 Turbine Engine Classification 133
7-11 Average Annual Tons of Air Contaminants Emitted in Los
Angeles County By Gas Turbine Aircraft Engines Operated
At LAX in 1970 134
7-12 Modal Emissions Distribution for Principal Jet Engines
In use • 136
7-13 Impact of Alternative Control on Overall Jet Aircraft
Emissions 137
7-14 Time and Costs for Modification of Current Civil
Aviation Engines 138
7-15 Cost Results for Turbine Engine Population by Separate
Use Categories 139
7-16 Cost Effectiveness for Turbine Retrofit Measures, 1977,
Four-County Area 140
viii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Page
7-17 Comparative Reductions Resulting From Control Methods
Applied at Los Angeles International Airport 143
7-18 Impact of Ground Operation Modifications on Turbine
Aircraft Emissions of Four-County Area 144
7-19 Engine Modifications for Emission Control for Existing
and Future Piston Engines 147
8-1 Role of Motor Vehicle Emissions in Atmospheric Pollution
of Four-County Area 149
8-2 Sulfuric Acid Emissions From Pelletized Oxidation
Catalyst Equipped Vehicle, 1975 Federal Test Procedure 152
8-3 Sulfuric Acid Emissions From Monolithic Oxidation
Catalyst Equipped Vehicles, 1972 Federal Test Procedure 152
8-4 Suspended Particulate Emissions From Motor Vehicles Using
Leaded And Unleaded Fuel 156'
8-5 The Effect of Lead Removal in Motor Fuels on Motor'
Vehicle Particulate Exhaust Emissions in Four-County Area 160
8-6 Cost of Removing all Lead From Motor Vehicle Fuel Pool (As
Opposed to the EPA Plan Requiring Partial Removal by 1977) 161
8-7 The Effect of Automotive Fuel Desulfurization (100 ppm)
on Motor Vehicle Emissions in Four County Area 164
8-8 Cost of Desulfurization of Vehicle Fuels for Control
of Exhaust Emissions 165
8-9 Impact of Particulate Traps on Particulate Emissions From
Motor Vehicles in Four-County Area 169
8-10 Cost of Implementing Particulate Emission Control From
Motor Vehicles with Particulate Traps, Four-County Area 170
8-11 Impact of Scrubber on S02 and Particulate Emissions From
Motor Vehicles in Four County Area 172
8-12 Cost of Equipping Vehicle Population With Scrubber Device For
Control of S09 and Particulate Emissions, Four-County Area,
1977 * 173
8-13 Emissions From a 1972 Gremlin Converted for Methanol
Consumption 175
9-1 Role of Organic Solvent Emissions in Atmospheric Pollution
of Four-County Area 181
ix
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
9-2 Emissions From Organic Solvent Operations In Four-
County Area 182
9-3 Characterization of Emission Sources Arising From Organic
Solvent Operations in Los Angeles County, 1972 183
9-4 Emissions From Paint Spray Booths and "Other" Organic
Solvent Operations, Four-County Area, 1972 184
9-5 Effect of Retrofit Water Wash Control on Emissions From
Paint Spray Booths 185
10-1 Role of Metallurgical Industry Emissions in Atmospheric
Pollution of Four-County Area - 187
10-2 Emissions From Metallurgical Operations in Four-County Area 188
10-3 Characterization of Furnace Control Effectiveness, Four-
County Area 189
10-4 Characterization of Emission Sources Arising From
Metallurgical Operations in Los Angeles County, 1972 191
10-5 Effect of Baghouse Retrofit on Uncontrolled Particulate
Emissions from Furnaces in Four-County Area 193
10-6 Effect of Retrofitting S02 Cleanup Systems to Lead Refining
Furnace Effluents in Four-County Area 193
10-7 Cost of Retrofit Control Alternatives for Metallurgical
Furnace Emissions, Four-County Area, 1977 194
11-1 Role of Chemical Processing Industry in Atmospheric
Pollution of Four-County Area 197
11-2 Emissions From Chemical Processing Operations in Four-
County Area, Tons/Day 198
11-3 Characterization of Particulate Emission Sources Associated
With Chemical Processing Operations in Los Angeles County 200
-------
LIST OF FIGURES Page
2-1 Degree of Emission Control Effectiveness Required
To Maintain a Given Air Quality When Emission Sources
Are Increasing 12
3-1 Increasing Market Demand for Air Pollution Equipment in
United States 22
3-2 Baffled Settling Chamber 23
3-3 Reverse Flow Cyclone 24
3-4 Purchase and Installation Cost of Centrifugal Collectors 26
3-5 Annualized Cost of Operation of Centrifugal Collectors 26
3-6 Purchase and Installation Cost of Wet Collectors 29
3-7 Annualized Cost of Wet Collectors 29
3-8 Cross Sectional View of Tubular Blast Furnace Electrical
Precipitator 31
3-9 Cost of Purchase and Installation of High-rVoltage Electrical
Precipitator 32
i
3-10 Annualized Cost of Operation of High-Voltage Electrostatic
Precipitator 32
3-11 Schematic of Basic Three Baghouse Designs 35
3-12 Cost of Purchase and Installation of Baghouse Particulate
Collector 36
3-13 Annualized Cost of Operation of Baghouse Particulate
Collectors 36
3-14 Continued Improvement in VGO Isomax Process 39
3-15 Cost to Desulfurize Arabian Heavy Crude Oil with VGO Isomax 40
3-16 Effect of Feed Desulfurization on Fluid Catalytic Cracker
Product Sulfur Contents at Constant Cracking Severity 41
3-17 Cost of Effectiveness for S02 Removal Systems 57
3-18 The Investment for Desulfurization Facilities at Sulfur
Recovery Plants 59
3-19 Operating Costs for Removing the Residual Sulfur from
Conventional Claus Units 59
XI
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
4-1 Role of Petroleum Industry in Atmospheric Pollution of
Four-County Area, 1972 70
4-2 Control of Particulates and Carbon Monoxide in Catalytic
Regeneration Systems 75
4-3 Effect of Sulfur Content on Cracker Feed Stock on Regenera-
tion Unit Stack SOp Emissions 80
5-1 Role of Fuel Combustion in Atmospheric Pollution of
Four-County Area 85
5-2 Effect of Combustion Air Quantity on NO Formation 96
b-3 Effect of Combustion Air Preheat Temperature on NO Formation 97
7-1 Role of Aircraft Emissions in Atmospheric Pollution of
Four-County Area 123
7-2 Gaseous Emission Characteristics of a JT8D Turbine Engine 142
7-3 Emission Characteristics for Piston Engine 145
8-1 The Effect of Exhaust Emission Standards on Pollutant
Emissions from Various Vehicle Categories 151
8-2 Effect of Lab Sulfur Charging on CO Reactivity of a
Cu-CR Catalyst 154
8-3 Effect of Lab Sulfur Charging on HC Reactivity of a
Cu-Cr Catalyst 154
8-4 Typical "Blending" Properties of Southern California
Motor Gasoline 159
xi i
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Under contract to the Environmental Protection Agency, TRW Environmental
Services has developed a participate implementation plan for the Metropolitan
Los Angeles Air Quality Control Region. Specifically, TRW has investigated
strategies for approaching and achieving the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards for suspended particulate matter in'.the Los Angeles Region. This
report, the "fourth of four technical support documents associated with the
project, provides a characterization of alternative emission control mea-
sures applicable to the Los Angeles Region.
The objective of the study described in this report was to identify
and characterize the various alternative emission control measures which
might be employed to achieve the Ambient Air Quality Standards for par-
ti cul ate matter in the Los Angeles Region. Recognizing that several types
of emissions are related to pollution by airborne particles, the study
included an identification of emission control options for the management
of gaseous precursors of secondary particulates, namely sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. The omission in the study of the consideration of emis-
sion controls for reactive hydrocarbon precursors was justified on the ,
basis that the control of this pollutant species was the principal subject
of extensive investigation in the preparation of the State Air Program
Implementation plan. Consequently it was considered unlikely that this
study could provide additional insights to this already well studied issue.
The study deals with the control of emissions from the eight dominant
emission source categories. The investigation of alternative emission conr-
trol measures which may be used to prevent emission of particulates, SOp,
and NO from each of the eight source categories is compiled in eight
J\
corresponding sections of the report. Each of the sections is a self-^
contained chapter containing 1) a characterization of the baseyear and
projected baseline (assuming implementation of EPA air programs) emissions
for the category, 2) a description of existing emission control methods,
-------
and 3) an identification, and description of candidate emission control mea-
sures, and an analysis of the impact and cost of these controls. Section 3.0
provides an overview of the more significant emission control measures
relevant to the study, and Section 2.0 contains a summary of some of the
more significant findings.
The investigation was carried out through reliance on several dif-
ferent data sources. The Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District co-
operated in supplying TRW with a printout of the District's Computer
Emission Inventory File, which provides a description of each individual
emission source permit in terms of the process equipment, emission control
equipment, and emissions and preventions estimates. This file was utilized
primarily to help determine the current status of controls in the different
source categories. Numerous consultations with APCD officials were ar-
ranged to augment and clarify the District's data. Candidate emission con-
trol alternatives were identified by a search of the public domain, by
contact with numerous manufacturers of the eight process categories, by
contact with developers and manufacturers of the candidate control systems,
and by communication with cognizant researchers studying in the subject
area.
It is hoped that the individual chapters of this report will help
provide a basis for the formulation of an emission control strategy which
may be implemented to attain the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
in the Los Angeles Region.
-------
2.0 SUMMARY
This chapter provides a brief summary of the more significant findings
of the study on alternative emission control measures. It is necessarily
selective with regard to certain aspects of the study, hence the reader is
encouraged not to constrain his scope solely within the summary framework.
Section 2.1 describes the basis for the emission control study region defi-
nition; Section 2.2 includes a delineation of the major emission source
categories of the study; Section 2.3 is a characterization of current emis-
sion controls; Section 2.'4 provides a discussion of candidate emission con-
trols; Section 2.5 is a statement of limitations affecting the study, and
Section 2.6 provides recommendations based on the study findings.
2.1 EMISSION CONTROL STUDY REGION - THE FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Air monitoring data has consistently shown that there are substantial
variations in air quality among various portions of the South Coast Air
Basin. One of the most definitive regional differences is the contrast of
air quality characteristics fn Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties with
those in the remainder of the Basin (Los Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino,
and Riverside Counties). The air resources of Santa Barbara and Ventura
are relatively remote from the remaining "Four-County Area" in a meteoro-
logical sense, and consequently the air pollution problems of these two
portions of the Basin are distinctly separate. Moreover, the character
and quantity of pollution sources of each of the two regions are substan-
tially different. These factors would suggest the sensibility of develop-
ing separate air resources management techniques for each of the two portions,
Air monitoring data for Santa Barbara and Ventura demonstrate that
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate concentrations
are seldom exceeded. By contrast, the remaining Four-County Area of the
Basin frequently experiences dramatic violations of the particulate
standard. Except for minor differences, the air pollution regulations
governing pollution sources in both Basin segments are essentially the
same. In view of these factors, it appears plausible to direct the sub-
stantial effort of this study to develop pollution control alternatives for
the worst case of the Basin, (the Four-County Area) with the reasonable
-------
assumption that this effort would adapt to the construction of candidate
control plans applicable to the two northern counties of the Basin.
2.2 THE MAJOR AIR POLLUTION SOURCES
In Los Angeles, formidable reductions in air pollution emissions must
be obtained if air quality is to be upgraded to the National Ambient Air
Standards. A successful air pollution control implementation plan will
depend greatly on the effectiveness of controls proposed for the major
pollution sources. Clearly the control of the largest sources is a pre-
requisite to any further action. If it can be shown that effective emission
controls can be feasibly applied to large pollution sources, the justification
exists to develop further an equitable plan for control of smaller, less
significant sources.
It was established early in this study that the greater portion of the
effort should be directed to investigating the feasibility of controlling
emissions from large sources. Large sources were identified in terms of
those process categories which are the most significant generators of parti-
culate emissions, including the gaseous precursors NOX and S02- Examination
of the 1972 baseyear for the Four-County Area revealed the dominance of eight
major process categories in the role of significant pollution. Table 2-1
provides an identification of the eight categories, and their role in
atmospheric emissions. The eight process categories are responsible for all
but about 3% of the particulate, SOg, or NO emissions generated about the
Four-County Area. This status of this relationship is maintained for the
next several years. The remaining 3% of the Four-County emission inventory
is comprised of sources such as ships and railroads, agriculture, and
incineration operations.
Of the eight major process categories, four warrant special attention.
These are fuel combustion, motor vehicles, petroleum refining, and aircraft.
In 1977 these four process categories themselves are projected to account
for 79% of all SO? emitted from sources in the Four-County Area, 93% of all
S0? emitted, and 98% of all NO generated. It is clear that effective
£ A
control of these four major sources must be achieved for attainment of
ambient air quality federal standards.
-------
TABLE 2-1. MAJOR EMISSION SOURCES OF THE FOUR-COUNTY AREA, FOR BASEYEAR (1972)
AND FUTURE YEARS UNDER THE EPA IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
Total Parti culates
Process Category
1. Fuel Combustion
2. Motor Vehicles3
3. Petroleum
4. Aircraft
5. Chemical
6. Metallurgical
7. Organic Solvent
8. Mineral
SUBTOTAL FOR 8 CATEGORIES
TOTAL EMISSIONS, FOUR-COUNTY
AREA
PERCENTAGE OF ALL EMISSIONS
GENERATED BY 8 CATEGORIES
1972
44.9
85.4
3.0
15.0
9.2
12.3
8.0
12.3
190
196
97.0
1977
83.5
71.4
3.0
26.8
9.7
13.4
8.5
12.5
229
235
97.4
1980
86.1
69.2
3.0
38.3
10.1
14.0
8.7
12.8
242
249
97.2
1972
208
48.9
60.0
3.6
97.0
13.0
-
1.4
432
444
97.2
S02
1977
374
46.1
60.0
6.5
10.0
15.0
-
1.7
515
525
97.7
1980
380
47.0
60.0
9.6
10.1
15.9
-
1.8
524
536
97.8
T972
282
950
67.5
18.6
.4
.5
-
-
1319
1345
98.1
NOX
1977
672
815
67.5
32.2
.5
.6
-
-
1588
1614
98.3
1980
629
665
67.5
45.4
.5
. .5
-
-
1408
1434
98.2
Motor Vehicle emissions include airborne particulates arising from tire wear.
Source: data: Reference (1).
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2.3 EXISTING POLLUTION CONTROL
The enactment of definitive and extensive air pollution regulations
in the South Coast Air Basin has given rise to an immense system of methods
and equipment for control of various emissions of air contaminants from
stationary sources. The Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
credits the District's regulations and permit system for the control and
prevention of 95% of all potential emissions of particulate matter in the
Basin, 88% of the emissions of SO,, 59% of the NOU, and 86% of the reactive
o c X
hydrocarbons. Emissions from virtually all stationary emission sources
are restricted within allowable limits as specified by the numerous rules
applicable in each of the six Basin counties. Strict construction of the
rules and an enforcement program have caused a high degree of compliance
with the emission regulations, according to local APCD officials. However,
despite an indicated capacity for local agencies to manage air programs
effectively, it is also evident at the same time that the current air pro-
grams themselves cannot provide the degree of emission control which is
needed for attainment of federal ambient air standards.
The current state air program implementation plan is constructed with
the aim of preventing hydrocarbon and NO emissions, and therefore does not
A
address the problem of increasing loadings of particulates and SO^ to the
atmosphere in future years. The effect of the implementation plan on
contaminant emissions related to atmospheric particulate matter is indicated
in Table 2-1. Only two of the eight major process categories will claim
reductions in particulate and S02 emissions by 1980: 1) SOy emissions from
sulfur recovery plants are being drastically reduced due to the local
District's new Rule #53.2, and 2) particulate emissions from motor vehicles
will be reduced slightly due to catalytic muffler retrofits under the state
air program. Due to economic growth and subsequent increased activity in
the eight process categories, particulate emissions in the Four-County Area
will increase by 27% from 1972 to 1980, and S02 emissions are anticipated
to increase by 21% in the same period. The projections indicate the need
for stricter emission controls for all the process categories.
-------
Control regulations for emissions of participate matter from stationary
sources are currently satisified by utilization of standard air pollution
control devices such as mechanical separators, scrubbers, electrical pre-
cipitators, and baghouses. Baghouses and electrical precipitators are
employed extensively to obtain high efficiency particulate collection in
the final treatment of effluent gases for all the major stationary sources
except fuel combustion equipment. Emission of particulates from fuel
combustion units are regulated only by Rule 52, which allows .3 grain
of particulate matter per cubic foot of stack effluent gas. Particulate
emissions from combustion units are maintained within the allowable limit
by means of special combustion techniques, and by use of fuels with low ash
content. The utilization of increasing proportions of fuel oil anticipated
in future combustion operations accounts for the substantial projected
increase of particulate emissions from this source category.
Control regulations limiting SOp emissions from stationary sources
have been formulated to address two principal sources: power plants
(fuel combustion) and sulfur recovery Units (chemical operations). The
other major process categories (Table 2-1) are not affected by the S02
emissions rules (Rule 53) inasmuch as the concentration of S02 arising from
the equipment of these source categories is within the prescribed allowable
limits. Power plant stack emissions are managed within the allowable 2000
ppm level by burning fuels of low sulfur content. New S02 clea'nup systems
have been recently installed at sulfur recovery plants to comply with the
strict new emission standard of Rule 53.2. The S02 removal systems
exemplify a new state of the art in emission control technology. This
technology is applicable to other SOo emission sources, as discussed in
Section 3.2.2.
Regulations governing allowable emissions of NO from stationary
X
sources are practically non-existent, except for those governing fuel com-
bustion sources. These control requirements have been met with the incor-
poration of burner design modifications and by modification of operating
conditions (discussed in Section 5.0).
Emission control rules limiting hydrocarbon emissions from stationary
sources are generally met by incorporating equipment to prevent evaporation
-------
of organic vapors (such as closure seals on storage tanks, or closed vapor
recovery systems used during transfer of volatile organic liquids), or
sometimes by combustion in afterburners. As previously explained in
Section 1.0, the control of hydrocarbon emission is a problem which was
extensively examined in the preparation of the State Air Program Imple-
mentation Plan, and consequently was not reconsidered again in this study.
Control regulations affecting mobile emission sources are enacted and
enforced by the State of California or the federal government, and are not
a responsibility of the local air pollution control districts. Legislation
of motor vehicle regulations has resulted in an evolution of motor vehicle
emission standards and emission control retrofits which are constructed
primarily for the control of hydrocarbon, CO, and NO emissions. The
/\
implementation of additional retrofits and more stringent motor vehicle
emission standards is scheduled to continue in the next few years. The
enactment of these controls is presently forcing the development of
emission control technology, and these demands are currently scheduled to
be satisfied by utilization of catalytic exhaust devices. In the Four-
County Area these exhaust devices will be employed as retrofits for a
large segment of the motor vehicle population. Reductions of hydrocarbon
and CO are the specific goals of these controls. No specific controls are
proposed for the purpose of reducing emissions of S02 and particulates.
2.4 ALTERNATIVE AND ADDITIONAL CANDIDATE CONTROLS
Various air pollution control techniques were identified in the .
study as candidates to improve the control of emissions from the major eight
source categories. The following sections provide a brief summary charac*
terizing these candidate control options.
2.4.1 Identification of Candidate Controls
The most significant emission control options identified in the study
are: 1) desulfurization of petroleum products to very low sulfur levels,
2) alternative fuels, 3) S02 removal processes, 4) motor vehicle particulate
traps, 5) fabric filters or baghouses, and 6) electrical precipitators.
The first three control options listed above each represent a relatively
new state of the art in emission control technology. Desulfurization of
8'
-------
petroleum products to very low sulfur content has been practiced
commercially in very few applications. However, the technology has been
proven, and it appears to be suitable for the production of very low sulfur
fuel oils, and for motor vehicle fuels with sulfur contents below 100 ppm.
Conversion to synthetic, clean-burning fuels is another possible air pollu-
tion control option in which new technology must be consolidated into
commercial production systems. Various studies have demonstrated the
adaptability of current fuel systems to methanol fuel, and confirmed its
effectiveness in reducing polluting emissions from fuel burning operations.
Construction of several large methanol producing plants is now being
considered.as an economic route to fuel supply needed by the electric
utilities. SO^ cleanup systems represent an established emission control
technology, but one which has been employed in a limited number of appli-
cations. Still there are several S02 removal systems commercially available
for removal of S02 gases from stack effluents. In each of these systems the
objective is to produce a sulfur product (elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid,
or sulfates) which may be removed mechanically from the system.
The most promising equipment which has been developed to be responsive
to the problem of sulfate emissions from vehicles equipped with catalytic
exhaust control devices is an S02 scrubber-muffler system. The unit
operates on the basis that lead and sulfur will react with an alkaline
molten carbonate placed in the scrubber. The unit also is highly effective
for collection of total particulates. Limited testing has been performed
with the scrubber-muffler device, and there are no immediate plans by its
manufacturer to commit the concept to a production effort.
The other significant emission control options identified in the study
include the standard air pollution control equipment now used extensively
in many emission-control applications. Both baghouses and electrical
precipitators may be incorporated as emission controls in cases where 1)
sources are currently uncontrolled by either of these two devices, or
2) when the efficiency of the existing precipitator or baghouse may be
improved. In the latter case, improving the collection efficiency may
involve the replacement of an older, or less efficient unit, or the retro-
fit of an existing unit with additional equipment.
-------
Control options classified .as non-technological controls were addressed
only very briefly in this study.dy. The implementation of shutdowns, par-
tial or total, or relocation of process categories to locations where their
generation of pollution is tolerable, is generally unfeasible from an
economic standpoint. The actual disruption and socio-economic inpact of
this control option was not assessed quantitatively. It was assumed this
approach would be considered as a last resort only, or possibly as an op-
tion allowed the manufacturer in lieu of compliance with local emission
regulations.
2.4.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CANDIDATE CONTROLS
Table 2-2 provides a summary of the most effective (in terms of emis-
sion reductions) con-trol options identified in the study, including the
projected prevention of emissions attributable to their implementation in
the Four-County Area. Implementation of the control measures will reduce
the 1972 baseyear source emission totals by 54% for particulate matter,
82% for S09, and -6% for NO (the state air program implementation plan
£ A
for hydrocarbon control will reduce baseyear reactive organic emissions by
49%).
An important factor mitigating the potential effectiveness of any of
the alternative control measures is community growth. As the community
grows, both economically and physically, air polluting emissions increase
proportionately. It is evident that pollution control measures must become
increasingly more effective if the total tonnage of all source emissions is
to remain constant. Hence air pollution controls which provide
attainment of the ambient air standards in 1977 may" not be sufficient for
the same goal in 1980. The emission control regulations must be continually
modified to reflect a higher degree of pollution control needed for each
individual emission source throughout the ambient air region. The hypothetical
curve of Figure 2-1 illustrates the gains in emission control which must be af-
fected to maintain air quality at a prescribed level. As pollution control be-
comes increasingly more efficient, additional small gains in efficiency can manage
greater increases in emission levels. However, it should be noted that emission
control becomes exceedingly difficult to obtain at efficiencies over 90% (in Los
Angeles, regulations have effected control of most particulate emission sources
with a collection efficiency greater than 90%).
-------
Table:2-2. Summary of Emission Preventions Attainable with
Implementation of the Most Effective Emission
Control Options, Four-County Area, 1977
Source Category
Petroleum
Fuel Combustion
Motor Vehicles
Aircraft
Chemical
Metallurgical
Organic Solvent
Minerals
Control Option
0 improve electrical pre-
n ci pita tor *
2) Desulfurization (to .05%
of feed to catalytic
cracker
1) S0? cleanup systems
2) Combination of NOX i
controls
3) Baghouse
S02 Scrubber-muffler
1) Major combustion chamber
redesign and modifica-
tion of ground operations
2) Water injection and modi-
fication of ground
operations
None
1) SOp cleanup systems
2) Baghouses
Water wash control on paint
spray booths
None
Total Preventions
1977 Total Emission Projected Inventory
1977 Emission Inventory After Control Options
1972 Total Emission Base Year Inventory
Level of Emission Total Obtained by Control
Options, Percent Reduction of Baseyear
Emissions-
Emission
Preventions, Tons/Day
Parti culates S09 ' NOV
1.8
S)
67.9'
46.8
13.6
7.5
6.5
144:
235
;9l
196
54%
51.4
,336
334
43.8
1.4
14.8
'
13.5
446 '349
525 1614
79 1265
444 1345
82% -6%
11
-------
100
Percentage.- of
emission control
required to maintain
air quality constant
50 100 200 300 400
Level of emissions when uncontrolled
Figure 2-1. Degree of Emission Control Effective-
ness Required to Maintain a Given Air
Quality When Emission Sources Are In-
creasing.
Within each process category there are unique air pollution problems
which lend to treatment by the various alternative control measures in
distinctly separate ways. Table 2*2 shows that each of the significant con-
trol measures identified in the study is the most effective control approach
available for at least one of the major source categories. In some cases,
there are only minor advantages to be gained in emission control by using
one control in preference to another. For example, desulfurization of
petroleum products to very low sulfur content can result in effective emis7
sion control for SO^ emissions from motor vehicle travel, fuel combustion,
and petroleum refining operations. Slightly greater S02 control can be
achieved for the former categories by utilizing other options, since they
provide slightly greater removal efficiency for a given source (S02 muffler-
scrubber for motor vehicles), or they enable control of a larger portion of
the sources within the process category (S02 cleanup systems can effect
emissions from refinery heaters as well as from boilers).
Clearly there are a great number of factors which must be examined to
determine which of the emission control options are, in a true sense, the
12
-------
"most effective." First it is evident that emission controls for the Four
largest source categories cannot be evaluated on a mutually exclusive
basis. If a single control method can be utilized throughout the source
categories, its effectiveness would have to be judged according to its
overall benefits, as well as the singular effects on each process category.
Another factor in the fair appraisal of the candidate emission control
methods involves technical feasibility. Some of the measures are in a
higher state of technical refinement than others, and may therefore be
more feasible in terms of immediate implementability. Another considera-
tion in candidate appraisals must be the long term potential it possesses
for meeting emission standards which become increasingly more stringent
with time.- Several other factors are significant in the true appraisal
of an emission prevention system. Identification of these factors, and
their relative significance, is integral to final control strategy de-
velopment, which is accomplished in a succeeding report of this study.
The separate chapters of this report provide the basis by which the
various candidate control methods may be appraised.
2.4.3 COST OF THE CANDIDATE CONTROL MEASURES
The cost of implementing the "most effective" (in terms of emission
control only) control options in the Four County Area is shown in Table
2-3. A scan of the cost effectiveness column shows that these control op-
tions may be implemented for as low as $118 per ton of emission controlled
to a cost of $3200 per ton of emissions controlled. It is clear that
those controls which obtain the maximum emission reductions in each of the
process categories are also usually the most cost effective. The overall
cost effectiveness of the combined control measures is estimated to be
$1069 per ton of combined emissions of SO,,, NO , and particulates prevented.
£ J\
This corresponds to a daily air pollution control expenditure of $1.1
million in the Four County Area. If this amount was to be assessed as a
tax on automobile gasoline cost in the Four County Area, it would amount
to an 8tf per gallon price increase.
The cost effectiveness figures must be judged with some reservation.
For example, the desulfurization control option may not be fairly repre-
sented in the summary (Table 2-3) in the sense that its implementation in
-------
TABLE 2-3. SUMMARY OF COST FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF MOST EFFECTIVE
EMISSION CONTROL OPTIONS, FOUR COUNTY AREA, 1977
Source
Category
Petroleum
Fuel Combustion
Motor Vehicles
Aircraft
Chemical
Metallurgical
Organic Solvent
Minerals
Control Option
1) Improve electrical preci pita tor
2) Desulfurization (to.05%S) of
feed to catalytic cracker
1) SOp cleanup systems
2) Combination of NO controls
/\
3) Baghouse
SOp scrubber-muffler
1) Major combustion chamber
redesign and modification
of ground operations
2) Water injection and modifica-
tion of ground operations
None
1) S02 Cleanup systems
2) Baghouses
Water wash control on paint
spray booths
None
Annual i zed
Cost, Mil-
lions of
Uf j i i ti V* ^»
19.0
192
53.5
42.5
79.1
15.9
4.3
-
.5
3.4
1.6
Cost Effectiveness
$ Per Ton of Parti (
ulates, S02, or
NO Prevented
/\
$ 512
$1540
$ 440
$1530
$2380 a
$2930
$ 890
-
$ 101
$1242
$ 724
-
Range of Cost Ef-
- fectiveness (All
Measures Investi-
gated)
$ 193 - 964
$1030 - 1590
$ 18 - 1190
$ :904 1863
$ -231 - 3070a
$ 300 - 4100
$ 820 1100
-
-
.
_
Cost effectiveness for this measure is expressed in terms of the combined emissions of S02
and particulates prevented.
-------
the petroleum industry produces reductions in SCL emissions whenever the
associated petroleum products are used, and these reductions have not been
credited to this control in Table 2-3. Instead, other controls have been
utilized to obtain more complete emission control from operations (motor
vehicle) using the low sulfur fuel. If desulfurization was adopted as a
universal emission control method for the petroleum, fuel combustion,
motor vehicle, and aircraft emissions source categories, its cost effec-
tiveness would be superior to all other control alternatives identified
in this study.
The cost of controlling aircraft particulate emissions is greater
than the control cost for any of the other control options. However it
should be realized that these cost figures may be high, since the emission
reductions attributed to the major combustion chamber redesign and ground
operation modifications were conservative estimates, calculated to a base-
line turbine engine which emits at "best emission rate" levels.
Obviously, the cost effectiveness of a given control option will vary
accordingly to the degree of pollution which is available for cleanup.
For example, S0« removal systems are shown to cost $101 per ton of SO
removed when installed to manage emissions of metallurgical furnaces, but
cost $1540 per ton of SOp removed when treating effluent gases from sta-
tionary fuel combustion units. The difference in cost effectiveness is
due tn large part to the more concentrated emissions of S0~ which are
available for control from lead melting furnace effluents.
In general, the cost effectiveness of the various controls for the
mobile emission sources appears least impressive. These controls involve
the incorporation of retrofit technology to individual engines. Tradi-
tionally this type of control has been more expensive than those which
are associated with stationary industrial process operations. The source
emissions from the individual engines are relatively small, and there is
therefore only minimal control potential available.
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE ANALYSIS
Due to the open-ended nature of the study problem, there were several
judgements to be made regarding the study approach which would be utilized.
It was clear that it would not be feasible to provide a strictly rigorous
analysis of the study topic when the possibilities for research were
15
-------
practically endless and the budget for execution discretely finite. Ac-
cordingly the first major adjustment to these dilema involved the decision
to concentrate the study on identifying candidate air pollution control
measures which would have major and long term impact on control of emis-
sions from existing and projected emission sources within the Four County
Area. This decision was plausible in view of the fact that air quality
standards are violated in dramatic fashion in the study area, and only
major emission reductions will be effective toward the attainment of the
ambient air standards. Hence the numerous devices, process changes, and
operation modifications which can be employed to effect minor reductions
in air pollution were not investigated in this study.
It is recognized that the evaluation of various control options is a
difficult matter when the technology concerning their use is complex, and
in most cases represents a complete study in itself. Most of the control
alternatives consist of carefully engineered systems customed to a specif-
ic application. Hence the cost and effectiveness of a given type of con-
trol method may vary substantially depending on the particular circum-
stances of the installation and operating conditions. The scope of the
study would not permit a detailed itemization of individual emission
sources contained in the study area. There are over 30,000 emission
sources registered through the permit system «5f the Los Angeles APCD alone.
Hence it was necessary to aggregate emission sources into categories, and
to assume these aggregated emission sources representative of the entire
lot. Moreover it is assumed that efficiency characteristics and cost fig-
ures may be applied to the aggregated equipment categories in a consistent
fashion, based on simplified estimative data presented in the literature,
and on documented costs of existing installations which are similar to
those proposed in this study.
One of the most serious shortcomings of the control measures analysis
concerns the accuracy of the particulate emission inventory for the study
area. Reliable methods of measuring and quantifying existing emission
rates are not yet developed. Many of the emission estimates published by
the local air pollution control districts are based on theoretical calcu-
lations or outdated or insufficient field measurement data. Estimates of
emissions derived by different studies are frequently substantially
16
-------
different, and often there is little basis upon which one analysis may
be assumed more correct than another.
There are also many uncertainties regarding the quantification of emis-
sion preventions claimed by the APCD for existing air pollution control
equipment. Data obtained from the computer emission inventory file of the
APCD contained many apparent 'defects. Emission totals from the file are
not in accord with information contained in official publications by the
APCD. This is because the estimating procedures for each of these data
is derivitive of a distinctly separate methodology. These two systems
are targeted to evolve into a single coordinated methodology, but this
final development has been projected appreciably to the future. In the
interim, the computer emission inventory is the most complete tabulation
available in terms of a source by source identification of process equip-
ment, pollution control, source emissions, and current control preven-
tions. The data from the file was used sparingly in the study, mainly to
determine distribution of emissions within a process category for the
purpose of disaggregating emissions by equipment type.
Another problem encountered in the study concerns the use of pro-
prietary information. Information regarding feasible new control methods
is somewhat proprietary since the manufacturers have only engaged in limited
production of the controls to date. Hence it was difficult to assess the
comparative benefits of alternative controls when the basis for most perr-
formance information are figures released by the various manufacturers of
the control equipment. It was found however, in most cases, that the ef-
fectiveness and cost for the candidate control measures were less optimisti-
cally represented by the manufacturers than by governmental publications.
The analysis of this study included incorporation of less optimistic esti-
mates, both in terms of cost and control efficiency.
2.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This section provides a brief summary of conclusions and recommenda-
tions evolving during the performance of the study to identify and charac-
terize alternative emission control measures applicable to the Los Angeles
Region.
17
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Conclusions
Eight process categories are the major candidates for control in
the Los Angeles Region. These are stationary source fuel com-
bustion, motor vehicles, the petroleum industry, aircraft, the
chemical industry, metallurgical processes, organic solvent use,
and the mineral industry. Together these categories account for
more than 97 percent of the emissions of primary particulates,
S02, NOX, and RHC in the Los Angeles Region. Especially signifi-
cant are the fuel combustion, motor vehicle, petroleum, and air-
craft categories.
The federal and state motor vehicle control programs and the county
APCD stationary source control programs have achieved substantial
overall control for primary particulates and gaseous precursors of
secondary aerosol in the Los Angeles Region. However, additional
control options can be identified to bring significant further
reductions in emissions.
The most significant additional control alternatives for primary
suspended particulates in the Los Angeles Region are motor vehicle
particulate traps, fabric filters, and electrostatic precipitators.
For S02> the major options are desulfurization of petroleum pro-
ducts to very low sulfur levels, SC^ removal processes for exit
gases, and alternative fuels. For NO control, various modifica-
A
tions of combustion processes and alternative fuels are the princi-
pal control possibilities. No major new options for RHC control,
other than those contained in the EPA oxidant implementation plan,
have been identified.
Application of the most effective control options which have been
identified will attain overall reductions of 61%, 85%, and 22% for
total primary particulates, SOg and NOX respectively, from pro-
jected 1977 levels. Since emissions of each pollutant are fore-
casted to increase from 1972 to 1977, the overall reductions in
1977 from the 1972 levels are only 34%, 82%, and -6% respectively.
The. EPA oxidant plan will achieve a 51% reduction in RHC levels
from 1972 to 1977.
18
-------
The total annualized cost associated with a major new control pro-
gram to achieve .substantial emission reductions such as that noted
above would be. around $400 million per year. The initial capital
cost would be around $1 billion. These costs would be in addition
to the costs of present controls and the costs associated with the
EPA oxidant plan.
The various control measures for each pollutant demonstrate a wide
range of cost-effectiveness. Most of the particulate emission con-
trols yield cost effectiveness ratios around $1,000 to 4,000 per
ton. The majority of the SOo controls considered here had cost-
effectiveness values of around $500 to $1500 per ton. Most NO
A
measures tended to demonstrate ratios of around $500-$!200 per
ton controlled.
Many of the potential control measures will entail significant
implementation difficulties. These will include problems of
technical development, engineering application, enforcement, and
administration.
Recommendations
As control strategy planning efforts proceed, more in-depth analysis
should be performed on the effectiveness and cost of the control
measures studied in this report. Due to limitations on time and
level of effort, the present study estimated control efficiency
and costs on a simplified basis, aggregating over many emission
sources in a given process category. The cost and effectiveness
of the measures will likely vary substantially among individual
sources within a given process category. Some of these variations
can have significant implications,for control policy.
As part of the implementation procedure, proposed control measures
should undergo an intensive evaluation as to real applicability.
This evaluation should be carried out by a task force of industrial,
academic, and governmental experts who would consider the specific
engineering, enforcement, and legal problems involved with the con-
trol measure. A carefully planned and executed implementation pro-
cedure should help to reduce technical difficulties as well as
19
-------
public and private resistance.
Further attention should be given to a long term view of the various
control measures. A strategy based on long run considerations may
be considerably different from one designed to achieve short run
control. Short run controls should be evaluated as to their
compatibility with likely long run controls.
20
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3.0 GENERAL CONTROL METHODS AVAILABLE
This Chapter provides a general characterization of alternative control
methods which are applicable for prevention of emissions leading to the
suspension of participate matter in the atmosphere. Section 3.1 is a summary
of the traditional control devices available to manage emissions of primary
particulates. Section.3.2 includes an identification of alternative controls
now available or in development to prevent emissions of gaseous precursors.
Section 3.3. deals with simultaneous control of primary particulates and
gaseous precursors via alternative fuels, and Section 3.4 provides a dis-
cussion of emissions control by the route of non-technological control
measures (growth restrictions, relocation and source usage control).
3.1 CONTROLS FOR PRIMARY PARTICULATES
Feasible control devices for emissions of primary particulates
include mechanical collectors, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators,
and filters. The application of these various gas cleaning devices is
based on consideration of particulate characteristics in the gas stream,
and process, operating, construction, and economic factors. The technology
of each of the above controls is well developed, and many equipment
manufacturers have provided several generations of reliable control devices
to the industry. The impact of the Clean Air Act has been to increase the
need for these devices throughout the industry. Figure 3-1 illustrates the
growing demand for particulate controls in this country, and the apparent
lag in manufacturing capability to make the equipment available.
21
-------
Millions of dollars
Hit:
Electrostatic Fabric fillers Wet Mechanical Gaseous
alors • sciubbers collectors control
devices
SHIPMENTS OF AIR POLLUTION EQUIPMENT
Millions of dollars
BACKLOG ORDERS FOR AIR POLLUTION EQUIPMENT
Figure 3-1. Increasing Market Demand For Air
Pollution Equipment in United States
Source:
Reference (5)
22
-------
The following sections provide a brief discussion of each of the
standard gas cleaning devices in terms of operating characteristics,
applications, and cost.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical collectors include settling chambers and cyclones. The
settling chamber is the simplest particulate collector, typically consisting
of a baffle chamber in which the velocity of the polluted gas is diminished
to a level where particles settle out by gravity (Figure 3^2). Its applications
are limited as it is effective only in removing relatively large particles.
They are usually employed as pce-cleaners to remove large particles (greater
than 43 microns) before the gas is treated by other more efficient removal
equipment.
V.
I
Figure 3-2. Baffled Settling Chamber
As one of the earliest approaches to collector designs, the cyclone
provides a configuration in which the polluted gas is introduced tangentially
into a conically shaped vessel that directs it along a spiral path.
Centrifugal forces push particulates of the gas stream toward the wall,
where they fall by gravity to the bottom of the device. The inner flow of
clean air travels up the center of the cyclone and exits, out the top.
i23
-------
Development of the cyclone device has produced several different
commercial designs: 1) reverse flow cyclones, 2) straight through flow,
and 3) impeller collectors. Figure 3 illustrates the principle of the reverse
flow cyclone. In this version the polluted gas enters the tangential inlet
and flows in a helical vortex path that reverses at the base of the cyclone to
form an inner cone of flow which emits out the top.
ZONE OF INLET
INTERFERENCE
TOP VIEW
INNER
VORTEX
GAS
INLET
SIDE VIEW
OUTER
VORTEX
INNER
VORTEX
OUTER
VORTEX
GAS OUTLET
BODY
INNER
CYLINDER
(TUBULAR
GUARD)
CORE
/ \ \-DUST OUTLET
Figure 3-3. Reverse Flow Cyclone
In the impeller cyclone the polluted gas enters the impeller and
passes through a fan blade which throws dust into an annular slot leading to
a collection hopper.
Cyclone efficiencies vary widely depending on the spatial configuration
and design. The collection efficiency of a "high efficiency" cyclone and a
conventional efficiency cyclone are given below.
-------
TABLE 3-1. CYCLONE EFFICIENCY VERSUS PARTICLE SIZE RANGE
Actual
Particle
Size
(Microns)
< 5
5 to 20
15 to 50
>40
Efficiency, % of Particles
Conventional
Cyclone
—
50 - 80
80 - 95
95-99
Removed
"High Efficiency
Cyclone"
50 - 80
80 - 95
95 - 99
95 - 99
Source: Reference (2).
Cyclones are widely employed in various industrial applications fqr
pre-treatment or secondary gas cleaning operations. They are used in fertilizer
plants, petroleum refineries, mineral processing, metallurgical operations,
chemicals, metals manufacturing, and so forth.
The approximate cost of purchase and installation, and operation of
•
cyclone collectors is given in Figure 3-4 and 3-5. The cost curves reflect
efficiencies of 50, 70 and 95 percent for typical commercial application.
25
-------
'10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103acfm
Figure 3-4. Purchase and Installation Cost
of Centrifugal Collectors?
HIGH EFFICIENCY
MEDIUM EFFICIENC
LOW EFFICIENCY
10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfro
Figure 3-5. Annualized Cost of _
Operation of Centrifugal Collectors^
26
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Wet Scrubbers
Wet collectors are devices which employ liquids to remove particles by
1) increasing the effective size of the particles to enable efficient collection,
and 2) trapping and washing away particles in a liquid film. This particulate-
liquid interface occurs through the physical processes of interception, gravitation,
impingement, diffusion, electrostatic forces, and thermal gradients.
There are principally two classes of wet scrubbers: the low energy type
•and the high energy type. The low energy type includes:
0 Open spray towers.
• Packed towers, in which the polluted gas and liquid pass
cross flow through a contact bed.
• Wet cyclone, in which water spray and centrifugal forces
work in combination to collect particles
0 Flooded bed scrubbers, in which baffle grids cooperate in aiding
contact between particles and water spray.
t Orifice type, in which the polluted gas is directed through
an orifice restricted by liquid spray.
0 Wet dynamic, which consists of a liquid spray in an impeller
cyclone.
The high energy wet collectors are commonly known as Venturi scrubbers.
In a Venturi scrubber high collection efficiency is obtained by high velocity
impingement of the gas particles with the scrubbing liquid spray in the
throat of a Venturi. The liquid is injected into the throat of the Venturi
where the velocity of the gases causes the disintegration of the liquid to
fine droplets, This disintegration enhances the probability of contact with
particulates of the gas stream.
The collection efficiency of scrubbers varies with the power input.
Table 3-2 summarizes the efficiency of the various types of scrubbers discussed
above.
.27
-------
TABLE 3-2. SCRUBBER CAPABILITIES
Type of
Scrubber
Open spray
tower
Packed tower
Wet centrifugal
Flooded bed
Orifice
Wet dynamic
Venturi
Flooded disk
Usual Range of
Particle Sizes, Microns
> 10.0
> 10.0
> 2.5
> 2.5
> 2.5
> 2.0
> 0.5
> 0.5
Normal Draft Loss,
: In Water
. 3/4-2
1-6
2-6
2-8
To 6
None
6-80
6-70
•
Maximum
Efficiency %
85
85
95
95
95
98
99+
99+
Source: Reference (1)
The costs of purchase and installation, and operation of wet collectors
are given in Figures 3-6 and 3-7. The efficiencies of the different curves
reflect removal rates of 75, 90, and 99 percent in typical commercial
applications.
Electrostatic Precipitators
The electrostatic precipitator is most frequently used to process large
volumes of gas (50,000 to 2,000,000 CFM) at large industrial installations.
In many applications the precipitator is the only proven high-efficiency
(up to 99.9% removal) particulate control device available today. They are
used extensively to process polluted effluent gases from smelters, furnaces
petroleum refineries, acid plants, boilers, and other process operations.
The electrostatic precipitator collects suspended particulates
by directing the polluted gas through an electrical field. The field
is established between an electrode maintained at high voltage and a
grounded collection surface. Particles passing through the field become charged
immediately and are attracted to the grounded collecting surface. The parti-
culate matter is dislodged from the collecting surface by mechanical means
such as vibrating with rappers or by flushing with liquids.
28
-------
1000
'ET~ii i nun INI inn i i 111i£
500
-8
*o 100 =
5 10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103acfm
Figure 3-6. Purchase and Installation Cost
of Wet Collectors2
1000
500
2 100
Q
UJ
N
50
10
Z
Z 5
= rn i nin i 111
1 5 10 SO 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm
Figure 3-7. Annualized Cost of Wet Collectors2
29
-------
There are basically two configurations utilized in the electrostatic
precipitator: flat surface and tube types. In the flat surface version,
particles are collected on parallel grounded plates spaced between rod dis-
charge electrodes. In the tubular collector configuration, the rod
electrode is centered in a tube causing the particulate matter to be collected
on the surface of the grounded tube. A precipitator unit consists of many
plates or tubes, as shown in Figure 3-8. A distinct advantage of the
configuration of either type of precipitator is the low pressure drop associated
with the gas flow path, permitting immense volumes of gas to be handled with
relatively low level of power required.
The electrostatic precipitator is a versatile approach to particulate
collection in that it may handle a variety of applications at very high
efficiencies. It is capable of operation at temperatures exceeding 1000°F,
for collection of particles in the submicron range, for dry dust and mists,
and at pressures up to 150 psi. Because the design of the precipitator requires
considerable experience for a given application, the industry relies heavily on
the air pollution control device manufacturer to develop equipment specifications
and provide guarantees of performance.
The approximate cost of purchase and installation and operation of
electrostatic precipitators is shown in Figures 3-9 and 3-10. The cost curves .
reflect efficiencies of 90, 95, and 97.5 percent in a typical commercial
application.
30'
-------
GAS INLET
GAS OUTLET
•-I5H- VOLTAGE
CONDUCTOR
iiFFUSER
VANES
INSULATOR COMPARTMENT
HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
SUPPORT INSULATOR
ELECTRIC HEATER
WATER SPRAYS
DISCHARGE ELECTRODE
SUPPORT FRAME
WEIR PONDS
DISCHARGE ELECTRODES
TUBULAR COLLECTING
SURFACES
CASING
WEIGHTS
DISCHARGE SEAL
Figure 3-8. Cross Sectional View of Tubular
Blast Furnace Electrical Precipitator
31
-------
1000
10
10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 1030cfm
Figure 3-9. Cost of Purchase and Installation
of High-Voltage Electrical Precipitated
100
10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 ocfm
Figure 3-10. Annualized Cost of Operation of
High-Voltage Electrostatic Peecipitator2
•32
-------
Filter Collectors
Collecting devices based on fabric are among the oldest means of
removing material from gas streams. In fabric filtration, the participate matter
is removed from the gas stream by impinging or adhering to fibers of the fabric.
The physical mechanism for particle collection includes interception, inertial
impaction, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, sieving, and gravitational
settling. The effect of each of these physical processes in the overall
collection of particle sizes is illustrated below in Table 3-3. As can be
seen, fabric filtration is an effective device for removal of particles
TABLE 3-3. CONTROL MECHANISM FOR
PARTICLE SIZE COLLECTION
Primary collection mechanism
Direct interruption
Impingement
Diffusion
Electrostatic
Gravity
Diameter
of particle,
microns
>1
>1
0.001 to 0.5
0.01 to 5
>1
Source: Reference (2)
as small as .5 micron and will remove a substantial quantity of particles
as small as .01 micron.
Fabric filtration is typically accomplished by directing the pollutant-
bearing gas through flat or tubular fabric bags hanging in an enclosure
called a baghouse. The particulate material is retained on the upstream side
of the fabric while the cleaned air which passes through the fabric is dis-
charged to the atmosphere. The collected material is removed from the bags
by mefchanical means, such as manual shaking or air shaking.
33
-------
The selection of the fabric is probably the most critical aspect of
the equipment design. Determining the resistance of the filter to gas
flow for the clean fabric, and for dust laden fabric are important pre-
requisites to intake and exhaust system design. Optimal! air flow ratio
through the fabric is another important consideration. Experience in
numerous applications (cement .kilns, foundar.y cupolas, furnaces, grain
operations) have provided the baghouse device manufacturers with detailed
performance characteristics of the many different bag fabrics and
baghouse systems. These data allow the manufacturer to guarantee high
efficiency baghouse installations in varied applications.
Selection of suitable baghouse configurations is based primarily on the
amount of moisture in the waste gas. Higher moisture content increases the
probability of filter damage and corrosion of hardware. Three systems are
used (Figure 3-11) corresponding to the various moisture conditions: The open
pressure type, the closed pressure type, and the closed suction version.
In the open pressure baghouse, the air fans are located on the upstream
side of the filter bags, and the bags are exposed to the atmosphere. The
open baghouse is capable of treating high temperature gas streams as
cooling is facilitated by the open design. In the closed pressure baghouse,
filter bags are closed off from ambient exposure. This configuration is
utilized when the effluent gas contains toxic pollutants and the cleaned
discharge must be conducted away from the area. The closed suction bag-
house operates with the fans on the downstream side of the filter bags in
an insulated airtight structure. This unit is used for cleaning gases with
high dew points to prevent condensation on the filter fabric.
Figure 3-12 and 3-13 provide cost estimates for the purchase and
installation, and operation of fabric filter devices (baghouses). The
cost curves all reflect a 99.9 percent efficiency for the various types of
fabrics indicated.
34
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DIRTY
co GAS
en FROM
FAN
CLEANED GAS
(7x\)OUTLET
CORRUGATED
HOUSING
OPEN
GRATING
OUTSIDE AIR
SIDE VIEW
Open pressure baghouse.
J CLEANED GAS
OUTLET
CLEAN GAS
TO FAN
CORRUGATED
HOUSING
CLOSED
SIDE VIEW
Closed pressure baghouse.
DIRTY
GAS
PROCESS
CLOSED
ALL WELDED
HOUSING
SIDE VIEW
Closed suction baghouse.
Figure 3-11. Schematic of Basic Three Baghouse Designs3
-------
CJ
at
—10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm
A - HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
B - MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
C - WOVEN NATURAL FIBERS. INTERMITTENTLY
CLEANED-SINGLE COMPARTMENT.
10 50 100 500 1000
GAS VOLUME THROUGH COLLECTOR, 103 acfm
A - HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
B - MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE SYNTHETICS, WOVEN AND
FELT. CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC CLEANING.
C - WOVEN NATURAL FIBERS. INTERMITTENTLY
CLEANED-SINGLE COMPARTMENT.
Figure 3-12.
Cost of Purchase and
Installation of Baghquse
Particulate Collector2
Figure 3-13.
Annualized Cost of
Operation of Baghouse
Particulate Collectors2
-------
3.2 CONTROLS FOR GASEOUS PRECURSORS
Gaseous emissions which play a major role as precursors to parti-
culate formation in the atmosphere are NO , S09, and hydrocarbons. The
/\ • £
technology to control emissions of these gases is not yet in a high state
of refinement. While there are control devices commercially available for
preventing emissions of NO , S09, and hydrocarbons, many of these are sold
/\ £
without substantial guarantees of performance. Nevertheless, regulations
stemming from the Clean Air Act are accelerating the development of the
control equipment, and numerous installations have now been tested and are
operating continously and effectively. The following sections provide a
brief description of the most promising control methods which are applicable
to prevention of S09, NO , and hydrocarbon emissions.
£ /\
3.2.1 Desulfurization of Petroleum Products
The trend toward the processing of higher sulfur crude oils coincides
with the trend of increasingly stringent emission regulations, which are
causing restrictions on the sulfur content of refinery products, as well as
on the sulfur level of refinery process emissions. These concurrent trends
(demonstrated by Table 3-4) obviate the need to develop additional sulfur
removal facilities in U.S. oil refineries.
Desulfurization of the heavier fractions of crudes (from diesel/No. 2
oil to heavy fuel oils) has not been extensively practiced in the U.S. to
date. The production of low suffur products in the heavier fractions of the
crude will require catalytic hydrodesulfurization of the heavy distillates and
residuum fuel oil stocks. Extensive processing of this type has been
employed in foreign counties, especially Japan. In many cases, improved
technology in desulfurization of the heavy distillates to produce very low
sulfur blend stocks has deferred the need for facilities to desulfurize the
residuum portion of the barrel. The residuum portion is blended with
the low sulfur blend stocks to obtain low sulfur fuel oils meeting the
standards.
.37
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TABLE 3-4. SULFUR CONTENT OF REFINERY PRODUCTS
FOR DIFFERENT CRUDES.3
Product
Motor Gasoline
Kero Jet
Diesel No. 2 Oil
Heavy F/0
SULFUR
Typical
U.S. Refinery
Feeding Gulf
Coast Crude
0.03
- 0.04
0.10
0.65
LEVEL, WT %
Same Refinery
Running
Arabian
Light
0.08
0.15
0.6
3.2
Present
Specifi-
cations
0.1
0.12
0.25
0.5- 2
Possible
1975
Specifi-
cations
0.01-0.03
0.05
0.2
0.3 - 1.0
•38 .
-------
While many of the initial desulfurization facilities were designed to
reduce sulfur levels to prevailing standards, the technology is now available
for desulfurization of vacuum gas oils to levels of a few parts per million
sulfur. Chevron claims their VGO Isomax Process, which was first operated in
Japan five years ago, is capable of sulfur levels as low as 100-200 ppm with
only moderate increases in operating severity (high pressure and temperature).
over the conditions which produce products with sulfur contents of .1-.2 percent
sulfur. Figure 3-14 illustrates progress made in the last five years in terms of
the operating pressure required to remove 92% of the sulfur from a Middle East
vacuum gas oil.
900
* 800
M
o.
0
a 700
M
lA
V
t_
a.
£ eoo
o»
O
L.
•o
x 500
uoo
I
1968
Basis: Middle-East VGO
Desulfurized to
0.2% Sulfur
1973
UOO
300
o
o
200 o
Year
Figure 3-14. Continued Improvement in VGO Isomax Process3
39.
-------
Technical improvements in desulfurization processes have had dramatic
effects on processing costs. Figure 3-15 summarizes the trend to lower costs.
At current levels of technology, the Chevron Isomax Process can produce .05%
sulfur fuel oil blend stock at less cost than required to produce .2% sulfur
fuel oil blend a few years ago.
10
Base
« o
— o
0
cc at
-10
-20
'Include* amortization of onplot Investment,
HI at 60 cents/MSCF. catalyst, utilities
(Fuel at $
-------
The Isomax can be used to achieve essentially complete desulfurization
of a wide variety of feed stocks. A very wide boiling range of distillates,
from diesel up to 1100°F end point vacuum gas oil, can be economically
processed in the unit. The Isomax is also suitable for desulfurization of
feed stock to the catalytic cracker unit. Figure 3-16 illustrates the effect
of desulfurization of the cracker feed stock on the sulfur content of the
cracked products.
50,000
20,000
10,000
5,000
2,000
1,000
500
200
100
50
20
10
,1
I I I I I I I ll
I
1.0
0.5
0.2
O.I
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.05 O.I 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
Feed Sulfur Content, Wt %
0.001
Fiaure 3-16 Effect of Feed Desulfurization on Fluid Catalytic Cracker
Product Sulfur Contents at Constant Cracking Severity
41
-------
Typically the VGO Isomax Process has not been utilized to produce very
low sulfur content products as the standards do not generally require this
degree of operation. In fact, because of the ability of the VGO Isomax
to process low sulfur fuels far below standards* a VRDS Isomax process has.
been designed to complement the VGO Isomax process by providing for moderate
sulfur content fuels which may be blended with VGO Isomax fuels to reach
the higher limits of the sulfur content standards. The VRDS Isomax is a
moderate pressure, vacuum residuum desulfurization process which will process
a wide variety of high sulfur content residual to produce low sulfur
products in the range of .5 to 1% sulfur content. Blending of VRDS
Isomax products with products of the Isomax unit provides the most economic
route for manufacturing low sulfur fueHoils meeting the current sulfur
content standards.
The VGO Isomax is an efficient tool to remove sulfur from the vacuum
gas oils of the fuel oil barrel. However it is becoming evident that low
sulfur processing of both vacuum residuum as well as the vacuum gas oil
will be needed to meet lower sulfur fuel oil requirements. There are
several processing schemes being studied as possible routes to very low
sulfur fuels (such as .05 to 1% sulfur). Chevron Research has identified
two of the most feasible methods as:
1) Solvent-deasphalting and gasification of the by product high
sulfur SDA tar, and
2) VRDS Isomax followed by delayed coking of the VRDS bottoms
product.
In the first of the two methods, the vacuum residuum is solvent deasphalted
and then combined with the vacuum gas oil for desulfurization in the VGO
Isomax process to give a 93% yield of low sulfur fuel oil. Gasification
facilities are included to convert high sulfur by-product tar to a useful
high BTU content synthetic field gas.
The solvent-deasphalted oil is more difficult to desulfurize in the VGO
Isomax Unit than the straight run vacuum gas oil above. However the blend
of the two oils does not require appreciably different processing conditions
than those which are used in existing commercial VGO Isomax Units. The
VGO Isomax Plus solvent-deasphalting process is well established and
has been operative at the Standard Richmond Refinery over the past eight
years. Experience has shown that high yields of low sulfur fuel .oils can be
obtained.
42
-------
In the second of the two methods above, vacuum residuum is processed in
a VRDS Isomax Unit and the higher boiling products are sent to a delayed
coker. The lower boiling fractions (975°F-) are combined with the vacuum
gas oil for desulfurization in the VGO Isomax to result in the desired low
sulfur fuel oil. This process provides a 93% yield of fuel oil from high
sulfur Arabian residuum. Metallurgical quality coke is removed as a useful
by-product from the delayer coker.
Chevron Research has demonstrated the two processed above with pilot
plant studies using difficult high sulfur feed stocks such as Arabian Heavy.
Results of test runs show, that refineries can process high sulfur crude
while maintaining product quality and meeting environmental standards. The
implications of this new technology for air quality are evident. If very low
sulfur fuels aere to be utilized for the various combustion processes through-
out the Four-County Area, SOp emissions from combustion equipment would be
substantially reduced, perhaps by as much as 80% or 90%. The impact of low
sulfur fuels on S02 pollution from the various fuel burning sources (aircraft
motor vehicles, industrial boilers, and heaters) is quantified in the different
sections of this report.
Both processes lend to stepwise construction at the refinery. The VRDS
Isomax and the VGO Isomax can be integrated into existing refineries with
delayed coking and catalytic cracking facilities.
Economics of Desulfurization
Cost comparisons reveal that initial capital investment is similar
for the two low sulfur processing approaches. In terms of processing costs,
the Isomax VGO/VRDS plus delayed coker method is superior by about 36 cents/
barrel of low sulfur product over the Isomax VGO/Solvent-Deasphalting plus
gasification process plan. Process costs depend somewhat on the market
demand for the by-products of the two approaches, which tend to fluctuate
greatly. Tables 3-5 and 3-6 provide a summary of the initial investment and
manufacturing costs for the two desulfurization schemes when 50,000 barrels
per day of Arabian residuum are processed.
43
-------
TABLE 3-5. ONPLOT INVESTMENT FOR ALTERNATIVE
DESULFURIZATION SCHEMES
Onplot Investment, $M
Vacuum Flasher
VGO Isomax
VRDS Isomax
H2 Plant
SDA Unit
Gasification
Coker (Incl. Fractionator)
W0T, Gas and Sulfur Recovery
Total Investment
Catalyst
Royalties
Total Onplot
VGO Isomax Plus
SDA Plus Gasification
5.7
9.9
-
6.7
6.0
15.3
-
•_7.8
51.4
1.0
1.8
54.2
VGO/VRDS Isomax
Plus Delayed Coking
5.7
8.7
12.6
8.4
-
5.5
7.9
48.8
1.8
2.7
53.3
Coast USA, Early 1973 Costs
Source: Reference (4)
44
-------
TABLE 3-6. DIRECT. MANUFACTURING COSTS FOR
ALTERNATE DESULFURIZATION SYSTEMS
VGO Isomax Plus VGO/VRDS Isomax Plus
SPA Plus Gasification Delayed Coking
Feed Costs, $M/Yr
650°F+Resid at $2.50/Bbl 41.0 41.0
H2 Plant Naphtha, $3.50/Bbl 1.4 1.9
Total 42.4 42.9
Investment Amortization, SM/Yr 13.6 13.3
Operating Costs, $M/Yr2 11.8 10.0
Subtotal 67.8 66.2
By-Product Credits, $M/Yr
SNG/Fuel Gas $6.50/Bbl EFO (4.4) (3.0)
Naphtha, $3.50/Bbl (0.4) (3.7)
Metallurgical Coke, $20/ST - (2.0)
Sulfur, Zero Value
Total (4.8) f8.7)
Net Fuel Oil Cost
$M/Yr 63.0 57.5
Incremental Cost Over Base,
$/Bbl of 0.05% S F/0 + 0.36 Base
Onplot Only - 25% per year
2
Includes Utilities, Labor and Super., Maintenance, Taxes and Ins.
3
0.90 Operating Factor
Source: Reference (4)
45
-------
3.2'.2 SOg Removal Technology
Commercial methods for desulfurization of tail gas from sulfur plants,
stack gases, and other effluent gas streams amount to some 20 techniques
which are representative of more than 50 Identifiable processes. These SOp
removal systems are in vardous phases of development and the number of
actual applications have been limited to date. Because of performance
uncertainties associated with, the infant S0« control systems, industry is
not rushing to purchase these expensive systems, despite the approaching
clean air deadlines.
Virtually every-desulfurization control process lias its own chemical,
engineering, economic, and operating peculiarities. Some processes
are particularly suited to meet one set of plant effluent conditions, wn.ile
another S02 removal process may be best adapted to an entirely different set
of plant parameters. Since there are probably as many different plant
effluent-gas-stream types as there are plants emitting gases, t5e com-
binations of effluent stream and desulfurization tecfmtqes are practically
unlimited.
In the long term, radical new. technologies may lead to entirely different
process systems which are compatible with the ambient air quality goals.
However until such new technology is available, "add on" control systems
are a more likely candidate method for achieving the imminent and strinqent
future S02 emission regulations. Table 3-7 provides a description of 14 of the
principle techniques now being adapted or considered for S02 removal in
different process effluent streams. The choice of technique in any application
depends on the nature of the gas stream being treated and a variety of
engineering and economic factors related to each situation.
Sulfur can exist in a large nuroBer of oxidation states. The common
oxidation states of sulfur found in process effluent gas streams are those
typified by ^S C-2], elemental sulfur Czerol, S02 (+41 and S03 (+61. The
reduction-oxidation interconverslon of sulfur between the oxidation states
-2, 0, +4, and +6 is an essential feature of current and proposed desulfurization
processes. In each of the processes the objective is to produce a sulfur
product which may be removed mechanically from the system. This corresponds
46'
-------
Process
(Developer)
TABLE 3-7. PROCESS FOR DESULFURIZATION OF EFFLUENT GAS STREAMS
PROCESSED PRINCIPALLY IN THE GAS PHASE
Comments Process Chemistry
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
YIELDING SULFURIC
Dry limestone
(TVA)
Manganese dioxide
(Mitsubishi)
Active magnesia
(Showa Hatsuden)
(Chemico)
Modified contact
Activated carbon
ACID OR SULFATE (S = + 6)
Simultaneous reaction of S02 with lime and $0,, SO,, AIR
air oxidantion of resulting sulfite to sul- C*CO •• CiO 23 ^ CaSO
fate. End product slag requires suitable —-3 — "4
disposal. Swedish Bahco Process uses „ .„ .,,.„,.,,.„-„,- i
hydrated lime slurry. Lignite ash also used + C02 (TO ATMOSPHERE)
as absorber (Carl Still, W. Germany).
*' NHyOH
Initial concentration and oxidation of SO? to S02 53-7; — *• MnS04 "; *- (NH,), SO. + H,0
metal sulfate with air regeneration of Mn02 , "N°2 AIR 424 2
oxygen carrier and ammonium sulfate (fer- 4
tilizer) production. REGENERATION
Essentially a concentration process using 200°-300°F Mrt.n 1400°F 1C:* cn rnc
MgU as a "collector" tol lowed by regenera- 502 MOD "" MGS03 •" 15* -°2
tion of concentrated S02 stream for sul f uric | 1 CONTACT
acid plant teed. REGENERATION f PROCESS
H C0
Essential Contact Process yield acid onnOc Z 4
(Monsanto) or ammonium sulfate (Tokvo) but ATR t in • » in ^ H in
accepts hot dilute S02 gas stream rather ' V2U5 , M2
than high S02 acid plant feed. j /k-u Xcri
oiiinsu ^ v""/i)-*0/i ' HoO
ZNrUUH 44 i
All methods depend on absorptive powers of
various forms active carbon to first con- flTB Q
rpntratp and thpn ratal v?p pxirtation SOo ^r\ «IK, n?u .^^ .. -n
\-cm.iai.c uiiu vncii v.ai.aijfic cAiuakiun J«2 JUO ArTT'n'r r'li'nH'nu ^^ "oJUjl
to S03 for acid or sulfate production. 2 ACTIVE CARBON 2 4
Fluidized, fixed and plugged flow beds
variously employed
-------
Process
(Developer)
!T|ABLE 3-7. PROCESS FOR DESULFURIZATION OF EFFLUENT GAS STREAMS (Continued)
Comments Process Chemistry
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
YIELDING SULFUR (S
Sulfreen
(SNPA-Lurgi )
Alkalized alumina
(U.S.Bur.of Mines
discont.) U.K.
Cent. El ec. Board
Processes
Molten salt
( Atomics, I ntnM)
(Garrett, Res'.S
Dev.)
Solution Claus
(Inst. Francais
du Petrol e)
Giammarco-
Vetrocoke
= ZERO)
Catalytic use of active carbon for high
efficiency Claus redox reaction to yield
S04=. Requires both H2S and S02 in stream. m-uvt LHKBUIM e.
Concentration of dilute SO? stream on <-« Al203/Na20 nn<-npnrn rn
Alk/alumina and in situ catalytic reduc- i 56X 37* f-
tion to H2S using reformer Hb, H, S tnen ' 1 ^ " t rn
to Claus with regenerated S02. * REGENERATION J "2 ^ .
S^*-.« -.. H" i \ rn ftrrnnwrn
With At Least One Principal Solution Staae LLAUb ^ i
S02 > M2C03(L) 430°C •> M2S03 + CO
Dilute S0? concentrated by absorption S S ' 1 H? + CO NATURAL GAS
by H2 (Atomics) or coke roasting (Garrett) H20 j 1 OR COKE ROASTING
to sulfide and hence H2S. Both processes J f
fnnii Tlniir II ^ + M Tn (\ \ ... ^~ M ^ + II D t TO
* ' 1
STEAM + C02
Essentially Claus redox in solution with MrTfll cfll T rflTfll VcT
nr iiiithniit iHHpH ntnluct Hinh hnilinn II •; t <;n . .. lltlHL ->"L ' V.HIHLISI c . 11 Q
solvents preferred to accept hot gases 2 2 POLYGLYCOL SOLVENT (M.W. -400) 2
without extensive cooling.
thioarsenite with arsenate/arsenite air 1
regeneratable redox couple as oxygen *
carrier. Several similar systems in- .j.,.. . Q c + ^n »rQ ^ KI^AsS, + 3KH2AsO/|
volving inorganic redox couples (thylox, 2 s 3J • " 2 " 3 1
manchester, lacykeller exist. T
1 i^n^Aip^ l^"1"^
1 ,3 \Jn ^HIKJ ' '^
Co
-------
TABLE 3- 7 PROCESS FOR DESULFURIZATION OF EFFLUENT GAS STREAMS (Continued)
Process
(Developer)
Comments
Process Chemistry
11.
12.
13.
14.
YIELDING SULFUR
Stretford
U.K. North W.
Gas Board)
Well man-Lord
Beavon
(Parsons Co.)
Cleanair
(Pritchard)
(IGS)
(S = ZERO) (Continued)
Solution oxidation of H2S absorbed as ' H-S + Na?CO^ »• JNaHS + NaHCO,
Bisulfide by two stage redox couple
involving vanadate and anthraquinone S + Nja2V20 + N*2C03 + H20 *^- '+ NaVO,
disulfonic acid as oxygen carriers i
1 1
AQDSA(02) AQDSA
* AIR 0 1
A<;nl nti nn mpthnH f nr ronrpntrat'i nn *\(\ + H fl + M *\O •! 7MH*\H T^HI N^
dilute SO- steam to rich feed for Claus i \ J RcnTQQniuF *
hv hi^iilfTtp fnrmatinn rructnll i ratlnn ^fl + II n + M sfl J. ,.™ M.V£ TMH^n nfV^TI ^
and thermal regeneration. No reduction
or oxidation in solution step. . „,.„
2J FEEb T(T
Prrliminarv ant nhn^p ratalvtlr hvrfrn- IH } 'in TO*; T0; rP/P° ^AT ,, ,-
genation all sulfur compounds to H2S
for food to Stretford In narticuiar REFORMER H /CO • - ••
COS and CS? reduced. r "TRCTFORD
HoS Hrh tail na^ wntrr rnnlrri tn H ^fHTRH^ ^.C] TO^ f^ ..29 ^11 r » PO I t
continue Claus and hydrolyze COS and COOLING
CS2; final H2S to Stretford.
FURTHER CLAUS
S -* STRETFORD
Source: Reference (6)
-------
to an oxidation state of either zero (elemental sulfur) or +6 (sulfuric
acid and sulfates). To convert the various oxidation states of sulfur
existing in an effluent gas, a wide range of oxidizing and reducing agents
is used. The conversion route may involve an indirect pathway, such as
+4 to -2 to zero as in the Beavon Process, +4 to +6 in the Mitsubishi
Process, and other variations as shown in Table 3-7.
Characterization of the effluent stream is the first step in selection
of an appropriate desulfurization process. Effluents from combustion sources
such as power generating stations are rich in SOg with little or no H2S content
due to prior oxidation incineration. These conditions would tend to encourage
the use of processes that handle SOg directly and alone. On the other hand,
in processes where effluents consist principally of hydrogen sulfide, such, as
from oil refinery soun.gas processing, those desulfur.ization processes
designed to treat H-S alone or HgS and SOg may be preferred. Of course the
HgS may be incinerated to S02 alone, but this leads to dilution of the
effluent and complicates the control process by introducing larger processing
volume requirements.
Description of the Processes
The bulk of the research, and development effort has been applied to
processes with throwaway products using lime or limestone as an absorbent
for S0?. -Table 3-8 lists some of the more significant projects now under
way which employ this popular process. In the limestone process the +4
sulfur of SOg is oxidized to +6 in sulfate. A major unresolved problem for
both lime and limestone scrubbing processes is sludge Csulfates} disposal.
The solids do not compact well, and large throwaway volumes are produced.
In an EPA sponsored project at TVA's Shasnee Station, the proEleros of botfi
lime and limestone S02 cleanup systems will be investigated.
Tke Manganese dioxide, or Mitsubishi Process, is similar to the
limestone process, but yields instead ammonium sulfate Bfiich. can be used
as a fertilizer.
50
-------
TABLE 3-8. LIME-LIMESTONE S0» SCRUBBING LARGE-SCALE PROJECTS
Company
FULL SCALE
Arizona Public Seivice
Commonwealth Edison
Detroit Edison
Duquesne Light
Kansas City Power and
Light
Kansos City Power rind
Lioht
Kansas City Powsr and
Li;M
Key West
Lpuisvili? Gas and
Electric
Northern States
Ohio Edison
TVA
Union Electric
USSR (state-operated)
Nippon Kokan KK
(Japan:
Kansai Electric
(Japan)
Tomakomai Chemical
(japan)
Mitsui Aluminum
(Japan)
Sodersjukhuset
(Sweden)
Egypt (state-
operated)
Public Service of
Indiana
Southern California
Electric
PROTOTYPE
EPA-TVA
STEAG (Germany)
Ontario Hydro
(Canada)
Developer
' Research-Cost: ell
B& W
Chemico
Combustion
Engineering
B& W
Combustion
Engineering
Zurn
Combustion
Engineering
Combustion
Engineering
TVA
Combustion
Engineering
NIIOGAZ
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi
Chemico
Banco
Chemiebau
Combustion
Engineering
SCE .
Bechtel, EPA.
TVA
Bischoff
Ontario Hydro
Status
Under con-
struction
Operating
Planned
Under con-
struction
Operating
• Operating
Operating
Operating
Under con-
struction
Under con-
struction
Planned
Under con-
struction
Abandoned
Operating
Operating
Operating
Planned
Operating
Operating
Abandoned
Planned
Planned
Operating
Operating
Planned
Unit type and size
Coal-fired,, . .
115MW
Coal-fired.
175MW
Coal-fired,
160MW
Coal-fired,
150MW .
Coal-fired.
2 X 120MW
Coal-fired.
1 17 MW
Coal-fired.
125,430 MVV
Oii-fired,
37 MVV
Coal-fired.
70 MVV
Coal-fired.
2 X 700 MW
Coal-fired.
2 X 830 MW
Coal-fired,
550 MW '
Coal-fired,
120MW
Smelter,
900 MW equiv
HjSO4 plant,
about 20 MW
equiv
Oil-fired,
30 MW
Smelter.
iSMWequiv
Coal-fired.
165 MW
Oil-fired,
3 X 6MW
H2SO4
plant, small
Coal-fired,
650 MW
Coal-fired,
2x150 MW
Coal-fired.
3 X 10 MW
Coal-fired,
35MJ/V
Coal-fired,
30 MW
Absorbent
Cr.CO,
CaC03
CaCO3
CaO
CaO
CaCO3
CaO
CaC03
Ca;OHii
CaCOi
CaO
CaCO3
CaO
CaCO3
CaO
CaO
CaO
-
CaO
CaO
CaO
CaC03
CaO/CaC
CaC03.
CaO
CaO
CaCO3
>3
Source: Reference (6).
-------
The Chemical Magnesia system serves to concentrate the dilute S02 gas
stream to provide a feedstock for sulfur recovery in an established conversion
process to sulfuric acid. The magnesium oxide absorbs the S02 as MgS03, after
which the MgSOg is regenerated to produce the concentrated S02 gas.
The Monsanto and Hitachi S0« removal methods are one step catalytic
oxidations of S02 to SOg and sulfurtc acid. In the Monsanto approach, hot
dilute S02 in the gas stream is oxidized by- the catalyst at a high temperature.
Sulfur trioxide condenses with moisture to form H^SOp. This process is being
tested in an EPA sponsored project at the 100 MW Wood River Station of
Illinois Power.
The processes above are all considered to be desulfurization techniques
for combustion effluents. S02 is the required feed for these processes.
Hence any of these cleanup methods could be installed as "add on" equipment
with no other plant modifications required.
The Sulfreen system is a reduction process in that it produces the end
product of elemental sulfur. The Sulfreen process was developed specifically
for sulfur plant tail-gas cleanup. Activated carbon is utilized to provide
adsorption of S02 and subsequent reaction with H«S (reduction} to produce
sulfur. The Sulfreen process requires both H2S and S02 in the effluent gas.
The alkalized alumina Process, developed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines,
removes sulfur oxides from the stack, by dry absorption on alkalized alumina
CNa20 ' A1203). The spent absorption agent is regenerated at 1200F by contact
with a reducing gas (CO), which forms H2S. The H2S is then converted to
elemental sulfur in a conventional Claus Unit.
The molten carbonate system (Atomics International) involves
the absorption of the effluent S02 in the molten salt as a sulfite. The
sulfite is reduced by H2 and CO to hydrogen sulfide. The molten carbonate
is regenerated for reuse, and the H2S is converted to sulfur in a conventional
sulfur plant.
The IFP sulfur recovery process, utilizes a metal salt-type catalyst to
convert H2S/S02 to a gaseous mixture of ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and water.
This mixture is then treated in a Claus unit to reduce the S02 to sulfur By
reaction with hydrogen sulfide.
52
-------
The Vetrocope and Stretford processes have had widespread
application in Europe. Only recently has the Stretford process been in-
corporated into the overall desulfurization procedures known as the Beavon
and Cleanair. Both the Vetrocope and Stretford method include the use of
an oxygen carrier into a multiple coupled redox reaction in solution. In the
process, H«S in the stack is converted to elemental sulfur.
The Wellman Lord process scrubs SOg from the stack, gas with, a solution
of sodium sulfite. The solution absorbs the sulfur dioxide, converting the
sodium sulfite to sodium bisulfite. The sodium bisulfite solution is
regenerated by steam stripping producing a concentrated S02 stream for
recovery to sulfur in a sulfur recovery plant. The Wellman-Lord process is
used on Claus and sulf uric acid plants as well as the electric utilities
industry. Sodium sulfate disposal is a main drawback to this system. The
process will undergo careful examination in an EPA sponsored project at the
125 MW Northern Indiana Public Service power plant.
The Beavon and Cleanair processes are combinations of other basic
techniques. In the Beavon process the SCk of the stack gas is initially
reduced to HgS and then fed to a Stretford Unit. In the Cleanair system
both a Claus unit and the Stretford unit are used simultaneously-.
End Products of Desulfurization Systems
All desulfurization processes yield an end product. In some of the
processes the product is marketable. Sulfur is the end product in
many of the cleanup processes, particularly- those applied to sulfur
recovery tail gas at oil refineries, and finds wide use as a Base chemical.
Its marketability fluctuates, and its low dollar-per-ton cost does not
begin to enable the cleanup system to pay for itself. However because of
its marketability and relative ease of handling, sulfur as an end product
may be disposed of conveniently.
The disposal of sulf uric acid as. an end product Is complicated hr
storage problems. Large tonnage storage or long distance hauling is
not feasible. Selection of desulfurization clean up systems yielding
sulfuric acid as an end product depends on the presence of a consumer
near the process.
53
-------
Disposal of ammonium sulfate (the end product in processes such
as the ammoniacal solution and manganese dioxide technique) may be costly
when moisture protection during storage is required. It can then find
immediate use as a fertilizer. Calcium sulfate, an end product of the
dry-limestone process, is a waste requiring land fill disposal.
Water wastes are a disposal problem with all of the large~volume
aqueous solution processes. Large volumes of contaminated water must be
repurified before recycling or discharging as effluent.
The Wellman Lord cleanup process yields a sodium sulfate wfiicfi Is
nonregenerable. Its handling does not pose a problem, but thfi current
market for this product is limited.
Process Efficiency
Performance data for the various desulfurization processes is rather
limited, except as each of the processes relates to particular appli-
cations now prevalent in the field. In this respect a number of the cleanup
processes have proven suitable for S02 removal down to concentrations of less
than 500 ppm. Initially, desulfurization processes were applied supcessfully
to the tail gas of Claus units at oil refineries. Several units have been
operating successfully at various refineries for the past few years(Table 3-9).
S02 cleanup processes have also been installed in Los Angeles, reducing
emissions from refinery tail gas to less than 500 ppm as required by new
regulations imposed by the APCD. Among those processes capable of reducing
S02 levels well below 500 ppm in effluent gas streams are the Vetrocoke,
Stretford, and Wellman-Lord process. These processes have operated in various
tail-gas applications to reduce S02 concentrations to less than 200 ppm.
Motivated by imminent new S02 emission standards targeted for the
electric utilities, several power plants have now been equipped with desul-
furization systems which are providing continuous operation at 90% plus S02
removal rates. Table 3-10 provides a summary of nine different cleanup processes
now under test at various utilities.
Numerous equipment difficulties have been encountered during the brief
operating histories of these infant systems. For example, at the Four
Corners power plant in Arizona, massive S02 scrubber units installed in 1971
54,
-------
TABLE 3-9. PROCESSES USED FOR SULFUR REMOVAL FROM CLAUS TAIL GAS
Name
Beavon
Sulfur
Removal
Process
Cl eanAi r
Sulfur
Process
IFP Sulfur
Recovery
Process
Shell's iui
Flue Gas
Desul-
furization
Process
Sulfreen
Process
Wellman-
so2
Recovery
Process
Developer
Ralph M. Parsons &
Union Oil Co. of
California
J.F.Pritchard &
Co. and Texas
Gulf Sulfur Co.
Institut Francais
du Petrol e
-Koninklijke/Shell
Laboratorium, the
Netherlands
SNPA and Lurgi
Gesellschaften
Well man Power Gas
Operation
Los Angeles refinery.
Union Oil Co. of Ca.
Pilot plant work.
Okotoks plant, Texas
Gulf Sulfur Co.
Demonstration plant,
Lone Pine Creek plant,
Hudson's Bay Oil & Gas.
Nippon Petroleum
Refining Co. , Japan
Idemitsu Oil Co. Japan
Kyokutoh Oil Co. Japan
Showa Oil Co. Japan
Pilot plant work, : r.ri'.i
Perm's, the
Netherlands
SNPA sulfur plant,
Lacq field
Aquitaine's Ram River
sulfur plant, Rocky
Mountain House,
Alberta
01 in Chemical Co.
Paulsboro, N.J.
Japanese Synthetic
Rubber Co. Chi ba, Japan
Toa Nenryo Kogyo.
Refinery, Kanagawa, Japan
Standard Oil Refinery,
El Segundo, California
Allied Chemical Co.
sulfuric acid plant,
Chicago.
01 in Corp. sulfuric acid
plant, Curtis Bay, Md.
Sulfur
Removal
Removal to
250 ppm S02
or less
Removal to
250 ppm S02
or less
S02 removal to
1,000 ppm
90% SO?
removal
75% of sulfur
in the Claus
Plant tail gas
S02 Removal
to 100 ppm
Product
Sulfur
Sulfur
Sulfur
SO? for-
med is
recycled
through a
Claus urn'
Sulfur
60% SO?
and 40%
water
vapor
Source: Reference (7).
55,
-------
TABLE 3-10. S02 REMOVAL PROCESSES CURRENTLY IN TEST
Approx. test
Process unit size, Mw
Lime scrubbing
(boiler injection)
Lime scrubbing
(scrubber introduction)
Limestone scrubbing
Magnesia scrubbing
Catalytic oxidation
Sodium salt scrubbing
(thermal regeneration)
Sodium salt scrubbing
(throwaway)
Manganese oxide absorption
Carbon adsorption
120
120
117
150
100
125 .•?.;
125 ..;•.
110
150,
Developer
Combustion .Engineering
Chemico
Babcock & Wilcox
Chemico-Basic
Monsanto
Wellman-Power Gas
Combustion Equipment
Associates
Mitsubishi
Hitachi
Utility
Kansas City Power and Light3
Mitsui Aluminum (Japan)"
Kansas City Power and Light'
Boston Edison'1''1
Illinois Power1'
Northern Indiana Public
Service11' '• •
Nevada Power
Chubu Electric Power (Japan)
Tokyo Electric Power (Japan)
Footnotes .
a. Example of typical installation for this system. Other companies also have units under construction or in operation.
b. EAP sponsored.
There are 50 or more significant projects in the United States at this time.
Source: Reference (8).
have been plagued by numerous problems which have created unscheduled
Q
outages, and have cost several million dollars in repair costs. Many of
the problems already experienced by cleanup systems now in operation have
been engineered out of succeeding installations, with the result that a
number of suppliers now are able to give performance guarantees with new
installations.
In Los Angeles, APCD S02 emission regulations are met by the electric
utilities burning low sulfur fuels of less than .5% sulfur content
(Rule 62, Sulfur Content of Fuels). By burning the low sulfur fuels, stack
emissions are kept under the permissible 2000 ppm S02 emission level (Rule
53, Sulfur Compounds Concentration). This control procedure permits relatively
low sulfur emissions to be achieved without the need of costly add-on desulfuri-
zation systems. However unless desulfurization of fuels is extended to lower
limits, the sulfur removal effected by this strategy may not be satisfactory
56
-------
to meet the moving clean air targets. Add-on desulfurization equipment may
then become a candidate control measure for power utilities located in the
Four-County Area.
Cost
Desulfurization of industrial effluent gas streams involves expendir.
tures which generate benefits entirely in terms of air quality improvement,
and not in terms of process improvement. The fact that there are no cost
benefits from implementing desulfurization controls emphasizes the need for
minimizing costs to be incurred by installation and operation of the
prospective clean-up systems.
Quantitative analysis of the comparative cost of available desulfuri-
zation processes is possible only when the precise nature of the gas stream to
be treated is known. Even when the effluent stream specifications are
identified, comparative operating data of the candidate systems is generally
insufficient to appraise which methods are most economical and effective.
Figure 3-17 is a qualitative summary of cost versus effectiveness for the
typical clean-up systems of Table 3-7. All the systems are not capable of
the higher levels of effectiveness shown in the figure, and generally those
which are most efficient are available at the higher costs.
2000
1500
e
ex
500
Cost
Figure 3-17.
Cost of Effectiveness for S02 Removal
Systems
57
-------
Under the new federal regulations, electric utilities are the main tar-
get for S02 and control systems. The Sulfur Oxide Control Technology
Assessment Panel has estimated that the cost of S02 stack cleaning for power
utilities could increase consumer cost for electricity by 17%. Several
utilities have affirmed that S02 cleanup technology will increase consumer
rates by 20%.8 The Louisville Gas and Electric Co. has stated that the cost of
its announced S02 compliance program for its eight existing units will amount
to a rate increase of 30%. Some examples of the capital cost of retrofitting
cleanup technology in existing power generating plants are shown below:
Size of Plant
(MW)
800 .
550
65
1650
Initial
Capital
150
42
3.1
100
$ per KW
60
80
50
60
Developer & Utility
Penn Power, Bruce Mani field
Station (2 units)
TVA, Widows Creek
Louisville Gas & Electric
Louisville Gas & Electric
(8 units)
Although numerous cost estimates have been made for cleaning stack
gases, most of the published information is not definitive. It is difficult
to evaluate and compare the cost of cleanup processes when there are still
many problems to be identified during development. This situation will be
remedied as current projects are completed and more operating data has been
obtained. In addition, costs will vary widely depending on factors such as
plant size and location, cost of raw materials, difficulty of product
disposal, and whether the installation is new or retrofit. The present
indication is that for power plants investment can be as high as $80/KW
with an annual operating cost as high as $2.5/KW.
The costing of desulfurization cleanup systems used to control
emissions from the tail gas of Claus sulfur recovery plants involves less
guess work than other applications. S02 removal processes have operated
continuously with high efficiency at several sulfur recovery plants for the
past few years. The capital and operating cost of a high efficiency S02
cleanup process when applied to a Claus plant operating at 95% recovery are
shown in Figures 3-18 and 3-19. A high efficiency cleanup system for a
58.
-------
typical Claus unit processing 1000 tons/day of sulfur with a tail gas S02
concentration of 10,000 ppm would incur a capital cost, of $3.5 million.
The problem of high cost for stack desulfurization is compounded by
the limited availability of the S02 cleanup systems. The Sulfur Oxide
Control Technology Assessment Panel has stated that processes may not be
readily available for tne next few years. Currently there are several
scheduled process installations, and if emission control standards do
not become more lenient in the next few years, commercial demand for
the cleanup systems will far exceed the industry's limited manufacturing
capacity.
50
5,000
c/>
o:
r 1.000
INVESTMENT, THOUSAM
— U1
o - o
0 0
50
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-
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A
T
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T
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At
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RE
IN
TC
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r
DO
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AC
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<
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w
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:i
Fl
DV
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)9
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E
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E/
6
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AU
JR
Er
.9
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|
',
CA
PI
ER
ISE
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r
LEAN-l'P' PROC
S PLAN! WITH
RECOVERY
Y INCREASEO _
Jill
:?s
35%
W
#\
--2^5 —
Sjf
S
-------
3.3 ALTERNATIVE FUELS - A CONTROL FOR PARTICIPATES, S09 AND NOV
£ A
Today's energy needs are served primarily by direct use of fossil fuels.
The disappearing reserves of these fuels for low cost energy, and the concern
over long-term energy supply, has recently given rise to investigation of
alternative energy systems by various energy planning agencies. Synthetic
fuels from non-fossil sources are now being advocated as the most suitable
alternative for supplying the long term needs for gaseous and liquid fuels.
However, in the near term, until technology is more advanced, even synthetic
fuels will require fossil sources such as coal and oil shale.
A conversion to synthetic fuel systems would have dramatic impact
on air quality problems. Consumption of synthetic fuels in these systems
results in very little a-ir pollution, and would eliminate the immense
effort now targeted for control of air pollutant emissions from fossil energy
use.
Among the comprehensive studies of potential fuels, methanol is
described as the most desirable of the alternatives in many ways.
Hydrogen, which has been suggested as a universal, nonpolluting fuel, is
expensive, difficult to store and transport, unadaptable to current fuel-
using equipment, and hazardous; the use of methanol does not pose these
problems.
Methyl-fuel can serve as a substitute in many current fuel systems.
In full scale boiler combustion tests, methyl-fuel has proven itself an
effective air pollution control measure. The burning of methyl-fuel produced
virtually no unburned hydrocarbons, S09, or particulate emissions, and NO
w A
emissions were reduced below that produced under firing of natural gas.
Methyl-fuel is especially attractive as a fuel substitute for motor vehicles,
and can be utilized as an additive to current fuel stocks without special
adaption. Its research-octane blend value of 130 makes it a possible octane
booster substitute, and because it has no lead or sulfur it can be used
compatibly with motor vehicles equipped with catalytic exhaust control
devices. When methyl-alcohol is used as a complete motor fuel substitute
(requiring engine adaption estimated at $100 per vehicle), exhaust
emissions are reduced by 80%. '
60
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Methanol 1s produced by reacting synthesis gas (CO,v,C02, and H2) at
various temperatures and pressure 1n the presence of a catalyst. In the
typical commercial production of methanol, the synthesis gas 1s produced
by reacting steam and methane. However the synthesis gas can also be
produced from natural gas and carbonaceous materials such as oil shale, coal,
and refuse. In the manufacture of methanol the output can be ifiOGFease^d by
50% if small amounts of other alcohols can be tolerated in the product. Such
a mixture is calldd "methyl-fuel," and can be produced in larger quantities
and lower prices than pure methanol, and has superior properties as a fuel.
In the near term, coal must be utilized to achieve large scale methyl-
fuel production. However the desirability of coal for methyl-fuel production
depends heavily upon successful coal gasification design. Intensified
development is now under way to provide these designs, and some have proven
feasible already. These systems are similar to those already built on
commercial scale for the U.S. Bureau of Mines and various chemical companies.
Economics of Methyl-Fuel Production
Due to the relatively limited production of synthesis gas from coal
in this country, the economics and technology for this process are not well
defined. Preliminary cost estimates developed 1n the fall of 1972 for a plant
producing 20,000 tons/day of methyl fuel (equivalent in heating value to
gasoline produced by a 160,000 barrels/day petroleum refinery) are given in
Table 3-13. The cost of production for methanol is estimated at 8.514/gal,
or 148^/10° BTU. This production cost can be compared with other fuels as
follows:
TABLE 3-12. PRODUCTION COST OF ENERGY IN FUELS, SEPTEMBER 1972
Fuel
Source
Cost. $/106 BTU
Gasoline
Fuel oil
Hydrogen gas
Methyl -fuel
crude oil
crude oil
coal
coal
1.05
.96
1.32
1.48
Source: Reference (12).
61
-------
TABLE 3-13. ECONOMICS OF SYNTHESIS OF 20,000 TONS/DAY
OF METHANOL (MeOH) FROM COAL
Item
Coal3
Chemicals
Process water
Cooling water
Operating labor
Supervision
Maintenance
Unrt
Ton
103 gal
103 gal
Man.-nr
Units
/Day
Synthesis
(Capital for
26,000
6,250
346,000
960
Overhead
Precapital manufacturing cost
Capital charges
Total cost
at 15%/year
Cost
$/Un1t $/Day
Gas Manufacture e
Plant: $260 x 10°
7.00 182,000
1,000
0.20 1,250
0.02 6,920
4.00 3,840
380
35,600
4,220
235,110
106,800
341,910
*/gal
MeOH
3.02
0.02
0.02
0.11
0.06
0.01
0.59
0.07
3.90
1.77
5.67 (99<£/106
Btu)
Methanol Synthesis from Provided Syngas
(Capital for Plant: $135 x 106)
Steam 103 Ib 38,200
Fuel TO6 Btu 21,600
Electricity KWhr 100,000
Cooling water 103 gal 540,000
Catalyst and
chemicals
O&M labor and
supervision
Overhead
Precapital manufacturing cost
Capital charges at 15%/year
Subtotal
Total cost
0.65 24,800
Ob
0.01 1,000
0.02 10,800
15,000
50,000
14,000
115,600
55,400
171,000
512,910
0.41
0.02
0.18
0.25
0.83
0.23
1.92
0.92
2.84
8.51 (148tf/106
Btu)
^Combined raw material and fuel.
Purge gas from synthesis gas plant.
Source: Reference (12).
62
-------
The costs above reflect the market two years ago. Dramatic changes have
since occurred in the world economic situation, affecting the cost of many ,
types of raw materials. The price of petroleum has increased by a factor of
five, and costs are now rising to reflect the Increased demand for coal. While
the current uncertainties in the marketplaeeosaggest restraint in economic pro-
jection, it does appear that the current trend is pricing alternative fuels into
competition. The cost of fuel oil to the fuel-burning utility companies is pre-
sently $15 per baH-el, or $2.46 per million BTU. Vulcan-Cincinnati Company, a
process designer for the manufacture of the methyl-fuel, now estimates a cost to
the consumer of $2 to $3 per million BTU.
One of the principal drawbacks to the immediate use of methyl-fuel as
a substitute in fuel combustion equipment is its availability. Currently
the projected market for this fuel is limited. In addition, it may be
difficult to provide the coal resources needed for expansive manufacturing
of methyl-fuel. The Nation is currently engaged in a program to increase
utilization of coal for generation of electric power, and limited coal
availability has already placed uncertainties on that effort. Environ-
mental concern over land abuse by coal mining is a primary constraint to
plentiful coal supply. However, an advantage contained in the methyl-fuel
production is that it will use "low quality" lignite coal, a cheaper and
lower demand coal.
In addition to material supply problems confronting any immediate
plan for large scale production of a substitute fuel, there are obvious
social and political disruptions inherent in a plan proposing radical
manufacturing and consumer conversions. If air quality standards are to be
met in the near term through fuel conversion policy, the disruptions are
inevitable, and probably, intolerable. However, if environmental standards
are promulgated to promote alternative fuels over the long term, the tran-
sition would appear to be feasible. The market demand may very well supplant
this long term possibility. It has been estimated that by 1975 there will
exist a market for 18 methyl-fuel plants by coal gasification. By 1980 the
demand will be 28. According to the Vulcan-Cincinnati Company, who has a
proprietary hold for the manufacture of methyl-fuel, it would be possible to
construct these fuel plants by 1980. By 1990 the market demand is projected
at 120 plants.11
63
-------
In the long term, methyl-fuel conversion appears practical. In fact,
the apparent far reaching attractiveness of methyl-fuel conversion as a
long term approach to air resources management problems would seem to
raise serious questions as to the sensibility of current air quality
achievement goals predicated on rapid timetables. In the long term,
deferment of present short term air quality objectives could have signi-
ficant impact on the rate of development of far reaching alternatives such
as methyl-fuel substitution. More investigation is needed to determine
the relationship between these factors.
3.4 NON-TECHNICAL CONTROL MEASURES
The total regional emission rate from a certain type of air pollution
source can ususally be described as a product of three factors:
/ Total \ /Number of \ /AverageX /AverageX
[Regional] _ (Source Units] [Source j [Source \
lEmission/ V In Region/ \ Usage / I Emission)
\ Rate / \ ' \ Level / \Factor /
The controls considered so far in this chaptee have essentially dealt
with methods for reducing the last of these three factors. The above
controls have consisted of modifications of processes or additions of
cleaning devices so as to reduce average source emission factors. As such,
they might be called "Technological" controls.
This section will briefly examine "non-technical controls", that is,
controls aimed at reducing source numbers or source usage. Source reloca-
tion and growth restrictions will be the two methods examined for decreas-
ing source numbers. The discussion of source usage control" will emphasize
vehicle use reductions, i.e., vehicle miles travelled (VMT) restrictions.
It is not unappropriate that non-technological controls are considered
last in this chapter. As will be evidenced by the discussions below, there
are very great socio-economic costs and implementation problems associated
with non-technological controls, especially when they are considered over
the short-term, (say b to 10 years). It may be difficult to implement strict
technological controls for motor vehicles, aircraft, power plants, or
industries. However, the resistance to measures such as 50 percent VMT
64
-------
reduction, industry relocations, or a no gravity policy can be much greater.
On the short-run, non-technological controls are somewhat a last resort.
They should be considered here, however, since very large reductions in
total emission levels will be needed to approach the national air quality
standards for particulates in the Los Angeles Region.
3.4.1 Growth Restrictions
Control measures which limit community growth provide an important
means of maintaining air quality. These measures may be geared toward
discouragement of new growth (disincentive measures) or toward total pro-
hibitions. Alternative measures providing disincentive to growth have been
outlined in a recent TRW study on Air Quality Maintenance for the San Diego
13
Area . The measures include various restrictions on land use such as spec-
ial residential zoning ordinances, environmental impact reporting, special
taxation rates, open space planning, and capital improvements requirements.
The severity of the restrictions is established to reflect the degree of
growth control needed to maintain air quality levels within standards.
Due to the substantial magnitude of the air pollution problem in the
Los Angeles Area, it may be necessary to consider implementation of con-
trol measures which would actually prohibit certain types of growth. These
prohibitions might be directed at the more significant sources, and could
include such restrictions as a limit on motor vehicle registrations, pro-
hibitions on industrial expansion, prohibition of airport expansions,
limits on utility service hook-up, etc.
3.4.2 Relocation
Source relocation is potentially a very effective method for reducing
total regionwide emission levels. However, unless one is moving significant
portions of the human population out of the air basin, (which some may agree
is the step that is actually necessary to attain all present air quality
standards in Los Angeles), source relocation appears to be most appropriate
for large, concentrated sources. It is usually a much more difficult
problem to relocate area sources, such as traffic, residence, etc. Ac-
cordingly, in this study, relocations will be considered only for concen-
trated or point sources.
The major candidates for relocation in the Los Angeles area are the
international airport, power plants, refineries, and certain large
65
-------
industries. The re-shifting of any of these facilities would invalue a
tremendous cost and would be resisted by very strong political forces. It
is not within the scope of this study to examine these costs and imple-
mentation problems in detail. Rather, this study will just note the amount
of relocation that may be necessary to meet the air quality standards. If
relocation is actually chosen by control agencies as a viable measure,
further study will have to be given to the impact associated with its imple-
mentatioD.
3.4.3 Source Usage
Restriction of source usage rates is potentially a very effective
method of reducing emissions. Examples would be limits on power plant
operating level, refinery throughout, or motor vehicle travel. Usage
limits for large stationary sources would be equivalent to growth control
(for slight restrictions) or to partial relocation (for severe restrictions),
The following discussion will concentrate on use controls for motor vehicles,
Recent transportation studies have examined the effect of alternative
policies for reducing vehicle miles travelled (VMT) * ' . The list
of potential measures which have been studied include the following:
• Improvements in bus services
• New rail transit service
• Auto free zones
t Increased parking costs
t Carpool promotion
• Exclusive bus and/or carpool lanes
A study for Los Angeles indicates that each of these measures (when carried
out at a reasonable level) would produce only marginal reductions in VMT,
(from .1 percent to 5 percent) . A comprehensive program comprised of all
these would only be expected to reduce VMT by"10 to 20 percent. In order
to produce larger changes in VMT, say on the order of 50 percent, gasoline
rationing appears to be the most appropriate step. The reader is referred
to references 14, 15, and 16 for a detailed discussion of potential VMT
reduction;;measures and their impacts.
66
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REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.0
1. "Basic Technology", Section IV Air Pollution Control, Desk Book Issue,
Chemical Engineering, April 27, 1970.
2. National Air Pollution Control Administration, "Control Techniques
for Particulate Air Pollutants", Publication of U.S. Department of
Health Education and Welfare, January 1969.
3. Christensen, R., Chevron Research Company, "Low Sulfur Products from
Middle East Crudes", National Petroleum Refiners Association,
AM-73-38, April 1973.
4. Steele, D., G. Gould, R. Roselius, W. Haunschild, Chevron Research
Company, "Clean Fuels Through New Isomax Technology", American
Petroleum Institute, Document 40-73, May 1973.
5. Miller, Stan, "The Business of Air Pollution Control", Environmental
Science and Technology, November 1973.
6. Slack, A., Division of Chemical Development, Tennessee Valley Authority,
"Removing S02 from Stack Gases", Environmental Science and Technology,
February 1973.
7. Barry, Charles, Barry & Richardson, "Reduce Claus Sulfur Emission",
Hydrocarbon Processing, April 1972.
8. Olds, F., "S02 & NOX", Power Engineering, August 1973.
9. "The Largest U.S. Wet Scrubber System", Environmental Science and
Technology, June 1974.
10. Reed, T., R. Lerner, "Methanol : A Versatile Fuel for Immediate Use",
Science, December 1973.
11. "Outlook Bright for Methyl -Fuel", Environmental Science and Technology,
November 1973.
12. Atomic Energy Commission Synthetic Fuels Panel, "Hydrogen and Other
Synthetic Fuels", Prepared for the Federal Council on Science and
Technology R&D Goals Study, September 1972.
13. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "Development of a
Sample Air Quality Maintenance Plan for San Diego," Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, September 13, 1974.
14. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "Transportation Con-
trol Strategy Development for the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region,"
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, January 1973.
67
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15. Rand Corporation, "San Diego Clean Air Project," R-1366-SD/Appendix
4, December 1973.
16. Horwitz, J., Kuhrtz, S., Environmental Protection Agency, "Transporta-
tion controls To Reduce Automobile Use and Improve Air Quality in
Cities," November 1974.
68
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4.0 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Operations of the petroleum industry broadly include production,
refining, and marketing. Production concerns locating and drilling oil
wells, pumping and pretreating the crude oil, recovering gas condensate,
and shipping raw products to the refinery. Refining involves the conversion
of crude oil to a finished saleable product. Marketing includes: the distri-
bution and actual sale of the finished products.
The following sections provide a characterization of atmospheric
emissions arising from the petroleum industry, the prevailing emission
control technology being utilized, and alternative emission control tech.-
nology available or in development which will reduce atmospheric pollution
generated by the petroleum industry.
4.1 BASELINE CHARACTERIZATION
The main sources requiring emission control in petroleum production
are the process equipment and storage vessels. Pollution control
measures for refining operations have been directed principally at elimina-
tion of particulates, hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, and carbon monoxide.
Emission control for marketing operations are directed primarily at
hydrocarbon vapors which escape during the storage and transfer of the
saleable petroleum products, and controls for refining.operations are
designed to manage the particulate and S0£ emissions emanating from the
process equipment. These emission problems are characterized in the
following section.
4.1.1 Emissions
The most significant emissions from the petroleum industry are S02
gases deriving from operations during refining processes. The petroleum
industry accounts for about 15% of all atmospheric SOg. but less than 5%
of other particulate precursors, and only 2% of the primary particulates
(Figure 4-1). Virtually all of the emissions of the petroleum industry
originate in Los Angeles County.
69
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S02
10- •
Percent of
total
Atmospheric
Emissions by,
Petroleum
Industry
Figure 4-1. Role of Petroleum Industry in Atmospheric
Pollution of Four-County Area, 1972.
Projected emissions for the four-county area from the petroleum industry
are illustrated in Table 4-1. Due to regulations imposed in the California
Air Program Implementation Plans for petroleum marketing operations, the
overall RHC emissions from the petroleum industry will be reduced by
approximately 75% by 1977. These controls will not affect primary
particulates, S0o» or NO emissions.
TABLE 4-1. EMISSIONS FROM THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY, PRESENT AND
FUTURE, FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Partial! ates
3
3
3
so2
60
60
60
NO,
67.5
67.5
67.5
RHC
74.1
17.8
18.7
70
-------
Refining
The greatest quantity of air contaminants from the petroleum industry
originate from refinery operations. The three primary refinery emission
sources include catalyst regeneration, coking operations, and sulfur
recovery plants. For purposes of emission inventory compilations, sulfur
recovery plants are typically considered as a chemical process. Accordingly,
consideration of emissions from sulfur recovery plants is discussed in
Section 11.0 (Chemical Processing Industry).
Catalyst regeneration is a continuous process integral to the catalytic
cracking of petroleum. During the refining process, the molecular structure
of the different distillates of the crude oil are chemically converted by
catalytic cracking to produce products such as gaseous hydrocarbons, gasoline,
gas oil, and fuel oil. The catalyst utilized in this process becomes
contaminated with coke build-up and must be continually regeneraged by
burning off the coke under controlled combustion conditions. The resulting
flue gases contain particulates (coke and catalyst fines), and products
of combustion such as hydrocarbons, S02 and NOX. The quantities of these
emissions generated from refineries in the Four County area are given in
Tables 4-2 and 4-3 and 4-4 below.
TABLE 4-2. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OPERATIONS,
FOUR-COUNTY AREAS, 1972
Process
Petroleum Coke
Operations
Catalytic Cracking
Other
TOTALS
Emissions to Atmosphere
Ton/Day
.7
2.2
.1
3.Q
% of Parti cul.ate Emissions
in Tfiis Industry^
22.4
73.2
4.4
aTha distribution of emissions- from the. operations is Based on the tabulation
of the APCD inventory file for Los Angeles County only. TBIs distribution was
applied to the Four^County Area ..total .emission inventories to obtain the"
daily emission figures above.
Source: Reference. (2)
71
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TABLE 4-3. S02 EMISSIONS FROM OPERATIONS OF THE PETROLEUM
INDUSTRY, FOUR-COUNTY AREA3
Emissions to Atmosphere
Process Ton/Day
Catalytic Cracking 57.2
Other 2.8
% of S02 Emissions
in This Industry
95.4
4.6
Total 60
Source: Reference (2)
TABLE 4-4. NOX EMISSIONS FROM OPERATIONS OF THE PETROLEUM
INDUSTRY, FOUR-COUNTY AREA9
Emission to Atmosphere % of Particulate
Process Ton/Day Emissions in This Industry
60.5 89..S
Catalytic Cracking
Other 7.d 1Q.3
Total 67.5
a The distribution of emissions from the operations is based on the tabulation
of the APCD inventory file for Los Angeles County only. This distribution was
applied to the 4 county area total emission inventories to obtain the daily
emission figures above.
Source: Reference (2)
•72
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Coking operations involve the processing of the heavy residual of the
crude oil's initial separation. The residual is heated and injected Into a
drum where vaporization to dryness forms a solid material called "coke".
The coke is removed from the drum by steam drilling, and subsequently crushed
and transferred to storage. The APCD estimates that the crushing and transfer
operations account for a significant portion of atmospheric particulate dis-
charges from the refineries Csee Table 4-2).
Marketing and Production Operations
A network of pipelines, terminals., truck, fleets, marine tankers, and
storage and loading equipment are used to deliver the finished petroleum
product to the user. The significant emissions arising from marketing
activities are hydrocarbon vapors from storage vessels and filling operations.
Similarly, significant emissions arising from production activities are
the hydrocarbon vapors which emit during storage and filling operations. The
quantities of hydrocarbon emissions from the types of petroleum activities are
summarized below. These sources Cas well as all other hydrocarbon sourcesl
Reactive Hydrocarbon Emissions from Petroleum Industry
Production
Refining
Marketing
1972 RHC, tons/day
2.0
5.Q
67.1
have been a target of pollution control under the EPA oxidant reduction plan,
and their control will therefore not be addressed in this report Cas
mentioned previously in Section 1.0).
4.1.2 Emission Control
Table 4-5 lists the type of control equipment currently being utilized
to reduce particulate emissions of petroleum refining emission sources.
It has been estimated by the LAAPCD that over 90% of refinery particulate
emissions are prevented from entering the atmosphere. These
•73
-------
TABLE 4-5. CHARACTERIZATION OF CONTROL METHODS CURRENTLY UTILIZED IN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY FOR CONTROL OF MAJOR PARTICULATE
EMISSION SOURCES, FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1972
Actual Emissions
Process Operation Tb/daya Control
Petroleum Coke -
Conveying
Size Reduction
Storage
Catalytic Cracking
1020
15
14
381
4400
None( except for
wet treatment)
Baghouse
. Baghouse
None
Electrical
Precipitation
Average
Efficiency
—
89.6
94.7
—
95.0
aThese figures are based on the APCD inventory file information for Los
Angeles County. They have been adjusted to reflect the overall four
County emission totals as reported in the total emission inventory of
Reference 112).
preventions are attained by employment of baghouses and electrical pre-
cipitators, and in the instance of coke conveying, particulate pollution
control is accomplished mainly by wetting procedures, similar to those used
in the mineral industry to prevent dust generation during aggregating
operations. These wetting practices provide controls which enable the
industry to comply with current APCD regulations (Rule #50 - Opacity,
and Rule 51 - Nuisance). Particulates emitted from catalyst
regeneration are prevented from discharge to the atmosphere by employing
74
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a cyclone separator and electrical precipitator to the regenerator flue
gases, as shown in Figure 4-2 below. The APCD estimates a particulate
recovery rate of 95% due to these controls.
REGENCRATMCVOONt . tUCTMSTATIC MECIP1TATOR
FURNACE
STACK
Figure 4-2. Control of Particulates and Carbon Monoxide
in Catalytic Regeneration Systems
Source:
Reference (3)
The major S02 and NOX emissions of the petroleum industry result
from catalytic regeneration operations, and are uncontrolled at present.
There are currently no scheduled preventions planned for these sources.
4.2 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MEASURES
Alternative controls which may be applied to refinery operations to
reduce particulate and gaseous precursors emissions consist of both add-on
equipment and process alterations.
4.2.1 Particulates - Electrical Precipitators
The traditional air pollution control devices, electrical precipitators,
fabric filters, mechanical collectors, and wet scrubbers are used throughout
the petroleum industry to control particulate emissions from large sources
and a variety of sraall pollution generating sources. This equipment is suitable
75
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for reducing most emissions to negligible levels. However, despite levels of
control which are in the neighborhood of 95% removal efficiency, the volumes
of gases (up to 150,000 cfm) vented from a large regenerator still carry
substantial emissions approaching the 30 Ib/hr maximum (Rule #54, Solid
Particulate Matter).
The cost of a precipitator removal system rises sharply with performance
and cost penalty is substantial for the manufacturer who provides emission
control beyond that required by law. Consequently precipitators are
typically designed for a given application to provide the degree of emission
control required by air pollution regulations. A versatile precipitator
design incorporates provisions for future addition or modification to
improve efficiency in the event it becomes necessary to adapt to process
changes, or changes in air pollution control regulations. When no provision
has been made for future additions, increasing the efficiency of the unit may
be more costly than exchanging the unit altogether.
Installing additional high voltage electrostatic precipitator sections
is the most common technique for improving particulate collection efficiency.
Changing the voltage or power supply may also improve the performance. Changing
the temperature 6f the gas stream or injecting other materials into the gas
stream may improve efficiency.
Retrofits to precipitators for improved performance is generally possible
with newer equipment, but because of the rapid evolution of technology
in the air pollution control industry, older generations of precipitators
cannot be practically retrofitted. An additional problem in the retrofitting
of existing precipitators is the space limitation constraining the retrofit.
Typically most manufacturers have utilized all available space in the initial
control equipment installation, such that retrofits may be extremely costly
and probably less desirable than replacement alternatives.
Due to a history of stringent air pollution controls in the Los Angeles
Area, all local refineries have operated air pollution control equipment for
several years. Most of this equipment has been updated in the last 3 to 5
years to feflect increasingly stringent emission regulations. Thus some of
the equipment may be retrofitable to meet further demands for air pollution
prevention, but is likely that a large portion of the existing equipment
would be replaced, due either to the economical or physical unfeasibility of
configuration changes, or to the unavailability of adaptable retrofits on
previous generation equipment.
J6
-------
The impact of equipping the refineries in the Los Angeles area with
higher performance (99% removal) participate emission control equipment
on overall refinery emissions is outlined in Table 4-6. The costs of
implementing these controls (from a 95% efficiency level to 99%) are shown
in Table 4-7. To obtain the increased precipitator performance it will be
necessary to replace existing equipment with larger, more efficient
precipitator units. The capital expenditures required for these air
pollution preventions appear substantial, reflecting considerable
involvement on the part of the refinieries and the air pollution control
industry, and suggest that long lead timesrwill be-necessary before
equipment supply demands can be met.
4.2.2 Gaseous Precursors
The methods available to reduce emissions of gaseous precursors
include 1) process change, and 2) add-on emission control equipment.
Add-On Emission Control Equipment
As previously mentioned, the available control technology for SO^
removal equipment is now in its infancy. There are many commercial methods
for S02 removal from effluent gas streams, but to date relatively few of
these have been thoroughly tested (see Section 3.2.?). Hence the operating
and performance data associated with these recovery systems is very limited.
Since refinery operations are not the primary contributor to S02 air
pollution, none of the pilot installations are directed at the removal of
S02 from refinery regenerators. Most of the applications of commercial
systems are now being used to recover sulfur from power plant stacks and
sulfur recovery plant tail gases. However a number of the S02 removal
systems now being commercially promoted are applicable to a variety of flue
gases containing SCL. Particularly adaptable to a wide range of effluent
gases are wet scrubbing techniques, such, as the Wellraan Lord process,
The Double Alkali-system, and the 1irae-scrub&er technique .
77
-------
The Wellman-Lord S02 removal system may be particularly well suited
to application in refineries since its process produces a concentrated S02
gas, which can be delivered to sulfur recovery plants already existing at
the refineries. While the quantity of sulfur which can be recovered from
regenerator flue gases is not of appreciable magnitude to generate important
economic benefits, the employment of the sulfur recovery using the tfellman-
Lord principle avoids some of the supply and waste discard problems inherent
in most wet scrubbing techniques. The Wellman-Lord process is now being
utilized in 10 systems of different magnitude throughout the United States,
and presently, 12 other systems are in construction. The manufacturer,
Davy Power Gas Company, can guarantee an effluent S02 concentration of less
than ,100 ppm. Obtaining this level of emissions would correspond to a 90%
SOp emission reduction from the regenerator effluent stream.
Several other S02 removal systems may also be applied to the regenerator
flue gases. A number of these may be able to remove over 90% of the S02,
although their performance under the conditions of this application is
unproven. These systems, notably the wet absorption methods, have Been
discussed in Section 3.0«
The impact of add-on S02 removal systems to cracker units at the
refineries in Los Angeles is given in Table 4-6. A 90% removal of S02 in
the stack gases was assumed, providing a 51.4 ton per day reduction in S02
emissions from refinery emissions in 1977. The annual cost of these controls
is estimated to be $3.8 million per year,or $193 per ton of S02 removed
(Table 4-7).
Process Alterations
Another approach to the control of S02 emissions from refinery
effluent streams is the desulfurization of those petroleum
distillates targeted for catalytic cracking. In the typical desulfurization
process the various fractions of the crude are catalytically processed in a
fixed bed catalyst system. This-)!.system is closed and emits no air
pollution. Regeneration of the catalyst is necessary only once or twice a
year. The various off-stream fuej gases arising from this system,
containing sulfur as I-US, are routed to a claus split stream process where
76?
-------
the HgS is separated out. The fuel gases are then fed to furnace for
heating fuel, and the HgS stream is further treated in the claus sulfur
recovery unit to remove the sulfur. HgS remaining after treatment is
incinerated to S0« in the claus vent gas. This incinerated claus vent gas
containing high concentrations of SOg (6000 to 30000 ppm), is treated with
add on SO^ removal technology recently required under new araendements to
Rule 53 of the APCD (see Section 11.0, Chemical Industry).
The desulfurization of all those petroleum fractions fed to the
catalytic cracker unit cannot be achieved with existing desulfurization
equipment. However the technology to desulfurize all portions of the crude
does exist. Currently this technology requires separate facilities for the
various different distillates. Such facilities are becoming more prevalent
in the refining industry due to new regulations stemming from the Clean Air
Act. For example, construction of new facilities for the desulfurizatton of
the residual part of the crude are now planned at the Atlantic Richfield and
Standard Oil refineries. These facilities will provide low sulfur fuel
oil C < -5 % S) for power plants per APCD fuel composition regulations. The
addition of these facilities will not affect emissions from the catalytic
regeneration unit since the residual portion of the crude is not normally
processed through the cracker unit. However the trend to increased desul-
furization regulations for all petroleum products suggests the probable
construction of other desulfurization facilities which will process those
distillates which are feed for the catalytic cracker unit. Hence there are
two incentives for desulfurization of cracker feed: 1} as an emission control
for SOp in the effluent of the regenerator unit, and 2) to anticipate new
regulations for low sulfur content of petroleum products (particularly
gasoline).
The Chevron VGO Isomax Desulfurizatton Process (see Section 3.2.1) is
suitable for the desulfurization of catalytic cracker feed stoclc. Sufficient
sulfur removal may be achieved to produce low sulfur products from the cracker
and to reduce the sulfur oxides content in the regenerator stack gas to
appreciably lower levels. Figure 4-3 illustrates the effect of sulfur content
in the cracker feed stock on the catalytic regenerator stack. SO^ emissions.
79
-------
Figure 4-3.
Source:
1000 p-
900 -
800 U
700
600
: •
o
• 400
u.
300
200
100
_L
J_
_L
O.I 0.25 0.5 1.0
Faed Sulfur, Wt
2.5
5.0
Effect of Sulfur Content on Cracker Feed
Stock on Regeneration Unit Stack S02 Emissions
Reference (5).
It is evident that pretreatment of catalytic cracker feed through the Isomax
unit can substantially reduce S02 refinery emissions.
Operation of the desulfurization process produces some tradeoff
emissions of H2S which must be routed to claus sulfur recovery units at the
refinery. The claus unit is a standard facility utilized at all major re-
fineries. Recent improvements in the emission control of S02 from claus units
in Los Angeles County has resulted in very effective treatment of the H«S off
stream refinery gases. It is expected therefore, that hLS effluent from the
proposed desulfurization facilities would be managed without significant
increases in S02 emissions from the current sulfur recovery processes,
and that the tradeoff emissions of S02 resulting from the proposed facilities
would be inconsequental.
Construction of new desulfurization facilities with the capability of
throughputs'ng current cracker feed volumes and processing the feed to .05%
sulfur will be required if refinery S02 emissions are to be reduced substantially
'80'
-------
by this route. The expected emission reductions from these facilities
would amount to a prevention of 51.4 tons per day of S02 emitted to the
atmosphere (Table 4-6). The eost of construction, operation, and maintenance
of the desulfurization facilities would amount to an annual cost of
$19 million (Table 4-7). When reviewed as a separate facility entirely
for the purpose of refinery emission control, its cost is high
$964 for each ton of S02 prevention). However, the value of the desulfur-
ization unit additions to the refineries will be realized in investment
returns generated by its economical production of high demand low sulfur
products.
TABLE 4-6. IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVE CONTROLS ON EMISSIONS FROM
PETROLEUM REFINERIES, 1977.
Control Measure
Emissions
Parti culates
Improve efficiency of regenerator -, fl
unit particulate control to 99% l<0
Require S0« removal equipment for stack 7a
control (90% removal assumed)
Require desulfurization (to .05%) of all , Q
petroleum feed to catalytic cracker
Reductions,
so2
0
51.4
51.4
Tons/ Day
It is assumed that the scrubbing mechanism of S02 removal systems would
provide 30% removal of particulates from .the effluent of regenerator
dust control systems.
It is assumed that desulfurization of cracker feed was carried out to
.05% sulfur content from an initial level of 1.0% by weight of sulfur.
The percentage emission reduction due to this removal was then estimated
to be 90% (Figure 4-3).
81
-------
TABLE 4-7. COST EFFECTIVENESS OF ALTERNATIVE CONTROLS FOR
REFINERY MAJOR EMISSION SOURCES IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1977
Control Measure
Improve regenerator parti*
culate emission control
system to 99% efficiency
tequire S0£ removal equip-
nent for stack control
(90% removal)
tequire desulfurization of
all petroleum feed to
catalytic cracker to .05%
sulfur content.
Cost In Millions of Dollars
Initial
Capital
1.8a
28d
70f
Operation
Cost
Increase
.6b
.70e
129
Total
Annual i zed
Cost
.25°
3.8C
19C
Cost per ton
of Parti culate
or .SO? .Emissions
Reduced
$512
$193
$964
alnitial equipment cost is based on rates of Western Precipitator products,
obtained by personal communication with Joy Manufacturing, Los Angeles
($1.50/cfm processed). Installation cost estimate .data.is from Reference (6).
It was estimated, by communication with oil refineries and control system
manufacturers, that dust emission control systems of the 7 catalytic cracking
units of the 4-County Area may be 50% retrofitted at one-half the cost of
full replacement, while the remaining 50% will require total replacement
with new units.
Operation cost based on data from Reference (6).
°Based on estimated equipment life of 30 years @ 10%.
Based on approximate cost figures for Envirotech Double Alkali S02 Scrubber
System, proportioned from total overall rates including all equipment
and installation, communicated to TRW by Envirotech.7 This corresponds to
$4.0 million per 100,000 cfm (an average catalytic cracker effluent rate)
of effluent processed.
A
Based on annual operating figures (including all materials, equipment and labor)
as communicated to TRW by Envirotech7 (.1 million per 100,000 cfm effluent
processed).
Based on an estimated 290,000 barrels of cracker feed stock per day 8»9
processed at the 7 Los Angeles refineries with cracker units, it will be
necessary to construct 7 VGO high severity Isomax units with an average
capacity of 400,000 barrels per day each. Capital costs are based on
Reference (5) and Reference (10).
^Operating costs are based on cost of similar desulfurization facilities
discussed in Reference (11). ,32
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 4.0
1. Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Programs; Approval and Promul-
gation of Implementation Plans", California Transportation Control
Plan, Federal Register, Part II, November 12, 1973.
2. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Air Emissions
Computer Inventory File, obtained by purchase from the District.
3. Standard Oil, "Pollution Prevention in Pictures," Standard Oiler,
June-July 1972.
4. Personal communication with Standard Oil, Union Oil, and Joy
Manufacturing (distributor of Western Precipitators).
5. R. Christensen, Chevron Research Company, "Low Sulfur Products from
Middle East Crudes" , National Petroleum Refineries Association,
Document AM-73-38, April, 1973.
6. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, "Control Techniques for Particulate
Air Pollutants", January, 1969.
7. Personal communication with Envirotech Emission Control Division,
San Mateo, California.
8. P. Roberts, P. Roth, C. Nelson, Systems Applications, Inc., "Contaminant
Emissions in the Los Angeles Basin - Their Source Rates, and Distribution."
9. Personal communication with Union Oil Research, Los Angeles.
10. D. Steele, G. Gould, R. Roselius, W. Haunschild, Chevron Research
Company, "Clean Fuels Through New Isomax Technology." American Petro-
leum Institute, Document 40-73, May 1973.
11. Statement of the Shell Oil Co., Hearings Before the Committee on
Public Works, United States Sentate, Nov. 5 and 6, 1973.
12. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "The Development of
A Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region,"
Report No. 2, Emission Inventories and Projections, Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, June 1974.
•83
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5.0 STATIONARY FUEL COMBUSTION
Stationary combustion sources in the Four-County Area include power
generating plants, industrial and commercial b'oilers, and domestic combus-
tion units. Combustion of fuel oils and natural gas in these units produces
emissions of particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons.
The following sections provide an overview of the type and quantity of
emissions arising from combustion sources, the existing control methods, in
use to control these emissions, and alternative control technology which may
,be utilized to improve the present emission management.
-5.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS .
The most significant emissions arising from stationary fuel combustion
are sulfur dioxide gases. Combustion sources presently account for about
46 percent of all atmospheric SOg, 21 percent of the particulate emissions,
and 20 percent.of the N0>t. These emissions are distributed throughout the
Four County Area.
Percent
of
Total
Emissions
To
Atmosphere
60--
40
30
20
10 4-
N
PART.
SO2
NOX
Figure 5-1. Role of Fuel Combustion in Atmospheric Pollution
of Four-County Area, 1972 and 1980.
-85
-------
Projected and baseyear emissions for the Four-County Area frora fuel
combustion sources are illustrated in Table 5-1. By the year 1980 it is
projected that emissions from fuel combustion equipment will account for
a greater role in the overall emission totals. By that time S0« emissions
from fuel combustion will generate 71 percent of all atmospheric SCL,
44 percent of all the NOX pollution, and 32 percent of the primary parti-
culate emissions throughout the Four-County Area. The trend to increasing
emissions from fuel combustion operations derives principally from antici-
pated fuel schedule changes which will include utilization of higher
proportions of fuel oil in industrial boilers and power generating plants,
and 2) increased consumption of power and industrial growth. No new
regulations have been projected for control of these emissions. The
present and projected emissions (Table;5-l) reflect compliance with the
current regulations.
TABLE 5-1. EMISSIONS OF FUEL COMBUSTION, FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Parti culates
44.9
83.5
86.1
so2
208
374
380
NOX
282
672
629
Source; TRW Inventory Volume 111
Emission rates vary widely among the various types of stationary
combustion equipment. The emissions are dependent on type and size of
equipment, the method of firing, and the degree of maintenance. Table 5-2
provides a summary of various types of fuel burning equipment found in the
South Coast Air Basin. The smaller units (domestic and commercial) burn
entirely on a schedule of natural gas and the larger industrial units burn
either natural gas or fuel oil. Many industrial units are equipped for fuel
conversion, and still others are able to burn both natural gas and fuel oil
simultaneously.
86
-------
TABLE 5-2. SUMMARY OF FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
Equipment Category Description'' ' -" -
Power Plants Power plant boilers
Industrial Large and medium sized boilers, refinery
heaters, stationary internal combustion
engines
Domestic & Commercial Residential, combustion (space heaters,
water heaters, ranges), and small
commercial boilers.
The essential mechanism of the combustion unit is the burner. Burners
are designed to operate with oxidation reactions as close as possible to
completion, minimizing unburned and partially oxidized matter in the exhaust.
The burner is basically a metering device for the two reactants, oxygen and
fuel, and serves as a means of mixing the reactants before and with ignition.
The simplest burners are employed with gaseous fuels while more complex
designs are required for use with fuel oils. The burner design and operation
greatly affects the rate of exhaust emissions from combustion units. In
boilers, heaters, steam generators, furnaces, and other similar combustion
equipment, the emissions are a direct result of the combustion of gas or fuel
oil at the burners.
The effect of fuel type on emissions from combustion units of power
generating stations is illustrated in Table 5-3 below. Emission:rates of
both nitrogen oxides and particulate matter are substantially higher when
TABLE 5-3. COMPARISON OF POLLUTANTS EMITTED FROM POWER PLANTS WHEN
BURNING NATURAL GAS AND FUEL OIL
Low Sulfur Fuel
(.5% 5)
Natural Gas
Emissions - Lbs.
SOg
3300
Negligible
per 1000 Equivalent
NOX
1550
1000
Barrels of Fuel
Parti cul ates
300
15
Source: Reference (7). :
87
-------
burning fuel oil than when burning natural gas. There are essentially
no emissions of sulfur dioxide when natural gas is burned.
Projected fuel schedules for power plants and industrial
combustion units in the South Coast Basin are shown in Table 5-4 below.
TABLE 5-4. PROPORTION OF FUEL USAGE (PERCENT) AS NATURAL GAS FOR
BASIC COMBUSTION CATEGORIES IN SOUTH COAST BASIN
Year
1972
1977
1980
Power Plants
58
7
8
Industrial
96
65
72
Domestic
100
100
100
Source: 1973 California Gas Report, July .11, 1961
Due to the decline in natural gas supply,the proportion of oil burning emis-
sions are projected to increase. The distribution of emissions by fuel type
consumption for the three basic combustion categories is shown in Table 5-5.
TABLE 5-5. POLLUTANT EMISSIONS BY FUEL TYPE CONSUMED FOR BASIC
COMBUSTION CATEGORIES IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year Pollutant
1972 Parti culates
SOp
NOX
1977 Parti culates
S02
NOX
1980 Parti culates
S02
NOX
Power Plant
Nat. Gas | Oil
1
1.5 20.8
1.1 179
44.0 49.5
.1 35.9
.2 292
6.2 129
.1 36.7
.2 304
7.6 135
Total
22.3
180
93.3
36.0
292
135
36.8
304
143
Industrial
Nat. Gas
6.6
.3
26.4
3.7
.2
Oil | Total
5.5 12.0
27.3 27.6
88.4 114.8
32.2 35.9
81.0 81.2
31.0 445 476
4.5
.2
28.0 32.5
85.0 75.2
37.0 388 425
Domestic
Nat. Gas
10.6
.3
74.1
11.6
.4
61.1
12.3
.4
61.1
1. Emissions for power plants were segregated by fuel type by weighting the
emission rates (Table 5-3) with fuel type usage (Table 5-4) and normaliz-
ing to the total emissions given in Reference (1)."
2. The emissions by fuel type for industrial combustion units was
derived from'local APCD data and Southern California Gas Company data.
This distribution was then used to adjust the total emissions of
Reference (1) to the segregated emissions by fuel type.
-------
5.2 CURRENT EMISSION CONTROLS
Applied emission control technology for combustion units includes:
1) fuel modification, 2) burner design and operation techniques, and 3)
removal of pollutants from stack gases. The effectiveness of fuel modi=
fication for pollution control has been illustrated in Table 5-3. ThTs
pollution control approach is used whenever the supply of .natural gas
permits. However, as was seen in Table 5-4, the effectiveness of this
approach will be limited in future years due to the smaller quantities of
fuel gas available.
Stack treatment for removal of pollutants from combustion systems has
not been employed in the Four-County Area. In the past, emission regula-
tions have been met through the use of clean fuels and burner adjustments.
Projected regulations are not expected to provoke any changes in this
status.
The pollutant most susceptible to control by burner modifications or
operational changes is NO . To date, the emission control progress
/\
accomplished by these modifications has been applied to larger sources,
such as power plant boilers. This emphasis has increased in recent years
since larger generating stations, and hence larger boilers, have increased
in number. Because the ratio of furnace cooling surface to furnace volume
in the active combustion zone is smaller in larger boiler units, the
average flame temperature increases. As a result larger boilers typically
emit greater rates of nitrogen oxides.
Reduction of NO in existing boilers large enough to be under juris-
**
diction of Rule 68 (Fuel Burning Equipment) has been accomplished by
operation changes or combustion modifications. These control methods are
applicable to smaller burner units but are not required under present
regulations. Rule 68 limits NO emissions to low levels (325 ppm stack gas
/\
concentration) and is targeted for larger boilers at the power plants.
Table §-6 shows the control methods utilized by Edison Company and the
effect of these controls in complying with Rule 68. The controls methods
include 1) off stoichiometric diffusion flame operation, 2) two-stage com-
bustion, and 3) flue gas recirculation. (tBiese methods are discussed in
the next section). The overall reduction of NOX emissions due to these
controls from all units tested at Edison plants was over 50 percent.
89
-------
TABLE 5-6. SUMMARY OF NOX EMISSION RATE REDUCTIONS ACHIEVED AT
EDISON COMPANY UTILITY BOILERS WHEN BURNING GAS FUEL
Plant
Huntington
1
2
3
4
Alamltos
1 & 2
3 & 4
5 & 6
Etiwanda
3 •& 4
El Segunco
1 & 2
3 & 4
Redondo
5 & 6
7 & 8
Mandalay
L & 2
Unit
mfgra
B&W
B&W
B&W
B&W
BSW
CE
B&W
CE
B&W
CE
B&W
B&W
B&W
Size
MW
215
215
225
225
175
320
480
320
175
330
175
480
215
N0x,ppm, for
Normal
ODerationb
Single-
stage
500
520
555
335
450
330
700
330
450
330
450
750
520
Two-
Stage
-
500
285
330
-
390
-
330
-
330
400
-
Modified
Method0
osb
OS
Two-stage + OS
Two-stage + OS
Two-stage + OS
Recirculation
Two- stage + OS
Recirculation
Two-stage + OS
Recirculation
Two-stage + OS
!Fwo-stage + OS
OS
Operation
Excess
02,3$
3.1
1.8
3.1
2.2
2.1
2.0
2.5
-
-
2.3
3.1
2.4
u.
NOX,
ppm
200
200
230
210
245
110
150
-
_d
150
300
220
210
B&W - The Babcock & Wilcox Co., New York; CE = Combustion Engineering, Inc.
Based on ASTM Dl608-60, reported dry at 3 percent excess oxygen.
COS - off-stociometric.
Not yet tested - expected to give results comparable to Redondo 5 & 6.
Source; Reference (2). .gQ
-------
5.3 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MEASURES
The technology available to reduce emissions discharged by fuel
combustion consists of equipment modification and operational changes, flue
gas treatment, and fuel substitution. Except for fuel substitution, no
single control method is effective in preventing emissions of all pollu-
tant species (particulates, S02, NOX). Therefore control of each
pollutant is discussed separately in the following sections.
5.3.1 Control of Particulates
With conventional use of burner equipment, particles in the flue gases
can generally be maintained well below the emission standard of .3 grain
per scf of exhaust (Rule 53b). Given proper operation of the combustion
burners, the rate of particulate emissions depends primarily on fuel type.
The efficient burning of a common heavy residual oil of .1% ash results in
a stack gas concentration of only .03 grain per scf. There is no measurable
inorganic ash in exhaust gases from the combustion of natural gas. Low
sulfur oil contains small amounts of ash. Hence the exhaust gases of
typical fuel burning is not likely to exceed local standards.
Table 5-3 demonstrates the effectiveness of fuel substitution as
a preventive measure for particulate emissions. The burning of natural gas
produces emissions of particulates twenty times less than when burping low
sulfur fuel oil. It is clear that use of natural gas produces very
desirable air quality effects, and its utilization is currently maximized
as fuel supply permits. However the diminishing supply of natural gas for
the larger combustion equipment (Table 5-4), and the corresponding rising
level of particulate emissions from fuel combustion stacks (see Table 5-1),
is now provoking substantial concern that new controls be examined for
application to the large fuel burning equipment which must burn fuel oil in
the years ahead. This is exemplified by the Rules and Regulations govern-
ing the control of air pollution in Maryland, where low sulfur oil (.5% S)
fired boilers are required, to be equipped with dust collectors which
provide 50 to 80% efficiency, and emissions of .03 to .01 grains per scf,
for boilers, of various specified sizes.
91
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While the relative emission rate of participates from fuel combustion
is low, the immense volumes of exhaust gases produced by large oil burning
units result in appreciable discharges of particulate matter to the atmos-
phere. Because of the large volumes of exhaust and the small size of
particulates in the gas stream (see Table 5-7), only the electrical pre-
cipitation and the fabric filter are suitable candidate controls for this
application.
TABLE 5-7. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPICAL MATERIAL COLLECTED
FROM A STEAM GENERATOR STACK DURING THE BURNING OF
RESIDUAL FUEL OIL
°/
0 to 1
Absolute filter 86.6
Millipore filter 88.5
', In Each Micron Range
1 to 2 2 to 5
7.3 4.2
7.3 2.3
Largest
5 Particle Size,^i
1.9 50
1.9 50
A removal efficiency of 99.9% is typically obtained with a fabric filter for
particles in the submicron range. By comparison, electrical precipitators
which collect submicron size particles at over 95% efficiency require addi-
tional equipment at greatly increased costs.3 However fabric filters have
not been used to handle applications in which the gas volumes to be treated
are as large as that emitting from a utility boiler. Manufacturers of fabric
filters state this is because the fabric filter is not competitive when
4
installed for such immense effluent volumes.
Impact on Emissions
The impact of equipping oil-burning equipment in the Four County Area
with high efficiency (95% removal) electrical precipitators, or fabric filter
baghouses (99.9% removal) on fuel burning emissions is shown in Table 5-8.
These controls would each reduce the amount of fuel-burning particulate emis-
sions in the Four County Area to levels less than 40% of the 1972 baseyear rate.
Cost of Particulate Controls
Table 5-9 summarizes the cost of the two particulate control options ?
for oil-burning combustion equipment. The electrical precipitator is
slightly more cost effective as a control for larger fuel burning equipment,
and equally cost effective to the fabric filter when processing the smaller
92'
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TABLE 5-8. THE EFFECT OF PARTICULATE CONTROLS ON
OIL-BURNING COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT, 1977
Emission-Generating
Equipment
Power plant boilers
(large and small),
large non-power plant
boilers, and refinery
heaters
H , ii
Power plant boilers and
large non-power plant
boilers
Projected
Participate
Emissions,
tons /day
1977 1980
68 65
ii n
60 57
Control Option
1) High efficiency
electrostatic
precipitator
2) High efficiency
baghouse with
high temperature
synthetic fabric
& continuous
cleaning
3) Desulfurization
of fuel oils to
.05% S with new
desulfurizatifln
technol ogy v
Particulate Emis-
sion Reduction, 1977
% tons/day
95a 64.6
99 67.9
20% byc 12 by 1977
1977
40% by 23 by 1980
1980
Notes:
1. As an approximation related to the above emissions, medium sized boilers
were assumed to operate on natural gas for the next few years, although fuel
usage projections (Table 5-4) indicate some of these units may be using fuel
oil. As a counter assumption, all large non-power plant boilers have been
assumed to run 100% on fuel oil. Thus the oil-burn industrial emissions of
Table 5-5 originate entirely from large non-power plant boilers as other
industrial sources use natural gasb or refinery-make gas and oil.
2. Control alternative #3 is targeted for S02 removal but is included here
to show its beneficial secondary effect on particulate emission preventions.
aPersonal communication with Joy Manufacturing, and Envirotech regarding the
maximum feasible collection efficiency for particles of sub-micron size in
combustion flue gases.
Reference (5).
cThis efficiency estimate is based on 1) typical relationship for fuel ash
content as a function of sulfur content, determined from data from Ref.(6).
2) Source data from measurements of particulate matter per barrel of low sul-
fur fuel of .5% sulfur content.7 The actual particulate matter produced per
volume of oil burned was considered to be composed of both inorganic ash
attributable to the fuel ash content, and organic carbonaceous hydrocarbons
resulting from incomplete combustion. The latter component was then assumed
to persist when very low sulfur fuels, having negligible traces of ash, are
burned.
93'
-------
TABLE 5-9. COST OF PARTICIPATE EMISSION CONIROL FOR
OIL-BURNING COMBUSTION.EQUIPMENT, 1977
Number
of
Equipment Units Control
Large power plant boilers 35 high efficiency electro-
Average size = 260 MW) static precipitator
" high efficiency baghouse
Small power plant boilers 49 high efficiency electro-
(Average size = 65 MW) static precipitator
" high efficiency baghouse
Large non-power plant 152C high efficiency electro-
boilers (Average size static precipitator
= 78 MW)
" high efficiency baghouse
Refinery heaters 220C high efficiency electro-
(Average size = 6.5 MW) static precipitator
" high efficiency baghouse
Cost in Millions of Dollars
Initial Cost per
Purchase & Operation Annualized Ton of
Installation Cost Cost Particulate
Cost x 10° Increase Increase Reduced
48.1 7.0 12.6 $1452
38.5 10.5 15.0 1671
13.5 2.0 3.6 932
12.2 2.2 3.6 904
68.4 9.1 17.1 1530
60.8 11.4 18.5 1590
28.6 3.3 6.7 2410e
28.6 2.1 5.4 1863
Notes:
1. Costs based on supplying control equipment to clean stack gas flow of 310,000 cfm per 100 MW boiler rating. .
4. Combined purchase and installation cost of electrical precipitator based on rates of Western Precipitator Products
(2.5 times greater than cost as given in Figure 3-9 Operation cost estimate based on data from Figure 3-13.
5. Annualized cost computations based on 20 year lifetime at 10%.
6. Particulate emission reductions due to the controls, for each of the equipment categories, was estimated based on
1) the relative approximate stack flue gas volume processed for the entire category, 2) the relative particulate
emission factors given in Reference (10) for power plant boilers and industrial boilers when operating on fuel oil
(small power plant boilers were assumed to generate particulate emissions at a rate between these two types).
Hence large power plant boilers produce 25 tons/day; small power plant boilers, 11 tons/day; and larger non-power
plant boilers, 32.2 tons/day.
7. Installation and purchase cost of baghouse based on Figure 3-12 , operation costs based on Figure 3-u .
Reference (8).
bReference (9).
^Reference (5).
Reference (3).
-------
effluent volumes associated with boilers of less thermal rating. Since
the baghouse has not been used extensively to control emissions from large
boiler units, it appears that its selection for this application would be
unwarranted. The baghouse is significantly more cost effective as a
collector for refinery heater emissions, and should probably be recommended
for this application. Further testing and pilot studies should be performed
to demonstrate the practicability of baghouse installations for high volume
effluent treatment.
5.3.2 NOX Control
The control of NOX emissions from combustion units is primarily a
function of the control of temperature and residence time in the primary
flame zone. Both of these functions can be managed by modification of
operating conditions and by modification of design features in existing com-
bustion units. Numerous methods of modifying the operating conditions
have proven successful and may be adopted for use in existing combustion units,
These include 1) low excess air firing, 2) two stage combustion, 3) flue gas
recirculation, 4) steam or water injection, and 5) direct temperature control.
Design modifications which may be utilized for NOV control generally involve
A
an alteration in the burner and furnace configuration, or the location and
spacing of burners.
Low excess air firing involves the manipulation of the excess air
rate to the burner. The effect of burner air rates on NO formation rates
(Figure5-2)has been established in various tests for both oil fired and gas
fired combustion units. It has been determined that reductions from the
normal excess air rate of 10 percent to 5 percent will reduce NOX emissions
by approximately 40% in boiler and heater units. Further reduction of
excess air rates are not feasible due to the hazardous conditions which
develop when explosive mixtures of unburned fuel are formed.
95
-------
REDUCING CONDITIONS
OXIDIZING CONDITIONS
10,000
UJ
Q
X
O
o
80 ' 90 100 110 120
PERCENT OF THEORETICAL COMBUSTION AIR
Figure5-2. Effect of Combustion Air Quantity on
NO Formation
Source: Reference (6).
In two-stage combustion, the primary air to the burners is decreased
below the stoichiometric quantity, and fuel is then combusted completely by
injecting secondary air at lower temperatures. This procedure has been
applied in power plant boilers to achieve substantial reductions (see
Table 5-6). It was designed specifically for utility boilers, and is not
considered feasible for control of other sized combustion units.
Flue gas recirculation lowers the peak flame temperature by diluting
the primary flame zone with flue gases. Flue gas acts as an inert dilutant,
and reductions of 30 to 60% in NO emissions are obtained. This control
A
approach is applicable to all combustion units.
In steam or water injection, the primary portion of the flame is
diluted by steam or water as in flue gas recirculation. This approach is
not as effective as flue gas circulation, producing about a 10% reduction
in NO emissions.
/\
96
-------
Direct temperature control is another technique for reducing the
temperature in the primary combustion zone. This is achieved by reducing
the preheat temperature of combustion air. The effect of this operation
on NO formation is shown in Figure 5-3. Direct temperature control can be
used to accomplish reductions in NOX emissions comparable to flue gas
recirculation. The disadvantage of this control is the accompanying
decrease in boiler thermal efficiency, and consequently the high annual
cost of the operation.
o.oi
0.02 0.03 0.04
TIME, seconds
0.06
.Figure5-3. Effect of Combustion Air Preheat
Temperature on NO Formation
Source: Reference (6).
A variety of burner and furnace design modifications may be applied
to reduce NOX formation. The type of burner configuration is essential as
a design consideration for NOX formation. The front-fired burner yields
complete mixing and combustion in immediate proximity to the burner, with
subsequent high temperatures and high NO formation. Corner fired burners
provide for slower mixing of air and fuel, such that a major portion of the
combustion occurs in the center of the furnace at lower than peak
97
-------
temperature. NO formation in the corner fired burners (500 to 1500 ppm)
A 2
is therefore substantially lower than in the front fired type (350 ppm) .
Boilers and heaters cannot be economically retrofitted to alter the basic
method of firing. Other less dramatic design retrofits may be applied to
reduce NO emissions (such as spacing of burners to increase radiant heat
A
transfer), but these methods are generally not as effective as the opera-
tional modifications discussed above, and because of higher costs for
implementation, they are not as cost effective.
Impact of NOX Control Options on Emissions
The effect of implementing the various NO control alternatives for
X "'
combustion units in the Four-County Area is summarized in Table 5-10. The
most feasible combinations of NO control options have been examined. As
A
a single control, low excess air firing was considered the most appro-
priate option, due to its cost advantages over other equally effective
options (such as direct temperature control, or flue gas recirculation).
Studies by ESSO^have determined that low excess air firing results, on the
average, in 40% reductions of NO emissions from commercial and industrial
A
boilers. These boilers generally are fired to 15-30% excess air, and may
be reduced to 2-6% according to tests. In power plant boilers less
than 1775 MBTU/HR,excess air firing is typically 5-15%, and NOY reductions
^
from lower excess air firing averages about 30%. Tests conducted with
refinery heater units have confirmed 40% reductions are attainable.
To develop additional NOV removal, flue gas recirculation may be
11
used with low excess air firing to achieve NO reductions of 70% from boilers.
/\
The feasibility of utilizing flue gas recirculation in refinery heaters as a
retrofit is not clear at this time. There is currently evidence which
indicates this approach requires development of an entire new heater design.
Hence this control option was not considered for implementation on refinery
heaters.
98
-------
TABLE 5-10.
THE EFFECT OF NOX EMISSION CONTROLS ON FUEL COMBUSTION
EQUIPMENT, FOUR-COUNTY AREA
to
Co
Un
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Projected NOX
Average Emissions
nbustlon Size lons/Dav.
tt Description MBTU/Hr 1977
Large power plant 2630 105
boilers (1825-3550
MBTU/hr)
Small power plant 660 30
boilers (100-1775
MBTU/hr)
Large non-power 80 118
boilers (30-400
HBTU/hr)
Medium sized boilers 9 205
(2-30 MBTU/hr}
Large refinery heaters 120 38
(90-290 MBTU/hr)
Small refinery heaters 45 27
(5-90 MBTU/hr)
Large stationary 1n- 700 H.P. 69
ternal combustion
engines (>300 H.P.)
Small compressor 200 H.P. 19
engines «300 H.P.)
Domestic (residential) - 46
fuel combustion (space
8 water heaters .ranges)
Small commercial and - 15
industrial boilers
( 2 MBTU/hr)
1980 Control Measure
111 None-al ready equipped with advanced
combustion control (emissions are
controlled to about 20% of
uncontrolled emissions level)
32 LOW txcMt air firing
& flu* gas P*c1rcul«t1on
105 Low MCMt »1r firing
t flu* gas rtclrcuUtlgn
183 Low excess «1r firing
& flue gas rvclrcuUtlM
34 Low excess air firing
24 Low excess air firing
61 Water injection or exhaust gas
recirculatlon
17 Water Injection or exhaust gas
recirculation
46 None
15 None
NO, Reduction In
1977
Percent
30
50
40
70
- 40
70
40
40
75
75
- .
_
Tons/Day
0
9
15
47
83
82
144
15
11
52
14
0
0
Cost/ton
of NOX
Reduction
0
$200
450
22
127
694
870
27
226
13
37
-
_
Emissions for power plants were segregated into small boiler and large boiler contributions by applying the emission
ratio between these 2.source sizes as reported in Reference (3) to the power plant emissions totals projected in the
Reference (1).
Emissions for industrial, or commercial and domestic, were segregated by equipment categories by applying the emission
distribution of Reference (5).(after Reference (5) had been updated to reflect current anticipated fuel schedules) to
the aggregated equipment category (industrial, commercial & domestic) emission totals reported in Reference (1).
-------
Many controls have already been applied in power plants to comply with
the NOY emission reductions required by Rule No. 68. These control
A
options are applicable to large utility boilers and have not been considered
ds candidate alternatives in Table 5-10. The compact size and limited
number of burners in other boilers and in heaters render these options
technically unretrofittable for applications other than large utility
boilers. These alternatives include two stage combustion, relocation of
burners, modification of burner spacing, and others.
There are currently no retrofit controls developed to manage the NO
A
emitting from residential fuel combustion, and small industrial and commer-
12
ical boilers. New units may be designed to control NO emissions , but
A
because retrofit controls would require relatively extreme costs for these
small units, they would probably not be politically acceptable. Hence no
controls have been considered in Table 5-10 for these smaller source
categories.
Stationary internal combustion engines (used primarily in gas and oil
industry for gas compression) can be retrofitted with water injection or
exhaust gas recirculation equipment to obtain NO emission reductions of
X
about 75%. The two approaches are equally cost effective. Stochio-
metric fuel adjustments have been shown effective in reducing NOY emissions
A
to 70%, but the associated loss in power and fuel economy make this
control method less desirable than water injection or exhaust gas re-
circulation.11'5'13
In calculating the impact of various control options on emissions from
combustion equipment, a substantial amount of relevant information was
extracted from Reference (5). This study contains an analysis of the effects
of implementing various NO emission controls among a definitive number of
y\
combustion equipment categories. The analysis is based on a survey of fuel
burning equipment and associated emission characteristics, a review of NO
A
control technology and its effectiveness and cost as applied to the various
equipment types, and a projection of future equipment growth and fuel
100
-------
schedules. Information of Reference (5) was updated to reflect current
fuel schedule projections. The level of emissions reported for each of the
combustion categories for 1975 in Reference (5) were adjusted to reflect the
overall emission projections of the aggregated combustion equipment categories
reported in Reference (V) for 1977 and 1980.
Application of feasible, state-of-the-art control technology to the
various types of combustion equipment in the Four-County Area, may achieve
NO reductions as large as 334 tons/day (Table 5~TO) in 1977. This control
/\
strategy would reduce NO emissions from combustion equipment by 50% in 1977,
/\
to a level of 338 tons/day. Unfortunately, the strategy would not be
sufficient to return combustion category NO emissions to the 1972 level of
/\
282 tons/day.
Cost of N0x Controls -
The cost effectiveness of the various NO control options for com-
. /\ •
bustion units in the Four-County Area is summarized in Table.5-10. The
least costly control alternative consists of either water, injection or
exhaust gas recirculation, applied to stationary internal combustion engines.
This measure may be .incorporated on large engines at a cost df only $13 per
ton of NOV emissions prevented. The most costly NOY control option is
X A
also the most significant in terms of overall NOY emissions low excess air
J\
firing and flue gas recirculation in medium sized boilers. The cost for
this retrofit is $870 per ton/day of NOX removed.
5.3.3 Control 6f SOp
The methods available to reduce emissions of S02 from fuel burning
equipment include 1) fuel modification, and 2) add-on emission control
equipment.
Fuel Modification
An obvious means of reducing emissions of S02 from fuel combustion is
to remove the sulfur from the fuel. Present regulations permit .5% sulfur
content in fuel oil (Rule 62). This standard was initially adopted with the
intention of motivating utility companies to substitute natural gas for fuel
oil. At the time the regulation became law, natural gas was more abundant
-------
and less expensive than the low sulfur (.5%S) fuel oil. Hence the desired
switch to gas use occurred quickly and emissions from power plants decreased
appreciably. These gains in air pollution control have diminished in recent
years and are expected to be realized even less because of the continuing
shortage of natural gas, and the increased burning of low sulfur fuel oils.
Currently, low sulfur fuel oils of .5% sulfur content are typically
produced by 1) desulfurlzation of heavy distillate to produce very low
sulfur blend stocks, and 2) blending these low sulfur stocks with the
high sulfur residuum portion of the barrel. Low sulfur processing of the
residuum has not been practiced extensively, but it is becoming evident
that this will be required if petroleum products are to be manufactured
according to the increasingly stringent standards. Several processing s
schemes are being proposed as possible routes to very low sulfur fuel oils.
Two of the most feasible methods are discussed in Section 3.2.1. These
methods have been tested in pilot development and are termed 1) VGO Isomax
Plus Solvent Deasphalting, and 2) VGO Isomax Plus VRDS Isomax. Both of
these processes lend to stepwise construction at the refinery and are inte-
grateable with existing refinery equipment. The level of sulfur content
obtained by these processes is .05%.
SO Removal Systems
Several S0« cleanup processes are commercially available to manage
emissions from fuel-burning combustion unit stacks. These methods are
discussed In Section 3. 2. 2. Several installations are now operating at
various power plants throughout the nation (Table 3-X) to control S02
emissions within new and more stringent state pollution standards. Many of
the SOp removal processes are being tested^ under pilot projects (mainly
utility boiler stacks) sponsored by°the EPA. In general, each of the pro-
O c
cesses involves a reduction or oxidation conversion of sulfur as it is found
in the stack effluent to a sulfur product which may be removed physically
from the system. The sulfur product is generally elemental sulfur, or a
i
sulfate or sulfuric acid.
The majority of the development effort to date has been applied to
processes with throwaway products (sul fates) such as those using lime or
!102
-------
limestone as an absorbent for SOg in the flue gas. Most of these systems
yield waste products which must be disposed of. Other systems circumvent
the disposal problem by generating useful sulfur compounds, or elemental
sulfur.
Comparative evaluations of the various SOg cleanup processes is not
possible since many problems still remain to be identified during develop-
ment and commercial operation. It seems certain however that a number of
processes will be available to provide guaranteed reductions of 90% for a
variety of applications.
Impact of Alternative Controls
The effect of implementing the potential SOg control methods on fuel
combustion emissions throughout the Four-County Area is shown in Table 5-11.
Both the option of add-on SO^ removal system and desulfurization of fuel
oil offer the same emission control effectiveness in the long term.
However desulfurization of fuel oils is not expected to affect emissions
from refinery heaters, since these units operate primarily on refinery made
gas and fuel oil. These fuels are generally heavy residual oils and high
sulfur content gas streams. They are not practically marketed or further
processed, and are therefore burned in the heating equipment as an economical
expedient. Unless these refinery by-product gases and oils can be disposed
of alternately, it does not appear, feasible that low sulfur supply stock
could be used in its place. Hence only flue gas cleanup systems were
considered a candidate control for refinery heater emissions.
Implementation of either control (desulfurization or stack SOg removal)
would result in substantial preventions of S0« entering the atmosphere.
When stack SOp control is employed, a 64% reduction in SOg emissions from
all sources in the Four-County Area is realized in 1977. The option of
fuel oil desulfurization cannot be implemented totally by 1977 due to
lead time required to construct the processing facilities. However, by 1980,
this option can be fully implemented.
103
-------
TABLE 5-11. IMPACT OF CANDIDATE CONTROLS ON SO? EMISSIONS FROM
FUEL COMBUSTION UNITS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1977
Equipment Description
All equipment scheduled
to use fuel oil through
1980 except refinery
heaters.
All combustion equip-
ment to use fuel oil
through 1980 (power
plant boilers, large
non-power plant
boilers, and refinery
heaters)
Refinery heaters
Baseyear and
Projected S02
Emissions
Tons/ Day
1972 1977 1980
189 336 342
206 373 379
17 37 37
Control Measure
Desulfurization of
residuum for fuel
oil sulfur content
of .05%.
S02 removal from
stack effluent
S02 removal from
stack effluent
S09 Reductions
* in 1977
% Tons/day
50%a 168
by 1977
90% 308
by 1980
90% 336
90% 33.3
aDue to lead time requirements for design and construction, it was
assumed that only 1/2 of all desulfurization plants could be operational
by 1977, with the remaining desulfurization facilities to be provided
by 1980.
104
-------
Desulfurization of fuels to low sulfur levels creates beneficial side
effects as the ash content is reduced concurrently with sulfur removal.
Consequently, particulate emissions are reduced when low sulfur fuels are
burned. While there is little data to demonstrate the degree of particulate
emission control associated with burning very low sulfur fuels (.05% S) some
data has been developed for the emission characteristics of higher sulfur
fuel combustion. For example, tests have shown that burning of high sulfur
oil (approximately 1.5% S) produces about three times the particulate matter
produced by low sulfur fuel burning (.5!'S). Particulate emissions originate
from unburned hydrocarbons as well as the inorganic ash contained in the fuel,
but when combustion conditions are adjusted properly, the ash content is
the main factor causing particulate emissions. Most of the materials found
in stack emissions consist of metal oxides, sulfates, and chlorides, all of
which are directly attributable to the sulfur and ash content of the fuel.
Therefore it may be expected that the provision of very low sulfur fuel oil
from new desulfurization facilities will result in appreciable particulate
emission reductions. These reductions have been estimated in Table 5-8",
based on source measurement data of the Los Angeles APCD,^ and fuel
analysis data of residual fuels used in Los Angeles.^ Ttltawassfestiraated^tbat
a 40% reduction in particulate emissions may be obtained when burning the
higher quality very low sulfur fuels manufactured by the new refinery equip-
ment. These fuels will contain a negligible quantity of ash.15 Additional
study should be conductedtto provide a definitive assessment of the .
implications of this sulfur control stragegy on particulate emissions.
Emissions of pollutants anticipated from the additional refinery instal-
lation needed for fuel desulfurization have not been definitively quantified.
However the principal potential pollutant will be H2S gas, and its treatment
for removal is well known in the refinery industry (see Section 11 ). The
increased quantities of H2S which must be handled may range from 50 to 100%
11051
-------
TABLE 5-12. COST OF CONTROLS FOR S02 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL
COMBUSTION UNITS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Emission
Generating
Equipment
Power plant boilers
and large non-power
plant boilers b
Desulfurization plant
Number
of
Units
236
.s 9d
VGO/VRDS Isomax plus (comp-
delayed coking (40000 lete
barrels/day plant
size).
Refinery heaters
All fuel burning
equipment scheduled
to use fuel oil
through 1980 (power
plant boilers, large
industrial boilers,
& refinery heaters)
by
1980)
220f
456
Desulfurization plants. 9
Refinery heaters.
220
Control
1. Stack S02 removal
system
2. Desulfurization
of fuel oil to
.05% S for use in
oil -burning equip-
ment, except for
refinery heaters
3. Stack S02 removal
system
4.No.l and 3 above
5. No. 2 & 3 above
Initial Annual- Cost/
Purchase Opera- ized Ton of
& Instal- tion Cost SOo
lation Increase Incr.9 Reduced
Cost in Millions of Dollars Dollars
678a 108C 176 $1590
480e 70e 118 '1040
95. la 6.4b 15.9 1310
773 114 192 1540
575 76.4 134 1075
Based on average of approximate initial cost & installation figures for Envirotech 17
^Douftle Alkali Scrubber System ($83/KW)16and Wellman-Lord SOg Recovery Process ($50/KW).
bThese boilers average a rated 102 MM each, and stack gas flow average is 293,000 cfrri
(see Table 5-9).
cBased on average of operating cost figures of $.003 million/Mil (Envirotech) and
$C'086 million/MW (Wellman-Lord).
dBased on VGO/VROS Isomax plant size for 40,000 barrels/day yield. Fuel oil require-
ments are as follows: For 1980, industrial usage projected at 8.5 x 106 barrelsj8
and power plant usage projected to 111 x 106 barrels (derived from reference(19),
Table 5-4, and assumed growth rate of 8%/yr.) costs are computed based on 1980 oil
demands since all the necessary facilities cannot be constructed until that year.
eBased on cost figures from Reference(20). $53.3 million for 40,000 barrels/day
facility installed at existing refinery, and operating-manufacturing cost increase of
50tf per barrel (plus 10% profit). This is applied to 129 x 106 barrels of fuel oil
required per year in Four-County Area.^
'Reference (5). The refinery heaters average 6.5 MW rating.
QAnnualized cost was based on 50 year life and 10% interest.
% 106
-------
the level previously recovered. This control problem could be alleviated
by offsite construction in permissable remote locations, however the cost
penalty for this strategy could be severe.
Cost of Alternative SOo Controls
The cost effectiveness of Implementing the candidate SOg controls is
shown in Table5-12. Desulfurization of fuel oils is the most cost effective
alternative at $1040 per ton of SOg emissions prevented. TJiils is about
35% less than the cost of adding stack SOg removal processes to all oil
burning combustion units in the Four-County Area. However desulfurization
of fuel oils itself does not obtain the same total prevention as overall
stack control since it is not applicable to refinery heaters in which
refinery make gases are disposed of. Hence stack S02 add-on control must
be used with fuel desulfurization (Control No. 5 in Table 5-12.) to obtain
90% prevention of SOp emissions.
Because of the magnitude of the design, manufacture, and installation
effort involved with implementing the S02 control options, it is probable
that this cannot be completely accomplished before 1980. This is particularly
the case for desulfurization by stack S02 removal equipment. Manu-
facturing volume for the SOp stack control market has been limited to date,
and the industry could not easily provide the equipment demand imposed by
legislation of the control options.
5.3.4 Fuel Substitution - A Control for Particulates. S00. and NO..
' *" l w r A
The impact of converting to methyl-fuel in fuel burning units in the
Four-County Area is shown in Table 5-13. The effect is dramatic as the
alternate fuel burns virtually pollution free, except for small amounts of
NOX.
The cost analysis of Table 5-14 can only be considered preliminary.
It does not Include consideration of adaptions which will be required for
fuel burning equipment when converting from fuel oil to methyl-fuel
(equipment such as fuel pumps and nozzles will require modification).
Since most of these adaptions are not expected to incur substantial
expense, estimates of their cost have been neglected in
previous studies.
107
-------
TABLE 5-13. IMPACT OF CONVERSION TO METHYL-FUEL IN
COMBUSTION UNITS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Particulates S09 NOX
•• 1 1
Emissions Expected in 1980 65
from Fuel -Oil Burning Combustion
Units, tons/day
Emission Reductions when methyl- 65
fuel is used, 1980, tons/day
379 431
379 328
^Based on NOX emissions known to be less than when units are fired with
natural gas, on emission rate of 1000 Ibs/NOx per 1000 equivalent barrels
of natural gas, and projected fuel requirement of 111 x 10$ barrels fuel
oil in 1980.• %
The economic impact of the methyl-fuel conversion by 1980 is
illustrated by Table 5-14 below.
TABLE 5-14. COST OF CONVERSION TO BURNING TO METHYL-FUEL
IN COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
No.
Equipment of
Description Units
Methyl -Fuel 3
Producing
Plant
20,000 tons/
day3
Annual
Operating
Cost
Initial Increase
Cost & to Fuel-
InstaU Burning
Control lation Industry
Cost in Millions
Fuel 1422b :0C
Substi-
tution
Cost of {
Annuali zed Ton of
C0st Emissions
Increase Prevented
of Dollars
142 $6000(Particulates'
$1030 (S02)
$1190 (NOX)
Equivalent in heating value to 137,000 barrels/day of fuel oil.
bCost data from Table 3-13, with offsite costs (transportation and storage
facilities) of 20% included.!2')
r 69
Based on current cost to fuel burning industry of fuel oil: $2.46/10 BTU
applied to 1980 requirement of 111 x 10° barrels, O8) a current methyl-fuel
cost estimate of $2.46/106 BTU.fS)
H
Based on 30 year lifetime at 10% interest.
108
-------
The preliminary data demonstrate clearly that methyl-fuel should be
given serious consideration as 1) a clean burning fuel which would solve many
air pollution problems, and 2) an economical fuel substitute which can be
manufactured from domestic raw materials, without dependence on foreign
petroleum stocks. The lead time to build a methyl-fuel producing plant, is
3 to 4 years, would pose serious difficulties in imposing fuel substitution
plans in the near term. In addition, the political and social disruptions
resulting from an enforced imposition of fuel substitution would make a
hear term conversion unfeasible.
il09
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION b.O
1. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "The Development of
a Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region", Report #2,
Emission Inventories and Projections, June, 1974.
2. A. Bell, "Combustion Control for Elimination of Nitric Oxide Emissions
from Fossil Fuel Power Plants," presented at 13th International
Symposium on Combustion, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah,
March 1970.
3. Personal Communication with Joy Manufacturing, Precipitator Division,
Los Angeles, California.
4. "Future Bright for Fabric Filters", Environmental Science-arid Technology,
June 1974.
5. John Trijonis, "An Economic Air Pollution Control Model Application:
Photochemical Smog in Los Angeles County in 1975, Thesis at the
California Institute of Technology, May 1972.
6. Air Pollution Control District of Los Angeles, "Air Pollution
Engineering Manual," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Publication
AP-40, May 1973.
7. Air Pollution Control District of Los Angeles, Report to the Los
Angeles County Energy Commision on "The Feasibility of Burning
Combinations of Natural Gas and High Sulfur Fuel Oil," May 1974.
8. Brian Potter, Wellman Power Gas, Inc., "The Wellman.Lord S02
Recovery Process", National Engineering, 1973.
9. Personal Communication with Southern California Edison Company.
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Compilation of Air Pollutant
Emission Factors", Document AP-42, April 1973.
11. ESSO Research and Engineering Company, "Systems Study Control Methods
for Stationary Sources" Volume II, Prepared for National Air Pollution
Control Association, November 1969.
12. HEW (Department of Health, Education and Welfare), "Control Techniques
for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Stationary Sources," Report #AP-67,
March 1970.
13. P. Downing and L. Stoddard, "Benefit/Cost Analysis of Air Pollution
Control Devices for Used Cars," Project Clean Air Research Reports,
Volume 3, (Riverside, California: University of California, 1970).
14. Personal Communication with Arthur D. Little, Inc., New York
15. Personal Communication with Chevron Research, San Francisco, California.
110
-------
6.0 MINERALS INDUSTRY
Most of the emissions coming from the mineral industry in the Four-
County Area are from twelve basic universal process categories. These are
aggregate operations, abrasive blasting, clay and clay related operations,
cement operations, asphalt saturation, glass and frit operations, concrete
batching, sand handling, asphalt batching, foundry sand operations, catalyst
production, and lime and limestone operations. Emissions are generally in
the form of dust from screening, crushing, storage, and handling operations
where the material being handled is dry. Those emissions which are most
difficult to control are those emitted from processes such as quarrying,
yard storage and transportation. Manufacturing process emissions, however,
are generally well controlled with the current emission control technology.
Baghouses are widely used along with other dry fabric filters, dry inertial
separators, scrubbers, electrical precipitators, mist collectors, and dust
suppression systems. The following section describes the results of an
investigation of the nature of the emissions and of the existing emission
control technology for the twelve basic mineral processes in the
Four-County Area.
6.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS
12.3 tons/day of particulate emissions come from mineral operations in
the Four-County Area. This amount is 6% of the total particulate emission
coming from all emission source types in this area. NO and S02 emissions
from mineral operations are negligible in Los.Angeles County. In the Four-
County Area these emissions occur to a very small degree as certain mineral.
operations give off small quantities of these emissions in working with raw
materials. Due to the widely dispersed and relatively infrequent nature of
NO and S09 emissions in mineral operations, a detailed inquiry of existing
A t
and potential controls for these pollutants was not attempted. Certain
mineral operations involving a furnace where there is a great deal of fuel
burned and NO and S09 is given off, have been catagorized under the fuel
^ £• •
combustion category.
113
-------
Table 6-1 provides a categorization of the various mineral operations.
The list of operations is presented in the order of the most significant
emitter to the least significant emitter. Approximately 90% of mineral
participate emissions come from twelve basic types of mineral separation.
Other separations, comprising about 10% of the emissions include, asbestos
conveying, pertite operations, soda and caustic operations, mineral wool
operations, gypsum operations, and some asphalt processing operations.
Due to the relative insignificance of the amount of emissions coming from
these source types, more attention is given to the twelve basic
categories.
Aggregate operations and processing is the most significant mineral
processing operation in the Four-County Area. It is responsible for 24.3%
of the total mineral particulate emissions in the area. Most aggregates
come from aluvial formations in valleys, where various size aggregates
are processed by screening and crushing operations for paving and other
construction purposes. About 75% of the particulate emissions from aggregate
operations are reported to be uncontrolled.
TABLE 6-1. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM MAJOR MINERAL PROCESS AND
PRODUCT INDUSTRIES IN THE FOUR-COUNTY AREA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Category
Aggregate Operations
Abrasive Blasting
Clay and Clay Related Operations
Cement Operations
Asphalt Saturation
Glass and Frit Operations
Concrete Batching
Sand Handling
Asphalt Batching
Foundry Sand Operations
Catalyst Production
Lime and Limestone Operations
Other Operations
Particulate
Ibs/day
5963
5223
1758
1677
1397
1276
1064
923
778
669
666
569
2538
24501
Emissions
Percent of Total
24.3
21.3
7.3
6.8
5.7
5.2
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.3
10.3
100.0
Source; Data tabulated from APCD emission inventory file, and adjusted
to reflect official APCD inventory totals.
114
-------
TABLE 6^2. SUMMARY OF EMISSION CONTROLS CURRENTLY UTILIZED
IN MINERALS INDUSTRY OF LOS ANGELES'COUNTY
Parti culates
Efficiency of
Control
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Process
Aggregate
Operations
Abrasive Blasting
Clay and Clay
Related Operations
Cement Operations
Asphalt Saturation
Glass and Frit
Operations
Concrete Batching
Control
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Filter, Other
Dry Iihettial •
Separator
Dust Suppression
System
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Filter , Other
Separator
Scrubber
Mist Collector
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Inertial
Separator
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Filter, Other
None
Dry Filter, Other
Electrical
Preci pita tor
Mist Collector
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Spray Booth Ceramic
Dry Inertial
Separator
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Filter, Other
Scrubber
Range
0
50-99
,-90-95
90-93
20-95
0
98
99
97
98
0
90-99
98
0-80
0
Average
0
98
94
93
52
0
98
99
98
0
97
98
80
0
90-99 99
0-99
0
97
93
89
75
0
87-99
0
93
0-87
0
96
0
50
Dust Suppression System 98
69
0
97
93
89
75
0
96
0
93
85
0
96
0
50
98
Lbs/Day
Emitted
4472
179
60
566
686
104
5.
4701
33
971
601
21
165
238
1430
9
244
249
493
204
207
804
159
30
62
221
522
195
2
69
276
Lbs/Day
Preven-
tion
8771
29
940
7520
743
o
2 255
465400
:2793
841
1617
0
19432
1029
660
0
141570
20
0
8051
6550
1651
621
0
3816
0
824
1252
0
4680
0
69
13524
115
-------
TABLE 6-2. (CONTINUED) SUMMARY OF EMISSIONCCONTROLS CURRENTLY UTILIZED
IN MINERALS INDUSTRY OF LOS ANGELES COUNTY
Particulates
Efficiency of
Process
8. Sand Handling
9. Asphalt Batching
10. Foundry Sand
Operations
11. Catalyst
Production
12. Lime Limestone
Operations
Totals
Control
Control
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Dry Inerti al Separator
Scrubber
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
None
CO Boiler Cyclone
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
Incineration, Direct
Flame
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
Range
0
99
83
78
99+
99+
0
93-98
79-89
0
0
99-99+
81
98
0
80-99
98
Average
0
99
83
78
99+
99+
0
97
88
0
0
99
81
98
0
98
98
Lbs/Day
Emi tted
269
529
. 9
116
143
635
509
58
102
13
20
7
579
47
94
351
124
21667
Lbs/Day
Preven-
tion
0
52371
44
411
14160
62865
0
1875
748
0
0
693
2468
2303
0
17199
6076
853871
Notes:
1. Where control is designated as "none" it is probable that wetting
techniques are being utilized to reduce dust emissions (see text),
Source: Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
Computer Emission Inventory File.
116
-------
Surface cleaning and preparation by a forcibly propelled stream of
abrasive material is the second leading emitter of particulate mineral emis-
sions in the Four-County Area. 21.3% of the particulate emissions come
from each operation. Of the emissions coming from this particular category
only 2% come from uncontrolled sources. However, due to the substantial
number of operations involved, emissions are substantial..
The production of clay and clay related products such as bricks, clay
pipes and pottery account for 7.3% of the Los Angeles County mineral
particulate emissions. Grinding, screening, blending, forming, cutting,
drying, and firing of the final product are the operations involved which
produce particulate emissions. Of these emissions, over half (55.2%) come
from uncontrolled sources.
Equipment used in cement handling operations include hoppers, bins,
screw conveyors, elevators, and pneumatic conveyors. Cement operations are
responsible for 6.8% of the county's mineral emissions. This is a well
control 1 ed process category, and-only. mi nor., emissi ons. ori gi nate
from uncontrolled sources.
Roofing material such as shingles, and asphalt saturated felt rolls
are produced by spraying and dipping paper felt with hot asphalt. Asphalt
saturation is another category which is widely controlled. This category
emits 5.7% of the county's mineral emissions and only 17.5% of these emissions
come from uncontrolled sources.
Glass is produced from soda-lime, silica sand, dry powders, granular
oxides, carbonates, cullet (broken glass), and other raw materials. Frit
is prepared by fusing certain raw materials in a smelter, quenching it,
then solidifying and shattering it, and grinding it so that it can be used
in solution with wet clay to produce ceramic coatings. Glass and frit
operations contribute 5;2% :of tjie mineral emissions in L.A. County. In this
category, 63.1% of the emissions come from uncontrolled sources.
Concrete, batching plants proportion sand, gravel, and cement using weigh
hoppers and conveyors. Such operations emit 4.4% of the county's mineral
emissions. 49.1% of these emissions come from uncontrolled sources.
117
-------
Sand and gravel processing for market use involve a combination of
washers, screens, crushers and storage and loading facilities. 3.8% of
the county's mineral emissions come from this category. 29.2% of the
emissions from this category come from uncontrolled sources.
Asphalt batching is the combining of hot asphalt and aggregate in
the proper proportions to create certain desired asphalt paving mixes.
This operation emits 3.2% of the county's mineral particulate emissions.
There are essentially no uncontrolled sources in this category.
Foundry sand operations consist of separating a sand casting from
the mold, and then reconditioning the sand. 2.7% of the county's mineral
particulate emissions come from this process, and 76.1 percent of these
emissions are uncontrolled.
Catalysts are used in the oil industry for aiding the cracking process
of crude oil. Catalyst dust occurs during catalyst production and in
rejuvination. 2.7% of Los Angeles County's mineral particulate emissions
come from these catalyst operations, and only 2% of these emissions come from
uncontrolled sources.
Lime and limestone operations involve the production of lime from the
calcination of limestone. This category contributes only 2.3% of the county's
mineral particulate emissions and only 16.6% of these emissions are due to
uncontrolled sources.
Table 6-2 shows a summary of emission controls for each of the twelve
major mineral operation categories. In the table, each emission control
method as it is applied to each category is listed. The range of efficiency
and average efficiency is shown for each control method along with the amount
of particulates emissions associated with the category and specific
control method. It can be seen that the most frequently applied
control devices in the mineral industry are the fabric filter and mechanical
collector. The use of high efficiency particulate control devices have been
used whenever economically feasible to control emissions at the larger point
sources. Because the industry typically handles immense process volumes,
the preventions accomplished by the emission control equipment has been
substantial - over 100 tons per day.
118
-------
According to the APCD computer data many mineral operations are
uncontrolled. The data of Table 6-2 indicates that a total of approxi-
mately four tons per day of particulate matter is emitted from uncontrolled
mineral operations. It has been found through further investigations that
many of these so called uncontrolled sources are, in fact, controlled. Many
operations involving aggregates, clay products, cement, concrete, and sand
are conducted while the material is wet or damp. Wetting the material,
suppressing dust emissions, is an effective and economical control which is
not identified as such in the available data.
6.2 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MEASURES
To employ additional controls, such as baghouses, other dry filters,
inertia! separation, cyclones, and scrubbers to control mineral industry
emission sources, it would be necessary to reduce the size of each operation
considerably, and, due to the nature of such operations, further operations
would be run very uneconomically.
The data clearly show that the aast majority of significant particulate
emission sources of the mineral industry are controlled by standard collector
devices. Improving emission control in this industry would necessarily
involve the employment of additional devices (such as baghouses, scrubbers,
and cyclones) at the numerous "uncontrolled" process transfer points.
Currently, dust emissions from various transfer operations are minimized by
insuring all materials are wetted as they are processed from one operation
to another. Of the four tons per day of particulates arising from the
numerous uncontrolled point sources, it is probable that nearly all of it
could be collected with additional control equipment installations.
However, it is clear that such an installation program would involve
severe economic penalties.
It is significant that wetting practices have proven effective in
reducing dust emissions to levels complying with APCD regulations. The
emissions are not visible (meeting with Ringleman Rule No. 50), do not
pose a nuisance (Rule 51), do not exceed the maximum permissible
concentration (Rule 52), and do not violate the process weight rule
119
-------
(Rule 54). If any source has, in the past, violated any of these regulations,
it has since been equipped with additional particulate emission controls or
been given a variance. Hence the controls which are being applied at
present have for the most part been applied according to the
present concept of particulate emission control and the associated technology.
While economically it appears clear that more stringent controls cannot
be feasibly imposed on the mineral industry in the Four County Area, there
are in addition, inherent limitations in the emission inventory which make
untenable the proposal for increased control expenditures. The quantifi-
cation of particulate emissions generated at various points in a mineral
processing system is extremely difficult, if not impossible. The "average"
emission rates used in the inventory tabulation are presumed to reflect varied
process conditions and configurations which in many cases have never been
2
investigated empirically or theoretically, and wh
modified significantly since the Initial analysis.
2
investigated empirically or theoretically, and which in many cases, have been
It appears that if improvements can be made to the level of existing
controls, they should be directed toward good practice, proper operation,
and maintenance of control efficiency. For example, control equipment
should be carefully inspected prior to initial installation and after
maintenance to insure that no production faults have occurred such as bad
or only partially completed fabric filter seams.
120
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 6.0
1. Printout of Computer Emission Inventory File, developed by Los
Angeles County Air Pollution Control District.
2. Personal communication with Los Angeles Air Pollution Control
District.
, 121
-------
7.0 AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Aircraft operations are carried out at air carrier, general aviation,
and military airfields throughout the Four County Area.1 Baseline infor-
mation characterizing aircraft emissions and the prevailing emission control
technology being utilized, plus alternative emission control technology
available or in development which will reduce atmospheric pollution from
aircraft operations, are discussed 1n the following sections.
7.1 BASELINE CHARACTERIZATION
Baseline data characterizing aircraft activity at the major airports,
the mix of aircraft class and engine types, and emission rates and effect of
existing and projected controls, have been used to construct the overview
of the following sections.
7.1.1 Aircraft Emissions
The most significant type of emissions deriving from aircraft
operations are partlculates. Figure 7-1 shows that particulate emissions
from aircraft accounted for 7% of the total particulate emissions discharged
to the atmosphere of the Four County Area in 1972, and are expected to account
for 15% of the particulate discharges by 1980. Aircraft operations accounted
20-r
Percentage
of total
atmospheric
emissions
by aircraft
10-
PArriCUiATE
RHC
Figure 7-1. Role of Aircraft Emissions in Atmospheric
Pollution of Four County Area
123
-------
for a small portion of the gaseous particulate precursors emitted in 1972,
but are expected to exercise a more significant role in this type of
pollution by 1980. Actual emission quantities of various pollutants from
aircraft in the year 1972, and in projected years, are shown in Table 7-1.
As can be seen, the projections indicate that pollution from aircraft will
Increase substantially 1n the next decade.
TABLE 7-1. EMISSIONS FROM AIRCRAFT, PRESENT AND PROJECTED,
FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Total
Parti cul ate
15.0
26.8
38.3
so2
3.6
6.5
9.6
NOY
A
18.6
32.2
45.4
RHC
15.7
26.7
37.1
Source; Reference (1).
The quantities of pollutants emitted by jet aircraft are far greater
than that from aircraft powered by piston engines. Table 7-2 and 7-3 show
the emission characteristics of a jumbo jet and a single engine piston plane
during a representative landing and takeoff cycle. The jumbo jet emits
significant amounts of all pollutants with nearly all the CO and HC emissions
occurring during the taxi-idle mode. Oxides of nitrogen and particulate
emissions occur at higher power settings used in approach and takeoff for
both the turbine and piston engines.
The magnitude of atmospheric pollution arising from piston aircraft
and jet aircraft in the Four County Area is shown below. Emissions from
both piston and jet powered aircraft are expected to increase in future
years, owing to the imminent growth rates of these motive types and the
limited pollution control currently scheduled for implementation. Due
to the increasing predominance of jet powered aircraft operations at the
various airports, piston aircraft are expected to contribute a lesser
percentage of the anticipated aircraft pollution.
124
-------
TABLE 7-2. JUMBO JET EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
Approach
Time 1n mode (min)
Hydrocarbons, Ib
% of Total
Carbon monoxide, Ib
% of Total
Oxides of nitrogen, Ib
% of Total
Parti culates, Ib
% of Total
S02, Ib
% of Total
4.0
0.7
2
18.8
5
13.7
12
11.6
21
4.0
22
Operating
Taxi-idle
26.0
44.4
97
165.89
94
9.8
8
30.8
55
7.6
39
Mode
Take-off
and
Climb-out
2.9
.5
1
2.0
1
95
80
13.6
24
7.2
39
Total
LTO Cycle
32.9
45.6
175.9
118.5
56.0
18.8
Source: 1) Reference (2).
2) Emission factor data used by the APCD in preparing the
report, "Jet Aircraft, A Threat to Air Quality," APCD.
TABLE 7-3. GENERAL AVIATION PISTON EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
Approach Taxi-idle
Time" flnnwide^miiifl)
Hydrocarbons, Ib
% of Total
6.3
0.038
24
Carbon m'onoxide, Ib 2.33
% of Total 26
Oxides of Nitrogen
% of Total
S02, Ib
% of Total
Parti culates
% of Total
Quantification of
, Ib 0.005
50
.007
-
parti cul ate by mode
16.0
0.057
36
2.00
22
0.002
20
.002
-
are not
Take-off
and Total
Climb-out LTO Cycle
.8 27.3
.064 0.159
40
4.82 9.20
52
.003 0.01
30
.005 .014
.02
available in the data.
Source: 1) Reference (2).
2) Emission factors for Teledye/Continental 0-200 (Cessna),
obtained from Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arborv
Michigan. This data was used in preparation of Reference (3)
125
-------
TABLE 7-4. AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS, PRESENT AND PROJECTED
PISTON AND JET
Year
Engine
Type
Parti culates
so2
NOX
RHC
1972
1972
1977
1977
1980
1980
jet
piston
jet
piston
jet
piston
11.5
3.5
22.2
4.6
32.8
5.5
3.4
.2
6.5
-
9.6-
-
12.4
6.2
23.9
8.3
35.4
10.0
9V9
5.8
19.0
7.7
28.1
9.0
7.1.2.2Emission Controls
General awareness of aircraft as a source of air pollution developed
in the late 1950's with the introduction of turbine engine aircraft.
Visible exhaust plumes and increased exhaust odors at airport stimulated
investigations into the nature and extent of aircraft emissions. Congres-
sional studies (1969) evolving from the Air Quality Act of 1967 identified
visible emissions as the most significant problem associated with aircraft,
and as a result, three airlines voluntarily agreed to retrofit the widely-
used Pratt and Whitney JT8D engines with smoke combustors by the end of
1972. The smoke combustor retrofit program was further extended to include
all JT3D engines by 1976. Since air operation activity at the major air-
ports is predominantly composed of aircraft powered by either JT3D or JT8D
engines, it is estimated that the reduced smoke combustion retrofit
substantially affected the quantities of pollutants emitting from aircraft
activity. Table 7-5 shows that hydrocarbon emissions were the most
TABLE 7-5. EFFECT OF SMOKE COMBUSTOR RETROFIT ON
EMISSIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY
Year1
1970
1972
Source: 1)
2
Parti culates
Reference
Reference
13
9
!4!-
1 .
so2
4
3
NOX
13
13
THC
80
11.4
126
-------
drastically affected by this retrofit program, while participate emissions
were also significantly reduced.
Standards requiring major changes 1n engine emission characteristics
were promulgated for turbine engines on July 17, 1973 (Table 7-6). The
standards consist basically of the following control categories:
1. Retrofit control of smoke emissions and fuel venting
for 1n-use turbine engines.
2. Standards 1n 1979 to reduce emissions for new turbine and
piston engines built 1n 1979 and after.
3. Standards 1n 1981 to reflect emission reductions achievable
with new large aircraft engine designs.
TABLE 7-6. AIRCRAFT EMISSION STANDARDS
Fuel Venting
Prohibited
Turbine
Turbine
Turbine
Turbine
Turbine
Piston
APU
(Tl)
(P2)
(T2)
(T3)c
(T4)c
(Pl)d
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
1
1
1
1
1
1975
1975
1974
1974
1974
1979 New
HCa
1
4
0
0
0
1
0
.6
.9
.8
.8
.8
.9
.4
COa
9
26
4
4
4
42
5
.4
.8
.3
.3
.3
.0
.0
Manufactured 1981 New Certified .
N
•3.
12.
3.
3.
3.
1.
3.
03SMOKED HCa CC-a NOya$MOKEu
F
7
9
0
0
0
5
0
x. . ':
X
x 0.4 3.0 3.0 x
X
x
Tl-Turbofan or turbojet engines of rated oower less than 8000 Ib thrust.(Air-
craft examples: business"£.private jets such.as Lear,'Grumman, Cessna.)
T2-Turbofan or turbojet engines, except classes T3 and T4, of 8000 Ib thrust
or greater. (Aircraft examples: Boeing 747, Lockheed L1011, and DC-10))
T3-A11 JT8D model engines.(Aircraft examples: Boeing 707, DC-8).
T4-A11 JT8D model engines.(Aircraft examples: Boeing 727, 737, DC-9)
Pi-All piston engines, except radials. (Aircraft examples: All piston engine
planes ranging from Cessna 150 or Piper Cherokke 140 to Beechcraft Queen Air).
P2-A11 turboprop engines. (Aircraft examples: Lockheed Electra, Fairchild F27).
APU-Auxiliary Power Unit - Any Engine on the plane exclusive of prop.engines.'
APU's used to operate onboard power systems when propulsion engines not operating.
alb/1000 x rated power/cycle - piston engines: lb/1000 hp hr of power output -
.auxiliary power unit; lb/1000 Ib-thrust hr/cycle-aircraft turbine engine.
Smoke standard set with respect to engine thrust to insure no visible emission.
cSmoke retrofit required. (T3) by Jan.1,1978, to smoke number 25 and (T4)
by Jan. 1, 1974, to smoke number 30.
dEffective for engines built after December 31, 1979.
Source: Reference (2).
127
-------
These emission standards will result in substantial pollutant preventions
only after attrition of pre-1979 engines. Additional controls will be
required to bring about significant near term reductions. The possibilities
for alternative near term controls are discussed 1n the fallowing section.
7.2 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MEASURES
The current emission standards will result 1n substantial emission
reductions only after attrition of pre-1979 engines. Additional controls
will be required to bring about significant near term reductions. Feasible
control technology which may be applied includes:
• Modification of ground operations
• Engine modification (retrofits) .for turbine and
piston fleets
7.2.1 Retrofit Alternatives: Turbine Engines
The EPA has studied the technology which may be applied to reduce
emissions from turbine aircraft. Engine modification methods feasible for
turbine engines as retrofits are described briefly below (Table 7-7). These
modifications can be combined (with the exception of T4 and IT6) to achieve
increased emission control effectiveness as they are not mutually exclusive.
TABLE 7-7. ENGINE MODIFICATIONS FOR EMISSION CONTROL FOR
EXISTING AND FUTURE TURBINE ENGINES
Control Method
Existing engines
tl - Minor combustion Minor modification of combustion chamber (smoke
chamber redesign combustor retrofit) and fuel nozzle to achieve
best state-of-art emission performance
,.t2 - Major combustion Major modification of combustion chamber and fuel
chamber redesign nozzle incorporating advance fuel injection
concepts (carburetion or prevaporization).
t3 - Fuel drainage Modify fuel supply system or fuel drainage system
control to eliminate release of drained fuel to environment.
t4 - Divided fuel supply Provide independent fuel supplied to subsets of
system fuel nozzles to allow shutdown of one or more
subsets during low-power operation.
t5 - Water injection Install water injection system for short duration
use during maximum power (takeoff and climb-out)
_ operation.
128
-------
TABLE 7-7. (CONTINUED) ENGINE MODIFICATIONS FOR EMISSION CONTROL FOR
EXISTING AND FUTURE TURBINE ENGINES
Control Method Modification.
t6 - Modify compressor Increase air bleed rate from compressor at low-
air bleed rate power operation to increase combustor fuel-air
ratio.
Future engines
t7 - Variable-geometry Use of variable airflow distribution to pro-
combustion chamber vide independent control of combustion zone
fuel-air ratio.
t8 - Staged injection Use of advanced combustor design concept in-
combustor volving a series of combustion zones with
independently controlled fuel injection in
each zone.
Source: Reference (3).
The estimated effectiveness from these measures are presented in Table 7-8
in terms of the reductions attainable from the lowest current emission rates
realistically obtainable for the given turbine engine class. This is
equivalent to the emissions resulting when an engine is well maintained and
operates with control method tl (smoke combustor). The basis for the
effectiveness estimates are documented in Table 7-9.
7.2.1.1 Impact of Turbine Engine Controls on Air Emissions
The overall reduction to atmospheric emissions by implementation of the
turbine engine modifications depends on the mix of turbine aircraft classes
operating at the various airports throughout the South Coast Basin. In
addition, the overall reductions also depend on the mix of engine makes
within each engine class, and the degree to which each of these contribute
total emissions during the various segments of the idle-take-off-approach
cycle.
The various turbine engine classes are defined in Table 7-10. The
typical engines representative of these classes contribute to overall
atmospheric emissions as shown in Table 7-11. While Table 7-11 portrays the
case at Los Angeles International Airpott, it reflects the general case in
which a small number of the turbine engines in use contribute the vast
129
-------
TABLE 7-8. EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGINE MODIFICATION IN CONTROL OF
EMISSIONS FROM TURBINE'ENGINES, BY OPERATING MODE3
Control
Method
t2b
t2
t2
t2
t3
t3
t3
t4
t4
t4
t4
t4
t4
t5
t5
t5
t6
t6
t6
t6
t6
t6
t7 or t8e
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
Engine
Class
Tl
Tl
T2
T3
Tl
T2
T3
Tl
Tl
T2
T2
T3
T3
Tl
T2
T3
Tl
Tl
T2
T2
T3
T3
Tl
Tl
Tl
Tl
T2
T2
T2
Pollutant
DP
NOX
DP
NOX
THC
THC
THC
CO
THC
CO
THC
CO
THC
NOX
NOX
NOX
CO
THC
CO
THC
THC
CO
CO
THC
NPX
DB
CO
THC
NOX
Idle/taxi
0.5
NCC
0.5
NC
NC
NC
NC
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
NC
NC ,
NC
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
8C
0.5
0.1
0.1
NC
Mode
Approach
0.5
NC
0.5
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC'
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
RC.
QC5
NC
NC
NC
Takeoff
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Od
Od
Od
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
O.T
0.1
0.1
, NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
O.Z5
OC5
NC
NC
0.75
130
-------
TABLE 7-8, (CONTINUED) EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGINE MODIFICATION IN
CONTROL OF EMISSIONS FROM TURBINE ENGINES,
BY OPERATING MODE*
Control
Method
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
t7 or t8
Engine
Class
T2
T3
T3
T3
T3
Pollutant
DP
CO
THC
N6X
DP
Idle/taxi
0.5
0.1
0.1
NC
0.5
Mode
Approach
0.5
NC
NC
NC
0.5
Takeoff
0.5
NC
NC
0.75
0.5
Emission rate is fraction of best current rate assumed to be attainable
through minor combustion chamber redesign arid with control method cited.
t2 = Major combustion chamber redesign.
t3 = Fuel drainage control
t4 • Divided fuel supply system
t5 = Water injection
t6 = Modify compressor air bleed rate
t7 = Variable geometry combustion chamber
t8 = Staged injection combustor
CNC indicates no change
Refers to raw fuel drainage only.
eRefers to new design standards for engines manufactured in 1979 and after
- not a retrofit.
Source: Reference (3).
131
-------
TABLE 7-9. BASIS FOR.CONTROL METHOD EFFECTIVENESS ESTIMATES
FOR TURBINE ENGINES
Control Method
Rationale
tl -
Minor combustion
chamber redesign
t2 -
Major combustion
chamber redesign
t3 - Fuel drainage
control
t4 - Divided fuel supply
system
t5 - Water injection
t6 - Modify compressor
air
The assumption is made that emission rates for
all engines within a given class can be reduced
to common, optimum levels (on a lb/1000 Ib fuel
basis) by minor combustor modifications. These
optimum emission rates are based on the best per-
formance reported for each engine class, excluding
extreme data points.
Estimates are based on reports of carbureting
fuel injector performance and reduction of smoke
emission. Concept is incorporated in some Class T3
engines. Estimates are based on assumption that
best emission rate for Class Tl and T2 engines is
at an exhaust visibility threshold at maximum
power. Carburetion appears to reduce smoke level,
and presumably particulate emissions, to approxi-
mately half that level. Additionally, premixing
of air and fuel can be used to give substantial
NOX reduction by decreasing residence time in the
combustor.
Estimate is based on the assumption that fuel
drainage can be completely eliminated by collecting
drained fuel and returning to fuel tank.
Control method results in combustion zone fuel-air
ratio similar to that at approach condition.
Reduction in CO add THC from idle to approach is
approximately 90 percent in Class Tl and T2 engines
and 90 percent in Class T3 engines. Effectiveness
is reduced by one order because combustor is not
operating at "well-designed" condition.
Water injection is assumed only at takeoff at a rate
up to twice the fuel rate. Water injection into
compressor or diffoser is assumed to be by system
similar to those in current use. Effectiveness based
upon published results with steam injection. Water
injection assumed to be of equal effectiveness when
injected upstream of combustor.
Assumptions are (1) fraction of air that can be bled
is small so that engine operating point is nearly
unchanged, (2) combustor f/a varies inversely with
air bleed rate, and (3) CO and THC emissions at idle
vary as the (air mass flow rate)** and inversely as
(f/a)3. This relationship is based ppon data from
Reference 14. If maximum air bleed rate is 20 per-
cent, CO and THC emission rates are reduced by
50 percent.
.132
-------
TABLE 7-9. (CONTINUED) BASIS FOR CONTROL METHOD EFFECTIVENESS ESTIMATES
FOR TURBINE ENGINES
Control Method
Rationale
t7 - Variable-geometry
Combustor primary zone 1s assumed to operate at
a constant f/a egual to normal f/a at approach
power condition (primary equivalence ratio = 0.6).
CO and THC emissions at Idle are reduced to levels
corresponding to approach power, or by 90 percent
for Classes Tl, T2, and T3. This incorporates
design characteristics that provide a good mixture
in the combustion zone. This feature and constant
f/a operation combine to reduce NOX emissions at
full power by 75 percent26 and particulate emissions
by 50 percent at all power levels as in t2.
Source; Reference (3).
TABLE 7-10. TURBINE ENGINE CLASSIFICATION
Turbine
Engine Class
Engine Class Description
Typical Engine Makes
Tl
T2
T3
Small engine class
Allison T56A7
Allison 501-Dl3
Business and small commercial GE CO 610
jet aircraft
Medium to large commercial
ai rcraft
Large turbofan engines
for jimbo transport and
SST engines
JT-12A
PT-6A
Turbojet and turbofan engine JT-3D
JT-4A
JT 8D
J-79
J-69
JT9D
T33
-------
TABLE 7-11; AVERAGE ANNUAL TONS OF AIR CONTAMINANTS EMITTED IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY
BY GAS TURBINE AIRCRAFT ENGINES OPERATED AT LAX IN 1970
CJ
ENGINE TOTAL NUMBER PARTICULATE CARBON OXIDES OF COMBUSTIBLE SULFUR TOTAL AIR
MODEL OF ENGINE LTO MATTER MONOXIDE NITROGEN ORGANIC GASES DIOXIDE CONTAMINAN'
NUMBER PER YEAR POUNDS TONS POUNDS TONS POUNDS TONS POUNDS TONS POUNDS TONS IN TONS
AT LAX PER PER PER PER PER PER PER PER PER PER PER YEAR
LTO YEAR LTO YEAR LTO YEAR LTO YEAR LTO YEAR
(a) (b) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (rounded)
JT4A
JT9D
JT3D
JT8D
JT3C-6
CJ805
501-D
TOTAL
40.772
24.672
315,616
244.185
16.060
13,140
21.900
676.345
(a) A test was run on an engine
(b) From Table II.
(c) The values in the column are
13.806
13.340
9.366
13.236
15.374
12.564
6.456
of this model
from Source
280
165
1.480
1.615
125
85
70
3,820
number.
Test Data
42.640 870 9.138 185 12.194 250 4.308 90
30.684 380 18.600 230 9.580 120 4.574 55
38.656 6,100 6.416 1.010 19.142 3,020 2.804 440
20.328 2,480 7.210 880 115.724 14.130 2.842 345
30.624 245 5.570 45 6.246 50 4.238 35
25.500 170 6.050 40 68.546 450 3.494 25
1.294 15 6.824 75 3.790 40 1.734 20
ld.260 2,465 18.060 1.010
See Table II.
of the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
1,675
950
12.050
19.450
500
770
220
35.615
Source: Reference (5).
-------
majority of pollution arising from aircraft operations. Currently the
JT3D, JT8D and JT4A turbine engines generate approximately 90% of all
polluting emissions from turbine engines. The importance of the JT9D
engine (jumbo aircraft) is expected to increase in the future emission
profile.
Emissions for the different engines vary for the different modes of
operation. Table 7-12 demonstrates that particulate and S02 emissions from
jet aircraft engines are most conspicuous during the taxi and idle modes.
This is due primarily to the fact that emissions in this mode are sus-
tained over approximately 80% of the total LTO cycle. Oxides of nitrogen
emissions are most prevalent during the higher loading conditions of takeoff
and climbout. The distributions are based on actual field measurements
performed by the LAAPCD of aircraft operating at Los Angeles International
Airport. It was presumed that these figures could be used to devise repre-
sentative modal emission distributions. It should be noted however, that './
the "best emission rates" reported by the EPA in their study on control
technology do provide a different perspective (emissions of particulates
are typically far less in the idle taxi mode, while hydrocarbon emissions
are substantially greater in idle taxi operations)) However, emission rates
published by the EPA6 do yield a modal emission distribution similar to that
calculated herein from APCD data.
Modal emission distribution for the smoke-combustion retrofitted JT8D
engines was calculated from EPA data since available APCD emission rates
did not reflect the retrofitted version. The modal distribution of the
JT3D eras assumed to be the same as the JT8D.
From the control effectiveness data (Table 7-8) and the engine LTO
modal emissions data (Table 7-12) it can be seen that among the retrofit
control possibilities, T2 will be most effective for overall emission
reduction of particulates, t5 for NOX and t4 for hydrocarbons and CO.
None of the control methods is expected to have a significant effect on
SOemissions.
135
-------
TABLE 7-12. MODAL EMISSIONS DISTRIBUTION FOR PRINCIPAL
JET ENGINES IN USE
Pollutant
Parti culates
so2
NOX
THC
Turbine
Engine
JT3D
JT8D
JT4A
JT9D
FT3D
JT8D
JT4A
JT9D
JT3D
JT8D
JT4A
JT9D
JT3D
JT8D
JT4A
JT9D
Engine
Class
T2
T2
T2
T3
T2
T2
T2
T3
T2
T2
T2
T3
T2
T2
T2
T3
Percentage of Emissions per LTO
Idle-Taxi
47
36
70
55
42
39
46
39
12
15
15
9
95
95
90;
60
Approach
12
37
11
21
18
28
18
22
14
30
17
15
3.1
3.1
4
18
Takeoff and
Climbout
41
27
18
24
40
33
37
39
74
55
68
76
1.2
1.2
5
22
Calculations for modal distribution above are based on 1), Reference (7),
2), Reference (6).
Based on the JT8D and JT3D, the most widely used engines in the
turbine fleet, the estimated relative effectiveness of the retrofit controls
is as shown in Table 7-13.
Obviously the exactness of the estimates of Table 7-13 is limited by several
analytical uncertainties. The effectiveness of the various controls estimated
in Table 7-8 is based on the degree to which current best emission rates can
136.'
-------
TABLE 7-13. IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVE CONTROL ON OVERALL JET AIRCRAFT
EMISSIONS
Control
Method
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7 or t86
Percent Reduction
Parti culates
50
NC
NC
NC
NC
50
1n Overall
THC
NC
la
71
NC
48
86
Enqlne
N&,c
34
NC
NC
58
NC
16
Emissions
sp_2
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC = no change.
aRefers to reduction due to elimination of raw fuel drainage only, which
constitutes a small portion of emissions' tn takeoff mode.
New design standard for engines manufactured in 1979 and after (not
a retrofit measure).
be further reduced. The modal emission distributions of Table 7-12 are
based on measurements performed by the APCD on actual jet aircraft operating
in the field (reflecting a substantially higher emission rate than the "best
emission rates"). Consequently, the reduction figures calculated in Table
7-13 may well be conservative, and hence greater reductions than those cal-
culated are likely. A number of other problems complicate the estimations:
1) discrepant emission factors published between the EPA and the LA APCD;
2) the variations in modal temporal patterns at the various airports; 3)
limited data.
7.2.1.2 Cost of Retrofit Controls
Presently the EPA is proposing that all aircraft engines be retrofitted
to 1979 standards by 1979. The technical feasibility of this proposal is not
a certainty as the alternative retrofits are not in a good state of refine-
O
ment at this time. Few of the control methods have been developed or applied
to aircraft engines. Table 7-14 lists the development time requirements for
each of the control methods. A major consideration in development time
137,
-------
TABLE 7-14. TIME AND COSTS FOR MODIFICATION OF CURRENT
CIVIL AVIATION3 ENGINES
Control Method
Major combustion
chamber redesign
Fuel drainage control
Divided fuel supply
Water injection
Compressor air bleed
Development Development
Time, Years Cost, 10° Dollars
2.5 to 7.5
1 to 2.5
5 to 7.5
2.5 to 4
4 to 6.5
74
1.5
84
25
90
Implementation
Cost, 106 Dollars
665
.-.5.4
102
175
58
Source: Reference (3).
consists of the maintenance facilities and procedures accompanying the
retrofitting equipment. The minimum time for implementation of most of the
emission control methods for turbine engines is estimated to be two and
one-half years.
Of the potential methods for aircraft emission control, the retro-
fitting of in-use engines is the most costly. The cost of modifying
existing designs for emission control in new engines is approximately one-
half of that incurred by retrofitting. The incorporation of new control
technology during new engine design incurs the least cost, estimated at a
Q
3 to 4% increase over the base engine cost. Table 7-14 provides cost
estimates for implementing the various retrofit control methods. Imple-
mentation includes initial installation of the control method on all
engines of a given class and the additional effort required for the control
method throughout the remaining.life of the engines (assuming 10 year life).
The cost of the turbine retrofit alternatives for each engine class
is presented in Table 7-15. For a typical class T2 turbine engine, the cost
of developing, installing, and maintaining control systems range from $300
to $69,900. Based on a total engine cost of $250,000, the retrofit control
costs represent .1 to .25 percent of the total engine cost.
138
-------
TABLE 7-15. COST RESULTS FOR TURBINE ENGINE POPULATION BY
SEPARATE USE CATEGORIES
Engine
Class
Tl
Tl
Tl
Tl
Tl
Tl
T2
T2
T2
T2
T2
T3
T3
T3
T3
T3
T3
Control
Method
tl
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
tl
t3
t4
t5
t6
tl
$2
t3
t4
t5
t6
Development
cost per
Engine Family,
106 Dollars
0.90
1.80
0.05
1.80
0.62
2.20
0.90
0.05
1.80
0.62
2.20
0.90
1.80
0.05
1.80
0.62
2.20
Implementa-
tion cost
per Engine,
103 Dollars
12.4
21.3
0.1
3.7
5.5
2.1
35.5
0.3
10.5
15.6
6.0
58.3
100.0
0.6
17.2
25.6
9.9
-'Total Cost, 106 Dollars
Air
Carrier
19.2
34.5
0.4
14.9
9.8
15.5
243.0
2.0
87.0
108.7
61.5
50.0
95.0
2.0
13.7
29.5
16.0
General
Aviation
90.5
159.3
1.0
51.5
43.6
48.1
17.8
—
8.3
8.2
7.1
—
—
—
—
—
Civil
Aviation
109.7
193.8
1.4
66.4
53.4
63.6
259.8
2.0
98.3
116.9
68.6
50.0
95.0
2.0
13.7
29.5
16.0
a"Civil Aviation" includes air carrier and general aviation engines,
Source: Reference (3).
,139
-------
The cost effectiveness of the various retrofit controls, in terms of
air pollution at the Four-County Area, is portrayed in Table 7-16. The only
measure affecting particulate emissions is the major combustion chamber
redesign, which requires a cost of $4100 per ton of particulate recovered.
NO emissions are reduced most drastically by water injection control, at a
A
cost of $820 per ton of NO controlled. The cost effectiveness estimates
A
of Table 7-16 reflect the expenditure required to retrofit those aircraft
operating through the Four County Area to reduce emissions in the area.
TABLE 7-16. COST EFFECTIVENESS FOR TURBINE RETROFIT MEASURES, 1977,
FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Control Method
Major combustion
chamber redesign
Fuel drainage control
Divided fuel supply
Water injection
Compressor air bleed
Cost of Emission
Pollutant
Parti culates
$4100
-
-
-
-
Control Per Ton of
Prevention
2 N0x
$5770
-
-
$820
-
THC
-
917000
550
• -
550
Calculations above based on:
1. 1968 survey determining there were 1674 jet engines in use at LAX.
94% were Pratt & Whitney, mainly of JT3D and JT8D type, and prin-
cipally on Class T2 aircraft. These engines were involved in 487
LTO's per day.9
2. Survey of jet aircraft activity in 1970 at LAX showing 560 LTO's
per day.5 This figure was used to update jet engine numbers infor-
mation of (1) above to baseyear 1972 by direct proportioning.
3. Figures for LAX were adjusted to reflect the Four County Area by
apportioning the ratio of emissions from LA County versus the Four
County Area (data from Reference (1)).
4. Cost of air pollution control benefits are figured for Four County
Area only, and do not reflect the tons of emission reductions due
to operation of the aircraft fleet in other areas.
The emission reductions benefitted by other areas traveled by these aircraft
are not included in the perspective. Hence if expressed in terms of the total
emission reductions for LTO's performed in the nation, the cost effectiveness
of the retrofits would be 4 or 5 times greater (based on normal operating usage
for class T2 aircraft,3 and an assumed flight to hours ratio of 1 per every 2
hours). 140
-------
7.2.2 Modification of Ground Operations
Aircraft ground operations contribute a substantial portion of the
emissions of partlculates, S02, and THC arising from overall aircraft opera-
tions (see Table 7-12). This 1s due to relatively high emission rates of
the pollutants at low engine power levels, as well as the extended period of
operation characteristic of 1dle-tax1 modes for jet powered aircraft. A
number of ground operation modifications have been proposed to reduce taxi-
3
Idle mode emissions. Regulations which may arise from these proposals have
been deferred until operational and safety considerations can be studied
jointly by the EPA and FAA. The prodedures devised to control emissions by
reducing the time of taxi-idle or by operating turbine engines at higher
and more efficient thrust settings are:
1. Increase engine speed during idle and taxi operations.
2. Increase engine speed and reduce number of engines during idle
and taxi.
3. Reduce idle operating time by controlling departure times from
gates.
4. Reduce taxi operating time by transporting passengers to aircraft.
5. Reduce taxi operating time by towing aircraft between runway and
gate.
6. Reduce operating time of aircraft auxiliary power supply by
providing ground-based power supply.
Modification of ground operations has been proposed primarily for
reduction of HC and CO emissions. To this end, the most attractive option
for ground control is the use of fewer engines at higher more efficient
power settings during taxi and idle modes. This conclusion is based on
modal emission characteristics of turbine engines, typically portrayed as
in Figure 7-2. Figure 7-2 demonstrates the effects of improved combustion
at high thrust settings. At the elevated thrust required when only one
engine is used durrng taxi and idle, the emission reduction is approxi-
mately 80% for HC during this mode. Since the idle mode accounts for a
substantial portion of all turbine engine emissions (see Table 7-12), the
introduction of this ground operation modification could reduce turbine .
aircraft hydrocarbon emissions by approximately 50% (see Table 7-17).
141
-------
Source:
1.
2.
OJ
£50
to
-40
30
o
Q.
210
40 60 80 100
Percent thrust
Figure 7-2. Gaseous Emission Characteristics
of a JT8D Turbine Engine
Reference
Reference
IS.
However, introduction of the same ground operation modification will
result in increases in particulate, S02 and NOX emissions. Other options
for ground operation controls, such as reducing the amount of time in the
taxi and idle mode, would enable overall reductions in hydrocarbon emis-
sions as well as particulate and NO emissions. The most effective overall
J\
option in this respect is the towing of aircraft to avoid taxi emissions.
Table 7-17 gives the anticipated reductions resulting from ground control
methods applied to the Los Angeles Airport.
142
-------
TABLE 7-17. COMPARATIVE REDUCTIONS RESULTING FROM CONTROL METHODS
APPLIED AT LOS ANGELES INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Resultant Emissions,
of Baseline Emissions
Control Method Parti culates NOV SO? THC
1. Increase engine idle 150 164 150 93
speed
2. Increase idle speed
and use minimal engines
for taxi
two engines 134 142 134 66
single engine 168 186 168 51
3. Eliminate delays at 96 99 96 91
gate and runway
4. Transport passengers 98 100 98 97
between terminal and
aircraft
5. Tow aircraft to avoid 78 91 78 42
taxi emissions
6. Avoid use of aircraft 99 100 99 98.5
auxiliary power units
(APU)
Calculations of emission reductions are based on 1) gaseous emission
characteristics of JT8D turbine engine,9 2) modal emission distributions
(Table 7-12), and 3) hydrocarbon reductions resulting from control methods
at Los Angeles International Airport.3
aEmission data obtained from Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor,
Michigan. This data was used in preparing Reference (3).
7.2.2.1 Impact of Ground Operations Controls on Atmospheric Emissions
Only one of the proposed ground operations control options appears to
be effective in reducing all types of pollutant emissions from turbine
engines-. Table 7-17 shows that towing of aircraft to avoid taxi emissions
will reduce particulate and S02 emissions from turbine aircraft to 78% of
the levels expected without controls. The projected emissions from turbine
aircraft expanded to the Four Coun,ty Area, are as shown below.
143
-------
TABLE 7-18. IMPACT OF GROUND OPERATION MODIFICATIONS ON TURBINE
AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS OF FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Turbine Emissions - Tons/Day
Year
1972 -
1977 -
1977 -
Parti culates
no ground control
no controls
aircraft towing
11.5
22.2
17.3
N°-x
12.4
23.9
21.8
SO?
3.4
6.5
5.1
RHC
9.9
19.0
8.0
7.2.2.2 Cost of Ground Operation Controls
Initial cost, implementation time, annual operating cost, each of the
ground control measures when applied to major airports are presented in
below. While Measure No. 2 is most cost effective for hydrocarbon
emission control, only Measure No. 5 is really suitable as a measure for
control of particulate emissions. The annualized cost of Measure No. 5 is
estimated to be (based on 15 year lifetime of initial equipment) $.56 million
per year at the Los Angeles 'International Airport. This cost amounts to an
emission control effectiveness as follows:
Cost <5f Controlling Turbine Emissions by Towing of
Aircraft to Reduce Taxi Engine Usage. (Dollars
per ton of pollutant removed.)
Parti culates
$300
Sft'2
$740
NOV
$1100
THC
$140
The overall cost effectiveness of the towing measure for the combined
emission preventions, is $79 per ton of pollutant.
7.2.3 Fuel Alternatives
3
In a study funded by the EPA, the effect of fuel modifications on
aircraft engine emissions was found to be insignificant. Only $02 emissions
were easily altered by modifying fuels. These reductions were accomplished
by proportionate reductions of sulfur in the fuel. Increases in engine
emissions were achieved when aeromatic content of the fuels exceeded 25%,
144
-------
but this finding was determined of minor significance because of current
fuel usage standards forbidding use of fuels with aeromatic content greater
than 25%. The EPA was also motivated to terminate their investigations of
cleaner burning fuels because of economic infeasibility associated with
fuel control as an emission control measure.
7.2.4 Retrofits for Piston Aircraft
The EPA has studied the technology which may be applied to reduce
hydrocarbons and CO emissions from piston aircraft. Control methods
considered feasible for aircraft piston engines include approaches that
have been conceived or developed for automotive engines. Table 7-19 pro-
vides a summary of nine of the piston engine control methods identified by
EPA as potentially feasible approaches. Recent research8 indicates that
control method PI, fuel-air ratio control, is the most technically feasible
approach to substantial piston emission reductions. In this approach,
leaner air-fuel ratios are obtained to produce reductions in hydrocarbons
and CO. Figure 7-3 illustrates the effect of air-fuel ratio on piston
emission characteristics. Operation at a 13 to 1 air-fuel ratio gives more
than 50% reduction in CO and HC from levels at a 10 to 1 air-fuel ratio.
- 1600
"~ 1200
800
12 400
o
o
o
o
o
9:1 10:1 11:1 12:1 13:1 14:1 15:1
Air-fuel ratio
Figure 7-3. Emission Characteristics for Piston Engine
Source; Reference (2) 145'
-------
Because participate and NO emission rates from piston aircraft are
A
considered to be relatively low, the EPA has not been directly concerned
with developing controls for these pollutant types. This is reflected in
the aircraft emission standards (Table 7-6), which are directed at control
for hydrocarbon, CO and NO emissions only. Consequently the available
/\
research data characterizing particulate emissions during various piston
engine operating modes is quite limited.
Although particulate emissions associated with the candidate piston
engine controls have not been specifically determined it is expected that,
those controls which reduce exhaust hydrocarbon emissions will also produce
particulate emission reductions.^ Experience with reciprocating automotive
engines has shown that leaning air fuel ratios, currently the leading candi-
date measure for implementation as piston engine emission control, effects
reductions in particulate emissions which are proportional to the resulting
hydrocarbon emissions. The EPA has forecasted a 50% hydrocarbon reduction
with incorporation of air-fuel ratio control methods.^ it is not possible
from the available data to estimate the degree of particulate emission
reductions which would occur with leaner air fuel mixtures, but it was
assumed that coordination of emission control objectives would enable
preventions of particulate emissions of at least 20% when leaner air fuel
mixture modifications are incorporated.
Currently there are numerous uncertainties associated with the tech-
nical and economical feasibility of the various control methods as a
retrofit measure. For control PI it is suspected that engine detonation
and overheating will occur with leaner air fuel mixtures in existing engines.
Hence a redesign of the cylinder head for operation at the elevated tempera-
tures would be required, and retrofits for measure PI would be economically
unfeasible. FAA is currently funding research by piston engine manufacturers
(Continental/Lycoming) to study the feasibility of retrofitting piston
engines for lower emissions with timing and fuel mixture ratio modifications.
EPA has estimated the implementation time, development cost, and
overall implementation cost for incorporating the candidate piston engine
control methods. For a typical piston engine, implementation costs range
from $100 to $4000, based on total cost for a 10 year life. These costs
146
-------
represent 2 to 65% of the Initial cost of the piston engines. Control of
fuel-air ratio 1s the most cost effective method of reducing both
hydrocarbon and CO emissions from piston engines.
TABLE 7-19. ENGINE.MODIFICATIONS FOR EMISSION CONTROL FOR
EXISTING AND FUTURE PISTON ENGINES
Control Method
Existing engines
pi - Fuel-air ratio
control
p2 - Simple air
injection
p3 - Thermal reactors
p4 - Catalytic reactors
for HC and CO
control
Direct-flame
afterburner
P5
p6 - Water injection
p? r 'BoiitiverorrfenkGase
ventilation
p8 - Evaporative
emission controls
Future engines
p9 - Engine redesign
Modification
Limiting rich fuel-air ratios to only those
necessary for operational reliability
Air injected at controlled rate into each
engine exhaust port.
Air injection therraal reactor installed in
place of, or downstream of, exhaust manifold.
Air injection catalytic reactor installed in
eihaastfsystem. Operation with lead-free or
low-lead fuel required.
Therman reactor with injection of air and
additional fuel installed in exhaust system.
Water Injected into intake manifold with
simultaneous reduction in fuel rate to
provide for cooler engine operation at
leaner fuel-air ratios.
Current PCV system used with automotive engines
applied to aircraft engines. Effective only
in combination with one of preceding control
methods.
A group of control methods used singly or in
combination to reduce evaporative losses from
the fuel system. Control methods commonly
include charcoal absorbers and vapor traps in
combination with relatively complex valving
and fuel flow systems.
Coordinated redesign of combustion chamber
geometry, compression ratio, fuel distribution
system, spark and valve timing, fuel-air ratio,
and cylinder wall temperature to minimize
emissions while maintaining operational
reliability.
Source; Reference (3).
1417
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.0
1. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations. "The Development
of a Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region,"
Report #2, Emission Inventories and Projections, June 1974. Pre-
pared for the Environmental Protection Agency.
2. Jones, Kay, Robert Sampson, John Holmes, Environmental Protection
Agency, "The Federal Aircraft Emissions Control Program: Standards
and Their Basis," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, January 1974.
3. Environmental Protection Agency, "Aircraft Emissions: Impact on
Air Quality and Feasibility of Control."
4. Air Pollution Control District, County of Los Angeles, "Profile
of Air Pollution Control," 1971.
5. George, Ralph, John Nevitt, Julien Verssen, County of Los Angeles Air
Pollution Control District, "Jet Aircraft Operations: A Thread to
the Environment."
6. Environmental Protection Agency, "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emis-
sion Factors, AP42, Second Edition, April 1973.
7. Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District, "Study of Jet Aircraft
Emissions and Air Quality in the Vicinity of the Los Angeles
International Airport, April 1971.
8. Personal communication with Dick Munt, Environmental' Protection
Agency, Ann Arbor, Michlgan.l
9. George, Ralph, Julien Verssen, Robert Chass, County of Los Angeles
Air Pollution Control District, "Jet Aircraft, A Growing Pollution
Source;" June 26, 1969.
148
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8.0 MOTOR VEHICLES
Motor vehicles comprise a major source of air pollution in the Four-
County Area. The pollution derives principally from three vehicle
categories: light-duty vehicles (passenger cars and light trucks), heavy-
duty trucks, and motorcycles. The role of these vehicle categories in
atmospheric pollution, the current emission control technology being
applied to them, and the alternative pollution control measures which may
be applied to achieve further emission reductions, are discussed in the
following sections.
8.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS AND EMISSION CONTROLS
TABLE 8-1. ROLE OF MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION OF FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Percentage of Total Emissions in Four-County Area
¥eer
1972
1977
1980
Parti culates
49
35
34
so2
13
11
10
,NOX
74
51
46
React i ve
Hydrocarbons
89
85
78
The important role of the motor vehicle in atmospheric pollution in
the South Coast Four-County region is illustrated clearly above. With
the federal promulgation of air program implementation plans for the State
of California, hydrocarbon and NO emissions from motor vehicles are
x\
expected to decline rapidly in the next few years. While the implementation
programs do not address emissions of particulates and S02 directly, both
these pollutant species will be affected by the control measure
targeted for hydrocarbon and NOX emission reductions. S02 emissions from
light-duty vehicles will be reduced by about 7%, and light-duty vehicle
and particulate emissions by 37%, by the year 1980. The measures prin-
cipally responsible for these emission reductions will be non-leaded fuel
utilization, in combination with the use of catalytic converter exhaust
control devices. These measures are to be required under a retrofit
program for all gasoline-powered, light duty motor vehicles of model years
1966 through 1974 capable of operating on unleaded gasoline having a
149
-------
research octane number of 91 or lower, These measures are also to be
utilized in attaining 1975-76 motor vehicle emission standards for new light-
duty vehicles. By 1980 1t 1s estimated that 90% of all light duty vehicle VMT
will be accumulated by vehicles equipped with the catalytic exhaust control
device.
In addition to oxidizing catalyst retrofits, other significant mobile
source control measures scheduled for implementation in the South Coast Air
Basin include inspection-maintenance programs for light duty vehicles, a
nitrogen oxides control retrofit, and emission standards for new motorcycles
beginning in 1975. Each of these control measures contribute in part to the
emission reductions expected for NO and hydrocarbons. However, their effect
A
on particulate and S02 emissions is not considered to be significant.
Hydrocarbon and NO exhaust emission standards have also been established
J\
for heavy-duty gasoline powered vehicles, heavy-duty diesel powered vehicles,
1 2
and motorcycles. ' The effect of the standards on vehicular emission in
future years for the various vehicle types is reflected in the projected emis-
sions summary of Figure 8-1. The rapid decrease in vehicular hydrocarbon and
NO emissions is consistent with the objective of the promulgated air programs
/\
to reduce photochemical smog for the attainment of the ambient air standards
for oxidant. This objective is not incompatible with the goal to reach the
ambient standard for particulate matter. The role which vehicular emissions
of NO and hydrocarbons assume as precursors in the formation of particulates
/\
will be effectively mitigated by the EPA strategies to reduce oxidant air
pollution. However the control of emissions of primary particulates has not
been the target of these air programs, and the apparent benefit from the
reduction of particulate emissions indirectly resulting from this strategy
actually involves a serious trade-off pollution problem. This problem con-
cerns the increased generation of sulfates and is discussed in the following
section.
Except for the minor effects of certain transportation oriented con-
straints which would cause slight reductions in vehicle travel, the EPA
implementation plans have no provisions which address the potential manage-
ment of airborne particulate matter from vehicle tire wear. Unfortunately
tire wear accounts for a substantial portion of the particulate emissions
caused by vehicle travel. In 1972 tire wear in the Four-County Area
150
-------
100 ^
Particulates
LDMV
IHDMV
[Motorcycles
-HOOO
Motor
Vehicle
Emissions
in Four-
County
Area
80 .
60 . .
40 ..
20 -.
Figure 8-1. The Effect of Exhaust Emission Standards on Pollutant
Emissions from Various Vehicle Categories (Note: Particulate
emissions from tire wear are not included in above Figure)
produced 15.2 tonsVday of airborne particulates, or about 22% of the motor
vehicle particulate pollution. By 1980, tire wear will be responsible for
18.6 tons/day of particulate emissions, which amounts to 37% of the motor
vehicle particulate pollution.
Catalytic Oxidizers
The most extensive studies addressing the effects of catalytic
converters on automotive exhaust emissions have been conducted by the EPA
and by ESSO Research Corporation. These investigations employed measure-
ment techniques for the determination of exhaust emissions which condense
as sulfuric acid mist when emitted to the atmosphere. While only a trace
of sulfuric acid is exhausted by conventional exhaust systems operating
on leaded fuel, it was found that significant quantities of sulfuric acid
aerosol are emitted from vehicles equipped with oxidation catalysts. The
sulfuric acid emission rates depend on the fuel sulfur content, vehicle test
procedure, and type of oxidation catalyst. Table 8-2, and 8-3, provide
emission data for both a pellatized and monolithic oxidation catalyst equipped
vehicle driven according to the 1975 federal test procedure, for various fuel.
151
-------
It is evident that the total particulate emission rate of vehicles equipped
with monolithic or pelletized oxidation catalyst increases markedly with
increasing fuel sulfur content as a result of sulfuric acid production. It
is also evident that, despite the alarming character change in particulate
emissions, total particulates from the oxidizer devices are reduced from
their former rate of .43 grams/mile.
TABLE 8-2. SULFURIC ACID EMISSIONS FROM PELLETIZED OXIDATION CATALYST
EQUIPPED VEHICLE, 1975 FEDERAL TEST PROCEDURE
Catalyst
C
C
C
C
C
No. of
Tests
3
2
3
2
3
Fuel
Sulfur, %
0.140
0.065
0.056
0.034
0.004
Gaseous
CO, g/mi
1
2
1
2
1
.49
.18
.26
.60
.50
Emissions
. HC.g/mT;
0.31
0.44
0.34
0.48
0.37
Total
0.244
0.118
0.086
0.064
0.033
Particulate,
g/mi.
± 0
t o
+ 0
t 0
± 0
.072
.037
.043
.031
.014
Sulfate
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
lll.±
026
036 ±
007
015 ±
004
on ±
002
003 ±
001
Con-
version
s -* sor
4
10.6
5.8
3.2
4.2
7.7
Source; Reference (16)
T(- TABLE 8-3. SULFURIC ACID EMISSIONS FROM MONOLITHIC OXIDATION CATALYST
EQUIPPED VEHICLES, 1972 FEDERAL TEST PROCEDURE
Catalyst
Nb;bf
Tests
Fuel
Sulfur, %
Gaseous
CO, g/mi
Emission
.HC,g/mi.
Total
Total Particulate, SOA =
q/mi.
g/mi .
Con-
version
S -> S0,=
A
A
B
B
B
B
5
4
3
2
2
2
0.067
0.032
0.004
0.067
0.032
0.004
1.37
1.83
—
1.32
2.47
2.44
0.39
0.36
—
0.12
0.32
0.16
0.290 ± 0.034
0.184 ± 0.056
0.033 ± 0.014
0.208 + 0.003
0.183 ± 0.04
0.040 ± 0.02
0.119 ±
0.007
0.064 ±
0.025
0.010 ±
0.001
0.145 ±
0.002
0.061 ±
0.007
0.014 ±
0.007
21
24
29
25
23
40
Source: Reference (16)
152
-------
The catalyst has proven an effective oxidizer of molecular organics, some
of which were formerly precipitated and emitted as particulate matter in
standard exhaust systems. It has been found that about 90% of all parti-
culate matter exhausting from oxidizer catalysts is in the form of
sulfuric acid bound to water (sulfuric acid is very hygroscopic in nature).
The mist particles are of the order of .2 micron of smaller depending on the
humidity of the exhaust.15
The test results show that vehicles equipped with the pellitized
oxidation catalyst exhibited lower sulfur to sulfuric acid conversion
(Table 8-2) than did the monolithic catalyst vehicle (Table 8-3). At
present no basis for the differences exhibited between monolithic and
pelletized oxidation catalysts regarding sulfuric acid production is
apparent. General Motors currently has planned to utilize pelletized
catalyst while the remainding automobile manufacturers intend to employ
the monolithic catalyst system.
Studies of condensate from catalytic converter equipped vehicles have
shown large variations in the sulfate content of the condensate. Under
lower temperature operation, sulfur is accumulated or stored in the catalyst,
and is then released and passed through at high catalyst bed temperatures.
The sulfur storage alters the chemical reactivity of the catalyst as shown
19
in Figure 8-2 and 8-3. The effect of the cycling of sulfur content in
the catalyst on permanent deterioration of reactivity is not clear, but
it is suspected it raay plan an important role in accelerated degradation
19
of the catalyst. Informal conversation with automobile manufacturers by
20
EPA has indicated low level of confidence in catalyst durability. Also,
the question of degredation of catalysts retrofitted to in-use vehicles is
indeterminate. The residual lead in conventional exhaust systems will
present difficult retrofitting problems which currently have not been
clearly resolved. Deterioration certification tests now in process in
Detroit should provide some of the answers to these issues. It should be
apparent however, that rapid deterioration will have serious impact on the
control standards program. A 50% deterioration rate in new vehicles would
render them equivalent to 1969-1970 emitters.21
153
-------
•100
nchfck after
• IHO'f- run
tl.8S%S)
600
Temperature *F.
recheck after
tMO'f run
(I.85%S)
Figure 8-2. Effect of Lab Sulfur Charg- Figure 8-3.
1ng on CO Reactivity of a
Cu-CK Catalyst.
Source; Reference (19)
Effect of Lab-Sulfur
Charging on HC Reactivity
of a Cu-Cr Catalyst.
The degradation of the reactive effectiveness of the catalyst, and the
generation of sulfuric acid pollution from vehicle exhaust systems pose
serious trade-off questions as to the suitability of the catalytic converter
as an exhaust emission control. The EPA is currently committed to investigat-
ing the public health consequences of vehicles operated with catalytic
converters, but as yet has not withdrawn 1975 interim federal emission
regulations which would necessitate catalytic devices to be installed on
most new 1975 vehicles. Automobile manufacturers are currently scheduling
installation of the catalytic converters in 1975 model year vehicles to meet
these standards. EPA, in recent public hearings, has stated that sulfuric
acid emissions will not become a serious problem until new cars with these
154
-------
devices comprise a larger segment of the vehicle population. Reasonable
concern over sulfuric acid emissions will be advisable, EPA recommends, in
approximately two and one-half years, by which time it is presumed new
technological developments will exist to resolve this problem. Of course
it is apparent that this technology will be quickly overdue in the critical
California Air Basins, where air quality implementation plans will insure
that 65% of the light duty vehicle population be equipped with the oxidizing
catalysts by 1977.
8.2 ALTERNATIVE CONTROL MEASURES
The problem of developing suitable emission controls for motor vehicles
is compounded and confused by a great number of variables. Regulations apply
for retrofits, for various types of vehicles, at different levels for certain
years and for specific pollutants. Regulations and control alternatives are
necessarily an outgrowth of extensive testing and research to evolve poten-
tial technology capable of attaining the proposed standards. The important
options for control of motor vehicle particulate emissions are:
1. Modification of fuels
2. Particulate trap devices
3. S02 scrubbers
4. Fuel substitution
5. Tire options
8.2.1 Modification of Fuels
Numerous studies have demonstrated the effect of fuel composition
on particulate emissions from motor vehicles. Typically it has been found
that emission of particulate matter can be reduced with decreases in
aeromatic, sulfur, or lead content in the fuel. The actual extent of
these reductions depends on a number of variables, such as the driving test
pattern, and the engine design, age, and condition.
8.2.1.1 Lead Content in Fuels
Extensive testing has shown that approximately one-third of motor
vehicle exhaust particulate matter is composed of lead. This lead discharge
results directly from the lead content in the fuel. A characterization of
particulate emissions, for leaded and unleaded fuel consumption, is shown
in Table 8-4. The data show that stabilized unleaded-fuel cars emitted
155
-------
about 40% less total particulates than the leaded fuel cars. Carbon
represents about 70% of the total particulate matter when lead is absent
in the fuel.
TABLE 8-4. SUSPENDED PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM MOTOR
VEHICLES USING LEADED AND UNLEADED FUEL
Fuel
Federal
Test
gycle
Parti culates
Total
Lead
Carbon
, g/mi.
Lead
Carbon
Commercial
(leaded)
Unleaded
Conunerci al
Premium
1. weighted
4 cold
4 hot
weighted
4 cold
4 hot
weighted
35% cold and
.512
.240
.339
.316
.134
.197
65% hot
2. Accumulated mileage range for
100,000; and for vehicles on
.085
.044
.059
-
.
vehicles
unleaded
.184
.076
.115
.242
.074
.133
16
18
17
-
on leaded fuel
fuel, 30,000 to
.4
.3
.4
was
50,
35.9
31.7
33.9
76.5
55.2
67.5
30,000 to
000 miles.
Source; Reference (4).
Current federal regulations require that gasoline manufacturers shall
provide non-leaded gasoline (maximum of .05 gm/gal) for use in automobiles
3
by the year 1975. Federal regulations for fuel additives currently are
restrictive also to automobile manufacturers and fuel retailers. These
regulations insure that only unleaded gasoline shall be introduced into
vehicles equipped with emission control devices which will be impaired by-
the use of leaded gasoline. The regulations also stipulate the automobile
manufacturer shall be responsible for the visible labeling ("unleaded gas
only") of catalyst equipped vehicle gas tank inlets. This rule, as well
as that requiring manufacture of lead free fuels, was constructed to insure
the use of fuels which would be compatible with catalyst exhaust controls
which are projected for utilization in meeting the 1975 motor vehicle
requirements. Hence in the next few years there will be a gradual change
in the lead content of fuels on the market. Unleaded fuel will be available
156
-------
in increasing amounts to be consumed primarily by those vehicles equipped
with catalytic oxidizers, and leaded fuels will be available in smaller
volumes for use in the remaining vehicles. This trend will be particularly
marked in the South Coast Air Basin, where the law calls for a catalytic
oxidizer retrofit for all b'ght duty vehicles of model year 1966 to
1974.
An important question in the large scale production of unleaded fuels
is the effect this modification will have on the overall fuel composition,
and consequently, on particulate emissions. (The techniques for producing
the small proportion of unleaded fuels now on the market could be very
different from a large volume production. Hence the unleaded fuels of
tomorrow could be very different in composition from those used for exhaust
emission tests today.) Lead addition to fuel is currently the most economic
path to achieving higher octane numbers. If lead were to be removed from
motor fuels, equivalent octane numbers would have to be provided by higher
concentrations of more expensive blending components. Depending on the
process utilized to achieve the octane rating, particulate emissions from
vehicles may or may not be increased.
After lead addition, the next most economic way to raise the octane
number of motor fuel is by increasing aeromatics content. To upgrade an
existing "clean" regular motor fuel to its typical octane rating by
addition of aeromatics rather than lead, the aeromatic content will typically
79
be raised from 35% to 50%.'' The effect of aeromatics content in unleaded
gasoline on particulate.exhau$t emissions has been studied in several
independent investigations. According to typical findings^ there would
be an increase in automobile particulate emissions of approximately 30%
associated with the projected 35 to 50% aeromatics increase.
The impact of removing lead from motor fuels to overall fuel composi-
tion is lessened somewhat by the timely policy of automobile manufacturers
to design 1971 and later model year cars to operate with 90-91 octane fuel.
Previously the automobile companies manufactured engines with higher octane
requirements, as reflected by leaded regular gasolines of 94-95 octane
number which are produced to accommodate these engines. As the 1971 and
157
-------
later model year automobiles began to comprise the majority of the car
population, there will be a corresponding shift to lower octane motor fuel
production by the refineries. This trend (toward lower octane motor fuels)
will minimize the production shifts required to manufacture non-leaded
motor fuels, and suggests that fuel composition may not change radically.
Figure 8-4 demonstrates the dependence of fuel octane number on lead
content for typical gasolines. If all the components used in both premium
and regular were mixed together in equal amounts, the "pool" octane number,
o
with zero lead, would be about 89. Thus the present average lead free
pool gasoline will come close to satisfying the octane requirement for all
production vehicles manufactured in the year 1971 and after, as well as
those vehicles prior to 1971 able to operate on an ONR of 91. This obser-
vation, plus numerous other studies of the economics of lead removal, ' '
has permitted the conclusion that a universally lead-free motor gasoline
supply can be attained by 1977 without major dislocations in the petroleum
refining industry, and without major changes in fuel composition.
Impact of Removing Lead on Motor Vehicle Emissions
The removal of lead to .05 grams/gal in all motor vehicle fuels by
1977 will affect particulate emission rates from all motor vehicle
categories. Since a substantial portion of the motor vehicle population
1§ soon scheduled to be equipped with the catalytic exhaust control devices
(65% of the light duty vehicles by 1977 and 90% by 1980)6, it is evident that
lead particulate emissions from this vehicle segment will be virtually
eliminated in the near future. In addition, further particulate reductions
will be affected by the behavior of the catalyst device itself. These
particulate reductions have been accounted for in the tabulation of base-
line mobile source emissions under the EPA implementation plan (Figure 8-1).
Aside from the vehicles targeted for catalytic oxidizer installations,
there will remain a significant portion of vehicles in 1977, and even 1980,
which could potentially operate on leaded fuels. The impact of operating
this vehicle segment on non-leaded fuels in terms of particulate emission
reductions is shown in Table 8-5. The data show that total lead removal
in fuels by 1977 will accomplish reductions of 28% of the motor vehicle
exhaust particulate emissions in 1977, and 21% in 1980. This is based on
158'
-------
"RESEARCH"
METHOD
75
0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0
ANTIKNOCK CONTENT, GRAMS METALLIC LEAD PER GALLON
Figure 8-4. Typical "Blending" Properties of Southern
California Motor Gasoline
Source: Reference (10).
159
-------
TABLE 8-5. THE EFFECT OF LEAD REMOVAL IN MOTOR FUELS ON MOTOR
VEHICLE PARTICULATE EXHAUST EMISSIONS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Projected Baseline
Participate Emissions
Tons/Day
Motor Vehicle Category
Light duty
Heavy duty
Motorcycles and other
miscellaneous vehicles
1977
40.4
6.6
7.0
1980
35.8
7.1
7.7
Parti cul ate Emissions
Reductions3
Tons/Day
1977
4.4
2.6
2.8
1930
1.4
2.8
3.1
Emission reductions are based on 40% decrease attributable to all vehicles
not equipped with catalytic oxidizers when operating on unleaded fuel. It
was assumed that aeromatlc content of fuel was essentially unchanged.
The portion of light duty vehlclesVMT for those vehicles equipped with
catalytic oxidizer exhaust control was taken as 73% in 1977, and 90% in
I960.15
the supported assumption that aeromatic content will not increase
appreciably in the unleaded transition.
Cost of Unleaded Fuels
Many estimates have been made of the cost to remove lead. Costs for
the Immediate removal of all lead from gasoline while maintaining present
octane levels have been estimated from 2 to 10 billion dollars, or a cost
Increase of 1 to 6 cents per gallon to the consumer. However because of
lower octane requirements of the newer vehicles, additional Investments 1n
refineries and marketing equipment can be kept far below this estimate.9
The cost of providing unleaded fuel in the total motor vehicle gasoline pool
over the next 2 to 3 years would amount to approximately one tenth of a cent
per gallon of gas.
The cost of producing unleaded fuels depends heavily on restrictions
limiting the aeromatic content. If aeromatlc content can be varied to pro-
duce desired octane ratings in the unleaded fuels, costs would be minimal.
Moreover, since lower octane fuels will be permissable in future motor fuels,
unleaded fuels will not require substantial increases in aeromatlc content.
160
-------
It is significant to the economics of unleaded fuel that vehicle
exhaust from a catalytic muffler shows little sensitivity to aeromatic fuel
content. Particulate emissions from the catalytic oxidizers are typically
composed of almost 100% sulfates and water, with very minor traces of
carbonaceous particles present. Increased aeromatics are
expected to affect gaseous hydrocarbon emissions significantly, since
organics are essentially eliminated by the purposeful behavior of the
oxidizing catalyst. These observations would suggest an arrangement of the
vehicle gasoline pool in which higher content aeromatics would be used to
obtain octane levels for vehicles equipped with catalytic mufflers, while
low content aeromatic fuel would be provided for vehicles operating without
the catalytic exhaust device. This motor fuel configuration might provide
a more economic path to octane attainment, by permitting a higher overall
aeromatic composition in the motor gasoline pool.
Another significant consideration in unleaded fuel economics are the
tradeoff benefits due to vehicle maintenance savings. These savings are
due principally to longer spark plug life, less oil contamination, and
910
greater exhaust system life. '
Considering the above observations, it is apparent that the cost of
the control option, complete removal of lead in fuels, can be implemented
at less than the published estimates of .1$ per gallon of gas (derived
from Reference (9)). However, even at .U per gallon, the cost of the fuel
control option is relatively low.
TABLE 8-6. COST OF REMOVING ALL LEAD FROM MOTOR VEHICLE FUEL POOL
(AS OPPOSED TO THE EPA PLAN REQUIRING PARTIAL REMOVAL BY
1977)
Year
1977
1980
Total Annual Cost
Millions
1.7a
1.5b
Cost Per Ton of
Removed
$475
562
Parti culates
aBased on total VMT for Four-County Area of 168xl06 miles/day;6 ave.vehicle
gas mileage rate of 12.4 mi/gal ;03/ increased cost of unleaded fuel .lg/gal;
and percentage of VMT by vehicles non-equipped with catalytic converter = 27%.
Calculated same as (a) above except: VMT for 1980 = 180 x 10° miles/day and
percentage of VMT by vehicles without catalytic mufflers = 10%.(6)
161
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8.2.1.2 Other Gasoline Additives
Fuel additives are utilized to 1) maintain carburetor and engine
cleanliness, 2) remove lead deposits, 3) inhibit corrosion and gum
formation.
Additives used to maintain engines in clean condition have also been
14
shown to cause some reductions in exhaust emissions. Reduced emissions
are most pronounced for older vehicles with very dirty engines. The most
dramatic effects are obtained when fuel additives consumed by the vehicle
are suddenly changed. The new cleaning action of the additive removes old
deposits which were stable when contacted by the previous fuel composi-
tion. Hence short term increases in particulate emissions may be observed
in this laboratory testing situation, however, with continued use of the
additive, particulate emissions are seen to return to prior levels.
Most often additives have been utilized to modify deposits of lead
1n the engine. These additives consist of halogen scavengers, such as
chlorine and bromine compounds. They react with lead to form lead bromide
or lead chloride salts which emit as particulates 1n the exhaust. Use of
these additives is especially effective for the scavenging of lead deposits;:
on spark plugs, resulting in the prevention of spark plug misfire.
Additives are typically used in concentrations less than 100 ppm; and
therefore can contribute only a few parts per million to the exhaust
emissions. Moreover, the great majority of the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and oxygen compounds of additives are burned with the fuel. Hence the
direct effect of additives in exhaust emissions is minimal.
8.2.1.3 Sulfur Content In Fuels
Emissions of sulfur compounds from motor vehicles have received little
concern in the past. Most of the sulfur content in gasoline is removed in
the refining process because of its interference with the effectiveness of
lead additives. When sulfur is burned in the engine, the resulting emissions
are predominantly S0« in relatively minimal concentrations, accounting for
about 13% of all S0« found in the atmosphere of the Four-County Area.
New attention is now being drawn to the role of sulfur in motor vehicle
emissions. Studies ' have shown that vehicles equipped with oxidation
,162
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catalysts convert a substantial portion of the sulfur in the gasoline to
sulfuric acid particles. In addition it has been discovered that parti-
culate matter exhausting from an oxidation catalyst is effectively all
sulfuric acid together with water droplets. Carbonaceous particulates and
lead compounds which previously characterized exhausts from standard
vehicles operating on leaded fuels, are no longer emitted when oxidation
catalysts are employed. This changing character of exhaust emissions
raises serious questions regarding the benefit of oxidation catalysts.
The emission of sulfuric acid vapors directly into the atmosphere as high
concentration sources near transportation corridors poses an important
new health problem.
An obvious means of preventing emissions of sulfuric acid from
catalytic oxidizer equipped vehicles, or SOp from all vehicles, is to
remove the sulfur from the fuel. The technology for drastic sulfur recuction
of automotive gasoline is available (Section 3.2.1). Various oil companies
claim propritary technology which will reduce sulfur content to less than
100 ppm. Desulfurization to very low sulfur levels has been commercially
practiced in pilot facilities, but because of limited applications for the
very low sulfur fuels, the technology has not been employed extensively.
Additional process equipment would be required to attain the degree of
sulfur control sought.
Impact of Fuel Sulfur Removal
The impact of automotive fuel desulfurization to levels below 200 ppm
on motor vehicle emissions is shown in Table 8-7. Desulfurization of the
entire spectrum of vehicle motor fuels to less than 100 ppm sulfur content
would result in particulate emission reductions of about 87% for vehicles
equipped with the catalytic mufflers (Table 8-2 and 8-3). Sulfuric acid
emitted from these vehicles would be reduced by about 99%. Prevention of
S02 emissions would vary from 25 to 60% depending on the vehicle catagory
and the type of fuel.
The control option of fuel desulfurization to 100 ppm will prevent
about 77% of all S02 motor vehicle exhaust emissions projected for 1977.
This would lower the total S02 emission inventory for motor vehicle
exhaust to 10.6 tons/day in 1977, as compared to 58.9 tons per day in the
i 163
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TABLE 8-7. THE EFFECT OF AUTOMOTIVE FUEL DESULFURIZATION
(100 ppm) ON MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN FOUR
COUNTY AREA
Motor Vehicle Category
PARTICULATES
Light duty
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Light duty
with catalyst
without catalyst
Heavy duty
diesel
gasoline
Motorcycles &
miscellaneous
TOTAL (S02)
Projected Baseline
Emissions
Tons/Day
1977 1980
40.4 35.8
18.2 22.5
17.4 13.2
9.7 10.4
.8 .9
-
46.1 47.0
Emissions Reductions
Tons/Day
1977
1980
•t
15.5
10.8
14.8
9.2
.7
-
35.5
19.8
13.4
11.2
9.9
.8
-
35.3
1. The portion of light duty VMT for vehicfes equipped with catalytic
mufflers was taken as 73% in 1977, and 90% in I960.6
2. S02 reductions are based on 85% reduction in gasoline
ana 95% in diesel fuel. For light duty vehicles equi
mufflers it was assumed that 30% of the fuel sulfur i
sulfate (sulfuric acid) and the remainder is emitted
sulfur content,
pped with catalytic
s converted to
as S02.
1972 baseyear. As a control for particulate, drastic desulfurization is
not as effective, accounting for a 40% reduction in motor vehicle exhaust
particulates in 1977. Total particulate exhaust emissions would be 38.5 tons
per day from motor vehicle sources in 1977, compared to 70.2 tons/day in the
1972 baseyear.
164
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Cost of Desulfun'zation
Desulfurization of automotive gasolines can be accomplished with
facilities similar to those now employed to desulfurize low sulfur fuel blend
stocks for fuel oil supply to electric utilities companies. However, in most
installations, the operating severity of the equipment cannot be sufficiently
increased for sulfur contents less than about .05%, hence it is necessary to
construct new facilities for more complete desulfurization. In one process
which has proven effective for essentially complete desulfurization, the
Chevron Isomax, a wide range of distillates, from diesel up to 1100°F end
point vacuum gas oil, are economically processed to sulfur contents less
than 100 ppm. (As discussed in Section 3.2.1, the Isomax equipment can also
be used to desulfurize the cracker unit feed stock, resulting in an effective
control for SO^ emissions from the cracker catalyst regenerator unit.)
Several oil companies are now licensed to use the Isomax process. Because of
its relatively widespread recognition in the literature, it has been con-
sidered here as candidate equipment for implementing desulfurization control.
The economics of motor vehicle emission control via the desulfurization
route is portrayed in Table 8-8. The measure of desulfurization is about
twice as cost effective as a control for S02 emissions than for particulate
emissions. Taken as a joint control for emissions of particulates and S02
TABLE 8-8. COST OF DESULFURIZATION OF VEHICLE FUELS
FOR CONTROL OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Equipment
Capital
Annaal Opera- Total
tion Cost Annuali-
Increase zed Cost
Cost in Millions of Dollars
Cost Per Ton of
Emission Prevented
Particulates SO?
wn
1980 1977 1980
Desulfurization 80b 13.8C 21.8d $3870 $3100 ;$ 1680 $1690
facilities (8 VGO
high severity Iso=
max units of avg.
capacity, 40,000
barrels/day)
aBased on dally fuel requirement for Four County Area of 320,000 barrels/day
in 1977, and 345,000 barrels/day in 1980, as calculated from projected VMT
and vehicle gasoline mileage averages.
bCapital costs based on Reference (23) and Reference (24).
C0perating cost based on cost of similar desulfurization facilities (Ref.22).
dfiased on 30 year equipment life @ 10%.
165
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combined, the coit effectiveness is equivalent to $1170/ton of SOg and
participate removed in 1977, and $1085 per unit in 1980. Moreover it is
also evident that desulfurization facilities utilized in an effort to pre-
vent motor vehicle emissions are also integral to control efforts to
prevent emissions from combustion equipment and refinery process equipment
operational in the Four County Area. The various desulfurization schemes
which have been examined as candidate emission control measures for a given
targeted process (combustion, motor vehicles, refineries, aircraft) in this
study, cannot be viewed as mutually exclusive measures. There is substantial
overlap in the equipment requirements for the various desulfurization options
identified in this study, and therefore the cost effectiveness of any of
these measures analyzed independently of its side benefits does not provide
a true credit of effectiveness. A synthesis of the individual desulfuri-
zation schemes and an analysis of their combined effectiveness, is presented
in the Summary of this study.
166
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8.2.2 Particulate Trap Devices-
Evaluation of devices under development for removing particulate matter
from vehicle exhaust is particularly difficult because measurement techniques
have not been standardized. Hence the effectiveness of an exhaust particulate
trap would depend substantially on the method used to measure,,1t. This is
25
exemplified by tests of the California Air Resources Board, in which .
measurements of exhausts from vehicles equipped with catalytic converters
indicated particulate emission rates of less than .02 gm/mile, about 10 times
less than measured by other researchers studying similar exhaust emissions.
The tests by the Air Resources Board did not permit the evaluation of the
vapor constituent in the exhaust which normally precipitates into mist as
it is discharged to ambient air. For vehicles equipped with catalytic
converters, the vapor mist is the most significant particulate matter
arising from the exhaust stream, being composed almost entirely of sulfuric
acid and water. Because of the elevated temperatures of the exhaust stream,
and the relatively small size of the sulfuric acid mist (.2 micron or
smaller) when it condenses, the removal of particulate matter from the gas
stream of vehicles equipped with oxidizing catalysts represents a very
difficult task.
Several systems for removing particulate matter from exhaust gases
have been under evaluation. These devices have typically been designed to
manage particulate matter from vehicles with standard exhaust systems
(without the oxidizing catalyst), principally as a trap for lead parti-
culate. None of the systems tested to date have clearly demonstrated an
effectiveness which would allow use of leaded gasoline with catalytic
converters. The most extensive testing and development of particulate
traps has been performed by Ethyl Corporation. The results of these efforts
have provided particulate trapping systems which are effective as retrofit
emission controls for incomplete control for lead emissions when employed
in new vehicles.
Most of the proposed particulate traps consist of an agglomerator, an
inertia! separator, and a filter. The agglomerator unit is generally com-
posed of beads or mesh, and provides a surface for mechanically agglomerating
the particles into larger sizes. The inertial separator is generally a
167 >
-------
cyclone or combination of cyclones used to spin out the parti dies at
high velocity into a reservoir. A filter is often employed at the exit.
of the trapping unit to remove smaller particles remaining in the gas
stream when exiting from the cyclone.
Preliminary data of commercial prototype retrofit units developed by
Ethyl Corporation have shown that total particulate emissions in standard
exhaust systems may be reduced by 70% with traps consisting of agglomera-
A og
tion and inertial reactions. Lead is reduced by more than 90%. More
sophisticated traps now being developed by Ethyl have shown ability to
remove nearly all (95%) lead and particulate emissions in the standard
27
exhaust system. These higher efficiency systems are not engineered as
retrofit units and have limited adaptability to in-use vehicles. They are
intended for adaption to new vehicle designs whenever the vehicle is
equipped with a conventional exhaust system. Since the traps are essen-
tially mechanical collectors by nature, they are therefore ineffective as
a control for vapors of sulfuric acid. Parti cul ate:::traps for sulfuric acid
vapors have been developed to a limited extent. The technology on sulfuric
acid removal is discussed iii the next section (S0« Scrubbers).
There is currently substantial indication that very effective parti-
culate trapping systems can be engineered and adapted to control exhaust
emissions from both in-use and new motor vehicles.which utilize standard
exhaust systems. This indication is based on the apparent effectiveness of
preliminary particulate trapping devices which have been constructed with
limited budgets and within a very limited segment of the industry. A more
substantial effort, supported by more certainty of the market for the
trapping devices, would undoubtedly produce significant gains in effective-
ness and costs over the existing control devices. It appears feasible that
production of these units could be accomplished by 1977.
Impact of Particulate Traps on Motor Vehicle Emissions
The preventions of particulate emissions when motor vehicles are
equipped with particulate traps is shown in Table 8-9. While particulate
traps are not applicable to a major segment of the vehicle population (65%
of light duty vehicles in 1977 and 90% in 1980), their installation on the
remaining vehicle population can effect a 46% particulate emission prevention
in 1977, and 35% in 1980.
,168
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TABLE 8-9. IMPACT OF PARTICULATE TRAPS ON PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS FROM MOTOR VEHICLES IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Projected Baseline Prevention of
Participate Particulate
Emissions . Emissions
Motor Vehicle
Category
Light duty9
with catalyst
without catalyst
Heavy duty
Motorcycles and
miscellaneous
TOTAL
Tons/ Day Tens/Day
1977 1980 1977 1980
20.2
20.2
6.6
7.0
54.0
25.8 0 0
10.0 16.2 8.0
7.1 5.3 5.7
7.7 3.5b 3.9b
50.6 25.0 17.6
Notes:
1. It was assumed that vehicles non-equipped with catalysts would utilize
leaded fuels, and that leaded fuels would be available through 1980.
2, Trap devices were assumed to be 80% efficient.
aBaseline light duty particulate emissions were segregated into catalyst
and non-catalyst vehicles using emission factors from Reference (18) as
applied in TRW Report #2.
It was assumed that design of existing traps could be modified for
retrofit adaption to motorcycles. To weight the portion of emissions in
this category which are unlikely retrofit possibilities (such as lawn-
mowers, tractors, earth moving equipment) by the year 1980, a 50% control
efficiency was assumed.
Cost of Particulate Traps
Due to the very limited operating data available the economics of
particulate traps are not well defined. Ethyl estimates they would be able
to provide a trap with about 80% collection efficiency for the light duty
26
vehicle at a cost of $14. The device would be incorporated into a muffler,
and would be rated for a lifetime of 36,000 miles, with no periodic main-e
tenance required. This amounts to a cost of approximately .03$. per mile per
vehicle. Table 8-10 summarizes the overall economics of an implementation
measure to equip the Four-County Area with motor vehicle particulate traps.
169
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TABLE 8-10. COST OF IMPLEMENTING PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL FROM
MOTOR VEHICLES WITH PARTICIPATE TRAPS, FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1977
1980
Motor
Vehicle
Cateqorv
Light Duty
(without catalyst)
Heavy Duty
Motorcycles
Light Duty
Heavy Duty
Motorcycles
Initial
Purchase
& Instal-
lation
Cost
Mil
23
.8
4.7
9.0
.8
5.0
Operating Annual i zed
Cost Cost
lions of Dollars
9.3
.3
1.9
3.7
.3
2.0
Cost per Ton
of Particulate
Emissions
Prevented
$1560
160
1470
2000
150
1430
Notes:
1. It was assumed that motorcycles and heavy duty vehicles could be
retrofitted.
2. The cost of retrofitting heavy duty vehicles and motorcycles was
assumed to parallel the relative scale for typical muffler costs of
each of the vehicle categories. The number of vehicles for retrofit
in each category was*deternrined from VMT of Reference (6) and average
yearly mileage data.3°
It is evident that particulate traps are competitive with fuel desulfuri-
zation as a method of particulate emission control, however the value of
the character of particulate matter removed by the mechanical traps may not
be of equal importance to the prevention of sulfuric acid emissions obtained
with fuel desulfurization. In addition, the particulate traps will have
decreasing effect as a control in the years ahead, as the proportion of
vehicles with standard exhaust systems diminishes in favor of those equipped
with the catalytic oxidizer.
The particulate trap control option appears to be most cost effective
when applied to heavy duty vehicles, requiring $160 for each ton of
particulates collected. This advantage is due to the larger emissions
170
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available for collection by the trap from the large volumes of exhaust
emitted from heavy duty vehicles, particularly diesels.
8.2.3 S0 Scrubbers
Because the important discovery of the interaction of sulfur and
oxidizing catalysts is relatively recent, and because of the uncertainty
associated with the implementation of the catalytic control device, limited
effort has been directed toward development of auxiliary hardware to circum-
vent the problem that sulfur poses for the catalytic controls. Perhaps the
most promising equipment which has been developed to be responsive to the
sulfur-catalyst problem is the molten carbonate scrubber-mufflers by
Atomics International. Designed principally to remove lead vapors in the
heated portion of the exhaust upstream of the catalytic converter, road
tests have shown the scrubber also removes essentially all the sulfur oxides
28
in the exhaust. The unit operates on the basis that lead and sulfur com-
pounds in vehicle exhaust are acidic and will react chemically with
alkaline molten carbonate. In these reactions, lead vapor is converted to
solid lead carbonates and oxides, and sulfur dioxide is reacted to metal
sul fates.
The scrubber-muffler device is installed under the engine hood of the
vehicle to utilize maximum heat from the engine exhaust. The exhaust heat
reaches the 750°F melting point of the molten carbonate mixture rapidly.
Figure 8-5 illustrates the design of the scrubber-muffler unit. The molten
mixture is aspirated out the venturi suction tube into the gas stream to
facilitate rapid acid-base reactions. The resulting carbonates and sul fates
are retained by absorption on the mesh. Particulates are wetted and retained
29
in the carbonate mixture. Test data show the collection efficiency for
parti culates in the scrubber is about 90%, making the device both an
effective parti cul ate and SOp control for vehicles not equipped with the
catalytic converter.
Impact of SOp Scrubber on Motor Vehicle Emissions
The preventions of SOo and particulate emissions when motor vehicles
are equipped with the Atomics International scrubber-muffler system are
shown in Table 8-11.. Because of the very effective control of SOp and
particulates claimed by Atomics International, the overall emission control
171:
-------
TABLE 8-11. IMPACT OF SCRUBBER ON S02 AND PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
FROM MOTOR VEHICLES IN FOUR COUNTY AREA
Motor Vehicle Category
PARTICULATES
Light Duty
with catalyst
without catalyst
Heavy Duty
Motorcycles and
miscellaneous
TOTAL
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Light Duty
Heavy Duty
Motorcycles and
miscellaneous
TOTAL
Projected Baseline
Emissions
Tons/Day
1977
20.2
20.2
6.6
7.0
54.0
35.6
10,5
-
46.1
1980
25.8
10.0
7.1
7.7
50.6
35.7
11.3
-
47.0
Emission Preventions
Tons/Day
1977
18.1
17.2
5.6
5.9
46.8
33.8
10.0
-
43.8
1980
23.2
8.5
6.0
6.6
44.3
33.9
10.7
-
44.6
Notes:
1. The scrubber was assumed to have an efficiency of 95% for S02 removal
and 85% for particulate collection.
2. Since the scrubber removes SOp upstream of the catalytic oxidizer,
conversions of S02 to sulfuric acid particulates does not occur.
Particulates of other types are also removed by the scrubber. Hence
it is assumed that particulate emissions from vehicles with the catalytic
oxidizer will be controlled to 90% efficiency.
3. It was assumed that the scrubber-muffler unit coyld be adapted for
retrofit on motorcycles and heavy duty vehicles.31
impact on the motor vehicle population is impressive. Serious reservation
should probably be maintained relative to this preliminary analyses until
further testing can be accomplished to confirm the very encouraging
preliminary data.
172
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Economics of Scrubber-Muffler System
The cost to the consumer for the scrubber and muffler device has been
estimated at $35 for a factory installed device to $45 for retrofit units.
This compares to a typical muffler purchase and installation cost of
approximately $22.
Maintenance of the scrubber device consists of replacing the salt
28
solution every 15,000 to 20,000 miles at a cost of $10. The life of the
dual function scrubber and muffler is estimated at 50,000 miles.
The economics of implementing the installation of scrubber devices on
the motor vehicle population as a pollution control measure is summarized
in Table 8-12. It has been assumed that the scrubber can be engineered for
adaptability to the motorcycle and the heavy duty vehicle without difficulty
31
by the year 1977. In the absence of any manufacturing cost estimates for
these adapted retrofits, it was assumed their cost would parallel the
relative scale of typical muffler costs for the given vehicle categories.
TABLE 8-12. COST OF EQUIPPING VEHICLE POPULATION WITH SCRUBBER
DEVICE FOR CONTROL OF S0£ AND PARTICULATE EMISSIONS,
FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1977
Motor .
Vehicle
Category
Light Duty
Heavy Duty
Motorcycles &
Miscellaneous
TOTALS
Initial
Purchase and
Installation
Cost
Mill
138
1.2
7.7
146.9
Annual
Operation
Cost
ions of DoT
39.7
.6
.6
40.9
Annual i zed
Cost
lars
76.0
1.3
1.8
79.1
Cost Rer Ton
of Combined SOg
and Parti cul ate
Emissions Prevented
$3020
231
835
$2380
Notes:
1. Annual operation cost based on $10/15,000 mi, and average annual
vehicle mileage as follows: Light duty, 10,000; heavy duty, 25,000;
Motorcycles, 4,000.
2. Capital costs annualized at 50,000 miles lifetime at 10% interest.
173
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Because the unit has nearly equal effectiveness either as a particulate
trap or for SOg removal, it is applicable as an emission control for all
the motor vehicle categories, whether they are equipped with catalytic
oxidizers or not. Clearly the device is more cost effective for those
vehicles not equipped with the device since more emissions would be pre-
vented from these sources for an equivalent cost. The scrubber would be
most cost effective for heavy duty vehicles from which the greatest
potential of emission preventions exists.
8.2.4 Fuel Substitution
Conversion to alternative fuels for use in motor vehicles is a
control option which affects preventions of particulates, S02, hydro-
carbons, and NO simultaneously. As discussed in Section 3.2.3, methyl-fuel
J\ *
is probably the most desirable of the fuel substitution alternatives. It
can be used as an additive to current fuel stocks without special adaption,
or can be used as a total motor fuel substitute with"engine adaption. In
either application, the resulting emission preventions are significant.
Existing engines can be converted to use methyl-fuel by decreasing
the ratio of air to fuel consumed from 14 for gasoline to 6 for the methyl -
fuel. In addition, exhaust recycling is required to deliver more heat to
the carburetor. The impact of this conversion on vehicle exhaust emissions
is illustrated by the test results shown in Table 8-13. Considerable
research has demonstrated vehicle operation with the cleaner burning methyl-
fuel produces substantial emission reductions. Studies have also shown that
methyl-fuel may be handled with existing facilities, and can be used without
requiring major hardware developments. It was also evident that greater
performance and emission control can be accomplished from an engine
32
designed specifically for methanol.
Due to the relatively limited development performed to promote
gasoline conversion to methyl-fuel, there are many uncertainties regarding
its utility as a complete fuel substitute. A preliminary estimate for the
cost of retrofitting in-use vehicles for the methyl-fuel conversion is
$100. At this cost, the methyl-fuel alternative is competitive with the
catalytic oxidizer retrofit, given that methyl fuel itself is competitive
costwise with gasoline (which it currently is). Because of the apparent
174
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TABLE 8-13. EMISSIONS FROM A 1972 GREMLIN CONVERTED
FOR METHANOL CONSUMPTION
Fuel
Gasoline
Methanol
1976 Federal Standards
Hydrocarbons
2.20
.32
.41
CO
gm/nri 1 e
32.5
3.9
3.4
NO,
3.2
.35
.40
The Gremlin was modified for use with methanol-fuel and equipped
with a catalytic converter.
Source: Reference (5)
economic feasibility of this fuel conversion for motor vehicles, and the
air quality benefits associated with the conversion, intensified investi-
gations should be organized to ascertain the real near term and far term
potential role of methanol as a motor vehicle fuel.
8.2.5 Tire Options
A substantial portion of the particulate matter generated by motor
vehicles may be attributed to tire wear. By 1980, it is estimated that
tire wear will be responsible for 37% of all motor vehicle particulate
pollution. Yet only minor efforts have been invested to characterize
these emissions, and limited research has been performed to develop potential
controls for their reduction.
It has been suggested that replacement of standard bias-ply tires with
radial tires would result in significant reductions in airborne tire matter.
Radial tires constructed of fabric, steel, and fiberglass have demonstrated
total tire wear (pounds of tire matter per mile) one-half the rate of standard
33
bias-ply tires. It should be noted, however, that the production rate of
airborne tire matter is dependent on the rate at which suspendable particles
of the tire materials are generated. It has been estimated that, under
average conditions, 5 to 10% of all tire wear becomes airborne as suspended
34
matter, and that the remainder exists in the form of non-suspended
particles deposited near the road. It is not clear whether a motor vehicle
,175
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population equipped with radial tires would emit the same fraction (5-10%)
of its worn tire matter as suspendable particles. It is conceivable that
the distribution of tire particles arising from wear of radial tires is in
significant contrast to that characterizing the wear-of the typical motor
vehicle tire. Until additional research is performed to characterize the
particulate matter arising from various types of motor vehicle tires operating
under representative vehicle travel conditions, it will not be clear if
atmospheric levels of airborne tire matter may be controlled by implementation
of vehicle tire options.
176
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REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.0
1. Environmental Protection Agency, "Air Programs; Approval and Promul-
gation of Implementation Plans," California Transportation Control
Plan, Federal Register, December 12, 1973.
2. Personal communication with State of California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, California.
3. Environmental Protection Agency, "Regulations on Fuels and Fuel
Additive," Environmental Reporter 121:0801, 1973.
4. G. Haas, D. Lenane, M. Brandt, Ethyl Corporation, "Composition,
Size and Control of Automotive Exhaust Particulates," Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association, January, 1972.
5. G. Adelman, D. G. Andrews, "Exhaust Emissions from a Methanol.-Fueled
Automobile," Society of Automotive Engineers, paper 720693, August,
1972.
6. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "The Development of
a Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region," Report
#2, Emission Inventories and Projections, prepared for the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, June 1974.
7. Personal communication with Chevron Research Company, San Francisco,
California.
8. Personal communication with Atlantic Richfield Corporation, Los
Angeles, California.
9. United States Department of Commerce, "Automotive Fuels and Air
Pollution," A Report of the Panel on Automotive Fuels and Air
Pollution, March 1971.
10. Technical Advisory Committee to the California State Air Resources
Board, "A Rational Program for Control of Lead in Motor Gasoline,
March, 1970.
11. Sorem, S.S., '"Automotive Fuels and Air Pollution," statement by Shell
Oil Company to the Arizona Board of Health, November 20, 1970.
12. Derived from Reference (9).
13. Department of California Highway Patrol, "California Traffic Accident
Summaries, 1972.
14. Kipp, H. L., Ingamells, J. C.,"Ability of Gasoline Additives to Clean
Engines and Reduce Exhaust Emissions," Society of Automotive Engineers
Report 700456, Mid-year Meeting, Detroit, Michigan, May 18-22, 1970.
177
-------
15. William Pierson, . Robert Hammer!e, Joseph Hummer, Research, Ford Motor
Company, "Sulfuric Acid Aerosol Emissions from Catalyst-Equipped Engines,
Society of Automotive Engineers, 740287, February 25 - March 1, 1974.
16. Morton Be.ltzer, Raymond Campion, William Peterson, Esso Research and
Engineering Company, "Measurement of Vehicle Particulate Emissions,"
Society of Automotive Engineers, 740286, February 25 - March 1, 1974.
17. Personal communication with Shell Friedlander, California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, California.
18. Personal communication with ESSO Research and Engineering Company,
Linden, New Jersey.
19. Joseph Hunter, "Studies of Catalyst Degradation in Automotive
Emission Control Systems," Society of Automotive Engineers, 720122,
January 10-14, 1972.
20. Personal communication with Environmental Protection Agency, Durham,
North Carolina.
21. Personal communication with General Motors Automotive Research, Detroit,
Michigan.
22. Statement of the Shell Oil Company, "Compliance with Title II
(Auto Emission Standards) of the Clean Air Act, Hearings before the
Committee on Public Works, United States Senate, November 5 and 6,
1973.
23. Steele, G., G. Gould, R. Roselius, W. Haunschild, "Clean Fuels Through
New Isomax Technology," American Petroleum Institute 40-73, May 16,
1973.
24. Christensen, R., Chevron Research Company, "Low Sulfur Products from
Middle East Crudes," National Petroleum Refiners Association, AM-73-38,
April 1973.
25. California Air Resources Board, "Surveillance of Particulate Emissions
From Mobile Sources, Project 5-4, Status Report 1, September 1973.
26. Dennis Lenane, Ethyl Corporation Research and Development Department,
Letter of Data Transmittal to J. Sommers, Environmental Protection
Agency, June 7, 1973.
27. Personal communication with Ethyl Corporation Research and Development,
Ferndale, Michigan.
28. Aerospace Corporation, Final Report: "An Assessment of the Effects of
Lead Additives in Gasoline on Emission;.Control Systems Which Might be
Used to Meet the 1975-76 Motor Vehicle Emission Standards,"
Distributed by NTIS, U. S. Department of Commerce, November, 1971.
178 i
-------
29. Atomics International, North American Rockwell, "Evaluation of a
Device to Remove Lead and Particulates from Automobile Exhaust," A
Technical Proposal to the Division of Motor Vehicle Research and
Development, National Air Pollution Control Administration, AI-70-51P,
August, 1970.
30. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "Air Quality Imple-
mentation Plan Development for Critical California Regions," prepared
for Environmental Protection Agency, July 1973.
31. Personal communication with Atomics International, Canoga Park,
California.
32. Synthetic Fuels Panel, "Hydrogen and Other Synthetic Fuels," Atomic
Energy Commission, September 1972.
33. Personal communication with General Tire and Rubber Company, Rubber
Research and Development Division, Akron, Ohio.
34. William Pierson, Wanda Brachaczek, Research, Ford Motor Company,
"Airborne Particulate Debris from Rubber Tires," August 1973.
;179
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..9.0 ORGANIC SOLVENTS
Organic solvents are used extensively 1n the dry cleaning of clothes,
surface ceating operations, printing, degreasing, and a variety of other
related activities. The role of organic solvent usage in atmospheric
pollution, the current emission control technology being applied to its use,
and the alternative pollution control measures which may be applied to
achieve further emission preventions are discussed in the following
sections.
9.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS
TABLE 9-1. ROLE OF ORGANIC SOLVENT EMISSIONS IN
ATMOSPHERIC POLLDTION OF FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Percentage of Total Emissions
Particulates
4
3
3
in Four-County Area
Reactive
Hydrocarbons
2
3
3
Source: Reference (1).
The role of organic solvent operations in atmospheric pollution in
the Four County Region is illustrated above. There are essentially no SOo
or NOX emissions yielded by these operations. Particulate emissions from
organic solvent sources are projected to maintain the same relative status
with respect to the overall Four County emissions totals for the next few
years. However, reactive hydrocarbon emissions from organic solvent sources
are expected to develop an increasing prominence in the Four County
emissions total inventory. This is because additional emission controls
scheduled for organic solvent operations will not keep pace with the overall
decrease in the total hydrocarbon emission inventory.
Most of the emissions originating from the use or manufacture of
organic solvents occur from the process of natural or forced evaporation.
181
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For example, when architectural coatings are applied with solvents, the
solvents evaporate into the atmosphere as the coating forms a film. In
dry cleaning operation of clothes, the solvents are removed by heat, or
forced evaporation. In general, the emissions from these activities are
hydrocarbon vapors, of varying reactivity depending on the nature of the
solvents used. With the federal promulgation of air program implementation
plans for the State of California, release of solvent vapors to the atmos-
phere will be prevented by stricter emission controls for dry cleaning and
degreaslng operations. The user of solvents in those operations may choose
to comply with the regulation by applying emission control hardware, or by
selection of a non-photochemically active solvent.
The federal emission controls are directed at attaining the oxidant
ambient air standards, and therefore control stipulations for the use of or-
ganic solvents address the prevention of reactive hydrocarbons. The scheduled
controls do not significantly affect particulate emissions, as can be seen
in Table 9-2.
TABLE 9-2. EMISSIONS FROM ORGANIC SOLVENT OPERATIONS
IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Parti cul
8
8.5
8.7
Tons/Day
ates Reactive Hydrocarbons
21.0
14.9
15.4
Table 9-3 provides an itemized characterization of the various
emission sources resulting from the use of organic solvents in Los
Angeles County. The-data was extracted from the Emission Inventory File
now in development by the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control
District. It is evident that painting operations in spray booths account
for an overwhelming portion (85%) of the particuUte emissions resulting
from organic solvent use. This is due to the fact that emissions from
other organic solvent operations are controlled with higher collection
efficiency, while emissions from spray booths are typically controlled to
182
-------
TABLE 9-3. CHARACTERIZATION OF EMISSION SOURCES ARISING FROM
ORGANIC SOLVENT OPERATIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Paint spraying device
n ii n
n n n
ii ii n
n n n
n ii ii
n ii n
n n n
" " "
n n n
n n ii
Brake lining & bonding
Coating - baking
n n
n ii
drying
Spraying device
n n
n ii
Tank, asphaltlc dip
" paint dip
" plastic dip
misc. dip
11
Continuous organic
coating & drying
n n n n
n n M n
Degreaser, tri
Chloroethelyne
'' other
Dry cleaning, petrol.
" ".synthetic &
other
n n n M
n n n ii
Flexograph
n
Letter press
Lithograph
11
Rotogravure
Paint, blending
n ii
" reaction
" baking
Flow coater
ii ii
Rollercoater
n
n
Misc. solvent Convey.
Varnish, shellac, cook.
No. of
Emission Control Utilized Permits
Spray booth, paint * solvent 4227
" high solids paint 3
11 high water paint 4
" " styrenated resins 48
Control, powder coating 8
Spray booth, ceramic 24
" " metal 1z1ng 12
" " paint & solvent 64
" " styrenated resins 3
ceramic 11
other 12
Incineration control ,d1r. flame 1
None 785
Incineration control ,d1r. flame 116
catalytic 6
None 265
Direct flame 26
Dry filter, baghouse 1
Scrubber 2
Scrubber 7
None 142
None 17
None 57
Dry filter, other 1
None 52
Incineration control ,d1r. flame 11
Scrubber 1
None 206
None 509
None 126
None 774
Dry Filter, other 1
" " baghouse 6
None 96
Incineration, direct flame 5
None 14
None 11
Incineration, direct flame 8
None 19
None 18
Baghouse 5
Scrubber 1
None 1
None 76
Incineration control .dlr.flm 6
None 88
Incineration control .dir.flm 26
Mist collector 1
Vapor balancing/gas blanketing 1
Incineration, direct flame 5
Partlculate
Ib/day
Emissions
Actual Preventions
4830.1
6.4
14.4
14.8
.5
62.4
12.9
33.5
.9
79.3
6
.2
232
186
5.1
233
54.4
.4
4
1.2
32.5
.2
6.5
.3
3
0
8
0
1
.6
,2
.6
6.4
0
. 0
0
0
9.6
0
40.8
4
.1
4
70.9
0
1.5
1.5
.1
3.4
24.2
348.3
0
0
0
0
431.8
17.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
870
8.6
0
486.1
3.6
0
.8
0
0
0
15.7
0
0
72
0
0
0
0
5.4
47.6
0
0
0
0
•341.7
0
0
44
.9
0
0
0
0
10.6
..7
0
221.8
Source: Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District Computer Emission
Inventory File
183
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low efficiencies. The average emission level from a typical paint spray
booth is relatively small, such that in the majority of cases Rule 66,
which limits total discharge of organic materials from a given piece of
equipment to less than 15 pounds of organic materials per day, is not
violated. In addition, the emissions are well diluted, so as to comply
with Rule 52 which limits the concentration of particulate matter arising
from a source according to the volume discharge, and so as also to comply
with the visible emissions and nuisance rules (No. 50 and 51). Table 9-4
summarizes clearly the important role that paint spraying operations play
in atmospheric pollution from organic solvent emission sources in the Four
County Area (th.e distribution relationships of Table 9-3 have been used
to proportion the Four County Area emissions totals).
TABLE 9-4. EMISSIONS FROM PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS AND "OTHER"
ORGANIC SOLVENT OPERATIONS, FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1972
Operation
Paint spraying in
spray booth
"Other"
TOTAL
No. of
Permits
4482
3470
7952
Particulate Emissions
Tons/Day
Actual
6.8
1.1.2
8.0
Preventions
1.1
2.8
3.9
Efficiency
of
Control
13.5%
70.8%
32.8%
Paint spray booths consist of an enclosure in which paint spraying is
conducted. The spray is directed toward a vented wall with a ventilation
rate of about 100 to 150 feet per minute per square foot of vent opening.
There are basically three types of devices used to capture the paint spray
before the ventilation fan exhausts the booth air to the atmosphere. They
are: 1) dry baffle plates, 2) arresters or filters, or 3) a water wash.
Baffle plates capture paint spray particles with low efficiency, and are
generally used as the most economic route for protection of the spray booth
operator and prevention of nuisance emissions. Arresters or filter paper
provide collection of paint particles with efficiencies up to 98%. Where
filters are not practical for continuous painting operations, water washes
may be used with collection efficiencies of 95%.
184
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9.2 ALTERNATIVE CONTROLS
Since paint spraying in spray booths accounts for 85% of all
emissions from organic solvent activities, it follows that it shall be
the target for additional controls. Other organic solvent emission
sources will not be considered as likely candidates for additional control
since 1) they are already controlled to 70% efficiency, and 2) they only
account for about 1 ton/day of particulate emissions.
Consultation with spray booth manufacturers revealed the most
frequently used spray booth is about 12 ifeet wide by 7 feet high at the
venting entry, and is usually equipped with a dry baffle collector. It
was estimated that 80% of the booths in Los Angeles are of this general
description.2 To improve the efficiency of the 4482 spray booths (Table 9-4)
operating with county permits, two retrofits are feasible: an arrestor fil-
ter mat, or a water wash. In many instances the water wash is the more
economic route as servicing requirements are very minimal, while filters
must be replaced regularly when utilized under continuous spray operations.
Impact of Retrofitting Spray Booths with Water Mash
The emission preventions obtained by retrofitting the present
population of paint spray booths in the Four County Area with a water wash
is shown in Table 9-5. This control measure can yield a 77% overall
prevention of particulate emissions arising from organic solvent usage.
TABLE 9-5. EFFECT OF RETROFIT WATER WASH CONTROL ON
EMISSIONS FROM PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS
Year
1977
1980
Baseline
Particulate
Emissions
Tons/ Day
8.5
8.7
Particulate
Emission
• Reductions
6.5
6.7
1. Reductions calculated on basis of 90% reduction,
assuming a particulate distribution with 60% of
particles under 10 micron size.
185
-------
2 3
Based on an average retrofit cost of $2800 per spray booth, annualized
to $280 per year at 10% interest, the total annualized cost for the entire
population of retrofits is $1.6 million. This amounts to a cost effective-
ness of $724 per ton of particulate emissions removed from the
atmosphere.
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 9.0
1. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "The Development
of A Particulate Implementation Plan for the Los Angeles Region,"
Report #2, Emission Inventories and Projections, June, 1974.
2. Personal Communication with Binks Company, Los Angeles, and
De Vilbiss* Los Angeles.
3. Personal Communication with Joy Manufacturing, Los Angeles.
186
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10.0 METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
Operations characterizing the metallurgical industry consist primarily
of metal separation processes. The processes are carried out in various
types of melting furnaces, which yield high-temperature effluents requiring
air pollution control. The following discussion provides a characterization
of the emissions arising from present operations in the metallurgical industry,
the air pollution control methods being utilized to manage these emissions,
and alternative control measures which may be employed to yield further
emission control.
10.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS
The principal emissions produced during metallurgical operations are
particulates and S02. The role of these emissions in total atmospheric
pollution of the Four County Area is shown in Table 10-1. In future years,
the metallurgy industry is expected to be responsible for about 5% of all
particulate emissions, and about 3% of the S02 emission inventory.
TABLE 10-1. ROLE OF METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY EMISSIONS IN
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION OF FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Percentage of Emissions in Four County Area
Year
1972
1977
1980
Particulates
6
5
5
S02 NOX
3
3
3
Source: Reference (1)
Emissions of the metallurgy industry are generated from the melting of
metals and ores in furnaces. As the feed in the furnace is melted, combus-
tibles such as grease, oil and burner fuel are burned and emitted along
with refining emissions which consist of oxide fumes of the metal consti-
tuents in the furnace melt mixture. The quantities of emissions generated
187
-------
by furnace operation depends mainly on the specific melting process. The
total emissions deriving from activity of all metallurgical furnaces in
the Four County Area is tabulated in Table 10-2. Emissions from incomplete
combustion constitute a small portion of the furnace effluents, as can be
seen by the relatively minor quantities of NO generated.
n
TABLE 10-2. EMISSIONS FROM METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS IN
FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1972
1977
1980
Particulates
12.3
13.4
14.0
SOg
13.0
15.0
15.9
NO*
.5
.6
.5
Source: Reference (1)
10.2 EMISSIONS CONTROLS
A detailed itemization of emission sources and emission control
equipment of the metallurgical industry is presented in Table 10-3. It is
evident that substantial effort has already been employed to achieve a high
rate of particulate collection efficiency. The basic control equipment
generally consists of either a baghouse or an electrical precipitator. A
critical aspegt of the successful control of furnace dust and fumes is the
hooding design. Various hooding configurations are employed depending on
the layout and shape of the furnace, and the volume of effluent to be
managed. The most difficult design problem concerns the provision of
adjustability for the hood to facilitate furnace charging and access. For
the hood to remain effective it must be positioned to allow continuous
capture of emissions arising during the charging process.
It is estimated by the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District that
about 92% of all particulate emissions generated from metallurgical opera-
2
tions are prevented from entering the atmosphere. This degree of control
is reflected in the itemization of source controls in Table 10-3. However,
with regard to emissions of SOp, there are virtually no controls applied.
188
-------
S02 emissions arise almost solely from lead refining, in which a substantial
amount of sulfur is present in various forms in the charge to the furnace.
The melting of the charge oxidizes the sulfur compounds resulting in emission
of S02.
There are a vast number of furnaces utilized in which no emission
control system has been incorporated. These furnaces are relatively small,
and the effuents which are diluted and discharged to atmosphere by the
hooding capture systems do not constitute a violation of air pollution
regulations. Nevertheless, these "uncontrolled" emissions account for 58%
the air pollution from all metallurgy operations. Table 10-4 provides
a characterization of these small furnaces and their role in emissions from
metallurgical operations.
TABLE 10-3, CHARACTERIZATION OF FURNACE CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS,
FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1972
Type of
Furnace
Control
None
Baghouse
Preci pita tor
Scrubbers, &
Afterburners
TOTALS
No. of
Permits
1782
483
»
224
2489
Parti culates
Emi tted
from Control
System
7.2
4.7
1.4
12.3
Parti culates
Prevented
from
Emitting
0
128
3.9
132
Control
Efficiency
0
96.4
90.7
91.5
1. Figures above were computed by applying the composite distribution
derived from Table 10-3 to the total metallurgy emission inventory for
Four County Area.
189
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10.3 ALTERNATIVE CONTROLS
There are probably very few basic equipment modifications which would
enable significant improvements in particulate collection efficiencies for
those furnaces equipped with control systems. However it has been found
that baghouses have on numerous occasions been Inadequately maintained,
resulting in poor collection efficiencies (less than 90%). Baghouse
filters must be designed to be compatible with the effluent gas temperatures,
and condensation should be avoided or filters will saturate.causing increased
pressure drop and exhaust air flow. Bags must be shaken regularly as furnace
fumes tend to agglomerate on the fibers. It is conceivable that significant
performance improvements could be affected in furnace emission control
systems if stricter industrial maintenance practices were implemented.
However it would be extremely difficult to assess the benefits of such a
program without extensive investigations of prevailing emission rates and
maintenance procedures. It is noted however, that the emission inventory
itemization of Table 10-3 credits baghouse installations with a composite
control effectiveness of 96.4% (this is based on estimates derived, for the
most part, from theoretical calculations, and not field measurements),
which, it would seem, already presumes a high degree of maintenance
consciousness.
The vast number of furnaces which currently are not equipped with
emission control devices can be best retrofitted with baghouse installations
in most instances. Baghouse operating temperature is an important consi-
deration, and often temperature control must be provided for by installing
extra equipment such as convection cooling columns, or thermal insulation.
Lead melting operations are presently equipped with baghouse emission
control systems, but this equipment has no substantial effect on S0«
pollution. Several candidate S0« removal processes may be employed at the
baghouse effluent to obtain preventions of S02 emissions by 90%. These
controls have been discussed in Section 3.2.2.
Impact of Alternative Controls on Metallurgical Emissions
The air pollution control benefits of retrofitting baghouse control
systems:>to furnaces which currently are vented directly to the atmosphere
is shown in Table 10-5. The retrofit measure will provide a 56% reduction
in total particulate matter emitted by metallurgical melting operations.
190.
-------
TABLE 10-4. CHARACTERIZATION OF EMISSION SOURCES ARISING FROM
METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Aluminum Pot
Lead and type metal '
ii ii 'u i
H ii u i
u u ii i
Time Solder '
Z1nc & I?1rks1te
n ii i
ii ii i
Z1nc & Kirks ite Retort
II II II
Aluminum Reverbera-
tory/Open Hearth
n n u H
II 11 H II
Brass, Bronze, Copper
Reverb. /Open Hearth
Iron-Steel '
II II II II
Lead Type Metal " "
Zinc & Kirksite " "
II II II H
Aluminum Rotary
Brass (yellow) "
Brass .Bronze, Copper "
Lead & Type Metal
Zinc & Kirksite
Aluminum Sweating Ops
n n i
Lead & Type Metal ' '
Tin & Solder
II II 11
Zinc & Kirksite
Misc. Metals
N II II
Brass (yellow) other
Metal Ops.
Iron - Steel
n n M M n
n M H n n
Core Baking
u u
Galvanizing
Tank, chrome plating
or stripping
II II H II
II II U II
Aluminum Crucible
Yellow Brass "
n n H
Brass ,Bronze, Cop. "
n M n H
Iron - Steel "
No. S0
of
Per-
Emission Control Utilized mlts Ac
None 4
None 188
Incinerator Direct Flame 8
Dry Filter, Baghouse 34
Scrubber 1
None 3
None 59
Direct Flame 1
Baghouse 1
18
Scrubbers 1
None 87
Direct Flame 2
Baghouse 7
3
None 9
Electric precipitator 3
Partlculate
2 Emissions Emissions
Ib/day Ib/day
Preven- Preven-
tual tions Actual tions
0 0 6.0 0
0 0 170.6 0
0 0 15.6 6.3
0 0 209 2237
00 .3 .2
00 .10
0 0 101 0
0 0 1.0 9.4
0 0 1.0 8.6
0 0 35.4 807.4
0 0 2.9 142.9
.3 0 .4527 0
0 0 49.6 279.2
0 0 630.2 1536.5
0 0 528 25873
0 0 103.8 0
0 0 216 2808 '
Baghouse 4 620.8 336.0 '20.6 1220
None 4
Baghouse 7
1
None 1
0 0 39.4 0
0 0 20.5 283.5
0 0 2.4 477.6
.2 0 .32 0
Baghouse 6 163.2 0 99.3 1616.7
1
3
None 1
Baghouse 5
0 0 2.9 141.1
0 0 27.5 628.5
0020
0 0 12.7 411.6
6 3348 0 37.2 3758
Direct Flame 2
Baghouse 1
7
None 1
Baghouse 1
1
3
None 1
None 1
None 85
Incineration Contr.Dir.Flm 8
None 6
None 104
Mist collector 17
Scrubber 60
None 50
None 35
Dry Filter, Baghouse 7
None 96
Dry Filter, Baghouse 17
None 1
0 0 5.0 44.6
4.0 2.4 2.5 121.5
0 0 524.8 1193
0 0 .9 0
0 0 14.9 729.1
0 0 1.9 94.1
0 0 72 1368
0 0 4.2 0
14.4 0 20.6 0
.1 0 5.2 0
0 0 .1 1.2
0 0 23.2 0
0 0 10.3 0
0 0 8.8 77.6
0 0 9.6 65.0
0 0 63.3 0
0 0 323.3 0
0 0 21.6 38.8
49.4 0 645.6 0
0 0 75.2 543.7
00 .20
191;
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TABLE 10-4. (CONTINUED)
CHARACTERIZATION OF EMISSION SOURCES ARISING
FROM METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS IN LOS ANGELES
COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Lead
& Type Metal ,
Crucible
Magnesium "
Tin & Solder
Z1nc
M1sc
& K1rks1te "
. Metals
Brass, Bronze, Copper
Iron
II
Lead
11
Cupola & Blast
- Steel " "
II II M
& Type Metal " "
II II II II
Aluminum Elec.Arc
Iron
"
M1sc
- Steel " "
II II II
. Metals " "
Aluminum El ec, Induc-
No. S
of
Per-
Em1ss1on Control Utilized mlts Ac
Partlculate
02 Emissions Emissions
Ib/day Ib/day
Preven- Preven-
tual tlons Actual tlons
None 400 14.0 0
None 1 0 0 1.6 0
None 5 0 0 8.6 0
None 5 00 6.4 0
None 2 0 0 2.2 0
Dry FUter.Baghouse 1 0 0 26.4 1317.6
None 1 0 0 1.8 0
Dry Filter, Baghouse 13 0 0 476.6 6381
" " " 1 696 18504 62.4 5938
None 1 336 0 18 0
None 1
.2 0 7.2 0
None 10 0 0 316.1 0
Dry Filter, Baghouse 16 0 0 1204 13138
? 3 0 0 .3 0
None 20 0 0 46.2 0
tive/ resist
Yell os Brass "
II
II II 1
Brass, Bronze »Cop. '
ii
Iron
II
Lead
Misc
H
II I
- Steel
II 1
& Type Metal " "'
. Metals
II 1
None 300 20.8 0
Dry Filter, Baghouse 13 0 0 109.5 838.5
31 0 0 224.2 1494
None 9 0 0 71.4 0
None 41 0 0 193.2 0
Dry Filter, Baghouse 19 0 0 7.3 175.6
None 100 .80
None 1 0 0 1.4 0
Baghouse 2 00 1.4 0
Source: Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District Computer Emission
Inventory File.
192
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TABLE 10-5. EFFECT OF BAGHOUSE RETROFIT ON UNCONTROLLED
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM FURNACES IN FOUR-COUNTY
AREA
Year
1977
1980
Baseline
Parti cul ate
Emissions
Parti cul ate
Emission
Reduction
Tons/Day
7.8
8.2
7.5
7.9
1. Reductions based on baghouse collection efficiency
•of 96%.
The impact of retrofitting lead processing furnaces with S0« cleanup
systems is shown in Table 10-6. The add-on SOg removal systems require
pretreatment of the effluent for particulate removal, hence they must be
sized to manage the effluent of the baghouses. In furnace emission control
applications, the baghouse effluent Volumes are often several times that
of the furnace itself due to the dilution air used to cool the hot fumes
and prevent condensation or rapid agglomeration of matter on the baghouse
filter fabric. Based on substantial studies now being carried out to assess
the performance of SO^ cleanup systems, it is estimated that 90% of the S02
pollutions generated by metallurgical activities can be eliminated.
TABLE 10-6. EFFECT OF RETROFITTING SQ2 CLEANUP SYSTEMS TO LEAD
REFINING FURNACE EFFLUENTS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Year
1977
1980
Baseline
SO?
Emissions
S02
Emission
Prevention
Tons/Day
15.0
15.9
13.5
14.3
193
-------
Cost of Emission Controls:
The cost of retrofitting uncontrolled pollutant emissions of S02 and
particulars from melting furnaces in the Four County Area is shown in
Table 10-7. Several assumptions were necessary in the derivation of the
cost figures, and the estimates are preliminary at best. However, the
magnitude of the cost effectiveness closely parallels the cost of other
/
similar pollution control systems which are well documented in the
literature, and in other sections of this report. Treatment for S02
removal from the effluent of lead melting furnaces is about ten times more
cost effective than particulate collection from the small uncontrolled
furnaces scattered about the Four County Area.
TABLE 10-7. COST OF RETROFIT CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR METALLURGICAL
FURNACE EMISSIONS, FOUR-COUNTY AREA, 1977
Control
Option
Baghouse
SO 2 Cleanup
System
No. of
Furnaces
Requiring
Retrofits
1782
12
Purchase Annual
and Instal- Operating Annual i zed
lation Cost Cost Cost
Millions of Dollars
18. 6a 1.5b 3.4
4.0C .ld .5
Cost Per Ton
of Pollutant
Emissions
Prevented
$1242
$ 101
1. Annualized cost based on 30 year lifetime @ 10% interest.
aln absence of detailed equipment inventory, several assumptions were
made: 1) hood size of 5 ft' assumed for capture of fumes over furnace @
150 fpm = 750 scfm per unit, 2) multiplicity of lead furnaces assumed at
each site, such that one baghouse would serve approximately four furnaces
for the average case. 444 baghouses are needed to handle 3000 scfm each,
3) cost is based on Ref.(6), plus 2Q% additional for ducting installation.
Reference (6).
CS02 removal systems were sized by 1) average emission load (420 Ib/day)1
of 12 permits shown in Table 10-3, adjusted to official APCD total SO?
metallurgical emission inventory to give 1000 Ib/day per permit (which
slightly exceeds Rule 53, Allowable Sulfur Concentration); 2) typical bag-
house effluent volume for lead smelting operation^ as 3.3 scfm per Ib/day
of emissions processed. Hence total baghouse effluent volume to be treated
by SO? removal system for Four Countv Area in 1977 = 100,000 scfm, for
approximately 30 separate permits. 3) capital costs based on Envirotech
Double Alkali S02 Scrubber System7 ($4.0 million per 100,000 cfm of
effluent processed).
Reference (7).
194
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 10.0
1. TRW Transportation and Environmental Operations, "The Development
of a Particulate Implementation Plan for The Los Angeles Region,"
Report #2, Emission Inventories and Projections, June 1974.
2. Air Pollution Control District, County of Los Angeles, "Profile of
Air Pollution Control," 1971.
3. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, "Air Pollution
Engineering Manual," Document AP-40, Environmental Protection
Agency, May 1973.
4. Personal communication with Los Angeles County Air Pollution
Control District.
5. Personal communication with Arthur D. Little Company, New York.
6. U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, "Control Techniques for
Particulate Air Pollutants.
7. Personal communication with Envirotech Emission Control Division,
San Mateo, California.
1951
-------
11.0 CHEMICAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Emissions produced by the chemical processing industry originate from
a wide variety of equipment categories such as resin kettles, varnish
cookers, sulfur scavenger plants, acid plants, detergent manufacturing
equipment, glass manufacturing plants, food processing plants,electroplat-
ing equipment, and others. The emissions arising from the use of this
equipment, and the air pollution control methods being utilized to manage
these emissions, are discussed in the following sections.
11.1 BASELINE EMISSIONS
The principal emissions arising from chemical processing activities
are particulates and SOp. The role of these emissions in total atmospheric
pollution of the Four County Area is shown in Table 11-1. In future years
the chemical industry is projected to be responsible for about 4% of all
particulate emissions, and only 2% of the S02 emission-,inventory. Emissions
of S02 are expected to be reduced dramatically by 1977 owing to the impact
of Rule 53.2 of the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District. Rule 53.2
will provide for reduction of S02 emissions from the vent gas of sulfur
recovery plants. S02 removal processes are presently being applied in
Los Angeles to reduce these emissions below 500 ppm.
TABLE 11-1. ROLE OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION OF FOUR-COUNTY AREA
Percentage of Emissions
in Four County Area
Year
1972
1977
1980
Particulates
4
4
4
SO?
22
2
2
Source: Reference (1)
The total emissions deriving from chemical processing operations is
tabulated in Table 11-2.
197
-------
TABLE 11-2. EMISSIONS FROM CHEMICAL PROCESSING
OPERATIONS IN FOUR-COUNTY AREA,
TONS/DAY
Year
1972
1977
1980
Parti culates
9.2
9.7
10.1
S02
97
10
10
NOX
.4
.5
.5
11.2 EMISSION CONTROLS
A detailed itemization of emission sources and emission control
equipment for particulate emissions of the chemical processing industry is
presented in Table 11-3. It is apparent that appreciable effort has al-
ready been invested to achieve a high rate of particulate collection
efficiency. Particulate control devices being used consist of mechanical
collectors, wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitaiors, filters, and
incinerators. Table 11-3 shows that the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control
District estimates that about 97% of all particulate emissions generated by
chemical processing operations are prevented from entering the atmosphere.
The principal source of S02 emissions from the chemical industry are
sulfur recovery plants which process the offstream acid gases at oil
refineries. The acid gases are processed by the recovery plants to obtain
sulfur and vent gases. Previously these vent gases were incinerated and
discharged through a stack to the atmosphere. The concentration of S02 in
these stack gases varied between 2000 and 20000 ppm. The S02 from the
stacks of these plants are now being controlled by new available technology
(see Section 3.2.2) to a stack discharge concentration of less than 500 ppm.
S02 removal processes have now been applied successfully to most recovery
plants in Los Angeles, but in some instances inadequate control systems were
initially installed, causing delays in the compliance schedule. Scheduled
equipment replacements or improvements will insure compliance before 1977.
11.3 ALTERNATIVE CONTROLS
The control equipment inventory of Table 11-3 illustrates the
substantial degree of control (reflecting the best available tech-
nology) which has been accomplished over particulate emissions from the
198
-------
chemical industry in Los Angeles County. It is presumed (in the
absence of suitable data for confirmation) that a similar level of
particulate emission control has been accomplished throughout the remainder
of the Four County Area, since the process emission regulations are fairly
consistent for the various counties. With respect to the emissions of S02
the newly adopted regulations for sulfur recovery plants are especially
stringent, requiring committment of oil refineries to utilization of ex-
pensive control equipment still in its infant stages of development. These
controls are to be implemented throughout Los Angeles County, which contains
all sulfur recovery plants within the Four County Area. Owing to the impact
of S02 and particulate regulations in the Four County Area, it would not
appear that significant additional emission reductions can presently be
achieved with reasonable available technology. Hence, no alternative
control measures have been identified for the chemical processing industry.
199
-------
TABLE 11-3. CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICULATE EMISSION SOURCES ASSOCIATED
WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY,
1972
Equipment & Operation
Plastic & Virus,
Extrusion
M H H
Plastic & Virus,
Rolling
H H H
Plastic & Virus,
Reaction
II • II M
II II II
Plastic & Virus,
Organic Add.
M H H
Plastic & Virus,
Baking
Plastic & Virus,
Coaling
Plastic & Virus,
Size Reduction
ii n H
Plastic & Virus,
Size Class.
Polyester, Garnet-
ting
n n
Polyester, Organic
Addition
Polyethylene Blending
" Conveying
" Packaging
Pellet-
Izing
Polystyrene, Extrusion
Pellet-
izlng
Polystyrene, Organic
Addition
Polystyrene, Size
Reduction
Polyvinyl acetate,
Reaction
Polyvinyl acetate
Organic Add.
Polyvinyl chloride,
Blending
n n
Polyvinyl chloride,
Conveying
Emission Control Utilized
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
None
Incineration Direct Flame
None
Dry Filter, Other
Scrubber
None
Direct Flame
None
None
None
Baghouse
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Scrubber
None
None
Dry Filter, Other
Incineration Flare
Floating Roof
Dry Inertial Separator
None
Baghouse
None
None
None
Baghouse
None
No.
of
Per-
mits
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
10
1
1
2
7
4
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
2
5
4
3
8
1
Partlculate
Emissions
Ib/day
Actual
.8
6
12
34
18
2.4
24
.9
15.8
8
.8
21.5
5.7
16.8
4
5.2
2.2
.8
1.2
.2
.2
2.4
2.4
7.2
8
.8
6.7
12.3
5.4
112
Preven-
tions
0
54
0
51
0
237.6
216
0
0
0
0
0
127.1
40.8
0
15.2
.2
0
0
2.2
239.8
237.6
237.6
0
792
0
0
0
45.8
0
'1
200
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED) CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICULATE EMISSION SOURCES
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Polyvlnyl chloride,
Conveying
Polyvlnyl chloride
Drying
ii H
Polyvlnyl chloHdd
Extrusion
Polyvlnyl chloride
Pellet1z1ng
Polyvinyl chloride
Size Reduction
Polyvinyl chloride
Storage other
ii H
Detergents Cleaners
Blending
ii H
Detergent Cleaners
Conveying
H H
Detergents Cleaners
Drying
H H
H H
H H
H n
Detergents Cleaners
Packaging
n n
M n
n H
Detergents Cleaners
Pelletizing
Detergents Cleaners
Reaction
n n
n n
Detergents Cleaners
Inorganic Addition
n ii
n n
n n
Detergents Cleaners
Size Reduction
Detergents Cleaners
Size Classification
Detergents Cleaners
Storage, Other
Emission Control Utilized
Dry Inertlal Separator
Direct Flame
Baghouse
n
Scrubber
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Dry Inertial Separator
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Dry Inertial Separator
Electrical Precipatator
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter Other
Baghouse
Scrubber
" Baghouse
None
Baghouse
n
Compres. & Condensation
Incineration, Direct Flame
Dry Filter, Other
Scrubber
n
n
None
No.
of
Per-
mits
1
1
4
1
1
1
13
3
1
12
13
11
4
2
1
1
4
2
1
2
1
1
8
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
19
Paniculate
Emissions
Ib/day
Actual
6.4
4
177.6
2
24
.6
102.2
72
2.9
42
101.2
108.5
27.2
10.3
24
260
832
1.4
.9
8
2
12
86.8
8.2
48.8
144
24
6
24
4
.8
3.1
Preven-
tions
87.6
0
8393
18
99.2
5.4
0
3528
54.7
318
0
1529.7
0
388.1
2376
15340
110519
0
8.1
792
18
1188
0
811.8
311.2
'1296
216
234
216
76
15.2
0
201
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED) CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICULATE EMISSION SOURCES
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Detergents Cleaners
Storage, Other
Dross Size Class.
Synthetic Fertilizer
Blending
H H
Synthetic Fertilizer
Conveying
Flux Blending
Foams, Plastic, Rubber
Blending
Foams, Plastic, Rubber
Packaging
Foams, Plastic, Rubber
Size Reduction
Polyurethane, Blending
n H
Polyurethane Organic
Addition
Rubber Synthetic Blend.
n ii n
n n ii
Rubber Synthetic Con-
veying
Rubber Synthetic Reac-
tion
n n n
Rubber Synthetic
Cooking
Rubber Synthetic
Size Reduction
n n
Sulfur Conveying
Oxidation
n n
Sulfur Size
Reduction
Sulfur Size Class.
Sulfurlc Add,
Adsorption
Sulfurlc Add,
Conveying
n n
n n
Sulfurlc Add
Reaction
Sulfurlc Add
Storage, Other
Emission Control Utilized
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Scrubber
Baghouse
None
n
n
n
n
Dry Filter, Baghouse
None
11
Dry Filter, Other
" " Baghouse
n n • H
Furnace or Boiler Firebox
Scrubber
n
None
Incineration D1r. Flame
None
Incineration Flame
Dry Filter, Baghouse
None
None
n
n
Furnace or Boiler Firebox
Scrubber
None
II
No.
of
Per-
mits
1
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
14
3
2
4
1
1
4
4
1
9
1
1
1
1
2
3
2
1
1
35
Parti cul ate
Emissions
Ib/day
Actual
8
24
22.9
20.7
44
1.5
2.4
2.3
8
.1
.8
8
408.2
31.2
8.4
60.8
12
120
24
6.8
.6
7.8
.2
24
8.4
.2
Preven-
tions
72
0
2263
870.3
436
0
0
0
79.2
0
0
520.8
279.6
1107.2
0
360
72
0
0
0
.8
0
0
.2
202
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED) CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICIPATE EMISSION SOURCES
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL "PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY., 1972
Equipment & Operation
Sulfuric Add
Storage, Other
Ethyl ene, Adsorption
Ethyl ene Separation
Organic Chemicals,
M1sc. Blending
Organic. Chemicals,
M1sc. Conveying
Organic Chemicals,
Misc. Drying
Organic Chemicals,
Misc. Reactions
Organic Chemicals,
Organic Addition
H M
Rubber Blending
" Extrusion
II II
Rubber, Size Class;
Plastic Curing
n M
Plastisol Curing
M n
Rubber Curing
Acid (organic)
Blending
Acid (organic)
Conveying
Acid (organic)
Oxidation
Acid (organic)
Storage, Other
Acid (inorganic)
Blending
n n
Acid (inorganic)
Storage, Other
n H
Acid (inorganic)
Treating
Adhesives, Blending
n n
Adhesives Organic
Addition
Alums Conveying
AmBorifam Sulfate,
Conveying
Ammonium Sulfate
Conveying
Emission Control Utilized
Scrubber
None
n
n
Baghouse
None
n
Direct Flame
Baghouse
11
None
Baghouse
Direct Flame
None
Incineration Dir. Flame
None
Scrubber
None
n
n
Adsorption
Scrubber
None
Scrubber
None
Adsorption
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter Baghouse
None
n
Baghouse
Scrubber
No.
of
Per-
mits
2
1
1
11
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
99
5
20
1
5
2
2
1
2
2
1
6
10
1
14
.7
1
1
1
1
Partlculate
Emissions
Ib/day
Actual
.4
1.0
3.4.
8
1
1.4
24
.7
.4
8.4
1.6
.1
.2
123.7
.2
69.7
1.8
0
1.4
16
2.4
.4
8
4
.1
39.1
59.9
2.5
16
1.6
2.4
Preven-
tions
7.2
0
0
0
99
0
0
0
2.6
18
2.9
2.9
1.4
0
1.4
0
8
0
0
0
0
.4
0
124
0
0
1242.1
0
0
158.4
216
203
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED)
CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTIOULATE EMISSION SOURCES
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS'IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY., 1972
Equipment & Operation
Boron Compounds, Pkg.
ii H H
Boron Compounds Storage,
Other
Carbon Black Activated
Conveying
H H H
Carbon Blk. Act. Drying
Dump.
Pkg.
Carbon Black Activated
Size Reduction
Carbon Black Activated
Size Classification
Chemical (Inorganic)
Blending
H H
H H
H H
Chem. (1norg.) Convey.
H n H
" Drying
n n n
Pkg.
n n n
" " Reaction
n n n
Chemical (Inorganic)
Inorganic Addition
Chemical (Inorganic)
Size Reduction
n n
Chemical (Inorganic)
Size Classification
n n
Coal Tar Flur1d1zat1on
Cosmetics, Blending
Detergents & Cleaners
Blending
n ii n
n n n
n n M
Pharmaceuticals, Blend.
n n
" Dry.
n n
" Reaction
" Size Reduct.
n n n
Emission Control Utilized
None
Dry Filter, Other
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Incineration D1r. Flame
Baghouse
n
n
ii
None
Dry Filter, Other
Baghouse
Scrubber
None
Baghouse
None
Scrubber
None
Scrubber
None
Scrubber
II
Dry Filter, Other
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Incineration D1r. Flame
Baghouse
None
Adsprptlon
Dry Filter, Other
Baghouse
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
None
Baghouse
Scrubber
Baghouse
Scrubber
No.
of
Per-
mits
2
1
1
5
1
1
1
2
2
1
11
1
3
1
10
4
2
1
1
1
5
2
2
1
4
1
1
1
20
17
1
2
12
11
1
7
1
1
9
1
Partlculate
Emissions
Ib/day
Actual
1.2
.8
192
43.6
2.4
.5
.2
2
4
.2
8.6
15.2
2.9
.2
82.7
67.2
245
13.5
27
4
50.5
4
.2
8.6
24
.4
14.4
14.1
19.5
.8
3
7.2
8.3
.2
.9
.2
.8
2.9
1.6
Preven-
tions
0
4
35808
0
237.6
4.3
23.8
3.6
68
8.8
0
136.8
33.9
1.8
0
3037
0
121.5
0
0
0
16
23.8
794
5.6
705.6
1279
0
.8
27
104.8
35.1
1.6
0
15.7
7.2
13.3
0
204
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED) CHARACTERIZATION OF. PARTICULATE EMISSION SOURCES'
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Phthalic anhydride,
Distillation
Phthalic Anhydride,
Refining
Phthalic Anhydride,
Oxidation
Phthalic. Anhydride,
Storage Other
Phosphoric acid, React.
11 Oxidat.
• Phosphates Blending
" Conveying
H ii
n n
" Drying
" Packaging
" Reaction
" Size Reduct.
" Storage, Other
Pigments, Blending
ii n
" Conveying
11 Drying
" Packaging
11 Size Reduct.
11 Stor. Other
Plastic & Resins Blend.
n n n n
n n n
n n n
11 " Convey.
II M II
II II II
II II II
" " Drying
Gypsum, Storage Other
Hydrocarbon Misc. Blendi
Hydrocarbon Misc. Con-
veying
Hydrocarbon Mi sec
Cracking Catalytic
Hydrocarbon Misc.
Storage, Other
Hydrocarbon Misc.
Treating
Hydrogen Manuf.
Reaction
Hydrogen sulfide
Distillation
Emission Control Utilized
Scrubber
Baghouse
Incineration, Dir. Flame
None
Mint Collector
None
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Other
" " Baghouse
Scrubber
None
None
Baghouse
n
None
Baghouse
None
n
11
n
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
Dry Inertial Separation
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Other
" " Baghouse
Dry Inertial Separation
None
None
n
M
Incineration Control Flare
Inciner. Furn. or Boil. Fire
box
None
n
n
No.
of
Per-
mits
1
1
1
0
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
10
1
1
1
2
8
1
23
8
2
2
4
1
5
1
3
1
4
51
2
1
3
1
7
Partlculate
Emission
Ib/day
Actual
.7
6
235.6
3.1
76.8
192
2.4
6
8.4
40
16
48
48
.1
48
18.1
.5
2
2
2.7
14.1
.3
42.1
153.2
24
2.3
24.5
7
52.4
31.2
5.6
7.2
12
537.6
2.4
Preven-
tions
143.3
594
9365
0
235.2
41.6
0
312
0
144
0
0
.7
0
0
149.5
0
0
0
0
59.7
0
211.6
72
20.3
0
0
1307.6
592.8
0
0
0
0
0
205
-------
TABLE 11-3 (CONTINUED)
CHARACTERIZATION OF PARTICIPATE EIBISSION SOURCES
ASSOCIATED WITH CHEMICAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN
LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 1972
Equipment & Operation
Hydrogen sulflde
Distillation
Hydrogen sulflde
Treating
Ink, Blending
Insecticides. Blend.
H it
n H
" Conveying
Pellet1z1ng
n n
" Reaction
Keton, Organic
Addition
Lead Oxide. Blending
n n n
" " Conveying
n M n
" " Packaging
n n , n
11 Oxidation
" " Inorganic
Addition
Lead Oxide, Size
Reduction
Lead Oxide, Size
Classification
Lead Oxide, Storage
Other
Halelc Anhydride
Storage Other
Napthenlc adds,
Conveying
Napthenlc Adds,
Separation
Perfume 4 Cologne
Blending
•
Emission Control Utilized
None
None
Scrubber
None
Dry Filter, Baghouse
Scrubber
Baghouse
11
Dry Inertlal Separator
Scrubber
Furnace or Boiler Firebox
Baghouse
Scrubber
None
Baghouse
None
Baghouse
H
n
None
Baghouse
n
None
H
Furnace or Boiler Firebox
None
Totals
No.
of
Per-
mits
2
6
1
5
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
3
5
4
16
1
4
3
1
1
2
4
5
2
2
3
Partlculate
Emission
Ib/day
Actual
2
9.2
4
4.8
.7
.6
.1
48
22
1.2
11.6
29
134.8
2.4
3.5
26.4
1.1
2
15.8
29.8
3.5
5
6665
Preven-
tions
6
0
36
92.7
6.5
17.4
63.9
432
0
24.8
92.4
0
2412.7
0
41.2
785.4
10.1
0
142.6
998.2
0
0
278919
Source: Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District Computer Emission
Inventory File.
206
------- |