States Region 4 EPA 904/9-78-026a
Environmental Protection 345 Courtland Street, NE November 1978
Agency Atlanta GA 30308
<&EPA Environmental Final
Impact Statement
Central Florida
Phosphate Industry
Volume i
Impacts of Proposed Action
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9M/9-78-026(A)
FINAL AREAWIDE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
CENTRAL FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
VOLUME I
U,S, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IV
ATLANTA, GEORGIA 3U308
APPROVED:
NOVEMBER. 1978
IONAL ADMINISTRATOR DATE
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FINAL AREAWIDE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
CENTRAL FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
VOLUME I
IMPACTS OF PROPOSED ACTION
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CONTENTS
SECTION
1 PUBLIC POLICY ISSUES AND REGULATORY AUTHORITIES 1.1
BEARING ON THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. PUBLIC POLICY 1.1
B. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 1.2
C. REGULATORY AUTHORITIES 1.3
2 PROPOSED ACTION 2.1
A. NEW SOURCES 2.1
1. Mining and Beneficiation Requirements 2.1
2. Chemical Processing Requirements 2.3
3. Additional Considerations 2.4
4. Relationship Between Areawide EIS and 2.5
Site Specific EIS
B. EXISTING SOURCES 2.5
1. Process Modifications 2.5
2. Operations and Maintenance 2.5
3 SUMMARY OF PRIMARY IMPACTS OF 3.1
THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. INTRODUCTION 3.1
B. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 3.1
1. Atmosphere 3.1
2. Land 3.3
3. Water 3.17
C. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT 3.32
•1. Land Use 3.32
2. Archeological, Cultural, Historical 3.35
and Recreational Sites
3. Demography, Economics, and 3.36
Cultural Resources
4. Resource Use 3.40
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CONTENTS (CONTD)
SECTION
4 SUMMARY OF SECONDARY IMPACTS 4.1
OF THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 4.1
1. Land 4.1
2. Water 4.2
B. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT 4.9
5 AVAILABLE MINIMIZING AND MITIGATIVE MEASURES FOR THE 5.1
UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. ATMOSPHERE 5.1
B. LAND 5.2
C. WATER 5.3
1. Spills 5.3
2. Dam Breaks 5.4
D. RECOMMENDED SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM 5.4
E. GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 5.5
6 SHORT-TERM USE VERSUS LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY 6.1
7 IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES 7.1
8 RESEARCH NEEDS 8.1
9 CITED REFERENCES 9.1
ill
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CONTENTS (CONTD)
ILLUSTRATIONS
4.1 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, 4.3
September 1985, under Scenario 2.15
4.2 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, 4.4
September 1985, under Scenario 2.11'
4.3 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, 4.5
September 2000, under the "Without Action Alternative
4.4 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, 4.7
September 2000, under Scenario 2.11'
TABLES
3.1 Threatened and Endangered Vertebrates That May 3.13
Be Affected by Proposed Action
3.2 Commercial and Recreational Species That May Be 3.13
Affected by Proposed Action
3.3 Radium-226 Concentrations in Ground Water in 3.25
Mined Regions of Central Florida
3.4 Radium-226 in Ground Water in Unmined Mineralized 3.26
and Nonmineralized Regions of Central Florida
3.5 Displacement Areas, 1985 and 2000 of Without 3.34
Action Alternative
3.6 Disturbed Archeological and Historical Sites 3.36
3.7 Projected Economic Impact of Central Florida -3.39
Phosphate Industry from Domestic Mining Only on
Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
3.8 Phosphate Rock Production Forecast 3.42
for Scenarios 2.15, 2.11, and 2.11'
3.39 Phosphate Balance Sheet (Proportions of Recovered 3.43
and Waste Products) for Study Area
4.1 Projected Economic Impact of Phosphate Industry 4.10
on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
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SECTION 1
PUBLIC POLICY ISSUES AND REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
BEARING ON THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. PUBLIC POLICY
There has been a growing and substantial public concern regarding
the development of phosphate resources in central Florida and the impact
that development might have on the state and its citizenry. In a series
of discussions, the President's Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) -
together with officials of the Departments of the Interior and Agriculture,
Environmental Protection Agency, and the Corps of Engineers - solicited from
representatives of the state, local governments, and the phosphate industry
their various views 'and concerns. On the basis of these meetings and other
discussions with the federal agencies, it was learned that there is and will
continue to be considerable direct federal involvement in the activities of
the phosphate industry in central Florida. Most if not all of these federal
actions will have potentially significant environmental impacts in the
area not only in the counties in which phosphate mining will take place
but also in adjacent jurisdictions outside the mining areas.
It was concluded that the most useful and manageable way to analyze
the cumulative, interrelated impacts of the present and proposed phosphate de-
velopment in central Florida is through a comprehensive regional environmental
assessment and impact statement that relies primarily on existing information
and studies regarding development of phosphate resources.
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B. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Because of the substantial public interest, the Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) was developed with continuous public participation,
which greatly exceeded requirements for EIS preparation. Public meetings were
held at the initiation, during, and near the end of the development of the
EIS so the public would be apprised of information development and the EIS
developers could obtain input regarding special areas of public interest.
Also, the public was informed of progress through 11 newsletters mailed to
more than 300 citizens and interest groups. During development of the DEIS,
working papers on each of 12 tasks and some of the more important subtasks
were prepared and sent to repositories in Bartow, Bradenton, Lakeland, and
Tampa where they, were available for review by interested citizens.
As an adjunct to public participation and preparation of the working
papers, an advisory committee representative of local government, the Southwest
Florida Water Management District, the industry, and environmentalists was
formed to receive each of the working papers for review and comment. The mem-
bers held seven meetings during development of the EIS.
An interagency Steering Committee representative of eight federal
agencies and the state of Florida also was formed for the primary purposes of
providing major policy decisions during development of the DEIS and assisting
interagency coordination.
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C. REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), 16 USC 4321
et seq., implemented by Executive Order 11514 of March 5, 1970, and the Council
on Environmental Quality's (CEQ's) guidelines of August 1, 1973, requires that
all federal agencies prepare detailed Environmental Impact Statements on pro-
posals for legislation and other major federal actions significantly affecting
the quality of the human environment. The objective of NEPA is to build into
agency decision-making an appropriate and careful consideration of all environ-
mental aspects of proposed actions, explanation of potential environmental
effects of proposed actions and their alternatives for public understanding,
avoidance or minimization of adverse effects of proposed actions,
and restoration or enhancement of environmental quality.
Section 511(c)(l) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as
amended (FWPCA) (PL 92-500) requires that NEPA apply to the issuance of a
permit under 402 of FWPCA for the discharge of any pollutant by a new source
as defined in 306 of FWPCA. Proposed regulations for applying NEPA to the
issuance of new-source National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permits were published in the Federal Register on October 9, 1975, Part VI.
Issuance of EPA NPDES new-source permits for new-source mining and processing
in the study area was delayed during the preparation of the environmental
impact statement. Existing mining and processing have continued, however, and
generally should not be affected by the issuance or non-issuance of new-source
N,PDES permits.
These EPA regulations provide for the preparation of an EIS, in
which a number of actions that will occur in a limited time span and in the
same general geographic area are taken.
If a proposed phosphate mining operation involves placement of fill
or discharge of dredged material in any of the following, .a Department of the
Army permit' is required:
* Streams that have flows of 5 cubic feet per second or
more or wetlands that are adjacent to such streams.
(Wetlands are defined as areas in which periodic
inundation occurs. They are characterized by vegetation
that requires saturated soil for growth and reproduction.)
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• Natural lakes that are 5 acres or larger
• Artificial lakes formed from impounding waterways
that have flows of 5 cubic feet per second or more
• Coastal areas and their adjacent and contiguous
wetlands
Authority for the Department of the Army program to regulate placement of fill
and discharge of dredged material in waterways or wetlands is contained in Sec-
tion 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972.
The district engineer also may exercise his discretionary authority
and assert jurisdiction over waterways that have flows of less than 5 cubic feet
per second and any wetlands (including perched wetlands) if such action is war-
ranted because of water quality considerations.
In instances in which phosphate mining affects the course, location,
condition, or capacity of navigable waters of the United States (defined as
waterways used by commerce in the past or present or could reasonably be used
by commerce in the future or waterways whose navigation has been improved with
federal funds), a Department of the Army permit under Section 10 of the River
and Harbor Act of 1899 would be required. All areas subject to the ebb and
flow of the tides are considered navigable waters of the United States.
Though almost all phosphate reserves lands in west central Florida
are privately owned,another authority that may be utilized governs phosphate
deposits on public-domain lands and those reserved to the U.S. in patented
lands, all of which are leased under the authority of the Mineral Leasing Act
of 1920, 30 USC, Section 181 et. seq. Phosphate deposits on acquired lands are
leased under the Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Lands of 1947, 30 USC, Section
351-359. Rules and regulations necessary to carry out the provisions of both
acts are prescribed by the Secretary of the Interior and administered by the
Bureau of Land Management.
The authority of the Secretary of the Interior pertaining to phos-
phate leasing is contained in 43 CFR, Group 3500 (Leasing of Minerals Other
Than Oil and Gas). Regulation 43 CFR, Part 23, protects nonmineral resources
during operations for discovery and development of minerals under permits and
1.4
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leases issued under the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920. A technical examination
of prospective surface exploration and mining operations must be made. On the
basis of this examination, special stipulations to assure protection of non-
mineral resources and the environment are incorporated into the permit or lease,
On lands administered by agencies other than the Department of the Interior,
the administering agency must be contacted for its recommendations.
1.5
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SECTION 2
PROPOSED ACTION
The following is a scenario of phosphate development which was
determined to be as compatible as practicable with other desired and intended
land uses in Central Florida. This scenario was developed with the under-
standing that all local, regional, state, and federal requirements existing
at the time of this EIS would also be met.
A. NEW SOURCES
1. Mining and Beneficiation Requirements
• Eliminate the rock-drying process at beneficiation plants and
transport wet (6 to 20 percent moisture) rock to chemical
plants.
Only rock to be utilized in triple superphosphate, elemental
phosphorus, defluorinated rock feed, or other fertilizer pro-
cesses requiring dry rock would be dried - and this would be
at the chemical processing complex or at dryers permitted by
DER prior to publication of the DEIS. A possible exception on
a case-by-case basis could be made for rock to be shipped out-
side of Florida for chemical processing; if the energy for trans-
porting the moisture were greater than the energy saved by
eliminating drying, drying at the beneficiation plant would be
considered if air quality (including radiation) could be
adequately protected.
• Meet State of Florida and local effluent limitations for any
discharges.
• Eliminate conventional aboveground slime-disposal areas.
The mining and reclamation plan for new-source mines should
establish a method whereby the slimes (or slimes/tailings
mixture) would be used for reclamation or some other purpose.
The need for an initial aboveground storage area is recognized -
as is the need for small retaining dikes around certain areas
reclaimed with a slimes/tailings mixture. If the percentage of
waste clay at a mine exceeds the proportionate amount that can
be utilized, the incremental amounts beyond that which can be
handled by new slime-dewatering methods may be placed in a
holding pond for reclamation after adequate settling.
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• Meet Southwest Florida Water Management District consumptive-
use permit requirements.
• Provide storage that allows recirculation of water recovered
from slimes.
Storage capacity is to be determined during the pending DRI
and/or the site-specific EIS based on local hydrologic char-
acteristics. The designed storage capacity should allow for
capture of 100 percent of water recovered from slimes for reuse.
• Use connector wells.
Such wells offer an economical means of dewatering the shallow
ground water from the water-table aquifer before mining, while
replenishing a portion of the water pumped from the Floridan
aquifer for the purposes of transportation and beneficiation.
Mining plans for new-source mines can continue to utilize this
method of dewatering - but only with the following precaution-
ary measures: maximum utilization of water obtained from de-
watering; monitoring by both industry and regulatory agencies
to assure that the drained water meets recommended drinking-
water criteria chemically, bacteriologically, and radiologi-
cally at all times; and assurance that wells will be adequately
cemented and grouted before being abandoned.
• Address proposed regulations regarding radiation levels to >be
published by EPA and projected by mining and reclamation plans
for new-source mines based on test borings of material to be
encountered. The DRI and/or site-specific EIS should also de-
velop a reclamation plan that considers radiation of spoil ma-
terial and reduces as much as possible the amount of radionu-
clide-bearing material left within 3-4 feet of the surface.
• Meet county and state reclamation requirements and include in
the DRI and/or site-specific EIS an inventory of types of wild-
life habitat in the area to be mined and the area immediately
surrounding it.
, The mining and reclamation plan will take into account the pro-
tection and restoration of habitat so selected species of wild-
life will be adequately protected during mining and reclamation.
• Protect or restore wetlands under the jurisdiction of the Corps
of Engineers, Section 404, Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
pursuant to 404(b) Guidelines (40 CFR 230).
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Three categories of wetlands are to be established in the Mining/
Reclamation Plan for New Source Mines for regulation. Category 1,
which are to be protected, includes wetlands within and contiguous
to rivers and streams having an average annual flow exceeding 5
cubic feet per second as well as other specific wetlands determined
to serve essential environmental functions, including water quality.
(These are wetlands that provide an essential synergistic support to
the ecosystem and that would have an unacceptable adverse impact if
they were altered, modified, or destroyed.) This generally includes
cypress swamps, swamp forests, wet prairies, and certain freshwater
marshes. Category 2 includes wetlands that should be restored as
wetlands to perform useful wetland .functions. This also includes
certain isolated noncategory wetlands that serve a primary function
or several minor functions that may be maintained through proper
restoration. Category 3 includes wetlands that would not have to
be restored as wetlands. These are isolated and normally inter-
mittent in nature, have less significant hydrological functions
than Category 2, and minimal life-support value.
• Make efforts to preserve archeological or historical sites
through avoidance or mitigate by salvage excavation performed
by a professionally competent agency any sites deemed significant
by the Florida Division of Archives, History, and Records
Management. If mitigation is chosen, the resulting report should
be submitted to that state agency for examination and comment.
2. Chemical Processing Requirements
• Meet federal air quality new-source performance standards and
design surge capacity in the EPA Standards of_ Performance for
New Sources for process water systems.
• Line gyp ponds with an impervious material unless it can be dem-
onstrated in the site-specific EIS that such lining is unneces-
sary in protecting ground water from chemical and radiological
contamination.
• Recirculate process and non-process water. The non-process system
should have the same design surge capacity as required in the
Standards of Performance for New Sources for process water systems.
• Provide for recovery of fluorine compounds from phosphoric-acid
evaporators unless it is determined at the time of permit appli-
cation that market conditions are such that the cost of operation
(not including amortization of initial capital cost) of the re-
covery process exceeds the market value of the product. If there
is an exception, the site-specific EIS is to contain an estimate
of pond-water fluoride concentrations to be attained and levels
of fluorine emission. Estimated fluorine emissions from new-
source gyp ponds should not cause the plant complex to exceed the
total allowable point-source fluorine emissions within the plant
complex if a permit is to be issued.
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• Encourage recovery of uranium based on economic feasibility data
to be included in the site-specific EIS.
3. Additional Considerations
The allowable concentrations for treated effluents do not reflect
the need for water quality protection in the Tampa Bay and Peace River Basins
nor the capability of 2-stage liming and clarification systems currently in
existence in central Florida. The following is a list of the concentrations
allowed in the EPA Standards of Performance for New Sources and a recommenda-
tion for effluent concentrations on which treatment systems designed for new-
source chemical plants should be based:
Recommended Maximum Concentrations EPA Standards of Performance
24-Hr Max. 30-Day Avg
105 mg/1 35 mg/1
75 mg/1 25 mg/1
24-Hr Max.
P 30 mg/1
F 30 mg/1
TSS 60 mg/1
Ra 226 9 pCi/1
pH 6.0-9.5
30-Day Avg
10 mg/1
10 mg/1
20 mg/1
4 pCi/1
6.0-9.5
Design of treatment systems for new-source chemical plants should
reflect the latest available technology at the time the design is initiated.
The levels recommended reflect available technology in 1978, which will pro-
bably change before design of a new-source chemical plant is initiated.
In addition, the nonprocess water system is to be designed for re-
circulation with the same design surge capacity as the contaminated process
water system. Maximum concentrations for discharges during such rainfall
events are to be the same as those for the treated contaminated process water
discharges. Continuous discharge of cooling tower and boiler blowdown and other
low-volume noncontaminated streams may be allowed if the water cannot be dis-
charged to a mining circuit.
The limitations do not preempt EPA National Effluent Guidelines but
are based on protection of water quality in Tampa Bay and Peace River Basin.
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Site specific plans by applicants for new source chemical plants
are to provide for retiring gypsum disposal and/or process water recirculation
ponds. These plans will establish a means for neutralizing and/or insolubulizing
chemical and radiological contaminants remaining in the pond at the date of
retirement, and to prevent these contaminants from entering the atmosphere,
surface water, or groundwater at any future time.
4. Relationship Between Areawide EIS and Site Specific EIS's
The purpose of an areawide or generic EIS is to examine areawide
tand cumulative short and long term effects of the continued expansion of
(in this case) the phosphate industry. The selected scenario' incorporates
alternatives and mitigative measures to make the proposed expansion as compatible
as possible with other desired and intended land uses. Thus, the Areawide EIS
establishes a basis for initiating site specific EIS's for new source mining
and chemical processing operations. Each site specific EIS will develop a
mining and reclamation plan based on Areawide EIS recommendations, and examine
effects of the site specific mining and reclamation plan. If the mining and
reclamation plan deviates from Areawide EIS recommendations, then justification
has to be provided, including a detailed examination of short and long term
areawide and cumulative effects of the deviation.
B. EXISTING SOURCES
The EPA, under the rules established for administering the FWPCA
as ammended in 1972, has no direct legal authority to change requirements
for existing sources, but the following are recommendations resulting from
evaluation of information developed during environmental assessment of the
alternative scenarios.
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1. Process Modifications
It is recommended that existing operations modify processes and
control equipment to meet all air emission and water discharge requirements
listed for new sources by 1983.
2. Operations and Maintenance
Increased vegetative fluoride levels from 1972 until mid-1977
demonstrates the need -for a continuous regulatory program of in-plant inspec-
tions, source sampling, and ambient monitoring to assure that the industry
continuously operates and maintains pollution-control equipment.
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SECTION 3
SUMMARY OF PRIMARY IMPACTS OF
THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. INTRODUCTION
The proposed action represents a combination of the alternative
scenario ("Permit Existing and New Sources") as modified by parts of Scenarios
2.12 ("Use Process Modification") and 2.14 ("Control Activities in U.S. Waters
and Wetlands") as described in Volume II of this FEIS. This allows continued
operation of the industry identified as "already permitted" as well as the
permitting of new mines (Figure 3.1).
B. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Atmosphere
The proposed action will have little impact on the air quality in
the study area. Sulfur dioxide (SO,,) and dust emissions in Polk County because
of drying, grinding, and transportation will decrease as mines in that county
are depleted and new mines are opened elsewhere. Other nonphosphate industry
sources, however, will offset the decreases. The new mines will ship Wet
rock, thus preventing the migration of an estimated 1140 metric (1250 shdrt)
tons per year of dust and 7090 metric (7800 short) tons per year of SO-
emissions from dryers in Polk County into adjoining areas. The emissions from
existing rock drying will decrease as the dryers are phased out.
Though plans could be revised, the projection of impacts was based
on the assumption that no new chemical plants would be built. Consequently,
fluorine emissions will not increase. If a new source chemical plant were
permitted, it would be required to reduce pond water fluorine concentrations so
that New Source Performance Standards are met for the entire plant complex,
including the pond.
To simulate the proposed action it has been assumed that the
chemical processing part of the phosphate industry will continue to operate
at 1976 levels, supplementing domestic rock with imports as the existing
mines become depleted. Because of the installation of air pollution control
devices during 1976-77, there has been a reduction of industrial emissions
independent of any scenario projections; this is most evident in the case of
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S09 emissions from fulfuric acid plants in Polk and Hillsborough counties.
Changes in the emission inventory due to the restraints of this scenario
will appear as reductions in dust as mining and drying activities decline.
Sulfur dioxide emissions caused by fuel burning in the dryers will also
decline as imports replace locally processed rock. Since imports will
supplant exports, it is estimated that the dust generated at seaports by
movement of phosphate rock and refined products will remain at the same level.
Although the ambient S0_ levels in Polk County will be reduced since no other
source categories are predicted to increase enough to totally offset the
decreases at the phosphate plants, the county's particulate levels (and both
SO and particulates in all other counties in the study area) is projected
to show a slight rise because of increases by nonphosphate sources.
Adding new mines to replace existing capacity will tend to keep
constant the phosphate industry's areawide pollutant load on the atmosphere
after 1977. Some of the emissions associated with mining, drying, and trans-
porting will shift slightly south as these activities move into Manatee,
Hardee, and DeSoto counties. Air emissions created by sources other than
the phosphate industry will dominate the inventory in Hillsborough, Manatee,
and DeSoto counties so that any changes in air quality will be difficult to
associate with the phosphate industry. Sulfur dioxide levels in Polk County
should slightly decrease as some of the rock dryers are phased out. Hardee
County will exhibit an increase in air pollution due to the industry move into
Hardee. Sarasota and Charlotte counties should not be materially affected by
air emissions from the phosphate industry.
The emission inventory for the proposed action is that listed for
Scenario 2.11 in Volume II. Changes from the "Without Action" inventory will
be primarily in mining, storage/transportation, and drying, reflecting the
movement of these activities from Polk County into Hillsborough, Manatee,
Hardee, and DeSoto counties.
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2. Land
a. Physical Environment
1) Unique Physical Features
In terms of potential impact of actions by the phosphate industry,
the karst structures in the Hawthorn limestone underlying the phosphate ore
zone of the area are of interest. The primary effects on these features
are expected to be collapse or high-volume drainage caused by excessive sur-
face loading and increased hydrologic head created by abovegrade storage of
clay slimes and waste gypsum. The amount or distribution of the waste-gypsum
stacks for this scenario are not expected to differ from those for the "Without
Action" alternative, so interest is focused on the new clay-slime impoundments
forecast under this scenario; it is estimated that an additional 3561 hectares
(9900 acres) will be committed to slime impoundments from 1977 through 1985 and
an additional 11,858 hectares (29,300 acres) from 1977 through 2000. Under
Scenario 2.11' ("Industry's Projections"), additional areas committed to slime
ponds are expected to approximate 3561 hectares (8800 acres) in the short
term and 20, 883 hectares (51,600 acres) in long term.
Because the precise locations of karst features underlying the pro-
posed additional mines and detailed information regarding lines of weakness are
not known, the character of the limestone underlying proposed temporary slime-
storage areas should be investigated on a site-specific basis to assess the
precise potential for impact.
The natural physical features of the study area include the sand
terraces, geologic ridges (e.g., the Lake Wales ridge), solution cavities
(sinkholes) and partings of the surface and subsurface, and other minor features
typical of flat, low-lying terrain. Of these, the slime ponds and gypsum stacks
do not affect the ridges per se, they potentially effect sinkhole development
and collapse. Large clay-slime storage impoundments and stacking of waste
gypsum load the surface, leading to high volume drainage into groundwater aquifers
with the attendant potential for contamination of those groundwaters. Also,
these storage and stacking practices may cause collapse of solution cavities.
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2) Soil
The 7-county study area has approximately 453,264 hectares
(1.12 x 10 acres) of mapped soil association containing soil types rated
high in their potential to produce truck crops or citrus, which represents
approximately 28 percnet of the study area. Under the proposed action,
destructio'n of approximately 6625 hectares (16,370 acres) of these soil
associations is forecast for 1977 - 1985 and 12,906 hectares (31,890 acres)
for 1977 - 2000. These figures represent 1.5 and 2.8 percent, respectively,
of the total high-potential associations in the study area and, compared
with the "Without Action" scenario, an increase in the destruction of high-
potential soils (relative to the total area) of 0.4 percent (1.1 versus
1.5 percent) for the near term and 0.9 percent (1.9 versus 2.8 percent) for
the long term. Based on these percentages, the impact of this scenario on
the destruction of high-potential soils, compared with the "Without Action"
alternative, is considered insignificant. The percentage changes (the
proposed action "Without Action") relative to the total area are 0.4 percent
(1.1 versus 1.5 percent) and 1.4 percent (1.9 versus 3.3 percent) for the
respective time periods.
The phosphate industry activity that primarily affects soil is
mining: it destroys soil in terms of its original identification character-
istics. Under the proposed action, it is estimated that more than 4850
hectares (12,000 acres) of soil associations rated as potentially well suited
for agriculture will be disrupted by mining from 1977 through 1985, and more
than 8500 hectares (21,000 acres) from 1977 through 2000. Once reclamation
replaces the soil materials, however, new soils will develop that may be better
suited for certain agricultural purposes such as pasture, because of improved
moisture-holding capacity and permeability and the absence of underlying clay
pans.
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3) Exposure
The Proposed Action assumes that an additional seven mines will be in
operation through 2000, representing an increase of 41 percent numerically over
the "Without Action" alternative. Mining plans for six of these imply signifi-
cant knowledge of the geologic section in the areas, and it is assumed that
information from prospect drilling is available also for the seventh location.
Thus, the additional information that mining (excavating) would provide by
exposing the geologic section is expected to be insignificant.
In contrast to these mines, which are in some stage of permitting,
the results of a land use questionnaire sent to phosphate companies having
interests in central Florida showed a total of 19 mines would be in operation
between now and the year 2000, in addition to the 18 already in operation.
In this extreme extension of the proposed action, (the "industry view"), 12 new
mines (excluding one scavenger operation) are forecast in addition to those
simulated under Scenario 2.11 (see Volume II); all are expected to come on line
between 1985 and 2000. Compared to the "Without Action" scenario, the "industry
view" represents an increase of 112 percent numerically in lands affected.
Geological section information needed to prepare for these additional mines
will constitute a significant, though unquantifiable, addition to current
knowledge, especially in terms of phosphate reserves and resources for these
areas.
Industry activities that result in information about the geologic
section, including its stratigraphy and geochemistry, are a positive impact.
Principal among the activities are drilling and excavation. Under this
scenario, these activities will continue through 1985, but will essentially
cease by the year 2000.
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4) Topography
Land excavation, material and waste storage, and the earthern struc-
tures associated with these activities impart primary effects on topography.
Land excavation predominates. The proposed action, compared with the "Without
Action" alternative, is expected to add 7160 mined hectares (17,600 acres) from
1977 through 1985 and 23,810 hectares (58,500 acres) from 1977 through 2000,
representing an increase of 35.8 and 72.6 percent, respectively. However,
comparing area increases to the total study area (an estimated 1.6 x 10
hectares [4.0 x 10 acres]), the differences are 0.4 and 1.5 percent for the
respective time periods. Because of these low net percentage changes, this
scenario's impact on topography is considered insignificant in both the short
and long terms. Under the "industry view" the net percentage changes would
be 0.4 and 2.6 percent respectively.
Topographical effects (changes in natural surface contours) will
be caused primarily by excavations to remove phosphate ore. Estimates of the
surface area to be mined under this scenario are 19,870 hectares (49,100 acres)
from 1977 through 1985 and 32,619 hectares (80,600 acres) from 1977 through
2000. However, reclamation will restore these lands to nearly their original
contours.
5) Radiation
Under the proposed action radiation levels at the chemical processing
plants should remain constant through the year 2000 because of the continued
use of locally mined phosphate ore and the constant level of throughput that
is forecast. Therefore, industry effects on radiation are keyed to activities
at the mining sites. Mining and reclamation increase radiation levels above
background. The magnitude has been estimated on the basis of radium-226
radioactivity concentrations in surface materials expected to exist at various
stages for a hypothetical mining unit. Based on the conversion factor that an
individual will be exposed to 1.85 microroentgens per hour of gamma radiation
for each picocurie per gram of radium-226 radioactivity concentration of a
surface, the maximum annual dose equivalent for continuous occupancy in the
mining pit (an absurd situation) would be less than the guide for the general
3.6
-------
population. Occupational guidelines state that employees should not receive
a whole-body exposure (external exposure from gamma radiation) of more than 5
rem (5000 millirem) per year or lung exposure (inhaling airborne radionuclides
in the form of dust) of more than 15 rem (15,000 millirem) per year. Guide-
lines for the general population are one-tenth of these values. To date, no
activity of the phosphate industry has been proved to cause a radiation dose
to the general population in excess of the guideline. Furthermore, when
industry average time-weighted values are used, it is anticipated that no
phosphate workers will receive doses of radiation exceeding the guideline
established for the general population.
Based on the preceding, the impact on the general population and on
phosphate workers by the increase in gamma radiation resulting from the fore-
casted increase in mining activity under the proposed action through the year
2000 would be insignificant compared with the "Without Action" condition.
Since no construction of chemical processing plants or rock dryers
is forecast under the proposed action, both the short-term (1977 - 1985) and
long-term (1977 - 2000) effects of ongoing industry activity on background
radiation will be essentially concentrated in areas scheduled for mining
during each of the periods. Exceptions would include the continued accumu-
lation of waste products at the chemical processing plants, continued trans-
portation of mine and processing-plant products, and ongoing construction
of dams, levees, and drainage-control systems. The effects of radium-226
radioactivity concentrations in materials associated with industry activities
were estimated on the basis of disturbance of surface materials (thus,
radium-226 concentrations) resulting from industry activities. Since
mining exposes bedclays and residue matrix material in areas where the
surface was previously native soil, the potential is to increase the "surface"
radium-226 radioactivity concentration from 1.5 picocuries per gram to
approximately 50 picocuries per gram. This adverse effect is offset somewhat
by backfiling the mining cuts with waste sand tailings (7.5 picocuries per
gram) and overburden (10 picocuries per gram, excluding leach-zone material).
Areas of cuts dedicated to waste clay-slime impoundments are expected to
exhibit very low background radiation while the slime particles (45 picocuries
3.7
-------
per gram) are covered with decant waters (1-2 picocuries per liter); however,
as these areas dewater, background radium-226 concentrations in the surface
material should approach the level given for slime particles. Thus, back-
ground radiation in reclaimed mined areas will be higher than it was prior
to mining unless original surface material is saved to top-dress both the
reclaimed slime ponds and the lands containing the waste sands and overburden.
Radiation at chemical processing plants should remain essentially at current
levels until imported phosphate rock is needed to maintain production levels;
then, background radiation should decrease with increased replacement of local
rock by imported rock.
Localized increases in radiation levels may result from implementation
of uranium recovery plants (modules). The levels associated with this process
should be well within guidelines for radiation workers and, with the imple-
mentation of prudent protection measures, well within guidelines established
for the general population.
Reduction in radiation levels will occur as dry-rock grinding is
replaced with wet-rock grinding and dryers are eliminated. This will lower
fugitive dust levels, thus lowering escaping radionuclides, and also result in
lower radiation levels in the immediate vicinity of the grinders and the
eliminated dryers. Based on data gathered at a Polk County dryer that was
processing Polk County phosphate rock (USEPA 1977), emissions of 64.5 tons
Q
per year of particulates contained 24.5 x 10 picocuries per year of radium-226;
the maximum potential lung dose outside the plant proper (i.e., 400 meters
from the dryer) was 48 millirems per year.
6) Noise
Increased mining activities under the proposed action will increase
ambient noise levels in the immediate vicinity of operating engines or
machinery (e.g., bulldozers, draglines, and washing/beneficiation plants).
These increases will not impact the general population, and employees may be
readily protected from these noises.
3.8
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Phosphate mining does not create noise levels high enough to repre-
sent an undesirable effect on area population not associated directly with the
industry, but ambient noise levels increase locally during mining and reclama-
tion, especially in-the immediate vicinity of bulldozers and draglines that are
in operation. However, operations personnel can be easily protected from noise
through administrative or engineering controls or the use of protective equip-
ment, and noise levels will consistently decline with the phase-out of mining.
7) Miscellaneous
Lining waste-gypsum stacks and cooling-water ponds at new chemical
processing plants is expected to reduce seepage into the underlying strata.
Because of the neutralizing characteristics of the underlying carbonate
materials and the impervious clay beds that predominate in the area, such
impacts will be localized. The potential impacts due to seepage and/or
collapse will be determined in site specific studies.
Process modification dealing with the reduction of slime-pond
area will have a significant localized effect on topography. When current
slime ponds are reclaimed with conventional natural dewatering techniques,
the result is a final topographic surface that is considerably different in
both contour and elevation from that existing prior to mining; generally, the
final surface is flat-lying and elevated over the original surface. Applying
the sand/clay slime-mix technique to eliminate slime ponds will result in a
final surface that closely approximates the original surface in both contour
and elevation. However, because of the small area involved in slime ponds
relative to the total study area, the impact on the topographical relief is not
highly significant over the entire study area. Locally, impacts of such a
change in clay-slime disposal methods would be significant.
Reducing slime-pond extent will have a positive effect on the area's
unique physical features because of the significantly reduced potential for
collapse of karst features, although (according to Kaufmann and Bliss 1977),
sinkhole (karst) collapse and similar acute incidents are uncommon or at least
not well documented in regulatory-agency files.
3.9
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b. Biological Environment
Mining has five major effects on uplands/wetlands biota:
• Certain existing plant communities are permanently
displaced.
• As much as 30 percent of mined uplands/wetlands
habitat becomes aquatic habitat.
« Habitat quality of unmined as well as mined land
is degraded.
a Diversity is diminished.
• Local populations of many important species are
reduced.
By the year 2000, approximately 21,052 hectares (52,000 acres) of
uplands habitat will be mined in currently permitted areas. In the 7-county area,
forest types are considered the most important uplands habitat. Estimates of
evergreen forests are considered reliable, but it is impossible to estimate pres-
ent or future areawide extents of either mixed or deciduous forests because of
the paucity of data of appropriate detail. Some rather large parcels in pro-
jected mining areas are documented in land-use data presented by various phos-
phate companies in Developments of Regional Impact (DRIs) - and they probably
are present in areas currently being mined. None of the forest types can be
restored to their native condition on mined land. The deep sand soils neces-
sary for mixed forests are irreversibly altered; the loss of an underlying or-
ganic hardpan precludes the reestablishment of typical pine flatwoods; and the
configuration as well as the species composition of hammocks is destroyed, al-
though postmining soils, if allowed to revegetate naturally, will support simi-
lar communities. The 4850 hectares (12,000 acres) of forest to be mined by the
year 2000 represents more than one-half the areawide loss of the type by that
year.
Less important but still unreclaimable in its native condition is
mined rangeland, the extent of which is 6680 hectares (16,500 acres) in the
study area. The 8660 hectares (21,400 acres) of agricultural areas to be
mined can be considered temporary displacement, since reclamation is producing
improved pasture primarily with smaller extents of plantations and parklands.
3.10
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More than 2990 hectares (7400 acres) of freshwater wetlands habitat
within currently permitted mining areas will be destroyed by 1985 and another
approximately 2140 hectares (5300 acres) by the year 2000. This is a small
(3 percent) but important portion of areawide wetlands extent. There is no
indication that wetlands of any kind can be restored on mined land. Not only
are the low-relief topography and attendant drainage patterns of wetlands dif-
ficult to restore, but the deep, water-logged soils of many wetlands can be
neither restructured nor feasibly conserved.
That the quality of terrestrial habitat generally reclaimed in mined
areas is inferior is readily apparent when comparing wildlife usage of managed
systems (pasture, cropland, plantation, and parkland) with that of essentially
natural systems (dry prairie, forest). Mining and subsequent reclamation are
producing a more uniform habitat, reducing diversity of community structure in
the region. The number of plants and animals in an area is directly related to
the number of vegetation types (landscape-pattern diversity): as landscape-
pattern diversity increases, so does floral and faunal diversity. The habitat
types that are declining in the regional landscape are those of greatest variety
of interactions among components (expanded food webs) and biological controls
that tend to preserve an equilibrium. They can be maintained at no cost to man.
To maintain agricultural habitat types as such (and particularly monocultures,
which are the least diverse communities), it is necessary to use external con-
trols such as pesticides, fertilizers, and, most pertinent to the concerns of
the region, irrigation.
The same factors that affect the habitat quality of uplands also af-
fect the habitat quality of adjacent and nearby wetlands that are not mined.
Both plants and animals may be stressed by noise, dust, emissions (sulfur di-
oxide, suspended particulates), moisture loss, and erosion - and animals par-
ticularly may be stressed by fragmentation of habitat. Although control de-
vices apparently maintain ambient levels of emissions and minor contaminants
within acceptable state and federal air quality levels, the emissions stan-
dards and other standards do not enhance habitat quality or ensure optimum
conditions; habitat is allowed to degrade to the tolerance limits of both in-
dustry and the environment. Habitat fragmentation will have lasting effects,
3.11
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likely reducing the carrying capacity of the remaining habitat for wide-ranging
herbivores (e.g., deer) and carnivores (e.g., bobcat).
The effects of erosion and moisture loss may be greater in shallow
wetlands than in uplands habitat. Mining into the shallow aquifer decreases
the amount of soil mositure or standing water in adjacent habitat within 1000
feet for 3 to 6 months, and wetlands vegetation damage is possible, particu-
l^rly during the wet season. Although erosion of mined land may be largely
contained on the site, sediment load in streams increases and downstream wet-
lands receive part of the load, increasing turbidity and sedimentation.
Mining is likely to affect 12 threatened and endangered vertebrates
and may affect six others (see Table 3.1). Adverse effects, if any, on two
species, the Osprey and Caracara, likely will be short term, and the Osprey
particularly may benefit in the long term. Two species, the Least Tern and
Peregrine Falcon, both primarily coastal species, may be attracted to the
mining areas; however, this is an outside possibility for the very rare falcon,
which was last seen in the study area 3 years ago. Habitat loss is the primary
l^hreat posed by mining except in the case of the Wood Stork; this species
utilizes suitable feeding sites on land to be mined but apparently does not
breed on this land. Food supply of the Florida panther and Florida black
bea,r also will be diminished, if indeed they do range over lands to be.mined.
Commercial and recreational species will be variously affected by
mining. The hunting potential for most waterfowl will increase because of the
creation of lake and pond habitat by mining (Table 3.2), but that of the other
waterfowl species closely associated with woodlands and marshes will diminish.
However, waterfowl comprise less than 10 percent of Florida's game bag; hunter
0ffort is directed primarily (approximately 75 percent) toward only five spe-
qies - deer, squirrel, dove, quail, and wild hog. The recreational potential
of hunting quail and squirrel, which often occur on lands other than in man-
agement areas, will be reduced. Deer and wild hog habitat will be reduced,: but
the hunting potential probably will not be affected for these species since they
are most often hunted in wildlife management areas. The potential for hunting
the Mourning Dove (often on private land) is expected to remain steady. The
3.12
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t
3
£
£
t-
1
I
1 Be
/ Affected
Si
!
Adverse Effects
Marginal and
Short-Tera
Fauna
Florida Gopher Frog
Gopher Tortoise
Sand Sklnk
Eastern Indigo Snake
Short-tailed Snake
Wood Stork
Florida Scrub Jay
Florida Sandhill Crane
Bald Eagle
Florida Mouse
Sherman's Fox Squirrel
Southeastern American
Kestrel
Blue-tailed Mole Sklnk
Short-tailed Hawk
Ivory-billed Woodpecker
Florida Panther
Florida Black Bear
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
Osprey
Caracara
Habitat (primary and
Major Threat secondary 1f applicable)
Habitat loss Sandhills
Sand pine scrub
(gopher tortoise dens)
Habitat loss Sandhills
Pine flatwoods
Habitat loss Sand pine scrub
Sandhills
Habitat loss P1ne flatwoods
Other forests and prairies
(gopher tortoise dens)
Habitat loss Sandhills
Sand pine scrub, pine
flatwoods
Food availability Wetlands
Habitat loss Sandhills, sand pine scrub
Habitat loss Prairies
Old fields, low pastures,
pine flatwoods
Habitat loss Riparian
Habitat loss Sand pine scrub
Other forests
Habitat loss P1ne flatwoods
Other forests
Habitat loss Pine flatwoods
Apparently restricted to Lake Wales Ridge
Presence 1n study area Infrequent
Probably extinct
Presence 1n mining areas doubtful
Range 1n Florida
Parks of panhandle and penlnusla
Most of pandandle and peninsula
Marlon County south to Highlands
Most of state
Peninsula north of DeSoto County
Wide; colonies local
Middle of peninsula
Most of peninsula; local 1n north
Wide
Northern two-thirds of peninsula
Northern two-thirds of peninsula
Statewide except southern tip
County
Florida
Presence 1n mining areas doubtful
Nearest sightings somewhat east of mining areas 1n Polk, Hardee, and DeSoto counties;
habitat restrictive
Presence In old mining areas frequent; will utilize modified habitats
Presence 1n mining areas Infrequent; will utilize modified habitats
'Determined by USDI and FGFWFC,
Table 3.1. Threatened and Endangered Vertebrates That May
Be Affected by Proposed Action
Common Name
Canada Goose
Mallard
Black Duck
Mottled Duck
Pintail
Gadwall
American Wlgeon
Northern Shovel er
Blue-winged Teal
Green-winged Teal
Wood Duck
Redhead
Ring-necked Duck
Canvasback
Lesser Scaup
Bufflehead
Ruddy Duck
Hooded Merganser
Red-breasted Merganser
American Coot
*L - light
M - moderate
H - heavy
Reclaimed
Lakes
L*
L
L
L
L
L
L
L ~
L
L
L
L
H
L
M
M
L
M
Shallow Ponds
and Shallow
Mining Pits
M*
L
M
M
L
L
H
M
L
M
L
M
M
Other
Water Bodies
L
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
L
M
L
M
M
L
H
Streams
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
M
L
L
L
Forested
Wetlands
L
M
L
L
L
L
L
L
H
L
H
L
Non-forested
Wetlands
M
M
• H*
M
M
H
M
M
M
M
L
M
M
Table 3.2. Commercial and Recreational Species That May
Be Affected by Proposed Action
3.13
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region's overall abundance of game will not be significantly affected, but con-
tinued habitat loss eventually will eliminate certain species from the game
list and degrade the quality of hunting.
Mining will adversely affect more than one-half of approximately 75
ecologically significant species in the 7-county region. Most of these are
closely associated with various natural or little-modified habitats, including
wetlands and natural ponds and lakes that have gently sloped sides and wide
littoral zones rather than the steep sides and narrow littoral zones of re-
claimed lakes and ponds.
Mining activities will increase the potential of several species to
reach population levels of nuisance or pest proportions. Mammal pests will
proliferate around work areas and expanded urban areas. Bird pests will be-
come more abundant in similar areas as well as on reclaimed pastures and crop-
lands. Insect pests will proliferate around cattle, in areas devoted to mono-
culture, and in the nutrient-rich reclaimed lakes.
Process modifications included in the proposed action will not sig-
nificantly change the impact on terrestrial biota from that resulting Scenario
2.11 described in Volume II of this FEIS. Minimizing rock-drying may eliminate
or reduce possible fluoride uptake by nearby flora, particularly in the new mining
area. Reducing fluoride emissions from gyp ponds may slow the rate of accumulation
of fluoride in susceptible flora near the processing plants.
Since process modifications apply only to new sources, slime dis-
posal and management at existing sources will continue to be a problem (though,
if properly managed could become substitutes for category 2 wetlands) through
the remainder of this century (Figure 3.2). Minimal impact has been assigned
to slime placement, since the ponds temporarily support a variety of wildlife
and since terrestrial habitat eventually will develop or be reclaimed in the
slime areas. Even now, the time lag in developing terrestrial habitat can be
reduced in some areas by using the flocculation method of dewatering - but whether
this or the proposed sand-clay method is advantageous from the standpoint of
terrestrial biota is questionable. Neither the present, fairly immediate use
(within approximately 6 years after final deposition of slime) of the land for
3.14
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light agriculture nor the more immediate availability (within 2 years after
deposition) for similar purposes in the future is preferable from the standpoint
of wildlife production and natural revegetation. Several abandoned slime areas
are now used as wildlife sanctuaries. Also not necessarily advantageous is the
elimination of the relief of slime-pond embankments; actually, vegetational
zonation associated with the slopes is more desirable for terrestrial biota.
Naturally revegetated slime areas that have been partially leveled and shaped
are still more desirable than pasture reclamation as wildlife habitat.
Additional standing waterbodies created by reservoirs for storage of
water recovered from slimes would displace terrestrial habitat. The effects
on terrestrial biota would be similar to those associated with mining pits.
Since there is no estimate of the areal extent of the necessary containments,
quantitative impact cannot be judged; however, the extent is expected to be
minimal compared with that of mining pits. Reduced usage of ground water
(the result of using the water received from slimes) will have no effect on
terrestrial biota. Any groundwater change that may affect terrestrial biota
will occur during mining into the shallow aquifer.
The assessment associated with mining wetlands was determined, as
with other habitat types, by considering the importance of the habitat and
the feasibility of its restoration. The worst-case assessment is consistent
with other findings, including an EPA-sponsored study (Darnell 1976), which
concluded that loss of wetland habitat is the most important impact of con-
struction activity.
Mining in wetlands, mixed forest, and deciduous forests, because of
their importance to surrounding ecosystems and their uniqueness, is considered
worst-cast. Approximately 6 percent (10,850 hectares, or 26,800 acres) of the
present areawide wetlands extent will be mined by the year 2000. Although un-
realistic projections of future areawide wetlands extent preclude estimating
areawide change attributable to mining, there are indications that greatest de-
pletion will occur in the mining area. The loss of only several hundred acres
of mixed and deciduous forest types (sandhills, sand pine scrub, and hammocks)
3.15
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will severely deplete the unknown but undoubtedly limited extent of these im-
portant habitats.
By 2000, mining will account for 62 percent of the projected 7 per-
cent areawide loss of forest (primarily evergreen), 62 percent of the projected
4 percent areawide loss of rangeland, and 85 percent of the projected 7 percent
loss of pasture and cropland. The severe impact of mining in pine flatwoods is
tempered by the projected remaining areawide extent of the type, as well as by
the fact that unmined, unmanaged rangelands possibly could succeed to pine for-
est. The level of impact associated with mining rangeland will depend on the
amount of true dry prairie included - apparently, there is little. The impact
of mining pasture and cropland is considered to be negligible. Of the 55,789
hectares (137,800 acres) of uplands/wetlands habitat to be mined by 2000, as
much as 16,599 hectares (41,000 acres) will be permanently displaced by water.
As wildlife habitat, waterbodies created during reclamation are, like terrestrial
habitat, generally Inferior to those that could develop naturally were the mining
areas merely abandoned.
The impact of noise, dust, and gaseous and particulate emissions on
the biota of the region is largely unquantifiable, as is the impact of surface-
and groundwater changes and erosion. Of prime concern are the effects that
the alteration of water regime and sedimentation will have on the remaining
wetlands; these are not addressed to the extent of similar effects on water-
bodies. Although most effects pertinent to habitat quality are claimed to
be temporary and not of sufficient magnitude to prevent recovery, long-term
effects (e.g., reduced carrying capacity) that preclude complete recovery are
quite possible.
Since phosphate mining will account for most of the expected areawide
change in land use by the year 2000, it will account also for most of the change
In community structure. Particularly will the modified habitat types replacing
forests and wetlands support a smaller variety of biota and be considerably less
productive in terms of life support. Mining will expand within or into the five
3.16
-------
counties that are already most highly modified by urbanization , industrializa-
tion, and agriculture (Polk, Manatee, Hillsborough, Hardee, and DeSoto). There
will be an increase in the proportion of managed systems that require expendi-
ture of energy to natural systems that do not. The regional carrying capacity,
which is the ability of the regional environment to sustain particular levels of
activity, may be stressed.
The greatest impact on threatened and endangered species that likely
will be affected by mining will come primarily from loss of uplands forested
habitat. Actual or potential impacts that are considered worst-case involve
.ithe Florida mouse, short-tailed snake, sand skink, and Florida Scrub Jay be-
cause of their endemic status, limited distribution in the study area and state,
and restricted habitat (scrub). Impacts on the Florida gopher frog and South-
eastern American Kestrel could be severe: the widespread but local kestrel
could be eliminated from the region if major concentrations within or near the
mining areas were substantially reduced. Six other species - the gopher tor-
toise, eastern indigo snake, Sherman's fox squirrel, Wood Stork, Florida Sand-
hill Crane, and Southern Bald Eagle - are expected to be moderately to sub-
stantially impacted. Mining will directly reduce populations of some of these
species and, coupled with reclamation, will limit opportunities for all of them.
They generally are widespread in the study area and equally or more abundant in
areas not affected by mining.
Loss of forests (and in this case, particularly wetlands) will have
the greatest impact on ecologically significant species. Some of the water-
oriented species may utilize shallow mining pits and vegetated slime ponds,
but these habitats are displaced during reclamation. Permanent population de-
clines are expected among most of the affected species.
The impact on the hunting and trapping potential of commercial and
recreational species is considered minimal, as is the impact of increased abun-
dances of nuisance and pest species. There is intense management in both of
these categories, and increased costs of management undoubtedly will accompany
changes in land use. The impacts could be greater than minimal, but a more ac-
curate assessment is difficult without cost estimates.
3.17
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In view of the fact that freshwater wetlands restoration has not
been demonstrated and seems infeasible on a large scale within a reasonable
time, the only practical approach to analyzing impacts of this part of the
proposed action is to assume prohibition of mining or development of facilities
in waters of the U.S. and wetlands. In order to apply importance criteria
for regulatory purposes, wetlands must first be differentiated from other
waterbodies and from each other as well. Water relationships, vegetation,
and soil types are among the factors that would b'e included in wetlands
definitions. In general, a water regime that includes alternating inundation
and water release of various periodicities hydrologically distinguishes
wetlands from waterbodies, although shallow submerged lands often are included
as wetlands. As indicated previously, the national wetlands delineations and
inventory currently underway withing the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service should
be helpful in determining wetlands types and areal extent. It is anticipated
that the wetlands inventory within the study area will be completed by early 1979.
Designating wetlands as protected areas would eliminate the worst-
case impact associated with mining them and would lessen impacts on important
species. If wetlands are allowed to be mined on the uncertain basis of restor-
ing equivalent habitat for important species, the impact assessment for terres-
trial biota remains the same as described for Scenario 2.11 in Volume II of this
FEIS.
Determination of wetlands to be protected and wetlands to be restored
to perform useful functions will of necessity be made on a site specific basis.
3. Water
a. Quantity
A digital computer model (Wilson 1977) that was prepared, evaluated,
and calibrated by personnel of the U.S. Geological Survey office in Tampa in
cooperation with the Southwest Florida Water Management District was used in
assessing the effects on the Floridan aquifer of phosphate industry activities.
3.18
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The model is a first attempt to simulate the complexity of the interrelation-
ships of all the essential elements of the ground-water system in the Central
Florida Phosphate Mining District. Therefore, the results should be considered
as preliminary and subject to revision. The USGS is continuing the task of
improving the reliability of the model. These first model predictions are
represented as approximate and are used only to estimate the effects of
future groundwater pumpage by the phosphate mining industry on the potentio-
metric surface of the Floridan aquifer. Effects of the changes in total
pumpage by the three major users of ground water (i.e., municipalities,
agriculture, and other industry) are not predicted. Therefore, the partial
effects on the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer in 1985 and 2000
caused by changes in pumpage at phosphate mines exclusively cannot be compared
with the effects of combined groundwater withdrawal changes by municipalities,
agriculture, and other industry. This inability to compare effects is a dis-
tinct disadvantage in the effects assessment.
The digital 2-dimensional groundwater flow model simulates the hy-
draulic characteristics of the Floridan aquifer and its connection with the
water-table aquifer through the overlying confining beds. (More detailed in-
formation is available in the USGS open-file report [Wilson 1977] from which
this description is summarized.) The major assumptions upon which the design
and operation of the model are based are as follows:
• Water in the Floridan aquifer moves in a single-layer
isotropic medium.
• Water moves vertically into or out of the Floridan
aquifer through the upper confining beds; no leakage
occurs through the lower confining bed.
• The head in the water-table aquifer does not change
with time or in response to any imposed stress.
The area within the model boundaries is approximately 5854 square
miles. A grid divides the area into nodal blocks ranging from 2x2 miles to
8x2 miles and 6x6 miles. Each nodal area is identified by a row and col-
umn types: a constant-flow boundary and a constant-hear boundary. For the
steady-state model calibration, a no-flow boundary was used.
3.19
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The model incorporates two types of parameters: time-dependent and
time-independent. The input and output parameters, which include pumpage (P)
and/or recharge (R) and predicted changes in the potentiometric surfaces, are
time-dependent. The other parameters, which include transmissivity (T), stor-
age coefficient (S), and leakance coefficient (K'/b'), are time-independent.
The input parameter, or pumpage, consists of groundwater withdrawals for phos-
phate mining, chemical plants, other self-supplied industries, agriculture,
and municipalities. The input parameter, or recharge, is the amount of water
that enters the Floridan aquifer from the overlying water-table aquifer. ,The
amount of recharge depends on the leakance and the head difference (Ah) between
the potentiometric surface and the water table.
The model can simulate either dynamic (transient) conditions or
steady-state conditions in the hydrologic system. Under steady-state condi-
tions, the model simulates essentially a static water budget; in the transient
state, it simulates a dynamic water budget.
The present model was calibrated under steady-state conditions. The
entire groundwater system was assumed to be more or less in equilibrium (steady-
state) at the end of September and the beginning of October 1975; at that time,
there was apparent balance between pumpage, recharge, and observed altitudes of
the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer. It was assumed for the
steady-state condition that in the September-October period no ground water was
pumped for agricultural use.
The objective of the model calibration was to simulate as closely as
possible the observed potentiometric surface in September 1975. During the
calibration of the model, several adjustments were made in the various param-
eters.
Comparison of the observed and simulated potentiometric surfaces
showed a similar pattern generally in the configuration of the potentiometric
surfaces, but locally there were some major differences between the two. For
example, the simulated altitudes of the potentiometric surface in the western
half of Manatee and northern Sarasota counties were significantly lower than
the observed altitudes in the same area. This was true also for the south-
western part of Polk County. The steady-state model appeared to overestimate
3.20
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the drawdowns in these areas, which could have been the result of the following
factors: actual pumpage less than that entered in the model; leakance co-
efficients less than actual ones; transmissivity values less than actual ones;
and possible proximity to the model boundaries. Magnitude and configuration
of predicted water-level changes depend on the magnitude, duration, and areal
distribution of pumpage, transmissivity, storage coefficient, leakance coef-
ficient, and boundary conditions, The reliability of the predicted water-level
changes is only as accurate as the validity of the least reliable parameter.
The calibration process is, in a way, a reliability assessment.
Evaluation of results was difficult because only the calibration re-
sults of the steady-state model and not the transient-state model were avail-
able. However, the predicted water-level changes were a result of transient-
state model simulations.
The validity of each parameter was evaluated. The areal distribution
and magnitude of the model parameters appeared to be not much different from
those that might have been expected in reality, although some values of the
leakance coefficient appeared to be on the low side. The magnitude and areal
distribution of the transmissivity values were of major concern, especially
the value of 80,000 square feet per day in the southwestern part of the study
area. In reality, it seems reasonable to expect that the transmissivity should
increase from north to south and from east to west. The author of the refer-
enced report on modeling (Wilson 1977) was contacted and indicated that the
transmissivity distribution produced a. fair match during the calibration pro-
cess. In addition, he considered and tried other transmissivity values more
along the lines suggested above but did not get a good match. The USGS is con-
tinuing to work on the calibration and will try other transmissivity values and
distributions.
In summary before citing the primary effects, it can be said that the
assessment is really one of trends in the water-level changes in 1985 and 2000
for "without action" and Scenario 2.11 alternatives. The numbers quoted are
relative approximations and should not be interpreted as absolute results.
3.21
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The primary effects of groundwater withdrawals as described in Sce-
nario 2.15 are expressed as a change in the potentiometric surface of the
Floridan aquifer between September 1975 and September 1985 and between Septem-
ber 1975 and September 2000. Total pumpage for existing mines and chemical
plants was 309,000,000 gallons per day in 1975 and is projected to be 142,000,000
gallons per day in 1985, representing a decline of more than 50 percent. Ground-
water pumpage for existing mines is expected to decline to 6,000,000 gallons per
day in the year 2000, with chemical-plant pumpage remaining constant throughout
the period. It was assumed in examining the effects of the "without action1'
alternative that pumpage by agriculture and municipalities will be at the same
level in 1985 and in 2000 as it was in 1975. The actual water-level changes
can be quite different if the projected increase or decrease in agricultural
and municipal pumpage is simulated in the model runs.
According to model results, the potentiometric surface of the
Floridan aquifer will generally recover in 1985. The greatest rise (approxi-
mately 10 feet) will be in Polk County just west of Fort Meade. The 5-foot
contour line indicates a recovery over a larger area between Bartow, Mulberry,
Agricola, and Bowling Green. The 1-foot rise in the potentiometric surface
will be in the southwestern part of Polk County, extending south of Lakeland,
southwest of Winter Haven, north of Wauchula, east of Keys Field, and west of
Bradley Junction. The no-change line runs approximately in a north-south
direction, just east of the Hardee-Manatee county line and then swings north-
westerly into Hillsborough County. The only decline predicted by the model
was a 1-foot decline in the Fort Lonesome area. In general, the model
showed no changes in the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer in the
study area except in southwestern Polk County and southeastern Hillsborough
County.
By the year 2000, nearly the whole study area will experience a rise
in the potentiometric surface. The greatest rise, about 30 feet between 1975
and 2000, will be centered in an area northwest of Fort Meade in southwestern
Polk County, extending southwesterly into Manatee and Sarasota counties. The
model predicted a 1-foot rise in the potentiometric surface southwesterly as
far as the center of Sarasota County in the Lake Myakka area and also in the
western part of Manatee County.
3.22
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To simulate "worst-case," the "industry view" was used in the USGS
model; thus an extension across more mines than under the proposed action.
The model predicted water-level changes in 1985 and 2000 with respect to the
September 1975 potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer. These water-
level changes will also affect the hydrologic system by increasing induced
recharge from the water table to the Floridan aquifer, for example, and
possibly causing subsequent reductions in streamflow. There will also be an
economic effect: a rise in level will reduce pumping costs; a decline will
increase pumping costs. A change in the potentiometric surface in the coastal
zone might also affect the movement of the saltwater/freshwater interface in
that area.
The water-level change for 1985 indicates an approximate 1-foot rise
in the potentiometric surface in the Bartow area and a decline of about 10 feet
in the Four Corners area. This pattern of decline is quite likely, since phos-
phate mining activities are expected to shift from southwestern Polk County in
a south-southwesterly direction toward Manatee and Hardee counties. Not only
will there be a 10-foot decline in the Four Courners area but also in small areas
near Myakka Head, Bowling Green, and Ona. A 5-foot decline will extend from
southeastern Hillsborough County through the middle and western parts of Manatee
County into and across the middle of Hardee County and the southern half of Polk
County. A 1-foot decline will parallel most of the coast in Hillsborough,
Manatee, and Sarasota counties, extending as far south as Port Charlotte.
Thus, the effect of proposed and existing phosphate mining generally will be
over the whole Central Florida Phosphate District, a decline ranging from 1
and 10 feet compared with the September 1974 potentiometric surface level.
The water-level change for the year 2000 indicates an approximate
20-foot rise in the potentiometric surface in southwestern Polk County rela-
tive to the September 1975 levels. This rise will occur in an area south of
Bartow. The rise is explained by the fact that a large number of present phos-
phate mines in the area will be phased out by the year 2000 and that the major
mining will shift in a southerly and southwesterly direction into western
Manatee County, middle and southern Hardee County, and northern DeSoto County.
This movement will be reflected by a decline of approximately 10 feet in western
Manatee County and eastern Hardee County. Additionally, two small 10-foot declines
are predicted near Ona and Sandy. Comparing 1985 and 2000, it is interesting that
3.23
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the predicted 1-foot decline in the potentiometric surface is still at the
same location (i.e., along the coast in Hillsborough, Manatee, and Sarasota
counties) despite the increase of phosphate mining.
Again, it should be emphasized that the water-level changes reflect
only the changes in activities of the phosphate industry. The results might
be quite different if pumpage changes caused by municipalities and agriculture
were entered into the model.
In summary, it appears that th@ worst-case effect under Scenario
2.11 would be a drawdown of approximately 10 faet (relative to 1975 levels)
in western Manatee County by the year 2000.
b. Quality
1) Radiological
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977) summarized the radium-226 radioactivity
concentrations in the waters of the water-table and the upper and lower Floridan
aquifers in the mined regions of central Florida (Table 3.3) using two data
sets - one developed by the USEPA and the other by the USGS. The mean concen-
tration of radium-226 radioactivity in the water-table waters of mined areas
was given as 0.55 plcocuries per liter; for the upper Floridan, 1.61 picocuries
per liter; and for the lower Floridan, 1.86 picocuries per liter. The authors
state that lower Floridan waters outside the mineralized area can have higher
concentrations than those in mineralized areas, apparently because of natural
processes unrelated to mining, and that existing water-table radium data indi-
cate no significant difference between mined and unmined regions within the
area of mineralization. However, ground water has been and pyobablv will con-
tinue to be locally contaminated. Specific areas of concern include the large
slime impoundments, the waste-gypsum stacks, and the large process-water cool-
ing ponds. For comparison, Table 3.4 presents radium-226 radioactivity con-
centrations in ground waters of central Florida's mineralized but mined areas
and nonmineralized areas.
3.24
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Table 3.3. Radium-226 Concentrations in Ground Water
in Mined Regions of Central Florida*
Picocuries per Liter
Aquifer
EPA
USGS
Water Table
Upper Floridan
Lower Floridan
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
4
2.8
1.65
2.0-5.3
No data
6
1'86 **
1.33
1.3-3.5
12
°'55
3.3
0.20-4.40
10
1.61 ++
2.0
0.16-6.0
7
4.49
6.51
0.14-14.0
*Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
**Author-preferred data
Note: Drinking water standard, 5 picocuries per liter
combined radium-226 and radium-228.
Industry wastewater effluents at the chemical processing plants con-
tain soluble radium-226, but, according to Mills et al (1977):
"To prepare process water for discharge to the environment, the pH
must be increased from 1.5-2.0 to 6-9. To accomplish this, slaked
lime is normally added to the discharge water in a step called
'double liming.' Our studies have shown that this treatment is
highly effective in removing radionuclides from the effluent. Ra-
dium-226 reduction of greater than 96 percent was observed in all
situations studied. Similar reductions in uranium and thorium
were also observed."
3.25
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Table 3.4. Radlum-226 in Ground Water in Unmined Mineralized
and Nonmineralized Regions of Central Florida*
Region
•o
c
•rl
p
f.
•a
N
•H
i— 1
(fl
0)
C
•H
13
-------
In terms of radium-226 radioactivity concentrations, effluents (pri-
marily slime decant waters) at the mines have been shown to be below drinking-
water standards (in most cases less than 2 picocuries per liter). The interim
effluent guide proposed by the EPA (USEPA 1974) for the phosphate industry
(phosphate chemical and fertilizer manufacturing) in terms of radium-226 is 9
picocuries per liter. However, efforts to achieve total recirculation of plant
and mine waters are ongoing within the phosphate industry.
2) Other Parameters
The primary effects on water quality because of phosphate industry
activities under this scenario are:
• Combined loadings of chemical pollutional
parameters (especially phosphates, fluorides,
and total suspended solids) from discharges
of nonprocess and process wastewaters to
various stream segments
• Local surface-water deterioration from clear-
ing, burning, construction, reclamation, slime
spills, and seepage from contaminated ponds
• Local water-table quality deterioration because
of draining and dewatering, overburden, product
storage, seepage from contaminated ponds, and
reclamation of mining pits
Effects on water quality under the conditions of this scenario will
be significantly different from those under the "Without Action" alternative
in terms of the technological demand elements of slime placement, processing-
water use/recycle in regard to fluoride effluents, and processing-waste place-
ment in regard to radiation from gyp stacks.
Reducing slime-pond areas above surface would minimize the additional
concern under Scenario 2.11 in regard to slime-pond dike breaks. In relation
to the "Without Action" alternative, then, the effect of this modification in
regard to surface-water pollution would be negligible.
3.27
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Following the water quality versus streamflow trends discussed
earlier, the loss of slime-pond decant water to the average streamflow will
tend to lower the quality of water in affected streams during periods of low
flow, but the influence of the proposed action should have little effect on
water quality during periods of high runoff due to rainfall.
No projections are made on water quality effects for New Source
Chemical Plants, because none are expected in the proposed action. However, in
the event development does not follow projections, and application is made for
a New Source Chemical Plant, the proposed action requires more stringent
limitations than EPA New Source Performance Standards to protect water quality
in the affected basins.
c. Aquatic Biota
1) Areas Affected by Phosphate Industry Activities
Over the short term (1977-85), phosphate mining is expected to
occur principally in southwestern Polk County and southeastern Hillsborough
County. Aquatic habitat likely to be affected includes the upper portion of
the Peace River; the upper reaches of Payne and Little Payne creeks; Horse
Creek; McCollough Creek; and the north and south prongs of the Alafia River.
Riparian wetlands along portions of the Peace River and the north and south
prongs of the Alafia also are expected to be disturbed, as are numerous small
standing water-bodies and wet .depressions characteristic of the region. Over
the long term (1985-2000), mining activities will be essentially limited to
the same general areas described for short-term activities and will continue
to affect the water-bodies disucssed. Additionally, mining activities will
expand into the upper portion of the Little Manatee River basin and farther
down the Peace River in the vicinity of Bowlegs Creek.
Reducing wetland disturbance will result in a net positive benefit
to local aquatic biota. The habitat disturbance and displacement of the
American alligator will be reduced, as will disturbances of communities of
standing water and running water often associated with wetlands.
3.28
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2) Threatened and Endangered Species
Of the 13 aquatic species endangered, threatened, rare, or of special
concern, only the American alligator (threatened; USDI), Suwanee cooter (threat-
ened; FGFWFC, FCREPA), and manatee (endangered; USDI) might potentially be af-
fected by phosphate industry activities in the study area. Land preparation
and mining (particularly in the riparian wetlands bordering the Peace River
and the north and south prongs of the Alafia River) will cause some loss of
habitat and displace the American alligator but likely will have no adverse
impact on the area's alligator population. These local disturbances could be
offset by reclamation of gently sloped, shallow waterbodies that would be ap-
propriate habitat for the alligator. Over the long term, mining's alteration
of surface runoff patterns and creation of numerous impoundments during recla-
mation will alter the Peace and Alafia flow regimes, but the alterations will
be of small magnitude and are expected to have only very minor effects on the
Suwanee cooter and manatee through a potentially altered distribution of food
plants.
Slime placement poses a potential for the most significant adverse
impact on rare and endangered aquatic species of the study area. Because of
the long time interval required for reclaiming slime ponds, increasing mining
activity represents increasing potential for adverse impact through spills re-
sulting from dam failure and human error. A major spill would have substantial
adverse effects on the American alligator, the Suwanee cooter (Alafia River
only), and the manatee by disrupting the food chain. Although the immediate
effects of such a spill are severe, the impact is reversible because stream
ecosystems generally recover in 2 to 5 years (based on the spill's magnitude).
3) Species of Commercial and/or Recreational Importance
Direct effects will be limited principally to freshwater communities.
Freshwater species of recreational and/or commercial value within the study area
include largemouth bass, channel catfish, bream (bluegill and other sunfishes),
and blue tilapia. Short-term effects generally will be local and the result of
land preparation and excavation, which alter habitat quality by changing local
3.29
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runoff patterns and increasing turbidity and siltation due to erosion. However,
the areas affected would be small and only lightly utilized for recreational or
commercial purposes.
A significant potential beneficial effect on freshwater sport
and commercial fisheries will be the increased acreages of surface water
resulting from reclamation of mining pits. This additional surface water
represents significant potential for establishing good commercial and
recreational fisheries. If this potential is to be fulfilled, however,
present reclamation must be latered to include lakes and ponds with wide
littoral zones and other areas (e.g., "marshy" islands) that would increase
habitat diversity and support a viable sport fishery. The steep-sides,
relatively deep lakes now predominating are of little long-term value;
they quickly become degraded and/or eutrophic.
Placement and containment of large amounts of slime resulting from
mining activities is a growing threat to recreational and commercial species
of the study area. A major spill could devastate a river-based fishery for
several years and, depending on location and magnitude, have significant ad-
verse impact on estuarine fish and shellfish of recreational and commercial
importance. Also, the economically important estuarine fisheries are sus-
ceptible to the long-term effects of flow-regime modification through altera-
tion of drainage patterns and creation of impoundments.
4) Nuisance and Pest Species
Categories of aquatic nuisance and pest species that are expected to
be affected by phosphate industry activities in the study area include exotic
hydrophytes (hydrilla, water hyacinth, etc.), algae (principally filamentous
green and bluegreen forms), midges and mosquitos, Asiatic clams, native nuisance
fishes (bowfin, gar, gizzard shad, etc.), and exotic fishes (walking catfish,
blue tilapia). Draining and dewatering low, wet areas, thus eliminating breed-
ing areas for midges and mosquitos, will have a positive effect but will be
more than offset by the industry's creation of additional surface water.
3.30
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5) Standing-Water Communities
The standing-water, or "lentic," aquatic communities of the study
area comprise natural and man-made lakes and impoundments, ponds, pits, and
seasonally wet depressions. Except for some interconnection of lowland wet
areas, the standing-water communities represent rather discrete ecosystems.
Thus, the effects of phosphate industry activities on standing-water communi-
ties, unlike those on flowing-water communities, are highly localized.
The amount of standing-water communities expected to be directly
affected under the proposed action is relatively small and involves no major
lakes, ponds, or impoundments. The samll ones will be affected principally
through alteration of runoff patterns and increased siltation of cleared
areas because of erosion. Also, there may be direct disruption due to land
preparation and excavation. Perhaps the most important consideration will
be the creation of new standing-water habitat. It has been projected that
approximately 7280 hectares (18,000 acres) of mined land will be reclaimed
to lakes between 1977 and 1985; by the year 2000, this area will be approxi-
mately 11,490 hectares (28,400 acres). This area, if properly reclaimed and
managed, represents a considerable increase in resource potential for fresh-
water sport and commercial fishing.
6) Running-Water Communities
Of the three basic aquatic community types described for the study
area, the running-water communities (streams and rivers) will experience the
greatest effects from phosphate industry activities. Under the Proposed Action,
approximately 14,130 hectares (34,900 acres) of land will be mined by 1985 in
the upper Peace River Basin, approximately 120 hectares (300 acres) in the
Little Manatee River Basin, and 5830 hectares (14,440 acres) in the Alafia
River Basin. By 2000, disturbed surface acreage will increase to approximately
31,000 hectares (76,600 acres): i.e., 19,500 hectares (48,300 acres), 1417
hectares (3500 acres), and 10,000 hectares (24,800 acres), respectively. This
3.31
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magnitude of activity will measurably affect runoff patterns and flow regimes
of headwater streams within the three river basins and, to a lesser degree,
flow regimes of the Peace, Alafia, and Little Manatee rivers. Local alterations
of the flow regimes of these three major rivers will be minor and obscured
in normal flow variations.
Another important factor affecting the flow regimes of streams in the
study area will be the creation of large acreages of Impoundments that cause
loss of runoff water to the streams and a net loss of surface water from the
area through evaporation, It has been projected that discharge decreases attribu-
table to evaporation losses of impounded water in the Peace River Basin will ba
equivalent to about 15 cubic feet per second by 1985 and 21 cubie feet per second
by the year 2000 in the Peace River, 6 cubic feet per second by 1985 and 1,5
cubie feet per second by 2000 in the Little Manatee. Average flows near the
mouths of the three rivers are 1195, 175, and 373 cubic feet per second,
respectively.
The total effect of phosphate industry alteration of the flow re-
gimes of streams in the study area through 1985 will be minor. By 2000, how-
every, the magnitude of alteration will be sufficient to cause some noticeable
community shifts from organisms preferring flowing water to those more indica-
tive of lenticj or standing-water, habitats; this will represent an adverse ef-
fect, since flowing-water communities are of greater resource value to the
study area.
In addition to affecting the flow regimes of local streams, the in-
dustry's construction, land preparation, and excavation will cause some local
degradation of stream habitat quality by increasing siltation and turbidity.
However, such adverse effects are expected to be local, rather short-term, and
only minor from a regional perspective. Community-structure alterations ac-
companying local habitat degradation by siltaiton and turbidity will be mani-
fested as reduced algal abundance (benthic and periphyton communities),
replacement of more desirable benthic forms (e.g., mussels, odonate, and mayfly
naiads) with forms more tolerant of silty substrate (tubificid worms, diptera
larvae), poorer condition of local fish populations because of food-chain
disruption and impairment of feeding activities, and reduced fish egg and
larva survival.
3.32
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7) Bay and Estuarine•Communities
Effects will be limited principally to mining's long-term effect on
freshwater discharge patterns of the Peace and Alafia rivers (discussed in the
preceding). Changes in freshwater discharge will alter salinity regimes within
the river estuaries and thus affect distributions of estuarine organisms. How-
ever, the effects of the relatively small changes of freshwater discharge
patterns are expected to be minor and obscured in normal discharge variations.
C. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT
1. Land Use
Assessing the impacts of mining on the environmental elements (in
this case, land tenure, community/regional plans, and land use) is largely
judgmental but is in the same direction (positive or negative) in almost
every case as the effects listed for the "Without Action" alternative.
Impacts on land uses are measured both by areal displacement by mining and
overall effects on the total land system by displacement and subsequent
reclamation.
Forests, agriculture, and open space will be areally displaced,
resulting in negative impacts. These land uses are as important from the stand-
point of wildlife and general habitat as for the economic value of their poten-
tial products (timber, cattle, etc.). Therefore the impact of their removal
has been based on the loss of their economic as well as ecological values.
Current reclamation practices have a negative impact on forests and open space,
since these are not usually replaced; reclaimed land is most commonly used for
improved pasture. This reclamation pattern will have a positive (economic)
impact on agricultural land.
Increased mining under this scenario will stimulate economic growth,
which will probably result in areal expansion of residential, commercial, and
industryal lands. Residential is probably the land use most sensitive to any
pollution, noise, or aesthetic degradation created should mining be located in
close proximity. If mining occurs within several miles of residences, negative
impacts are likely.
3.33
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The "Permit Existing and New Sources" alternative will result in
an increase of the area within the land use "Mining." Compared with the
"Without Action" alternative, the conditions of the scenario include a pro-
jected 39 percent increase by 1985 and a 60 percent increase by 2000.
A letter from the Florida Department of Transportation (March 24,
1974) included in the referenced environmental impact statement points out
that "...with larger vessels utilizing the harbor facilities, there could
be a significant increase in both truck and rail traffic, as well as additional
auto traffic generated by the enlarged labor force." The letter also points
out the existing condition of "the situation of long freight trains bringing
phosphate to Port Button, delaying traffic on SR 45 (US 41). This expansion
can only augment the present problem."
Phosphate mining's major impact on land use in the study area is the
displacement of acres in the various land-use categories. Forest land, agri-
cultural land (USGS Level-II categories "Cropland-Pasture and "Orchards-Groves"),
and open space (USGS Level-II categories "Rangeland" and "Transitional Areas")
will be displaced (Table 3.5), while other land uses (residential, commercial,
and industrial) will be affected areally through the economic stimulation
of mining activities but will not be displaced because of their relative eco-
nomic values. As an example, residential land may expand in certain areas
(other than immediate mining areas) over time because of the influx of popula-
tion stimulated by the presence of phosphate mining and related activities.
Table 3.5. Displacement Areas, 1985 and 2000 of Without Action Alternative
Land Use Categories
(Peypd to matrix el'npnts)
Forests
Aqr icul ture
Open spice
(includes USGS categories
ranqeland and other barren
land
Forests
Aqr icul ture
Opon space
( includes USI'.S caU"|or IPS
ranqpland and other barren
land)
Areas (hectares/acres)
ta)
Four Rivpr
Basin's", UnacTjusted
55,116/136,138
471,761/1 ,052,216
471 ,763/1 ,165,?55
5P, 807/115, 255
4?6, 947/1 ,054,560
469,539/1 ,159,763
(b)
Adjusted
56,590/139,778
430,800/1 ,064,076
483,949/1 ,195,355
60,281/148,895
431 ,736/1 ,066,390
481 ,717/1 ,189,843
(c)
1975
Unadjus tpd
69,676/172,101
"156,908/1 ,128,563
4 92,648/1',? 16, 84 3
69,676/1 72,101
456,908/1 ,128,563
492,648/1 ,216,843
(d)
Area Mined
Accord i nq to Man
3,057/7,552
3,938/9.728
3,834/9,47?
4,845/1 1 ,968
9,561/23,616
6,685/16,512
(e)
D i f f erence
(c-b)
13,086/32,323
26,108/64,487
R.f.99/21 ,488
9, 105/23,206
25,171/62,173
10,Q31/27,000
3.34
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Compatibility of the various land uses with phosphate mining varies.
Residential land is the least compatible of all categories; on the other hand,
forests and open spaces provide excellent buffer zones between mining and less
compatible land uses. There will be more disturbed acres of forest, agricul-
ture, and open space by the year 2000 than by 1985. By 2000, reclamation will
have increased acreages in each of the mentioned categories over 1985 acreages
but will not have restored them to their 1975 extents. Projections of the Four
River Basins Area Economic Base Study summarized in Table 3.5 are not realistic
since most reclaimed land probably will be returned as improved pasture and
lakes. Planners (and land-use plans) in the study area, most of whom agree
with the fundamental philosophy of the Four River Basins Study, may have unre-
alistic expectations for potential uses of reclaimed land. Placing additional
constraints on the variety of future land use are existing laws and regulations
specifying physical requirements for reclaimed land.
Mining will not adversely affect land tenure, either public or pri-
vate, since mining companies already own almost all land that will be mined
through the year 2000.
Elimination of slime ponds will not actually increase the amount of
reclaimed land but will make land available for other uses more rapidly than at
present. Since slime ponds occupy a major portion of areas that have been mined
(TI 1977h), putting land into improved pasture sooner will have a negative impact
on land-based recreation; slower revegetation provides habitat for hunted species.
Lining gyp ponds will reduce impact by minimizing the hazard of poten-
tial pollution of ground water. The potential hazard would be applicable to
urban and agricultural land use (TI 1977e).
3.35
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2. Archeological, Cultural, Historical, and Recreational Sites
Areas to be mined in the future (1976-2000) contain historical
and archeological sites. The number of sites that will be disturbed is
indicated in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6. Disturbed Archeological and Historical Sites*
No. of Sites Scenarios
Year in Study Area 2.15 2.11 2.14
1985 791 6 11 1
2000 791 10 28 3
*Based on assumption of no additional sites discovered
between 1976 and 2000.
Most archeological sites are considered by archeologists as fragile
and, as such, would be permanently altered or destroyed if mined. Florida's
Division, of Archives, History, and Records Management (1976) has expressed con-
cern that valuable sites within the study area may be lost or may suffer irre-
versible damage; this agency maintains that the effects will occur on a regional
level and may result in the permanent loss of a sizable portion of Florida's
archeological record. Unless measures to collect and preserve the artifacts
are taken before mining, the state office's concerns will be valid.
More archeological and historical sites would be destroyed under the
conditions of this scenario than under those of the "Without Action" scenario:
five more sites would be destroyed by 1985; 18 more by the year 2000 (Table
3.6). The impact would be catastrophic, since irreplaceable historical re-
sources would be lost.
Impacts of the proposed action in addition to those presented above
are associated with controlling activities in wetlands. Thirty-nine archeo-
logical sites would be disturbed except by eliminating mining in wetlands;
which would preserve 35 of them. This preservation mechanism only applies
to known sites. Sites outside of wetlands may be discovered during site-
specific investigations.
3.36
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Recreation would be both positively and negatively impacted. The
increased mining under this scenario would increase the possibility of accidental
waste spills and resultant water pollution - and negative impact, Reclamation
would increase hunting potential for most waterfowl - a positive impact, Loss
of habitat associated with current reclamation practices would have a negative
impact on the hunting potential of land-based game species,
As to existing and potential recreational areas, phosphate mining will
have both positive and negative effects. Water-based recreation is particularly
sensitive to wastewater spills, Such spills, especially the one on the Peace
River in 1971, can be extremely destructive (Blakey 1973). Land-based hunting
will be affected not only by habitat destruction due to mining but by the recla-
mation (e.g., to improved pasture) that does not restore habitat. Reclamation
can provide additional recreational areas, however (e.g., Polk County's Saddle
Creek Park), and should be planned with care to provide an aesthetic setting.
3. Demography, Economics, and Cultural Resources
The proposed action would impact the area's economics and the
demographic and cultural elements. With respect to transportation, a special
note is worthy of repeating as reported in the Final Environmental Impact
Statement, Tampa Harbor Project (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1974):
"From available data and coordination with the state geologist, it is
estimated that there are from 26 to 30 billion tons of phosphate rock
deposits in Florida, of which about 2.5 billion tons are considered
marketable reserves using existing mining methods and present market
and price conditions. About 1.5 billion tons of the marketable phos-
phate is in Polk County adjacent areas. This estimate is substan-
tiated by the Florida Phosphate Council. Another billion tons of mar-
ketable phosphate is located in Hernando, Citrus, Marlon, Levy, and
Alachua counties, which, if developed, would require use of facilities
at Tampa Harbor for shipment to areas of consumption. It is estimated
that about 1.65 billion tons of phosphate would be shipped from Tampa
Harbor during the 50-year life of the project - an average of about
33,000,000 tons per year. In addition, there would be production of
phosphate for domestic consumption of about 7,000,000 tons per year
which would not use facilities at Tampa Harbor."
3.37
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One should be aware that all official population and economic projec-
tions that have been examined during the course of this study are based on the
postulation of continued development of the phosphate industry in the study
area.
The phosphate industry's existing ownership of large tracts of land
on a north-south axis from Lakeland to Port Charlotte has probably been the
major cause of the current crescent-shaped population concentration from Lake-
land to Tampa and along the coast to Port Charlotte. Land use in the northern
part of Polk County has been dramatically affected by the Disney World enter-
tainment complex (just north of the Polk County line). Land values for resi-
dential and associated commercial development and tourist accomodations have
increased at a tremendous rate in recent years, resulting in significant land-
use changes. For example, land devoted to growing citrus has been removed from
production and shifted to intensive development.
Table 3.7 shows the projected economic impact of the phosphate in-
dustry on the study area by scenario. The "Without Action" alternative would
mean a loss of 2674 phosphate industry jobs in 1985 and 7554 by the year 2000.
Phosphate industry payroll losses would be $20,700,000 in 1985 and $58,500,000
annually by the year 2000. One can see that losses in employment and payroll
by phosphate industry-induced industry and business would be much greater.
Since the service businesses catering to the needs of the retirement and tour-
ist sectors are in direct conflict with the phosphate industry, however, there
is good reason to believe that they could absorb surplus workers from the phos-
phate industry.
The study area is served by all modes of transportation. Trackage at
Tampa Harbor connects to the Seaboard Coastline Railroad System. Two interstate
highways, 1-75 and 1-4, along with other federal and state roads, connect the
study area with other parts of Florida and the United States. Interstate 75 is
scheduled to be constructed south along the Gulf Coast through the study area to
the Florida east coast. Tampa International Airport, which is served by 10 ma-
jor airlines, provides domestic and foreign service. Numerous shipping lines and
barge lines have facilities in Tampa Harbor and provide extensive service to
3.38
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Table 3.7. Projected Economic Impact of Central Florida
Phosphate Industry from Domestic Mining Only
on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
Year
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Scenario
Actual1"
2. lit
2.15*
2. lit
2.151
2.111
2.15$
2.111
2.15$
2.11$
2.15$
Production
(mi 1 1 ion
short tons)
38.2
41.2
42.2
45.2
33.2
44.8
27.5
42-.0
9.1
36.5
2.6
Phosphate
Industry
Employment
8,512
9,181
9,403
10,072
7,398
9,983
6,128
9,359
2,028
8,133
579
Phosphate
Industry
Payrol 1
(000,000)
65.8
71.0
72.7
77.9
57.2
77.2
47.4
72.4
15.7
62.9
4.4
Induced
,_ . ,***
Empl oyment
52,349
56,463
57,828
61,943
45,498
61,395
37,687
57,558
12,472
50,017
3,560
Induced
_ , , *•***
Payrol 1
(000,000)
221.3
238.7
244.4
261.9
192.4
259.6
159.3
243.4
52.7
211.5
15.0
Based on 1975 average of 222.84 workers per million tons produced.
**Based on 1975 average of $7,742 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
***Based on Bureau of Mines estimates of 6.155 jobs generated for each new job in
the phosphate industry.
****Average of $4,228 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
tU.5. Bureau of Mines (1975) adjusted by Texas Instruments for the study area;
Florida Statistical Abstract (1976).
U.S. Bureau of Mines (1977) adjusted by Texas Instruments.
TTexas Instruments projections of production from existing mines.
M
To estimate total projected impact, effects from constant employment of about
3,000 chemical processing plant employees must be added.
3.39
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waterborne commerce. Major plans are now underway to improve Tampa Harbor, A
major part of the economic justification is the favorable economic impact ex-
pected on phosphate shipments, Tampa is a major port and vital to the economics
of Florida as well as the nation. On a total tonnage basis, it is now the fourth
largest export port and the eighth largest U.S. port. Annually, it handles more
than 40,000,000 tone (36.3 x 10 metric tons) of commerce valued at more than
$490,000,000, Its export exceeds 11,000,000 tons (10 x 10 metric tons) valued
at more than $172,000,000. Phosphate shipments represent 97 percent of the port's
outgoing cargo, and sulfur for the phosphate fertiliser industry represents an al-
most equal percentage of incoming cargo. In the 8-county area around Tampa Har-
bor, one in every seven wage-earners is employed by port-related businesses; this
amounts to more than 36,000 workers and an annual payroll exceeding $210,000,000.
Without the scheduled harbor improvement and concomitant increased phosphate
industry shipments and receipts, the port could decline in importance, reflecting
adversely on the regional economy and ultimately changing the character of cur-
rent development.
Prohibiting develbpment in wetlands will exclude from development
an estimated 5000 hectares (12,300 acres) during 1977-85 and 10,890 hectares
(26,900 acres) between 1977 and 2000. Under Scenario 2.11 (the "industry view'),
which would permit all mine applications, an estimated 5000 hectares (12,300
acres) and 13,800 hectares (34,100 acres) of wetlands would be excluded in the
respective time periods. However, since mining activities are expected to
merely shift to lands not classified as U.S. waters or wetlands and since
sufficient reserves exist within the study area to accommodate the required
shift in mining operations between now and the year 2000, such exclusions
will not materially affect production tonnages previously estimated for the
two time periods under Scenario 2,11, Also, since no new chemical-plant
construction between now and the year 2000 is projected, there would be no
impact due to the recommended effluent standards for new-source chemical
plants.
3.40
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4. Resource Use
Phosphate industry activities that affect the area's natural resources
focus on depletion of not only phosphate but uranium (which is mined concurrently),
recovery, and, to a lesser extent, timber.
a. Phosphate Recovery
,6
Phosphate resources of the area are estimated to be 1561.9 x 10
:la
6
metric (1772 x 10 short) tons; 940.6 metric (1037 x 10 short) tons are classi-
fied as known reserves. Under Scenario 2.15, it is forecast that 327.4.x 10
metric (361 x 10 short) tons will be mined during 1977-85 and 537.9 x 10
metric (593 x 10 short) tons from 1977 through 2000. This represents a
reserves depletion of 34.8 and 57.2 percent respectively.
The study area's total phosphate resources have been estimated to be
f\ f\
1596 x 10 metric (1722 x 10 short) tons, including known reserves totaling
940.6 x 10 metric (1037 x 10 short) tons. Phosphate ore to be mined under
this scenario is estimated at 0.444 billion metric (0.489 billion short) tons
during 1977-85 and 0.925 billion metric (1.020 billion short) tons during
1977-2000 (Table 3.8). Compared with the "Without Action" scenario, total
tonnage mined under this scenario represents an increase of 35.5 percent for
the short term and 72.0 percent for the long term. Conditions consistent with
the "industry view" (Scenario 2.11') would increase production over the "Without
Action" scenario by an estimated 35.5 percent by 1985 and 127.8 percent by the
year 2000. In terms of depleting the area's known phosphate resources, this
scenario poses an increase over the "Without Action" alternative of 7.5 percent
in the near term and 24.8 in the long term; for Scenario 2.11', the increased
depletion percentages would be 7.5 and 44.1 percent, respectively.
3.41
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Table 3=8. Phosphate Rock Production Forecast
for Scenarios 2.15, 2.11, and 2.11'
Scenario
2.15
2.11
2.11'
Tons Mined x 106
1977-85 1977-2000
361 593
489 1,020
489 1,351
% of Resources*
1977-85 1977-2000
20.9 34.4
28.4 59.2
28.4 78.5
% to 2.15**
1977-85 1977-2000
7.5 24.5
7.5 44.1
Resources 1,722 x 106 short tons (Reserves 1,037 x 106) short tons).
**
Change in percentage value relative to Scenario 2.15.
Clay slimes from washer plants contain phosphate, which ranges from
about 10 percent BPL (bone phosphate of lime) to about 32 percent BPL and at
present is not recovered (Table 3.9). Also, clean, uniform-sized sand from
the flotation plant accumulates. Both materials technically qualify as re-
sources, although the local market for the sand is virtually nonexistent,
and the technology for recovering the phosphate from slimes has not yet been
proved practical.
The predominant disposal practice used currently results in separate
storage for the two materials, an act that would facilitate future recovery if
technology/cost aspects of production and/or market benefits justified such re-
covery. On the other hand, the sand/clay mix process modification would reduce
the "availability" of these materials, complicating eventual recovery.
It is estimated that 24,000 hectares (nearly 60,000 acres) of slime
ponds and up to 6500 hectares (about 16,000 acres) of land containing the pre-
dominantly clean sand tailings currently exist as potential resources in the
study area as a result of current and past phosphate mining and beneficiation.
3.42
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Table 3.9. Phosphate Balance Sheet (Proportions of Recovered and
Waste Products) for Study Area*
Percent BPLf in Matrix,
Recovered Products, or Waste
Phosphate matrix (36%)
Coarse pebble (72.0%)
Medium pebble (72.0%)
Fine pebble (72.2%)
Total pebble (72.2%)
Coarse flotation (75.0%)
Fine flotation (76.0%)
Total flotation (75.8%)
Waste tailings* (9.0%)
Slimes, plus 200 mesh (27.4%)
Slimes, minus 200 mesh (34.8%)
Total slimes (32.4%)
Grand total
Gross Wt
[metric (short) tons]
90.72
1.68
2.99
3.27
7.94
5.35
13.61
18.96
33.24
9.98
20.59
30.57
90.70
(100.00)
(1.85)
(3.30)
(3.60)
(8.75)
(5.90)
(15.00)
(20.90)
(36.65)
,(11.00)
(22.70)
(33.70)
(100.00)
BPL Contents
[metric
32.7
1.2
2.2
2.4
5.7
4.0
10.3
14.3
3.0
2.7
7.2
9.9
33.0
(short) tons]
(36.0)
(1.3)
(2.4)
(2.6)
(6.3)
(4.4)
(11.4)
(15.8)
(3.2)
(3.0)
(7.9)
(10.9)
(36.2)
(% of total)
100.0
3.7
6.6
7.2
17.5
12.2
31.7
43.9
9.0
8.4
21 .9
30.3
100.7
* U.S. Bureau of Mines 1975.
t BPL = bone phosphate of lime or tricalcium phosphate [Ca,(PO/,)9].
t Tailings from flotation treatment.
For effects assessment, however, these are considered to be tertiary resources.
Furthermore, it is not anticipated that any significant recovery of phosphate
values contained in the slime ponds will be affected during the period through
2000 because of the availability of sufficient reserves of minable rock in the
area or that there will be any significant market for the waste sand. Also,
the potential elimination of these materials from secondary recovery by im-
plementing the sand/clay slime-mix technique for land reclamation appears to
be significantly offset by the elimination of slime ponds per se as a potential
environmental detriment. Thus, the impact of eliminating these tertiary re-
sources is considered insignificant.
b. Uranium Recovery
It has been estimated that the 12 phosphoric acid plants in the study
area annually pass 4.57 x 10 pounds (2.07 x 10 kilograms) of U00 ; assuming
j o
constant throughput, the amount available for recovery will approximate 41.1 x
106 pounds (18.7 x 106 kilograms) from 1977 through 1985 and 109.7 x 106 pounds
3.43
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(49.9 x 10 kilograms) from 1977 through 200.0. Assuming a, constant price of
$40 and a recovery cost of $15 per pound, the rank benefit of recovery would
approximate $1.03 billion for 1977-85 and $2,74 billion for 1977-2000, The
bulk of the mineral extracted along with the phosphate leaves the area through
phosphate products shipped. Implementing the process modification will not
affect the uranium resources of the area. The effects and impacts of imple-
menting full-scale uranium recovery will center on economic values.
c. Fluoride Recovery
Since reported costs of recovery exceed the prices by 25-36 percent,
fluorides are not considered at this time to be an economic mineral resource
of the area.
d. Timber
Clearing land before mining involves the total removal of vegetation,
including marketable timber. It is estimated under this scenario that approxi-
mately 3056 hectares C7552 acres) of land mappe.d as forest land will be mined
during 1977-85 and 4843 hectares (11,968 acres) between 1977 and 2000.
The 7-county study area possesses approximately 69,650 hectares
(172,100 acres) of forest land. The amount of commercial timber contained
in this forest area is unknown; however, the majority of productive timber
lands in Florida are located in National Forests outside the study area. A
negligible amount of productive timber land will be lost as a result of
phosphate mining. The forested lands within the 7-county study area are best
described, then, as predominantly wildlife habitat, with some used for
recreational resources and commercial timber.
It is estimated that the proposed action will result in disturbance
of 3966 hectares (9800 acres) of forest lands during 1977-1985 and more than
7366 hectares (17,200 acres), from 1977 through the year 2000 - an increase of
53 percent over the "no action" alternative.
3.44
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SECTION 4
SUMMARY OF SECONDARY IMPACTS
OF THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Land
a. Soil
Secondary effects of phosphate industry activities on soil are
restricted primarily to chemical alteration due to the stacking of materials
(e.g., wet rock and gypsum). Water percolation through these materials tends
to cause them to leach and be subsequently deposited in the soil underlying
horizons. No secondary impacts could be determined for tha various scenarios
because of the lack of any quantitative model with which to assess the effects
of leaching. The number of gypsum stacks is assumed constant among scenarios,
but new wet rock storage piles are anticipated under the proposed action.
b. Radiation
There are four potential pathways for secondary impacts of exposure:
• Air contamination by radionuclides associated with dust
created when dry phosphate rock and phosphate products
are transferred.
• Possible contamination of ground waters by seepage of
process waters at the chemical plants and slime-pond
waters in the mine areas
• Radon-222 daughter-product contamination of air in
structures built on land previously mined by the industry
• Consumption of foods (crop foods or beef) produced on
reclaimed land
4.1
-------
Of these, the most significant is considered to be exposure from radon-222
daughter radionuclides in homes or other structures built on reclaimed land.
c) Terrestrial Biota
Among possible secondary effects not implied in the discussion of pri-
mary effects are certain changes occurring in coastal areas as a result of min-
ing. For example, if the harbor area were increased to accommodate the trans-
portation of phosphate rock or other materials, it could affect terrestrial
biota; however, the expected changes (e.g., the deepening of Tampa Bay), will
have little effect.
2. Water
a) Quantity
Pumping from the Floridan aquifer will (1) decrease streamflow, af-
fect surface vegetation, and possibly affect lake levels and (2) cause upconing
of highly mineralized waters from the deeper parts of the Floridan aquifer and
lateral encroachment of salt water from the coastal zone. Unfortunately, a
basic assumption used in the design of the model is a constant head in the
water table aquifer, so the model cannot predict declines in the water table
as a function of pumping from the Floridan aquifer; therefore, very little
can be said of the effect on the vegetation and surface-water systems as a
result of pumping from the Floridan aquifer. One aspect that can be evaluated
indirectly, however, is the potential for saltwater encroachment in relation
to the change in the potentiometric surface. For example, the 1985 potentio-
metric surface map (Figure 4.1) that was simulated by combining the September
1975 potentiometric surface and the predicted water-level changes under
Scenario 2.15 in the year 1985 showed no change in the location of the 20-,
30-, and 40-foot contour lines in the coastal zone. Thus, it may be concluded
that the gradient in the potentiometric surface has not changed, nor has the
outflow of fresh water to the coast from the Floridan aquifer.
4.2
-------
Potentiometric contour
interval, 5 feet,
Datum is mean sea level
(msl)
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phosphate industry
withdrawal rates only.
Figure 4.1. Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September
1985, under Scenario 2.15
The sharp rise in water levels in Polk County will provide an eco-
tiomic benefit to owners of wells in those areas because pumping costs will be
reduced. Although there are no data showing real potentiometric surface
countours that would reflect municipal, agricultural, and industrial pumpage,
it is clear that completion of existing phosphate mining operations will have
a beneficial effect on the water resources of the study area.
4.3
-------
To assess the worst-case (Scenario 2.II1) secondary effects on the
hydrologic system, a potentiometric surface map for September 1985 was pre-
pared (Figure 4.2) by combining calculated water-level changes for that period
with a September 1975 potentiometric surface map. These changes were calculated
using the USGS model.
Potentiometric con-
tour shows altitude
above mean sea level
(msl). Contour inter-
val , 5 and 10 feet.
(Adapted from .USGS
open-file report.)
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phosphate industry
wi thdrawal rates only.
Figure 4.2. Simulated Potentiometric Surface
September 1985, under Scenario 2.11'
The 20-foot contour will be in the same location in the coastal zone
in September 1985 as it was in September 1975 indicating that no change in the
potentiometric surface will have occurred in the coastal area. The 30-foot
contour line will have moved farther to the east, thereby creating a somewhat
large spacing between the 20- and 30-foot contours. This indicates a flattening
of the gradient of the potentiometric surface toward the coast, suggesting a
decrease in groudwater flow toward the Gulf of Mexico. In southwestern Polk
4.4
-------
County, water levels will rise 10 feet in certain areas, thereby reducing the
pumping lift for many wells and subsequently resulting in an economic benefit
to the owners of the wells.
Potentiometric con-
tour shows altitude
or potentiometric
surface for Septem-
ber 2000 in feet.
Datum Is mean jSea
level (msl). Contour
interval, 5 and 10 feet
Dashed where estimated.
(Adapted from USGS open
file report).
SCALE
1:500,000
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phosphate industry
withdrawal rates only.
Figure 4.3. Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000,
under the "Without Action" Alternative
On the potentiometric surface map for the year 2000 (Figure 4.3),
contours in the coastal zone are more closely spaced that in 1975. More spe-
cifically, the 20-foot contour line is still at the same location but the 30-
foot contour line has moved somewhat to the western part, followed by the 40-
foot contour line. This means that the elevation of the potentiometric sur-
face in the coastal zone will have increased by the year 2000, thereby most
likely increasing the outflow of fresh ground water to the Gulf. This will
reduce the potential for lateral saltwater encroachment. Apparently, because
of Scenario 2.15, more water will be lost to the Gulf in the year 2000 than
was lost in 1975
4.5
-------
In Hardee County, there will be a positive effect: the area
encompassed by the 50-foot contour will increase considerably, indicating
that the water level has risen in those areas. This rise will have a
beneficial secondary effect inasmuch as well-owners in the area will be
spending less money on pumping because pumping lifts will have decreased.
As mentioned previously, the model has a constant source and does not
predict changes in the head of the water-table aquifer itself. Therefore, the
impact of proposed phosphate mining activities on the water table and on water-
dependent vegetation cannot be assessed. However, experience has indicated that
the effects can be expected to be minimal because the confining beds are rela-
tively impermeable and thicken toward the south. An adverse economic effect of
the proposed development in Sarasota, Manatee, and to some extent in southern
Hillsborough County in 1985 will be the increased costs to well-owners because
of increased pumping lifts. Also, there will be increased potential for up-
coning of mineralized water from the deeper zone of the Floridan aquifer, es-
pecially in old wells that have been drilled into the lower, more mineralized
zone of the Floridan aquifer and have been abandoned without being plugged.
In regard to the problem of saltwater encroachment in the coastal
zone, the flattening of the hydraulic gradient between the 20- and 30-foot con-
tours suggests a reduction in groundwater outflow and, theoretically, an in-
crease in the potential for landward movement of the salt/freshwater interface.
The potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer for September 2000
(Figure 4.4) was constructed by using the September 1975 potentiometric surface
map in combination with water-level changes between 1975 and 2000. There will
be some changes in the inner parts of the Central Florida Phosphate District
and, again, shifts will be in the location of the 20-foot contour in only a few
places along the coast. The 30-foot contour line, however, will move farther
eastward and be in the western part of Hardee County near the town of Ona. In
eastern Manatee County, the potentiometric surface will have a plateau-like
appearance, as shown by the 20-foot contour line. The flattening of the poten-
tiometric surface will reduce groundwater outflot toward the Gulf, and this most
likely will increase the potential for the inland movement of the salt-/fresh-
water interface. There will also be an economic effect, because the reduction
in the potentiometric surface will result in increased pumping lifts and costs
in certain areas.
4.6
-------
Altitude or poten-
tiometric contour.
Contour interval, 5
and 10 feet. Datum
is mean sea level (msl
(Adapted from USGS data.)
Figure 4.4.
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface modified
by changes in phosphate industry withdrawal rates
only.
Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000,
under Scenario 2.11'
In summary, future development of the phosphate industry under
Scenario 2.11' will generally lower the potentio.metric surface of the Floridan
aquifer in the western part of the Central Florida Phosphate District, but the
predicted declines will be very small compared with the total thickness of the
freshwater zone (a 10-foot decline compared with a thickness of 1500 feet). No
adverse effects except the small increase in pumping costs and the increased
potential for saltwater encroachment are expected from future pumping of the
Floridan aquifer by the phosphate industry. The validity of these predictions,
of course, depends on the validity of the water-level changes predicted from the
aquifer model designed and constructed by the U.S. Geological Survey.
4.7
-------
The difference between the two scenarios' (2.11; and 2.15) effects
on the potentiometric surface will be, at most, 20 feet at the Manatee-Hardee
county line north of the Myakka head. Comparison of this value with average
seasonal fluctuations of 30 to 40 feet in the area leads to the conclusion that
a 20-foot difference is not a major effect. To estimate the economic difference
between the two scenarios, it was assumed that the cost of lifting 1 acre-foot
of water (325,900 gallons) a distance of 1 foot is 2.60 for a pump working at
80 percent efficiency. For example, the difference in economic costs to pump
at a rate of 10,000,000 gallons per day in the northeastern corner of Sarasota
County was calculated: the difference in water levels is approximately 7.5 feet
and the difference in the cost of lifting the water is $2184 per year (the
year 2000); the annual cost difference for a well-owner pumping at the same
rate in the area north of Myakka head is $5824.
b) Quality
Secondary effects on water quality were taken to be potential effects.
These potential effects are salt-water encroachment due to drawdown of the
Floridan aquifer; contamination of the water-table and Floridan aquifers by
seepage from contaminated ponds, which causes sinkholes that collapse and
allow direct contamination; and radiation potential because of gyp ponds and
mining-pit reclamation.
A secondary effect under the conditions of the proposed action is
the increased potential for pollutional loads from failure of slime-pond dikes.
This potential is particularly significant since, under this scenario, a slime-
pond break would threaten the water quality of Class-I waters.
c) Biological
The phosphate industry's secondary effects on the aquatic biota of
the study area involve waste discharges on receiving waterbodies, the potential
for spilling hazardous materials at processing plants, and impacts of supporting
activities such as electricity generation and transport (shipping). The effects
of all except waste discharges are considered to be minor.
4.8
-------
Industry discharges of high concentrations of inorganic nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus), coupled with naturally high ambient concentrations
in flowing waters of the study area, result in highly fertile water supporting
rich and diverse running-water communities. Extremely productive estuarine
communities occur at the mouths of the Peace and Alafia rivers where the fer-
tile river water enters the estuary; indeed, the unusually high productivity
of both Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor can be attributed largely to significant
contributions of inorganic nutrients by the major contributing streams (Alafia
and Peace, respectively). Waste discharges can be detrimental locally (e.g.,
toxic concentrations of ammonia), and, though sometimes beneficial, nutrient
enrichment can potentially result in severe nuisance hydrophyte problems
and degradation of habitat quality in the rivers and estuarine systems.
B. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT
Development of Tampa Harbor and development of the phosphate industry
are synergistic: development of one presumes development of the other; and ''
conversely, if one is not developed, the other is not likely to be developed.
Perhaps not readily apparent to the casual observer, the bulk of employment in
the Tampa area is in manufacturing, construction, transportation, and communi-
cations - and the harbor (largely supported by phosphate industry shipments)
contributes directly or indirectly to all these industries. Many important in-
dustries need the harbor facilities but are not important enough to support
them. An example is the Disney World complex near Orlando, one of the major
contributors to increased demands for products through Tampa Harbor. New
industries such as optical materials and gun manufacturing, construction of
prefabricated houses, assembly of foreign trucks imported through the harbor,
export of citrus fruit, and processing of food caught off Florida's coast
depend on a viable harbor system. Failure to develop the harbor would cause
a decline in the operations.
Attention is invited to previous comments on effects under the
"Without Action" alternative in Volume II of the PELS. Accelerated phosphate
mining could increase already inflated land values, deplete nonrenewable re-
sources, and further reduce the amount of land in agricultural production.
Adverse environmental damage such as despoiled landscapes or incompatible
land usage could result.
4.9
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Industry holdings of land will effectively prevent large-scale
development of the held land for at least the next 25 years. This reclaimed
land will then be available for phased development at a time when it is most
needed to relieve coastal population congestion.
Table 4.1 projects by scenario the economic impact of the phosphate
industry on the study area. As indicated, the industry's continued development
will result in about 10,000 direct and almost 62,000 induced jobs in the study
area by 1985, declining to about 8100 direct jobs and 50,000 induced jobs by
2000. Total payroll attributable to the phosphate industry will be about
$340,000,000 in 1985, declining to about $274,000,000 by 2000.
Table 4.1. Projected Economic Impact of Phosphate Industry
on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
Year
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Scenario
Actual t
2. lit
2.15$
2. 11*
2.151
2. lit
2.15$
2. Ill
2.15$
2.111
2.15$
Production Phosphate
(million Industry
short tons) Employment
38.2
41.2
42.2
45.2
33.2
44.8
27.5
42.0
9.1
36.5
2.6
8,512
9,181
9,403
10,072
7,398
9,983
6,128
9,359
2,028
8,133
579
Phosphate
Industry
Payrol 1
(000,000)
65.8
71.0
72.7
77.9
57.2
77.2
47.4
72.4
15.7
62.9
4.4
Induced
Empl oyment***
52,349
56,463
57,828
61,943
45,498
61,395
37,687
57,558
12,472
50,017
3,560
Induced.
Payroll****
(000,000)
221.3
238.7
244.4
261.9
192.4
259.6
159.3
243.4
52.7
211.5
15.0
*Based on 1975 average of 222.84 workers per million tons produced.
**Based on 1975 average of $7,742 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
***Based on Bureau of Mines estimates of 6.155 jobs generated for each new job in
the phosphate industry.
****Average of $4,228 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
fU.S. Bureau of Mines (1975) adjusted by Texas Instruments for the study area;
Florida Statistical Abstract (1976).
$11. S. Bureau of Mines (1977) adjusted by Texas Instruments.
fTexas Instruments projections of production from existing mines.
4.10
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SECTION 5
AVAILABLE MINIMIZING AND MITIGATIVE MEASURES FOR THE
UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION
A. ATMOSPHERE
Potential impacts to air quality as a result of pollution control
equipment breakdown can be minimized by installing alarm and plant-shutdown
systems and procedures. To assure company operation and maintenance programs
that address the efficient operation of pollution control equipment, the fol-
lowing program of surveillance by the state is recommended:
Air Program
• In-plant inspections
- Inspect all air pollution control equipment semi-
annually (minimum) for operational ability and
condition.
- Make unannounced inspections of specific equipment
at any time.
• Source inspections
- Witness all company stack tests for compliance with
permit conditions. (Phosphate companies are cur-
rently required to perform stack tests semiannually.)
- Maintain one full-time DER stack-sampling team to
monitor compliance.
• Ambient air-monitoring program
Establish a regional network of ambient air-monitoring
stations based on modeling of known sources and con-
tinually updated as new sources are built. (Present
program consisting of five stations probably will have
to be expanded.)
- Sample on a 6-day, 24-hour basis.
- Sample fluorides, sulfur dioxides, and particulates.
5.1
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Ambient vegetative-fluoride sampling program
- Establish a regional network of vegetation sampling
locations based on modeling data.
Sample primarily pasture grass, citrus leaves, and
gladiolas and include other vegetation as necessary.
(Present program consist of approximately 13 pasture-
grass stations. Sample locations need to be reviewed
and quantity possibly increased.)
Sample once per month.
- Monitor fluorides.
B. LAND
Mining disturbs existing land cover, changes land use, and redistributes
soil and radioactivity. Even with the proposed action, which incorporates measures
to minimize such impacts, there will be alterations in wildlife habitat and changes
in land use through the remainder of this century. These impacts can be mini-
mized and mitigated through the remainder of this century. These impacts can
be minimized and mitigated by thoroughly planned mining and reclamation that
incorporates the complete life-cycle of use before, during, and after mining
activities. Land-use plans must reflect needs projected beyond reclamation
and incorporate fish and wildlife values by leaving some pits for reclamation
by natural processes and by assuring a mixture of surface-water storage,
meandering streams, vegetated floodplains, and forested uplands.
Since the proposed scheme for regulating wetlands development is not
yet defined by area or distribution, the impacts described are based on the
protection of wetlands depicted in the USGS LUDA maps. As the areas representing
the three categories of regulatory prohibition are defined and mapped and permits
granted in accordance with the proposed action, wetlands restoration technology
as well as management practices during mining will become particularly important.
These concerns must be addressed in the site-specific environmental assessments
and/or impact statements.
5.2
-------
There should be provisions to preserve archeological and historical
sites. An assessment survey of site-specific areas should be conducted to
locate and identify significant site remains. These efforts should be coor-
dinated with the Florida Division of Archives, History, and Records Management.
Specific actions required by proposed administration of the federal
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (PL 95-87 as reported in the
Federal Register [42 FR 44920], 13 December 1977) deserve consideration as
measures to apply to the strip-mining of phosphate in westcentral Florida.
They are as follows:
• Return land to "approximate original contour."
• Return land to use prior to mining or to a land
use compatible with the surrounding area.
• Stockpile topsoil (A horizon) during mining and return
as the surface layer during reclamation.
• Commence reclamation within 1 year of initial distur-
bance in any given area.
• Plant initial vegetation that stabilizes the surface,
then plant species of vegetation that existed prior to
mining.
• Assure reestablishment of surface and groundwater hydrology
systems that existed prior to mining.
• Designate areas such as critical wildlife habitat "unsuitable
for mining", and prohibit mining in those areas.
C. WATER
Risks of deterioration of surface-water quality because of spills
and dam breaks will continue to be of concern as the phosphate industry ex-
tends operations to new areas of westcentral Florida, but efficient operation
and maintenance of pollution control equipment will assure that impacts are
limited to those described.
1. Spills
The probability of potential spills from pipeline breaks, tank
ruptures, and rail or truck accidents at the chemical plants can be minimized
by routing plant runoff through containment areas and by using pH monitors
and alarm systems such as those currently in operation at existing chemical
5.3
-------
plants in the area. System monitoring should be complemented with once-per-
shift manual sampling to ensure that the automated equipment is efficiently
operating.
At the mining and beneficiation sites, planning matrix and slime
pipeline routes to assure containment of spills would minimize the risks and
potential adverse impacts from breaks. Additionally, alarm systems would
alert operators of pressure drops and automatically activate shutdown systems
along sections of pipelines in case of ruptures or pump breakdowns.
2. Dam Breaks
Only one gypsum-pond dam break has been experienced at a chemical
plant in central Florida, and there have been none since 1965. However, the
potential will continue to exist, calling for continued diligence through
inspection. It is recommended that the Florida Department of Environmental
Regulation supplement the existing inspection program with periodic inspec-
tions by state employees.
The potential for dam breaks will still be present from new-source
mines because of implementation of methods to reduce slime disposal. The
initial slime-holding area and any settling areas resulting from an excess of
slimes that can be handled with available technology must be constructed to
ensure integrity and periodically inspected to minimize the risk of breaks.
As with gypsum-pond dams, state programs for design, construction, inspection,
and maintenance need to be supplemented with monthly regulatory-agency
inspection.
D. RECOMMENDED STATE SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM
Water Monitoring Program
• In-plant inspections
Inspect major water-pollution abatement equipment
semiannually.
• Source sampling or monitoring
- Sample chemical-plant dischargers monthly. (Analyze
as a minimum for fluorides, phosphorus, flow, nitrogen,
and pH.)
5.4
-------
- Sample mining discharges quarterly. (Analyze as a
minimum for flow, suspended solids, phosphorus, fluorides,
and pH.)
- Annually perform composite sampling of all dischargers.
Ambient water-monitoring program
- Monthly sample major streams downstream from all
phosphate industry dischargers. (Analyze for PWS
parameters.)
Sample quarterly the receiving waters at optimum
locations downstream from the dischargers.
- Annually sample receiving streams upstream from
phosphate-company dischargers.
Dam-Inspection Program
- Make unannounced inspections of company dams and
company maintenance and inspection program to see
that they comply with the DER Chapter 17-9 require-
ments .
E. GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
When combined with Federal permitting actions, the State Development
of Regional Impact (DRI) Application for Development Approval (ADA) process
can serve as an integrating approach to discerning impacts of new phosphate
industry activities and defining options available for management or avoidance
of those impacts. The DRI/ADA process receives attention by local and regional
agencies, as well as State agencies and thus, when inventigations and reports
resulting from the process address Federal requirements, then an overview
of actions by all levels of government is provided. Such an overview will
aid participants in the permitting process in identification of compatible
and conflicting government actions.
5.5
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SECTION 6
SHORT-TERM USE VERSUS LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY
Creating strip pits and waste-disposal areas, disrupting natural
soil characteristics, and redistributing radioactive materials are phosphate
industry activities that have direct adverse impacts and also present risks of
further impacts due to accidents. The tradeoffs are low-priced fertilizer for
enhanced agricultural production; local and regional economic activity;
employment and tax revenues; and reduction in U.S. trade deficits. The
economic gains and associated activities as the industry locates in new areas
of westcentral Florida will be accompanied by public anxieties about pollution,
health, noise, wildlife disturbance, and visual aesthetics - but these impacts
will be offset in the long term as public knowledge of phosphate operations
and regulatory-agency activities increases and broadens and as the requirements
of the proposed action are matched by the performance of the phosphate industry.
Reducing slime-disposal areas will reduce the near-term adverse
impacts of the applied technology used in processing phosphate in westcentral
Florida but increase reclaimed area over that created under present processing
techniques. Thus, a greater number of acres will have a more restrictive set
of options for subsequent uses than would exist if the application of present
technology were to continue. Restrictions on land use may be more hypothetical
than practical, whereas reducing the hazards and standing "stock" of slimes
has real near-term advantages.
Holding wetlands from industrial development by the phosphate industry
has near-term benefits, but it must be pointed out that the restrictions apply
only to phosphate companies, not necessarily to subsequent owners (e.g., one
that would use the land for agricultural purposes).
Continued and increased phosphate extraction and processing will
result in more and larger gypsum stacks at the chemical plants. This waste-
disposal problem is the most difficult facing the industry aside from clay
slimes, and its resolution will require continued effort on the part of both
industry and public agencies. Also, the continued extraction of phosphate
6.1
-------
from westcentral Florida will shorten the time when future resources will need
to come from other locations in Florida, the U.S., or the world; however, the
time frame may be extended if more efficient processing (e.g., a technique
recently announced by IMC) extracts a greater percentage of the phosphate
values.
Continued economic productivity will be enhanced by the continued
j
operation of the phosphate industry under the proposed action, but present min-
ing and reclamation practices generally will cause land-use/land-cover types to
shift from wildlife to human uses, decreasing habitat types and natural wildlife-
community diversity.
6.2
-------
SECTION 7
IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES
It is projected that mining in the study area will remove 945,000,000
metric (1.04 billion short) tons of phosphate rock through the year 2000. In
association with the phosphate rock removal, 189,000 metric (208,000 short)
tons of uranium will be removed. While the phosphate rock will be processed
for useful purposes, all of the uranium except that recovered at phosphoric
acid plants will be lost as a resource.
An irretrievable resource will be the fossil fuel necessary to generate
the electricity needs of the phosphate industry (88 billion kilowatt-hours)
between now and the year 2000. Also representing irretrievable commitments of
resources although they are not resources of the study area are the chemicals
that will be used in processing phosphate for fertilizer, sulfur, and ammonia.
The sulfur now in chemical-plant waste stacks represents a presently uneconomical
source.
Land-use changes caused by mining will narrow future land-use
options, especially in reclaimed slime-pond areas. Of the 56,000 acres pro-
jected to be reclaimed by the year 2000, 52,000 acres would be reclaimed slime
areas. The subsequent use of reclaimed slime areas is limited to activities
in which overburden pressures are no greater than those that would result from
agricultural production.
Archeological sites in areas mined will be destroyed. Artifacts
may be recovered, but the sites will be lost.
Approximately 45,000 acres of uplands, including pine flatwoods that
are important to most of the 12 threatened and endangered species susceptible
to mining activities, will be replaced with managed systems.
7.1
-------
SECTION 8
RESEARCH NEEDS
A. INTRODUCTION
The following studies have been identified as needed to further
delineate effects of the central Florida phosphate industry on the environment.
While results of these recommended studies probably will not affect the
conclusions documented in this EIS, they are needed to assure that any
adverse areawide and cumulative effects of the industry are ameliorated in
an economical and efficient manner*
B. FLUORIDE EMISSIONS
To determine the quantity of fluorides emitted to the atmosphere
from recirculated process water ponds (gyp ponds), a study is needed to
establish a relationship between pond water chemistry, water temperature,
air temperature (and possibly humidity), wind velocity, and fluoride
emissions. This information would allow estimates to be made on quantity
of fluorides emitted from ponds, and would also allow determinations to
be made on optimum maintenance of pond water fluoride concentrations.
C. FLUORIDE EFFECTS ON BIOTA
As recommended by Mr. Archie Carr III, of the Florida Audubon
Society, a study on the effects of fluoride emissions in Central Florida
on native vegetation and wildlife is needed. Virtually all research done
to date has been on cattle, citrus, and pasture grass.
D. HYDROGEOLOGY
Detailed hydrogeologic study is needed to determine extent of
chemical and radiological contamination of the water table and the Floridan
Aquifer by seepage from contaminated process water ponds.
8.1
-------
E. WETLANDS
Research is needed into the questions associated with creation
and restoration of wetlands.
F. POLLUTANT LOADING
Detailed wet and dry season water sampling surveys by DER and/or
EPA are needed to better quantify pollutant loadings and effects of each
individual existing chemical phosphate plant and mine.
G. SLIMES
Continued research on alternative uses of slimes, including recovery
of phosphate values from slimes is needed. This may include additional research
on direct acidulation of unslurried matrix. Recent uranium recovery processes
may make direct acidulation more favorable than when it was tried and discarded
several years ago.
H. RADIATION
Development of quantified radiation exposure data, and a program of
long term monitoring of radiological effects on atmosphere, land, surface
water, and groundwater.
8.2
-------
SECTION 8
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9.1
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9.2
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9.3
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9.5
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