United States EPA 904 9-7-8-026b
Environmental Protection ?2?!2 „ ,0 . „,,- November 1978
A nr 345 Courtland Street NE
J y Atlanta GA 30308
&EPA Environmental Final
Impact Statement
Central Florida
Phosphate Industry
Volume II
Background and Alternatives
Assessment
-------
EPA 904/9-78-026(6)
FINAL AREAWIDE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
CENTRAL FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
VOLUME II
U,S, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IV
ATLANTA, GEORGIA 3U308
APPROVED:
NOVEMBER. 1978
ADMINISTRATOR DATE
-------
FINAL AREAWlDE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
CENTRAL FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
VOLUME II
BACKGROUND AND ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT
-------
CONTENTS
SECTION
S SUMMARY SHEET FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT S-l
1 BACKGROUND OF PROPOSED ACTION 1.1
A. DESCRIPTION OF CENTRAL FLORIDA 1.1
PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
1. Historical Background 1.1
2. Production Data 1.2
3. Socioeconomic Impact 1.4
4. Phosphate Uses 1.6
5. Industry Activities 1.6
B. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 1.10
1. Atmosphere 1.10
2. Land 1.13
3. Water 1.27
4. Radiation Environment 1.48
C. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT 1.54
1. Demography and Economics 1.54
2. Land Use 1.60
ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT 2.1
A. ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY 2.1
B. INVESTIGATION OF DECISION ALTERNATIVES 2.3
1. Issuance of Existing Source Permits Only 2.6
("Without Action" Alternative, Scenario 2.15)
2. Permit Existing and New Sources 2.14
(Scenario 2.11)
3. Require Process Modifications for New 2.17
Sources (Scenario 2.12)
4. Require Reduced Water,Usages (Scenario 2.13) 2.27
5. Control Activities in Waters ,of U. S. 2.31
and Wetlands (Scenario 2.14)
-------
CONTENTS (CONTD)
SECTION
C. COMPARISONS 2.35
1. Introduction 2.35
2. Matrix and Supporting Information 2.36
D. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE 2.38
"WITHOUT ACTION" ALTERNATIVE (Scenario 2.15)
1. Natural Environment 2.38
2. Man-Made Environment 2.57
E. SUMMARY OF SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE 2.63
"WITHOUT ACTION" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment 2.63
2. Man-Made Environment 2.67
SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE 2.68
"PERMIT EXISTING AND NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
(Scenario 2.11)
1. Natural Environment 2.68
2. Man-Made Environment 2.68
G. SECONDARY EFFECTS OF "PERMIT EXISTING AND 2.79
NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment 2.79
2. Man-Made Environment 2.83
H. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE "REQUIRE 2.85
PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FOR NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
(Scenario 2.12)
1. Natural Environment 2.85
2. Man-Made Environment 2.88
I. SUMMARY OF SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE "REQUIRE 2.88
PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FOR NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
J. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE 2.89
"REDUCE WATER USAGE" ALTERNATIVE
(Scenario 2.13)
1. Water Quantity 2.89
2. Aquatic Biota 2.89
iii
-------
CONTENTS (CONTD)
SECTION
K. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS 2.90
OF THE "CONTROL ACTIVITIES IN WATERS OF THE
U.S. AND WETLANDS" ALTERNATIVE (Scenario 2.14)
1. Water Quantity 2.90
2. Resource Use 2.91
CITED REFERENCES 3.1
ILLUSTRATIONS
1.1 Phosphate Rock Supply-Demand Projections 1.3'
1.2 Typical Profile in Study Area 1.7
1.3 Vegetative and Ambient Flourides in Polk County 1.12
1.4 Surface Formations of Study Area 1.15
1.5 Cross Section of General Structure and Stratigraphy 1.16
through Portion of Study Area
1.6 Topographic Features of Study Area 1.17
1.7 Most Probable Sinkhole Regions in Study Area 1.18
1.8 Chemical Types of Water 1.29
1.9 Concentrations of Sulfate in Water of Upper 1.31
Floridan Aquifer
1.10 Dissolved Solids in Water from Upper Part of 1.31
Floridan Aquifer
1.11 Generalized Water Budget for Central Phosphate District 1.34
1.12 Generalized Hydrogeologic North-South Section 1.37
1.13 Seasonal Fluctuations of Potentiometric Surface in 1.38
Observation Well Tapping Floridan Aquifer in North-
central Hardee County 1.38
1.14 Change in Potentiometric Surface of Floridan Aquifer, 1.39
May 1969 to May 1975
iv
-------
ILLUSTRATIONS (CONTD)
1.15 Average Uranium Concentrations as U«0g in Typical 1.49
Central Florida Phosphate District Profile
2,1 Flowchart of Methodology for Environmental 2.2
Impact Assessment
2.2 Projected Life and Production Rates for 2.8
Central Florida Phosphate Mines
2.3 Cumulative Projected Production Estimates for 2.9
Central Florida Phosphate Industry
2.4 Phosphate Rock Supply-Demand Projections 2.10
2.5 Average Monthly Rainfall at Six Locations 2.29
in Study Area
2.6 Curve of Cumulative Rainfall Versus Evaporation 2.29
During Average Year in Study Area
2.7 Curve of Cumulative Rainfall Versus Evaporation 2.30
During Year with 10-Year 24-Hour Storm
2.8 Curve of Cumulative Rainfall Versus Evaporation 2.30
During Year with 25-Year 24-Hour Storm
2.9 U.S. Corps of Engineers Boundary of Jurisdiction 2.33
Under Section 404 of FWPCA for W.R. Grace Hookers
Prairie Mine
2,10 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 1985, 2.65
under Scenario 2.15
2.11 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000, 2.66
under Scenario 2.15
2.12 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 1985, 2.80
under Scenario 2.11'
2.13 Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000, 2.82
under Scenario 2.11'
v
-------
TABLES
1.1 Estimated Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources 1.3
in 7-County Area
1.2 Central Florida Phosphate Industry 1.4
Payroll, 1967-76
1.3 Phosphate Industry Ad Valorem Taxes Paid, 1.5
1972-1976
1.4 Phosphate Industry School Taxes Paid 1.5
1.5 Phosphate Rock End Uses, 1975 1.6
1.6 Phosphate Industry Activities (Major Companies Only) 1.9
in Study Area
1.7 Countywide Averages for Annual Geometric Mean 1.11
of 24-Hour TSP Data
1.8 Countywide Averages for Annual Arithmetic 1.11
Average of 24-Hour SO Data
1.9 Summary of Point and Area Source Emissions 1.13
in Study Area
1.10 Surface Formations of Study Area 1.15
1.11 Important Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and 1.23
Mammals of Study Area
1.12 Threatened and Endangered Plants Known to Occur 1.26
in 7-County Study Area
1.13 Summary of Streamflow Characteristics 1.35
1.14 Total Present and Projected Water Demands by County 1.41
1.15 Study Area Aquatic Species Designated Endangered, 1.44
Threatened, Rare, or of Special Concern
1.16 Species of Commercial and/or Recreational Importance 1.46
1.17 Aquatic Nuisance and Pest Species in Study Area 1.47
1.18 Radium Levels Associated with Phosphate Chemical 1.51
Processing
VI
-------
TABLES (CONTD)
1.19 Representative Radium-226 Concentrations in 1.53
7^County Study Area Environment
1.20 Cancer Mortality Rates in Central Florida 1.54
Phosphate Region, 1950-69
1.21 Population by State and Seven Counties in 1.54
Study Area, 1970 and 1975
1.22 Percentage of Growth by Natural Increase and 1.55
Migration, 1970-75.
1.23 Median Age of .Population by County, 1960 and 1970 1.55
1.24 Distribution of Income, 1973, by Study Area and 1.56
County of Residence
1.25 1975 Effective Buying Income and 1970 Median 1.57
Total Income per Family
1.26 Percentage Changes: Employment/Unemployment 1--57
1.27 Industrial Mix in 7-County Region and U.S., 1.59
1960 and 1970
1.28 Alternative Population Projections by County, 1.60
1980, 1985, 1990, 2000
1.29 Alternative Projections by County Shares in 1.61
Regional Total Population
1.30 generalized Land Use, 7-County Study Area, 1975 1.61
1.31 7-County Study Area Generalized Land Use, 1.63
1975 arid 2000
1.32 Extent of Recreational Areas in Seven Counties 1.66
of Study Area
2.1 As3essment of World Phosphate Reserves and Resources 2.11
2.2 Estimated Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources in 2.12
7-County Study Area
2.3 Estimated Phosphate Industry Water Demands, on Floridan 2.12
Aquifer, 1976-2000
2.4 Summary of Projected Acreages Estimates, Central 2.13
Florida Phosphate Industry
2.5 Summary of Projected Estimates of Mining and 2.13
Reclamation Acreages by River Basin
vii
-------
TABLES (CONTD)
2.6 Summary of Projected Production and Reclamation 2.14
Acreage Projections by County and Scenario
2.7 Summary of Projected Reclamation Acreage Projections 2.14
to Land and Water by County and Scenario
2.8 Environmental Impact Summary 2.37
2.9 Ranked Alternatives by Least Regret 2.37
2.10 Radium-226 Concentrations in Ground Water in Mined 2.50
Regions of Central Florida
2.11 Radium-226 in Ground Water in Unmined Mineralized and 2.51
Nonmineralized Regions of Central Florida
2.12 Displacement Areas, 1985 and 2000 2,58
2.13 Disturbed Archeological and Historical Sites 2.59
2.14 Projected Economic Impact of Central Florida 2.61
Phosphate Industry From Domestic Mining
Only on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
2.15 Phosphate Rock Production Forecast for Scenarios 2.79
2.15, 2.11, and 2.11'
2.16 Projected Economic Impact of Phosphate Industry 2.84
on Study Area by Scenarion, 1980-2000
PLATES (FOLD OUT)
1. Relationship of Existing and Projected Phosphate
Industry Activities to Waters of U.S. and Wetland
.2. River Basins, River Segments, Springs, and Point
Source Discharges
3. Environmental Effects Matrix for Central Florida
Phosphate Industry
4. Relationship of Phosphate Industry Land Use.
Management Projections to Present Land Use
5. Scenario Assessment Summary
viii
-------
SUMMARY SHEET FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
STATEMENT ON THE
CENTRAL.FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
( t ) Draft
(X ) Final
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV
345 Courtland Street, N.E..
Atlanta, Georgia 30308
1. Name of Action ( X ) Administrative ( ) Legislative
2. Description of Action;, This Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
was prepared by the Region IV office of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) as the lead Federal Agency. The purpose of this Statement
is to, fulfill the requirements of the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA) and the EPA January 11, 1977 regulations: Preparation of
Environmental Impact Statements for New Source NPDES Permits (40 CFR
6.900). NEPA requires all Federal agencies to assess the impacts that
would occur following a major Federal Action that has been determined
to result in a significant impact on the human environment.
There are currently seventeen potential New Source mines in .Polk,
Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto Counties. Four NPOES
Applicants have been determined to be New Sources. Five additional
New Source determinations are likely during 1978. The other New
Source Mines are projected to make application between 1980 and 1995.
Issuance of New Source NPDES Permits to each of these mines .will
probably be determined a major Federal action which has a significant
effect on the human environment, thus requiring an Environmental
Impact Statement.
The purpose of this Areawide EIS is to assess the arewide and cumulative
effects of the industry, and provide the bases for developing the
site specific Environmental Impact Statements. It would not have been
practicable to develop the areawide and cumulative effects on the entire
Central Florida phosphate industry in each of the site specific studies.
S-l
-------
3. Summary of Major Environmental Impacts
A. Land surface will be altered by surface mining and reclamation;
soils and vegetation removed from the mining and associated
areas; wildlife habitat and populations reduced; and there will
be potential adverse impacts on air and water quality.
B. Livestock forage will be reduced during mining operations, and
productivity of the mining area will be reduced even after
reclamation.
C. Population and employment in the region will increase and the
socioeconomic infrastructure stressed.
D. Recreational resources will be reduced, archeologic values
may be destroyed, and esthetic aspects will change.
E. Redistribution of radionuclides, which result in an increase
of human exposure, will occur.
F. The quantity of available groundwater will be reduced.
G. There will be an irrevocable commitment of resources,
including phosphorus and fossil fuel.
4. Alternatives Considered
A. The development of the phosphate mining and processing industry
associated with the issuance of National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) (Section 402) and Section 404 of
PL 92-500 permits to existing and new source phosphate facilities,
all of which would meet effluent and receiving water standards
applicable as of the date of the contractor's proposal to EPA;
Florida Department of Environmental Regulations (DER) and EPA
permits to air sources meeting requirements of the Clean Air
Act and regulations promulgated pursuant to the Act, including
but not limited to nonsignificant deterioration requirements,
standards of performance for new stationary sources; and other
local state and federal permits applicable as of the date of
the contractor's proposal to EPA. Current reclamation requirements
are also to be included.
B. Process Modifications for New Sources
1) Elimination of slime ponds
S-2
-------
2) Chemical processing of wet rock (eliminate drying process)
3) Dry conveyor for matrix from mine to beneficiation
4) Recovery of fluoride from recirculated process water,
'including scrubber water
5) Uranium recovery from all phosphoric acid
6) Impervious lining for recirculated process water ponds
at chemical plants
C. Reduced Water Usages
1) Existing Facilities
a) Chemical Processing (including elemental phosphorus
and animal feed ingredient plants). Complete
recirculation of all cooling and process water.
Design for containment of cooling and process water
for up to 10-year, 24-hour maximum rainfall event to
meet BPT effluent limitations.
b) Mining and Beneficiation
Complete recirculation of all water, except surface
runoff from undisturbed areas. Design for containment
of 10-year, 24-hour rainfall event.
2) New Facilities
a) Chemical Processing (including elemental phosphorus and
animal feed ingredient plants). Complete recirculation
of all cooling and process water. Design for containment
of cooling and process water for up to 25-year, 24-hour
maximum rainfall event. Discharges as a result of
rainfall exceeding the equivalent of a 25-year, 24-hour
rainfall event to meet Standards of Performance for
New Sources.
b) Mining and Beneficiation
Complete recirculation of all water, except surface
runoff from undisturbed areas. Design for containment
of 25-year, 24-hour rainfall event.
S-3
-------
D. 1) No Mining or development of facilities for processing
(beneficiation or chemical processing) in either waters
of the United States or wetlands as defined By EPA and
the Corps of Engineers in regulations promulgated
pursuant to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
as amended, Section 404.
2) Any disturbed wetlands are to be restored to provide
at least an equivalent habitat for any species on the
important Species List for which habitat existed prior
to mining. Restoration is to be accomplished so that
no more than 10 percent of such habitat is destroyed
at any one time.
E. No development of phosphate mining and processing beyond
that associated with the issuances of section 402 and 404
permits for exising sources, all of which would meet effluent
and receiving water standards applicable as of the date of
the contractor's proposal to EPA; Florida DER and EPA permits
to air sources meeting requirements of the Clean Air Act and
regulations promulgated pursuant to the Act, including but not
limited to nonsignificant deterioration requirements, standards
of performance for new stationary sources; and other appropriate
local, state, and federal permits applicable as of the date of
the contractor's proposal to EPA. This scenario constitutes
the "no-action" alternative as required by the NEPA.
5. The following Federal, State, and local agencies and interested
groups submitted written comments on this impact statement:
Federal Agencies
Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District Department of the Interior
Department of Agriculture Department of the Air Force
Department of Health, Education
' and Welfare
Members of Congress
Honorable Lawton Chiles Honorable Richard Stone
United States Senate United States Senate
S-4
-------
State
Dept. of Environmental Regulation
Dept. of Natural Resources
Dept. of Administration
Geological Survey
Game and Freshwater Fish
Commission
Dept. of Commerce
Dept. of Health and
Rehabilitative Services
Interest Groups
The Fertilizer Institute
Florida Phosphate Council
Florida Audubon Society
Manasota 88
Citizens Against River Pollution
Save Our Bays Association, Inc.
Izaac Walton League of America
Florida Division
Florida Chapter of the Wildlife
Society
Local and Regional
Sarasota County Commission
Manatee Co. Health Dept.
Sarasota Co. Environmental
Control Dept.
Tampa Bay Regional Planning
Council
Southwest Florida Regional
Planning Council
Manatee Co. Planning & Dev. Dept.
6. Copies of the Final EIS, along with supporting documents (Working Papers)
have also been sent to the following repositories, where they are available
for review:
Lakeland Public Library
100 Lake Morton Drive
Lakeland,,FL 33801
Bartow Public Library
315 E. Parket Street
Bartow, FL 33830
Wauchula - Ausley Memorial Library
131 N. 8th Avenue
Box 657
Wauchula, FL 33873
Arcadia - DeSoto County Public Library
519 W. Hickory Street
Arcadia, FL 33821
S-5
-------
Ft. Myers - Lee County Free Library
3355 Fowler Street
Ft. Myers, FL 33901
Sarasota Public Library
701 Plaza de Santo Domingo
Sarasota, FL 33577
Bradenton - Manatee County Library System
417 12th Street W
Bradenton, FL 33505
Tampa - Tampa-Hillsborough County Public Library System
900 N. Ashley
Tampa, Florida 33602
EPA Region IV Library
345 Courtland Street
Atlanta, Georgia 30308
7. This Final EIS was made available to the EPA Office of Federal
activities and to the public in December, 1978.
S-6
-------
SECTION 1
BACKGROUND OF PROPOSED ACTION
A. DESCRIPTION OF CENTRAL FLORIDA PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY
1. Historical Background
The Central Florida Phosphate District encompasses phosphate deposits
underlying an area of approximately 5180 square kilometers (2000 square miles)
in Polk, Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto counties (Cathcart 1971).
The first discovery of Florida deposits was in 1879 near Hawthorn
north of the Central District, followed closely by the discovery of river peb-
bles and large quantities of phosphatized vertebrate fossils in 1881 along the
Peace River.
Levels of early phosphate production, which involved the use of hand
labor, were very low. By 1888, however, production had shifted from river de-
posits to the more accessible land pebble deposits because of increasing demand
and the relative ease with which they could be mined.
Continuing technological developments have marked the history of the
phosphate industry in Florida, allowing increased production and more complete
recovery of the phosphatic material from the mined ore. Among the most signifi-
cant early improvements affecting mining and beneficiation operations were
dredges and draglines. Finally, the introduction of the flotation process im*-
proved the recovery of fine-grained phosphate formerly discarded with sand and
clay waste material.
Polk County is the site of most of the current phosphate industry
activity, but several chemical plants and one mine are in operation in Hills-
borough and Manatee counties. A large percentage of the mining facilities that
are planned will be built in Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto counties
as the richer phosphate deposits in Polk County are depleted.
The phosphate industry currently owns either the land or mineral rights
on enough phosphate deposits to continue the present rate of production beyond
1.1
-------
the year 2000. The extent of the phosphate industry is depicted on Plate 1
in the map pocket. This map shows areas that have been subject to mining
activity, those that are permitted at this time, and those with pending per-
mits and areas projected to be actively considered by the year 2000; and
locates existing chemical plants and sites of the richest phosphate deposits
in the study area. The chemical plants are expected to remain^in their cur-
rent locations; future expansion will affect primarily the mining and benefl-
ciation activities.
2. Production Data
In 1892, the production of phosphate rock in the Central Florida
District was approximately 280,000 metric (308,000 short) tons (Catheart 1971).
Production had increased to 3,350,000 metric (3,700,000 short) tons by 1930,
and it continued to increase with some market-induced fluctuations to the cur-
rent level of 34,500,000 metric (38,000,000 short) tons in 1976. In 1976,
total U.S. production was 44,136,000 metric (48,662,000 short) tons and the
total worldwide was 105,666,000 metric (116,500,000 short) tons (Stowasser
1977b). The importance of the Central Florida Phosphate District to the U.S.
and the rest of the world is obvious; it accounted for approximately 80 percent
of U.S. production and 33 percent of world production in 1976. The remainder
of the U.S. prpduction comes from northern Florida (outside the study area),
North Carolina, Tennessee, and some western states — principally Montana,
Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. U.S. production projections, along with projected
domestic demands, are shown in Figure 1.1 (Stowasser 1977a). It can be seen
that the U.S. could be a net exporter of phosphate rock through the year 2000,
but that the demand would likely exceed the domestic supply before the year
2010, requiring that phosphate rock be imported to satisfy all requirements.
A more detailed look at the remaining phosphate deposits in central Florida
was taken by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1977 and appears in Table 1.1. In
the short term, Polk County will continue to supply a large portion of the
phosphate rock necessary to meet U.S. demand. Eventually, as economic condi-
tions change and the more readily available rock is depleted, Manatee and
Hardee county deposits (some of which are currently classified as subeconomic
resources) may become the source of phosphate rock for future mining operations.
1.2
-------
80
d eo
s:
cc
S
>-
"x.
§ 40
Bureau of Mines Data: 1975-2000
Extensions Beyond 2000
United States
Study Area
70
60.
50
40
30
20
North Carolina
Western States
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995 2000
YEAR
2005
2010
2015
Figure 1.1. Phosphate Rock Supply-Demand Projections
(Stowasser 1977a)
Table 1.1. Estimated Phosphate Rock Reserves and Resources
in 7-County Study Area*
County
Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Sarasota
Charlotte
Total
Recoverable
Measured
Reserves
[metric (short)
402.7
181.4
164,2
176.0
16.3
940.6
(444)
(200)
(181)
(194)
(18)
(1,037)
Phosphate Rock
Measured Sub-
economic Resources
tons in millions]
95.2 (105)
13.6 (15)
149.7 (165)
299.3 (330)
63.5 (70)
621.3 (685)
*Stowasser 1977b.
20
10
1.3
-------
3. Socioeconomic Impact
Mining in the 7-county region employed 4,453 workers in 1960 and
5,047 in 1970, an increase of 13.3 percent. Data supplied by the Florida
Phosphate Council (Table 1.2) include 1967-76 employment and salary data for
all aspects of the industry's activity, not just mining. Employment showed
only moderate growth, while payroll grew substantially. The divergence was
due to increased earnings of employees. Mining has experienced moderate growth
in the recent past. Growth from 1960 to 1976 tended to average 1 percent per
year. However, there were significant variations in the trend. During this
period, real income of employees increased, while actual payrolls increased
at a substantial rate. Mining has not appeared to have played a significant
role in the growth of the region since 1960. This fact, added to the slow
growth of tourism and agriculture, indicates that growth has been driven by
other industries — primarily services. It should be noted that this is the
trend for the nation as a whole.
Table 1.2. Central Florida Phosphate Industry Payroll, 1967-76*
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Mean
Employment
8,048
7,309
6,615
7,065
6,643
6,673
7,262
8,067
8,816
8,837
Payroll
(000)
56,008
55,588
51,013
55,781
57,140
62,358
71 ,377
87,576
109,985
119,250
Avg.
Earnings
6,959
7,605
7,712
7,895
8,602
9,345
9,328
10,856
12,475
13,494
'9,477
Price
Index
100.0
104.2
109.8
116.3
121.3
125.3
133.1
147.7
161.2
170.5
Avg. real
Earnings
6,959
7,298
7,024
6,788
7,092
7,458
7,385
7,350
7,739
7,914
7,301
*Florida Phosphate Council personal communication (1977)
The phosphate industry is a major constituent of the regional economy
and will play a significant role in any economic assessment of the area. The
U.S. Bureau of Mines estimated in 1974'that:
1.4
-------
• Each new job in the phosphate industry generates 6.155
other new jobs.
• Each dollar of income earned in the phosphate industry
generated $3.363 of other income.
• Each dollar of increased phosphate industry activity
will generate $3.814 of other economic activity.
The phosphate industry also contributes considerably to the tax
base of the counties in which it is located. Recent taxes paid by the industry
are summarized in Tables 1.3 and 1.4.
Table 1.3. Phosphate Industry Ad Valorem Taxes Paid, 1972-76*
Year
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
County Ad
Valorem
Revenues
$5,174,586
5,008,291
4,040,700
6,184,375
8,466,411
Production
Tons
(000,000)**
32
34
35
39
NA
Revenues/
1,000,000
Tons
$0.1617
0.1473
0.1443
0.1586
Price
Index
125.3
133.1
147.7
161.2
Real Revenue/
1 ,000,000 Tons
(1967 = 100)
$0.1291
0.1108
0.0977
0.0984
*Florida Phosphate Council personal communication (1977).
**Metric
Table 1.4. Phosphate Industry School Taxes Paid, 1972-75d
Year
1972
1973
1974
1975
Mean
Ad Valorem
Tax Revenues
$2,720,960
2,579,880
2,590,113
3,161,730
Production
Tons
(000,000)**
32
34
35
39
Revenue/
1,000,000
Tons
$0.085
0.0759
0.074
0.0811
Price
Index
125.3
133.1
147.1
161.2
Real Revenue/
1,000,000 Tons
(1967 = 100)
$0.0679
0.057
0.0501
0.0503
0.0563
*Florida Phosphate Council personal communication (1977).
**Metric
1.5
-------
On a national level, the industry contributes to the improvement of
the balance of trade: about one-fourth of the rock mined in the study area is
exported.
Table 1.5. Phosphate Rock End Uses, 1975'
Product
Fertilizer
Detergents
Animal feeds
Food products
Other
Total
Metric Tons
[Thousands (Short Tons)]
24,484
2,913
1,396
248
1,985
30,989
(26,995)
(3.212)
(1,539)
(273)
(2,188)
(34,167)
*Stowasser 1977a
4. Phosphate Uses
Phosphate rock has
many uses, but by far the most
important in the U.S. is in
the production of chemical
fertilizers. In 1975, fer-
tilizer production consumed
about 80 percent of the rock
used domestically. Uses other
than agricultural involve leav-
ening agents, water-softening
products, cleansing products,
plasticizers, insecticides,
beverages, ceramics, catalysts
for oil refining processes, and dental cements (Ruhlman 1956). End uses in
1975 are summarized in Table 1.5.
The major portion of phosphate rock production in the U.S. is ex-
pected to continue to be for fertilizer production.
Study-area chemical plants process approximately 75 percent of the
rock mined in the study area at least into elemental phosphorus or phosphoric
acid if not into finished products. The remaining 25 percent is exported,
usually as dry rock, to processing plants in other states or to foreign coun-
tries (Sweeney and Hasslacher 1970).
5. Industry Activities
The existence of the industry is totally dependent on the mining of
the phosphate rock. In its processed form, the phosphate rock not only accounts
for a significant portion of the final sales of the industry but is the basic
material from which all other phosphate products are made.
1.6
-------
Figure 1.2. Typical Profile in Study
Area (Fountain and Zellars
1972)
Florida land-pebble phos-
phate deposits are characterized by
pebbles and fine phosphatic sand dis-
persed in a nonphosphatic, sandy clay.
This matrix, varying in thickness from
1 to 50 feet but averaging about 16
feet, is covered by an overburden,of
quartz sand and clay that averages
20 feet in thickness. Figure 1.2 is
a typical profile of the phosphate
ore and overburden.
The standard mining practice
in the Florida land-pebble phosphate
fields is to strip the overburden and
mine the phosphate matrix with drag-
lines. Electric-powered walking drag-
lines with 35- to 49-eubic-yard buckets
work in cuts varying from 150 to 250
feet in width, from a few hundred yards
to a mile or more in length, and from
50 to 70 feet in depth. A dragline
stacks the overburden on unmined ground adjacent to the initial cut. As successive
cuts are made by the dragline, overburden is cast into adjacent mined-out cuts.
As each cut is stripped of overburden and then mined, the ore is stacked in a
suction well or sluice pit that has been prepared on unmined ground. Water under
high pressure is used to produce from the matrix a slurry that is about 40 per-
cent solids. The slurry is then pumped via pipe to the washer plant. In this
manner, a typical operation annually mines about 400 acres of land, removes
13,000,000 cubic yards of overburden, and mines 9,000,000 yards of matrix. As
this mining progresses, mined-out areas are used for the disposal of tailings
and slimes as well as for overburden. One ton of phosphatic clay and one ton
of sand tailings must be disposed of for each ton of marketable phosphate rock
produced. Some of the sand tailings and overburden is used to construct retain-
ing dams in mined-out areas, behind which phosphatic clay slimes settle and de-
water.
1.7
-------
Water is used in the beneficiation process and as a transportation
medium. The phosphate industry uses fresh water from deep wells as well as
reclaimed water from slime-settling ponds. To produce 1 ton of marketable
phosphate rock requires approximately 10,000 gallons of water; of that, about
85 percent is recycled.
Beneficiation methods differ slightly, depending on screen-size
analysis of the feed; the ratio of washer rock to flotation feed; the propor-
tions of phosphate, sand, and clay in the matrix; and equipment preference.
Through a series of screens in closed circuit with hammermills and logwashers,
the matrix is broken down to permit separation of the sand and clay from the
phosphate-bearing pebbles. Three concentrates of marketable phosphate rock
are produced: a very coarse pebble, a coarse fraction, and a fine fraction.
The washed, oversized pebble fraction is a final product. The coarse fraction
is called the coarse feed from which a coarse concentrate is obtained by grav-
ity and flotation processes. The tailings or waste from this fraction is used
in dam construction or land reclamation. The fine fraction is processed through
a flotation section to recover a fine concentrate. The waste, a clay slime, is
impounded in areas that have been mined. Up to two-thirds of the mined area
can be committed to these clay-slime holding areas. The marketable phosphate
rock derived from this process is either sold as a final product or used as a
raw material in the production of a variety of industrial products such as wet-
process phosphoric acid, normal superphosphate, triple superphosphate, ammonium
phosphates, elemental phosphorus, defluorinated phosphate rock, and dicalcium
phosphate.
Table 1.6 summarizes companies active in the study area in 1976 and
their phosphate-related activities. The current rate of mining involves 2000
hectares (4940 acres) per year.
Current mining practice involves reclamation of the strip-mined areas.
In most cases, the actual mine pits can be reclaimed to some uses within 2 to 3
years; the reclamation of areas dedicated to slime-holding ponds, however, gener-
ally takes longer because of the slow settling rate of the clays found in some
of the mined areas. Settling may take as long as 10 years. Even then, the uses
to which the land may be put are restricted to light-load applications such as
pasture or other agricultural activities.
1.1
-------
Table 1.6. Phosphate Industry Activities (Major Companies Only)
in Study Area*
Company
Brews ter
Swift
USS Agri-Chem
Gardinier
Borden
T/A Minerals
Electro-phos
IMC
Farmland Ind
Mobil
Agrico
W. R. Grace
Roys ter
Conserv
CF
Location
Lonesome
Haynesworth
Silver City
Watson
Bartow
Ft. Meade
Rock land
East Tampa
Ft. Meade
Palmetto
Tenoroc
Plant City
Mulberry
Bartow
Clear Springs
Kingsford
Noralyn
New wales
Bartow
Nichols
Nichols
Ft. Meade
Pierce
South Pierce
Payne Creek
Saddle Creek
Fort Green
Bartow
Hooker's Prairie
Bonny Lake
Bartow
Nichols
Plant City
Bartow
Activity
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Mining, beneficiation, drying, grinding, normal superphosphate, sulfuric acid
Mining, beneficiation
Drying, grinding, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, nitrogen-phosphate grades
Drying, grinding, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, fluorine
Mining, beneficiation, drying
products
Normal superphosphate, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-
phosphate grades, fluorine products, furnace slag
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate grades
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Animal feed grades
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Drying, elemental phosphorus
Mining, beneficiation
Mining, beneficiation, drying, grinding
Mining, beneficiation, drying, grinding
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, superphosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-
phosphate grades, animal feed grades
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate grades,
sulfate
Calcining, drying, grinding, elemental phosphorus
Mining, beneficiation, drying
Mining, beneficiation
Beneficiation, drying grinding
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, fluorine products
Mining, beneficiation
Mining, beneficiation
Mining, beneficiation
Drying, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate
Mining, beneficiation
Mining, beneficiation, drying
ammonium
grades
Grinding, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate grades
Drying, Sulfuric acid, phisphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, triple superphosphate, nitrogen-phosphate grades,
grades
Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, nitrogen-phosphate grades, fluorine grades
grades
fluorine
*McNeill 1977a; Florida Department of Environmental Regulation 1977.
Waste products generated by the phosphate industry include the clay
slime and sand resulting from the ore beneficiation; phosphate, sulfate, fluo-
ride, and suspended solids in wastewater effluents; and air emissions (primarily
from the chemical plants) of SO-, acid mist, fluoride, and dust. The industry's
activities redistribute radioactive material (primarily uranium-238 and its decay
products) found with the phosphate ore, causing some changes in existing back-
ground levels of radiation. The industry's air and water emissions are con-
trolled by collection devices or other treatment to meet state and federal
effluent standards. Scrubbers usually control particulates, fluorides, and S09
in air emissions. Chemical Plant wastewater is treated with two stage liming
and settling to meet effluent standards. Recently, reclamation procedures
have been modified to provide radioactively clean top dressing on land intended
for human occupation.
1.9
-------
A more detailed description of reclamation practices can be found in
Volume VIII (Volume I - NTIS; see Volume III of this EIS for explanation of
relationship of working papers to NTIS papers) of the working papers (TI 1977h).
B. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Atmosphere
a. Climate/Weather
The climate of the study area is subtropical. Annual temperature
averages 22.5°C (72-73°F), and monthly averages range from 168C (61°F) in Janu-
ary to 28°C (82°F) in July and August. Seasonal and diurnal variations are more
pronounced in the inland areas, which are not under the moderating influence of
the Gulf of Mexico. The area's annual rainfall averages 135 centimeters (53
inches), ranging from the winter monthly low of 4 to 5 centimeters (1.5 to 2.0
inches) to the summer monthly high of 20 to 21 centimeters (8.0 to 8.3 inches).
Over one-half of the annual rainfall occurs during the summer "rainy" season,
which includes the months of June through September. The record 24-hour rain-
fall events are usually associated with tropical storms or hurricanes. Thunder-
storms are common, mainly during the summer. Winds in the area are usually
moderate but are somewhat higher in the coastal areas because of the reliable
land-sea breezes. The monthly average for winds ranges from Tampa's 3.3 to 4.5
meters per second (7.4 to 10.0 miles per hour) to Lakeland's 2.5 to 3.5 meters
per second (5.5 to 7.8 miles per hour). Because of the area's flat terrain
and steady winds, Incidents of extreme air pollution in westcentral Florida are
not common and occur primarily only in heavily populated or industrialized areas
such as Tampa.
b. Air Quality
The most important air pollutants emitted by, the phosphate industry
are dust, SO-, and fluoride. Air quality standards exist for dust and S02,
and emission standards exist for all three.
Ambient dust levels reported to the state from 1972 through 1976 are
presented in Table 1.7. The only trends that appear meaningful are the recent
decreases in Polk and Manatee counties. Data collected by CF Industries in
Hardee County from mid-1975 to mid-1976 showed levels between 20 and 40 micro-
grams per cubic meter.
1.10
-------
Table 1.7- Countywide Averages for Annual Geometric Mean of 24-Hour
TSP Data*
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hillsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
Micrograms per Cubic Meter
1972
--
50
51
40
--
1973
21
43
51
46
64
37
1974
30
44
53
45
71
45
1975
27
52
50
40
64
44
1976f
26
53
51
36
49'
42
*Chadbourne (1977).
fUp to mid-1976.
Table 1.8 presents SO data on file with the state for 1972-76. The
EPA uncovered problems concerning the sampling method used to collect these
data that indicated that the reported levels were low in most cases; actual
levels could have been 2 to 3 times higher than those reported. SO- data col-
lected by CF Industries in Hardee County during 1975-76 showed that the 24-hour
levels in that area averaged less than 13 micrograms per cubic meter.
Table 1.8. Countywide Averages for Annual Arithmetic Average of
24-Hour S02 Data
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hill sborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
Micrograms per Cubic Meter
1972
--
--
17
11
--
--
1973
0
0
29
10
21
3
1974
--
0
24
5
42
1
1975
--
5
15
3
10
1
1976**
0
1
12
2
7
1
-- No data.
* Chadbourne (1977).
**
Data reported to mid-1976.
1.11
-------
Polk County ambient fluoride data (Figure 1.3 ) showed a steady de-
crease from 1965 through 1970 as the phosphate industry applied controls to its
fluoride emissions. However, annual fluoride averages in the air have remained
below 1 microgram per cubic meter throughout Polk County since 1970, and the
1976 data reported through mid-year showed that average levels throughout the
study area were at or below 1 microgram per cubic meter.
Average Daily Fluoride Emission
Vegetative Fluoride
1964 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Figure 1.3. Vegetative and Fluorides Emissions in Polk County (Tessitore 1976)
Figure 1.3 also shows vegetative fluoride levels from 1964 through
1974, resulting from industry emissions in Polk County. Vegetative levels are
not directly related to ambient levels; they are also dependent on rainfall
frequency (1974 was a dry year).
Table 1.9 summarizes the poi.nl and area source emissions of dust and
SO for 1974 and 1976. It can be seen that the population-oriented area sources
have increased. They are expected to continue this trend. Point sources except
utilities had almost completely complied with emission standards by the end .of
1976; so future increase in point source emissions is expected to come from
utilities because of high sulfur fuels and anticipated increases in capacity.
1.12
-------
Table 1.9. Summary of Point and Area Source Emissions in Study Area
County
Charlotte
Area sources
Point sources
DeSoto
Area sources
Point sources
Hardee
Area sources
Point sources
Hi 1 1 sborough
Area sources
Point sources
Mana tee
Area sources
Point sources
Polk
Area sources
Point sources
Sarasota
Area sources
Po i p t sources
Total
Area sources
Point sources
Al 1 sources
Metric Tons per Year
1974
Parti cu 1 a tes
1 ,835
32
1 ,644
29
2,556
37
12,382
29,358
3,091
399
10,983
31 ,125
2,806
115
35,297
61 ,095
96,392
S02
141
40
65
85
72
114
2,559
267,620
326
746
841
119,010
328
175
4,332
387,790
392,122
1976
Par t i cul a tes
1 ,86.2
32
1 ,656
29
2,572
37
12,865
7,909
3,121
614
11 ,199
8,127
2,901
115
36,176
16,863
53,039
S02
'147
40
67
85
73
114
2,695
238,649
'348
5,593
901
45,080
349
175
4,580
289,736
294,316
Overall, the ambient levels of dust and SCL are expected to increase
in the 7-county study area between 1976 and 2000. The 1976 fluoride emissions
by the phosphate industry were reported to be 315 metric (346 short) tons. This
level is not expected to change much before 2000.
Land
a.
Physical Environment
1) Geology
The. great projection of the North American continent dividing the
Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico is known as the Floridian plateau (Cooke
1945). This plateau trends N 15° W and supports peninsular Florida, a gently
emergent peninsula with broad continental shelves to the west and .east (Alt-
schuler et al 1964). This peninsula, little more than 99 meters (325 feet)
1.13
-------
above sea level, lies predominantly east of the axis of the Floridian plateau.
The peninsula and plateau terminate at the Florida Keys and Straits of Florida,
respectively.
The surface geology of Florida has been extensively mapped by Cooke
(1945). Figure 1.4 sketches the surface geology of the study area, Table 1.10
defines the surface formations, and Figure 1.5 shows the general structure and
stratigraphy of section A-A' of Figure 1.4.
The immediate surface (Recent) at most places in Florida is under-
lain by Pleistocene deposits, of which two principal kinds are defined. The
most widely distributed, which is included in the study area, is a series of
seven sandy formations corresponding to seven different stages of sea level
and generally regarded as terraces. They appear to record the oscillations
of sea level corresponding to interglacial and glacial stages and are defined
primarily by their topographic relations, the higher terraces being older than
the lower ones. The other type of deposit, which underlies the East Coast and
the southern part of the state, is divided into three contemporaneous marine
formations, all containing marine shells.
The oldest rocks exposed at the surface in the study area are those
of the Suwannee limestone formation of Oligocene age (Figure 1.4 and Table 1.10)
in extreme northern Polk and Hillsborough counties. The next oldest formation
in the area is the very pure Ocala limestone of Eocene age (the defining forma-
tion for the Ocala uplift), which lies unconformably below the Suwannee lime-
stone. Rocks of the Paleocene epoch, next oldest epoch, appear to be absent.
Underlying the rocks of the Tertiary period are those of the Cretaceous period
of the Mesozoic era, and beneath those are rocks of the Paleozoic era. The
core of the Floridian plateau is probably Precambrian and is doubtlessly com-
posed of ancient metamorphic rocks like those of the Piedmont region of CTeorgia
(Cooke 1945) .
The land surface of the study area rises monotonously inland from the
Gulf of Mexico across the Coastal Lowlands marine plain to essentially north-
south elongated ridges and bars of low relief which characterize the Central
Highlands. These ridges, named after nearby cities (viz., Lake Wales, Winter
Haven, and Lakeland), are considered by Vernon (1970) to be barrier islands,
1.14
-------
CREST OF THE OCALA UPLIFT
1 V- """I
-------
I
28°15
28°00'N
27°45'N
.PLIOCENE AND YOUNGER
27°30'N
MILES
K 50
100
150
METERS
Figure 1.5. Cross Section of General Structure and Stratigraphy
through Portion of Study Area (Altschuler et al 1964)
(Location of this section shown in Figure 1.4)
beach ridges, or spits formed along ancient shorelines; together with the
poorly drained and virtually undissected plains along the coast and the slightly
rolling alluvial plains and shallow valleys of the Peace, Alafia, and Hills-
borough rivers, they constitute the three principal types of terrain found in
the study area (Figure 1.6).
Karsts, or sinkholes, characteristic of areas predominantly underlain
by limestone as is the study area develop primarily because limestone is highly
susceptible to solution weathering along lines of deposition (horizontal) and
lines of fracturing (usually vertical). As rainwater falls through the atmos-
phere and seeps through the highly organic topsoil, it becomes weakly acidic
and acts as a natural solvent to the limestone; the water then enters the rocks,
following paths (channels) of least resistance. As the channels continue to
grow, horizontal, generally interconnected caverns develop. Sinkholes develop
when the caverns enlarge until the overlying sediments can no longer be sup-
ported. Most probable sinkhole regions in the study area are mapped as shown
in Figure 1.7.
2) Soils
Most soils of the study area are young and underdeveloped, nearly
level or gently sloping, acidic, very sandy with high permeability, and gen-
erally low in clay, organic matter, and plant nutrients (Beckenback 1973).
Many were derived from sandy formations that have been little altered since
1.16
-------
LAKE WALES RIDGE-
Figure 1.6. Topographic Features of Study Area (White 1970)
-------
Indefinite
•^ Bound* r/
Areas where peizometric surface
is at or above land surface and/
or thickness of clastic overbur-
den exceeds 30 meters (100 feet).
Appears to be least probable area
for sinkhole development.
B - Area characterized by stable,
prehistoric sinkholes, usually
flat-bottomed, steep-sided, dry,
or containing water. Modifica-
tions in geology and hydrology
may activate process again.
Moderate to thick overburden
overlying cavernous limestones.
Sinkhole collapse dependent on
local overburden thickness and
level of water table.
Figure 1.7. Most Probable Sinkhole Regions in Study Area (Wright 1974)
1.18
-------
their deposition; thus, soils of the study area are generally sandy except in
areas of low relief and poor drainage where peaty mucks are deposited. A com-
plete description of the soils of the area at the soil association level is
presented in Volume VI, Section 2 (TI 1977f), along with a map showing areal
distribution of the associations.
3) Phosphate Deposits
The phosphate deposits of the study area's land-pebble district are
of complex derivation: they are thought to have originated by marine deposition
of phosphates, followed by extensive reworking and alteration. Initially, deep
phosphate-rich ocean waters upwelled along steeply inclined continental slopes
into relatively shallow areas of the continental shelf made up of carbonate de-
posits; the upwelling of such deep water to shallow, more agitated, warmer zones
caused loss of dissolved CO-, an increase in pH, and supersaturation of phosphate
and furthered the precipitation of apatite. The apatite tended to replace cal-
cite (CaCO,,) in the weathering debris of the underlying formation; thus, a vari-
ety of nodules, pellets, and replacement casts were formed. Much later, after
the Coastal Plain sediments had emerged, acidic waters mobilized the phosphate
3+ 2+
and carried it downward to sites where aluminum (Al ) and iron (Fe ) were con-
centrated (Adams 1972). Nearly all investigators believe that the sea was the
original source of the study area's phosphates, but there is evidence that the
Florida deposits contain some reworked phosphorus of secondary terrestrial origin,
especially in the southern portion. It is suspected that ancient rivers created
large deltas and that phosphorite was apparently deposited in shallow, restricted
bays by deltaic redistribution.
Figure 1.2 showed a typical section through the matrix or ore zone in
the study area. The principal zones, in descending order are:
• Top soil or surface
• Overburden (excluding the aluminum phosphate zone which
is considered overburden to phosphate mining)
• Leach or aluminum phosphate
• Matrix or calcium phosphate
• Bedclay
• Bedrock
1.19
-------
b. Terrestrial Environment
1) Habitat Types
The distinctive Florida environment - sandy soils, low relief and
elevation, poor drainage, and a mild climate with relatively even temperature,
frequent lightning and rainfall characterized by great seasonal differences -
is a major influence in shaping a spectrum of terrestrial biota that is unique
within the United States. Among the particular biota of central Florida are
many temperate-zone species at their southern limits, some hardy tropical spe-
cies at their northern limits, and numerous species that are endemic to the
state. Landscape units or habitat types with which terrestrial species are
associated broadly include agricultural land, rangeland, forests, and wetlands.
The 7-county study area is predominantly agricultural land and range-
land (more than 450,000 hectares, or 1,000,000 acres of each); wetlands com-
prise approximately 178,000 hectares (440,000 acres), and forest comprise
about 70,000 hectares (175,000 acres).
Approximately 75 percent of the study area's agricultural land is
cropland and improved pasture; the remainder consists predominantly of orchards
and groves (primarily citrus) and smaller extents of parklands and pine planta-
tion. All of these habitat types generally are intensely managed, consist of
comparatively few plant species, and have less wildlife value than either mod-
erately managed or natural upland types. Important crops are tomato, water-
melon, cucumber, green pepper, and strawberry. Pastures contain panolagrass,
bahaigrass, carpetgrass, paspalum, and paragrass among others, along with sev-
eral legumes. Slash pine is the important planted pine, and parklands are often
predominantly ornamental horticultural species, although expanses of natural
vegetation are not uncommon in larger parks (e.g., Hillsborough River State
Park and Myakka River State Park).
Most of the rangeland of the study area comprises modified pine flat-
woods. Modifications include removal of pines and periodic burning of remain-
ing vegetation to maintain grazing conditions. Saw palmetto and wiregrasses
are important plants in these habitats, which, when intensely managed as agri-
cultural habitats are, are of comparatively little wildlife value. Of somewhat
greater wildlife value and of considerable biogeographical significance is the
comparatively small amount of rangeland that is natural dry prairie, or palmetto
1.20
-------
prairie; this unique habitat type, which consists primarily of wiregrasses and
other herbaceous vegetation and occasional saw palmetto, is found only in Flor-
ida. Much of it has been converted to improved pasture. Remaining significant
extents in the study area are in Polk County east of the present mining area
and in DeSoto and Charlotte counties east and south of potential mining areas;
smaller areas are in Sarasota and Manatee counties, and some of that in Manatee
County is near projected mining areas.
By far the greatest amount of remaining forest in the study area is
typical pine flatwoods. Longleaf pines dominate the overstory on drier sites,
while slash pines dominate on wetter sites. Important understory species in-
clude saw palemtto, scrub oak, inkberry, shiny blueberry, and wiregrass. The
small amount of deciduous forest in the study area includes three types of
hammock: cabbage palm, a hydric association of cabbage palm-water oak-sweet
gum; live oak, a xeric association dominated by live oak; and mesic, an associ-
ation of trees found in the other hammocks, as well as southern magnolia and
American holly. Hammocks generally are elevated islands scattered within pine-
woods. Because of landcover fragmentation associated with development, remain-
ing mixed forests in the seven counties also occupy small scattered areas. These
forests, which support the greatest number of endemic species, comprise two com-
munities: sandhills, a longleaf pine-turkey oak association; and sand pine
scrub, a sand pine dominated association with several scrub oaks and a dense
shrub layer characterized by sclerophyllous species. Except for a small amount
in southeast Alabama, the sand pine scrub community is found only in Florida.
The Florida Department of Natural Resources has classified as highly endangered
the mixed forest communities, hammocks, and dry prairies. Each is important to
wildlife.
The study area's wetlands include bayheads (dominated by broad-leaved
evergreen species), hardwood swamps (dominated by broad-leaved deciduous spe-
cies) , cypress swamps, mangroves, wet prairies (emergent herbaceous species),
freshwater marshes (emergent and floating herbaceous species), and saltwater
marshes. These wetlands are the study area's most important ecosystems in
terms of life support, or productivity, unless they have already been substan-
tially degraded. Hardwood swamps are the most valuable wildlife habitats in
the area, and cypress heads (seasonally flooded cypress areas) are second in
value. Reflecting a growing consensus, the Florida Department of Natural
1.21
-------
Resources has indicated that wetlands probably are the most valuable natural
system from the standpoint of benefit to society. In addition to their more
obvious benefits (e.g., recreation and aesthetic value), various wetlands
trap sediments; reduce stream sediment load; remove nutrients; decrease eu-
trophication rates; process pollutants; tie up heavy metals, particulates,
and radioactive wastes; treat domestic wastes; process sewage and waste-
water; and retain water, releasing some as groundwater recharge. These wet-
lands types - hardwood swamps, wet prairies, and freshwater marshes - are
classified as highly endangered lands in Florida. On a broader scope, all of
central and south Florida's wetlands are important since they comprise, along
with those of southeastern Louisiana, the remaining wetlands of significant
extent and value in the United States. The most quantitative value of these
wetlands is production of fish and shellfish; without adequate wetlands for
nursery grounds, production of important commercial species declines.
2) Fauna and Flora
More than 500 species and subspecies of vertebrates (excluding fishes)
are represented or have been represented in the recent past in the 7-county area;
they include some 28 amphibians, 68 reptiles, 384 birds, and 55 mammals. Al-
though the majority are distributed areawide, some are restricted to coastal
habitats and others to the higher elevations of the ridges traversing Polk
County. Nearly half of the species are of special interest or concern by vir-
tue of population status or economic, recreational, or ecological importance.
Table 1.11 lists these species and their designations. Of most concern are
species considered threatened and endangered by either the United States De-
partment of Interior or the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Other
species have been determined by various scientific authorities in Florida (the
Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals) to be rare, of
special concern (not currently endangered but habitats diminishing), or possibly
threatened or endangered (status undetermined). Certain birds are "blue-listed"
by the Audubon Society, i.e., they are experiencing either locally or widespread
noncyclical population declines or range contractions. The many species of
1.22
-------
Table 1.11. Important Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals
of Study Area (Page 1 of 3)
Common Name
Peninsula Newt
Dwarf Siren
Southern Dusky Salamander
Dwarf Salamander
SUmy Salamander
Eastern Spadefoot Toad
Giant Toad
Florida Gopher Frog
Bronze Frog
Bullfrog
P1g Frog
Cuban Treefrog
Ornate Chorus Frog
AMPHIBIANS
Scientific Name
Notophthalmus vlrldescens
Pseudobranchus strtatus
Desmoqnathus aurlculatus
Eurycea quacTrldlgltata
Plethodon glutlnosys
Scaphlopu's holbrookT
Bufo marTnus
Rana areolata
Rana clami tans
TjanT calesbelana
Rana gryllo
HyTa septentrlonalls
Pseudacrls ornata
Special Status
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)*
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
American Alligator
Eastern Box Turtle
Dlamondback Terrapin
Suwannee Cooter
Gopher Tortoise
Florida Softshell Turtle
Atlantic Leatherback Turtle
Atlantic Loggerhead Turtle
Atlantic Ridley Turtle
Atlantic Green Turtle
Worm Lizard
Green Anole
Fence Lizard
Florida Scrub Lizard
Blue-tailed Mole SUnk
Broad-headed Sklnk
Sand Sklnk
Eastern Indigo Snake
Southern Hognose Snake
Striped Swamp Snake
Florida Water Snake
Mangrove Water Snake
P1ne Moods Snake
Florida Swamp Snake
Short-tailed Snake
Red-bellied Snake
Florida Crowned Snake
Smooth Earth Snake
Pigmy Rattlesnake
REPTILES
Alligator m1ss1ss1pp1ensis
Terrapene" Carolina
Halacleiws terrapin
Chrysemysconclnna suwannlensls
Gopneruspolyphemus
Trlonyx'ferox
Dermochelys corlacea
Caretta caretta caretta
Lepldochelys kempt
Chelonla mydas
Rhlneura florldana
Anolls caronnensls
Sceloporus undulatus
SceloporuT wjiojli
Eumeces eareqius Hvidus
Eumeces latleeos
Neoseps reynoldsl
Drymarchon corfris couperl
rymar
eterO'
Heterodon simus
Lipdytes allenl
Natrlx fasdata plctiventris
Natrlx fasclata compresslcauda
Rhadlnaea flavllata
Semlnatrfx pygaea
Stllosoma extenuatum
Storerja 'occlpltomacuUta
Tantllla rellcta
Virginia' valerlae
Slstruru's mlHarfus
Threatened (USDI**, FGFWFC); special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC. FCREPA)
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Economically significant
Endangered USDIOi rare (FCREPA)
Threatened FGFWFC. FCREPA)
Endangered USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Endangered FGFWFC)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Rare (FCREPA)
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Threatened (FGFWFC); special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Endangered (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Red-necked Grebe
Western Grebe
P1ed-b1lled Grebe
White Pelican
Brown Pelican
Double-crested Cormorant
Magnificent Fr1gateb1rd
Great Blue Heron
(Great White Heron)
Green Heron
Little Blue Heron
Cattle Egret
Reddish Egret
Great Egret
Snowy Egret
Louisiana Heron
Black-crowned Night Heron
Yellow-crowned Night Heron
Least Bittern
American Bittern
Wood Stork
Glossy Ibis
White Ibis
Scarlet 151s
Roseate Spoonbill
American Flamingo
BIRDS
Podlceps grlsegena
Aechmophorus occidental^
Podllvmbus oodlceps
Pelecanus ervthrorhvnchos
Pelecanus occidental^
Phalacrocorax aurltus
Fregata maqnlflcens rothschlldl
Ardea herodlas
Butorldes strlatus
Florida caerulea
Bubulcus Ibis
Dlchromanassa rufescens
Casmerodlus albus
Eqretta thula
Hydranassa tricolor
NyctlcoralT nvctlcorax
Nyctanassa vlolacea
Ixobrychus' ex111s
Botaurus lentiqinosus
Hvcteria amerlcana
Pleqadis faldnellus
Eudoclmus albus
EudoclmuF ruber
Ajala aja'ja
Phoem'copterus ruber
Blue-listed
Blue-listed
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed
Threatened (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC); special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; rare (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed; special concern (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Endangered (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Threatened (FGFWFC); rare (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
*FGFWFC - Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission
FCREPA - Florida Comilttee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals
"United States Department of Interior
1.23
-------
Table 1.11. (Page 2 of 3)
Common Name
BIRDS (CONTD)
Scientific Name
Canada Goose
Brant
Snow Goose
Fulvous Whistling-Duck
Ruddy Sheldrake
Mallard
Black Duck
Mottled Duck
Gadwall
Pintail
Cinnamon Teal
Green-winged Teal
Blue-winged Teal
European Wigeon
American Wigeon
Northern Shoveler
Wood Duck
Redhead
Ring-necked Duck
Canvasback
Greater Scaup
Lesser Scaup
Common Goldeneye
Buffi ehead
Oldsquaw
Common Eider
White-winged Scoter
Surf Scoter
Black Scoter
Ruddy Duck
Masked Duck
Hooded Merganser
Common Merganser
Red-breasted Merganser
Turkey Vulture
Black Vulture
White- tailed Kite
Swallow- tailed Kite
Mississippi Kite
(Florida) Everglade Kite
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Red- tailed Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Swainson's Hawk
Short-tailed Hawk
Rough-legged Hawk
Golden Eagle
Bald Eagle
Marsh Hawk
Osprey
Caracara
Peregrine Falcon
Merlin
American Kestrel
Southeastern American Kestrel
Bobwhite
Turkey
Florida Sandhill Crane
Limpkin
King Rail
Clapper Rail
Florida Clapper Rail
Virginia Rail
Sora
Yellow Rail
Black Rail
Purple Gall.inule
Common Gallinule
American Coot
American Oystercatcher
Piping Plover
Cuban Snowy Plover
American Woodcock
Common Snipe
Upland Sandpiper
American Avocet
Gull-billed Tern
Roseate Tern
Branta canadensis
Branta bernicla
Chen caerulescens
Dendrocygna bicolor
Tadorna ferruginea
Anas platyrhynchos
Anas rubripes
Anas fulvigul a
Anas strepera
Anas acuta
Anas cyanoptera
Anas crecca
Anas discprs
Anas penelope
Anas americana
Anas dypeata~
Aix sponsa
Aythya americana
Aythya collaris
Aythya valisineria
Aythya mari la
Aythya af finis
Bucephala clangula
Bucephala albeola
Clangula hyemalis
Somateria mollissima
Melanitta deglandi
Melanitta perspicillata
Melanitta nigra
Oxyura jamaicensis
Oxyura dominica
Lophodytes cucullatus
Mergus merganser
Mergus serrator
Cathartes aura
Coragyps atratus
Elanus leucurus majusculus
Elanoides forficatus
Ictinia mississippiensis
Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus
Accipiter striatus
Accipiter cooperii
Buteo jamaicensis
Buteo lineatus
Buteo platypterus
Buteo swainsoni
Buteo brachyurus
Buteo lagopus
Aqui la chrysaetos
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Circus cyaneus
Pandion haliaetus
Caracara cheriway
Falco peregrinus
Falco columbarius
Falco sparverius
Falco sparverius paulus
Colinus virginianus
Meleagris gal lopavo
Grus canadensis pratensis
Aramus guarauna
Rallus elegans
Rallus longirostris
Rallus longirostris scottii
Rallus li mi col a
Porzana Carolina
Coturnicops noveboracensis
Laterallus jamaicensis
Porphyrula martinica
Gallinula chloropus
Fulica americana
Haematopus palliatus
Charadrius melodus
Charadrius alexandrinus tenuirostris
Philohela minor
Capella gallinago
Bartramia longicauda
Recurvirostra americana
Gelochelidon nilotica
Sterna dougallii
Special Status
Game species
Game species
Game species
Blue-listed; game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Blue-listed; game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Game species
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Rare (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Blue listed; special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC); rare (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Endangered (USDI); threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Blue-listed; threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed; threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed; undetermined (FCREPA)
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Game species
Game species
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; game species
Game species
Undetermined (FCREPA)
Game species
Game species
Ecologically significant
Undetermined (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Game species
Game species
Blue-listed; threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed; special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed; endangered (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Game species
Game species
Blue-listed
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
1.24
-------
Table 1.11. (Page 3 of 3)
Common Name
Least Tern
Royal Tern
Sandwich Tern
Caspian Tern
Black Skimmer
White-winged Dove
Mourning Dove
Mangrove Cuckoo
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Barn Owl
Screech Owl
Great Horned Owl
(Florida) Burrowing Owl
Barred Owl
Short-eared Owl
Common Nighthawk
Belted Kingfisher
Pileated Woodpecker
Red-headed Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
Ivory-billed Woodpecker
Cliff Swallow
Purple Martin
Florida Scrub Jay
White-breasted Nuthatch
Brown-headed Nuthatch
Bewick's Wren
Marian's Marsh Wren
Eastern Bluebird
Loggerhead Shrike
Starling
Bell's Vireo
Black-whiskered Vireo
Worm-eating Warbler
Bachman's Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Kirtland's Warbler
Florida Prairie Warbler
Louisiana Waterthrush
Yellow-breasted Chat
American Redstart
House Sparrow
(Florida) Grasshopper Sparrow
Hens low's Sparrow
(Scott's) Seaside Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Bachman's Sparrow
BIRDS (CONTD)
Scientific Name
Sterna albifrons
Sterna maxi ma
Sterna sandvicensis
Sterna caspia
Rynchops niger
Zenaida aslatica
Zenaida macroura
Coccyzus minor
Coccyzus americanus
Tyto alba
Otus asio
Bubo virginianus
Athene cunlcularia floridana
Strix varia
Asio flammeus
Chordeiles minor
HegaceryTe' alcyon
Dryocopus pileatus
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
PicoidesTlllosus audubonTi
Picoides boreal Is
Campephilus principalis
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Progne subis
Aphelocoma coerulescens coerulescens
Sitta carplTnensis caro"! i nensTF
Sitta pus i11 a
Thryomanes bewickii
Cistothorus palustris marianae
Sialia sialis
Lam'us ludgvicianus
Sturnus~vu1garis
Vireo beTTTi
Vireo Fltiloquus
Helmitheros vermivorus
Vermlvora bachmanii
Dendroica petechia
petei
kirt
Dentroica kirtlandii
Dendroica discolor "paludicola
Seiurus motacilla
Icteria virens
Setophaga rutlcilla ruticilla
Passer domesticus
Ammodramus savannarum florldanus
Ammodramus hens 1 owl 1~
Ammospiza maritima peninsulae
Pooecetes gramlneus
Aimophila aestivali's
Special Status
Blue-listed; threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA
Special concern (FCREPA
Special concern (FCREPA
Game species
Game species
Threatened (FGFWFC); rare (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Blue-listed
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Blue-listed; special concern (FCREPA)
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Endangered JUSDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Blue-listed
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Blue-listed
Rare (FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Special concern (FCREPA)
Rare (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Rare breeder (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Endangered (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Special concern (FCREPA)
Blue-listed
Blue-listed; ecologically significant
Opossum
Southeastern Shrew
Short-tailed Shrew
Bio, Brown Bat
Hoary Bat
Northern Yellow Bat
Eastern Big-eared Bat
Nine-banded Armadillo
Marsh Rabbit
Eastern Cottontail Rabbit
Black-tailed Jack Rabbit
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sherman's Fox Squirrel
Southeastern Pocket Gopher
Eastern Harvest Mouse
Florida Mouse
Golden Mouse
Eastern Woodrat
Round-tailed Muskrat
Black Rat
Norway Rat
House Mouse
Nutria
Bottle-nosed Dolphin
Coyote
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Florida Black Bear
Raccoon
Florida Long-tailed Weasel
Florida Mink
Eastern Spotted Skunk
Striped Skunk
River Otter
Florida Panther
Bobcat
Jaguarundi
Manatee
White-tailed Deer
Mild Hog
MAMMALS
Didelphis yirginiana
Sorex longirostris longirostris
Blarina brevicauda
Eptesicus fuseus
Lasiurus 'cinereus cinereus
Laslurus intermedius
Plecotus rafinesquTi
Dasypus novemcinctus
Sylvila'gus palustris
Sylvilagus florldanus
Lepus calTfornicus
Sciurus carolinensis
Sciurus niger snermani
Geomys pinetis
Reithrodontomys humulis
Peroim/scus floridanus
pchrotomyT nuttali
Neotoma TTbrldana
Neofiber alleni
Rattus rattus
Rattus norvegicus
Hus musculus
Hyocastor coypus
Tursiops~truncatus
Canis la"trans
Vulpes fulva
Urocyo'n cinereoargenteus
Ursus a~mericanus floridanus
Procyon lotor
Hustela frenata peninsulae
Hustela vison lutensis
Spilogale putorius"
Hephitis~mephitis
Lutra ca"nadensis
Fells concolor coryi
FeUs ruTu?
Felis yagouaroundi
Tricnecnus manatuT latirostrls
Odocolleus virginianus
ius scrota
Rare (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Rare (FCREPA)
Rare (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Rare (FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Game species
Game species
Ecologically significant
Game species
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Protected fur bearer (FGFWFC); special concern (FCREPA)
Pest species
Pest species
Pest species
Economically significant
Ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Fur bearer
Fur bearer
Game species; threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Fur bearer
Rare (FCREPA)
Fur bearer; rare (FCREPA)
Fur bearer
Fur bearer
Fur bearer; ecologically significant
Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Fur bearer; ecologically significant
Ecologically significant
Endangered (USDI)i threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Game species
Game species
1.25
-------
ecological significance are those with narrow habitat restrictions, blosys-
tematic and zoogeographic significance, or particular status in the commun-
ity (e.g., important predators, indicators of environmental change).
The study area's flora includes several species that have been pro-
posed for federal listing as threatened and endangered or are considered so
by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals (Table 1.12).
Also represented are species protected by Florida's rare plant law (most brome-
liads, all native orchids, most native ferns, and all native palms except cab-
bage palm).
Table 1.12. Threatened and Endangered Plants Known To Occur in
7-County Study Area
Scientific Name Common Name
Asplenlum aurUum AuMcled spleenwort
Centrosoma arenlcola Butterfly pea
Chlonanthus pygmaeus Pygmy fringe-tree
Hartwrlghtia florldana
ft
perl cum cumuli col a Highlands scrub hyperlcum
atrTson
\lo11na brTI
Ingerae Blazing star
.tonlana Bear grass
Qphloalossum palmatum Hand fern
ParonvcMa chartacea Whitlow-wort
Polygala lewtopH Lewton's polygala
Polygonella myrlophylla Jolntweed
Prunus genlculata Scrub plum
Rhapldophyllum hy'strlx
Trlphora latlfona
Nodding cap
Verbena maritime Vervain
Warea cartel -
Zamla 1nte"gFlfo11a Coontle palm
Further development of the Florida phosphate industry will signifi-
cantly affect the seven counties' existing uplands and wetlands biota, includ-
ing many important floral and faunal species. Beyond the effects of devegeta-
tion or disturbance, as much as 30 percent of the terrestrial habitat in mined
areas becomes aquatic habitat (lakes and ponds), permanently displacing the
associated flora and fauna. Irreversible alterations in local topography and
soil structure of remaining land preclude the reestablishment of certain exist-
ing plant communities, including associations within typical pine flatwoods,
dry prairies, hammocks, sandhills, sand pine scrub, and forested and nonfcrested
1.26
-------
wetlands. Rather than promote some degree of development of natural habitat
as has occurred in long-abandoned mining areas, current reclamation regula-
tions and practices produce a landscape of managed systems — primarily im-
proved pasture. As the landscape diversity in the area declines, so does the
floral and faunal diversity. Although diversity declines primarily because
hardwood swamps and mixed forest can be neither reclaimed nor naturally re-
stored on mined land, establishment of habitat similar to existing types is
possible and necessary if much of the area's important biota is to be main-
tained.
3. Water
a. Quality
1) Surface Water
The surface water quality in the study area is greatly influenced
by the discharge patterns of the streams and rivers. Mineral content is gen-
erally higher (evidenced by higher total dissolved solids and higher specific
ion concentrations) during the dry period (considered to be October-May) than
during the wet season (June-September). The flow of most of the study area's
rivers is highly variable and may vary greatly within a short time. This
variability is particularly evident along the Peace River where overland run-
off is a predominant contributor to increased flow. The Southwest Florida
Regional Planning Council (1977) has provided evidence that the flow of the
Peace River at Arcadia in the past has increased 500 percent in a single day.
For all of the other major streams within the study area except the Peace River,
low or no flow incidents have been recorded.
Within the study area, an inverse relationship has been found between
river discharge and salinity and dissolved oxygen (Dragovich et al 1968). The
large input of fresh water during the rainy season from both overland runoff
and the water table dilutes the rivers, causing decreased salinity values.
Dragovich et al (1968) found that plant production heavily influenced dissolved-
oxygen (D.O.) concentrations. During increased river discharge (wet season,
June-September), D.O. concentrations in many of the rivers in the study area
decrease because of the dislodging of submerged aquatic flora as well as the
influx of increased quantities of organic material (humus from forest beds,
swamp flushings, livestock areas runoff) via surface runoff, which has a high
biochemical oxygen demand.
1.27
-------
The water quality of streams is affected also by contributions from
groundwater flow and municipal and industrial discharges. These become most
evident during the dry season when they can contribute the major portion of
the base flow to some streams. The Peace and Alafia are the two rivers most
affected by phosphate mining and processing; high levels of phosphate and
fluoride in their waters at various points from their headwaters to the coast
are attributed to this activity.
The surface water quality of the study area is characterized by the
following parameter ranges (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1977):
Total dissolved solids (TDS) 61-409 mg/1
Hardness 34-264 mg/1
Sulfate 6-198 mg/1
Chloride 3-23 mg/1
pH 5-8 pH units
Color 0-280 Pt-Co units
Phosphate 0.4-3.9 mg/1
Turbidity 0-350 JTUs
It was established in the 1960s that discharges of phosphorus and
nitrogen degrade water quality in the Peace and Tampa Bay basins. Primary
effects of eutrophication (overenrichment with plant nutrient material) were
noted in Hillsborough Bay, the Peace River, and Charlotte Harbor. As a result
of these findings, the phosphate industry and other dischargers to these basins
were issued notice and orders to reduce the quantity of phosphorus discharges
by 95 percent and nitrogen discharges by 90 percent. This requirement was
subsequently amended by the Wilson-Grizzle Act of 1971, which required munici-
pal discharges in these basins to meet Advanced Water Treatment (AWT) standards
and industrial dischargers to meet the equivalent of AWT as defined by the
Florida Department of Pollution Control.
Most natural surface waters in central Florida exceed recommended
criteria for phosphorus concentrations. Because other nutrient materials in-
cluding carbon are also above limiting levels, any discharges of phosphorus
or nitrogen add to primary productivity (growth of algae and other types of
aquatic plants). Water quality studies on the receiving waters (including
estuarine systems) have documented the degradation.
1.28
-------
The spatial distribution of the dominant surface-water contaminants
is shown in Figure 1.8.
STREAMS
Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate
Mixed (no predominant cations or anions)
Sodium chloride
Calcium and magnesium sulfate
SPRINGS
Calcium and magnesium sulfate
Sodium chloride
Figure 1.8. Chemical Types of Water
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1977)
2) Ground Water
a) Water-Table Aquifer
The water in the water-table aquifer is generally soft and has a
low dissolved-solids content (less than 100 milligrams per liter) except in
the shoreline area; there, the chloride content exceeds 250 milligrams per
liter because of natural hydrologic events or natural saltwater encroachment
resulting from withdrawals of fresh water from wells. The construction of
drainage canals and channels in some coastal areas has lowered the water-
table aquifer and apparently has caused some inward migration of salty water
(discussed in more detail later in this subsection). Contaminating the water-
table aquifer locally are nutrients from fertilized agricultural land, sewer
leakages, and seepage from industrial lagoons, septic systems, and landfills.
Contamination is generally evidenced by increased concentrations of dissolved
1.29
-------
constituents such as chloride, nitrate, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, and in
some areas bacteria and viruses (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1977).
b) Floridan Aquifer
The Floridan aquifer underlies the entire study area. The fresh
water in the aquifer in the study area is primarily a calcium bicarbonate type
that is slightly to moderately mineralized. The water's dissolved-solids con-
tent is normally 150 to 350 milligrams per liter, and its hardness is classified
as moderately hard to hard.
In general, man's activities have not contaminated the Floridan aquifer
in the study area to problem proportions. There has been some encroachment of
salty water locally in Gulf and bay shoreline areas because of heavy pumping
of wells or dredging of channels and canals.
Although chloride occurs to some extent in all natural waters, it is
obvious from Shampine's (1965) investigations of chloride concentrations in the
upper zone of the Floridan aquifer that the most serious concern is in the
southern portions of Sarasota County and in the western and eastern portions of
Charlotte County. The chloride content of the aquifer water in these areas is
about 1000 milligrams per liter. This water is used to irrigate salt-tolerant
crops and as a result percolates downward into the water-table aquifer, contam-
inating it.
Sulfate also is found in almost all natural water. In rainwater, it
is dissolved from impurities and gases in the atmosphere, and it may also be
dissolved from materials on the surface of the ground (e.g., decaying organic
matter such as leaves and trees). Sulfate is discharged also in various in-
dustrial wastes and may increase upon entering the ground because of leaching
from gypsum and other sulfate minerals, connate water contamination, salt water
from the ocean, or pollutants. In the upper part of the Floridan aquifer in
the coastal area, sulfate concentrations (Figure 1.9) are particularly high be-
cause of the influence of salt water from the ocean; this extends inland to
occupy almost all of Sarasota County. Water from deeper zones usually contains
greater concentrations of sulfate.
1.30
-------
<60 mg/«
50-100 mg/i
0101-250 mo/1
>250
Figure 1,9.
cAI
MILII
Concentrations of Sulfate in
Water from Upper Floridan
Aquifer (Shampine 1965)
MILCI
Figure 1.10.
Dissolved Solids in Water from
Upper Part of Floridan Aquifer
(Shampine 1975)
All natural waters
contain dissolved solids, pri-
marily carbonates, bicarbon-
ates, chlorides, sulfates,
phosphates, fluorides, and
nitrates of calcium, magne-
sium, and sodium and only
small amounts of potassium,
iron, manganese, strontium,
and sulfide. The distribution
of dissolved solids in the
study area is shown in Figure
1.10.
There is concern
about the radiation environ-
ment in Florida, particularly
in relation to groundwater
contamination. An EPA inves-
tigation in 1977 assessed
radiation levels due to ra-
dium in nonmineralized areas
(those not containing market-
able phosphate matrix reserves),
mineralized but unmined areas
(those having marketable phos-
phate matrix not yet mined),
and mineralized, mined areas
(those having marketable phos-
phate matrix being mined) in
the 7-county study area. The
study considered two subareas:
(1) Polk, Hardee, Hillsborough,
DeSoto, and Manatee counties;
and (2) Sarasota County. Study-
area 1 displayed the following:
1.31
-------
• Water-Table Aquifer
The dissolved radium assessment indicated no significant differ-
ence between mined and unmined mineralized areas, and none of the
radium-226 concentrations in mined areas exceeded the EPA regula-
tion for total radium in drinking water.
• Upper Floridan Aquifer
The dissolved radium assessment indicated significant differences
between the areas, with the highest values in nonmineralized areas.
Concentrations were higher than the water-table aquifer.
• Lower Floridan
No significant differences were found between the different areas.
Study-area 2 displayed the following:
• Ra-226 concentrations were 100 times higher in the water-table
aquifer and almost 10 times higher in the upper and lower
Floridan aquifers than in study-area 1.
• Ra-226 concentrations in the water-table aquifer in the coastal
area were significantly greater than in the inland area.
• Higher-than-average (relative to Florida and U.S.) Ra-226 con-
centrations in both the water-table and Floridan aquifers are
attributed to natural enrichment (probably related to radium-
enriched, mineralized ground water that is deep beneath the
central Florida peninsula and shallow in the coastal areas)
and to dissolution of Ra-226 from the Hawthorn formation
(which is very near the land surface in western Sarasota County).
As far as the entire 7-county study area is concerned:
« A detrimental effect by phosphate mining on Ra-226 in the upper
Floridan aquifer is not documented. Existing radium data do not
substantiate previously alleged widespread radium contamination
of ground water by the phosphate industry. Natural variability
in the radium content of ground water complicates determination
of background versus contaminated conditions.
• Ra-226 data collected from the water-table, upper Floridan, and
lower Floridan aquifers in 1966 by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration and in 1974-76 by the United States Geo-
logical Survey revealed no statistically significant difference
for the decade interval (1966-76).
• Hydrogeologic conditions favor entrance of contaminants to at
least the water-table and upper Floridan aquifers. However,
contamination is generally poorly documented due at least in
part to monitoring deficiencies.
1.32
-------
b. Water Quantity
The central Florida phosphate industry is a major user of the water
resources in the seven counties being studied for this areawide impact assess-
ment program. Thus, the industry's impact on these water resources had to be
judged in the same manner used for the other natural resources. This required
an understanding of the existing hydrologic regimes and the dynamics of the
hydrologic cycle operational in central Florida, as well as existing and pro-
jected demands on the system.
1) Hydrologic Regime
a) Physiographic Overview
The study area encompasses approximately 6242 square miles in west-
central Florida and covers Polk, Charlotte, Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee,
DeSoto, and Sarasota counties. The area is bordered on the north by Lake,
Pasco, and Sumter counties and on the west by the Gulf of Mexico; the boundary
generally coincides with the boundaries of the Southwest Florida Water Manage-
ment District (SWFWMD) on the east and south. The area's principal streams
are the Hillsborough, Alafia, Little Manatee, Manatee, Myakka, and Peace rivers,
Horse and Shell creeks, and Big Slough Canal. The area is contained within two
natural topographic regions:
• The Coastal Lowlands, comprising low, nearly level plains (com-
monly called flatwoods); gently undulating to rolling areas with
numerous intermittent ponds, swamps, and marshes; and sinkholes
with many lakes and perennial streams.
• The Central Highlands, a ridge and sinkhole region that divides
Polk County nearly in half and cuts across the county in a
northwest-to-southeast direction.
Elevations range from sea level along the coast to nearly 300 feet
above mean sea level (msl) in the Central Highlands of Polk County.
b) Hydrologic System - General Water Budget
Figure 1.11 is a schematic of the hydrologic system in westcentral
Florida. Precipitation provides the primary input to the system, and evapo-
transpiration is the primary loss. Water is stored in both the surface, or
1.33
-------
— ^
WASTEWATER,
PRODUCTS & PRODUCE
0.2 x 109ga1
PUMPAGE RETURN
0.9 x 109 gal
PUMPAGE
0
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
11.5 x 109gal
4
STORAGE
WATER-!
AQUIFEF
9.77
'
STORAGE ,
F LOR I DAN
DEPENDABLE
PRECIPITATION*
15.0 x 109gal
t
ABLE
x 1012gal
>
AQUIFER
STREAMS
2.9 x 109gal
GROUND-WATER OUTFLOW
INCLUDING SPRINGS
*Ava1lable 70 percent of the time or more.
Figure 1.11. Generalized Water Budget for Central Florida Phosphate
District (prepared by Geraghty & Miller Inc.)
water-table aquifer, and the deep Floridan aquifer. Secondary losses occur by
surface runoff through streams as well as groundwater outflow through streams,
springs, and directly into the ocean. Some losses occur when water is pumped
from the groundwater system and not returned to the system, The latter may be
added to streamflow as wastewater or exported from the area with other products
(produce, wet phosphate rock, etc.).
c) Surface-Water Resources
The surface-water resources of the study area encompass parts of all
seven counties and include springs, wetlands, lakes, streams, and runoff within
given watersheds (see Plate 1 in map pocket). The streamflow characteristics
for the various watershed areas are summarized in Table 1.13; the data are
based on information obtained from USGS gaging stations nearest the stream
discharge points that are still^unaffected by the tide.
• Springs
A spring represents natural overflow from an aquifer. In the
study area, there are nine major springs: seven in Hillsborough
and two in Sarasota County. They generally discharge into
surface-water bodies (the Hillsborough and Alafia rivers).
Spring discharge varies naturally as a result of pumping and
seasonal fluctuations of water levels (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1977).
1.34
-------
Table 1.13. Summary of Streamflow Characteristics (Period of Record)
Watershed
Hillsborough River Basin
Hillsborough River
Six Nile Creek
Peace River Basin
Peace River
Horse Creek
Shell Creek
Prairie Creek
(-•
* Myakka River Basin
Ul Nyakka River
Big Slough Canal
Manatee River Basin
Manatee River
Little Manatee River Basin
Little Manatee River
Mafia River Basin
Alafia River River
Total
Gaging
Station Location
02304500 City of Taipa dam
S.R. 574
02296750 Arcadia
02297310 10 mi from south
02298202 City of Punta
Gorda dam
029B123 4 »i downstreaa fro*
Myrtle slough
02298830 36 ori from muth
02299470 Nurdock upstreaa
f roe dan
02299950 Hyakka head
36 mi from mouth
02300500 Hiuuu
15 ni fron muth
02301500 Lithia
16 mi from mouth
Years
of
Record
37
(10/39-9/76)
4
44
(4/31-9/76)
25
(4/50-9/76)
10
(1/65-11/76)
14
(10/64-9/68;
10/69-current)
39
(8/36-1/77)
9
(2/36-9/72
11
(5/66-9/76)
36
(3/39-9/76)
43
(10/33-1/77)
Drainage
Area at
Gage
(mi*)
650
28
1.367
218
373
233
229
87.5
65.3
149
335
Total Basin
or Sub-basin
Area
(mi?)
690
40
2,403
540
99
350
225
420
Mean
(cfs)
615
49
1,195
209
356
166
256
86.6
65
175
373
3.546 2
(mgd)
398
32
772
135
230
107
165
56
42
113
241
,292
Max.
(cfs)
14,600
(3/21/60)
135
36,200
(9/9/33)
11,700
(8/11/60)
6,110
(6/28/74)
2,950
(7/74)
8.670
(8/1/60)
2,560
(7/31/65)
2,410
(8/31/72)
14,000
(6/11/60)
45,900
(9/9/13)
145,235
Flow of
' (mgd)
9,436
87
23,396
7,562
3,949
1,907
5,603
1,655
1,558
9,048
29,665
93,866
Record
Min.
(cfs) (tngd)
0
(11/30 4
12/2/45)
20 13
37 24
(5/28/49)
0
0
0
(6/3 4
7/65)
0
0
O.T2 0.08
(5/24/75)
1.2 0.78
(6/6 &
4/75)
6.6 4
(6/5 &
7/45)
65 42
Avg at Mouth
(cfs) (mgd) Remarks
653 422 Mater supply.
City of Tampa
70 45
2,100 1,357
Water supply.
City of Punta
Gorda
615 397
98 63 Water supply.
North Port
348 225 Water supply.
Manatee County
264 171
468 302
4,616 2,982
-------
o Wetlands
Wetlands are defined in USGS land-use/land-cover mapping pro-
grams as areas in which the water table is at, near, or above
the land surface for a significant part of most years. The
hydrologic regime is such that aquatic or hydrophytic vegeta-
tion is usually established (although alluvial and tidal flats
may be nonvegetated). Wetlands frequently are associated with
topotraphic lows and include marshes, mudflats, and swamps situ-
ated on the shallow margins of bays, lakes, ponds, streams, and
man-made impoundments; wet meadows; and seasonally wet or flooded
basins, playas, or potholes with no surface-water outflow. Wet-
lands comprise 12.34 percent of the land cover in the study area.
o Lakes
Most of the numerous lakes of various sizes within the study
areas are in Polk County. Water-level fluctuations generally
correspond with those of the local water table; however, in
some locations in which a lake is directly connected with the
aquifer through a sinkhole, a lake's water level will change
with fluctuations of the potentiometric surface of the Floridan
aquifer (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1977). Of lakes in the
study area that are 100 acres or more in surface area, there
are 71 in Polk County, 1 in Hardee, 1 in Charlotte, 2 in Sarasota,
and 3 in Hillsborough. Such lakes represent approximately 2.0
percent of the study area's total surface area.
d) Groundwater Resources
The groundwater system in the 7-county area is essentially a tripar-
tite arrangement. The uppermost unit is a shallow, unconfined, sandy, marly
water-table aquifer. Next is a clayey unit that is thin in the north, thickens
to the south, and is composed largely of the Hawthorn formation, Tampa lime-
stone (clay), the Bone Valley formation (clay and phosphate ores), Caloosa-
hatchee marl (clay and marl), and the Tamiami formation (clay). The extensive
and thick hydrologic unit, the Floridan aquifer (Parker 1951, Parker et al
1955), consists of two subunits, both primarily limestone and dolomite (Wilson
1977a). In some areas, there are one or more aquifer zones well separated from
the underlying Floridan aquifer. In Charlotte County, five aquifer zones have
been identified below the water-table aquifer (Sutcliffe 1975) . Wilson (open
file report, 77-822) concludes that the base of the Florida aquifer corresponds
to the top of the Lake City Limestone, and represents the lower confining bed.
The Floridan aquifer system is basically bipartite, i.e., composed
of two principal but intimately related and functioning hydrologic units:
the Floridan aquiclude, which acts as a lid or confining cap to the underlying
1.36
-------
aquifer and by its presence allows the development of artesian conditions in
the aquifer (Parker 1951, Parker et al 1955); and the Floridan aquifer, which
stores and transmits water, generally under artesian (confined) conditions.
The hydrogeologic sections depicted in Figure 1.12 show a north-south section
through the study area.
T UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS INCLUDING WATER-TABLE AQUIFER
r- HAWTHORN AND RELATED FORMATIONS OF FLORIDAN AQUICLUDE
CHAR-
LOTTE
i
r 100
MEAN SEA LEVEL
Q
HH
o
.
pSpfcuWANNEE LIMESTONE jWff I!''}")
¥!.*Xll!.!.:.T^:-:^^VA;r.:-.v.i.:.^v:i.xJ:viA!.!i!^
K i i i i 3=^
«frCT^
• . —.y-. •_••"••:::•:••:
i i n«.v.-.-t.-.v.-.-i-: xvij.:
- -50
- -10
Figure 1.12. Generalized Hydrogeologic North-South Section
(modified from Wright 1974)
The potentiometric surface is continually fluctuating (Figure 1.13)
in response to a variety of forces (earthquakes, winds, tides, trains, and
atmospheric pressure changes as well as recharge to and discharge from the
aquifer [Parker and Stringfield 1950]) exerted on the artesian system. Fig-
ure 1.13 shows seasonal, short-term, and long-term fluctuations as measured
in a well in Hardee County 4 miles east of Wauchula and 0.7 mile south of the
Old Sebring Road; this is a fairly typical well in the study area and indi-
cates large drawdowns when each irrigation season begins and the almost equally
large and rapid recovery that occurs when each irrigation season ends. The
record of this particular well shows seasonal fluctuations due to irrigation
1.37
-------
82
76-
_ 70-
'al
I 64
rtj
O)
58
o
52
46
40
34
28
22
ELEVATION OF SURFACE DATUM: 98.14 feet
ELEVATION OF MEASURING POINT: 101.14 feet
DEPTH OF WELL: 267 feet
CASED TO: 39 feet
1962 [1963|1964|1965[l966|l967|l968|1969|l970J1971 [l972|l973|1974|l975H976
Figure 1.13.
Seasonal Fluctuations of Potentiometric Surface ,in
Observation Well Tapping Floridan Aquifer in North-
central Hardee County, Florida (prepared from USGS
data)
that are as great as 42 feet (September 1974 to May 1975). Also, when compar-
ing the early part of the record (1962-73) with the later part (1973-76), there
is evidence of an increase in amplitude of drawdown and recovery. This indi-
cates increasing total irrigation pumpage during the period because irrigation
pumpage is of a seasonal nature, which is contrary to pumpage for industrial
uses.
It is important to note the overall downward and long-term trends of
water levels, even though recovery following some irrigation seasons is equal
to or greater than the previous drawdown. The decline is about 9 feet in 14
years (1962-76), indicating that more artesian water is being taken from stor-
age than is naturally being replenished by recharge. It is also important to
note the abrupt change of the potentiometric surface when the pumping rate is
changed. This characteristic of artesian systems indicates pressure changes,
1.38
-------
not the dewatering of the artesian aquifer that would occur in the water-
table aquifer if the water table dropped.
On a long-term areawide basis, the potentiometric surface has tended
to decline over a good portion of the study area. The decline at the end of
the rainy season (September) between 1949 and 1975 centered in southwest Polk
County; to a large extent, it can be attributed to groundwater pumpage by the
phosphate industry. However, when the potentiometric maps for May 1969 are
compared with those for May
1975, which corresponds to
the end of the dry season
and the period of most ex-
tensive irrigation, an ex-
tensive area of drawdown is
found outside of Polk County
in Manatee and Hardee coun-
ties, which can be attributed
mainly to agricultural water
usage. This is illustrated
in figure 1.14.
Along the coast of
the Central Florida Phosphate
District, the outflow of fresh
ground water from the F.loridan
aquifer has long been in equi-
librium with the denser saline
water of the Gulf, thereby pre-
venting inland saltwater encroachment. However, if the coastal freshwater head
!
were reduced sufficiently, the outflow of ground water would be reduced and the
saltwater/freshwater interface would gradually move inland, causing seawater to
replace the fresh. Thus, the decline in the potentiometric surface of the Flori-
dan aquifer has caused great concern. There have been localized cases in which
wells have shown increases in their chloride content, and several studies are
in progress (although specific data are not yet available).
Line of equal net change',
•-40— - Interval, 10 feet; minus
sign'Indicates decline.
Figure 1.14. Change in Potentiometric Surface
of Floridan Aquifer, May 1969 to
May 1975 (adapted from USGS data)
1.39
-------
The whole issue of saltwater encroachment is very complex (Parker et
al 1955, Reichenbaugh 1972). In certain parts of Manatee County, for example,
the potentiometric surface has declined below mean sea level generally in the
spring and then has risen above msl again during the rainy season; while some
bay people suspect that substantial saltwater encroachment should have occurred,
current data do not support this suspicion. However, there is a great lag in
the response of seawater to inland movement as a result of lowered freshwater
levels inland. Perhaps not enough time has elapsed since the drawdowns occurred
on a scale large enough to induce saltwater encroachment very far inland, and
the lowering during the irrigation season may very well be offset by the rise
during off-irrigation. Although highly speculative, it is also possible that
geologic structure plays a role in retarding or preventing saltwater encroach-
ment .
A much greater threat to the quality of the freshwater resources in
the coastal zones of the Floridan aquifer is the contamination of the fresh-
water zones by highly mineralized water (predominantly water with a high sul-
fate content) leaking upward from deeper, more mineralized zones through un-
cased or leaky well casings. This problem has been recognized by SWFWMD which,
since 1975, has been plugging as many of these free-flowing artesian wells as
funding permits. This program has two goals: by plugging the wells, water
loss is prevented, thereby increasing aquifer pressures and in turn helping
to prevent saltwater encroachment; and the contamination by upward leakage is
prevented.
2) Water Demands
Water demands for the study area in 1976 and those projected for 1985
and 2000 are summarized in Table 1.14. The changes primarily reflect changes
in municipal demands, power-plant and agricultural usage, and phosphate mining
activity.
Historically, water demands in the study area have been met by sur-
face-water impoundment (Hillsborough and Manatee), shallow wells (coastal area
and individual domestic or small agricultural wells), well fields remote from
the immediate area of use, or local well fields. In the inland area, water
1.40
-------
Table 1.14. Total Present and Projected Water Demands by County
Demand (mgd)
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Hillsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
1976
26
109
190
180
113
740
56
Projected
1985
31
316*
232
248
166
739
70
Change
1976-85
5
207
42**
68+
53t
-1
14
Projected
2000
43
366
352
268
217
646
103
Change
1976-2000
17
257*
162
88
104
-94*
47
*Reflects assumed power-plant operational status.
**Reflects large increase in projected irrigation pastures.
^Increase mining activity.
^Decrease in mining activity.
has been and will continue to be abundantly available from the Floridan aquifer.
In coastal areas, however, water quantity and quality have been more of a prob-
lem because of the limited supply of potable ground water near the coast. Ground-
water supplies will continue to meet increased demands in inland areas. Near
the coast, there are several options that must be balanced against each other
in each use area to determine the most economical:
(1) Groundwater well-field development with export to
areas of usage
(2) Surface-water storage similar to existing reservoirs
at Tampa and Lake Manatee
(3) Transport of excess surface flow to heavy-demand
areas such as Tampa and Sarasota
(4) Injection of excess surface water into the Floridan
aquifer for subsequent removal and use
c. Aquatic Biota
1) General
The biota of the study area's fresh, brackish, and marine waters com-
prises unusually rich and diverse assemblages of aquatic organisms that represent
1.41
-------
a valuable resource to westcentral Florida. The high diversity can be attrib-
uted largely to the study area's geographic position at the intergrade of tem-
perate and subtropical climates. Water temperatures seldom drop low enough in
water to kill tropical organisms and are moderate enough in summer to be tol-
erated by most of the temperate species. Although the local climate is mild
enough to support essentially a year-round growing season, seasonal influences
in biotic cycles are evident but more muted than in temperate climates. A
major influence is the "wet" and "dry" season periodicity, which regularly
alters streamflow regime, freshwater discharge into the estuaries, and the
amount of standing water in the study area.
2) Aquatic Communities
Three basic aquatic community types exist within the study area:
lentic communities .(standing freshwater: lakes, ponds, pits), lotic commun-
ities (running fresh water: rivers, streams), and estuarine and bay communities.
Wetlands (swamps, marshes, wet prairies), which have been treated along with
terrestrial communities, are considered an adjunct to the three basic aquatic
community types.
a) Lentic Communities
The standing freshwater communities comprise natural and man-made
lakes and impoundments, ponds, pits, and seasonally wet depressions. Many
smaller lentic waterbodies in the study area are intermittent, generally be-
coming dry during early spring; they support transitional communities only
part of the year or, in a few areas, only during years of adequate rainfall.
The majority of the larger waterbodies, however, have permanent water; they
are naturally shallow, averaging less than 20 feet, having sloping sides with
wide littoral (shore) zones, and maintain moderate to luxuriant algal and vas-
cular plant communities that support comparatively large populations of zoo-
plankters, macroinvertebrates,- and fishes. Some of the waterbodies that main-
tain permanent water, particularly those in Hillsborough and Polk counties,
are reclaimed or naturally revegetated and recolonized mining pits; these lakes
generally have steeply graded sides and narrow littoral zones of comparatively
low diversity.
1.42
-------
b) Lotic Communities
The running-water communities are represented by the >biotic assem-
blages of the rivers, streams, and tributaries of the 7-county study area. The
communities generally are rich and diverse, and the major water courses as a
whole are of considerable aesthetic and recreational importance to the study area,
serving as sources of water supply and supporting substantial sport fisheries,
and contributing to commercial fisheries.
Most streams in the study area, typical of others in the southeastern
Coastal Plain, have water that exhibits a tea color due to dissolved organic
acids that are washed from adjacent standing water during abundant rainfall.
Current speed among (and within) the streams varies: many of the streams are
comparatively slow and moderately to heavily covered with emergent aquatic
i
vegetation. The slow streams have biota similar in both appearance and com-
position to that of lakes and ponds, with substantial development of plank-
tonic communities and more mobile benthic macroinvertebrates. The swifter
streams contain little emergent or floating vegetation, have few resident zoo-
plankters, and support populations of narrowly ranging and sessile macroinverte-
brates that filter-feed or graze.
c) Bay and Estuarine Communities
The study area's estuarine habitats include Tampa Bay, Charlotte Har-
bor, and the bays and inlets of the "Manasota" coast, which comprises the coast-
line of Manatee and Sarasota counties. The comparatively small estuarine areas
of the Manasota coast have features of both Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor.
Both Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor are complex estuarine systems in
which water quality characteristics are influenced to a large degree by basic
morphometry, a highly variable quantity and quality of freshwater influx, mixed
tides, wind, and, of course, man's activities. The respective biotas of the
two estuarine systems reflect the nature of the physicochemical complexities.
As estuaries, both systems represent the interface or zone of intergrade be-
tween the freshwater environments inshore and the marine environment offshore.
1.43
-------
The biota of these embayments includes typical euryhaline (tolerant to a broad
range of salinity) estuarine flora and fauna as well as adventitious stenohaline
(tolerant to a narrow range of salinity) freshwater and marine forms.
The vascular aquatic flora of the estuarine portions of the study area
comprises seagrass beds, mangrove swamps, and salt marshes that play important
roles in the overall ecology of both Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor estuaries
through substrate stabilization, primary productivity, provision of habitat,
and structural basis for development of diverse and highly productive commun-
ities.
3) Threatened and Endangered Species
In the study area, 13 aquatic species considered endangered, threat-
ened, rare, or of special concern have been reported (Table 1.15). Phosphate
mining within the study area might potentially affect only three of the 13: the
manatee, American alligator, and Suwannee cooter.
Table 1.15. Study Area Aquatic Species Designated Endangered,
Threatened, Rare, or of Special Concern
Species Status*
Atlantic Geoduck Rare (FCREPA)
Opossum Pipefish Rare (FCREPA)
Mangrove Crab Threatened (FCREPA)
Atlantic Sturgeon Threatened (FCREPA)
Rivulus Threatened (FCREPA)
Suwannee Cooter Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Atlantic Loggerhead Threatened (FGFWFC, FCREPA)
American Alligator Threatened (USDI, FGFWFC); special
concern (FCREPA)
Atlantic Leatherback Endangered (USDI; rare (FCREPA)
Turtle
Atlantic Ridley Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Atlantic Green Turtle Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Atlantic Hawksbill Endangered (USDI, FGFWFC, FCREPA)
Manatee Endangered (USDI); threatened
(FGFWFC, FCREPA)
*FCREPA Inventory of rare and endangered biota of Florida compiled
by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and
Animals, 1976.
FGFWFC The wildlife code of the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish
Commission, 1976.
USDI United States Department of Interior list of endangered
and threatened wildlife, 1974.
1.44
-------
The manatee, or sea cow, has been reported throughout the coastal
areas of the 7-county study area as well as in the Peace, Myakka, Manatee,
Little Manatee, Alafia, and Hillsborough rivers. In 1975, the USDI designated
the northern portion of Charlotte Harbor and the lower reaches of the Peace,
Myakka, Manatee, and Little Manatee rivers as "critical habitat" for the manatee.
The American alligator is distributed in wetlands and aquatic habitats
throughout Florida and is common in the study area. Because of legal protection
and, in part, population resiliency, the reptile's numbers have now increased
to the point that the animal, although still threatened in other parts of the
county, is not seriously threatened in Florida.
The Suwannee cooter is an aquatic turtle restricted to certain rivers
and spring runs draining into the Gulf of Mexico. Its distribution within the
study area is apparently limited to the Alafia River and particularly in the
Lithia Springs area.
4) Species of Commercial and Recreational Importance
Categories and examples of species of commercial and/or recreational
importance in the study area are listed in Table 1.16. There are no freshwater
invertebrates of significant commercial or recreational value in the study area,
but there is a considerable freshwater fishery resource. The study area has
many lakes, streams, and coastal rivers that support commercial and sport fish-
eries. Although naturally established fish communities inhabit many of these
waterbodies, fisheries management maintains a considerable number of them.
Additionally, increasing numbers of phosphate pits have recreational potential
if properly reclaimed, and many have been transformed into private and/or public
fish management areas and parks.
While the fresh waters of the study area have substantial commercial
and recreational opportunities, the extremely productive estuarine waters have
outstanding commercial and recreational resources. Saltwater sport fishes are
a tremendous economic asset to the west coast of Florida. Undoubtedly, the
majority of the activity is concentrated near the tourist and population cen-
ters of the Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor areas and the "Manasota" coast. In
1.45
-------
Table 1.16. Species of Commercial and/or Recreational Importance
Categories
Freshwater
Game fishes
Commercial fishes
Bait/forage fishes
Estuarine
Game fishes
Commercial fishes
Bait/forage fishes
Commercial invertebrates
Examples
Largemouth bass, bream (bluegill,
redear sunfish, etc.)
Channel catfish, blue tilapia
Minnow, shiner
Snook, tarpon, spotted seatrout,
red drum, etc.
Mullet, crevalle, pompano, red snapper,
spotted seatrout, grouper, etc.
Bay anchovy, menhaden, silverside, etc.
Shrimp, blue crab, stone crab, etc.
the study area's estuarine waters, approximately 79 fish species and seven in-
vertebrate (shellfish) species of some commercial value are found in at least
one life stage. In 1975, 30 of the species had an annual dockside value ex-
ceeding $1000 in at least one of the shoreline counties in the study area. On
a poundage basis, shrimp, mullet, grouper, red and black drum, pompano, spotted
seatrout, Spanish mackerel, red snapper, crevalle jack, sand perch (mojarra),
sheepshead, blue crab, and stone crab represented the largest landings in the
Tampa Bay-Charlotte Harbor area; on a dollar basis, shrimp was by far the most
important species landed.
5) Nuisance or Pest Species
The same environmental factors that provide the outstanding biotic
resources of the fresh and salt waters of the study area also promote growth
of qertain native and exotic species to nuisance population levels (Table 1.17).
Pest or nuisance organisms and conditions associated with fresh waters
of the study area include algal blooms, exotic hydrophytes, mosquitos, midges,
the Asiatic clam, and a variety of native and exotic fishes. Abundances and
associated problems generally vary locally. Perhaps the most severe nuisance
of the fresh waters is the prolific growth of exotic hydrophytes including
1.46
-------
Table 1.17. Aquatic Nuisance and Pest Species in Study Area
Categories Examples
Freshwater
Macrophytes Water hyacinth, Hydrilla. water milfoil
Algae Filamentous and colonial green and blue-
green algae
Midges/Mosquitos Midges/mosquitos
Asiatic clam Asiatic clam (Corbicula)
Native nuisance fishes Gizzard shad, bowfin, gar
Exotic fishes Tilapia, walking catfish
Estuarine
Gymnodinium (red tide) Gymnodinium
Gracilaria (red alga) Gracilaria
Fouling organisms Barnacles, bivalves, algal mats
water hyacinth, Hydrilla, and water milfoil; these hydrophytes, as well as
others, proliferate readily in the nutrient-rich waters, clogging waterways,
shading out more desirable aquatic flora,rdeoxygenating the water and pro-
ducing sulfide odors as they deteriorate. Millions pf dollars are spent
annually in an attempt to control these pests.
The organism most devastating to the estuaries and marine waters of
the study area is the single-celled alga Gymnodinium breve, a minute, narrow
dinoflagellate. About every 3 to 5 years, the population of this organism
"blooms" for largely unknown reasons, creating the condition known as "red tide"
off the west coast of Florida. The economic consequences are staggering. Total
estimated losses attributed to two major outbreaks — one during summer 1971 and
the other during winter and early spring 1973-74 — was about $35,000,000.
Another nuisance condition in the saline waters of the study area re-
sults from the death and deterioration' of- prolific growths of the' red alga
Gracilaria. This nuisance condition is not as widespread-as 'the'red tide; heavy
growths appear to be restricted to the Hillsbofough Bay portion of Tampa Bay.
1.47
-------
4. Radiation Environment
a. Introduction
The world's primary phosphate occurrences are of sedimentary origin
and contain radioactive materials, predominantly uranium and its decay products.
Uranium, along with a very small amount of thorium, is thought to have been de-
posited contemporaneously with the phosphate. The phosphate deposits of the
study area contain uranium concentrations of between 0.01 and 0.02 percent;
despite the fact that ore mined in the western United States solely for its
uranium content contains 10 to 20 times this concentration, the phosphate in-
dustry currently mines slightly more total uranium than does the uranium in-
dustry (Guimond 1976a).
As indicated in Figure 1.15, radioactive material associated with
phosphate is confined at a depth at which its impact on man and his immediate
environment is mitigated. However, the mining, processing, and transporting
of phosphate ore and its derived products containing small concentrations of
radioactive material potentially expose the local population to radiation
levels above those they would encounter if these activities were absent. Mills
(1974) states four potential ways in which individuals and the population in
general may be exposed to these materials by the acts of phosphate mining, pro-
cessing, product manufacturing, and product use:
• Air-gases and particles
Gaseous and particulate radioactive material is released to the
air, posing the possibility of inhalation and decreasing over-
all air quality.
• Water-effluents, runoff, and leaching from wastes
The radioactive material in the ore or products can enter ground
waters, rivers, and other waterbodies through effluent discharges,
land runoff, and leaching from waste piles.
• Direct contact
Direct contact or close proximity to the radioactive materials
directly exposes workers, individuals, and the population.
• Food chain
Because of the application of phosphate fertilizers, the food
chain can become contaminated and result in man's ingestion of
radioactive material.
1.48
-------
Equivalents
<0.0005%
0.002 to 0.003%
0.01 to 0.03%
0.01 to 0.02%
(High BPL) (Low BPL)
0.002 to 0.015%
0.001%
i'i-i'i'i'i'X'i'X^ BEDROCK WfiSS
U_00 Equivalents
J O
< 5 ppm*
20 to 30 ppm
100 to 300 ppm
100 to 200 ppm
(Low BPL) (High BPL)
20 to 150 ppm
< 10 ppm
*ppm = parts per million
Figure 1.15. Average Uranium Concentrations as 1)303 (Altschuler et al 1956,
Cathcart 1965, McKelvey 1956) in Typical Central Florida Phos-
phate District Profile (Fountain and Zellars 1972)
The radionuclides of greatest importance to this program are uranium-
238, radium-226, and radon-222. Uranium-238 is important because of its abun-
dance in the area and because it is the parent material that establishes the
disintegration rate under conditions of secular equilibrium for the more haz-
ardous daughter products. Of the several uranium-238 decay products, radium-
226 and radon-222 (and its principal daughter products)* are the most hazardous
to human health if present in sufficient quantities; radium-226 is of particular
concern because of its toxic character and its affinity for replacing calcium
in bone. (Radium replacement is displayed by the relatively high radium-226
concentrations found in gypsum [CaSO, • 2H-0] stacks at the fertilizer manu-
facturing plants.) Radium-226 may be ingested through drinking water in which
the material has been dissolved, through food containing minute quantities of
the material, or by breathing dust containing radium contamination. Radon-222,
*Polonium-218, lead-214, bismuth-214, and polonium-214.
1.49
-------
an inert gas with a relatively short half-life (3.82 days), can be breathed,
along with its decay products, as particulate matter associated with respir-
able particles of dust.
Man's exposure to radiation can be the result of both external and
internal irradiation, i.e., by being near a radiation source or inhaling or
ingesting radioactive material. Internal irradiation can be especially harm-
ful to vital organs of the body because of their proximity to the radioactive
emitter. Damage from nuclear radiation is thought to be more severe when the
body is subjected to large doses in a relatively short time than when the same
exposure occurs over a longer time. Long-term effects of low radiation doses
are not fully known.
Although guidelines for radiation protection generally are given in
terms of dose rate to specific body organs or the whole body above existing
natural background levels, all radiation exposure is considered harmful, with
adverse effects assumed to be proportional to dose. In other words, a linear
theory rather than a threshold hypothesis is accepted.
b. Background Radiation
External gamma radiation levels in Florida approximate 7 to 10 micro-
roentgens per hour, whereas the levels in the area of the Bone Valley phosphate
deposits approximate 13 microroentgens per hour. Variances within the study
area are common, depending largely on depth of deposits. Overall, external
whole-body gamma radiation exposure levels for Floridians are essentially
equal to those reported for the average U.S. citizen, i.e., approximately 100
millirems per year- Additional variations in external gamma radiation levels
are associated with materials used for construction (primarily roadways) and
varied histories of land use, primarily phosphate mining and reclamation, al-
though nearly all are within the range of the background.
Exposures from air principally result from radon-222 gas (and its par-
ticulate daughter products) originating from the decay of radium-226 in soils.
Average airborne radon-222 levels have been reported to be higher in Bartow
than in Orlando or Jacksonville, Florida (Williams et al 1965). Lung dosage
1.50
-------
from radon-222 is 0.240 rads per year in the Bone Valley area compared with
0.130 in the remainder of the state. According to the Florida Department of
Health and Rehabilitative Services (1977), the mean, annual, natural back-
ground, working-level (WL) concentration for the area is 0.004 compared with
an inferred U.S. average of 0.001. Additional exposure is possible due to
dust generated by the drying of phosphate rock and by chemical processing.
Table 1.18 indicates the levels of radium emissions associated with chemical
processing (USEPA 1977).
Table 1.18. Radium Levels Associated with Phosphate Chemical Processing*
GTSP dryer
Dry- product (GTSP)
shipping
Phosphate rock grinding
Phosphate acid process
(rock)
Air
Flow
(nvVmin)
57
481
294
54
54
Total
Op Time
(hr)
4560
500
3950
6460
4000
Total
Vol
(m3)
15.6 x 106
14.4 x 106
69.7 x 106
20.9 x 10J(
13.0 x 10°
Total
Participates
(mg)
5.9 x 108
12.4 x 108
15.3 x 108
17.6 x 108
2.0 x 10tt
Ra-226**
(pC1)
12.5 x 106
26.1 x 106
64.1 x 106
74. x 10?
8.4 x 10°
*USEPA (1977).
**Radioactive data calculated from Facility Report and previous radioactivity measure-
ments of phosphate rock and GTSP.
In water the principal contaminant is radium-226 (Kaufmann and Bliss
1977). Lower Floridan aquifer water samples from nonmineralized areas in Cen-
tral Florida exhibit a mean value of 1.4 picocuries per liter, and those for
the upper Floridan are 5.1 picocuries per liter. In mineralized but unmined
areas, the respective values are 2.0 and 2.3, respectively, with the water-
table waters containing 0.17 picocuries per liter. In mineralized and mined
areas, the values are 1.96, 1.61, and 0.55, respectively. Radium-226 radio-
activity concentrations in waters underlying Sarasota County have been shown
to be higher than those of the remainder of the study area; the reasons are
apparently related to the outcropping of the Hawthorn formation and the occur-
rence of monazite sand in the county.
Radioactivity concentrations in homes and other structures built on
reclaimed land have been shown to be higher than in structures located on land
1.51
-------
outside the mineralized, phosphate area. According to the Florida Department
of Health and Rehabilitative Services (1978), the average annual excess exposure
to daughters of Radon-222 (i.e. average above natural background) for persons
living on enhanced [reclaimed] land within the study area is calculated to be
540 millirems per year to the whole lung. They found that: 1) radiation levels
on undisturbed non-mineralized land do not approach or exceed the National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) Maximum Dose Recommenda-
tions; 2) radiation levels in structures on undisturbed-mineralized land approach
and some exceed those guidelines; and 3) radiation levels in structures built on
reclaimed lands approach and some exceed the guidelines.
Radiation exposures to phosphate employees working under normal pro-
cedures and conditions have been found to be well within the guidelines for
occupational exposures and generally within the guidelines for the general pop-
ulation. Elevated levels of radiation were found only in the vicinity of
acidulation tanks and phosphoric acid filters, piping, and filtrate tanks —
and these areas are not routinely occupied by workers. Radon progeny levels
have been found to be high in rock-loading tunnels, but this can be controlled
by proper ventilation. Specific exposures to workers are highly variable
(Table 1.19), depending on the absolute localized radioactivity concentrations,
the number of hours that the workers spend at the various locales, and the
distance to the various concentration levels. Gross alpha radioactivity in
vegetables grown in the Bone Valley phosphate region is higher than in vege-
tables grown outside the region and gross beta radioactivity is slightly
higher.
c. Summary
Radiation relative to the phosphate industry is of concern because
of its possible adverse health effects. These would be expected to be mani-
fested in cancer statistics, especially lung cancer, which might be induced
by inhalation of radioactively contaminated dust emitted by rock and chemical
processing and by inhalation of radon progeny, the concentration of which is
also affected locally by phosphate industry activities. According to cancer
mortality statistics for 1950-69 (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare 1974), Polk County did not experience an increase in mortality due to
lung cancer even though the phosphate industry has been most active within this
county. Nationally, the age-adjusted mortality for white males (per 100,000)
1.52
-------
averages 37.98 nationally and 44.93 for Florida. Polk is 31st of 67 counties
when Florida counties are ranked and fourth of the seven in the study area
(Table 1.20).
Table 1.19. Representative Radium-226 Concentrations
in 7-County Study Area Environment
Item
Background soil
Silt
Beach sand
Reclaimed soil
Overburden (excluding
leach zone)
Leach zone materials
Matrix
Wet phosphate rock
Sand tailings
Slime particles
Slime decant water
(dissolved fraction)
Slime decant water
(undissolved fraction)
Mine water
Ground water
Slime-pond water
Leachate from gypsum pond
Gypsum
Phosphate products
Radium-226
Concentration
1.5 PCi/g
1.1 pCi/g
0.9 pCi/g
10-30 pCi/g
10 pCi/g
40 pCi/g
40 pCi/g
60 pCi/g
29-34 pCi/g
42 pCi/g
7.5 pCi/g
6.2-8.8 pCi/g
45 pCi/g
33-52 pCi/g
1-2 pd/i
33.5-52 pCi/g
<1.5 pCi/i
<1.5 pCi/Jl
<2 pCi/J.
60-100 pCi/f,
21-33 pci/2
42 PCi/g
Reference
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Mills et al (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann (1977)
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Guimond and Windham (1975)
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Guimond (1976a)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Kaufmann (1977)
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(1975)
(undifferentiated)
Phosphoric acid plant
effluent after
double liming
Slag from calcination
processes
Water-table water
(mineralized mined areas)
Upper Floridan water
(mineralized mined areas)
Lower Floridan water
(mineralized mined areas)
Ammonium phosphates
Superphosphates
, Phosphoric acid
Animal feed supplements
1.8-4.5 pCi/fc Guimond and Windham (1975)
56 pCi/g Guimond and Windham (1975)
0.55 pCi/£ Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
1.61 pd/t Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
1.96 pCi/i Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
5-6 pCi/g Guimond (1976a)
21 pCi/g Guimond (1976a)
<1 pCi/l Uuimond (1977)
5-6 pCl/g Gutmond and Windham (1975)
1.53
-------
Table 1.20. Cancer Mortality Rates in Central Florida
Phosphate Region, 1950-69*
County
Hillsborough
Charlotte
DeSoto
Polk
Sarasota
Hardee
Manatee
Rate
(per yr per 100,000)
52.5
45.0
43.9
41.8
40.0
36.3
36.0
Rank in
State .
7
18
23
31
35
43
48
*USDHEW (1974).
C. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT
1. Demography and Economics
a. Current Population Profile
Florida's population grew by 25 percent between the 1970 population
census and July 1975. Table 1.21 shows that growth in four of the seven coun-
ties was greater than the substantial increase in the state's population.
Charlotte led the list of high-growth counties (a 53 percent increase between
1970 and 1975). DeSoto, Sarasota, and Manatee counties also had greater per-
centage increases than the state; however, Hardee, Hillsborough, and Polk
counties grew less than 25 percent.
Table 1.21. Population by State and Seven Counties in Study Area,
1970 and 1975*
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Hillsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
Total
Florida
April 1, 1970
Census
27,559
13,060
14,889
490,265
97,115
227,222
120,413
990,523
6,791,418
July 1, 1975
Estimate
42,190
18,190
18,511
605.B97
123,506
275,973
163,172
1,247,139
8,485,230
Percent
Change
53
39
24
24
27
21
36
26
25
University of Florida (1975), U.S. Bureau of Census (1970).
1.54
-------
The population growth was caused largely by migration rather than
by natural increases (Table 1.22).
Table 1.22. Percentage of Growth by Natural Increase and Migration,
1970-75*
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Hlllsbo rough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
% Natural
Increase
10.6
8.2
25.2
17.6
-8.4
17.9
-10.7
% Net
Migration
110.6
91.8
74.9
82.4
108.4
82.1
110.7
*Un1vers1ty of Florida (1976).
b. Age Distribution
Age is perhaps the population's most significant feature: a large
influx of new residents of any one age group may affect the character of the
area's economic base. The median in Charlotte County, for example, is 58.3;
half of the residents are 58 or older. Many of the newer residents in the
study area are older, a trend which has existed for several years (Table 1.23),
Table 1.23. Median Age of Population by County, 1960 and 1970*
County
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Hlllsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
1960
44.8
36.5
29.1
30.4
41.1
29.1
40.5
1970
58.3
34.5
26.6
28.5
48.7
29.8
49.6
1970 % over Age 65
35.1
15.6
10.0
10.4
30.2
12.6
28.6
*U.S. Bureau of the Census (1960 and 1970).
1.55
-------
New housing units in the study area increased by more than 90,000,
or an average of about 3 percent annually, from 1960 to 1970. The number of
persons per unit remained the same during 1960-70, but the average per unit
dropped from 2.5 to 2.3 from 1970 to 1973. Substandard housing in 1970 ex-
ceeded 16,000 of the more than 278,000 units, with Negro-occupied units rep-
resenting the largest percentage; more than 25 percent of the Negro-occupied
units were considered substandard.
c. Income Distribution
Per-capita income and distribution of income are important indica-
tors of an area's economic well-being. Sources of income indicate the ratio
of farm to nonfarm and gains to losses.
In the study area, more than $1.4 billion of income results from
persons commuting, so worker mobility is obviously important. Table 1.24
shows sources of income, net income, and per-capita income for the study area
and for each of its counties, and Table 1.25 shows the 1975 effective buying
income per capita and the 1970 median total income per family.
Table 1.24. Distribution of Income, 1973, by Study Area and County of
Residence (in thousands of dollars except for per-capita)*
Farm Income
Nonfarm Income
Dividends, Interest,
Rent
Transfer Payments
Adjustment for
Commuting
Study Area
199,101
1,758,419
837,685
748,352
1,439,917
Charlotte
1,850
70,575
42,758
42,307
(+)5,836
DeSoto
11,527
32,958
5,452
9,250
(-02,432
Hardee
23,520
24,745
5,937
7,560
(+)5,095
Hillsbo rough
25,526
140,560
248,272
281,219
(0100,747
Manatee
23,678
254,823
107,127
103,464
(+)8,175
Polk
107,121
786,953
138,526
147,289
(-)38,334
Sarasota
5,879
447,805
289,613
157,263
(-M0.018
Contributions to 207,495 3,845 1,562 1,058 117,399 14,201 44,188 25,245
Social Insurance
NET INCOME 5,190,972 159,481 55,193 65,799 2,464,769 483,066 1,097,367 865,297
ADJUSTED 1973 4,409 4,339 3,726 3,938 4,506 4,282 4,311 5,764
PER-CAPITA INCOME
ADJUSTED 1970 3,290 2,586 2,792 3,366 3,294 3,344 4,681
PER-CAPITA INCOME
Business and Economic Dimensions, July-August 1975.
1.56
-------
Table 1.25. 1975 Effective Buying Income and 1970 Median Total
Income per Family*
1975 Effective Buying
Income per Capita
1970 Median Total Income
per Household
State
4365
7117
Charlotte
4266
5362
DeSoto
NA
5434
Hardee
3166
5254
Hillsborough
4081
7100
Manatee
4136
7740
Polk
4208
6566
Sarasota
NA
7739
Sales Management Magazine
d. Employment/Unemployment
Table 1.26 gives the basic labor market statistics for the seven
counties of the study area in terms of percentage changes from March 1973 to
March 1974 and from March 1974 to March 1975. Large percentage increases in
the number of unemployed and the unemployment rate, along with comparable
changes in the ratio of persons employed, can be seen. (The three exceptions
are indicated with minus signs.)
Table 1.26. Percentagp Changes: Employment/Unemployment
Percent Change
in Unemployed Number
3/73-3/74 3/74-3/75
Percent Change
in Employment Ratio
3/73-3/74
3/74-3/75
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Hillsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
79
267
350
37
58
7
72
150
164
-16
128
209
47
250
83
255
291
27
42
-2
61
120
133
-7
117
184
33
232
The major industries forming the region's economic base are agricul-
ture, construction, manufacturing, mining, trade (both retail and wholesale),
transportation, tourism, and government. Collectively, agriculture and con-
struction (the latter is closely related to tourism/retirement) constitute the
most significant portion of the economic base. Mining, however, is a significant
1.57
-------
Industry, especially in Hardee and Polk counties, as is manufacturing. Mining,
manufacturing, and agriculture derive their significance from the fact that
they produce a physical product for export. The region's industrial mix did
not change substantially between 1960 and 1970 (see Table 1.27). Except in
construction, regional shifts were in accord with the national pattern: while
the nation had a slight increase of 0.1 percent, the region declined 1.3 per-
cent. Reflecting the stability, no new industrial categories were introduced,
nor did any of the existing industries disappear. The region's industrial mix
contrasted significantly with the nation's industrial mix ratio in the follow-
ing aspects:
• Agriculture decreased only 8.8 percent, contrasting
with a nationwide decrease of 44.8 percent.
• The decrease of mining was Just about half that ex-
perienced by the nation.
• Construction increased 1.7 percent for the nation
but decreased 13.4 percent for the region.
• Manufacturing held steady in the region, while de-
creasing 4.4 percent nationally.
• The transportation decline was about the same for
both region and nation.
• The wholesale trade increase nationally was almost
double that of the region.
• Retail trade in the region compared favorably with
that of the nation.
• Finance, insurance, and real estate were about the
same nationwide and regionwide.
• Other industries in the region were about 6.6 percent
below the national average.
The 7-county study area has a substantial tourist industry. Exert-
ing a strong influence is the state's largest single tourist attraction, Walt
Disney World, which is immediately adjacent to the area. Tourism has been
registering a slow but constant growth rate since 1970 (except in 1974, the
year of the "gasoline crisis"). State tourism is expected to grow slowly to
1980, averaging 2 percent projected growth in number of tourists.
1.58
-------
Table 1.27. Industrial Mix in 7-County Region and U.S., 1960 and 1970
Industry Category
Agriculture
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing
Transportation
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Finance, insurance
real estate
Others
1960
Region U.S.
6.8
1.7
9.7
15.6
4.0
5.2
17.7
4.5
34.8
6.7
1.0
5.9
27.1
4.2
3.4
14.8
4.2
32.7
Percentages
1970
Region U.S.
6.2
1.5
8.4
15.6
3.5
5.8
18.9
5.3
34.8
3.7
0.8
6.0
25.9
3.7
4.1
16.0
5.0
34.8
A/1960
Region U.S.
-8.8
-11.8
-13.4
-0-
-12.5
11.5
6.8
17.8
-0-
-44'. 8
-20.0
1.7
-4.4
-11.9
20.6
8.1
19.1
6.4
Mining in the 7-county region employed 4453 workers in 1960 and 5047
in 1970, an increase of 13.3 percent. Data supplied by the Florida Phosphate
Council showed approximately 2000 more jobs in 1970 than did the census, but
the council was reporting all individuals employed by the mining companies,
whereas the census was reporting only those individuals actively involved with
mining. Mining employment has shown only moderate growth, but the payroll has
grown substantially. The divergence is due to the increased earnings of em-
ployees. As discussed in subsection A of this section, mining does not appear
to have played a significant role in the growth of the region since 1960. This
fact, added to the slow growth of tourism and agriculture, indicates that
growth has been dirven by other industries — primarily services. It should
be noted that this is the trend for the nation as a whole.
e. Projections
Various population projections and the University of Florida esti-
mates of population by county in 1975 are contained in Table 1.28. There were
more than 1,250,000 persons in the seven counties in 1975. The low projection
(OBERS*E) forecasted an increase to about 1,750,000 by 2000, while the other two
Office of Business Economics of Department of Commerce and Economic Research Ser-
vice of Department of Agriculture (since 1972, known as Bureau of Economic Analy-
sis). OBERS E and OBERS EA assume different birth and immigration rates. UF 208
is University of Florida 208.
1.59
-------
Table 1.28. Alternative Population Projections (thousands) by
County, 1980, 1985, 1990, 2000
Charlotte
Desoto
Hardee
Hillsborough++
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
1975
UF"
42.2
18.2
18.5
605.6
123.5
276.0
163.2
OBERS E
39.8
14.7
16.5
624.2
111.8
289.7
191.5
1980
**OBERSEAf
56.0
19.0
21.0
642.3
146.0
300.0
220.0
UF 208*
56. S
22.2
21.9
691.6
150.6
318.6
200.2
OBERS
42.1
15.4
16.9
677.0
116.9
313.7
223.5
1985
E OBERS
70.4
21.6
23.2
703.2
167.6
325.0
265.2
EA UF 208
70.9
26.0
25.3
757.4
176.3
360.3
238.7
OBERS
44.6
16.1
17.2
734.4
122.2
339.6
260.9
1990
E OBERS
88.6
24.5
25.6
759.8
192.4
350.7
318.5
EA UF
85
29
28
810
200
398
274
208
.8
.4
.6
.6
.0
.4
.4
OBERS
47.0
16.8
17.7
836.9
126.5
381.7
300.8
2000
K OBERS EA''
140.3
31.5
31.2
887.0
253.6
408.4
459.4
UF 208
119.1
35.9
35.5
907.9
241.6
470.4
418.0
TOTAL 1247.1 1288.2 1404.3 1461.6 1405.5 1576.2 1654.9 1535.0 1760.1 1827.2 1727.4 2211.4 2152.2
University of Florida (1976).
**U.S. Water Resources Council (1972).
U.S. Department of Commerce (1975).
TDerived assuming same percent growths, 1980-90
OBERS projections derived from projections of Tampa SMSA using University of Florida shares
series forecasted a rise to about 2,200,000 inhabitants. Thus, the two high
series predicted that the population of the seven counties would almost double
in the last quarter of the 20th century.
Almost half the total population of the seven counties lived in
Hillsborough in 1975, and OBERS E predicted that Hillsborough would maintain
this share to the year 2000 (Table 1.29). Polk would also retain its share
of over one-fifth but Sarasota would increase its share at the expense of the
remaining four counties. Both the OBERS EA and UF 208 forecast a decline of
about 40 percent in Hillsborough's share. The University of Florida projec-
tions foresaw a constant share for Polk, but OBERS EA predicted a substantial
decline. OBERS EA and UF 208 expected Charlotte and Manatee to gain.
2. Land Use
a. Current Land Use
More than 75 percent of the land use in the study area (Table 1.30
is classified under four Level-I and Level-II categories:* rangeland, 31.28
percent; cropland and pasture, 22.18 percent; wetland, 12.34 percent; and
orchards-groves, 9.44 percent. All Level-II categories under "Urban or Built
*USGS land use-land cover classifications.
1.60
-------
Table 1.29. Alternative Projections by County Shares (Percentages)
in Regional Total Population
COUNTY
Charlotte
Desoto
Hardee
Hillsborough
Manatee
Polk
Sarasota
Total
1975
UF
3.4
1.5
1.5
48.6
9.9
22.1
13.1
100.0
OBERS E
3.1
1.1
1.3
48.5
8.7
22.s'
14.9
100.0
1980
OBERS Kt>
4.0
1.0
1.2
44.4
8.0
20.6
13.6
100.0
UF 208
3.9
1.5
1.5
47.3
10.3
21.8
13.7
100.0
OBERS E
3.0
1.1
1.2
48.2
8.3
22.3
15.9
100.0
1985
OBERS EA
4.5
1.4
1.5
44.6
10.6
20.6
16.8
100.0
UF 208
4.3
1.6
1.5
45.8
10.7
21.8
14.4
100.0
OBERS E
2.9
1.1
1.1
47.8
8.0
22.1
17.0
100.0
1990
OBF.RS EA
5.0
1.4
1.5
43.2
10.9
19.9
18.1
100.0
UF 208
4.7
1.6
1.6
44.4
11.0
21.8
15.0
100.0
OBERS E
2.7
1.0
1.0
48.5
7.3
22.1
17.4
100.0
2000
OBERS EA
6.3
1.4
1.4
40.1
11.5
18.5
20.8
100.0
UF 208
S.5
1.7
1.7
42.2
11.2
21.9
15.6
100.0
Table 1.30. Generalized Land Use, 7-County Study Area, 1975
Applicable LUDA Levels
Level I/Level II
Urban or Built Up
Residential
Commercial and services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and utilities
Industrial and commercial complexes
Mixed Urban or built-up areas
Other urban or built-up areas
Agricultural Land
Cropland and pasture
Orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and
ornamental horticultural areas
Other agricultural land
Rangeland
Forest Land
Water
Wetland
Barren Land
Strip mines, quarries, and gravel pits
Other barren land
Study Area Total
Area
Hectares (Acres)
79,345.1 (196,059)
8,738.8 (21,593)
10,358.3 (25,595)
7,459.1 (18,431)
558.1 (1.379)
5,787.1 (14,300)
22,428.5 (55.42D)
320,404.6 (791,709)
136,324.6 (336,854)
-
451,741.5 (1,116,238)
69,649.3 (172,101)
67,411.0 (166,570)
178,267.9 (440,494)
45,073.4 (111,375)
40,714.9 (100,605)
1,444,262.2 (3,568,723)
Percent of
Study Area
5.49
0.61
0.72
0.52
0.04
0.40
1.55
22.18
9.44
.
31.28
4.82
4.67
12.34
3.12
2.82
100
1.61
-------
Up" (Level I) total only 9.33 percent of the study area and are not distributed
evenly; instead, they are located primarily along the Gulf Coast between Tampa
and Sarasota along major transportation arteries. In the case of the concen-
tration between Tampa and Sarasota, "Urban and Built-Up" areas follow the main
transportation route, 1-275 (U.S. 41). There is another concentration between
Tampa and Lakeland along 1-4 and U.S. 92. In the interior, this category is
scattered.
The Level-I categories "Agricultural Land" and "Rangeland" dominate
the interior of the study area. The majority of the former is in the Level-II
category "Cropland and Pasture." The other Level-II category with a large rep-
resentation in the study area is "Transitional Areas" (those areas that are in
transition from one land use to another). The largest concentration of this
category is a large, unoccupied subdivision north of Charlotte Harbor in Char-
lotte and Sarasota counties. Under the Level-I category "Barren Land," the
Level-II category "Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits" comprises only 3.12
percent (111,375 acres) of the entire study. Polk County has a noticeable con-
centration, however (102,742 acres); 12.5 percent of the county is in this land-
use category. (This category does not take into account how long mined
land has been mined - or mining has ceased - nor its condition in regard
to revegetation.)
USGS maps do not reveal the presence of reclaimed land, but there
is much in Polk County where phosphate mining has been the most extensive.
Reclaimed land is typically converted to improved pasture ("Land and Lakes") .
Present land-use patterns are affected by not only the physical en-
vironment but also the economic forces and regulatory factors. Landownership
is closely related to the economic influences on land use. Landowners partici-
pate in land-use decisions that are frequently dictated by the desire to maxi-
mize profits. Phosphate companies own approximately 14 percent of the study
area (225,466 hectares, or 557,120 acres), but their land-use decisions are
within the constraints of local, regional, and state land-use regulations
even though profit-oriented.
b. Future Land Use
Table 1.31 summarizes actual areas and projected changes in land use
in the 7-county study area.
1.62
-------
Table 1.31. 7-County Study Area Generalized Land Use, 1975 and 2000
o
Applicable LUDA Level I/Level II
Urban or Built Up
Residential
Commercial and services
Industrial
Transportation, communications, and
utilities
Industrial and conroercial complexes
Nixed Urban or built-up areas
Other Urban or built-up areas
Agricultural Land
Cropland and pasture
Orchards and groves
Other agricultural land
Range! and
Forest Land
Water *
Wetland
Barren Land
Strip mines, quarries, and gravel
pits
Other barren land
County Total 1
Hectares
79,345
8,739
10,358
7,459
558
5,787
22,429
320,405
136,325
-
451,742
69,649
67,411
178,268
45,073
40,715
,444,262
1975
Acres
196,059
21,593
25,595
18,431
1,379
14,300
55,420
791,709
336,854
-
1,116,238
172,101
166,570
440,494
111,375
100,605
3,568,723
% of
Study Area
5.49
0.61
0.72
0.52
0.04
0.40
1.55
22.18
9.44
-
31.28
4.82
4.67
12.34
3.12
2.82
100.00
1985
% of
Study Area
7.05
0.70
1.13
1.15
0.07
0.40
1.65
20.46
9.02
-
29.38
3.81
4.72
12.21
4.98
3.27
100.00 1,
Hectares
119,291
10,965
15,562
16,470
583
5,826
25,152
299,396
127,384
-
422,286 1
58,784
68,038
176,145
51 ,070
47,070
444,262 3
2000
Acres
294,764
27,094
38,451
40,697
1,441
14,396
62,147
739,800
314,760
-
,043,455
145,255
168,120
435,247
126,193
116,308
,568,723
% of
Study Area
8.26
0.76
1.08
1.14
0.04
0.41
1.74
20.73
8.82
-
29.24
4.07
4.71
12.20
3.54
3.26
100.00
% Change:
1975-2000
50.5
24.6
50.0
119.2
0
2.5
12.3
-7.0
-6.8
-
-7.0
-18.4
0.9
-1.1
13.5
15.6
2035
% of
Study Area
11. OS
0.87
0.95
1.16
0.04
0.41
1.95
21.35
8.35
-
28.91
4.67
4.71
12.15
0.17
3.23
100.00
*Surface water acres will be higher than this estimate, according to industry projections
(see Tables 2.5 and 2.7).
-------
1) Urban or Built Up
Between 1975 and 2000, this Level-I Gregory will experience a 44
percent increase in land use; primary impetus will be from the Level-II cate-
gories "Residential," "Industrial," and "Transportation, Communications, and
Utilities" (Table 1.31). The industrial growth will be related primarily to
the phosphate industry, while additional power-plant construction will in-
crease the area devoted to this land-use class. Residential expansion will
occur primarily along the Gulf Coast, along existing and planned major trans-
portation arteries (e.g., 1-4, 1-75, 1-7, and U.S. 92 and 41), and in the
scattered existing population modes along lesser transportation routes (e.g.,
U.S. 17).
2) Agricultural Land
This Level-I category will decrease approximately 7 percent over the
7-county study area, representing displacement of former agricultural land by
both the "Urban and Built-Up" category and phosphate mining. Displacement by
phosphate mining is temporary, however, and reclamation of mined lands will
undoubtedly return some of the former agricultural land, especially improved
pasture, to production. This reclamation will continue after the year 2000,
as evidenced by an increase in agricultural land between 2000 and 2035 (Table
1.31).
3) Rangeland
Rangeland will decline 7 percent between 1975 and 2000, primarily
because of expansion of the "Urban and Built-Up" category. Former rangeland
in DeSoto County, however, will be occupied by a Florida Power & Light power-
plant complex. Also, some former rangeland will be converted to strip mines.
4) Forest Land
This Level-I category will decline more in total area (18.4 percent)
between 1975 and 2000 than any other Level-I category, and more will be dis-
placed by phosphate mining than by urban expansion.
1.64
-------
5) Water
Water, which includes all surface water, will increase over the 7-
county study area between 1975 and 2000 by only 0.9 percent.
6) Wetlands
The reader is asked to refer to the discussion of terrestrial biota,
which appeared in subsection B of this section.
7) Barren Land
The Level-I category "Barren Land" includes two entirely different
and distinct Level-II categories, "Strip Mines" and "Other Barren Land."
Almost all of the strip-mined area in the seven counties of the study area
except a few sand and gravel pits will be for phosphate. The area occupied
by phosphate mining is expected to increase 13.5 percent between 1975 and
2035. The "Other Barren Land" category, which includes land having "less
than one-third of the area with vegetation or other cover" or lands "in an
obvious state of transition" (Anderson et al 1976), is expected to increase
15.6 percent between 1975 and 2035.
A majority of the planners and phosphate industry representatives
contacted considered that the area in this Level-I category has been overesti-
mated for the year 2000 and that, although some formerly mined areas will not
have been completely reclaimed, 3.26 percent of the study area (47,070 hec-
tares, or 116,308 acres) will not be in transition.
c. Archeological, Historical, and Recreational Resources
The 7-county study area contains 791 historical and archeological
sites listed on the State of Florida Master Site File (Florida Division of
Archives, History, and Records Management 1976). Most sites (62 percent) are
classed as "prehistoric," i.e., predating the 16th century. A number of
federal, state, and local laws offer varying degrees of protection to arche-
ological resources but do not exempt them from the possibility of disturbance.
Most archeological sites are extremely fragile and would be permanently altered
or destroyed if mined. Any site listed on the Florida Master Site file is con-
sidered for inclusion in the National Register.
1.65
-------
The study area also has a variety of public and private recreational
sites. Public recreational areas are administered at state and federal levels
by such agencies as Florida Division of Recreation and Parks, Florida Game and
Fresh Water Fish Commission, Florida Division of Resource Management, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, and National Park Service. All counties in the study
area have county and municipally sponsored parks; the number and facilities
vary widely. Also contributing to the recreational resource base of the study
area are private recreational areas such as golf courses, marinas, and camp-
grounds. Table 1.32 indicates by county the total number of hectares (acres)
in recreational areas.
Table 1.32. Extent of Recreational Areas in Seven Counties of Study Area
County
Hlllsborough
Manatee
Sarasota
Charlotte
DeSoto
Hardee
Polk
Total
Total Hectares (Acres) 1n
Recreational Areas
8,578.0
4,753.6
8,761.8
25,443.9
90.5
312.3
28,818.2
21,196.0
11,746.1
21,650.4
62,871.8
223.6,
(771.7
71,209.7
76,758.3 (189,669.3)
1.66
-------
SECTION 2
ALTERNATIVES ASSESSMENT
A. ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
The effects assessment methodology used on the Central Florida
Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program consisted of a rational,
methodical series of events within a system's (holistic) point of view per-
formed by a highly interactive interdisciplinary team of experts. These
events are outlined in Figure 2.1.
A 2-dimensional array (sometimes called a matrix) was prepared for
the central Florida phosphate industry (Plate 2) to:
• Display causative factors from the alternatives, as
well as beneficial and adverse significant effects
• Inventory environmental elements (i.e., entities,
properties, or processes affecting man directly or
through his relationship to his natural, societal,
or economic environment) to give technical direction
to the staff and assure thoroughness
• Reveal interactions among the elements within each
group (i.e., alternative versus environmental elements)
The matrix was used also to formulate plans for avoiding, minimizing,
or mitigating adverse effects and enhancing beneficial effects; the display in-
cludes interacting elements and the nature and effect of their interaction.
When alternative plans were modified, effects were modified and each matrix for
the appropriate alternatives summarized to the limit of quantification to re-
flect the overall stature of each alternative with respect to the environmental
elements.
Elements for inclusion in an environmental effects (EE) matrix were
determined based on a priori information, scenarios describing alternatives,
laws and regulations, input from affected governmental and private groups, and
guidance from the steering and the advisory committees. The steering committee
consisted of representatives of the Federal Departments of the Interior (Fish
and Wildlife Service, Geological Survey, and Bureau of Mines); Army (Corps of
Engineers) and Agriculture; the Office of Federal Activities of the EPA; the
2.1
-------
Ni
DEFINE BOUNDARIES, IN
SPACE AND TIME, OF EN-
VIRONMENTAL AND ALTER-
NATIVE ACTIONS TO BE
ADDRESSED
LIST ELEMENTS OF EACH ALTER-
NATIVE POTENTIALLY IMPACT-
FUL, FORMING Y AXIS OF EN-
VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS MATRIX
(A MATRIX FOR EACH ALTER-
NATIVE) (FIGURE 3)
BRIEFLY DESCRIBE CAUSATIVE
MECHANISMS POTENTIALLY
INTERRELATING ELEMENTS OF
ALTERNATIVES WITH ENVIRON-
MENTAL ELEMENT IMPACTED
LIST ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
INCLUDING, BUT NOT NECESSARILY
LIMITED TO, DECISION INDICATORS
POTENTIALLY IMPACTED BY ALTER-
NATIVES, THUS FORMING X AXIS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS MATRIX
COMPILE, ANALYZE AND INTER-
PRET REQUIRED DATA TO DESCRIBE
PRESENT AND PROJECTED STATE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND
PROPOSED ALTERNATIVES
SYNTHESIZE AND CONCEPTUALLY
OR LITERALLY OVERLAY ALTER-
NATIVES DESCRIPTIONS ON DE-
SCRIPTIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
SYSTEMS
USE MODELS (VERBAL, TABULAR,
ILLUSTRATIVE, MAPPED, MATHE-
MATICAL. OR COMPUTER-GENE-
RATED) TO PREDICT AND REPRE-
SENT IMPACTS
USING ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
MATRIX, TRACE EFFECT OF GIVEN
ELEMENT ACROSS VARIOUS ENVI-
RONMENTAL ELEMENTS AND PLACE +
OR - IN EACH X, Y COORDINATE
ENTRY BLOCK (LEAVE BLANK IF
ZERO IS ASSIGNED)
-*•
ASSIGN VALUE OF 1 TO 10 TO EACH
IMPACT AND DOCUMENT RATIONALE
AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION FOR
ASSIGNMENT MADE, USING X, Y
COORDINATE DESIGNATION AS
CROSS-REFERENCE TO ENVIRON-
MENTAL EFFECTS MATRIX (FIGURE 4)
MAKE COMPARISON MATRIX
REPLACING TITLE OF AL- ^
FORMULATE POTENTIAL MITI-
GATING, MINIMIZING. OR
AVOIDANCE MEASURES THAT
COULD BE TAKEN AND PREPARE
AMENDED ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS MATRIXES WITH
REVISED VALUES OF IMPACTS
COMPUTE ANALYSIS OF
COMPARISONS AND GRAPH
•^
DESCRIBE ENVIRONMENTAL
ELEMENTS NOT AMENABLE TO
PREVIOUS STEP WHICH THEN
ARE THE UNA VOIDABLE AND
IRRETRIEVABLE IMPACTS OF
GIVEN ALTERNATIVE
fe.
MAKE PRESENTATION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ACCORDING
^.
•fc-
SUMMARIZE ALGEBRAICALLY AND
TEXTUALLY EACH ALTERNATIVE
APPLYING WEIGHTING FACTORS
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS
IN COMPUTATION
PREPARE DEIS USING ALTER-
NATIVE PREFERRED BY DECISION-
TERNATIVES FOR DEMAND
ELEMENTS (FIGURES)
RESULTS (FIGURE 5)
TO COMPARISON. AS QUALIFIED
BY SUMMARY OF RATIONALE, TO
DECISION-MAKERS
MAKERS AS "PROPOSED ACTION"
Figure 2.1. Flowchart of Methodology for Environmental Impact Assessment
-------
President's Council on Environmental Quality; and the Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation. The advisory committee consisted of representa-
tives of each of the seven counties in the study area (Hillsborough, Manatee,
Sarasota, Charlotte, DeSoto, Hardee, and Polk), the Florida Audubon Society,
the Southwest Florida Water Management District, and the Florida Phosphate
Council. Elements listed under "alternative demand elements" represent causa-
tive factors. The listed environmental elements were based on government
guidelines, implementing instructions, a priori knowledge, and investigative
results as appropriate to the planning area and represented the decision in-
dicators established by the committees.
During an intensive workshop with each discipline (key team member),
represented environmental effects of alternative scenario causative elements
were assigned a (-), (0), or (+), depending on whether they are respectively
adverse, neutral, or beneficial. Accompanying each alternative EE matrix is
a set of narratives describing the rationale behind the assignment of each
(-) or (+) effect.
Values reflecting change from the baseline (without action alterna-
tive) relative to "least regret" conditions were assigned on a scale of 1
(slight) to 10 (great), as determined by an expert in that field, and the ef-
fects were algebraically added under each environmental element. With the
concurrence of the decision-makers, elements showing greatest effects received
the greatest time and effort for detailed analysis, thus assuring adequate in-
formation on the elements needed for good decisions.
From the summary matrix, alternative scenarios were compared. Com-
mittee members assigned each environmental element a weighting coefficient
reflecting its relative importance to the issues to be evaluated by the de-
cision-makers. Thus, weighted and unweighted magnitudes of effect were ob-
tained .
B. INVESTIGATION OF DECISION ALTERNATIVES
Various alternatives have been proposed as the basis for assessing
the effects of the central Florida phosphate industry. To assess effects and
determine impacts, the environmental setting (present and projected through
the year 2000) was figuratively overlaid with projections of conditions that
2.3
-------
would occur according to each alternative for environmental regulation of
the phosphate industry. The decision to be made was which alternative pre-
sents the least regrettable effect on the environment.
To ensure that relevant information was brought forth to aid in
the decision-making, the description of the alternatives is an important con-
sideration. The first description was in the form of a scenario that conveyed
the intent of that alternative. (Scenario is a synopsis of a play; in terms
of regulatory policy decisions, it conveys a theme and intent of administra-
tive action.) Each scenario then was described in terms operational for the
assessment of environmental effects. In this subsection, each scenario is de-
scribed in terms that convey the issues of potential effects, thus giving di-
rection to the assessment of effects.
The list of alternative scenarios investigated resulted from inter-
agency review of the issues involved, as perceived by interested private par-
ties, industry, and federal, state, and local governments. Additionally, EPA
solicited comments by newsletter. The form of the following scenarios repre-
sents revisions subsequent to that effort:
2.11 Permit Existing and New Sources
The development of the phosphate mining and processing industry
associated with the issuance of National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) (Section 402) and Section 404 of PL
92-500 permits to existing and new source phosphate facilities,
all of which would meet effluent and receiving water standards
applicable as of the date of the contractor's proposal to EPA;
Florida Department of Environmental Regulations (DER) and EPA
permits to air sources meeting requirements of the Clean Air
Act and regulations promulgated pursuant to the Act, including
but not limited to nonsignificant deterioration requirements,
standards of performance for new stationary sources; and other
local state and federal permits applicable as of the date of the
contractor's proposal to EPA. Current reclamation requirements
are also to be included.
2.12 Require Process Modifications for New Sources
1) Elimination of slime ponds
2) Chemical processing of wet rock (eliminate drying process)
3) Dry conveyor for matrix from mine to beneficiation
4) Recovery of fluoride from recirculated process water, in-
cluding scrubber water
2.4
-------
5) Uranium recovery from all phosphoric acid
6) Impervious lining for recirculated process water ponds
at chemical plants
2.13 Required Reduced Water Usages
A) Existing Facilities
1) Chemical Processing (including elemental phosphorus
and animal feed ingredient plants). Complete recir-
culation of all cooling and process water. Design
for containment of cooling and process water for up
to 10-year, 24-hour maximum rainfall event to meet
BPT effluent limitations.
2) Mining and Beneficiation
Complete recirculation of all water, except surface
runoff from undisturbed areas. Design for contain-
ment of 10-year, 24-hour rainfall event.
B) New Facilities
1) Chemical Processing (including elemental phosphorus
and animal feed ingredient plants). Complete recir-
culation of all cooling and process water. Design
for containment of cooling and process water for up
to 25-year, 24-hour maximum rainfall event. Dis-
charges as a result of rainfall exceeding the equiva-
lent of a 25-year, 24-hour rainfall event to meet
Standards of Performance for New Sources.
2) Mining and Beneficiation
Complete recirculation of all water, except surface
runoff from undisturbed areas. Design for contain-
ment of 25-year, 24-hour rainfall event.
2.14 Control Activities in Waters of U.S. and Wetlands
A) No mining or development of facilities for processing
(beneficiation or chemical processing) in either waters
of the United States or wetlands as defined by EPA and
the Corps of Engineers in regulations promulgated pur-
suant to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
amended, Section 404.
B) Any disturbed wetlands are to be restored to provide at
least an equivalent habitat for any species on the Im-
portant Species List for which habitat existed prior to
mining. Restoration is to be accomplished so that no
more than 10 percent of such habitat is destroyed at any
one time.
2.5
-------
2.15 Existing Source Permits Only
No development of phosphate mining and processing beyond
that associated with the issuances of section 402 and 404
permits for existing sources, all of which would meet ef-
fluent and receiving water standards applicable as of the
date of the contractor's proposal to EPA; Florida DER and
EPA permits to air sources meeting requirements of the
Clean Air Act and regulations promulgate pursuant to the
Act, including but not limited to nonsignificant deterio-
ration requirements, standards of performance for new sta-
tionary sources; and other appropriate local, state, and
federal permits applicable as of the date of the contrac-
tor's proposal to EPA. This scenario constitutes the "no-
action" alternative as required by the NEPA.
From the scenario language and information provided by the EPA, pri-
vate industry, and various federal, state, and local agencies, a translation
was made, resulting in descriptions operationally useful for assessment efforts.
The scenarios range from no further permitting of effluent or air
discharges beyond those sources existing as of August 1, 1976, to permitting
all applicants pending review as of August 1, 1976. Between these extremes
and serving as considerations with them are scenarios related to water conser-
vation, technological process modifications, and development in waters of the
U.S. and wetlands.
Additionally, with the use of information supplied by individual
phosphate companies in response to a land-use questionnaire, scenario 2.11'
was constructed, which represents the sum of the individual plans of present
and future operators in westcentral Florida (Plate 4).
1. Issuance of Existing Source Permits Only ("Without Action" Alternative)
This scenario imposes the condition that only mining operations and
processing plants permitted as of August 1, 1976, will be allowed to operate.
Applicable permits relate to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500),
Sections 402 and 404, for existing sources; Environmental Protection Agency and
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation requirements of the Clean Air Act;
and other local, state, and federal permits applicable as of August 1, 1976, in-
cluding reclamation. The immediate impact of the limitations is to eliminate
the opening of any additional mining sites and expansion or construction of new
processing plants.
2.6
-------
According to information at EPA's Region IV, 18 mines and 15 pro-
cessing plants are operating under existing permits. One of the mining com-
panies also will reprocess old mine tailings for additional phosphate rock not
previously considered economical to recover. In addition, several companies
are expected to conduct scavenger operations to recover high-grade phosphate
rock from old tailings (Hoppe 1976).
From current information on present production and reserves in per-
mitted mines, the probable annual mining rates in the study area under the
limitations established by this scenario have been estimated by mine and are
shown in Figure 2.2. In Figure 2.3, these rates are compared with production
projections under other scenarios. Figure 2.4 presents supply-demand projec-
tions for Florida and the United States (U.S. Bureau of Mines 1975). Table
2.1 indicates world phosphate reserves and resources, and Table 2.2 presents
reserves and resources for the 7-county study area.
Based on the tonnage in Figures 2.2 and 2.3, Table 2.3 displays a
projection of water withdrawal for the phosphate mining industry based on the
constraints imposed by this scenario. Ground water is the primary source of
this supply, but one mine now obtains a portion of its supply from surface
water and another plans to do so in the near future. With current emphasis on
conservation of water resources, the mining companies probably will be able to
reduce their makeup water requirements further.
For phosphate chemical processing plants, water consumption cannot
be estimated on the basis of per-ton of rock mined because not all of the mined
rock is processed locally; the processing plants can operate on imported phos-
phate rock supplies as the land supply diminishes. However, the 15 permitted
plants in the study area use an estimated 93,040,000 gallons per day.
The primary source of energy for the phosphate mining and processing
industry is electricity. The main supplier of electric power in the study area
is Tampa Electric Company, with lesser amounts supplied by Florida Power Cor-
poration and Florida Power and Light Corporation. During 1975, electrical en-
ergy requirements by the phosphate mining and processing industry in the study
area totaled approximately 3.845 billion kilowatt-hours. Under the arrangement
2.7
-------
2.15
PERMITTED MINES
Pdyne Creek
Saddle Creek
Ft. Green
Teneroc
Haynsworth
Lonesome
Ft. Meade
Bonny Lake
Hookers Prairie
Clearsprlngs
MngsTora
c*. Maa/4«i
NiChOIS
Silver City
Watson
Rockland
T/A Minerals
2.11
ORI MINES
Becker
Borden
CC fhAm4/*a1e
Mississippi Chemicals
Phillips
W.R. Grace
USS-Agr1chem
2.11'
OTHER IDENTIFIED MINES
W.R. Grace
Brews ter
Farm! And
MnM 1
Noranda
Swift
IMC
iur
ini.
Freeport
{Iff Aflw4j.Uam
Uas-Hgricnem
uai-Agricnern
siauTTer
Florida Phosphate
19
—-
10.99
m^mm
HIMHEgSGi
mmasfites
^HKM
(A) •
\"/ •
(o\
\"1
(C)
/Tt \
uu
(AA).
(JJ.KK.L
(PP)
/uu\
l"n;
/ Art \
(00)
(FF)
/DO \
(BBJ
/nn\
(UU)
ifr\
ILU;
IRR\
\\i\t)
iff\
\tt)
IHN\
\"">
lr\f\\
(Wl
77 IS
2.15
52^^
3.21
2.27
•••I
2.50
5.00
3.18
1.55
1.89
[iyiiiiTBffi^iiiinii^B
imisaimmmmm
2.28
mms&mm
• M • •!• • ••
L.MM)
, iii
80 19
2.37
'" "" 2.80
2.80
0.88
mtsmammatiaitM
3.0
1.2
5.0
6.0
3.
i i i i _
35 19
4.4
0.19
4.0
3.0
2.3 ""
4.0
3.0
Z.3
2.3
_l L_ i 1
90 19
2.18
^^^^^n
^^^^^^^^^^^^^j
^^^^^^^^^^
2!ZZt
1 1 1 LJ^
95 20(
^
>•
*•
i
30
Figure 2.2. Projected Life and Production Rates (X10 tons/year)
for Central Florida Phosphate Mines. (Capital letters
in parentheses refer to Plate 1.)
2.8
-------
between the phosphate companies and the power companies, a substantial portion
of the electrical service is interruptible during periods of peak demands or
emergencies. Thus, the service is provided at lower rates than would be pos-
sible without the interruptible feature. Florida Power Company reports that
this eliminates the need for 200 megawatts of generating capacity for peaking
purposes (FPC, FP&L, TEC personal communications 1977).
RESERVEJSTIMATE
_ [STOWASSER, 1977"(10.37)
1975
(1976=0)
1980
1985
1990
1995
YEAR
2000
Figure 2.3.
Cumulative Projected Production Estimates
for Central Florida Phosphate Industry
2.9
-------
80
60
40
20
Bureau of Mines Data: 1975-2000
Extensions Beyond 2000
United States
Study Area
North Carolina
Western States
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1975
1995 2000
YEAR
2005
2010
2015
1980 1985 1990
Figure 2.4. Phosphate Rock Supply-Demand Projections (Stowasser 1977a)
Mining emissions to the atmosphere are relatively minor. Particulate
matter resulting from open burning during land clearing, as well as fugitive
dust from mining operations, would be the primary concern. Processing plants
are monitored for particulates, fluoride, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and
acid mist, depending on the type of process.
Liquid-waste discharges must meet the standards set by the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System for existing sources as administered by
the Environmental Protection Agency.
The regulation under which the Florida Department of Natural Resources
regulates mine reclamation is Chapter 16 C-16 of the Florida Administrative Code.
No reclamation program can include more than 640 acres, which must be contiguous.
Use of reclaimed land requires consideration of the radiation environment re-
sulting from mining and reclamation. Tables 2.4 through 2.7 present mining
and reclamation acreages estimated to occur under Scenarios 2.15, 2.11, and
the "industry view" 2.11'.
2.10
-------
Table 2.1. Assessment of World Phosphate Reserves and Resources*
Millions of Metric (Short) Tons
Reservest Other Resources Total
North America
U.S.
Other
Total
South America
Europe
USSR
Other
Total
Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Morocco
Senegal
South Africa
Spanish Sahara
Tunisia
Other
Total
Asia
China
Israel
Jordan
North Vietnam
Syria
Other
Total
Oceania
Australia
Pacific Islands
Total
World Total
2,268
<2
2,269
73
726
27
753
100
181
9,070
118
91
1,542
454
91
11,646
54
36
91
64
454
18
308
907
108
1,016
16,065
(2,500)
(2)
(2,502)
(80)
(800)
(30)
(830)
(no)
(200)
(10,000)1=
(130)
(100)
(1,700)
(500)
(100)
(12,840)
(60)
(40)
(100)
(70)
(500)
(20)
(340)
(1,000)
(120)
(1,120)
(17,712)
4,082
<2
4,083
381
2,902
64
2,966
36
181
45,350
64
45
1,814
1,361
91
48,942
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1,814
1,814
27
1,841
60,027
(4,500)
(2)
(4,502)
(420)
(3,200)
(70)
(3,270)
(40)
(200)
(50,000)
(70)
(50)
(2,000)
(1,500)
(100)
(53,960)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(2,000)
(2,000)
(30)
(2,030)
(66,182)
6,349
4
6,352
454
3,628
91
3,719
136
363
54,420
181
136
3,356
1,814
181
60,588
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2,122
2,721
136
2,857
76,092
Resources
(7,000)
(4)
(7,004)
(500)
(4,000)
(100)
(4,100)
(150)
(400)
(60,000)
(200)
(150)
(3,700)
(2,000)
(200.)
(66,800)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(2,340)
(3,000)
(150)
(3,150)
(83,894)
NA = not available.
tEstimated recoverable reserves at $27.66 per short ton published by Phosphate
Rock Export Association 70 BPL price f.o.b. Florida plant, effective July 1,
1974, and competitively marketed at this selling price.
^Minimum; reserve may be as large as 40 billion tons.
*Stowasser(1975)
2.11
-------
Table 2.2. Estimated Phosphate Rock Reserves and
Resources in 7-County Study Area*
County
Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Sarasota
Charlotte
Total
Recoverable
Measured
Reserves
[metric (short)
402.7
181.4
164.2
176.0
16.3
940.6
(444)
(200)
(181)
(194)
(18)
(1,037)
Phosphate
Rock
Measured Sub-
economic Resources
tons in millions]
95.2
13.6
149.7
299.3
63.5
621.3
(105)
(15)
(165)
(330)
(70)
(685)
*Stowasser 1977b.
Table 2.3. Estimated Phosphate Industry Water Demands
on Floridan Aquifer, 1976-2000*
Million Gallons per Day (mgd)
Chemical Plants
Scenario
2.15
2.11
2. IT
1976
93.04
Same
Same
1985
94.49
Same
Same
2000
94.49
Same
Same
Mining/Beneficiation
1976
259.27
Same
Same
1985
260.72
304.05
310.84
2000
101.28
124.11
257.29
1976
352.31
352.31
352.31
Totals
1985
355,21
398.54
405.33
2000
195.77
218.6
351.78
Deviations described in Volume V, Section 1, of working papers (TI 1977e)
2.12
-------
Table 2.4. Summary of Projected Acreage Estimates,
Central Florida Phosphate Industry
Hectares/Acres (thousands)
Mined Reclaimed* Reclaimed 2.12(1)*
Scenario
2.15
2.11
2. IT
1977-85
19.9/49.1
27/66.7
27/66.7
1977-2000
32.6/80.6
56.3/139.1
74.3/183.7
1977-85
19.6/48.4
23.7/58.5
23.7/58.5
1977-2000
39.2/96.8
60.3/148.9
72.3/178.6
1977-85
22.5/55.5
27.7/68.5
27.7/68.5
1977-2000
40.1/99.1
63.1/155.8
78.8/194.8
Includes carryover acreage in slime ponds from years prior to 1977.
Table 2.5. Summary of Projected Estimates of Mining
and Reclamation Acreage by River Basin
Scenario River Basin
2.15 Hlllsborough
Peace (east)
Peace (west)
Little Manatee
Manatee
Alafla
Myakka
2.11 HUlsborough
Peace (east)
Peace (west)
Little Manatee
Manatee
Alafla
Myakka
2. IT HUlsborough
Peace (east)
Peace (west)
Little Manatee
Manatee
Alafla
Myakka
Mined
1977-85 1977-2000
.
14.1/34.9
-
.12/0.3
.
5.8/14.4
-
.
16.4/40.5
1.6/4.0
.73/1.8
.28/0.7
6.3/15.6
1.9/4.6
.
16.4/40.5
1.6/4.0
.73/1.8
.28/0.7
6.3/15.6
1.9/4.6
.
19.5/48.3
.
1.4/3.5
_
10.0/24.8
-
.
27.9/68.9
5.5/13.6
3.6/8.8
2.2/5.5
12.0/29.7
3.6/9.0
.
34.0/84.1
10.9/26.9
4.9/12.1
2.2/5.5
13.4/33.0
7.5/18.5
Hectares/Acres (thousands)
Reclaimed
1977-85 1977-2000
_
13.9/34.4
-
.12/0.3
.
5.5/13.7
-
_
15.1/37.3
.85/2.1
.45/1.1
.16/0.4
5.8/14.3
.97/2.4
.
15.1/37.3
.85/2.1
.45/1.1
.16/0.4
5.8/14.3
.97/2.4
_
25.4/62.8
.
1.7/4.2
_
12.1/29.8
-
_
32.6/80.6
4.8/11.9
3.6/8.9
1.9/4.7
13.8/34.1
3.2/7.8
_
36.7/90.7
8.4/20.8
4.5/11.1
1.9/4.7
14.7/36.3
5.7/14.2
Reclaimed to Lakes
1977-85 1977-2000
_
5.2/12.9
.
.04/0.1
.
2.1/5.3
-
_
6.1/15.0
.61/1.5
.28/0.7
.12/0.3
2.3/5.8
.69/1.7
_
6.1/15.0
.61/1.5
.28/0.7
;. 12/0.3
2.3/5.8
,69/1.7
_
7.2/17.9 o
.£
.53/1.3 Sj
X Z
3.7/9:2 "
-
- HH (/>
10.3/25.5 S =
2.0/5.0 "-o 1
1.3/3.3 c"
.81/2.0 Si/il
4.5/11.0 2c£
1.3/3.3 i2£
„
12.6/31.1 "8
4.0/10.0 E «J
1.8/4.5 -Be
.8172.0 •*§*
4.9/12.'2 2
2.8/6.8
2.13
-------
Table 2.6. Summary of Projected Production and Reclamation
Acreage Projections by County and Scenario
Scenario County
2.15 Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
2.11 Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
2. IT Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Hectares/Acres (thousands)
Mined Reclaimed
1977-85 1977-2000 1977-85 1977-2000
18.5/45.7
1.4/3.5
20.1/49.6
2.6/6.4
2.6/6.5
.97/2.4
.77/1.9
20.1/49.6
2.6/6.4
2.6/6.5
.97/2.4
.77/1.9
29.8/73.7
2.8/6.9
33.8/83.6
4.1/10.2
7.2/17.8
7.2/17.9
1.7/4.1
36.8/90.9
6.3/15.6
11.3/27.8
14.1/34.9
3.6/9.0
18.2/45.0
1.4/3.4
19.0/47.0
2.0/4.9
1.4/3.4
.50/1.2
.40/1.0
19.0/47.0
2.0/4.9
1.4/3.4
.50/1.2
.40/1.0
35.8/88.5
3.4/8.3
39.3/97.0
4.5/11.1
6.2/15.4
6.3/15.5
1.5/3.6
41.2/101.8
5.9/14.7
8.9/22.1
10.8/26.8
2.5/6.3
Reclaimed
1977-85
20.9/51.6
1.6/3.9
22.1/54.5
2.4/6.0
1.9/4.7
.69/1.7
.57/1.4
22.1/54.5
2.4/6.0
1.9/4.7
.69/1.7
.57/1.4
2.12(1)
1977-2000
36.7/90.6
3.4/8.5
40.6/100.2
6.9/17.0
7.0/17.3
7.0/17.4
1.6/4.0
43.1/106.5
8.8/21.7
10.6/26.1
9.4/23.3
3.4/8.3
Table 2.7. Summary of Projected Reclamation Acreage Projections
to Land and Water by County and Scenario
Scenario
2.15
2.11
2.11'
County
Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Polk
Hillsborough
Manatee
Hardee
DeSoto
Land
1977-85 1977-2000
11.5/28.4
.85/2.1
-
12.0/29.6
1.3/3.1
.85/2.1
.32/0.8
.24/0.6
12.0/29:6
1.3/3.1
.85/2.1
.32/0.8
.24/0.6
22.6/55.8
2.1/5.2
24.7/61.1
2.8/7.0
3.9/9.7
4.0/9.8
.93/2.3
25.9/64.1
3.8/9.3
5.6/13.9
6.8/16.9
1.6/4.0
Hectares/Acres
Water
1977-85 1977-2000
6.8/16.7
.53/1.3
7.0/17.4
.72/1.8
.53/1.3
.16/0.4
.16/0.4
7.0/17.4
.72/1.8
.53/1.3
.16/0.4
.16/0.4
13.2/32.7
1.3/3.1
14.5/35.9
1.7/4.1
2.3/5.7
2.3/5.7
.53/1.3
14.9/36.7
2.2/5.4
3.3/8.2
4.0/9.9
.93/2.3
(thousands)
Land 2.
1977-85
13.2/32.5
1.0/2.5
13.9/34.3
1.5/3.8
1.2/3.0
.45/1.1
.36/0.9
13.9/34.3
1.5/3.8
1.2/3.0
.45/l.V
.36/0.9
.12(1)
1977-2000
23.1/57.1
2.2/5.4
-
25.5/63.1
4.3/10.7
4.4/10.9
4.5/11.0
1.0/2.5
27. 2/67. 1
5.5/13.7
6.6/16.4
5.9/14.7
2.1/5.2
Water 2.12(1)
1977-85 1977-2000
7.7/19.1
.57/1.4
8.2/20.2
.89/2.2
.69/1.7
.24/0.6
.20/0.5
8.2/20.2
.89/2.2
.69/1.7
,24/0.6
.20/0.5
13.6/33.5
1.3/3.1
15.0/37.1
2.5/6.3
2.6/6.4
2.6/6.4
.61/1.5
15.9/39.4
3.2/8.0
3.9/9.7
3.5/8.6
1.3/3.1
2. Permit Existing and New Sources
This scenario presumes the central Florida phosphate industry in terms
of the conditions of the first scenario but extends its scope to include poten-
tial new mining operations and processing plants. Considered in addition to
sites that were permitted as of August 1, 1976, are potential new mines and
plants that were pending review by EPA, Region IV, as of that date. Under the
2.14
-------
conditions imposed by this scenario, facility applications that were made after
August 1, 1976, are not included; data are not readily available since many of
the potential new mines and plants are still in the planning stage. Applicable
permits, as in the scenario dealing with issuance of existing sources only, are
those relating to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500), Sections
402 and 404, for existing and new sources; Florida DER and EPA requirements of
the Clean Air Act; and other local, state, and federal permits applicable as of
August 1, 1976, including reclamation.
Under this scenario, seven new mines and no new chemical processing
plants are projected (see Figure 2.2). It was assumed that all new facilities
would be classified as new sources. The potential new sites are distributed
throughout Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto counties, mostly along the
southern portion of the Bone Valley formation, and all except three are outside
the existing mining area in Polk County.
According to Stowasser (1977a), the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1973 re-
ported 0.943 billion metric (1.037 short) tons of recoverable reserves in the
district. Present operations, which are centered around Mulberry, will in-
evitably be extended south. In the central Florida mining district, generally
high-BPL-grade material with a pebble-to-feed ratio of 1:1 occurs along the
upper periphery of the "horseshoe." Splitting the horseshoe north-south is the
Lakeland-Bartow ridge, a zone containing medium-BPL-grade material with a pebble-
to-feed ratio that can reach 3:1. The southern part of the deposit, extending
into Hardee and Manatee counties, contains matrix of much lower grade: pebble
of 55^68 percent BPL and feed heads of 12-20 percent BPL, with a low ratio of
pebble-to-feed that, when mined, will send increased percentages of the matrix
to flotation mills. Throughout the district, there are variations in matrix
thickness and quality, pebble-to-feed ratios, slime-settling rates, and chemi-
cal qualities of plant water. Such variations have a distinct effect on re-
covery .
The estimated 1.037 billion tons of phosphate rock reserves in the
area are also said to contain 150,000 tons of recoverable U_00. Florida re-
J O
serves also represent the largest known source of fluorine (averaging 3-4 per-
cent) in the U.S. Both U000 and fluorine are now being recovered from acid
j o
2.15
-------
plants and sold as commercial byproducts of phosphate production (Hoppe 1976).
One of the new processing plants listed by EPA is to be a uranium-recovery op-
eration. One of the new mining operations will combine the reprocessing of old
tailings with the mining of virgin land.
Development of Regional Impact (DRI) application information has been
utilized wherever possible in preparing projections. For activities that have
not yet reached the DRI application phase, estimates have been made using in-
formation currently available about permitted mines. From DRI information cur-
rently available about predicted production rates and estimated reserves for
the new mines, the probable annual mining production rates in the study area
have been estimated in accordance with this scenario. These rates are compared
with the projections for the scenario of issuing permits to existing sources
only and the Florida curves as shown in Figure 2.3.
As previously mentioned, groundwater consumption is a matter of great
concern to the residents throughout the study area. The addition of the pro-
posed facilities would place an even greater load on the groundwater supplies
of the region. It is estimated that each ton of rock makes a water demand on
the Floridan aquifer of 1500 gallons; with the production tonnages indicated in
Figure 2.2, water withdrawal by the phosphate mining industry was projected
(Table 2.3); as in the first scenario, the projection was based on present water
consumption and did not take into account any reduction in makeup water that the
mining companies may achieve in the future. Again, the primary source of supply
is the Floridan aquifer, although two of the future mining operations include
plans for obtaining at least portions of their required supply from surface
water.
In examining water consumption by the phosphate processing plants,
significant problems are encountered. As previously mentioned, not all of the
mined rock is processed by local plants; furthermore, the nature of the various
chemical processes makes it impractical to estimate water consumption on the
basis of production rates for phosphate-related products. Based on the total
consumption rate for the 15 existing plants reported by 12 of them, an average
of 5,200,000 gallons per day per plant was determined (SWFWMD 1977). Calcu-
lations to include the plants under this scenario forecast a total annual
2.16
-------
consumption of 94,490,000 gallons per day by all existing and proposed plants
in the study area. The processing plants are fixed operations which, in all
likelihood, will continue to operate on imported phosphate rock as the central
Florida mines are exhausted. Therefore, the water consumption rate probably
will remain approximately at this level at least until the local mines are de-
pleted; at that time, the cost of phosphate rock imported to fully utilize plant
capacity may cause a reduction of production rates for economic reasons.
Electricity will continue to be the primary source of energy for the
phosphate mining and processing industry. Currently, the main supplier is
Tampa Electric Company, followed by Florida Power Corporation and then Florida
Power & Light Corporation (TEC, FPC, FP&L personal communication 1977). FP&L,
however, will assume larger portions of the load as mining shifts from the ex-
isting mines in Polk County southward into the new Hardee and DeSoto sites.
Existing plants that continue to operate in Polk and Hillsborough counties as
mining activities there decrease will require electric power. In addition, a
new uranium-recovery plant that is to be constructed in Tampa (discussed earlier)
will be supplied by Tampa Electric Company. The net result of the conditions set
forth by this scenario will be an increase in the amount of power supplied to the
study area by FP&L and gradual reduction in the amounts supplied by Tampa Elec-
tric and FPC.
Environmental, pollution-control, and reclamation measures are vir-
tually the same as those discussed in the first scenario.
3. Require Process Modifications for New Sources
By direction of the steering and advisory committees, process modi-
fications under this scenario were to be practical and feasible, as evidenced
by their use by present phosphate industry operators. Such is the case except
for the last one — impervious lining for recirculated process water ponds at
chemical plants. For the purposes of the Central Florida Phosphate Industry
Areawide Impact Assessment, this scenario is considered to be applicable to
those operations under Scenario 2.11 not permitted as of August 1, 1976. Op-
erational descriptions of each proposed modification for the purposes of im-
pact assessment follow.
2.17
-------
a. Elimination of Slime Ponds
The beneficiation of mined materials is required to separate as much
phosphate as possible from the nonphosphate. The process results in two waste
materials: slimes (waste clays) and tailings (sand). Control and management
of tailings are not an environmental problem, but the disposal of slimes is.
Conventional methods involve large settling areas (30-60 percent of mined
lands); and reclamation to support agricultural uses requires 5-20 years, and
the land cannot be used for industrial or commercial development involving
structures larger than most single-family dwellings. Thus, the phosphate in-
dustry's temporary use of the land becomes less temporary, depending on the de-
sired land-use category subsequent to the mining. Other environmental problems
are caused by slime-pond dam breaks (the most recent in 1971 on the Peace River),
pipeline or drainage breaks (the most recent in August 1977 on the Alafia River),
and discharges of inadequately settled slimes. The clay particles clog the gills
or other membranous surfaces of aquatic organisms, preventing oxygen transfer.
There are two lines of strategy for eliminating slime ponds: one in-
volves a change in process procedures; the other, a change in reclamation pro-
cedures. The most recent literature regarding the former describes a dry-mining
calcination-digestion process (USEPA 1976). The concept involves dry-mining the
matrix, upgrading by dry methods, calcination, digestion to produce phosphoric
acid, and returning gypsum and acid-insoluble byproducts to the mining pits.
If successfully implemented, the process would result in closed-loop operation
involving "the disposal of all of the major mining and chemical plant byproducts
in mine pits without aboveground dikes and ponds, utilization of at least 90
percent of the actually mined phosphate values, a major reduction in the deep-
well water makeup requirements, and complete elimination of slime-pond environ-
mental hazards and potential fluorine runoff, leaching, and evaporation from
gypsum ponds.
Bench-scale studies were performed cooperatively among the EPA (Re-
gion IV and Research Triangle Park), USS Agri-Chemicals, and the Minnesota
Minerals Research Center. Results using matrix samples reflecting major types
of phosphate deposits found in the Florida Bone Valley formation were as fol-
lows.
2.18
-------
• Matrix Upgrading
This was required in order to minimize fuel costs of the
calcination process and to eliminate some of the metal im-
purities such as iron, aluminum, and magnesium. Methods
other than wet scrubbing require a nearly dry matrix. Be-
cause of the high water table found in central Florida,
matrix deposits contain 30-60 percent by weight water.
Drainage of the water from the matrix is generally poor,
depending on the clay content. Piling aboveground results
in draining to only 20 percent by weight water. Thus, to
be dry-processed, matrix must be dried (a costly energy-
consuming process). To remove inert components such as
sand in order to reduce the mass to be calcined after dry-
ing, an electrostatic technique was used. However, clay
particles coating phosphate particles caused interference.
An alternative process by W.R. Grace and Company that was
demonstrated to be feasible combined drying and grinding
in a vertical attrition column in which a high-velocity air-
stream was recirculated and dust (clay) and matrix separated
at the top in cyclones. Sand in the phosphate fraction was
separated by electrostatic treatment.
• Calcination and Digestion
Current processes recover about 65 percent of the total P9Cv
value from the matrix. The calcination process did not mea-
sure up to this efficiency, primarily because of the solu-
bility of aluminum, which responded least to the treatment
but was prevalent in the tested samples.
Because of the technical problems with the solubility of aluminum and
the high fuel requirements of upgrading the new matrix, it was recommended that
this line of research be discontinued.
For the Central Florida Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assess-
ment program, slime elimination seems to be more practically a problem of slime-
pond reclamation because of the seemingly dead end reached by the strategy for
modifying the processes used. Thus, attention was directed to the phosphatic-
clays research program jointly sponsored by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and central
Florida phosphate industry operators. Treatment and disposal methods feasible
and operational to date to decrease the size and longevity of slime ponds in-
clude flocculation to decrease the time interval for settling and dewatering
the clays and combining sand tailings and slimes to fill mine cuts (TI 1977h,
1977j ; Bromwell 1976). The solids content of the sand-clay mixture ranges from
2.19
-------
50 to 90 percent, resulting in landfill suitable for reclamation within 2 years
for pasture that will adequately support cattle and farm vehicles. Subsequent
subsidence could occur, limiting subsequent land uses to those in which over-
burden pressures are no greater than those resulting from agricultural produc-
tion. The sand-clay mixture process is being used by Brewster Phosphates, and
the flocculation method is being evaluated at mines operated by Mobil Chemical,
Swift Chemicals, and USS Agri-Chemicals. The following is an excerpt from a
letter written by Richard Timberlake, plant manager of Brewster Phosphates, to
the EPA:
"With regard to the sand-clay mix which we have adopted for our
reclamation technique, I would not say we have 'eliminated slimes
ponds,' but we are restricting our enclosing dams to about 4 feet
above level ground and are attempting to confine our clay and sand
waste disposal to mined-out cuts. A brief description of the
Brewster Phosphates technique follows:
Waste Disposal and Land Reclamation
"There are three waste products generated in the mining of
phosphate rock in Florida: overburden, phosphate clays,
and sand. The overburden and sand tailings offer no par-
ticular disposal problem except one of volume. Phosphatic
clays are approximately 80 percent minus 20 microns and en-
ter the settling reservoirs as 3-5 percent slurry. Histor-
ically, some 65 percent of mined lands have been transformed
into settling areas for disposal of waste clays. The set-
tling areas are surrounded by high dams, and large quantities
are stored above natural ground. Reclaiming of settling
areas is slow, and the lands restored have very limited use
— usually light agriculture or wildlife sanctuaries. In
the reclamation technique employed at Brewster Phosphates,
most of the waste clays are stored below natural ground,
where the phosphatic clays settle to 12-15 percent quite
rapidly. By spraying the tailings sand over the consoli-
dated clays, the sand penetrates and mixes with the clays,
liberating water and producing a thick sand-clay mixture.
After the mixture has consolidated and the excess water is
drained off, the overburden is spread over the surface with
a wheel excavator and stacker and is graded in a manner
which will minimize erosion and facilitate proper site drain-
age. The land is then fertilized and seeded with appropri-
ate vegetation. By utilizing Brewster Phosphates' method of
storing the phosphatic clays below natural ground, a greater
percentage of land is available for general purpose or util-
ity use as opposed to light agriculture or wildlife sanctu-
aries. The lands reclaimed have potentially higher resale
value, and liability from possible dam failures is reduced
significantly...
2.20
-------
"Dr. Bromwell has followed our sand-clay reclamation work for
almost 3 years at Haynsworth Mine. I- believe Les can give you
a thorough technical opinion of the scheme.
"Costs that are generated in disposing of tailings, water, and
clay handling in the field (called circulation and settling)
and land reclamation vary widely; however, I believe that the
traditional method of handling and disposing of clay plus rec-
lamation will generate a cost of from $0.70 to $1.00 per ton of
rock. In our judgment, our sand-clay method will generate the
same costs; we see it as a stand-off cost-wise as opposed to
the traditional method."
b. Chemical Processing of Wet Rock
For purposes of effects assessment, this process is applicable to that
portion of the mined and beneficiated rock to be chemically processed in the 7-
county study area. Wet-rock grinding facilities are in fullscale operation in
phosphoric acid plants at the Plant City complex of C.F. Industries, at Agrico
Chemical's Faustina (Louisiana) facility, and at both the old and new plants of
W.R. Grace's Bartow complex. Wet-rock grinding has four advantages: it
• Reduces by about half the capital expense — from receipt of
unground wet rock through the point of feeding it into the
acid processing system.
• Eliminates dry-rock dust pollution.
• Improves fuel economy by 2.5 gallons per ton of phosphate
rock ground, which combines with electrical power savings to
reduce operating costs by $3.00-$4.25 per ton of Po05'
• Improves reliability, thus, reducing the required amount of
surge of ground rock. If a plant is located near a mine, a
rock slurry can be pumped directly to the plant from the
mine, eliminating rail transportation and belt conveyors
(Houghtaling 1975, Loughrie 1976).
c. Dry Conveyor for Matrix from Mine to Beneficiation Plant
The term "dry conveyor" is a misnomer, since the matrix conveyed from
the mine to the beneficiation plant is wet. The system in operation at Brewster
Phosphates' Lonesome Mine in Hillsborough County is the process referred to here
and is described in the following excerpt from a letter to the EPA from Richard
Timberlake, plant manager:
2.21
-------
Mining.
"Mining at the pit follows the conventional method where
the dragline removes approximately 24 feet of overburden
which is predominately (sic) fine sands with intermittent
seams of sandy clay. The dragline then casts the 12-foot
strata of matrix into an earthen sump where high-pressure
water monitors are used to slurry the matrix for pumping.
The matrix, on a dry basis, contains about one-third re-
coverable phosphate, one-third quartz sand, and one-third
phosphatic clays. The material is transported through
pipeline up to 7,500 feet to a screening station where
+3-inch material is discarded. The -3-inch +3/4-inch ma-
terial is crushed by a mechanical impactor and mixed with
the -3/4-inch slurried matrix. The -3/4-inch material is
pumped another 2000 feet to 48-inch diameter hydrocyclones
where the phosphatic clays are removed and pumped to the
waste disposal area. The cyclone apex product, at about
70 percent solids, discharges directly onto the conveyor
belt where it is transported to the plant for processing.
Transportation
"The overland conveyor belt system consists of 14,500 feet
of 54-inch wide steel cable-reinforced belt traveling at a
speed of 885 feet per minute. Unlike conventional convey-
ors which are powered only at the end, this system is
powered by intermediate drive modules spaced an average of
1200 feet apart. Energy is transferred from electric mo-
tors to the belt by steel-belted radial tires that run on
and grip the edge of the belt. Fewer idlers, a less mas-
sive terminal structure, and simplified takeups are em-
ployed with the new belt system. The matrix discharges off
the end of the belt into a tank where it is reslurried and
pumped the final 2000 feet to a 3-section washer.
"The belt system will require substantially less electrical
energy than a pipeline slurry system. Other savings include
lower maintenance cost and significantly lower capital re-
placement cost over abrasive resistant pipe and associated
pumping equipment.
Processing
"At the washer, the deslimed matrix is washed, scrubbed, and
screened to produce a clean +20-mesh final pebble product
which is about 50 percent of the mine's total salable phos-
phate values. The -20-mesh material is flotation plant feed
and is prepared for flotation in the sizing section. Final
preparation of the plant feed is the removal of tramp, +20-
mesh material which is returned to the washer, and the re-
maining -150-mesh clays via bin overflows that report to two
2.22
-------
550-foot diameter thickeners. The solids settle out in
the thickener and are pumped to holding ponds. The clear
water is drawn off the periphery of the thickener and re-
used in the plant.
"Feed to the flotation plant is dewatered to 75 percent
pulp density with 24-inch diameter cyclones, then condi-
tioned with anionic reagents. The conditioned feed flows
by gravity to 500-cubic-foot mechanical flotation cells
where the gangue (sands) sinks to the bottom of the cells
and is removed as waste. The froth (rougher concentrate)
is collected for further treatment.
"The rougher concentrate is dewatered with cyclones, mixed
with water and sulfuric acid, and sent to a series of acid
mixers for scrubbing and cleaning to remove the anionic re-
agent from the surfaces of the feed. From the wash boxes,
the second flotation step occurs when cleaner (cationic)
float flows by gravity to 500-cubic-foot mechanical flota-
tion cells where the sand tailings float and the phosphate
sinks. The tailings sand combines with the waste from the
first flotation step and is pumped to the 54-inch overland
belt conveyor where 24-inch diameter cyclones are used to
remove the water from the solids. The cyclone apex product,
at about 70 percent solids, discharges directly onto the bot-
tom strand of the belt and is transported to the waste dis-
posal area. The cyclone overflow flows by gravity into the
water-holding ponds.
"That gives you a pretty good idea of how our mine and beneficia-
tion plant is constructed and how it operates. It is not true
that water conservation results from the use of the overland con-
veyor, since matrix is slurried at the pit and pumped to the belt
in the traditional method. Desliming occurs near the mining op-
eration, a fact which eliminates long-distance pumping."
The cost of purchasing and installing the Brewster conveyor belt sys-
tem is 38 percent more than a matrix-tailings pumping system, but annual main-
tenance and replacement costs are estimated to be 55 percent lower, and power
demand is 12 percent that of the pumping system.
d. Recovery of Fluoride from Recirculated Process Water, Including
Scrubber Water
Recovery of fluoride from phosphoric acid is in use by USS Agri-
Chemicals and W.R. Grace. The net environmental benefit is the recovery of
an otherwise waste product as a byproduct. Fluoride emissions from gyp ponds
2.23
-------
are reduced, as is the amount which must be scrubbed from phosphoric acid re-
actor emissions. A description of the processes used at USS Agri-Chemicals
and W.R. Grace is excerpted as follows from letters to the EPA:
"As a result of development engineering in the late 1960s to
generate a means of diluting concentrated sulfuric acid with
wet-process phosphoric acid pond water and thereby eliminate
production problems with respect to conventional sulfuric acid
dilution coolers and simultaneously create a negative water bal-
ance in the phosphoric acid pond water system, an offshoot of
this work was devised and a process resulted which would recover
fluosilicic acid (FSA) from phosphoric acid.
"Our (USS Agri-Chemicals) process uses 22 percent of ?2®5 re~
cycle phosphoric acid from the filtration wash steps as a di-
luent for diluting 98 percent sulfuric acid. The heat of dilu-
tion drives off silica (sic) tetrafluoride (SiF4) from the 22
percent recycle stream, along with water vapor. The hydration
product is a 25 percent H2SiF6 fluosilicic acid of extremely low
?205 content. Conventional processes for stripping FSA during
phosphoric acid evaporation produce FSA containing between 0.5
and 2 percent ?205. Our process consistently produces FSA with
a content well below 0.3 and frequently under 0.1 percent
(100 percent l^SiF basis) .
"We installed a commercial unit which became operational in May
1970 as a first of its kind at a total capital cost of $1.5MM.
In addition to reclaiming FSA through the recycle acid dilution
route, we built certain flexibilities in the commercial plant to
innovate recovery of FSA from fluorine scrubber systems from the
triple super phosphate (TSP) manufacture and from steam stripping
of the final concentrated phosphoric acid. The latter two pro-
cess adjuncts did not prove satisfactory and have since been
abandoned. I cannot project accurately the capital costs of a
unit designed and built for recycle acid service only on today's
cost basis but would guess at least $2.5MM.
"Since this was an entirely new concept and the process condi-
tions were extremely severe, the operating costs and profit bene-
fits have been considerably less than satisfactory. Mechanical
and corrosion problems resulting from the stringent operating
conditions have led to prohibitive maintenance costs. The pro-
cess deals with high-temperature mixes of sulfuric acid and phos-
phoric acid in an atmosphere of fluoride compounds, all of which
contain abrasive, precipitated Si02 and calcium sulphate (gypsum).
The high temperatures tend to promote the anhydride formation of
calcium sulphate, and scaling is a serious problem. We have
learned to live with the process and, though it now performs well,
it is a costly operation.
2.2A
-------
"The fluoride recovery system in the W.R. Grace phosphoric
acid plant is the Swift & Co. process licensed to Grace by
Swift. Fluorides are recovered in the form of hydrofluosil-
icic acid (I^SiFg) of approximate 25 percent strength. The
process recovers approximately 65 percent of the fluorine in
these vapors as 25 percent hydrofluosilicic acid, which cal-
culates to approximately 25 percent fluorine recovery from
the total coming in with the phosphate rock. The vapors
leaving the pjiosphoric acid vacuum evaporators are scrubbed
under vacuum with a recirculating solution of hydrofluosilicic
acid whose temperature is approximately that of the vapors.
Little or no water is condensed while the SiF/ and HF are ab-
sorbed in the fluosilicic acid solution. The lean vapors from
the fluorine scrubber are then passed to the usual barometric
condenser for total condensation. A specific gravity control-
ler activates a valve which discharges the H2SiF6 to storage
when up to the desired strength. Makeup water then flows into
the hot well through a float control valve."
Reported costs of fluoride recovery operations exceed prices by 25
to 36 percent. Fluoride is marketed for the fluoridation of water supplies
and for use as an industrial chemical.
j
e. Uranium Recovery from All Phosphoric Acid
This process would result in less radioactive material in phosphate
products since the uranium extraction process occurs after the initial diges-
tion of phosphate rock by sulfuric acid, resulting in phosphoric acid and cal-
cium sulfate (gypsum). The gypsum is a waste product and is separated from
the process flow. Therefore, gyp piles at chemical processing plants contain
radioactive material, as do the slimes resulting from beneficiation, as well
as the leach zone overlying the phosphate rock matrix that is redistributed
by the mining and reclamation activities.
Generally, the concentration of uranium in phosphate ore of the same
mesh size in Florida, tends to be directly proportional to the P~0,. concentra-
tion (Guimorid 1976). As a rule-of-thumb for planning purposes, a pound of
U,.0fi per ton of P2°5 occurs in t'ie tyPes of deposits found in central Florida
(Hurst 1977). At a full-capacity operation of 4,570,000 tons per year (Ross
1975), the 12 phosphoric acid plants in operation in the 7-county study area
would pass 4,570,000 pounds of U.jOg per year (approximately 19.4 percent of
2.25
-------
1975 U.S. uranium production). The current price of U00Q is approximately
J O
$40 per pound. Cost of recovery from phosphoric acid is approximately $15
per pound. Thus, if all central Florida phosphoric acid plants used uranium
recovery at 90-95 percent efficiency, an annual industry of $182,800,000 with
costs of $68,650,000 would result — an attractive economic incentive with
positive environmental-quality benefits — and the uranium would replace the
energy equivalent of 97-129 million barrels of oil. (A pound of U000 is ap-
j o
proximately equivalent in energy to 21.7 to 28.2 barrels of oil.)
Uranium Recovery Corporation has built a central processing plant
near Mulberry with a capacity to handle six extraction modules located at
phosphoric acid plants where initial extraction occurs. The concentrate is
trucked to the Mulberry plant. Two modules are installed at the W.R. Grace
Bartow complex, and two will be in operation soon at IMG's Mulberry complex
(Ross 1975, Leaders 1977). Gardinier recently announced intentions to con-
struct in Gibsonton a $15,000,000 plant designed to extract 200 tons of
uranium per year. A subsidiary of Westinghouse is developing an extraction
facility at Farmland Industries, a pilot plant is in operation at Agrico
Chemical in South Pierce, and Freeport Minerals' Uncle Sam (Louisiana) plant
which processes Florida phosphate rock is presently extracting uranium at
commercial scale (Ross 1975, Leaders 1977).
Guimond (1976) of the EPA estimates that eight to ten 1000-megawatt .
(electric) (Mw[e]) nuclear power plants could be powered by uranium recovered
from U.S. phosphoric acid plants; he further states that another 30 to 40 nu-
clear power plants (1000 Mw[e]) could be fueled annually if uranium were re-
covered from mining wastes (slimes and tailings). Brookhaven National Lab-
oratory is researching a process to recover uranium from slime-pond waste
dumps (Guimond 1976).
f. Impervious Lining' for Recirculated Process-Water Ponds at
Chemical Plants
None of the existing gyp ponds are lined; therefore, operational-
scale feasibility and cost data do not exist. Surface seepage does occur, but
2.26
-------
is collected in perimeter ditches to be pumped back into the ponds. Because
of the lack of data on the extent of surface and subsurface seepage and cost
information on impervious linings to control this potential source of pollution,
effects assessment did not include a quantitative evaluation of this process
modification.
4. Require Reduced Water Usages
This scenario investigates the consequences of reduced water usage
by the phosphate mining and chemical processing industries in central Florida.
Existing and proposed mines and plants are as described by the conditions and
limitations established in Scenario 2.11.
For existing facilities, water usage is to be reduced through the
complete recirculation of all cooling and process water and containment of
up to a 10-year, 24-hour rainfall with no discharge. Discharges would be al-
lowed for conditions exceeding the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall, or equivalent,
but would have to meet best practical technology (BPT) standards. Similar
constraints are to be imposed on new facilities, except that a 25-year, 24-
hour rainfall will be substituted for the 10-year, 24-hour storm.
In examining water usage by the phosphate industry under the con-
ditions of this scenario, it is important to remember the variables that af-
fect discharge rates by both mining and chemical processing. Mines vary in
size, production, and mining techniques. Most employ draglines for matrix
extraction, but dredging is proposed by Beker for its new mine in Manatee
County. For transporting the ore from pit to wash plant, a conveyor belt
system is being tried at one location as an alternative to the conventional
matrix slurry pipeline, resulting in a decrease in [water use]* and electric
power consumption (Hoppe 1976). Similarly, the chemical processing plants
manufacture the many phosphorus-related products in varying quantities and
at different production rates. These variations between mines and plants
*
An opinion not shared by Mr. Timberlake of Brewster Phosphate
2.27
-------
make it impractical to determine the amount of effluent discharged at indi-
vidual sites. This scenario, then, considers only the effects of the con-
tainment of rainfall as described earlier. Since effluent discharge rates
are not included, the rainfall projections apply equally to either mining or
chemical processing. Storage capacities determined for rainfall containment
would require enlargement to include the effluents discharged at a given mine
or plant. Facilities are grouped on the basis of existing or new source
classifications as designated by the NPDES permits.
To determine the net result of rainfall containment, only precipi-
tation and evaporation are taken into account; it is assumed that the rain-
water will be retained in impoundments similar to the settling ponds currently
in use and that seepage through dikes or into the pond floor will ^e negligible
and thus can be ignored. According to the Handbook of Applied Hydrology
(Chow 1964), the mean annual Class-A pan evaporation rate throughout the study
area is 65 inches and the mean annual lake evaporation is 50 to 52 inches; a
mean annual Class-A pan coefficient of +77 percent relates the lake evapora-
tion rate to the pan evaporation rate. Average monthly rainfall data for six
locations (three on the interior and three on the perimeter of the study area)
have been tabulated to yield average monthly rainfall applicable across the
entire study area; based on U.S. Weather Service records from 1931 to 1960
(USDC 1965), it is 53.24 inches (Figure 2.5).
In terms of average rainfall versus evaporation, 3 years have been
evaluated: an average year; an average year with a 10-year, 24-hour storm;
and an average year plus a 25-year, 24-hour storm. Figure 2.6 shows the net
rainfall versus the evaporation from the rainfall for each month. An average
year accumulates a net surplus of 0.41 inch. Figure 2.7 is the net curve
for a year in which a 10-year, 24-hour storm occurs during the month of heaviest
rainfall; the result is a net surplus of 8.29 inches at the end of the year,
which includes the 0.41-inch surplus from the previous year. Figure 2.8 is
the net curve for a year in which a 25-year, 24-hour storm occurs during the
month of heaviest rainfall; the year-end surplus of 10.04 inches includes the
0.41 inch remaining from the previous year. To comply with the conditions im-
posed by this scenario, an existing facility (mine or plant) would need storage
2.28
-------
capacity capable of retaining 0.41 inch of rainfall cumulatively for each
year of the facility's estimated life, plus 8.29 inches for the year of the
10-year, 24-hour rainfall. A new facility would require a capacity of 0.41
inch per year of life, plus 10.04 inches for the year of the 25-year, 24-hour
rainfall.
9.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
J I
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Auq Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH
Jan Fob Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH
Figure 2.5. Average Monthly Rainfall
at Six Locations in
Study Area
Figure 2.6. Curve of Cumulative
Rainfall Versus Evapo-
ration during Average
Year in Study Area
2.29
-------
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Auq Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH
Figure 2.7.
Curve of Cumulative
Rainfall Versus
Evaporation during
Year with 10-Year,
24-Hour Storm
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
MONTH
Figure 2.8.
Curve of Cumulative
Rainfall Versus
Evaporation during
Year with 25-Year,
24-Hour Storm
2.30
-------
A hypothetical water impoundment with a surface area of 1000 acres
illustrates the magnitude of the storage capacities. The average-year sur-
plus of 0.41 inch on a 1000-acre pond would equate to a constant inflow of
21.18 gallons per minute if discharged over a 1-year period. Similarly, the
8.29-inch surplus for the year of the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall would convert
to a constant discharge of 428.3 gallons per minute over a year's time. For
new facilities, a 1000-acre pond would require a constant outflow of 518.7
gallons per minute to dissipate the 10.04-inch surplus following a 25-year,
24-hour rainfall.
In summary, the effect of the conditions imposed by this scenario
would be the creation of impoundments for retaining the annual surplus of rain-
fall. The capacity of such impoundments would be determined by the life of the
facility and the quantity of effluent discharged as a result of the facility's
operations. Rainfall accumulated in the storage ponds could be made available
for use in mining or processing, thereby reducing the groundwater withdrawal
requirement.
5. Control Activities in Waters of U.S. and Wetlands
This scenario is divided into two parts. The first would prohibit
mining or development of facilities in the waters of the U.S. and wetlands as
defined by the regulations promulgated pursuant to administration by the U.S.
Corps of Engineers of Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
(FWPCA) amended in 1972. The second part would allow mining or facilities de-
velopment in the waters of the U.S. and wetlands but require restoration to
provide at least an equivalent habitat for any species on the Important Spe-
cies List for which habitat existed prior to mining.
The Corps may issue permits for the discharge of dredged or fill
material into the navigable waters at specified sites. The term "navigable
waters" includes: coastal waters, wetlands, mudflats, swamps, and similar
areas; freshwater lakes, rivers, and streams, as well as all tributaries to
these waters, that are used, were used, or are susceptible to use for trans-
port in interstate commerce; interstate waters; certain specified intrastate
waters in which pollution would affect interstate commerce; and freshwater
2.31
-------
wetlands including marshes, shallows, swamps, and similar areas that are con-
tiguous or adjacent to the above described lakes, rivers, and streams and are
periodically inundated and normally characterized by the prevalence of vege-
tation requiring saturated soil conditions for growth and reproduction. Head-
waters (defined as the point on the stream above which flow is normally less
than 5 cubic feet per second) are excluded from permit requirements unless re-
quired in the interest of water quality.
The Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with the EPA, developed a
3-phase plan for implementing its administration of Section 404. Under the
groundrules set for the Central Florida Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact
Assessment program, only Phase I would have been described; however, since the
full implementation occurred on July 1, 1977, an exception was made and impacts
on wetlands were assessed in accordance with full implementation of the Corps
of Engineers rules and regulations for administration of Section 404 of the
FWPCA.
The Corps of Engineers of the Jacksonville District, which has juris-
diction over Florida for Corps matters, recently arrived at a joint review and
processing of application procedures with the Florida Department of Environ-
mental Regulation (DER). The latter requires permits for work on or in the
waters of the state and, specifically relevant to this scenario, requires a
permit whereby dredge and fill activities are to be conducted on submerged
lands or in transitional zones of submerged lands in the state. The DER de-
termines jurisdiction in a manner similar to that of the Corps and includes
in its definitions that transitional zones are characterized by the dominance
of certain plant species.
USGS (LUDA) land use-land cover maps representing the 7-county study
area were the most comprehensive in existence at the beginning of this pro-
gram, but it was known that the staff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Wetlands Research Center, St. Petersburg, was in the process of de-
veloping maps representing all available photography of wetlands of the U.S.
Unfortunately, that rendering of Florida maps was not available in time for
this program. Thus, the water and wetlands land use-land cover definitions
and mapping categories of the USGS (LUDA) maps had to be used (Plate 1 in map
2.32
-------
pocket). (The reader is also referred to XI 1977d.) For an areawide evalua-
tion, this is adequate. Site-specific actions, however, require closer scru-
tiny. The Corps of Engineers determines for each applicant the boundaries of
jurisdiction. One recent applicant was given boundaries in Hookers Prairie
that encompass approximately 50 percent more area than indicated on the USGS
(LUDA) map (Figure 2.9).
~l
1
r^v
\
i i
i /
i ,'
l /
^
\ .
\
-\ ,_
BOUNDARY OF WETLANDS
DEPICTED ON USGS (LUDA)
LAND USE-LAND COVER MAP
PROPERTY BOUNDARY
BOUNDARY OF CORPS
404 JURISDICTION
Figure 2.9. U.S. Corps of Engineers Boundary of Jurisdiction under
Section 404 of FWPCA for W.R. Grace Hookers Prairie Mine
Organisms that would require restoration of at least an equivalent
habitat under the second part of this scenario include species on state and
federal rare, threatened, endangered, or special-concern lists; species of
ecological importance; and species of significant economic benefit. Those
in wetlands potentially affected by phosphate industry activities are as fol-
lows:
2.33
-------
Southern Dusky Salamander
Dwarf Salamander
Slimy Salamander
Bronze Frog
Ornate Chorus Frog
American Alligator
Diamondback Terrapin
Southern Hognose Snake
Scarlet Kingsnake
Broad-headed Skink
Eastern Indigo Snake
Striped Swamp Snake
Red-bellied Snake
Smooth Earth Snake
Black-crowned Night Heron
Yellow-crowned Night Heron
American Bittern
King Rail
Hairy Woodpecker
Wood Duck
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Short-tailed Hawk
Florida Sandhill Crane
Limpkin
Virginia Rail
Sora
Yellow Rail
American Woodcock
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Pileated Woodpecker
White-breasted Nuthatch
Yellow Warbler
Louisiana Waterthrush
Golden Mouse
Eastern Woodrat
Round-tailed Muskrat
River Otter
Bobcat
Wild Hog
Those in U.S. waters potentially affected by phosphate industry ac-
tivities are as follows:
Estuarine
Striped Mullet
Yellowfin Menhaden
Gulf Menhaden
Bay Anchovy
Red Drum
Croaker
Freshwater
Largemouth Bass
Bluegill
Both
Alligator
Manatee
Black Drum
Spotted Seatrout
Snook
Sand Seatrout
Tarpon
Southern Flounder
Redear Sunfish
Channel Catfish
Suwannee Cooter
The effects of normal phosphate operations in waters of the U.S.
may have no major impact if guidelines for mitigation are followed. There
are no guidelines for protection of downstream and adjacent wetlands and
further, no feasible means of restoring mined wetlands has been demonstrated,
although reclamation can result in wet lands. To restore wetland habitat in
order to protect and propagate all the wildlife just listed would require
management of variables needed for the creation of wetlands - which some
believe occur only naturally over a period of approximately 4000 years of
2.34
-------
natural processes (American Fisheries Society 1977). Only nature can create
a wetland (Fisheries, Volume 2[4]:7). The relationship of present and pro-
jected phosphate industry activities to U.S. waters and wetlands is presented
in Plate 1 .
As of this date, no chemical processing plants are included in in-
dustry plans. In its DRI for a Hardee County site near the Four Corners area
(see Plate 3). CF Industries described a fertilizer plant, but no engineering
of that phase in currently being performed. Thus, all potential environmental
effects are limited to those resulting from mining and beneficiation.
C. COMPARISONS
1. Introduction
Subsequent sections describe the effects and impacts of the central
Florida phosphate industry as a part of the existing environment, a condition
defined as the "Without Action" alternative (Scenario 2.15) and the baseline
against which the four other alternatives were compared. Also described are
the effects and impacts of four alternatives to the "Without Action" alterna-
tive.
Previously, subsection A described the process of selecting elements
for inclusion in the matrix (Plate 2). This matrix was a model for effects
assessment and was intended as a tool for technical direction. The absence
of entries in a column or row of the matrix does not necessarily mean that the
element represented by that column or row should have been omitted from the
matrix. In assessing effects and impacts, it is often as important to indi-
cate where impacts are not likely to occur as to show where they are expected
— especially when preconceptions are held by vested interests.
The assessment of the significance of impacts began by identifying
effects that qualify as impacts.
• An effect is a change caused by interaction between
environmental and technological demand elements (here,
phosphate industry activities).
2.35
-------
• An impact is defined as an effect that alters the
environmental system in which it occurs beyond the
system's ability to buffer or compensate for the
change, which may be either beneficial or adverse
to environmental quality.
Numerical significance values based on the quantitative or qualita-
tive considerations dictated by the environmental elements involved were as-
signed to each impact. Values are not directly comparable among the various
categories of elements. It is essential to study the rationales governing the
assigning of values if one is to fully grasp what they imply (see Volume XI of
Working Papers, TI 1977J.).
2. Matrix and Supporting Information
The five scenarios or alternatives used in the study are sufficiently
detailed to permit desirable features to be selected from them and combined
into new alternatives. The individual matrices list specific industry activ-
ities causing the impacts, and this knowledge suggests the regulatory strategy
offering the highest probability of reducing or eliminating the most signifi-
cant adverse impacts. After examining the summary matrix in this section
the reader is urged to review the detailed matrices and rationales in and
the effects assessment working paper (TI 1977j).
In addition to the raw scores or values which the environmental ana-
lysts and planners arrived at and listed in the matrices, values reached by a
numerical weighting process are included. These weighting factors represent
priorities applied to each element by the steering and advisory committees.
Assignment of these numerical values enabled calculation of a quantitative
summary of the impact assessment. The matrix (Plate 4 shows the weighting
factors and the scores representing the sums of impacts on each environmental
element. Subtotals for natural, social, and economic environmental elements
were then multiplied by normalizing factors to compensate for the fact that
the subtotals were based on unequal numbers of elements (41, 31, and 19 ele-
ments, respectively). Table 2.8 summarizes the raw and weighted scores.
Table 2.9 lists the alternatives by rank order. Scenario 2.15, the
"Without Action" alternative, is absent from both Tables 2.8 and 2.9 because
2.36
-------
Table 2.8. Environmental Impact Summary
Environmental Elements
Alternative
Natural
Short Term/Long Term
Social
Short Term/Long Term
Economic
Short Term/Long Term
Tota I
Short Term/Long Term
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2,11
2. '12
2.13
2.14
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
-267/ -250
-257/ -228
-269/ -226
-249/ -206
-1459/-2135
-1323/-1940
-1470/-2183
-1243/-1800
-1142/-1665
-973/-1424
-1193/-1759
-980/-1442
-1315/-1904
-1083/-1687
-1346/-1953
-1130/-1625
Raw Scores
-5/ -3
-4/ -3
-5/i -3
-I/ 0
Decision-Weighted Scores
Steering committee
-66/-16
-57/-12
-38/-16
-66/ -4
Advisory Committee
-10/127
-1/134
-10/127
13/143
Combined
-33/ 62
-23/ 68
-33/ 62
-11 79
29/ 176
29/ 176
29/ 176
29/ 176
141/ 979
141/ 979
141/ 979
1*1 / 979
191/1175
191/1175
191/1175
191/J175
167/1093
167/1093
167/1093
167/1093
-243/ -77
-232/ -55
-245/ -53
-221/ -30
-1384/-1172
-1239/ -973
-1367/-1220
-1168/ -825
-961/ -363
-783/ -115
-1012/ -457
-776/ -124
-1181/ -749
-939/ -526
-1212/ -798
-970/ -453
Table 2.9. Ranke4 Alternatives by Least Regret
Natural
Short Term/Long Term
Environmental Elements
Social
Short Term/Long Term
Economic
Short Term/Long Term
Total
Short Term/Long Term
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.13
2.11/2.12
2.13/2.11
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.12
2.11/2.11
2.13/2.13
2.12/2.12
2.14/2.14
2.11/2.11
2.13/2.13
Raw Score
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.12*
*2.11/2.11*
*2.13/2.13*
All equal
Weighted Score
Steering Committee
2.13/2.14
2.12/2.12
*2.11/2.11*
*2.14/2.13*
All equal
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.12
*2.11/2.11*
*2.13/2.13*
Advisory Committee
All equal
Combined
*Rece1ved equal scores (Table 7.1}
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.13
2.11/2.12
2.13/2.11
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.12
2.13/2.11
2.11/2.13
2.14/2.12
2.12/2.14
2.11/2.11
2.13/2.13
2.12/2.14
2.14/2.12
2.11/2.11
2.13/2.13
2.14/2.14
2.12/2.12
*2. 11/2. 11*
*2. 13/2. 13*
All equal
2.12/2.14
2.14/2.12
2.11/2.11
?. 13/2. 13
2.37
-------
it represents the baseline or zero values with which the other four scenarios
were compared. When the best of the four scenarios has a net negative, or ad-
verse value, it is still only second best to Scenario 2.15. If decision weight-
ing factors for social and economic environmental elements had been as high as
many of the weights for natural environmental elements, summary results prob-
ably would have shown net positive impacts.
D. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE "WITHOUT ACTION" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment
a. Atmosphere
To simulate this scenario, it has been assumed that the chemical pro-
cessing part of the phosphate industry will continue to operate at 19/6 levels,
supplementing domestic rock with imports as the existing mines become depleted.
Because of the installation of air pollution control devices during 1976-77,
there will be an immediate reduction of industrial emissions independent of any
scenario projections; this will be most evident in the case of sulfur dioxide
(S0~) emissions from sulfuric acid plants in Polk and Hillsborough counties.
Changes in the emission inventory due to the restraints of this scenario will
appear as reductions in dust as mining and drying activities decline. S0~
emissions caused by fuel burning in the dryers will also decline as imports
replace locally processed rock. Since imports will supplant exports, it is
estimated that the dust generated at seaports by movement of phosphate rock
and refined products will remain at the same level. Although the ambient S0«
levels in Polk County will be reduced since no other source categories are
predicted to increase enough to totally offset the decreases at the phosphate
plants, the county's particulate levels (and both SO^ and particulates in all
other counties in the study area) should show a slight rise because of in-
creases by nonphosphate sources.
Area sources were projected from population projections of the Uni-
versity of Florida. Point-source changes were projected to occur only in
utilities and the phosphate industry.
2.38
-------
Utilities sources are expected to operate under the same pollution
control limitations existing in 1976. The following changes in capacity were
used to project emissions:
• TECO
— To add units 3 and 4 to Big Bend before 1985
— To add a new plant on the bay near the Manatee-
Hillsborough line
• FP&L
— To have both Manatee units operational after: 1977
— To add a large plant (similar capacity to Big Bend)
in DeSoto after 1985
• Lakeland Utilities
- To add unit 3 at Plant 3 in 1982
— To retire Larsen unit 4 in 1983
Phosphate industry point-source emissions were broken down to cor-
respond to seven of the technological demand elements in the effects matrix.
It was assumed that chemical processing would remain at 1976 production rates.
Dust emissions from mining/clearing are associated with mining ac-
tivities and vary directly with the projected rock production rate in each
county. Dust generated from storage/transportation is expected to remain con-
stant in Polk and Hillsborough counties and to vary with the projected level
of mining/beneficiation activity in other counties. (Under this scenario, no
activity (mining) is projected outside Polk and Hillsborough counties.) S0?
and particulate emissions caused by drying of wet rock are expected to reflect
the level of mining activity in each county using 1976 as the base year. Emis-
sions of S02 due to H2SO, production are expected to remain constant until the
year 2000 — but at levels lower than those reported in 1976 when all plants
were not yet in compliance with emission regulations.
Under this scenario, it is assumed that emissions from fertilizer,
feed, and phosphorus production will remain constant at 1976 levels.
2.39
-------
b. Land and Wetlands
1) Physical Environment
The natural physical features of the study area include the sand
terraces, geologic ridges (e.g., the Lake Wales ridge), solution cavities
(sinkholes) and partings of the surface and subsurface, and other minor fea-
tures typical of flat, low-lying terrain. Of these, the ridges and solution
cavities may be considered unique. While activities of the phosphate industry
do not affect the ridges per se, they potentially effect sinkhole development
and collapse. Large clay-slime storage impoundments and stacking waste gyp-
sum load the surface, causing the primary effect. No data exist, however, to
support quantification of the potential for collapse of a slime impoundment
or gypsum stack. Seepage of low pH process waters through the waste gypsum
stack could enlarge existing percolation pathways, but the effects are insuf-
ficiently documented to allow quantitative evaluation.
The phosphate industry activity that primarily affects soil is min-
ing: it destroys soil in terms of its original identification characteristics.
Under this scenario, it is estimated that more than 4850 hectares (12,000 acres)
of soil associations rates as potentially high for agriculture will be dis-
rupted by mining from 1977 through 1985 and more than 8500 hectares (21,000
acres) from 1977 through 2000. Once reclamation replaces the soil materials,
however, new soils will develop that may be better suited for certain agri-
cultural purposes because of improved moisture-holding capacity and permea-
bility and the absence of underlying clay pans. The newly created soils must
be accessed for better understanding and solving of mining and reclamation
problems. Thus, impacts of mining and reclamation on existing soils, there-
fore, must be judged relative to existing soils definition and upon definition
and management of soils established subsequent to mining.
Constituting an irreversible positive effect are industry activities
that result in information about the geologic section, including its stratig-
raphy and geochemistry. Principal among the activities are drilling and ex-
cavation. Under this scenario, these activities will continue through 1985
but will essentially cease by the year 2000.
Topographical effects (changes in natural surface contours) will be
caused primarily by excavations to remove phosphate ore. Estimates of the sur-
face area to be mined under this sceanrio are 19,870 hectares (49,100 acres)
from 1977 through 1985 and 32,619 hectares (80,600 acres) from 1977 through
2000. However, reclamation will restore these lands to nearly their original
contours.
2.40
-------
Since no construction of chemical processing plants or washing/bene-
ficiation plants is forecast under this scenario, both the short-term (1977-85)
and long-term (1977-2000) effects of ongoing industry activity on background
radiation will be essentially concentrated in areas scheduled for mining during
each of the periods. Exceptions would include the continued accumulation of
waste products at the chemical processing plants, continued transportation of
mine and processing-plant products, and ongoing construction of dams, levees,
and drainage-control systems. The effects of radium-226 radioactivity concen-
trations in materials associated with industry activities were estimated on the
basis of change in surface materials (thus, radium-226 concentrations) geograph-
ically as a result of industry activities. Since mining exposes bedclays and
residue matrix material in areas where the surface was previously native soil,
the potential is to increase the "surface" radium-226 radioactivity concentra-
tion from 1.5 picocuries per gram to approximately 50 picocuries per gram. This
negative effect is offset somewhat by backfilling the mining cuts with waste
sand tailings (7.5 picocuries per gram) and overburden (10 picocuries per gram,
excluding leach-zone material). Areas of cuts dedicated to waste clay-slime
impoundments are expected to exhibit very low background radiation while the
slime particles (45 picocuries per gram) are covered with decant waters (1-2
picocuries per liter); however, as these areas dewater, background radium-226
concentrations in the surface material should approach the level given for
slime particles. Thus, background radiation in reclaimed mined areas will be
higher than it was prior to mining unless original surface material is saved
to top-dress both the reclaimed slime ponds and the lands containing the waste
sands and overburden. Background radiation at chemical processing plants should
remain essentially at current levels until imported phosphate rock is needed to
maintain production levels; then, background radiation should decrease with in-
creased replacement of local rock by imported rock.
Phosphate mining does not create noise levels high enough to repre-
sent an undesirable effect on area population not associated directly with the
industry, but ambient noise levels increase locally during mining and reclama-
tion, especially in the immediate vicinity of bulldozers and draglines that are
in operation. However, operations personnel can be easily protected from noise
through administrative or engineering controls or the use of protective equip-
ment, and noise levels will consistently decline with the phase-out of mining.
2.41
-------
2) Biological Environment
Mining has five major effects on uplands/wetlands biota:
• Certain existing plant communities are permanently
displaced.
* As much as 30 percent of mined uplands/wetlands
habitat becomes aquatic habitat.
• Habitat quality of unmined as well as mined land
is degraded.
• Diversity is diminished.
• Local populations of many important species are
reduced.
By the year 2000, approximately 21,052 hectares (52,000 acres) of up-
lands habitat will be mined in currently permitted areas. In the 7-county area,
forest types are considered the most important uplands habitat. Estimates of
evergreen forests are considered reliable, but it is impossible to estimate pres-
ent or future areawide extents of either mixed or deciduous forests because of
the paucity of data of appropriate detail. Some rather large parcels in pro-
jected mining areas are documented in land-use data presented by various phos-
phate companies in Developments of Regional Impact (DRIs) — and they probably
are present in areas currently being mined. None of the forest types can be
restored to their native condition on mined land. The deep sand soils neces-
sary for mixed forests are irreversibly altered; the loss of an underlying or-
ganic hardpan precludes the reestablishment of typical pine flatwoods; and the
configuration as well as the species composition of hammocks is destroyed, al-
though postmining soils, if allowed to revegetate naturally, will support simi-
lar communities. The 4850 hectares (12,000 acres) of forest to be mined by the
year 2000 represents more than one-half the areawide loss of the type by that
year.
Less important but still unreclaimable in its native condition is
mined rangeland, the extent of which is 6680 hectares (16,500 acres) in the
study area. The 8660 hectares (21,400 acres) of agricultural habitat to be
mined can be considered temporary displacement, since reclamation is producing
improved pasture primarily with smaller extents of plantations and parklands.
2.42
-------
More than 2990 hectares (7400 acres) of freshwater wetlands habitat
within currently permitted mining areas will be destroyed by 1985 and another
approximately 2140 hectares (5300 acres) by the year 2000. This is a small
(3 percent) but important portion of areawide wetlands extent. There is no
indication that wetlands of any kind can be restored on mined land. Not only
are the low-relief topography and attendant drainage patterns of wetlands dif-
ficult to restore, but the deep, water-logged soils of many wetlands can be
neither restructured nor feasibly conserved.
That the quality of terrestrial habitat generally reclaimed in mined
areas is inferior is readily apparent when comparing wildlife usage of managed
systems (pasture, cropland, plantation, and parkland) with that of essentially
natural systems (dry prairie, forest). Mining and subsequent reclamation are
producing a more uniform habitat, reducing diversity of community structure in
the region. The number of plants and animals in an area is directly related to
the number of vegetation types (landscape-pattern diversity): as landscape-
pattern diversity increases, so does floral and faunal diversity. The habitat
types that are declining in the regional landscape are those of greatest indi-
vidual diversity. The diversity within these types represents a greater variety
of interactions among components (expanded food webs) and biological controls
that tend to preserve an equilibrium. They can be maintained at no cost to man.
To maintain agricultural habitat types as such (and particularly monocultures,
which are the least diverse communities), it is necessary to use external con-
trols such as pesticides, fertilizers, and, most pertinent to the concerns of
the region, irrigation.
The same factors that affect the habitat quality of uplands also af-
fect the habitat quality of adjacent and nearby wetlands that are not minedi
Both plants and animals may be stressed by noise, dust, emissions (sulfur di-
oxide, suspended particulates), moisture loss, and erosion — and animals par-
ticularly may be stressed by fragmentation of habitat. Although control de-
vices apparently maintain ambient levels of emissions and minor contaminants
within acceptable state and federal air quality levels, the emission stan-
dards and other standards do not enhance habitat quality or ensure optimum
conditions; habitat is allowed to degrade to the tolerance limits of both in-
dustry and the environment. Habitat fragmentation will have lasting effects,
2.43
-------
likely reducing the carrying capacity of the remaining habitat for wide-ranging
herbivores (e.g., deer) and carnivores (e.g., bobcat).
The effects of erosion and moisture loss may be greater in shallow
wetlands than in uplands habitat. Mining into the shallow aquifer decreases
the amount of soil moisture or standing water in adjacent habitat within 1000
feet for 3 to 6 months, and wetlands vegetation damage is possible, particu-
larly during the wet season. Although erosion of mined land may be largely
contained on the site, sediment load in streams increases and downstream wet-
lands receive part of the load, increasing turbidity and sedimentation.
Mining is likely to affect 12 threatened and endangered vertebrates
and may affect six others (see Table 1.11). Adverse effects, if any, on two
species, the Osprey and Caracara, likely will be short term, and the Osprey
particularly may benefit in the long term. Two species, the Least Tern and
Peregrine Falcon, both primarily ocastal species, may be attracted to the
mining areas; however, this is an outside possibility for the very rare falcon,
which was last seen in the study area 3 years ago. Habitat loss is the primary
threat posed by mining except in the case of the Wood Stork; this species
utilizes suitable feeding sites on land to be mined but apparently does not breed
on this land. Food supply of the Florida panther and Florida black bear also
will be diminished, if indeed they do range over lands to be mined.
Commercial and recreational species will be variously affected by
mining. The hunting potential for most waterfowl will increase because of the
creation of lake and pond habitat by mining (Table 1.16), but that of the other
waterfowl species closely associated with woodlands and marshes will diminsh.
However, waterfowl comprise less than 10 percent of Florida's game bag; hunter
effort is directed primarily (approximately 75 percent) toward only five species •
deer, squirrel, dove, quail, and wild hog. The recreational potential of
hunting quail and squirrel, which often occur on lands other than in man-
agement areas, will be reduced. Deer and wild hog habitat will be reduced, but
the hunting potential probably will not be affected for these species since they
are most often hunted in wildlife management areas. The potential for hunting
the Mourning Dove (often on private land) is expected to remain steady, he
2.44
-------
region's overall abundance of game will not be significantly affected, but con-
tinued habitat loss eventually will eliminate certain species from the game
list and degrade the quality of hunting.
Mining will adversely affect more than one-half of approximately 75
ecologically significant species in the 7-county region. Most of these are
closely associated with various natural or little-modified habitats, including
wetlands and natural ponds and lakes that have gently sloped sides and wide
littoral zones rather than the steep sides and narrow littoral zones of re-
claimed lakes and ponds.
Mining activities will increase the potential of several species to
reach population levels of nuisance or pest proportions. Mammal pests will
*
proliferate around work areas and expanded urban areas. Bird pests will be-
come more abundant in similar areas as well as on reclaimed pastures and crop-
lands. Insect pests will proliferate around cattle, in areas devoted to mono-
culture, and in the nutrient-rich reclaimed lakes.
3) Water
a) Quantity
A digital computer model (Wilson 1977b) that was prepared, evaluated,
and calibrated by personnel of the U.S. Geological Survey office in Tampa in
cooperation with the Southwest Florida Water Management District was used in
assessing the effects on the Floridan aquifer of future pumpage from existing
mines under this scenario and under the conditions of a modified 2.11 (2.11',
which reflects industry's view). The model is a first attempt to simulate the
complexity of the interrelationships of all the essential elements of the ground-
water system in the Central Florida Phosphate Mining District. Therefore, the
^
results should be considered as preliminary and subject to revision. The USGS
is continuing the task of improving the reliability of the model. These first
model predictions are represented as approximate and are used only to estimate
the effects of future groundwater pumpage by the phosphate mining industry on
the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer. Effects of the changes in
total pumpage by the three major users of ground water (i.e., municipalities,
2.45
-------
agriculture, and other industry) are not predicted. Therefore, the partial
effects on the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer in 1985 and 2000
caused by changes in pumpage at phosphate mines exclusively cannot be compared
with the effects of combined groundwater withdrawal changes by municipalities,
agriculture, and other industry. This inability to do more than compare effects
among the alternatives for the phosphate industry is a distinct disadvantage in
the effects assessment because a simulation of the aquifer system as would exist
based on projections of all uses is not provided.
The digital 2-dimentional groundwater flow model simulates the hy-
draulic characteristics of the Floridan aquifer and its connection with the
water-table aquifer through the overlying confining beds. (More detailed in-
formation is available in the USGS open-file report Wilson 1977 from which
this description is summarized.) The major assumptions upon which the design
and operation of the model are based are as follows:
• Water in the Floridan aquifer moves in a single-layer
isotropic medium.
• Water moves vertically into or out of the Floridan
aquifer through the upper confining beds; no leakage
occurs through the lower confining bed.
• The head in the water-table aquifer does not change
with time or in response to any imposed stress.
The area within the model boundaries is approximately 5854 square
miles. A grid divides the area into nodal blocks ranging from 2x2 miles to
7.5x2 miles and 5x5 miles. Each nodal area is identified by a row and col-
umn number. The model closely follows hydrologic boundaries and can simulate
two types: a constant-flow boundary and a constant-head boundary. For the
steady-state model calibration, a no-flow boundary was used, which is a special
case of the constant-flow boundary.
The model incorporates two types of parameters: time-dependent and
time-independent. The input and output parameters, which include pumpage (P)
and/or recharge (R) and predicted changes in the potentiometric surfaces, are
time-dependent. The other parameters, which include transmissivity (T), stor-
age coefficient (S), and leakance coefficient (K'/b?), may vary spatially but
are time-independent. The input parameter, or pumpage, consists of groundwater
withdrawals for phosphate mining and processing, other industrial users, agriculture,
2.46
-------
and municipalities. The input parameter, or recharge, is the amount of water
that enters the Floridan aquifer from the overlying water-table aquifer. The
amount of recharge varies locally depending on the'leakance coefficient and
the head difference (Ah) between the potentiometric surface of the aquifer
and the water table.
The model can simulate either dynamic (transient) conditions or
steady-state conditions in the hydrologic system. Under steady-state condi-
tions, the model simulates essentially a static water budget; in the transient
state, it simulates a dynamic water budget.
The present model was calibrated under steady-state conditions. The
entire groundwater system was assumed to be more or less in equilibrium (steady-
state) at the end of September and the beginning of October 1975; at that time,
there was apparent balance between pumpage, recharge, and observed altitudes of
the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer. It was assumed for the
steady-state condition that in the September-October period no ground water was
pumped for agricultural use.
The objective of the model calibration was to simulate as closely as
possible the observed potentiometric surface in September 1975. During the
calibration of the model, several adjustments were made in the various param-
eters.
Comparison of the observed and simulated potentiometric surfaces
showed a similar pattern generally in the configuration of the potentiometric
surfaces, but locally there were some major differences between the two. For
example, the simulated altitudes of the potentiometric surface in the western
half of Manatee and northern Sarasota counties were significantly lower than
the observed altitudes in the same area. This was true also for the south-
western part of Polk County. The steady-state model appeared to overestimate
the drawdowns in these areas, which could have been the result of the follow-
ing factors: actual pumpage less than that entered in the model; leakance co-
efficients less than actual ones; transmissivity values less than actual ones;
and possible proximity to the model boundaries. Magnitude and configuration
of predicted water-level changes depend on the magnitude, duration, and areal
distribution of pumpage, transmissivity, storage coefficient, leakance coef-
ficient, and boundary conditions. The reliability of the predicted water-level
2.47
-------
changes is dependent on the validity of each parameter and the sensitivity
of the model to input values. The calibration process is, in a way, a
reliability assessment.
Evaluation of results was difficult because only the calibration re-
sults of the steady-state model and not the transient-state model were avail-
able. However, the predicted water-level changes were a result of transient-
state model simulations.
The validity of each parameter was evaluated. The areal distribution
and magnitude of the model parameters appeared to be not much different from
those that might have been expected in reality, although some values of the
leakance coefficient appeared to be on the low side. The magnitude and areal
distribution of the transmissivity values were of major concern, especially
the value of 80,000 square feet per day in the southwestern part of the study
area. In reality, it seems reasonable to expect that the transmissivity should
increase from north to south and from west to east. The author of the refer-
enced report on modeling (Wilson 1977b) was contacted and indicated that the
transmissivity distribution produced a fair match during the calibration pro-
cess. In addition, he considered and tried other transmissivity values more
along the lines suggested above but did not get a good match. The USGS is con-
tinuing to work on the calibration and will try other transmissivity values and
distributions.
In summary before citing the primary effects, it can be said that the
assessment is really one of trends in the water-level changes in 1985 and 2000
for Scenarios 2.15 and 2.11'. The numbers quoted are merely illustrative ap-
proximations and should not be interpreted as absolute results.
The primary effects of groundwater withdrawals as described in Sce-
narios 2.15 are expressed as a change in the potentiometric surface of the
Floridan aquifer between September 1975 and September 1985 and between Septem-
ber 1975 and September 2000. Total pumpage for existing mines and chemical
plants was 309,000,000 gallons per day in 1975 and is projected to be 142,000,000
gallons per day in 1985, representing a decline of more than 50 percent. Ground-
water pumpage for existing mines is expected to decline to 6,000,000 gallons per
day in the year 2000, with chemical-plant pumpage remaining constant throughout
2.48
-------
the period. To assess impacts attributable to the phosphate industry along
the effects of Scenario 2.15 were simulated by holding constant through time
pumpage by agriculture and municipalities.
According to model results, the potentiometric surface of the Floridan
aquifer will generally recover in 1985. The greatest rise (approximately 10 feet)
will be in Polk County just west of Fort Meade. The 5-foot contour line indi-
cates a recovery over a larger area between Bartow, Mulberry, Agricola, and
Bowling Green. The 1-foot rise in the potentiometric surface will be in the
southwestern part of Polk County, extending south of Lakeland, southwest of
Winter Haven, north of Wauchula, east of Keys Field, and west of Bradley Junc-
tion. The no-change line runs approximately in a north-south direction, just
east of the Hardee-Manatee county line and then swings northwesterly into Hills-
borough County. The only decline predicted by the model was a 1-foot decline in
the Fort Lonesome area. In general, the model showed no changes in the poten-
tiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer in the study area except in south-
western Polk County and in southeastern Hillsborough County.
By the year 2000, nearly the whole study area will experience a rise
in the potentiometric surface. The greatest rise, about 30 feet between 1975
and 2000, will be centered in an area northwest of Fort Meade in southwestern
Polk County, extending southwesterly into Manatee and Sarasota counties. The
model predicted a 1-foot rise in the potentiometric surface southwesterly as
far as the center of Sarasota County in the Lake Myakka area and also in the
western part of Manatee County.
b) Quality
(1) Radiological
Kaufmann and Bliss (1977) summarized the radium-226 radioactivity
concentrations in the waters of the water-table and the upper and lower Floridan
aquifers in the mined regions of central Florida (Table 2.10) using two data
sets — one developed by the USEPA and the other by the USGS. The mean concen-
tration of radium-226 radioactivity in the water-table waters of mined areas
was given as 0.55 picocuries per liter; for the upper Floridan, 1.61 picocuries
2.49
-------
per liter; and for the lower Floridan, 1.86 picocuries per liter. The authors
state that lower Floridan waters outside the mineralized area can have higher
concentrations than those in mineralized areas, apparently because of natural
processes unrelated to mining, and that existing water-table radium data indi-
cate no significant difference between mined and unmined regions within the
area of mineralization. However, ground water has been and probably will con-
tinue to be locally contaminated. Specific areas of concern include the large
slime impoundments, the waste-gypsum stacks, and the large process-water cool-
ing ponds. For comparison, Table 2.11 presents radium-226 radioactivity con-
centrations in ground waters of central Florida's mineralized but mined areas
and nonmineralized areas.
Table 2.10. Radium-226 Concentrations in Ground Water
in Mined Regions of Central Florida*
Picocuries per Liter
Aquifer EPA USGS
Water Table
Upper Floridan
Lower Floridan
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
4
2.8
1.65
2.0-5.3
No data
6
"fC"ft
1.33
1.3-3.5
12
°-55 **
3.3
0.20-4.40
10
1 fil
**
2.0
0.16-6.0
7
4.49
6.51
0.14-14.0
*Kaufmann and Bliss (1977)
**Author-preferred data
Note: Drinking water standard, 5 picocuries per liter
combined radium-226 and radium-228.
Industry wastewater effluents at the chemical processing plants con-
tain soluble radium-226, but, according to Mills et al (1977):
2.50
-------
"To prepare process water for discharge to the environment, the pH
must be increased from 1.5-2.0 to 6-9. To accomplish this, slacked
lime is normally added to the discharge water in a step called
'double liming.' Our studies have shown that this treatment is
highly effective in removing radionuclides from the effluent. Ra-
dium-226 reduction of greater than 96 percent was observed in all
situations studied. Similar reductions in uranium and thorium were
also observed."
Table 2.11. Radium-226 in Ground Water in Unmined Mineralized
and Nonmineralized Regions of Central Florida*
Region
•8
13
•H
1
•V
T3
0)
N
r-(
a
M
(U
(3
•rl
•a
ft)
N
•H
M
0)
.g
O
2!
Aquifer
Water Table
Upper Floridan
Lower Floridan
Water Table
Upper Floridan
Lower Floridan
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
No.
Mean
SD
Range
Picocuries per Liter
EPA
3
1.63
1.65
0.2-3.3
9
3.06
3.35
0.18 - 10.6
24
2.0
2.3
0.19 - 15.3
No data
No data
14
1.4
2.5
0.23 - 14.7
*Kaufmann and Bliss (1977).
**Author preferred data.
Note: Drinking water standard, 5 picocuries per
and radium-228.
uses
23
0.17
12.9
0.05 - 22.0
5
2.30
3.35
0.24 - 7.70
9
** 1.4
1.3
0.06 - 4.7
No data
3
5.1
4.3
0.2 - 7.9
2
2.8
1.4
1.8 - 3.8
**
**
**
liter of combined radium- 226
2.51
-------
In terms of radium-226 radioactivity concentrations, effluents (pri-
marily slime decant waters) at the mines have been shown to be below drinking-
water standards (in most cases less than 2 picocuries per liter). The interim
effluent guide proposed by the EPA (USEPA 1974) for the phosphate industry
(phosphate chemical and fertilizer manufacturing) in terms of radium-226 is 9
picocuries per liter. However, efforts to achieve total recirculation of plant
and mine waters are ongoing within the phosphate industry.
(2) Other Parameters
The primary effects on water quality because of phosphate industry
activities under this scenario are:
Combined loadings of chemical pollutional
parameters (especially phosphates, fluorides,
and total suspended solids) from discharges
of nonprocess and process wastewaters to
various stream segments
The creation of many water impoundments that
will tend to deteriorate water quality by per-
mitting overenrichment
Local surface-water deterioration from clear-
ing, burning, construction, reclamation, slime
spills, and seepage from contaminated ponds
Local water-table quality deterioration because
of draining and dewatering, overburden, product
storage, seepage from contaminated ponds, and
reclamation of mining pits
(3) Aquatic Biota
(a) Areas Affected by Phosphate Industry Activities
Over the short term (1977-85), phosphate mining is expected to occur
principally in southwestern Polk County and southeastern Hillsborough County.
2.52
-------
Aquatic habitat likely to be affected includes the upper portion of the Peace
River; the upper reaches of Payne and Little Payne creeks; Horse Creek; McCol-
lough Creek; and the north and south prongs of the Alafia River. Riparian wet-
lands along portions of the Peace River and the north and south prongs of the
Alafia also are expected to be disturbed, as are numerous small standing water-
bodies and wet depressions characteristic of the region. Over the long term
(1985-2000), mining activities will be essentially limited to the same general
areas described for short-term activities and will continue to affect the water-
bodies discussed. Additionally, mining activities will expand into the upper
portion of the Little Manatee River basin and farther down the Peace River in
the vicinity of Bowlegs Creek.
(b) Threatened and Endangered Species
Of the 13 aquatic species endangered, threatened, rare, or of special
concern, only the American alligator (threatened; USDI), Suwanee cooter (threat-
ened; FGFWFC, FCREPA), and manatee (endangered; USDI) might potentially be af-
fected by phosphate industry activities in the study area. Land preparation
and mining (particularly in the riparian wetlands bordering the Peace River
and the north and south prongs of the Alafia River) will cause some loss of
habitat and displace the American alligator but likely will have no adverse
impact on the area's alligator population. These local disturbances could be
offset by reclamation of gently sloped, shallow waterbodies that would be ap-
propriate habitat for the alligator. Over the long term, mining's alteration
of surface runoff patterns and creation of numerous impoundments during recla-
mation will alter the Peace and Alafia flow regimes, but the alterations will
be of small magnitude and are expected to have only very minor effects on the
Suwanee cooter and manatee through a potentially altered distribution of food
plants.
Slime placement poses a potential for the most significant adverse
impact on rare and endangered aquatic species of the study area, Because of
the long time interval required for reclaiming slime ponds, increasing mining
2.53
-------
activity represents increasing potential for adverse impact through spills re-
sulting from dam failure and human error. A major spill would have substantial
adverse effects on the American alligator, the Suwanee cooter (Alafia River
only), and the manatee by disrupting the food chain. Although the immediate
effects of such a spill are severe, the impact is reversible because stream
ecosystems generally recover in 2 to 5 years (based on the spill's magnitude).
(c) Species of Commercial and/or Recreational Importance
Direct effects will be limited principally to freshwater communities.
Freshwater species of recreational and/or commercial value within the study area
include largemouth bass, channel catfish, bream (bluegill and other sunfishes),
and blue tilapia. Short-term effects generally will be local and the result of
land preparation and excavation, which alter habitat quality by changing local
runoff patterns and increasing turbidity and siltation due to erosion. However,
the areas affected would be small and only lightly utilized for recreational or
commercial purposes.
A significant beneficial effect on freshwater sport and commercial
fisheries will be the increased acreages of surface water resulting from reclama-
tion of mining pits. This additional surface water represents significant po-
tential for establishing good commercial and recreational fisheries. If this
potential is to be fulfilled, however, present reclamation must be altered to
include lakes and ponds with wide littoral zones and other areas (e.g., "marshy"
islands) that would increase habitat diversity and support a viable sport fish-
ery. The steep-sided, relatively deep lakes now predominating are of little
long-term value; they quickly become degraded and/or eutrophic.
Placement and containment of large amounts of slime resulting
from mining activities is a threat to recreational and commercial species
of the study area. A major spill could devastate a river-based fishery for
several years and, depending on location and magnitude, have significant
adverse impact on estuarine fish and shellfish of recreational and commercial
2.54
-------
importance. Also, the economically important estuarine fisheries are sus-
ceptible to the long-term effects of flow-regime modification through altera-
tion of drainage patterns and creation of impoundments, but the magnitude of
the potential effects under this scenario (2.15) is considered to be small.
(d) Nuisance and Pest Species
Categories of aquatic nuisance and pest species that are expected to
be affected by phosphate industry activities in the study area include exotic
hydrophytes (hydrilla, water hyacinth, etc.), algae (principally filamentous
green and bluegreen forms), midges and mosquitos, Asiatic clams, native nuisance
fishes (bowfin, gar, gizzard shad, etc.), and exotic fishes (walking catfish,
blue tilapia)- Draining and dewatering low, wet areas, thus eliminating breed-
ing areas for midges and mosquitos, will have a positive effect but will be
more than offset by the industry's creation of additional surface water. The
new surface-water impoundments, if not properly managed, can potentially lead
to nuisance algae and aquatic hydrophytes and increase the number of midges and
mosquitos and undesirable fishes.
(e) Standing-Water Communities
The standing-water, or "lentic," aquatic communities of the study area
comprise natural and man-made lakes and impoundments, ponds, pits, and season-
ally wet depressions. Except for some interconnection of lowland wet areas,
the standing-water communities represent rather discrete ecosystems. Thus, the
effects of phosphate industry activities on standing-water communities, unlike
those on flowing-water communities, are highly localized.
The amount of standing-water communities expected to be directly af-
fected under Scenario 2.15 is relatively small and involves no major lakes,
ponds, or impoundments. The smaller ones will be affected principally through
alteration of runoff patterns and increased siltation of cleared areas because
of erosion. Also, there may be direct disruption due to land preparation and ex-
cavation. Perhaps the most important consideration will be the creation of new
standing-water habitat. It has been projected that approximately 7280 hectares
(18,000 acres) of mined land will be reclaimed to lakes between 1977 and 1985;
2.55
-------
by the year 2000, this area will be approximately 11,490 hectares (28,400 acres),
This area, if properly reclaimed and managed, represents a considerable increase
in resource potential for sport and commercial fishing.
(f) Running-Water Communities
Of the three basic aquatic community types described for the study
area, the running-water communities (streams and rivers) will experience the
greatest effects from phosphate industry activities. Under Scenario 2.15, ap-
proximately 14,130 hectares (34,900 acres) of land will be mined by 1985 in the
upper Peace River Basin, approximately 120 hectares (300 acres) in the Little
Manatee River Basin, and 5830 hectares (14,400 acres) in the Alafia River
Basin. By 2000, disturbed surface acreage will increase to approximately 31,000
hectares (76,600 acres): i.e., 19,500 hectares (48,300 acres), 1417 hectares
(3500 acres), and 10,000 hectares (24,800 acres), respectively. This magnitude
of activity will measurably affect runoff patterns and flow regimes of head-
water streams within the three river basins and, to a lesser degree, flow re-
gimes of the Peace, Alafia, and Little Manatee rivers. Local alterations of
the flow regimes of these three major rivers will be minor and obscured in nor-
mal flow variations.
Another important factor affecting the flow regimes of streams in the
study area will be the creation of large acreages of impoundments that cause loss
of runoff water to the streams and a net loss of surface water from the area
through evaporation. It has been projected that discharge decreases attribu-
table to evaporation losses of impounded water in the Peace River Basin will be
equivalent to about 15 cubic feet per second by 1985 and 21 cubic feet per sec-
ond by the year 2000 in the Peace River, 6 cubic feet per second by 1985 and 11
cubic feet per second by 2000 in the Alafia, and 0.1 cubic foot per second by
1985 and 1.5 cubic feet per second by 2000 in the Little Manatee. Average flows
near the mouths of the three rivers are 1195, 175, and 373 cubic feet per sec-
ond, respectively.
2.56
-------
The total effect of phosphate industry alteration of the flow re-
gimes of streams in the study area through 1985 will be minor. By 2000, how-
ever, the magnitude of alteration will be sufficient to cause some noticeable
community shifts from organisms preferring flowing water to those more indica-
tive of lentic, or standing-water, habitats; this will represent an adverse ef-
fect, since shifts to lentic characteristics in a stream habitat are undesirable
and result in a loss of resource value.
In addition to affecting the flow regimes of local streams, the in-
dustry's construction, land preparation, and excavation will cause some local
degradation of stream habitat quality by increasing siltation and turbidity.
However, such adverse effects are expected to be local, rather short-term, and
only minor from a regional perspective. Community-structure alterations ac-
companying local habitat degradation by siltation and turbidity will be mani-
fested as reduced algal abundance (benthic and periphyton communities), replace-
ment of more desirable benthic forms (e.g., mussels, odonate and mayfly naiads)
with forms more tolerant of silty substrate (tubificid worms, diptera larvae),
poorer condition of local fish populations because of food-chain disruption and
impairment of feeding activities, and reduced fish egg and larva survival.
(g) Bay and Estuarine Communities
Effects will be limited principally to mining's long-term effect on
freshwater discharge patterns of the Peace and Alafia rivers (discussed in the
preceding') . Changes in freshwater discharge will alter salinity regimes within
the river estuaries and thus affect distributions of estuarine organisms. How-
ever, the effects of the relatively small changes of freshwater discharge pat-
terns are expected to be minor and obscured in normal discharge variations.
2. Man-Made Environment
a. Land Use
Phosphate mining's major impact on land use in the study area is the
displacement of acres in the various land-use categories. Forest land, agri-
cultural land (USGS Level-II categories "Cropland-Pasture" and "Orchards-Groves"),
and open space (USGS Level-II categories "Rangeland" and "Transitional Areas")
2.57
-------
will be displaced (Table 2.12), while other land uses (residential, commer-
cial, and industrial) will be affected areally through the economic stimulation
of mining activities but will not be displaced because of their relative eco-
nomic values. As an example, residential land may expand in certain areas
(other than immediate mining areas) over time because of the influx of popula-
tion stimulated by the presence of phosphate mining and related activities.
Table 2.12. Displacement Areas, 1985 and 2000 (Scenario 2.15)
Land Use Categories
[keyed to matrix elements)
Forests
Agriculture
Open space
(includes USGS categories
rangeland and other barren
land
Forests
Agricul ture
Open space
(includes USGS categories
rangeland and other barren
land)
Areas (hectares/acres)
(a)
Four River
BasTns," Unadjusted
55,116/136,138
471,763/1,052,246
471,763/1,165,255
58,807/145,255
426,947/1,054,560
469,539/1,159,763
(b)
Adjusted
56,590/139,778
430,800/1,064,076
483,949/1,195,355
60,281/148,895
431 ,736/1,066,390
481,717/1 ,189,843
(c)
1975
Unadjusted
69,676/172,101
456,908/1,128,563
492,648/l',216,843
69,676/172,101
456,908/1 ,128,563
492,648/1,216,843
(d)
Area Mined
According to Map
3,057/7,552
3,938/9,728
3,834/9,472
4,845/11,968
9,561/23,616
6,685/16,512
(e)
Difference
(c-b)
13,086/32,323
26,108/64,487
8,699/21 ,488
9,395/23,206
25,171/62,173
10,931/27,000
Compatibility of the various land uses with phosphate mining varies.
Residential land is the least compatible of all categories; on the other hand,
forests and open spaces provide excellent buffer zones between mining and less
compatible land uses. There will be more disturbed acres of forest, agricul-
ture, and open space by the year 2000 than by 1985. By 2000, reclamation will
have increased acreages in each of the mentioned categories over 1985 acreages
but will not have restored them to their 1975 extents. Projections of the Four
River Basins Area Economic Base Study summarized in Table 2.12 are not re-
alistic since most reclaimed land probably will be returned as improved pasture
and lakes. Planners (and land-use plans) in the study area, most of whom agree
with the fundamental philosophy of the Four River Basins Study, may have unre-
alistic expectations for potential uses of reclaimed land. Placing additional
constraints on the variety of future land use are existing laws and regulations
specifying physical requirements for reclaimed land.
2.58
-------
Mining will not adversely affect land tenure, either public or pri-
vate, since mining companies already own almost all land that will be mined
through the year 2000.
b. Archeological, Cultural, Historical, and Recreational Sites
Areas to be mined in the future (Plate 1 in pocket) contain histori-
cal and archeological sites. The number of sites that will be disturbed (by
scenario) is indicated in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13. Disturbed Archeological and Historical Sites*
Year
1985
2000
No. of Sites
in Study Area
791
791
Scenarios
2.15
6
10
2.11
11
28
2.14
1
3
*Based on assumption of no additional sites discovered
between 1976 and 2000.
Most archeological sites are considered by archeologists as fragile
and, as such, would be permanently altered or destroyed if mined. Florida's
Division of Archives, History, and Records Management (1976) has expressed con-
cern that valuable sites within the study area may be lost or may suffer irre-
versible damage; this agency maintains that the effects will occur on a regional
level and may result in the permanent loss of a sizable portion of Florida's
archeological record. Unless measures to collect and preserve the artifacts
are taken before mining, the state office's concerns will be valid.
As to existing and potential recreational areas, phosphate mining will
have both positive and negative effects. Water-based recreation is particularly
sensitive to wastewater spills. Such spills, especially the one on the Peace
River in 1971, can be extremely destructive (Blakey 1973). Land-based hunting
will be affected not only by habitat destruction due to mining but by the recla-
mation (e.g., to improved pasture) that does not restore habitat. Reclamation
can provide additional recreational areas, however (e.g., Polk County's Saddle
Creek Park), and should be planned with care to provide an aesthetic setting.
2.59
-------
c. Demography, Economics, and Cultural Resources
One should be aware that all official population and economic projec-
tions that have been examined during the course of this study are based on the
postulation of continued development of the phosphate industry in the study
area.
The phosphate industry's existing ownership of large tracts of land
on a north-south axis from Lakeland to Port Charlotte has contributed to the
current crescent-shaped population concentration from Lakeland to Tampa and
along the coast to Port Charlotte. Land use in the northern part of Polk
County has been dramatically affected by the Disney World entertainment
complex (just north of the Polk County line). Land values for residential
and associated commercial development and tourist accommodations have
increased at a tremendous rate in recent years, resulting in significant
land-use changes. For example, land devoted to growing citrus has been
removed from production and shifted to intensive development.
Without increased phosphate mining in Polk and other counties, exist-
ing land use in those areas could undergo changes in character: the industry
would probably turn back (sell) some of its large landholdings, and this land
would then be available to reduce population concentrations.
Table 2.14 shows the projected economic impact of the phosphate in-
dustry on the study area by scenario. The "Without Action" alternative would
mean a loss of 2674 phosphate industry jobs in 1985 and 7554 by the year 2000.
Phosphate industry payroll losses would be $20,700,000 in 1985 and $58,500,000
annually by the year 2000. One can see that losses in employment and payroll
by phosphate industry-induced industry and business would be much greater.
Since the service businesses catering to the needs of the retirement and tour-
ist sectors are in direct conflict with the phosphate industry, however, there
is good reason to believe that they could absorb surplus workers from the phos-
phate industry.
The study area is served by all modes of transportation. Trackage at
Tampa Harbor connects to the Seaboard Coastline Railroad System. Two interstate
highways, 1-75 and 1-4, along with other federal and state roads, connect the
2.60
-------
Table 2.14. Projected Economic Impact of Central Florida
Phosphate Industry from Domestic Mining Only
on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000//
Year
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Scenario
Actual*
2. lit
2.15$
2. lit
2.15$
2. Ill
2.15$
2.11$
2.15$
2.11$
2.15$
Production
(million
short tons)
38.2
41.2
42.2
45.2
33.2
44.8
27.5
42.0
9.1
36.5
2.6
Phosphate
Industry ^
Empl oyment
8,512
9,181
9,403
10,072
7,398
9,983
6,128
9,359
2,028
8,133
579
Phosphate
Industry
Payrol 1
(000,000)
65.8
71.0
72.7
77.9
57.2
77.2
47.4
72.4
15.7
62.9
4.4
Induced
Employment
52,349
56,463
57,828
61 ,943
45,498
61,395
37,687
57,558
12,472
50,017
3,560
Payroll****
(000,000)
221.3
238.7
244.4
261.9
192.4
259.6
159.3
243.4
52.7
211.5
15.0
*Based on 1975 average of 222.84 workers per million tons produced.
**Based on 1975 average of $7,742 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
***Based on Bureau of Mines estimates of 6.155 jobs generated for each new job 1n
the phosphate Industry.
****Average of $4,228 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
"•"U.S. Bureau of Mines (1975) adjusted by Texas Instruments for the study area;
Florida Statistical Abstract (1976).
$U.S. Bureau of Mines (1977) adjusted by Texas Instruments.
$Texas Instruments projections of production from existing mines.
fTo estimate total projected Impact, effects from constant employment of about
3,000 chemical processing plant employees must be added.
2.61
-------
study area with other parts of Florida and the United States. Interstate 75 is
scheduled to be constructed south along the Gulf Coast through the study area to
the Florida east coast. Tampa International Airport, which is served by 10 ma-
jor airlines, provides domestic and foreign service. Numerous shipping lines and
barge lines have facilities in Tampa Harbor and provide extensive service to
waterborne commerce. Major plans are now underway to improve Tampa Harbor. A
major part of the economic justification is the favorable economic impact ex-
pected on phosphate shipments. Tampa is a major port and vital to the economics
of Florida as well as the nation. On a total tonnage basis, it is now the fourth
largest export port and the eighth largest U.S. port. Annually, it handles more
than 40,000,000 tons (36.3 x 10" metric tons) of commerce valued at more than
$490,000,000. Its export exceeds 11,000,000 tons (10 x 106 metric tons) valued
at more than $172,000,000. Phosphate shipments represent 97 percent of the port's
outgoing cargo, and sulfur for the phosphate fertilizer industry represents an al-
most equal percentage of incoming cargo. In the 8-county area around Tampa Har-
bor, one in every seven wage-earners is employed by port-related businesses; this
amounts to more than 36,000 workers and an annual payroll exceeding $210,000,000.
Without the scheduled harbor improvement and concomitant increased phosphate in-
dustry shipments and receipts, the port could decline in importance, reflecting
adversely on the regional economy and ultimately changing the character of cur-
rent development.
d. Resource Use
Phosphate industry activities that affect the area's natural resources
focus on depletion of not only phosphate but uranium (which is mined concurrently)
and, to a lesser extent, timber.
Phosphate resources of the area are estimated to be 1561.9 x 10 metric
(1772 x 106 short) tons; 940.6 metric (1037 x 106 short) tons are classified as
known reserves. Under Scenario 2.15, it is forecast that 327.4 x 10 metric
(361 x 106 short) tons will be mined during 1977-85 and 537.9 x 106 metric (593 x
10^ short) tons from 1977 through 2000. This represents a reserves depletion of
34.8 and 57.2 percent respectively.
2.62
-------
Clearing land before mining involves the total removal of vegetation,
including marketable timber. It is estimated under this scenario that approxi-
mately 3056 hectares (7552 acres) of land mapped as forest land will be mined
during 1977-85 and 4843 hectares (11,968 acres) between 1977 and 2000.
E. SUMMARY OF SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE "WITHOUT ACTION" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment
a. Land
1) Soil
Secondary effects of phosphate industry activities on soil are re-
stricted primarily to chemical alteration due to the stacking of materials (e.g.,
wet rock and gypsum). Water percolation through these materials tends to cause
them to leach and be subsequently deposited in the soil underlying horizons. No
secondary impacts could be determined for the various scenarios because of the
lack of any quantitative model with which to assess the effects of leaching. The
number of gypsum stacks is assumed constant among scenarios, but new wet-rock
storage piles are anticipated under Scenarios 2.11 and 2.11' (Section 3).
2) Background Radiation
Although there has been no proof to date that any activity of the in-
dustry causes a radiation impact on the general population, there are four poten-
tial pathways for secondary impacts of exposure:
• Air contamination by radionuclides associated with dust
created when dry phosphate rock and phosphate products
are transferred
• Possible contamination of ground waters by seepage of
process waters at the chemical plants and slime-pond
waters in the mine areas
• Radon-222 daughter-product contamination of air in struc-
tures built on land previously mined by the industry
• Consumption of foods (crop foods or beef) produced on re-
claimed land
2.63
-------
Considered the most significant is exposure from radon-222 daughter radio-
nuclides in homes or other structures built on reclaimed land. Quantifying
impacts on the general population by exposure associated with the pathways just
listed was considered beyond the scope of this program.
3) Terrestrial Biota
Among possible secondary effects not implied in the discussion of pri-
mary effects are certain changes occurring in coastal areas as a result of min-
ing. For example, if the harbor area were increased to accommodate the trans-
portation of phosphate rock or other materials, it could affect terrestrial
biota; however, the expected changes (e.g., the deepening of Tampa Bay), will
have little effect.
b. Water
1) Quantity
Pumping from the Floridan aquifer will potentially (1) decrease stream-
flow, affect surface vegetation, and affect lake levels and (2) cause upconing
of highly mineralized waters from the deeper parts of the Floridan aquifer and
lateral encroachment of salt water from the coastal zone. Unfortunately, a
basic assumption used in the design of the model is a constant head in the water-
table aquifer, so the model cannot predict declines in the water table as a
function of pumping from the Floridan aquifer; therefore, very little can be
said of the effect on the vegetation and surface-water systems as a result of
pumping from the Floridan aquifer. One aspect that can be evaluated indirectly,
however, is the potential for saltwater encroachment in relation to the change
in the potentiometric surface. For example, the 1985 potentiometric surface
map (Figure 2.10) that was simulated by combining the September 1975 potentio-
metric surface and the predicted water-level changes under Scenario 2.15 in the
year 1985 showed no change in the location of the 20-, 30-, and 40-foot contour
lines in the coastal zone. Thus, it may be concluded that the gradient in the
potentiometric surface has not changed, nor has the outflow of fresh water to
the coast from the Floridan aquifer. This suggests that Scenario 2.15 for 1985
will have no effect on the potential for saltwater encroachment in the coastal
zone. However, there are other (beneficial) effects: in southwestern Polk
2.64
-------
County, water levels will rise 10 feet in certain areas, thereby reducing the
pumping life for many wells and subsequently resulting in an economic benefit
to the owners of the wells.
s
Potentiometric contour
interval, 5 feet,
Datum is mean sea level
(msl)
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phpsphate industry
withdrawal rates only.
Figure 2.10. Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 1985,
under Scenario 2.15.
On the potentiotnetric surface map for the year 2000 (Figure 2.11),
contours in the coastal zone are more closely spaced than in 1975. More spe-
cifically, the 20-foot contour line is still at the same location but the 30-
foot contour line has moved somewhat to the western part, followed by the 40-
foot contour line. This means that the elevation of the potentiometric sur-
face in the coastal zone will have increased by the year 2000, thereby most
likely increasing the outflow of fresh ground water to the Gulf. This will
reduce the potential for lateral saltwater encroachment. Apparently, because
of Scenario 2.15, more water will be lost to the Gulf in the year 2000 than
was lost in 1975.
2.65
-------
Potentiometric con-
tour shows altitude
or potentiometric
surface for Septem-
ber 2000 in feet.
Datum is mean sea
level (msl). Contour
interval, 5 and 10 feet.
Dashed where estimated.
(Adapted from USGS open-
file report).
SCALE
1:500,000
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phosphate industry
withdrawal rates only.
Figure 2.11. Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000,
under Scenario 2.15.
The sharp rise in water levels in Polk County will provide an eco-
nomic benefit to owners of wells in those areas because pumping costs will be
reduced. No specific information has been gathered or analyzed, but it is en-
tirely possible in certain instances that the rise in the potentiometric sur-
face in the southwestern part of Polk County will reinstate the free flow of
springs in the area. Although there are no data showing real potentiometric
surface contours that would reflect municipal, agricultural, and industrial
pumpage, it is clear that completion of existing phosphate mining operations
will have a beneficial effect on the water resources of the study area.
2.66
-------
2) Quality
Secondary effects on water quality were taken to be potential effects,
These effects are saltwater encroachment due to drawdown of the Floridan
aquifer; contamination of the water-table and Floridan aquifers by seepage
from contaminated ponds, which causes sinkholes that collapse and allow direct
contamination; and radiation potential because of gyp ponds and mining-pit
reclamation.
3) Biological
The phosphate industry's secondary effects on the aquatic biota of
the study area involve waste discharges on receiving waterbodies, the potential
for spilling hazardous materials at processing plants, and impacts of support-
ing activities such as electricity generation and transport (shipping). The ef-
fects of all except waste discharges are considered to be minor.
Industry discharges of high concentrations of inorganic nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus), coupled with naturally high ambient concentrations
in flowing waters of the study area, result in highly fertile water supporting
rich and diverse running-water communities. Extremely productive estuarine
communities occur at the mouths of the Peace and Alafia rivers where the fer-
tile river water enters the estuary; indeed, the unusually high productivity
of both Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor can be attributed largely to signifi-
cant contributions of inorganic nutrients by the major contributing streams
(Alafia and Peace, respectively). Although waste discharges can be detrimen-
tal locally (e.g., toxic concentrations of ammonia), such effects are very
limited and are outweighed by the beneficial aspects of nutrient enrichment.
However, coupled with decreased flow and water motion, this nutrient enrich-
ment can potentially result in severe nuisance hydrophyte problems and degra-
dation of habitat quality.
2. Man-Made Environment
Development of Tampa Harbor and development of the phosphate indus-
try are synergistic: development of one presumes development of the other; and
conversely, if one is not developed, the other is not likely to be developed.
2.67
-------
Perhaps not readily apparent to the casual observer, the bulk of employment in
the Tampa area is in manufacturing, construction, transportation, and communi-
cations — and the harbor (largely supported by phosphate industry shipments)
contributes directly or indirectly to all these industries. Many important in-
dustries need the harbor facilities but are not important enough to support
them. An example is the Disney World complex near Orlando, one of the major
contributors to increased demands for products through Tampa Harbor. New in-
dustries such as optical materials and gun manufacturing, construction of pre-
fabricated houses, assembly of foreign trucks imported through the harbor, ex-
port of citrus fruit, and processing of food caught off Florida's coast depend
on a viable harbor system. Failure to develop the harbor would cause a decline
in the operations.
F. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE "PERMIT EXISTING AND NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment
a. Atmosphere
Adding new mines to replace existing capacity will tend to keep con-
stant the phosphate industry's areawide pollutant load on the atmosphere after
1977. Some of the emissions associated with mining, drying, and transporting
will shift slightly south as these activities move into Manatee, Hardee, and
DeSoto counties. Air emissions created by sources other than the phosphate
industry will dominate the inventory in Hillsborough, Manatee, and DeSoto coun-
ties so that any changes in air quality will be difficult to associate with the
phosphate industry. SO,., levels in Polk County should slightly decrease as some
of the rock dryers are moved south with the mines. Hardee County will exhibit
an increase due to the industry move into Hardee. Sarasota and Charlotte coun-
ties should not be materially affected by air emissions from the phosphate in-
dustry.
The emission inventory will be the same for Scenario 2.11 as for
Scenarios 2.13 and 2.14. Changes from the 2.15 inventory will be primarily in
mining, storage/transportation, and drying, reflecting the movement of these
activities from Polk County into Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto
counties.
2.68
-------
b. Land
1) Physical Environment
a) Unique Physical Features
In terms of potential impact through actions by the phosphate indus-
try, the karst structures in the Hawthorn limestone underlying the phosphate
ore zone of the area are of interest. The primary effects on these features
are expected to be collapse or high-volume drainage caused by excessive sur-
face loading and increased hydrologic head created by abovegrade storage of
clay slimes and waste gypsum. The amount or distribution of the waste-gypsum
stacks for this scenario are not expected to differ from those for the "Without
Action" alternative, so interest is focused on the new clay-slime impoundments
forecast under this scenario; it is estimated that an additional 3561 hectares
(8800 acres) will be committed to slime impoundments from 1977 through 1985 and
an additional 11,858 hectares (29,300 acres) from 1977 through 2000. Under
Scenario 2.11', additional areas committed to slime ponds are expected to ap-
proximate 3561 hectares (8800 acres) in the short term and 20,883 hectares
(51,600 acres) in the long term.
Because the precise locations of karst features underlying the pro-'
posed additional mines are not known and detailed information regarding lines
of weakness (faults and partings in the underlying limestone) is generally lack-
ing, the forecast of regional impact of these abovegrade impoundments is nega-
tive and rated as insignificant. The character of the limestone underlying .the
proposed slime-storage areas should be investigated on a site-specific basis
to assess the precise potential for impact.
b) Soil
The 7-county study area possesses approximately 453,264 hectares
(1.12 x 10^ acres) of mapped soil association containing soil types rated high
in their potential to produce truck crops or citrus; this represents approxi-
mately 28 percent of the study area. Under this scenario, destruction of ap-
proximately 6625 hectares (16,370 acres) of these associations is forecast for
1977-2000 and 12,906 hectares (31,890 acres) for 1977-2000. These figures rep-
resent 1.5 and 2.8 percent, respectively, of the total high-potential associa-
tions in the study area and, compared with the "Without Action" scenario, an
2.69
-------
increase in the destruction of high-potential soils (relative to the total
area) of 0.4 percent (1.1 versus 1.5 percent) for the near term and 0.9 per-
cent (1.9 versus 2.8 percent) for the long term. Based on these percentages,
the impact of this scenario on the destruction of high-potential soils, com-
pared with Scenario 2.15, is considered negative and is rated as insignificant.
The percentage changes (this scenario versus Scenario 2.15) relative to the
total area are 0.4 percent (1.1 versus 1.5 percent) and 1.4 percent (1.9 ver-
sus 3.3 percent) for the respective time periods.
c) Exposure
This scenario assumes that an additional seven mines will be in op-
eration through 2000, representing an increase of 41 percent numerically over
the "Without Action" alternative. Mining plans for six of these imply signifi-
cant knowledge of the geologic section in the areas, and it is assumed that in-
formation from prospect drilling is available also for the seventh location.
Thus, the additional information that mining (excavating) would provide by ex-
posing the geologic section is expected to be insignificant.
For Scenario 2.11' (the "industry view"), 12 new mines (excluding one
scavenger operation) are forecast in addition to those simulated under Scenario
2.11; all are expected to come on line between 1985 and 2000 (Plate 5 in pocket),
Compared to the "Without Action" scenario, 2.11' represents an increase of 112
percent numerically in lands affected. Section information needed to prepare
for these additional mines will constitute a significant, though unquantifiable,
addition to current knowledge, especially in terms of phosphate reserves and
resources for these areas.
d) Topography
Land excavation, material and waste storage, and the earthen struc-
tures associated with these activities impart primary effects on topography.
Land excavation predominates. This scenario, compared with 2.15, is expected
to add 7160 mined hectares (17,600 acres) from 1977 through 1985 and 23,810
hectares (58,500 acres) from 1977 through 2000, representing an increase of
35.8 and 72.6 percent, respectively. However, comparing area increases to the
2.70
-------
f £
total study area (an estimated 1.6 x 10 hectares [4.0 x 10 acres]), the
differences are 0.4 and 1.5 percent for the respective time periods. Because
of these low net percentage changes, this scenario's impact on topography is
considered insignificant in both the short and long terms. Under Scenario
2.11', the net percentage changes would be 0.4 and 2.6 percent respectively.
e) Radiation
Under this scenario, current radiation levels at the chemical
processing plants should remain constant through the year 2000 because of
the continued use of locally mined phosphate ore and the constant level of
throughput that is forecast. Therefore, industry effects on radiation are
keyed to activities at the mining sites. Mining and reclamation increase
radiation levels. The magnitude has been estimated on the basis of radium-226
radioactivity concentrations in surface materials exoected to exist at various
stages for a hypothetical mining unit. Based on the conversion factor that an
individual will be exposed to 1.85 microroentgens per hour of gamma radiation
for each picocurie per gram of radium-226 radioactivity concentration of a
surface, the maximum annual dose equivalent for continuous occupancy in the
mining pit (an absurd situation) would be less than the guide for the general
population. Occupational guidelines state that employees should not receive a
whole-body exposure (external exposure from gamma radiation) of more than 5 rem
(5000 millirem) per year or lung exposure (inhaling airborne radionuclides in
the form of dust) of more than 15 rem (15,000 millirem) per year. Guidelines
for the general population are one-tenth of these values. To date, no activity
of the phosphate industry has been proved to cause a radiation dose to the
general population in excess of the guideline. Furthermore, when industry
average time-weighted values are used, it is anticipated that no phosphate workers
will receive doses of radiation exceeding the guideline established for the
general population.
Based on the preceding, the impact on the general population and
on phosphate workers by the increase in gamma radiation resulting from the
forecasted increase in mining activity under Scenarios 2.11 and 2.11' through
the year 2000 would be insignificant compared with that under Scenario 2.15.
2.71
-------
f) Noise
Increased mining activities under Scenarios 2.11 and 2.11' will in-
crease ambient noise levels locally, particularly in the immediate vicinity of
operating engines or machinery (e.g., bulldozers, draglines, and washing/bene-
ficiation plants). These increases will not impact the general population, and
employees may be readily protected from these noises.
2) Biological Environment
Mining in wetlands, mixed forests, and deciduous forests, because of
their importance to surrounding ecosystems and their uniqueness, is considered
worst-case. Approximately 6 percent (10,850 hectares, or 26,800 acres) of the
present areawide wetlands extent will be mined by the year 2000. Although un-
realistic projections of future areawide wetlands extent preclude estimating
areawide change attributable to mining, there are indications that greatest de-
pletion will occur in the mining area. The loss of only several hundred acres
of mixed and deciduous forest types (sandhills, sand pine scrub, and hammocks)
will severely deplete the unknown but undoubtedly limited extent of these im-
portant habitats.
By 2000, mining will account for 69 percent of the projected 18 per-
cent areawide loss of forest (primarily evergreen), 62 percent of the projected
4 percent areawide loss of rangeland, and 85 percent of the projected 7 percent
loss of pasture and cropland. The severe impact of mining in pine flatwoods is
tempered by the projected remaining areawide extent of the type, as well as by
the fact that unmined, unmanaged rangelands possibly could succeed to pine for-
est. The level of impact associated with mining rangeland will depend on the
amount of true dry prairie included — and apparently, there is little. The
impact of mining pasture and cropland is considered to be negligible. Of the
55,789 hectares (137,800 acres) of uplands/wetlands habitat to be mined by
2000, as much as 16,599 hectares (41,000 acres) will be permanently displaced
by water. As wildlife habitat, waterbodies created during reclamation are,
like terrestrial habitat, generally inferior to those that could develop natur-
ally were the mining areas merely abandoned.
2.72
-------
The Impact of noise, dust, and gaseous and particulate emissions is
largely unquantifiable, as is the impact of surface- and groundwater changes
and erosion. Of prime concern are the effects that the alteration of water
regime and sedimentation will have on the remaining wetlands; these are not ad-
dressed to the extent of similar effects on waterbodies. Although most effects
pertinent to habitat quality are claimed to be temporary and not of sufficient
magnitude to prevent recovery, long-term effects (e.g., reduced carrying capac-
ity) that preclude complete recovery are quite possible.
Since phosphate mining will account for most of the expected areawide
change in inland land use by the year 2000, it will account also for most of the
change in community structure. Particularly will the modified habitat types re-
placing forests and wetlands support a smaller variety of biota and be considerably
less productive in terms of life support. Mining will expand within or into the five
counties that are already most highly modified by urbanization, industrializa-
tion, and agriculture (Polk, Manatee, Hillsborough, Hardee, and DeSoto). There
will be an increase in the proportion of managed systems that require expendi-
ture of energy to natural systems that do not.
The greatest impact on threatened and endangered species that likely
will be affected by mining will come primarily from loss of uplands forested
habitat. Actual or potential impacts that are considered worst-case involve
the Florida mouse, short-tailed snake, sand skink, and Florida Scrub Jay be-
cause of their endemic status, limited distribution in the study area and state,
and restricted habitat (scrub). Impacts on the Florida gopher frog and South-
eastern American Kestrel could be severe: the widespread frog may be seriously
affected by loss of favored habitat (scrub), and the widespread but local
kestrel could be eliminated from the region if major concentrations within or
or near the mining areas were substantially reduced. Six other species -
the gopher tortoise, eastern indigo snake, Sherman's fox squirrel, Wood Stork,
Florida Sandhill Crane, and Southern Bald Eagle - are expected to be moderately
to substantially impacted. Mining will directly reduce populations of some of
these species and, coupled with reclamation, will limit opportunities for all
of them. They generally are widespread in the study area and equally or more
abundant in areas not affected by mining.
2.73
-------
Loss of forests (and in this case, particularly wetlands) will have
the greatest impact on ecologically significant species. Some of the water-
oriented species may utilize shallow mining pits and vegetated slime ponds,
but these habitats are displaced during reclamation. Permanent population de-
clines are expected among most of the affected species.
The impact on the hunting and trapping potential of commercial and
recreational species is considered minimal, as is the impact of increased abun-
dances of nuisance and pest species. There is intense management in both of
these categories, and increased costs of management undoubtedly will accompany
changes in land use. The impacts could be greater than minimal, but a more ac-
curate assessment is difficult without cost estimates.
c. Water
1) Quantity
To simulate "worst-case," Scenario 2.11' was substituted for 2.11 in
the USGS model. The model predicted water-level changes in 1985 and 2000 with
respect to the September 1975 potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer.
These water-level changes will also affect the hydrologic system by increasing
induced recharge from the water table to the Floridan aquifer, for example, and
possibly causing subsequent reductions in streamflow. There will also be an
economic effect: a rise in level will reduce pumping costs; a decline will in-
crease pumping costs. A change in the potentiometric surface in the coastal
zone might also affect the movement of the saltwater/freshwater interface in
that area. Another change may be decreasing upward leakage in coastal areas
and upconing.
The water-level change for 1985 indicates an approximate 2-foot rise
in the potentiometric surface in the Bartow area and a decline of about 10 feet
in the Four Corners area. This pattern of decline is quite likely, since phos-
phate mining activities are expected to shift from southwestern Polk County in
a south-southwesterly direction toward Manatee and Hardee counties. Not only
will there be a 10-toot decline in the Four Corners area, but also in small areas
near Myakka Head, Bowling Green, and Ona. A 5-foot decline will extend from
southeastern Hillsborough County through the middle and western parts of Manatee
County into and across the middle of Hardee County and the southern half of Polk
2.74
-------
County. A 1-foot decline will parallel most of the coast in Hillsborough,
Manatee, and Sarasota counties, extending as far south as Port Charlotte.
Thus, the effect of proposed and existing phosphate mining generally will be
over the whole Central Florida Phosphate District, a decline ranging from 1
and 10 feet compared with the September 1975 potentiometric surface level.
The water-level change for the year 2000 indicates an approximate
20-foot rise in the potentiometric surface in southwestern Polk County rela-
tive to the September 1975 levels. This rise will occur in an area south of
Bartow. The rise is explained by the fact that a large number of present phos-
phate mines in the area will be phased out by the year 2000 and that the major
mining will shift in a southerly and southwesterly direction into western.Manatee
County, middle and southern Hardee County, and northern DeSoto County. This
movement will be reflected by a decline of approximately 10 feet in western
Manatee County and eastern Hardee County. Additionally, two small 10-foot de-
clines are predicted near Ona and Sandy. Comparing 1985 and 2000, it is in-
teresting that the predicted 1-foot decline in the potentiometric surface is
still at the same location (i.e., along the coast in Hillsborough, Manatee,
and Sarasota counties) despite the increase of phosphate mining.
Again, it should be emphasized that the water-level changes reflect
only the changes in activities of the phosphate industry. The results might
be quite different if pumpage changes caused by municipalities and agriculture
were entered into the model.
In summary, it appears that the worst-case effect under Scenario 2.11'
will be a drawdown of approximately 10 feet (relative to 1975 levels) in eastern
Manatee County by the year 2000.
2) Quality
There are no data with which to determine the radiological impact on
the general population as a result of any changes in the radionuclide content
of surface, water-table, or aquifer (upper and lower Floridan) waters due to
industry activities. As far as other water quality parameters are concerned,
the primary effects under the conditions of this scenario are essentially the
2.75
-------
same as those discussed in conjunction with the "Without Action" alternative
but with increased concern for surface-water degradation caused by clearing,
burning, and dam and levee construction.
tij.oiogical.iy, the primary effects projected will be similar in types
and magnitudes to those described for Scenario 2.15.
2. Man-Made Environment
a. Land Use
Assessing the impacts of mining on the environmental elements (in
this case, land tenure, community/regional plans, and land use) is largely
judgmental but is in the same direction (positive or negative) in almost every
case as the effects listed for the "Without Action" alternative (Scenario 2.15).
Impacts on land uses are measured both by areal displacement by mining and over-
all effects on the total land system by displacement and subsequent reclamation.
Forests, morderately managed rangeland, dry prairies, and other land
classified as open space will be areally displaced, resulting in negative impacts
These land uses are as important from the standpoint of wildlife and general
habitat as for the economic value of their potential products (timber, cattle,
etc.). Therefore, the impact of their removal has been based on the loss of
their economic as well as ecological values. Current reclamation practices
have a negative impact on forests and open space, since these are not usually
replaced; reclaimed land is most commonly used for improved pasture. This re-
clamation pattern will have a positive (economic) impact on agricultural land.
Increased mining under this scenario will stimulate economic growth,
which will probably result in areal expansion of residential, commercial, and
industrial lands. Residential is probably the land use most sensitive to any
pollution, noise, or aesthetic degradation created should mining be located in
close proximity. If mining occurs within several miles of residences, negative
impacts are likely.
2.76
-------
The "Permit Existing and New Sources" alternative will have a posi- •
tive impact on the land use "Mining." Compared with the "Without Action" alter-
native, the conditions of the scenario include a projected 39 percent increase
by 1985 and a 60 percent increase by 2000. (See Plate 5.)
b. Archeological, Cultural, Historical, and Recreational Sites
More archeological and historical sites would be destroyed under the
conditions of this scenario than under those of the "Without Action" scenario:
five more sites would be destroyed by 1985; 18 more by the year 2000 (Table
2.13). The impact would be catastrophic, since irreplaceable historical re-
sources would be lost.
Recreation would be both positively and negatively impacted. The in-
creased mining under this scenario would increase the possibility of accidental
waste spills and resultant water pollution — and negative impact. Reclamation
would increase hunting potential for most waterfowl — a positive impact. Loss
of habitat associated with current reclamation practices would have a negative
impact on the hunting potential of land-based game species.
c. Demography, Economics, and Cultural Resources
The conditions of this scenario would impact the area's economics and
the demographic and cultural elements, as described for Scenario 2.15. With re-
spect to transportation, a special note is worthy of repeating as reported in
the Final Environmental Impact Statement, Tampa Harbor Project (U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers 1974):
"From available data and coordination with the state geologist, it is
estimated that there are from 26 to 30 billion tons of phosphate rock
deposits in Florida, of which about 2.5 billion tons are considered
marketable reserves using existing mining methods and present market
and price conditions. About 1.5 billion tons of the marketable phos-
phate is in Polk County and adjacent areas. This estimate is substan-
tiated by the Florida Phosphate Council. Another billion tons of mar-
ketable phosphate is located in Hernando, Citrus, Marion, Levy, and
Alachua counties, which, if developed, would require use of facilities
at Tampa Harbor for shipment to areas of consumption. It is estimated
that about 1.65 billion tons of phosphate would be shipped from Tampa
Harbor during the 50-year life of the project — an average of about
33,000,000 tons per year. In addition, there would be production of
phosphate for domestic consumption of about 7,000,000 tons per year
which would not use facilities at Tampa Harbor."
2.77
-------
A letter from the Florida Department of Transportation (March 24,
1974) included in the referenced environmental impact, statement points out
that "... with larger vessels utilizing the harbor facilities, there could
be a significant increase in both truck and rail traffic, as well as additional
auto traffic generated by the enlarged labor force." The letter also points out
the existing condition of "the situation of long freight trains bringing phos-
phate to Port Button, delaying traffic on SR 45 (US 41). This expansion can
only augment the present problem."
d. Resource Use
1) Timber
The 7-county study area possesses approximately 69,650 hectares
(172,100 acres) of land mapped as forest. This study classifies timber as a
secondary resource; it is lost when forests are cleared in preparation for
phosphate mining and attendant activities. Under this scenario (2.11), it is
estimated that these activities will involve more than 3966 hectares (9800
acres) of forest lands during 1977-85 and more than 7366 hectares (18,200 acres)
from 1977 through 2000, an increase over the "Without Action" scenario (2.15) of
27 and 53 percent, respectively. Under the worst-case condition of Scenario
2.11', mining in forest lands during 1977-85 is forecast to equal that under
Scenario 2.11. For the 1977-2000 time period, an increase of 67 percent over
the "Without Action" scenario is forecast.
Under this scenario, mining from 1977 through 1985 will involve the
destruction of an estimated 5.7 percent of the total timber resources of the
study area; from 1977 through 2000, 10.6 percent. This will increase depletion
over the "Without Action" alternative by 1.3 percent in the short term and 3.7
percent in the long term. Under worst-case (Scenario 2.II1) projections, the
percentage of forest resources of the study area destroyed will be 5.7 and 11.7
percent, respectively, for the 1977-85 and 1977-2000 time periods, representing
depletion increases over the "Without Action" alternative of 1.3 percent for the
short term and 4.8 percent for the long term. Such a loss will not cause a sig-
nificant impact, however, since the timber area to be mined under this scenario
is small relative to the total timber area.
2.78
-------
2) Phosphate
The study area's total phosphate resources have been estimated to be
1596 x 10 metric (1722 x 10 short) tons, including known reserves totaling
940.6 x 10 metric (1037 x 10 short) tons. Phosphate ore to be mined under
this scenario is estimated at 0.444 billion metric (0.489 billion short) tons
during 1977-85 and 0.925 billion metric (1.020 billion short) tons during 1977-
2000 (Table 2.15). Compared with the "Without Action" scenario, total tonnage
mined under this scenario represents an increase of 35.5 percent for the short
term and 72.0 percent for the long term. Conditions consistent with the "in-
dustry view" (Scenario 2.11') would increase production over the "Without Ac-
tion" scenario by an estimated 35.5 percent by 1985 and 127.8 percent by the
year 2000. In terms of depleting the area's known phosphate resources, this
scenario poses an increase over the "Without Action" alternative of 7.5 per-
cent in the near term and 24.8 in the long term; for Scenario 2.11', the in-
creased depletion percentages would be 7.5 and 44.1 percent, respectively.
Table 2.15. Phosphate Rock Production Forecast
for Scenarios 2.15, 2.11, and 2.11'
Scenario
2.15
2.11
2. IT
Tons Mined x 106
1977-85 1977-2000
361 593
489 1 ,020
489 1,351
% of Resources*
1977-85 1977-2000
20.9 34.4
28.4 59.2
28.4 78.5
Resources = 1,722 x 10^ short tons (Reserves =
**
Change in percentage value relative to Scenario
% to 2.15**
1977-85 1977-2000
7.5 24.5
7.5 44.1
,037 x 106) short tons).
2.15.
G. SECONDARY EFFECTS OF "PERMIT EXISTING AND NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment
Quantifiable significant secondary effects on the natural environ-
ment under this scenario compared with Scenario 2.15 are described in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
2.79
-------
a. Water Quantity
To assess the worst-case (Scenario 2.11') secondary effects on the
hydrologic system, a potentiometric surface map for September 1985 was prepared
(Figure 2.12) by combining calculated water-level changes for that period with
a September 1975 potentiometric surface map. These changes were calculated
using the USGS model.
s*
Potentiometric con-
tour shows altitude
above mean sea level
(msl). Contour inter-
val , 5 and 10 feet.
(Adapted from USGS
open-file report.)
ff°\
OESOTO j \
CHARLOTTE
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface
modified by changes in phosphate industry
withdrawal rates only.
Figure 2.12. Simulated Potentiometric Surface,
September 1985, under Scenario 2.11'.
The 20-foot contour will be in the same location in the coastal zone
in September 1985 as it was in September 1975, indicating that no change in the
potentiometric surface will have occurred in the coastal area. The 30-foot con-
tour line will have moved farther to the east, thereby creating a somewhat large
spacing between the 20- and 30-foot contours. This indicates a flattening of the
gradient of the potentiometric surface toward the coast, suggesting a decrease in
groundwater flow toward the Gulf of Mexico. This potential effect suggests di-
rection for additional investigations by SWFWMD and the USGS. In southwestern Polk
2.80
-------
County, there will be a positive effect: the area encompassed by the 50-foot
contour will increase considerably, indicating that the water level has risen
in those areas. This rise will have a beneficial secondary effect inasmuch as
well-owners in the area will be spending less money on pumping because pumping
lifts will have decreased.
As mentioned previously, the model has a constant source and does not
predict changes in the head of the water-table aquifer itself. Therefore, the
impact of proposed phosphate mining activities on the water table and on water-
dependent vegetation cannot be assessed. However, experience has indicated that
the effects can be expected to be minimal because the confining beds are rela-
tively impermeable and thicken toward the south. An adverse economic effect of
the proposed development in Sarasota, Manatee, and to some extent in southern
Hillsborough County in 1985 will be the increased costs to well-owners because
of increased pumping lifts. Also, there will be increased potential for up-
coning of mineralized water from the deeper zone of the Floridan aquifer, es-
pecially in old wells that have been drilled into the lower, more mineralized
zone of the Floridan aquifer and have been abandoned without being plugged.
In regard to the problem of saltwater encroachment in the coastal
zone, the flattening of the hydraulic gradient between the 20- and 30-foot con-
tours suggests a reduction in groundwater outflow and, theoretically, an in-
crease in the potential for landward movement of the salt/freshwater interface.
The potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer for September 2000
(Figure 2.13) was constructed by using the September 1975 potentiometric surface
map in combination with water-level changes between 1975 and 2000. There will
be some changes in the inner parts of the Central Florida Phosphate District
and, again, shifts will be in the location of the 20-foot contour in only a few
places along the coast. The 30-foot contour line, however, will move farther
eastward and be in the western part of Hardee County near the town of Ona. In
eastern Manatee County, the potentiometric surface will have a plateau-like ap-
pearance, as shown by the 20-foot contour line. The flattening of the poten-
tiometric surface will reduce groundwater outflow toward the Gulf, and this most
likely will increase the potential for the inland movement of the salt-/fresh-
water interface. There will also be an economic effect, because the reduction
in the potentiometric surface will result in increased pumping lifts and costs
in certain areas.
2.81
-------
Altitude or poten-
tiometric contour.
Contour interval, 5
and 10 feet. Datum
is mean sea level (msl).'
(Adapted from USGS data.)
NOTE: Contours reflect September 1975 surface modified
by changes in phosphate industry withdrawal rates
only.
Figure 2.13. Simulated Potentiometric Surface, September 2000,
under Scenario 2.11'.
In summary, future development of the phosphate industry under Sce-
nario 2.11' will generally lower the potentiometric surface of the Floridan
aquifer in the western part of the Central Florida Phosphate District. To
assess the impacts predicted declines must be compared with the total thickness
of the freshwater zone (i.e. the depth of the "reservoir") (e.g. 10-foot decline
compared with a thickness of 1500 feet in the interior of the simulated area).
No adverse effects except the small increase in pumping costs and the increased
potential for saltwater encroachment are expected from future pumping of the
Floridan aquifer by the phosphate industry. The validity of these predictions,
of course, depends on the validity of the water-level changes predicted from
the aquifer model designed and constructed by the U.S. Geological Survey.
2.82
-------
The difference between the two scenarios' (2.11' and 2.15) effects
on the potentiometric surface will be, at most, 20 feet at the Manatee-Hardee
county line north of the Myakka head. Comparison of this value with average
seasonal fluctuations of 30 to 40 feet in the area leads to the conclusion that
a 20-foot difference is not a major effect. To estimate the economic difference
between the two scenarios, it was assumed that the cost of lifting 1 acre-foot
of water (325,900 gallons) a distance of 1 foot is 2.6<: for a pump working at
80 percent efficiency. For example, the difference in economic costs to pump
at a rate of 10,000,000 gallons per day in the northeastern corner of Sarasota
County was calculated: the difference in water levels is approximately 7.5 feet
and the difference in the cost of lifting the water is $2184 per year (the
year 2000); the annual cost difference for a well-owner pumping at the same
rate in the area north of Myakka head is $5824.
b. Water Quality
A secondary effect under the conditions of this scenario (2.11) is
the increased potential for pollutional loads from failure of slime-pond dikes.
This potential is particularly significant since, under this scenario, a slime-
pond break would threaten the water quality of Class-I waters.
2. Man-Made Environment
Attention is invited to previous comments on effects under the "With-
out Action" alternative (Scenario 2.15). Accelerated phosphate mining under
Scenario 2.11 could increase already inflated land values, deplete nonrenewable
resources, and further reduce the amount of land in agricultural production.
Adverse environmental damage such as despoiled landscapes or incompatible land
usage could result. There is every reason to believe that increased mining
activity could also impact unfavorably on the multimillion-dollar tourist/
recreation industry by reducing or altering the scenic attraction of the area.
2.83
-------
On the positive side for the phosphate industry, industry holdings
of land will effectively prevent large-scale development of the held land for
at least the next 25 years. This reclaimed land will then be available for
phased development at a time when it is most needed to relieve coastal popula-
tion congestion.
Table 2.16 projects by scenario the economic impact of the phosphate
industry on the study area. As indicated, the industry's continued development
will result in about 10,000 direct and almost 62,000 induced jobs in the study
area by 1985, declining to about 8100 direct jobs and 50,000 induced jobs by
2000. Total payroll attributable to the phosphate industry will be about
$340,000,000 in 1985, declining to about $274,000,000 by 2000.
Table 2.16. Projected Economic Impact of Phosphate Industry
on Study Area by Scenario, 1980-2000
Year
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Scenario
Actual*
2. lit
2.15$
2.11*"
2.15$
2. Ill
2.15$
2. Ill
2.15$
2.111
2.15$
Production
(million
short tons)
38.2
41.2
42.2
45.2
33.2
44.8
27.5
42.0
9.1
36.5
2.6
Phosphate
Industry ^
Employment
8,512
9,181
9,403
10,072
7,398
9,983
6,128
9,359
2,028
8,133
579
Phosphate
Industry
Payrol 1
(000,000)
65.8
71.0
72.7
77.9
57.2
77.2
47.4
72.4
15.7
62.9
4.4
Induced
Employment
52,349
56,463
57,828
61,943
45,498
61,395
37,687
57,558
12,472
50,017
3,560
Payroll****
(000,000)
221.3
238.7
244.4
261.9
192.4
259.6
159.3
243.4
52.7
211.5
15.0
Based on 1975 average of 222.84 workers per million tons produced.
**Based on 1975 average of $7,742 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
***Based on Bureau of Mines estimates of 6.155 jobs generated for each new job 1n
the phosphate Industry.
****Average of $4,228 per worker per annum, 1967 constant dollars.
tU.S. Bureau of Mines (1975) adjusted by Texas Instruments for the study area;
Florida Statistical Abstract (1976).
•(•U.S. Bureau of Mines (1977) adjusted by Texas Instruments.
$Texas Instruments projections of production from existing mines.
2.84
-------
H. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY EFFECTS OF THE "REQUIRE PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FOR NEW
SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
1. Natural Environment
a. Atmosphere
Of the proposed process changes, only wet-rock processing will affect
air quality — and it will have little effect on the pollutant load in the study
area outside of Polk County, site of most of the existing drying capacity. How-
ever, air quality is not expected to improve because of offsetting utility emis-
sions.
General remarks about inventory projections appeared earlier. This
scenario affects emissions under the drying category and fertilizer production
(grinding). The changes will be negligible other than in Polk County where ex-
isting activity is concentrated.
b. Land
1) Physical Features, Soil, Topography
Of the new process modifications considered under this scenario, only
one is significant relative to the unique physical features of the area: the
elimination of aboveground slime-storage impoundments. Where conventional im-
poundments result in dams that are as much as 12.2 meters (40 feet) abovegrade,
modification No. 1 (elimination of slime ponds) will result in containment dikes
that are only about 1 meter (3.3 feet) abovegrade. This reduction of abovegrade
loading should effectively reduce the risk of slime-pond collapse into under-
lying karst features.
The proposed process modifications are expected to have no signifi-
cant effect on the soil of the area except for the fact that the principal tech-
nique for slime-pond elimination will accelerate the date on which slime areas
will become available for the start of natural soil development. Instituting
this process modification under Scenario 2.11 is expected to "make available"
an additional 4047 hectares (10,000 acres) by 1985 and 2792 hectares (6900
acres) by 2000; under Scenario 2.11', the estimates are 4047 hectares (10,000
acres) and 6556 hectares (16,200 acres), respectively. The impact of making
2.85
-------
these soils available at an earlier date cannot be accurately assessed,
because soil quality relative to the eventual production of truck crops or
citrus (the criteria for assessing impacts on soils of the area) cannot be
forecast. However, because of the relatively small number of acres involved,
the impact should be insignificant.
Eliminating slime ponds through the sand/slime mix technique will
result in a topographic surface approximating the original surface over one-
half of the mine area; the overall elevation will be only slightly higher
and generally flatter than the original surface. Final contouring of the
slime/sand mix area will depend on the specifics of the reclamation plan for
each area, which will dictate both average elevation and local slope.
2) Radiation
Slime disposition using the sand/clay mix technology is not
expected to result in a final surface that is significantly different in
radionuclide content from that in conventional slime ponds; primarily, both
techniques require final top dressing with sand and overburden in the final
configuration. There may be slight differences in background radiation
during slime fill and cover operations using the sand/clay mix technique,
but the impact of such an increase will be insignificant. Specific radiation
data with respect to the mix technique have not been collected.
Uranium recovery under this scenario will not appreciably alter
radiation levels in the study area. The process modification will reduce
radioactivity concentrations in phosphate products that are shipped out of
the area, while waste products that generally remain in the area will not
show a decline in radionuclide concentration. Radiation levels may increase
slightly in the immediate vicinity of the uranium-recovery modules, but
these increases will be insignificant. However, the operation of each module
will have to be in accordance with occupational and health safety regulations
for radiation workers.
Eliminating dryers and dry grinders through the implementation of this
process modification is expected to reduce airborne radionuclide concentrations
in the immediate vicinity of the replaced process equipment. The impact of such
2.86
-------
a change on exposure to phosphate workers and the general population is ex-
pected to be small; i.e., dose projections for phosphate workers have been
shown to be small and well within guidelines.
3) Noise
Any increase in noise levels as a result of implementing the new pro-
cess modification under this scenario will not affect the general population of
the area. Any potential impact on phosphate workers will be readily controll-
able through the use of restricted access to noisy areas or through personal
noise-protection devices. Noise levels within facilities required for the pro-
cess modification are expected to be within occupational and health safety reg-
ulations for workers.
c. Water
1) Quality
The sand/clay mix technology applied to the elimination of slime ponds
is expected to have no appreciable impact on the background radiation (radio-
nuclide concentration in ground waters). The technology could favorably impact
surface waters, however, since it eliminates the conventional slime impoundment
and hence the potential for a disastrous break and slime spill (with the atten-
dant increase in radionuclide concentration, particularly radium-226). Current
practices applied to dam construction, maintenance, and inspection have signifi-
cantly reduced the failure potential in the last 10 years, but no model exists
to quantitatively express this reduction.
Lining gypsum stacks and cooling-water ponds at the chemical pro-
cessing plants is expected to protect ground water from radionuclide contamina-
tion, but insufficient data exist to quantify seepage from those already es-
tablished. Thus, the impact of establishing impervious membrane linings in new
ponds cannot be projected. It can be said, though, that the potential for ad-
verse localized impact would be significantly reduced if practical lining methods
were developed.
2.87
-------
The primary effects of this scenario on other water quality
parameters include less concern about slime-pond breaks contaminating
surfact-water systems than under Scenario 2.11, but equal concern about
slime-pond breaks relative to the "Without Action" alternative since
only "new sources" are to incorporate the modification.
2) Aquatic Biota
The effects of phosphate industry activities on regional aquatic
biota are expected to be essentially the same under this scenario as those
described for Scenario 2.11. Slime-pond elimination would benefit local
aquatic biota; but according to all indications, this is not technically
achievable during the 1977-2000 period.
2. Man-Made Environment
Eliminating slime ponds with the sand/clay slime-mix technique of
reclamation will significantly complicate the secondary recovery of sand
and phosphate in the clay. However, impact on the area's mineral resources
by making secondary recovery improbable is considered insignificant.
I. SUMMARY OF SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE "REQUIRE PROCESS MODIFICATIONS FOR
NEW SOURCES" ALTERNATIVE
The only secondary effects under this scenario that are signifi-
cantly different from those under Scenario 2.11 will be the reduction in
the potential for gyp piles to contaminate surface waters and the water-
table aquifer and Floridan aquifer systems with radiation.
2.88
-------
J. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE "REDUCE WATER USAGE"
ALTERNATIVE
The following paragraphs describe the primary and secondary effects
of significance under this scenario compared with Scenario 2.11.
1. Water Quantity
This scenario evaluating the mining and beneficiation operations uti-
lizing recirculated water assumes that makeup water will be pumped from the
Floridan aquifer. The only source of water for the containments will be rain-
fall on the areas being mined. This, then, is a surface-water problem, although
it indirectly reflects on the groundwater system of the Floridan and water-table
aquifers. In many instances, current pumpage from the Floridan aquifer for min-
ing purposes can be considered an augmentation of surface-water flows. Prime
examples of such augmentation are the Alafia and Peace rivers. Although there
has been neither a clear-cut definition of the groundwater contribution to those
river systems nor quantification of the contribution, the phenomenon has been
observed.
As mentioned previously, the conditions of this scenario will be very
beneficial to the Floridan aquifer in that the reduction in pumpage will raise
its potentiometric surface. At the same time, however, the reduction in pump-
age can be considered to be a reduction in overall water input to the water-
table aquifer; as less water reaches the water-table aquifer, less water will
emerge as surface-water runoff. Thus, this scenario will affect flows of rivers
presently draining mining areas — primarily the Alafia, Little Manatee, Manatee,
and Peace. If surface-water flows in those areas are reduced, the effects will
certainly be felt by aquatic flora and fauna that depend on the flows.
2. Aquatic Biota
Reducing the phosphate industry's water usage will have little effect
on aquatic biota, as was described earlier for Scenario 2.11, because the vast
majority of the water used by the industry is ground water. The additional con-
tainment requirement for new sources (25-year, 24-hour maximum rainfall event)
will represent potential for increased standing surface-water resource, although
it is unlikely that these impoundments will be filled. In any event, they rep-
resent only a small proportionate increase in standing-water habitat for the
study area.
2.89
-------
K. SUMMARY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EFFECTS OF THE "CONTROL ACTIVITIES IN
WATERS OF THE U.S. AND WETLANDS" ALTERNATIVE
Primary and secondary effects of significance under this scenario
as a modification of the effects of Scenario 2.11 ("PERMIT EXISTING AND NEW
SOURCES") are described in the following paragraphs.
1. Water Quantity
This scenario prohibits (part A) or limits (part B) mining or the de-
velopment of beneficiation or chemical processing facilities in either waters of
the United States or wetlands. It can involve some very significant hydrologi-
cal consequences.
If wetlands were undisturbed while the surrounding areas were mined,
keeping the wetlands in a biologically healthy state would require a number of
steps. The drainage of nearby areas associated with the mining would deprive
the wetland of contributions of water from the surrounding water-table aquifer,
causing it to dry up. Measures to prevent this may include augmentation by
pumpage from a distant surface-water body. However, if the wetland were aug-
mented with water pumped from the Floridan aquifer, the chemical quality of the
water introduced into the wetland might affect the biological health of the lo-
cal biota.
If the wetlands were adjacent to U.S. waters such as streams and
rivers, mining activities in the basins located upstream from the wetlands
could alter the hydrologic regime to some extent. The hydrologic regime would
certainly be changed during the mining period and, on a long-term basis, might
revert to its original state. Thus, even if wetland adjacent to water courses
were not disturbed by mining operations, such operations in upstream basins
could alter the flow regime of the stream and also slightly alter its chemical
quality — and these two changes could have an effect on the adjacent wetland.
If the wetland received water from bank storage during high flow stages of the
stream, a controlled water outlet system (as is stated in mining ordinances
and other regulations) would smooth out flood peaks but deprive the surrounding
water-table aquifer of inflows from the stream as bank storage during periods
of high flow. This could alter the local hydrologic regime in the water table
directly beneath the wetland. If increases in dissolved solids in the streams
were found, this might also affect the biological health of the plants that tap
2.90
-------
the water-table aquifer, receiving the surface water containing the higher con-
tent of dissolved solids. Although the chemical content in waters discharged
from mining operations is tightly controlled by regulations (e.g., the NPDES
program), the levels prescribed might be higher than would have occurred natur-
ally in the stream. If that were the case and the root system were sensitive to
the increase of particular constituents, there could be a detrimental effect on
vegetation. One substance that is very critical in this respect is boron.
If it were assumed that the wetland had not been disturbed and had
been kept wet and that the mining operations were finished, reclamation would
take place. It would be very difficult to reclaim the mined land surface to
the previous level, however, because materials would have been removed from
the area; also, the wetland that once occupied the lowest elevation in the area
could have become a comparatively high area. Consequently, the mining opera-
tion will have significantly altered the gradients and the materials in the
water-table aquifer. The wetland would remain temporarily as a sort of pedes-
tal but would eventually dry up.
Mining in the uplands will reduce the overall volume of earth mate-
rials by the approximate volume of marketable rock removed from the area. Al-
though part of the void will be filled by an expanded volume of clay slimes, a
net void is still expected. The net void will have serious implications if an
inland-isolated wetland is involved. Most likely, the wetland will be in a
low-lying part of the property and possibly at the lowest elevation.
Mining's potential and actual effects on remaining or "undisturbed"
wetlands should be addressed in greater detail than is now required in DRIs.
2. Resource Use
Restricting mining activities from waters of the U.S. and wetlands
will preserve phosphate (and uranium) resources only if production lost by such
restrictions is not made up by mining upland areas. Since it is assumed that
potentially lost tonnage will be made up through changes in mining plans, the
preservation of these resources is not expected to be affected. This restric-
tion on mining may have some effect also on timber resources of the area. Since
the exact location of relocated mining activities is not known, the effect is
not quantifiable.
2.91
-------
SECTION 3
CITED REFERENCES
American Fisheries Society. 1977. Only nature can create a wetland. Fish-
eries 2(4):7.
Adams, J.K. 1972. The origin of some phosphatic minerals in coastal plain
sediments. Proc. 7th Forum on Geo. of Ind. Min., Apr 28-30, 1971, Tampa.
DNR Spec. Pub. 17 (H.S. Puri, ed).
Altschuler, Z.S., J.B. Cathcart, and E.J. Young. 1964. Geology and geochem-
istry of the Bone Valley formation and its phosphate deposits, westcentral
Florida. GSA (Nov 19-21):1-61.
Altschuler, Z.S., E.B. Jaffe, and F. Cuttitta. 1956. The aluminum phosphate
zone of the Bone Valley formation, Florida, and its uranium deposits
(Florida), p. 495-504. In: Contributions to the geology of uranium and
thorium by the United States Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission
for the United Nations International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955. USGS Prof. Paper 300.
Anderson, J.R. et. al. 1976. A land use and land cover classification sys-
tem for use with remote sensor data. USGS Prof. Paper 964.
Beckenbach, J.R. 1973. Principal soil areas of Florida — a supplement to
the general soil map. Univ. Fla. Inst. Food & Ag. Exp. Sta., in coopera-
tion with USDA, Bull. 717.
Blakey, A.F. 1973. The Florida phosphate industry: a history of the develop-
ment and use of a vital mineral. Harvard Univ. Press.
Bromwell, L.G. 1976. Dewatering and stabilization of waste clays, slimes and
sludges. Phosphatic Clays Res. Prog., Lakeland, FL.
Cathcart, J.B. 1971. Phosphate deposits in Florida. Phosphate Chem. Assn.
Chow, Ven Te (ed). 1964. Handbook of applied hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Cooke, C.W. (Department of Conservation). 1945. The geology of Florida. Fla.
Geo. Sur. Bull. 29.
Darnell, R.M., W.E. Pequegnat, F.J. Benson, and R.A. Defenbaugh. 1976. Im-
pacts of construction activities in wetlands of the United States. U.S.
Off. of R&D, EPA 600/3-76-045.
Dragovich, A., J.A. Kelly, and H.G. Goodell. 1968. Hydrological and biologi-
cal characteristics of Florida's west coast tributaries. USFWS Fish. Bull.
66(3):463-477.
Guimond, R.J. 1976a. Phosphoric acid — the new nuclear fuel. USEPA Off. of
Rad. Prog., Washington, D.C.
3.1
-------
Guimond, R.J. 1976b. The radiological impact of the phosphate industry — a
federal perspective. UEPA Off. of Rad. Prog., Washington, D.C.
Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services. 1978. Study of
radon daughter concentrations in structures in Polk and Hillsborough
counties.
Florida Division of Archives, History, and Records Management. 1976. Master
Site File. Tallahassee.
Fountain, R.C. and M.E. Zellars. 1972. A program of ore control in the cen-
tral Florida phosphate district. Geology of phosphate, dolomite, lime-
stone, and clay deposits. Proc. 7th Forum on Geo. of Ind. Min. Geo. Div.
Int. Res. DNR Spec. Pub. 17 (H.S. Puri, ed).
Hoppe, R.W. 1976. Phosphates are vital to agriculture and Florida mines for
one-third the world. Eng. Min. J. 177(5):79-89.
Houghtaling, S.V. 1975. Wet grinding of phosphate rock holds down dollars,
dust, and fuel. Eng. Min. J.
Hurst, F.J., W.D. Arnold, and A.D. Ryan. 1977. Recovering uranium from wet-
process phosphoric acid. Chem. Eng.
Kaufman, R.F. and J.D. Bliss. 1977. Effects of the phosphate industry on
radium-226 in ground water of central Florida (draft). USEPA Off. of Rad.
Prog. 87 p.
Leaders, W. 1977. Personal communication at Lakeland, Florida, Sep 23, 1977.
Loughrie, G.D. 1976. Wet grinding of phosphate rock. AICE.
McKelvey; V.E. 1956. Uranium in phosphate rock. USGS-AEC Contri. to Geo.
of Uranium and Thorium, UN Int. Conf. on. Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Mills, W.A. 1974. Population exposure from concentrations of radioactive ma-
terials in non-nuclear industrial processes, effluents, residuals, and
products; category 1 — phosphate mining, milling, and fertilizer manu-
facturing. USEPA Off. of Rad. Prog., Washington, D.C.
Mills, W.A., R.J. Guimond, and S.T. Windham. 1977. Radiation exposures in
the Florida phosphate industry. USEPA Off. of Rad. Prog., Washington, D.C
Parker, G.G. 1951. Geologic and hydrologic factors in the perennial yield
of the Biscayne aquifer. Am. Water Works Assn. J. 43(10).
Parker, G.G. and V.T. Stringfield. 1950. Effects of earthquakes, trains,
winds, tides, and atmospheric pressure changes on water in geologic for-
mations of southern Florida. Eco. Geo. J. 45(5).
3.2
-------
Parker, G.G., G.E. Ferguson, and S.K. Lane. 1955. Water resources of south-
eastern Florida, with special emphasis on the geology and ground water of
the Miami area. USGS Water-Supply Paper 1255.
Reichenbaugh, R.C. 1972. Seawater intrusion into the upper part of the
Floridan aquifer in coastal Pasco County, Florida. Fla. Bur. Geo. Map
Ser. MS 47.
Ross, R.C. 1975. Uranium recovery from phosphoric acid nears reality as a
commercial uranium source. Eng. Min. J.
Ruhlman, E.R. 1956. Phosphate rock. p. 681-693. In: Mineral facts and
problems. U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 556.
Shampine, W.J. 1965. Dissolved solids in the water from the upper part of
the Floridan aquifer in Florida. Fla. Geo. Sur. Map. Ser. 14.
Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council. 1977. Section 208 water quality
management program. Final Water Quality Rpt., Charlotte Harbor Study Area.
Stowasser, W.F. 1977a. Phosphate rock, the present and future supply and de-
mand. Letter from U.S. Bur. Mines to R.E. McNeill, USEPA Region IV, Feb 18.
Stowasser, W.F. 1977b. Marketable phosphate rock - December 1976. Mineral
industry surveys, phosphate rock, monthly. U.S. Bur. Mines. 4 p.
Sutcliffe, H. Jr. 1975. Appraisal of the water resources of Charlotte County,
Florida. Fla. Bur. Geo. Rpt. 78.
Sweeney, J.W. and R.N. Hasslacher. 1970. The phosphate industry in the south-
ern United States and its relationship to world mineral fertilizer demand.
U.S. Bur. Mines Info. Circ. 8459:1-76.
Tessitore, J.L. 1976. An estimate of total fluorides emitted in the
Polk-Hillsborough County area. DER. 13 p.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977a. Archeology, history, and recreation.
Central Florida Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program.
Vol. I.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977b. Laws and regulations. Central Florida
Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. II.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977c. Demography, economics, and culture.
Central Florida Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program.
Vol. III.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977d. Existing land use. Central Florida
Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. IV.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977e. Water. Central Florida Phosphate In-
dustry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. V.
3.3
-------
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977f. Land. Central Florida Phosphate In-
dustry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. VI.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977g. Atmosphere. Central Florida Phosphate
Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. VII.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977h. Phosphate industry and resource usage.
Central Florida Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program.
Vol. VIII.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977i. Future land use. Central Florida
Phosphate Industry Areawide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. X.
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1977j. Impacts on social, economic, and
natural environmental systems. Central Florida Phosphate Industry Area-
wide Impact Assessment Program. Vol. XI (includes Vol. IX and XII).
Texas Instruments Incorporated. 1978. Environmental land use (a report on
the land use seminar sponsored by EPA, Region IV, and Texas Instruments In-
corporated in conjunction with preparation of the Central Florida Phosphate
Industry Areawide Impact Statement). Bartow, FL, Jul 27-28, 1977.
United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1977. Water resources management study:
hydrologic engineering evaluation of the Four River Basins area, westcen-
tral Florida. Jacksonville Dist.
United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1974. Floodplain information, Saddle
Creek-Peace River, Polk County, Florida. Polk County Bd., Jacksonville
Dist.
United States Bureau of Mines. 1975. The Florida phosphate slimes problem,
a review and a bibliography. Info. Circ. 8668:1-41.
United States Department of Commerce. 1965. Climatological data, Florida.
Annual Summary, 1964. Vol. 68, No. 13.
United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1974. U.S. cancer
mortality by county, 1950-1969. Natl. Cancer Inst.-HEW Pub. (NIH)74-615.
United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management. 1974.
Final environmental impact statement, phosphate leasing on the Osceola
National Forest in Florida. USDT. Int. FES 74-37.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1977- Population radiation
dose estimates from phosphate industry air particulate emissions. Off. of
Rad. Prog., Eastern Env. Rad. Facility, Montgomery, AL.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. Mineral mining and pro-
cessing point source category effluent guidelines and standards: interim
rule and notice of proposed rule making. Fed. Reg. 41(13):23552-23573.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. Reconnaissance study of
radiochemical pollution from phosphate rock mining and milling. Natl. Field
Investigation Cntr., Denver, CO.
3.4
-------
Vernon, R.O. 1973. Top of the Floridan artesian aquifer. Fla. Bur. Geo.
MS 56.
White, W.A. 1970. The geology of the Florida peninsula. Fla. Bur. Geo. Bull.
51:1-164.
Williams, E.G., J.C. Golden Jr., C.E. Roessler, and U. Clark. 1965. Back-
ground radiation in Florida. Fla. St. Bd. of Health, Div. of Rad. and
Occupational Health, RH-00054-02, Oct.
Wilson, W.E. 1977b. Simulated changes in groundwater levels resulting from
proposed phosphate mining, west central Florida — preliminary results:
U.S. Geo. Survey Open-File Report 77-882.
Wright, A.P- 1974. Environmental geology and hydrology, Tampa area. Fla. Bur.
Geo. Spec. Pub. 19:1-94.
Layne, James N. Jerry A. Stalcup, Glen E. Woolfenden, Melinda N. McCauley and
David J. Worley. 1977. Fish and Wildlife inventory of the South county
region included in the Central Florida phosphate industry areawide environ-
mental impact study. Archhold Biological Station. Submitted to U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service under contract 14-16-0009-77-005, September, 1977.
3.5
------- |