INTER-RELATIONSHIPS OF LAND USE PLANNING AND CONTROL
       TO WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING
                 Environments for Tomorrow
                     Washington, D. C.
                        Prepared for

            U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
                      Washington,  D. C.
                   Contract No. 68-01-0750

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          EPA Review Notice
The contents of this report do not necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade  names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.  This report, which was
originally completed in 1973, was used in developing
EPA guidance for areawide water quality management
planning.  It is intended to be used only as  a ref-
erence and should not be interpreted as official
EPA guidance.

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                             ABSTRACT
This document presents information collected and developed during a
study of the interrelationships of land use planning and control to water
quality management planning.  The purpose of the study was to present
information which is useful in better comprehending basic land use/
water quality relationships and the land use strategies which can contrib-
ute to  improved water quality management.

The report attempts  to provide answers, based upon current literature
and experience,  to the following questions:

     1.  How does land use impact water quality?

     2.  How do water quality conditions affect land use?
     3.  What is the  current extent of consideration given to land use
        in water quality management planning?
     4.  What land use strategies can be used to  manage water quality?
     5.  How can the water quality management planning process be made
        more responsive to land use considerations?

Numerous references and examples are cited regarding the discussion
of both problems and innovative practices.  The report concludes with a
suggested set of guidelines for formulating water quality management
plans which encourage improved land use/water quality relationships.

This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No.  68-01-0750
under the  technical direction of  the Planning Branch,  Office of Water
Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency.
                             111

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                             CONTENTS

Chapter
          Abstract	   iii
          Preface	   ix
          Conclusions	    1
   I       Overview	   11
  II       Effects of  Land Use on Water Quality	   29
 III       Effects of  Water Quality on Land Use	   61
 IV       Guidelines	   91
          Acknowledgements	  161
          Bibliography   	  162
          Appendix A	  A-l
                                   IV

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                              FIGURES
                                                            Page
 1.  Schematic Diagram of the Land Use/Water Quality
    Relationship	    12
 2.  Relations Between Source and Type of Water
    Pollution  	    31
 3.  Non-Point Pollution Impacts by Land Use	    40
 4.  Urban Runoff Loading - Tulsa, Oklahoma	    45
 5.  A Frequency Distribution of Diurnal Temperature
    Changes on Clearcut Watersheds	    46
 6.  Effect of Urbanization on Mean Annual Flood for a
    1-Square-Mile Drainage Area	    48
 7.  Relationship of Drainage Area, Sediment Yield,  and
    Construction Activity	    55
 8.  The Role of Land Use Planning and Control in Water
    Quality Management	    95
 9.  Assessment of and Implementation Requirements ....    96
10.  Water Quality Management Planning Process:
    Approach #b	   100
11.  Water Quality Management Planning Process:
    Approach #c	102
12.  Analysis Components of  an  Environmental Carrying
    Capacity Approach	 .  .   103
13.  Techniques Overlaying Selected Natural Features on
    Composite Map	114
14.  Environmentally Sensitive Areas	119
15.  Planning Considerations for Major Critical Uses  ....   128
16.  Erosion & Sediment Control Measures for Construction
    Sites   	138

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                                                      Page
17.  Sample Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plan .  .   139
18.  Sample Watershed: Proposed Development Plan  .   A-2
                                VI

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                           TABLES
No.                                                 Page
1

2
3
4
5

6
7

8
9
10
11
12

13

14
15

16

17

18
19
20

A Summary of State Land Use Laws and. Pending ,
Action 	 	
Typical Domestic Sewage Composition 	
Per Capita Raw S.ewage Loading 	
Commercial Water Use 	
Liquid Waste Loads for Selected Industry Groups:
New York Metropolitan Area 	 	
Summary of Industrial Waste 	
Provisional Maximum Recommended
Temperatures 	
Land Use Load Generating Factors 	
Land Use Runoff Coefficients 	
Channel Enlargement Effects of Land Uses ....
Agricultural Pollutional Loads 	
Erosion Rates Reported for Various Sediment
Sources ..... 	
Preferred Limits for Several Criteria of Water
Used in Industrial Processes 	
Summary of Classifications of Irrigation Waters .
Tentative Guides for Evaluating Recreational
Waters 	 	
Estimated Influence of Water Quality on Swimming
Activity at Public Beaches, Lake Erie Basin . . .
Water Conservation Plumbing Devices Ranked by
Water Saving Cost Effectiveness 	
Calculation of Non-Point Areal Loading 	
Calculation of Areal Constituent Loading Rates . .
Permissible Loading Levels for Total Nitrogen
and Total Phosphorus

24
30
32
33

35
36

38
44
47
50
51

54

64
67

70

' 71

136
A-5
A-6

A-8
                          Vll

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                              PREFACE

The Council on Environmental Quality recently reported that the nation's
rivers and waterways are dirtier than ever and that the costs of pollution
control are going up.  It is increasingly suggested by both environmental
specialists and laymen that one of the more  significant reasons for this
continued water quality degradation is our failure to deal with the non-
technological aspects of pollution.  The approach to date has assumed
that one alternative,  "end of the pipe" treatment technology, will  be able
to control pollutant discharges to the degree necessary to  meet
established water quality standards. It assumes that processes to treat
water-borne residuals, such as screening, activated  sludge and chemical
oxidation,  will allow standards to be met. Implicitly, this approach has
been based on the idea that there  is no relationship between water
quality and the location and density  of population, the use of land and the
rate of growth.

Proponents of land  use planning and control  strategies claim that  the
technology approach has been inadequate on  four counts.  First,  control
technologies have not been able, at  the current level of funding, to keep
pace with the growth in waste loads. Second,  control technologies are
not available for all sources.   For instance,  sediments, nitrates and
phosphates resulting from land runoff are not  practically susceptible to
treatment at this time.  Third, even the  most effective technologies
seldom achieve  100 percent removal,  which may be necessary to sustain
environmentally sound growth  in some urban/industrial centers.  (At this
time,  even 90 percent removal effectiveness is still an outstanding
achievement. )  Fourth, the exponentially increasing costs associated
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with higher removal rates may impose economic burdens upon govern-
ments and private firms which are beyond current financial capacity.

In the search for alternative methods for improving water quality,  land
use strategies loom as  a promising complement to treatment technology.
The way we guide and manage the use of land is pivotal to the  entire
pollution problem.   Without environmentally sensitive  land use planning
and control, investments in waste-water treatment facilities can easily
be squandered.  With well conceived and administered land use controls,
reasonable levels of growth can be accommodated with minimal resource
degradation and with a more favorable cost-effectiveness rate.

The 1972 Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act show
a strong emphasis on land use.  Section 208 encourages the establish-
ment of area-wide waste management agencies whose plans must give
attention to land use/water quality conflicts and to the  use of land use
controls as one method for managing water quality.  Section 304  requires
EPA dissemination of information describing guidelines, for identifying
and evaluating non-point sources of pollutants and  methods of  controlling
pollution resulting from particular land use activities (i.e. , agriculture,
silvaculture, mining, construction, landfills,  etc. ).  Section 306
prescribes state  control over the performance of new wastewater sources
locating in the state.  This section may be interpreted to  mean that
states may initiate land use controls to insure compliance with water
quality  standards.  Finally, EPA is mandated by Section 201 to encourage
waste treatment management which combines  open space  and recreational
considerations with such management.

If cost effective plans and  programs are to be achieved,  the consideration
of land  use strategies and  land use impacts must be an integral part of
                                 IX

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the planning and management processes.  That is the subject which is
addressed in this study.

The purposes of this report are threefold:
     1.  To present information describing the relationships between
         land use and water quality; and,
     2.  To identify strategies and techniques for better integrating land
         use and water quality at both the planning and implementation
         levels
     3.  To propose guidelines for incorporating land use considerations
         within the water quality management process.
These three study purposes, of course, tie into the larger and more
critical objective of utilizing all possible controls and techniques in the
effort to control water pollution.

Chapter I provides an overview of the water quality problem,  the
institutional setting for management and current planning approaches.
Chapter II summarizes the current  state of knowledge regarding the ways
in which land use impacts water quality.  Chapter III deals with the same
relationship but from the opposite perspective -- namely,  the ways in
which water quality affects land use.  Chapter IV sets forth a suggested
set of guidelines  for formulating water quality  management plans which
encourage improved land use/water quality relationships.  Implementa-
tion techniques are also discussed,  with references made to case examples.

Land use strategies have a significant  role to play in reducing water
pollution and its effects.  This study represents a beginning step toward
better defining that role.  Continued research and aggressive application
of such strategies will make it possible to move closer toward the next

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generation of environmental management	the one which recognizes
the true interdependence of human and natural processes.
                                XI

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                       CONCLUSIONS
This study was structured to respond to the following questions:
                                                       »

    A.  How does land use impact water quality?
    B.  How do water quality conditions  affect land use?
    C.  What is the current extent of consideration given to land use
         in water quality management planning?
    D.  What land use strategies can be  used to manage water quality?
    E.  How can the water quality management process be made more
        responsive to land use considerations?

The answers listed below represent the major conclusions drawn from
the study.

A.  HOW DOES LAND USE IMPACT WATER QUALITY?

    1.  Land use impacts water quality through:
        a.  Generation of domestic point discharges
        b.  Generation of industrial point discharges
        c.  Urban stormwater runoff impurities
        d.  Construction-related runoff
        e.  Agricultural and  forestry drainage
        f.  Mine drainage
        g.  Loss  of natural ground cover and  disturbance of environ-
           mentally sensitive areas
        h.  Stream enlargement, bank erosion and thermal change due
           to increased runoff, and
        i.  Withdrawal of surface and ground water  supplies

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    The extent and relative importance of each of these impacts
    varies from area to area and is in great part determined
    by natural land,  water and climatological  conditions,  the
    rate and type of man-made change, and the nature of
    current treatment and conservation practices.

2.   The domestic waste loads generated by residential and commercial
    land uses are easily predictable.   Evaluating the water quality
    ramification of industrial land uses,  however,  is an extremely
    case specific task which defies generalization.

3.   The thermal effects of stormwater runoff  and power plants
    can be extremely disruptive,  affecting the propogation of
    aquatic species,  the chemical reaction within the water
    environment and the physical properties of water.

4.   The effect of urban and agricultural land use on non-point
    discharges (i. e. , those pollutional stresses which arise
    from dispersed areas) are substantial and careful planning
    and control are necessary to  prevent both short and long term
    degradation from these sources.

5.   Despite erosion control efforts to date,  it has been estimated that
    between 50 and 75 percent of the sediment which washes into the
    nationls waters each year comes from crop and pasture lands.
    In addition, agricultural land uses generate significant amounts
    of fertilizer nutrients, pesticide residues and animal waste.

6.   Although affecting a smaller amount of land than agriculture,
    erosion rates during urban and highway construction are a very

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        real threat to all aspects of the aquatic environment.  In highly
        erosion-prone areas annualized erosion rates on specific sites
        can go as high as  50,000 tons/square mile.

    7.  Resource extraction should be recognized as an activity with the
        potential for large scale pollution.  The impacts can be diverse
        depending  upon whether the activity is dredging,  drilling, or
        mining and upon the degreee of attention being given to pollution
        control.

    8.  Flood plains function as natural safety valves and recycling zones
        for the environment.  Man's use of flood plains,  which usually
        includes flood control measures,  subverts their ability to trap
        runoff and remove sediment and nutrients from streams  during
        flood conditions.

    9°. . Land development within upper tributary areas, estuaries,
        wetlands and  aquifer recharge areas can have severe water
        quality repercussions.  Each of these areas is especially
        sensitive to the physical, organic and biological impacts of
        point and non-point pollution.
B.  HOW DO WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS AFFECT LAND USE?

    1.   With few exceptions, deterioration of water quality does not
         have significant impact upon the efficiency of water-using
         industries or the geographic pattern of industrial development.
         Industry tends to view water quality  as secondary or tertiary
         importance relative to market, employment, resource and other
         economic factors.

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2.   The impacts of poor water quality can be of serious magnitude
    to agricultural land uses, principally livestock operations and
    irrigation-dependent crops.  The low profit margin of most
    agricultural operations usually makes treatment practices
    financially infeasible.

3.   Water-oriented recreation land uses can be, and often have been,
    impacted by poor water quality.  Deterioration of fishing areas
    and beach closings due to unhealthy water conditions have become
    commonplace in spite of the increasing demand for water
    recreation opportunities.

4.   Land values for property adjacent to water bodies are also
    affected by  water quality.  Some realtors estimate moderate
    to substantial loss of resale value due to polluted surface
    water bodies.

5.   The construction and expansion of water quality treatment facilities
    has traditionally been disruptive to surrounding land uses.  While
    examples of compatible facilities do exist, they are the  exception
    rather than the rule.

6.   The provision of expanded sewer service through new interceptor
    sewers and additional treatment plant  capacity is increasingly
    resulting in negative land use impacts.  Growth is  often induced
    within areas which are either environmentally sensitive or
    ill-equipped to handle the public service and land use guidance
    problems.

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    7.  The imposition of limitations on sewer hook-ups can be an
        effective device in stabilizing waste load generation,- but
        several land use impacts can occur and should be carefully
        considered.

    8.  There are increasing examples of potential "second-cycle
        pollution, " where clean-up efforts  result in an onslaught of
        new and unplanned development.  The new development
        brings with it the threat of ecological damage which  exceeds
        the original cycle of pollution.  Urban areas are already
        experiencing the impacts of this phenomenon and signs  of a
        similar threat are appearing along several scenic rivers in
        rural areas.
C.  WHAT IS THE CURRENT EXTENT OF CONSIDERATION GIVEN
    TO LAND USE IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING?
    1.  This study found no examples of water quality management plans
        which have given real consideration to land use strategies,
        in spite of the fact that such consideration has been required
        by the EPA Water Quality Management. Planning Guidelines
        since January, 1.971.  Several programs  which  are underway
        or pending application approval, however, do indicate intent
        to study the potential impact of land use and zoning controls.

    2.  For a number of reasons, land use planning regulation and
        water quality management have been conceived  and operated
        independently.

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         a.   There  has been a definite lack of "precise knowledge
             regarding the effects which land use has upon water quality

         b.   There  are few established procedures and methodologies for
             correlating land use and water quality planning processes

         c.   Up until recently, very few state and local governments have
             had the organizational structure, the legal tools and/or the
             confidence necessary to enforce the kinds of land use policies
             required by the water quality problem

         d.   The dominance of engineers and the long tradition of the
             public  works philosophy in water quality work  has caused a
             preoccupation with hardware solutions
D.  WHAT LAND USE STRATEGIES CAN BE USED TO MANAGE
    WATER QUALITY?
    1.   Land use strategies should be based upon the following goals:

         a.   Balance point discharges with the water quality standards
             and assimilative capacity of receiving waters

         b.   Reduce and balance harmful non-point discharges, and

         c.   Conserve the natural features and natural  systems which
             protect water quality and quantity.
    2.   Planning strategies related to these goals fall into three cate-
         gories which range from areawide to site specific.


         a.   Regional strategies, including the modification of growth rates,
             the'distribution of urban growth, the conservation of environ-
             mentally sensitive areas and open space,  and the special
             control of critical use locations

         b.   Land management strategies, including the control of
             construction-related erosion, agricultural conservation
             p.ractices,  flood plain  and shoreline management and control
             of resource extraction activities
         c.   Site development strategies, including  improved site location
             practices,  sensitive definition of project size and use mix and
             improved site planning

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3.   Techniques for implementing these strategies are diverse and

    increasingly supportive of environmentally-sensitive land use

    control.  A large number of states and localities have  enacted

    new controls, enabling legislation and funding programs which

    pave the way toward more realistic implementation of  land use

    strategies.  There is at  least one, and often more, prototype

    example for every strategy discussed in the report.  Planners,

    administrators, and lawyers can  find adequate precedents for

    developing new controls  and policies.


4.   Regarding the comparative effectiveness and feasibility of these

    varied strategies the report concludes that:


    a.  The primary payoff  of most strategies would occur in the
        long term future.

    b.  The best short term impacts  upon water quality can be
        derived from the use of erosion controls in regulating
        new construction, careful evaluation of proposed critical
        uses (i. e. ,  power plants,  sewage treatment plants,
        industries,  etc. ) and more stringent site plan review
        procedures.

    c.  In the long term future, the most positive water quality
        impacts can be expected from stricter control of the
        location, density, and staging of urban growth,  and
        protection of environmentally sensitive areas.

    d.  The most effective land use strategy--reducing  the overall
        growth rate--is currently of  limited value due to poor
        implementation feasibility.  However, several recent
        breakthroughs (i. e.  ,  Lake Tahoe,  Boca Raton,  Ramapo,
        and  Fairfax County) indicate  that this strategy should not
        be disregarded.

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E.  HOW CAN THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING
    PROCESS'BE MADE MORE RESPONSIVE TO LAND USE
    CONSIDERATIONS ?
        The most important change which must be made in water
        quality management planning is modifying the basic approach.
        Current methodologies tend to treat land  use simply as a fixed
        input to the calculation of future point waste loads.  The importance
        of the land use/water quality relationship requires that land use
        be treated as a management policy.  Three   alternative
        planning approaches are discussed in Chapter IV in an effort
        to sketch out the ways in which water quality and land use planning
        can be better interrelated.

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                       RECOMMENDATIONS
To achieve improved land use/water quality relationships,  several actions
should be taken at the federal,  state and local levels.

    A.   The U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency should clearly state
         its policy concerning the role of land use in water quality
         management.   Such a  policy should be closely coordinated with
         other federal agencies concerned with land use and water quality.

    B.   Subsequent to the above action, the Environmental Protection
         Agency should issue firm guidelines, such as those proposed
         herein, for the consideration of land use within water quality
         management planning  projects.

    C.   Guidelines should also be formulated regarding evaluation of
         the land use impacts of wastewater facility grant applications.
         The primary purpose  of such guidelines should be to avoid
         such facility impacts as overstimulation of growth, second
         cycle pollution, and landscape degradation.

    D.   The Environmental  Protection Agency and other federal agencies
         should encourage and  support further research as  a means of:
         documenting land use/water quality impacts; testing and
         monitoring the effectiveness of land use strategies and  controls;
         and refining water quality management planning procedures.
         While a wide range  of research is necessary,  the emphasis
         should be placed upon action-oriented projects (i. e. ,  those
         research endeavors which generate procedures, guidelines,
                                     9

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    prototype regulations,  and conclusions regarding the effectiveness
    of land use strategies).  The objective should be to  provide
    information which will pragmatically assist the planners and
    managers who work on the firing line of institutional resistance
    to change.

E.  Expanded attention should be given to new land use control
    procedures at state,  regional, and local levels.  Water quality
    management and land use  specialists should combine efforts to
    aggressively  pursue  and lobby for those controls necessary
    to the reduction of local water quality problems.
                               10

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                            CHAPTER I
                             OVERVIEW

Land and water are two of our most necessary commodities, and they are
scarce.  More specifically, good land and good water are scarce.  The
competing  interests of home builders,  industrialists, recreation enthusiasts
and others all vie for the same parcels of land in the same areas.  In  major
metropolitan areas,  where both industry and housing have sought relief in
the suburbs, little relief has been found.  Planners and others concerned
with orderly growth and  amenable living have recognized many of the problems
of transportation and  services associated with the voracious need for land.
The  entry of water quality into this milieu is rather new, and  it,  along with
other environmental factors,  has complicated the planning  process.  In
order to address the relationships between land use and water quality, it is
necessary  to understand the general framework of the problem and the
approaches that  are currently being followed in both planning and manage-
ment.

A.  THE LAND USE/WATER  QUALITY PROBLEM

The  interrelationships of land use and water quality are numerous and quite
complex.  Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of these relationships.  Sum-
marily stated, population and economic growth,  private market forces,
land use regulations,  public services and facilities,  and the natural features
result in a particular land use pattern and land consumption rate.  This
pattern  with its underlying determinants, can cause four types of water
quality problems:
        •     Damaging, and perhaps poorly distributed,  point source waste
              discharges (i.e., domestic, industrial and power plant
              discharges)
        •     Damaging non-point loads generated by urban, and rural land
              uses as well as construction activities
                                   11

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                                             Figure 1
                         Schematic Diagram of the Land Use/Water Quality
                                            Relationship
                                       LAND USE DETERMINANTS
   POPULATION AND
      ECONOMIC
       GROWTH
       PRIVATE
       MARKET
       FORCES
 LAND USE
REGULATION
    PUBLIC
   SERVICES
AND FACILITIES
   NATURAL
   FEATURES
& CONSTRAINTS
                                             LAND USE
                                             PATTERN
                                      •  FORM
                                      •  DENSITY
                                      •  USE MIX
                                      •  OPEN SPACE
                                      •  LAND CONVERSION RATE
                                 WATER QUALITY IMPACTS OF LAND USE
     WITHDRAWAL
     OF SURFACE
     AND GROUND
       WATER
              LOSS OF
              NATURAL
           GROUND COVER
          AND DISTURBANCE
        OF ENVIRONMENTALLY
          SENSITIVE AREAS
NET CHANGE
 OF STREAM
   FLOW
CONSTRUCTION
   RELATED
  SEDIMENT
    LOADS
                                 J

            SILVACULTURE
             MINING AND
            AGRICULTURE
               RUNOFF
                LOADS
   URBAN
  RUN OFF
   LOADS
                                                                                       1
                      DOMESTIC
                        WASTE
                        LOADS
        INDUSTRIAL
          WASTE
          LOADS
                           STREAM
                        ENLARGEMENT
                        AND EROSION
                            TOTAL
                          NON-POINT
                            LOAD
                       WATER
                      QUALITY
                    STANDARDS &
                      EFFLUENT
                    LIMITATIONS
                       TOTAL
                        POINT
                        LOAD
                                                               WATER QUALITY
                                                                MANAGEMENT
                                                                 PRACTICES
                    QUANTITY
                  AND QUALITY
                  OF RECEIVING
                  WATER PRIOR
                  TO DISCHARGE
                          QUANTITY
                         AND QUALITY
                        OF DISCHARGE
                                           LAND
                                         DISPOSAL.
                                       WASTEWATER
                                        REUSE, ETC.
                                RESULTING
                                QUALITY OF
                             RECEIVING WATERS

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      •    Reduction of the aquatic and land mechanisms for self-
           purification (i.e., ground cover, infiltration capacity
           and surface water hydrology)
      •    Restriction of established or planned water uses (i. e. ,
           water supply, commercial or sport fishing and recreation)

The key land use characteristics which have impact upon water quality
include the form  and density of development and the general distribution
of economic activity within a region.  Many land use characteristics are
of significance to the quantity and quality of both surface and ground
water resources:  the density or the degree of concentration of waste
generating land uses; the particular types of land uses which are prevalent
within the region; the amount of open space and its general location
vis-a-vis the water resource base; and, the land conversion rate with
particular regard to construction-related sedimentation and the capacity
of sanitary sewage disposal plants to keep up with the increasing point
lands.

The result of this process is frequently damage to the natural as well as
the man-made environment  and  the evolution of water quality problems
which cannot be easily remedied by  pollution control technology.

1.  Water Quality Impacts

The problems caused by the lack of  interface between land use and water
quality management are numerous and are  familiar to most land use and
water quality planners.  They include;
      a.    Urban development in or near environmentally sensitive
           areas (i. e., flood plains,  shorelines, coastal zones,
           groundwater recharge areas, land areas with unstable soils,  •
           lakes with slow  recirculation cycles or  sharp temperature
           gradients,  watersheds or  tributaries with low flow or slow
           gradients,  and estuaries and other sensitive hydrologic-
           ecologic systems).
                               13

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      b.    Urban development in inadequately serviced areas (i. e. ,
           development with on-site or package plant disposal systems
           or development in areas with severe financial, natural or
           political limitations upon improvement of the capacity of
           waste disposal).

      c.    Development or expansion in areas where discharges already
           exceed the assimilative capacity of receiving waters.

      d.    Agricultural operations generating large volumes of silt,
           nutrients,  pesticides and animal waste (i. e. ,  general crop
           production, mushroom farms, intensive livestock
           operations, etc.).

      e.    Poorly operated and controlled resource extraction and
           construction activities (i.e. , acid drainage from coal mines,
           erosion from strip mining, in-stream sand and gravel
           excavation, construction  site preparation and cut and fill
           operations).

      f.    Recreational areas located,  designed and managed without
           due regard to the carrying capacity of water bodies, particu-
           larly with  regard to human waste disposal and the by-products
           of recreational boating activity.

      g.    Inefficient land development patterns  causing diseconomies
           and extra costs for servicing --  extra funds which could have
           been  better invested in another type of improvement (i.e. ,
           the expansion of the treatment plant,  the relocation of an
           outfall, etc. ).
2.  Land Use Impacts


Conversely,  inadequate water quality management has had significant

impacts upon land use activities.  For instance, water pollution has

caused damage to recreational areas,  restricted agricultural use of
surface water for irrigation and livestock watering,  hindered industries

relying upon water for the manufacturing process and has limited the

sources of potable water supply for communities.
                                  14

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The management practices used to control and reduce waste loads have
also resulted in land use impacts.  Uncoordinated expansion of treatment
plants and sewer service areas has sometimes induced growth beyond
local government's capacity to provide services and land use control.
Waste water treatment facilities are often sited and constructed without
regard for adjacent land uses and  downstream water uses.  Sewer
capacity allocation policies are often conceived without regard for land
use and socio-economic effects.

Overall, the lack of interface between land use and water quality has
placed severe strain upon both the natural and man made environments.
The true extent of damage and the explicit nature of land use/water quality
relationships, however, has  seldom been studied or documented.

3.   Causes of the Problem
This lack of coordination may be attributed to the void of knowledge regarding
explicit interrelationships between the two subjects.  While this is in fact
a major part of the problem, it is important to acknowledge other causes,
as discussed below.

a.  Lack of Institutional Coordination --  Administration of land use and
water quality programs has been fragmented both by function  and by level
of government.  Not only have land use and water quality been addressed
by separate agencies,  but often times by several separate agencies.  For
instance federal water quality interest is  spread throughout six agencies,
not always the same federal agencies responsible for land use programs.
At both the federal and state levels,  chief executives have only weakly attempted
to coordinate these divided responsibilities.  At the regional  level, the
absence of centralized power has prevented anything more than voluntary
coordination.

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b.  Plan-Implementation Gap --  There has been a large gap between the
practice of land use plan preparation (essentially the responsibility of  the
professional planners) and the control of land use (the responsibility of
lay commissioners and elected officials).  Land use planning has tended
toward comprehensiveness and the ideal while land use  control has
generally leaned toward incrementalism and the art of expediency.  Thus,
even where  urban plans  have supported water quality objectives,  the; good
intentions have often been disregarded when a local developer or a new
prospective tax-producing industry asks the city council for a zoning
change.

c.  Decentralization of Land Use Controls -- While most metropolitan
areas and non-metropolitan regions have areawide planning programs,
few have the ability to control or influence land use patterns at the area-
wide level.  Although the A-95 grant review requirement has given regional
councils some coordinative power over the public facility actions of
balkanized local governments,  land  use control continues to be essentially
a decentralized  power.

d.  Narrow  Public Service Philosophy -- Sewage collection and disposal
has been viewed as a service growing from the need to protect public health.
As  such, a "supply-follows-demand" philosophy has predominated, with
population growth, land  development trends and industrial expansion accepted
as givens or independent variables.  While the land use-waste load
relationship has been given substantial study, sewage planning and waste
treatment engineering studies have given only brief attention to modifica-
tion of land  use  patterns and densities.

e.  Pre-occupation with Hardware --  Because of the domination of sanitary
engineers in water quality work, solutions have normally focused solely
on the design and construction of facilities.  This has been further reinforced
                                  16

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by the fact that these engineers,  over a period of time,  learned to view
land use planners with suspicion due to numerous cases of faulty growth
projections and overly optimistic land use arrangements.

f.  Fragmented Waste Disposal Responsibilities --In the  interest of
minimizing problems, most local governments  have concentrated only
on what was felt necessary from a localized public service standpoint.
Independent industrial discharges,  private residential sewage systems,
and non- point wastes were viewed as being beyond local government's
responsibility and capacity.  Such responsibilities were normally assumed
by under-manned county and state health  departments.   The result was a
thoroughly fragmented control system, with no  designated responsibility
for viewing the overall relationships, trade-offs and opportunities for
improvement.
g.  Newness of Water Quality Management -- The art an^ science of water
quality management is new and significantly broader and more complex
than traditional pollution abatement programs.  There have been, therefore,
few opportunities to experiment with and refine methods of interrelating
this approach with land use planning programs.

B.    THE CURRENT APPROACH

Water quality and land use have traditionally been controlled by functionally
separate institutions  and professions.  The legal bases for the two subjcts
are lodged in different levels of government, with land use control being
essentially a local prerogative and water quality management activities
being exercised mostly at the state and federal level. While both subjects
have derived their legal bases for regulation from the need to protect
health and general welfare,  the process of planning and control have
                                17

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developed along separate and seldom interrelated paths.  To answer the
question of whether land use planning and control and water quality
planning and management can be better related, it is necessary to more
clearly identify the differences and similarities between the fields.

1.  Water Quality Planning and Management

The idea that water quality management is a matter of concern for public
health has undergone substantial change.  It is not that we are less
impressed with the bilogical effects of degraded water on humans and
other forms  of life;  rather, it is that the justifications for governmental
intervention  to secure satisfactory water quality have become diverse.
Making water more attractive for recreational uses, considerations of
aesthetics and odor,  and protection and reclamation of industrial and
agricultural  water supplies have joined health as recognized and legitimate
objectives of water quality management.   Pollution control is coming to
be viewed as a multi-dimensional environmental and economic issue.

a.  The Federal Role -- Although of little significance,  federal  statutes
have now assumed a position  of great importance in the field of water
quality.  The principal laws involved are complex,  and a large number of
other laws have some direct or indirect relevance.

The Federal Water Pollution  Control Act is the most significant  statute
dealing with  water quality.  Administered by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), this federal statute in the past concentrated federal regu-
latory activity on  cooperative standards-making and the  conference
procedure.   After a thoroughgoing revision of the Act in 1972,  the most
important regulatory device is now to be the discharge permit.
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All point sources are required to have permits setting forth in detail the
quantities and quality of allowable discharges which are to be set in
accordance with extensive effluent limitations and other requirements
made by EPA pursuant to the Act. A state may secure from the EPA
approval of its own permit system which meets the objectives and required
procedures,  and EPA  will then refrain from issuing permits in that
jurisdiction (218).  Each such permit must be sent to EPA, and if that
agency objects to  its provisions,  the permit cannot be issued.

It should be noted  that states and  interstate  agencies may make and
enforce effluent limitations,  other requirements and standards that are
either equal to or  more stringent than requirements in effect pursuant
to the federal law  (218).

Planning is given a significant place by the Act.  It must be carried on by
state or regional agencies on an  areawide basis.   The penalty by the
mid-1970's for not engaging  in such planning of waste  management is to be
ineligibility for federal grants-in-aid for public waste treatment facilities.

Several land use provisions  are also mandated by this Act,  dealing particu-
larly with non-point discharges from  specified land use activities and the
location of independent point sources.

b.   The State Role -- Every state has a comprehensive water pollution
control law,  and the "permit and orders"  provisions of these statutues
have been the principal tool  in water quality regulation.  Some states also
provide financial assistance  for local wastewater projects.  In the past,
state water pollution control agencies have been either subordinate units
of departments of ehalth or separate commissions, but recently two types
or organizational  changes have been  occurring.  In some  states, the  several
waste management or  control programs (water pollution,  air pollution,
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solid waste) have been brought together and given major status as environ-
mental departments and may acquit other programs such as noise control
and radiation protection. The other type of state environmental department
is like the first, but it also includes most or all of the functions previously
entrusted to conservation and natural resource agencies such as state
parks, forests,  mining and fish and game programs.  These are generally
the agencies which have been preparing the state water plans.

Under the new federal legislation,  states have a dominant role in both
planning and management of water  quality.

c.  The Local Government Role -- Local governments have principal
responsibility for  all domestic wastewater systems.   Whether adminis-
tered by small jurisdictions or special regional sewer districts,  this is
where key decisions are made regarding the type,  quality and territorial
coverage of domestic sewer services.  Traditionally, this function  has
been viewed as a public  works service with little concern  for what happens
to receiving waters.  Local governments, usually county health depart-
ments,  also share with states the control over septic tanks and package
plant systems.

d.  The Role  of Areawide Planning Organizations -- As required by both
HUD and EPA legislation,  "certified" areawide planning organizations
have had responsibility for both sewer and water planning. Under the
new Amendments to the  Water Pollution Control Act,  it will be up to the
Governors to assign responsibilities for areawide water quality manage-
ment planning.  The same agencies have generally served as "areawide
clearing houses" for review of federally assisted projects and programs
under the provisions of OMB Circular A-95.
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e.  The Water Quality Management Planning Process -- The purpose of
the water quality management planning program is to assist and guide
state and local planning agencies in developing water quality management
plans for basin, metropolitan and regional areas.  The state and areawide
agencies have been given the responsibility for developing these plans to
ensure .that the plans reflect the desires of the people in the affected area
and to ensure that they are implemented.  The major objectives of the
plans are to meet water  quality goals or standards and to maximize the
cost effectiveness of investments  in pollution abatement and prevention
actions.

The water quality management plans contain specific proposals (such as
wastewater treatment  facilities,  zoning, relocation of discharge points,
water reuse) for a cost effective  program that will implement water
quality standards or water use goals.  The plans also provide the  basis for
revising water quality standards,  issuing  discharge  permits,  determining
research needs and funding treatment works on a priority basis (acceptable
water quality management plans are a prerequisite for obtaining Federal
construction grant funds).

In addition, the plans delineate:  the public and private responsibility for
carrying out the strategy selected, the existing institutional entities and
their responsibilities as defined by the governing regulations,  manpower
requirements,  funding levels required, and legislative or institutional
changes which would aid in implementation of the plan.

In developing a plan, all feasible alternative means of achieving water
wuality  goals are considered, such as:
      •     Land disposal, including septic tanks.
      •     Treatment of wastewater.
      •     Relocation of discharge points.
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      •     Diversion from basin.
      •     In-stream modification.
      •     Flow regulation.
      •     Water reuse.
      •     Control of wastewater quantities through zoning and/or
            planned growth for type and amount of expansion.

In line with the National Environmental Policy Act,  the Water Quality
Management Planning Guidelines also encourage public participation
throughout the planning process by requiring that the views of interested
parties be included in the plan.  When the plans are completed they are
submitted to metropolitan and regional intergovernmental clearinghouses
where again public views can be made known.  Furthermore, before the
plans are certified by the Governor of each state, they are evaluated to
assure that they are not in variance with other state programs.

2.   Land Use Planning and Control

Although basically a local responsibility,  land use planning and control
has been enabled and encouraged by both the states and the federal
government.  Following is a description of governmental roles and
procedures.

a.   The Federal Role -- There is no statutory basis for  direct federal
land use regulation, although such has been receiving legislative consider-
ation.  Furthermore,  there is no unified land use policy for the nation as
a whole.  Rather, the federal government has developed programs designed
to encourage state and local governments to do various kinds of land use
and functional planning and to employ land use controls.  Grants-iri-aid,
administered through the HUD 701 Program and  other federal programs.
have been used to stimulate comprehensive planning.  In  addition,  the  1966
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Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act added strength to

state land regional planning agencies by empowering them to review appli-

cations for federal grants from private and public bodies.  Congress now

appears to be on the verge of granting greater responsibility for land use

planning and policy formulation to the states.  (S. B. 268 and S. B. 924. )


b.  The State Role -- The states of the United States have a major role to

play in  land use, but until recently that role has been more  potential than
realized.  As indicated in Table 1, numerous states are now moving beyond

their traditional function of enabling local land use planning and control.

Ten years ago, Hawaii was the  only state with a land use control system.

Now several states (California, Vermont, Maine, Florida,  Wisconsin and

Delaware) have asserted strong land use prerogatives and many other

states are focusing on selected  land use issues.  Current state approaches

to land  use innovation have been summarized as follows  (141):


     "(1)    Zoning of all land.   So  far seen exclusively  in Hawaii,
      Vermont and Maine's unorganized territories, this ultimate
      recognition of land as a finite resource may foreshadow the
      planning of the future.

      (2)    Coastal zone restriction.  The noisy controversies over
      strong coastal restrictions in Delaware and California attest to
      the fact that the coast is where the action really is.  Landlocked
      states have so far seen little action on state land use planning.

      (3)    State intervention when localities fail to act.  This principle
      is the keystone  (some say the weakness) of Colorado's statewide
      plan,  and plays a role  in the  development controls of other states,
      such as floodplain zoning in New Jersey and Montana and coastal
      zone management in Washington and Maine.

      (4)    Environmentally critical areas and regionally significant
      development.  The backbone  of the American  Law  Institute Model
      Land Development Code and of proposed federal requirements for
      state land use plans, these two categories of state jurisdiction offer
      a compromise with the local  planning/zoning ethic. Florida's Land
      and Water Management Law is the best example.   Maine's Site
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                                                Table 1.  A Summary of State Land Use Laws and Pending Actions
     ALABAMA;  State has constitutional Jurisdiction In powerplant siting;
surface mining regulated;  1969 law authorizes creation of state planning .and
development districts and allows counties and municipalities to establish
regional planning «nd development districts.
     ALASKA;  Local governments control planning In their jurisdictions,  with
some state supervision of subdivision regulations;  Joint Federal-State Land
Use Planning Commission Is preparing planning procedure for most of state;
Federally owned lands cover 97 percent of state.
     ARIZONA:  State has been studying growth and development policy in
preparation for statewide planning to conserve resources and channel urban
growth;  Department of Economic Planning and Development has developed a  computer
•ode]  (Arizona Trade-Off Model) to evaluate and correlate economic development
and environmental effects;  state jurisdiction in power plant siting.
     CALIFORNIA;  Voter-approved 1972 Coastal Zone Conservation Act gives permit
authority over all coastal development within 1000 yards of mean high tide to a
state  and six regional .commissions pending  1976 completion of land use plan for
coastal area five Biles Inland and three miles seaward;  regulations implementing
State  Supreme Court requirement for impact  statements on private as well  as
public projects expected to define almost all construction and development as
'environmentally significant;  legislature again considers state planning  for and  •
acquisition of open space, state regulation of power plant siting.
     COLORADO:  Land Use Commission has prepared Interim state plan, final plan
due In December, counties expected to maintain rr.ost planning control, although'
Cooalsalon holds rarely used overruling power;  Senate Bill 35 (1972) requires
counties to develop subdivision regulations requiring developers to have  adequate
water  Supply, plans for sewage, utilities,  social services (does not apply to
about  2 Billion acres of land that were already for sale).
     CONNECTICUT:  Coastal wetlands regulated, may be acquired by Department
of Environmental Protection;  unique classification of wetlands by vegetation
as well as by hydrology;  development on inland wetlands and rivers subject to
municipal regulation with sonp state supervision;  utilities must certify need
and environmental compatibility before construction;  mining unregulated;  farm,
forest, open space lands taxed at decreasing levels as period of ownership
Increases;  taxation generally based on actual use.
     DELAWARE:  Heavy Industry banned within two miles of coast;  plan in
legislature for state acquisition and regulation of coastal wetlands to limit
residential and light commercial development would freeze development on  about
40 percent of wetlands;  offshore bulk transfer terminals barred.
     FLORIDA:  1972 Land and Water Management Act authorizes state to zone
critical areas (not to exceed five percent  of state) and developnent of regional im-
pact ,  designates state agency to propose and adopt comprehensive land plan;
voter-approved 1972 Land Conservation Act authorizes $240 million in bonds for
state  acquisition of environmentally endangered coastal lands, recreational
lands; 1972 Water Resources Act directs development of state water use plan,
puts all water resources under state regulation;  1972 law prohibits oil, gas
drilling one mile seaward of coast, provides state review of Federal offshore leases.
     GEORGIA:  Eighteen Area Planning and Development Commissions with mainly
economic orientation;  House of Representatives Subcommittee on State Land Use
and Local Zoning held hearings last year;  proposed legislation expected to
concentrate on forcing implementation of regional plans rather than defining
procedures;  1970 Coastal M.irs'nJ.trds Protection Act requires p<3ralt3 /or dredging
or filling in tldelands;  legal controversy over Act concerning state zoning
authority and ownership claims.
     HAWAII:  1961 law classifies land for use as urban, rural, agricultural,
conservation (counties administer urban lands);  one result;  higher urban land
prices.
     IDAHO:  Senate bill 1111 would designate state planning agency with
exclusive authority to permit development in critical areas and development of
regional benefit and Impact (basic industry, transportation systems, power
facilities and water and solid waste systems).
     ILLINOIS:  Thirteen areawldc planning organizations state-chartered mainly In
urban areas;  strip mining regulated;  power plant siting legislation pending.
     INDIANA:  Fourteen planning and development regions created in 1970 cover
state, not yet fully organized;  state completing inventory of resources and
present land use, to be followed by development over four years of statewide plan.
     IOWA;  Legislature considering establishment of Land Use Commission to
recommend policy for enactment;  computer model to evaluate and correlate effects
of highway development in preparation.
     KANSAS;  Land Management Committee of Advisory Council on Ecology studying
state agency land manageuent activities as Initial step toward compliance with
anticipated Federal action.
     KENTUCKY:  State conservancy districts completing inventory of present use
and capability, water and mineral resources, population and growth patterns;
strip mining regulated.
     MAINE;  1970 Site Location Law requires permit for any commercial and
industrial development, developments over 20 acres, mining or drilling, structures
totalling 60,000 square feet floor area;  Land Use Regulation Commission holding
hearings to complete classification  of unorganized territories  covering north
half  of state  into protection, management, holding, development;  Mandatory
Zoning and  Subdivision  Control Act of 1971 requires localities  to zone, but  not
necessarily plan for,  land within 250 fcot of navigable water by mid-1973
(implementation  suffers frcsi  fund shortage and confusing advisory guidelines);
legislature considering Coastal  Development Corporation Act to  Unit coastal
heavy industry to two  zones at Portla.-.J and Machiasport, limit oil  Industry
.to Portland zone.
      MARYLAND:   Land use bills  in both houses attracting much public attention,
controversy over state  role in setting standards  for subdivisions,  coastal
zone;  committee reports expected soon;  bill to  limit and  share development
rights in  each subdivision also  In committee;  1971 law  limits  power plants  to
state-oi.-ned, certified  sites;  state regulates coastal wetlands.

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     MASSACHUSETTS:   State agencies working to coordinate Federal grants  for
pollution, coastal zone, rural development, community and transportation  planning;
1965 Coastal Wetlands Act authorizes state regulation prior to development;   1972
Wetlands Protection  Act require* local permits, subject to state veto,  for dredging
or filling of Inland wetlands;  Zoning Appeals Law allows challenges to zoning
restricting dispersal of low or moderate income housing (court challenge  of  law
In progress).
     MICHIGAN!  Thirteen regional planning authorities cover state;  bill  re Intro-
duced to create land planning agency (would control development In critical  areas
and of regional impact), establish tax structure to preserve open space and  faro
land;  state wetlands plan, comprehensive Detroit shoreline plan In  preparation;
five-day unconditional right of reclnsion on purchases from offerings over 10
lots effective April 1.
     MINNESOTA:  Twin Cities Metro Council provides regional planning,  revenue
sharing for public facilities;  state-regulated county zoning for land  around
waterways, on floodplains.
     MISSOURI;  Twenty Regional Planning Commissions cover state;  state  action
in land use planning will occur in response to passage of Federal legislation.
     MONTANA;  State projects require environmental Impact statements;  state
promoting county subdivision regulation, drafting model regulations; counties
Bust regulate floodplaln development or state will step in.
     NEBRASKA:  Bill 465 would establish commission to draw land use Bap, make
recommendations to legislature;  Office of Planning and Programming  has general
land use policy designation, can Intervene in planning of other state agencies;
state supervises local floodplaln zonlngs.
     NEVADA;  Senate Bill 131 would designate state planning agency  with
jurisdiction over critical areas, development of regional Impact.
     NEW JERSEY:  Bills before legislature to reshape planning laws, Institute
county and state review of local plans, 'require permits for any coastal and
offshore development, provide state acquisition and regulation of power plant
sites;  state requires floodplaln zoning by December 1973 or will step  in;
state permit  required for construction on wetlands;  controversy raging over
state 30-year plan for Hackensack Meadowlands near New York City.
     NEW MEXICO:  1972 laws require county regulation of subdivisions over five
lots (adequate water supply, waste systems, environmental safeguards);  strip
•Inlng unregulated.
     NEW YORK:  With strong second-home development pressure, Adirondack  Park
Agency preparing land use plan for Park, which contains several local govern-
ments;  Agency requires permits for development other than agricultural or
forestry uses;  state regulates power plant siting;  1971 law provides
assessment of agricultural land by actual use;  1972 voter-approved  $175  million
bond issue for state purchase of open space land.
     NORTH CAROLINA:  State study calls for action on land use policy,  recommends
no comprehensive state control over land use decisions, recommends no further
growth be encouraged in urban centers.
     OHIO:  Bill would create office of state land planning in governor's office.
     OKLAHOMA;  Land use information system proposed in anticipation of  Federal
and state legislation.
     OREGON:  Son.itc Bill 100 would establish commissions to regulate  local,
st.ito planning process, regulntc aroas and activities of critical state concern;
co:n.ilttee acendir.':nt.s will probably rr-rr.ove state regulatory authority over  county
pl.ins, critical areas;  1969 law requires county comprehensive plans,  zoning of
unzoned areas.
     PENNSYLVANIA:  State-level studies on land use, no legislation yet;
Department of Environmental Re-sources beginning 50-year master plan; officials
say nany small operators avoid strip nine permit law;  legislature considering
revised farm taxation.
     RHODE ISLAND:  Statewide Planning Program is only regional planning agency;
Coastal Resources Management Council has permit authority over all development on
wetlands, no master plan completed, no review of lor.il plans at zoning required.
     SOUTH CAROLINA:  Interagency Work Group on Land Use appointed to  recommend
system for state;  Interagency Council on Tldelands developing zoning plan for
public, private tldelands.
     SOUTH DAKOTA:  Six substate planning districts created in 1970, three
operational;  strip mine law exempts many small operators.
     TEXAS;  Twenty-one planning regions, 24 Councils of Governments cover whole
state;  State Interim Coastal Zone Study Commission considering program including
ban on sale or lease of coastal lands until land use plan developed, wetlands
protection lav.
     UTAH:  Little-used 1970 law gives land use regulation authority to
conservation districts;  strip mining unregulated.
     VERMONT;  Capability and Development plan stating state land use objectives
awaits legislative adoption;  public hearings on State Land Use Plan which would
classify all land as urban, rural residential, agricultural conservation (prime
agricultural land), resource and agricultural conservation (secondary agriculture
and forest lands) or reserve;  regulations will be drawn for each land type,
permits to be required for sale or development over 10 lots, contingent on
adequate utilities, social services, environmental safeguards;  1972 Revised
Subdivision Code requires sewer permits whenever two lots are sold (exempt:  lots
over 10 acres under 1500 feet elevation, lots over 20 acres less than 2500 .
feet elevation);  any development over 2500 feet requires review, approval of
district environmental commission;  1966 law places five-year limit on existing
land uses preempted by new zoning;  current bills to provide taxation at actual use.
     VIRGINIA:  State study of critical environmental areas submitted  to
Advisory Legislative Committee, which will report on land use next year;
protective taxation for agricultural, forest, open space lands;  power facilities
require impact statements, public hearings;  local wetland zoning boards required
with state review, landowner appeal.
     WASHINGTON:  1972 voter-approved Shoreline Management Act requires local
comprehensive plans and permit authority over state guidelines for development
worth over $1000 within 200 feet of streams, wetlands, lakes, ocean;   governor
certifies  thermal power plant sites after state study, public hearings, Impact
statements.
     WISCONSIN;  Minimal state guidelines on floodplain and shore land zoning;
limited state subdivision review;  governor's committee last year recommended
state land use control concentrating on areas of regional or state Importance,
emphasizing regional planning.
     WYOMING:  Not likely to enact state land use program without prior Federal
legislation.
Source:   "A Summary of State Land Use Laws", Land Use Planning Reports Vol. 1,
          No. I.March 12,1973

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      Location Law concentrates on regional significance.  The many
      state wetland laws, often enacted without anticipation of compre-
      hensive controls, concentrate on critical environments. "
c.  The Local Government Role -- Land has traditionally been viewed as
a local resource.  However, constitutionally speaking, local governments
are creatures and subdivision of the state,  and they exercise only those
portions of state authority which state constitutions and legislatures confer
on them.  Local governments,  especially the larger cities and counties,
have a measure of independent identity that makes it necessary to consider
them in their own right as well as in their role as subordinate units of the
state.  Because of statutory requirements requiring the linkage of
zoning with comprehensive plans, planning is much more prevalent among
local governments than among the state and federal governments.   (The
State of California has gone further than most states by requiring
"conformity" between zoning and comprehensive plans, rather than simply
the existence of comprehensive  plans as a prerequisite to zoning).  In
spite of the presence of planning at the local level, however, the land use
guidance system does not  operate very systematically.  The failings  of
the system have been well documented and tend to revolve around the
prevalent view that land is a private commodity rather than  a community
resource  (36).   As with the states, however,  attitudes are beginning to
change, and selected communities are becoming more aggressive  in land
use guidance.

d.  The Role  of Areawide Organization -- Planning at the metropolitan
and regional level has undergone dramatic change in the last decade.
Over 585  such agencies are now in existence.  Although there are
exceptions, the powers of  areawide agencies are advisory.   Most area-
wide s participate in inter-jurisdictional land use planning, and several
have programs to interrelate regional and local planning efforts.   The
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"areawide clearinghouse function" (A-95) is used to coordinate capital
projects which affect impact land use and other regional resources.
These agencies are also involved in reviews of environmental impact
statements for federally assisted projects.

e.  The Land Use Planning Process -- Land use planning is a decision
process as to how land should best be allocated and used based on current
conditions and anticipated future events, i.e. ,  as expansion, abandonment
and renewal proceed through time.  In simpler terms,  it is an effort to
anticipate future events and desires so that better decisions can be made
today.  The planning process has traditionally  been oriented toward
improving the man-made physical environment (i.e. , the location
character and quality of housing, commercial  and industrial activities,
transportation, utilities and community facilities).  There  is a traditional
concern, however, among professional land use planners that "planning
needs to be more ecologically/environmentally oriented. "  (36)  This
attitude has often been impeded by unresponsiveness from lay planning
commissions and by insufficient data and budgets.   The most environmentally-
sensitive land use planning has occurred at the regional planning level where
resource allocation issues can be  more easily  perceived.

3.  Summary of Current Practice
This study found no examples of water quality management plans which
have given real consideration to land use as a control strategy,  in spite
of the fact that such consideration has been required by the EPA Water
Quality Management Planning Guidelines (55) since January 1971.  Several
programs which are under way or pending funding approval, however, do
indicate intent to study the potential impact of land use and zoning controls.
The Study Design for the Weber River Basin (182) in Utah is a unique
example.
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Similarly, land use plans for regions and communities have seldom given
more than superficial attention to impacts upon water quality.  Where
such attention has occurred it has generally been within the framework
of special project planning and plans for land use within environmentally
sensitive  areas.  The plans for Lake Tahoe (154), the Fox River Watershed
(139),  the Brandywine Watershed (169), the Valley's (105), and the
Skippack Watershed (67) are cases in point.

At the land use control level, there has been some progress in relating
land use to water quality and  other environmental problems.  Erosion
control regulations are being instituted in  several locations to control the
runoff from construction projects.  Wisconsin has implemented a  strong
program to protect flood plains and shorelines.  The land use control
programs of many other states promise to  have significant potential for
reducing land use/water quality problems.

Croke, et. al.  (36  ) are cautiously optimistic about increasing the
responsiveness of land use planners and water quality engineers to each
other's concerns.  Recent trends and requirements have broadened the
outlook of professionals dealing with both subject areas.   Integration of
land use and environmental protection, however,  requires substantially
increased inter-professional  dialogue,  improved planning techniques,
broadened technical and budgetary inducements to state and local govern-
ments and, most importantly, a unified and strengthened EPA policy
relating land use and environmental protection.
                                  28

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                            CHAPTER II
             EFFECTS OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY

This chapter provides broad quantitative assessments of the pollutional
loads generated by man through his use of land.  Nature strives for
equilibrium amongst her species, and therefore, as  man changes the use
of the land he sets in  motion a series of events which may permanently
change the natural balance within the water environment.  It is those
changes which are recognized under the title of water pollution. There-
fore,  the basic tenet of this section is that man's use of the land will
cause some type of change.  The planner  wishes to minimize the harmful
aspects of this change.

There are three steps in defining the pollutional potential of a land use
plan.  The first step is to assess the loads that each land use category
exhibits.  The second  is to ascertain which of these loads can be captured
and reduced.  The third step is  to calculate the final loadings on the water-
environment,  both free flowing and in impoundments, and to ascertain the
degree with which these loadings will degrade the existing conditions.

This section describes some of  the more  useful relationships which  have
been developed and presents these, in a form which can be employed  directly
by the planner.  It is  not possible, of course, to present the solution to
complex technical problems as a set of simple charts and tables.  The
intent, rather, is to describe the ways in which land use changes water
quality to  alert the planner to potential problem areas.

As discussed  in this chapter, pollutants are classified  by six types of wastes:
      •      Organic waste (primarily BOD)
      •      Nutrients (nitrate,  phosphorus)
      «      Sediment
                                    29

-------
      •    Thermal waste
      •    Toxicants
      •    Other types (bacteria,  scum, oils, etc. )

These types of pollutants are linked to various sources, as indicated in
Figure 2.

A.    EFFECTS OF LAND USES ON POINT DISCHARGES

Point sources for purposes of this discussion, are those sources of
pollution which are collected from fixed localities and delivered to the
watercourse at fixed points.  They are amenable  to treatment either at
their source or before their final disposition in the receiving water.
There are, in general, four major land use categories that contribute to
the point sources.  These are residential use, commercial use, industrial
use,  and energy generation.

1.   Residential Land Use

The composition of domestic waste varies throughout the United States.
Typical  ranges,  commonly used for waste load prediction of BOD,
Nitrogen and Phosphorus loading from domestic  wastewater on a daily
basis are shown  in Table 2.
                               TABLE  2
           TYPICAL DOMESTIC RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITION
Concentration Range (MG/L)
Constituent
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD- 5)
Nitrogen (TOTAL N)
Phosphorus (TOTAL P)
High
300
85
20
Medium
200
40
10
Low
100
20
6
 Source:  Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering. (Ill)
                                    30

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                             Figure 2

     Relations Between Source and Type of Water Pollution
          SOURCE
TYPE
                                 03



                                 O
                                 O
                                Q
                                        cu
                                        +-*
                                        t/J
                                        03
                                        •o
0>
cn
03
c
 _
Q

"S
i_

«-*


o
o

3
CE
c
o
        O
        o
o



CE
i.
OJ
4-«
03
E

8
CO
CD
O)
03


'Hi
L.

O
Organic Waste
Nutrients
                                        D
Sediment
Thermal Waste
Toxicants
Other Types*
  Major or primary factor

  Possible major factor—varies with conditions
 Includes bacteria, oils, scums, etc.

-------
To determine waste loadings, it is first necessary to estimate the waste-
water flow from the domestic water use sector.  As a planning guide,  it
may be assumed that 70 percent of the water demanded for internal
domestic use will be returned as wastewater flow.  A good figure for
domestic demand is 100 gallons per capita per day. —  Therefore, ea<
person will contribute seventy (70) gallons a day to the waste stream.
Table 3 gives the yearly per capita loadings, based on the medium values
in Table 2.
                              TABLE 3
                PER CAPITA RAW SEWAGE LOADING
                           Loading (LBS/CAP/YEAR) (LBS/GAL/YEAR)
Constituent                 	(A)	  	(B)	
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
      (BOD-5)                         42. 7                 .0017
Nitrogen (TOTAL N)                    8.5                 .0006
Phosphorus (TOTAL P)                 2.1                 .00008

Source:  Metcalf and Eddy,  Wastewater Engineering (Hi)
2.  Commercial Land Use

Concentrations of waste from the commercial sector are the same as those
applied to the residential  sector.  The difference is in the waste flows
generated by commercial land use, which varies in magnitude with the
type of commercial establishment. Table 4 presents four general categories
of commercial water use  from a study of the Baltimore area (209).  Load
generation data are available in standard texts.
— The ratio of maximum daily flow to average daily flow may be estimated
  as 1. 5.
                                    32

-------
                              TABLE 4
                      COMMERCIAL WATER USE
                                                 Water Use
      Establishment                           Gal/Sq. Ft. /Day
      Office                                        0. 093
      Department Store                             0. 216
      Restaurant                                   0.500
      Barber Shop, etc.                             0. 300

Source: Wolff,et. al. "Water Use in Selected Commercial and Institutional
        Establishments in the Baltimore Metropolitan Area". (209)
In an actual planning situation it is usually feasible to construct a few
typical commercial districts, estimate the total point loading from these
typical districts, and then employ these loads in the planning process.

3.  Industrial Land Use

Industrial waste ranks as one of the most complex sources of water
pollution.  The process of defining industrial waste generation coefficients
cannot be generalized because industrial processes produce a wide and
varying spectrum of pollutional loads.  These range from the standard
biochemical oxygen demand to traces of the  more exotic metals and toxicants.
The primary factors affecting the waste generation characteristics of an
industry are:
      a.     The nature of the raw materials
      b.     The technology of the production process
      c.     The product mix
      d.     The level of effluent  controls in  effect at a plant
                                    33

-------
A study on waste management for the Regional Plan Association of the
New York Region (17) presented information from which the yearly BOD
loadings from industries can be determined.  Table 5 presents a partial
summary of the New York Plan process.

Non-organic  loads from industry-toxic materials, thermal waste,  and to
a lesser extent, nutrients,  can be predicted on a  case-by-case basis
once a sufficient level of detail has been determined for industrial
patterns in the region.  The general characteristics of waste from major
industries has been tabulated by Nemerow as shown in Table 6 (120).

It should be noted that the four digit SIC categories must be known to
capture the true picture of the potential industrial loads in the region.
For this reason this report does not and cannot provide industrial waste
coefficients.  A good source of data is the EPA (FWPCA)  Industrial
Waste Profile Series .

4.   Power Generation Land Use

The primary pollutant arising from the generation of power is waste
heat.   This form of pollutional loading, which leads to a temperature
rise in the water body, can produce harmful effects on recreation,
commercial and sport fishing,  and, on occasion,  will affect downstream
industrial uses.

Thermal effects exhibit themselves in changes in reproduction,  develop-
ment and distribution of the fish and other species which inhabit the water
environment, although they sometimes respond to changes in temperature
through acclimatization.  They  can also survive  impulse heat loads for a
                                   34

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                                      Table 5
                  Liquid Waste Loads for Selected Industry Groups:
                           New York Metropolitan Region
Industry
201 1 — Meat packing
2033 - Canned fruits
and vegetables
2037 -'Frozen fruits and
vegetables
2062 — Cane sugar refininc
2085 - Distilled liquors
2261 - Finishing plants,
cotton
2262 - Finishing plants,
synthetic
2621 - Paper, except
building
2631 - Paperboard mills
2641 — Paper coating and
glazing
2654 - Sanitary food
containers
291 1 — Petroleum
refining
Unit
1,00016. of live weight
processed
Tons of fruits and
vegetables canned
Tons of fruits and
vegetables frozen
Short tons of refined
cane sugar
1,000 bushels of grain
processed
1,000 linear yards
1,000 linear yards
Short tons
Short tons
Short tons of paper and
board processed
Short tons of paper and
board processed
1 ,000 barrels of crude
processed
1964
Output/
Employee
225
92
139
633
3
186
162
127
317
49
53
29
Present Waste Load °
Generated
Lb of BOD
12/1000 Ib of live weight
30/ton of raw product processed
30/ton of raw product processed
2/ton of product
0.5/bushel of grain processed
50/1 000 linear yards
20/1000 linear yards
80/ton of product
50/ton of product
30/ton processed
30/ton processed
100/bbl of crude processed
Load
(Lbs/
Employee/
Year)
2,700
2,760
4,170
1,266
1,500
9,300
3,240
10,160
15,850
1,470
1,590
2,900
Source: Bower, era/. Waste Management (17)

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                                              Table 6

                    Summary of  Industrial Waste:   Origin & Character
     Industries
  producing wastes
     Major characteristics
                 Chemicals
Detergents
Cornstarch
Explosives
Insecticides
Phosphate and
phosphorus
Formaldehyde
Pulp and paper
Steel
Metal-plated
products
Oil
Rubber
 Glass
Naval stores
Steam power
High in BOD and saponified
soaps
High BOD and dissolved organ-
ic matter; mainly starch and
related material
TNT, colored, acid, odorous.
and contains organic acids and
alcohol from powder and cot-
ton, metal, acid, oils, and
soaps
                      High organic matter, benzene
                      ring stucture, toxic to bacteria
                      and fish, acid
Clays, slimes and tall oils, low
pH, high suspended solids,
phosphorus, silica, and
fluoride
Normally has high BOD and
HCHO, toxic to bacteria in
high concentrations
                     Materials
High or low pH; colored;
high suspended, colloidal, and
dissolved solids; inorganic
fillers
Photographic          Alkaline, contains various or-
products              ganic and inorganic reducing
                      agents
                       Low pH, acids, cyanogen, phe-
                       nol, ore, coke, limestone, alka-
                       li, oils, mill scale, and fine sus-
                       pended solids
Acid, metals, toxic, low vol-
ume, mainly mineral matter
Iron-foundry           High suspended solids, mainly
products               sand; some clay and coal
                       High dissolved salts from field,
                       high BOD, odor, phenol, and
                       sulfur compounds from refin-
                       ery
 High BOD and odor, high sus-
 pended solids, variable pH,
 high chlorides
                       Red color, alkaline non-settle-
                       able suspended solids
 Acid, high BOD
                      Energy
 Hot, high volume, high inor-
 ganic and dissolved solids
     Industries
  producing wastes
     Major characteristics
                                                                            Food and drugs
Canned goods
                                                          Dairy products
                                                          Brewed and
                                                          distilled beverages
                                    Meat and poultry
                                    products
                                                          Beet sugar
                                                           Rice
                                                          Soft drinks
                                    Textiles
                                                           Leather goods
                                                           Laundry trades
High in suspended solids, col-
loidal and dissolved organic
matter
                      High in dissolved organic mat-
                      ter, mainly protein, fat, and
                      lactose
                                                           Acids
                      High in dissolved organic sol-
                      ids, containing nitrogen and
                      fermented starches or their
                      products
                      High in dissolved and suspen-
                      ded organic matter, blood.
                      other proteins, and fats
                      High in dissolved and suspen-
                      ded organic matter, containing
                      sugar and protein
Pharmaceutical
products
Yeast
Pickles
Coffee
Fish
High in suspended and dis-
solved organic matter, includ-
ing vitamins
High in solids (mainly organic)
and BOD
Variable pH, high suspended
solids, color, and organic mat-
ter
High BOD and suspended sol-
ids
Very high BOD, total organic
solids, and odor
                      High in BOD, total and suspen-
                      ded solids (mainly starch)
                                                           High pH, suspended solids and
                                                           BOD
                                                          Apparel
                      Highly alkaline, colored, high
                      BOD and temperature, high
                      suspended solids
                       High total solids, hardness,
                       salt, sulfides, chromium, pH
                       precipitated lime and BOD
                       High turbidity, alkalinity, and
                       organic solids
                                                                               Chemicals
                                                           Low pH, low organic content
                                                 Source: Nemerow, Theory and Practice of Industrial
                                                  Waste Treatment, Addison-Wesley. Copyright 1963

-------
short time.  But, on the whole,  each species has a preferred range.
A good overview of the aquatic ecosystem is provided in a book by Odum (127)
which is an excellent primer on  the general topic.  For example purposes.
Table 7 is a list supplied by the  National Technical Advisory Committee
of FWPCA (121) showing the  maximum temperatures compatible with the
well-being of various fish species and the associated biota.

The second major change is in the chemical reactions within the water,
which center  around the speed-up of microbial activity  caused by tempera-
ture increase.  As a rule of thumb the rate of chemical change doubles for
each 18° F rise in temperature.   This can lead to increased oxygen
depletion due to a more rapid and increased BOD stress and can also
induce taste and ordor problems.    c

Finally, temperature affects the physical properties of water. The most
significant of these are density,  viscosity, vapor pressure and the solubility
of dissolved gasses. Therefore,  increase in water temperature increases
evaporation, lowers the ability of the water to hold oxygen,  changes the
distributional patterns of sedimentation and may cause stratification in
quiescent water bodies.

The temperature rise in the receiving water is governed by two primary
factors: the waste heat discharged by the plant and the volume of flow in the
receiving stream.  The waste heat generated by the plan depends on the
thermal efficiency of the plant and the amount of in-plant losses.  The
maximum efficiency realized in  fossil fuel plants is 40 percent.  In nuclear
plants the upper limit is 33 percent, and 95 percent of the waste heat
                                            1
reaches the cooling water.  For fossil fuel plants  85 percent reaches the
cooling water.
                                37

-------
                              TABLE 7

     PROVISIONAL MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURES
93 F       Growth of catfish, gar, white or yellow bass, spotted bass,
           buffalo, carpsucker, threadfin shad, and gizzard shad

90 F       Growth of largemouth bass,  drum, bluegill, and crappie
  o
84 F       Growth of pike, perch, walleye, smallmouth bass, and sauger

80 F       Spawning and egg development of catfish, buffalo, threadfin
           shad and gizzard shad

           Spawning and egg deve.
           yellow, and spotted bass

           Growth or migration rout
           ment of perch and smallmouth bass

           Spawning and eg
           than lake trout)

           Spawning and eg
           northern pike, sauger, and Atlantic .salmon


Source: FWPCA,  Water Quality Criteria (121).
75 F       Spawning and egg development of largemouth bass, white,


68 F       Growth or migration routes of salmonids and for egg develop-


55 F       Spawning and egg development of salmon and trout (other
48 F       Spawning and egg development of lake trout, walleye,
                                 38

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B.    EFFECTS OF LAND USES ON NON-POINT DISCHARGES

The pollutional stresses which arise from dispersed areas are termed
non-point sources.  As opposed to point pollution, these loads are not
available for treatment or reduction by man unless they are  brought into
some type of collection system.   For this reason careful planning is
necessary to prevent both short and long-term effects from these sources.
The major categories for non-point sources are:
      e     Urban storm runoff
      •     Agricultural drainage
      *     Construction runoff
      •     Resource extraction

There are two major concepts to  keep in mind when dealing with non-point
sources.  The first is  that the linkages connecting the causes of  the
pollutional loads and the end effect, as exhibited by  the quantitative mea-
surements of water quality are,  in  many areas, not well established or
understood.   The second is that information concerning these pollutants
is given on a yearly basis which may be misleading  since non-point sources
usually impact their immediate environment in an impulse fashion. The
impulse loadings from non-point sources can  deplete the oxygen  supply
of rivers, causing massive fish kills,  and pour  tons of nutrients into lakes
and reservoirs which enable algae to flourish.  Figure 3 presents a
summary of non-point  pollution impacts as derived from various references
analyzed during  this study.

1. Urban Storm Runoff
Urban storm runoff affects water quality in two ways. First,  it transports
the previously loadlocked refuse of man to the water environment.  Second,
the increased magnitude of overland flow due to development  causes
changes in the physical configuration of the system.
                                    39

-------
                                               Figure 3

                          Annual Non-Point Pollutions! Impacts by Land Use
   LAND USE
                                                 QUALITY PARAMETERS
IMPERVI-
OUSNESS
(DEGREE)
BOD LBS/
 ACRE/
 YEAR
N LBS/
ACRE/
YEAR
P LBS/
ACRE/
YEAR
P04 LBS/
 ACRE/
 YEAR
                                                                        EROSION
TEMPERATURE
   CHANGE
  NATURAL

  FORESTS
  (GRASSLANDS)
 LOW
             SMALL
                        .89
                      .089
                                         .3
                                                   LOW
  AGRICULTURE
  (FARMS)
 LOW
                       2.4-
                       24
                      .92-
                      3.88
                            HIGH
                            POTENTIAL
                               SMALL
   FEEDLOTS
                    HIGH
             VARYING WITH ANIMAL TYPE.
             DENSITY & MANAGEMENT PRACTICES.
                                        HIGH
                                        POTENTIAL
                                                                                   SMALL
  SINGLE FAMILY
  RESIDENTIAL
 LOW-
 MEDIUM
                                 5.9
  MULTI-FAMILY
  RESIDENTIAL
 MEDIUM
             14.
  COMMERCIAL
                    HIGH
                                 43
   INDUSTRIAL
 VERY
 HIGH
                                 23.4
                                            .6
                       2.5
                                           2.4
            3.3
                                                      .2
                       .67
                                                     1.3
           .56
                                                             .6
                                                             2.1
                                         3.9
                                                             1.7
                                         VARIES WITH
                                         DEGREE OF COVER
                                         REMOVED AND
                                         SURFACES HEATED.
                                         (5° to 15°)
   RESOURCE
   EXTRACTION
 VARIES WITH METHODOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
             PRACTICES
   RECREATION
 VARIES WITH INTENSITY OF USE-EXTREMELY
 SENSITIVE TO OVERUSE.
  URBAN & ROAD
  CONSTRUCTION
                                                    30,000-
                                                   150,000
                                                   TONS/ACRE
Source: Author's summary of statistics analyzed within text of this report.

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a.  Quality Effects  --  Since 1950, various investigators have shown an
increasing concern for the water quality impact of urban land use.  Major
published studies in the United States include Detroit; Cincinnati; Atlanta;
San Francisco; Seattle; Tulsa; Columbia, Maryland; Ann Arbor, Michigan;
Durham, North Carolina; and the Santa Ana (groundwater) Watershed in
California.  Foreign studies of note have been conducted in England,  South
Africa, Sweden., Germany, and the Soviet Union.  The planner may hope
that this previous work,  much of which is excellent,  might lead to a
magic wand for divining land use  impacts on water quality.  Unfortunately,
much of the impetus of previous studies has been towards ascertaining
the magnitude of the problem and not with establishing the linkages between
land use and poilutional loading. R. S.  Wiebel has stated in his report on the
Cincinnati study,  "it is obvious from the information obtained thus far
that urban storm runoff cannot be neglected in considering waste loadings
from urban sources.   Information is needed on a variety of environments
over this country to guide us in estimating urban land runoff loadings, not
only because of the different topographical and land use variables, but also
because of the broad spread in climate and hydrology." (194).

The constituents of urban runoff present a varied picture.  They range
from the standard biochemical oxygen demand to the toxic metals.  Many
of the less studied pollutants are closely associated with man's transporta-
tion systems or his maintenance of them.   In the snow regions, for example,
salt and other snow melt chemicals  pose a seasonal problem.  Studies
have  indicated that  salts applied to highways appears in runoff.   A study (3)
in Chicago on the Kennedy Expressway indicates that greater than half
the salt applied is washed off.  More specific information on effects of
de-icing is available in a recent EPA research report by the Edison Water
Quality Laboratory (47).
                                     41

-------
The residue lead sprayed into the atmosphere by automobiles using leaded
gas causes not only air pollution problems, but also impacts the water
environment.   The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that in
1968, 181 tons of lead were emitted into the air by gasoline combustion.
This aerosol lead  is then returned to the earth by atmospheric dustfall (21)
or rainwater washing.

Grease and oil serve as another source of environmental stress.  These
pollutants not only  produce unaesthetic responses in the stream, but they
also reduce light penetration, kill fish and other aquatic creatures,  and
eventually exert a great oxygen demand.

The environmental effect of some contaminants is a function of both the
magnitude and form of the constituents.   Nitrogen bound to hydrogen to
form the ammonia  ion (NH«) has a different effect on the environment than
nitrogen in the form of the nitrate ion (NCO.   The same is true  of elemental
phosphorus and its compounds.   Investigators report the nutrients, nitrogen
and phosphorus in various forms.  The analysis techniques  employed
predicate the  degree of refinement in the reported results.

In order to attempt to establish urban pollution potential, the American
Public Works Association (3) on behalf of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration conducted a  study of the amount and strength of
street litter found in selected urban areas of Chicago.  In this research
the components of the litter are analyzed and the dry weight of soluble
pollutional material presented.   The study presents the results in units of
pounds of soluble litter material, mainly dust and dirt, per hundred feet
of curbing.  It is obvious that the strength of urban runoff is affected both
by land use and urban hygiene.
                                   42

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Table 8 presents the load generating coefficients for four categories of
land use and the atmospheric loading factor for nitrogen.—   It is suggested
that subjective changes in the table are best reflected in the curb :factor or
in the curb loading factor.  A study  of dispersed pollution loads  in Tulsa,
Oklahoma (27) presents the seasonal loading coefficients for twelve planning
areas of varying size and land use mix.  Figure 4 depicts the relative
magnitude for each of the pollutional loads for each of the four land use
categories.

The atmospheric nitrogen loading of 5. 5 pounds per acre year (98)
is applied only to the impervious area in the planning region.  This approach,
therefore, assumes that all the atmospheric nitrogen falling on impervious
areas' will become urban runoff in the  course of a year.  Table 9 gives
estimates of the runoff factor by  land use to apply to the atmospheric nitrogen
load. When an area has mixed land use,  the runoff factor is the weighted
average of the individual use factors.

Urbanization also affects the thermal properties of receiving waters.
Summer temperature rises of from  10 to  15° F have be'en predicted  in
streams in areas undergoing urbanization (95).  The causes are increased
temperature of urban runoff, the heating of shallow impoundments, and the
increased direct solar input caused  by cutting away bank cover.   Figure 5
shows the daily temperature  change for a forested area after clear cut
logging:  In the logging situation, new growth tends to shade and cool the
area.  But in urban areas this growth  may not be able to restore itself;
therefore, the change in the temperature  regime is permanent.  Before
clear cutting, the daily maximum temperature variation is  8° F.  One
year after cutting the value of 8° F is  exceeded 82 percent of the time.
— These are the rates at which the pollution is generated for latter washoff.
  Wash off rates are proportional to the incident rainfall and its runoff.
                                  43

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                                           TABLE 8
                            LAND USE LOAD GENERATING FACTORS


Land Use

Single Family
Multi-Family
Commercial
Industrial
Atmospheric*
(1)
Curb Loading
Factor
Lbs/ 100 Ft/ Year

255.5
839.5
1204. 5
1677.0
N/A
(2)
Curb Factor
100 Ft. of
Curb/Acre

4. 65
4.65
4. 65
4. 65
N/A
(3)
Areal
Loading Rate
Lbs /Acre/Year

1188.
3904.
5601.
7798.
N/A
(4)
Constituent
Loading Rate -
Lbs/ 1000 Lbs of
BOD N
5.0 .48
3.6 .65
7.7 .42
3.0 .42
Lbs/Acre/Year
N/A 5.5


(3)
P°4
.50
.53
. 69
.22
N/A
^Factor applied to impervious acreage.
Source: American Public Works Association (3).

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                                 Figure 4
           Urban Storm Runoff Loading—Tulsa, Oklahoma
45-
40-
35-
30 -
oc
UJ

cc
UJ
Q.
UJ
oc
o
cc
a
m
25-
20 -
15-
10 -
       Land Use:
         S  - Single family
         M — Multiple family
         C — Commercial
         I  — Industrial

       Note: Based on area of
         1 sq. mi. with a curb
         factor of 465 ft/acre
           SMC I
            BOD
SMC I
   N
                                                        SMC I
                                                         PCX.
          Source:  Cleveland, et al. Evaluation of Dispersed Pollution Loads
                  from Urban Areas (28)

-------
                                   Figure 5


              A Frequency Distribution of Diurnal Temperature

                       Changes on a Clear cut Watershed
t-

ui
o
IT

8!


o

UJ

§
UJ
c
      D


      O
      O
          ico
           80
           60
           40
           20
100




 80




 60




 40



 20



  0
                                                      After Logging

                                                         1967
                                                     n    I
                                               Before Logging

                                                   1965
                                   10                     20



                       DIURNAL TEMPERATURE CHANGE. DEGREES F
Source: Studies on  Effects of Watershed Practices  on Streams,  EPA Water  Pollution Control

       Research Series No. 13010 EGA, 1971

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                               TABLE 9
                   LAND USE RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS
 Area Classification                            Runoff Coefficients
 Business,  Industrial and Commercial              0. 80 to 0. 90
 Apartment House Areas                           0. 65 to 0. 75
 Residential (lots 10,000 sq. ft.)                    0.40 to 0.50
 Residential (lots 12, 000 sq. ft. )                    0. 40 to 0. 45
 Residential (lots 17,000 sq. ft.)                    0.35 to 0.45
 Residential (lots 1/2 acre or more)                0. 30 to 0. 40
 Source:  Virginia Department of Highways ^  Drainage Manual

 b.  Hydro logic Effects --It has long been recognized that urban develop-
 ment in a watershed causes change in the streamflow regimen.  The urbani-
 zation process produces four  effects on the hydrology of the area.  They
 are:
       (1)    Changes in the peak flow characteristics
       (2)    Changes in the total runoff and frequency of flooding
       (3)    Possible reduction of groundwater recharge
       (4)    Enlargement and degradation of the stream channel

 The two chief characteristics affecting the overland flow are the percent
 imperviousness of an area and the  percent of the area  served by storm
 water sewers.  The first effect exhibited is an increase in the discharge of
 an area after urbanization.  Leopold (95) has compared studies by various
I investigators and related the ratio  of post to pre-urbanization discharges
 of the mean annual flood for various combinations of imperviousness and
 storm sewers (see Figure 6).   Studies have shown that a stream strives
 to reach a state of  equilibrium in its channel size.  The actual discharge of
 the average annual flood and other  flows in the basin may be calculated by
 employing hydrologic principles.   If this  is deemed necessary at the initial
                                  47

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                        Figure 6

       Effect of Urbanization on Mean Annual
       Flood for a 1-Square-Mile Drainage Area
                20       40       60       80

              PERCENTAGE OF AREA IMPERVIOUS
                        100
               Values of ratio = •
 discharge after urbanization
: '   —^^—    i  . i —ii^^^^^^^^j.

 discharge before urbanization
Source:  Hydrology for Urban Land Planning, USGS Circular 554,1968

-------
planning level, the practitioner is referred to the U. S. Geological Survey
Circular, "Hydrology for Urban Land Planning .  . . " (95).

Natural recharge to the groundswater occurs when a portion of precipitation
percolates downward through the permeable layers of the soil.  The
effects of urbanization with its covering of the natural surface with man
made materials severly impedes any local recharge except by lateral
flow.  In addition, the composition of the soil structures by more intensive
use of the surface retards infiltration to the underlying aquifers.

In many instances groundwater actually recharges surface streams.
Hydro legists call the groundwater contribution to streams the base flow.
During periods of dry weather a reduction in base flow is mirrored in the
reduction of streamflow with the  corresponding increase in the pollutional
consequences attributable to low  flows.   In shoreline areas the groundwater
table  acts as a buffer against the intrusion of salt water. A reduction in
recharge lowers the groundwater table and allows the sea to advance further
into the aquifers.  This condition can have severe repercussions on ground-
water drinking water supplies.

A-stream responds to increased hydrologic loadings imposed by urbaniza-
tion by attempting to reestablish  equilibrium flow conditions.  This results
in stream enlargement as described by Hammer (73.).  The effects are
presented as ratios of post to pre-development for various land uses in
Table 10.  These ratios can be weighted for a land use mix to arrive at a
channel enlargement ratio for a planning area.  Adjustment factors to the
enlargement ratio for (1)  changes in watershed size, and (2) distance of
flow from the planning area to the stream under  study are available in the
literature (73, 130 ).   These adjustments are applied to the composite
ratio  to arrive at a final ratio.
                                 49

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                              TABLE 10
         CHANNEL ENLARGEMENT EFFECTS OF LAND USES
                    IN A ONE SQUARE MILE BASIN
Land Use Type                                         Effect -
Land in Cultivation         .                              1.29
Wooded Land                                              .75
Land in Golf Courses                                     2. 54
Areas of Houses p> 4 Years Old, Fronting on
   Sewered Streets    .                                   2.19
Area of Sewered Streets ^ 4 Years Old                    5. 95
Other Impervious Area "^ 4 Years Old                    6. 79
Non-impervious Developed Land,  Plus
   Impervious Area > 4 Years Old and
   Unsewered Streets  and  Houses                         1. 08
Open Land (Residual Category)                             . 90

 — Post development channel size 4- predevelopment size (in terms of
   cross-sectional area).
 Source:  Hammer (73).
2.  Agricultural Drainage

The greatest potential for nutrient enrichment of the water environment lies
in agricultural drainage, for both surface and groundwater resources.  The
problem of estimating the magnitude of the loadings is very complex.  An
appreciation of these complexities may be garnered by looking at the
linkages between fertilizer, crops and pollution.

The virgin soil covering the United States contained over 10 billion tons of
organic nitrogen.  Cultivation induced nitrification and the nitrate rapidly
leaked away.   Farmers, in effect, have been mining the rich soils of
America and replacing the depleted stocks with fertilizer.

                                 50

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It is the misuse of fertilizers which poses the great pollutional threat.
Each crop has an optimum amount of fertilizer for maximum yield, and
a time schedule on which the fertilizer should be applied.  These factors
affect the end amount that goes to crop production and the portion that
goes to pollution.  The natural disposition of the residual nutrients is
still under active investigation.  The proportion that adheres to the soil,
leaches to groundwater, runs off to streams or returns to the atmosphere
remains  in question.

For these reasons the planner must rely on ranges of values for agricultural
runoff.  Table 11 presents the ranges found by Sylvester  ( 9  ) and Witzel (208)
in studies in Washington State and Wisconsin.  Subsurface flow relates to
that portion of the precipitation which percolates through the soil, or is
caught in drains under the  farmland and returned directly to the  surface
flow.

                              TABLE 11
               AGRICULTURAL POLLUTIONAL LOADS
                                    TOTAL N            TOTAL P
                                  (Lbs/Acre/Year)    (Lbs/Acre/Year
Surface                             2.45-28.3          0.68-3.99
Subsurface                         38    -166           2.5  -8.9

Source: (9 and 208)
A second major source of agricultural loading is feedlots and other types
of animal production.  In certain regions,  this is a problem of considerable
magnitude and cannot be ignored.  In 1967, feedlot operations were
responsible for  16 percent of the fish killed in the United States (96).
                                51

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It is possible to estimate the magnitude of the raw sewage generated by
livestock.  A study by the EPA (37) determined the average pollutional
characteristics of animal wastes in pounds per animal per day.  By
employing these estimates and the  production figures for the animal
population, the total raw animal waste generated per year can be calculated.

However, Loehr (96) states that, "The amount of animal waste that is
retained on the land or reaches ground and surface waters is  not well
documented/ It is incorrect to use the amount of waste  defecated by an
animal to indicate the actual surface and ground water pollution that may
result. "  The planner or engineer,  thus,  is left with the problem of
estimating the  percentage of animal waste which will reach the groundwater
or receiving water.   This has been studied in some  detail, but there is no
simple, numerical method of estimating the general case.  Another EPA
report (123) concludes that, "The extent of water pollution caused by farm
animal production units  is more dependent on production and waste manage-
ment practices than on the volume of wastes involved."  The key to this
problem is in proper regulation,  which can insure,  through insistence of
waste treatment or spreading,  that little or none of  the waste reaches the
surface water system.

Sediment is also a major pollutant arising from agricultural activity.
Studies indicate that better than half of the sediment load carried by the
streams of the nation is derived from agricultural erosion.  This waste of
soil resources presents both a severe environmental stress and a great
economic loss.

The Soil Conservation Service  estimates allowable soil loss rates from
agricultural activity.  These tolerable rates are those at which the topsoil
is replaced for specific crops and soil types.  In a given locality  the
                                     52

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planner may employ the services of the local soil conservation district
in order to ascertain the exact magnitude of the agricultural erosion in
the area.

3.  Construction Runoff
Erosion from construction sites has long been recognized as a serious
problem,  and many control measures have been developed, mostly on a
very local basis.  Many factors contribute to the erodibility of an area.
They include the inherent erodibility of the soil (texture, structure,
organic content, permeability), as well as rainfall distribution and
intensity, soil cover, slope and conservation practices.  A method
receiving widespread use to estimate gross  erosion is the  universal soil
loss equation ( 1 ),
              A=RLSKCP
This equation expresses gross soil loss within a basin on a tons per acre
per year basis as a product of factors for: rainfall (R), slope length (L),
slope  steepness  (S),  soil erodibility (K),  cropping management (C),  and
conservation practices  (P).  From this it can be seen that  the same soils
in different parts of the country may exhibit different gross erodibility
due to different  rainfall factors.  The Dow Report (18) catalogs some gross
erosion rates for several land uses in various parts of the country.  These
are reproduced  in Table 12.

Therefore, for any planning area, a study of the local characteristics of
soil erodibility is indicated.   Once this is done, "the universal soil loss
equation or similar techniques may be employed with the C value adjusted
to show construction activity.  The effect of construction practices at
several sites in the Potomac area was studied by Wolman  (210) and is shown
in Figure 7.
                                      53

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                                TABLE 12

                     EROSION RATES REPORTED FOR
                       VARIOUS SEDIMENT SOURCES
  Sediment
   Source
  Erosion Rate
ton/sq. mi. /year
 Geographic Location
   C omment
Natural
Agricultural
Urban
Highway
Construction
     15-20
     32-192

     200

     320
     13-83
     25-100

     115
     12,800
     13,900
      1,030
 10,000-70,000
                    200-500
                    320-3,840
 50  50,000

  1,000-100,000

   1,000

     500
     146
     280
     690
   2,300

  36,000

 50,000-150,000
Potomac River Basin

Pennsylvania and
Virginia
Mississippi River
  Basin
Northern Mississippi
Northwest New Jersey
Missouri Valley
Northern Mississippi
Northern Mississippi
                   Eastern U. S.  Piedmont
Kensington,  Maryland
                                  Washington, D.C. Area

                                  Philadelphia Area
                                  Washington, D.C. Area
                                    Watersheds
Fairfax Co.,  VA

Georgia
Native Cover
Native Cover
Natural Drainage
  Basin
Throughout
  Geologic History
Forested Watershed
Forest and Under-
  Developed Land
Soils Eroding at the
  Rate They Form

Loess Region
Cultivated Land
Pasture Land
Continuous Row Crop,
  Without Conserva-
  tion Practices
Farmland
Established as
  Tolerable Erosion

Undergoing Extensive
  Construction
Small Urban Con-
  struction Area
750 Square Mile Area
  Average

As Urbanization
  Increases
Construction on
  179 Acres
Cut Slopes
Source: Dow Chemical Corporation ( 18)
                                        54

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                                    Figure 7

                Relationship of Drainage Area, Sediment Yield
                and Construction Activity: Suburban Maryland
   105
 DC
 >-
r-T
H

O

UJ
>
H

UJ
5
Q
UJ
C/5
   10
   10"
          0.01
                                                          •  Watersheds Undergoing
                                                               Construction
                                                          O  "Natural" Watersheds
                      0.1
                                                                               km.'
               0.01
                          0.1          1          10

                               DRAINAGE AREA
                                                             100
                                                                         1000
 Source:  Water Resources Research, vol. 3, No. 2, 1967 (224)

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4.  Resource Extraction

The need for metal, oil,  coal and other minerals that feed the demands
of American consumption continues to grow.  Since these resources are
necessary,  the extraction processes involved must take place.  Therefore,
the most important aspect of assessing the probable impact of resource
extraction land use is to  know the level of service of controls that exist,
or are technologically feasible in each resource industry.

As with industrial pollution, it is a meaningless exercise to attempt to
generalize pollution parameters  over the entire range of extraction pro-
cesses.  However, the broad categories of resource extraction activities
and their possible areas of water quality degradation are  cataloged below.
      a.     Dredging Processes
            (1)   Increased suspended soil content (turbidity)
            (2)   Increased BOD from benthic deposits
            (3)   Curtailment of recreational use
            (4)   Changes in river flow characteristics
      b.     Drilling Processes
            (1)   Runoff or washoff of spilled chemicals or drilling mud
            (2)   Spillage during transport of product
            (3)   Disposition of well field brines          ,
      c.     Mining Processes
            (1)   Increased erosion
            (2)   Effluent from tailing ponds
            (3)   Acid drainage from shafts and pits
            (4)   Leaching from slag piles and tailings
            (5)   Runoff from tailings

In each case,  the possible pollutional consequences should be studied on
a case specific basis.  Remedies, in many cases, are "after-the-fact, "
and consist of the enhancement of a ruined stream, when  the original

                                     56

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state,  with its attendant benefits,  could have been preserved with little
or no additional long-term cost.
C.    EFFECTS OF LAND USE WITHIN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE
      AREAS
In considering any region for development,  particular attention should
be focused on the environmentally sensitive areas and the impact of
development on them.  The thrust of the previous sections has been
towards the appreciation of the conventional pollutional loadings generated
by man.  Employing land  in sensitive areas for development not only
removes any natural protection they might have had from man-imposed
pollution, but may also destroy the area for present or potential uses which
may have a  higher social  or economic value.  Several categories of
sensitive areas are described below.

1.  Flood Plains  and Shorelines

The use of flood plains and low lying shoreline areas for development has
caused many economic losses as well as losses of life over the years.
It is now generally accepted that  such development may be unwise and
needs control.  Less well understood is the fact that flood plains function
as natural safety values and recycle centers.   The storms which cause
flooding wash great quantities of  sediment and nutrients into the streams.
When a river overflows its banks, the velocity usually decreases and  the
nutrient-rich sediment settles out.  As the river recedes, it leaves behind
the sediment load.  Thus  the flood plain has acted as a temporary storage
area for large volumes of water from which suspended solids have settled
to enrich the soil.  Man's use of  flood plains, including flood control mea-
sures, which dike off flood plain  areas, subverts this natural role of the
low plains.  The  sediment remains in the river to build sandbars, fill lakes
and bury wetlands.  Agriculture, open space, recreation,  harbors,  and
marinas are all land uses which  can be compatible with flood plains.
                                   57

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Shorelines represent one of the greatest recreational resources.  Many
shoreline areas are dependent upon maintaining sand dune structures
as a defense against erosion by the sea.  The strength of the dunes, in
turn, depends on the vitality of the plant communities which live upon it.
These plant associations need fresh water.  The potential depletion or pollution
of the fresh groundwater resources of shoreline areas makes these areas
quite unsuitable for development.

2.  High Erosion Areas

The erosional potential of any soil type increases with the slope of the
land and any disturbance of the stabilizing cover on steep slopes presents
a danger for excessive erosion.  Variations due to soil type cannot be
generalized; each region has special features and the local office of the
Soil Conservation Service provides local data. However, any slopes greater
than 12-15 percent  are identified as sensitive areas for planning.  Such
steep lands can be  employed for forestry, recreational use and, in certain
cases, isolated low density residential development.  The amount of
erosion which is  suspended as  sediment is a function of watershed size.
Small watersheds contribute a  greater portion of their eroded soil to the
waters passing through them.  These watersheds are best left for recreational
use, institutional open space, or low  density residential development.
Construction should take place only under the most stringent erosion
controls.

3.  High Siltation Areas

The ability of the watercourse to carry sediment is a direct function of
the velocity in the stream.  This is readily apparent when one considers
the sediment build-up where free  flowing  streams enter impoundments or
                              58

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where a stream channel widens. The velocity drops and the suspended
soil particles settle out.   This  points to two areas that are sensitive to
development.  The first is small,  sluggish streams that may well cease
to exist under heavy erosional pressure.  The other is areas of free
flowing streams above an impoundment.  Since these areas can
be large,  they can hold a variety of land uses. The critical  feature in
these areas is that erosion during the construction phase must be
strictly controlled.

4. Upper Tributary Areas

The generation  and preservation of high quality surface water is a legitimate
land  use  goal.  The natural forestlands of America yield essentially pollution-
free  runoff. Even the  mildest degradation  in  quality  at these beginnings
has severe repercussions along the entire length of the  rivers.  Many
municipalities maintain forested areas to draw their water supplies from.
The savings in  treatment costs are far greater than any realizable develop-
ment  gains. These upper tributary areas should receive less pressure
for development and perhaps be left as natural open space for recreational
enjoyment.

5. Aquifer Recharge Areas

These areas are to groundwater what upper tributary areas are to surface
water.  They are the major source of clean,  unpolluted water for the
groundwater systems of the region.  Development in these regions not only
presents possible pollutional sources to the groundwater, but also reduces
the amount of recharge reaching the aquifer system.  Again, the reper-
cussions can be extensive including the lowering of the groundwater table,
the reduction of base flow to the streams and  rivers,  and,  in coastal areas.
                                     59

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the intrusion of salt water into the aquifer system.  Development should
be carefully considered and major topographic changes avoided in recharge
areas.

6.  Estuaries and Wetlands

Estuaries are river mouths where tidal action brings about a mixing of
salt and fresh water.  Associated with the estuarine environment are
salt and fresh water coastal marshes. The inland wetlands are the  fresh
water marshes, swamps and bogs.'   The dredging and filling of estuaries
should be done only under the most carefully controlled conditions.
The coastal marshes should be reserved for natural open space and wild-
life habitats and the adjoining lands restricted to low density residential
development.   Much inland wetland acreage that is developed is drained
for agricultural use.   These inland areas serve a needed natural function;
as such,  they should be used only for non-disruptive agriculture and
isolated urban  development.
                              60

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                             CHAPTER III
             EFFECTS OF WATER QUALITY ON LAND USE

The availability of adequate quantities of useable water is a necessity for
a wide range of residential, commercial, industrial, recreation and agri-
cultural land uses.   To have access to a large river that is too polluted to
use is virtually the same as being in a water scarcity situation.  Thus,
the extent of deterioration  of the quality of water will affect the amount
of clean water that  is available for beneficial use, and in turn will limit
the productive use of the land.   To a large extent, the pattern and quality
of land use depends upon the extent to which wastewater discharges are
treated prior to entering the receiving water, the control of non-point
sources, and the provision of sewer services.  This chapter discusses the
nature and degree of water quality and water quality management impacts
upon land use.

A.    THE ROLE OF WATER  QUALITY IN URBAN GROWTH

The National Water Commission found there is a definite interdependence
between the development of water  and other resources.  However, insofar
as stimulating urban growth is concerned, the provision of water in
sufficient quantity and quality does not necessarily appear to have any
greater effect than  the other fundamental economic and location factors
requisite to economic growth  (132). It is unlikely, for example,  that the
instant enhancement of poor water quality of any city pursuing expanded
growth would significantly  influence the existing growth rate.  But the
instant demand of 25, 000 new workers may influence growth immediately.
On the other hand,  if water pollution was  at a level where the
receiving waters could not tolerate any additional sewage effluent dis-
charges, none of these workers could  settle in the town until adequate
sanitation facilities  could be provided.  In other words, while adequate
water quality may not stimulate growth,  growth clearly cannot occur without
it.
                                 61

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B.    WATER QUALITY AS A LAND USE DETERMINANT

1.  Water Quality Effects on Industry

Industries rely upon water in several important ways,  particularly as a
transportation avenue for raw materials and finished products,  as a
source of water supply for processing and cooling, and as a receiver of
waste by-products.  The quality of navigable waters has little impact on
accessibility of channels, shorelines or harbors.   An exception would be
the extreme pollution of a navigation channel such as the Cuyohoga River
in Cleveland where heavy deposits of oils, chemicals and debris cause an
extreme fire hazard and excessive corrosion to ship and barge hulls and
wharfing facilities.  The Mayor of Cleveland recently noted publicly that
the Cuyohoga was, "the only river in the country that constituted  a fire
hazard. "  In .fact, however,  there may be others.

The major water-using industries are those that withdraw or consume
large quantities of water, or that add substantial pollution to streams.   In
1965 about half of the nation's water withdrawals was for industrial pur-
poses, including cooling for  power generation (5).  It is estimated that at
least 73 percent of these withdrawals occur within metropolitan areas (166).
About 80 percent of the industrial water is used by five major industry
sectors: manufacturing, mining, mineral processing, ordinance, and
construction.  Within  manufacturing, the major users of water are primary
metals, food products, chemicals,  paper products, and petroleum products.

Major water-using industries play a significant role in the  U. S. economy.
Their combined activities accounted for about 37 percent of the total
national income and 29 percent of the total civilian labor force  in 1965.
However, the cost of water supply or the cost of attaining or maintaining
                                    62

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certain standards of water supply or wastewater discharges holds a lesser
role with respect to other costs such as raw materials or labor.  Conse-
quently, with few exceptions,  deterioration of the quality of water supply,
or the required upgrading of wastewater return flow does not have significant
impact on the character of industrial processes or pattern of industrial
development.  Two reasons for this are:
      a.    Low grades of water  may be used in many processes.
      b.    Costs to meet higher quality standards for process and
           codling water often can be recouped through savings accrued
           from reduction of total  water used,  recirculating, reuse of
           captured waste by-products, or by passing costs  on to the
           consumer.

This is not to state that industry  does not display  quality preferences.
Table 13 depicts the preferred limits in some industries' processes.

2.  Water Quality Effect on Agriculture

The most immediate impact of water quality on agriculture concerns the
quality of irrigation water.  In the past, irrigation was largely confined
to the western states.  Modern agricultural practices involving special
crops and farming techniques find irrigation becoming more widespread
throughout the country. The water applied to cultivated lands in the form
of irrigation water  or precipitation follows three basic pathways.  A portion
flows off the land as surface runoff, a portion is lost to surface evaporation,
and the remainder infiltrates the soil.  A part of the infiltrated water is
consumptively used, a part held by the soil, and the remaining surplus,  if
any, moves downward or laterally through the soil.  The water retained
in the  soil is  commonly referred to as the "soil solution."  This retained
water  tends to become more concentrated with dissolved constituents as
relatively pure water is utilized by plants or lost by upward capillary
                                      63

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                                          TABLE 13

              PREFERRED LIMITS FOR SEVERAL CRITERIA OF WATER USE IN
                                  INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES




Turbidity,

Aluminum (hydrate wash)
Baking
Boiler feed
0 to 150 psi
150 to 250 psi
250 to 400 psi
400 to 1000 psi
> 1000 psi
Brewing
Carbonated beverages
Confectionery
Dairy
Electropolating/finishing, rinse
Fermentation
Food canning and freezing
Food processing, general
Ice manufacturing
Laundering
Malt preparation
Oil well flooding
Photographic process
Pulp and paper
Groundwpod paper
Soda and sulfate pulp
Kraft paper
Bleached
Unbleached
Fine paper
Sugar manufacture
Tanning operations
Textile manufacture

max.

. 10

80
40
5
2

10
2



Low
10
10




Low
50

25

40
100
10

20
0.3
25


Color,
max .

10






10
10

None



10




Low
30

5

25
100
5

100
0
70
Taste
and H Dissolved
odor p Solids, Oxveen.
max. min. max. mg/1 max. ml/1
Low
Low

8.0 3000 <2
8.4 1500 <0. 2
9.0 2500 0
9. 6 50 0
< 0. 5 <0. 05
Low 6.5 7.0 1500
Low
Low 7.0 100
None 500
Low
Low
Low 7.5 850
Low
170 to 1300
6.0 6.8
Low
7.0

500

250

300
500
200
Low
6.0 8.0


Source: ASTM, Water Quality Criteria, Pub. #416, 1966.

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action and evaporation.  The soil solution can only be rendered less saline

by dilution with fresh irrigation water or rain, and by downward  leaching

of excess water.


Absolute limits to the permissible  concentrations of salts in irrigation

water cannot be fixed,  for several  reasons:

      a.     It is almost universally true that the soil solution is at least
            three to eight times as concentrated as the water that
            replenishes it, because of the evaporation of water from the
            soil surface,  transpiration of plants,  and the selective
            absorption of salts by the plants.

      b.     There is apparently no definite relationship between the
            concentration and composition of the irrigation water and those
            of the soil solution, which in some cases may be as much as
            100 times more concentrated than the water.

      c.     Plants vary widely in their tolerance of salinity, as well as of
            specific salt constituents.

      d.     Soil types, climatic conditions (such as temperature,  rainfall
            and humidity), and irrigation practices may all  influence the
            reactions of the crop to the salt constituents.

      e.     Interrelationships between and among constituents  may be
            highly significant; the effect on one ion may be modified by
            the presence of another.
A comprehensive description of the relationships among irrigation water,

soil, and crops is given in Agriculture Handbook No.  60 of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture.


Good drainage of the soil may be a more important factor for crop growth

than the  salts in the irrigation supply.  Even when excellent waters are

used, poorly drained land may sometimes cease to be productive,  while

saline waters, on the other hand,  may sometimes be  used on open  well-

drained soils (106).
                                 65

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The concentration of salts in natural irrigation waters is rarely so high
as to cause immediate injury to crops.  If leaching of the root zone does
not take place, however, the concentration of the soil solution at this
depth will increase with successive irrigations until it reaches the limit
of solubility of each salt.  The solubility of many salts  (such as borates,
chlorides,  and sulfates of sodium and magnesium) is beyond the tolerance
limit of many plants; consequently, these salts may build up to toxic
concentrations.  The slow filling of the soil with salts (resulting in the
production of highly concentrated soil solutions) will eventually force the
abandonment of an irrigated area.   This action was probably the cause of
failure of many ancient irrigation systems.

Because of all  the variables involved, the classification of waters  for
irrigation use must be somewhat arbitrary and the limits set cannot be too
rigid.  As general guidelines, the quality classifications employed in the
California Water Quality Criteria publication are suggested.  These
classifications are:
      Class  I -  Excellent to good, or suitable for most plants under
                 most conditions
      Class  II -  Good to injurious, harmful to some under certain
                 conditions of soil, climate, practices
      Clase III -  Injurious to unsatisfactory, unsuitable  under most
                 conditions

These classifications are based on the characteristics of water, which
have been accepted thus far as sufficient to determine its suitability for
irrigation.  Table 14 shows the classification of irrigation waters  sug-
gested by the California study.

The tolerance of animals to salt and other pollutants in water depends
on many factors, such as species, age, physiological condition, content of the
                                   66

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                                                                          TABLE 14
                                                       SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATIONS OF IRRIGATION WATERS
% Na
Na X 100
Na + Ca + Mg + K
as meg per liter
I Less than 30-60%
(Most recent work
favors a 60% limit)
II 30-75%
05 III More than 70-75%

*meg/liter = mg/1 equi'valer
Chlorides
Boron, in mg/1 in meg/i*
Boron recommendation for water of this Less than 2-5.5
class is generally accepted as less than
0.5 mg/1; however tolerant plants will
not be injured by 1-1.5 mg/1.
0.5-2.0 mg/1, although for tolerant •. •• 2-16
plants water with boron up to 3.35 mg/1 •
may be satisfactory.
More than 2 mg/1, although water with More than 6-16
more than 1.0 may be highly unsuitable
for sensitive plants
mg/1 CT
it weight, for example, meg/1 of Cl — 35' 5'
Salinity
(Soil Solution)
EC X 10° at 25° C.
Sul fates Specific conductivity
in meg/1* (Concentration of ions)
Less than 4-10 Earlier papers suggested
limit of about 500, but
more recently 1000 has
been accepted.
4-20 500-3000
More than 12-20 More than 2500-3000


Total sal
in mg/1
Up to about 7
350-2100
More than 175i
2100

Source:   Water Quality Criteria,  California State Water Control  Board,  1963.

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feed, as well as the kinds and amounts of salts. Apparently,  animals can

toletate more salt than can humans and vary in tolerance to different

substances.  There is also evidence that they can, within limits, adjust

to saline waters.


3.  Effect of Water Quality on Recreation Land Uses


Recreational use of water refers primarily to such activities as swimming,

wading, water skiing, skin diving, boating, marinas, shoreline activities,
aesthetic enjoyment and fishing.  Of all beneficial uses of water, perhaps

the least progress in establishing water quality standards has been made

in recreational use.  Water quality criteria for recreational uses have

been limited and either very general and qualitative in nature,  or

quantitative, based on arbitrary assumptions.   The plight of water
               t
recreation was summed up concisely in a recent National Technical
Advisory Report (121), as follows:                       .

      "Recreation uses of water in the United States have historically
      occupied an inferior position in practice and law relative to other
      uses.
      Where maintenance of recreation quality water placed no signifi-
      cant  burden on other water users, recreation has customarily
      been considered an appropriate use.  If other uses degraded quality
      below recreational quality,  the recreation user has usually been
      expected to seek alternative waters, a task constantly rendered
      more difficult by rapidly expanding urbanization and
      industrialization.

      The reasons for these priorities in the uses of water are found in
      the transition from an agrarian to an industrial and urban society.
      Now  the nation faces a new order of social problems,  including,
      for the first time in history, a serious concern for the creative
      uses of the increasing amounts of leisure available to our people.
      Today there is a growing realization that recreation is a full
      partner in water use; one that, with associate services, represents
      a multi-million dollar industry with substantial prospects for
      future growth as well as an important source of psychic and
      physical relaxation. "
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Due to a paucity of quantitative data on water quality criteria for the
protection of recreational use of water, the effects of potential pollutants
are assessed in a qualitative manner.  It should be acknowledged,
however, that the setting of limits on parameters describing minimum
desirable water quality for recreational uses is difficult because of
variations in many of these parameters,  due solely to natural causes.
The management of water for aesthetic purposes must be planned and
executed in the context of land use, shoreline,  and the water surface.
Table 15 reflects  some recent thinking with respect to water quality
criteria for the protection of various uses of recreational waters.
However, any localized analysis of water quality Impacts upon recreation
should be based on established water quality standards.

The recreational use of water for sport fishing can be severely retarded
by poor water quality.  Studies of the effects of various pollutants on fish
and other aquatic  life far exceed the  references to those pertaining to
other beneficial uses of water.  Criteria, first presented by Ellis in  the
report, "Water Purity Standards for Fresh-Water Fishes," ( 48 ) propose
the following optimal limits:
      •     Dissolved oxygen, not  less than 5 mg/1.
      •     pH,  approximately 6.7 to 8.6,  with an extreme range of
            6.3 to 9.0.
      •     Specific conductance at 25  C,  150  to 500 mho x 10   ,
            with a maximum of 1000  to 2000 moh x  10"^ permissible  for
            streams in western alkaline areas.
      •     Free carbon dioxide, not over 3 cc per liter.
      •     Ammonia, not over 1.5 mg/1.
      •     Suspended solids such  that  the millionth intensity level for
            light penetration will not be less than 5 meters.

In the absence of toxic substances  or pollutants, the water described
above is favorable, and not merely sub-lethal,  for a mixed warm-water
                                   69

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                                                     TABLE 15

                          TENTATIVE GUIDES FOR EVALUATING RECREATIONAL WATERS
                                                Water-Contact
Boating and Aesthetic
-o
o

Determination
Conforms, MPN/100 ml
Visible solids of sewage origin
ABS (detergent), mg/1
Suspended solids, mg/1
Floatable oil and grease, mg/1
Emulsified oil and grease, mg/1
Turbidity, silica scale units
Color, std. cobalt scale units
Threshold odor number
Range of pH
Temperature, maximum C
Transparency, Secchi Disk, ft
Noticeable
Threshold
1000^'
none
11
J
4 1
20!/
,4 /
ioi/
- 1
ioi/
' 10T/
is!
32i/
6.5-9.0
39

Limiting
Threshold
2
none
_ i
£/
100
5
20
50
100
256
6. 0-10.0
50

Noticeable
Threshold
-
none
*?
20l/
oi;
2°T
201
15!
32l/
6. 5-9. 0
30
20
Limiting
Threshold
-
none
5
100
10
50
3
100
256
6. 0-10. 0
5°3/
O 1
         — Value not to be exceeded in more than 20 percent of 20 consecutive samples, nor in any three
           consecutive samples.
         2/
         — No limiting concentration can be specified on basis of epidemiological evidence, provided no fecal
           pollution is evident.
         3 /
         — No concentration likely to be found in surface waters would impede use.

         Note: Noticeable threshold  represents level at which people begin to  notice and perhaps to complain.
              Limiting threshold is level at which concentrations prohibit or seriously impair use of water for
              recreation.

         Source: McGauhey, P.H.,  Engineering Management of Water Quality, McGraw-Hill, 1968.

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fish population and its food organisms.  It must not, however, be
assumed that fish are not found or cannot survive in waters with concen-
trations beyond these limits.  In addition  to the above  criteria,  water
temperature must also be considered.  Table 7  in Chapter II describes
provisional maximum recommended temperatures for various species.

Some researchers in this area have concluded that the public health
basis upon which water quality standards  and criteria  are largely based
is not adequate for protecting recreation and aesthetic values of water
(46).  Insofar as the value of water for  recreational use and aesthetic
enjoyment are functions of human motivation and attitudes,  more  research
is needed to develop a set of psychological standards for water quality (50).

The economic consequences of the loss of recreational land due to
polluted water were  highlighted by a study of the Lake Erie Basin by the
U. S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation which concluded that control  of
pollution in presently affected areas would increase swimming by six
million activity days annually (177).  Table 16 shows the dollar values
associated with opening beach areas closed by poor water quality.  This
report states:
      "If the water quality of the lake (Lake Erie) and  its tributaries
      were improved, public agencies would be more prone to consider
      additional beach development.  As an example, the City of Toledo
      with more than 300, 000 people is adjacent to the shores of Lake
      Erie and has no public swimming facilities along the shore.  There
      is little inclination to provide swimming facilities under present
      water quality conditions. Under suitable water quality conditions,
      public pressure could very well cause such facilities to be provided.
      The Cleveland Regional Planning  Commission estimates the four
      county areas of Cuyohoga, Lorain>  Lake, and Geauga will need 81
      additional acres of beach by 1970.  Emphasis could be placed on
      acquisition along the Lake Erie shore if water quality were  improved
      to permit swimming in areas acquired. "
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                              TABLE 16

           ESTIMATED INFLUENCE OF  WATER QUALITY ON
              SWIMMING ACTIVITY AT PUBLIC BEACHES
                          LAKE ERIE BASIN
                    (STATED IN DOLLAR VALUES)
Estimated swimming activity at public
beaches (1963)                                           $16,455,000

Estimated swimming activity at public beaches  which
frequently exhibit poor water quality and should
be closed (1963)                                          $    780,000
Estimated swimming activities without water quality
improvement-                                            $15,675,000

Increase in swimming activity with improved
water quality                                         .

Reopening of closed beaches                              $  1, 325, 000

Increased participation by present patrons                 $  2, 640, 000
Increased attendance participation                         $  2, 625, 000
Total increase                                           $  6,590,000

Estimated swimming activity with improved water
quality                                 .                  $23, 045, OOP

Annual loss without improved conditions and
with enforcement                                         $  7,370,000
Source: U. S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Water Oriented Outdoor
        Recreation -- Lake Erie Basin, Ann Arbor, Michigan,  August 1966,
        p. 9-9.
                                     72

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4.  Effect of Water Quality on Land Values

The quality of water can affect land values in a variety of ways.  Enhance-
ment of river  or lake waters enhances the value  of adjacent land.  While
the provision of sewer services generally enhances land value, the stigma
of a nearby sewage treatment plant may degrade property value.  It is
clearly evident from observing the pattern and character of urban develop-
ment that a corresponding relationship exists between high water quality
and healthy urban environments from an economic,  social and ecologic
viewpoint.  Similarly, poor water quality is typically associated with
deteriorated or even blighted waterfronts.  Human activity generally tends
to avoid contact or proximity to water of poor quality.

For the most part,  however, little attention has  been given to measuring
or studying these relationships except for the public health aspects upon
which the early attempts at  setting water quality standards were based.
In the case of  the economic  impact of water quality  on land values,  only a
few relatively isolated case studies are available which have inquired into
this relationship.

Poor water quality particularly affects land values for residential and
recreational land uses.  Concerned citizens,  particularly homeowners
adjacent to polluted rivers and lakes, are increasingly organizing political
pressure to initiate water clean-up efforts.  Pressures  are  being brought
to bear on both the local polluters and enforcement  agencies.

A study by Beyer (12) states that homeowners along a clean  section of the
Rockaway River in New Jersey generally considered the presence of the
river to add value to their homes, while the majority of homeowners
along a polluted river section considered the  river's presence detrimental.

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Realtors interviewed during this study all agreed that polluted water tends
to affect the value of neighboring real estate.  One realtor speculated that,
if the river were cleaned up,  property values could immediately rise by
10-20 percent.  A study of Lake Onandega, New York, estimates a land
value appreciation rate of approximately 200 percent if the water quality
level of a nearby lake were equalled (Benefits of Water Quality Enhance-
ment,  EPA Project #16110DAJ: Dec. , 1970).

An estimate made by a Corps of Engineers study suggests that improved
water quality could drive the price of waterfront property upward by as
much as  13 percent.  In  the Nashua River Basin of New Hampshire,  it is
estimated that improved water quality would thus enhance the real estate
value by  nearly  $7 million (71).

Coughlin and Hammer (32) have pointed out that there are a host of inter-
acting variables which must be considered in determining land value along
a given body of water, including several factors pertaining to water
pollution control.  Results from their  analysis suggest that houses near
streams  with good water quality are perceived as being worth between "a
little more" and "much more" because of their  closeness to a stream.
The  probability  of believing that one's house is  worth more because of the
closeness of the stream, they conclude,  is 0. 2  for the cleanest streams
and 0. 025 for the dirtiest.  The relationship is  clear:  high water quality  is
perceived as having a positive effect on land and housing  value.

C.    EFFECT OF WATER  QUALITY  MANAGEMENT ON LAND USE

The  preceding section explored some of the significant impacts water
quality may have on particular land uses. This section explores the
impacts of specific water quality management measures,  such as inter-
ceptor sewer extensions and the location of treatment plants.   The pro-
vision of wastewater services may impact the land uses they are designed
to serve.  They may also encourage the proliferation of sprawl
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and accelerate growth rates.  It is,  therefore, important that the predictable
nature of these impacts be anticipated in comprehensive metropolitan area
planning as well as in the formulation of criteria and standards by which
these services and management measures are planned arid administered.

The following impacts are considered herein:
      •    Impacts of interceptor sewers.
      •    Impacts of treatment plants.
      •    Impacts of sewer connection policies.
      •    Second cycle pollution.

While there is not a great amount of data available to accurately assess
the magnitude of these impacts, it is clear that the provision of sewer
services and the initiation of certain water quality management strategies
raises land use issues which must be given close  consideration.   Such
issues range in significance from small scale site impacts to large scale
regional influences. Where applicable, the following discussion will cite
impact examples and  cases where land use policy and sewer service
policy have been interrelated.

1. The Impact of Interceptor Sewers on Land Use

The pattern,  density and timing of urban development is closely related
to the placement of interceptor sewers.  Other factors are obviously
critical to urban expansion (i. e. , water,  schools,  land prices,  access,
etc. ) but major sewer lines do play a lead role in making urban develop-
ment possible where it could not occur before.  Furthermore, services
other than sewers tend to be  more easily extended in response to economic
pressures because they are less limited by topography and are of lower
capital cost.
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Due in great part to the historic absence of coordination between sewer
authorities and comprehensive planning agencies, interceptors have often
been constructed in locations where induced land development was out of
scale with other existing or planned services.  The typical situation has
been a suburban area which requires public sewer services due to
increasing land development pressures and the inadequacy of on-site or
package plant disposal systems.  In the tradition of a public utility (i. e. ,
"services must be  supplied wherever there is a demand"), an interceptor
system is extended.  For efficiency reasons, the interceptor is designed
with enough capacity to serve the maximum service-area  population,
which is  more likely to be based upon trend-extension forecasts than
upon land use plans.  Several negative  impacts may then result.  The
land use  impacts fall into two basic categories: growth inducement, and
degradation of impacted natural environments.

a.  Growth Inducement  -- As with freeway construction, major sewer
lines have a tendency to become self-fulfilling prophecies. That is, an
interceptor tends to induce the amount of development which was its
original premise for construction.   Not only does capacity get met and
often surpassed (i.  e. , due to density-increasing zoning changes), but
the rate of development is escalated.  A 20-year design capacity is often
consumed in half that time.  With the trend toward regional sewer
systems,  this growth inducement impact could become even more severe.
      (1)   In some cases, the construction of large interceptors threatens
           to impose growth on jurisdictions which are ill-equipped to
           provide services and to control land  development.  For example,
           there is a firm plan to  run an interceptor from Detroit straight
           north to the town of Romeo. An existing water quality manage-
           ment plan specifies long-term facility construction, but  there
           is some concern that land use planning will not precede con-
           struction.   In that event, a development boom  could hit the
           undeveloped,  unprepared areas between Romeo and the growth
           fringe of the Detroit Metropolitan Area.

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      (2)   An impact which has received little previous attention is the
           runoff pollution which can be the result of extending new inter-
           ceptor lines.  In erosion-prone areas,  water quality planners
           may be trading off sanitary sewage problems for large amounts
           of construction-related sedimentation and stream bank erosion.
           In Atlanta it is estimated that construction of a proposed contro-
           versial interceptor sewer (42 to 72 inches) would induce sub-
           stantial new development in a  large, relatively undeveloped
           service area.  While the new  interceptor would help solve the
           existing pollution problems caused by inefficient package plants,
           it is argued that the new induced development will generate
           large amounts of runoff pollution.

In view of the growth  inducement potentials of  many current grant applica-

tions,  consideration is being given by federal agencies to the adoption of
policies which would discourage the  giant-step design approach which has
characterized interceptor sewer planning.  Such policies would encourage

incremental construction and discourage sewer lines from traversing large

expanses of open land.


b.    Degradation of Impacted Natural Environments -- The construction

of a large interceptor can also affect the land resources near the facility
sites  such as stream bank cover, vegetal and wooded growth along right-of-
way,  recreation areas and unique natural areas. These impacts upon the
natural environment's protective systems are  generally both direct and

secondary.


Directly, facility construction can generate stream-smothering erosion
and can result in the denuding of stream banks.  The destruction of foliage,
results in a reduction of the flood plain's ability to  filter but impurities

and to reduce runoff velocity.


Interceptors  which are placed in close proximity to parks  and natural

areas can have severe secondary impacts in terms of the induced urban

development.
                                  77

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      (1)    The previously mentioned interceptor in Atlanta threatens
            a proposed park area in this manner.  The encirclement of
            this park with development would not only diminish the
            feasibility of preservation but also cause imbalance in the
            park's ecologic processes due to drainage modifications,
            runoff pollution, construction damages and overusage.
      (2)    A similar situation exists in Flint, Michigan, where an inter-
            ceptor along the Flint River was planned  through a heavily
            forested park.  In that case, however, public pressure caused
            the sewer to be rerouted in order to preserve the ecological
            uniqueness of the park.
Interceptors,  since they normally follow low areas  such as stream valleys,
can also place increased development pressure on the flood plains.  With-
out some type of limitation on sewer connections for flood plain properties,
stream buffers can be partially or completely eliminated.

It is of some significance to note that stringent environmental impact assess-
ment procedures are now required for highway routes passing through or
near public parks, and nature preserves (Section  4 (f) of the Department of
Transportation Act, as amended).  The essence of this policy is that no
highway  route affecting a 4 (f) property will be approved so long as there
are alternative routes which avoid such lands.  In spite of the fact that
parks and open space are equally favored for sewer rights-of-way (due       '
in part to topography and desire to avoid social disruption) and that inter-
ceptor sewers are comparable growth stimulators,  no such similar policy,
other than  NEPA requirements, has been formulated to reduce the park
impacts  of sewers.

c.  Efforts Toward Coordination --If the extension  of major sewer  trunks
into new service areas serve as such a dominant influence upon the  timing,
shape  and  density of growth it would  seem logical that better formulated
sewer policies could  be used as a powerful tool in implementing land use
plans.  This subject has received a  great deal of attention in recent years,
mostly at the theoretical level of discussion.
                                   78

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Canadian examples are often cited where growth is controlled through the
provision of water and sewer facilities.  The Province of Ontario imposed
controls governing land use and population density on its 900-odd com-
munities through giving or withholding permission to localities  for water
and sewage systems.   Metropolitan Toronto  is committed to the develop-
ment of major interceptors as a first step in providing services to areas
planned for growth.  The Toronto experience,  however, is  an exception to
the way growth generally occurs in the United States.   For  instance, the
limit of Toronto area growth is set by the province, as opposed to the local
autonomy prevalent in the United States.

In the United States, few states seem to  be prepared to take such com-
paratively drastic measures (98).   Until recently,  there was skepticism
held by many that local government could effectively exercise any controls
beyond traditional zoning powers.  Walker and Wengert concluded from a
study of Detroit that "water supply policy is  a very weak weapon in the
struggle for more rational land use" . . . and "it is futile to  expect to do
indirectly what cannot be done directly. " (21 i) Moreover,  in the United
States there have been relatively few  "major" interceptors  constructed  in
wastewater management systems at a time or scale adequate to affect growth.
Interceptors have usually been constructed after substantial growth has
occurred.  They are constructed to collect or link the web of smaller sewer
systems that have crept out into the expanding  suburbs on an incremental
fashion.

Today,  however, with greater interest in water quality and in reducing the
amount of development dependent upon private  package plants and septic
systems, there  is a growing list of regional  scale sewage systems and inter-
ceptors. The availability of increased federal cost sharing, of course, has
also given impetus to the expanded scale of planning and construction.
                                   79

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While some metropolitan areas are in the process of evolving coordinated

sewer and land use policies, two particularly interesting examples are

the Lexington,  Kentucky, and Washington,  D.C.  metropolitan areas.  The
following  discussion elaborates on these two case examples.

      (1)   Several years ago, Lexington,  Kentucky, established an
           urban/rural service area plan.   Under the urban service
           area concept, practically all new urban-type development
           is located inside the urban service area.  The urban service
           area forms a ring around the built-up area of Lexington,
           presently encompassing an area of 73 square miles.  The
           remaining 210 square mile portion of Fayette County --
           within which Lexington is located -- is designated as a rural
           service area, and is to remain undeveloped or agricultural
           in character.

           The major intent of the urban service area is to concentrate
           urban  development within a controlled space so as to prevent
           sprawled or scattered development and attendant higher costs
           for services. For instance, installation of water lines large
           enough for fire hydrants (6-inch or 8-inch) cost roughly
           $33, 000  per mile in the area.  Obviously,  per capita costs
           would  be extremely high if this service were provided on a
           scattered basis.

           The urban service area has undergone only three major changes
           since its establishment in 1958.  Expansions of the urban
           service area are based upon careful analysis of topography,
           soil conditions,  and generally follow  drainage basin areas in
           order  to maintain continuity of water and sewer services.
           Since 1958, only seventeen requests have been made to zone
           land within  the rural service area for urban activities.  Four
           of these  were for special travel support facilities,  and were
           approved.   Of the other 13 requests,  eight were disapproved,
           one was  withdrawn, and only four were approved.

           In administering zoning and subdivision regulations  within
           the urban service area, the supply of utilities is the basic
           determinant of the areas to be opened to development.  If
           the provision of services is too difficult,  out of phase,  or
           otherwise too costly, approval may be postponed or denied
           until services can be effectively and efficiently extended.
                                    80

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(2)    Prince George's County,  encompassing the southeastern
      portion of the Washington, D. C.  metropolitan area,  uses the
      provision of sewer and water facilities as one of the primary
      implementation measures for the County's proposed "staging
      policy. "  The staging policy is formulated by the County, in
      close cooperation with the Maryland National Capital Park
      and Planning Commission and the Washington Suburban Sanitary
      Commission.

      The staging policy indicates the areas and sequence of growth
      over the next  ten years and where public  utility and service
      agencies should concentrate their expenditures.  It is formulated
      to phase new growth in conjunction with existing sewer and
      water  service capacities  and rational extensions of these
      services in conformance  with the comprehensive general plan.

      Maryland state law requires Prince George's County to submit
      annually to the State Department of Health comprehensive
      master plans  for the construction of basic water and sewerage
      facilities.  The state law requires the counties to define their
      "goals, purposes,  and concepts for future development" as a
      basis for preparing the Ten-Year Water and Sewerage Plan.
      The Sanitary Commission prepares for the county a Ten-Year
      Water and Sewer Plan which is subsequently submitted to
      the State Department of Health in compliance with the law.

      The Ten-Year Water and Sewer Plan is designed to serve the
      new areas to be developed as delineated in the staging policy.
      In the  water and sewer plan, precise system area maps
      delineate the sequence whereby water and sewer facilities
      would  be provided over the next ten years.  Thus,  the pro-
      vision of water and sewer services becomes a major controlling
      factor for enabling new areas to  be opened up for development.
      The premises for this staging policy are  as follows:

      (a)   Public services and facilities can be provided most
           efficiently and economically if development occurs in
           a compact manner and a logical sequence.

      (b)   Through effective coordination of zoning actions,
           subdivision actions, and the extension of sewer lines,
           development can be shaped as contemplated in the
           general plan; namely,  into a radial pattern of urbanized
           corridors defined by controlled open space wedges.
                                81

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           While the staging policy has not yet been officially adopted
           at this writing,  its principles have been reflected in the
           current Ten-Year Water and Sewer Plan and recent county
           development decisions.  It is believed that the policy will
           be officially adopted in early 1973 with slight amendments
           to the draft as shown.
2.  The Impact of Treatment Plants on Land Use

In terms of areawide impact,  new or expanded sewage treatment plants
can have the  same secondary  land use effects as interceptor sewers.
Increased sewage treatment capacity can reinforce or support undesirable
growth patterns by extending service to areas which have inadequate
services and facilities for full urban development, are environmentally
sensitive to increased development, or are ill-equipped  for land use
control.

Of course, where land use and sewer service policies are well coordinated,
the reverse impacts can be expected.  In such cases, the treatment plant
capacity and  capacity staging  can encourage growth where desired and dis-
courage it where negative impacts could be expected.

The remainder of this section is devoted to a discussion of the direct land
use impacts caused by the location,  siting,  design, construction, and
operation of sewage  treatment plants. In both urban and rural settings,
the location of a new treatment plant or an expanded treatment plant tends
to be an intrusion into the existing environment.  The facility may obstruct
natural views,  interrupt the continuity of the landscape by its structure
and form, disturb the natural terrain, reduce water-based recreation
opportunities, impact land values,  or create scars due to  construction
and excavation during the site preparation process.  Most of the negative
impacts which have been experienced around sewage treatment plants  have
                                     82

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been the result of either narrowly formulated location studies or inadequate
anticipation of future expansion needs.

a.  Impacts Upon Downstream Land Uses -- One of the common problems
with existing sewage treatment plants is the location of their discharge
points vis-a-vis other land uses which depend upon use of the same
receiving water body.  The placement of treatment plants within or up-
stream from public parks has been one of the most notorious examples of
incompatibility.  Not only have sewage treatment plants degraded the
stream quality within parks and caused noxious odors,  but they also have
introduced visual barriers and blockages of physical access along stream
corridors.

To a lesser extent, other water-using land  uses such as water supply
treatment plants and industries have also been impacted by the locations of
sewage treatment plants.

b.  Aesthetic Impacts  -- In the planning of sewage treatment plants,
adequate attention has  often not been given to the  compatibility of the
plant with the land uses which are adjacent  to it.  Little attention has been
given to landscaping improvements and architectural design as a means of
reducing some of the aesthetic and/or psychological impacts caused by
the presence of a plant.  In residential areas,  new or expanded treatment
plants have often adversely affected the stability of surrounding property
values.  Real estate sales representatives commonly report,  for instance,
the lots in housing tracts  with overlooks to  a conventionally constructed
sewage treatment plant are difficult, and often the last,  to sell.  While the
costs of such lots may be only shaved a small amount from similar lots
with unobstructed views,  buyers clearly demonstrate resistance to buying
such lots.  Technologically,  aesthetically,  and functionally it is possible
                                   83

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to plan and design treatment plants that are compatible.  The costs and
expertise involved in achieving such compatibility have often blocked
progress in this area.

c.  Odor Impacts -- One of the most common problems  encountered in
local reaction against treatment plants involves the stigma created by
odors emanating from the  plants.  The public has come  to generally
distrust  sewage treatment plants.  Poorly operating treatment plants,
giving off bad odors,  are remembered much more vividly than large
plants that run well.

Treatment plant odors under normal operating practices are minor and
can be controlled within the confines of the treatment plant.  However,
odors do get out of control when treatment plant operation is inefficient,
plant capacity has been exceeded, or toxic industrial wastes are dis-
charged  into the system.

d.  Construction Impacts -- Surrounding land uses are also  impacted during
the treatment, plant construction or enlargement process.  These impacts
include the displacement of previous land uses, the destruction of natural
ground cover, the generation of sheet  erosion, noise,  and general dis-
ruption to street transportation and community activity during construction.

Overall,  the record of compatibility for sewage treatment plants  has
not been  good.   They can be done better through improved pre-planning
and project evaluation procedures.  Treatment plants  can be made un-
obstrusive to the natural landscape and the urban  environment with proper
site design, architectural  treatment, and landscaping.   Unfortunately,
where this has been  done effectively,  it is an exception rather than the
rule. Only by providing more successful examples will the  stigma of
sewage treatment plants be minimized within the public's perception.
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3.  The Impact of Sewer Connection Policies on Land Use


The effectiveness of sewer connection bans,  moratoria, and limitations

are being explored in several communities as a means of throttling sewer

system overloads.  For  example,  bans and limitations have been issued

in Fairfax, Montgomery, Prince George's and Prince William Counties

in the Washington metropolitan area,  and in the entire state of Florida

where  adequate treatment is  not available to handle generated wastewater.

Such bans can slow down development either immediately or over a period

of time.


An association of home builders in Montgomery and Prince George's

Counties prepared a report (20). on the impact which the sewer moratorium

will have.  The report predicts the following possible  impacts of the

moratorium in the suburban Maryland  portion of the Washington,  D. C.

metropolitan area due to decrease in construction activity:

     •    Reduction of  Area Economic Output.  Based on an interindustry
           model of the  State of Maryland,  the reduction of new construction
           investment would have a negative multiplier effect of 2. 21 in
           total economic output.  This effect would be somewhat mitigated
           because of the localized nature of the moratorium.  The report
           notes that service business to the construction industry would
           be the hardest hit.

     •    Loss of Income.  Loss of income would amount to eight percent
           of the Gross  Local Product of the two counties.

     •    Elimination of Smaller Construction Firms. Smaller sized
           construction  firms operating primarily in  the areas subject
           to sewer moratorium will likely go out of business because of
           lack of adequate financial resources to move to  other areas.
           Even larger firms that have committed to  large complexes
           may face such problems if alternative sites cannot be found
           elsewhere.

     •    Restriction of New Industrial Growth. New industrial growth
           will be curtailed  because of lack of capacity to dispose of
           industrial wastes and to handle residences stimulated by new
           employment.
                                     85

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           Population Decrease.  The squeeze of employment loss and
           increased housing costs will force middle and low income
           people from the area.

           Hardship on Middle and Low Income Families.  The rising
           value of existing housing will limit the supply of low and
           middle  income housing, forcing the counties into a "rigid
           demographic profile. "

           Decline in Tax Revenues.  The increase in assessed valuation
           for existing land and improvements will probably not produce
           enough  revenue to offset the  decline from assessments which
           would have come from new development.  (The Tax Appeals
           Courts  in Montgomery and Prince George's Counties are
           granting a 25 percent reduction of the assessed value of
           unimproved land when a letter from the sanitary commission
           substantiates that the property is precluded from development
           because of the  sewer moratorium.  In some cases, the Tax
           Appeals Courts have granted up to 75 percent reduction in
           assessed value of a piece of  property.   The number of appeals
           for reassessment because of the moratorium has not been
           great because the general public is not yet fully aware of the
           ruling.  It is anticipated, however, that the total reduction of
           assessed value of all affected unimproved land will be about
           25 percent,  meaning about a 2 percent reduction in total county
           tax revenues.)
It does seem clear that the construction industry in these counties may suffer

until the sewer and treatment plant deficiencies can be corrected. However,

the net economic and land use impact on the area should be measured in

terms of the saving gained through moving toward more  efficient services

as deficiencies are met and capacity for new construction is  developed.


For example, projections in the aforementioned homebuilder's report

were based on the probability of construction stopping completely --

which is not the case.   Moreover, no mention was made of the problems

of perpetuating higher sewer costs due to sprawled or scatterd develop-

ment, as has been prevelant throughout most of the area.  Conspicuous

inadequacies such as these make it quite difficult to assess the validity

of conclusions drawn.
                                      86

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Overall,  it appears that limiting permits for sewer connection may con-
tribute to at least temporary relief from system overload conditions.
However, the method of ordering such limitations as well as the potential
side effects requires  close attention.

While the issuance of moratoria is usually based on an immediate water
quality problem/ the slow-down in development and new hookups is often
delayed by attempts to be fair to the builders already having approved
permits and authorizations.  This problem can only be overcome by either
revoking permits where they have been issued but not yet utilized, or by
issuing sewer bans several months  prior to system overload.

Because  sewer  moratoria alter the  supply component of the housing market,
housing shortages and inflated housing prices can result  within high growth
areas, as depicted in the following diagram:

                Over-Taxed'Sewage Treatment System
                           Water Pollution
                      Imposition of Building Ban
                                I
                   Decrease in Housing Construction
                                1
                   Housing Demand Unmet by Supply
                                I
                        Higher Housing Prices
                                   87

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It is also important to recognize that the issuance of such orders slows
down construction of both bad and good development.  Planned unit
developments,  innovative low and moderate income housing programs and
new towns will be discouraged as much, or more, by an interrupted
building cycle as traditional housing projects.   The potential effect of
Fairfax County's sewer tap allocation formula (i. e.  , "first-come, first-
served") on the new town of Reston, Virginia,  is a case in point.

Finally, the issuance of selective construction moratoria,  if not coordinated
on an area'wide scale,  can shift the burden of growth to jurisdictions which
are, or will be, equally strained to meet growth requirements.  The  net
result may only be a shift of pollution problems to other treatment plants.

4.    Second Cycle Pollution

Successful clean-up of polluted waters may also induce uncontrollable
growth as well as adverse land uses along river corridors and on lake
shore lands that defeat the purpose of the initial clean-up  effort.   Com-
munities which have succeeded in cleaning up their  waters often experience
an onslaught of sudden and unplanned development.  Accompanying this
new growth is a recurrence of pollution and ecological damage which
equals or surpasses that prior to clean-up.  This new phenomenon has
been termed "second cycle" pollution.  The occurrence  of second cycle
pollution seems somewhat inevitable as long as development is  permitted
to  proceed haphazardly following a clean-up effort.

Increasingly, water quality management specialists are noting the dangers
and  complexities of this second cycle  phenomenon in both  metropolitan and
rural areas.
                                     88

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a.   The Metropolitan Second Cycle --  The land development inducements
generated by improved sewage treatment plants and the expansion of sewer
interceptor sewers have been discussed earlier.  Without proper planning
and controls,  such quantum changes in  service capacity can lead to develop-
ment conditions which cycle back to overloaded wastewater facilities.  The
"giant step" expansion of sewer service districts can result in more of the
same problem — namely, rapid growth of point waste loads -- and can also
produce new problems in the form of non-point loads.  A prime case in
point is Illinois1 modern Hanover sewage treatment plant which in 1970 was
considered one of the most advanced in the country.  Explosive growth in
the plant's service area has saturated its capacity, caused it to become an
environmental nuisance and forced a sewer connection moratorium (40).

In anticipation of potential growth inducement and second cycle pollution,
Fairfax County, Virginia, recently decided not to apply for federal and
state aid for sewer program improvements in the 1975-1976 fiscal year.
Improvements were opposed on the grounds that the increased capacity
would open the County to a "flood of 330, 000  new residents. "  (The Reston
Times, "Sewer Applications Vetoed," September 27,  1972.)

b.  The Rural Second Cycle -- Undeveloped  rivers within rural areas repre-
sent a unique potential problem.  The attractive natural state of many  of
our nation's remaining rivers has remained undisturbed so far only because
gross pollution has kept the post-war building boom from their shores.
Pollution rather than ordinances has checked construction on their flood
plains.

As these rivers undergo  clean-up programs to meet the recreational standards
set for them,  they will become attractive for unplanned resort  sprawl,
motels, second  home communities and  commercial development.  Such
                                 89

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development will block public access and impair the aesthetic quality of

the shores and the setting.  The induced development may itself, in turn,

create more water pollution through direct discharges,  poorly sited

septic tanks, siltation, dumps,  debris and oil.


The Androscoggin River in Maine and New Hampshire provides a good

example of the potential this form of second cycle pollution has:

      "Paper wastes choke the river with a strong hydrogen
      sulfide smell, telltale,  white form at riffles, floating
      sludge mats,  and sludgecoated banks blocking landing.
      Yet,  pollution aside,  the Andoscoggin ranks high among
      the scenic and magnificent rivers of the East: the
      Presidential Range rises abruptly in the mountain reach
      from Gorham to Bethel, open farmland and little villages
      line the valley as the river widens north of Bethel.  Per-
      haps largely because of the pollution, this scenic river,
      navigable to recreation watercraft and close to heavily
      travelled U. S.  Route 2, remains unspoiled with banks
      uncluttered by ticky-tack cottages and motels.   Yet, once
      the pollution from paper wastes is stopped, the communities
      and states have no planning or zoning tools to check helter-
      skelter development of a river so tempting and so accessible
      to vacationers.  Dr. Donaldson Koons,  Chairman of the
      Main Environmental Improvement Commission, estimates
      that property values would rise $50 to $100 per foot if the
      river were cleaned up."  (71)                   •


These examples illustrate the complicated and often unpredictable conse-

quences of second cycle pollution problems.  It is clear that second cycle

impacts and even those of subsequent generations of pollution problems

should be included in comprehensive water quality management planning.
                                  90

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                             CHAPTER IV
                             GUIDELINES

The purpose of this chapter is to suggest guidelines for interrelating
land use and water quality considerations within the water quality
management planning process.  The chapter is divided into four sections
as follows:
      •   Overview of Land Use Strategies and Techniques
      •   Planning Methodology Guidelines
      •   Guidelines  for Formulating Land Use Strategies
      •   Guidelines  for Planning Water Quality Management Practices

The first section briefly describes the array of land use strategies and
potential implementation tools which should be used in reducing water
quality degradation resulting from land use.   These strategies  are
generally assessed in terms of their short and  long-range payoffs.

The first guideline set describes the possible approaches to structuring
the plan formulation process with attention to data requirements,
analytical procedures, plan development procedures and program imple-
mentation factors.  The second  guideline set deals with the formulation
and application of land use strategies  in wat quality management planning
and in the operation of land use  and water quality management  programs.

The third guideline set suggests procedures and criteria for  evaluating
and minimizing the impacts of water quality management practices upon
land use. Such guidelines would be of use in both the formulation of the
water quality management plans and the review of grant applications,
environmental impact statements and policy proposals.
                                  91

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These guidelines are proposed as a supplement to EPA guidelines which

cover the water quality management planning process. It is assumed

that the reader is familiar with those guidelines.


A.    OVERVIEW OF LAND USE STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES


In developing land use strategies for water quality management programs,
there are several goals toward which such efforts should be aimed:

      •    Reduce and balance point discharges with  the water quality
           standards and established wasteload allocations for receiving
           waters.  The planner should seek to distribute  waste-
           generating development in a manner which does not overburden
           the receiving water body at points  of waste discharge.

      •    Reduce and balance harmful non-point discharges.  The planner
           should set forth plans and programs which minimize both the
           production of non-point pollution and the entry of such wastes
           into water bodies.

      •    Conserve the natural features and  natural systems which
           protect water quality and quantity.  The planner should plan
           and  control land use in ways which allow the natural terrain
           and  ground cover to perform its runoff control, groundwater
           recharge and waste absorption functions.

Planning strategies oriented toward these general goals fall within three

general categories which range in scope from  areawide to site specific:
      •    Regional Strategies --  On the regional,  metropolitan and
           river basin level, water quality management  planners have
           responsibility for considering a wide range of options in
           meeting water quality standards and effluent limits.   The
           achievement of this objective requires the sensitive con-
           sideration of growth objectives, alternative arrangements
           of the area's physical structures,  composition of settlement
           areas and the location and character of  open space and rural
           land uses.  Four land use strategies which have potential for
           improving water quality at the regional  level are:

           a.     Modify growth rates.
           b.     Modify growth distribution.
                                     92

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           c.    Conserve environmentally sensitive areas and open
                 space.
           d.    Control the siting of critical uses.
      •    Land Management Strategies - - Not all land use /water
           quality problems can be dealt with at the planning or planning-
           administration levels.  Many water quality  problems stem
           from poor land management in  both rural and urban areas.
           The management of land is of great significance to the control
           of non-point pollution.  The strategies which relate to land
           management include:
           a.    Control construction-related erosion.
           b.    Utilize agriculture and silvaculture conservation
                 practices.
           c.    Manage flood  plain and shoreline uses.
           d.    Control resource extraction activities.
      •    Site Development Strategies -- Careful attention to the water
           quality impacts of individual projects can have .important
           results, if not individually,  at  least cumulatively.  At the
           site planning level,  three strategies may prove fruitful,
           depending upon local conditions and institutional factors:
           a.    Modify site location practices.
           b.    Modify project size and/or mix.
           c.    Improve site planning and development.
Techniques for implementing these strategies are diverse. In addition
to traditional, well tested  regulatory procedures, innovative policy
makers and planners are devising  an increasing array  of controls in an
attempt to weld  environmental considerations to land planning and
development  endeavors. These implementation techniques include:
      •    Regulations
      •    Incentives and disincentives
      •    Acquisition programs
      •    Public  facility development and service delivery
      •    Grant programs
                                   93

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      •     Intergovernmental arrangements and reviews
      •     Voluntary agreements and advisory services.

These goals, strategies, and implementation techniques are depicted
graphically in Figure  8.

The land use strategies outlined here are not brand new, visionary
ideas.  They are being considered and frequently implemented in various
places throughout the  country.  The mechanisms to implement these
strategies are even more familiar.  It is more universal acceptance
and adoption of these  strategies that is now needed.  Localities pursuing
strategies to modify growth distribution, control location of critical
uses,  minimize erosion and sedimentation,  and all the  other strategies
will reap benefits of improved water quality and, collaterally,
preservation of other  natural and human values.

In the matrix shown in Figure 9,  the strategies for land use  are evaluated
as to long and short-range  potential for reducing water pollution and as
to ease of implementation.   Each cell was rated from 1 to 5,  with the
number assigned by professional assessment of the strategy in terms
of (a) potential effectiveness under ideal conditions,  and (b) realistic
feasibility for  implementation, given existing and anticipated  political
and economic constraints.  The  short-term payoffs of the strategies,
it will be noted, have  lower scores than the long-term payoffs. Lead
time involved in implementing strategies, both legally and fiscally,
generally means that full scale implementation seldom  comes about in
the short range.  More importantly, since land use strategies seldom
begin with a pure water base,  impact of existing point and non-point
sources will be felt for years to 'come,  as tomorrow's treatment labors
to catch up with yesterday's mistake.  However, adoption of appropriate
                                     94

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               Figure 8
The Role of Land Use Planning and Control
      in Water Quality Management


BALANCE AND
REDUCE POINT
DISCHARGES



GOALS

REDUCE AND
BALANCE
NON-POINT
DISCHARGES



CONSERVE
NATURAL
FEATURES
























REGIONAL
STRATEGIES
• MODIFY
GROWTH RATES

• MODIFY GROWTH
DISTRIBUTION

• CONSERVE EN-
VIRONMENTALLY
SENSITIVE AREAS
& OPEN SPACE

• CONTROL SITING
OF "CRITICAL
USES"


























STRATEGIES

SITE DEVELOP-
MENT STRATEGIES
• MODIFY SITE
LOCATION
PRACTICES

• MODIFY
PROJECT
SIZE & MIX

• IMPROVE SITE
PLANNING 81
DEVELOPMENT






























LAND MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES
• CONTROL CON-
STRUCTION RE-
LATED EROSION

• UTILIZE
AGRICULTURE &
SILVACULTURE
CONSERVATION
PRACTICES

• MANAGE FLOOD
PLAIN &
SHORELINE USES

• CONTROL
RESOURCE
EXTRACTION
ACTIVITIES





















.















REGULATIONS

• ZONING
• SUBDIVISION
REGS.
• BUILDING
CODES
• SPECIAL
ORDINANCES
• STATE LAND
USE REGS.
• STATE DIS-
CHARGE PERMITS
• HEALTH CODES


























TECHNIQUES

INCENTIVES &
DISINCENTIVES

• TIMBER
CONSERVATION
INCENTIVES
• DEVELOPMENT
BONUSES &
PENALTIES
• RELOCATION
SUBSIDIES
• DEVELOPMENT
DISINCENTIVES
• TAX DEFERMENT
















ACQUISITION
PROGRAMS

?• OPEN SPACE
ACQUISITION
• SCENIC &
CONSERVATION
EASEMENTS
• PARK
DEDICATION
• LAND
BANKING
• URBAN
' RENEWAL















GRANT
PROGRAMS

• CONDITIONAL '
REQUIREMENTS
• FACILITY
DEVELOPMENT
• LAND ACQUI-
SITION
• PLANNING
• NEW TOWNS











INTER-GOV'T
ARRANGEMENTS
& REVIEWS

• ZONING &
SUBDIVISION
REFERRAL
• NEWGOVT
FORMS
• A-95 REVIEW
• E.I.S.











VOLUNTARY
AGREEMENTS
& SERVICES

• LENDING
POLICIES
• INNOVATIVE
ENTREPRE-
NEURSHIP
• TRADE ASSOC.
GUIDANCE


PUBLIC
FACILITY
DEVELOPMENT
& SERVICE
DELIVERY

• URBAN SERV-
ICE POLICY
• SEWER TAP
POLICY
• CAPITAL
IMPROV. POLICY
• MORATORIA
& BANS












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                                                             Figure 9
                                  Assessment of Payoffs and Implementation Requirements
                                                                            IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES
      PLANNING STRATEGY
• Modify Growth Rates
• Modify Growth Distribution
• Preserve Environmentally Sensitive
Areas and Open Space
• Control Siting of Critical Uses
• Control Construction-Related Erosion
• Utilize Agriculture & Silvaculture
Conservation Practices
• Manage Flood Plain and Shoreline Use
• Control Resource Extraction Activities
• Improve Site Planning & Development
2
3

3
3
3

2
3
1
3
5
5

4
4
3

4
4
2
4
1
2

2
3
3

1
2
2
3
2
4

4
5
4

3
. 4
3
5
2
6

6
9
9

2
6
2
9
10
20

16
20
12

12
16
6
20
• a cs •
• • • D • ' a

• a a ••• • • a
• • • a a •
• a • • D a

• a ' D
• a a a • G a
a a • D a
• •a aaa • a
Notes: 1.  Values are based upon authors' judgement and experience
      2.  Values range from 1 to 5 indicating minimal to maximal degree of effectiveness or feasibility
      3.  Implementation tools are identified as follows:
         • Primary Implementation Techniques
         o Secondary Implementation Techniques

-------
land use strategies will not only minimize water quality degradation
from new development, but water quality could be expected to improve as
poor land use patterns and practices are phased out.

In the short term, it is concluded that the  greatest likelihood of water
quality improvement would be obtained by  pursuing control of critical
use siting, erosion control and improved site planning and development.
In the more distant future, additional benefits  will be possible through
more sophisticated planning for growth distribution and through pro-
tection of environmentally sensitive areas (including flood plains and
shorelines).

The payoff index also indicates that the most effective strategies are
those which can be implemented most easily.  For example,  modifying
the  growth rate  has a low hypothetical payoff,  not because the strategy
is not valid,  but because widespread public acceptance and implementation
are difficult to achieve.  The matrix also  summarizes tools for imple-
menting the land use strategies.   The tools were also evaluated as to
political and economic feasibility  as well as technical efficacy.  Public
controls such as zoning requirements, permits, and other regulations
can generally be enacted with little  strain  on the local budget or little
widespread objection.  Review and advisory services are not as effective
simply because  compliance cannot be enforced.  The matrix also
illustrates that all tools cannot be used for every strategy, but that
there are several means available to implement each land use strategy
to improve water quality.
                                     97

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B.    PLANNING METHODOLOGY GUIDELINES

While it is necessary that land use strategies be considered in water
quality management planning, there are a variety of approaches which
can be used to formulate such plans. The approach selected for a
particular area will depend upon the type and severity of water  quality
problems.  Other factors which may affect the approach include the
available  planning staff, budget,  and time.  For a fast growing, urban-
industrial complex, the planning approach may have to deal very carefully
with the issues of growth rate, growth distribution, and critical use
location.  On the other hand, a small urban area with moderate growth
may be more dependent upon waste treatment solutions than on  land use
modifications.

1.  General Planning Approaches

Traditionally, land use has been considered  only as an input to  the formu-
lation of sewer plans and water quality management plans.   Land use
forecasts and plans have been converted to waste generation loads which
then set the demand framework for design of wastewater collection and
treatment systems. In most cases, this "supply and demand" type of
planning is no longer appropriate.  Based on EPA's desire  to have land
use considered as a management tool rather than simply as a demand
parameter, three alternative planning approaches are discussed below.
Each offers particular advantages and is applicable in different types of
planning situations. In fact, however,  a fair amount of combination can
occur between these approaches.

Approach a." In this approach, land use strategies are considered only
in response to particular water quality problems which cannot be solved
by structural methods (i.e., waste treatment, flow regulation,  inter-basin
                                98

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transfer,  etc. ).  The land use plan, upon which the projected waste loads
are based, is accepted as given.   The emphasis is upon land use control
proposals which flow out at the end of the planning process in a sort of
"add-on" fashion.  Examples of land use controls which might be incor-
porated include flood plain regulations, erosion control ordinances and
agricultural regulations.  The methodology for this approach is simple in
that there is  no feedback to the baseline land use plan and the effect of
land use plans and controls on water quality conditions is not quantified.

This approach affords only minimal attention to the development of regional
land use strategies.  Approaches b and c  described below are  preferable
in most situations.   Use of Approach a should be limited to:
      (1)   Areas where growth is slight  to moderate
      (2)   Areas where water quality management plans have  already
           been completed
      (3)   Areas where available financial resources do not permit more
           specific  methodologies with the exception of land use elements

Approach  b.  --In the tradition of environmental impact assessment,
this approach allows the planner to estimate the impact of one or more
land use plans upon water quality conditions.  It can be diagrammed as
shown in Figure 10.

The water quality management plan is prepared in a fairly traditional
manner (using land use plans as the base  for determining waste load
projections) but is extended to include:
      (1)   A measurement of the effect of the land use plan on water
           quality
      (2)   A feedback process for modifying the  land use plan if
           plan evaluation criteria are not met
                                   99

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                      Figure 10

Water Quality Management Planning Process: Approach b
FICATION
FEEDBACK FOR LAND USE PLAN MODI

z
0
<
o
LL
FEEDBACK FOP. MODI

PRACTICES
r i
OF SEWER PLANS & MGMT
^
IDENTIFICATION OF
PROBLEM AREAS
X
GOALS, OBJECTIVES,
ASSUMPTIONS, CONSTRAINTS,
PROJECTIONS
i
r
LAND USE PLAN
T
r
PROJECTED WASTE LOADS
• POINT

SEWER PLAN |
^
• NON-POINT

CURRENT
LOADS

PROJECTED
WASTE WATER
DISCHARGES
1
PROPOSED WATER
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES INCLUDING
LAND USE CONTROLS
J
.
WATER QUALITY RESPONSE
CURRENT
WATER QUALITY
CONDITIONS&
STANDARDS


S"^ DOES ^^
PLAN MEET: ^NW
                 •  FEASIBILITY CRITERIA
                 •  STANDARDS & GOALS
                 •  COST-EFFECTIVENESS
                   CRITERIA
                    IMPLEMENTATION
                     PROG RAM FOR
                   FACILITY AND LAND
                    USE STRATEGIES

-------
The feedback can be used either for land use plan revision or comparison.
In the latter case, several alternative land use plans could be tested for
their relative impact.  This approach can result in the consideration of
the kinds of land use water quality issues endemic to larger urban-
industrial centers and high growth areas.

Approach c. -- Even more sensitive consideration can be given to land
use/water quality relationships by reversing the order of the traditional
planning process.  Instead of using the land use plan as a determinant
of waste load projections, the waste load limits of waterways are used
to shape the land use plan.  This approach uses the  carrying capacity
of water resources as a primary constraint upon the preparation of a
land use plan.  On the basis of water quality standards and acceptable
waste load allocations for receiving waters,  desired discharge locations
and volumes are determined.  Once the discharge limitations are known,
it is then possible to convert to the amount of population growth and land
development which can be accommodated within each planning district.
This water resource carrying capacity is then considered,  along with
other plan preparation criteria (i.e., public services, transportation
accessibility,  other environmental constraints,  etc. ), to prepare a land
use plan and controls. At the same time, technological water quality
management practices are, being analyzed.  By preparing technological
and land use proposals simultaneously, the water quality management
planner is able to view the process more comprehensively and is able
to more easily assess the most cost-effective balance between structural
and non-structural strategies.

This process is diagrammed in Figure 11, and the analysis  components
are graphically portrayed in Figure 12.
                                   101

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                                         Figure 11

                   Water Quality Management Planning Process: Approach c
+
WAT6 R USE
CONSTRAINTS

+
LAND
DEVELOPMENT
CONSTRAINTS
FEEDBACK FOR MODIFICATION
OP •'LANS

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                                 Figure 12

Analysis Components of an Environmental Carrying Capacity Approach
                   to Land Use/Water Quality Planning
               +•+• -TV «^
                                         PREMISE: Start by defining acceptable waste load allocation for
                                         receiving waters & work back toward identification of appro-
                                         priate technological & land use strategies
                                                        A      A       A   A
                                                            Stream Section
                                              LEGEND
                                             Ij	1   Not Suitable for Additional Development
                                                         Suitable for High Density Development
                                                        Suitable for Medium Density Development
                                                        Suitable for Low Density Development



                                              It t ! t 11  Conditional Use Area
                                              H- + + + +1
                                                         Outfall Locations
Stream
Section
AB












^
Watershed


#1

#2



#3

#4


#5

Acceptable
Waste Load
(BOD) only
•50 tons/day

+10 tons/day

- 2 tons/day



+ 5 tons/day

- 6 tons/day


+ 5 tons/day
^J
Special Problems
High Bacterial
Counts, Low D.O.
Proposed
SCS Dam
Urban Runoff
Problems


Ground water
Recharge area
Low flow &
D.O.

Thermal
Discharges
	 — 	 ^
Treatment
Modification
Chlorination,
Tertiary Treat.
Expand
Capacity
Separation
of Sanitary
& Storm
Discharges
Expand
Capacity
Phase Out
Package
Plant
Mod. of
Industrial
Process
MK- 	 _^^
Land Use
Modifications


Impose Non-
Point Controls




Development
Freeze
Purchase of
Parkland

Reduce Ind.
Zoning ~
'— — ^ 	
Additional Popu-
lation Holding
Capacity
45,000

25,000

None



None

5.000


15,000
| 	 ,^^

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These general planning approaches have been discussed in order of
increasing sophistication.  In practice, a viable plan may result from
any one of them depending on the complexity of the study area.   The first
approach is most limited in potential for improving land use/water
quality relationships.  The second or third approaches, or a combination,
would result in the most sensitive consideration of land use impacts and
would be most appropriate within growing  urban-industrial areas.  The
common premise of all three approaches is that land use strategies
(i. e., regional, site and land management) must be given careful
consideration in the formulation of water quality management plans.

2.  Procedures and Plan Content

Regardless  of the  planning approach selected for the study area, there
are certain  general procedures which should be common to the formu-
lation of land use strategies  within the water quality management planning
process.  The following guidelines suggest methods for arriving at a plan1
which will satisfy  the intent of the second and third planning approaches.

a.  Points of Consideration  --  Land use should be considered throughout
the water quality management planning process but particularly at five
basic points:
      (1)    Current land use patterns and  controls should be examined
            to determine their causal relationship to water quality
            conditions.
      (2)    Land use plans should be used as a base from which point
            and non-point loads are estimated.
      (3)    Land use strategies should be  evaluated and recommended to
            reduce the burden upon costly  wastewater facilities and upon
            the purification capability of the natural environment.
      (4)    Controls and implementation techniques should be selected
            to insure the success of chosen land use strategies.
                                   104

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      (5)   Water quality management facilities, including interceptors,
           should be located, designed, and operated with sensitivity to
           their potential effect upon qualitative and quantitative aspects
           of land use.
b.    Waste Loads -- The calculation of waste load data must be based
upon either a single land use plan or several realistic alternatives.  Land
use forecasts will not suffice unless they have been adopted as part of the
area's land use plan.   Furthermore, the  data must describe the non-point
loads by the smallest possible drainage areas and  must be of such detail
that the impacts of alternative land use patterns can be discerned.
Appendix A presents a simple example of waste load calculation and
assessment for an actual watershed.  This exercise relies upon the tables,
methods and techniques described in Chapter II.

c.    Water Quality Response -- In  projecting waste loads and in deter-
mining water quality response to land use configurations,  rigorous,
mathematical analysis must be used.  Many tools and techniques are
available for analysis.  In the case example shown in Appendix A,  simple
manual calculations suffice.  In other cases, larger and more diverse
in nature,  it may be necessary to take advantage of the numerous computer-
ized water quality models which exist.

d.    Effect of Land Use Strategies  -- The water quality response to  site
development and land management strategies can be estimated in a more
qualitative manner.  In the case of these  types of strategies,  it will be
sufficient to provide an estimate of relative improvement.  For  example,
the protection of flood plain buffers  could reduce sedimentation by
X percent; or,  the imposition of construction runoff regulations  could
reduce the site-related erosion by X percent.
                                       105

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e.    Selection Criteria -- Land use plans and land use control measures

should be evaluated for their:

      (1)    Institutional feasibility
      (2)    Contribution to meeting or exceeding standards

      (3)    Cost-effectiveness


f.     Implementation Program

      (1)    A program for implementing water quality-related land use
            plans and land use control measures must be prepared as
            part of the water quality management plan.  A  schedule for
            implementation as well as an assignment of organizational
            responsibilities  should be included.  Furthermore,  the staging
            of land use plans and controls and wastewater collection and
            treatment  systems should be integrated in a compatible manner.

      (2)    Where  current legislative authority is not sufficient to permit
            the desired level of land use control, the water quality
            management plan must set forth a program to overcome these
            constraints.  Such a program should describe legislative
            proposals,  inter-governmental cooperation efforts and
            educational activities.


g.    Plan Implementation Monitoring and Update  -- Procedures for

monitoring and updating plans are required as a component of any water
quality management plan and are particularly important with regard to land

use.  Since land use control has historically been  a decentralized and fluid

public function,  it is important that provision be made for:
      (1)    A mechanism for monitoring conformance of development
            with the plan's land use premises.

      (2)    An impact evaluation system for giving rational consideration
            to land development proposals which represent a potential
            deviation from the recommended land  use and wastewater
            facility plans.

      (3)    A water quality monitoring program which provides sufficiently
            detailed data for evaluating the effectiveness of land use
            strategies and the techniques used to implement them.  (This
            should  be done in conjunction with states in their programs to
            comply with Section 106 of the 1972 Water Pollution Control
            Amendments. )
                                     106

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C.    GUIDELINES FOR FORMULATING LAND USE STRATEGIES

The following guidelines are proposed to assist in the formulation of
water quality management plans which are based in part upon improved
land use planning and control.  Given the diversity of natural,  man-made
and institutional conditions between planning regions, latitude and flexi-
bility is built into the guideline statements.  The selection of a particular
mix of land use strategies and implementation techniques would basically
be the decision of responsible local and state agencies.  Guidelines are
provided for the following subject areas:
      •    Urban Growth Rates
      •    Urban Growth Distribution
      •    Environmentally Sensitive Areas and Open Space
      •    Critical Use Siting
      •    Site Planning and Development
      •    Agriculture and Silvaculture
      •    Resource Extraction

Following each statement of guidelines is a discussion of the premise for
consideration and techniques which may be used in implementing the
suggested guideline.  Examples are briefly described for reference
purposes.

Guideline #1:  Urban Growth Rates

      a.   Guidelines
           (1)   The area's growth rate should be examined with regard
                 to:
                 (a)  Carrying capacity of water resource base.
                 (b)  Financial and technological capacity for meeting
                     sewage collection and treatment demands.
                                   107

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           (c)  Legal and organizational resources required to
                guide growth in consonance with natural environment.
           (d)  Other growth-related public services which must
                share financial resources with water quality
                management.
      (2)   The effect of modifying the area's  growth rate should
           be assessed in terms of potential reduction of point and
           non-point pollution loads.
      (3)   The feasibility of growth rate modification policies
           should be analyzed with particular attention to available
           legal tools and orgarnV.ational resources and political
           acceptability.
b.    Premise.   Stopping,  slowing down or selectively modifying
      population growth and land development will reduce the threat
      to water quality posed by point and non-point discharges
      which are inextricably related to urban development.

      Growth has three major water quality impacts:
      •     Increased point discharges may reach the volume where,
            regardless of treatment technology, the  assimilative
            capacity of receiving waters is exceeded.
      •     Increased urban runoff and subsequent non-point loadings
            are bound to occur as land is exposed and impervious
            surface area  increases.
      •     Stream enlargement, both an erosion and an aesthetic
            problem,  and increased peak flow levels, will naturally
            occur proportionate to urbanization.

      It is doubtful that even the  most stringent runoff control and
      treatment practices can avoid all the damages  induced by
      growth, particularly in regions haying a sensitive land-water
      balance (i.e., estuaries, stratified lakes, coastal and wetlands
      areas, headwater regions).  There can thus be little question
      that stopping, slowing down, or selectively modifying  population
      growth and land development will reduce the potential  threat
                                 108

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urbanization poses to water quality.  Given the high costs of
meeting current water quality standards and treatment require-
ments,  the cost savings could also be substantial.

Legality of Growth Regulation. Regulation of population
densities and distribution can be a legally feasible companion
to a water quality management project,  but only if taken
within a proper context.  Growth of a population in a given
area may be controlled indirectly by a variety of government
actions such as deliberate failure to make public services
available, requirements of large acreages of open space, or
zoning which discourages high density uses, or more direct
prescriptions of population maximums and distributions.  Any
statute, ordinance, or administrative regulation having the
farce of law which is a direct population limitation unsupported
by some legitimate and clearly articulated objective is legally
unsound and is, furthermore,  constitutionally offensive to the
protected' freedom of movement within the United States (41).

Moreover,  such restrictions are also vulnerable to attack in
or around urban areas on the  ground of promoting racial
segregation or discriminating unreasonably against an
identifiable  socio-economic class.   Regulation of population
density could encounter similar objections.

Protection of water quality would seem to be a permissible
objective of growth regulation, especially if care is taken to
establish a causal connection  between population size and
densities and stream and groundwater quality. It can be
demonstrated that protection and improvement of water
quality is required by the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act and state laws.  Further,  it can be shown that these laws
apply both to point and non-point sources.

                        109

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      In practice, water quality protection may become one purpose
      for  regulating population totals and concentration.  However,
      a particular regulation may have several other legally valid
      justifications.  It is necessary to examine each of these other
      justifications to make sure that, if used, they are sustainable.
      For example,  regulations designed to influence or even
      dictate growth patterns may be supported by the need to
      prevent overburdening of a range of public facilities  and
      services such as schools, fire protection, water supply, and
      transportation (including streets).  But in each instance, it
      is necessary to balance the requirement that  communities
      provide reasonable levels of public services on a nondiscrim-
      inatory basis against the reasonableness or necessity for the
      regulation or the feasibility of limiting public services and
      facilities to a degree that would make the restrictive regulation
      unnecessary.  It is this balancing which  determines the
      propriety of any growth control (212).

      It should be mentioned that growth control policies, if adopted
      on something less than a metropolitan scale,  could have
      disastrous  repercussions upon neighboring jurisdictions.
      Metropolitan growth,  in a situation of this type, is likely to
      be merely shifted toward those jurisdictions in the area which
      have not set growth policies.
d.    Examples.
      (1)   Some states are studying the undesirable impacts of
           growth.  Hawaii's Commission on Population has a study
           on growth and distribution underway.  The Governor's
           Advisory Council on Environmental Quality in Michigan
           has urged that the state adopt a goal of zero population
           growth for its citizens, and the Environmental Commission
           of Colorado has recommended stabilization of that state's
           population (35).
                               110

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           (2)    Lake Tahoe, in Nevada and California,  is one area where
                 growth rate policies are being implemented.  In the Lake
                 Tahoe area, the bi-state Lake Tahoe Regional Planning
                 Agency recently adopted a master plan  setting a maximum
                 population of 280, 000, the limit beyond which it was felt
                 that non-point waste discharges would destroy the delicate
                 ecological balance of Lake Tahoe.  If the area were
                 developed under the previous zoning plan, the Agency
                 projected a population of 700, 000 (154).

           (3)    In Fairfax County, Virginia, one  of the fastest growing
                 counties  in the United States, consideration is now being
                 given to various growth-limit ing policies designed to
                 stage growth in accord with public service and environ-
                 mental capacities.  While no official action has been taken
                 as yet, it is reasonable to predict that some type of growth
                 control policy may be evolved  (184).

           (4)    In Boca Raton,  Florida, residents approved a 1972
                 referendum to amend the City's charter establishing a
                 maximum limitation of 40, 000 dwelling units for the city.
                 Existing zoning in the City would  have allowed 65, 000
                 dwelling units.  Subsequent to the charter amendment,
                 the  city council imposed an emergency  45-day ban on
                 building permits for residential uses for more than two
                 families, with the period used for adopting a new com-
                 prehensive plan reflecting the growth ceiling and for
                 initiating implementation of the plan.(57).
           (5)    Even more directly related to the issue of water quality
                 is Florida's imposition of a sewer tap moratorium
                 wherever communities have failed to meet the 90 percent
                 waste treatment standard.  Across the  United States
                 it has become common to impose sewer or building
                 permit bans for certain development areas until additional
                 sewage treatment capacity becomes available.
Guideline #2:  Urban Growth Distribution
      a.    Guidelines
           (1)   The amount and density of growth assigned to sub-areas
                 within a development region should be based,  in part,
                 upon:
                                    111

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            (a)   The water quality standards set for those water
                 bodies.

            (b)   The state established waste load allocations for
                 streams, stream sections, and lakes (and coastal
                 waters and estuaries in ocean-front regions)
                 within the sub-areas.

            (c)   The existing and planned capacity of sanitary
                 sewage collection and treatment systems.

            (d)   The non-point waste load potentials of each sub-area.

      (2)    Priority attention should be given to guiding acceptable
            levels of growth into sub-areas possessing adequate
            sewer and other urban services and adequate allowable
            waste load allocations.  Conversely, development within
            inadequately serviced sub-areas should be restricted
            and staged with the development of services.

      (3)    Public services and facilities (i.e.,  sewer and water
            facilities, transportation facilities, schools, parks,
            etc. ) should be planned and programmed to guide growth
            toward those sub-areas  which are most capable of
            accommodating waste loads.

      (4)    Development should be encouraged to occur in larger
            sized increments  (i. e.,  new towns and PUD's) so that
            economies of scale and more thorough predevelopment
            planning can be stimulated, particularly with regard to
            water quality management.

      (5)    Density controls should  be considered as a means of
            preventing water quality degradation.  However,  it
            should be recognized that low density can be obtained
            via cluster  development as well as via large lots.
            Furthermore,  higher densities may be an appropriate
            development form in certain situations, particularly in
            view  of lower land consumption rates, service and
            treatment efficiency,  and the indirect benefit of diverting
            growth from more sensitive areas.  In addition, density
            must be  related to many other considerations such as
            housing opportunity,  air pollution and transportation
            facilities.

b.    Premise.  Planning, zoning, and other regulatory mechanisms

      can be used to direct growth into concentrations and locations
      which will  minimize  deleterious impacts on water quality.
                                112

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      With or without growth rate policies,  it is of critical
      importance that new growth and development be allocated to
      those sub-areas of the region having the greatest capacity to
      collect, treat and assimilate wastes and the least susceptability
      to urban runoff pollution.  Location of land uses,  assignment of
      density levels and the time-phasing of development are three
      basic facets of the urban planning process which, if carefully
      coordinated with other water-related professionals, can
      result in substantial water quality improvement.

c.    Planning Techniques.  Analysis of natural features has been
      a common planning practice in the allocation of population and
      land uses to a  region's sub-areas.  The technique has usually
      been to delineate graphically on transparent maps each land
      type which is considered worthy of protection (i.e. , marshes,
      recharge areas, forests, etc. ) or is viewed as having develop-
      ment limitation (i. e. ,  shallow depth to bedrock, steep slopes,
      flood plains, etc. ). By overlaying these map transparencies
      any coincidence of areas meriting protection is revealed
      through the intensity of graphic patterns.

      Ian McHarg, Phillip Lewis and others have used and refined
      this approach in increasingly well accepted studies.  Figure 13
      displays some of the map overlays used in such a planning
      process.   Examples of this approach  include the Baltimore
    .  County Plan for the Valleys (105),  the Skippack Watershed
      Plan (67), the  Fox River Watershed Plan (139), and the
      Plan and Program for the  Brandywine (169).

      There are some limitations to this planning approach, however,
      particularly as applied to water quality  management planning.
                              113

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                                                 Figure 13

                           Technique Overlaying Selected Natural Features
                                           on Composite Map
          SOIL DRAINAGE

      Surface Water Marshes & Swamps

      High Water Table

      Good Drainage
              SLOPE

       Greater than 10%

       Between 2'/i% to 10%
|     |  Less than
      BEDROCK FOUNDATIONS

       Marsh Lands

|     [  Cretaceous Sediments

       Crystalline Rocks
        SOI L FOUNDATIONS

       Silts & Clays

[   ~| Sandy Loams

|     | Gravelly Silt Loams
       to Strong Sandy Loams
    SUSCEPTIBILITY TO EROSION

       High Susceptibility

[     j  Moderate Susceptibility

|     ]  Low Susceptibility
            COMPOSITE

       High Cost

       Medium Cost

       Low Cost
Source:  Ian L. McHarg,Oes/ff/J With Nature. Doubleday & Company. N.Y. 1969, pp 33-39.

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      First, the graphic overlay approach can be misleading if it

      assigns the same conservation or development value to each

      data item.  For instance, should bedrock classification be

      equal to slope in determining where development can occur?

      More importantly, however,  relating land use to water quality

      requires some quantitative analyses (i.e.,  development-
      runoff ratios, development-stream enlargement ratios,

      allowable load limits for point and non-point discharges, etc.)

      which go beyond the mapping approach.  The planner must be

      able to assign land uses with as much knowledge as possible

      concerning the water quality response to that assignment.

      The process must dynamically depict the interactions between
      land use, land features, and water resources.


d.     Implementation Techniques and Example^

      (1)   Urban Service Districts.  Establishment of official or
           unofficial boundaries for the provision of urban services
           can be an important tool in implementing plans for the
           location, density and timing of development.   An
           increasing number of communities have opted for this
           growth management approach, either in the form of
           restriction on all services or in the form of sewer
           extension policies.
           (a)   In Salem,  Oregon, setting urban growth boundaries
                 has  been proposed which would  geographically limit
                 the city's future  urban development.  The area
                 beyond the urban growth boundary would be main-
                 tained as a green belt around the city having very
                 low density living areas, open space,  public parks,
                 permanently zoned agricultural land and other com-
                 patible uses.  A  major consideration in delineating
                 the proposed urban growth boundaries was the
                 natural limits of the city's gravity flow sewer system.
           (b)   Lexington,  Kentucky,  has established an urban/
                 rural service area plan. Under the urban service
                 area concept, practically all new urban-type
                 development is located inside the urban service
                              115

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           area.  The urban service area forms a ring around
           the built-up area of Lexington, presently encompas-
           sing an area of 73 square miles.  The remaining
           210 square mile portion of Fayette County -- within
           which Lexington is located --is designated as a
           rural service area and is to remain undeveloped
           or agricultural in character.

      (c)   Prince George's County, which comprises the
           southeastern portion of the Washington,  D.C.
           metropolitan area, uses the provision of sewer
           and water services as one of the primary imple-
           mentation measures for the county's proposed
           "staging policy. "  This proposed policy was formu-
           lated to phase new growth in conjunction with
           existing sewer and water service  capabilities and
           rational extension of these services in conformance
           with the county's comprehensive general plan.  The
           county's ten-year water and sewer plans, required
           by state law,  would reflect the development timing
           delineated in the  staging policy.

(2)    Land Use Regulations.   Zoning has been,  and will
      continue to be, used as the primary control over location
      density and timing of growth.  With little or no modifi-
      cation, most  zoning ordinances can be used to implement
      water quality-related land use plans.  However, the
      following examples are cited as efforts  to expand the
      effectiveness of zoning as an environmental control.

      (a)   The State of Hawaii has, since 1961, operated
           under a  four district  state zoning system which
           delineates those areas which, from the state
           perspective,  should be used for urban, agricultural,
           conservation  and rural purposes.

      (b)   Several states, including Maine,  Vermont and
           Florida, have initiated land use permit systems
           for development over  a minimum size.  Environ-
           mental criteria are heavily considered .in evaluation
           of proposed projects.   In Vermont the permit
           system is related closely to a statewide land use
           plan.
      (c)   The Tahoe Regional Planning Commission has
           adopted several land  use regulations which are
           directly tied to implementing the  environmentally-
           based land use plan.
                           116

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                 (d)   Ramapo, New York, has developed an ordinance
                      which relates the location and timing of growth to
                      the provision of public services.
                 (e)   San Jose, California, has been divided into three
                      districts: urban,  urban transition,  and urban
                      reserve.  Growth is to be drastically limited in
                      the latter two categories.
           (3)   New Towns.  The national trend in new town development
                 offers an opportunity to redirect growth into a pattern
                 which is  more amenable to environmental balance.  The
                 size of such developments and the required level of
                 planning  create potentials for more adequately dealing
                 with both point and non-point pollution loads.  New town
                 developers are generally receptive to the clustering of
                 residences, the preservation of natural terrain and
                 large amounts of open space as well as the control of
                 runoff through stormwater retention lakes and other
                 techniques.  Thus, the accommodation of growth in
                 larger, more innovative developments (including large
                 planned unit developments) can be an effective approach
                 for a water quality management plan.

                 Such developments can be encouraged by local action
                 such as the adoption of more flexible land use controls,
                 land banking, service extensions,  and access improve-
                 ments.  Several states also have adopted legislation to
                 encourage and assist new community development.  Some
                 offer property tax relief to new town developers during
                 the period of land assembly as an incentive.  In Texas
                 and Arizona, special district bonds can be issued for new
                 town development.  California,  Ohio, and Kentucky are
                 among the states which also recently enacted legislation
                 favorable to new community development.
Guideline #3:  Environmentally Sensitive Areas and Open Space


      a.    Guidelines

           (1)   Land use plans should be prepared with special attention
                 to the protection and preservation of environmentally
                 sensitive areas and open space systems.  Such areas
                 should be assessed in terms of the importance of the
                 area to:
                                  117

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            (a)   Reduction of stormwater runoff volumes and velocity.
            (b)   Natural absorption and filtering of runoff waste loads.
            (c)   Protection of surface water quality.
            (d)   Groundwater recharge.
            (e)   Sediment detention.
      (2)    The water quality management plan should specifically
            describe the proposed land use plans program and controls
            for at least the following types of environmentally
            sensitive areas:
            (a)   Flood plains and stream buffers.
            (b)   Lake shorelines.
            (c)   Coastal zones.
            (d)   Wetlands.
            (e)   Aquifer recharge areas.
            (f)   Steep hillsides.
            (g)   Other erosion-prone areas.
      (3)    A description should be provided assessing prospects
            for protection  of the  identified environmentally sensitive
            areas and open space systems.
      (4)    Protection of open space and environmentally sensitive
            areas should be encouraged at the regional, community
            and site development levels.

b.    Premise.  There are certain natural areas which, if significantly
      altered,  will have especially damaging impacts upon the quality
      and quantity of water.  These areas are designated  as
      "environmentally sensitive. "  The major types of environ-
      mentally sensitive areas are shown in Figure  14.

      Effects of significant alteration are as  follows:
      (1)    Construction in flood plain and shoreline areas:
            reduction in the ability of such areas to  absorb and
            filter sediment and nutrients from stormwater runoff;
            increased water temperature due to reduction of shade
                               118

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           Figure 14
Environmentally Sensitive Areas
TYPE
Shorelines
Wetlands
Flood plains
Steep slopes
Forests and
woodlands
Headwater
regions
Aquifer
recharge
areas
DESCRIPTION
Land bordering bodies of
surface water— lakes, ocean.
For planning purposes, strip
extending 1000' from
water edge.
Water and flood water storage
areas (marshes, swamps, and
bogs I
Land bordering watercourses.
For planning purposes gen-
erally defined as land with a
flooding probability of from
50 years upward, or land
within 300' of a navigable
stream, whichever is greater.
Slopes of over 12%. Depend-
ing upon circumstances, a
higher percentage, may be
chosen.
Natural vegetative cover with
tree canopy
Upland tributaries where
stream flows are low and.
seasonally incapable of
assimilating increased waste
loads
Points of interchange between
•' aquifers and surface waters.
MAXIMUM USE
DESIRABLE
Only uses inseparable from
water fronts: ports, harbors,
recreation, water and sewage
treatment plants
Non-disruptive agriculture;
isolated urban development
Natural vegetative cover; uses
which will not be damaged
by flooding (recreation areas,
parks), or are inseparable
from flood plain use
Forest'ry (with conservation
measures to prevent erosion):
recreation; low density
residential.
Recreation; timber produc-
tion; low density development
Low density development
with export of domestic
discharges
No polluting uses; minimal
impervious surface
MEANS OF CONTROL
• Zoning
• Acquisition
• Special use permits
• Tax incentives
• Tree protection laws
• Setback and bulkhead regulation
• Zoning
• Acquisition
• Special use permits
• Tax incentives '
• Zoning
* Acquisition
* Subdivision regulations
* Building codes
• Special use permits
• Tree protection laws
• Setback and bulkhead regulation
• Zoning
• Erosion control regulations
• Subdivisipn regulations
• Tree protection ordinances
• Zoning
• Acquisition
• Tax abatement
• Zoning
• Acquisition
• Erosion control regulations
• Zoning
• Impoundment of clean
streams transecting aquifers
• Acquisition

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      and increased loads of warmer runoff water; stream
      enlargement and bank erosion due to increased runoff;
      and reduction in land absorption of nutrients during
      flood overbank periods.

(2)    Filling of wetlands (freshwater or saltwater): reduction
      in propagation of marine life thus affecting commercial
      and sport fisheries and shellfish  harvesting; alteration
      of wildlife species diversity; reduction of surface water
      retention and storage  .

(3)    Development over groundwater recharge areas:
      reduction in groundwater supplies; potential pollution
      of groundwater due to infiltration of nutrients and
      contaminants;  saltwater intrusion; increased storm-
      water runoff flows.

(4)    Development of steep slopes and  other erosion prone
      areas: increased erosion and sediment; increased
      stormwater flows resulting in stream bank  scouring;
      thermal pollution loads.
(5)    Destruction of forests and  woodlands: decreased storm-
      water retention; reduction  of nutrient absorption and
      filtration; increased erosion.

(6)    Development in headwater  regions:  point and non-point
      discharges where surface water has little capacity to
      assimilate; stream enlargement and bank erosion.
Necessary identification, mapping,  and planning for environ-
mentally sensitive areas should be handled at the regional level
because of the extensive functional and geographic inter-
dependencies of ecological systems.  Realistically, not all
environmentally sensitive areas can be preserved in their
natural state as open space, but strategies should be planned
at regional levels.to limit development to those forms  which
reduce  potential damage to the sensitive areas.  Regional and
local policies to preserve these areas can prevail against
urbanization's "traditional" demands to occupy streamsides,
wetlands,  steep slopes, and coastal zones.
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      Frequently,  environmentally sensitive areas are aesthetically
      pleasing and preservation of them as open space can satisfy
      much of the urban dweller's physical and social desire for
      open spaces.  Therefore,  there is a commonality of interest
      which should be explored between park planners, compre-
      hensive planners and water quality planners, both at the
      regional and local level.   For instance, protecting stream
      banks from development,  erosion and sedimentation can
      reduce non-point waste loads markedly (32). A buffer strip
      can be acquired (300 feet on either side has been suggested in
      several instances as the width needed. ) Such publicly owned
      streamsides in an urban area can be devoted to park and
      nature preserves (169).

      Regarding wetlands, the planner should refer to a recently
      released EPA "Policy to Protect the Nation's Wetlands, "
      (Administrator's Decision Statement No.  4:  March, 1973).

c.    Techniques and Examples.  As noted in the  following paragraphs,
      environmentally sensitive areas can be preserved by a variety
      of federal, state, regional or local actions and many various
      techniques are available.
      (1)   State Legislation.  States have taken the lead in pro-
           tection of environmentally sensitive areas, especially
           in cases where these areas are clearly an economic
           resource to the state such as Florida's wetlands, or
           Wisconsin's lake shorelines,  or Delaware's coastline.
           States may regulate land use directly through permits,
           statewide zoning, or selective controls, or they may
           achieve control indirectly by mandating land use
           regulation at the  regional or local level.
                                121

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(2)    Special District Protection.  Special legal and organi-
      zational arrangements have been developed to protect
      environmentally sensitive zones in several instances.
      For instance,  in 1965 the San Francisco Bay Conservation
      and Development Commission was established to control
      the land development around the Bay.  In New York,  the
      Adirondack Park Agency has been set up as the  legal body
      to plan and guide development in 2, 275,000 acres of
      public land and 3, 500, 000 acres of private land  in this
      park.   Similar arrangements have been made for the
      Pines area in  Burlington and Ocean Counties, New Jersey.
      The Pinelands Environmental Council was set up to
      review all land use plans within the 373, 000 acre area and
      to minimize damages to the environment of the Pinelands
      and its underground water supply.

(3)    Low Density Zoning.  The traditional method of protecting
      such areas as woodlands, wetlands and credible slopes
      has been to place them in low density zoning districts.
      Agricultural and large lot residential districts have
      most often been used for this purpose.  The validity of
      large lot residential zoning  is increasingly being challenged
      in suburban areas on the grounds of social exclusion.  Thus,
      the use of low density zoning for environmental  protection
      will have to be carefully conceived and will have to be
      applied selectively rather than for large portions of local
      jurisdictions.

(4)    Flood Plain Zoning. Flood plain zoning is one of the
      more familiar uses of zoning which protects environ-
      mentally sensitive areas. However, flood plain zoning
      has not hitherto generally been justified as a water
      quality control measure.  The principal legal justification
      for governmental action restricting development of flood
      plains is the danger to which a property owner subjects
      himself and others by his unwise development in a flood
      plain.   Flood plains may be  protected by zoning  which
      encourages retention of their natural state and which
      permits only those uses which would not be harmed by
      flooding or which would not contribute toxic substances
      to flood water. Where the state or local will to  regulate
      is present, this justification is legally sufficient.
      Flood plain and shoreline regulation, as a technique for
      water quality protection, should entail:
                             122

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•     Limiting uses permitted to those which do not
      disturb the natural vegetation and topography,
      which will not be harmed by flooding; or which
      are inseparable from waterfront activity.

•     Prohibiting the removal of vegetation within lands
      adjacent  to water bodies; and,  if necessary,
      initiating replanting programs to foster the rein-
      statement of lands which have been defoliated.

•     Prohibiting the storage of potential pollutant
      materials within flood plain areas (i. e.,  petro-
      chemicals, toxic materials, junk, etc. ).

•     Strict regulation of sewage treatment facilities to
      minimize the potential for flood damages and
      overflow situations (i.e.,  setback controls,  flood-
      proofing  standards,  etc.).

•     Regulating and limiting structural development.

•     Limiting excavation, dredging and land fill activity.

Despite increased awareness of flooding problems, flood
plain zoning  is not widespread and is generally enacted
on a local basis where it does exist.  Of the 84 planning
commissions surveyed in  Ohio recently,  for instance,
only seven cities and three townships reported having
zoning or other types of regulations pertinent to flood
plain control (10).

Several model flood plain zoning ordinances have been
drafted.  The State of Wisconsin has a model county
flood plain zoning  ordinance,  and the American Society
of Planning Officials has published a guide  for preparing
Regulations for Flood Plains (Planning Advisory Service
Report #277;  February 1972).
(a)    "Conservancy district" is the name given to one  of
      the zoning categories in Belgium, Wisconsin.
      Principal uses in the conservancy district include
      floodway and flood overflows, soil and water con-
      servation, streambank and lakeshore protection,
      along with other ecologically oriented uses.  The
      list of  conditional uses is confined to those which
      would not disturb the "natural fauna,  flora, water-
      courses,  water regimen or topography" (205).
                   123

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      (b)   Walworth County,  Wisconsin, produces an example
           of the management techniques made possible by a
           flood plain and shoreland zoning ordinance.  The
           zoning ordinance there layers land management
           regulations onto any other  applicable uses for all
           lands lying within  1000 feet of the high water
           elevation of 36 lakes in the county and all lands
           within 300 feet of the flood plain of all navigable
           streams. Within these areas the following are
           permitted only after submission and approval of
           an appropriate conservation plan:

           •     Tree cutting and shrubbery clearing.
           •     Earth movements.
           •     Tillage, grazing and livestock watering.
           •     Surface water withdrawal, diversion, or
                 discharge for irrigation, processing, or
                 cooling purposes.

(5)    Acquisition.  The lowest risk approach to protection of
      environmentally sensitive areas  and open space would
      be public acquisition.  In spite of the costliness of such
      an approach,  there are several instances in which the
      value of such lands demands acquisition.  Furthermore,
      land purchased for conservation  purposes can be used
      to serve other public purposes such as recreation,
      environmental education and research, flood damage
      reduction and water supply.

      (a)   Acquisition of metropolitan parkland is one method
           of acquiring  lands which, if used otherwise,  would
           degrade water quality.  The Bureau of Outdoor
           Recreation Land and Water Conservation Fund is an
           important source, along with the Department of Housing
           and Urban Development's Legacy of Parks Program, of
           financial aid for preserving open space and natural areas.

      (b)    Several states, including Florida, New Jersey,
            New York and Illinois, have passed bond issues
            to acquire environmentally sensitive areas.

      (c)    Boulder, Colorado, has been involved for several.
            years in a program to protect the foothills around
            the edge of the city and to eventually form a
            greenbelt.
                           124

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      (d)   Scenic or development easements are being used
           in several areas to minimize development of
           scenic and environmentally sensitive areas.   In
           Yellow Springs, Ohio, a Country Common
           Association has been formed as a non-profit
           organization to obtain easements for 3600 acres
           in the headwaters of the Little Miami River.  The
           river has recently been declared a National and
           State Scenic River, and a combination of fee simple
           and easement acquisition is currently being imple-
           mented along a river corridor of approximately
           80 miles.
(6)    Financial Incentives.  Reduction of taxes as an incentive
      for maintaining land as open space is  being increasingly
      employed.  For instance,  Virginia's Land Use Law of
      1971  empowers counties in the state to reduce tax
      rates on land use  for agricultural, horticultural, open
      space,  or  forest purposes.  So far, three counties have
      utilized the provision:  Loudoun, Fauquier, and Prince
      William.  Property tax relief systems for owners of
      open  space are in effect in several other states including
      Florida, California,  and Connecticut.  The Nixon
      administration has also proposed federal tax incentives
      and disincentives  to encourage protection of environ-
      mentally sensitive land.

(7)    Other Techniques. Other techniques for preserving
      sensitive areas include:
      (a)   Fill and Dredge Statutes such as those in Maryland,
           Connecticut, Rhode Island,  North Carolina, and
           Georgia.

      (b)   Tree protection ordinances such as those used in
           Atlanta, Sacramento, and numerous other cities.

      (c)   Mandatory dedication laws such as that used by
           Edina, Minnesota, to require dedication of flood
           plain areas within proposed subdivisions.
                       125

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Guideline #4:  Critical Use Siting
      a.     Guidelines
            (1)   Special attention should be given in water quality
                 management planning to the location,  construction and
                 management of such critical land uses as:
                 (a)   Power generating plants.
                 (b)   Sewage treatment plants (see also Section D of
                       this chapter).
                 (c)   Solid waste disposal sites.
                 (d)   Agricultural  feedlots.
                 (e)   Industries  which  have independent discharges.
                 (f)    Water-withdrawing activities (i. e., industries,
                       domestic water treatment plants, etc.).
                 (g)   Highways.
                 (h)   Airports.
                 (i)    Recreation areas.
            (2)   Recommendations should be prepared for guiding the
                 location of new critical land uses. Recommendations
                 should be embodied both in the land use plan and in a
                 set of criteria and  procedures for evaluating project-
                 level impacts upon water quality.
      b.     Premise.  In formulating both comprehensive plans and water
            quality management plans,  the planner should attempt to locate
            facilities and major land use activities where their effects
            upon water quality will be minimized and where incompatibility
            between various uses of water will be avoided.  Certain sources
            of wastewater discharge which have  potentially major impact
            on.water quality in an area are called "critical uses. " Examples
            of critical uses include power plants (thermal pollution), sewage
            treatment plants (BOD, bacteria and nutrients), solid waste
            sites (groundwater pollution), agricultural feed lots (nutrients),
            water treatment plants (major water user), various forms of
            industry (miscellaneous types of pollutants), and recreation areas
            (human wastes,  siltation, aquatic  disturbance).

                                        126

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Critical use locations are often difficult to anticipate within
the land use plan and are usually handled on a case-by-case
basis.  It does not follow, however, that proposals for such
uses should receive less formal analysis.  In fact,  since
they tend to have large potential impacts, they should receive
more attention. This requires the preparation of criteria
defining critical uses to be specially assessed and procedures
for actually conducting such assessments.

Procedures and Techniques.   Generalizations concerning
criteria for critical use  siting are virtually impossible since
both the nature of discharges  and the conditions at proposed
sites are so diverse. Figure 15 briefly describes some  of
the differences in characteristics  between different types of
critical uses.

To comply with the guidelines proposed here,  two initial
steps must be taken:
(1)  Define the land uses which will be submitted to the
     water quality review requirements for critical uses.
     Normally, critical uses will be evaluated for a wide
     range of environmental  impacts rather than just water
     quality impacts.  Under the  Florida Environmental
     Land and Water Management Act, "developments of
     regional impact" require special state review.  This
     is being defined as any  development which,  because of
     its character, magnitude or location,  would have a
     substantial effect upon the health, safety or welfare of
     citizens of more than one country. As described in
     Initial Rules (58),  this definition would include:
     /a)    Airport development projects.
      (b)    Attractions and recreation facilities with more
            than 1000 parking spaces or 4000 permanent
            spectator seats.
                       127

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                  Figure 15
Planning Considerations for Major Critical Uses
CRITICAL USE
Sewage treatment
plants
Sanitary landfill
Industrial plants
with indepen-
dent discharges
Water processing
plants
Power generating
plants .
Highways
Intensive cattle
feedlot
POTENTIAL
HAZARDS TO
WATER QUALITY
• Nutrients
• Bacteria
• BOD
• Leaching of minerals
or other pollutants into
ground or surface water
• Erosion
• Toxic substances
• Heat
• Organic wastes
• Decrease in surface
water flow
• Heat
• Residual wastes
• Sedimentation
• Stream channel
modification
• Animal waste washoff
• Groundwater contam-
ination
• Sedimentation
STRATEGY TO
CONTROL IMPACT ON
WATER QUALITY
• Separate from
incompatible
development
• Utilize high level
treatment
• Separate from bene-
ficial downstream uses
• Separate from ground
and surface water
• Regulate management
practices
• Make location com-
patible with waste load
limitations
• In-plant treatment
• Permit issuance
• Fines for violations
• Balance with compet-
ing, uses
• Prohibit in environ-
mentally sensitive areas
• Dispersion of sites
• On-site cooling
techniques
• Avoidance of water-
course crossings, hill-
side locations, & chan-
nel modification
• Control construction-
related erosion
• Stream vegetation
buffers
• Regulation of manage-
ment practices
• Sediment basins
• Prohibit in environ-
mentally sensitive areas
PARAMOUNT
LOCATIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS
• Surrounding development
• Projected need for
expansion
• Water quality at point of
discharge
• Downstream uses
• Location of ground water
table and surface water
• Existing and projected devel-
o'pment in area
• Final reuse of site
• Existing water quality and
water quality standards
• Projected kind and amount
of effluent
• Treatment plant capacity
• Water quality at intake point
• Projected development in
water shed
• • Location of competing water
uses
• Location of competing or
compatible uses
• Tolerance of existing biotic
communities
• Locations of water channels
• Soil characteristics
• Engineering design
• Construction practices
• Level terrain
• Soil & geologic characteristics
• Water quality conditions

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      (c)   Electrical generating facilities (above 100 mega-
           watts) and transmission lines of over 230 kilovolt
           capacity.

      (d)   Hospitals of more than 600 beds or servicing
           more than one county.

      (e)   Industrial plants and industrial parks providing
           parking for  1500 or  more vehicles or occupying
           a site greater than one square mile.

      (f)   Mining operations of more than  100 acres or more
           than 3,000,000 gallons per day water consumption.
      (g)   Office parks over  30 acres or 300, 000 square feet
           of gross floor area.
      (h)   Petroleum storage facilities within 1000 feet of
           navigable water for  storage of over 30, 000 barrels
           plus all such facilities with over 200,000 barrel
           capacity.
      (i)   Port facilities construction,  except those used for
           sport or pleasure  with less than 100  slips for
           moorings.

      (j)   Residential  developments on a sliding scale of
           dwelling units, depending upon county population.

      (k)   Schools with a design capacity of more than 3000
           full time students.

      (1)   Shopping centers with over 40 acres  of land,
           400, 000 square  feet  of gross  floor area,  or 2500
           parking spaces.

(2)    Prepare a general list of factors to be used in assessing
      the water quality impacts  for proposed critical uses.
      Following is a partial list  of factors which  might  be
      utilized:

      (a)   Will the proposed  land use discharge wastewater
           directly to a watercourse or into a public sewer
           system?  If the  former, will the discharge  meet
           water quality standards and waste load allocations ?
           If the latter, is the public  system capable of
           accommodating the estimated volume and com-
           position of wastewater?
                           129

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     (b)   Would approval of this proposed land use pre-
           empt wastewater allocation,  water use,  or sewer
           capacities previously planned for other land uses?
           Should the land use plan be amended accordingly?

     (c)   Do plans for the proposed land use recognize  all
           reasonable point and non-point sources, hydrologic
           conditions and conditions particular to the area?

     (d)   Have adequate plans been made for control of
           non-point waste loads during site preparation and
           construction?

     (e)   Have adequate plans been made for permanent
           stormwater runoff retention and control of run-
           off pollution?

     (f)    Would the land use result in unreasonable damage
           to vegetative  cover and environmentally sensitive
           areas, particularly flood plains,  shorelines,
           wetlands and  steep slopes?

     (g)   What impact would the proposed land use have
           upon groundwater quantity and quality?  Would
           recharge potentials be diminished?  Would ground-
           water withdrawl rates result in depletion, intrusion,
           or diminution of surface water flows?

     (h)   Have water conservation and reuse practices  been
           considered?  What effects would these practices
           have on meeting both water quality and quantity
           needs ?
     (i)    Have alternatives been considered, including
           alternative site locations, development procedures,
           treatment processes, and operational practices?

     (j)   Summarize the primary and  secondary water
           quality impacts,  both beneficial and adverse,
           anticipated from the action.  Both short-term
           and long-term impacts shall be included.
Critical use evaluations require a systematic, interdisciplinary

approach involving land use planners,  water quality engineers,

environmental scientists and others.  Available skills should

be called upon to collaborate in the review of significant
proposals.  The objective should be to guide proposed critical
                         130

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uses to areas demonstrated to be most compatible in terms
of land and water use, water quality standards and waste load
allocations.  Consideration should be given to dispersing uses
so that receiving waters will not be  degraded by overconcen-
tration of discharges.

Progress toward controlling location of critical uses is being
made in many parts of the country.  The Environmental
Impact Statement requirement of the 1969 National Environ-
mental Protection Act,  as well as the Office of Budget and
Management's Circular A-95,  insure that many activities
involving  federal assistance will be  assessed for compatibility
with area plans and environmental goals, including water '
quality considerations.   In addition, some states have enacted
review requirements for state and locally funded projects
(i. e.,  California) and for privately initiated developments
(i.e.,  Florida, Maine,  Vermont and California). It  would be
advisable to formulate the critical use  review procedures
called for under these guidelines in  a form compatible with
those review systems already operational.

Implementation of recommendations resulting from such
critical use review can be difficult to insure due to the
general lack of teeth in current review requirements.
Reviews conducted  under both NEPA and A-95 are  only
advisory to the funding agencies.  However,  the  zoning
ordinance provides a valuable tool in "red-flagging"  critical
uses for review,  in controlling site-location, and in
ameliorating adverse effects.  Lists of conditional uses or
special exceptions, requiring special approval by the local
board of zoning adjustment, should be amended to include
those land uses considered important to water quality.
                           131

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Guideline #5:  Site Planning and Development
      a.     Guidelines

            (1)   The design review and regulatory procedures (i. e. ,
                 zoning,subdivision and building regulations) currently
                 being followed by land use control agencies shall be
                 examined for  consistency with water quality goals.
                 Of concern is the effect which such procedures have
                 upon the generation of point and non-point pollution
                 problems. New  or modified procedures, guidelines,
                 and regulations should be suggested, where appropriate,
                 to minimize water quality degradation.  Enforcement
                 provisions should also be described.

            (2)   Recommended site development strategies  shall at
                 least:

                 (a)    Introduce consideration of water quality impacts
                       as a criteria in reviewing site  development and
                       rezoning proposals.

                 (b)    Impose  the burden of proof upon the developer  for
                       showing that his proposal will not  negatively
                       impact the  achievement of water quality goals
                       and standards.

                 (c)    Encourage  site design  flexibility to the point that
                       disturbance of natural  land form and vegetation
                       can be lessened.                       '
                 (d)   Expand the practice of controlling erosion and
                       sedimentation during site development and
                       construction.
      b.    Premise. The details of where and how urban land uses are

            planned and developed are of substantial importance to water

            quality.  While the area-wide land use plan may indicate that

            sanitary waste loads can be adequately treated for Area X

            under medium density residential,  the quality of site planning
            and .development within Area X essentially determines the

            amount of non-point pollution.  Thus what happens on  each

            and every land parcel must be controlled with particular
                                    132

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      regard to reducing stormwater runoff and erosion.  Cumu-

      latively, these small individual actions constitute a major

      impact on an area's water quality conditions.


c.    Site Planning and Development Strategies.   Strategies

      include improved site selection procedures, compatible
      scaling of project size and mix,  sound site  planning, water

      conservation practices, and erosion control practices.

      (1)   Encourage Proper Site Selection.  Evolve procedures
           to guide developers to sites which are physically
           appropriate to the intended use and will thus exert less
           impact upon the natural environment.  Builders and
           developers can minimize erosion, sedimentation,
           sanitary sewage  disposal and other environmental
           problems by selecting the  best  site for the intended
           use.  Since tracts of land vary  in suitability for different
           uses,  knowing the kind of soil,  the topography, the sub-
           surface conditions, the drainage patterns and the avail-
           ability of sewer services will-help in  identifying and
           evaluating potential problems.  In practice, however,
           •other site evaluation factors, such as market area,
           traffic access, land cost and public services, have
           tended to predominate in this entrepreneurial decision-
           making process.  Environmental considerations have
           generally been dealt with once the site is selected,  if
           at all.
      (2)   Modify Project Size and Mix.  Encourage development
           mix and intensity compatible with the natural features
           of the  site,  with  assimilative capacity of receiving
           waters and with other off-site conditions.  It is
           generally known  that maximum zoning limits become
           minimum development targets.  It is  usually possible,
           however, to negotiate officially or unofficially if a zoning
           change or site plan review is required.  If, for instance,
           a proposed development would generate degrading storm
           water  runoff or it should impose sanitary sewage treat-
           ment difficulties, it may be possible to scale down the
           amount of on-site activity to a more  reasonable level.
           Furthermore, it may be possible for  the public body
           to require a land use mix which is more compatible with
           local water quality conditions (i. e.,  reducing the pro-
           jected population of the development,  substituting service-
           related industry  for product-oriented industry, etc. ).
                               133

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      In such an evaluation, consideration should be given to
      such factors as:
      (a)   Matching land use intensity to natural features
           (topography, soil erodability, vegetation, etc.).

      (b)   Matching use intensity against current and fore-
           casted quality of receiving waters.

      (c)   Matching land use intensity to off-site conditions
           (land runoff, committed allocations of sewer line
           capacity, etc.).

      (d)   Planning a use mix which permits utilization of
           the same parking areas  by various uses at various
           times, thus reducing overall magnitude of
           impermeable parking  lots.

(3)    Apply Sound Site Planning Principles.   Utilize advice,
      regulation, and review to insure that the site plan is
      compatible with the land form and the water quality
      conditions.  Frequently,  care exerted in site planning
      may be as important a consideration as obtaining an
      optimal location.   It  is important that site planning  for
      a project be conducted in a manner which minimizes
      runoff pollution and maximizes groundwater recharge.
      Detaining storm water runoff reduces the amount of
      sedimentation and other runoff impurities reaching  a
      surface water body,  while recharging the groundwater
      aquifer decreases the likelihood that the aquifer will
      diminish the base  flow of the surface water body. The
      following discussion is devoted to ways of fitting the
      project to the  site so as to accomplish these two goals.

      Erosion and sedimentation as  well as the other impurities
      carried by runoff, can be controlled effectively, and at
      reasonable cost, if certain principles are followed in
      the  use and treatment of land.  These principles include:

      •    Minimizing the amount of impermeable surface.
      •    Reducing the velocity  and controlling  the flow
           of runoff.

      •    Detaining runoff on the site to trap sediment.

      These principles may be incorporated within  site plans
      in the following ways:
                          134

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     (a)   Cluster or concentrate the proposed land develop-
          ment within a smaller portion of the site,  thereby
          allowing the development to attain its agreed-upon
          use intensity factor or floor area ratio while at
          the same time reducing the total site coverage.
          This may require the  relaxing of lot size minimums
          and height limits as they might be imposed in
          traditional zoning ordinances.
     (b)   Use for open space those sections of the site
          which are not well suited for urban development.
          Land falling into this category may include steep
          slope areas, flood plains, wetlands,  soils with
          severe limitations for development, and soils with
          a high susceptibility to erosion.
     (c)   Develop large tracts  of land in small increments
          or phases so that construction can be  completed
          rapidly, and so the large land areas are not left
          bare for long periods of time.
     (d)   Where large amounts of parking are required
          (i.e.,  large shopping centers, office parks, and
          industrial developments), the provision of multi-
          level parking structures can be required so as to
          reduce total parking  lot acreage. Where  surface
          level parking is necessary, the use of semi-
          pervious paving material should be given  strong
          consideration.
     (e)   Interrupt large expanses of impervious area with
           natural or landscaped surfaces to aid the dispersion
           of runoff.

(4)   Water Conservation Practices. In the interest of con-
     serving water supply and reducing surface  and  ground
     water withdrawl rates, proposed land uses should be
     required to incorporate recycling procedures and water
     conservation plumbing devices.  Table 17 provides a
     comparative analysis of some plumbing devices
     designed to meet this objective.
(5)   Erosion Control Practices. If a program for erosion
     is worked out during the planning and design stages,
     before plans become fixed and construction begins, the
     problems brought on by soil erosion,  runoff, and sedi-
     mentation can usually be avoided or lessened.  Necessary
     information on soil,  topography, and geologic and hydro-
     logic conditions should be  obtained during site studies.
                         135

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                            TABLE 17




                     WATER CONSERVATION



    PLUMBING DEVICES RANKED BY WATER SAVING COST EFFECTIVENESS *
WATER
.SAVINGS
HARDWARE DEVICE GPCD (1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Aerator for
Lavatory and
Kitchen Sink 0.5
Dual Cycle
Water Closet 17.5
Limiting Flow
Valves for
Shower 6
Batch-type Flush
Valves (2) for
Water Closet 15.5
Vacuum Flush
Toilet (for
100 homes) 22.5
Recycle Toilets 24.7
Batch-type Flush
Valve (1) for
Water Closet 7.5
Shallow Trap
Water Closet 7.5
Urinal with Batch-
Type Flush Valve 7
Washing Machine
with Level Control
Control 1.2
Vacuum Flush
Toilet (for
Single Homes) 22.5
Limiting Flow
Valves for
Lavatory 0.5
ESTIMATED INSTALLATION
COSTS
MATL. LABOR
$ $
2 0
100 30
35 15
120 38
.
300 25
75 30
80 30
150 25
35 0
• •!•*
45 23
TOTAL
$
2
130
50
158
295
325
105
110
175
35
1520
68
WATER-SAVINGS
COST-EFFECTIVENESS
TOTAL
$/GPCDU;
4
7.4
8.3
10.2
13.1
13.2
14
14.7
25
29.2
67
136
      GPCD, gallons per capita per day




* Source: Wenk (196)
                             136

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           Particular attention should be given to on and off-site
           measures that may be needed to prevent damage to
           downstream land and property, either by erosion or
           sediment.  The basic objectives during the construction
           process should be:

           (a)    Leaving the soil exposed for a minimal amount
                 of time.

           (b)    Providing for the collection of sediment and
                 debris to prevent entry into the receiving water
                 body.

           (c)    Releasing the runoff water and its contained
                 impurities safely.

           The satisfication of these objectives should be of concern
           within public projects such as highway construction and
           sewer and water line installation, as much as it should
           be a concern within private  land development projects.

           There are two basic categories of erosion and sediment
           control measures --  mechanical and vegetative. To a
           lesser extent, chemical measures are also used.  The
           most  widely used of these measures are presented in
           Figure 17. Detailed information and standards and
          . specifications developed for local conditions can be
           obtained from the local office of the Soil Conservation
           Service in some local soil and water conservation
           districts.   The Environmental Protection Agency has
           recently issued a comprehensive manual outlining
           techniques for erosion and sediment control  (53).
           Figure 17 shows a sample plan for controlling erosion
           during construction.

d.     Techniques and Examples

       (1)  Zoning and Subdivision Regulations.  Planned unit
           development regulations and subdivision regulations
           can control site development mix, size and design.  In
           order to accomplish the kind of clustering described
           above, it  would be necessary to have a flexible  set of
           developmental regulations which do not tie the developer
           down  to a  rigid method of placing buildings over the
           site.  Subdivision regulations can be further improved
           by incorporating a requirement that all site plans sub-
           mitted to  the local governmental unit include the
           location of on-site vegetation as well as soil conditions.
           The intent would be to point out clearly those areas of
           vegetation which the plan would displace as well as a more
           clear indication of the kind  of runoff and drainage problems
           which the  site may have to deal with.
                              137

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                                               Figure 16
                              Erosion and Sediment Control Measures
                                        for Construction Sites
              MECHANICAL MEASURES
            VEGETATIVE MEASURES
1.  LAND GRADING: Grade only those areas necessary
   for immediate construction. Minimize cut and fill;
   avoid heavy grading.

2.  BENCH TERRACES:  Constructed across the slope of
   the land to break long slopes and slow the flow of
   runoff.
3.  SUBSURFACE DRAINS: Sometimes required at
   base of fill slopes to remove excess ground water.
4.  DIVERSIONS: Ridges and channels used to divert
   runoff away from erodable slopes; particularly useful
   along highway embankments.
5.  BERMS:  Useful around large parking lots to collect
   runoff for gradual release through grassed outlets or
   subsurface drains.

6.  SEDIMENT BASINS:  A permanent or temporary dam
   to detain runoff and trap sediment.
1.  VEGETATIVE PROTECTION:  Conserve maximum
   amount of ground cover particularly along stream
   corridors.

2.  TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT SEEDING:
   Seeding will add stability to soils which are not needed
   either permanently or temporarily for construction.
   Grasses, legumes, trees, shrubs, vines and ground
   covers can be used.

3.  MULCH:  Straw mulch can be used to protect con-
   structed slopes and other areas regraded at an
   unfavorable time for seeding.

4.  STREAM CHANNEL STABILIZATION: Eroding or
   erosion-prone channels and stream banks can be
   stabilized by use of vegetation, rip-rap and mechanical
   measures.

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                                         Figure 17

                      Sample Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plan
UNDISTURBED
TEMPORARY BLOCK
        SILT TRAP
                                                             'EARTH DIVERSION BERM
         STRAW BALE
                                                                STRAW BALE DIVERSION
         EARTH DIVERSION BERM
                                                            EARTH DIVERSION BERM
                                                    -390	-
                    EMERGENCY
                    SPILLWAY
   UNDISTURBED
                                                 -386--/	
                       TEMP. EASEMEN
  Source: Erosion-Siltation Control Handbook (Draft). Fairfax County,Virginia.

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Recent innovative new land use controls include:

(a)    The University of Delaware's Water Resources
      Center is currently conducting a study of the
      Christina River Basin which is  geared toward
      developing an across-the-board set of project
      development regulations (163).  Such regulations
      would be designed to force the developer/builder
      to consider the real costs of protective devices
      and design improvements necessary to minimize
      the project-related water quality impacts  of
      development of the selected site.

      To implement  such an approach, a community
      would define desired levels of environmental
      quality and outline the acceptable control  measures.
      It would then be up to the developer/builder to
      assess the cost impact upon his cash flow and the
      site's profitability.  Undoubtedly, this imposition
      of real environmental costs would eventually begin
      to influence the site selection process and would,
      in general, reduce development-related damage
      to the environment.  For example, Tourbier (163)
      cites the case  of planning 1-95 through Tinicum
      Marsh near Philadelphia when the alignment was
      relocated to higher ground when the costs of
      culverts (necessary to  maintain fresh water flow
      into the marsh) were calculated.  This occurred,
      not because an engineering solution was not
      possible, but because construction costs were
      prohibitively high.

(b)    In Ramapo, New York, (population: 77, 000),  the
      zoning ordinance was amended to create a
      "special permit" requirement for all residential
      development.   The permit is granted only if
      standards are  met for minimum facilities and
      services available to the new development.  The
      net effect is improved control over both the
      location and timing of development.

(c)    Petaluma, California,  (population: 29, 500), has
      put into operation a  control ordinance which
      establishes an annual residential land development
      quota and awards allotments for development on
      the basis of those projects receiving the most
      evaluation points.   Points are assigned on the
      basis of availability of public facilities and
      services and quality of design.  In addition, all
      proposals must conform with the general plan
      and environmental design plan.
                   140

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(2)    Statewide or Regional Review.  In Vermont,  a permit
      structure has been developed, and each application for
      development must be reviewed by a district commission
      and may be appealed to the state's environmental board.
      Approval is based upon a set of rigid criteria including
      the following selected water quality criteria  (13):
      (a)   The project will not result in undue water pollution.
           In making this determination,  it shall at least
           consider the elevation of land above sea level and
           in relation to the flood plains, the nature of the
           soils and subsoils and their ability to adequately
           support waste disposal;  the slope of the land and
           its effect on effluent, availability of streams for
           disposal of effluent; and the applicable health and
           water  resources department regulation.

      (b)   The project will not cause unreasonable soil
           erosion or reduction of capacity of the land to
           hold water so that a dangerous or unhealthy
           condition may result.

      (c)   The project will not have an undue adverse effect
           on the scenic or natural beauty of the area,  aesthetics,
           historical  sites, or rare and irreplaceable natural
           areas-

      The clearinghouse function performed by designated
      state and area-wide organizations under the  Office of
      Management and Budget's Memorandum A-95 may also
      be of benefit in ecnouraging public projects,  as well  as
      private housing projects financed under FHA mortgage
      insurance, to comply with environmentally sound site .
      planning and development procedures.
(3)   Implementation Through Financial Mechanisms^
      Project mortgages  on new developments, whether con-
      veniently or federally insured, could have stringent
      requirements regarding permanent means of erosion
      and storm water runoff control.   For instance, site
      planners could be required to provide attractive means
      of storm water detention on site to reduce the volume
      of runoff from the development.   The Maine  Bankers'
      Association adopted a pollution code which requires
      member banks to consider environmental aspects of
      each project before approving requested loans or
      mortgages.
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(4)    Implementation Through Dedication.  Localities can
      insure that site planning respect the integrity of environ-
      mentally sensitive areas by requiring the dedication of
      park land as a technique to insure preservation of
      environmentally sensitive sections of tracts undergoing
      development.  Flood plains, and stream buffers
      are notable areas where localities are increasingly
      demanding conservation by dedication to the local govern-
      ment or other organization which can guarantee its
      maintenance and preservation.

(5)    Implementation Through Other Mechanisms.  Other
      tools which have been evolved in this country to imple-
      ment improved site planning vary  from state laws
      assessing the impact of massive new developments to
      tree preservation ordinances.  For instance:

      (a)    Saratoga, California,  now requires subdivision
            developers to attain a certain number of trees per
            lot; Summit, New York, bars the cutting of a tree
            thicker than three inches in  diameter, unless it
            endangers the public; and Atlanta requires a permit
            if more than 25 percent  of the trees on a lot are to
            be felled.

      (b)    The California Environmental Quality Act provides
            yet another tool for insuring site development
            which is compatible with water quality goals.
            Under a recent court interpretation, this law,
            passed in 1970, has been extended to cover not
            just public projects, but all  private land develop-
            ment projects as well.  Under the recent Friends
            of Mammoth Decision, the court has instructed
            all private developments which began after the
            adoption of this act to file, retroactively if
            necessary,  statements describing the environ-
            mental impacts to be generated by each development.

      (c)    Regulations such as those which may apply to
            locatidnally appropriate use of septic tanks or
            other on-site disposal systems would also be of
            assistance.  The use of on-site disposal systems
            to serve low density development may be a viable
            alternative to sewer extension in some cases;
            such a decision is dependent upon soil conditions,
            topography, the hydrology of the area, and the
            profosed density.   Drainage fields should, in all
            cases,  be well removed from wells, stream sides,
            and other watercourses.
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      (d)   Building codes can be modified to require
           installation of water saving plumbing devices.

(6)    Erosion Control Regulations.  Ordinances and program
      requirements are major  methods of insuring that proper
      attention is given to erosion control during construction.

      Mandatory control may be imposed either by the state
      or by local governmental entities.  Any erosion controls
      adopted by any of these entities to be legally valid must
      satisfy two requirements:  first,  that any statute,
      ordinance or regulation to be legally valid must be
      designed to promote the health, safety or general
      welfare of the enacting jurisdiction's inhabitants; and
      second, that the measure adopted must be a rational
      and sensible method of achieving  one of these three
      permissible objectives.  At the state level these are the
      only limitations  involved when enacting erosion legis-
      lation.   Cities,  counties, and special districts (such
      as soil and water conservation districts), however,
      aside from being similarly limited,  must, in addition,
      be delegated power by the states to enact ordinances
      which are environmentally beneficial.   Local regulations
    •  may be separate ordinances or may be contained in
      subdivision regulations, zoning ordinances and building
      codes.  Examples of such control at the state and local
      level follow:

      (a)   Maryland was the first  state which enacted a  law
           requiring that all counties and municipalities
           adopt erosion and sediment  control ordinances,
           with its Department of Natural Resources estab-
           lishing criteria and procedures to be used by
           counties and soil conservation districts in pre-
           paring and implementing the control program
           (House Bill No.  115,  Maryland - 1970).

      (b)   Fairfax County, Virginia, is experiencing very
           high levels of construction activity and has
           recognized that erosion control is a major environ-
           mental concern.  The county code and subdivision
           and site development  requirements have been
           amended to require sedimentation and erosion
           control measures.  Additionally, the county has
           prepared an excellent Erosion-Siltation Control
           Handbook  discussing erosion control planning
           costs  and enforcement measures as well as data
           on the soils of the county (185). In Fairfax
           County,  all requests for clearing and grading
                      143

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      permits, building permits, or other activities
      which involve clearing,  filling, grading, and con-
      struction, are analyzed by the county's Design
      Review Division to determine erosion and siltation
      requirements.  If controls are required, the
      developer is required to sign an erosion and
      siltation agreement and deposit an amount in
      escrow equal to the cost of providing the control
      before the plans can be  approved or grading permits
      issued.

(c)    A Model State Act for Soil Erosion  and  Sediment
      Control is suggested by the Council of State
      Governments.  The act  bases the legislation on
      amendment to enabling legislation for soil con-
      servation districts (which exist in all 50 states).
      The Model Act relates erosion and  sediment control
      to water quality, encompasses erosion  caused  by
      both wind and water, and applies to virtually all
      land disturbing activity.
(d)    Soil conservation districts in 27 states and
      Puerto Rico have been authorized by the state
      government to issue land use regulations to control
      erosion.  The process for issuing such regulations
      is laborious, generally requiring public  hearing
      and referendum before passage (13).
(e)    The State of Iowa recently (1972) enacted a law
      envisioning financial assistance to land owners
      in implementing sediment control practices.
      Under the law, the soil conservation districts
      can require implementation of such measures if
      federal or other public funds covering 75 percent
      of the cost are made available to the owner (35).
(if)    Otsego County, Michigan, adopted an ordinance
      in 1971 requiring approval of erosion and sediment
      control measures in accordance with  standards
      of the local soil conservation district prior to
      approval of site plan or plat.  An occupancy
      permit cannot be issued for the completed
      structure unless the control measures have been
      implemented.  Furthermore, property owners
      must  maintain permanent erosion control
      measures (H3).
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Guideline #6:  Agriculture and Silvaculture

      a.    Guidelines
           (1)   Where agricultural land uses represent significant
                 sources of water pollution, attention should be given
                 to the development of improved waste  management and
                 land management measures,  including:
                 (a)    Soil conservation practices.
                 (b)    Animal waste disposal practices.
                 (c)    Pesticide application practices.
                 (d)    Fertilizing practices.
                 (e)    Irrigation.
           (2)   Advisory organizations serving agricultural and silva-
                 culture interests should be encouraged to upgrade
                 educational and assistance programs and assist, where
                 appropriate,  in the preparation, implementation and
                 administration of conservation regulations.
           (3)   An implementation program and schedule should be
                 prepared showing target dates, organization responsi-
                 bilities, and financial resource needs  for putting
                 improved agriculture and silva culture conservation
                 practices into effect.

      b.    Premise.  Improved agriculture and silvaculture conserva-
           tion practices and increased pressure for operators to
           develop and follow acceptable conservation plans can reduce
           non-point discharges.  Agriculture and silvaculture  sources
           of pollution are largely non-point and are perhaps the most
           difficult to control.  Water flow over cropland and feed lots
           transports soil particles,  manure, salts, nutrients, and
           pesticides from the land into the surface water; chemicals and
           nutrients  in solution may percolate through the soil into
           groundwater. Runoff from logging areas carries increased
           nutrient loads, sediment and thermal loads.
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The above problems become increasingly acute in areas of

intensive agriculture or silvaculture use where waste loads
are concentrated and the waste assimilation capacities of

receiving water are inadequate.  Widespread use of known

conservation techniques can significantly reduce the negative

impacts which agriculture and logging may have on water

quality.  Planners should be aware of potential escalation of

deleterious effects  of agriculture on water quality and the

relationship should be a consideration of regional land use

planning, especially around urbanizing areas.  Evolution
of better measures for control should be given high priority

since the problem can be  expected to increase in future
years (116).
(1)   Soil Conservation.  Despite erosion control efforts to
      date,  it has been estimated that between 50 and 75
      percent of the sediment washed into the nation's waters
      each year comes from crop and pasture  lands (36).
      Sediment from cropland entering surface waters in the
      U. S.  in 1967 was estimated at  2. 6 billion tons by USDA.
      Sound soil conservation practices would  benefit not
      just water quality conditions but also the farmer, allowing
      him to retain rich topsoil now lost to waters.  The Soil
      Conservation Service has a continuing program of
      advising farmers on the use of contour plowing, strip
      cropping,  crop rotation, terracing,  and  improved
      drainage control.

      For timber  harvesting operations, the strategy should
      be to  encourage use of practices  which minimize exposure
      of bare soil and increases in erosion. Such practices
      include patch cutting, reforestation,  and sediment
      retention devices.  Broader application  of such soil
      conservation practices plus the protection of natural
      buffer strips along  stream corridors and waterways
      are needed in both agricultural and logging areas.

(2)   Animal Waste Disposal.   Traditional land and water
      disposal techniques used in the elimination of animal
      wastes have, in many areas, become undesirable.
                         146

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           Particular problems exist with large cattle feed farms
           and hog raising operations.   For instance,  a feed lot
           of ten thousand cattle produces nearly 750, 000 pounds
           of waste per day (36).  Such modern agricultural
           practices  as animal waste composting operations could
           have a substantial impact if they were applied on a
           broader basis.
      (3)   Pesticide  Control.  Pesticide runoff within  agricultural
           areas also poses a difficult  challenge.  Although this
           issue is greatly dependent upon further research in the
           area of perfecting new insect control techniques,
           curtailment in the use of hard pesticides as well as
           more careful application could reduce one of the'
           significant surface water  contaminants generated within
           agricultural areas.

      (4)   Irrigation Management.  In  agricultural regions where
           irrigation is a major use  of water, efforts should be
           made to manage that use of  water  in a way which does
           not  substantially diminish the quantity and the quality
           of the withdrawal source. The accomplishment of this
           strategy,  of course, is extremely difficult due to the
           fact that water laws in the arid regions where irrigation
           is a major water use present many obstacles to planning
           and regulation of the amount of irrigation water use.
c.   Techniques and Examples.  Although advisory assistance to
     control agriculturally engendered pollution is widespread,

     regulatory controls  are not.  Most erosion and sediment

     control ordinances enacted to date exempt agricultural uses

     from their provisions, although several encourage utilization

     of approved agricultural practices.  The states have the
     primary responsibility for regulating agricultural sources,

     either directly through water pollution statutes or indirectly

     through laws regulating land use and agricultural methods.
     A state or locality,  for example,  may ban the sale or use of
     a pesticide found to  be unduly dangerous  (218).  They may
     require that wastewater be discharged from agricultural

     areas at environmentally proper times (232), and they may,
                              147

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through zoning ordinances, exclude agricultural activities
from environmentally sensitive lands or gathfer such activities
together in an area particularly suited for water quality
control (229).

New regulations should be explored which would require
better management of agriculture and silvaculture, including
provisions to:  time the application of pesticides and fertilizer;
require planting of vulnerable banks of watercourses in
permanent crops;  and require mandatory planting of temporary
cover crops to protect topsoil from excessive erosion.  It
should be added that such requirements can sometimes place
an insupportable financial burden on individual farmers,  so
study of devices for financial relief should coincide with
evolution of agricultural regulation.  Obstacles in  the path
of strategies to improve water quality by regulating agri-
cultural operations would appear to be  more political or
economic than legal.  The concept of protection of the
nation's water and land by requiring sound management practices
is, however, gaining currency:
(1)   The Model State Act for Soil Erosion and Sediment
      Control developed by the Council of State Governments
      enables local soil conservation districts to require
      that agriculture and forestry practices  be carried out
      in conformance with conservation standards  established
      pursuant to the Act.
(2)   Pennsylvania's Environmental Quality Board has
      adopted regulations requiring erosion control measures
      to prevent stream and lake pollution.  Under these
      regulations erosion and sedimentation control plans
      will be required for agricultural activities (plowing and
      tilling only)  by July 1, 1977 (173).
(3)   The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act directly
      includes agriculture and silvaculture by dealing with
      all  sources of water contamination.   Further, there
                         148

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                 is specific mention of agricultural and silvaculture
                 sources in the provisions of the Act dealing with
                 planning (Section 208).  Discharges  or runoff from both
                 point and non-point sources constitute violations of
                 federal law.  Whether and to what extent means will be
                 developed for subjecting them to the federal or state
                 permit systems is a question, but it is a fact that
                 agricultural and silvaculture practices and operations
                 can lead to violations.
Guideline #7:  Resource Extraction
      a.    Guidelines

           (1)   Where resource extraction land uses are a source of
                 water quality degradation, the  sources shall be identified
                 and procedures and methods shall be developed for
                 control of site location and planning, management  of
                 waste-producing operational practices, and land recla-
                 mation.  If existing regulations and enforcement pro-
                 visions for control of extraction activities are inadequate,
                 a program should be prepared  for eliminating the legal
                 and administrative deficiencies.

           (2)   Particular attention shall be paid to reclamation of
                 abandoned extraction  sites which may remain as
                 sources of water degradation until  reclamation
                 practices are implemented.
      b.    Premise.  Resource extraction operations must be regulated

           in a manner which insures minimal disruption to the locale

           and prevention of erosion, sedimentation or toxic discharges

           from the sites.  The quality of land management practices

           applied in the quarrying of sand and gravel and in the mining

           of coal; sulfur and other minerals has not been satisfactory

           from the water quality standpoint.


           Resource extraction may be either a surface or subsurface

           operation.  Some type of surface extraction of resources
                                      149

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      occurs in each of the 50 states,  and only slightly more than
      one-third of these mined areas has been reclaimed as of
      1965 according to Soil Conservation Service figures.  Although
      surface extraction is generally the most efficient method of
      mining, the process must be managed carefully to preclude
      awesome damage to the environment.  "Spoil, " the piles of
      earth, vegetation,  and rock scooped from above the deposit,
      is prey to erosion and sedimentation, as well as acid drainage.
      The mounds of waste generated by processing the ore  may
      cause similar problems.

      Specific pollutants vary with the type of extraction.  However,
      erosion and sedimentation are possible at any site where
      proper site planning, construction techniques,  and planting
      are not carried out.   Other  major threats to water quality
      can come from the salt water which is a by-product of oil
      extraction or acid mine drainage from coal mines and their
      spoils and from erosion and sedimentation. Unlike most other
      activities, negative side effects  of mining can continue long
      after the mining operation has been discontinued unless proper
      reclamation measures are taken.  Technology and practices
      exist by which all of these undesirable side effects can be
      controlled, and most states, as  well as the extraction industries,
      actively pursue some form of pollution abatement and  control.

c.    Techniques and Examples.  Careful preplanning and super-
      vision of new mine development  can militate against potential
      pollution during and after the extraction activity.  Legislation
      requiring permit approval has been enacted in several states
      and localities, including Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
      Maryland, and Ohio.  Criteria and regulations to protect
                                150

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           water quality should be an integral component of the evaluation
           process and may be incorporated in requirements concerning
           design, management, and reclmation measures. West
           Virginia's regulations,  for example, require submission of
           plans for both natural and man made drainage, for erosion
           and sediment control, treatment of mine drainage, and
           revegetation.  Regulations in Pennsylvania and Illinois
           require posting of a performance bond to insure  compliance
           with water quality plans.  Several states also regulate in-
           stream extraction of sand, gravel and other  mineral deposits,
           as well as those extraction activities which are  located in
           close proximity to water bodies.
D.    GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
      PRACTICES
Wastewater collection and treatment facilities and major producers of
water-borne wastes should be planned and constructed in consonance
with the existing land use patterns, water quality standards, and com-
prehensive plans for the region.  The guidelines which follow outline the
process by which planning for wastewater treatment should be related to
land use.  General relationships between wastewater treatment facilities
and land use are discussed, as are treatment plant location, sewer
trunk and interceptor design, water conservation practices, discharge
permit systems, and sewer moratoria.

Guideline #1:  General Considerations

      a.     Interagency review, on an inter-governmental scale,  should
            be pursued in an effort to insure that:
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      (1)    Wastes will be compatible with established and
            projected downstream uses.
                                          •i.
      (2)    Possible economies of scale or joint usage of site or
            facilities are exploited.

      (3)    Facilities will be locationally compatible with the
            stability of already developed areas and plans for
            future  development.

      (4)    The type of facility, site size, and design will blend
            with topography and surrounding development.

      (5)    Disruption of the  site, the area,  and of water quality
            during the construction period will be within acceptable
            bounds.
b.    Alternatives should be evolved and analyzed so that partici-

      pants in the planning and decision-making processes under-
      stand options open to them and the ramifications of each.

      Alternative solutions should be considered with regard to:

      (1)   Sites.  Alternative sites should be located and the
           merits and constraints of each evaluated to determine
           relative feasibility.
      (2)   Timing and Routes of Collector System.  Implications
           of options  should be assessed  in terms of conformance
           with comprehensive land use and development plans,
           population projections, availability of other public
           services,  and real estate values.
      (3)   Means of Disposal. Decision  makers should understand
           available alternatives basic to treatment plant siting,
           such as one  large plant versus smaller,  dispersed
           plants, or long distance piping of wastes rather than
           siting the plant in a developed area.


c.    Potential sites for wastewater treatment facilities and
      corridors for future interceptor sewers should be included

      in long-range comprehensive land use plans so that potentially

      incompatible developments can be precluded near sites which

      will be utilized for treatment facilities in the future.  Also,

      new development sited near future lines should be designed

      so as to minimize disruption when the lines are built.
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Guideline #2: Treatment Plant Location and Design


      a.    Location decisions for treatment plants require detailed
>
            study of land forms, regional land uses, future growth of the

            service area, engineering criteria and operations data.
            (1)    Alternative sites should be selected  and analyzed
                  with regard  to existing ecological and hydrological
                  conditions, clear statement of existing  and  planned
                  land uses, and socio-economic implications of
                  alternative sites.

            (2)    An interdisciplinary team representing the  skills of the
                  engineering  architecture, urban planning, landscape
                  architecture, and ecology professions should conduct
                  the site selection study.

            (3)  - Sites should  meet the following desirable conditions:

                  (a)   Natural features which can accommodate the
                       treatment facility with little or no disturbance.

                  (b)   No excessive problems of drainage, runoff,
                       slope,  soil conditions or  geologic  subsurface
                       disturbances.
                  (c)   Opportunity for accommodating compatible uses
                       at site.

                  (d)   Proximity to a water body of the size and quality
                       sufficient to handle, in all seasons, treated
                       effluent without quality degradation.
                  (e)   Least  negative impact on surrounding environ-
                       ment and property values.
                  (f)    Availability of space for expansion if  necessary
                       in the  future.

                  (g)   Avoidance of visually prominent sites in favor of
                       less, obtrusive alternatives.

                  (h)   Minimal dislocation of homes or other forms of
                       development.

                  (i)    Avoidance of destruction  of unique geologic  or
                       archeological areas or historic landmarks.
                  (j)    Avoidance of side effects associated with disposal
                       of the  solid waste residue to be generated by the
                       plant.
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     b.    Treatment plant sites should be designed and developed

           according to the following principles:

           (1)    The structure should be set back from the stream and
                 protective flood-proofing methods used to minimize
                 possibility of damage to the facility or release of
                 pollutants to downstream areas during flood conditions.
                 The resulting  space between the receiving water and
                 plant may be used for recreational areas or other
                 forms  of open space  compatible with streamside buffers.
           (2)    The site plan and structure design should meet the
                 following criteria:
                 (a)   Area for future expansion should  be included in
                      initial concept  design.

                 (b)    The layout  of the facility should respect existing
                       topography and character of the site.

                 (c)    The long axis of plant structures  should be
                       oriented perpendicular to natural water bodies
                       or other scenic areas to avoid blocking views
                       and access.

                 (d)    Prominent  locations for unsightly structures
                       should be avoided.

                 (e)    Landscaping should be compatible with natural
                       vegetation in the area.

                 (f)    The construction process should  minimize dis-
                       ruption  of vegetation and implement full erosion
                       and sediment control program.

                 (g)    The construction process should  be planned so
                       as to minimize possible nuisance or disruption
                       to surrounding development.

                 (h)    The plant design should complement any other
                       structures  being planned at the same time and
                       should not detract from existing waterfront
                       development.
Guideline #3;  Sewer Trunk and Interceptor Planning


The relationship between growth and sewer trunk and interceptor design

and construction is a delicate one.   In most instances the goal is to
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serve normal projected growth without overburdening the existing treat-

ment plants,  overextending the public purse, or overstimulating growth
and development.


     a.    Locational Criteria

           (1)    Sewer districts generally are based on natural drainage
                 basins and decisions to install new trunk lines and
                 interceptors within the basins must be made with
                 regard to:

                 (a)   Existing land use patterns.

                 (b)   Area plans and goals for new development.

                 (c)   Economic feasibility  of the  line with regard to unique
                      or difficult engineering or construction needs
                      which may elevate  costs.

                 (d)   Natural topography, hydrology, and ecological
                      conditions which could be disturbed or destroyed
                      either by construction of the lines or development
                      induced by the lines.

           (2)    Proposed trunklines should be examined for conferm-
                 ance of projected impact with comprehensive land use
                 plans.  Considerations include whether the lines will
                 support desirable growth patterns and densities.
           (3)    Locational decisions should include consideration of
                 possible overall degradation of water quality due to
                 increased sedimentation  and runoff from development
                 made possible by the new sewer service capacity.

           (4)    Extension decisions which might permit "leapfrogging"
                 of urban development into more rural areas should be
                 examined carefully with regard both to area plans to
                 manage sprawl and the desirability of committing
                 public funds to stretches of unutilized sewer to reach
                 the proposed development.


     b.    Timing Criteria

           (1)    Decisions to construct lines and timing of the construc-
                 tion must be made in coordination with other public
                 agency plans for providing  services,  such as highway
                 departments and school and health systems, to insure
                 that social dislocation will  not result from premature,
                 unsupported development.
                                     155

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      (2)   Population projections, market studies, and compre-
           hensive plans should indicate immediate or short range
           demand of sufficient size to support the amortization
           plan devised by the responsible jurisdiction.

      (3)   In areas undergoing rapid growth where treatment
           facilities are being expanded and lines being extended,
           timing of these capital programs should be coordinated
           so that neither is completed far in advance of the other.

      (4)   Long range planning and construction commitments
           should be sufficiently flexible that future shifts in
           growth patterns or advances in wastewater treatment
           system design can be accommodated without resulting
           in substantial waste or underutilization of collection
           systems.

      (5)   Temporary on-site disposal systems and package
           plants,  where deemed appropriate, should be clearly
           related to long range plans  for public service.
c.    Capacity Criteria

      (1)   Trunk line capacity should generally be based on pro-
           jected short and mid-range growth, rather than be of
           a size as to over stimulate development.
      (2)   Allocation mechanisms to control tap-ins to interceptors
           are necessary to insure that capacity designed to serve
           future desired development is not utilized by unplanned
           development.
d.    Installation Criteria

      (1)   Construction should be planned and supervised to
           insure minimal disruption to the natural environment
           and to traffic patterns and nearby development.

      (2)   Erosion and sedimentation control measures should be
           implemented during construction.
      (3)   Removal of natural vegetative  cover should be minimized
           and replanting should immediately follow completion of
           short segments.
      (4)   Plans  for locating and screening of construction
           machinery and stockpiles should be required.
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      e.    Financing Factors
           (1)    Decisions to "open up" large areas by installing new
                 lines should be made with full realization that additional
                 expenditures for a wide range of public services and
                 utilities will be required for perhaps extended periods
                 in the future until the development begins to pay its  own
                 way.
           (2)    If financing sewer construction is done through a
                 special assessment district which generally requires
                 building up a core population temporarily utilizing on-
                 site disposal methods, the later shift to a public sewer
                 system should be pre-planned so that homeowner  costs
                 are more easily financed.  Consideration should be
                 given to such techniques as:
                 (a)   Installing collector system at time of construction
                      so that hook-up to a public system can occur as
                      soon as an interceptor is extended.
                 (b)   Assessing a pre-construction fee for  developing
                      a capital construction fund.
Guideline #4:  Water Conservation Practices


      a.    Water conservation should be considered as a means for

           reducing the necessary capacity of facilities needed to

           collect, convey, and treat both domestic and industrial
           waste, as well as for reducing per capita usage of water.


      b.    Water quality managers and planners should encourage the

           domestic use of various devices available to curtail water

           use.  Ootions to reduce water consumption  include: faucet

           aerators, flow control shower heads, automatic flush valve
           toilets, shallow trap water closets, and the English dual
           cycle water closet.  Table 17 lists water saving devices

           ranked by cost-effectiveness.
                                     157

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      c.    Industrial, commercial, and agricultural reuse of water
           should be encouraged.  For instance,  in-plant recirculation
           of water should be pursued not only to reduce total water
           requirements but also to decrease waste discharges.

      d.    Planners of wastewater systems should be cognizant of
           possibilities for reuse of effluent, generally after some type
           of treatment, and alert both local governments and water
           users to such possibilities.  Treated sewage effluent, for
           instance, can be utilized for irrigation purposes.  However,
           special attention should be paid to land use impacts by such
           reuse practices (i.e., heavy metal residues in food, reduction
           in soil permeability, etc.).

      e.    Water conservation  practices should be encouraged by incor-
           porating them within building codes and other state and local
           regulations.

Guideline #5:  Discharge Permit System

      a.    An effective  mechanism should be established  for review of
           significant discharge and waste disposal applications by
           agencies responsible for land use planning and control,
           including the local planning commission or agency and the
           areawide planning agency.

      b.    Point source uses which should be subjected to such review
           include:
           (1)   Industries.
           (2)   Power plants.
                                    158

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      (3)   Residential,  commercial,  or recreational package plants.
      (4)   On-site disposal systems serving developments of all
           commercial and recreational enterprises and sub-
           divisions of more than 10 dwelling units.
      (5)   Cattle feedlots.
c.    In review of applications for discharge permits, whether
      required at the federal, state or local level, consideration
      should be given to potential land use impacts -- aesthetic
      incompatibility, premature development,  adverse effects on
      public services,  depreciation of property values,  damage to
      recreational areas, degradation of land resources, and other
      impacts which might be caused either by new or continued
      point discharges.

d.    Alternative locations and relocation of point sources should
      be considered where waste treatment technology is incapable
      of resolving water quality problems and/or land use impacts.

e.    Permits for septic tanks,  where they are allowed by state
      and  local law, should be closely analyzed and monitored.
      (1)   Septic tanks should be permitted only after thorough
           investigation of soil suitability and topography, impact
           upon land use plans, and public service capabilities.
      (2)   Consideration should be given to devising a system of
           registering and inspecting septic systems to insure
           that proper maintenance procedures are  followed.

f.    To avoid proliferation of sewer systems and service districts,
      all domestic waste treatment facilities should be publicly
      provided and  maintained as a step toward reaching that goal.
      Private treatment and collection facilities should not be  per-
      mitted within a reasonable distance from an existing collection
      line which could be utilized in the immediate or more distant
      future.
                               159

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Guideline #6;  Sewer Moratoria and Permit Allocation Policies

While governmentally imposed moratoria or limitations on sewer taps
can serve as useful temporary or permanent tools in stabilizing growth
within overburdened sewer service districts, policy makers should give
consideration to the following:

     a.    Policies which significantly alter the availability of sewer
           tap-in permits should be coordinated on an area-wide basis
           to preclude  the possibility of shifting excessive growth
           burdens to unprepared neighboring jurisdictions.

     b.    Since there  is a significant time lag (up to two years) between
           imposition of sewer moratoria and actual reduction of con-
           struction activity, such action should either  be taken well
           in advance of overload conditions or be made retroactively
           applicable to all projects which are still in the construction
           stages.

     c.    The development of sewer tap allocation formulas should
           consider service and qualitative factors as well as equity
           principles.  (For instance, issuance of limited sewer tap
           permits on a first-come,  first-served basis may result in
           less desirable development than a policy which allocates
           permits to areas where development is more easily serviced
           or where socially, aesthetically or economically significant
           development would be encouraged.)

     d.    Special attention should be given to the impact of sewer and/
           or construction moratoria upon housing market costs and the
           supply of housing, particularly for low and moderate income
           households.
                                    160

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                    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the following staff members:  Mr. Stephen C.
Nelson (AMV Project Manager), Mrs.  Suzan K. Cheek (AMV Urban Planner),
Miss Janice Birara(AMV Urban Planner),  Mr. Alex Bigler (AMV Advisor),
Mr. Robert P.  Shubinski (WRE Project Coordinator), Mr. Gerald F. Tierney
(WRE Water Quality Engineer),  and Mr. Mitchell Wendell (Attorney and
President of Environments for Tomorrow).

Special appreciation is extended to the numerous federal, state,  regional,
and local agencies who provided information and advice to the study team.
                                    161

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110.   Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.,  Engineers,  A Comprehensive Pollution Abatement
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111.  Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering;  Collection, Treatment,
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112.  	. 1969 Occoquan Reservoir Study. A Report to the Commonwealth
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113.   Michigan, Otsego County. Soil Erosion and Sediment Control Ordinance
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                                    170

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114.  Milgram,  Grace, The City Expands.  Institute for Environmental
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115.  Mitchell,  Ralph, Water Pollution Microbiology.  Wiley-Interscience,
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116.  National Academy of Sciences,  National Research Council, Waste
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117.  National Academy of Sciences,  National Research Council, Waste
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118.  National Association of Conservation Districts, Suggested Guidelines
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119.  National Industrial Pollution Control Countil,  Fertilizers and Agricultural
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120.  Nemerow,  Theory and Practice of Industrial Waste  Treatment, Addison-
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121.  National Technical Advisory Committee,  FWPCA,  Water Quality
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122.  North Carolina> Guilford County,  Zoning Regulations.

123.  North Carolina State University, Department of Biological and Agricultural
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124.  Northern Maine Regional Planning Commission, The Northern Maine
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125.  Odum,  Eugene P. and Howard T., Fundamentals  of Ecology, 2nd Edition.
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126.  Oregon State University, Schools  of Forestry and Engineering, Studies
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127.  Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Laboratories,  Research
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                                      171

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128.  "Poverty,  Pollution,  and Sewers. "  Trans-Action, September 1968, p. 5.

129.  Powell,  Mel D.,  Winter, William C., and Bodwitch, William P.,
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130.  Regional Science Research Institute, "Perception and Use of Streams
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131.  Rikert, David A. and Speiker, Andrew M., Real-Estate Lakes.  U.S.
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132.  Rivkin/Carson, Inc., Population Growth in Communities in Relation to
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133.  Ruth,  Herman D. and Associates, Regional and Local Land Use Planning,
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134.  Scalf, Marion R., et al..  Fate of DDT and Nitrate in Ground Water.
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135.  Sevenson,  H. A. and  Baldwin, H. L., A Primer on Water Quality.   U.S.
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136.  Shigorin, G. G., "The  Problem of City Surface Run-Off Water. "
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137.  Smith, George E.,  "Fertilizer Nutrients as Contaminants in Water
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138.  	.  "Are Fertilizers Creating Pollution Problems?" Presented
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139.  Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission, "Forecasts and
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140.  Spangler,  Miller, The Role of Research and Development in Water
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                                       172

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141.  Special Report: "A Summary of State Land Use Laws. " Land Use
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142.  Spicer, Richard B., Increasing State and Regional Power  in the
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143.  Spilhaus, A., et_aL, Waste  Management and Control.  Federal Council
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144.  Strong, Ann L., Flood Plain Regulation.  A Report to the Tri-County
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145.	.  Delaware River Basin Compact;  A Review with Respect to
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146.  Stumm,  Werner, and Morgan, James J., "Stream Pollution by Algal
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147.  Tahoe Regional Planning Agency, Geology and  Geomorphology of the
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148.  	.   Lake Tahoe Region Storm Drainage.  South Lake Tahoe,
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149.	.  Climate and Air Quality of the Lake Tahoe Region:  A
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150.  Tahoe Regional planning Agency, Limnology and Water Quality of the
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151.  	.   Wildlife of the Lake Tahoe Region: A Guide  for Planning.
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152.  	_.   Land Use Ordinance.  South Lake Tahoe, California,
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153.  	.  Hydrology and Water Resources of the Lake Tahoe
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154.  	.   The Plan for Lake Tahoe.  South Lake Tahoe,  California,
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                                    173

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155.  	.  Water Resources in the Lake Tahoe Region.  South Lake
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156.  	.  Grading Ordinance.  South Lake Tahoe, California.
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157.  	.  Shoreline Ordinance.  South Lake  Tahoe, California,
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158.  	.  Subdivision Ordinance.  South Lake Tahoe, California,
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159.  	.  Vegetation of the Lake Tahoe Region;  A Guide for Planning.
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160.  	^.  Land Resources of the Lake Tahoe Region; A Guide for
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161.  	.   Soils of the Lake Tahoe Region;  A Guide for Planning.  South
      Lake Tahoe,  California,  July  1971.

162.  Thelen, Edmund, et al., Investigation of Porous Pavements for Urban
      Runoff Control.  Report for the Environmental Protection Agency,  U. S.
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163.  Tourbier,  Jachim, "The Christina Project:  Environmental  Protection in
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164.  Tovar, F.H., Annual Comilation and Analysis of Hydrologic Data for
      Urban Studies in Bryan, Texas Metropolitan Area.  U. S.  Geological
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165.  TRW Systems Group,  A Methodology for Flood Plain Development and
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166.  Tucker, L. S.,  et al.,  Metropolitan Industrial Water Use.  T. M. 16,
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167..  University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory,
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      FWPCA, November 1969.
                                     174

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168.  University of Maryland, School of Law, Legal Problems of Coal Mine
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169.  University of Pennsylvania, Institute for Environmental Studies, The
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170.  Upper Trinity Comprehensive Sewerage Plan. Volumes 1-3.  North
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171,  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Directorate of Regulatory Standards,
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172.  U.S. Department of Agriculture, "Managing Our Environment. "  Agriculture
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173.  	.  "A Brief: Regulations for Erosion and Sediment Control
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174.  U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S.  Department of Housing and
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175.  U.S. Department of Agriculture, California, Land Use Conservation Act
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176.  U.S. Department of Housing and  Urban Development and U.S. Department
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177.  U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Water
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178.  U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water  Pollution Control
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179.  	.  Water  Pollution Aspects of Urban  Runoff.  January 1969.

180.  U. S. Forest Service and Tahoe Regional Planning Agency,  Lake Tahoe
     Basin Land Capabilities,  updated.
                                175

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181. U.S. Public Health Service, Symposium on Environmental Lead
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182. Utah Social Services Department, Weber River Basin,  Water Quality
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183. Viets, Frank G.,  Jr. and Hageman,  Richard H.,  Factors Affecting the
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184. Virginia, Fairfax County, Presentation of Alternatives, 5 Year Countywide
     Development Program, Volume 1. Preliminary Staff Report,  Distributed
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185. Virginia, County of Fairfax, Erosion - Siltation Control Handbook  -
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186. Virginia, Fairfax County, Zoning Ordinance of the County of Fairfax,
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187. Vollenweider, Richard A., Scientific Fundamentals of the Eutrophication
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188. Wadleigh,  C. H. "Plant Nutrients with Respect to Water Quality. "  Presented
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189. Walker,  Wayland, Interim Plan for Water Quality Management in the Denver
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190. Wapora, Inc., Ecological Investigation of Mattawoman  Creek, Near Indian
     Head,  With Reference to  Proposed Dredging. Washington,  D. C.

191. 	    .  Possible  Ecological Effects of Proposed Dredging Near
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192. Water Resources Council, Water  Resources Regions and Subregions for
     the National Assessment  of Water and Related Land Resources.
     Washington, D.  C.,  July 1970.
                                   176

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193.  Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Unit Water Requirements and Waste
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194.  Weibel,  S. R., Anderson, R. J., and Woodward, R. L.,  "Urban Land
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     July 1964.

195.  Wendell  and Schwan,  Intergovernmental Relations in Water Resources
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196.  Wenk, Victor D.,  A Technology Assessment Methodology. Water Pollution.
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197.  Western Systems Coordinating Council,  Environmental Guidelines.  Southern
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198.  Whitman, Ira L.,  et al.,  "Evaluating Urban Core Usage of Waterways
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199.  	.  "Design of an Environmental Evaluation System. "  Battelle
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200.  Wiehe, J. E., An Analysis of Water Quality Criteria as Applied to the Big
     Sioux River.   South Dakota State University, 1971.

201.  Wilbrech, Ted L.  and Smith, George  (eds.), Agriculture Practices and
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202.  Wilkinson, R., "The Quality of Rainfall Run-Off Water From a Housing
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     1962.

203.  Williams, James R., Sediment Yield  from Rangeland Watershed in the
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204.  Wirth, Theodore J. and Associates and Bruce Howlett, Inc., Report and
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205.  Wisconsin, Town of Belgium, Ozaukee County,  Zoning Ordinance.

206.  Wisconsin, Walworth County, Shoreline Zoning Ordinance.

207.  Wisconsin, Laws of 1965, Chapter 614.
                                      177

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208.  Witzel, Stanley A.,  Nitrogen Cycle in Surface and Subsurface Waters.
      Water Resources Center, The University of Wisconsin, December 1968.

209.  Wolff, J. B., Linaweaver,  Jr.,  F. P., and Geyer, J. C., "Water Use
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      County,  Maryland, The Johns Hopkins University, June 1966.

210.  Wolman,  M. Gordon and Schick, Asher P., "Effects of Construction on
      Fluvial Sediment, Urban and Suburban Areas of Maryland. "  J.  Water
      Resources Research, Vol.  3, No. 2, Second Quarter 1967.

211.  Walker, George M.  and Wengert, Norman, Urban Water Policies and
      Decision-Making in the Detroit Metropolitan Region.  Office  of Research
      Administration Report 01351010F,  University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
      July 1970.

212.  Woodruff, "Land Use Control Policies and Population Distribution in
      America," 23 Hastings Law Journal. 1427, (1972)

213.  Yearwood, "Subdivision Law: Timing and Location Control"  44  Journal
      Urban Law.  585, (1967). "Accepted Control of Land Subdivision/' 45  Journal
      Urban Law.  217, (1967).

214.  Yorke, T. H. and Davis, W.  J., Sediment Yields of Urban Construction
      Sources. Montgomery County, Maryland.  Open-File Report for the U. S.
      Geological Survey,  Parkville,  Maryland, 1972.

215.  Zanoni, A. E. and Rutkawski, R. J., "Per Capita Loadings of Domestic
      Wastewater. "  J. WPCF, Vol.44, No.  9,  September 1972.

216.  Zeitschrift Fur, Landes Kulture Deutsche Demokatische Republik
      Deutsche Akademie, Der Landwirtschaflswissenchaften  ze Berlin Bond
      11 197ft Heft 6.

                           LEGAL CITATIONS

217.  National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 USC  4321 et seq.,
      Pub. L. No. 91-190, 99 Stat. 852.

218.  Pub. L. No. 92-500.

219.  42 USC  1401, 2414.  4001 notes,  4011-4027, 4041, 4051-4055, 4071,
      4072, 4081-4084. 4101-4103, 4121-4127.
                                  178

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220.  16 USC 459(b), (c),  (d).

221.  42 USC 4321 et seq. (originally enacted as an Act of January 1,  1970,
      Pub. L No. 91-190, 88 Stat. 852).

222.  New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Compact, 61 Stat.  682;
      Potomac River Basin Compact, 54 Stat. 748; Wabash Valley Compact,
      73 Stat. 694.

223.  Delaware River Basin Compact, 75 Stat. 688.

224.  83 Stat. 360 (text of compact).

225.  H. R. 6482 (passed by the House of Representatives). S. 630
      (reported by the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs in the
      92nd Congress).

226.  Welch v.  Swaney,  214,  J. S. 91, 29 S. Ct.  567,  53 L.Ed. 923(1909),
      upheld building codes and height limitations; and Eubank v. City of
      Richmond.  226 U.S.  137, 33 S. Ct.  76,  57 L. Ed.  156 (1912) upheld
      building set-back regulations.

227.  Euclid v.  Ambler  Realty Co.,  272 U.S.  365,  475 S. Ct. 114, 54 A. L. R.
      1016, 71 L.Ed.  303 (1926).

228.  Dyer v. Sims.  341 U.S.  22 (1951); Zimmerman and Wendell, The
      Interstate Compact Since 1925,  1951.

229.  Arizona Rev.  Stat.

230.  Wisconsin Stat.  Ann. Sec.  134.67.

231.  Virginia Area Development Act, Code of Virginia, 1964 Replacement
      Volume, Chapter 4, Sec. 15. 1-1400 et seq.  (1968).

232.  Comment, "Rural  Zoning in Nebraska, " 44 Nebraska Law Review 151,
      (1965),  Note, "County Zoning in Iowa.'* 45 Iowa  Law Review 743 (1961T
                                      179

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                            APPENDIX A
            SAMPLE WATER QUALITY  IMPACT ANALYSIS
                     OF A SMALL WATERSHED
This appendix presents a simple example in order to demonstrate the
ideas and approaches given in Chapter II.  The example considers a real,
residential problem in Fairfax County, Virginia which involves a real
estate lake.  Impacts for other types of waters can be  studied using
similar logical arguments and approaches.

This example deals with the development of one section of a watershed
and is simplified.  A development plan calls for the creation of two neighbor-
hoods with populations of 5, 000 people.   Each neighborhood is served by a
commercial neighborhood center  covering approximately  10 acres and
offering about 75, 000 square feet of retail space.  The plan allows for the
clustering of multifamily dwellings at the neighborhood center.  The area
given to high density development in each center is approximately 10 acres.
The watershed has a small section of extensive urbanization at its further
end.   For the sake of simplification, the loadings from this area are
considered to be transported out of the planning section.   The stream has a
fork and it is planned to build a 40-acre recreational lake at this point.
This lake drains an area of 2, 432 acres.  The area is  primarily, forest
land.  Figure 18 shows the watershed and the proposed development.

General data for the area are:
Subareas                 Use        Population     Area     Density
Neighborhood (1)       Residential        5,500   640 acres     8.6
Neighborhood (2)       Residential        4,500   524 acres     8.6
Center                Commercial                  20 acres
Center                Commercial                  20 acres
                Total Developed Area            1, 204 acres
                                 A-l

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                    Figure 18
Sample Watershed:  Proposed Development Plan
       C ju ^rT-'.^'«Cj«/**a^r^j4i_;'*JSi »^i»j>- t*y^^S
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The point and non-point waste loadings can be estimated according to
the following procedures:

1. POINT  LOADS

The total point loads generated by the land use plan can be estimated using
Table 3 (see Chapter II).  The total population is 10, 000 persons, so the
Median Yearly Per Capita Loading is computed as:

      BOD  = 42. 7 x 10, 000 = 427, 000 Ibs/year
        N= 8.5x10,000=  85,000 Ibs/year
        P= 2.1x10,000=  21,000 Ibs/year

In order to estimate the commercial loading, the square footage of developed
space is given as 150, 000 square feet and an adjusted water use rate is
estimated at 0. 309 gal/square foot/day (see Table  4).  The yearly com-
mercial sewage flow is:
                                                        c
      Commercial Flow = 150, 000 x . 309 x 365 = 16. 9 x 10  gal.

This is converted into waste loads by applying the factors  given in Table 3.

      BOD  = . 17 x 10~2 x 16. 9 x 106  = 28. 730 Ibs/year
        N  = .06 x 10"2 x 16. 9 x 106  = 10,140 Ibs/year
                                  />
        P  = . 008 x 10'2 x  16. 9 x 10  =  1, 350 Ibs/year

There is no industrial development within the planning district, so there
are no industrial waste loads.
                                A-3

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Therefore,  the total point source loadings for the development plan are:

      BOD = 455, 730 IDS/year
         N =  95, 140 IDS/year
         P =  22,350 Ibs/year

It is assumed that these loads will be transported out of the planning district
and treated before disposal.  This implies a higher level of regional planning
which must consider the impact of these waste upon a regional facility.

2.   NON-POINT LOADS

It is assumed that the storm sewers in the area deposit all the land runoff
into the local streams.

a.   Urban Stormwater Runoff

The best planning estimate  possible without field measurements involves
the average loadings within the study area.  The guidelines from Table 18
should be used.   The entries in the table relate to the length of street curb
as the planning variable.  The pollution loadings are keyed to this length.
The table pertains to a  city setting.  The presumption is that dirt in the
streets is washed off.

The design of residential suburban developments leaves more open  space
than cities and it follows that the land and not the streets collects the major
part of the pollution loads.   This may be reflected in a reduction in the
loading rate and in this example the loading is reduced 20 percent.  The
first three rows of Table 18 are  multiplied together to give the fourth row
estimates of the aerial  loading rate in pounds of dirt washed off the street
per year per acre.

                               A-4

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                              TABLE 18
       CALCULATION OF NON-POINT AREAL LOADING RATES


Land Use
A.
B.
C.
Single Family
Multifamily
Commercial
Lbs.of Dirt
Per Year per
100 ft. of curb
255.5
839.5
1,204.5

Reduction
Factor
.8
.8
.8
Hundreds of
Feet of Curb
per Acre
4.65
4.65
4.65
Lbs. of
Dirt
per Acre
950.
3123.
4481.
Note: The reduction factor is applied to the first column to revise the urban
      data to a suburban setting.
The loading rates of Table 18 are given in terms of pounds of dirt per year.
Therefore, the production rates of individual pollution constituents on an
areal basis  are found according to the data given in Table 19. These data
give weight of constituent per thousand pounds of dirt.  The right hand
column of Table 19 gives  pounds per acre of BOD, Nitrogen and Phosphates
as a function of land use.

The average loading for each constituent for the entire subbasin is  cal-
culated by taking a weighted average of the loads of each land use.  This
average is simply the sum of the products of each land use load and the
acreage devoted to this land use divided by the total developed area.  The
loadings for this subbasin are:
                               A-5

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                                               TABLE 19
                         CALCULATION OF AREAL CONSTITUENT LOADING RATES
en
BOD
A.  Single Family
B.  Multifamily
C.  Commercial
NITROGEN
A.  Single Family
B.  Multifamily
C.  Commercial
PHOSPHATES
A.  Single Family
B.  Multifamily
C.  Commercial
                           Areal Loading Rate
                            Thousands of Lbs/
                             Acre/Year	
                                    .95
                                   3.12
                                   4.48
 .95
3.12
4.48

 .95
3.12
4.48
                 Constituent Loading Rate
                 Lbs. ol Constituent per
                   Thousand Lbs. of
                	Dirt
                          5.0
                          3.6
                          7.7
.48
.65
.42

.50
.53
.69
                   Areal Constituent
                   Loading Rate
                     Lbs /Acre	
                          4.75
                         11.23
                         34. 50
 .46
2.03
1.88

 .47
1.65
3.09

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                   Load Rate         Acreage            Products
BOD               (Lbs/Acre)         (Acres)              (Ibs)
Single Family          4.75           1, 164               5,529
Multifamily           11.23              20                 225
Commercial           34.50              20                 690
Total                                 1,204               6,444
Total BOD Loading (Lbs/Acre/Year) =  6,444/1,204 = 5.35

NITROGEN
Single Family           . 46           1, 164                  535
Multifamily            2.03              20                   41
Commercial            1.88              20                   38
Total                                 1,204                  614
           Land Development Loading = 614/1, 204   =   .51
           Rainwater Loading	= (5. 5 x . 45)  =  2. 31-
Total Nitrogen Loading (Lbs/Acre/Year)            =  2.82

PHOSPHATES
Single Family           . 47           1,164                  547
Multifamily            1.65             20                   33
Commercial            3.09             20                   62
Total                                 1,204                  642

           Total Phosphate (P04) Loading  . 642/1  204  =  53
           Lbs/Acre/Year                        '
           'Total Phosphorus (P) Loading                       2/
           /_ ,   I .    /_.                   - . OO X . O£O -  .1 I—
           (Lbs/Acre/Year
— Rain water contributes dissolved nitrogen. An average amount of nitrogen
  in rain water is 5. 5 Ibs/acre. Of this, 45 percent is assumed to wash off.
2 /
— The ratio of elemental phosphorus to phosphorus is 0.326.
                             A-7

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To sum up the computations, the estimates for the non-point loads
generated by the proposed land use plan are:

           Total BOD:  5. 35 Ibs/acre/year
           Total N     2. 82 Ibs/acre/year
           Total PO    . 53 Ibs/acre/year
           Total P      . 17 Ibs/acre/year

The critical condition for the lake  is the nutrient loadings—  per unit of
lake surface area.  Work by Vollenweider (198) has shown a definite
correlation between this loading and the occurence of nuisance algae
conditions  in lakes. Table 20 shows the results of a study of twenty lakes
and the effect of the annual phosphorus and nitrogen loading.

                              TABLE 20
       PERMISSIBLE LOADING LEVELS FOR TOTAL NITROGEN
        AND TOTAL PHOSPHORUS (BIOCHEMICALLY ACTIVE)
           (LBS PER ACRE OF LAKE SURFACE PER YEAR)
Mean Depth Up To
16 Feet
33 Feet
165 Feet
330 Feet
492 Feet
656 Feet
Source: Vollenweider
1. Permissible
Up to
N
8.92
13.30
35. 68
53. 53
66.91
80.30
(198)
Loading,
P
.62
.89
2.23
3.57
4.46
5.35

2. Dangerous Loading,
In Excess of
N
17.89
26.76
71.38
107. 06
133.83
160.60

P
1.16
1.78
4.46
7.14
8. 92
10.71

— With relation to storm wash off BOD loadings are not as environmentally
  damaging as nutrient (N and P) loadings.
                             A-8

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The guideline boundaries for nutrient loadings given in Table 20 are subject
to many uncertainties.  They do,  however, offer rough yardsticks for the
initial planning process. In publishing these loading levels, Vollenweider
states, "... considering the kind of data at our disposal,  it is also obvious
that the transition zones defined are  probably the best we can do at the
present time,  and that we can only reject them in their entirety or accept
them as preliminary guidelines."

The permissible loadings given in Table 20 are in terms of pounds per lake
surface acre.  The planned lake will cover 40 acres.  The calculations
indicate that nitrogen loads of 2. 82 pounds per year per acre of water shed
land and 0. 17 pounds per year of  phosphorous per acre of watershed land.
There are 1, 204 acres in the watershed.  Thus, the estimated  lake loads
in terms of acres of lake surface are:
      Phosphorous (as P)  =  1,204 x . 17/40  = 5. 2 Ibs/acre/year
      Nitrogen (N)        = 1, 204 x  2. 82/40 = 84. 6 Ibs/acre/year'

Referring to Table 20 it is seen that  these loadings  are permissible for
very deep lakes.  The 40 acre lake will have a maximum depth of  50 feet.
It is concluded that the lake will have algae problems and will be very green
and unsightly in periods of algae growth in the summer.  Remedial measures
would be a reservation of sufficient adjacent  lands for park land or very
low density development in order to reduce the lake loading rates  to under
about 15 Ibs/acre/year for nitrogen and  1 Ib/acre/year for phosphorous.
A second alternative would be to intensively clean the streets in the water
shed of the lake.  A third alternative would be to remove the lake  from  the
plan.
                                 A-9

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b.  Sedimentation

The final problem is sedimentation.  The planning area is considered 80
percent forested at the start of development.  It is 40 percent forested at
the end of the period.  The construction decrease in forestation will
produce a large sediment problem during the construction phase of the
development.  Based on a  study by the ASCE (5) for the Potomac Basin,
sediment discharges could increase from 48 tons per square mile to  180
tons per square mile.   Even though a large portion of the sediment load
may be transitory in nature, it may be  enough to permanently destroy the
lake and streamcourses unless contractors are required to impose siltation
measures.

3. CONCLUSIONS

What does this profile of waste loads imply for the planner? The subbasin
is only a portion of the overall regional plan.  Therefore,  the loadings
impact not only the local but also the regional planning process.  On the local
level the most pressing problem is the  lake. Reference to the guidelines
shows that the land use imposed nutrient loadings portend undesirable algae
conditions.  The lake is too small for the imposed loads.   On the regional
level the ability of the existing or proposed treatment facilities to dispose
of the point loads generated by the development is the crucial planning
parameter.

The solution to the water quality problems inherent in the planned development
depends on the methodology under which the planner is operating.  Under
the traditional planning approach,  with  land use fixed, the only avenue open
is to collect as much of the surface runoff as possible and export it from
the region for treatment. .  This approach is the one currently employed in
existing developed areas and leads to increased cost in transport and treat-
ment of the runoff.
                                A-10

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Under the planning approaches discussed in Chapter IV the planner has
more options open to him.  In using these approaches he combines both
the local and regional prospectives.  A first option might well be to  remove
the lake from the plan.  After this is done the possible repercussions on
other impoundments in the region must be evaluated.  A  second approach
may be to increase the size of the lake.   This has the effect of diluting the
nutrient loads and, therefore, keeping them below the threshold which
nuisance algae bloom.  This solution naturally hinges on the technical
feasibility of increasing the lake size.  In this example,  it appears that a
fourfold increase in size, with the increase in depth, would suffice.  Local
topography, existing settlement, and cost all enter into the evaluation of
the desirability of this alternative.   A third alternative is to reduce the
population within the local planning area.  This solution again calls for
evaluation of the  population shift on a regional basis.  Where might the
population go and what is  the impact in the new area ?

Therefore,  interpretation of the water quality impact leads to a myriad
of possible solutions.  The planning methodology used highlights the alter-
natives and  indicates the direction in which the decision process travels.
Used intelligently, with an understanding, of the uncertainties involved,
these estimates of waste loads can aid the planner in preventing the
destruction  of our irreplacable  resources.
                              A-ll

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