RESEARCH TRIANG-LE INSTITUTE September 1934
FUGITIVE PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS FROM
HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
by
James H, Turner
Marvin R. .SJranscorne
Robert L. 'Chessin
Ashok 5. Damle
Rajeev V. Kamath
Colleen M. Northeim
C. Clark Allen
Research Triangle Institute
P.O. Box 12194
Researcn Triangle Park, NC 27709
EPA Contract No. 68-03-3149
' Project Officer
Paul R. dePercin
Land Pollution Control Division
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45258
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 4526S
-------
September 1984
FUGITIVE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM
HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
by
James H. Turner
Marvin R. Branscome
Robert L. Chess in
Ashok S. Damle
Rajeev V. Kamath
Colleen M. Northeim
C. Clark Allen
Research Triangle Institute
P.O. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
EPA Contract No. 68-03-3149
Project Officer
Paul R. dePercin
Land Pollution Control Division
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
-------
DISCLAIMER
The information in this document has been funded wholly or in part by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No.
68-03-3149 to Research Triangle Institute. It has been subject to the
Agency's peer and administrative review, and it has been approved for
publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
-------
FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing
public and governmental concern about the nation's environment and its effect
on the health and welfare of the American people. The complexity of the
environment and the interplay among its components reauire a concentrated and
integrated attack upon environmental problems.
The first step in seeking environmental solutions is research and
development to define the problem, measure its impact and project possible
remedies. Research and development is carried out continually by both
industry and governmental agencies concerned with improving the environment.
Much key research and development is handled by EPA's Hazardous Waste
Engineering Research Laboratory. The laboratory develops new and improved
technologies and systems to treat, store, and dispose hazardous waste; to
remove hazardous waste and restore contaminated sites to usefulness; and to
promote waste reduction and recycling. This publication is one of the
products of that research--a vital communications link between the research
ana the user community.
This document examines the sources and controls for fugitive dust
emissions from hazardous waste treatment, storage and disposal facilities, and
presents procedures for estimating controlled and uncontrolled dust
emissions. A method for estimating the degree of soil contamination is
described as part of the source characterization.
The intended audience for this document includes those involved in the
review of new and existing hazardous waste facilities.
David G. Stephan
Director
Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory
TM
-------
ABSTRACT
Control techniques are reviewed for applicability to fugitive particulate
emissions from hazardous waste sites. Techniques judged applicable include
chemical stabilization (40 to 100 percent efficiency, $520/acre-yr to $2,7207
acre-yr), wet suppression (25 to 90 percent efficiency, $365/acre-yr to $1,270/
acre-yr), physical covering (30 to 100 percent efficiency, $0.01/m2 to 65/m2),
vegetative covering (50 to 80 percent efficiency, $0.11/m2 to S3.96/m2), and
windscreens (30 to 80 percent efficiency, $18.01/m2 to $26.9Q/m2 of screen).
Reduction of vehicle speed on unpaved roads can reduce emissions by 25 to 80
percent, depending on initial conditions.
Supporting reviews are included for soil characteristics, emission factors,
and dispersion processes that generate and distribute fugitive particulate
matter. A method is described to estimate degree of contamination of soil
particles based on the contaminating chemical's water solubility and the
soil's organic carbon content. A first-order decay process is included. Five
example sites are described and estimates made of uncontrolled and controlled
downwind concentrations of hazardous constituents. Annual averages are in the
attogram to nanogram per cubic meter range. Ranges for control and efficiency
costs for each site are included.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract Number 68-03-3149,
Work Assignment Number 7-1 by Research Triangle Institute under the sponsorship
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers a period from
April to September 1984, and the work was completed as of September 30, 1984.
i v
-------
CONTENTS
Section Page
Foreword . ill
Abstract iv
Figures vii
Tables viii
Acknowledgment ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Conclusions 2
3 Factors Affecting Fugitive Emissions 6
3.1 Soil Characteristics 6
3.2 Climatic Conditions 7
3.3 Destabilizing Factors 14
3.4 Nonerodible Elements 15
4 Contamination of Soils 16
4.1 Factors Affecting the Concentration of Chemicals
in Soils 16
4.2 Types of Soil Contamination 24
4.3 Degree of Soil Contamination 24
5 Estimation of Fugitive Particulate Emission Rates ... 32
5.1 Available Applicable Data 32
5.2 Data Required to Simulate Site Design
Characteristics 40
5.3 Site Design Characteristics 41
6 Control Techniques 44
6.1 Chemical Stabilization 44
6.2 Wet Suppression 55
6.3 Physical Covering 57
6.4 Vegetative Covering 58
6.5 Windscreens 59
6.6 Speed Reduction 60
6.7 Prevention and Control of Contamination 60
7 Control Effectiveness and Cost 64
7.1 Summary of Control Efficiency 64
7.2 Applicability and Practicality of Controls
for TSDF's 71
7.3 Cost Estimates for Control Techniques 73
-------
CONTENTS (continued)
Section Page
8 Emission Estimates at Example Sites .......... 100
8.1 Prediction Method ................. 100
8.2 Emission Estimates ................. 112
9 Limitations and Future Needs ........ 113
Bibliography/References 114
Appendices
A Example Site Emission Calculations 145
B Tabulated Values for Degree of Contamination
Estimates ..... .......... 171
-------
FIGURES
Number Page
1 Summary of the USC system 8
2 USDA textural classification chart 10
3 Comparison of USCS and USDA particle-
size scales 10
4 USCS soils superimposed on the USDA textural
classification chart 11
5 North Carolina Portion of Soil Map of the World
(UNESCO, 1975) 30
6 Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for
Site 1, Landfill 107
7 Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for
Site 2, Dried Lagoon 108
8 Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for
Site 3, Drum Storage 109
9 Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for
Site 4, Haul Road 110
10 Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for
Site 5, Waste Pile Ill
-------
TABLES
Number
1 Summary of Control Costs and Efficiencies . 3
2 USOA Textural Types Corresponding to USCS
Soil Designations 12
3 USCS Soil Types Corresponding to USDA
Soil Terminology 13
4 Regression Equations for the Estimation
of K 27
5 ChemTCal Stabilizers 45
6 Chemical Stabilizers for Agricultural Soils 47
7 Stabilization Chemicals Selected ...'.... 48
8 Percent Reduction in Silt and TSP 51
9 Factors Affecting Control Efficiency .......... 65
10 Reported Control Efficiencies for Unpaved Roads 67
11 Reported Control Efficiencies for Storage and
Waste Piles 68
12 Summary of Estimated Control Efficiency Percentages . . 70
13 Material Costs for Chemical Stabilizers 75
14 Rental Cost for Spray Equipment 75
15 Example of Stabilizer Costs 77
16 Costs for Chemical Stabilization 78
17 Costs for Covers 80
18 Example Costs for Synthetic Covers ........... 82
19 Costs for Vegetative Stabilization 83
20 Examples of Seeding Costs. 83
21 Costs for Windscreens. ...... ... 84
22 Costs for Wet Suppression Systems. . 86
23 Costs of Controls for Unpaved Roads 87
24 Control Costs for 40-Acre Landfill 91
25 Control Costs for a Dried Lagoon 93
26 Controls for Drum Storage Area 95
27 Control Costs for an Unpaved Road 96
28 Control Costs for a Waste Pile 97
29 Methodology for Predicting Downwind
Concentration of Hazardous Waste Fugitives 101
30 Example Emission Sources 102
31 Example Emission Sources: Soil Characteristics 103
32 Emissions From Example Sites 105
33 Controls for Example Sites 105
VI 1 1
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express their appreciation to Paul R. dePercin, EPA Project
Officer, for his cogent direction of this work.
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Participate emissions are significant contributors to offsite contami-
nation. Liquid hazardous materials are adsorbed by surrounding soil parti-
cles that subsequently are windborne and inhaled by exposed populations or
deposited on land or water used for food production. Similarly, solid
materials may become eroded or windborne and eventually inhaled or deposited,
Examples of sites that can contribute to windborne contaminants include
open waste piles, unpaved haul roads, landfills of various configurations,
and dried lagoons. For each, some combination of mechanisms must allow a
contaminating material to be adsorbed by containing or surrounding soil and
dispersed in prevailing winds.
Methods of controlling fugitive particulate matter emissions range
from preventing contaminants from reaching the soil or from being eroded
(if solid), to planting vegetative covers that prevent soil movement. A
site can be covered with benign material or crustal agents used to bond
soil particles together to prevent soil movement. To determine overall
control effectiveness, one must be able to estimate emission factors (con-
trolled and uncontrolled) from sites of interest, degree of contamination
(DOC) of emitted particles, and dispersion of particles.
The major objective of this work is to identify and evaluate individual
control options for treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF's).
A supporting objective is to provide data and estimation procedures in
order to determine degree of soil contamination at TSDF's.
To reach these objectives, the report first describes soil and site
characteristics and the factors that lead to fugitive emissions. Soil
contamination and emission rates are discussed next, and example TSDF's are
introduced. These TSDF's are used later as a basis for emission estimates
and control applications. Control techniques are described in depth,
followed by a discussion of their effectiveness and cost. The elements of
the report are brought togehter by estimating emissions at the example
TSDF's and describing applicable control methods and their expected effi-
ciency and cost. Limitations of the work and future needs are discussed
briefly.
Information for this report was taken primarily from the literature on
agricultural, mining, and industrial emissions and from pesticides research.
No field work'was performed.
-------
•"• ~ SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Many fugitive participate controls have been found that act by prevent-
ing or reducing contact between wind and soil particles. The most common
type is some form of liquid, such as asphaltic compounds, that can be
sprayed over soil surfaces to form crusts or to bond particles together.
Other types include vegetative covers; wind breaks; and physical covers of
soil, clay, or artificial materials. Control effectiveness depends on
efficiency, longevity of actions, and resistance to wind and other erosive
forces. A summary of control costs and efficiencies is given in Table 1.
This information, taken from Sections 6 and 7 of the report, was developed
from a broad review of control techniques discussed in hazardous waste,
solid waste, mining, civil engineering, construction industry, and EPA
documents.
Controls are needed to prevent dispersion of hazardous waste emissions
from areas of contamination. These emissions may be hazardous wastes in
particle form but are more apt to be soil particles contaminated with the
wastes. Few data have been found regarding degree of soil contamination at
treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSOF's); however, soil contami-
nation by pesticides has been investigated extensively. RTI used the
generalized results of these investigations to develop a method for estimat-
ing degree of contamination (DOC) of soils from sparingly soluble hazardous
waste. The method assumes that all contaminant retention on soil occurs by
adsorption from a saturated solution and that all contaminant degradation
(prior to particle emission) occurs from a first-order decay process. The
only information required to use the method is water solubility for the
compound of interest and organic carbon content of the adsorbing soil. If
significant degradation of the contaminant is assumed, a value for the
first-order rate constant is required. The method is described in Section 4,
and five examples of its use at TSDF's are given in Section 8 and Appendix A.
Appendix B contains a compilation of information that can be used to estimate
DOC for many compounds. Results for the two example TSOF's that could be
checked are accurate to about 10 and 35 percent.
Relatively little information has been found regarding site character-
istics important for assessing downwind deposition from contaminated fugi-
tive particulate matter. However, for prediction purposes, the several
types of sites considered can be generalized to three models: line sources
for contaminated roads; flat area sources for typical waste sites, landfills
and dried lagoons; and storage pile sources for waste piles.
Emission factors for the three generalized TSDF models can be generated
from existing information about, for example, dusting from coal piles,
agricultural sources, or haul roads. Without other appropriate data a
-------
TABLE 1. SUMHAHY OF CONTROL COSTS AND EFFICIENCIES
Site and control technique
Cost estimate
($/yr)
TSP efficiency
<%>"
Inhalable
particle .
efficiency
10 acre landfill
1.
2.
3.
1.
Dr
].
2.
3.
4.
On
1.
Chemical stabilization
a. Partially active, frequent applications
l>. Inactive . infrequent application
Cover- -inactive site
a. Synthetic film, 5-yr life
b. Hardened foam, 2 in., 5-yr life
c. 6- in. soil cover, 5-yr life
Vetjetdlive stabilization, inactive site
a. Hydraulic seeding, 10-yr life
b. Above plus topsoil
c. Hydraulic seeding plus chemical stabilization
Wet suppression
.1. For 1-acre active site
b. For entire 10 acres
icil layoon (1 acre)
Chemical stabilization
Cover
a. Synthetic film, 5-yr life
b. Hardened foam, 2 in., 5-yr life
c. G-in. soil cover, 5-yr life
Vegetative stabilization
a. Grade, seed, fertilize, 10-yr life
b. Hydraulic seed, fertilize, mulch, 10-yr life
c. Above plus local topsoil
Wet suppression
d. Water spraying
b. With sprinkler system, 10-yr life
mi stojvige area
Chemical stabilization
a. Yearly application
b. M'nil.hly applications
35,500-109,000
3.700-9,200
43,000-256,000
93,000
16.000
12,000
26,000
15,700-21.200
365-1.270
15,000-51,000
744
1,000-6,300
3,400
400
1,100
290
650
365-1,270
1,500
151
1,800
75-100
75-100
85- 100
85-100
85-100
50-80
50-80
85-100
25-90
25-90
75-100
85-100
85-100
05-100
50-80
50-80
50-80
25-90
25-90
TJ- 100
75-100
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
lower
Same
Same
Higher
Higher
Same
Same
Same
Same
Lower
Lower
Same
Higher
Higher
Same
Same
(continued)
-------
I Mill i (ion tinned)
Silu and control technique
"''!!!? storage area (continued)
a Synthetic Him, 5-yr life
h. Dome cover. 10- to 20-yr life
3 ViHjelative stalii I tzalion
<• Grade, seed, ferlHi/e. 10-yr life
!>. Above plus topsoil
Unpaved road (0.5 nii)
I Chemical stabilisation
7. Cover
d. 3 lo 6 in. of yravel. b-yr life
h. I'.we, 3 In., 10- lo 20-yr life
c. Road carpet
I Wei suppress ion
yuit? pile (j-8 acres)
1. Chemical slahiIi/alion artivo site
2 Cover
a. Synthetic film, inactive site, 5-yr liCe
I, Above plus tension cables, au>|er feed, active
c. Hardened loam cover, inactive site, 5-yr life
I. Vegetative stalii 1 teal ion
a Grade, seed, fertilise, 10-yr life
1. Hydraulic seeding, mulch, 10-yr life
c. Above plus lojisol)
4 Windscreen, 10-yr life
5. Wet suppression
Cost estimate
<*/yr)
50-2')0
11,000-16,000
52
22.000-33,000
5,000-9,200
0.500-0.500
4,900
20,500-31,500
1,600-4.900
2,000-12.000
52.000-79,000
b.300
2.000
540
1.200
3,200-12.400
660-2,600
efficiency
05-100
(V to 100
50-HO
50- HO
40-96
30
Ob
4'.
50
75-90
05-100
05-100
85-100
50-00
50-00
50-00
30-flO
25-90
particle
efficiency
Same
Same
lower
Same
Same
loWIT
Saiuo
Same
Higher
Same
Same
Same
Same
Lower
Lower
Sane
Lower
Hi litter
j
I'ercenl reiluction in total suspended particles.
txpt.-ctetl control of inlidlaMe particles relative lo ISP (liiyhur, lower, or tlie same).
-------
modified version of the wind erosion equation (WEE) can be used to estimate
soil lost to wind forces. This equation, based on soil conditions, climatic
conditions, and land cover, predicts tons per year of soil lost from 1 acre
of land.
Fugitive emission factors for particles and selection of appropriate
factors for the various kinds of TSDF's are discussed in Section 5. The
method for combining particle emission rate with DOC to obtain a contaminant
emission rate is described in Appendix A.
Controlled emissions can be estimated similarly to uncontrolled emis-
sions. Emission factors are derived from control efficiency data (or
estimates) and applied as described above.
-------
SECTION 3
FACTORS AFFECTING FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
Estimating fugitive particulate emissions and resulting downwind
ground-level contaminant concentration is a two-step process: (1) determin-
ing the rate of emission or entrainment of particulates into ambient air,
and (2) determining the atmospheric dispersion of emitted material and
resulting downwind concentrations. The theory of atmospheric dispersion
and gaussian diffusion models has been relatively well developed (Slade,
1968), and numerous computer models have been developed to predict downwind
air and surface concentrations through point, line, or area emission sources.
Emissions from TSDF's must be estimated based on available data from other
similar fugitive particulate emission sources such as unpaved roads, storage
piles, and open-area sources.
Fugitive emissions from a hazardous waste facility or an open dust
source may depend upon:
Soil characteristics such as particle size, organic content,
moisture, soil type and texture, and erodibility. Soil
properties determine ease or propensity of particle entrain-
ment.
Climatic conditions such as mean wind velocity, humidity,
and extent of precipitation and solar influx. These parame-
ters affect long-term average soil moisture content.
Destabilizing factors such as mechanical activity and vehicle
traffic onsite. Such factors may change the soil surface
characteristics and/or contribute mechanical energy for
particle entrainment. Mechanical activity tends to restore
a site's "erosion potential."
Extent of nonerodible elements at a site determine its
erosion potential. Elements such as clumps of grass or
stones on the surface consume part of the shear stress of
the wind, which otherwise would be transferred to erodible
soil.
Each of these factors is discussed below.
3.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Lutton et al. (1979) describe soils as being classified by either the
Uni
fied Soil Classification System (USCS) or the U.S. Department of Agricul-
-------
ture (USDA) Classification System. The USCS (Figure 1) is engineering
oriented, grouping soils by particle size and plasticity characteristics.
The USDA (Figure 2) classifies by texture only, i.e., percentages of gravel,
sand, silt, and clay. Figure 3 shows the grain-size difference between the
USDA and USCS systems, while Figure 4 shows the two systems superimposed.
The classifications can be interchanged as given in Tables 2 and 3.
Cowherd et al. (1984) describe the importance of surface material
texture. Susceptibility of exposed soil or surface material to wind erosion
and mechanical entrainment is determined by its dry particle size distribu-
tion. Wind forces transport soil in three ways: saltation, surface creep,
and suspension. Saltation describes particles from about 75 to 500 urn that
bounce and jostle each other near the air-surface interface. Particles
moved by surface creep are about 500 to 1,000 urn. They are propelled near
the ground by wind stress and the impact of the smaller particles transported
in saltation. Particles smaller than about 75 urn are moved by suspension
and tend to follow air currents. The upper size limit of silt particles
(75 urn in diameter) is both the smallest particle size routinely analysed
by dry sieving and the largest particle size normally suspended in air.
The threshold wind speed for saltation, which is the basis for wind erosion,
depends on soil texture, with 100 to 150 urn particles having the lowest
threshold speed.
Surface moisture strongly affects dust emissions. Water suppresses
dust by forming cohesive moisture films among individual grains of surface
material.
The surface moisture content is a variable that depends on capillary
forces in the soil and boundary conditions at the surface, such as wind
velocity, temperature, and air humidity. A soil's ability to become cohesive
in the presence of water depe.nds on the surface charges on soil particles
as well as surface tension effects. The drying of soils is a complex
process involving moisture transport to the surface from within the soil.
When wetted, fine soil particles can form a surface crust that tends
to retain soil moisture and resist erosion. Modulus of rupture and thick-
ness of crust measurements indicate the degree of protection afforded to an
underlying soil. A soil lacking surface crust is susceptible to wind
erosion.
When a surface is disturbed, it becomes more erodible because of
increased destruction of crusts and vegetation. Nonerodible elements are
shattered and new surface fines are exposed. Vehicular traffic alters the
surface by pulverizing surface material, and exposing erodible material
beneath.
3.2 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Three important climate-related factors affecting fugitive emissions
are wind velocity, atmospheric stability, and soil moisture content. Wind
provides the mechanical energy for particle entrainment. A certain minimum
-------
fi«ia l^coiiriemiioe froe«4ur«e
(EKC1UAA04 particle* Ltr««r tA«A 3
I
i
I;,*!
ii
s :
u>
£ •
fraction
v* •!»*.
tqulvklro
I,*
i $ *.
jj •:
s: ^o
«>
^
•pu*g
llttlo or oo fla«».
•oarl? tnaad •«*»!• or
llttlfl 9T M flao*.
cr»v«l<>c*aa alxtuna
lAlcnadlelc alutft •I*elfl4.
Stlt7 craviK, fr«T*
(taf tteattflutlan ;rocotw>< •« 1C Wise).
Flutlc fian (for itaBttftoclo* pm»niir»»
•n a >»lo»),
of iJd 1nTirMlk*tlel«7
(for idntiTloittam 9rac*4ur» —« ML >>lo«).
FluUe flaio (far luattf leaUaa
•
§;
* e
oa Frac&loa
tr tr»£ to. '«0 Si«-*v SIM
Dr)r
7L)
Hi
tlita BAA ^
flour, tilty or
elAT«7 «Ut« vita
«, rock
UU ta Oaw
laorciAle &Ur« of Lav to MAIM ?i«<«lel%7,
•oae co vary
•!!««, alemavou* or 1 1 • r i • i
i S3.
a . .
• \\
Client to
oriole *oll«.
tottfUr lo>«ifio« «r color,, odar,
fttroua toxtuv
to4 siuu-«et*rtfttei af tv49 croup* w 4m
-*«4 ilctv* vltn cl«7 SlnO«r. 13) *14
87 coaaln«tlonB of
ivBOeis for
QEKincAtion ?MO»I»S re» rnn-:Mnn! sons on nucriom imsus TO. uo sitvti
iin u aot Lntndvd:
ln lu-e»r tnui »a. 10
.
or uwut oo^n«if cubic weB. Ui .none ».t.r tf >i.c>»
-------
Information Squired for
taacrtbiac So Lit
6
for uadl •turned soils aid information
OB stratification, decree of compact-
aad drainac* characteristics.
Civ* typical name; ia&leatc approximate
peresntaces of tand aad (ravel, maxi-
ma lism; angularity, surface condi-
tion, aad bardo**s of th* coarse
Craias; local or seolaej'.c ana* aad
other pcrtiaeot dmccrlTtiv* informa-
tion; aad •ymfcol la pareotneae*.
SUty'aaad. erMvU*1; about 3D* bard.
aDCular crawl particle* 1/2- U.
•BUtim lifts i rounded and lubancular
aaod craiaa, eoara* to riot; about 15*
neoplastic fiA*« vita low djry strength;
w»H compacted aad moist ia placs; al-
luvial aaAd; (9l).
for undisturbed Mils add information
oa itructure, ^ratification, con-
sistency ia undisturbed and r»-
moldnd itaMs, molatur* aad drala*
ace eondltlons.
Give typical nane; lailcat* Aeayis and
— -*-— til* of coarse trains,; color
La w«t condition; odor, if any; local
or *eoio«ie asm aad other pertinent
dmacriptiv* Uforamtioo; and •ymbol
small PC reeatA«e of fla* sand;
numwrous vertical root bol*s; firm
and dry la place; lc*aa; (ML).
Uberatcvy ClasslfleatlOB
Criteria
7
i
3
1
3
i
a
"i
*
B
a
u
:
e
I
t
OctcraliK p.rc«nt.p. or |tmnl mA •»»< fre» «i»ln-ili« -CUTM.
Dcreiullnt o» i»rc«citM« «f «!••• (fmrtlon — ll«r thu »o. SOO
»U«* >lu) co.r^-«r»l««d wll> mn el«««lfltd •• follavc
u» thu 5)1 • ov, or, m. m,
H>r« Uun \2i - OH, OC, 8H. SC.
$^ ta 12^ • •ort«riln« GBMB requiring
use af dukl amibola.
D60
C • j^ Or»»t«r Uun b
Dm »»tlB( .11 (ruUtlOB nq-alnxm for CV
AtUTBtri llnlt. tain "A" 110. A»o»» -A' lit. »tt»
ar PI !••• Uu k PI b»t«»B k iad 7
ur torterlut s»«««
Aturairt ll»it« >Bim 'A* Ua> ij-l»l£.
rttl rt (mur 'Ji*n T
C • ^~ flr«»t*r taMi 6
^^Xk. C • ^ B«X«««B • *~« 3
Hoc .avtinc iXl crmdAClaa rvqulrvveBti for Su
Att«rb>rf limit. telu» '*• llo. Atom 'A* lln. vlth
»r FJ .'»•« thu k 1 W««w« k M* 7
uv bordvrila* «».••
r*qulrlA4 u«* of •*'•!
Aturteri ll«lt« «bo» *A* lla.
vitn n cmt«r UMA 7
60
C 30
u
10
T
k
0
(
) U
tbo»< ud Dry stnaftB iKrcu* - — — — — jr
^f Ji u=- — -
, 1 ^ , 1 ,
'MJOkOJO 60703090100
uwa war
rueaan CIAKT
79T lAbormtory el»«*iAe»tloa of flM»0«laad .QllJ
•trcafth By br*uin« »4 eruablin« bvtvmn tti* flnfiri. This itrtngtR U » acuur* of th» eharwt*r «od quality of t)t« colloi-
dal fraction contained io th« toil. 7h« dry itr«n«th lncr«u«i vlth lncrtuln< plasticity.
fil«h dry strvnct.-) is eharaet«rl»tle of clay* of t&« CH p>oup. A typical ioor|anic silt ;»•••••«• only very fliftSt. dry
Silty fin* lands and silts have about th* IBM *li«ht dry ur.
TouaMr
• 1
Afttr partlel** larger tnan th* So. UO si*v» iix* ar* removed, a >p*eia*r. sf soil
about one-half tncb cub* in size is molded to toe eonclstcney of putty. If toe dry, vater «ust Be added and If sticky, -r-.tt
ST>eeisen snoull be s;re»i uu*. ir. * tnlr. layer and allowed lo Los* son* aoi^ture by evaporation. Then the sp*ela*n is rolled
out By nuid oo a seootn aurfae* or between tn* palas Into a thread about one-eLc»th Inch In 4ia*j*<.*r. The thread ii -.hen
faldtd aad reralled repeatedly. Durioc this manipulation the aoisvure content Li fradually reduced and tne specimen itl.Ttni.
finalix La>«* Its plasciclty, and enables vnen th* plastic limit is reached.
After tD* thread cruablet. th* pieces itould be limped together and a slight kneadinc action continued until '.he Luarp crumbles.
The '.ou«aer the thread near the plastic limit and th* atiffer th* lump vnen it finally crumbles, -.h* more potent LS th* colloi-
dal flay fraction ia the soil. Ueatneti of tne thread mt the plastic liait and quicfc loss of cahcrence of '.he 1-jmp &«low the
plastic limit indicate either Inorganic clay of low plasticity, or aatcriali tueh as Kaolin-type clays and organic clays vnicn
occur below tne A-line.
Highly organic clays have i very vea* and ipongy fee.1 at the plastic limit.
Figure 1. (continued)
-------
Sn«d — 2.0 ic 0.05 -"•> d>om«i*r
Sill-0.05 10 0002 -m. dmm»>*r
— im
-------
LESCNO
"o
Figure U. USCS soils superimposed on the USDA textirraJ.
classification chart. (Correlations are
only approximate.)
11
-------
TABLE 2. USOA TEXTURAL TYPES CORRESPONDING TO USCS SOIL DESIGNATIONS
USCS soil type USOA soil types
GW Same as GP (except well graded in grain sizes)
GP Gravel, very gravelly sand (less than 5 percent silt
and clay)
GM Very gravelly sandy loam, very gravelly loamy sand,
very gravelly silt loam, very gravelly loam
GC Very gravelly clay loam, very gravelly sandy loam, very
gravelly silty clay loam, very gravelly silty clay,
very gravelly clay
SW Same as SP (except well graded in grain sizes)
SP Sand, gravelly sand (less than 20 percent very fine
sand)
SM Loamy sand, sandy loam; sand; gravelly loamy sand and
gravelly sandy loam
SC Sandy clay loam, sandy clay; gravelly sandy clay loam
and gravelly sandy clay
ML Silt, silt loam, loam, sandy loam
CL Silty clay loam, clay loam, sandy clay
OL Mucky silt loam, mucky loam, mucky silty clay loam,
mucky clay loam
MH Silt, silt loam (highly elastic, micaceous, or
diatomaceous)
CH Silty clay, clay
OH Mucky silty clay
PT Muck, peat
12
-------
TABLE 3. USCS SOIL TYPES CORRESPONDING TO USDA SOIL TERMINOLOGY
USDA soil type USCS soil type
Gravel, very gravelly loam sand GP, GW, GM
Sand SP, SW
Loamy gravel, very gravelly sandy GM
loam, very gravelly loam
Loamy sand, gravelly loamy sand, sand SM
Gravelly loam, gravelly sandy clay loam GM, GC
Sandy loam, gravelly sandy loam SM
Silt loam, sandy clay loam (with fine- ML
grained sand)
Loam, sandy clay loam ML, SC
Silty clay loam, clay loam CL
Sandy clay, gravelly clay loam, SC, GC
gravelly clay
Very gravelly clay loam, very gravelly GC
sandy clay loam, very gravelly silty
clay loam, very gravelly silty clay
Silty clay, clay CH
Muck, peat PT
13
-------
wind velocity, often called threshold wind velocity, is required before the
soil particles on the surface begin to move. Above this level, particle
entrainment may be expected to depend strongly on wind velocity (Sehmel and
Lloyd, 1974; Gillette, 1978; Gillette, 1974a). Threshold wind" velocity
depends upon the size distribution of the soil as well as on the extent of
nonerodible elements present.
Wind velocity affects the emission rate as well as the atmospheric
dispersion of entrained particles and appears explicitly in the gaussian
plume dispersion models. For short-term emission estimates (1 to 2 days),
a variation in wind velocity may be used; but for most long-term emission
estimates (a month or year), an average value or average frequency distri-
bution is desirable.
Atmospheric stability affects dispersion of the emission plume, deter-
mining the extent of the vertical and horizontal transverse and axial
spreading of the emitted particulates. Atmospheric stability depends upon
the extent of solar insolation, cloudiness, and wind speed. These factors
determine vertical thermal gradients and corresponding atmospheric turbu-
lance. Stability is often both seasonal and diurnal. For long-term emission
estimates, an average estimate of stability conditions is desirable.
Soil moisture content affects the cohesive forces between soil particles
and thus their entrainment. Above a certain soil moisture content, the
particles may be bound together so tightly that no fugitive emissions may
be expected. Moisture affects cohesiveness differently for different
soils. For long-term emission estimates, an average soil moisture content
is needed along with frequency of precipitation and may be determined based
on Thornthwaite1s (1931) precipitation-evaporation (P-E) index. These
indices have been compiled for various regions in the United States (Skidmore
and Woodruff, 1968). Measured fugitive emissions often correlate with the
P-E index (Cowherd et al., 1974; Amick et al., 1974).
Rain or precipitation suppresses fugitive emissions. For certain
fugitive emissions such as those from unpaved roads, soil moisture content
may not appear explicitly in an emission factor equation. However, in such
cases, precipitation frequency usually is considered in order to determine
the long-term average emission rate.
3.3 DESTABILIZING FACTORS
Natural or human activities can disrupt stable soil masses to produce
particle suspensions in air. Vehicles traveling over unpaved roads can be
a major source of fugitive emissions, particularly in arid regions. For
example, Levene and Drehmel (1981) report such emissions to be 54 percent
of the total annual suspended particulate matter in Phoenix. Cooper et al.
(1979) state that dust is displaced from a roadbed by the action of vehicle
tires and by surface disturbances from the vehicle's aerodynamic wake. The
following lead to wide variability in crude emission factors:
14
-------
• Vehicle speed, shape, number of wheels, and tire style
Road surface characteristics
Meteorological conditions
• Size distribution of the aerosol.
Recent publications on dust from unpaved roads include Rosbury and
Zimmer (1983), Russell and Caruso (1983), Morwald (1983), Roberts et al.
(1975), PEDCo (1977), and Shrimpton and Shin (1983). Roberts et al. and
PEDCo give some information on particle size of road dust aerosols. Emis-
sion factors from these publications and other sources are in Section 5.
Waste piles and disposal sites may be shaped, dug, covered, loaded,
and unloaded with mechanical equipment such as bulldozers, loaders, and
other tracked or large-tired vehicles. As with operations on unpaved
roads, these earth moving and scraping activities generate dust clouds that
can move offsite. PEDCo (1979) states that emissions from crushed rock
storage piles are caused by loading onto the piles (12 percent), equipment
and vehicle movement in the storage area (40 percent), loadout from the
piles (15 percent), and wind erosion (33 percent). Cooper et al. (1979).
Stum (1980), and EPA (1981) discuss storage pile emission factors for
activities such as agricultural tilling, which includes mechanical opera-
tions that disturb soil.
3.4 NONERODIBLE ELEMENTS
The presence and extent of nonerodible elements determine a site's
"erosion potential." Surfaces impregnated with a large density of non-
erodible elements behave as having a "limited reservoir" of erodible parti-
cles even if the material protected by nonerodible elements is highly
erodible (Cowherd et al., 1984). Wind-generated emissions from such sur-
faces decay sharply with time, as the particle reservoir is depleted.
Surfaces covered by unbroken grass are virtually nonerodible. Absence of
such elements suggests an unlimited particle reservoir where the wind-
generated emissions may be expected to continue at a steady rate for a long
time. Presence of such nonerodible elements at a site results in high
threshold wind speeds for wind erosion and consequently lower emission
rates.
15
-------
SECTION 4
CONTAMINATION OF SOILS
Soil-chemical interactions are complex and dynamic. Many factors
affect a chemical's concentration in the soil: nature, type and profile of
soil, contamination level, climate, the chemical's functional properties,
and interactions with other chemicals. These factors and the type of
contamination determine the degree of contamination at 3. TSOF.
4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONCENTRATION OF CHEMICALS IN SOIL
Our understanding of soil-chemical interactions is based largely on
laboratory studies that have limitations when applied to the real world.
Models that attempt to predict soil adsorption coefficients, for example,
in some cases vary by an order of magnitude from observed values (Dragun
and Helling, 1981).
The following measures best reflect the nature of soil-chemical inter-
actions: (1) adsorption, (2) mobility, (3) degradation (biological and
physical/chemical), and (4) persistence.
Used to describe parameters measured both in laboratories and in the
field, these measures are interrelated but not always in clearly definable
ways.
The two following sections discuss mobility-adsorption and persistence-
degradation interrelations and present basic equations for estimating
organic chemical parameters.
For this task, several points should be made prior to a discussion of
these measures. The hazardous waste TSOF often differs from the agricultural
plot of land, typically the site for studies of pesticide-soil interactions.
Hazardous wastes generally are not applied to the soil surface and, there-
fore, what is known for surface soils should not ordinarily be used directly
to predict the fate of chemicals in subsoils.
Fugitive emissions from temporary or permanent cover soils at a hazard-
ous waste site are determined by factors that are difficult to quantify in
addition to those parameters mentioned above. For example, volatilized
chemicals will percolate upwards and may contaminate (cover) soils not
initially mixed with wastes. The presence of solvents changes the mobility
of chemicals in soil, and some solvents drastically alter the permeability
of clay liners used for containing wastes. Also, it is probably reasonable
to assume that surface soils are not water saturated and that saturated
models for chemical mobility are not appropriate.
16
-------
Despite the lack of rigorous data to generate highly predictable
models, one can use the available information to relate chemicals on a
relative basis to the expected potential hazard.
The mobility of chemicals in soil-groundwater systems is a complex
phenomenon consisting of several major processes (Hamaker, 1975). In
general, an organic chemical's mobility depends upon mass transport of
water, diffusion rate, and adsorption characteristics of the chemical in
soil (Guenzi, 1974).
Adsorption is the accumulation of molecules at the surface of a solid
phase by the attractive forces of the surface of a solid phase. When
adsorption is a significant factor, there is a higher concentration of a
chemical in an extremely thin layer at the soil surface than is present in
the bulk aqueous solution associated with the soil. The equilibrium adsorp-
tion-desorption process is governed by two opposing rate processes. The
adsorption rate is the rate at which molecules from the liquid phase transfer
into the adsorbed state in the solid phase, and the rate increases as the
concentration of dissolved species increases. The desorption rate is the
rate of the opposite process; i.e., the rate at which molecules transfer
from the adsorbed state at the soil surface into the liquid phase. Equilib-
rium is established when the rates of these two processes are equal.
Migration in unsaturated soils depends on both the adsorptive qualities
of the soil and the rate at which water or other solvents move through the
soil. An extremely arid area may not provide enough rain to carry chemicals
through the soil even when little adsorption takes place. The chemical may
be retained in the soil, occupying external pore spaces rather than being
adsorbed, during periods of no rain.
Adsorption is the main process that limits or attenuates a chemical's
migration potential in a soil-groundwater system. It is governed by the
physical/chemical properties of both the soil and the organic chemical.
The important properties of the organic chemical that affect its adsorption
by soil are: (1) chemical structure and conformation, (2) molecular size,
(3) acidity or basicity of the molecule (pk or pk. ), (4) water solubility
or octanol/water partition coefficient (usually expressed as log S or
log P, respectively), (5) permanent charge, (6) polarity, and (7) polariza-
bility (Helling and Dragun, 1981).
Soil properties affecting adsorption and desorption of organics include
organic matter content, type and amount of clay, exchange capacity, and
surface acidity (Adams, 1973; Helling, 1970; and Helling and Dragun, 1981).
The combined actions of climate and macro- and micro-organisms over long
periods on different parent geologic and biotic materials form soils that
differ widely in their adsorption characteristics. The amounts and types
of clay and organic matter, soil pH, primary and secondary minerals, struc-
ture, texture, and exchange capacity vary considerably for U.S. soils.
Soil organic matter is the primary soil property responsible for
adsorption of many chemicals. Helling (1970) lists many examples where the
17
-------
organic matter primarily influenced the adsorption of pesticides. Organic
matter and clay are the soil components most often implicated in pesticide
adsorption. However, the individual effects of either organic matter or
clay are not easily ascertained. Because the organic matter in most soils
is intimately bound to the clay as a clay-metal-organic complex (Stevenson,
1976), two major types of adsorbing surfaces are normally available to the
chemical: clay-organic and clay alone. Clay and organic matter function
more as a unit than as separate entities, and the relative contribution of
organic and inorganic surface areas to adsorption depends on the extent to
which the clay is coated with organic substances. For example, comparative
studies between known clay minerals and organic soils suggest that most,
but not all, pesticides have a greater affinity for organic surfaces than
for mineral surfaces (Stevenson, 1976). Because typical studies compare
soils in which both clay and organic matter increase and do not use multiple
regression analyses to rank these two properties (Helling, 1970), only
generalizations concerning the relative importance of clay and organic
surface areas and the clay and organic matter content should be made when
empirical data are not available.
Surface acidity is probably the most important property of the soil or
colloidal system for determining the extent and nature of adsorption of
basic organic chemicals as well as for determining if acid-catalyzed chemical
transformation occurs (Baily and White, 1970). Proton activity in bulk
suspension, expressed by pH, and proton activity at or proximate to the
colloidal surface (i.e., the acidity in the interfacial region) may differ
significantly. The term "surface acidity," when applied to soil systems,
is the acidity at or near the colloidal surface that reflects the system's
ability to act as a Lewis acid (i.e., as an electron pair acceptor).
Surface acidity is a composite term that reflects both the total number of
acidic sites and their relative degree of acidity.
Available data indicate that the protonation of chemicals in the
interfacial region of clays is a function of the basicity of the molecule,
nature of the exchangeable cation on the clay, water content of the clay
system, and origin of negative charge in the aluminosi1icate clay (Baily
and White, 1970).
The specific type of interaction that organic molecules have with soil
depends on the organic molecules' chemical properties and the type of soil.
These interactions or adsorptive forces are hydrophobic bonding (Goring and
Hamaker, 1972). In general, one or more of the following specific interac-
tions or adsorptive forces may occur simultaneously.
The van der Waals forces or polarizability forces arise from random
fluctuations in a molecule's electron distribution. These fluctuations
theoretically produce instantaneous dipoles due to the concentration of
charges in one region of the molecule and cause that molecule's attraction
to other atoms and molecules.
Charge transfer involves formation of a donor-acceptor complex between
an electron donor molecule and an electron acceptor molecule with partial
18
-------
overlap of their respective molecular orbitals and a partial exchange of
electron density.
Ion exchange is the exchange between counterions balancing the surface
charge of the soil colloid and the ions in the soil solution. The driving
force for this Interaction is the requirement for electroneutrality: the
surface charge must be balanced by an equal quantity of oppositely charged
counterions. Ion exchange is reversible, diffusion-controlled, and stoichio-
metric in most cases. It exhibits some selectivity or preferential adsorp-
tion for one ion over another competing ion.
Hydrophobic bonding refers to the greater affinity of an organic
molecule for a hydrocarbon solvent or hydrophobic region of a colloid than
for a hydrophilic solvent. Hydrocarbon regions of a molecule have greater
solubility in liquid hydrocarbons (or most organic solvents) than in water.
The principles governing the mobility and attenuation of organic
chemicals in soil systems discussed above were based upon the assumption
that water was the primary solvent in the soil system. Because organic
chemicals possess different physical and chemical properties than water
does, as solvents they can dramatically change soil properties and organic
chemical adsorption and reactivity. These changed properties affect the
mobility and attenuation of organic chemicals in soils. For example, the
presence of organic solvents drastically affected the migration of PCB's at
a Superfund site (Erler et al., 1984).
Organic solvents may affect:
Dispersion/flocculation properties of soil that affect
hydraulic conductivity and surface area available for
adsorption.
Shrink/swell properties of soil that affect hydraulic
conductivity and surface area available for adsorption.
Pore-size distribution.
Dissolution/precipitation of chemical species that can
change the proportion of soil volume available for flow.
Solubility of organic chemicals in soils.
Rate of organic chemical reactions in soils.
Relative importance of adsorptive forces between organic
chemicals and soils.
Three types of tests have been developed to estimate a chemical's
migration potential in soil: soil adsorption tests, soil thin layer chroma-
tography, and soil columns (Hamaker, 1975). Adsorption coefficients (dis-
tribution coefficients) are determined in soil adsorption tests. Soil
19
-------
thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is performed to determine soil TLC Rf
values, referred to as "retention" or "attenuation" factors. The third
test, soil columns, does not develop data that are amenable to standardiza-
tion and is not utilized as extensively as are the first two tests. Soil
adsorption tests and soil TLC tests can be used to determine the transfor-
mation rates of organic chemicals; however, they are primarily used to
estimate migration potential.
Adsorption coefficients usually are expressed as Krf, the ratio of
concentration of organic chemical adsorbed onto soil to its concentration
in solution at equilibrium. If K has been determined, and if V, ground-
water velocity, has been measured during field investigations, then V , the
velocity of the contaminant front, can be calculated (Dragun et al., 1984)
as:
Vc = V [1 * (b/p) (K(j)]"1 , (1)
where
b is the bulk density of soil, and
p is the soil porosity. •
Equation (1) is one of several that mathematically describe a chemical's
movement with steady-state flow of groundwater or solvent in a soil and
that utilize K..
d
Because the organic matter content of soils is a dominant soil property
affecting attenuation of neutral organic chemicals, adsorption coefficients
for neutral organic chemicals may be expressed in terms of organic carbon
content:
K _ ug chemical adsorbed/g organic carbon , (2)
oc ~ ug chemical/g water
and
K . x 100
K
oc % organic carbon
It is possible to reduce the variation in sorption coefficients between
different soils (Lyman et al., 1982; Reinbold et al . , 1979) with the adsorp-
tion coefficient based on percent organic carbon in the soil. The remainder
may be attributable to clay content, surface area, cation exchange capacity,
and nature of organic matter present. Numerous studies have found that
organic carbon content usually gives the most significant correlation
(Lyman et al-. , 1982). For certain chemicals, however, organic carbon
20
-------
content may be of secondary importance in adsorption. An example of one
such chemical is benzidine.
Soil TLC is analogous to conventional TLC, with the use of soil instead
of silica gels, oxides, etc., as the adsorbent phase. The soil TLC Rf
value is the farthest distance traveled by a chemical on a thin-layer
chromatographic plate divided by the distance traveled by a solvent front
(arbitrarily set at 10.0 cm in soil TLC studies). Rf values are inversely
related to Kd values (Helling and Oragun, 1981).
Adsorption coefficients and soil TLC R- values can be estimated for
many neutral organic chemicals, provided solubility or octanol-water parti-
tion coefficient (log P) data are available (Dragun and Helling, 1981;
Dragun et al., 1980). Equations relating K., K ,. and Rf to solubility or
log P assume that (1) hydrophobic bonding, as defined above, is the predom-
inant interaction mechanism between a chemical and a soil; and (2) organic
chemical transformations are an insignificant process affecting the chemi-
cal's attenuation in a soil-groundwater system.
It is important to consider both K. (or K ) and Rf values in order to
evaluate the relative attenuation expected for organic chemicals of several
classes. Because mobility through soils is a complex process, the adsorption
coefficient above may not reliably indicate migration potential. The
influence of various functional groups that may be present on an organic
molecule is better reflected in the measured Rf value.
Another mechanism for reducing chemical concentration in soil is
degradation, whether by microorganisms or chemical constituents of the
soil. Biodegradation is largely responsible for the mineralization of
organic compounds, that is conversion to inorganic products. Chemical
reactions, however, play an important role in primary degradation. Water
solubility largely determines the rate at which microorganisms are able to
change organic compounds. Rao and Davidson (1982) present extensive data
on degradation of pesticides in soils.
Not all degradation products are less toxic or hazardous than the
parent species, though this is generally the case.
The chemical reactions that occur in water at standard temperature and
pressure also occur in the water phase of soil-groundwater systems. These
chemical reactions, in general, are hydrolysis, oxidation, and reduction.
These reaction rates for organic chemicals in soil-groundwater systems may
differ significantly from those in water alone due to the presence of
aluminosilicate minerals in soils (Dragun et al., 1980).
Reaction rates may be reduced if soils are dry. Water, by definition,
is required for hydrolysis and is essential for bringing oxidative and
reducing elements in contact with organic chemicals.
Crystalline aluminosilicate materials, which catalytically transform
organic chemicals, have been used for many years in petroleum refining and
21
-------
in the chemical and petrochemical industries. These catalysts are important
in many high-temperature, high-pressure reactions such as ammonia synthesis,
conversion of hydrocarbons with water vapor to synthesis gas, dehydrocy-
clization, the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, isomerization of paraffins and
cycloalkanes, hydroisomerization of olefins and dienes and aromatics,
isomerization of ethyl benzene to xylenes, oxidation, and reduction (Dragun
et al., 1980). Soils also contain aluminosilicate materials; the ability
of clay soils to catalyze the chemical oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis
of organic chemicals at ambient pressure and temperature has been recognized
(Oragun and Helling, 1982; Theng, 1974). These reactions are gaining more
attention because the susceptibility of organic chemicals to accelerated
degradation and decreased persistence may result in increased agricultural
use or in diminished concern over their potential hazard to human health
and the environment.
Microorganisms are the most significant group involved in biodegrada-
tion, although higher organisms--both plant and animal — can metabolize
numerous compounds. Furthermore, microorganisms may be the first agents in
biodegradation, converting compounds into the simpler forms required by
higher organisms.
For any one microorganism, organic compounds can be divided into four
groups according to their biodegradability: (1) usable immediately as an
energy or nutrient source, (2) usable following acclimation by microorgan-
isms, (3) degraded slowly or not at all, and (4) subject to cometabolic
degradation. A chemical may be classified in more than one category,
depending on the response of the microorganisms to which it is exposed.
Different species may react differently to the same compound.
The second group requires acclimation, a lag period with little or no
degradation. Lag periods vary from a few hours to days or even weeks,
depending on the chemical, the organism, and the medium. Once acclimation
is achieved, the degradation reaction begins. Intensive activity occurs
first with primary alteration of the introduced substance, usually followed
by slower activity as the intermediate products are digested. The microbial
population increases at first, levels off, and declines once the substrate
has disappeared or has been converted either to nonmetabolizable catabolites
or to inorganic compounds. The disappearance curve for the parent compound
can follow one of several forms, depending upon the kinetics of the reaction.
The third group of organic compounds includes such naturally occurring
substances as humus and lignin, as well as such anthropogenic substances as
some of the organochlorine pesticides. These substances degrade at very
slow rates or not at all. Furthermore, they may not be degradable due to
factors such as physical inaccessibility or environmental influences (low
02, pH, etc.).
The fourth group involves cometabolism: the degradation of a compound
tnat does not provide a nutrient or energy source for the degrading organisms
but is broken down during the degradation of other substances. Because
cometabolism does not provide a growth substrate, the population increase
22
-------
characteristic of metabolic degradation reactions does not occur and the
degradation rate is often slower. Compounds with chlorine, nitro, or other
substituents are sometimes susceptible to cometabolism. Soil perfusion,
soil incubation, and soil suspended in aqueous solution are three methods
used to test for degradation in soils.
TSCA recommends the soil incubation test in which the C02 that is
evolved is measured (Lyman et al., 1982).
Two general rate laws are used to describe biodegradation: the power
rate law, and the hyperbolic rate law. These simplified models may not
fully describe the concentration change over time because of altered concen-
tration-dependency and availability over time. Application of the rate
equation depends on factors such as cometabolism, adsorption strength, and
simultaneous competing reactions.
The power rate law states that the change in concentration per unit
time is proportional to the substrate concentration raised to some power:
Cn , (4)
where
C = concentration of substrate,
K = biodegradation rate constant, and
n = order of the reaction.
A first-order reaction (n = 1) is commonly assumed and is used to cal-
culate the biodegradation half-life (tj). The t, is equal to 0.693/K. A
chemical's half-life is one of the more5 readily Available parameters. At
low concentration, the first-order rate equation is a reasonable assump-
tion.
The hyperbolic rate law is based on microbial population growth and is
useful for dealing with mixed microbial populations. A simplified form of
the equation is:
^ = KBC , (5)
where
B = the microbial population concentration, and
the equation is a second-order rate expression.
These equations may well predict biodegradation jnder laboratory
conditions. Extrapolation to the field must be done with care. Estimating
23
-------
biodegradation rates, when no laboratory or field studies are available, is
best done with known structural factors and chemical class and on a qualita-
tive basis. Quantification is difficult because an adequate data base does
not exist. Several estimation techniques have been proposed but are not
recommended (Lyman et al., 1982).
The lack of quantitative biodegradation data does not reflect the
importance of biodegradation to the attenuation of chemicals in soil. Top
soils are microbe-rich and have the highest organic contents. The upper
layer of soil, which is the source of fugitive emissions, is the most
dynamic in terms of adsorption and biodegradation. The nature of soil-
chemical interaction must be evaluated both empirically and theoretically
to address the potential hazards of hazardous waste sites.
4.2 TYPES OF SOIL CONTAMINATION
Types of contamination can be categorized by various characteristics
including properties of the contaminant and nature of the contaminating
process.
Typical contaminants are hazardous organic compounds (liquid or solid),
heavy metals, radioactive compounds, and some inorganic compounds. Of
major interest are hazardous organic compounds that already exist as dusts
or that have the potential for adsorbing onto erodible soil particles.
Compounds with high viscosity and/or surface tension are expected to be
less troublesome because of their ability to hold soil particles together
and prevent erosion or mechanical separation.
Contamination may result from such actions as accidental spills,
long-term storage, seepage and leakage from containers, and discharges from
vehicles or machinery. In each process the contaminant, when a liquid, is
in contact with a body of soil for sufficient time to allow near-equilibrium
adsorption (on the order of 1 to 2 days). Erosion of dry soil particles
can then occur. Shorter times that keep the soil wet or tacky will prevent
wind erosion under normal conditions.
4.3 DEGREE OF SOIL CONTAMINATION
For a given waste site, degree of contamination (DOC) depends on
combined results of the soil-chemical interactions discussed in Section 4.1.
The primary retention process for unconfined organic substances is adsorpti
onto soil particles. Although many mechanisms may be involved in the
process, the Freundlich adsorption equation can be used to correlate surface
concentration of an adsorbate with solution concentration at equilibrium.
For soils, the process can be visualized as a partitioning of the adsorbate
between moisture and organic material in the soil. The adsorbate generally
adsorbs rapidly onto the surface of the soil but then may migrate to the
interior of the soil particles over weeks or months. This behavior may
lead to permanent binding of the adsorbate to the soil The adsorption
characteristics for organic compounds can be measured to calculate adsorp-
tion coefficients that are unique to a particular chemical/soi1 combination.
24
on
-------
When measurements are not available, estimation methods based on chemical
properties can be used.
Lyman (1981) has compiled methods to estimate adsorption coefficients
for soils and sediments. Of particular interest is KQC, introduced earlier
in slightly different form, a coefficient based on the soil's organic
carbon content and an adsorbing chemical's concentration in water solution:
ug adsorbed/g organic carbon
oc ~ ug/ml_ solution
The coefficient also can be developed from the Freundlich adsorption
isotherm equation:
x/m = K C1/n , (7)
where
x = amount of chemical adsorbed on soil, ug.
m = mass of adsorbent, g.
K = Freundlich adsorption coefficient, (ug/g)/(ug/mL).
C = concentration of chemical in solution at equilibrium, ug/mL.
n = curve-fitting value generally ranging from 0.7 to 1.1.
After adsorption-isotherm experiments have been performed and the data
fitted to equation (7), values for K can be obtained from:
Koc = (8>
where
oc = organic carbon in the soil.
Values for K are relatively independent of soil properties other
than organic carbon.
Based on equations (8) and (7), a value for the amount of chemical
adsorbed (DOC) can be calculated if K , C, and n are known. Values for
K can be estimated, while those for n must be measured or found in the
literature. Lyman (1981) reports that no estimation methods for n are
available. Values for C, the chemical concentration in solution when the
solution is in equilibrium with surrounding soil, depend on the adsorption
process. They generally will not be known. An upper bound, however, can
be obtained from the solubility, S, of the chemical in water if it is
assumed that C cannot exceed S. Another implicit assumption is that the
chemical is not acting as an infinite source to replenish solution concen-
tration as it is depleted or alternatively that all adsorption sites are
filled by single contact with the saturated solution. Replacing C with S
and K with (K ) (percent oc)/100 gives:
25
-------
x/m = d = (Koc)(percent oc)(S)1/n/100 , (9)
where
d = degree of contamination.
If C = fractional organic carbon, equation (4) becomes:
o
d = (Koc)(Co)(S)1/n . (10)
If measured values of K are not available, the coefficient can be
estimated from equations collected by Lyman (1981). He tabulates the 12
regression equations presented in Table 4. Besides water solubility as a
correlating factor, Table 4 gives octanol-water partition coefficient
(K ), bioconcentration factor, and parachor (a function of molecular
weight, surface tension, and liquid and vapor densities). If any of these
parameters is known for the chemical of interest, K can be estimated
through the appropriate equation. Tables of K , or K , and water solu-
bility are given in Appendix 8 for a variety of chemicals. Rao and Davidson
(1982) give extensive tables of K , K , other adsorption data, and some
information on apparent half-lives of many pesticides. Lyman, Rheel , and
Rosenblatt (1981) describe estimation methods for solubility and octanol-
water partition coefficient if no measured or tabulated values are available.
Because solubility is temperature dependent, values of K calculated
from the correlating equations will be most nearly correct only for the
temperature at which solubility is measured. A further confounding factor
is the tendency for some organic chemicals to become more soluble as tempera-
ture increases, while others become less so.
Lyman (1981) and Hamaker and Thompson (1972) list K values for many
soil/chemical combinations and provide examples of adsorption calculations.
Hamaker and Thompson suggest that the value of 1/n in equation (7) is 1 for
many cases of adsorption on soils but that the choice may be for convenience
as much as for accuracy. Their data show values ranging from about 0.7 to
1.0. With 1/n equal to 1, the Freundlich equation becomes linearly propor-
tional to solution concentration. Hamaker and Thompson discuss the errors
associated with choosing the wrong value for 1/n.
For some soils, percentage of organic matter rather than of organic
carbon is reported. Different authors use different conversion factors to
obtain percentage organic carbon, but a common value is 1.724. For soils
of high organic carbon content (greater than about 8.7 percent), measured
values of K tend to be lower than for soils of lower carbon content.
This effect may be due to the reduction in available adsorption sites as
organic matter becomes less dispersed in the soil (Hamaker and Thompson,
1972). Rao and Davidson (1982) list properties for many soils along with
values of K
oc
26
-------
Eq. no.
TARLE 4. REGRESSION EQUATIONS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF K . (lyman, 1981)
QC.
Equation
No.
Chemical classes represented
ro
29 log KQC = -0.55 log S t 3.64 (S in mg/L) 106
30 log K = -0.54 log S + 0.44 (S in mole) 10
fraction
31fl log KOC = -0.557 log S + 4.277 15
(S in°u moles/L)
0.71 Wide variety, mostly pesticides
0.94 Mostly aromatic or polynuclear aromatics, two chlorinated
0.99 Chlorinated hydrocarbons
32
33
34
35
36
3?d
30d'f
34
40
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
Koc
= 0.
= 0.
= 1
= 0.
= 1.
= 0.
= 0.
= 0.
= 0.
544
937
00
94
029
524
log
log
Kow+1'377
Kow -0.006
log KQW -0.21
log Kow + 0.02
log
log
0067 (P
681
681
log
log
Kow'0-la
Kow * 0.855
- 45N) + 0.237
BCF(f) + 1.963
BCF(t) > 1.886
45
19
10
9
13
30
29
13
22
0.
0.
1.
e
0.
74
95
00
91
0.84
0.
0.
0.
69
76
83
Wide variety, mostly pesticides
Aromatics, polynuclear aromatics, triazines, and dinitroaniline
herbicides
Mostly aromatic or polynuclear aromatics, two chlorinated
s-Triazines and dinitroaniline herbicides
Variety of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides
Substituted phenylureas and alkyl N phenylcarbamates
Aromatic compounds: ureas, 1 ,3,5-triazines, carbamates,
urac i 1 s
Wide variety, mostly pesticides
Wide variety, mostly pesticides
and
K = soil (or sediment) adsorption coefficient; S = water solubility; K - octanol water partition coefficient; BCF(f) = bioconcentration
factor from flowing water tests; BCF(n) = bioconcentration factor from model ecosystems; P = parachor, N = number of sites in molecule that
can participate in the formation of a hydrogen bond.
No. = number of chemicals used to obtain regression equation.
r2 = correlation coefficient for regression equation.
d
Equation originally given in terms of K
Nut available.
Specific chemicals used to obtain regression equation not specified.
The relationship Kom = KO(;1.724 was used to rewrite the equation in terms of K .
-------
TABLE 4 (continued) References
Eq. no. References
29 Kenaga and Goring (1978)
30 Karickhoff, Brown, and Scott (1979)
31 Chio, Peters,'and Freed (1979)
32 Kenaga and Goring (1978)
33 Brown, Karickhoff, and Flagg (1981)
34 Karickhoff, Brown, and Scott (1979)
35 Brown (1979)
36 Rao and Davidson (1982)
37 Briggs (1973)
38 Hance (1969)
39 Kenaga and Goring (1978)
40 Kenaga and Goring (1978)
28
-------
As a guideline for the amount of adsorption taking place, Hamaker and
Thompson state that for adsorbates with sorption constants greater than
unity, most of the chemical is adsorbed in soils with normal moisture
contents. This behavior explains the resistance to leaching shown by many
chemicals that remain in upper layers of soil longer than expected based on
their solubilities. The sorption constant used by Hamaker and Thompson is:
K. = (K Xfraction of organic carbon) . (11)
DOC for a given soil type can be estimated similarly to the following
example. Assume a silty soil estimated to contain 2.43 percent organic
carbon is contaminated with DDT having a solubility in water, at ambient
temperature, of 0.0017 ug/mL. Goring (1972) lists a DDT value for K of
1.31 x 10s. With these values, and assuming that 1/n in equation (7; is 1,
DOC (at saturation) is:
d = (K )(C )(s)
oc'v o'v '
= (1.31 x 105)(0.0243)(0.0017) (12)
= 5.41 ug DDT/g soil .
For equilibrium solution concentrations less than saturation, DOC
would be reduced accordingly and could be calculated from equation (7).
The preceding estimation method assumes no degradation processes
reduce the soil's DDT content over time or that contamination is of recent
origin. For the case of degradation over extended time, one can assume a
first-order decay mechanism as discussed in Section 4.1. Sleicher and
Hopcraft (1984) found half-lives for DDT of 110 and 160 days for an exposed
plot and a shaded plot. If the 160-day value is assumed for our example
and the DDT is assumed to have been in the soil for 2 years, DOC at that
time can be calculated from:
d = dQ exp (-0.693/t')t , (13)
where
d = degree of contamination at time zero, ug/g.
t1 = half-life, days.
t = time since contamination, days.
For the example:
d = 2.05 [(-0.693/160)(730)] (14)
= 0.089 ug DDT/g soil.
29
-------
"IT
IQ
-S
(D
O
"I
H-
3'
-s
O
TD
O
o
ZI
CO
o
rt
rr
o
-s
r
C«p» H«tt«r««
O
-------
If half-life data are not available, but a chemical's concentrations
are known at two different times, the first-order half- life can be found
from:
where
t1 = (In 2)/k = 0.693/k, and
k = (In C -In C)/t ,
o
(15)
(16)
C = concentration at time zero.
o
C = concentration at any time, t.
k = rate constant.
If the soil's carbon content is not known, the FAO/UNESCO soil map of
the world may be used for a rough estimate. The map for North America is
divided into units based on soil texture and slope classes. Symbols and
colors are used to differentiate between various soil classes. A small
section of the map, the State of North Carolina, is illustrated in Figure 5.
This map is divided into various regions based on soil type. ' Some of the
symbols encountered within the State of North Carolina include:
Ao31-2ab
Ap4-2a
01-a
Ag3-2a
Aol-2c
Symbols preceding the dash (-) correspond to a dominant soil unit. A
complete description of the various soil units including such information
as percent sand, silt and clay, pH, organic carbon content, and moisture
content is located in the text that accompanies the map. The number follow-
ing the dash indicates the soil texture; coarse, medium, and fine are
represented by the numbers 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The lower case
letter following the dash indicates the slope. Level to gently undulating,
rolling to hilly, and strongly dissected to mountainous are represented by
the letters a, b, and c, respectively.
An example of site-specific information variability from the soil map
is illustrated by the case study of PCB contamination along North Carolina
roadsides. Meyer (1984) indicates that the organic carbon content of
contaminated soil along roadsides in Johnston County. North Carolina,
ranged from 5 to 10 percent. This location in Figure 5 shows both Ao31-2ab
and Ap4-2a soil units. The corresponding soil types are:
Soil type
Ferric acrisol
Gleyic acrisol
Orthic acrisol
Organic carbon, %
0. 24
2.50
2. 92
The organic carbon content of these soils, as the soil map indicates, is
less than the value obtained for the specific soil of interest.
31
-------
SECTION 5
ESTIMATION OF FUGITIVE PARTICULATE EMISSION RATES
The ideal method for estimating fugitive participate emission rates
from a hazardous waste facility is to measure emissions under different
operational and climatic conditions at a given hazardous waste site/facility.
Because few such data are available, estimates must be made by extrapolation
of data from other facilities. Differences between the hazardous waste
facility considered and the source where the data are being adapted, must
be considered, the most important likely to be soil and surface charac-
teristics, which are also difficult to predict. Measurements from a given
facility are likely to produce emission estimates accurate within only an
order of magnitude. Because of uncertainties involved in several factors,
extrapolation of available data from other sources could be in substantial
error.
For an extrapolation of existing data, the characteristics and influ-
encing factors at a hazardous waste facility must be identified and defined
clearly and a search made for a site similar to the facility considered.
Differences between the two sites must be determined and quantified.
Finally, based on these differences, modifying factors should be formulated
to adapt existing source data to the case considered.
Most available fugitive particulate emission data concern respirable
and total particulate emissions with little reference to complete particulate
size distribution and contaminant concentrations. As a first approximation,
it may be assumed that the contaminant species is distributed uniformly
throughout the soil particles and has a constant mass concentration irres-
pective of particle size.
5.1 AVAILABLE APPLICABLE DATA
Available data applicable for simulating hazardous waste facilities
may be grouped into three broad categories:
Wind erosion and resuspension of particles from open fields
that may be able to simulate fugitive emissions from capped
and uncapped landfills, dried l.agoons and ponds, and open
drum storage facilities.
Data from aggregate storage piles and coal piles that may be
able to simulate fugitive emissions from open waste piles.
Data obtained from unpaved roads and haul roads that may be
useful to simulate emissions from a contaminated road.
32
-------
A good review of the soil erosion and particle resuspension models is
given by Dynamac Corporation (1983) and Smith et al. (1982).
Details of the wind erosion equation are given by Woodruff and Siddoway
(1965). This equation considers 11 primary variables grouped in 5 parameters
and includes all soil characteristics and wind velocity. Its drawback is
that it estimates net soil loss with no information regarding respirable or
suspended particle emissions. The fraction of suspended particles also
must be determined to predict fugitive emissions with this equation.
Sehmel (1980) determined that 3 to 40 percent by weight of total soil
particle loss may be attributed to suspension, 50 to 75 percent to saltation,
and 5 to 25 to surface creep. Thus, in theory this equation can be used to
obtain at least an order of magnitude estimate of fugitive emissions from
open field sources.
The wind erosion equation was used by Jutze and Axetell (1974) to
predict emissions from a flat, dried tailings pile. Due to the fine nature
of the surface particles involved, about 10 percent of the soil loss pre-
dicted by the equation was attributed to suspension. Thus, such an approach
may be used to determine fugitive emissions from open sources and is sug-
gested by PEDCo (1977), Versar (1983), and U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) (1977) Publication Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
(OAQPS) No. 1.2-071.
Research on particle suspension by wind attempts to correlate vertical
flux (suspension) and horizontal flux (saltation) with the wind velocity
profile and the threshold drag or friction velocity. Bagnold (1941), for
example, correlated the saltation flux with wind velocity by the following
correlation:
Fh = C (d/D) (p/g) U;3 , (17)
where
F = saltation flux (mass/time/crosswind length).
D = reference grain diameter of 250 urn.
C = an empirical constant equal to 2.8 for sand.
d = grain diameter.
g = gravitational acceleration.
p = grain density.
U* = friction velocity during erosion.
The saltation flux can be multiplied by a proportional constant, k, to
further obtain desired vertical suspension flux. Mills et al . (1974)
determined the proportionality constant to be 10 (/m) from the data of
Gillette et al. (1972). Gillette and his coworkers (Gillette et al., 1972;
Gillette, 1974a; Gillette, 1974b) studied size distribution and vertical
suspension. Based on his data, Gillette (1974b) related suspension flux by
the following correlation:
33
-------
FV = c (u;/u*t)v , (is)
where
F = suspension flux (mass/area/time).
C = a constant.
Ui = drag velocity measured during wind erosion.
U*t"= the threshold drag velocity.
The constant y is highly site-specific and is greater than 3.
The above correlations are specific to the type of soil studied in
those experiments. To use the flux correlations, one must know the friction
velocity for the specific site of interest, which is a strong function of
the soil's particle size distribution and type. Also, climatic factors
such as the soil's moisture content must be taken into account. The above
experiments were conducted with soils having continuous erosion potential
so the presence of nonerodible elements such as large rocks or stones also
must be considered.
In addition to research determining the flux of particles due to wind
erosion, several researchers studied the resuspension factor, which is the
ratio of airborne contaminant concentration to surface-contaminant concen-
tration (Sehmel, 1980). However, this factor does not give any information
regarding the rate at which contaminants are emitted and therefore is not
readily applicable (Dynamac, 1983). When multiplied by the resuspension
rate, surface concentration can give a usable emission rate; however,
measurements of this rate show several orders of magnitude variations
(Sehmel, 1980). Resuspension rates depend upon several factors such as
surface characteristics, windspeed, and type of contaminant; further research
is needed to characterize resuspension rates for various influencing parame-
ters.
Recently, Cowherd et al. (1984) recommended a methodology for rapid
assessment of exposure to particulate emissions from surface contamination
sites. To estimate fugitive emissions due to wind erosion, they suggested
two different equations based on erodibility of soil surface. Soils and
surface material with a friction velocity less than 75 cm/s were considered
to have unlimited erosion potential, whereas those having the friction
velocity greater than 75 cm/s were considered to have limited erosion
potential. The friction velocity of 75 cm/s corresponds to an ambient
windspeed of about 10 m/s (22 mph), measured at a height of about 7 m. The
threshold friction velocity depends upon soil particle size distribution,
large roughness elements not included in size distribution, soil crusting,
and surface roughness height. Methods to estimate friction velocity by
considering the above factors are also included in this report.
For surfaces with unlimited erosion potential, which are characterized
by bare loose fine soil, a horizontal saltation-type equation was suggested
by Cowherd et al (1984) as shown below:
34
-------
E10 = A (1 - V) u3 F(x) , (19)
where
E10 = PM10 emission factor, i.e., annual average PM10 emission rate
Cg/m2-hr)].
A = constant determined from Gillette's dust flux
~T3
measurements and equals 10 g-s2/cms.
V = fraction of contaminated surface vegetative cover.
u = mean annual windspeed (m/s).
x = a dimension! ess ratio and equals 0.886 LK/U.
F(x) = a function of x as given by Cowherd et al. (1984).
This equation is applicable to highly erodible soils that do not
retain significant moisture. Therefore, no moisture-related climatic
parameter is included in this equation.
For surfaces characterized by a limited reservoir of erodible material,
the half-life of the erosion process is of the order of minutes and the
threshold friction velocity is greater. Therefore, wind gusts reduce
erosion potential. Erosion potential, although limited, may again be
restored due to a disturbance that exposes fresh erodible surface material.
Such a disturbance occurs whenever aggregate material is either added or
removed from the old surface. The emission rates thus would depend on
frequency of disturbances. Cowherd et al. (1984) recommended the following
equation for surfaces with limited erosion potential:
F - n PH
EIO - 0-83
(p-E/50)* •
where
EIO = PMio emission factor [mg/m2-hr)].
f = frequency of disturbance per month.
u = observed or probable fastest mile of wind for the period
between disturbances.
P(u ) = erosion potential, i.e., quantity of erodible particles
present on the surface prior to the onset of wind erosion.
v = fraction of contaminated surface area covered by continuous
vegetative cover.
P-E = Thornthwaite1 s precipitation-evaporation index used to
measure average soil moisture content.
35
-------
For a coarse aggregate material (e.g., coal with a top size of 3 cm and a
silt content >4 percent), erosion potential P(u ) is related to the fastest
mile as. follows:
P(i/) = 3 (u* - u ) for u :>u
= 0 t for u*
-------
This factor has been included in EPA publication AP-42, supplements 1 to 12
(EPA, 1981), a document containing recognized emission factors for many
sources. This factor also may be converted to rate by changing the coeffi-
cient to 3.5 (PEDCo, 1977); the emission rate would then be in "Ib/acre of
storage/day." This emission factor may be more applicable by introducing
the correction factor for silt content and duration of storage of material.
Such an equation as given by PEDCo (1977) is:
_ 0.11 (s/1.5) D_
c ~ (PE/100)2 90 '
where
s = percent silt content of aggregate material.
D = duration of material in storage.
Bohn et al . (1978) investigated fugitive emissions from the iron and
steel industry, which included wind erosion emissions from coal storage
piles. The empirically derived emission factor is:
E = 0.05 (s/1.5) (d/235) (f/15) (D/90) , (25)
where
E = emission factor (Ib/ton of material in storage);
d = number of dry days per year (rainfall <0.01 in.);
f = percentage of time windspeed exceeds 12 mph at 1 ft above
ground.
The above emission factor may be converted to an emission rate by changing
the coefficient to 1.7 and omitting the D term (Cowherd et al . , 1984). The
emission rate would then be "Ib/acre of storage/day." This equation does
not have the P-E index term but instead considers number of dry days.
Recently, _ Cowherd (1983) studied emissions from a coal storage pile
considering the erosion potential approach. The resulting emission rate
was:
E = 720 f P(uta) , (26)
where
E = emission rate expressed as g/m2-h.
f = frequency of disturbance.
P(uis) = erosion potential corresponding to the observed fastest mile of
wind between disturbances, after the fastest mile was corrected
to a height of 15 cm (g/m2).
37
-------
Erosion potentials for various surfaces and different windspeeds also were
reported.
Blackwood and Wachter (1978) also studied fugitive emissions from a
coal storage pile and arrived at the following empirical correlation:
, 2 .0.345
3 *
u
E = 336
where
E = emission rate, mg/s.
u = windspeed, m/s.
p. = coal density, g/m2.
A = surface area, m2.
Emissions from unpaved roads are dominated by vehicular activity
rather than by wind erosion. Vehicle speed, weight, number of wheels per
vehicle, moisture content, and silt content of the soil influence the
emission rate. The emission factor usually is expressed as emissions per
unit vehicle mile traveled (VMT).
Cowherd et al . (1974) investigated vehicular emissions from unpaved
roads and empirically fit the data by the following correlation:
E = 0.81 s(S/30) , (28)
where
E = emission factor, Ib/VMT for total particulates.
s = silt content of road material, fraction.
S = average vehicle speed mph.
Emissions were negligible for wet days having rainfall greater than 0.01 in.
and about 60 percent of total particles were below 30 urn. This equation
was subsequently adopted in EPA Document AP-42 (1981). It does not consider
the effect of vehicle weight or number of wheels per vehicle. These factors
were included in the recent report by Cowherd et al. (1984), who recommended
the following equation to estimate emissions of particles in the inhalable
range (particles smaller than 10 urn):
E10 = 0.85 (s/lOXS/24)0'8 (W/7)0'3 (w/5)1'6 (d/365) , (29)
where
IO = PMio emission factor for a vehicle kilometer traveled, kg/VKT
W = mean vehicle weight, Mg.
w = mean number of wheels per vehicle.
38
-------
Studies by Dyck and Stukel (1976) indicate the importance of including
vehicle weight and wheel parameters in the prediction equation. They
suggested the following equation:
E = 5.286 - 3.599R + 0.00271 S W s , (30)
where
E = emissions, Ib/VMT.
R = road surface type: USCS: SM =1, CL = 0, dimensionless.
S = vehicle speed, mph.
W = weight in thousands of pounds.
s = percent silt content.
Bohn et al. (1978) studied fugitive emissions from unpaved roads in
the iron and steel industry areas and derived the following empirical
relationships:
E = 5.9 (s/12) (S/30) (W/3)°-7 (w/4)0'5 (d/365) , (31)
where
E is an emission factor, Ib/VMT.
Axetell and Cowherd (1981) studied fugitive emissions from Western
surface coal mining sources. Relationships obtained for emissions due to
haul trucks and due to light- and medium-duty vehicles are given below.
Separate correlations were obtained for total suspended particulates (TSP)
and inhalable particulates (IP). For haul trucks:
E = 0.0067 w3'4 s°-2 (TSP), and (32)
E = 0.0051 w3'5 (IP) ; (33)
for light- and medium-duty vehicles:
E = 5.79/M4'0 (TSP), and (34)
E = 322/M4'3 (IP) , (35)
where
E = emission factor, Ib/VMT.
M = soil moisture content, percent.
w = average number of wheels per vehicle.
s = silt loading, gm/m2.
39
-------
5.2 DATA REQUIRED TO SIMULATE SITE DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
Fugitive participate emissions from contaminated roads, open waste
piles, dried lagoons, drum storage facilities, and uncapped landfills are
estimated for use as input to currently available dispersion models such as
the industrial source complex (ISC) model. The contaminated road is repre-
sented by a line source, the open waste pile is represented by a storage
pile model, and the remaining three types of facilities are assumed to be
point or area sources.
Information necessary for the line source model includes:
Soil type (percent clay, silt, and sand)
P-E index
Average wind velocity
Level of mechanical activity on the road.
In many cases, values for the first three parameters may be available from
the literature or through government agencies such as the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA). Values for the level of mechanical activity and
resulting emissions along contaminated roads are reported in many publica-
tions. Examples are Oyck and Stukel (1976), Roberts et al. (1975), and
Rosbury and Zimmer (1983). Emission factors are given in AP-42 (EPA, 1981)
and its supplements.
Data required for particulate emission from a storage pile are:
• Wind velocity
Activity at the waste pile
Particle size(s) of the waste material
Water or moisture content of the waste
Dimensions of the waste pile.
Values for the last three parameters may have to be estimated.
The point or area source emission model used to estimate emissions
from the remaining types of facilities requires the following data:
Wind velocity
Soil type (percent clay, silt, and sand)
P-E index
Typical dimensions
Soil ridge roughness.
Values for the first four parameters are obtained as previously discussed.
A value for soil ridge roughness, the natural or artificial roughness of
the soil surface due to ridges is estimated.
40-
-------
5.3 SITE DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
The types of facilities discussed as possible sources of fugitive
particulate emissions (contaminated roadsides, open waste piles, dried
lagoons, drum storage facilities, and soil-capped landfills) have been
introduced previously. Generalized descriptions of facility types are
discussed below, with a specific example of each and its soil characteris-
tics and contamination. Example sites are described more fully by degree
of contamination (DOC), meteorology, control, and emissions in appropriate
parts of the report or its appendixes.
Contaminated roads may result from leaky transporting equipment or
from "midnight dumpers." In both cases, potential for contaminants to
enter surrounding soils is great, especially when the source of contamina-
tion goes unnoticed for an extended time. The nature of these roads and
roadsides (unpaved soils usually with limited vegetation), makes them
susceptible to mechanical or wind erosion, which may subsequently cause
downwind contamination.
An example was the illegal dumping of PCB's that occurred along approx-
imately 240 miles of rural North Carolina roadsides during the summer of
1978 and that contaminated 40,000 yd3 of soil (Aroclor, 1260). The average
contamination level was 125 ppm (Meyer, 1982). The types of soil contami-
nated (Meyer, 1984) were 15 to 20 percent clay, 30 to 45 percent silt, 40
to 50 percent sand, and 5 to 10 percent organic carbon.
The relatively large percentage of organic carbon in the soils indi-
cates that the PCB's will adsorb readily onto the soil particles and that,
in some areas, there may be more than just a limited vegetative cover.
However, for example purposes discussed later, the existence of a 1-km open
section of unvegetative contaminated road was assumed whose soil contained
7 percent organic carbon, 20 percent clay (<0.002 mm), and 35 percent silt
(0.002-0.05 mm).
Open waste piles are a potentially large source of fugitive particulate
emissions whose fine material can easily be eroded by wind; precipitation
can cause contaminated runoff, which in turn can pollute local soils.
These soils may then cause downwind contamination if they are eroded.
Roberts and Johnson (1978) describe spoil heaps at an abandoned mine complex
in Minera, Wales, that have led to extensive metal contamination of surround-
ing surface soils. Between 1761 and 1909, when the facility was active,
mineral ores were excavated, subjected to a preliminary mineral segregation
process, and refined. The waste materials, fine-grained spoils (<2 mm),
were discarded in a central area either as conical tips or as tailings
deposited in lagoons. These disposal- practices, common for early mining
operations, produced unstable matrices susceptible to reentrainment by wind
and surface drainage (Johnson and Bradshaw, 1977). Erosion is also encour-
aged by disturbances of the spoil tips through recreational activities and
small-scale reprocessing ventures. Recently, a study of surrounding areas
indicated high levels of lead and zinc contamination. Lead and zinc concen-
trations were found to decrease exponentially with distance downwind of the
spoil heaps. This dispersal of metal-rich waste materials has been attrib-
uted to many factors including wind erosion (Roberts and Johnson, 1978).
41
-------
Approximately 340 soil samples were taken from the area surrounding
the abandoned site, and the lead and zinc concentrations were determined.
These values declined from roughly 5,000 ug Pb/g and 11,000 ug Zn/g close
to the waste materials, to background levels of 95 ug Pb/g and 150 ug Zn/g
within 600 and 750 meters respectively (Roberts and Johnson, 1978). The
lead and zinc concentrations of the waste pile material was highly variable.
Average lead concentrations were 14,000 ppm, and average zinc concentrations
were 34,000 ppm.
Low-permeability soils often are used to line hazardous waste lagoons.
These lagoons may be emptied within their active life by physical removal
of the impounded liquid or by evaporation. The pond may be refilled when
additional suitable waste material is received or with necessary changes,
resulting in a cyclic process of drying out and rewetting the liner material.
When a waste lagoon is deemed no longer useful, the liquid may be allowed
to evaporate and the facility is then left open to dry. When a lagoon
bottom is allowed to dry, the uppermost layer, containing the most adsorbed
contaminants, may be eroded by local winds. This action may result in
offsite contamination.
An example of such a facility, used for pesticide and other waste
disposal is located in southern California. The climate in this area is
hot and dry: average annual rainfall is approximately 5 inches while
annual evaporation is high (approximately 100 inches). This high rate
frequently causes the lagoons to dry out.
Specific information on contamination was not available, but estimates
were for a value of 5,571 ppm for the pesticide dieldrin. The soil that
lines the 1-acre lagoon contains approximately 40 percent sand, 40 percent
silt, and 20 percent clay. Due to the lack of local vegetation, the organic
carbon content of the soil is only about 0.1 percent. For example purposes,
the facility is assumed to be dry and inactive.
Abandoned drum storage facilities often are not maintained and hazardous
materials may seep from corroded drums, contaminating surrounding soil.
The soils may be eroded by the wind, thus spreading the contamination to
other areas.
Some 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) contamination data are
available for a herbicide storage and loading facility in Okaloosa County,
Florida (Harrison and Miller, 1979). Between 1962 and 1970, several hundred
55-gallon drums of herbicides were stored around a concrete aircraft pad
(approximately 125 feet in diameter) and were loaded onto aircraft. Soil
contamination occurred due to spills, leaking drums, purging of aircraft
spray systems, and malfunctions of aircraft spray nozzles.
A study by the Air Force Armament Laboratory from January 1976 to
December 1978 revealed up to 275 ppb TCDO contamination in a limited area
(Harrison and Miller, 1979). Average contamination over one area of approx-
imately 350 m2 was 32 ppb. Further work by Harrison and Crews (1983)
showed levels of 120 ppb.
42
-------
Soil surrounding the concrete loading pad where the drums were stored
was a well-draining sandy soil estimated to contain 90 percent sand, 7 per-
cent silt, and 3 percent clay. The soil's organic carbon content was
approximately 1 percent.
Prior to the closure of a landfill, the facility offers great potential
for fugitive particulate emissions. Waste placement at a landfill usually
requires heavy equipment to spread the waste and, when necessary, to cover
it daily with soil. Contaminated soil clinging to equipment or the upper
surface of the daily cover is a potential source of fugitive particulate
emissions.
A soil-capped landfill has the potential for contaminated cover soil
that may be eroded by the wind. Leaking waste materials may evaporate,
rise to the cover surface, and then condense, contaminating the cover soil.
A 40-acre soil-capped facility containing toluene and other volatile
organics was located in Michigan. Estimated degree of toluene contami-
nation was 3,640 ppm, estimated particle size distribution of cover soil
was 25 percent sand, 35 percent silt, 30 percent clay, and 3 percent organic
carbon.
43
-------
SECTION 6
CONTROL TECHNIQUES
This section discusses techniques available to control fugitive partic-
ulate emissions from treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF's).
Both active systems (those requiring man's routine intervention) and passive
systems (those that are self-sustaining) are described. Emphasis is on
identifying techniques demonstrated for sources of fugitive particulate
emissions, with some assessment of control efficiency. Although few of
these techniques have been evaluated by field sampling at TSDF's, they have
been applied and evaluated at sources similar to TSDF's so technology
transfer is straightforward. Controls for fugitive particulate emissions
have been used on storage piles (especially coal), waste piles (especially
mine tailings), paved and unpaved roads, croplands, construction areas, and
handling and transfer of bulk solids.
5.1 CHEMICAL STABILIZATION
Chemical dust control methods involve application of one of many
available chemicals to the dust source to form a new cohesive surface
(e.g., a protective film over the surface), to bind particles together into
a coarse agglomerate, or to form a crust. Spray systems that maintain a
moist surface and systems that use a foam or surfactant to extend water
through improved surface wetting are discussed in Section 6.2, Wet Suppres-
sion. Chemical stabilization includes products that function as dust
suppressants even after the material has dried, usually 24 to 48 hours
after application.
Examples of chemical stabilizers that bind particles together and/or
form a new surface include elastomeric or latex polymers, 1 ignosulfonates
(calcium, sodium, and ammonium), asphalt emulsions, petroleum by-products,
and hygroscopic salts. Rosbury (1984) presented a comprehensive list of
chemical suppressants and manufacturers that is partially reproduced in
Table 5 to illustrate the wide variety of commercially available products.
The classification system in Table 5 was developed by Rosbury and includes
bitumens, adhesives, and salts; the adhesives category was the largest,
with 44 products identified as potentially applicable to fugitive dust
control.
Most chemical stabilizers are liquids diluted with water and applied
as a spray. A few are liquids that are applied undiluted, such as waste
oil, Peneprime , and Oust Bond 100 . The hygroscopic salts can be obtained
and applied either as a solid or as a water solution. Spraying is the most
common method of applying chemical stabilizers. A few experimenters have
evaluated admixing the stabilizer with the top few inches of surface parti-
cles for comparison with the surface spraying technique.
44
-------
TABLE 5. CHEMICAL STABILIZERS (Rosbury, 1984)
A. Type: Bitumens
Product
AMS 2200,
Coherex
Docal 100;
Peneprime
Petro Tac
Resinex
Retain®
2300*
Manufacturer
Arco Mine Sciences
Witco Chemical
Douglas Oil Company
Utah Emulsions
Syntech Products Corporation
Neyra Industries, Inc.
Dubois Chemical Company
B. Type: Salts
Product
Calcium chloride
Dowflake, Liquid Dow
DP-10®
Dust Ban 8806®
Dustgard
Sodium Silicate
Manufacturer
Allied Chemical Corporation
Dow Chemical
Wen-Don Corporation
Nalco Chemical Company
G.S.L. Minerals and Chemicals Corporation
The PQ Corporation
C. Type: Adhesives
Product
®
®
Acrylic DLR-MT
Bio Cat 300-1®
CPB-12®
Curasol AK®
DCL-40A, 1801, 1803s
DC-859, 872
Dust Ban
Flambinder"
Lignosite
Norlig A, 12!
Orzan series
Soil Card®
®
Manufacturer
Rohm and Haas Company
Applied Natural Systems, Inc.
Wen-Don Corporation
American Hoechst Corporation
Calgon Corporation
Betz Laboratories, Inc.
Nalco Chemical Company
Flambeau Paper Company
Georgia Pacific Corporation
Reed Lignin, Inc.
Crown Zellerbach Corporation
Walsh Chemical
-------
Chemical stabilizers have been evaluated as controls for wind erosion
and fugitive dust emissions from unpaved roads at industrial plants and
mines, coal storage piles, waste piles of mill tailings, tailings ponds,
and croplands. Li et al. (1983) reviewed demonstrated applications of
chemical stabilizers for copper production (haul roads and storage piles),
molybdenum mining (tailings piles), iron ore production (taconite storage
and tailings), coal production and use (haul roads, transport, and storage),
uranium production (tailings), Agricultural Soil Conservation Service
(croplands), highway construction, electric utilities (storage of finely
ground coal), and the military (roads and airports). Focusing on controls
for wind erosion of uranium mill tailings, Li et al. concluded that chemical
stabilizers had been demonstrated and could be an effective control techn-
ique.
Lyles and Armbrust (1969) investigated the use of four spray-on adhe-
sives for wind erosion control of croplands. Field plots of soil containing
89.6 percent sand, 5.9 percent silt, and 4.5 percent clay were prepared by
disking and raking to make it highly erodible. Test plots were sprayed
with chemical adhesives and then tested after 16 to 24 hours. The soil
moved by a 1.6-m/s (35-mph) wind from a portable wind tunnel was measured
0.3 m (1 ft) above the surface. An untreated plot was used as the control.
Results are shown in Table 6 and indicate that as the application rate
increases for all four products, soil movement decreases. A further reduc-
tion in soil movement was noted for all products by increasing the dilution
rate and maintaining the highest application rate; however, this improvement
was short term because the highly dilute applications failed after 4 weeks.
Visual inspection revealed numerous holes in the surface film, which was
apparently too thin. All stabilizers used at the manufacturer's recommended
dilution- and application rate were holding well against natural winds 7
weeks after testing. This study also found a fine spray (agricultural
nozzle) to be superior to a coarse spray (industrial nozzle) when stabilizers
are applied.
Armbrust and Oickerson (1971) investigated 34 commercially available
materials for soil stabilization and wind erosion control. An erodible
soil with the same composition as previously described was tested with
application rates of 4, 2, 1, 1/2, 1/4, and 1/8 times the recommended rate.
Trays of treated soil were exposed to a 1.3-m/s (30-mph) wind for 10 min in
a wind tunnel. Other trays were placed outside (in sun and rain) for 60,
120, and 180 days before testing in the wind tunnel to weather them.
Materials were evaluated by the following criteria: (1) prevent erosion
completely upon initial application and reduce it for at least 2 months,
(2) have no effect on plant germination or growth, (3) are easily applied,
and (4) cost less than $0.012/m2 ($50/acre). Six products met all of the'
criteria and are listed in Table 7. The weathering tests for four of these
six products ranged from 79 (for Coherex ) to 33 percent (for Polyco 2460 )
reduction in soil movement after 60 days of weathering. All of the 34
materials originally tested provided temporary wind erosion control, and
all but 8 chemicals reduced soil loss for 60 days. Therefore, chemicals
must be selected based on additional criteria, such a.5 cost, application
ease, and potential for other beneficial or adverse impacts.
46
-------
TABLE 6. CHEMICAL STABILIZERS FOR AGRICULTURAL SOILS
(Lyes and Armbrust, 1969)
Stabilizer
Swifts Resin
Adhesive Z-3876®
Coherex
Anionic asphalt
emulsion
Oil /latex polymer
Dilution
with water
2:1
2:1
2:1
12:1
4:1
4:1
4:1
19:1
1:1
1:1
1:1
7:1
3:1
3:1
3:1
11:1
. Appl
(L/m2)
0.81
0.41
0.20
0.81
1.13
0.57
0.28
1.13
1.13
0.57
0.28
1.13
1.12
0.75
0.37
1.12
i cation
(gal/acre)
870a
435
218
870
l,210a
605
303
1,210
l,210a
605
303
1,210
l,200a
800
400
1,200
Percent reduction
in soil movement
94
68
36
99
99
96
84
99.5
99
93
85
99.8
99.3
98
87
99.6
Manufacturer's recommended rate.
47
-------
TABLE 7. STABILIZATION.CHEMICALS SELECTED
(Armbrust and Dickerson, 1971)
Application rate
Product
Coherex
OC-70®
Petroset SB®
Polyco 2460®
Polyco 2605®
SBR latex S-2105®
Manufacturer
Witco Chemical Co.
Union Carbide
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Borden Chemical Co.
Borden Chemical Co.
Shell Chemical Co.
(L/m2)
oils
0.016
0.021
0.016
0.016
0.016
(gal/acre)
170
17
22
17
17
17
Percent
soil.
lossb
21
c
c
67
37
57
sCosts were $26.90 to $49.50 per acre (1971 dollars).
3After 50 days of natural weathering and expressed as percent of control
sample loss.
"These products were received too late for weathering tests but met all
other criteria. Armbrust and Dickerson concluded control of these products
would be similar to control of the other products because of their similar-
ities.
-------
Sultan (1976) tested 46 commercially available chemicals for control
of dust and erosion on dune sand (for wind erosion) and compacted granitic
soil (for traffic erosion). The chemical treatments were subjected to
freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry cycles, and various curing temperatures. Soil
movement was measured after test specimens were subjected to 2.0-m/s (45-mph)
and 4.0-m/s (90-mph) winds. Of 27 chemicals, 14 successfully endured the
various environmental conditions and continued to reduce wind erosion by at
least 95 percent compared to the untreated control sample. The rain-dry
cycle imposed the highest erosion rates. The lignin-based products, because
of their high-water solubility, experienced the highest erosion rates after
the rain-dry cycle.
The granitic soil samples were treated and tested for traffic erosion
control under the wind conditions described above plus another condition of
simulated tire abrasion. Of the 19 chemicals tested, 8 resulted in erosion
losses less than 1/2 percent of control samples losses. Study results
indicate that chemical stabilizers can significantly reduce wind erosion of
dune sands and traffic erosion of unpaved roads.
In a continuation of the initial study, stabilizers were applied to
sections of an unpaved road with an average daily traffic of 140 vehicles
and a silt content of 28 percent (EPA, 1982a). Some of the chemicals were
applied topically by spraying, and others were mixed to a depth of 7.6 cm
(3 in.) and compacted. After 5 months, control efficiencies of 83 to 95
percent were still being achieved. Results showed that working the stabil-
izer into the road surface made it effective for a longer time period (EPA,
1982a).
Rosbury and Zimmer (1983) reported on four types of chemicals and
water to suppress dust from coal mine haul roads containing 50 to 74 percent
fines. The four types 0f chemicals included a salt (calcium chloride), a
surfactant (Soil-Sement ), an adhesive (lignosulfonate), and a bitumen
(Arco 2200 ). Field sampling for particulate matter was conducted with a
vertical exposure profiler that takes samples at four different heights.
Testing was hindered and emission levels were depressed because of 12
storms (19 cm of rain) over the 38-day period. Control efficiencies of
40 to 60 percent for suspended particulate matter were observed for all of
the products over the first 2 weeks following application and then decreased-
with time. Watering once per hour resulted in 45 percent control, and
watering twice per hour yielded about 55 percent control.
The cost effectiveness at 50 percent control was evaluated for calcium
chloride, lignosulfonate, and watering. The surfactant and bitumen products
were not included in the cost analysis because the necessary reapplication
rates could not be estimated. The most cost-effective controls were topical
applications of calcium chloride ($l,000/wk to $l,400/wk), 1ignosulfonate
mixed with the road surface ($l,300/wk to $2,100/wk). Water was the least
cost-effective option at about $2,100/wk. These costs were based on a road
width of 15 m (50 ft) in the East and 18 m (60 ft) in the West.
49
-------
The authors emphasize that control efficiency should be evaluated no
earlier than 48 hours after application because the surface is still moist
24 to 48 hours later. Testing before the 48-hour period may actually
evaluate the effect of increasing surface moisture on dust control. Rosbury
(1984) summarized control efficiencies from the literature and showed a
range of 83 to 99 percent control for tests conducted 1 to 2 days after
application. For tests conducted 3 days to 3.5 months after application,
control efficiency ranged from 0 to 95 percent, with most test results
ranging from 35 to 89 percent. These data clearly indicate the variable
long-term control effectiveness for unpaved roads.
Russell and Caruso (1983) investigated the use of Coherex , lignosul-
fonate mixed with Arcoat 220 , and oil well brine to control emissions from
unpaved roads in the iron and steel industry. (Oil well brine is a waste
product from crude oil production that functions as a hygroscopic salt.)
The percent silt in the surface material and high-volume air sampling were
used to evaluate control effectiveness. A small truck traveling at 0.7 m/s
(15 mph), in addition to normal road traffic, was used to generate dust.
The road test section was exposed to significant abrasion from a high daily
traffic count (307 to 316 vehicles), which resulted in silt formation.
Results are given in Table 8 and show control efficiencies greater
than 90 percent for all three products for the first 4 weeks. The percent
control of silt is also shown and, except for oil well brine, appears to be
well correlated to TSP. Silt and TSP for oil well brine do not correspond
as closely because the treated surface, when sieved, broke into small par-
ticles that reagglomerated after passing through the screen.
Oil well brine was applied on five different occasions before the test
until the road's silt content was 0 percent. Because of dust redeposition
from an adjacent untreated section, the oil well brine was reapplied after
4 weeks. Although more oil well brine was applied, its cost effectiveness
was superior to that of the other products, primarily because the material
was free (including the labor to apply it to the road). Under these condi-
tions, few products can be more economical than oil well brine.
Cowherd (1979) reported on the use of a 10-percent solution of Coherex
in water ort a dirt/slag road in an iron and steel plant. The road is used
by light- and medium-duty vehicles. An initially high control efficiency
(>90 percent) for suspended particulate matter decreased by more than 10
percent with passage of 200 to 300 vehicles. The stabilizer's performance
was adversely affected by tracking of dust from untreated sections of the
road. Cowherd (1979) also reported on the use of ammonium lignin sulfonate
on a haul road composed of waste rock aggregate at a taconite mine. A 20-
to 25-percent solution of retardant was sprayed at a rate of 0.36 L/m2
(0.08 gal/yd2). The initially high efficiency (>90 percent) gradually
deteriorated to roughly 80 percent after the passage of 300 vehicles.
Personnel at the taconite mine stated that the binding properties of the
1ignosulfonate could be partially restored by wetting Cowherd et al.
(1982) discuss additional tests that were conducted at, a steel plant to
control emissions from unpaved roads. They reported a control efficiency
of 92 percent for total particulate from light-duty traffic and 96 percent
50
-------
TABLE 8. PERCENT REDUCTION IN SILT AND TSP
(Russell and Caruso, 1983)
Time since Lignosulfonate
application
(weeks)
2
3
4
5
6
Silt
fty \
\
-------
from heavy-duty traffic after application of Coherex . Watering on an
8-hour cycle reduced emissions from heavy-dut-y traffic 50 percent. The
corresponding control efficiencies in terms of inhalable particles were 91
percent for light-duty traffic and 95 percent for heavy-duty traffic.
Watering reduced inhalable particles for heavy-duty traffic 63 percent.
Cowherd concluded that the chemical stabilizer's control efficiency was
independent of particle size. He also emphasized that the efficiency of
Coherex represents only the early stage in its expected lifetime.
Runnels (1983) reported on fugitive dust control on unpaved haul roads
at a dry-process cement plant. The plant first tried water sprinkling for
dust control but eventually rejected watering because of the long application
time for loading, transport, and spraying and the short life of the dampness.
Calcium chloride was also tried and worked well initially, but it too was
short lived. A light rain completely eliminated the calcium chloride; but
even where it did not rain, heavy traffic cut through the surface layer,
often on the same day of application. Runnels also reported that calcium
chloride was corrosive to the plant's vehicles. Oil that was available
locally was also tried; however, too much time and labor were needed to
obtain the oil, prepare the surface, and add road rock.
The cement company concluded that Coherex offered the best combination
of effectiveness and cost for its plant. Coherex has been used since 1974
at an average rate of 59,800 L/yr (15,800 gal/yr) to control dust at the
plant. The company's experience indicates that it is essential to allow
adequate time (overnight at a minimum) for the Coherex solution to pene-
trate before allowing traffic on the road. A uniform and even application
of the diluted material (9:1) is also important. Benefits cited included
good dust control, reduced maintenance requirements for the company's large
trucks, and cleaner vehicles leaving the plant.
Canessa (1977) reported that Utah International used Coherex for dust
control from unpaved roads at its coal mine. For new roads, the dust
retardant is added at 10 percent dilution with water, worked into the
surface, and compacted. This procedure is repeated for the new roads for
several days until the surface is dust free. For old roads, the dust
retardant was diluted to 0^4 percent with water and applied. At this
dilution rate, the Coherex acts only as a water extender.
Morwald (1983) reported on dust control of unpaved roads at Dofasco's
integrated steel plant in Hamilton, Ontario. The plant has 17.4 km of
unpaved roads that are sprayed with oil for dust control. He estimates
that an 85-percent control efficiency has been obtained for unpaved roads.
Oil application is required every 3 days for unpaved roadsa compared to the
plant's estimate of a once-per-day requirement for Coherex and lignin
products.
Roberts at al. (1975) stated that for the case he studied (Seattle),
oiling was the most economical method to control fugitive dust from gravel
roads with an average daily traffic greater than 15 vehicles. For daily
traffic exceeding 100 vehicles, paving was recommended to reduce health
risks and property damage. Cooper et al. (1979) stated that their corres-
52
-------
pondence with State highway departments showed that oiling was not particu-
larly attractive for short-term control. They estimated 50 to 90 percent
dust control from oiling with an annual maintenance cost of $680/km
($l,100/mi). Annual maintenance of a gravel road was estimated as $l,800/km
($2,900/mi). Cooper et al. (1979) found that North Dakota and Virginia
used calcium chloride on dusty road-s. At relative humidities over 29
percent, calcium chloride absorbs moisture from the air to suppress dust.
The cost of calcium chloride treatment was estimated as $250/km-wk ($4007
mi-wk) by North Dakota and $0.06/m2 ($0.05/yd2) by Virginia.
Dean et al. (1974) investigated the use of che'micals for stabilizing
fine-sized mineral wastes that are discarded by ore milling plants. Seventy
chemicals were tested on acidic, basic, and neutral mill tailings for
resistance to water and air erosion. The chemicals were evaluated based on
a combination of effectiveness and cost with the following general conclu-
sions.
Coherex provided good wind resistance at an application
rate of 0.22 L/m2 (240 gal/acre) and provided water resist-
ance at 2.2 L/m2 (2,400 gal/acre).
Lignosulfonates were effective at 0.27 kg/m2 (2,400 Ib/acre).
Compound SP-400®, Soil Card, and DCA-70 were effective at
0.051, 0.084, and 0.047 L/m2 (55, 90, and 50 gal/acre),
respectively; all were exceptionally effective on sandy
tailings.
Other compounds that were effective, by increasing cost, were cement and
milk of lime, Paracol TC1S42 (a resin emulsion), Parmak WTP (wax, tar,
and pitch).^Petroset SB-1 (an elastomeric polymer), potassium silicate,
and PB-4601 (a polymer).
fo\
Havens and Dean (1969) tested two chemicals, DCA-70 (an elastomeric
polymer from Union Carbide) and calciunulignosulfonate, on uranium mill
tailings at Tuba City, Arizona. DCA-70 was applied at an average rate of
0.24 L/m2 (0.053 gal/yd2), and the calcium 1ignosulfonate was applied at a
rate of 0.5 kg/m2 (0.93 lb/yd2). The tailings were inspected after 1, 2,
and 4 years. Surface disruption was found to be about 10, 20, and 40
percent, respectively, during these inspections but was caused primarily by
human activity (i.e., walking and digging). With proper application and
maintenance, the study concluded that the stabilizers could be effective
for a long time.
Dean et al. (1969) also investigated the stabilization of tailings
from a Nevada copper mill. The tailings consisted primarily of quartz and
feldspar with a high percentage of fines (59 percent passing through a
200-mesh screen). The program's goal was to evaluate the use of a combina-
tion of vegetation and chemical stabilization. Because of its compatibility
with vegetation and its cost advantage, Coherex was chosen for evaluation
on a 40,500-m2 (10-acre) section of the tailings. The Coherex satisfac-
torily maintained the surface until the vegetation gre^, and the stabilized
53
-------
tailings with vegetation appeared to be fully resistant to wind erosion
after 1 year of observation. The application rate ranged from 0.16 to 0.59
L/m2 (0.036 to 0.13 gal/yd2); however, no differences in erosion control
were noted for the various application rates. After 6 years of observation
(Dean et al., 1974), during which many violent windstorms passed through
the area without raising dust clouds from the stabilized plots, vegetation
has continued to improve with about 27 different plant species growing
well. Following this test chemical/vegetative stabilization was used
successfully on 100 more acres at the Nevada site; on tailings in different
climates, and on different mineral bases in Colorado, Michigan, Missouri,
and Washington.
Bonn and Johnson (1983) investigated chemical stabilization of tailings
from a taconite processing plant in Minnesota. Four types of stabilizers
were tested (Coherex , calcium 1ignosulfonate, two latex polymers, and mag-
nesium chloride) on 2,000-m2 (0.5-acre) plots of the tailings pond. A wind
tunnel and suspended particulate sampling were used to evaluate the tailings'
wind erosion potential. The study found that rainfall was the meteoro-
logical factor that most affects control efficiency and, when coupled with
high winds, produces a synergistic effect that lowers the threshold velocity.
The study evaluated the costs for attaining 75 and 90+ percent control
for all four types of products. At best, reapplication of the stabilizer
is required every 6 to 8 weeks. The most effective stabilizers (lignosul-
fonate at 4:1 dilution, latexes, and magnesium chloride) were estimated to
require only one additional application (total of two applications) over a
3-month period. The other stabilizers (petroleum resin and 1ignosulfonate
at 8:1 dilution) required multiple applications. The most cost-effective
stabilizer to achieve 75 and 90+ percent control was the calcium lignosul-
fonate at $0.032 to $0.048/m2 ($130 to $195/acre), and the least cost-
effective was magnesium chloride at $0.78/m2 ($3,165/acre). The authors
point out that because of shipping costs, the user's site location and the
chemical's origin can significantly affect the cost-effectiveness evaluation.
As an example, the cost of the 1ignosulfonate increases to $0.069 to $0.11/m2
($280 to $450/acre) for Utah/Wyoming, and the cost of magnesium chloride
decreases to $0.26/m2 ($l,050/acre) for chemicals shipped from the same
locations used for the Minnesota site.
McKell and Van Epps (1980) evaluated chemical stabilizers in the
vegetative rehabilitation of arid land disturbed during development of oil
shale and coal. Soil stabilization reduced soil surface looseness and
promoted runoff to help establish vegetation. The stabilizers' effective-
ness lasted for only a year. McKell and Van Epps noted that slopes'stabi1-
ized and competition from weedy annual plants decreased. They found that
an insufficient coating of stabilizer had no beneficial effect but that a •
good coating doubled water runoff
Canessa (1977) reported that Consolidation Coal treated 59,000 m2
(14.5 acres) of dry slurry lagoons with Coherex The lagoons contained
fine reject material composed of coal, ash, and pyrite. A 1:5 dilution was
applied to the dried-out lagoon at a rate of 4.5 L/m2 (1 gal/yd2). The
dust from the lagoon was suppressed, vegetation grew, and control efficiency
was deemed better than that of a grass cover alone.
54
-------
Drehmel and Daniel (1982) evaluated chemical treatments to suppress
fugitive emissions from coal dust: Effectiveness was evaluated in a wind
tunnel based on entrainment velocity, which was defined as wind velocity
required to entrain 10 g/min. For a fixed cost of $750/ha ($300/acre),
entrainment velocity after treatment with each chemical was estimated:
Entrainment velocity
Chemical (m/s) (mph)
SP-301® n 0.94 21
Pentron DC-3® 1.3 30
CPB-12® 1.4 32
Coherex® n 2.0 44
Polyco 2151® 2.2 50
Coal Dyne® 2.5 55
Oil and water 2.7 60
Lignosulfonate 2.7 61
The SP-301®, Pentron DC-3®, and CPB-12® were the least cost effective,
whereas the oil and water and lignosulfonate were the most cost effective.
The effect of application rate on entrainment velocity varied. The study
found that an increased application rate^proportionately increased effec-
tiveness for the lignosulfonate, Coherex , CPB-12 , Polyco 2151 , and Coal
Dyne . An increased rate for SP-301 caused a rapid rise in effectiveness.
However, an increased application rate had little or no effect on the
effectiveness of Pentron . All of-the additives tested reduced entrainment
velocity, and-all except Coal Dyne were effective at the manufacturer's
recommended dilution rate.
Morwald (1983) reported that stabilizers were used to control fugitive
emissions from coal storage piles at Dofasco's steel plant. The coal piles
were first compacted and smoothed with a roller and then sprayed with waste
oils. He estimated 95 percent control of the storage pile particulate
emissions by this procedure. He also stated that a successful long-term
emission control program requires (1) constant monitoring of equipment,
dust, and weather conditions; (2) competent personnel; and (3) a commitment
by management to the control program.
6.2 WET SUPPRESSION
Wet suppression techniques can be used to control fugitive particulate
emissions by spraying a liquid on the surface of the emission source.
Historically, water sprays have been used for this purpose to cause small
dust particles to adhere to larger pieces and thus prevent entrainment.
From the wind erosion equation, the wind erosion rate varies inversely as
the square of the soil moisture (Donovan et al., 1976). Water sprays have
been used to control emissions from plant and mine haul roads, storage
piles, bulk solid transfer points, cattle feedlots, and construction areas.
Spraying from trucks or from fixed pipelines are two common application
methods (EPA, 1982a).
55
-------
Water is short lived and therefore requires frequent repeated applica-
tions to maintain effectiveness. In arid areas, where inherent dryness and
wind promote wind erosion, water may be a relatively scarce resource and an
impractical control option. Depending on the nature of the source and its
location, water loss from evaporation or runoff may be significant. Before
water is selected for dust control, potential for increased leachate genera-
tion and spread of the contaminant to adjacent soil, surface water, or
groundwater must be evaluated.
Water has a relatively high surface tension, which inhibits its ability
to spread and thoroughly wet many materials. A surfactant or wetting agent
often is added to the water to decrease the surface tension to allow the
water to spread further, penetrate deeper, and to wet the small particles
better than water alone. Foam is also used in wet suppression and is
effective because small particles break the surface of the foam, become
wetted, and agglomerate after contact with other small particles or with
larger particles (EPA, 1982a). For example, Seibel (1976) found that foam
was more effective than water sprays in controlling respirable dust at a
coal transfer point.
Spray systems can reduce emissions from load-in of storage piles by 70
to 90 percent and from wind erosion by 80 to 90 percent. Other reported
control efficiencies for spray systems are 80 percent for cattle feedlots,
70 percent for construction operations, and 30 to 50 percent for unpaved
access roads (watering twice per day at 2.3 L/m2) (EPA, 1982a).
Zimmer (1983) evaluated water spraying as a control for unpaved coal
mine haul roads. He reported that watering once per hour reduced TSP's
45 percent and that watering twice per hour reduced TSP's 55 percent.
Cowherd et al. (1982) discussed watering as a control measure for unpaved
roads used by heavy-duty vehicles at a steel plant. For an 8-hour watering
cycle, a 50-percent reduction was reported for TSP's, and a 63-percent
reduction was reported for inhalable particles.
Runnels (1983) reported on his cement plant's unsuccessful attempt to
use water to control emissions from unpaved roads. Water sprays were
abandoned because of the lengthy loading and spraying time and the short
life of the surface moisture. Morwald (1983) reported that fixed wa'ter
sprays were once used to control emissions from Dofasco's coal storage
piles; however, waste oil was found to be more effective and is currently
used instead of water.
Construction contractors usually use watering trucks to reduce dust
generation at a construction site. Their need to control dust is dictated
by worker demands and high equipment maintenance costs. Water provides
adequate dust control if it is repeated frequently at a sufficient applica-
tion rate. It can be a low-cost option because most construction jobs
already have the necessary equipment and facilities for the task (Jutze and
Axetell, 1974).
56
-------
Chemical wetting agents or foam also can be used to control emissions
from open storage piles. Control efficiencies of 80 to 90 percent are
reported for emissions from loading onto piles, 90 percent for emissions
from movement of the pile, and 90 percent for wind erosion (EPA, 1982b).
6.3 PHYSICAL COVERING
Stabilization by covering the surface is an effective control technique
for inactive fugitive emission sources, such as abandoned waste stockpiles
or dried-up lagoons. The emission source can be covered with a layer of
rocks, soil, bark, slag, wood chips, or straw to enclose the exposed surface,
which eliminates wind penetration and contact with fine particles that may
otherwise become airborne (EPA, 1982a).
Vogel and O'Sullivan (1983) discussed using domes or partially enclosed
structures, such as those used for storing gravel or sand by highway depart-
ments, that could provide almost 100 percent emission control. Synthetic
covers are another device used to eliminate emissions. The cost of a dome
with a 15-m (50-ft) diameter and 604-Mg (664-ton) capacity was estimated as
$46,000. The cost increases to about $80,000 for a 30-m (100-ft) diameter
and 4,200-Mg (4,650-ton) capacity dome and includes materials, installa-
tion, wiring, lighting, and ventilation. The cost of synthetic covers was
estimated as $13/m2 to $20/m2 ($4/ft2 to $6/ft2) on a completely installed
basis. The cost for covering a median size waste pile of 280 m2 (0.07
acre) was estimated as $7,000 to $14,000 (Vogel and 0'Sullivan, 1983).
One type of synthetic cover that is applied as a foam has been used in
Europe for several years in sanitary landfills as a substitute for a 6-inch
soil cover. The foam is a urea-methylene complex that dries, hardens, and
forms an effective dust cover (Vogel and O'Sullivan, 1983). The foam may
be practical for covering wastes after they are placed and compacted in an
active landfill; however, the foam cover's integrity is destroyed if heavy
equipment is operated on the cover or if wastes are added on top of the
foam cover. Material and application labor costs are about $2.15/m2 for a
5-cm layer, and the application equipment costs approximately $4,000 (Vogel
and O1Sullivan, 1983).
Enclosure of open storage piles can reduce fugitive emissions from
loading onto the piles by 70 to 99 percent, from movement of the pile by 95
to 99 percent, and from wind erosion by 95 to 99 percent (EPA, 1982b).
Unpaved roads are also emission sources that have been controlled by
physical covering. For example, adding gravel to an unimproved dirt road
may reduce emissions by 50 percent (EPA, 1982a). Paving covers the emission
source and can provide a control efficiency of 85 percent (EPA, 1982a).
(Paved roads do not provide 100 percent control because of tracked-in or
blown dust and dirt as well as unpaved road shoulders.)
Road carpets are another form of physical cover for controlling emis-
sions from roads. A water-permeable polyester fabric that is laid between
the roadbed and the coarse aggregate road ballast (e.g., gravel) separates
fine soil particles in the roadbed from the aggregate. The fabric prevents
57
-------
fine materials from moving from the subsoil to the road surface, where
entrainment could occur. Any fine materials in the road surface are washed
through the fabric and into the subsoil or edge of the road (EPA, 1982a).
These civil engineering fabrics have been used for road stabilization,
support, drainage, erosion control, and reinforcement. Fabrics are available
irr -strengths sufficient to take loads from haul trucks, are rot resistant,
have an estimated useful lifetime of 12 years, and cost about $1.20/m2
(51.00 yd2) in 1980 (Levene and Drehmel, 1981).
A road carpet was tested on a 305-m (1,000-ft) segment of unpaved road
on a military installation in Colorado. The road is used by light-duty
vehicles and occasionally by larger or heavy-duty vehicles. Control effec-
tiveness was measured in terms of reduced concentration of ambient particu-
late matter. The road covered with fabric and aggregate material resulted
in an average 47-percent reduction (range of 30 to 70 percent) in TSP's
compared to the uncontrolled test section. Inhalable particles averaged
43 percent reduction with a range of 26 to 53 percent. For both total and
inhalable particles, greater reductions were seen at lower windspeeds
(Levene and Drehmel, 1981).
6.4 VEGETATIVE COVERING
Abandoned or inactive sites (e.g., landfill covers, impoundment covers,
waste piles, road shoulders, reclaimed land, or disturbed soil) are candi-
dates for vegetative stabilization to reduce fugitive emissions. Vegetation
is an impractical control option for active sites because of disruption of
the cover and damage to the vegetation. The primary control mechanism is
direct stabilization of the soil surface: the roots bind the soil, and the
plant stems and leaves form a protective cover, preventing particles from
becoming airborne. Two minor control mechanisms from vegetation are (1)
the windbreak effect of plants planted perpendicular to the direction of
prevailing wind, and (2) the removal of dust particles from the air by
plants (vegetation is a natural filter that removes dust by impaction)
(Donovan et a!., 1976). Another use of vegetation is to form shelter
belts, usually growths of trees or shrubs, that shelter the dust source
primarily from the wind but also from the sun.
Vegetative stabilization is sometimes used in combination with physical
or chemical stabilization techniques. The combined approach prevents sand-
blasting of vegetation, aids in moisture retention, and allows the vegetation
to germinate and grow (Dean et al., 1974). Several examples of combining
vegetative/chemical stabilization for abandoned tailings piles are discussed
in Section 6.1, Chemical Stabilization.
The control efficiency of a vegetative cover varies with the type and
amount of cover. In the arid Southwest, particulate emission reductions
may be as low as 25 percent; in areas that can support a dense vegetative
cover, control efficiency may approach 100 percent (EPA, 1982a). In some
cases, the combined effects of climate and composition of the waste pile
may resist growth because of salt, heavy metals, windalown sand, high
temperature, and lack of water (Li et al., 1983). Some considerations in
selection of vegetative covers include (Li et al., 1933);
58
-------
Plants should be able to thrive under existing soil, moisture,
and exposure conditions.
Plants should be rapid growing to provide early protection.
Plants that produce their own mulch control erosion best.
Plants should be resistant to insects and disease and should
be nonpoisonous.
Soil composition, nutrients, and compatibility with plants also should be
evaluated before a particular plant species is selected.
Lutton et al. (1979) recommend the use of vegetation on landfill
covers, primarily to control water erosion but also to control wind erosion.
Deep-rooted plants should be avoided in this application to prevent root
penetration of the impermeable clay or synthetic cap that is placed over
the waste to limit water infiltration.
6.5 WINDSCREENS
Windscreens are barriers placed perpendicular to the direction of
prevailing wind to reduce windspeed and penetration of the source's surface.
Soo (1980) reported that wind barriers can reduce wind penetration into
storage piles by 50 percent to reduce dust emissions and to decrease moisture
loss from the pile. A barrier with a height that is 25 to 50 percent of
the height of the pile, placed about 2 to 3 pile heights away, reduces wind
penetration and dust lift by 25 to 60 percent (Soo et al., 1980).
Lawrence (1983) described the preliminary results of a study by Larson
(TRC Environmental Consultants) on the effectiveness of windscreens at
reducing emissions from a fly ash pile. He concluded that wind velocity
could be reduced by about 66 percent with corresponding reductions of 75
percent for TSP's and 60 percent for inhalable particles.
Drehmel and Daniel (1982) conducted preliminary tests of windscreens
in a flat field near an airport. The two windscreens that were tested had
permeabilities of 65 and 50 percent and were 1.8 m high. For the 65-percent
permeable screen and an average incident windspeed of 3.0 m/s, an average
wind velocity reduction of 70 percent was reported in the downwind area.
This reduction decreased to 40 percent for an average incident windspeed of
5.2 m/s. For an incident windspeed of 4.2 m/s, the 50-percent permeable
screen reduced the wind velocity by 60 percent.
Application of a windscreen for a coal storage pile was evaluated
theoretically. Drehmel and Daniel (1982) concluded that windscreens are
effective for dust control and can reduce emissions from a coal storage
pile by up to 80 percent.
Wind breaks can reduce erosion on a typical 600-m-long field by 12
percent; however, they are generally not feasible for large fields. The
59
-------
effectiveness extends downwind for a distance equal to approximately 10
times the barrier height (EPA, 1982a).
Vogel and O'Sullivan (1983) reported that a polyester windscreen 1.8-m
(6-ft) high costs about $43 per linear meter ($13 per linear foot) installed,
Screens of other heights cost $22/m2 to $27/m2 ($2/ft2 to $2.5/ft2), includ-
ing the screen, mounting hardware, post erection, and installation. The
cost for installing a 3-m (10-ft) high fence around a median size waste
pile of 280 m2 (0.07 acre) was estimated as $4,000.
6.6 SPEED REDUCTION
For unpaved roads, particulate emissions increase as the speed of the
vehicle increases if all other factors remain constant. Speed reduction
reduces the turbulence and energy imparted to fine particles, which reduces
entrainment. One report states that emissions are proportional to the
square of vehicle speed (EPA, 1982a). The following reductions in emissions
are estimated from an arbitrarily chosen starting point (or uncontrolled
case) of 64 km/h:
Speed Percent reduction
(km/h) (mph) in emissions
64 40 0
48 30 25
32 20 65
24 15 80
Cooper et al. (1979) presented results for a similar model that incor-
porated a term for the average daily traffic. Results are listed below and
are generally consistent with emission reductions provided earlier.
Percent reduction for average
•suaeci
km/h
64
48
32
mph
40
30
20
50
0
38
58
500
0
47
71
Infinite
0
48
73
6.7 PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CONTAMINATION
The previous sections focus on techniques that control fugitive emis-
sions of contaminated soil particles. These techniques are remedial actions
to control the airborne spread of pollutants after soil contamination has
occurred. An obvious way to control fugitive emissions of contaminated
soil is to prevent initial soil contamination from occurring. Preventive
measures may eliminate or forestall the need for remedial techniques to
control contaminated particle emissions.
60
-------
Current regulations for TSDF's are presented in Title 40, Parts 264
and 265 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (July 1, 1983) and specify
several requirements that minimize the probability of soil contamination.
Provisions for containers and tanks in Subparts I and J require that both
be in good structural condition and leak free. Containers must be compatible
with the waste, kept closed, handled in a manner to prevent rupture, and
inspected once per week. Tanks are to be protected from corrosion and
overfilling and must be inspected daily. At closure, all hazardous materials
must be removed or decontaminated. The requirements for new container
facilities with free liquids are more stringent and further minimize the
probability of contaminating soil through the containment requirements of
§264.175. A base that is sufficiently impervious to leaks and spills is
required under the storage area. Spills, leaks, run-on, and run-off from
precipitation are collected and removed. Therefore, potential for soil
contamination and for airborne distribution of the soil particles is much
greater for an existing facility that does not have a liquid collection and
removal system. A new facility that has incurred the cost of an impervious
base and a liquid collection system that is properly operated and maintained
can have a control efficiency approaching 100 percent for contaminated
fugitive particulate emissions.
Several design and operating requirements are also provided for new
tanks and are not specified for old tanks. These design and operating
requirements, such as minimum shell thickness, inner liner, and corrosion
protection further reduce the probability of tank failure and soil contami-
nation. Surprisingly, dikes are not required around old or new tanks con-
taining hazardous waste.
For both new and existing surface impoundments, routine inspection of
the dike area and vegetation is required once per week and after storms.
Overtopping by wave action, overfilling, or a storm can contaminate soil
and is prevented by maintaining sufficient freeboard. At closure, any
hazardous waste must either be removed and disposed of or the impoundment
must be closed, covered, and provided with post-closure care as for a
landfill.
Emissions from a dried-up impoundment are eliminated, if the solids
are hazardous, by requirements to remove the waste and dispose of it properly
or to close the facility as a hazardous waste landfill. In addition, new
surface impoundments are required to have an impervious liner that contains
the liquid contaminant to adjacent soil. An existing facility without the
liner has a much higher probability of contaminating soil around the facility.
Both new and existing waste piles containing particulate matter subject
to wind erosion must be covered or otherwise managed to control wind disper-
sal. The waste piles must be inspected once per week and after storms,
including the proper functioning of wind controls. New waste piles not
completely enclosed to prevent liquid generation, run-on, and wind dispersal
must have a liner and a leachate collection system to control leachate
migration. Hazardous materials must be removed or secured at closure.
Again, requirements for new waste piles afford greater protection from soil
contamination by the liquid containment and removal requirements.
61
-------
For land treatment, the operator must show that the waste can be made
less hazardous or nonhazardous by degradation or reactions in or on the
soil. Wind dispersal of particulate matter must be controlled and the
facility inspected once per week.
Existing landfills must have controls for run-on and run-off of precip-
itation and must cover or otherwise control any hazardous waste subject to
wind dispersal. Bulk or containerized waste with free liquids cannot be
placed in a landfill without a liner and leachate collection system unless
free-standing liquids are removed. At closure, the site must be covered to
prevent migration, water infiltration, and erosion.
New landfills have similar requirements and, in addition, must have a
bottom liner and a leachate collection system. This requirement decreases
the probability that liquid will spread and contaminate adjacent soil.
Weekly inspections are required to detect failures in the liquid movement
and wind dispersal controls. Control of liquid movement at new and existing
landfills is a preventive measure that can effectively control the contami-
nation of soil particles subject to wind dispersal.
In summary, the recurring difference in preventive measures between
new and existing TSDF's is the more stringent control of liquid movement
for new facilities. For this reason, remedial control techniques for
fugitive particulate emissions are more likely to be needed for older
existing facilities, where soil contamination has already occurred or is
incipient.
Although operating and control measures are preventive, they do not
eliminate the possibility of soil contamination. Equipment failures and
human errors occur and can negate the best intentions in design and mainte-
nance. For example, containers, tanks, and liners can fail unexpectedly.
Transfer operations can result in leaks or spills from faulty equipment,
overfilling of tanks, loading onto a waste pile or landfill, and removal of
material from the site or from uncovered or leaking transport. The site,
its adjacent land area, and access roads can be contaminated by these
equipment or human failures. Because soil contamination cannot be prevented
absolutely at new and existing sites, fugitive emission controls may be
needed at some point in the lifetime of a TSDF.
Other options in the form of spill control or waste pretreatment are
available to minimize the probability of soil contamination and subsequent
wind dispersal. When a leak or spill occurs, absorbent material can be
used to control liquid movement, and the contaminated soil can be removed
and properly disposed of before wind dispersal occurs. Wastes can be
containerized, encapsulated, or covered to decrease fugitive emissions
during transport or unloading at the site. Pretreatment techniques, such
as detoxification, fixation, or vitrification can decrease or eliminate
soil contamination if spills do occur.
Extreme measures, such as incineration or disposal in a landfill, can
be considered as control options that would prevent fugitive emissions of
contaminated soil particles. Current research may offer more economical
62
-------
and efficient alternatives. For example, enzymatic, microbial, and other
biological degradation techniques currently are being investigated as
mechanisms for decontaminating soil.
63
-------
SECTION 7
CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS AND COST
The previous section described methods of controlling treatment,
storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF's) with emphasis on the various
control techniques. Because one technique may be used for more than one
type of site, this section describes control effectiveness and cost with
emphasis shifted to the type of source being considered.
Control effectiveness has been evaluated in different ways by different
experimenters. Some of the data were reported from high-volume air sampling,
which yields a control efficiency by reducing total suspended particulate
(TSP) matter. In a few cases, reduction in total inhalable particulate
matter also is reported. Another method reports reduction in percent silt
on the surface after treatment. The silt or fines content of the surface
material is determined by the fraction passing through a 200-mesh (74-um)
screen. This size represents the upper limit for particles that can become
airborne and thus provides insight into the surface's dust generation
potential (Cowherd, 1979). Several studies show a direct relationship
between percent silt on the surface'and total suspended particles in air.
In studies of cropland wind erosion, soil movement is measured to determine
control efficiency. Suspension is the mechanism of interest for TSDF's;
however, it is a small part of the total measured soil movement from wind
erosion that is reported in the agricultural literature. Another method
for evaluating control effectiveness is measuring the increased wind thresh-
old velocity (i.e., the wind velocity required to suspend particles from
the surface). Emissions decrease as wind threshold velocity increases for
a given surface. Entrainment velocity, the windspeed required to entrain
10 g/min of particles, can be used to measure control effectiveness. These
different measures of control efficiency are important to assess reported
control efficiencies and to compare results of different investigators.
Control efficiencies are site specific and depend upon a myriad of
variables that change with control types, emission sources, and climates.
Even for a specific site, control efficiency may vary daily because of
changes in the many variables affecting emissions. Another factor affecting
control efficiency is the uncontrolled emission rate from which the effi-
ciency is derived. The magnitude of uncontrolled emissions also varies
across types of sources, and, for a given site, may vary daily depending on
climate, surface of the source, and other factors. The major factors
affecting control efficiency are summarized in Table 9.
7.1 SUMMARY OF CONTROL EFFICIENCY
This section summarizes control efficiencies in general terms based on
published estimates and measurements in the form of ranges. When a single
64
-------
TABLE 9. FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL EFFICIENCY
Source: shape, size, composition, particle size distribution (e.g.,
percent silt), degree of compaction, surface moisture, and cohesiveness
of particles.
Climate: windspeed, direction, and frequency; temperature; precipita-
tion; and humidity.
External factors: vehicular activity (number, speed, weight, and
number of wheels), physical disturbance (digging and animals), con-
struction activity (excavating and loading onto or moving from the
source), extent and type of vegetation, and active or inactive site.
Type of control:
A. Chemicals—product type; dilution rate; application rate, method,
and frequency; time; and climate.
B. Vegetative covering—type, nutrients, extent of coverage, climate,
and external activity.
C. Windscreens—height, distance, direction, porosity, design, fea-
tures, and construction features (e.g., structural stability).
65
-------
value is used for control efficiency, the reader should note the range of
estimates from which it is derived and the potential for a higher or lower
control efficiency for a specific case, depending upon specific site con-
ditions. Control efficiencies for inhalable particles are presented when
available.
Reported control efficiencies for unpaved roads are summarized in
Table 10. Chemical stabilizers applied to unpaved roads have resulted in
reported control efficiencies of 40 to 96 percent. The PEDCo study of coal
mine haul roads, used by heavy-duty vehicles, reported control efficiencies
of 40 to 60 percent over a 1-month period from mixed-in-place and topical
applications of stabilizers. For unpaved roads used by light-duty and
heavy-duty vehicles, more frequent stabilizer applications and measurements
conducted shortly after application yielded higher control efficiencies.
These data suggest that control efficiencies of about 50 percent can be
achieved on haul roads used by heavy-duty vehicles from only monthly appli-
cations. These data also suggest that more frequent applications or appli-
cations on roads used by light- to medium-duty vehicles can achieve control
efficiencies greater than 90 percent. Cowherd et al. (1982) reported that
control efficiency decreased as the number of vehicles increased. They
also reported no significant difference between control efficiencies for
TSP's and for inhalable particles.
Wet suppression techniques for unpaved roads also provide a relatively
wide range of control efficiencies, which appears to depend upon source and
frequency of application. A control efficiency of about 50 percent is
suggested for watering unpaved roads. Control efficiency is expected to
increase with application frequency; i.e., extensive, frequent watering
yields a control efficiency greater than 50 percent. The practicality of
very frequent watering is governed by considerations of cost and water
availability. Cowherd et al. (1982) reported that watering reduced inhal-
able particles more than it reduced total suspended particles (63 versus 50
percent reduction).
An aggregate cover for the road (e.g., gravel or slag) can provide 30
to 50 percent control, whereas paving the road can reduce emissions about
85 percent. The use of civil engineering fabrics or road carpet can reduce
emissions from an unpavad road by about 45 percent. Orehmel and Daniel
(1982) reported similar control efficiencies for total suspended and inhal-
able particles (44 and 43 percent, respectively) from the use of both road
carpet and aggregate on an unpaved road.
Control efficiency data are also available for storage and waste
piles, which have been investigated extensively in recent years for control
of wind erosion and fugitive emissions. Data for chemical stabilization of
coal storage piles and mineral waste tailings in Table 11 show control
efficiencies of 75 to 100 percent. These data suggest that control effi-
ciencies approaching 100 percent are achievable for inactive piles, while
an efficiency of 75 to 90 percent from frequent applications may be more
appropriate for an active pile. Control efficiency data for watering range
from 25 to 90 percent control and are probably a function of source charac-
teristics, climate, and application frequency.
66
-------
TABLE 10. REPOHTEU CONTROL EFFICIENCIES FOR UNPAVED ROADS
Method
Efficiency,
%
Notes
Reference(s)
cn
Chemical stabilization
(Lignosulfonate)
(Arco 2200 )
(Calcium chloridn)
(Bitumens)
(Coherex )
(Liynosulfonate + Arcoat )
(Oil well brine)
(Calcium chloride)
(CaClj, + water)
(Oiling)
(Oiling) ,
(Oiling)
(Oiling)
Wet suppression
Physical cnvering
A(|i|roi|ate cover
Caving
Road carpet
50
78-86
Bb
90-95
70-96
40-60
43(25-63)
42(0-56)
47 (20-82)
66 (49-79)
94 (88-99)
89 (74-96)
94 (91-99)
60
95
50-98
70
75
85
20-70
50
25-50
97-99
40
45
55
30-50
42 (24-81)
50
30
85
80-90
99
45
Arco coal mine study
CO Department of Health
MR1 studies
TRC study
PEOCo study; 4-week average
4-week average
1-week average
4-week average
3-week average
4-week average
4-week average
4-week average
PEDCo/MRI study
CO Department of Health
MRI study
Dally application; estimate
Water 2 to 4 times/h
Water once hourly
Water twice hourly
Water twice/day, with construction
4-week average, with surfactant
With frequent cleaning
Jutze and Axetell, 1974; EPA, 1981, l
-------
iAIIH u. iirroiim) COMIIIOI KI ICIINCILS con sioitAr.t AMU WASH flits
Hi;I hi.il
Chi-iiiii .il •-,! .ili i I i/dl ion
Wl.i.lln
I iu loMirt? (mulch)
(si.HI)
(ilomi* or cover)
iv si .ilii I i /at iun
Uficiency. %
OS-93
«JU
up to 99
up lo 100
up to 94
7!>
90*
0(1
91)
2&-SO
50
no
90
30-M)
30
up lo 80
75
(.0
05
90-99
100
up Lo 100
70-99
95-90
!>()- 00
2ft
up to 100
85-100
65
90
Holes
|{efvrcnce(s)
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
lailinys
lailinys (active area)
Tailinijs (active area)
Oil on coal, plus compaction
I ixeU spray with surfactants
ISP, aclive fly ash pile
IP, active fly dill pile
Cruile estimate
Loadimj onto pile
From wind erosion
Arid conditions, sparse ve(jel
-------
Use of windscreens for storage piles has received attention by investi-
gators who have studied the optimization of windscreen design and placement.
Reported efficiencies range from 30 to 80 percent and indicate a slightly
better control efficiency for total suspended particles than for inhalable
particles (75 versus 60 percent from one study). Enclosure of the pile can
result in 85 to 100 percent control, depending upon the type and extent of
the cover. For active piles that cannot be completely enclosed, effi-
ciencies are lower.
The control efficiency of vegetative stabilization depends upon the
emission source, climate, and extent and type of vegetative cover. Effi-
ciencies on the order of 25 percent can be expected in arid areas with
sparse vegetation, whereas a dense vegetative cover may achieve efficiencies
approaching 100 percent. A range of 50 to 80 percent is recommended for a
typical vegetative cover. Combining vegetative stabilization with chemical
stabilization or physical covering decreases wind erosion and improves
control efficiency. These combined techniques can achieve a control effi-
ciency of 85 to 100 percent.
These data on control efficiencies were applied to several types of
TSDF's. Control efficiencies for various sources and controls are summarized
in Table 12. Most of the control efficiency data were from tests of unpaved
roads and waste or storage piles. Few data are available for relatively
flat sources, such as landfills; however, control techniques have been
demonstrated on croplands and for construction areas. Control efficiency
for a relatively flat, inactive source should be at least as high as that
for an inactive waste pile. For relatively flat, active sources, control
efficiency is expected to be similar to that observed for.active waste or
storage piles and unpaved roads.
Control efficiencies for inhalable particles are not presented sepa-
rately in Table 12 because few data are available. For chemical stabilizers,
Cowherd et al. (1982) found that control efficiencies for inhalable and
total suspended particles were similar. When applications are sufficiently
frequent, this observation appears reasonable because both large and small
particles are bound together or covered by a thin film.
Cowherd also reported that wet suppression by watering reduced inhalable
particles from unpaved roads by 63 percent compared to a 50-percent reduction
in total suspended particles. This observation is also plausible if small
particles are agglomerated at a higher rate than are larger particles. For
wet suppression, a 10- to 15-percent increase is recommended for inhalable
particle control from control efficiency for total suspended particles.
An impermeable cover should cover both large and s'mall particles;
therefore, the same control efficiency is recommended for both. For road
carpet, the same control efficiency was observed for both total suspended
and inhalable particles (43 to 44 percent).
Windscreens function by increasing effective threshold velocity and
are thus expected to be more efficient for larger particles, which have a
69
-------
TABLE 12. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY PERCENTAGES
Chemical
Wet
Vegetative with
physical or
chemical
Source
. Physical Vegetative
stabilization3 suppression cover cover stabilization
Vehicle
Wind-. speed
screen reduction
Active landfills,
drum storage
75-90
25-90
<85
NA
e
NA
30-80
NA
Active waste piles 75-90
25-90
<85
NA
NA
30-80
NA
Unpaved,
contaminated
roads
40-96'
50
30-859
NA
NA
NA
25-80
Closed landfills. 75-100
o lagoons, and
Impoundments
25-90
85-100 50-80
1
85-100
30-80 NA
Inactive waste piles 75-100
25-90
85-100 50-80
1
85-100
30-80 NA
Reductions in inhalable and total suspended particles are similar.
Watering reduces Inhalable particles slightly more than It reduces total suspended particles.
Reductions for road carpet were the same for total suspended and Inhalable particles.
Reductions were greater for total suspended particles than for Inhalable particles.
NA = not applicable.
An efficiency of over 90 percent appears to be achievable.
30 percent for gravel, 45 percent for road carpet, and 85 percent for paving.
"Based on reductions from an Initial speed of 64 km/h (40 mph).
Can approach 100 percent for dense vegetative cover.
g
1
-------
higher threshold velocity, than for smaller particles. One test indicates
that control efficiency for total particles is about 15 percent greater
than for inhalable Darticles. No data are available for vegetative covers;
however, the soil-binding effects of plants and the wind-sheltering effect
of the vegetative cover suggest that control of total particles is better
than control of inhalable particles. Speed reduction is also likely to
reduce total suspended particles more than it reduces inhalable particles.
7.2 APPLICABILITY AND PRACTICALITY OF CONTROLS FOR TSDF's
Several types of TSDF's with potential for fugitive particulate emis-
sions are candidates for application of control techniques discussed in
this section. These facilities include landfills, dried lagoons or closed
surface impoundments, soil around drum storage or disposal areas, contam-
inated roads, and contaminated waste piles. Controls for unpaved roads
(e.g., mine haul roads, plant roads, and public roads) and for piles (e.g.,
storage and waste piles) have been tested and demonstrated. Application of
controls to agricultural sources (e.g., flat fields and croplands), in
addition to successful application to piles with higher erosion potential,
indicates that relatively flat area sources (e.g., landfills and lagoons)
also can be controlled effectively by these techniques.
Choosing practical control options for an active site requires knowledge
of operating characteristics, emission sources to be controlled, and degree
of control required. Control options for inactive sites also apply to
inactive portions of an operating site. Therefore, closed cells of a
landfill or completed waste piles at active sites are candidates for chemi-
cal stabilization, vegetative stabilization, or physical covering. However,
these control techniques may be destroyed if applied to the active portion
of an operating site. Chemical stabilization or physical covering could
provide some unknown degree of emission control for an active area. However,
their practicability may be site specific, depending upon the required
frequency of stabilizer application or labor for placing/removing covers,
control efficiency needed, and control efficiency that could be obtained.
As with control efficiency, the practicality of a given control tech-
nique for a specific site may depend upon the site's characteristics,
required degree of control, and ultimately cost assessment associated with
control and environmental and health protection gained.
Chemical stabilization has been demonstrated as a practical emission
control option applicable to each type of TSDF- The stabilizers are usually
sprayed, which is a simple technique that covers the source uniformly.
However, the different types of chemicals offer different advantages and
disadvantages that may make one type of chemical stabilizer more or less
practical than another. For example, although deliquescent salts pull
moisture from the air and suppress dust, these salts are water soluble and
not suitable for areas with high levels of rainfall. They can be leached
from the source and may kill adjacent vegetation. Chloride salts may also
pose a corrosion problem for equipment operating on or near the source.
Similarly, lignosulfonates are excellent binders but are also water soluble
71
-------
with disadvantages similar to salts in wet areas. These facts imply that
-salts and 1ignosulfonates may be practical control options for relatively
dry areas and impractical for areas with a high incidence of rainfall.
Courtney (1983) examined meteorological data to determine where dust
suppressants strongly affected by rainfall are practical. He listed the 10
driest (most suitable) States by decreasing dryness as California, Montana,
Nevada, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, Utah, Oregon, and Idaho.
The 10 wettest (most unsuitable) States by decreasing wetness are Alabama,
Mississippi, Arkansas, New Hampshire, Kentucky, Georgia, Missouri, Tennessee,
Louisiana, and South Carolina.
The efficiency of other chemical stabilizers, such as elastomeric or
latex polymers and asphalt emulsions, is also influenced by rainfall, but
to a lesser extent than the water-soluble stabilizers. These types of
stabilizers may be more suitable for areas with relatively high levels of
rainfal1.
Oiling is a demonstrated, generally practical, and effective control
option for various types of emission sources. However, several factors for
a specific site may make it an impractical control option: oil availability;
potential for contaminants in the oil, runoff, leachate generation, or
solubilization of contaminants from the soil; increased hydrocarbon emissions;
and cost. Potential environmental effects of used oil are unknown—EPA has
issued an advisory circular warning of resultant skin cancer in laboratory
mice from used oil.
In general, chemical stabilization appears to be a practical control
option for most types of sites, although a particular type of chemical
stabilizer may be more suitable than the others for a specific site.
Wet suppression techniques, such as spraying with water, are a demon-
strated control option that may be practical for some emission sources.
For example, fixed sprays on coal storage piles, watering of construction
areas, and wetting of unpaved roads have been used routinely in the past.
Application of the suppressant by spraying is simple and covers the source
uniformly. Wet suppression techniques are potentially applicable to all
types of TSDF's.
Wet suppression may be impractical in extremely dry areas with little
available water or in arid areas requiring frequent or continuous applica-
tion to maintain effectiveness. Watering of contaminated soil may spread
the contaminants to adjacent soil, increase leachate generation, or contam-
inate surface water. Wet suppression methods may also be impractical when
a high level of continuous emission control is desired. Wet suppression
techniques have a short-lived effectiveness estimated at about 50 percent
for unpaved roads. Surfactants can be used to extend water and to improve
surface wetting. If surfactants are used on contaminated soil, the user
should consider the potential for enhanced solubility of organics in the
liquid phase and the spread of contaminants to uncontaminated soil or
water.
72
-------
Physical covering of the emission source is a practical control option
most effective for inactive sites. For example, old landfills, lagoons,
and waste piles can be covered completely with a compacted clay cap, soil,
slag, or synthetic cover that essentially eliminates fugitive particulate
emissions. For active sites, partial or daily covers can be used to minimize
emissions; however, corresponding control efficiency is lower than that of
a complete cover. Covers also have been used on unpaved roads in the form
of road carpet, gravel, or paving. Physical covering is a demonstrated
control technique in which practicality is-governed by type of cover and
its cost. The type of cover for a specific site must.be selected consider-
ing local availability of cover materials, site characteristics such as
shape and size, active or inactive use, and desired control level.
Vegetative covers have been demonstrated as a practical control option
for fields, croplands, and waste piles. For TSDF's, vegetative covers are
a practical option for inactive sites; however, disruption and damage to
the vegetative covers make them impractical for active sites. Vegetative
covers have been recommended for the final cover of closed landfills,
lagoons, and impoundments to minimize water erosion and infiltration through
the cap. Wind erosion control is an additional benefit. Vegetative stabil-
ization coupled with either chemical stabilization or physical covering is
also a practical and more efficient control option.
Vegetative covers are obviously impractical for roads and facilities
undergoing construction and for sources that cannot support plant life
because of salts, heavy metals, or other site-specific characteristics
affecting germination and growth. In arid areas, the vegetative covering
may be too sparse to be effective and practical. Another consideration is
the potential for uptake of contaminants by plants and potential for distri-
bution of contaminants through the food chain.
Windscreens have been used to decrease wind erosion and may be a
practical control option for some sites, with successful use demonstrated
for flat fields and conical storage piles. A disadvantage is that their
control efficiency is limited and may be unacceptably low for a source
requiring a high degree of control. Windscreens may be impractical for
very large area sources and very high conical sources because of the size
required and potential construction and stability problems.
Vehicle speed reduction can be a practical control option for unpaved,
contaminated public roads or access roads. As a control option, speed
reduction alone may not be sufficient because of its low control efficiency.
However, speed reduction coupled with another control option may be a
low-cost and practical means to further decrease particulate emissions.
7.3 COST ESTIMATES FOR CONTROL TECHNIQUES
This section summarizes cost estimates for the control techniques
discussed in the preceding sections. The most reliable cost estimates in
the literature are probably those describing a technique that actually has
been applied and evaluated for a specific site. Estimates for sites derived
73
-------
by chance may not account for all site-specific features that could signifi-
cantly affect costs.
One factor affecting costs is the operator's decision either to purchase
or rent the necessary capital equipment. For example, a permanent site
such as an iron and steel plant may choose to install storage tanks for
chemical stabilizers because of frequent applications and high-volume use
of the stabilizer. Other sites that require infrequent applications, such
as monthly spraying of waste piles, may find it more economical to use drum
storage and rented equipment.
Site preparation (e.g., regrading and compaction), accessibility, and
size can also significantly affect costs. Other cost factors include
extent of monitoring and maintenance required, expected life of the control
and site, interest rates, location, climate, and choice of product and
supplier for a given control technique. Some of these variations are
represented by a range of costs provided in the following sections of
general discussion.
The cost information provided in this section is based primarily on
1983 to 1984 dollars. The date associated with the reference generally
provides the year in which cost estimates or data were derived.
Chemical stabilization techniques have been used widely on unpaved
roads, waste piles, and croplands; consequently, information is available
in the literature on material costs, dilution ratios, application rates,
and application costs. For TSDF's, the cost analysis concentrates on
annual costs. A large source that requires frequent applications may
choose to invest capital to save on long-term rental charges. For example,
an integrated iron and steel plant invested $100,000 (installed cost in
1980) in a distribution truck and storage tanks to control emissions from
unpaved plant roads (Cowherd et al., 1982). In 1980, the extent of treat-
ment was 1,630 miles with an annual operating and maintenance cost of
$287,000. For smaller sources that require applications less frequently
than on unpaved roads, monthly equipment rental and drum storage may be a
more economical alternative. For example, inactive waste piles may require
only monthly or less frequent applications. Other TSDF's may have a limited
operating life, which also affects the choice of equipment purchases or
rental. The cost analysis for waste piles and area sources focuses primarily
on annual costs and equipment rental because of the expected characteristics
of limited size, finite operating life, and relatively infrequent applica-
tions (compared to unpaved roads).
Basic costs for chemical stabilization include the chemical's material
and shipping costs, spray equipment rental, and labor for application.
Rosbury (1984) compiled a list of various stabilizers, recommended dilution
and application rates, and recommended material costs. Based upon these
recommended application rates and costs, material costs per unit of source
area were derived in Table 13.
74
-------
TABLE 13. MATERIAL COSTS FOR CHEMICAL STABILIZERS
(Rosbury, 1984)
Type
$/m2
$/yd2
Typical stabilizers
Bitumens
Adhesives
0.026-0.094 0.022-0.078 Coherex , Docal 1002 ,
0.20-0.80
0.012-0.12
0.12-0.82
Lignosulfonates 0.017-0.025
Salts
0.06-0.13
Petro Tac P
®
®
®
®
0.17-0.67 AMS 2200, Peneprime, Resinex,
Retain
®
®
0.01-0.10 Acrylic DLR-MS, Biocat 300,
Cunasol AK®, DCL-1801®, Dust
Bond 100 , Orzan , Soil Sement ,
Terra Tac®, Weslig 120®
0.10-0.68 CPB-12®, Dust Ban®, Dustbinder
124®, Rezosol 5411- B*. SP-301®,
Soil Card®, SoiHex®, Suferm®
0.014-0.021 Flambinder , Lignosite ,
IS\
Woodchem LS
0.05-0.11 CaCl2, MgCl2
TABLE 14. RENTAL COST FOR SPRAY EQUIPMENT
(Means, 1984)
Description
Rental cost ($/day)'
Emulsion sprayer, 65 gal, 5-hp engine
Emulsion sprayer, 200 gal, 5-hp engine
Water tank truck, engine-driven discharge, 5,000 gal
Water tank truck, engine-driven discharge, 10,000 gal
17
34
225
325
Includes overhead, profit, and operating cost (excluding labor).
75
-------
Costs in Table 13 reflect the wide range in material costs. Approxi-
mately 20 products listed by Rosbury cost $0.012/m2 to $0.12/m2, and about
13 products cost ?0.12/m2 to $0.82/m2. The material cost of bitumens,
lignosulfonates, and salts, which are demonstrated fugitive dust controls,
cost $0.02/m2 to about $0.13/m2 per application.
Costs for equipment rental and labor were obtained from Means's Build-
ing Construction Cost Data (1984). For topical application of the stabil-
izer, some type of spray equipment is required. The size of the site to be
stabilized dictates in part the required capacity of the spray equipment.
For example, a waste pile with 0.1 acre of exposed surface requires about
242 gallons of Coherex solution, whereas a 100-acre site could require
242,000 gallons of the solution (at an application rate of 0.5 gal/yd2).
Some typical rental costs for spray equipment are given in Table 14.
Labor costs cited in Means (1984) are $21.95/h for common building
laborers and $22.60/h for truck drivers, including fringe benefits, overhead,
and profit. The labor required depends strongly on the site's size and the
quantity of stabilizer to be applied. An example cost estimate is provided
in Table 15 for two sites ranging in size from 0.1 to 100 acres. An esti-
mated material cost of $0.13/m2 is used and was obtained from the range
discussed for stabilizers ($0.02/m2 to $0.13/m2, excluding shipping). For
the 0.1-acre site, it was assumed that one person would be required for
1 day to apply the stabilizer. A significant portion of this person's time
would be in equipment preparation and cleanup, in addition to spraying.
For larger sites, larger equipment can be used with the advantage of saving
on labor costs. Li et al. (1983) estimated that a 100-acre site could be
sprayed by a single operator in an 8-hour period. However, it was not
clear whether his estimate included loading and mixing time. The example
in Table 15 assumes that two persons, one truck driver and one spray opera-
tor, would be required with a total of about 8 hours for spraying and about
8 hours for filling the tank truck several times. For the small site
application costs are labor intensive, while material cost dominates large
applications. This example illustrates the site-specific nature of the
costs and implies that the choice of stabilizer and its cost most signifi-
cantly affect total application cost for a large site.
Estimates in Table 15 are crude and do not account for site-specific
factors that may increase total costs. Cost estimates were provided by
Bohn and Johnson (1983) for stabilizing active waste piles and are given in
Table 16 along with estimates from other sources for comparison. Bohn and
Johnson performed emission testing at the Minnesota site and, because of
their direct knowledge of the site's characteristics, their cost estimate
should be more accurate for the site than for the example. Their estimates
are also useful because a control efficiency is associated with each cost.
For 90+ percent control, Bohn and Johnson's estimate yields a cost per
application of $lll/acre to $230/acre for latex, S93/acre to $225/acre for
lignosulfonate, $159/acre to $227/acre for petroleum resin, and S525/acre
to $l,590/acre for magnesium chloride. Bohn and Johnson's estimates were
for a 3-month period when wind erosion is greatest and were converted to an
annual basis by multiplying by 4. Because less frequent applications may
76
-------
TABLE 15. EXAMPLE OF STABILIZER COSTS
Estimated cost
per application
Cost element
Material cost:
Labor: 8 h @
32 h @
$0.13/m2
$23/h
$23/h
0.1 acre
53
184
100 acres
53,000
736
Equipment: (200 gal) $34/day for 1 day 34
(10,000 gal) $325/day for 2 days ~ 650
Total, $ 271 54,400
$/m2 0.67 0.13
$/acre 2,710 544
al acre = 4,047 m2.
1 day minimum for rental.
77
-------
CO
Cos I,
IVt ro Iriuii res jtl
I. igmisul lunate
I .ill!*
M.iiinrs iiim chloride
i'5i
ClifiiLli.il stahi I iiur
Salts
0 i I UlllC-llb
Units
IAIHI 16. COS IS TOR ClltMICAt SIAIIII I7.AT ION
Notes
Appl ications
deference
1
2
1
1
,700-2.040
.540'?. 720
520- /44
.120-1,800
744-700
.600-1,1100
BUO- 1,040
12.700
4.200
b47
71-J.430
242-532
106-370
B23-3.240
68- 102
4B-4BO
480-3,290
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acre/yr
acrc/appl i cat ion
acre/appl Station
acre/application
acre/appl leal ion
acre/appl icalion
acre/appl icalion
acre/appl icat ion
acr«/appl ication
/!) percent control
90< percent control
7b percent control
7L percent control
90* percent control
90* percent control
00' percent control
90i percent control
90> percent control
for waste
lor waste
for waste
for waste
for waste
for waste
for waste
for waste
for waste
piles in MN
piles in MN
piles in MN
piles in Ur/WY
piles in MN
piles in Uf/WY
piles in
piles in
piles in
MN
MN
UI/WY
Based on 100- acre site
Based on 0.07-acre
Material cost only,
Material cost only.
Material cost only.
Material cost only.
Material cost only.
Material cost only.
site
excluding
exc 1 ud ing
excluding
excluding
excluding
excluding
shipping
shipping
shipping
shipping
shipping
shipping
0-12
12-16
B
0
fl-12
B- 12
B
a
a
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
Bohn and
Bohn and
Bohn and
Bohn and
Bohn and
Uohn and
Uolin and
Bohn and
Uohn and
Li ct al
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson.
Johnson,
. . 1903
1983
1903
19!I3
1903
191)3
1903
1983
1903
19113
Vogel and O'Sullivan, 1903
Rosbiiry.
Rnshury,
Koshury ,
Roshury ,
Rosliury ,
Roshury ,
1904
19R4
1904
1904
1904
19B4
-------
be required for the other 9 months, costs in Table 16 may be somewhat
overstated on an annual basis.
Physical covers such as synthetic materials, soil, slag, or mulch can
be placed over the fugitive emission source as a dust control. Costs from
the literature are summarized in Table 17. Most of the synthetic covers
listed by Rosbury include only the material cost and range from $0.90/m2 to
$5.40/m2. The cost of installation labor (including fringe benefits and
overhead) is estimated by Means (1984) as about $0.26/m2; however, this
cost does not account for any site-specific problems (e.g., accessibility
or source shape) that may increase labor costs. Data provided by Rosbury
(1984), Means (1984), and Li et al. (1983) indicate that simple installation
of a synthetic cover ranges from about $l/m2 to $6/m2.
Vogel and 0'Sullivan's (1983) estimate of $13/m2 to $32/m2 for a
synthetic cover was derived for covering the liquid surface of a surface
impoundment. The higher installed costs (compared to the other references)
are due to seam sealing with adhesives instead of thermal sealing, use of a
thick membrane, and use of a lining membrane as well as a cover membrane.
This study was more concerned with control of volatile vapor emissions than
with fugitive particulate emissions.
The estimate of $43/m2 to $65/m2 from Vogel and 0'Sullivan was for a
synthetic cover over an active waste pile. Tension cables are used for
support and allow the pile to be in active use. In addition, an auger feed
system is used to place wastes on the pile under the cover or to remove
wastes from the covered pile. Vogel's estimate for a dome includes construc-
tion of a structure, similar to those used by highway departments for
storage of salt, that would cover an entire waste pile.
The foam system listed in Table 17 is a urea-methylene complex that is
applied as a liquid that dries and hardens. Vogel and 0'Sullivan (1983)
stated that the foam would provide an effective dust cover and could be
used on parts of an active landfill. Material and application labor cost
was estimated as $2.15/m2. Equipment for applying the foam costs around
$4,000.
Estimates for a soil cover provided by Li et al. and by Vogel and •
0'Sullivan differ, with Vogel's 1-inch cover costing about the same as Li's
6-inch cover. Cost data from Means (1984) were used to generate another
estimate for comparison and indicate that Vogel's higher estimates are
probably more accurate. For example, the equivalent of about 2 in. of soil
is required to obtain a minimum 1-in. thickness after grading (at the
thinnest point) and would require 269 ydVacre. For locally available
material that is moved 1,000 to 2,000 ft by a self-propelled scraper, the
cost is $1.15/yd3 to $1.43/yd3 or a total of $309/acre to $384/acre (Means,
1984). For locally purchased material hauled 2 to 5 mi by truck, total
cost is $4.91/yd3 to $6.36/yd3 or $l,320/acre to $l,700/acre (Means, 1984).
Capital costs, listed in Table 17, must be annualized over the life of
the control technique and added to annual operating costs to determine
79
-------
TABLE 17. COSTS FOR COVERS
Type
Env i romal
(u)
Gagle liner
Oi)
Mi rat i fabrics
Supac 5NP (UV)®
Jute mush
(Mastic netting
Polypropylene mesh
Enkamat
Polypropylene
lit)
co Cur lex' blanket
o
foam (hardened)
Synthetic cover
Dome cover
So i 1 cover
Mulch cover
Slay cover-
Cost, $
5.40
4.80-6.00
1.08-1.44
0.90
1.02
0.66
2.24
4.20
0.36
0.60
2.15
43-65
13-32
46,000
80,000
361
380
2,260
1,500
9 , 100
800
57-73
156-168
Unit
in2
m2
m2
m2
m*
m2
m2
m2
in2
m2
m2
m2
m2
each
each
acre
acre
acre
acre
acre
acre
acre
acre
Notes
Material cost only
Includes installation
Material cost only
Material cost only
Includes overhead, profit, and installation
Includes overhead, profit, and installation
Includes overhead, profit, and installation
Material cost only
Material cost only
Material cost only
2- inch layer, material plus labor, add $4,000 for equipment
Includes installation, tension cables, auger feed system
Includes installation of simple cover only
installed, 50-foot diameter, 664-ton capacity
Installed, 100-foot diameter, 4,650-ton capacity
6-inch soil cover, local material
1-inch cover, local material
1-inch cover, purchased soil
6- inch cover, local soil
6- inch cover, purchased soil
Locally available
Transported
Reference
Rosbury, 1984
Rosbury, 1984
Rosbury, 1984
Rosbury, 1984
Means, 1984
Means, 1984
Means, 1984
Li et al. , 1983
Li et al. , 1983
Li et al. , 1983
Vogel , 1983
Voqel , 1983
Vogel, 1983
Voqel , 1983
Vogel, 1983
Li et al. , 1983
Vogel, 1983
Voqel, 1983
Voqel, 1983
Vogel , 1983
Rosbury, 1984
EPA, 1982b
EPA, 1982b
-------
total annualized control cost. Very few data are available for the expected
lifetime of these controls. For synthetic covers, Li et al. (1983) used an
estimated lifetime of 5 years. Operating costs are also difficult to
determine and induce repairs, inspection, and general maintenance. Li
et al. (1983) estimated 1 person-shift per month for inspection, data
collection, and minor repairs. Example cases are given in Table 18 based
on assumptions of 5-year and 10-year lifetimes and an interest rate of 10
percent. Depending upon the cover life, the sophistication of the cover
system, and whether in active or inactive use, costs in the example range
from about $4,000/yr to $37,000/yr.
Costs for vegetative stabilization depend strongly upon site prepara-
tion requirements and seeding method. Typical costs are provided in Table 19
For a site that requires fine grading, the cost is about $1.67/m2 or $6,8007
acre. For large areas that support vegetation and require no fine grading,
hydraulic seeding can be used at a cost of $0.38/m2 to $0.44/m2 or $1,5007
acre to $l,800/acre. Aerial seeding of large sites offers the lowest cost
application at $430/acre to $715/acre. For a site that requires topsoil to
establish vegetation, costs in Table 19 indicate that removing topsoil from
a nearby site and spreading it could add $5.45/m3 for the topsoil, or about
$0.55/m2 for a 4-in. (0.1-m) layer. Purchased topsoil increases the cost
by $1.88/m2.
Some example costs for vegetative stabilization are given in Table 20.
Annual operating costs for a site after the vegetation has been established
are expected to be small. Some sites may require periodic maintenance,
such as water erosion control, reseeding, or adding fertilizer. Initial
capital costs must be annualized over the expected life of the vegetative
cover or the life of the site, whichever is shorter. These annualized
capital costs are added to the annual operating costs to determine total
annualized cost. Operating costs are determined by the specific site's
requirements and should be estimated based on knowledge of site character-
istics and degree of monitoring and maintenance expected for a particular
vegetative cover at a particular site.
Windscreens placed around a source or perpendicular to the direction
of the prevailing wind decrease the wind velocity behind the screen and
reduce fugitive 'emissions. The major cost associated with windscreens is
the initial installed capital cost. Few data are available for the expected
lifetime of the screen, which can significantly affect the estimate of
annualized cost. Li et al. (1983) used an estimated lifetime of 10 years,
which is assumed in this analysis.
Some typical costs for windscreens are provided in Table 21. Rosbury's
costs represent material costs only, whereas Vogel's costs include installa-
tion. For comparison, installation costs were extracted from Means (1984)
for chain link fence (2 to 3 meters high) with a range of about $7 to $12
per linear meter. Adding this installation cost to Rosbury's range of
material cost yields an installed cost range of $14 to $22 per linear meter
for a 2-meter-high fence. Vogel's estimate is about twice this derived
cost and can be attributed to a higher material cost (about $22 per linear
81
-------
TABLE 18. EXAMPLE COSTS FOR SYNTHETIC COVERS
Case 1 Inactive waste pile, area = 2,023 m2 (0.5 acre).
Assume operating cost is 8 h/mo for inspection; minor repairs
at $23/h = $2,200/yr.
Installed capital cost = $6/m2 = $12,100.
Annualized cost of capital (5-yr life) = $3,190 (@ 10%).
Annualized cost of capital (10-yr life) = $1,970 (@ 10%).
Annual cost3 (5-yr life) = $5,390/yr * $2.66/m2/yr.
Annual cost3 (10-yr life) = $4,170/yr = $2.06/m2/yr.
Case 2 Active waste pile, area = 2,023 m2 (0.5 acre).
Use $2,200/yr for operating cost above the usual operating cost
of an active waste pile. Cover with synthetic cover, tension
cables, and install an auger feed system at $43/m2 to $65/m2.
Capital cost = $87,000 to $131,000.
Annualized cost of capital (5-yr life) = $23,000 to $34,600.
Annualized cost of capital (10-yr life) = $14,200 to $21,401.
Annualized cost of capital (20-yr life) = $10,200 to $15,400.
Annual cost3 (5-yr life) = $25,200 to $36,800/yr.
Annual cost3 (10-yr life) = $16,400 to $23,500/yr.
Annual cost (20-yr life) = $12,400 to $17,600/yr.
alncludes annual operating costs.
82
-------
TABLE 19. COSTS FOR VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION
(Means, 1984)
Item
Total cost
Fine grading and seeding, including lime, fertilizer, $1.67/m2
seed, and equipment
Hydraulic seeding for large areas, including seed and $0.38/m2
fertilizer
Hydraulic seeding described above plus wood fiber mulch $0.44/m2
Aerial operations, seeding only $430/acre
Aerial operations, seed and liquid fertilizer $715/acre
Remove and stockpile topsoil $1.49/m3
Spread topsoil from pile $3.96/m3
Furnish and place topsoil, 4 in. deep $1.88/m2
Includes materials, equipment, labor, overhead, and profit.
TABLE 20. EXAMPLES OF SEEDING COSTS
(Means, 1984)
Case 1 Grade and seed 405 m2 (0.1 acre) at $1.67/m2.
Total cost = $676
For 4 in. of local topsoil, add $0.55/m2.
Total cost = $900
Case 2 Seed and fertilize 1-acre waste pile by hydraulic seeding.
Include wood fiber mulch.
Total cost = $0.44/m2 = $1,800
Case 3 Aerial seeding, with fertilizer, of 100-acre site.
Total cost = $715/acre = $71,500
83
-------
TABLE 21. COSTS FOR WINDSCREENS
Item
Cost
Reference
Dusttamer windscreen
Polyester windscreen
Polyester windscreen
Polyester windscreen
Polyester windscreen
Annualized cost,
windscreen
Fence installation
$6.80 to $9.70/1inear meter
(material only)
$42.70/1inear meter installed
(height = 1.8 m)
$21.50/m2 to $26.90/m2 total area,
installed3
$4,000 for 3-m fence around 0.07-
acre pile
$10.76/m2 (material cost only)
$300/acre/yr (100-acre site,
10-yr life)
$7.15/1inear meter (height = 2 m,
industrial chain link)
$11.70/linear meter (height = 3 m,
residential chain link)
Rosbury, 1984
Vogel and
O1Sullivan, 1983
Vogel and
0'Sullivan, 1983
Vogel and
0'Sullivan, 1983
Vogel, 1984
Li et al., 1983
Means, 1984
Means, 1984
Includes mounting hardware, post erection, and installation.
b.
Excludes material"cost.
84
-------
meter for a 2-meter height vs. about $10 per linear meter from Rosbury) and
an installation cost about twice that derived from Means (1984). Obviously,
the choice of materials and site-specific installation costs can significantly
affect total installed cost.
Vogel and 0'Sullivan (1983) estimated that the installed capital cost
for a 3-meter windscreen around a small waste pile (0.07 acre) would be
$4,000. For a 10-yr lifetime and a 10-percent interest rate, annualized
capital cost is $652/yr. Assuming operating costs are 8 h/mo in labor at
$23/h, total annualized cost for this site would be about $2,900/yr.
Wet suppression techniques use water or water plus a surfactant and
frequent applications to achieve fugitive dust control. The cost of this
technique depends upon the availability of water at the site and the type
of application system used. An estimate for site access roads receiving
4 L/m2 of water daily is $365/acre-yr (EPA, 1982b). Li et al. (1983)
estimated the cost for watering a 100-acre waste pile in Wyoming as $9427
acre-yr. Rosbury (1983) estimated the cost of watering haul roads to be
$95/h. He assumed that wetting a 1-mi section of 50-ft wide road required
0.15 h (9 min). This yields a cost of $14.25/mi per application or, on an
area basis, $2.35/acre per application. For an area source with no traffic,
watering once or twice per day on 270 dry days during the year would cost
$635/acre-yr to $l,270/acre-yr.
For a site with a projected life of several years, the operator may
choose to install a permanent sprinkler system. These costs are listed in
Table 22 and are total installed capital costs. An automatic sprinkler
system, including pump, for a 1-acre (4,047-m2) site costs about $11,000.
If the operator does not have a source of water available and must dig a
well 30 to 55 meters deep, the well and pump installation cost on the order
of $2,300 to $4,600.
Control costs for fugitive emissions from unpaved roads have been
reported in the literature by several investigators and are summarized in
Table 23. These estimates are likely to be more representative of true
costs than a crude estimate would be because actual sites, controls, effi-
ciency, and costs were evaluated on a site-specific basis.
Rosbury (1983) investigated dust control on coal mine haul roads used
by heavy duty equipment. For a 50-percent control from monthly applications,
he estimated a cost of $70,000/mi-yr to $107,000/mi-yr for adhesive stabil-
izers and about $50,000/mi-yr for topical applications of salt. In contrast,
estimates derived from tests conducted by Cowherd et al. (1982) and Russell
and Caruso (1983) predict about 90 percent control from a Coherex solution
applied more frequently to unpaved roads in iron and steel plants. The
derived costs of $43,000/mi-yr to $65,000/mi-yr are slightly lower than
Rosbury's cost and have a higher estimated control efficiency (probably due
to differences in traffic count, vehicle weight, speed, and road width).
Cost estimates for calcium chloride from State highway departments are
also lower than Rosbury1s estimate, with a range of $20,800/mi-yr to $38,100/
85
-------
TABLE 22. COSTS FOR WET SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
1. Sprinkler system (King, 1983): heavy-duty system, 18 to 28 m2
covered per head, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe and fittings,
including trenching, overhead, and profit
Area covered (m2) $/m2 .
Less than 465 2.58
465 to 929 2.26
Over 929 2.10
Add 25 percent for automatic system
Sprinkler pump (Means, 1984) 37 to 68 gal/min, 15-ft lift, add
$305 to $605
2. Wells (Means, 1984)
Well installation, drilled and cased (4- to 6-in. diameter) $46.60/m
(S-in. diameter) $59.90/m
Well pumps: well depth to 100 ft, 144/gal/h to 1,110 gal/h $895 to $995
well depth to 180 ft, 102/gal/h to 1,356 gal/h $1,325
Above includes material, installation, overhead, and profit
3. Water truck rental (Means, 1984)
Engine-driven discharge, 5,000 gal $225/day
Engine-driven discharge, 10,000 gal $325/day
86
-------
TABLE 23. COSTS OF CONTROLS FOR UNPAVEO ROADS
CD
Type
Salt, mixed
Salt, topical
Adhesive
Adhesive
PS- 300® oil
Standard8 Dust oil
Oil
Emulsified asphalt
Oil
Calcium chloride
Coherex®
Coherex8
Watering
Gravel
Paving
Road carpet
Cost, $
102,000
49,800
70,000
107,000
3,200
4,600-9,500
5,950
2,000
10,700
20.800
38,100
43,000
65,000
108,000
41,400
62,800
14.25
5,000-9,200
13,000-17,000
9,700
Unit
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/application
mi/application
mi/application
mi/application
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/application
mi/yr
mi/yr
mi/yr
Notes
50 percent control, heavy-duty traffic, coal mine in East
50 percent control, heavy-duty traffic, coal mine in West
50 percent control, heavy-duty traffic, coal mine in East
50 percent control, heavy-duty traffic, coal mine in West
Includes annual road maintenance
For roads in North Dakota
For roads in Virginia
Steel plant roads, light-duty traffic, 90 percent control
88 to 99 percent (average 91 percent) control, steel
plant road
50 percent control, heavy-duty coal mine traffic
In West Virginia
In Arizona
0. 15 h to water 1 mi at cost of $95/h
Assumes 5-yr life, 10 percent interest, 25- ft width
Applications
12
12
12
12
1
1
1
1
230
12 •
6,240
Dry days
Dry days
1
1
Assumes 10- to 20-yr life, 10 percent interest, 25- ft width 1
43 percent control, includes aggregate on carpet
1
Reference
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Cooper et al. 1979
Cooper et al. 1979
Cooper et al. 1979
Cooper et al. 1979
EPA, 1982b
Cooper et al. 1979
Cooper et al. 1979
Cowherd et al., 19B2a
Russell and Caruso, 19B3a
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Cooper et al. , 1979
Cooper et al. , 1979
Rosbury and Zimmer, 1983
Means, 1984a
Means. 19B4a
Levene and Drehmel , 1981a
Derived from information contained in the reference.
-------
mi-yr. Similarly, watering unpaved State roads costs $41,000/mi-yr to
$63,000/mi-yr compared to Rosbury's estimate of $108,000/mi-yr. Note the
high frequency of watering required for the coal mine haul roads used by
heavy-duty vehicles in Rosbury's estimate. The cost of oil for dust control
ranges from $2,000/mi to $9,500/mi per application. Assuming monthly
applications are required, associated annual costs for oiling are $24,0007
mi-yr to $114,000/mi-yr.
Paving can reduce emissions from unpaved roads by 85 percent or more.
The basic cost elements (Means, 1984) -are preparation and rolling of the
sub-base ($0.74/yd2), fine grading of the area to be paved ($0.43/yd2), and
3 in. of bituminous paving ($6.15/yd2) for a total installed capital cost
of $7.32/yd2. For a road width of 25 ft, the capital cost is about
$107,000/mi. Assuming a lifetime of 10 years and an interest rate of 10
percent (capital recovery factor = 0.163), the annualized cost of the
capital investment is $17,4QO/mi-yr. For a 20-yr lifetime, the annualized
cost of the capital is about $13,000/mi-yr.
Adding gravel or other aggregate material to the dusty road surface
also reduces fugitive emissions. Costs for adding gravel (material plus
installation) range from $1.31/yd2 for 3 in. to $2.37/yd2 for 6 in. (Means,
1S84). Total installed capital cost, excluding surface preparation, ranges
from $19,000/mi to $35,000/mi for a 25-ft-wide road. Based upon a lifetime
of 5 yr and 10 percent interest (capital recovery factor = 0.264), the
gravel's annualized cost is $5,000/mi-yr to $9,200/mi-yr. For a 10-yr
life, the cost reduces to $3,100/mi-yr to $5,700/mi-yr-
The use of a geotextile fabric or road carpet on unpaved roads reduces
emissions by about 43 percent. The cost is estimated as about $9,700/mi-yr
(Levene and Drehmel, 1981).
In this section, costs for various control techniques are applied to
the example TSOF's to generate a range of costs for each type. The types
of sites considered are a 40-acre landfill, a dried lagoon (1 acre), a
contaminated drum storage area (0.1 acre), an unpaved road (1 km), and a
waste pile (1.8 acres). Each of these sites is described in greater detail
in Section 8.
Several assumptions are required to derive the cost estimates. Exam-
ples are presented assuming the site is inactive, and other cases of a
partially active site are presented for comparison. For example, the
40-acre landfill can be a facility no longer receiving waste or it could
have a small portion in active use with the remainder of the site inactive.
Very few data are available for the expected lifetime of several of
the control techniques. For covers of synthetic materials exposed to
weathering, expected lifetimes of 5 to 10 years are used. A lifetime of 10
to 20 years is assumed for vegetative stabilization; however, longer life-
times are possible if the vegetation is well established and thrives under
the existing conditions of climate and nutrients. For chemical stabiliza-
tion and »vet suppression, costs are assumed to be incurred primarily as
88
-------
annual operating costs. Rented sprayers and receipt in drums are assumed
for chemical stabilization instead of a capital investment in storage tanks
(for bulk receipts) and in spray equipment.
Monitoring and maintenance costs are difficult to estimate because
precise requirements cannot be identified for each source and control
technique. The monitoring and maintenance cost of interest is the increase
in cost to the operator for monitoring and maintaining the site after
control is implemented. As discussed in Section 6, CFR Title 40, Parts 264
and 265 for TSDF's already require monitoring and maintenance by the opera-
tor, independent of application of a specific control technique for fugitive
particulate emissions. For this reason, it is possible that the personnel
used for monitoring and maintenance before a control is applied also could
perform this function after a control technique is implemented. Implement-
ing a control technique may actually decrease maintenance costs at a specific
site. For example, vegetative covers or chemical stabilization may provide
additional water erosion control with a corresponding savings in the cost
of remedial actions to correct water erosion problems. Therefore, the
monitoring and maintenance costs after control in this analysis are assumed
to be about the same as the monitoring and maintenance costs before control.
If specific information is available for additional monitoring and mainte-
nance requirements at a particular site for a given control, these costs
should be included in the annualized costs.
Results of these assumptions are that the costs of control techniques
requiring frequent applications, such as chemical stabilization and wet
suppression, are primarily annual operating costs. Controls such as covers,
windscreens, and vegetative stabilization have significantly longer lifetimes
and are treated as an installed capital cost. Annual ized costs for these
techniques are derived from annualizing the cost of capital over the assumed
life of the control at an interest rate of 10 percent per year. Annualized
capital cost is estimated by multiplying installed capital cost by the
capital recovery factor that is determined by the life of the control and
interest rate. Where a more appropriate lifetime or interest rate is
available, annualized capital cost should be adjusted correspondingly.
Estimated control costs for a 40-acre landfill are given in Table 24.
The first estimate for chemical stabilization assumes that part of the site
is in active use and the balance is inactive. The cost is based on Bonn's
study of controls for large active waste piles in Minnesota, which projected
that 90-i- percent control could be obtained from applications of approximately
once per month during the wind erosion season. This cost was adjusted for
12 months instead of 3 months of control to account for year-round control.
This cost may be biased high for two reasons: (1) less frequent applications
may be required for the other 9 months, and (2) the percent of a landfill's
total area that is active may be less than the percent of Bonn's wastepiles
that were active. The second case assumes that the entire landfill area is
inactive and that the absence of surface disturbances will result in less
frequent applications of the stabilizer.
89
-------
Costs for a synthetic film or foam cover are for the inactive portions
of the site and are based on an assumed life of 5 to 10 years. These
controls are not applicable for the active portion because operating equip-
ment or waste placement would destroy their integrity. The option of
covering with a soil layer also assumes a 5- to 10-year life; however, this
life can be quite variable depending upon the extent of wind and water
erosion. Soil covers may provide partial control at the active portion of
the sites if a soil layer is added daily to cover the wastes. Also note
that for liquid wastes, the soil cover may become contaminated and subject
to wind dispersal after liquid absorption, adsorption, or capillary action.
The first case in Table 24 for vegetative stabilization assumes that
adding a soil cover is already a part of routine operation or that the
waste material supports vegetative growth without additional soil. The
second case assumes that topsoil must be added to establish vegetation.
This control is applicable only to inactive sites. The case for wet sup-
pression first assumes that watering is used for only a small active portion
and that some other technique is used for the balance of the site; The
second case assumes the entire site must be watered periodically.
Estimated control costs for a dried lagoon are presented in Table 25.
The site is inactive and can be controlled by one of several available
techniques. A physical cover may be used to provide efficiencies approaching
100 percent. For long-term control and an efficiency less than 100 percent,
vegetative stabilization, perhaps combined with chemical 'stabilization, may
be an economical option if the site can support vegetation. Selection of
wet suppression must be based on availability of water and potential to
contaminate uncontaminated soil or water.
Table 26 contains cost estimates for control of fugitive emissions
from soil surrounding a drum storage area. Costs for chemical stabili-
zation depend upon site activity—increased activity increases the required
frequency of application. Enclosing the area with a structure, such as a
dome, is expensive and would likely need other benefits, such as reduced
runoff or leachate generation, to justify the capital expenditure. If the
site is abandoned, vegetative stabilization may be an economical long-term
option.
Control cost estimates for unpaved roads are given in Table 27. Costs
are variable, with costs highest for wet suppression and chemical stabili-
zation. Efficiencies associated with these controls range from 30 percent
for gravel to 90 percent for chemical stabilization.
Costs for chemical stabilization of an active waste pile in Table 28
are based on Bohn's estimates for active tailings piles in Minnesota. For
covers, both active and inactive piles are considered. Active piles may
require significant capital investment if the cover is installed with
tension cables and an auger feed system for placing the wastes. Chemical
stabilization and vegetative stabilization are relatively low-cost options
with relatively high control efficiencies. Windscreens and wet suppression
are also low-cost options; however, these options offer.lower control
efficiencies than those of chemical and. vegetative stabilization.
90
-------
TABLE 24. CONTROL COSTS FOR 40-ACRE LANDFILL
1. Chemical stabilization
a. Assume most of the site is inactive and only a small portion is
in active use. From Table 16, use $888/acre/yr to $2,720/acre-yr
for 90+ percent control of active site (active waste pile
from Bohn) from applications approximately once per month.
Annual!zed cost = $35,500 to $109,000
b. Assume the site is completely inactive and requires only annual
applications of stabilizer. From Table 16, convert Bonn's
estimate to a per-application basis ($93/acre to $230/acre).
Annualized cost = $3,700 to $9,200
2. Cover
a. Install a synthetic film cover at $l/m2 to $6/m2.
Installed capital cost = $162,000 to $971,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $43,000 to $256,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $26,000 to $158,000
b. Install a hardened foam cover, 2-in. thickness, at $2.15/m2
plus $4,000 for equipment.
Installed capital cost = $352,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $93,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $57,000
c. Cover with a 6-in. layer of locally available soil at
$l,500/acre.
Installed capital cost = $60,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $16,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $9,800
3. Vegetative stabilization (assumes site is inactive)
a. Apply seed hydraulically with fertilizer and wood fiber mulch at
$l,800/acre ($0.44/m2).
Capital cost = $72,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $12,000
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $8,400
b. Add 4 in. of topsoil at $0.55/m2 plus hydraulic seeding for
a total of $0.99/m2.
Capital cost = $160,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $26,000
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $19,000
(continued)
91
-------
TABLE 24 (continued)
4. Wet suppression—from the text of Section 6.2, watering costs range
from $365/acre/yr to $l,270/acre-yr.
a. Assume that only 1 acre of the site is active and that watering
will be used only on the active portion.
Annual cost = $365 to $1,270
b. Assume that the entire 40 acres will be watered periodically to
control emissions.
Annual cost = $15,000 to $51,000
92
-------
TABLE 25. CONTROL COSTS FOR A DRIED LAGOON (1 ACRE)
1. Chemical stabilization
Assume the site is inactive and requires only one application
per year.
Material cost ($0.13/m2) $526
Labor (8 h @ $23/h) 184
Equipment rental (1 day) 34
Annual cost $744
2. Cover
a. Install a synthetic film cover at $l/m2 to $6/m2.
Capital cost = $4,000 to $24,000
Annuali.zed cost (5-yr life) = $1,000 to $6,300
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $650 to $3,900
b. Install a hardened foam cover, 2 in. thick, at $2.15/m2 plus
$4,000 for equipment.
Capital cost = $12,700
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $3,400
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $2,100
c. Install a 6-in. layer of local soil over the site at $l,500/acre.
Capital cost = $1,500
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $400
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $240
3. Vegetative stabilization
a. Fine grade the site, seed, fertilize, and lime at $1.67/m2.
Capital cost = $6,800
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $1,100
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $800
b. Apply seed hydraulically with fertilizer and wood fiber mulch at
$0.44/m2.
Capital cost = $1,800
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $290
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $210
c. Add 4 in. of local topsoil at $0.55/m2 plus hydraulic seeding
for a total of $0.99/m2. -
Capital cost = $4,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $650
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $470
(continued)
93
-------
TABLE 25 (continued)
4. Wet suppression
a. Use locally available water with a total operating cost of
$365/acre/yr to $l,270/acre-yr.
Annual cost = $365 to $1,270
b. Install a sprinkler system at $2.10/m2 plus a sprinkler pump
at $600.
Capital cost = $9,100
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $1,500
94
-------
TABLE 26. CONTROLS FOR DRUM STORAGE AREA
(190 m2 contaminated)
1. Chemical stabilization
Material (at $0.13/m2) $25
Labor (4 h at $23/h) 92
Equipment rental 34
Total cost for annual applications = $151
Total cost for monthly applications = $1,800
2. Cover
a. Install a synthetic film cover at $l/m2 to $6/m2.
Capital cost = $190 to $1,100
Annualized capital cost (5-yr life) = $50 to $290
Annualized capital cost (10-yr life) = $31 to $180
b. Install a dome cover.
Capital cost (Vogel and 0'Sullivan, 1983) = $95,000 to $99,000
Annualized capital cost (10-yr life) = $15,000 to $16,000
Annualized capital cost (20-yr life) = $11,000 to $12,000
3. Vegetative stabilization (assumes site is inactive or abandoned)
a. Fine grade, seed, and fertilize at $1.67/m2-
Capital cost = $320
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $52
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $37
b. Above plus 4 in. of local topsoil at $0.55/m2.
Capital cost = $420
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $68
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $49
95
-------
TABLE 27. CONTROL COSTS FOR AN UNPAVED ROAD
(0.5 mile)
1. Chemical stabilization--from Table 23, add Coherex solution at a
cost of $43,000/mi=yr to $65,000/mi-yr for 90+ percent control
Annual cost = $22,000 to $33,000
2. Cover
a. Add 3 to 6 in. of gravel at a cost of $19,000/mi to $35,000/mi
Capital cost = $9,500 to $18,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $5,000 to $9,200
b. Prepare and roll the sub-base, fine grade the area to be paved,
and add 3 in. of bituminous paving at $107,000/mi
Capital cost = $53,500
Annualized cost (10- to 20-yr life) = $6,500 to $8,500
c. Install road carpet for about 45 percent control. From
Table 23, annualized cost is about $9,700/mi
Annualized cost = $4,900
3. Wet suppression—water the road on dry days at a cost of $41,000/mi-yr
to $63,000/mi-yr
Annualized cost = $20,500 to $31,500
96
-------
TABLE 28. CONTROL COSTS FOR A WASTE PILE
(1.8 acres)
1. Chemical stabilization—from Table 16, the cost is $888/acre-yr to
$2,720/acre-yr for 90+ percent control on an active waste pile
Annual cost = $1,600 to $4,900
2. Cover
a. Assume the waste pile is inactive. Cover with a synthetic film
material at $l/m2 to $6/m2.
Capital cost = $7,400 to $45,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $2,000 to $12,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $1,200 to $7,300
b. Assume the waste pile is in continuous, active use. Cover with
synthetic film, use tension cables, and install an auger feed
system. From Table 17, use $43 to $65/m2-
Capital cost = $319,000 to $483,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $84,000 to $128,000
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $52,000 to $79,000
c. Install a hardened foam cover, 2 in. thick, at $2.15/m2 plus
$4,000 for equipment.
Capital cost = $20,000
Annualized cost (5-yr life) = $5,300
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $3,300
3. Vegetative stabilization—assume the site is inactive
a. Fine grade the surface, add seed, fertilizer, and lime at
$1.67/m2-
Capital cost = $12,400
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $2,000
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $1,500
b. Assume the waste pile will support vegetation. Use hydraulic
application of seed, fertilizer, and wood fiber mulch at
$0.44/m2.
Capital cost = $3,300
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $540
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $390
(continued)
97
-------
TABLE 28 (continued)
c. Add 4 in. of local topsoil at $0.55/m2 plus hydraulic seeding
for a total of $0.99/m2.
Capital cost = $7,400
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $1,200
Annualized cost (20-yr life) = $870
4. Windscreen—install a 2-m-high screen around the 290-m
circumference at $11 to $42.70 per linear meter (installed)
Capital cost = $3,200 to $12,400
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $520 to $2,000
5. Wet Suppression
a. Water is readily available. Use $365/acre-yr to $l,270/acre-yr.
Annual cost = $660 to $2,300
b. Install a sprinkler system at $2.10/m2 plus a sprinkler pump
at $600.
Capital cost = $16,200
Annualized cost (10-yr life) = $2,600
98
-------
A summary of costs and control efficiencies for the various sites is
given in Table 1. Because of the lack of data on reductions in inhalable
particles, the IP efficiency is evaluated with respect to total particle
control. The far right column in Table 1 states whether control of inhalable
particles is expected to be higher, lower, or the same as total particle
control.
99
-------
SECTION 8
EMISSION ESTIMATES AT EXAMPLE SITES
8.1 PREDICTION METHOD
A methodology can be formulated to predict downwind concentration of
hazardous wastes emitted in fugitive particulate matter. Steps required
are shown in Table 29 and discussed individually below.
For a given hazardous waste site, knowledge of its geographical loca-
tion is a basis for finding generalized soil conditions and meteorological
information. These items are required to determine degree of contamination
(DOC) and to use dispersion equations for calculating downwind contaminant
concentration.
Sites generally fall into one of four fugitive emission categories:
line sources, area sources, storage piles, and point sources. The first
three categories are useful for the hazardous waste sites considered in
this report. Contaminated, unpaved roads can be represented by line sources;
landfills, dried lagoons, and drum storage areas by area sources; and waste
heaps by storage piles.
Knowledge of the type of contamination is required to judge potential
toxic effects and to obtain chemical or physical properties for further
estimation procedures. In particular, for organic chemicals, information
in Section 4.3 is required to estimate adsorption coefficients.
The amount of erosion and subsequent air suspension of soil depends on
its characteristics and on local climate. An adaptation of the wind erosion
equation (WEE), discussed in Section 5.1, can be used to estimate soil loss
to wind forces.
For soil loss to traffic and other mechanical activity, emission
factor equations from Section 5.1 can be used.
The soil's organic carbon content must be measured or estimated to
calculate the corresponding adsorption coefficient. If no other information
is available, values of organic carbon content can be found from information
in Section 4.3.
Tables 30 and 31 describe various types of hazardous waste sites and
information required as part of the present methodology. Although each
source is based on existing sites, some of the information has been general-
ized. For example, the haul road site is taken as a section of about 200
miles of North Carolina roadway along which used transformer oil was dumped
100
-------
TABLE 29. METHODOLOGY FOR PREDICTING DOWNWIND CONCENTRATION OF
HAZARDOUS WASTE FUGITIVES
1. Determine location (geographical coordinates)
2. Determine type of site:
line source
flat area
storage pile
3. Determine type of contamination (chemical characteristics):
specific chemicals and metals
water solubilities
octanol-water partition coefficient
biconcentration factor for aquatic life
parachor
4. Determine soil and climate characteristics:
parameters for wind erosion equation
parameters for emission factor equations
organic carbon content
5. Determine DOC:
use measured values (e.g., ppm of chemical in soil) or
estimate from adsorption coefficient, K ; use degradation calcu-
lation if site age and rate constant or naif-life are known
6. Calculate emission rate (controlled and/or uncontrolled) from:
adaptations of wind erosion equations
emission factor equations
measured control efficiencies for similar sources and control
techniques
7. Calculate amount of hazardous material in emitted dust from:
DOC and emission rate
8. Determine meteorological conditions for location:
parameters for industrial source complex (ISC) models
9. Apply ISC to calculate downwind concentration of hazardous material
101
-------
TABU 30. EXAMPLE EMISSION SOUKCES
CD
ISJ
Major metal or
organic Material
Source ami description emitted
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LandfiU--40-acre Toluene
Mat disposal area
covered with coo-
taint na ted soil.
Dried lagoon--!- Dteldrin
acre disposal pond
In arid area with
high evaporation
rales.
Drum storage-- dioxln (TCOD)
10-ft soil strip
surrounding concrete
pad 125 ft in
diameter.
Haul road-- PCD (Aroclor
1-km section of 1260)
dirt road In open
countryside.
Waste pile— 75 ft Pb and Zn
high with 950- ft
circumference at
base.
DOC
3.640 ppm
(£ST.)
55.7 ppm
(EST. )
120 ppb
(ME AS. )
4.144 pp»
0.078 ppm (EST.
with decay)
125 ppm
(MEAS. )
141 ppm
(EST.)
Pb 14.000
pp« (MEAS. )
Zn 34,000
ppm (MEAS. )
Uncontrolled
emission Emission Approximate
rate model location
ISP 1.07 q/s Area Dearborn. MI
IP 0.0 g/s
TSP 0.036 g/s Area Mecca, CA
IP 0.022 g/s
TSP 0. 112 mq/s Area Crestview, FL
IP 0.067 mg/s
(EST.)
ISP 445 mg/s Line Si.lthf leld, NC
IP 223 mg/s
TSP 1.16 g/s Storage Mlnera. Wales,
IP 0.07 g/s pile U.K.
-------
TABLE 31. EXAMPLE EMISSION SOURCES: SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Estimated particle size
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Source
Landfill
Dried lagoon
Drum storage
Haul road
Waste pile
Sand, %
(0.05-2 mm)
25
50
90
45
Less than
S1lt, %
(0.002-0.05 mm)
35
40
7
35
22 mm
Clay, %
(<0.002 mm)
30
10
3
20
Organic carbon, %
3
0.1
1
7
—
o
CO
-------
illegally. Measurements of several roadside soil samples indicated an
average of about 125 ppm of PCB contamination, but the soil emission rate
was generalized from numbers arbitrarily selected for use in an emission
factor equation. The dried lagoon site exists, but pesticides are not a
major waste constituent. The sites were chosen early in the project and
treated as problem areas for which control and emission information were
needed. The information was developed based on whatever sources were found
and on assumptions necessary to provide reasonable answers.
Because of the few measured values found in the literature for DOC at
hazardous waste sites, a means for estimating such values was sought. As
mentioned in Section 4.3, the adsorption coefficient, K , allows estimation
of the amount of a given chemical adsorbed per unit weight of organic
carbon in a specific soil. One disadvantage of using K is its present
limitation to pure compounds rather than mixtures. However, a series of
estimates can be made based on chemicals of greatest interest in a particu-
lar hazardous waste site.
Once the climatological and mechanical activity rates have been estab-
lished, calculating uncontrolled emission rates from emission factor equa-
tions should be relatively easy. Controlled emission rates can be taken as
percentages of uncontrolled rates based on control method efficiency for
total and inhalable particulate matter.
With known emission rates in terms of mass per unit time and DOC in
terms of mass of contaminant per mass of soil, mass of hazardous material
per unit time emitted to the air can be calculated. Calculation will be
easiest for long-term averages and more difficult for shorter periods with
fluctuating conditions.
When dispersion models such as the ISC model are to be used, meteoro-
logical conditions for the site location must be obtained. Either general-
ized values of windspeed and direction and stability can be used from
published sources, or specific values can be obtained from recorded weather
data near the site or from a nearby U.S. weather station. The information
must conform to ISC model requirements as given in its user's guide.
The final step in the methodology is to calculate downwind dispersion
based on the short- and/or long-term ISC models or other appropriate models.
All information that is needed by either model will have been generated in
previous steps but may require changes in form. Model outputs will be in
micrograms per cubic meter of par.ticulate matter at specific downwind
locations. Concentration isopleths around the source also can be drawn.
These concentrations of particulate matter can be converted to micrograms
per cubic meter of hazardous material based on DOC found in step 5.
Models other than the ISC may be used for particular terrain configu-
rations. For example, a valley model may be appropriate for sites located
in a val1ey.
104
-------
TABLE 32. EMISSIONS FROM EXAMPLE SITES
Uncontrolled emission rate
TSP
Source Contaminant DOC, |ig/g
I. Landfill Toluene 3,640 (estimated)
2. Dried lagoon Dleldrln 55.7 (estimated)
3. Drum storage Dioxin (TCDD) 0.120 (measured)
0.078 (estimated,
with decay)
4. Haul road PCD (Aroclor 125 (measured)
1260) 141 (estimated)
5. Waste pile Pb and Zn Pb 14,000
(measured)
Zn 34,000
(measured
combined)
Dust
1.07 g/s
0.036 g/s
0.112 mg/s
1,790 mg/s
1. 16 g/s
Contaminant
3.9 mg/s
2.0 |ig/s
13.4 pg/s
224 ug/s
16.2 mg/s
39.4 mg/s
Inhalable participate
Dust Contaminant
0.8 g/s 2.9 mg/s
0.022 g/s 1.23 ug/s
0.067 mg/s 8.06 pg/s
897 mg/s 119 ug/s
12.2 mg/s
29.6 mg/s
0.87 g/s
Controlled emission rate
TSP
Dust Contaminant
0.16 g/s 0.59 mg/s
5.4 mg/s 0.30 pg/s
16.8 [ig/s 2.01 pg/s
269 g/s 33.6 ug/s
2.43 mg/s
5.91 mg/s
0.174 g/s
Inhalable
Dust
0.12 fl/s
3.3 mg/s
10. 1 |ig/s
135 mg/s
0.131 g/s
partlculate
Contaminant
0.44 mg/s
0. 185 pg/s
1.21 pg/s
17.9 ug/s
1.83 mg/s
4.44 mg/s
i— '
o
tn
-------
1ABLE 33. COH1ROLS FOH EXAMPLE SUES
Site
Undf 1 II
Or led lagoon
Drum storage
Haul road
Waste pi le
Control method
Chemical stabilization
Vegetative plus chemical stabilization
Chemical stabilization
Synthetic film cover
Vegetative plus chemical stabilization
Chemical stabilization
Synthetic film cover
Chemical stabilization
Wet suppression
Paving
Chemical stabilization
Synthetic film cover
Vegetative stabilization
Windscreen
Efficiency
Total Inhalable
75-100
85-100
75-100
85-100
85-100
75-100
85-100
40-96
50
85
75-100
B5-100
50-80
30- 60
75-100
85-100
75-100
85-100
85-100
75-100
85-100
40-96
50
85
75-100
85- 100
50-80
30-80
Control costs
Capital
72.000
4,000-24,000
1,800-4.000
190-1,100
54,000
7,400-45.000
3,300-7,400
3.200-12.400
Annual 1 zed ($/yr) Method chosen"
$3.700-$9.200
$15, 700-$21, 200 J
$744
$1 000- $6, 300 . .7
$1,030-$!, 400
151-1,800
50-290 ,/
22.000-33,000
20.500-31,500
6.500-0.500 ,/
1.600-4,900
2.000-12,000. .......... ^
540-2.000
3,200-12,400
CD
cn
Ihe lowest efficiency for each chosen method was used to calculate controlled emission rates shown In Table 32.
-------
N
km
Uncontrolled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
Controlled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
0.059 (0.044)
Figure 6. Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for Site 1, Landfill.
107
-------
N
Uncontrolled: TSP (IP) pg/m
Controlled: TSP (IP) pg/m:
3.0(1.845)
10.0 (6.15)
1.5 (0.92)
4.0 (2.46)
0.6 (0.37)
2.0 (1.23)
0.3 (0.19)
, 1.0 (0.615)
0.15 (0.092)
Figure 7. Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for Site 2, Dried Lagoon.
108
-------
N
Uncontrolled: TSP (IP) ag/m3
Controlled: TSP (IP) ag/m3
0.40 (0.24)
Figure 8. Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for Site 3, Drum Storage.
109
-------
N
0.008 (0.004)
Uncontrolled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
Controlled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
Figure 9. Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for Site 4, Haul Road.
110
-------
N
Pb
32.4 (24.4)
Uncontrolled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
Controlled: TSP (IP) ng/m3
km
Figure 10. Average annual contaminant concentration isopleths for Site 5, Waste Pile.
Ill
-------
8.2 EMISSION ESTIMATES
Calculations have been made for the five emission sources listed in
Table 30 to determine DOC, uncontrolled and controlled emissions, downwind
concentration of hazardous material, and control costs. Results are given
in Tables 32 and 33. Calculations are shown in Appendix B. Concentration
isopleths are presented in Figures 6 through 10. They show expected average
annual downwind contaminant concentration, uncontrolled and controlled, for
total suspended particulate (TSP) and inhalable particulate. No data are'
available to check the validity of these projections.
Comparison of measured versus estimated values of DOC is possible for
two sites. Table 32 shows a surprisingly close difference of about 11
percent for the haul road example. The drum storage area example, however,
shows a 35-percent lower estimation than was measured when a 10-year decay
time is included in the calculations.
112
-------
SECTION 9
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE NEEDS
Major limitations of this work apply to calculations of degree of
contamination (DOC) and downwind concentration of contaminant. Both quanti-
ties have been estimated, but few experimental data have been found to
confirm the methodologies. DOC estimates are limited by lack of knowledge
about specific sites, soil characteristics that change rapidly with distance,
and the host of decay processes that reduce DOC with time. Especially for
compounds that reside near the soil surface, photolytic or photooxidative
reactions may change contaminants to innocuous compounds. Validity of the
two major assumptions about DOC (i.e., adsorption from a saturated solution
accounts for all of the contaminant retention, and first-order decay accounts
for all of the degradation) remains to be established.
Although methods for estimating dispersion from emitting sources are
well established, uncertainties about the methods are increased by uncertain-
ties associated with the particle emission process from the earth's surface
and with deposition processes, both dry and wet, that tend to reduce downwind
concentration.
Measurements from experimental or existing hazardous waste sites are
required to reduce the effects of the above-mentioned limitations. Many
articles in the literature describe adsorption processes, degradation
processes, soil properties, emissions, dispersion, or particle size effects;
but no data sets have been found that follow the complete process from
original contamination through measurement of downwind contaminant concen-
tration over an extended period. When such data sets have been obtained
for several sites, more confidence can be gained regarding the estimation
methodology described earlier in the report.
113
-------
Fugitive Participate Emissions From Hazardous Waste Sites
BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
Abriola, L.M., and 6.F. Puider. 1983. Simulation of the Migration of Organic
Compounds of Low Solubility in a Porous Medium. Preprint Extended Abstract.
Paper No. 173. American Chem. Soc., 01v. of Environ. Chem. 23(2):485-486.
Acar, Yalcin, 8., Ivan Olivier, and Stephen 0. Field. 1984. Organic Fluid
Effects on the Structural Stability of Compacted Kaolinite. Abstract.
EPA-600/9-84-007, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio,
April. In: Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Research Symposium at Ft.
Mitchell, KY, April 3-5, 1984.
Adams, R.S., Jr. 1973. Factors Influencing Soil Adsorption and Bioactivity of
Pesticides. Residue Rev., 47:1-54.
Alexander, W.J., Donald G. Miller, and Robert A. Seymour. 1983. Mitigation of
Subsurface Contamination by Hydrocarbons. In: Proceedings of Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites National Symposium, Nov. 29-Oec. 1, 1982,
p. 107.
Amick, R., K. Axetell, and D.M. Wells. 1974. Fugitive Dust Emission Inventory
Techniques. Presented at the 67th Annual Meeting of APCA, Denver, CO, June
9-13, 1974 (27):618-27.
Armbrust, O.V., and J.O. Dickerson. 1971. Temporary Wind Erosion Control:
Cost and Effectiveness of 34 Commercial Materials. Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, July/August, 154-157.
Armentano, T.V. (editor). 1979. The Role of Organic Soils in the World Carbon
Cycle -Problem Analysis and Research Needs. Work Supported by: U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Environment, Contract No. 79EV10040.000, IN,
May 7-8.
Armentano, T.V., et. al. 1983. Recent Changes in the Global Carbon Balance of
Tropical Organic Soils. OOE/ER/60104—1. Holcomb Research Institute,
Indianapolis, IN, January.
Ase, Paul K. 1981. Air Pollution Sampling and Monitoring at Hazardous Waste
Facilities. Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, Contract
No. 68-03-2654. U.S. EPA, Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division,
Cincinnati, Ohio, December.
Axetell, Kenneth Jr. 1978. Survey of Fugitive Dust From Coal Mines. FPA/
908/T-78/003, PB 283/62, PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, OH.
February.
Axetell, K., and C. Cowherd, Jr. 1981. Improved Emission Factors for Fugitive
Dust From Western Surface Coal Mining Sources, Vol. II, Emission Factors.
Project Summary of EPA 68-03-2924, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, PEDCo Inc., Kansas City, MO, and Midwest Research
Institute, Kansas City, MO, November.
Axetell, K., and J. Zell. 1977. Control of Reentrained Dust From Pavpd
Streets EPA/907/9-77/007, NTIS PB-280-325, PEDCo Environmental, Inc
Kansas City , MO. ''
114
-------
Axetell, K., and J. Zell. 1977. Control of Reentrained Dust From Paved
Streets. EPA/907/9-77/007, NTIS PB-280-325, PEDCo Environmental, Inc.,
Kansas City, MO.
Ayer, Franklin A. 1982. Proceedings: Symposium on Iron & Steel Pollution
Abatement Technology for 1981. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA-600/9-82-021.
Bagnold, R.A. 1941. The Physics of Blown, Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen and
Co., Ltd., London. (Secondary reference from Smith, Whicker, and Meyer).
Bailey, G.W., and J.L. White. 1970. Factors Influencing the Adsorption,
Desorption, and Movement of Pesticides in Soil. Residue Rev., 32:29-92.
Bander, T.J. 1982. Literature Review of Models for Estimating Soil Erosion
and Deposition From Wind Stresses on Uranium Mill Tailings Covers. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, County of Publication, U.S. Report No.: PNL-4302,
November, p. 28.
Bartha, R. 1983. Covalent Attachment of Pesticide Residues to Soil Humus.
Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 91. American Chemical Society. Div.
of Environ. Chem. 23(2):247-249.
Bauder, T.J. 1980. Long Term Erosion Resistance of Unprotected Radon
Suppression Earth Covers to Wind Stresses. For presentation at 3rd Annual
Symposium on Uranium Mill Tailings Management, Fort Collins, CO, Nov.
24-25.
Beavington, F. 1973. Contamination of Soil With Zinc, Copper, Lead, and
Cadmium in the Wollongong City Area. Aust. Journal of Soil Research.
Becker, D.L. 1979. Quantifying the Environmental Impact of Particulate
Deposition From Dry Unpaved Roadways. Ames Laboratory, IA.
Becker, D.L., and E.S. Takle. 1979. Particulate Deposition From Dry Unpaved
Roadways. Atmospheric Environment, 13:661-668.
Bernard, Harold. . Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Biddle, Wayne. 1982. 10 Years Later, Missourians Find Soil Tainted by
Dioxin. New York Times. Wed., November 18, 1982.
Bisdom, E.B.A., A. Boekestein, and P. Curmi. 1983. Submicroscopy and
Chemistry of Heavy-Metal Contaminated Precipitates From Column Experiments
Simulating Conditions in a Soil Beneath a Landfill. Geoderma. 30:1-20.
Blackwood, T.R. 1979. Assessment of Road Carpet for Control of Fugitive
Emissions From Unpaved Roads. Environmental Protection Agency. NTIS
PB-298-874.
Blackwood, T., and R. Wachter. 1978. Source Assessment: Coal Storage Piles.
EPA-600/2-78-004k, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Monsanto Research
Corporation, Dayton, OH, July. NTIS PB-284-287.
115
-------
Bohn, Russel. 1981. Bumines-OFR-130-81 Dust Control for Haul Roads. Midwest
Research Institute. Kansas City, MO, NTIS P8 82-116666, Feb.
Bohn, Russel R., et al. 1983. Oust Control on Active Tailings Ponds.
Environmental Services and Technology, Kansas City. NTIS P883-216382,
February.
8ohn, R., T. Cuscino", and C. Cowherd, Jr. 1978. Fugitive Emissions From
Integrated Iron and Steel Plants. EPA-600/2-78-050, U.S. EPA, Midwest
Research Institute, Kansas City, MO, March 1978. NTIS PB-281-322.
Bohn, Russel R., and Jeffrey 0. Johnson. 1983. Oust Control on Active Tailings
Ponds. Environmental Services and Technology. Kansas City. APCA Paper No.
83-49.1.
Borges, A. Chaer, and A.G. Wollum, II. 1980. A Field Study of a Soil-Soybean
Plant-Rhizobium System Amended With Cadmium. Environmental Quality Journal,
Vol. 9, No. 3., p. 420.
Boscak, V., and J. Tandon. 1974. Development of Chemicals for Suppression of
Coal Dust Dispersion From Storage Piles. Presented at Fourth Annual Environ.
Engineering and Sci. Conf., Louisville, KY.
Bowen, J.L., and R.T. Egami. 1983. Nevada Nuclear Waste Storage Investigations
Site -Characterization Activities. Nevada University, Las Vegas. NTIS
OE83-011476, May, p. 50.
Bowman, 3.T. 1981. Anomalies in the Log Freundlich Equation Resulting in
Deviations in Adsorption K Values of Pesticides and Other Organic Compounds
When the System of Units Is Changed. Journal of Environmental Science,
Health, 816(2):113-123.
Bracken, Brian D. 1982. Cleanup and Containment of PCBs -A Success Story.
National Symposium.
Braunstein, H.M., E.D. Copenhaver, and H.A. Pfuderer. 1977. Environmental,
Health, and Control Aspects of Coal Conversion: An Information Overview. NTIS
ORNL/EfS-95.
Braunstein, H.M., E.D. Copenhaver, and H.A. Pfuderer. 1977. Environmental
Interactions: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. ORNL Report.
Bresler, E. 1983. Chemical Transport Through a Spatially Variable Field.
Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 176. American Chem. Soc. Div of
Environ. Chem. 23(2):493-495.
Briggs, G.G. 1969. Molecular Structure of Herbicides and Their Sorption by
Soils. Nature, 223:1288. September 20.
Briggs, G.G. 1981. Adsorption of Pesticides by Some Australian Soils Aust J
Soil Res., 19:61-68.
116
-------
Bn'ggs, G.G. 1973. A Simple Relationship Between Soil Adsorption of Organic
Chemicals and Their Octanol/Water Partition Coefficients. Proc. 7th British
Insecticide and Fungicide Conf., Vol. 1, The Boots Company Ltd., Nottingham,
G.B. Cited in Lyman (1981).
Bn'ggs, Geoffrey G. 1981. Octanol-Water Partition Coefficients, Water
Solubility Bioconcentration Factors, and the Parachor. J. Agric. Food Chain,
29(5):1050-1059.
Brookman, Edward T. 1980. Demonstration of the Use of Charged Fog in
Control-ling Fugitive Dust From Large-Seal e Industrial Sources. In:
Proceedings of the Symposium on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology
for 1980, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 1-14.
Brookman, Edward T., Kevin J. Kelley, and Robert C. McCrillis. 1981.
Demonstration of the Use of Charged Fog in Controlling Fugitive Dust From a
Coke Screening Operation at a Steel Mill. In: Proceedings of the Symposium
on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology for 1980, Philadelphia, PA.
Brown, D.S. 1979. U.S. EPA. Athens, GA, personal communication, -September
20. Cited in Lyman (1981).
Brown, D.S., 1979. U.S. EPA. Athens, GA, personal communication, November 29.
Cited in Lyman (1981).
Brown, K.W. 1981. Chapter 36, Land Treatment of Hazardous Wastes. In:
Proceedings of the Fourth Life Sciences Symposium, Environment and Solid
Wastes, Gatlinburg, TN, October 4-8, 1981. pp. 449-482, 359-367.
Brown, D.S., and E.W. Flagg. 1981. Empirical Prediction of Organic Pollutant
Sorption in Natural Sediments. Abstract. J. Environ. Qua!., 10(3) : 382-386.
Brunsing, Thomas P., and Walter E. Grube. 1982. A Block Displacement
Technique To Isolate Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. In: Proceedings of
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. Hazardous Materials Control
Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD.
Buchauer, Marilyn J. 1973. Contamination of Soil and Vegetation Near a Zinc
Smelter by Zinc, Cadmium, Copper, and Lead. Env. Sci . and Tech.
7(2):131-135. Buckman, H.O., and N.C. Brady. 1969. The Nature and
Properties of Soils. London: The Macmillian Company. Cited in RTI 1984.
Burt, E.W. 1977. Valley Model User's Guide. EPA-450/2-77-018.
Byrne, Robert J., Carol H. Hobbs, III., and Michael J. Carron. 1983. Baseline
Sediment Characteristics and Sedimentation Patterns on the Virginia Portion
of the Chesapeake Bay. EPA-600/3-83-048, PB83-224899, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Annapolis, MD, June.
Caine, Nel , Pierre Morin, and Robin M. Nicholas. 1977. The Significance of
Frost Action and Surface Soil Characteristics to Wind Erosion at Rocky Flats,
Colorado. Progress Report, Colorado Univ. October 1, 1976-June 30, 1977.
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration under Contract
117
-------
Canessa, W. 1977. Chemical Retardants Control Fugitive Dust Problems.
Pollution Engineering, July:24-26.
Canney, F.C. 1959. Geochemical Study of Soil Contamination in the Coeur
D'Alene District, Shoshone County, Idaho. Mining Engineering J., pp.
205-210, Feb.
Carpenter, B.H., and G.E. Weant, III. 1978. Particulate Control for Fugitive
Dust. Contract No. 68-01-4141, EPA-600/7-78-871, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC,
April.
Carter, Charles W., and Irwin H. Suffet. 1983. Effects of Dissolved Humic and
Fulvic Acids on the Aqueous Behavior of Organic Compounds. American Chemical
Society- Div. of Environmental Chemistry. 186th National Meeting. Paper No.
88.
Chang, F.H., T.M. Klein, and M. Alexander. 1983. Effects of Simulated Acid
Precipitation on Carbon and Nitrogen Mineralization in Soil. Electric Power
Research Institute.
Chapman, R.A., and C.R. Harris. 1982. Persistence of Isofenphos and Isazophos
in a Mineral and an Organic Soil, J.
Chemical Engineering. 1984. Chementator. Chemical Engineering, pp. 9-10.
July 23.
Chemical Manufacturers Association. 1983. The CMA Hazardous Waste Survey for
1981 and 1982. Final Report. Chemical Manufacturers Association.
Washington, D.C.
Cheung, Max W., Uri Mingelgrin, and James W. Biggar- 1979. Equilibrium and
Kinetics of Desorption of Picloram and Parathion in Soils. J. Agric. Food
Chem., 27(6):1201-1206.
Chiou, C.T., L.J. Peters, and V.H. Freed. 1979. A Physical Concept of
Soil-Water Equilibria for Nonionic Organic Compounds. Science, 206:831-832.
Chiou, Gary T., Paul E. Porter, and David W. Schmedding. 1983. Partition
Equilibria of Nonionic Organic Compounds Between Soil Organic Matter and
Water. Environmental Science Technology, 17:231-237.
Chou, S.F., Joseph and Robert A. Griffin. 1983. Soil, Clay, and Caustic Soda
Effects on Solubility, Sorption, and Mobility of Hexachlorocyclopentadiene.
NTIS PB84-116060, Illinois State Geological Survey Division, Champaign.
Clark, Ronnie D. 1980. Erosion Condition Classification System. NTIS
PB83-260794, Bureau of Land Management.
Cook, Frank, et al. 1980. Fugitive Dust From Western Surface Coal ^ines
EPA-600/7-80-158, NTIS PB80-221955, U.S. Environmentel Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, August.
118
-------
Cooper, D.W., J.S. Sullivan, Margaret' Quinn, R.C. Antonelli, and Maria
Schneider. 1979. Setting Priorities for Control of Fugitive Particulate
Emissions From Open Sources. EPA-600/7-79-186, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, August.
Core, John E., J.A. Cooper, et al. 1982. Particulate Dispersion Model
Evaluation: A New Approach Using Receptor Models. Journal of Air Pollution
Control Association, Vol. 32(11):1142-47, November.
Cornman, W.R. 1977. Improvement in Operating Incident Experience at the
Savannah River Burial Ground. Savannah River Laboratory, Aiken, SC.
USERDA Contract No. AT(07-2)-l.
Corwin, Dennis L., and Walter J. Farmer- 1984. Nonsingle-Valued
Adsorption-Desorption of Bromacil and Diquat by Freshwater Sediments.
Environ. Sci. Techno!., 18(7):507-514.
Couchat, P., F. Brissand, and J.P. Gayrand. 1980. A Study of Strontium-90
Movement in a Sandy Soil. Journal of Soil Science Society of America,
44(1):7-13.
Courtney, F.E. 1983. A Comparison of Fugitive Dust Suppression Methods. APCA
Specialty Conference, SP-51, April 1983. pp. 116-124.
Cowherd, Chatten, Jr., K. Axetell, C.M. Guenther, and G.A. Jutze. 1974.
Development of Emission Factors for Fugitive Dust Sources. EPA-450/3-74-037,
NTIS PB-238-262, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC.
Cowherd, Chatten Jr. 1979. Emission Factors for Open Dust Sources.
EPA-600/9-80-012, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC. In: Proceedings of the First Symposium
on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology, Chicago, Illinois,
10/30-11/1/79:178-197.
Cowherd, C. 1983. A New Approach to Estimating Wind-Generated Emissions From
Coal Storage Piles. In: Proceedings of the Fugitive Dust Issues in the Coal
Use Cycle, APCA Specialty Conference (SP51), April.
Cowherd, C., Jr., R. Bohn, and T. Cuscino, Jr. 1979a. Iron and Steel Plant
Open-Source Fugitive Emission Evaluation. EPA-600/2-79-103, PB-299-385, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City.
Cowherd, Chatten Jr., Thomas Cuscino, Jr., and Dale A. Gillette. 1979b.
Development of Emission Factors for Wind Erosion of Aggregate Storage Piles.
For Presentation at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the APCA, Cincinnati, OH, June
24-29, 1979. Paper No. 79-11.1.
Cowherd, Chatten Jr., Thomas A. Cuscino, Jr., and Mark Small. 1982. Cost
Effectiveness Evaluation of Road Dust Controls. In: Proceedings of the EPA
Symposium on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Tech. for 1981, held at the
McComick Inn at Chicago, IL, October 6-8, 1981:39-51.
119
-------
Cowherd, Chatten Jr., Christine M. Maxwell, and Daniel W. Nelson. 1977.
Quantification of Dust Entrapment From Paved Roadways. EPA-450/3-77-027,
NTIS PB-272-613, U.S. EPA, RTP, NC, July.
Cowherd, C., G. Muleski, P. Englehart, and 0. Gillette. 1984. Rapid
Assessment of Exposure to Particulate Emissions From Surface Contamination
Sites. Draft Report, MR I Project No. 7972-L, May.
Cuscino, Thomas A., et al. 1981. The Role of Agricultural Practices in
Fugitive Dust Emissions. NTIS PB81-219-073, Midwest Research Institute.
Cuscino, Thomas Jr., Chatten Cowherd, Jr. and Russel Bonn. 1980. Fugitive
Emission Control of Open Dust Sources. In: Proceedings: Symposium on Iron
and Steel Pollution Abatement Tech. for 1980, Philadelphia, PA, on November
18-20, 1980. EPA-600/9-81-017.
Czuczwa, J.M., and R.A. Hites. 1983. Source-s and Fates of Dioxins and
Dibenzofurans as Told by Sediment Coves. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper
No. 27. American Chemical Society. Division of Environmental Chemistry.
23(2):74-76.
Dale, J.M., and B. Freeman. 1982. Lead and Zinc Contamination of Roadside
Soil and Vegetation in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Proc. N.S. Inst. Science, Vol.
32: 327-36.
Davis, J.A. Adsorption of Natural Dissolved Organic Matter by Surface Complex
Formation. Paper No. 66. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 66.
American Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry.
23(2):189-190.
Davis, W., and D. Metz. 1978. A New Technique for Treatment of Surface
Boundary Conditions Arising From Particulate Plume Dispersion. Journal of
Applied Meteorology. 17:1610-1618.
Davles-Colley, Robert J., Peter 0. Nelson, and Kenneth J. Williamson. 1984.
Copper and Cadmium Uptake by Estuarine Sedimentary Phases. Environ. Sci.
Techno!., 18(7):491-499. -
Dawson, Jeffrey L., and Thomas H. Nash III. 1979. Effects of Air Pollution
From Copper Smelters on a Desert Grassland Community. Environmental and
Experimental Botany, Journal, Vol. 20, 61-72, August.
Dean, Karl, Richard Havens, and Kimball Harper. 1969. Chemical and Vegetative
Stabilization of a Nevada Copper Porphyry Mill Tailing. Department of
Interior. U.S. Bureau of Mines Report RI7261.
Dean, K.C., Richard Havens, and M.W. Glantz. 1974. Methods and Costs for
Stabilizing Fine-Sized Mineral Wastes. Salt Lake City Research Center, U.S.
Bureau of Mines Report RI7896.
120
-------
DeGroot, R.C., T.W. Popham, L.R. Gjovik, and T. Forehand. 1979. Distribution
Gradients of Arsenic, Copper, and Chromium Around Preservative -Treated
Wooden Stakes. Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 8, No. 1, p. 39.
De Kok, A., R.B. Geerdink, and U.A. Brinkman. 1983. The Determination of
Polychlorinated Naphthalenes in Soil Samples by Means of Various Gas and
Liquid Chromatographic Methods. Analytical Chemistry Symposium Series, Vol.
13(1):203-216.
Dinapoli, John J. 1982.
National Symposium.
The Exhumation Program for the SCA Wilsonville Site.
Donnelly, Kirby C., W. Kirk, and Barry R. Scott. 1983. The Use of Short-Term
Bioassays To Monitor the Environmental Impact of Land Treatment of Hazardous
Wastes. Environmental Science Research, Vol. 27:61-78.
Donovan, R.P., R.M. Felder, and H.H. Rogers. 1976. Vegetative Stabilization of
Mineral Waste Heaps. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 600/2-76-087.
Dragun, J., and C.S. Helling. 1981. Evaluation of Molecular Modeling
Techniques To Estimate Mobility of Organic Chemicals in Soils. I. Water
Solubility and the Molecular Fragment Mobility Coefficient. In: Land
Disposal: Hazardous Waste. Proceedings of the 7th Annual Research
Symposium. Southwest Research Inst., U.S. EPA, Philadelphia, PA.
Dragun, J., and C.S. Helling. 1982. Soil and Clay-Catalyzed Reactions: I.
Physicochemical and Structural Relationships of Organic Chemicals Undergoing
Free-Radical Oxidation. In: Proceedings of the 8th Annual Research
Symposium. Southwest Research Institute and the U.S. EPA, Fort Mitchell, KY.
Dragun, J., R. Potenzone, C.S. Fowler, and C.S. Helling. 1980. Evaluation of
Molecular Modeling Techniques to Estimate Soil-Chemical Mobility: I.
Molecular Connectivity and Charge Related Indices. In: Proceedngs of
Research Symposium, 53rd Annual Meeting, Water Pollution Control Federation,
Las Vegas, NV.
Drehmel, Dennis C., and Bobby E. Daniel. 1982. Relative Effectivenes's of
Chemical Additives and Wind Screens for Fugitive Dust Control. Environmental
Protection Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. Chem. Eng.
Prog., Feb:16-20.
Dyck, R.I.J., and J.J. Stukel.
Unpaved Roads. Department of
Urbana. Environmental Science
October:1046-1048.
1976. Fugitive Dust Emissions From Trucks on
Civil Engineering, University of Illinois,
and Technology, Vol. 10, No. 10,
Dynamac Corporation. 1983. Methods for Assessing Exposure to Windblown
Particulates. EPA-600/4-83-007. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
Edwards, Grant C. 1980. Plume Rise Modeling. Proceedings Second Joint
Conference on Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology, sponsored by the
American Meteor. Society, March 24-27, 1980 and Second Conf. on Industrial
Meteor., sponsored by the Am. Meteor. Soc., March 28. pp. 133-139.
121
-------
Ely, Ralph L., Jr., et al. 1983. Final Report. Performance of Clay Caps and
Liners for Disposal Facilities. RTI. EPA Contract 68-03-3149WA1-1. March,
pp. 6-14, 6-16, 6-59-6-61.
Environmental Law Institute and JRB Associates. March 1984. Summary Report:
Remedial Response at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA-540/2-84-002a. Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, and
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency, undated. Environmental Monitoring at Love
Canal Fact Sheet. Environmental Protection Agency.
Environmental Protection Agency- 1977a. Guidelines for Development of Control
Strategies in Areas With Fugitive Dust Problems. OAQPS Guide Series, No.
1.2-071, EPA-450/2-77-029, Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, October.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1977b. Technical Guidance for Control of
Industrial Process Fugitive Particulate Emissions. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1977c. Valley User's Guide, EPA-450/
2-77-018, U.S. EPA, Resesarch Triangle Park, NC. September.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1978. Source Assessment Crushed Stone.
EPA-600/2-78-004L, NTIS PB-284-029, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Compilation of Past Practices
Interpretations by EPA on the Air Quality Review of Surface Mining
Operations, December 10.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1979b. Design and Construction of Covers for
Solid Waste Landfills. EPA-600/2-79-165, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August, pp. 126-249.
Environmental' Protection Agency. 1979c. Designing and Construction of Covers
for Solid Waste Landfills References. EPA-600/2-79-165, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August, pp. 239-249.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission
Factors, Third Edition, (including Supplements 1-12), AP-42, Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1982a. Control Techniques for Particulate
Emissions From Stationary Sources -Vol. 1. EPA-450/3-81-005a, U.S. EPA,
Research Triangle Park, NC. September.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1982b. Control Techniques for Particulate
Emissions From Stationary Sources -Vol. 2. EPA-450/3-81-005b, U.S. EPA,
Research Triangle Park, NC. September.
122
-------
Environmental Protection Agency. 1984a. Case Studies 1-23: Remedial Response
at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA-540/2/84-002b, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, OH, March.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1984b. Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste.
In: Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Research Symposium, at Ft. Mitchell,
Kentucky, April 3-5. EPA-600/9-84-007, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH, April.
Erler, T.G., III, J. Dragun, and D.R. Weiden. 1984. Two Case Studies of
Cost-effective Remedial Actions and PCB Contaminated Soil. In: Proceedings
of "the 38th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Ann Arbor Science.
Cited in RTI 1984.
Evans, John S., and Douglas W. Cooper. 1980. An Inventory of Particulate
Emissions From Open Sources. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association,
30:(12) 1298-1303.
Evans, John S., Sarah E. Spedden, and Douglas W. Cooper. April 1981. A Study
of the Relationship Between Wind Speed and Total Suspended Particulate
Levels. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 31(4):395-397.
Falco, James W., and John L. Schaum. 1984. Assessment of Risk Caused by
Remedial Actions Considered for Vertac Chemicals Corporation Site,
Jacksonville, Arkansas. EPA (unreviewed draft report), Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response, Exposure Assessment Group.
Falco, James W., Lee A. Mulkey, and John Schaum. 1981. Chapter 18, Multimedia
Modeling of Transport and Transformation of Contaminants. In: Proceedings
of the Fourth Life Sciences Symposium, Environment and Solid Wastes, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Gatlinburg, TN, October 4-8, 1981.
Food and Drug Administration. 1980. Tracing Elements Grown into Foods. FDA
Consumer. February:2-3.
Felice, L.J., J.M. Zachara, and J.E. Rogers. 1982. The Terrestrial Fate of
Coal-Liquid Constituents: Behavior of Alkyl Amines in Soil. DOE82 021708,
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington, July.
Felsot, Allan, and Paul A. Dahm. 1979. Sorption of Organophosphorus Carbamate
Insecticides by Soil. J. Agric. Food Chem., 27(3):557-563.
Fertig, L.H., E.J. Monke, and G.R. Foster. 1982. Characterization of Eroded
Soil Particles From Interrill Areas. For presentation at the 1982 Summer
Meeting, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, June 27-30. Paper No.
82-2038.
Freeman, David H., and Leticia S. Cheung. 1981. A Gel Partition Model for
Organic Description From a Pond Sediment. Science, 214(13):790-792.
Fryer, J.D., P.O. Smith, and R.J. Hauce. 1980. Field Experiments to
Investigate Long-term Effects of Repeated Applications of MCPA, Tri-allate,
Simazine and Linuron: II. Crop Performance and Residues 1969-78. Weed •
Research, 20:103-110.
123
-------
Fuller, Wallace H. (editor). 1976. Residual Management by Land Disposal
Proceedings of the Hazardous Waste Research Symposium. EPA-600/9-76-015,
NTIS PB-256768, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, July.
Fuller, Wallace H. 1977. Movement of Selected Metals, Asbestos, and Cyanide
in Soil: Applications to Waste Disposal Problems. EPA-600/ 2-77-020, NTIS
PB-266-905, U.S.-EPAr Cincinnati, OH, April.
Fuller, Wallace H. 1981. Liners of Natural Porous Materials to Minimize
Pollutant Migration. EPA-600/2-81-122, PB81-221863, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, July.
Gatz, Donald F., Susan T. Wiley, and Lih-Ching Chu. 1983. Characterization of
Urban and Rural Inhalable Particulates. NTIS PB83-208454, Illinois State
Water Survey Division, Champaign, Feb.
Gerstl, Z., and B. Yaron. 1983. Behavior of Bromacil and Napropamide in
Soils: I. Adsorption and Degradation. Soil Science Soc. of Amer. J.,
47(3):474-478.
Gillette, D.A. 1974a. On the Production of Soil Wind Erosion Aerosols Having
the Potential for Long Range Transport, de Rech. Atmos. Journal, 8:735-744.
Gillette, D.A. 1974b. Production of Fine Dust by Wind Erosion of Soil:
Effect of Wind and Soil Texture. In: Proceedings of the International-
Symposium on Atmosphere-Surface Exchange of Particulate and Gaseous
Pollutants, Richland, WA, September, pp. 591-609.
Gillette, Dale. 1978. A Wind Tunnel Simulation of the Erosion of Soil:
Effect of Soil Texture Sandblasting, Wind Speed, and Soil Consolidation on
Dust Production. Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 12:1735-1743.
Gillette, D.A., and Wm. Porch. 1978. Role of Fluctuations of Vertical and
Horizontal Wind and Particle Concentration in the Deposition of Dust
Suspended by Wind. Geophys. Research Journal, 83:409-414.
Gillette, Dale A., and Theodore R. Walker. 1977. Characteristics of Airborne
Particulates Produced by Wind Erosion of Sandy Soil, High Plains of West
Texas. Soil Science Journal, 123:97-110.
Gillette, D.A., I.H. Bifford, and C.R. Fenster. 1972. Measurements of Aerosol
Size Distributions and Vertical Fluxes of Aerosols on Land Subject to Wind
Erosion. Appl. Meteorol. J., 11(6) :977-987.
Glanville, James 0., and James P. Wightman. 1979. Actions of Wetting Agents on
Coal Oust. Fuel 58, November:816-822.
Godfrey, R.S. (editor). 1984. Building Construction Cost Data, 42nd Annual
Edition. Robert Snow Means Company, Inc., Ouxbury, MA.
Goldberg, A.J. 1973. Survey of Emissions and Controls for Air Pollutants.
NTIS Report.
Goldberg, A.J. 1973. A Survey of Emissions and Controls for Hazardous and
Other Pollutants. Environmental Protection Agency.
124
-------
Gorwig, C.A.I., and J.W. Hamaker (eds). 1972. Organic Chemicals in the Soil
Environment. Vol. I, II. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Gratt, Lawrence, B. 1981. Chapter 23, Risk Analysis: Solid Wastes From Oil
Shale as an Example of the Use of Health Effects and Ecological Data for Risk
Estimation. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Life Sciences Symposium,
Environment and Solid Wastes, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Gatlinburg, TN,
October 4-8, 1981.
Griffin, R.A., and S.F.J. Chou. 1981. Attenuation of Polybrominated Biphenyls
and Hexachlorobenzene by Earth Materials. EPA-600/2-81-191, NTIS
PB82-107558, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH,
September.
Ground Water, Vol. 16(5), 1978, page 366.
Gruhl, James. 1976. Review of Methods for Assessing the Carcinogenic Hazards
From Coal-Using Energy Technologies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Report No.: MIT/EL-76/015, September 9, 1976, p. 28.
Gryning, Sven-Erik, and Soren E. Larsen. 1981. Relation Between Dispersion
Characteristics Over Surfaces With Dissimilar Roughness and Atmospheric
Stability, Under Conditions of Equal Geostrophic Winds. Atmospheric
Environment, 15(6):983-987.
Guenzi, W.D. (ed.) 1974. Pesticides in Soil and Water. Soil Science Society
of America, Inc., Madison, WI.
Gunderson, Thomas C., and A. John Ahlquist. 1979. Formerly Utilized MED/AEC
Sites Remedial Action Program. DOE/EV-0005/14 UC-70, April.
Gunderson, T.C., and A.J. Ahlquist. 1979. Removal of a Contaminated
Industrial Waste Line, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Final Report. Department of
Energy.
Guswa, J.H., and W.J. Lyman. 1978. Groundwater Contamination Response Guide.
Air Force Engineering and Services Center. NTIS AD-A131-129.
Hagen, L.J., and E.L. Skidmore. 1976. Wind Erosion and Visibility Problems
for Presentation at the 1976 Annual Meeting, American Society of Agricultural
Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, June 27-20, 1976.
Hagen, Lawrence J., and Neil P. Woodruff. 1975. Particulate Loads Caused by
Wind Erosion in the Great Plains. Aug. 25(8):860-861.
Hamaker, J.W. 1975. The Interpretation of Soil Leaching Experiments.
Environ. Sci. Res., 6:115-133.
Hamaker, J.W., and J.M. Thompson. 1972. Adsorption. In: Goring, Cleve A.I.,
and John W. Hamaker (editors). Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment,
Vol. I. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. pp. 49-143.
Hance, R.J. 1969. An Empirical Relationship Between Chemical Structure and
the Sorption of Some Herbicides by Soils. J. Agric. Food Chem., 17:667-68.
Cited in Lyman (1981).
125
-------
Harrison, D.O., and R.C. Crews. 1983. A Field Study of Soil and Biological
Specimens From a Herbicide Storage an Aerial Test Staging Site Following
Long-term Contamination With TCDD. Environmental Science Research, Vol. 25.
Harrison, Don D., and Charles I. Miller. 1979. Residual Levels of
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Oioxin (TCDD) Near Herbicide Storage and Loading
Areas at Eg!in AFB, Florida. Air Force Armament Laboratory.
AFDTL-TR-79-20.
Hassett, John J., et al. 1980a. Sorption Properties of Sediments and
Energy-Related Pollutants. EPA-600/3-80-041, NTIS PB80-189574, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, April.
Hassett, J.J., J.C. Means, W.L. Banwart, S.G. Wood, S. Ali, and A. Khan. 1980b.
Sorption of Dibenzothiophene by Soils and Sediments. Abstract. J.
Environmental Quality, 9(2):184-186.
Hassett, John J., W.L. Banwart, and Robert A. Griffin. 1981. Chapter 15,
Correlation of Compound Properties With Sorption Characteristics of Nonpolar
Compounds by Soils and Sediments: Concepts and Limitations. In:
Proceedings of the Fourth Life Sciences Symposium, Environment and Solid
Wastes, Gatlinburg, TN, October 4-8, 1981. pp. 359-367, 449-482.
Hassett, John J., W.L. Banwart, and Robert A. Griffin. 1983. Correlation of
Compound Properties With Sorption Characteristics of Nonpolar Compounds by
Soils and Sediments: Concepts and Limitations. In: Proceedings of the 4th
Life Sciences Symposium, USA and London, pp. 161-178.
Hauser, Thomas R., and Steven M. Bromberg. 1982. EPA's Monitoring Program at
Love Canal 1980. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2:249-271.
Havens, Richard, and Karl C. Dean. 1969. Chemical Stabilization of the Uranium
Uranium Tailings at Tuba City, Arizona. Department of Interior. U.S. Bureau
of Mines Report No. RI7288.
Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute. 1982. National Conference on
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. Nov. 29-Dec. 1, 1982,
Washington, DC.
Helling, C.S. 1970. Movement of s-triazine Herbicides in Soils. Residue
Rev., 31:175-210.
Helling, C.S., and J. Dragun. 1981. Soil Leaching Tests for Toxic Organic
Chemicals. In: Test Protocols for Environmental Fate and Movement of
Toxicants. Office of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.
IS8N-0-935584-20-X.
Heron, T.M., J.F. Kelly, and P.G. Haataja. 1984. Validation of the Industrial
Source Complex Dispersion Model in a Rural Setting. M r Pollution Control
Association Journal, Vol. 31, No. 4:365-369, April.
Hodgin, C.R. 1982. Near-Surface Meteorological Conditions Associated With
Active Resuspension of Oust by Wind Erosion. Rockwell International
Corporation. DOE. NTIS DE83-006272.
126
-------
Hodgin, C.R. 1982. Mechanical Resuspension of 239 PU From Unpaved Roads.
Rockwell International Corporation, DOE. NTIS DE83-006271.
Hodgin, C.R. 1982. Receptor-Based Technique for Determining Impacts of
Wind-Resuspended Participates. Rockwell International Corporation, DOE.
NTIS DE83-006273.
Hoffman, D.L., and D.E. Rolston. 1980. Transport of Organic Phosphate in Soil
as Affected by Soil Type. Soil Sci. of Soc. of Amer. J., 44(l):46-52.
Horzempa, Lewis M., and Dominic M. Di Toro. 1983. The Extent of Reversibility
of Polychlorinated Biphenyl-Adsorption. Abstract. Water Res.,
17(8):851-859.
Horzempa, L.M., and D.M. Di Toro. 1983. PCB Partitioning in Sediment-Water
Systems: The Effect of Sediment Concentration. Abstract. J. Environ.
Quality, 12(3):373-380.
Howard, Alan D., Jeffrey B. Morton, Mohamed Gal-el-Hak, and Deborah B. Pierce.
1977. Simulation Model of Erosion and Deposition on a Barchan Dune.
Contract/Grant No. -NGR 47-005-172, NASA, Washington, DC, April.
Hutchinson, T.C., and L.M. Whitby. 1974. Heavy-metal Pollution in the Sudbury
Mining and Smelting Region of Canada, I. Soil and Vegetation Contamination
by Nickel, Copper, and Other Metals. Environmental Conservation, Vol. 1, No.
2:123—132, Summer.
Hutzler, Neil J., John C. Crittenden, J.L. Oravitz, and P.A. Schaepe. 1983.
Groundwater Transport of Chlorinated Organic Compounds. Preprint Extended
Abstract. Paper No. 178. American Chem.-Soc., Div. of Environ. Chem.,
23(2):499-502.
Hwang, Seong T., and L.J. Thibodeaux. 1983. Measuring Volatile Chemical
Emission Rates From Large Waste Disposal Facilities. Environmental Progress,
Vol. 2, No. 2, 81-86, May.
Iskander, I.K., S.T. Quarry, R.E. Bates, and J. Ingersoll. 1979.
Documentation of Soil Characteristics and Climatology During Five Years of
Wastewater Application to CRRE1 Test Cells. Special Report 79-23. U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, July.
Istvan, L.B., B.N. Haack, R.E. Sampson, and F.J. Tarn's. 1978. Environmental
Monitoring and Analysis in Support of Antrim Oil Shale Research. Department
of Energy. Contract No. EX-76-C-0/-2346, Environmental Research Institute of
Michigan, March, p. 103.
JACA Corporation. April 1984. Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste, Proceedings
of the Tenth Annual Research Symposium at Fort Mitchell, Kentucky, April 3-5,
1984. EPA-600/9-84-007. Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office
of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio. pp. 172-180.
Jat, N.R., P.R. Yadav, and B.P. Srivastana. 1981. Persistence of Parathion
Residues in Clay Loam Soil Under the Cover of Maize Crop. Indian J. Ent.,
43(3):272-278.
127
-------
Johnson, Lt. Richard 0., et al. 1978. Selected Chemical Characteristics of
Soils, Forages, and Drainage Water From the Sewage Farm Serving Melbourne,
Australia. NTIS-AD-A019 586, Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC, Jan.
Jury, W.A., W.F. Spencer, and W.J. Farmer. 1983. Behavior Assessment Model
for Trace Organics in Soil I: Model Description. Abstract. J. Environ.
Quality, 12(4):558-564.
Jutze, G., and K. Axetell. 1974. Investigation of Fugitive Dust Vol.
1—Sources, Emissions, and Control. EPA-450/3-74-036a, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, PEDCo Environmental Inc., Cincinnati, OH, June.
Kalika, P.M., R.E. Kenson, and P.T. Bartlett. 1976. Development of Procedures
for the Measurement of Fugitive Emissions. Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA-600/2-76-284, NTIS PB-253992.
Kansouh, A.S., and S.M. Hafez. 1976-1977. Influence of Soil Contamination
With Pesticidal Sprays on the Magnitude of Mite Fauna. Bulletin Ent. Soc.
Egypt, Econ. Ser. 10:37-40.
Karickhoff, Samuel W. (No Date). Draft, Chapter 3 -Pollutant Sorption in
Environmental Systems. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia,
undated, pp. 1-31.
Karickhoff, Samuel W. 1981. Semi-Empirical Estimation of Sorption of
Hydrophobic Pollutants on Natural Sediments and Soils. EPA-600/J-81-147,
NTIS PB82-206020, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, May.
Chemosphere, 10(8):833-846.
Karickhoff, Samuel W., David S. Brown, and Trudy A. Scott. 1979. Sorption of
Hydrophobic Pollutants on Natural Sediments. Water Research, 13:241-248.
Karickhoff, S.W. 1983. Sorption Kinetics of Hydrophobic Pollutants in Natural
Sediments. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 65. American Chemical
Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry. 23(2):188.
Keizer, M.G., Tielbeek Houghiemstra, M. and F.A.M. de Haan. 1982.
Contamination of Soil and Street Dust With Lead and Cadmium Near a Lead
Smelter at Arnhem, Netherlands. Netherland Journal of Agricultural Science,
Vol. 29: 227-235, March 30.
Kenaga, E.E., and C.A.I. Goring. 1978. Relationships Between Water
Solubility, Soi1-Sorption, Octanol-Water Partitioning, and Bio-concentration
of Chemicals in Biota. Pre-publication copy of paper dated October 13, 1978,
given at the American Society for Testing and Materials, Third Aquatic
Toxicology Symposium, October 17-18, 1978, New Orleans, LA. (Symp. papers
published by ASTM Phil, PA, as Special Technical publication (STP) 707 in
March 1980). Cited in Lyman (1981).
Kennedy; W.E., Jr., and 3.A. Napier- 1983. Allowable Residual Contamination
Levels for Decommissioning Facilities in the 100 Areas of the Hanford Site.
Department of Energy. Pacific Northwest Lab., Richland, WA. DOE 83016642*
Contract No. DE-AC06-76RLO 1330.
128
-------
Khalid, B.Y., B.M. Salih, and M.W. Issac. 1981. Lead Contamination of Soil in
Baghdad City, Iraq.. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicol,
27:634-638.
Kilzer, L., I. Scheunert, H. Geyer, W. Klein, and F. Korte. 1979. Laboratory
Screening of the Volatilization Rates of Organic Chemicals From Water and
Soil. Chemosphere, No. 10, pp. 751-761.
King, J. (compiler) 1979. Third Symposium on Fugitive Emissions-Measurement
and Control. Environmental Protection Agency.
King, Paul A. (editor). 1983. National Construction Estimator, Thirty-First
Edition. Craftsman Book Company, Carlsbad, CA.
Kleopfer, R.D., K. Yue, and W.W. Bunn. 1983. Determination of 2,3,7,8 -TCDD
in Soil. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 74. American Chemical
Society, Division of Environ. Chem. 23(2):212-214.
Knighton, M. Dean. 1978. Soil Changes After Hay Meadow Abandonment in
Southwestern Wisconsin. NTIS PB-275 955, North Central Forest Experiment
Station, St. Paul, MN, January.
Kopsick, Deborah A. 1982. Field Investigation of an Abandoned Pesticide
Formulation Plant. National Symposium.
Kulkarni, R.K. 1983. Asphalt Fixation of Hazardous Wastes Containing Heavy
Metal Salts. Preprint Extended Abstracts. Paper No. 45. American Chemical
Society. Division of Environmental Chemistry. 23(2):127-130.
Laak, Rein. 1981. On-Site Soil Systems, Nitrogen Removal. Alternative
Wastewater Treatement: Low Cost Sm. Systems, Sept. 7-10. pp. 128-143.
LaFleur, Kermit S. 1976. Movement of Carbaryl Through Congaree Soil Into
Groundwater. Journal of Environmental Quality, 5(l):91-92.
LaFleur, K.S., W.R. McCaskill, and D.S. Adams. 1975. Movement of Prometryne
Through Congaree Soil Into Groundwater. Journal of Environmental Quality,
4(1):132-133.
Lafornara, Joseph P. 1978. Cleanup after Spills of Toxic Substances. J. WPCF
Vol. 50(4):617-627, April.
Lagar, Emery C. 1976. Damage Incidents From Improper Land Disposal. Journal
of Hazardous Materials, 1:157-164.
Lagerwerff, J.V., and W.D. Kemper. 1975. Reclamation of Soils Contaminated
With Radioactive Strontium. Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol.
39:(6):1077-1080.
Lai, R.J., and Him Wu. 1978. Wind Erosion and Deposition Along a Coastal Sand
Dune. NTIS PB-289203, University of Delaware, College of Marine Studies,
Newark, Delaware, September.
129
-------
Lang, Donald C., and Oavid B. Smith. No Date. Estimating Fugitive Oust
Contributions to Ambient Participate Levels in the Vicinity of Steel Mills by
Use of a Snow Cover Criterion. Inland Steel Company, East Chicago, IN,
Langer, G. 1982. Activity, Size, and Flux of Resuspended Particles From Rocky
Flats Soil. NTIS DE83-006265, Rockwell International Corporation.
Larson, A.G., O.L. Shearer, D.C. Orehmel, and 6.W. Schanche. 1981. Evaluation
of the Effectiveness of Civil Engineering Fabrics and Chemical Stabilizers
and the Reduction of Fugitive Emissions From Unpaved Roads. Presented at
74th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Philadelphia,
PA. Cited in Miller, 1983.
Lawrence, Robert 1983. The Use of Fabric Windscreens for Fugitive Dust
Control. SP-51, APCA, pp. 142-147. April.
Lee, S.Y., T. Tamura, and I.L. Larsen. 1983. Characterization of
Pu-Contaminated Soils From Nuclear Site 201 at the Nevada Test Site. Oak
Ridge National Laboratory.
Lee, S.Y., and T. Tamura. 1981. Distribution and Characterization of
Radionuclides in Soils From the Nevada Test Site. Journal of Environmental
Quality, Vol. 10, No. 2:234-239.
Levene, Barry, and Dennis Drehmel. 1981. Keeping Dust Under the Carpet.
EPA-600/J-81-521, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC. Pollution Engineering, June:38-40.
Li, C.T., M.R. Elmore, and J.N. Hartley. 1983. Review of Fugitive Dust
Control for Uranium Mill Tailings. Pacific Northwest Laboratory (Battelle)
PNL-4360. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission NUREG/CR-2856.
Liberti, L., and M. Polemic. 1981. Arsenic Accidental Soil Contamination Near
'Manf redonia: A Case History. Environmental Science Health Journal,
A16:297-314.
Lipsky, Oavid, and Paul Galuzzi. 1982. The Investigation of Mercury
Contamination in the Vicinity of Berry's Creek. In: Proceedings of
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, National Symposium, EPA
Nov. 29-Dec. 1, p. 81.
Logan, Terry J., and Robert H. Miller. 1983. Background'Levels of Heavy
Metals in Ohio Farm Soils. Ohio Agr. Res. and Development Center, Research
Circular, #375, February pp. 3-15.
Londergan, R.J., D.R. Murray, N.E. Boune, and H. Borenstein. 1980. A
Comparison of Predictions From Standard Short-Term Air Quality Models with
Observed Tracer Dispersion. Second Joint Conference on Applications of Air
Pollution Meteorology. Sponsored by the American Meteorological Society,
March 24-27, 1980 and Second Conference on Industrial Meteorology. Sponsored
by the American Meteorol. Society, March 28. pp. 642-649.
Lu, James C.S., et al. 1978. Characterization of Confined Disposal Area
Iffluent and Effluent Particulate and Petroleum Fractions. Technical Report
D-78-16, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, May
130
-------
Lucas, R.E., J.B. Holtman, and L.J. Connor.
Cropping Practices (Design and Management
PB-283702, Michigan State University,
1976. Soil Carbon Dynamics
of Rural Ecosystems). NTIS
East Lansing, May.
and
Lutton, R.J., et al. 1979. Design and Construction of Covers for Solid Waste
Landfills. EPA-600/2-79-165, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Solid and
Hazardous Waste Research Division, Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. NTIS PB80-100381.
Lyles, L., and D. Armbrust. 1969. Spray-on Adhesives for Temporary Wind
Erosion Control. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation.
Sept./Oct.:190-193.
Lyman, Warren J. 1981. Adsorption Coefficient for Soils and Sediments. In:
Research and Development of Methods for Estimating Physicochemical Properties
of Organic Compounds of Environmental Concern. Warren J. Lyman, William F.
Reehl, and David H. Rosenblatt. Arthur D. Little, Inc. U.S. Army Medical
Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD. Report No.
C-82426.
Lyman, W.J., W.F. Reehl, and D.H. Rosenblatt. 1982. Handbook of Chemical
Properties Estimation Methods, Environmental Behavior of Organic Compounds.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Magoon, Orville T., and Hugh Converse. Editors. Vol. Ill, Coastal Zone 1983.
Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, San
Diego, California. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. June 1-4,
1983.
Makhon'ko, K.P. March-April 1981. Use of Parameters of Wind Uptake of Aerosol
Contaminants From the Soil Surface for the Calculation of Foil age
Contamination. The Soviet Journal of Ecology, Vol. 12(2):102-106.
Marchand, Dennis. 1970. Soil Contamination in the White Mountains, Eastern
California. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 81:2497-2506.
Marple, Virgil, et al. 1980. Fugitive Dust Study of an Open Pit Coal Dune.
Minnesota University, Minneapolis Particle Technology Laboratory, NTIS
PB82-183112, September.
Martin, D. 1982. The Influence of Aggregate Pile Shape and Orientation on
Particulate Fugitive Emissions. Third Symposium on Transfer and Utilization
of Particulate Control Technology.
Mason, Benjamin J. 1981. Chapter 29, Field Data Collection at Abandoned Waste
Disposal Sites: Problems in Data Gathering. In: Proceedings of the Fourth
Life Sciences Symposium, Envir. and Solid Wastes, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Gatlinburg, TN, October 4-8.
Mattigod, Shas, and Garrison Sposito. 1979. Chemical Modeling of Trace Metal
Equilibria in Contaminated Soil Solutions Using the Computer Program GEOCHEM.
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences. ACS
0-8412-0479-9/79/47-093-837.
131
-------
Maun, Charles 0., and Chatten C. Cowherd, Jr. 1977. Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors, Third Edition. U.S. EPA, RTP, NC. AP-42, Part
B.
Maxwell, O.R., J.A. Ives, and T.R. HormeT. 1982. The Atlantic Richfield
Company Black Thunder Mine Haul Road Dust Study. Presented at 75th Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, New Orleans, LA. Cited in
Miller, 1983.
McCaldin, Roy 0., and Karen J. Heidel. 1978. Particulate Emissions From
Vehicle Travel Over Unpaved Roads. For Presentation at the 71st Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Houston, Texas, June 25-30,
1978.
McDuffie, B., et al. 1980. Environmental Factors in Application of Liquid
Sludge to Upstate N.Y. Farmlands. NTIS PB80-225352, State University of New
York at Binghamton, Dept. of Chemistry. Project No. 8-070 NY, January.
McKell, C.M., and Gordan Van Epps. 1980. Vegetative Rehabilitation of and Land
Disturbed in the Development of Oil Shale and Coal. Environmental Protection
Agency. EPA-600/7-80-071.
McPherson, Benjamin F., and Wayne Sonntag. 1983. Sediment and Nutrient Loads
Associated With a Tropical Storm, Loxahatchee River Estuary, Southeastern
Florida. ASCE Coastal Zone: Proceedings of the Symposium on Coastal and
Ocean Management, pp. 2250.
Means, J.C. 1983. Affinity of Selected Aromatic Amines for Dissolved Organic
Carbon in Subsurface Waters. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 92.
American Chemical Society, Div. of Environ. Chem. 23(2): 250-251.
Means, Jay C., Susanne G. Wood, John J. Hassett, and Wayne L. Banwart. 1980.
Sorption of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Sediments and Soils.
Environ. Sci. and Techno!., 14(12):1524-1528. Dec.
Melcer, Michael E., and John P. Hassett. 1983. Characterization of Humic
Substances From the Oneida Lake Watershed. American Chemical Society, Div.
of Env. Chem. 23(2):379-381.
Meyer, W.L. Personal Communications, 1984.
Meyer, W.L. 1982. Design and Construction of the North Carolina PCS Landfill,
Department of Human Resources, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Branch,
Raleigh, NC.
Milde, G., K. Aurand, H. Dizer, Z. Filip, J.V. Kunowski , and V. Nenmayr. 1981.
Dynamics of Soil and Groundwater Pollution by Irrigation of Sewage. Nat'l
Inst. for Water Supply. In: Proceedings of an International Symposium,
Quality of Groundwater, March, pp. 297-303.
Miller, Michael J., E.L. Currier, and B.D. Neal. 1982. Fugitive Dust
Emissions From Coal-Fired Power Plants. Electric Power Research Plant.
APCA Specialty Conference SP-51. pp. 54-68.
132
-------
Mills, M.T., R.C. Dahlman, and J.S. Olson. 1974. Ground Level Air
Concentrations of Dust Particles Downwind From a Tailings Area During A
Typical Windstorm, ORNL-TM-4375. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Mitre Corporation. June 1983. Air Emission Control Practices at Hazardous
Waste Management Facilities. Office of Solid Waste, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Morwald, Gunther J. 1983. Dufasco's Fugitive Dust Control Program. Dofasco,
Inc., Ontario, Canada, Control Association, SP-51, April:160-166.
Mousny, J.M., and C. Myttenaere. 1981. Absorption of Technetium by Plants in
Relation to Soil Type, Contamination Level and Time. Plant and Soil,
Journal, Vol. 61:403.
Muir, D.C.G., B.E. Townsend, G.R.B. Webster= 1983. Bioavailability of
i*C-l,3,6,8 -Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin and ^C-Octachlorodibenzodioxin to
Aquatic Insects in Sediment and Water. Preprint Extended Abstracts. Paper
No. 29, American Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry,
23(2):81-83.
Mulla, D.J., A.L. Page, and T.J. Gauge. 1980. Cadmium Accumulations and
Bioavailability in Soils From Long-term Phosphorus Fertilization.
Environmental Quality Journal, Vol. 9, No. 3:408.
Muller, B.W., A.R. Brodd, and J.P. Leo. 1983. Hazardous Waste Remedial Action
-Picillo Farm, Coventry. Rhode Island: An Overview. Journal of Hazardous
Materials, 1:113-129.
Mullins, J.W., E.P. Richitt, Jr., S.C. Black, G.T. Flatman, and S.J. Simon.
1983. Assessing Soil Lead Contamination in Dallas, Texas. Preprint Extended
Abstract. Paper No. 46. American Chemical Society, Division of
Environmental Chemistry. 23(2):131.
Murali, V., and L.A.G. Aylmore. 1983. Competitive Adsorption During Solute
Transport in Soils: 2. Simulations of Competitive Adsorption. Soil Science,
135(4):203-213. April.
Nguyen, Y.V., and M.R. Booth. 1980. Identification and Control of Sources of
Airborne Coal Dust at Large Storage Coal Piles. Presented at 73rd Annual
Meeting of Air Pollution Control Association, Montreal, Quebec. Cited in
Miller, 1983.
Nimerick, K.H., and G.P. Loflin. 1979. In-transit Wind Erosion Losses of Coal
and Methods of Control. Society of Mining Engineers.
NUS Corporation. 1982. Area Environmental Characterization Report of the
Dalhart and Palo Duro Basins in the Texas Panhandle. NUS Corporation.
Odum, J.V. 1976. Soil Contamination Adjacent to Waste Tank B. Energy
Research and Development Administration. NTIS DPSPU-76-11-4.
133
-------
Orlemann, O.A., et al. 1980. Reasonably Available Control Measures for
Fugitive Dust Sources (Final Report). Ohio State Environmental Protection
Agency, Columbus, Office of Air Pollution Control, NTIS PB82-103805.
Palmer, Kenneth T., and Clair Kucera. 1980. Lead Contamination of Sycamore and
Soil From Lead Mining and Smelting Operations in Eastern Missouri.
Environmental Quality Journal, Vol., 9, No. 1:106-111.
Peck, Donald Elmer. 1977. The Adsorption-Desorption-of Diuron by Freshwater
Sediments. NTIS PB-288411, California University, Department of Soil Science
and Agricultural Engineering, June.
PEDCo Environmental. 1974. Investigation of Fugitive Dust. Volume I,
Sources, Emissions, and Control. EPA-450/3-74-036, EPA-600/2-78-050; NTIS
PB-281322.
PEDCo Environmental. 1977. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial
Process Fugitive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
PEDCo Environmental. 1978. Survey of Fugitive Dust From Coal Mines.
EPA-908/1-78-003. EPA Office of Energy Activities, Denver, CO. Cited in
Miller, 1983.
PEDCo Environmental. 1979. Development of Air Pollution Control Cost
Functions for the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry. EPA-450/1-80-001,
Contract No. 68-01-4600, PN 315, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. July.
Pedersen, Tom A., et al. 1978. Comparison of Some Properties of Mine Soils
and Contiguous Natural Soils. EPA-600/7-78-162, NTIS PB-296824, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, August.
Perfect, T.J., A.G. Cook, B.R. Critchley, U. Critchley, A.L. Oavies, M.J.
Swift, A. Russell-Smith, and R. Yeadon. 1979, The Effect of DDT
Contamination on the Productivity of a Cultivated Forest Soil in the
Sub-Humid Tropics. Journal of Applied Ecology.
Pertig, L.H., E.J. Monke, and G.R. Foster. 1982. Characterization of Eroded
Soil Particles From Intern'11 Areas. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers. Summer meeting, paper No. 82-2038.
Petersen, William B., and S. Rao. 1979. Long Island Expressway Dispersion
Experiment. In: Proceedings on Symposium on Turbul. Oiffus, and Air
Pollution of the American Meteorology Society, 4th Prepr. Reno, NV, Jan
15-18, pp. 421-428.
Peterson, Howard 3., and Ralph Monk. 1967. Vegetation and Metal Toxicity in
Relation to Mine and Mill Wastes. Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah
State University. Circular 148.
Petruzzelli, G., G. Guidi, and L. Lubrano. 1981. Influence of Organic Matter
on Lead Adsorption by Soil. Institute for Soil Chemistry, Pisa Z.
Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenkd., 144:74-76.
134
-------
Polemic, M., N. Senesi, and S.A. Bufo. 1982. Soil Contamination by Metals - A
Survey in Industrial and Rural Areas of Southern Italy. The Science of the
Total Environment, 25:71-79.
Portelli, R.V. 1980. A Comparative Study of Experimentally Measured
Atmospheric Stability and Star Program Predictions. Second Joint Conference
on Applications of Air Pollution Meteor., sponsored by the Am. Meteorol.
Soc., March 24-27, 1980 and Second Conf. on Industrial Meteorol., sponsored
by the Am. Meteorol. Soc., March 28. pp. 133-139.
Rao, P.S.C., V.E. Berkheiser, and L.T. Ou (editors). 1984. Estimation of
Parameters for Modeling the Behavior of Selected Pesticides and
Orthophosphate. EPA-600/3-84-019, NTIS PB84-148774, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, January.
Rao, P.S.C., and J.M. Davidson. 1978. Adsorption and Movement of Selected
Pesticides at High Concentrations In Soils. Water Research, 13:375-380.
Rao, P.S.C., and J.M. Davidson. 1980. Estimation of Pesticide Retention and
Transformation Parameters Required in Nonpoint Source Pollution Models. In:
Environmental Impact of Nonpoint Source Pollution; M.R. Overcash and J.M.
Davidson (eds), Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.
Rao, P.S.C., and J.M. Davidson (editors). 1982. Retention and Transformation
of Selected Pesticides and Phosphorus in Soil water Systems: A Critical
Review. EPA-600/3-82-060, NTIS PB82-256884, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Athens, Georgia, May.
Rao, P.S.C., A.G. Hornsby, and P. Nkedi-Kizza. 1983. Influence of Solvent
Mixtures on Sorption and Transport of Toxic Organic Compounds in the
Subsurface Environment. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 67. American
Chemical Society, Division of Environ. Chem. 23(2):191-192.
Reinhard, M., and G.D. Hopkins. 1983. Estimating Retardation of Halogenated
Volatiles in a Sandy Acquifer Using Soil Column Chromatography. Preprint
Extended Abstract. Paper No. 69. American Chemical Society, Division of
Environmental Chemistry. 23(2): 195-197.
Reinhold, Robert. 1983. Missouri Dioxin Cleanup: A Decade of Little Action.
New York Times. February 20, 1983:1, 54.
Reinhold, K.A., et al. 1979. Adsorption of Energy-Related Organic Pollutants:
A Lit. Review. Prepared for U.S. EPA by Institute for Environmental Studies,
Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL. EPA/600/01. NTIS
PB-80-105117.
Research Triangle Institute. February 1979. Assessment of the Use of Fugitive
Emission Control Devices. EPA-600/7-79-045. Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory, Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
135
-------
Research Triangle Institute. (RTI) 1984. Regulatory Impact Analysis for
Characteristic Approach to Regulations of 40 Organic Constituents. Working
Draft. Submitted to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste.
Richardson, J.L., et al. 1979. Soil-Water Retention, Transmission, and
Quality of Leachate From Polymer-Treated Soils, Effects of the In Situ
Cross!inking. NTIS PB80-175342, North Dakota Water Resources Research
Institute, Fargo, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, October.
Richter, Richard 0. 1983. Sorption Reactions Involving Chlorinated Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons and Soils in Aqueous Systems. Preprint Extended Abstract.
Paper No. 68, American Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chem.
23(2): . 193-194.
Ritter, William F., and A.E.M. Chirnside. 1982. Impact of Land Use on
Ground-Water Quality. For Presentation at the 1982 Winter Meeting, American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, Dec. 14-17, paper No. 82-2551.
Roberts, John W., Harry A. Walters, Carl A. Mangold, and August T. Rossano.
1975., Cost and Benefits of Road Dust Control in Seattle's Industrial
Valley. Air Pollution Control Association Journal, Vol. 25, No. 9, 948-950,
September.
Roberts, R.D., and Johnson, M.S. 1978. Disposal of Heavy Metals From
Abandoned Mine Workings and Their Transference Through Terrestrial Food
Chains. Environmental Pollution, 16(4):293-310.
Roberts, Paul V., and Albert J. Valocchi. 1981. Principles of Organic
Contaminant Behavior During Artificial Recharge. Studies in" Environmental
Science. Published by Elsevier Science Publishing Company, NY, pp. 439-450.
Robinson, K.E., et al. 1981. Floodplain Disposal of Mill Tailings. Vol. I
Text. Greater Shoshone County, Inc., Wallace, Idaho, NTIS PB83-170779,
October, 68 p.
Rodgers, Sheridan J. 1978. Improved Dust Control at Chutes, Dumps, Transfer
Points and Crushers in Noncoal Mining Operations. U.S. Bureau of Mines.
NTIS PB-297-422.
Rolston, Dennis E., and Francis E. Broadbent. 1977. Field Measurement of
Denitrification. EPA-600/2-77-233, NTIS PB276 998, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Ada, OK, November.
Rosbury, Keith D. 1984. Fugitive Dust Control Techniques at Hazardous Waste
Sites. Interim Technical Report No. 1 -Proposed Field Sampling Plan.
Contract No. 68-02-3512 W/\ 61. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, March.
Rosbury, Keith D., and Robert A. Zimmer. 1983. Cost-Effectiveness of Dust
Suppressants on Surface Coal Mine Haul Roads. For Presentation at the 76th
Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Atlanta. GA. Pacer
No. 83-39.2. ' V
136
-------
Rosbury, Keith D., and Robert A. Zimmer. 1984. Fugitive Dust Control
Techniques at Hazardous Waste Sites. Interim Technical Report No. 2
-Proposed Field Sampling Plan. Contract No. 68-02-3512 WA 61 U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, OH, March.
Rovers, F.A., and G.J. Farquhar. 1974. Evaluating Contaminant Attenuation in
the Soil to Improve Landfill Selection and Design. Proc. Int. Conference on
Land for Waste Management, pp. 161-173.
Rulkens, W.H., J.W. Assink, and W.J. Van Gemert. 1982. Development of an
Installation for On-Site Treatment of Soil Contaminated With Organic Bromine
Compounds. Paper delivered at the EPA National Symposium on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites.
Runnels, R.T. 1983. Fugitive Dust Control at a Dry Process Cement Plant.
The Monarch Cement Company. APCA Paper No. 83-39.4.
Russell, David, and Charles S. Caruso. 1983. A Study of Cost-Effective
Chemical Dust Suppressants for Use on Unpaved Roads in the Iron and Steel
Industry. Presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the APCA, Atlanta, GA.
Rutherford, R.K., and C.R. Bray. 1979. Extent and Distribution of Soil Heavy
Metal Contamination Near a Nickel Smelter at Coniston, Ontario.
Environmental Quality, Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2:219.
Ryan, J.P. 1983. Groundwater Monitoring in the Savannah River Plant Low-Level
Waste Burial Ground: A Summary and Interpretation of the Analytical Data.
DOE Report No. 83-209, Feb. 20.
Sartx, Richard S. 1976. Effect of Plantation Establishing of Soil and Soil
Water in Southwestern Wisconsin. NTIS PB-254 463, North Central Forest
Experiment Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, April.
Sawhney, Brij L., and Lester Hankin. 1982. Plants Take up PCBs From
Contaminated Soil. Frontiers of Plant Science. Fall: 5-7.
Sawhney, Brij L., and Lester Hankin. 1984. Plant Contamination by PCBs From
Amended Soils. Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 47, No. 3:232-236.
Scott, H.D., D.C. Wolf, and T.L. Lavy. 1983. Adsorption and Degradation of
Phenol at Low Concentrations in Soil. Abstract. J. Environ. Quality,
Schewe, George J. 1980. A Methodology for Studying the Air Quality Impact of
Industrial Sources. Proceedings, Second Joint Conference on Applications of
Air Pollution Meteor., sponsored by the American Meteorol . Society, March
24-27, 1980 and Second Conf. on Industrial Meteorol., sponsored by the Am.
Meterol. Soc. March 28 809-814
137
-------
Schweitzer, Glenn E. 1982. Assessing Soil Contamination at Love Canal. EPA,
In: Proceedings of Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites National
Symposium, Nov. 29-Oec. 1.
Schwendinger, R.B. 1968« Reclamation of Soil Contaminated With Oil. Journal
of Institute of Petroleum, 54(535):182-197.
Seine, Joseph S., and Lloyd L. Schulman. 1980. Modeling Plume Rise From
Low-Level Buoyant Line and Point Sources. Second Joint Conference on
Applications of Air Pollution Meteorol., sponsored by the American Meteorol.
Soc., March 24-27, 1980 and Secorrd Conf. on Industrial Meteorol., sponsored
by the Am. Meteorol. Soc.s March 28. pp. 133-139.
Sehmel, G.A. 1977. Wind Erosion Research at an Uranium Mill Tailings Site.
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory. BNWL-SA-6447.
Sehmel, G.A. 1980. Particle Resuspension: A Review. Environmental Inter.,
4:107-127.
Sehmel, G.A., and P.O. Lloyd. 1974. Particle Resuspension Rates. In:
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Atmosphere-Surface, Exchange of
Particulate and Gaseous Pollutants, Richland, WA, September, pp. 846-858.
Siebel, R.J. 1976. Oust Control at a Transfer Point Using Foam and Water
Sprays. U.S. Bureau of Mines (Pittsburgh) Publication.
Shen, Thomas T., and T. James Tofflemire. 1980. Air Pollution Aspects of Land
Disposal of Toxic Wastes. Environmental Engineering Division Journal,
106(1)=211-226, February.
Shen, Thomas T., and Granville H. Sewell. 1982. Air Pollution Problems of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. In: National Conference on Management
of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA:76-80.
Shrimpton, David J., and Harry H. Shin. 1983. Estimating Fugitive Dust
Emissions from Coal Export Terminals. Raymond Kaiser Engineers, Inc.
Oakland, CA. In: APCA Specialty Conference SP-51, pp. 69-79.
Simmons, S.R., and A.D. Dotzenko. 1974. Proposed Indices for Estimating the
Inherent Wind Erodibility of Soils. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation.
Nov./Dec.:275-
Skidmore, E.L., and N.P. Woodruff. 1968. Wind Erosion Forces in the United
States and Their Use in Predicting Soil Loss. Agricultural Handbook No. 346.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Slade, D.H. 1968. Meteorology and Atomic Energy. U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. NTIS TID-24190.
Sleicher, Charles A., and John Hopcraft. 1984. Persistence of Pesticides in
Surface Soil and Relation to Sublimation. Environ. Sci . Techno!
18(7):514-518.
138
-------
Smit, P.P.A. 1980. Dust Concentrations Around Coal Stockpiles. The Science
of the Total Environmental J., 15:207-216.
Smith, W.J., F.W. Whicker, and H.R. Meyer. 1982. Review and Categorization of
Saltation, Suspension, and Resuspension Models. Nuclear Safety Journal,
23(6):685-699.
Song, Cal, Felix F. Chen, and Shao L. Soo. 1983. Wind Penetration into a
Porous Storage Pile and Use of Barriers. Environmental Science and
Technology; Vol. 17, No. 5:298-305.
Soo, S.L., J.C. Perez, and S. Rezakhany. 1981. Wind Velocity Distribution
Over Storage Piles and Use of Barriers. Presented at the Symposium on Iron
and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology for 1980, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, November 18, 1980. Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina.
Spawn, Peter D., Thomas J. Nunno, and Stephen G. Piper. 1980. Field
Evaluation of Fugitive Emissions From BOF Steelmaking Shops. In:
Proceedings of the Symposium on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement
Technology, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 1-19. EPA.
Springer, Charles, Louis J. Thibodeaux, and Chatrathi Shrikrishma. 1981.
Chapter -17, Simulations Study of the Volatilization of Polychlorinated
Biphenyls From Landfill Disposal Sites. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Life
Sciences Symposium, Environ, and Solid Wastes, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Gatlinburg, TN, October 4-8, 1981. pp. 359-367, 449-482.
Stecklein, Gary L., et al. 1982a. Basic Research on Coal Fragmentation and
Dust Entrainment. Vol. I—Technical Information. NTIS PB84-14344, Southwest
Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Contract No. J0215009, June.
Stecklein, Garyl L., et al. 1982b. Basic Research on Coal Fragmentation and
Dust Entrainment. Vol. II—Appendix Information. Southwest Research
Institute, San Antonio, Texas, NTIS PB84-143452, June.
Stevenson, F.J. 1976. Organic Matter Reactions Involving Pesticides in Soil.
In: Bound and Conjugated Pesticide Residues. ACS Symposium Series Monograph
29. Cited in RTI 1984.
Still, Cecil C., Tsung-Shih Hsu, and Richard Bartha. 1980. Soil-Bound
3,4-Dichloroaniline: Source of Contamination in Rice Grain. Bulletin
Environmental Contamination Toxicology, 24:550-554.
Stroud, Fred B., Barry G. Burrus, and John M. Gilbert. 1982. A Coordinated
Cleanup of the Old Hardin County Brickyard, West Point, KY. EPA National
Symposium on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites.
Stum, D.L. 1980. Fugitive Emission Calculations for Coal Storage Piles at the
254/MLGW Industrial Fuel Gas Demonstration Plant. Energy Impact Association
321 Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, 1980, DOE NTIS DE83-003119.
Sultan, H.A. 1976. Chemical Stabilization for Control of Dust and Traffic
Erosion. U. of Arizona, Transportation Research Board.
139
-------
Swann, R.L., O.A. Laskowski, P.J. McCall, K. Vander King, and H.J. Qi'shburger.
1983. A Rapid Method for the Estimation of the Environmental Parameters
Octano/Water Partition Coefficient, Soil Sorption Constant, Water to Air
Ratio, and Water Solubility. Residue Reviews, 85:17-23.
Tanis, F.J., and G.S. Thomas. 1979. Environmental Monitoring and Analysis in
Support of Antrim Oil Shale Research. Topical Report. Department of Energy.
Contract No. EX-76-C-01-2346.
Taylor, R.W., and G.F. Griffin. 1981. The Distribution of Topically Applied
Heavy Metals in the Soil. Plant and Soil, Vol. 62(1):147-152.
Temple, Patrick 0., and S. Bisessar. 1981. Uptake and Toxicity of Nickel and
Other Metals in Crops Grown on Soil Contaminated by a Nickel Refinery.
Plant Nutrition, Journal, 3(1-4) :473-482.
Tetra Tech, Inc. The Integrated Lake-Watershed Acidification Study. In:
Proceedings of the ILWAS Annual Review Conference, Sagamore Lake, NY, October
8-10, 1980. DOE OE83-901460.
Tewhey, John D., Josh E. Sevee, and Richard L. Fortin. 1982. Silresim: A
Hazardous Waste Case Study. EPA National Symposium on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites.
Thayer, J.S., T.W. Brueggemeyer, G.J. Olson, F.E. Brinckman. 1983. The
Release of Metals From Sediments by lodomethane. Preprint Extended
Abstracts. Paper No. 170. American Chem. Soc., Div., of Environ. Chem.
23(2):476-478.
The Chemistry of Clay-Organic Reactions. London: Adam
Theng, B.K.G. '1974.
Hilger. Cited in RTI 1984.
Thibodeaux, Louis J., Charles Springer, and Guadalupe Hildebrand. 1984. Air
Emissions of Volatile Organic Chemicals From Landfills: A Pilot-Scale Study.
Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Research Symposium Land Disposal of Hazardous
Waste. EPA-600/9-84-007.
Third Symposium on Atmospheric Turbelence Diffusion and Air Quality. Second
Joint Conference on Applications of Air Pollution Meteor., sponsored by the
American Meteorol . Soc., March 24-27, 1980 and Second Conf. on Industrial
Meteorol., sponsored by the Am. Meteorol. Soc., October 19-22, 1976. Raleigh.
NC.
Thompson, Marshall R., and Quentin L. Robinett. 1976. Final Report, Resilient
Properties of Subgrade Soils. MTIS PB-263-899. Illinois University at
Urbana, Champaign. Dept. of Civil Engineering, June.
Thornthwaite, C.W. 1931. The Climates of North America According to a New
Classification. Geogr. Re.v. Journal, 21:633-655.
Tiernan, T.O.
J.G. Solch, G.F. VanNess, J.H. Garnett, D.J
1983. Analytical Methodology for
Ferguson, M.L. Taylor. 1983. Analytical Methodology for Determination of
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin in Soils. Preprint Extended Abstract.
Paper No. 75. American Chemical Society, Div. of Environ. Chem
23(2):215-217.
140
-------
Tiller, K.G., V.K. Nayyar, and P.M.
Sorption of Cadmium by Soil Clays
Research, Journal, Vol. 17:17-28.
Clayton. 1979.
as Influenced by
Specific and Non-specific
Zinc and Calcium. Soil
Tistinic, T. 1981. Fugitive Dust Emissions.
Colorado Dept. of Health. Cited in Miller,
Inter-office Communications,
1983. Dated Sept. 30, 1981.
Travis, John R. 1975. A Model for Predicting the Redistribution of Particulate
Contaminants From Soil Surfaces. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory,
University of California, LA-6035-MS
UNESCO. 1975. Soil Map of the World, Vol. II, North America United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations. Paris.
Unites, Dennis F., and John H. Housman. 1982. Field Investigation and
Remedial Action at a Site Contaminated With Coal Tars. University of
Wisconsin 5th Conference on Municipal and Industrial Waste Research and
Practice.
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. 1978. Chemical and Physical
Effects of Municipal Landfills on Underlying Soils and Groundwater.
EPA-600/2-78-096, NTIS PB-286836, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, May.
Usui, H. 1978. Soil Contamination and Revegetation in Ashio
Districts, Japan. Ecology and Coal Resource Development.
Pergamon.
Copper Mine
M.K. Wali,
vanGenuchten, M. Th. Solute Transport Through Structural Soils. 1983.
Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No.
Environ. Chem., 23(2):489-492.
175. American Chem. Soc., Div. of
Vanlocke, R., R. De Borger, J.P. Voets, and W. Verstraete. 1975. Soil and
Groundwater Contamination by Oil Spills; Problems and Remedies. Intern.
Journal of Environmental Studies, 8:99-111.
Venditti, F.P., J.A. Armstrong, and Michael Durham. 1979. Symposium on the
Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology. Environmental
Protection Agency. Four Volumes. EPA-600/7-79-044a,b,c,d.
Versar, Inc. 1983. Superfund Feasibility Study Manual Source Release,
Environmental Fate, Exposed Population, and Integrated Exposure Analyses.
Preliminary Draft. Contract No. 68-01-6271, Task No. 59/60, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Exposure Evaluation Division, Office of
Toxic Substances, Washington, DC, September.
Vogel, Gregory A., and Denis F. O'Sullivan. 1983. Air Emission Control
Practices at Hazardous Waste Management Facilities. Contract No. 68-01-6092,
MTR-83W89, MITRE Corporation, June.
Voice, T.
:, F.C., and W.J. Weber. 1983. Sorbent Concentration Effects in Liquid/
Solid Phase Partitioning. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 179.
American Chem. Soc., Div. of Environ. Chem., 23(2):503-505.
141
-------
Wahid, P.A., and Tl. Sethunathan. 1979. Sorption -Description of a, 0, and?
Isomers of Hexachlorocyclohexane in Soils. J. Agric. Food Chem.,
27(5):1050-1053.
Wahler, W.A., and Associates. 1978. Pollution Control Guidelines for Coal
Refuse Piles and Slurry Ponds. EPA-600/7-78/222, NTIS PB-291-369, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Palo Alto, CA.
Walker, Jearl. 1981. The Amateur Scientist. Science An., pp. 174-179.
Wallace, Michael J. 1979. Controlling Fugitive Emissions. Chemical
Engineering, Journal, 86(18):78-92, August 27.
Walsh, Gerald E. 1983. Determination of Bioactivity of Chemical Fractions of
Liquid Wastes Using Freshwater and Saltwater Algae and Crustaceaus.
EPA-600/J-33-023, NTIS PB82-23464, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf
Breeze, Florida, July.
Walters, R.W., R.G. Luthy. 1983. Adsorptive Behavior of Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons in Aqueous Systems. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 124.
American Chem. Soc., Div. of Environ. Chem. 23(2): 338-339.
Warner, Richard C., James E. Wilson, and Nathaniel Peters. 1984. Multiple Soil
Layer Hazardous Waste Landfill Cover: Design, Construction, Instrumentation,
and Monitoring. Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Research Symposium. Land
Disposal of Hazardous Waste. EPA-600/9-84-007.
Weant, George E. III., et al. 1978. Particulate Control for Fugitive Dust.
EPA-600/7-78/091, NTIS PB-282 269, Research Triangle Institute, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Weber, Walter J. Jr., Thomas C. Voice, Massoud Pirbazan, Gay E. Hunt, and Doug
M. Ulanoff. 1983. Sorption of Hydrophobic Compounds by Sediments, Soils,
and Suspended Solids -II. Water Res., 17(10):1443-1452.
Webster, G.R.3., L.P. Sarna, D.C.G. Muir. 1983. Kow of 1,3,6,8,-T4 COD and QQ
COD by Reverse Phase HPLC. .Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 116.
American Chem. Soc., Div. of Environ. Chem. 23(2):316-319.
Wells, Robert C., Howard M. Ellis, and John Flickinger. 1980. Development of
a Model for Emission and Dispersion of Fugitive Dust From Coal-Storage
Facilities. For Presentation at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, Montreal, Quebec, June 22-27, 1980.
Wikre, Dale L. 1978. Soil and Groundwater Contamination at a Coal Tar
Distillation and Wood Preserving Sits, St. Louis Park, MN. Abstract. Ground
Water Journal, Vol. 16(5) :366.
Williams, Donald Lee. 1974. Interaction Between Landfill Leachates and
Carbonate Derived Residual Soils. NTIS P8-291-463, Missouri University,
Columbia, Department of Geology, August.
142
-------
Wilson, J.T., W.J. Dunlop, R.L. Cosby, J.C. Chang, and W.C. Ghiorse. 1983.
Adaption of Groundwater Microorganisms at a Creosote Waste Disposal Site.
Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 109. American Chem. Soc., Oiv. of
Environ. Chem. 23(2):294-296.
Wilson, Lee. date(?). Application of the Wind Erosion Equation in Air
Pollution Surveys. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation.
Woodruff, Donald Lee. 1974. Interaction Between Landfill Leachates and
Carbonate Derived Residual Soils. PB-291 463, Missouri University, Columbia,
Department of Geology, August.
Woodruff, N.P., and F.H. Siddoway. 1965. A Wind Erosion Equation. Soil
Science Society, American Proceedings Journal, 29:602-608.
Woodruff, N.P., Leon Lyles, J.D. Dickerson, and D.V. Armbrust. 1974. Using
Cattle Feedlot Manure To Control Wind Erosion. Soil and Water Conservation
Journal, Vol. 29(3):127-129, May-June.
Wu, Jin. (No Date). Technical Note 1975 -Wind Erosion of Heated Surface
Layer. Water Research Journal, Vol. 9:1005-1007, undated.
Yalkowsky, S.H. 1983. Physical Chemical Parameters Relating to Sorption and
Partitioning. Preprint Extended Abstract. Paper No. 64. American Chemical
Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry. 23(2):186-187.
Yardley, O.K. 1980. Airborne Dust From Taconite Tailings. NTIS PB82-143173,
Minnesota University.
Yeadon, R. and T.J. Perfect. 1981. DDT Residues in Crop and Soil Resulting
From Application to COWPEA FIGNA UNGUICULATA (L) Walp. in the Sub-Humid
Tropics. Environmental Pollution (Series B), 2:275-294.
Young, A..L. date (?). Ecological Studies on a Herbicide -Equipment Test Area.
Young, A.L. 1983. Long-Term Studies on the Persistence and Movement of TCDD
in a Natural Ecosystem. Environmental Science Research, Vol. 26:173-190.
Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, and E.L. Arnold. date(?). Fate of 2,3,7,
8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the Environment. Summary and
Decontamination Recommendations.
Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, and D.D. Harrison. (No Date). Persistence,
Bioaccumulation and Toxicology of TCDD in an Ecosystem Treated with Massive
Quantities of 2, 4, 5-T Herbicide. American Chemical Society, undated.
Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, and W.E. Ward. (No Date). Studies of the Ecological
Impact of Repetitive Aerial Applications of Herbicides on the Ecosystem of
Test Area. Air Force Armament Laboratory, undated.
Yung, S., R. Parker, S. Calvert, and D. Drehmel. 1980. The SCAT System for
Fugitive Particle Emission Control. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on
Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology for 1980. EPA-600/9-81-017,
Philadelphia, PA. pp. 53-69. EPA.
143
-------
Zalkin, F., M. Wilkerson, and R.J. Oshima. 1984. Pesticide Movement to
Groundwater Vol. 1: Pesticide Contamination in the Soil Profile at OBCP,
EDB, Simazine and Carbofuran Application Sites. Oept. of Food and
Agricultural, Sacramentos CA.
Zenchelsky, S.T., A.C. Oelany, and R.A. Pickett, II. 1976. The Organic
Component of Wind-Blown Soil Aerosol as a Function of Wind Velocity, Soil
Science Journal, Vol. 22(3):129-132, September.
Zierath, D.L., J.J. Hassetts and W.L. Barnwart. 1980. Sorption of Benzioine
by Sediments and Soils. Abstract. Soil Sci., 129(5):277-281. May.
144
-------
APPENDIX A
EXAMPLE SITE EMISSION CALCULATIONS
145
-------
APPENDIX A
EXAMPLE SITE EMISSION CALCULATIONS
CALCULATIONS FOR EMISSION RATE: for five different sites.
1. Site 1:
Closed landfill (capped) with 40-acre flat disposal area covered with
contaminated soil.
Location: Dearborn, Michigan
(suburb of Detroit, Michigan)
Area = 40 acres = 40 x 4,074 m2
= 1.63 x 10s m2
= 403.7 x 403.7 m2
or 455.6 m circular area
Approximate site soil size distribution
% sand (2,000-75 Mm) - 35%
% silt (75-2 urn) - 35%
% clay (<2 urn) - 30%
100%
Approach Wind Erosion Equation:
As described in U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Handbook
No. 346, Skidmore and Woodruff (1968).
(i) % Dry soil fraction >840 (jm
assumed to be 10%
(This needs to be determined accurately by sieving of soil)
Soil credibility, I = 134 tons/acre-year
El = I = 134 tons/acre-year
(ii) For a flat and smooth field soil ridge roughness, K = 0 and the
soil ridge roughness factor, K', = 1.0 r
E2 = IK' = 134 tons/acre-year
146
-------
(iii) The climatic factor C' for Dearborn = 7% (annual average)
E3 = IK'C1
= 134 x 0.07
=9.4 tons/acre/year
(iv) Width of source ~ 400 m. (Assumed N-S)
Annual average wind direction = 127°
(East = 0, South = 90) with a preponderance factor, Rm, =1.6
(Data for Ypsilanti, Michigan)
Thus, deviation of wind direction with respect to N-S = 37°
Corrected field length factor kso
= 1.85 for Rm = 1.5
and = 2.15 for Rm = 2.1
for Rm = 1.6 K50 =1-9
Corrected field length
L1 = 1.9 x 400
= 760 m
~ 2,500 feet.
Now E4 = rK'C'f(L')
=9.3 tons/acre-year (from graph in handbook)
(v) Finally, assuming no vegetative cover over the landfill (V=0),
soil loss rate = E5 = E4 f(V)
= E4
=9.3 tons/acre-year
E =9.3 tons/acre-year.
This is total soil loss due to wind erosion. Due to the fineness of
soil, about 10% of the above value may be considered to be total suspended
participate (<30 urn) as opposed to a usual value of 2.5 to 3%.
total suspended particulate (TSP) emission rate
=0.93 ton/acre-year
Using 40-acre area, and I ton = 2,000 Ib
= 907.2 kg
The emission rate of TSP (<30 urn)
= 0.93 x 40 x 907.2 x 103 g/yr
= 3.375 x IQ7 g/yr
= 1.07 g/s.
147
-------
Gillette's (1972) work indicates that the size distribution of suspended
aerosols resembles that of its parent soil in the suspendable size range
(<30
Defining inhalable particulates (IP's) as those less than 10 urn, and
based on the size distribution of the soil, the IP/TSP ratio may be taken
approximately as 0.75. Observations by Axetell and Cowherd at a Western
surface coal mining site indicated an IP/TSP ratio for windblown emissions to
be 0.67. Windblown emissions from storage piles also generally have an IP/TSP
ratio in the range of 50 to 80%, where IP is defined as <10 urn and TSP is
defined as <30 urn.
Thus, 0.75 seems a reasonable ratio.
Therefore:
Emission rate of TSP = 1.Q7 g/s
Emission rate of IP = 0.8 g/s.
Estimated contamination of the soil is approximately 3,640 ppm of toluene.
Thus, the emission rate of toluene in the TSP's
= 1.07 x 3,640 x io"6
= 3.9 mg/s.
and in the IP's
=2.9 mg/s.
Similar calculations may also be performed using the unlimited erosion
potential equation given by Cowherd et al., in their May 1984 report. The
procedure outlined in that report is as follows:
For such a fine site soil size distribution, the size distribution mode
(50th percentile) may be taken as 10 urn.
The threshold friction velocity is ~10 cm/s, and a corrected friction
velocity to take into account larger size fractions may be taken as 20 cm/s.
•
Roughness height for a plowed field is -1.0 cm.
The corresponding ambient windspeed at 7 m from ground for onset of wind
erosion is ~15 x 20 cm/s.
U. - 3.0 m/s.
t ,
The emission rate for IP's may be expressed as:
E10 = A x (i-v) x [U]3 F(X),
148
-------
where
E10 = emission rate of inhalable participates in g/m2-h
* +. -m"13 fl"» s2
A = constant = 10 a — 5—
cm
• l°"3 ^
V = fraction of vegetative cover
[U] = mean annual windspeed, and
F(X) is a function of -r-r , where U is a threshold value of windspeed.
For the Dearborn, Michigan, area,
[U] -4.6 m/s.
and F(X) ~ 1.91.
Also V = 0
E10 = 10"3 x 1.0 x 4.6s x 1.91
= 0.186 g/m2-h
For the 40-acre site
Em = 8-4 g/s.
This value is about an order of magnitude higher than that calculated using
the wind erosion equation.
The main reason for this difference is the incorporation of a climatic
factor in the wind erosion equation of about 0.07. If the same factor is
applied to the MRI approach, E10 ~ 0.59 g/s, which is now comparable to the
WEE.
2. Site 2:
A 1-acre dried lagoon disposal pond in arid area with high evaporation
rates.
Location - California Desert near San Bernardino
149
-------
Area = 1 acre = 4,074 m2
= 64 x 64 m2
or = 72 m diameter circle.
Approximate site soil size distribution
% sand (2,000-75 Mm) - 50%
% silt (75-2 |jm) - 40%
% clay (<2 urn) - 10%
100%
Approach Wind Erosion Equation:
As the site is located in an area with a high evaporation rate and involves
a dried pond, the surface of the pond may be assumed to be fully crusted
throughout the year. The soil erodibility based on the dry soil size distribu-
tion may be divided by 6 to take into account the effect of crusting as recom-
mended by Skidmore and Woodruff (1968).
(i) The percent dry soil fraction >840 urn is assumed to be 15% (this
again needs to be determined accurately by soil sieving).
Soil erodibility = I = 117 tons/acre-year
To account for crusting:
Soil erodibility = I = ^
= 19.5 tons/acre-year
(ii) For a flat and smooth field the soil ridge roughness, k , = 0 and
the soil ridge roughness factor, k1, = 1.0 r
- E2 = IK'
= 19.5 tons/acre-year
(iii) The climatic factor, C' for the San Bernardino area (annual average)
is not available in climatic factor plots but may be estimated by:
u3
C1 = 34.483
where V is the annual mean wind speed, and P-E is the precipitation-
evaporation index.
The P-E index for San Bernardino - 14
and V ~ 9 mph (Las Vegas, NV)
150
-------
C1 = 34.483 x
= 128.3 %
Thus,
E3 = IK'C1
= 19.5 x 1.283
=25.0 tons/acre-year.
(iv) Width of source = 64 m (Assuming N-S orientation).
Annual average wind direction = 85°
with a preponderance factor, R = 1.4
(for Victorville north of San Bernardino in the desert)
Thus, the deviation of wind direction with respect to N-S = 5°
The corrected field length factor,
K50 = 1.9 for R =1.0
and =1.4 for R = 1.5
For Rm = 1.4, K55 = 1.5.
The corrected field length,
L1 = 64 x 1.5
= 96 m
L1 =315 ft.
Although the corrected field length of the source area is only 315 feet,
it may be located in a wider surrounding area of much longer unsheltered
length in the desert. Therefore, for a conservative estimate, no reduction in
the emission rate is assumed due to an effect of unsheltered length.
• — E4 = IK'C'fU') = 25.0 tons/acre-year.
(v) Finally for no vegetative cover (V=0), the total soil loss rate E
may be given by:
E = 25 tons/acre-year.
Due to a 50% silt or finer content of the soil, the suspendable fraction
may be assumed to be 5% (slightly higher than the 3% usually assumed).
The TSP emission rate (<30 urn)
= 25 x 0.05
= 1.25 tons/acre-year.
151
-------
For a 1-acre area source and 1 ton = 2,000 Ib,
The emission rate of TSP <30 urn = 1.25 x 1.0 x 907.2 x 103
= 1.134 x 10s g/yr
= 0.036 g/s
The fraction of inhalable particles in the total suspended particles may
be assumed to be similar to that in the parent soil size distribution in the
<30 urn range.
IP «10 um) Q fi
TSP (<30 Mm) °-5'
The emission rate of IP's
~ 0.6 x 0.036
- 0.022 g/s.
Contamination of the soil is estimated to be 55.7 ppm of Dieldrin._s
Therefore, the emission rate of Dieldrin in the TSP = 0.036 x 55.7 x 10 g/s
= 2.0 ug/s,
and Dieldrin emission in the inhalable size fraction = 1.23 ug/s.
Similar calculations may be carried out using the MRI report approach.
Since the soil surface is crusted in this case, the soil may be expected to
have limited erosion potential. A frequency of soil surface disturbance is
required to determine the emission rate from such a source. For the present
site, such a frequency of disturbance may be expected to negligible and no
significant emissions are expected.
3. Site 3:
Drum storage - A 10-ft soil strip surrounding a concrete pad 125 ft in
diameter. This site was used for temporary storage of drums before being
transported by aircraft from the concrete landing pad. During this time the
soil strip became contaminated. The site is no longer in use and no drums are
stored.
Location: Near Crestview, Florida.
Area - n x 135 x 10 ft2
- 4,240 ft2
Source width ~ 145 ft
Approximate site soil size distribution
152
-------
% sand (2,000-75 urn) - 90%
% silt (75-2 urn) - 7%
% clay (2 |jm or less) - 3%
100%
Approach Wind Erosion Equation:
(i) The percent dry soil fraction > 840 |jm is assumed to be 30%
(1/3 of the total sand fraction) for a conservative estimate.
Soil credibility = I = 74 tons/acre-year.
(ii) For a flat and smooth field, soil ridge roughness, K , = 0 and the
soil ridge roughness factor = K1 =1.0
E2 = IK1 =74 tons/acre-year
(iii) The climatic factor, C1, for the Crestview Area ~ 2%
~ 0.02
E3 = IK'C1
= 74 x 0.02
=1.5 tons/acre-year.
(iv) The width of the source area is fairly small, but the source may be
assumed to be located in a wide, unsheltered area for conservative
estimates.
In this case:
E4 = IK'C1 f(L') = E3
=1.5 tons/acre-year.
(v) For no vegetative cover over the source area (V=0), the total soil
loss rate, E, = E4
=1.5 tons/acre-year.
The emission rate of TSP's may further be assumed to be 2.5% of the
soil loss rate.
The emission rate of TSP's (<30 urn) ~ 1.5 x 0.025 ~ 0.04
tons/acre-year
Based on soil size distribution, the fraction of IP's in the TSP's may be
considered to be 0.6.
153
-------
Rate of emission of IP's
= 0.024 ton/acre-year
For a source area of 4,240 ft2:
c - - * * TCO 0.04 x (907.2 x 1Q3) 4.240
Em1SS1on rate of TSP = 365 x^4 x 3,600 X 43^560
= 1.12 x 10"4 g/s
Emission rate of TSP = 0.112 mg/s
Emission rate of IP = 0.067 mg/s.
Contamination of the soil is ~ 120 ppb of Dioxin.
-g
Therefore, the emission rate of dioxin in the TSP ~ 0.112 x 120 x 10 mg/s
~ 1.344 x io"5 Mg/s
- 13.44 pg/s;
and the emission rate of Dioxin in the IP ~ 8.06 pg/s
Calculations were not carried out using the Cowherd et al. (1984) approach
since the unlimited erosion potential equation does not take into account the
climatic correction factor and the frequency of disturbance value required for
the limited erosion potential equation is not available.
4. Site 4:
Haul road - A 1-km section of unpaved dirt road in open countryside.
Location - Central North Carolina (Goldsboro-Raleigh area)
To facilitate dispersion calculations, the 1-km section may be divided
into five sections of 200 m each, which may be considered individual point
sources in the atmospheric dispersion calculations.
A calculation developed by Cowherd et al. (1984) to estimate the emission
rate of IP's (<10 urn) may be used for this purpose. This equation is a modified
version of one given in AP-42. By comparing the two equations, the original
in AP-42 predicts total emission rate; the TSP fraction (<30 urn) is approximately
60% of total emissions. Further, half of the TSP may be assumed to be inhalable
(<10 urn) to arrive at the proposed equation by Cowherd et al. (1984).
The IP emission rate may be estimated by:
154
-------
where
E10 is the emission rate of IP's from an unpaved road per vehicle-kilometer
of travel, kg/VKT
s is the silt content of the road surface material, % (i.e., particles
smaller than 75 |jm)
S is the mean vehicle speed, km/h
W is the mean vehicle weight, Mg
w is the mean number of wheels
p is the number of days with at least 0.01 in. of precipitation per
year.
Approximate site soil size distribution:
% sand (2,000-75 jjm) 45%
% silt (75-2 urn) 35%
% clay (<2 Mm) 20%
100%
Considering heavy vehicle traffic with W = 10 Mg, w = 10 wheels,
S = 80 km/h, p for central North Carolina ~ 120, and s = 35 + 20 = 55%,
55,. ,80 °'8 ,10s0'3 /10s1'2 245
F - n ftc; ,,. , ,s /s
E10 - 0.85 (^jj) (24) (-7) (-g) 355
=16.9 kg/VKT
Considering traffic volume as 8 vehicles/day on all working days,
VKT/year = 8 x 5 x 52 x
= 416 km/yr
over the 200-m section of the road.
The emission rate of IP's from a 200-m section of the road
= 416 x 16.9
= 7,030.4 kg/yr
= 0.223 g/s
= 223 mg/s.
The rate of TSP emissions may be considered as twice the IP. Measurements by
Axetell and Cowherd (1981) on emissions from haul trucks on unpaved roads at a
Western surface coal mining site indicated that IP/TSP = 0.52.
155
-------
Thus, the emission rate of total suspendaDle particles = 446 mg/s.
Another correlation developed by Bohn et al. (1978) to estimate TSP
emissions from unpaved roads in the iron and steel industry may be used for
comparison.
Their equation is given as:
c - c Q /s ^ ,S s ,W>°'7 ,w °'5 365
E - 5.9 () () ()
where
E = Ib/VMT of TSP emissions (<30 urn)
S = vehicle speed in mph
W = vehicle weight in tons.
Using the data given before,
P - q q /55> ,50, ,10 x 2.2 °'7 ,1(K0'5 245
t - a.y (,12; t.30J ^ 2 x 3 ; (. 4J 365
.= 118.8 Ib/VMT
=33.7 kg/VKT.
Therefore, the emission rate of TSP (<30 urn) predicted by this equation (from
a 200-m section)
~ 33.7 x 416 kg/yr
- 0.445 g/s
- 445 mg/s
This rate is identical to that calculated by the first equation.
The emission rate of TSP from the 200-m section of contaminated road =
445 mg/s.
The emission rate of IP from the 200-m section of contaminated road =
223 mg/s.
156
-------
Contamination of the road soil is approximately 125 ppm of PCB (Aroclor
1260).
The emission rate of PCB in the TSP from a 200-m section of contaminated
road
= 445 mg/s x 125 x lo"6
= 0.0556 mg/s
= 55.6 (jg/s
The emission rate of PCB in the IP from a 200-m section of contaminated road
= 27.8 ug/s
5. Site 5:
Waste pile - 75 ft high with a 950-ft circumference at the base.
Location: Minera, Wales
The actual location is approximated to one located near Seattle/Tacoma
area in Washington. This location is chosen for its climatological similarity
to the Wales region and availability of climatic data for this area.
Diameter of base ~ 302 ft
Source area = 7.182 x 104 ft2
= 1.65 acres
An approximate waste pile particle size distribution, may be taken as 45%
silt (particles smaller than 75 urn).
The average emission rate from a waste pile due to wind erosion may be
estimated by an equation recommended by Cowherd et al. (1984). The equation
was originally developed from experiments on gravel and aggregate piles and
also from storage in piles iron and steel industry.
The emission rate of total suspended particles (TSP, <30 urn) is given by:
where
E is the emission rate of TSP in Ib/day/acre due to wind erosion
s is the silt content of pile, %
p is the number of days per year with at least 0.01 in. of precipitation
157
-------
f is the percentage of time that the unobstructed windspeed exceeds
12 mph at the mean pile height.
For the Seattle/Tacoma area, p = 180 and the assumed silt content = 45%
The percent of time the windspeed exceeds 12 mph at surface level = 36%
(at Seattle/Tacoma airport)
Since the pile height is 75 ft (25 m), the frequency of windspeed exceed-
ing 12 mph will be higher at the mid-pile height than that given at the ground
level (7 m above ground), which is 36%.
The percent of time that the windspeed exceeds 12 mph at the mean pile
height may be taken on 50% (f = 50).
Thus, using the above equation:
E - i 7 filo f365-180! (50,
E 1'7 C1.5; ( 235 ; C15J
= 133.8 Ib/acre-day
TSP emissions from the waste pile (<30 urn)
133.8 x 454 x 1.65 ,
24 x 3,600 9/s
= 1.16 g/s
Wind erosion of storage piles generally produces a greater fines fraction
than that found in the parent material. A typical size distribution given by
PEDCO (1977) indicates an IP (<10 urn) to TSP (<30 |jm) emissions ratio of 0.75
(IP/TSP = 0.75).
Therefore, using this value:
The emission rate of inhalable particulates from the waste pile ~
0.87 g/s.
The contaminant concentrations in the pile material are approximately
14,000 ppm of lead and 34,000 ppm of Zn.
The emission rate of Pb in the TSP = 1.16 x 14,000 x io"6 g/s
= 16.2 mg/s.
The emission rate of Pb in the IP = 12.2 mg/s.
The emission rate of Zn in the TSP = 39.4 mg/s.
The emission rate of Zn in the IP = 29.6 mg/s.
158
-------
Uncontrolled emission rates for all five sites are presented in Table A-l,
Atmospheric Dispersion Calculations
Dispersion of fugitive participate emissions in the atmosphere may be
estimated by using atmospheric dispersion equations such as the gaussian
diffusion equation, by ignoring particle inertia or settling and fallout of
particles. A long-term average probability distribution of windspeed with
respect to its magnitude, direction, and stability conditions is needed to
obtain long-term average downwind concentrations due to an emission source.
Such probability distributions called STAR tabulations are compiled by the
National Climatic Center for various locations throughout the United States.
These distributions are available for both seasonal and annual average distri-
butions. For the present purpose, long-term (e.g., 1 to 5 years) annual
average distribution is required. A typical distribution gives probability
distribution values for six stability classes. For each stability class,
values are given for 6 windspeed classes and 16 sectors (22.5° each). Thus, a
complete STAR tabulation typically consists of 6 x 6 x 16 = 576 f. .. elements
(i, stability class; j, windspeed class; and k, sector). ^
Given such a wind probability distribution, a dispersion equation des-
cribing downwind concentration at a distance x from a point source and in a
sector k may be written as (Slade, 1968):
C(x, k) = 2.03 Q I 7—4 I -1^ , (Al)
where
(a ) = is the vertical dispersion coefficient and is a function
i,x of stability class i, and downwind distance x.
Q = is the source emission rate expressed in mass rate per unit
time (e.g. gm/sec)
u. = is the mean windspeed for windspeed class j
f... = is the probability of wind in stability class i, windspeed
^ class j and direction in sector k.
Note that:
6 6 16
I I Z f.. = 1.0
i=l j=l k=l 1JK
This equation is applicable for ground level source and receptor
locations.
159
-------
TABLE A-l. UNCONTROLLED EMISSION RATES
Contaminant Concentration Concentra-
and its in tion in
Site # TSP IP concentration TSP emission IP emission
1 1.07 g/s 0.8 g/s 3,640 ppm 3.9 mg/s 2.9 mg/s
of toluene
2 0.036 g/s 0.022 g/s 55.7 ppm 2.0 ug/s 1.23 pg/s
Dieldrin
3 0.112 mg/s 0.067 mg/s 120 ppb 13.44 pg/s 8.06 pg/s
Dioxin
4 445 mg/s 223 mg/s 125 ppm 55.6 pg/s 27.8 pg/s
(200 m PCS
section (Aroclor
of road) 1260)
5 1.16 g/s 0.87 g/s 14,000 ppm 16.2 mg/s 12.2 mg/s
Pb
34,000 ppm 39.4 mg/s 29.6 mg/s
Zn
160
-------
The vertical diffusion coefficient (a ) depends upon the stability
i,x
class and downwind distance and may be expressed as:
(a ) = a xb + d , (A2)
where a, b, and d are fitted coefficients and all are functions of stability
class i and distance x. The values of a, b, and d are given in the Valley
Model User's Guide (EPA, 1977c) and are used in the present calculations.
Equation (Al) is for a point source. A point source may be assumed
upwind of the area source with the same emission rate as shown in Figure Al in
order to simulate an area source. The distance of the point source from the
area source is such that it gives the same downwind concentration as is given
by the area source.
The distance S, to predict the same downwind concentration, depends upon
the source width W and the stability class and is expressed as (Dynamac, 1983):
S. = C. W , (A3)
where C. is a constant depending upon the stability class i.
Equation (Al) is then modified as:
C(x. k)*2.03EA •
where E is the emission rate per unit area and A is the source area (Q = EA).
Once STAR or frequency tabulations for a desired area are obtained,
calculations for downwind concentration using Equation (A4) are straightforward.
For a line source, the source length may be broken into small segments
such that each of the segments may be approximated as a point source. The
dispersion calculations may be carried out for each point source. The downwind
concentration at a given location is then obtained by summing the concentra-
tions at that location generated by each point source.
A computer program was written in BASIC language to solve Equation (A4).
The program determines downwind concentration, from a point or area source,
for several downwind distances in each of 16 sectors. STAR tabulations pro-
vide a wind probability distribution for the source. The program listing is
included here.
161
-------
Area
Source
Receptor
Figure A1. Simulation of area source from point source.
152
-------
10 REM : PROGRAM TO CALCULATE DOWNWIND CONCENTRATIONS USING GUASSIAN DISPERSION
20 REM: INPUT FROM STAR TABLES
30 DIM P(6,6,IS),U(6),M<20,16),A(6,2),B(S,2>,D<6,2),S(6),C(S)
40 INPUT "FILE NAME FOR INPUTDATA",A*
50 OPEN "I",#3,A*
•50 FOR 1= 1 TO 5
70 FOR J-l TO 6
SO FOR K =1 TO 16
90 INPUT #3,PC I,J,K) '
100 T=T+1
110 NEXT K
120 NEXT J
130 NEXT I
140 CLOSE #3
150 FOR J=l TO 6
ISO PRINT "READ AVERAGE WIND SPEED FOR EACH CLASS—U(";J;")"
170 READ U(J)
180 LPRINT "AVERAGE WIND SPEED FOR CLASS";J;"= ";U(J);"KNOTS/MR"
190 U(J)=U(J)*.5144
£00 LPRINT "AVERAGE WIND SPEED FOR CLASS";J;"= ";U
250 NEXT I
260 REM:L=1 IF X>1000M. AND L=2 IF 100M.<=X<1000M.
270 LPRINT
2SO LPRINT
230 LPRINT
300 LPRINT " VERTICAL DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT"
310 LPRINT •A(IfL)-,"B(IlL)",'D(I,L)B
320 FOR L-l TO 2.
330 FOR 1=1 TO S
340 PRINT "INPUT CONSTANTS AC•\I;L;"),B(";I;L;"); AND D(";I;L;")•
350 READ A(I,L),B(I,L)fD(I,L>
3SO LPRINT A(I ,L) ,B(I ,L) ,Dd ,L)
370 NEXT I
380 NEXT L
330 PRINT "INPUT 1 IF AREA SOURCE AND 2 IF POINT SOURCE, AND W=WIDTH OF SOURCE"
400 LPRINT "INPUT 1 IF AREA SOURCE AND 2 IF POINT SOURCE, AND W=WIDTH OF SOURCE"
410 INPUT SOURCE,W
420 PRINT "SOURCE= ";SOURCE,"SOURCE WIDTH= ";W
430 LPRINT "SOURCE TYPE= ";SOURCE,"SOURCE WIDTH- ";W
440 LPRINT
430 LPRINT
4SO LPRINT
470 LPRINT " VOLUMETRIC CONCENTRATIONS"
430 LPRINT "SECTOR","DI STANCE ","UNIT CONCENTRATI ON"
435 INPUT "FILE NAME FOR OUTPUT" , B*
450 OPEN "0",#2,B*
300 FOR K=l TO 16
"163
-------
310 FOR X=.5 TO 5 STEP .5
520 SUM2=Q
530 FOR 1=1 TO 5
540 IF X=>1 THEM L-l ELSE L=2
550 IF SOURCE-1 THEN 560 ELSE 580
550 S(I)=W*C(I>
570 GOTO 530
530 S(I)=0
530 3I6MAZ=A(I,L)*(1000*X+S(I))AB(I
500 SUM1=0
S10 FOR J«l TO 6
520 SUM1 =SUM1+P
-------
Averaging logs:
6-°°= 5.475
KQC = 29,900
OOC, using organic carbon content from Table 5:
d = (29,900X0.001X0.186)
=55.7
Site 3, Drum Storage
Solubility of dioxin (TCDO) = 0.2 -0.6 ug/L (identification and list-
ing of hazardous waste under RCRA, Subtitle C, Section 3001;
Health and Environmental Effect Profiles (40 CFR 261). EPA NTIS
No. PB81-190019. October 1980)
Log KQW =6.9 (Briggs, 1981)
Log K = 1.029 log K -0.18 (equation 36, Table 3)
= 1.029 (6.9) -0.18
= 6.920
or Log K = 0.544 log K f 1.377 (equation 32, Table 3)
oc ow
= 5.31
Averaging logs:
6.920 + 5.131
K = 1.036 x
oc
= 6.016
DOC, using organic carbon content from Table 6:
= (1.036 x
= 2.07 ug/g
d = (1.036 x 10 )(0.01X0.2 x lo" ) at lowest solubility
and d = (1.036 x 10 )(0.6 x 10 )(0.01) at highest solubility
= 6.22
The average value for d = 4.145
These values assume no degradation. However, the site was active from
1962 to 1970. Data from Harrison and Crews (1983) show that degradation
took place. Recent concentration measurements showed a value of 120 ppb ,
166
-------
while measurements of a sample held in storage for 10 years had a value of
6,400 ppb. Using Equation (46):
k = (In C - In C)/t
o
= (In 6400 - In 120)710
= 0.398 yr"1
For an assumed 14-year residence of TCDD and using the estimated d
given above:
In C = In C - kt
o
= In 4.145 - (0.398)(14)
= -4.150
C = 0.0158 |jg/g
=15.8 pg/g
Site 4. Haul Road
Solubility of Arochlor 1260 = 0.080 pg/mL
Log KQc = -0.55 log (0.080) + 3.64 (Equation 29, Table 3)
= 4.243
KOC * 17'511
or, log KQC = -0.54 log (2.345 x io"8) + 0.44 (Equation 30, Table 3)
= 4.560
KQC = 36,318
Averaging logs:
4.243 + 4.560
= 4.402
KQC = 25,206
DOC, using organic carbon content from Table 6:
d = (25,206)(0.07)(0.080)
= 141 ug/g
Site 5, Storage pile
Lead and zinc values for this site were taken directly from Roberts
and Johnson (1978).
167
-------
COST CALCULATIONS FOR CONTROLS
1. Vegetative stabilization of a 4Q-acre landfill
Assume hydraulic seeding is used, including seed, fertilizer, and
wood fiber mulch. From Table 21, the cost is $0.44/m2 (Means,
1984) and includes material, equipment, labor, overhead, and
profit.
40 acres x 4>047 m2 x §P_i|i = $72,000 (installed capital cost)
acre ITV
Assume that the vegetative cover has an expected lifetime of 10
to 20 years and requires essentially no maintenance during this
period. For a compound interest rate of 10 percent, the capital
recovery factors are 0.163 (10 years) and 0.117 (20 years).
Annualized cost (10 yr) = $72,000 x 0.163 = $12,700/yr
Annualized cost (20 yr) = $72,000 x 0.117 = $8,400/yr
2. Synthetic film cover for a dried lagoon (1 acre)
From Section 4.10.2, the installed capital cost for a synthetic
film cover ranges from $1 to $6/m2.
1 acre x 4'047 m x $1 ^ $6 = $4,000 - $24,000 (installed capital cost)
3.C i S In
Assume the synthetic cover has an expected lifetime of 5 years.
For a compound interest rate of 10 percent, the capital recovery
factor is 0.264.
$4,000 x 0.264 = $l,000/yr
$24,000 x 0.264 = $6,300/yr
3. Chemical stabilization of a drum storage area (190 m2)
The cost for chemical stabilization is a recurring cost that
depends upon the frequency of reapplication. From Table 15,
material costs range from about $0.02 to S0.13/m2. From Table
16, the rental cost for an emulsion sprayer (200 gal, 5 hp engine)
is $34/day. Assume 4 labor hours are required to apply the
stabilizer at a cost of $23/hr (includes overhead and fringe
benefits). The cost for one application is:
168
-------
Material 190 m2 x $0.13/m2 = $25
Labor 4 hr x $23/hr = 92
Equipment rental $34/day x l day = 34
Total $151/application
Assume monthly applications are required to maintain the desired
control efficiency. The annualized cost would be:
$151 x 1 application 12jno = $ Q0/
application mo yr fj.,«««/./.
4. Pave 0.5 mile of unpaved road
From Means (1984), the cost elements are:
Prepare and roll sub-base $0.74/yd2
Fine grading $0.43/yd2
Add 3 in. of bituminous paving $6.15/yd2
Total installed capital cost $7.32/yd2
(Includes equipment, materials, labor, overhead, and profit)
Assume a road width of 25 feet.
Total area = 0.5 mi x 5?289 ft x 25 ft = 66,000 ft2 (7,333 yd2)
mi
Total installed capital cost:
7,333 yd2 x $7.32/yd2 = $54,000
For a lifetime of 10.to 20 years and a 10-percent interest rate,
the capital recovery factors are 0.163 and 0.117.
Annualized cost = $54,000 x (0.117 to 0.163) = $6,300 to $8,800/yr
5. Chemical stabilization of a waste pile with a height of 75 ft and
a circumference of 950 ft.
Calculate the lateral surface area:
A = nr (h2 + r2)*5,
169
-------
where
h = height = 75 ft
~ r = radius = |§2 = 151 ft
ul
A = 7i x 151 (752 + 1512) - 80,000 ft2 (1.8 acres)
From Table 18, Bohn and Johnson (1983) estimated the cost of
chemical stabilization of a waste pile as $888 to $2,720/acre-yr
for various types of stabilizers.
Annualized cost =1.8 acres x ($888 to $2,720/acre-yr) =
$1,600 to $4,900/yr.
170
-------
APPENDIX B
TABULATED VALUES FOR DEGREE OF CONTAMINATION ESTIMATES
171
-------
I Aim ii-1. soi mi n i n AMU KUM nm it IK mi IIA/AIIUUUS HASH
Name
Acelaldehyde
Acetonilrile
Acetophenane
Acelyl chloride
Acrolem
Acrylainide
Acrylic acid
Acrylonltrlle
Alachlar
Alilrin
Amiuin 1 a
Aiuiuuniuut acetate
Annual) iuui cyanide
Ammonium welhacrylate
Antimony pentachlaride
Antimony trichloride
Aniline
Arsenic
Atrailne
Benzo(a)anthracene
fien2ene
2-Chlora-4-Nllro hentotc acid
4-Chloro-3-NI tro benzole acid
Solubility
i*j/niL
IO»IOJ
Hiscible
5.4«I03
Ueconposed by II^O
MOxtlH
Z.lxlO6
Hisclble
n.Snlll1
242.
O.U25
bJlxlO3
>UIU*
lilU^fb)
>uini
Decomposed by IbO
buiul*
3i«10J
Insoluble
33.
O.llll
I.U.IO'
2.
2.
p.-CMoro Sudluiu salt of benzole acid 100xlO*(b)
Benzof 1 uoranthene
Benzo(a)pyrene
RenzatrUhlarlde
Bdiuyl chloride
Blcycloheptadiene
Oromacll
1.3-Butailiene
n-Uulyl alcuhul
Cacudyllc acid
Cadmium
Captan
Carliaryl
Caruoluran
Carbun telrachlorlde
Chloral
Chloruacet aldehyde
Chloruacetic acid
Chloroaniline (para)
Chlorohen/ene
Chlordane
Chlordene
Chluro alkyl vlhur (UCEt)
Chluruturui
Ch 1 uron 1 1 rubunzene
2-Chlaruallyl diethyldlthlocarbamate
(tllll)
See niilos at end at tahie
Mil
0.1104
Ins olyble
3.3x101
2.8>IU3
ais.
735.
90x1 03
76xl03
20.
-------
TABLE B-l. SOLUBILITY AND Kov) FOR SELECTED HAZARDOUS HASTE CONSTITUENTS
Name
2-Chloropheno)
3-Chlorophenol
4-Chlorophenol
2 Chloropropane
Chlorotoluene
Chloroxuron
Creosote
Chromium
Cresol
Cumene
Acetone cyanohydrln
Cyanogen chloride
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanone
Cyclopentadiene
Dlazinon
Dlbenzothiophene
o-Dlchlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
1.2 Dlchloroe thane
2.4 Dlchlorophenot
2.6 Dtchlorophenol
2,4-D
Olchloropropane
1.3 Dichloropropene (els/trans)
2,3 Dichloropropene
Dleldrln
Diethyl maleate
Otethyl methyl phosphorodlthlonate
Oiethylene glycol
Dlethylene glycol monobutyl ether
Dlmethylamine
Dimethyl dtsulflde
Dimethyl phosphorothlolc acid
Dimethyl dlthlophosphorlc acid
Sym-dlmethylurea
Ot nitrobenzene
o-Dlnitrobenzene
Dipropylamine
Dipropyl urea
Distil foton
Dluron
Eplchlorohydrfn
Ethyl mercaptan
Ethyl acrylate
Ethyl chloride
Ethylene diamine
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether
Ethyl ether
Ethylene thiourea
See notes at end of table
Solubility
_MgM. ,
28;bxl03
26x1 O3
27.1xl03
200.
SOxl03
470.
2. IxlO3
lOxlO3
14.4xl03
25.
42.
66x1 O3
15xl03
15xl03
4.5xl03
ixin6
Infinite
Hlsclble
7.5xl03
2xl03
Temperature
20"C
20°C
20°C
NR
NR
20°C
NR
NR
20-25°C
25°C
25°C
25°C
25°C
25°C
NR
20°C
20-25-C
25°C
25°C
NR
20°C
NR
25°C
25°C
NR
NR
25°C
NR
NR
NR
25"C
NR
NR
NR
NR
15°C
25°C
NR
NR
NR
2S"C
25°C
NR
25"C
25"C
25°C
NR
NR
25°C
NR
*ow
(i-g/g)/(iig/niL)
144.5
316.2
263.0
1.
2.137.9
1.200.
1.
1.
93.3
5.623.4
1.
1.
2.754.2
1.
1,380.4
15.
24.000.
2.511.9
2.450.
31.6
1.380.4
794.3
645.6
100.
•
•
800.
2 .1
.
•
0
0.42
.4
.
.
0.32
41.7
41.7
46.8
43.7
1.9
630.9
1.
15.8
10.
26.9
0.063
1.
1.
3.39
1.
continued
-------
IAUIE H-l. SOLUBIIIIV AND Kaw FUH StUCICO IIA2AHUUUS HAS It CONSlllUtNTS
Name
Ferbaiu
Formaldehyde
Formic acid
Funaronilrlle
Furan
Furfural
lleptachlor
llexachlorobeniene
Mexachlorobutadiene
llexach 1 orocyc 1 opent ad 1 ene
Hexachloroethane
llexach 1 orophene
Hydrofluoric acid
llydroijen cyanide
llydroqu Inane
Isobutanol
Lead
Halathlon
Haleic acid
Halelc anhydride
Haneb
Methacryloflllrlle
Hethanol
Hethouyl
Helliyl chloride
Methyl ene chloride
Helhyl ethyl fcetone
Helhyl Uobulyl ketone
Hethyl nethacrylate
Hethyl paraoxon
Hethyl parathlon
u HethyUtyrene
Honon 1 1 roben/ene
Naban
a Naphtha)
Naphthoqufnone
Nlcotlnonitrlle
Nitrodipropyl awlne
Nitrofurali
Nltrophenol
Oielhylnitro&aMlne
Nllrotoluene (ncta)
Paraldehyde
Parathiun
Pentachlorobeniene
Pentacliloroethane
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
Pent ad I ene
Phenol
Chorale
See notes at end of table
Solubility
ixi/mL
~T5oT~^
Hlsclble
HUclble
IxlO6
lOxlfl3
83x1 O3
0.05b
0.035
0.005
21.3/0.805
50.
0.004
IxlO"
IxlO'
500x101
95x10*
<.01
145.
78Bxl03
I63xl03
200. (b)
3S.7xl03
IxlO6
34x10*
400.
20xl03
(OOxIO3
!9xl03
20. (b)
44.
60.
83.
I.9xl03
J00xl03/20xl03
IxlO3
200. (b)
100. (b)
I.l03(b)
2.3xlOJ
I3.5X101
IQOxlO3
49B.
120x10*
24.
0.24
5110.
14.
10. (b)
67x103
50.
temperature
Nil
NH
NH
NH
2S'C
20°C
25°C
Nil
20"C
NH
NH
NH
25°C
25'C
25°C
IB'C
NH
25'C
25'C
30'C
NH
25°C
25'C
NH
25"C
25'C
2S°C
25-C
NH
NU
25°C
NH
2b*C
HK
25'C
NH
NH
NH
NH
25°C
HK
JO"C
IB'C
25"C
22"C
Nil
HU
NH
25°C
NH
KO
( My/91 / ( M9/wL )
14.
1.
0.29
0.13
21.9
4.9
8.000.
168.000.
40.000.
9.772.
34.7xlO<>/676xlO<>
1.
0.56
3.55
7.
20.000.
780.
0.26
0.26
1.
251.
5.13
2.
8.13
19.9
1.
1.
6.17
19.0
B2.
2.138.
62.
60.
512.9
54 .9
1.62
0.61
72.4
50.1
1.02
245.5
14.12
6.400.
154.000.
1.
102.000.
30.2
31.6
18.
continued
-------
TABLE B-l. SOLUBILITV AND Kow FOR SELECTED HAZARDOUS WASTE CONSTITUENTS
Name
0,0 Diethyl phophorodlthloate
Phosphorodithloic acid, methyl ene
tetraethyl ester
0.0,0 Trlethyl phosphorothloate
Phosphorous sulphide
Phthallc anhydride
Polyram
Prop Ionic acid
Propylamine
Propyl mercaptan
Pyrene
Pyridlne
Sodium fluoride
Succlnonltrile
Sulflde (Ethylsulflde)
2.4,5-T
TCOD (Dioxln)
TEPP (Tetraethyl pyrophosphate)
1,2,4,5 Tetrachlorobenzene
Tetrachloroethane
Tetrachloronitrobenzene
2,3,4 6 Tetrachlorophenol
Tetrahydrofuran
Toluene
Toxaphene
Trlchlorobenzene
1,1,1 Trlchloroethane
1,1,2 Trlchloroethane
2,4,5 Trlchlorophenol
2,4,6 Trlchlorophenol
1,2.3 Trlchloropropane
Trlchloro.trifluoroethane (Freon)
Trlethylene ylycol
Trlfluralln
O.O.S-Trlmethyl phosphorodlthloate
Trimethyl phosphate
0,0,0 Trimethyl phosphorothloate
1,3,5 Trlnltrohenzene
Vernolate
m-Xylene
o-Xylene
p-Xylene
Ztneb
Solubility
vy/mL
100. (b)
Ixl03(b)
Ixl03(b)
Ixl06(b)
6.2xl03
Insoluble
IxlO6
IxlO6
20.
0.135
>lx!06
43xl03
130xl03
lOxlO3 (b)
278.
4x10-*
Mlsclble
0.3/6.
3.7xl03
10. (b)
IxlO3
Mlsclble
470.
3.
30.
4.4xl03
200. (b)
1.2xl03
800.
-------
NA ^ Nut applicable
NH - Nat reported
(a) Nearly All the values la this table are taken fron Physical Chemical
Properties of Hazardous Haste Constituents, a Draft Report by O.U. Dawsan.
r^JTtnuUsh. and S.E. Petty for thTTPX*? Southeast Environmental Hesearch
laboratory, Athens. Georyla, Harch I9UO. In cases where values were not
reported in this document, they were taken from The Handbook
of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. (2nd edition) by Karel
VcrTcfiucreii. Van Nostrand RelnRblil. NeiTTork. 1983.
(b) Ihese values are estimates based on the compound's structure.
-------
TABLE U-2 REPORTED VALUES OF
AND ASSOCIATED SOIL ORGANIC CARBON CONTENT
Name
Aldlcarb
Ainetryne
Ami ben
Anthracene
Atrazlne
Benzene
Bromacll
Captan
Carbaryl
Carbofuran
Chlorobenzene
Chlorobromuron
Chloroxuron
Chlorpyrifos
p-Cresol
See notes at end of
KO
(M9/g)/(l>9/ml)
28
42
120-960
4.2-860
2.6 x 1Q3
16 x 10J
102 t 5.8 (c)
166 (c)
122 (c)
216
4.7-394
63
60
50
25
29
32
198
390 («)
370 (b)
104
121
16-39
100 (a)
130 (b)
316
546-1.940
2.8xl03 -
6.2xl03
6xl03 (a)
lOxlO3 (b)
4.6xl03
31.6xl03
79 (c)
table '
Organic
Carbon t
NR
' 2.05
0.34,3.06
0.35;5.70
NR
NR
9.4-46
0.1-8.4
0.6-3.9
NR
0.28-16.7
NR
NR
0.06
0.40
0.55
1.01
2.05
NR
NR
2.05
2.05
1.1-10.9
NR
NR
NR
1.02-6.05
1.7-11.7
IIR
NR •
NR
NR
NR
Reference
/el sot and Dahm. 1979
Brlggs. 1981
Rao and Davidson, 1982
Rao and Davidson, 1982
Karlckhoff. Brown, and Scott. 1979
Karlckhoff. 1981
llamaker and Thompson. 1972
llamaker and Thompson. 1972
Rao and Davidson, 1979
Brown and Flagg, 1981
Rao and Davidson, 1982
Karlckhoff, Brown, and Scott. 1979
Karlckhoff. 1981
Gerstl and Yaron. 1983
H
N
H
Orlggs. 1981
Swann et al.. 1983
N
Brlggs, 1981
M
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Swann et al., 1983
H
Walsh, 1983
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Swann et al., 1983
Felsot and Dahm, 1979
Walsh, 1983
"
continued
-------
IAUII B-2 REPORTED VALUES Of Kuc AND ASSOCIATED SUIL ORGANIC CAHBOH COHItNI
oo
Nome
(i
2.4-D acid
2.4-0 awlne
DDT
Oenobll
Dlazlnon
Olbeniothlophene
Dlcanba
Oieldrln
Dlnethoate
Dimethyl anlne
Oiphenylainlne
Olsulfoton
Diuron
Fenuron
Freon
llexach 1 orocyc 1 opent a -
diene
K
'9/!))/(lHJ/i»l )
23 (a)
60 (b)
20
7.9-55
109 t 30(c)
72-1 35
I50«103(a)
44xlO'(b)
1x10'
59-826
227
10.2x103(0
3.8
1.2-4.9
12.8x10?
9
313-628
598
5.8xl02 -
2,'bxlO1
191
300
902 t 31.9
110-1.370
19-135
26
158 (c)
4.26x10?
«~- :
Organic
Carbon 1
NR
Ml
NR
1.02-6.05
0.6-3.9
0.56-3.87
NR
NR
NR
0.11-5.54
2.05
0.11-2.38
23.6
2.3-6.0
2.05
2.05
1.0-6.1
0.63-2.5
0.12-15.0
NR
NH
12-37
0.25-12.0
1.02-12.0
NH
NR
NH
Reference
Suann et al.. 1983
«
Ualsh. 1983
Kao and Davidson. 1982
Rao and Davidson. 1979
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Swarm et al.. 1983
•
Ualsh. 1983
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Brlggs. 1981
Hassett et al.. 1980
llanaker and Thompson. 1972
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Brlggs. 1981
Brlggs. 1981
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Brlggs. 1981
Rao and Davidson, I9U2
Brlggs. 1981
Swarm et al.. 1903
llainaker and Thompson , 1972
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Brlggs. 1901
Ualsh. 1983
Chou and Griffin, 1983
-------
TABLE 0-2 REPORTED VALUES OF Koc AND ASSOCIATED SOIL ORGANIC CARBON CONTENT
Name
Lindane
Llnuron
Malathlon
Methyl chloroform
Naphthalene
Parathion
2.2'4.5.5"-PCB
Phenanthrene
Prometone
Propazine
Pyrene
Quinollne
2,4.5-T
1,2.4. Trlchloro-
benzene
Trlfluralln
Trlthlon
See notes at end of
|£
( ug/gl/i pg/ml )
940-1.221
1.181 (c)
124-2.670
229
580-4.520
158 (c)
1300
870
414
1039
1108
3.400-21.000
500xl03(a)
280xl03(b)
12xl03
294 (c)
152
162
363
29-262
84xl03
67xl03
158 (c)
1.05 (c)
38-123
6xl03(c)
4.3xI03(a)
9.6xl03(b)
8.4xl03 -
9.4 xlO4
table
Organic
Carbon X
1.6-2.1
1.1-3.5
0.5-12.0
NR
0.5-2.9
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
0.09-0.65
NR
NR
NR
NR
9.4-27.1
0.1-7.8
0.34-19.98
NR
NR
Nil
NR
0.53-3.6
NR
NR
NR
0.09-0.65
Reference
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Hamaker and Thompson, 1972
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Brlggs. 1981
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Ualsh. 1983
Karlckhoff. Brown, and Scott, 1979
Karlckhoff. 1981
Brlggs, 1981
Brlggs. 19B1
Felsot and Dahm, 1979
Rao and Davidson, 1982
Swann et al., 1983
Karlckhoff. 1981
Hamaker and Thompson, 1972
H
H
Brown and Flagg. 1981
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Karickhoff. Brown, and Scott. 1979
Karlckhoff, 1981
Ualsh. 1983
llamaker and Thompson, 1972
Rao and Davidson. 1982
Halsh. 1983
Swann et al.. 1983
M
Rao and Davidson. 1982
continued
-------
IAUU M-2 HffUHrtU VALUES OF KOC ANU ASSOCIATED SOU OUGANIC CAHUON CONTENT
Naue
i
Simazlne
I
(W/jlJ/IMa/ml)
25-365
4?
159 (c)
126.5 (c)
215
Organic
Carbon X
0.34-14.0
2.05
10.9-14.1
O.Ofl-4.6
Reference
Rao and Davidson. I9B2
Brluys. 19BI
llamaker and Thompson. 1972
Brown and Flayy. 1981
NR - Hat reported
(a) KQC Measured using the soil slurry method (see Swann el al.. I9B3)
(b) K0, measured uslny reverse-phase hlyh performance liquid chronutograpliy (see Swann et al..
I9B 3)
(c) Values are an average of many samples.
Co
O
-------
TABLE 8-3. REPORTED VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTS AND SOILS
00
Geographic
Local ton
Onawa .
Turin.
Story Co..
Story Co..
Story Co..
Story Co..
Story Co.,
Lorenzo,
McGlure.
Leavenworth.
Stanton,
Lake Oahe.
Dig Bend Lake,
Ceredo,
NR
FL
GA
GA
GA
GA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IL
IL
IL
IN
ND
NO
SO
uv
Soil
Type
Eustls' fine sand
Cecil sandy loam
Small pond sediment -
grass watershed
Small pond sediment -
wooded watershed
Small river sediment
Webster sllty clay loam
Missouri River Sediment
Loess Sample
Sarpy fine sandy loam
Thurman loamy fine sand
Clarion
Harps
Peat soil
Soil. Fern Clyffe State Park
Illinois River sediment
Mississippi River sediment
Ohio River sediment
Missouri River sediment
Missouri River sediment
Missouri River sediment
Soil eroded hillside
Norwood sandy clay
(Typic Udifluvent)
Organic Carbon
(X)
0.56
0.90
1.6
2.3
1.9
3.87
0.15
0.11
0.51
1.07
2.64
3. BO
18.36
1.30
1.88
1.48
0.95
2.07
2.28
0.72
0.4B
0.81
Soil Analyst
Sand (1) Silt (X)
93.8 3.0
65.8 19.5
50. 50.
50. 50.
90. 5.
18.4 45.3
10.7
75.6
77 15
83 9
37 42
21 55
42 39
71.4
42.7
55.4
48.7
41.8
35.4
31.?
34.4
48.2 15.2
s
Clay (t)
3.2
14.7
1.
1.
5.
38.3
6.8
17.4
B
8
21
24
19
28.6
7.1
42.9
35.7
55.2
31.0
68.6
63.6
36.6
References
Rao and Davidson. 1979
"
Karlckhoff. Brown, and
Scott. 1979
H
H
Rao and Davidson. 1979
Karlckhoff. 1981
N
Felsot and Dahm. 1979
«
M
•
M
Karickhoff. 1981
M
•
H
N
II
H
m
Donnelly, Brown, and
Scott. 1983
-------
TABLE H-3 REPORTEII VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (IF SEDIMENTS AND SOILS
f.(!o,jra,>hic
1 oca t ion
NII
Nil
Nil
Nil
NK
NII
NII = Not reported
t— •
CO
ro
Soil
Type
Ha strop Clay
(Uciic Paleustalf)
Aiken
Columbia coarse loam
Panoche fine loam
Redding fine
Sacramento very fine
(Monlmorlllonitic)
Organic Carbun
(X)
0.58
3.0
0.46
0.83
2.07
4.98
Sand
60
21
12
29
10
51
Soil Analysis
(XJ Silt {%)
.3 10.0
36
25
43
40
36
References
CLay (X)
29.7 Donnelly, et al.. 1983
43 Hoffman and Rolston. 1980
63
28
50
13
------- |