ECONOMIC IMPACT
OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROLS ON
GRAY IRON
FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,
EDUCATION,AMD WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
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ECONOMIC IMPACT
OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS
ON GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Raleigh, North Carolina
November 1970
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 2M02 - Price 65 cents
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The AP series of reports is issued by the National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration to report the results of scientific and engineering
studies, and information of general interest in the field of air pollu-
tion. Information reported in this series includes coverage of NAPCA
intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted in conjunc-
tion with state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial
organizations. Copies of AP reports may be obtained upon request,
as supplies permit, from the Office of Technical Information and
Publications, National Air Pollution Control Administration, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1033 Wade Avenue,
Raleigh, North Carolina 27605.
National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-74
ii
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FOREWORD
The Clean Air Act, as amended, (P.L. 90-148) vests primary
responsibility for overseeing Federal government activities in air
pollution control with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
At the same time, the Act encourages cooperation among Federal
agencies (Section 102.b), which extends to the statutory requirement
for economic cost studies of the impact of air quality standards on the
nation's industries (Section 305. a).
In partial fulfillment of the Act, the National Air Pollution Control
Administration of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
conducted a study of the economic impact of air pollution controls on
gray iron foundries. Results of the study are contained in this report.
Significant contributions to the study were made by the Business
and Defense Services Administration of the Department of Commerce.
These contributions included: development and preparation of survey
questionnaires, interviewing, arranging financial data retrieval from
the Internal Revenue Service, data tabulation, and data analysis. The
Gray and Ductile Iron Founder's Society, the American Foundrymen's
Society, and other individual firms also made contributions, without
which this study and report would not have been possible. Responsi-
bility for the analyses and conclusions rests, of course, with the
National Air Pollution Control Administration.
iii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution of Cupola-Rated Capacities 7
2. Net Profits before Taxes as Percent of Gross Receipts
by Size of Foundry 13
3. Profitability of Foundries Compared to All Manufac-
turing, 1966 16
4. Profitability by Type of Furnace, Existence of Controls,
and .Size of Foundry Sales 17
5. Averages for Profits, Gross Receipts, and Profit Rate
by Size of Foundry Sales and Type of Furnace 18
6. Air Quality Control Regions Designated as of July 31,
1970 24
7. Allowable Rate of Emission Based on Process Weight
Rate, San Francisco Bay Area Pollution Control District. 26
8. Foundries with Control Systems 31
9. Control Equipment Depreciation Life 34
10. Investment Cost by Type of Control System on Cupolas
for Typical Melt-Rate Capacities 35
11. Conditions Affecting Installed Cost of Control Devices . . 37
12. Equipment Costs as Percentage of Total Control Invest-
ment 38
13. Annual Cost by Type of Control System on Cupolas for
Typical Melt-Rate Capacities 38
14. Operating and Maintenance Costs as Percentage of Total
Annual Costs 40
15. Dates of Electric Induction Furnace Installations 41
16. Model Plant Operating Characteristics and Value of
Shipments 44
17. Model Plant Financial Characteristics 45
18. Relation of Pollution Control Costs to Total Investment,
Profit, and Value of Shipments by Model Plant 46
B-l. Selection of Plants for Interview Survey 6Z
C-l. Industry Economic Statistics: Gray Iron Foundry Industry 71
C-2. Industry Economic Statistics: All Manufacturing Operations
United States 72
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Table Page
C-3. Industry and Product Distribution . • ... 73
C-4. Cost of Materials. ... . . . 74
C-5. Wholesale Price Index 75
C-6. Consumption of Scrap and Pig Iron in Foundry Cupolas. . 75
C-7. Number of Reporting Units in Gray Iron Foundry Industry
(SIC 3321), Grouped by Number of Employees: 1959-1967 76
C-8. Total Foundries and Foundries with Control Systems. . . 77
C-9. Gray Iron Foundries Classified by Output, Size Classes,
and Types of Air Pollution Control Systems 78
C-10. Geographic Distribution of Gray Iron Foundries by Type
of Furnace and by Type of Air Pollution Control Equip-
ment . . 79
D-l. IRS Gray Iron Foundry Tabulation 84
D-2. IRS Corporate Subsample as Proportion of All Gray Iron
Foundries, 1966 86
D-3. , IRS Corporate Subsample Classified by Amount of Sales,
1966. .... . 86
D-4. Selected Financial Averages of Sample Gray Iron Foundries,
Corporations Only, Classified by Size of Foundry Sales,
1966 88
D-5. Selected Financial Averages of Sample Gray Iron Found-
ries, Corporations Only, Classified by Types of Furnace,
1966 89
E-l. Particle-Size Distribution of Particulates 93
F-l. Investment Cost Equations for Pollution Control Equipment 1Q2
F-2. Annual Cost Equations for Pollution Control Equipment . 1Q5
G-l. Particulate Emissions in Cupola Stack Gases 112
G-2. Emissions Escaping from Controlled Cupolas . . 113
G-3. Penetration of Particulates by Type of Control Equipment 114
G-4. Range of Inlet Velocities through Charging Door 115
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Flow Diagram of Gray Iron Foundry 6
2. Flow Diagram for Action to Control Air Pollution
on Regional Basis 23
F-l. Investment Cost Versus Melt Rate for Multiple
Cyclones 103
F-2. Investment Cost Versus Melt Rate for Low-
Energy Wet Scrubbers 103
F-3. Investment Cost Versus Melt Rate for High-
Energy Wet Scrubbers 104
F-4. Investment Cost Versus Melt Rate for Fabric
Filters 104
F-5. Annual Cost Versus Melt Rate for Multiple
Cyclones 106
F-6. Annual Cost Versus Melt Rate for Low-
Energy Wet Scrubbers 106
F-7. Annual Cost Versus Melt Rate for High-
Energy Wet Scrubbers 107
F-8. Annual Cost Versus Melt Rate for Fabric
Filters 107
vii
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Purpose 1
Scope 1
Study Techniques 2
CHAPTER 2. GRAY IRON INDUSTRY 5
Product Description 5
Melting and Production Process 5
CHAPTER 3. RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES IN INDUSTRY . . 9
Introduction 9
Value of Shipments 9
Value Added 10
Conclusions 13.
CHAPTER 4. CURRENT ECONOMIC STATUS OF INDUSTRY
AND OF INDIVIDUAL, FIRMS 15'
Introduction 15
Profitability of Industry 16
Profitability within Industry 16
Magnitude of Profits within Industry 17
CHAPTERS. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL REGULATIONS ... 21
Introduction 21
Clean Air Act 21
Types of Regulations 22-
Expected Trends in Air Pollution Control 27
Tax Reform Act of 1969 27
CHAPTER 6. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT .... 29
Introduction 29
Types of Control Equipment 29
Use of Control Equipment 30
CHAPTER 7. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS 33
Introduction 33
IX
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Concepts on Cost 33
Analysis of Survey Data 34
Electric Induction Furnaces .... 40
CHAPTER 8. FINANCIAL IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
ON MODEL GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES 43
Introduction . . 43
Model Plants . ... 43
Pollution Control Costs of Model Plants 45
CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 49
REFERENCES 51
APPENDIX A. CARD QUESTIONNAIRE AND LETTER OF
TRANSMITTAL FOR MAIL SURVEY 53
APPENDIX B. INTERVIEW SURVEY 59
APPENDIX C. INDUSTRY SURVEY STATISTICAL TABLES . . . 69
APPENDIX D. FINANCIAL DATA SURVEY 81
APPENDIX E. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL EQUIPMENT 91
APPENDIX F. ANALYSIS OF COST DATA 99
APPENDIX G. TECHNICAL DATA ON EMISSION CONTROL . . 109
BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 119
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ECONOMIC IMPACT
OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS
ON GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to identify the costs and to assess
the economic impact of controlling air pollution from gray iron found-
ries.
Two principal considerations commend the gray iron foundry
industry to this type of study. First, the industry is an important
source of particulate pollution in most urban metropolitan areas. In
1968 the industry emitted an estimated 170, 000 tons of particulates or
2. 3 percent of the 7. 5 million tons of particulate emissions emitted in
the United States by industrial processes. This output ranks it twelfth
among industries contributing particulate pollution to the nation's
atmosphere. ^ Second, the industry includes a. large number of small
establishments that may find it difficult to finance the purchase and
operation of pollution control equipment. Approximately a third of all
companies in this industry employ less than 20 employees. ^ Informa-
tion on the cost and effectiveness of control equipment is useful in
directing and anticipating future developments by control officials in
managing air quality programs and by foundrymen in the purchase of
control equipment.
SCOPE
In this study, concentration was placed on foundries that are
primarily producers of gray iron castings. Foundries producing
malleable iron or steel castings are specifically excluded. Many gray
iron foundries also produce a closely related product called ductile
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iron. Because the production processes and the pollution character-
istics of these two are similar, ductile iron foundries are included
among the foundries surveyed in the study.
Although these foundries are the source of other pollutants, par-
ticularly carbon monoxide and odors, the scope of this study was
restricted to particulate pollution.
Metal-melting processes are the major uncontrolled source of
particulate emissions in foundries. Other nonmelting processes gen-
erate particulate pollution, but these either tend to be under control or
are not considered serious forms of air pollution in terms of neighbor-
hood effects. This report, therefore, addresses only the problems
associated with controlling melting processes.
The greatest source of particulate emissions from melting pro-
cesses, both in terms of the number of sources and the emission
strength of each source, is the cupola. The second ranking source is
the electric arc furnace. Electric induction furnaces, which are rela-
tively pollution-free, enter the discussion for comparative purposes.
Pollution control costs are examined for the various types of
systems commonly applied to reduce furnace emissions. Factors that
may influence control costs are tested between the different types of
control systems and within types of systems. The control costs devel-
oped herein include various components of both total investment costs
and annual costs. Model control costs are developed for typical sizes
of installations.
Costs of control are measured against the economic strength of
the industry and against the financial condition of firms in the industry;
this allows explicit judgments on the impact of the absolute costs of
pollution control. In the absence of well-specified supply and demand
relationships, however, conclusions on the incidence or burden of air
pollution control may only be implied.
STUDY TECHNIQUES
The experience of foundries presently controlling emissions from
their melting operations was evaluated to furnish insight about the
economic impact of pollution control on uncontrolled foundries. Two
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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types of data were collected, individual company data and aggregated
industry data.
The aggregated data include published and unpublished Federal
statistics and information gathered during the course of this study. All
the known producers of gray iron were surveyed by mail in 1968 to
determine which ones had installed pollution control equipment, the
types of equipment, and the costs.
A stratified random sample of respondent firms having pollution
control equipment was interviewed to learn the production aspects of
individual foundries and their attendant pollution control costs. Appen-
dix A presents the materials employed in both these surveys, and
Appendix B discusses the sampling process.
Introduction
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CHAPTER 2. GRAY IRON INDUSTRY
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
The final product of the gray iron industry is a heavy, brittle
metal popularly known as cast iron, but named by the trade after its
characteristic gray-white color. The industry also produces castings
of ductile iron, which are stronger and less brittle than cast iron.
The chemical and physical properties of castings vary according
to requirements of malleability, tensile strength, and corrosion resist-
ance. Individual castings range in size and weight from a few ounces
for door lock parts and computer gears to many tons for mill rolls and
locomotive frames.
The gray iron foundry industry produces components for a wide
variety of manufactured products: automobiles, trucks, construction
and agriculture machinery, rail-way equipment, electrical equipment,
rolling mills, machine tools, and various defense products. The
industry's products are commonly intermediate to some final manu-
factured product. Gray iron also finds a. substantial market in munici-
pal castings and soil pipe.
The industry faces competition from nonferrous castings, for-
gings, fabricated steel, plastics, and steel castings.
MELTING AND PRODUCTION PROCESS
The melting process is the major uncontrolled source of pollution
in the foundries. The metal for gray iron castings is made by melting
pig iron, scrap metal, unused casting parts, rejected castings, and
small amounts of alloying metal as needed.
The molten metal is poured into sand molds that are prepared to
produce the desired casting shape. Mold-making usually requires
wood patterns, synthetic cores, and sand. Sand is packed around the
wood patterns or synthetic cores to hold the metal in the design of the
wood pattern when it is removed or in the design of the synthetic core,
which dissolves under the heat of molten metal.
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When the metal has solidified, the sand and extraneous metal are
removed. The sand is dried and reclaimed for further use. The
extraneous metal is returned for resmelting. Castings are, depending
on their final use, either cleaned of rough edges and shipped, or trans-
ferred for further refinements such as machining. Figure 1 depicts the
flow of foundry operations.
Figure 1. Flow diagram of gray iron foundry.
Two types of furnaces are used to melt the metal, the cupola and
the electric furnace. Cupolas are used for the majority of metal
poured for gray iron casting purposes. The mail survey of the indus-
try showed that, of the approximately $3. 4 billion worth of castings
produced by the respondents during 1967, a little over $3.0 billion in
castings originated in foundries with cupolas. If these values are taken
as indexes of production, then cupolas accounted for 88 percent of gray
iron casting output.
The cupola is heated by lighting a bed of coke or wood. During
melting operations, air is forced into the cupola near the bottom while
a mixture of metal, coke, and limestone is charged from an upper
level. The contact between the ascending hot gases and the descending
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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charge provides a. quick and efficient melting process.
The turbulence created in cupolas by forced air, hot gases, and
descending charges, however, generates more emissions than the
other types of melting units. The emissions from an uncontrolled
cupola have been reported at 17. 4 pounds of particulates per ton of
metal charged. The results of the survey, however, indicated that an
emission rate of 20 to 21 pounds per ton of metal charged is more
accurate.
Another aspect of the cupola that distinguishes it from other fur-
naces is the hot gases laden with particulates that escape to the atmos-
phere. The gases vary in temperature from 1, 500° to 2, 000° F. Such
high temperatures give the gases a buoyancy that carries them to high
levels. Particulates are then dispersed over wide areas.
The melt rates of cupolas range from 1 to 50 tons of metal per
hour. Approximately a quarter of the cupolas melt between 1 and 4
tons per hour; more than half melt at 8 or less tons per hour. Table 1
shows the distribution of cupolas by capacity according to melt rate.
Table 1. DISTRIBUTION OF CUPOLA-RATED CAPACITIES
a,5
Melt rate,
tons/hr
1 2
3 - 4
5 - 6
7 8
9 - 11
12 14
15 17
18 - 21
22 - 26
27 30
31 40
>40
Percent
of
total
7.8
16.5
16.4
14.8
T3.7
7.6
6.3
6.7
4.6
2.2
2.6
0.8
100.0
Cumulative,
%
7.8
24.3
40.7
55.5
69.2
76.8
83.1
89.8
94.4
96.6
99.2
100.0
aBased on 1,810 out of 2,530 known installations
in 1965-1966.
Gray Iron Industry
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Electric arc furnaces do not present as great an air pollution
problem; they generate emissions between 5 and 10 pounds per ton of
metal melted. These furnaces melt metal by passing an electric
current between two electrodes that are inserted in a. covered chamber
containing the metal.
Another type of electric furnace is the induction furnace. It melts
by introducing an electromagnetic field through an enclosed charge of
metal. Emissions amount to about 2. 0 pounds of particulates per ton
of metal charged. If pig iron and clean casting returns are charged,
no air pollution control equipment is usually necessary. Control is
more necessary if the charge consists of either contaminated scrap or
magnesium to produce ductile iron. "*
Electric furnaces are being used more and more throughout the
industry. One reason certainly is related to air pollution control —
electric furnaces have lower emission characteristics. Another reason
is the increased demand for the more refined castings.
Furnaces other than cupola or electric are reverberatory, cruci-
ble, and blast furnaces. Since these are used in less than 2 percent
of all foundries and generate relatively low emissions, they are not
considered in this report.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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CHAPTER 3. RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES IN INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
Of 418 manufacturing industries, the gray iron foundry industry
ranks 24th in employment and 49th in value of shipments. These
ratings are based on data for 1967, the most recent year for which
data are available. Data for the period 1958 to 1967 are examined in
this chapter to investigate the strength of the gray iron foundry indus-
try relative to all the economic sector it occupies. (Many of the basic
data are presented in Appendix C. )
The reason for making this comparison is to permit some judg-
ments on the incidence of air pollution control expenditures. The costs
of air pollution control, as with any increase in industrial production
costs, could, theoretically, be offset through one or a combination of
the following ways: (1) an increase in product prices, (2) a decrease
in prices paid for raw materials, (3) a reduction in factor costs of
labor and capital, or (4) a decline in profits. This chapter inquires
into the past behavior of prices, output, and profits as a. means of
identifying the future incidence of air pollution control costs.
VALUE OF SHIPMENTS
One index of the economic strength of an industry is the value of
its shipments, which was $2. 7 billion for gray iron foundries in 1967.
During the 9 years from 1958 to 1967, the value of shipments from gray
iron foundries grew at a compound annual rate of 7. 4 percent. The
growth rose from a 1958 level of $1.4 billion; however, real growth in
value of shipments is 5. 4 percent per year since prices for gray iron
castings rose steadily at a rate of 2. 0 percent. '
Byway of comparison, the value of shipments of all manufactur-
ing grew during the same period at a compound annual rate of 6. 1 per-
cent. Correcting this for commodity price increases at an annual rate
Q
of 0.6 percent yields a real growth rate of 5.5 percent. Thus, the
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growth of production from gray iron foundries follows closely the be-
havior of all manufacturing.
VALUE ADDED
An indicative statistic for comparing the relative economic con-
tribution of the gray iron industry is that of "value added, " which is
simply the value of shipments less the cost of materials and services
purchased, such as scrap and electricity. Value added includes,
therefore, labor charges (wages and salaries), capital charges (depre-
ciation, interest, rent), and profit. Value added affords a truer pic-
ture of economic strength than value of shipments since the latter may
be inflated by treating castings shipped by one foundry as materials of
another foundry.
The value added for gray iron foundries in 1967 amounted to $1.6
billion. Growth of value added has been at a compound annual rate of
7. 9 percent for foundries and 7. 0 percent for manufacturing. The
higher growth rate of value added for foundries may be explained by two
sets of factors. First, the price of castings increased at a. rate greater
than prices for all commodities—2. 0 percent versus 0. 6 percent^as
mentioned above. Second, the major materials costs for foundries
declined.
Pig iron and scrap iron are the two major materials purchased for
gray iron production. Pig iron and ferroalloy prices fell at an annual
rate of 2. 3 percent during the decade through 1967, and the price for
cupola cast iron scrap declined at an annual rate of 0. 3 percent. Thus
the relative increase in the price of castings and the relative decrease
in the prices of major material inputs permitted a growth of value
added for foundries at a higher rate than for all manufacturing.
To learn what preserved the increase in value added of foundries
relative to that of all manufacturing requires an examination of the
components of value added. Attention should be directed particularly
to the shares of value added going to labor, capital, and profit.
Labor Share
Consider first the labor share, which is measured by the fraction
of payroll in value added. Foundries have been more labor-intensive
10 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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relative to all manufacturing since the ratio of payroll to value added
for 1967 is 0. 619 among foundries and 0. 509 for all manufacturing.
This difference shows that nearly one-fifth more of the value added in
gray iron production was absorbed by wages and salaries than was the
case for all manufacturing.
More significant than the level of foundries' labor share is the
fact that it fell and fell relative to a similar decline in the labor share
of value added in total manufacturing. From 1958 to 1967, the labor
share for foundries declined 5. 65 percent from a share of 0. 654; that
for all manufacturing fell 2. 55 percent from a level of 0. 521. Thus,
the labor share of value added for foundries not only fell, but it fell at
twice the rate of all manufacturing.
The results may appear inconsistent when it is noted that gray
iron foundries experienced, relative to all manufacturing, a. more
rapid growth from 1958 to 1967 in total employment, production employ-
ment, production worker man-hours, payroll per employee, and wages
per production worker. These observations suggest an investigation
of the other two components of value added—capital costs and profit.
Capital Share
Neither capital costs nor profits are reported in a fashion that
allows direct comparison with the labor share. Indirect comparisons
are possible, however. One proxy for estimating the behavior of the
capital share is the level and growth of capital expenditures. Where
capital share includes the interest and depreciation charges associated
with plant and equipment usage, and where usage is directly related to
capital expenditures, then capital share may be expected to reflect
capital expenditures.
It would appear that the capital share for foundries has grown
since the annual level of expenditures increased more than five times
from $32. 6 million in 1958 to $173 million in 1967. During the same
period, capital expenditures for all manufacturing little more than
doubled. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 20.4 per-
cent for gray iron foundries as opposed to a rate of 8. 7 percent for all
manufacturing.
Recent Economic Changes in Industry
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Several factors help explain * growth in capital share. irs ,
technical requirements placed by the consumers of gray iron on
producers for castings of higher quality and greater sophistication
force new investments. Capital expenditures have also been encour-
aged by tight labor markets and rising wages. A final factor that can-
not be overlooked has been the growing number of air pollution control
installations .
Survey results indicate that nearly $70 million has been spent by
foundries for air pollution control purposes. It must be realized,
however, that the results cannot be strictly included in the foregoing
total capital expenditures. One reason is that the $70 million includes
expenditures from before 1958 and-into the first quarter of 1968. A
second reason is that total capital expenditures are limited only to
firms that are primarily gray iron producers. The $70 million figure
includes air pollution control expenditures on foundries in other indus-
tries such as automotive manufacturing. Nevertheless, air pollution
control investments have contributed to the growth of capital expendi-
tures in the gray iron foundry industry.
Profit Share
The remaining share of value added to be examined is profit.
Although time-series data are not available on profits in gray iron
foundries, the 1967 cross section of financial data provided by the
Internal Revenue Service and the changing size distribution of foundries
lead to a conclusion that profit share also increased through 1967.
Table 2 illustrates that as foundries increase in size, they tend to be-
come more profitable as measured against gross receipts.
The distribution of foundries by size has been changing in favor of
larger establishments. From 1959 to 1967, the number of gray found-
ries in the United States declined from 1,251 to 1, 055 (see Appendix C,
Table C-7). Virtually all of this decline was accounted for by a de-
crease in the number of foundries with relatively few employees. The
number of foundries employing less than 50 persons dropped a third,
from 757 in 1959 to 506 in 1967. The number of large reporting units,
however, registered substantial increases. Units with 100 or more
12 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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Table 2. NET PROFITS BEFORE TAXES AS PERCENT
OF GROSS RECEIPTS, BY SIZE OF FOUNDRY
Size of foundry sales,
$]06
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
yo.o
Net profits before
taxes as percent
of gross receipts
4.18
6.63
6.71
7.36
6.95
employees increased 22 percent between 1959 and 1967; and the giants
of the industry, those with 500 or more employees, increased 46 per-
cent in number.
CONCLUSIONS
The preceding discussion indicates that the gray iron foundry
industry, as an industry, was in an economic position to assume air
pollution control expenditures. The prices of its products rose relative
to all manufacturing, which suggests that the burden of air pollution
control could have been shifted to the consumer at least partially.
What was not shifted forward to the consumer may have been absorbed
in profits that have probably been increasing relative to value added,
but that may have increased faster in the absence of pollution control
requirements. Foundries also are improving their ability to manage
sophisticated air pollution control technologies as is evident from the
rapid growth of capital expenditures. An exception to the foregoing
conclusions may be the sector of the industry composed of small
foundries.
These conclusions must be considered in view of the major in-
fluence that a few large gray iron firms have on the industry. The
four largest companies accounted for 27 percent of the industry's
value of shipments in 1966, while the eight largest accounted for 37
percent. 9 it is also estimated that the 50 largest firms accounted for
fully two-thirds of total industry shipments.
Many of these large firms are "production foundries, " which
have the capability to produce economically large lots of closely
Recent Economic Changes in Industry 13
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related castings. Much of the output of these "production foundries"
is captive, i.e. , produced for the parent company's end product. In
fact, about 40 percent of all gray iron casting production originates
from "captive foundries. " The rest is produced for sale.
In contrast to the large "production foundries" are the smaller
"jobbing foundries, " which produce relatively smaller lots of varied
types and sizes of castings on custom order. This group is composed
of the largest number of foundries. Furthermore, most gray iron
firms maintain only one establishment.
14 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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CHAPTER 4. CURRENT ECONOMIC STATUS OF INDUSTRY
AND OF INDIVIDUAL FIRMS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter seeks to answer several questions: (1) How profit-
able is the gray iron foundry industry compared to all manufacturing?
(2) How profitable are various sized firms in the industry? and (3) How
does air pollution control affect profits?
No attempt was made in either the postcard or the interview
survey to collect data bearing on the financial status or general profit-
ability of gray iron foundries because of the privileged nature of such
information. Instead, arrangements were made for the Internal Reve-
nue Service to consolidate individual company financial data based on
1966 income tax returns, with selected distributions based on size,
type of operation, type of organization, and existence of air pollution
control equipment.
Portions of the IRS data are not included in this financial analysis
for technical reasons. (See Appendix D for a more complete presenta-
tion.) Data from firms having "captive foundries" were excluded
because the casting production tends to be integrated financially with
other manufacturing operations and, therefore, sheds little light on
foundry operations per se. Also, foundries that file tax returns as
partnerships, proprietorships, and small corporations have been
excluded for several reasons: problems of comparability with corpo-
rate organizations, inadequate data, and relatively few observations.
Thus the subsample chosen for analysis was that of 240 foundries
filing corporate tax returns, which represented 17 percent of all
foundries identified in the postcard survey. Their 1966 gross receipts
of $756 million amounted to 28 percent of the $2. 7 billion of shipments
of gray iron castings for that year.
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PROFITABILITY OF INDUSTRY
Several measures of profitability are possible. The following
presentation dwells on two of these measures _ (1).profits before taxes
as a percent of gross receipts and (2) profits after taxes as a percent
of gross receipts.
The 240 foundries examined showed an average net profit before
taxes of 6.9 percent of gross receipts, which was lower than the com-
parable profit rate of 8. 1 percent for all of manufacturing. Profit
rates after taxes as *. percent of gross receipts for foundries and for
all manufacturing confirm the pattern. This may be observed in Table
3, which is based in part on data in Table D-4 of Appendix D.
Table 3. PROFITABILITY OF FOUNDRIES COMPARED
TO ALL MANUFACTURING, 196611
1 ndustry
Foundri es
All manufacturing
Net prof i ts before
taxes as percent
of gross receipts
6.9
8.1
Net profits after
taxes as percent
of gross receipts
4.0
4.6
PROFITABILITY WITHIN INDUSTRY
As pointed out in the previous chapter, the profit rate varies
positively with the size of the foundry. Table 4 provides a more
detailed confirmation of this behavior. All three categories—cupola and
electric arc furnaces with controls, cupola and electric arc furnaces
without controls, and electric induction furnaces—show a tendency for
net profits before taxes, as a. percent of gross receipts, to rise as
foundry sales rise. The most pronounced variation occurs for electric
induction furnaces, which require no controls.
The presence or absence of air pollution controls, however, has
no clear, discernible effect on profits. It might be expected that profit
rates would be lower for cupola and electric arc furnaces that have
outlays for air pollution control purposes. Also, to the extent that
induction furnaces are a form of pollution control and entail higher
casting-melting costs, one might expect their profit rate to be lower.
The fact that profits bear no observable relation to the use of air
16 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table It. PROFITABILITY BY TYPE OF FURNACE, EXISTENCE
OF CONTROLS, AND SIZE OF FOUNDRY SALES
Furnace type
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Electric
induction
Size of foundry sales,
$106
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1 .0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Average
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1 .0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
ilO.O
Average
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
L10.0
Average
Net profits before
taxes as percent
of gross receipts
3.38
5.25
7.20
6.22
7.02
6.86
it. 92
7.00
6.52
7.73
3-29
6.18
-6.84
5.97
k.07
Ht.61
15.79
12.25
pollution abatement processes and equipment may be explained by the
absence of data on other factors.
One factor, for example, that may influence profits is the benefit
derived from pollution reduction in forms of reduced expenditures for
building painting, roof maintenance, and insurance for personal injury
and property damage. While attempts were made to quantify these
benefits for all foundries, the survey was able to do little more than
prove their existence for some foundries.
MAGNITUDE OF PROFITS WITHIN INDUSTRY
The average net profit before taxes of "jobbing" foundries with
casting sales under $500,000 amounted to $11, 00.0 in 1966, a profit rate
of 4. 18 percent. Firms that shipped from $0. 5 to $1 million in 1966
had an average profit of $52, 000 before taxes and «. profit rate of 6. 63
percent. These results are presented in Table 5 from data collected
in Table D-5 of Appendix D. The table shows that firms that ship more
Current Economic Status of Industry and of Individual Firms
17
-------
Table 5. AVERAGES FOR PROFITS, GROSS RECEIPTS, AND PROFIT RATE,
BY SIZE OF FOUNDRY SALES AND TYPE OF FURNACE
Size
of foundry
sales, $106
<0.5
0.5 to <] .0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <]0.0
>.10.0
Furnace type
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupo 1 a/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Average
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Average
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Average
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Average
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Average
Net profits
before taxes,
$103
-15
1 1
13
11
41
53
53
52
54
135
113
119
750
329
276
329
2,309
4,298
698
3,277
Gross
receipts ,
$103
219
325
264
263
686
1 ,009
757
784
1,326
1,874
1,733
1,771
5,132
5,287
3,569
4,470
14,617
61,222
21,162
47,141
Profits before
taxes as percent
of gross receipts
-6.84
3.38
4.92
4.18
5.97
5.25
7.00
6.63
4.07
7.20
6.52
6.71
14.61
6.22
7.73
7.36
15.79
7.02
3.29
6.95
18
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
than $1 million of castings garner more profits and achieve higher
profit rates than their smaller competitors.
Knowing the magnitude of profits within the industry offers some
basis for comparing the impact of air pollution control expenditures.
This comparison will be given in Chapter 8.
Current Economic Status of Industry and of Individual Firms 19
-------
CHAPTER 5. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL REGULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Industry decisions on whether and how to control air pollution
have been considered -within the existing pattern of varying state and
local standards, regulations, and enforcement practices. Foundries
•with cupola controls tend to be located in those states or metropolitan
regions with air pollution control regulations. Since the number of
states and localities -with regulations is growing rapidly, most found-
ries may expect to come under the influence of some air pollution
control agency in the next several years. The Federal influence will
be indirect because of the provision of the Clean Air Act "that the pre-
vention and control of air pollution at its source is the primary respon-
sibility of States and local governments."
CLEAN AIR ACT
The intent of the Clean Air Act and the policy of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration are that air pollution be considered
as an individual problem in each region of the country, and that it be
attacked by a combination of State and local governments. The intend-
ed primary role of the Federal government is to provide information
and assistance to the states and local governments to make certain
that the machinery of the Act operates at peak efficiency and to ensure
that states discharge their responsibilities as outlined in the Act.
Under the Clean Air Act, the Federal government issues cri-
teria on the effects of various air pollutants on health and property,
and issues information on the most effective and economical ways to
control the sources of those pollutants. Once the states receive this
information, they are expected to set air quality standards in regions
whose boundaries have been established by the Federal government.
Air quality standards are prescribed maximum limits an the levels of
air pollution that can be reached, usually during a given period of
time. In selecting air quality standards, a region is, in effect,
21
-------
deciding how clean it wants its air to be. An essential part of the
standard-setting process is a set of hearings at which the public and
industry may express their preferences.
After states select air quality standards for their designated air
quality control regions, they must develop an implementation plan that
will provide an emission-reduction strategy to attain the air quality
standard. The implementation plan sets forth the sources to be con-
trolled, the degree of control to be accomplished, and the time
schedule to be met.
The mechanics of the Act are shown in Figure 2, along with the
statutory time limits allowed for each step in the process. The process
begins for regions once they have been designated and after air quality
criteria and control technique information have been published.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration has issued to
the states air quality criteria and control technique information on the
pollutant of immediate importance to foundries—particulate matter.
Table 6 lists the 39 air quality control regions that have been
designated as of July 31, 1970. It is expected that within the next year,
regions will be designated for all other major metropolitan areas of
the country and for most communities with more than 25, 000 population.
TYPES Of REGULATIONS
Five types of emission standards have been predominant: con-
centration, collection efficiency, process weight rate, potential emis-
sion rate, and visible emissions. Each of these regulations will be
explained and then evaluated regarding its future use.
Concentration standards restrict pollutant mass per unit gas
volume, such as pounds of particulate matter per thousand pounds of
gas, grains per standard cubic foot, parts per million, and micro-
grams per standard cubic meter. These types of regulations are
acceptable for pure combustion processes that can be compared by
standardizing gas volume. Because foundries utilize processes other
than pure combustion, concentration regulations are of limited value.
Another weakness of concentration standards is that pollutant
concentration alone does not register total emissions, because the gas
22 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
TJ
o
30
U. S. DHEW DESIGNATES
AIR QUALITY
CONTROL REGIONS
U. S. DHEW DEVELOPS AND
PUBLISHES AIR
QUALITY CRITERIA
BASED ON SCIENTIFIC
EVIDENCE OF AIR
POLLUTION EFFECTS
U. S. DHEW PREPARES
AND PUBLISHES
REPORTS ON
AVAILABLE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
—
•*•«
?fm\ f™>\
UAYS) 1 DAYS ;}
STATES SET
STATES INDICATE SAP'™
TO SET STANDARDS (PUBLIC QUAFLTT™EQNATV
REGIONS
*
STATES SUBMIT
STANDARDS FOR
U.S. DHEW REVIEW
^1
STATES ESTABLISH
COMPREHENSIVE PLANS
AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS
t
STATES SUBMIT
IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
FOR U.S. DHEW REVIEW
r^
STATES ACT TO CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION IN ACCORDANCE
WITH AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
AND PLANS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Figure 2. Flow diagram for action to control air pollution on regional basis.
-------
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11 .
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Washington, D. C.
New York City, N. Y.
Chicago, 111.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Denver, Colo.
Los Angeles , Cal i f .
St. Louis, Mo.
Boston, Mass.
Ci ncinnati , Ohio
San Francisco, Calif.
Cleveland, Ohio
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Kansas City, Mo.
Detroit, Mich.
Baltimore, Md.
Hartford, Conn.
Springfield, Mass.
1 ndianapol is , 1 nd.
Minneapolis St. Paul, Minn.
Providence, R. 1 .
21 .
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36,
37.
38.
39.
l^-rcn AS OF JULY 31, 1370
Seattle Tacoma , Wash.
Louisvi lie, Ky .
Dayton, Ohio
phoenix, Ariz.
Houston, Texas
Dal las Ft. Worth, Texas
San Antonio, Texas
Bi rmi ngham, Ala.
Toledo, Ohio
Steubenvi lie, Ohio
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Atlanta, Ga.
Memphi s , Tenn.
Portland, Oregon
Miami , Fla.
Oklahoma City, Okla.
Omaha, Neb.
Burlington, Vt.
Vi rgin Is lands
volume is not taken into account. Thus, a. low concentration could be
incorrectly associated with low emissions. This is particularly rele-
vant to foundries that infiltrate large quantities of air through the
charging door. Robert Mcllvaine illustrates how deceptive concen-
tration can be. For a cupola with particulate emissions of 170 pounds
per hour, the concentration is 0. 96 grain per standard cubic foot with
a. certain effluent gas volume. A concentration of 0.24 grain per
standard cubic foot was measured with a four-fold increase in gas
volume but with no change in the mass emission rate of 170 pounds per
hour.
A single concentration standard requires about the same degree
of control for large as for small sources; this fact is subject to criti-
cism because large sources emit more pollution and are generally able
to afford more efficient collectors.
24
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Another type of regulation is one based on percentage removal of
participate matter from the gas stream. This collection efficiency
regulation has the same weaknesses as concentration regulations
because it does not: (1) limit total emissions generated by the process,
(2) usually vary degree of control according to size of source, and (3)
prevent circumvention by operators who recirculate collected particles
or certain large particles through increased gas flow rates to increase
collection efficiency, usually at the expense of increased emission
rates.
Process weight rate regulations and potential emission rate
regulations do not have the three deficiencies. These regulations:
(1) restrict total emissions in pounds per hour, (2) vary in most appli-
cations according to source size, and (3) eliminate circumvention by
focusing on emissions rather than collections. Allowable emissions
vary according to the weight of materials processed per hour, as in
the process weight regulation, or according to the uncontrolled emis-
sion rate, as in the potential emission rate regulation.
The process weight regulation of the San Francisco Bay Area Air
Pollution Control District (Table 7) has been widely adopted by other
communities and by states. In this regulation, as the process •weight
rate increases, the allowable emission rate becomes more stringent
in terms of pounds of emissions per ton of material processed.
Process weight rate regulations generally apply to all industries.
Some jurisdictions, however, have special provisions for a certain
category of small gray iron cupolas. The New York State regulation,
for example, specifies a. more lenient process weight rate regulation
for existing jobbing cupolas, which are defined as those melting less
than 50, 000 pounds per hour or operating less than 4 hours per day.
The Pennsylvania pollution potential regulation limits allowable
emissions in pounds per hour. Potential emission rate is calculated
from some suitable parameter and an emission factor associated with
that parameter. In the case of foundries, the parameter is melt rate
in tons per hour, and the emission factor is pounds of particulate
matter produced per ton of metal melted. The regulation contains
several emission limits that apply to different areas of the state.
Air Pollution Control Regulations 25
-------
Table 7. ALLOWABLE RATE OF EMISSION BASED ON PROCESS
WEIGHT RATE, SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DISTRICT
Process weiqht rate,
Ib/hr
100
200
400
600
800
1 ,000
1 ,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
12,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
200,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.75
1 .00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
6.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
100.00
500.00
1 ,000.00
3,000.00
Ib/hr
0.551
0.877
1 .40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
4.76
5-38
5.96
6.52
7-58
8.56
9.49
10.4
11.2
12.0
13.6
16.5
17.9
19.2
25.2
30.5
35.4
40.0
41.3
42.5
43.6
44.6
46.3
47.8
49.0
51.2
69.0
77.6
92.7
Visible emission regulations are based on the opacity of the
visible plume. Such regulations are widely accepted by State and local
jurisdictions, and have been upheld in court. 13 The principal useful-
ness of visible emission standards is in (1) ease of source surveillance
when large numbers of sources are present and (2) direct reduction of
the quantity of very small particles that would otherwise contribute
significantly to reduction in atmospheric visibility. Enforcement of
such standards involves the visual judgment of individual observers
26
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
whose observations can vary widely under various conditions of lighting
and background. Trained observers, however, can reproduce observa-
tions to a reasonable degree of accuracy.
It can be expected that, in the future, process weight and potential
emissions regulations will be more common in conjunction with an
opacity regulation.
EXPECTED TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
The Federally designated air quality control regions have closely
followed the areas defined by respective Standard Metropolitan Statisti-
cal Areas (SMSA's). If all of the more than 200 SMSA's become parts
of air quality control regions, then the number of foundries facing air
pollution control will be determined largely by their location in SMSA's.
Survey results show that 58 percent of the gray iron foundries are
located in SMSA's, but smaller foundries tend to be outside SMSA's
more frequently than do large ones. Approximately half of the foundries
with gray iron shipments between $10, 000 and under $500, 000 are
presently located in SMSA's. Nearly two-thirds of those shipping more
than $0.5 million in castings are in SMSA's. Thus, larger foundries
have a greater likelihood of facing air pollution control regulations.
TAX REFORM ACT OF 1969
The U.S. Tax Reform Act of 1969 provides for a 5-year straight-
line depreciation of certified air pollution control facilities. Equipment
covered must be placed in operation after December 31, 1968, and
before January 1, 1975. Furthermore, the facilities must control
pollution from plants in operation before January 1, 1969. Investments
that merely diffuse pollutants, e.g., taller stacks, are excluded from
the provision.
States must certify to the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare that the equipment conforms with their programs or regula-
tions. Equipment is not eligible if its cost will be recovered over the
actual useful life. Where the useful life of control equipment extends
beyond 15 years, only part of the capital expenditure qualifies. For
example, if the useful life is 20 years, then three-fourths of the capital
value may be depreciated over 5 years.
Air Pollution Control Regulations 27
-------
CHAPTER 6. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the operating and efficiency characteris-
tics of the several types of equipment commonly available for control
of pollutants in foundries. The distribution of control systems is
presented according to type of melting operation, size of foundry, and
location.
TYPES OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The term "emissions control system" refers to all equipment
installed at the plant for the purpose of reducing furnace emissions.
Such equipment may, for example, include: (1) the cap of the cupola,
(2) the ductwork leading from the cupola to the control device, (3) the
quenching chambers for reducing gas temperatures, (4) the control
device, (5) the demister (if needed) for removing moisture droplets
from the gas stream, (6) the fans and pumps, (7) the particulate dis-
posal and water-circulating systems, (8) the afterburner inside the
cupola, and (9) automated electrical devices that monitor the system.
For control of particulate emissions, one of the following types
of systems of air pollution control equipment is commonly used by
gray iron foundries with cupola furnaces.
Wet Caps
The wet cap collection device consists basically of a conical
"weatherhood" above the cupola stack. Water pours over the conical
section to produce a water curtain through which the hot gases must
pass. Overall collection efficiency is not likely to exceed 60 percent
of solid particulates, on a. total weight basis. Wet caps will not meet
a typical process weight regulation such as that presented in Table 7.
Multiple Cyclones
Multiple cyclones include devices in which a vortex is created to
separate particles from the main gas stream. These particles then
29
-------
fall by gravity to locations from which they may be removed from the
collector. Usual collection efficiency is in the 70 to 85 percent range
14
(total weight basis).
Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubber systems use a. liquid, usually water, to separate or
assist in the separation of particulates from the gas stream. Collec-
tion efficiency will be a. function of energy used to obtain the interaction
between dispersed liquid droplets and particulates.
Low-energy wet scrubbers collect with an 85 to 95 percent
efficiency. For the purpose of this report, low-energy scrubbers
include all those designs with an energy input up to 25 inches water
gauge. Scrubber designs with energy requirements greater than 25
inches water gauge are classed as high-energy wet scrubbers. These
collect more than 95 percent of uncontrolled emissions. *
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are devices that remove particulate matter from
gas streams by retention of the particles in or on a. woven or felted
fabric through which the gas flows. Collection efficiency can be main-
tained at more than 99 percent. This equipment is used on electric
arc and cupola furnaces.
For each type of air pollution control equipment, a detailed
description is presented in Appendix E.
USE OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
A survey conducted by BDSA identified 1, 376 operating gray iron
foundries throughout the United States in 1967. Of these, 204 foundries,
or 15 percent of the total — accounting for approximately 40 percent of
total value of gray iron production — had some type of air pollution con-
trol system. (Tables C-8 through C-10 in Appendix C.)
The number of gray iron foundries found to have installed air
pollution control equipment was greatest among those with a relatively
high value of production (Table 8). Foundries with production worth
more than $2. 5 million each in 1967 accounted for nearly half of all
foundries with air pollution control equipment, although their number
3D GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table 8. FOUNDRIES WITH CONTROL SYSTEMS
By
value of production in 1967,
$106
<0.5
0.5 to
-------
The wet-cap system was used on 95 of the 180 controlled cupola
furnaces. Wet caps are not used on non-cupola furnaces. Foundries
using wet caps were geographically distributed on * comparable basis
with the distribution of all foundries.
The fabric-filter system was used on approximately 30 percent
of all controlled foundries. More than half of these (38 foundries) were
located in California, where local regulations necessitate high collec-
tion efficiencies. One-third of the foundries using fabric filters had
electric arc furnaces, and two-thirds had cupolas.
Wet scrubber systems were used at about 15 percent of all con-
trolled foundries. Twenty of these foundries, or three-fifths of the
total number using wet scrubbers, were located in the East North-
Central Region. Most of the foundries with wet scrubbers operated
cupolas; only four foundries applied scrubbers to electric arc furnaces.
Multiple cyclones were used on only 15 foundries, 8 of which were
in the East North-Central Region.
An electrostatic precipitator was reported being used by only one
foundry in the United States.
Electric induction furnaces without pollution controls were used
by 73 foundries, or 5 percent of all reporting foundries. One-third of
these are in the East North-Central Region, with the rest scattered
throughout the country. About half of the foundries melting with elec-
tric induction furnaces are small, with individual foundry production
for 1967 under $500, 000; in fact, the distribution of electric induction
furnace, foundries by production-size class differs only slightly from
the distribution of all foundries.
32 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
CHAPTER 7. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter analyzes the results of survey interviews of gray
iron foundries equipped with air pollution control equipment. A total
of 67 interviews was conducted during 1968 among all sizes of foundries.
These interviews focused on the costs associated -with pollution control,
and on the operating and engineering features of foundries that affected
costs. The emphasis will be on cupola control systems, although in-
formation was collected on foundries operating furnaces other than
cupolas and for control systems on nonmelting operations. According-
ly, the principal analysis presented comes from data collected on 51
gray iron foundries with cupolas controlled by wet caps, mechanical
collectors, wet scrubbers, and fabric filters. (See Appendix B for a
detailed explanation of the survey. )
CONCEPTS ON COST
Data were collected for two basic cost categories: investment
costs and annual costs. The investment costs category sums the
expenditures for the primary control equipment, any auxiliary equip-
ment, installation, and research and development. For the research
and development category, the number of respondents was negligible,
and the total amount involved -was insignificant. To compensate for
differences in installation dates, investment costs were converted to a
common base of 1967 dollars. This adjustment was made by using an
implicit price deflator series for nonresidential fixed investment con-
sisting of a. "structures" and an "equipment" component; basic and
auxiliary equipment costs were adjusted by use of the equipment com-
ponent of this series. '
Annual costs, the other basic cost category, include operating and
maintenance costs associated with the control system, and capitalized
cost associated with the investment. Capitalized cost consists of
33
-------
depreciation and cost of capital. Depreciation was applied on a
straight-line "basis to the various types of control equipment according
to the schedule shown in Table 9.
Table 9. CONTROL EQUIPMENT DEPRECIATION LIFE
Equi pment Li fe, yr
Wet cap 11
Multiple cyclone 15
Wet scrubber 9
Fabric f i Her 9
These figures for depreciation life were used to recalculate the
depreciation data reported in the survey. An accurate portrayal of
the economic life of most of the systems and a comparison with the
depreciation life cannot be made because most systems have been in
operation less than 9 years.
The long-term cost of capital was calculated at 7 percent of the
total investment cost to account for interest incurred or, if a firm
used its own capital, to account for the opportunities foregone by
committing funds for air pollution control rather than for some revenue-
producing investment. Annual costs are underestimated to a certain
extent since it was not possible to allocate a portion of plant overhead
to the control system.
ANALYSIS OF SURVEY DATA
Investment Costs
Investment costs of the control systems surveyed varied widely
according to type, complexity, and size of system. The greatest
differentiation in complexity of a given type of system exists between
relatively simple low-energy wet scrubbers (up to 25-inch static pres-
sure drop as in spray, impingement, and packed-bed systems) and the
higher energy, venturi-type wet scrubbers (25- to 70-inch pressure
drop). The investment costs of these two categories are considered
separately.
A number of operating variables are indicative of control system
size. Among them are melt rate of the cupola, gas volume throughput,
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
and production volume. Analysis of collected data indicated that in-
vestment cost varies most directly with melt rate. For those found-
ries that have several cupolas operating on alternate schedules, yet
controlled by the same control system, cost varies with the melt rate
of the largest cupola or cupolas operated at any one time.
Table 10 presents total investment cost as a function of cupola
melt rate for each type of control system. These costs are derived
from functions presented in Appendix F Except for fabric filters,
the costs show economies of scale in investments for pollution control
systems. In mechanical collectors, for example, the cost of control-
ling a 16-ton-per-hour cupola is about one and a half times the cost of
controlling an 8-ton-per-hour unit, rather than twice the cost as might
be expected.
Table 10. INVESTMENT COST BY TYPE OF CONTROL SYSTEM ON CUPOLAS
FOR TYPICAL MELT-RATE CAPACITIES
($103)
Melt rate,
tons/hr
4
6
8
12
16
20
Multiple
cyclone
a
a
113
144
174
205
Low-energy
wet scrubber
44
51
58
72
87
109
High-energy
wet scrubber
a
a
a
194
229
265
Fabri c
f i Iter
45
80
115
185
255
324
No observations on facilities of this size.
Cost functions have not been derived for wet caps, since they
seldom meet control efficiency standards. The average investment
cost for wet caps, however, has been calculated as $4,903 per ton of
melt rate. Individual control systems vary from as low as $1, 031 to
as high as $9, 825 per ton of melt rate. Major variables affecting the
investment costs of wet caps include: number of cupolas serviced;
the materials used in construction —hot rolled or stainless steel; and
the method of disposing of the dust-laden water — whether by draining
to an existing disposal point or by draining to a clarifier tank and re-
turning the "clean" water to the collector.
Air Pollution Control Costs
35
-------
Multiple-cyclone costs may be expected to vary according to
requirements on ducting and cooling. Added to the costs associated
•with these variations are costs related to the number of cyclones or
banks of cyclones in the control system.
Variation in installed costs of wet scrubbers stems from the large
number of equipment designs, use of corrosion-resistant metals, and
a. spread in the operating pressure drops from 4 to 70 inches water
gauge.
Fabric-filter installations usually are designed for either batch
or continuous foundry operations. Batch-type collectors are cheaper,
but normally are suited only to small foundries that melt during a part
of a shift.
Costs also may vary for the same type of control systems in-
stalled on comparable-size cupolas. Factors contributing to such
cost variance are summarized in Table 11.
Investment Components
Basic and auxiliary equipment costs are the principal components
of total investment. As shown in Table 12, equipment costs represent
from 57 to 74 percent of total control investment.
On an individual foundry basis, the ratio of equipment costs to
total investment varies considerably. Variations in installation re-
quirements and labor costs were the main factors affecting this ratio.
Annual Costs
A comparison of the economic impacts of different control systems
for foundries cannot be made solely on the basis of investment costs.
Variations in life spans among different equipment types, as well as
variations in operating and maintenance costs, must be considered in
order to gain a true cost-comparison of alternatives. These factors
and others that are considered in the derivation of total annual cost
are listed on the interview form shown in Appendix B.
Since all relevant cost variables are included in total annual cost,
alternate control systems for a. given cupola size should be compared
on an annual cost basis. Total annual control costs are presented in
Table 13. Economies of scale are again evident for wet scrubbers,
36 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table 11. CONDITIONS AFFECTING INSTALLED COST OF CONTROL DEVICES
12
Cost category
Equipment trans-
portation
Plant age
Available space
Corros i veness
of gas
Complexity of
start-up
1 nstrumentation
Guarantee on
performance
Degree of
assembly
Degree of
engi neering
Uti 1 i ties
Col lected waste-
material
hand! ing
Labor
Low cost
Minimum distance; simple
loading and unloading
procedures
Hardware designed as an
integral part of new
plant
Vacant area for location
of control system
Noncorrosive gas
Simple start-up, no exten-
sive adjustment
requi red
Little requi red
None needed
Control hardware shipped
completely assembled
Autonomous "package"
control system
Electricity, water, and
waste-disposal
faci 1 i ties readi ly
aval lable
No special treatment
faci 1 i ties or
handl ing requi red
Low wages in geographi-
cal area
High cost
Long distance; complex pro-
cedure for loading and
unloading
Hardware installed into
confines of old plant
requiring structural or
process modification or
al teration
Little vacant space re-
quires extensive steel
support construction and
site preparation
Acidic emissions requiring
high alloy accessory
equipment using special
handling and construc-
tion techniques
Requires extensive adjust-
ments; testing; consider-
able downtime
Complex instrumentation
required to assure reli-
ability of control or
constant monitoring of
gas stream
Required to assure designed
control efficiency
Control hardware to be
assembled and erected in
the field
Control system requiring
extensive integration
into process; insulation
to correct temperature
problem; noise abatement
Electrical and waste-treat-
ment facilities must be
expanded; water supply
must be developed or
expanded
Special treatment facil-
ities and/or handling
requi red
Overtime and/or high wages
in geographical area
Air Pollution Control Costs
37
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Table 12. EQUIPMENT COSTS AS PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL CONTROL INVESTMENT
System
Viet caps
Multiple cyclones
Viet scrubbers:
Low-energy
High-energy
Fabri c f i Hers
All types
Equipment costs as percent
of total control investment
63
72
57
74
72
71
Table 13. ANNUAL COST BY TYPE OF CONTROL SYSTEM ON CUPOLAS
FOR TYPICAL MELT-RATE CAPACITIES
($103)
Melt rate,
tons/hr
4
6
8
12
16
20
Multiple
cyclone
3
a
18
33
50
67
Low-energy
wet scrubber
13
15
16
20
24
28
High-energy
wet scrubber
a
a
a
60
72
84
Fabric
filter
13
24
34
55
77
a
dNo observations on facilities of this size.
but not for multiple cyclones and fabric filters.
On the basis of total annual cost, low-energy wet scrubbers
appear to be considerably less costly than multiple cyclones, even
though wet scrubbers achieve a. higher collection efficiency. This
relationship is not unreasonable in view of the fact that wet scrubbers
have an average rated gas volume of 2, 000 acfm per ton of melt rate,
while the conversion ratio for multiple cyclones is 5, 200 acfm per ton
of melt rate. In effect, the multiple cyclones surveyed were designed
for gas volumes 2. 6 times as great as the rated gas volumes of wet
scrubbers on cupolas of comparable size.
Of the two types of high-efficiency collector systems, fabric
filters account for all control systems on cupolas of less than 12 tons
38
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
per hour. High-energy wet scrubbers, however, predominate in the
cupola-size range from 12 to 50 tons per hour. This relationship is
supported by the fact that the annual cost of high-energy wet scrubbers
falls below the annual cost of fabric filters as cupola size rises above
12 tons per hour. Note the annual cost functions in Appendix F.
The average annual cost for wet caps is $1,497 per ton of melt
rate. The range, however, is from $470 to $3, 096 per ton of melt
rate.
Operating and Maintenance Costs
Operating and maintenance (O and M) costs per hour of operation
show a considerable range for each of the different types of control
equipment. One reason may be the difficulty some plants had in
developing this information; internal bookkeeping and auditing systems
often include these expenditures in total plant-operating costs. Also,
operating and maintenance costs vary with such factors as the quality
and suitability of the control equipment and a foundry's operating and
maintenance practices. Operating and maintenance cost factors pecu-
liar to each type of control system are discussed below.
Wet Caps "O and M" costs for wet caps involve primarily the costs
of water, electric energy, maintenance associated with pumping water,
and disposal of collected wet material and water.
Multiple Cyclones For multiple cyclones, the significant operating
costs are for electric power (which varies with the unit size), water
for hot-gas cooling, and waste-disposal operations. Maintenance costs
include the costs of servicing the fan motor, replacing any parts worn by
abrasion, and flushing the clogged small-diameter tubes.
Wet Scrubbers (Low- and High-Energy) In addition to the cost of
waste disposal, the major operating costs for wet scrubbers are power
and scrubbing-liquid costs. Power requirements vary with equipment
size, liquid circulation rate, and pressure drop. Maintenance includes
servicing the fan or compressor motor and the pump, replacing worn
or corroded parts, cleaning piping, and any necessary chemical treat-
ment of the liquid in the circulation system.
Air Pollution Control Costs 39
-------
Fabric Filters Operating costs for fabric filters include power costs
for operating the fan and the bag-cleaning device, water costs for hot-
gas cooling, and disposal of collected dry material. Maintenance costs
include costs for servicing the fan and shaking mechanism, and re-
placing worn bags and parts.
Operating and maintenance costs accounted for from 35 to 49
percent of total annual costs, depending on the type of system; these
costs are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
System
Wet caps
Multiple cyclones
Fabric fi Iters
Wet scrubbers:
Low-energy
High-energy
Al 1 types
"0 and M" costs as percent of total
annual costs
41
48
46
35
49
45
ELECTRIC INDUCTION FURNACES
Electric induction furnaces are a relatively new type of melting
unit used by the gray iron foundry industry. Under existing air pollu-
tion control regulations, these furnaces usually do not require emission
control equipment. Unlike uncontrolled cupolas, emission levels of
electric induction furnaces are normally within acceptable levels set
by current control regulations. Thus, for air pollution control purposes,
investment in an electric induction furnace might be considered as an
alternative to investment in a. cupola and requisite control equipment.
To gain information for evaluating these alternatives, the survey includ-
ed information from ten foundries operating a total of 21 electric induc-
tion furnaces.
Of the 21 furnaces operated by the surveyed foundries, 14, or
two-thirds, of these furnaces were installed since 1965. As seen in
Table 15, only one of the furnaces was installed prior to 1963.
40
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table 15. DATES OF ELECTRIC INDUCTION
FURNACE INSTALLATIONS
Number
of furnaces
2
A
7
1
4
2
1
Date
of instal lation
1968
196?
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
In all but one of the surveyed foundries, electric induction furnaces
replaced cupolas. The main reasons that foundrymen gave for replac-
ing cupolas with electric induction furnaces were: compliance with air
pollution regulations, economy of operation, and better metallurgical
quality control.
Even with the additional costs of pollution control equipment,
cupolas are, in most cases, less expensive than electric induction fur-
naces. Nevertheless, some foundries have found it to their advantage
to replace cupolas with electric induction furnaces. Unfortunately, the
interview survey provides only partial answers for this trend. Data on
foundry profits and operating costs of cupolas and electric induction
furnaces were not collected; therefore, it cannot be determined from the
survey whether the profitability of foundries operating induction furnaces
was higher or whether higher investment costs for electric induction
furnaces were offset by lower operating costs than those experienced
with cupolas.
In the absence of more comprehensive data, it appears that, for
some individual foundries, investment in electric induction furnaces is
a feasible alternative to investment in air pollution control equipment
fox existing cupolas. On the other hand, many foundries have replaced
or added to their melting capacity with cupolas. In spite of the sub-
stantial cost of cupola air pollution control, many foundries, especially
those pouring large tonnages, appear to still favor the cupola.
Air Pollution Control Costs ]
-------
CHAPTER 8. FINANCIAL IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROLS ON MODEL GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to draw together data on financial
aspects and pollution control costs in the context of typical plants.
Comparisons are made for six model plants between annual pollution
control and profits, between investment in pollution control systems
and total investment in plant and equipment, and between annual pollu-
tion control costs and value of shipments. These comparisons of pollu-
tion control costs with financial data offer some basis for judgment of
the economic impact of air pollution control costs on gray iron found-
ries.
MODEL PLANTS
Six plants with cupolas ranging in size from melt rates of 4 to 20
tons per hour have been used as models for the impact analysis. One
reason for selecting this range of cupola sizes is that approximately
three-fourths of all cupolas fall in this range. Another reason is that
model plants are allowed that show the full range of profit rates in the
industry.
Table 16 shows the size and operating characteristics of the model
plants in terms of melt rate in tons per hour, hours of melting per day,
days of melting per year, and the number of cupolas available for
melting. Also presented are the values of shipments associated with
these characteristics. Melting operations in hours per day and days
per year are approximations of the observed averages for the respec-
tive foundry sizes. The model plants reflect the fact that a majority of
the sampled foundries with melt rates under 10 tons per hour operated
one cupola, and those over 10 tons per hour operated two cupolas.
Note, however, that with few exceptions foundries with two cupolas
used each only on alternate days.
43
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Table 16. MODEL PLANT OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
AND VALUE OF SHIPMENTS
Model
plants
A
B
C
D
E
F
Melt rate/cupola,
tons/hr
*4
6
8
12
16
20
Melt time,
hr/day
3
5
7
9
12
16
days/yr
175
200
225
2kO
250
250
Number
of cupolas
1
1
1
2
2
2
shipments,
$103
Alt?
7^1
1,228
3,502
6,390
11,779
Value of shipments was determined from an equation in the form:
logY 0- + V! + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4
where: log Y value of shipments, $10
X
melt rate, ton /hr
X-, number of cupolas
X, = melt time, hr/day
X4 = annual melt time, days/yr
This form was fit by least squares techniques to 34 observations with
complete records on the five variables. The derived equation is:
log Y - 1. 6003 + 0. 0293ZXJ + 0. 21180X2 + 0. 03677X3 + 0.00349X4
Solving the equation for a. melt rate of 4 tons per hour and a melt time
of 3 hours per day for 175 days a year with one cupola yields the log of
$447, 000. This falls in the smallest-size category of surveyed found-
ries since the model plant's value of shipments is less than $500, 000.
It is assumed that this construction is typical of foundries under half
a. million dollars in value of shipments. Note from Table 16 that each
of the five categories of value of shipments is represented by at least
one model plant except for the $2. 5 to <10. 0 million category, which
has two.
Financial aspects of the model plants are presented in Table 17.
Profits for each plant are calculated according to the average rate of
taxable income to gross receipts for cupolas and electric arc furnaces.
These rates were calculated from the data reported by the Internal
Revenue Service for corporate tax returns in the five value of shipment
44
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table 17. MODEL PLANT FINANCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Model
plants
A
B
C
D
E
F
Value
of shipments,
$103
447
741
1,228
3,502
6,390
11,779
Profit
rate,
%
4.84
6.68
6.78
6.82
6.82
6.63
Profit,
$103
22
49
83
239
436
781
Rate of
return on
i nvestment ,
%
9.26
18.39
18.96
15.91
15.91
13.46
1 nvestment,
$103
234
269
439
1,501
2,739
5,802
classifications. Investment in each model foundry was determined
from knowing the profit and rate of return on investment. The
latter was estimated from the same set of data used to calculate profit
rates. Part of the Internal Revenue Service data included information
on long-term debt and equity. The sum of these two items is defined
as investment.
POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS OF MODEL PLANTS
It is now possible to compare the cost of pollution control with
economic measures of typical gray iron foundries. Three relation-
ships are investigated: (1) investment costs in pollution control to
total investment, (2) annual costs of pollution control to profits, and
(3) annual costs of pollution control to value of shipments.
The choices of control systems available to the model plants are
determined by the types of regulations they must meet. Because the
trend is toward process weight and opacity regulations, it is assumed
that the model plants must comply with these. Because opacity is
caused by very small particles, alternatives are limited to the most
efficient collections systems — high-energy wet scrubbers and fabric
filters.
As far as this analysis is concerned, choice is further limited by
the absence of observations on high-energy wet scrubbers controlling
cupolas with melt rates below 8 tons per hour and on fabric filters con-
trolling cupolas with melt rates as high as 20 tons per hour. To ex-
tend cost estimates into these voids andbeyondthe range of observations
would be inadvisably speculative.
Financial Impact of Air Pollution Control on Model Gray Iron Foundries
45
-------
Where o. choice between the two control systems is possible,
the least-cost alternative is selected. Thus a fabric filter is
chosen over a high-energy wet scrubber to control the IZ-ton-per-hour
cupolas of Plant D, and a high-energy wet scrubber is chosen to control
the 16-ton-per-hour cupolas of Plant E.
Table 18 compares the investment and annual costs of the control
systems to the total foundry investment and profit before taxes for the
respective model plants. Note that the impact of pollution control ex-
penditures on the foundries 'tends to fall as the size of the foundry in-
creases. Two exceptions are the ratios of control equipment invest-
ment to total plant investment, and control equipment annual cost to
value of shipments for the 4- and 6-ton-per-hour model plant cupolas.
One possible explanation is that plant and equipment investment in
foundries with a 6-ton-per-hour cupola is little different from that
associated with a 4-ton-per-hour cupola, except for those pieces that
service the cupola directly, such as pollution control equipment. Thus
the pollution control investment increases more rapidly than other plant
and equipment investment as cupola size increases for the two smallest
model plants.
Table 18. RELATION OF POLLUTION CONTROL COSTS TO TOTAL INVESTMENT,
PROFIT, AND VALUE OF SHIPMENTS BY MODEL PLANT
Model
plant
A
B
C
D
E
F
Control
equipment
Fabri c f i 1 ter
Fabri c f i 1 ter
Fabric f i 1 ter
Fabric f i Her
H i gh-ene rgy
wet scrubber
Hi gh-energy
wet scrubber
Control equipment
investment as
percent of total
i nvestment
19
30
26
12
8
5
Control equipment
annual cost as
percent of prof i t
before taxes
59
49
41
23
17
11
Control equipment
annual cost as
percent of value
of shipments
2,3
3.2
2.8
1.6
1.1
0.7
An increase in investment carries over in the form of deprecia-
tion and interest charges. As a result, the ratio of annual cost to value
of shipments is higher for the 6-ton-per-hour cupola plant than for the
46
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
4-ton-per-hour cupola plant. The declining impact trend is preserved
in the ratio of control equipment annual cost to profit before taxes, be-
cause the profit rate increases markedly between the 4- and 6-ton-per-
hour cupola model plants .
The impact of pollution control is much greater on the smallest
foundry than on the largest, whether measured by pollution control
investment as a percent of total plant investment, by annual cost of
pollution control as a percent of profits before taxes, or by annual
cost as a percent of value of shipments. The annual control cost,
which includes depreciation, interest, and operating and maintenance
costs, is 59 percent of the profits before taxes for the typical plant
under $0. 5 million in value of shipments, but only 11 percent of the
profit before taxes for the typical plant over $10 million. Annual cost
as a percent of value of shipments for the smallest model foundry is
more than 3 times as great as that for the largest one. The smallest
Plant A would be forced to raise its prices by 2. 3 percent in order to
cover the annual costs of pollution control, while the larger Plant F
would have to raise its prices just 0. 7 percent.
It can be seen, therefore, that a small foundry relative to a
large foundry must make a greater sacrifice in profits or take more
drastic action in pricing if both foundries face equivalent restrictions
on air pollution emissions.
Financial Impact of Air Pollution Control on Model Gray Iron Foundries 47
-------
CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Nationally, gray iron foundries rank as one of the largest
industries in terms of value of shipments, employment, and particulate
pollution. Emissions in 1966 amounted to 190,000 tons, which was 2.9
percent of the 5. 9 million tons of particulates emitted by industrial
processes into the nation's atmosphere.
2. In 1967, particulate emissions were controlled from 204, or
about 11 percent, of the 1, 376 foundries in the gray iron industry.
About half the foundries shipped less than $1. 0 million in castings; and
of those, only about 5 percent operate air pollution control systems.
3. The four most common pollution control devices, in ascend-
ing order of collection efficiency, are wet caps, multiple cyclones, wet
scrubbers, and fabric filters. Nearly half the foundries with control
systems use low-cost, low-efficiency wet caps, which do not usually
satisfy stringent emission regulations.
4. Industry considerations as to whether and how to control air
pollution have been influenced by state and local regulations. Federal
activity under the Clean Air Act will serve to intensity state and local
efforts to combat air pollution.
5. Pollution control costs tend to rise as collection efficiency
rises.
6. A comparison of pollution control costs determined from the
interview survey with industry financial data provided by the Internal
Revenue Service suggests that the impact of stringent pollution control
on small firms is greater than on large firms. The annual cost of con-
trolling air pollution, as a percent of profits before taxes, declines, as
size increases, from 59 percent for a typical firm with value of casting
shipments under $0. 5 million to 11 percent for a typical firm with over
$10 million in value of shipments.
7. The possibility of foundries shifting air pollution control
costs is limited by the price behavior in markets serving and served
49
-------
by the industry. Up until 1967, there appears to have been some price
flexibility as the industry grew relative to all manufacturing in terms
of value of shipments, value added in manufacturing, capital expendi-
tures, and profit.
8. While the profit share of value added appears to have risen,
the profit rates for all sizes of firms in the industry still remained
below those of equivalent-sized firms for all manufacturing. In addi-
tion, an analysis of the cross section of foundries shows that profit
rate declines as foundry size declines.
9. A time series shows that there has been a steady attrition of
small foundries under 50 employees, while those employing over 100
grew in number. The number of foundries with less than 50 employees
fell by one-third from 1959 to 1967. About half of the foundries employ
less than 50 people. Since about half of the foundries ship less than
$1. 0 million in castings, these are the most likely victims of attrition.
10. If the reduction in the number of small foundries is an indi-
cation of their inability to control or adjust to the market in which they
compete, then the burden of air pollution control must be expected to
weigh more heavily on them than on larger foundries. It would appear
that the growth of larger foundries, the relative increase in casting
prices, the relative decrease in raw materials prices, and the increas-
ing profit and capital shares of the industry will allow larger firms to
distribute the burden of air pollution control more widely.
50 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
REFERENCES
1. Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emissions: 1968. U.S.
DHEW, PHS, EHS, NAPCA. Raleigh, N. C. 1970. p. 7. NAFCA
Publication No. AP-73.
2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services
Administration. Industrial Profiles: 1958-1967. Washington, D.C.
1969. p. 148.
3. Duprey, R. L. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. National
Air Pollution Control Administration. Durham, North Carolina.
1968. p. 30.
4. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. County of Los Angeles, Air
Pollution Control District. U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1967. p. 268.
5. Calculated from materials collected by P. S. Cowan from Penton's
Foundry List. 1967.
6. Unless otherwise noted, the statistics in this chapter were derived
from: U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense
Service Administration, Industrial Profiles: 1958-1967. Wash-
ington, D. C. 1969. The limited Standard Industrial Classification
of gray iron foundries (SIC 3321) is used. Thus, only firms that
are primarily gray iron producers are included.
7. Determined from price indexes calculated by U. S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Washington, D. C. 1969.
8. Calculated from commodities wholesale prices indexes. U. S.
Council of Economic Advisers. Economic Report of the President.
Washington, D. C. 1969, p. 282.
9. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Annual Survey
of Manufacturers, 1966. Value of Shipment Concentration Ratios
by Industry, p. 18.
10. U.S. Department of Commerce, Business and Defense Services
Administration. Industrial Profiles: 1958-1967. Washington,
D.C. 1969.
11. Unpublished data on "all-manufacturing corporation" tax returns.
Internal Revenue Service.
-------
12 control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants. U..5 DHEW,
' PHS, CPEHS, NAPCA. Washington, D. C. January 1969.
13 Stumph, T.L. , and R. L Duprey. Trends in Air Pollution Con-
trol Regulations . Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association. New York. June 22-26, 1969.
14. Mcllvaine, Robert W. Air Pollution Equipment for Foundry
Cupolas. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
J/7:542. August 1967.
15. Haines, George F. , Jr. , and W. C. L. Hemeon. Report on
Solids Discharge from Cupola Equipped with Dust Collector.
Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America, Inc. Pittsburg, Pa.
1954. p. A-9; and Lars Landau. Costs for Dust Arrestors on
Cupolas in Sweden. Air Engineering. Volume II, p. 21.
January 1969.
16. Wright, R. David. Cupola Dust and Fume Control: Some Further
Technical and Economic Considerations. Presented at 24th
Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association. Colum-
bus, Ohio. September 22, 1967.
17. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Business Economics.
52 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
APPENDIX A.
CARD QUESTIONNAIRE
AND LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
FOR MAIL SURVEY
-------
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
BUSINESS AND DEFENSE SERVICES ADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20230
April 15, 1968
Gentlemen:
The Business and Defense Services Administration is engaged in a
study of the economic effect of air pollution control on the
Gray Iron Foundry Industry. A first step involves collection of
a minimum of information from all known Gray Iron Foundries. The
enclosed BDSAF-807 requests information as to location and size
of all Gray Iron Foundries, as well as information as to the kind
and cost of air pollution control equipment installed.
This survey has been approved by the Bureau of the Budget and has
been discussed with members of the Gray Iron Foundry Industry.
Before completing BDSAF-807, please read the enclosed instructions
and definitions.
Your cooperation in completing BDSAF-807 and returning it in the
enclosed self-addressed envelope no later than April 25, 1968
will be greatly appreciated.
Sinc
'£/lM4ffl*
Forrest D. Hockersmith
'Acting Administrator
Enclosures
Appendix A 55
-------
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING BDSAF-807
Mailing : Complete and return the enclosed Form BDSAF-807 to the Business
and Defense Services Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Iron and Steel
Division, Washington, D.C, 20230, no later than April 25_. 1968 . A
separate report is to be filed for each Gray Iron Foundry operated by your company.
Include those foundries which do not sell any castings, but produce only for internal
company consumption. Additional copies of this reporting form can be obtained from
the above address.
Plant Location: On the front of the form, please correct name and address if
necessary. If the Gray Iron Foundry is located at an address different from the
company address, report that location below the company address.
Number of Cupolas: Please report in Item 1 the number of cupolas at this
foundry.
Production During 1967 : Report in Item 2, the total dollar value of all gray
iron castings made at this foundry during 1967. You may report value of shipments
if value of production data are not available. If a captive foundry is reporting and
no value data are readily available, a value estimate based upon a knowledge of the
market price of such castings will be acceptable.
Pollution Control System: Please check one or more boxes in Item 3 to
designate the type(s) of pollution control equipment presently in operation at this
foundry., Please report all types of equipment regardless of the date when installed,
just so long as the equipment is still in operation.
If you have installed a piece of equipment which is not specifically provided
for in Item 3, please check Other and specify the equipment. If no air pollution
control system is presently in operation at this foundry, check None. In Item 3B,
please report the total initial installed cost of all air pollution control systems
checked in Item 2A. This cost should represent not only the initial cost of the
equipment but also should include the cost of installing the equipment. Listed below
are definitions of the 4 types of air pollution control systems specifically shown in
Item 3A.
Electrostatic Preeipitator: A device which separates aerosol particulate matter
(solid or liquid) from industrial gases by imparting an electric charge to the particles
and removing them from the gas stream with the force created by an electric field.
It is utilized to clean gases with concentrations of particulate matter of one-tenth
of a grain per cubic foot of gas and over.
56 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
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Fabric Filter: A device in which the dust bearing gas is passed through a
fabric in such a manner that the dust particles are retained on the up stream or
"dirty" gas side of the fabric, while the cleaned gas passes through the fabric to
the down stream or clean gas side, whence it is removed by natural and/or
mechanical means. The fabric may be of any fibrous material whether natural
or man-made.
Mechanical Collector; A device for the separation in a. dry state of entrained
particulate material from a gas stream by the application of a combination of the
following forces: centrifugal, inertial, gravitational.
Scrubber, Particulate : A device for the removal of particulate contaminants
from a gas stream by means of intimate contact with the scrubbing liquid. (If
water is added in any form, consider it a scrubber, except wetted wall electronic
precipitators and other devices which are primarily mechanical collectors.)
Additional copies of BDSAF-807 or information regarding the form can be
obtained from the Iron and Steel Division, 642, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C. 20230.
Appendix A 57
-------
PLEASE READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING THIS FORM
t. How many cupolas are there in this foundry' Number
2. Value of gray iron castings.produced during 1967. S
QElecrrostat
[""I Mechanical
QFabticfil«
[ | Sccubbets, Pamculai
Q3 Other (Specify)
QNone
b. What was the initial installed cost of the air pollution control sys
report
Telepr
and Ar
a Code
Plant location (II dlfleront from comply)
r ~i
L J
BUDGET BUREAU NO. 41S-6BQ22
FORM BDSAF-B07
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Return to-. U.S. Deportment of Commoreo
Woshington, D. C. 20230
Iron & Steel Division
Return no later than
APRIL 25, 1968
58
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
APPENDIX B.
INTERVIEW SURVEY
-------
tiensive econom-
SAMPLE PROCEDURE
Personal interviews were used to gather comprehe
ic data from plants that were reported to be controlling particulate
emissions. Interviewers for the study personally visited the plants
and assisted the plant manager in completing the questionnaire (BDSAF-
823) used to structure the data.
Information gathered included: general establishment information,
data on melting operations, production characteristics, control system
characteristics, and costs of emissions control.
Plants visited for the "Interview Survey" represent a sample
taken from the returns of the "Postcard Survey" (BDSAF-807). In
selecting the sample, all plants with controls were first stratified by
control system tyPe and by plant size (Table B-l). Stratification by
control system type was made to assure getting cost data for all types
of available control equipment. Included in these categories was a
group of plants operating electric furnaces—either electric arc furnaces
with control systems or electric induction furnaces. The electric
induction furnaces were evaluated as a substitute for the cupolas
equipped with control devices. Stratification by plant size was consid-
ered important so that small as well as large plants would be statis-
tically represented in the survey sample; this minimized bias resulting
from differences in plant size.
About one-fourth of the 277 sites available for surveying were
selected for visiting. This partial-sample plan was chosen as the
most feasible procedure. The expense involved in field visits, com-
bined with time and manpower limitations, prevented visits to all 277
sites.
Emphasis was evenly distributed among the plants of various size,
except for the smallest category, where sites were not always avail-
able. Wet scrubbers, multiple cyclones, and fabric filters were em-
phasized because there were only a limited number installed on found-
ries of all sizes, and they qualify well as candidate systems for
meeting future emission control requirements. Wet caps were de-
emphasized because they are simple devices and capable of meeting
only the most lenient of air pollution control regulations.
Appendix B 61
-------
Table B-l. SELECTION OF PLANTS FOR INTERVIEW SURVEY
System type
Wet caps
Multiple cyclone
Wet scrubber
Electrostatic precipitator
Fabric f i 1 ter
Electric furnaces
Total
Annual value of production, $10
0-0.5
l/4a
0/0
0/1
0/0
5/6
3/43
9/54
0.5-1.0
3/11
0/1
2/3
0/0
2/8
4/15
11/38
1 .0-2.5
4/24
0/1
3/3
0/0
6/15
4/22
17/65
2.5-10.0
2/35
6/8
4/13
1/1
3/8
1/8
17/73
>10.0
3/7
3/5
4/9
0/0
1/1
2/6
13/28
Not reported
0/14
0/0
0/1
0/0
0/1
0/3
0/19
Total
13/95
9/15
13/30
1/1
17/39
14/97
67/277
Surveyed
pi ants ,
% of total
14
60
43
100
44
14
24
-e.
o
The ratio designates the number of foundries selected for interviews from the total number of sites available.
Includes 73 electric induction furnaces and 24 electric arc furnaces with particulate emission controls.
a
c
CO
-------
FORM BDSAF-8I3
17"1B"'">' ,, c u-s- DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Sectio
GREY IRON FOUNDRY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SURVEY
-GENERAL INFORMATION
BUDGET BUREAU NO. 41-S680&7
APPROVAL EXPIRES JUNE 1969
Date
1. Name and location of company
a. Name
b. Number and Street
d. City e. State
c. County
f. Zip code
2. Location of Foundry if different from above
a. Number and Street
b. City c County
a. State
3. Per
a. t1
4. Wha
ame b. Area
tisyou,(o™of«8_P 00*«*. nPa
e. Zip code
Code/Phone
rtnership [_^\ Proprietorship
5, What is your Employer Identification Number pro-
vided bv the U.S. Social Security Administration
6. Ify
7.Effl
Prc
pro
pin
3ur organization is a proprietorship, what
ic proprietor's Social Security number?
oyinent. What was the average number of production and produc
cessing, assembling, inspect ng, receiving (not delivering), stora
use (e.g., power plant), record keeping and other services close
8. Production of Costings. What was the 1967 production of castings
(include castings for own use and for sale)
a. Value of total castincs produced in 1967 d
b. F
Sectio
ercentage of total 1967 castings for own use 7
nil -MELTING OPERATIONS
rFnn rplnted workers fnr 10rt7?
working formen level engaged in fabricating,
ge, handling, packing, warehousing, ship-
ly associated with these production operations.
short cons*
ollars
?. Character! sties of Furnace. Report below the information for each melting operation within the foundry.
a. Furnace Number is for reference in succeeding items.
b. Type of furnace: identify as a cupola, electric arc, electric induction, if other, specify.
c. Year the furnace was installed.
d. Total installed cost of the furnace if installed since January 1, 1957. (Omit if earlier than 1/1/57.) Include
initial cost of accessories for melting and charging.
e. Average daily melt rate in tons per hour.
f. Tons of metal poured in 1967,
g. Blast volume in standard cubic feet per minute.
h. Dimensions of the charging door.
i. Charge door open during melc (yes or no)?
FlH-
V)
Fl
F2
F3
F.
F5
F6
Year Installed Melt
Type Installed Cost Rate
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Output Blast Charge Door
lyo/ Volume SJM n
(0 (s> (W (0
•Report .11 succeed.ng tonnage in short .ons.
Appendix B
63
-------
10. Characteristics of charge b, »ch furnace
Fl F2
Metal Co coke ratio
Scrap as percent
charged
11. What is the number of furnaces operated on any typical
H. How many hours do you melt per day?
14. How manv hours do vou "lipht-up" per dav?
15. Have you in the last ten years replaced cupolas with di
b. When
c. Reason
Section 111 - CONTROL SYSTEM
16. Identification of Control System. Complete Columns b
Fly ash and spark arrester SA
Afterburner AB
Wet cap WC
Mechanica collector MC
listed here wi 1 be assumed to have no control syste
d. Year the contro system was installed.
h. Static pressure at the gas exhauster inlet in inches c
(a) (b) (c) (d>
C!
C2
C3
17. Characteristics of the control systems. Complete the a
b. Afterburner size in bru's/hours
c. Watec consumption in gallons/minute
d. Do you have a noise chamber (yes/no)
/. Duct work ining material (specify)
g. Major concro system material (specify)
h. Filter fabric (e.g. glass, cotton)
i. Air to cloth rario
Fu,..ee.
F3 F4 F3 F6
iav?
ferent types of furnaces? dl Yes Q No
tirough h for each control system
Wet scruber WS
Fabric Filter FF
Electrostatic precipitator EP
5 fahrenheit.
(<0 tO (g) W
ppli cable items below
Control Systems
C] C2 C3
64
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Report below for t
tion, outlet conce
terms of grains pe
hour (o/hr). In Co
taken.
cnrnn-t
{
Cl
C2
C3
ol system.
flch control system. In Columns (a) through (c) record any two of the following: inlet concetra-
utracion, and collection efficiency. Specify whether parriculate concentrations are measured in
;- standard cubic foot (gr/scf), pounds per thousand pounds of gas (*1000ffgas), or pounds per
Umn (d) indicate the furnace melting rate in tons per hour at wrJch these measurements were
Pnrticulnte Concentration
c[ outlet Collection tmc,encj
n) (b) (C)
(%) Melt Rate
W
19. Controlled non-melting operations.
From the following list indicate in Column (a) below, the number of each of the operations in which your foundry
engages.
1. Metal pouring and mold cooling g. Abrasive cleaning
2. Oil removal operation from metal turnings 9. Casting tumbling operations
3. Coremaking operations 10. Grinding operations
4. Sand drying and sand reclamation 11. Annealing and heat treating furnaces
5. Sand mixing 12. Pattern shop sawdust and chip systems
6. Molding sand handling 13. Casting surface treatment
7. Mold and casting sbakeout
In the other columns include the following information:
(b) Type of control equipment (specify, e.g. Fabric Filter)
(c) Year control equipment installed
(d) Rated size in cfm
(e) Amount of paniculate collected in pound per week
Foundry Operation
(»)
Control Equipment
T«JC irS™ Si2c£c
(b) (c (d)
m) Collection {«/wcek>
(=)
Section IV - COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL
20. Investment costs.
scribed below are
"All Other Contr
ported in item 19
1. Basic equip*
basic equipm
L, Auxiliary eqi
but not gener
Report on lines 1-4, the designated costs associated with each of the control systems. De-
examples of the items to be included in each type of investment cost. The column headed
ibove.
ent. Include taxes and shipping charges with F.O.B. price on the "flange to flange" cost of
ent. If you manufactured the basic contro equipment, estimate the cost of fabrication.
ipraent. Include the following items essential to the successful operation of a control system
ally manufactured by gas cleaning equipment suppliers:
(1) Fans and blowers
(2) Electrical; motors, starters, wire conduit, switches, etc.
(3) Hoods, duct works, gaskets, dampers, etc.
b. Liquid movement equipment (in wet collection systems)
(1) Pumps
(2) Electrical; motors, starters, wire conduit, switches, etc.
(3) Piping and valves
(4) Settling tanks
c. Storage and disposal equipment
(1) Dust storage hoppers
(2) Sludge pits
(3) Drag lines, track way, road way, etc.
d. Support construction
(1) Structural steel work
(2) Cement foundation, piers, etc.
(3) Insulation (thermal)
(4) Vibration and/or anti wear materials
(5) Protective cover
Appendix B
65
-------
(1) Air and/or liquid flow
(3) Operation and capacity
(4) Power
(5) Opacity of f ue gas (smoke meters, e
ntrol of:
tc.)
L,s"L=n,S, piL .p«.,i.ns, Jc. *
Labor co install
Cleaning the sice
Inspection
Field contingency
Existing facilities protection
Field Office charges
System start-up
5. Total. This should be the sum of all investments made for contr
'— — -
.. B.,,c E,«,pmcn,
<. Auxdllrj E,uipmnt
1.1«=«=h™dD«. = l = pi«».
4. lns,,IU,ta
5. Tolal
21.
A
I.Op
1.
Control Systems on Furnaces
Cl
(a)
C2
(b)
C3
All Othc.
Control Systems
(d)
Annuol costs.
are espies of che items to be included in Ouch type of annual cost. The column headed »/
Annual Cost Categories
1. Operating costs.
c. Repairs
d. Lubrication
e. Surface protection {cleaning and painting)
equipment
4. Other overhead for the control system includes:
b. Property taxes
d. Miscellaneous
11 Other Control
tion reported in questions 11, 12 and 20.
nnual Cost Categories
eraung
2. «„,„„„„,«
3. Depreciation
•1. Ov
5. Pr
cha
rhead
ngcs
6. Toial
Control Systems on Furnaces
Cl
C2
(b)
C3
(c)
All Othet
Control Systems
(d)
66
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
uluate any ben.
trolling your air pollution such as reduced piai
roof maintenance, increased property value, by-product recovery, reduced insui
plaints by employees and neighbors
Appendix B 67
-------
APPENDIX C.
INDUSTRY SURVEY STATISTICAL TABLES
-------
Table C-l. ECONOMIC STATISTICS FOR GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY3
(SIC 3321)
Year
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963 •
1964
1965
1966
1967
Year
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
Total employment
Number
112,670
125,862
121,516
113,685
119,234
120,528
126,329
134,894
140,709
143,000
Payrol 1 ,
$103
531,152
644,417
627,498
602,316
675,413
730,279
825,229
921,798
978,295
993,000
Value
added as
percent of
shipments
56.5
55.6
56.3
56.9
58.6
58.9
59.2
59.9
60.3
59.0
Production workers
Number
96,414
109,132
104,330
97,468
102,822
104,239
109,928
117,109
122,142
123,000
Payrol 1
per
employee,
$
4,714
5,120
5,164
5,298
5,665
6,059
6,532
6,833
6,953
6,944
Man-hours ,
103
178,006
217,159
199,652
183,888
204,064
214,285
235,612
252,953
259,742
250,000
Wages per
production
worker,
L 5
4,345
4,815
4,827
4,942
5,283
5,719
6,191
6,493
6,574
6,537
Wages,
$103
418,935
525,482
503,590
481,672
543,179
596,109
679,946
760,351
803,004
804,000
Value of
shipments per
production
worker,
$
14,881
16,521
16,474
16,649
17,858
19,042
20,816
22,224
22,337
22,098
Value
added,
$103
810,758
1,002,896
968,427
923,970
1,076,146
1,168,478
1,353,828
1,559,350
1,646,364
1,603,000
Value of
shipments ,
$103
1,434,701
1,803,001
1,718,773
1,622,700
1,836,197
1,984,944
2,286,233
2,602,590
2,728,235
2,718,000
Value added
per produc-
tion worker
man-hour,
$
4.555
4.618
4.851
5.025
5.274
5.453
5.746
6.165
6.338
6.412
Cap i ta 1
expend! tures ,
$103
32,559
34,072
53,202
52,307
60,498
64,823
75,910
171,468
221,295
173,000
Value
added per
dol lar of
wages,
$
1.935
1.909
1.923
1.918
1.981
1 .960
1.991
2.051
2.050
1.994
Wages per
production
worker
man-hour,
$
2.353
2.420
2.522
2.619
2.662
2.782
2.886
3.006
3.092
3.216
Annual man-
hours per
production
worker
1,846
1,990
1,914
1,887
1,985
2,056
2,145
2,160
2,127
2,033
aU.S. Department of Commerce, Business, and Defense Services Administration, Industrial Profiles: 1958-1967,
Washington, D. C., 1969, p. 87.
-------
Table C-2. ECONOMIC STATISTICS FOR ALL MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS IN UNITED STATES^
Year
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
Total employment
Number
15,423,112
16,062,862
16,149,888
15,729,570
16,154,702
16,234,506
17,268,508
18,047,608
19,065,997
19,388,000
Payrol
$103
73,875,152
81,203,626
83,672,541
83,677,413
89,819,178
93,288,785
106,048,071
114,143,178
125,458,784
131 ,929,000
Year
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
Value
added as
percent of
shipments
43.3
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
45.7
46.0
46.1
46.6
46.6
Payrol 1
per
employee,
$
4,790
5,055
5,181
5,320
5,560
5,746
6,141
6,325
6,580
6,805
Production workers
Number
11,681,143
12,272,622
12,209,514
11,778,518
12,126,537
12,232,041
12,403,299
13,058,819
13,810,393
13,975,000
Wages per
production
worker,
$
4,247
4,458
4,550
4,650
4,876
5,076
5,308
5,466
5,668
5,798
Man-hours
103
22,679,219
24,443,617
24,174,380
23,289,389
24,269,571
24,509,450
25,245,482
26,577,538
28,220,286
27,925,000
Value of
shipments per
production
worker,
$
27,970
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
34,379
36,118
37,678
38,992
39,776
Wages ,
$103
49,605,180
54,714,135
55,555,452
54,764,619
59,134,113
62,093,601
65,838,852
71,736,328
78,283,386
81 ,025,000
Value
added,
$103
141,540,618
161,535,816
163,998,531
164,281 ,080
179,071 ,122
192,103,102
206,193,600
226,974,525
251,013,903
259,301 ,000
Value of
shipments ,
$103
326,722,817
N.A.b
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
420,528,098
447,985,142
492,028,808
538,494,230
555,863,000
Capi tal
expend! tures ,
$103
9,543,528
9,139,992
10,097,837
9,779,800
10,436,210
11 ,370,935
•13,262,323
16,606,592
20,234,304
20,268,000
Value added
per produc-
tion worker
man-hour,
$
6.241
6.609
6.784
7.054
7.378
7.838
8.168
8.540
8.895
9.286
Value
added per
dol lar of
wages ,
$
2.853
2.952
2.952
3.000
3.028
3.094
3.132
3.180
3.206
3.200
Wages per
production
worker
man-hour ,
$
2.187
2.238
2.298
2.351
2.437
2.533
2.608
2.686
2.774
2.902
Annual man-
hours per
p roduct i on
worker
1,942
1,992
1,980
1,977
2,001
2,004
2,035
2,035
2,043
1,998
o
o
c
z
a
aU.S. Department of Commerce, Business, and Defense Services Administration, Industrial Profiles, 1958-1967,
Washington, D. C. 1969, p. 142.
N.A. = Not available.
-------
Table C-3. GRAY IRON FOUNDRY VALUE OF SHIPMENTS
(PRIMARY PRODUCTS), ]g63a
Gray iron shipments by all industries
Gray Iron Foundry Industry
Other industries
Total
Shipments of primary products by Gray
Iron Foundry Industry (SIC 3321)
Gray iron castings, unspecified by type
Molds for heavy steel ingots
Malleable iron castings
Steel castings
Total
Amount,
$106
1,79^
252
2,046
1,656
101
22
15
1,79^
Percentage
distri bution
88
12
100
92
6
1
1
100
aBureau of the Census 1963 Census of Manufacturers.
Excludes $134 million of minor products and $56 million of miscella-
neous receipts.
Note: Value of shipment total differs from that reported in
Table C-l, since the latter is defined as SIC 3321.
Appendix C
73
-------
Table C-b. COST OF MATERIALS FOR GRAY IRON FOUNDRY
INDUSTRY (SIC 3321), 19&33
Cost,
Materials consumed $10^
Pig iron (excluding silvery iron) 276
Nonferrous metals, alloys and ferroalloys
Aluminum, unalloyed 2
Aluminum-base alloys 2
Copper-base alloy raw materials 5
Magnesium and magnesium-base alloys 5
Ferromanganese 3
Other ferroalloys, including silvery iron 36
Scrap (purchased only) 171
Other materials, parts and supplies 167
Total materials consumed 667
Cost of resales 40
Fuels consumed 56
Electric energy purchased 21
Contract work 28
Grand total 8Hb
aBureau of the Census 1963 Census of Manufacturers,
Vol. II, Part 2, pp. 33B-9 and 33B-16.
Detail does not add to total due to independent
round i ng.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table C-5. WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX3
(1957-1959 = 100)
Year
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
Gray iron
castings
98.3
99.2
102.5
104.7
104.8
106.2
107.3
108.3
1 10.2
113.5
122.1
Cupola cast
i ron scrap,
Chicago
93.8
93.2
113.0
93.6
92.1
83.0
84.9
94.5
98.8
103.8
96.6
Pig i ron and
ferroal loys
99.6
100. 1
100.3
96.3
94.7
91.1
81.8
77.7
80.2
80.2
80.0
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
Table C-6. CONSUMPTION OF SCRAP AND PIG IRON IN FOUNDRY CUPOLAS*'
Year
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
Scrap i ron
103 tons
8,992
7,696
9,438
8,830
8,425
9,516
10,597
11,837
12,932
13,490
12,404
Percent
of total
68.9
70.0
70.9
72.4
73.4
75.9
76.8
78.4
79-7
80.6
81.4
Pig i ron
lo' tons
4,057
3,237
3,939
3,420
3,098
3,137
3,295
3,356
3,453
3,360
2,928
Percent
of total
31.1
30.0
29.1
27.6
26.6
24.1
23.2
21.6
20.3
19.4
18.6
Total
103 tons
13,049
10,933
13,377
12,250
11,523
12,653
13,893
15,193
16,385
16,850
15,332
Percent
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Includes foundries other than gray iron.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook,
Vol. I., Washington, D. C. 1959-1968.
Appendix C
75
-------
Table C-7. CLASSIFICATION OF GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, 1959-19673
Employees/
foundry
<20
20 - 49
50 - 99
100 - 249
250 - 499
500
or more
Total re-
port i ng"3
Year
1959
Foundr 1 es
405
352
232
171
56
35
1,251
Percent
of
total
32
28
19
14
4
3
100
1962
Foundr ies
410
308
230
168
48
32
1,1%
Percent
of
total
34
26
19
14
4
3
100
1964
Foundri es
329
277
217
175
55
39
t,092
Percent
of
total
30
25
20
16
5
4
100
1965
Foundri es
303
274
222
179
59
45
1 ,082
Percent
of
total
28
25
21
17
5
4
100
1966
Foundries
270
255
223
188
64
51
1,051
Percent
of
total
26
24
21
18
6
5
100
1967
Foundries
249
257
229
203
66
51
1,055
Percent
of
total
24
24
22
19
6
5
100
5
Bureau of the Census, County Business Patterns.
Includes only those foundries classified by Census into SIC 3321, "Gray Iron Foundry Industry. The BDSA-NAPCA Gray Iron Foundry
Air Pollution Survey, BDSAF-807, identified 1,376 foundries operating in 1967, including a number belonging to establishments in
which gray iron production was a secondary activity.
CJ
31
-------
Table C-8. TOTAL FOUNDRIES AND FOUNDRIES WITH CONTROL SYSTEMS3
By value of produc-
tion, 1967, $io6
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Not reported
Total
By geographic
area
New England
Middle Atlantic
East North-Central
West North-Central
South Atlantic
East South-Central
West South-Central
Mountain
Pacific
Total
Total
foundries
604
240
247
180
37
68
1,376
95
247
472
121
131
108
73
27
102
1,376
Foundries with control systems
Number
20
27
49
68
24
16
204
9
26
80
13
13
13
3
4
43
204
% of total
3
11
20
38
65
23
15
9
11
17
11
10
12
4
15
42
15
aBDSA-NAPCA Gray Iron Foundry Air Pollution Control Survey, BDSAF-807,
1968 (Postcard).
Appendix C
77
-------
Table C-g. GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES CLASSIFIED BY OUTPUT-SIZE CLASSES AND TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS3
Cupola foundries
With control systems
Wet cap
Multiple cyclone
Wet scrubber
Fabri c f i 1 ter
Electrostatic precipitator
Subtotal
Without control systems
Total
Electric arc foundries
With control systems
Wet scrubber
Fabric f i 1 ter
Subtotal
Without control systems
Total
Induction furnace foundries
(no control systems)
Other foundries'3
(no control systems)
Total foundries
With control systems
Without control systems
Value of production in 1967, $10
< $0.5
mi 1 1 ion
4
-
1
6
-
11
514
525
2
7
9
11
20
34
25
604
20
584
$0.5 to <1
mi 1 1 i on
11
1
3
8
-
23
200
223
_
4
4
-
4
11
2
240
27
213
$1 to <2.5
mi 1 1 i on
24
1
3
15
-
43
178
221
2
4
6
4
10
16
-
247
49
198
$2.5 to <10
mi 1 1 ion
35
8
13
8
-
64
107
171
_
3
3
-
3
5
-
179
67
112
>_ $10
mi 1 1 i on
7
5
9
1
-
22
7
29
_
2
2
1
3
4
1
37
24
13
Not
reported
14
-
1
1
1
17
46
63
_
-
-
2
2
3
1
69
17
52
Total
95
15
30
39
1
180
1,052
1 ,232
4
20
24
18
42
73
29
1,376
204
1,172
o
o
c
z
a
o
c:
CO
3BDSA-NAPCA Gray Iron Foundry Air Pollution Control Survey, BDSAF-807, 1968 (Postcard).
Includes gas and oil reverberatory, crucible, and blast.
-------
^
li
Table C-10. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES BY TYPE OF FURNACE
AND TYPE OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT3
Region
New England
Middle Atlantic
East North-Central
West North-Central
South Atlantic
East South-Central
West South-Central
Mountain
Pacific
Totals
Type furnace
Cupola
Cb
9
22
72
12
11
12
3
3
36
180
Uc
78
207
356
103
110
88
59
15
36
1 ,052
Electric
arc
C
0
1)
8
1
2
1
0
1
7
24
U
0
0
6
1
2
1
0
1
7
18
Electric
induction
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
U
4
11
23
2
5
5
7
6
10
73
Other
C U
0 4
0 3
0 7
0 2
0 1
0 1
0 4
0 1
0 6
0 29
Totals
C
9
26
80
13
13
13
3
4
43
204
U
86
221
392
108
118
95
70
23
59
1,172
Type control
Wet
cap
7
17
41
11
9
6
3
0
1
95
Fabric
filter
0
3
11
1
1
1
0
2
40
59
Wet
scrubber
1
4
20
1
3
3
0
2
0
34
Multiple
cyclone
1
2
8
0
0
3
0
0
1
15
Electrostatic
precipi tator
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
aBDSA-NAPCA Gray Iron Foundry Air Pollution Control Survey, BDSAF-807, 1968.
C = control led.
U = uncontrolled.
-------
APPENDIX D.
FINANCIAL DATA SURVEY
-------
INTRODUCTION
In order to estimate the financial impact of installation and
operation of air pollution control equipment of gray iron foundries,
BDSA requested that the Internal Revenue Service tabulate certain data
from income tax returns filed for tax year 1966. To this end, Reim-
bursable Service Agreement Project Number 69-47 was approved on
December 3, 1968, and the tabulation was transmitted to BDSA by IRS
on April 29, 1969.
SAMPLE
Of the 686 firm names that BDSA submitted to IRS, the latter
tabulated returns on 492, or 72 percent. Individual company data were
not provided by BDSA; IRS provided only information consolidated by
class sizes. The major categories for which data "were provided were
corporations, small corporations, partnerships, and proprietorships,
as determined by type of tax return filed. In addition, each category
was further broken down by size of foundry sales in intervals of:
<$500, 000
$500, 000 to <$1, 000, 000
$1, 000, 000 to <$2, 500, 000
$2,500,000 to <$10,000,000
;>$io,ooo, ooo
The number of firms in each category is set forth in Table D-l.
The data supplied by IRS for each category except proprietorships
were:
1. Number of returns.
2. Gross receipts.,
3. Cost of goods sold.
4. Amortization, depreciation, and depletion.
5. Taxable income.
6a. For corporations: total income tax.
6b. For small corporations: compensation of officers.
6c. For partnerships: payments to partners.
7. Current assets.
8. Current liabilities.
83
Appendix D
-------
Table D-l. IRS GRAY IRON FOUNDRY TABULATION, 1966
Type of tax return
Type of foundry furnace
Corporations
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Total corporations
Small corporations
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Total small corporations
Partnerships
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Proprietorships
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Total partnerships and
proprietorships
Total
Total number
of foundries
4*1
102
285
431
1
2
19
22
2
25
2
10
39
492
Returns with balance sheet items
Jobbing foundries3
18
58
164
240
1
2
12
15
2
14
16
271
Captive foundries"
22
43
114
179
7
7
4
4
190
Returns wl thout
balance sheet
i terns
4
1
7
12
-
0
7
2
10
19
31
£D
-<
O
z
-n
o
z
a
a
c:
CSt
Fi rms in wh i ch gross receipts were less than twice foundry sales; this is construed to include most "jobbIng
foundri es."
Fi rms i n wh i ch gross recei pts were more than twice foundry sales; this is construed to include mos t "capt i ve
foundr i es."
-------
9. Long-term debt.
10. Gross value of fixed assets.
11. Depreciation reserves.
12. Equity.
Returns without balance sheet items (7 through 12) were tabulated
for items 1 through 6 only. Proprietorships were tabulated for items
1 through 5 only.
SUBSAMPLE
The financial analysis has been limited to a subsample of 240
corporation tax returns. This has been necessary for several reasons.
First, partnerships and proprietorships were excluded due to compara-
tively small numbers of firms and the larger proportion without balance
sheet items. Second, small corporations were not included because of
small numbers again but, also, because of the absence of a measure
of profits after taxes. Third, corporations •without balance sheet items
lacked information that would allow .complete inclusion with corpora-
tions reporting balance sheet items. Finally, foundries classified as
"captive" were excluded. "Captive foundries" were defined to the IRS
as those companies with gross receipts more than twice the value of
gray iron castings shipped. To include those companies would have
been misleading where foundries were the major interest. "Captive
foundries," under our definition, clearly had other important interests.
For example, the 186 corporate "Captive foundries" are components of
firms with 1966 gross receipts of over $60 billion. These clearly do
not belong in the gray iron foundry industry classification, which reports
shipments valued at $2. 7 billion.
The 240 foundries represent 17 percent of all the 1, 376 foundries
in the industry (Table D-2). Included in the subsample are 28 percent
of the firms melting with cupolas or electric arc furnaces that have air
pollution control systems. The 240 firms filing corporate tax returns
in 1966 reported gross receipts totaling $756 million, or approximately
28 percent of the value of shipments reported in that year (Table D-3).
Appendix D 65
-------
Table D-2. IRS CORPORATE SUBSAMPLE AS PROPORTION OF ALL
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES, 1966
Furnace type
Electric induction
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
Size
of foundry
sales, $10°
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1 .0 to <2.5
2.5 to <)0.0
iio.o
Unreported
Subtotal
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1 .0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
>_10.0
Unreported
Subtotal
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Unreported
Subtotal
Total
1 ndustry
34
11
16
5
4
3
73
20
27
49
68
24
16
204
550
202
182
107
9
49
1,099
l,376a
Subsamp 1 e
6
7
2
2
1
18
4
9
23
16
6
58
60
48
38
16
2
164
24Qb
Subsample
as percent
of industry
18.0
64.0
12.5
4o.o
25.0
25.0
20
33
47
24
25
28
11
24
21
15
22
15
17
"Number of foundries in industry; also see Appendix C, Table O7-
Number of firms in subsample; see also Table B-l.
Table D-3. IRS CORPORATE SUBSAMPLE CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT OF SALES, 1966
Size
of foundry
sales, $106
<0.5
0.5 to <1 .0
1.0 to <2 . 5
2.5 to <10.0
>10.0
Total
Type of furnace
1 nduct ion
furnace
6
7
2
2
1
18
Controls:
cupola/arc
4
9
23
16
6
58
No controls:
cupola/arc
60
48
38
16
2
164
Total3
Number
of f i rms
70
64
63
34
9
240
Fi rms '
receipts
$106
18
50
112
152
424
756
15 corporations filing small corporation returns were omitted from
portions of the analysis because fully comparable data were unavailable.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
FINANCIAL AVERAGES
Financial averages were prepared for the 240 observations. The
seven averages presented are: (l)net profits before taxes, (2) income
tax, (3) net profits after taxes, (4) cashflow, (5) gross receipts,
(6) net worth, and (7) amortization, depreciation, and depletion. These
are summarized by size of foundry sales from averages by type of
furnace (Table D-4), and by type of furnaces from averages according
to size (Table D-5).
COMPARABILITY PROBLEMS
Comparisons between the interview survey data (Chapter 4) and
the IRS data (Chapter 5) are subject to the following technical difficul-
ties:
1. The former are from establishments; the latter are from
firms.
2. The former take into account the important differences in
cost and effectiveness between different types of control
equipment; the latter do not.
3. Despite some inevitable overlapping, the two sets of data are
not from the same group of foundries.
4. The former have been adjusted to 1967 prices; the latter are
on a 1966 basis. It was felt that the advantages of using the
latest available figures in each instance outweighed the
advantages of having both sets of data as of the same year.
87
Appendix D
-------
Table D-4. SELECTED FINANCIAL AVERAGES OF
CORPORATIONS ONLY, CLASSIFIED BY SIZE
SAMPLE OF GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
OF FOUNDRY SALES, 1966a
Size
of foundry
saTes ,
$106
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Type of furnace
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Subtotals
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Subtotals
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Subtotals
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Subtotals
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Subtotals
Electric induction (no controls)
Cupola/arc (controls)
Cupola/arc (no controls)
Totals
Number
of firms
6
4
60
70
7
9
48
6k
2
23
38
63
2
16
16
34
1
6
2
9
18
58
164
240
Averages per firm, $103
Net profits
before taxes
-15
11
13
11
41
53
53
52
54
135
113
119
750
329
276
329
2,309
4,298
698
3,277
229
598
82
217
1 n come
•1
3
4
4
12
15
21
19
16
57
38
44
317
186
116
161
1,079
1,826
179
1,377
102
265
30
92
Net profits
after taxes
-16
8
9
7
29
38
32
33
38
78
75
75
433
1^3
160
168
1,230
2,472
519
1 ,900
127
333
52
125
Amort i zat i on ,
depreci at i on ,
depletion
5
10
4
5
19
18
12
13
18
33
52
44
229
257
44
155
231
2,201
549
1,615
49
315
28
99
Cash
flow
-11
18
13
12
48
56
44
46
56
111
127
119
662
400
204
323
1,461
-------
Table D-5. SELECTED FINANCIAL AVERAGES OF SAMPLE OF GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES,
CORPORATIONS ONLY, CLASSIFIED BY TYPE OF FURNACE, 1966^
Furnace type
Electric induction
(no controls)
Cupola/arc
(controls)
Cupola/arc
(no controls)
S i ze
of foundry
sales, $10°
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2 . 5
2.5 to <10.0
ilO.O
Subtotals
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Subtotals
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2 . 5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Subtotals
<0.5
0.5 to <1.0
1.0 to <2.5
2.5 to <10.0
iio.o
Totals
Number
of
f i rms
6
7
2
2
1
18
4
9
23
16
6
58
60
'48
38
16
2
164
70
64
63
34
9
240
Averages per firm, $10^
Net profits
before taxes
-15
41
54
750
2,309
229
11
53
135
329
4,298
598
13
53
113
276
698
82
11
52
119
329
3,277
217
1 ncome
taxes
1
12
16
317
1,079
102
3
15
57
186
1,826
265
4
21
38
116
179
30
4
19
44
161
1,377
92
Net profits
after taxes
-16
29
38
433
1,230
127
8
38
78
143
2,472
333
9
32
75
160
519
52
7
33
75
168
1 ,900
125
Amortization,
depreciation,
depletion
5
19
18
229
231
49
10
18
33
257
2,201
315
4
12
52
44
549
28
5
13
44
155
1,615
99
Cash
flow
-11
48
56
662
1,461
176
18
56
111
4oo
4,673
648
13
44
127
204
1,068
80
12
46
119
323
3,515
224
Gross
receipts
219
686
1,326
5,132
14,617
1,869
325
1,009
1,874
5,287
61,222
8,714
264
757
1,733
3,569
21 ,162
1,326
263
784
1,771
4,470
47,141
3,152
Net
worth
68
168
322
2,717
5,390
725
149
256
551
2,395
30,903
4,126
126
255
631
1,099
4,164
425
122
245
592
1,804
22,126
1,342
aBased on Internal Revenue Service tabulations for 1966 from income tax returns filed by firms in the Gray Iron
Foundry Industry.
-------
APPENDIX E.
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
-------
INTRODUCTION
This appendix first lists the different types of foundry particu-
late emissions; second, it describes in some detail the performance of
foundry furnace gas-cleaning equipment.
FOUNDRY PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
1. Unburned combustible - Volatilized oil, fine particles of coke
breeze. This fraction produces the black smoke appearance
when uncontrolled. ,
2. Coarse solids, plus 44 microns Burned sand particles ad-
hering to foundry remelts, weathered limestone fines, dirt
adhering to purchase scrap. This fraction falls quickly in the
plant and neighborhood areas close to the cupola stack.
3. Fine particles, 2 to 44 microns -Finely divided material from
the same source as the coarse fraction. This material stays
in suspension longer, and gradually settles over large areas
of the community.
4. Metallic oxides Submicroscopic particles formed from
oxidation of the charge. Iron oxide particles produce the red
plume typical of ferrous metallurgical processes. Particles
stay in suspension for long periods before reaching ground
level, except where local downwash or temperature inversions
force the fume to ground level.
Typical particle-size distributions have been reported and are
given in Table E-l. Quantitatively, each fraction will vary widely with
Table E-l. PARTICLE-SIZE D'l STRI BUT I ON OF PARTICIPATES
Particle-size range,
V
0 -
5
10 -
25 -
50 and
5
10
25
50
over
Percent by weight
of total particulate
k
2 -
k
5
45
10
15
15
15
85
*One micron = 1/25, 000 inch.
93
Appendix E
-------
material charged and the melting technique. The larger the pieces of
scrap or remelt, the smaller the surface area per pound of metal and
the less area for accumulation of burned sand, dirt, and oil. Extremes
would be remelts that had been abrasive-cleaned and steel scrap like
railroad rails for the clean charge, contrasted to remelts from small
castings with much burned sand and oily punchings or borings.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT DISCUSSED IN THIS REPORT:
1. Wet CajDS. This collection device is basically a conical
"weatherhood" above the cupola stack. A shower of water is
issued from the top of the conical section to produce a falling
curtain of "water through "which the hot gases must pass.
Contact between gas and water cannot be intimate because
the unit relies on natural stack draft to induce the gas through
the "water curtain. Better contact from higher velocity passages
"would cause enough back pressure to force blowout of hot con-
taminated gas at charging door openings.
Collector is low in first cost, requires no induced-draft
fan and removes a high percentage of the coarse material. Main-
tenance and nuisance from fallout on plant roofs and immediate
ground-level areas are greatly reduced. Water volumes range
from 200 to 350 gallons per-minute. Corrosion should be antici-
pated from sulfur and fluoride emissions. Water clarification
and the neutralization of recycled water are both common prac-
tices .
Often water is used for slag-quenching after leaving the
wet cap.
Overall collection efficiency is likely to be 40 to 60 per-
cent2 of solid particulates, on a. total weight basis.
2. Multiple Cyclones. The basic multiple cyclone unit is composed
of a bank of cones in parallel. The dust-laden gas enters the
cones tangentially, and then centrifugal forces separate the
particles from the gas stream. A duct connects the collector
device to the cupola, normally at a point above the charge door.
The duct serves as a. quenching cooler in directing the gas from
94 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
the cupola to the collector. The temperatures in the duct are
reduced from 1, 500° to 500°F by water jets. The particulates
are normally captured in a bin at the base of the collection unit.
Periodically, this material is removed manually by cart or
automatically by a conveying system. The dry material is
normally disposed of on the plant site or trucked away.
The temperatures of the gas stream normally handled by
the collection unit are in the 450° to 550°F range. These temp-
eratures are maintained to prevent condensation that could
cause plugging or corrosion of the collector or the exhaust
fan. Because of these temperatures, even -with the evaporative
cooling, the material is collected dry. The pressure loss in
these systems is 3 to 4 inches water gauge at the operating temp-
erature.
The usual collection efficiency is approximately 82 percent,
with an expected range from 70 to 85 percent on a total weight
basis. Multiple cyclones -will effectively remove particles
greater than 10 microns.
Multiple cyclones on foundries provide the lowest cost
collection system using induced-draft fans (wet caps function on
natural draft). For the efficiency achieved, relative to wet
scrubbers and fabric filters, the initial investment is high, but
this is offset by low operating and maintenance costs.
3. Wet Scrubbers. Wet collectors operating on a number of differ-
ent principles have been used on cupolas for particulate collec-
tion. The degree of removal by wet scrubbing increases in
proportion to the amount of energy exerted to obtain contact
between dust particles and liquid.
Conventionally designed dust collectors (low-energy wet
scrubbers) operating in the pressure-loss range of 6 to 25
inches water gauge have good efficiency for removal of particles
as small as 3 microns,3 yet produce little reduction in the
metallurgical fume component. Collection efficiency can
vary from 85 to 95 percent on a total weight basis. Elimina-
tion of visible metallic fumes by wet scrubbing requires high-
Appendix E 9
-------
energy input (high-energy wet scrubbers) equivalent to 45 to 70
inches water gauge. This high-energy input is sufficient to
reduce effluent to less than 0. 05 grain per standard cubic foot
at a collection efficiency from 95 to greater than 99 percent.
Corrosion protection is generally needed. Stainless steel
is a frequently used construction material, and recirculated
water is neutralized with caustic soda or other chemical treat-
ments to counteract corrosion.
With wet collector designs, exit gases will be in the range
of 120° to 160° F and will approach saturated conditions, pro-
ducing a pronounced visible plume containing water droplets.
Cooling the gas stream sufficiently to condense out the water
vapor before gases leave the stack requires added heat ex-
changers. With high-energy scrubber designs, the cost of heat
exchangers can be offset by improved economics in handling
reduced gas volumes and reducing horsepower on the draft fan.
4. Fabric Collectors. These are devices that remove particulate
matter from gas streams by retention of the particles in or on
a woven or felted fabric through which the gas flows. Collection
efficiency higher than 99 percent (total weight basis) can be
maintained.
Most of the fabric collectors for cupola gas cleaning are
of the continuous operating designs with four to six compart-
ments. Compartments are dampered off from the hot gas stream
one at a time for cleaning, and the cycle is repeated two to four
times each hour.
Controlled water sprays in cooling towers hold exit gas
temperatures in the higher operative temperature ranges of the
fabric employed. Where glass cloth can be used, inlet
temperatures in the range of 450° to 500° F are usual. Water
vapor produced from flash cooling in this temperature range is
insufficient to cause condensation on fabric or collector housings.
The basic limitation of glass cloth is its sensitivity to chemical
attack in processes where flouride compounds are used.
96 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Use of low-temperature (250° to 275" F) fabrics, such as
Orion and Dacron, has been limited. Designers express much
concern over potential condensation damage that may result
from cooling in cold climates. Use of indirect heat exchangers
has also caused problems for low-temperature fabrics.
Collectors operate at 4 to 6 inches water gauge pressure
loss with air to cloth ratios of 1. 5 to 2. 0. Collection efficiency
is excellent. No visible discharge is apparent as long as the
collector is properly maintained.
Blinding of fabric due to condensed oil vapors has been re-
ported where incineration time or temper'ature has not been
sufficient. There is also a certain fire hazard with combusti-
ble particulates that may carry over into the fabric filter.
Because dust and fumes are collected dry and include sub-
stantial fine-particle fractions, attention must be given to dust-
free handling of the collected dust from hopper to disposal area.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT NOT DISCUSSED IN THIS REPORT:
1. Afterburners. This inexpensive control technique reduces the
black smoke of unburned volatiles by maintaining ignition temp-
eratures in the cupola stack above the charging door. A stack
height above the door of 25 to 30 feet may be needed to get
sufficient contact time. Gas flow has the turbulence needed
for good combustion, caused by the convergence of the blast
air from the melt zone with the induced cold outside air at the
charging door. Temperatures should be maintained at 1,200°
to 1, 500° F and the heat input required will vary with the
carbon monoxide produced and the dilution caused by the cold1
outside air pulled through the door opening. With gases rich
in carbon monoxide and with modest amounts of cold air entering
the charging door, afterburning requires only an ignition or
"torching" burner to keep carbon monoxide ignited between
periods of snuffing as a bucket drops its charge. With lean
gas and large charging door indraft volumes, substantial added
heat is required to maintain incineration temperatures. Heat
Appendix E 97
-------
input of 100, 000 Btu per hour per ton of metal melted can be
required under these adverse conditions.
Basically, afterburning eliminates the black smoke of
poor combustion. Some combustible solids may be reduced to
finer ash, but the impact on solids fallout is minimal. For
this reason, this type equipment was not discussed separately
in the body of the report; it was treated, though, as a compon-
ent of the control device or system in establishing control costs
2. Electric Precipitators. Experience with electric precipitators
in the United States has been limited to a very few installations.
Fluctuating gas volumes and the changing chemical composi-
tion of the gases and solids could explain the reports of varia-
ble collection efficiency and chemical attack.
REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX E
1. Sterling, Morton. Current Status and Future Prospects —Foundry
Air Pollution Control Proceedings: The Third National Conference
on Air Pollution. Washington, D. C. December 12-14, 1966.
2. Mcllvaine, Robert W. Air Pollution Equipment for Foundry
Cupolas. JAPCA _17_:8. August 1967.
3. Kane, John M. Foundry Air Pollution. . A Status Report.
Foundry 96_: 11. November 1968.
98 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
APPENDIX F.
ANALYSIS OF COST DATA
-------
INTRODUCTION
Initial plots of cost data against melt rate indicated that any line
that would approximate the data would have a. non-zero intercept. The
use of an average cost per ton of melt rate would result in a. line hav-
ing a zero intercept. Such a line •would diverge from the actual cost
data at both the high and low ends of the melt-rate range.
The method of least squares was therefore employed to determine
the line that best fit the data points. Linear equations were obtained
for both annual cost and investment cost of each type of control system.
Although the number of observations for each equipment type was in-
sufficient to achieve a statistically valid regression analysis, the lines
obtained were considered the best approximation of cost obtainable
from the available data.
INVESTMENT COST EQUATION
Investment cost equations were obtained by regressing melt rate
as the independent variable against investment cost as the dependent
variable. Excellent correlations were obtained for wet scrubbers and
fabric filters. Less reliable, yet satisfactory, results were obtained
for mechanical collectors. The investment cost equations are pre-
sented in Table F-l. Graphs of each equation and the corresponding
data are presented in Figures F-l through F-4.
ANNUAL COST EQUATION
Separate regressions were run for annual cost in order to cross
check the results obtained by calculating annual cost as the sum of de-
preciation, capital cost, and operating and maintenance costs. The
annual cost equations yielded very good correlations and plotted
better against actual data than did indirect calculations of annual cost.
Again, fabric filter and wet scrubber equations yielded excellent corre-
lations. The cost equation for mechanical collectors yielded only
slightly poorer results. The annual cost equations are presented
in Table F-2. Graphs of all equations and data are presented in Figure
F-5 through F-8.
Appendix F 101
-------
Table F-]
INVESTMENT COST EQUATIONS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Equipment type
Multiple cyclone
Low-energy wet scrubber
High-energy wet scrubber
Fabric f i Her
1 nvestment
cost equation
1 = 51 ,428 + 7.675R
1 - 29,316 + 3.578R
1 = 86,959 + 8.908R
1 = -24,837 + 17.464R
Limits of
observations
23 >. R >. 8
26 i R i 4
50 i R i!2
40 i R >. 3
r
0.55
0.81
0.93
0.98
Regression parameters
F test
2.2
7.9
20.3
373.1
Standard
error
70,520
26,058
63,47')
33,536
T
1.5
2.8
4.5
19.3
N
7
6
5
16
a
33
-------
LEAST-SQUARES LINE
AVERAGE-COST LINE
* DATA POINTS
20 30
MELT RATE, tons/hr
Figure F-1. Investment cost versus melt rate for multiple
cyclones.
LEAST-SQUARES LINE
AVERAGE-COST LINE
DATA POINTS
20 30
MELTRATE, tons/hr
Figure F-2. Investment cost versus melt rate for low-energy
wet scrubbers.
Appendix F
103
-------
5
o
z
-n
o
z
o
CJ
c
CO
1,200
1,000
800
: GOO
400
200-
. LEAST-SQUARES LINE
. AVERAGE-COST LINE
• DATA POINTS
I I I I I I I L
40 60
MELT RATE, tons/hr
80
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 I I I I I I
. LEAST-SQUARES LINE
. AVERAGE-COST LINE
DATA POINTS
I
Figure F-3. Investment cost versus melt rate for high-energy
wet scrubbers.
0 10 20 30
MELT RATE, tons/hr
Figure F-4. Investment cost versus melt rate for
fabric filters.
40
-------
Table F-2. ANNUAL COST EQUATIONS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Equipment type
Multiple cyclone
Low-energy wet scrubber
High-energy wet scrubber
Fabric filter
Annual
cost equation
A = -17,787 + 4.217R
A = 8,911 + 938R
A = 23,037 + 3.058R
A = -8,054 + 5.289R
Li mi ts of
observations
23 > R > 8
20 > R > 5
50 > R >12
12 > R > 3
r
0.78
0.83
0.94
0.99
Reg res s i on pa ramete rs
F test
7.6
9.1
22.7
486.0
Standard
error
20,789
6,363
20,625
8,898
T
2.7
3.0
4.8
22.0
N
7
6
5
16
-------
CD
3J
)
O
o
z
o
120
100
80
20-
I I T
. LEAST-SQUARES LINE
. AVERAGE-COST LINE
• DATA POINTS
I
I
I
J_
0
LEAST-SQUARES LINE
AVERAGE-COST LINE
DATA POINTS
40
10 20 30
MELT RATE, tons/hr
Figure F-5. Annual cost versus melt rate for multiple
cyclones.
20 30
MELT RATE, tons/hr
Figure F-6. Relation of annual costs to melt rate for low-
energy wet scrubbers.
-------
240
200h
120
_L
LEAST-SQUARES LINE
AVERAGE-COST LINE
DATA POINTS
_L
"0 20 40 60 !
MELT RATE, tons/tir
Figure F-7. Annual cost versus melt rate for high-
energy wet scrubbers.
12Dh
LEAST-SQUARES LINE
\- / AVERAGE-COST LINE _J
DATA POINTS
J I I I
10 20 30,
MELT RATE, tons/hr
Figure F-8. Annual cost versus melt rate
for fabric filters.
-------
APPENDIX G.
TECHNICAL DATA ON EMISSION CONTROL
-------
INTRODUCTION
The interview survey conducted as part of this study produced
significant information on cupola operation in the following areas:
1. Variations in emission rates.
2. Exit concentrations.
3. Indraft through charging door.
4. Charging door closures.
5. Influence of afterburning on collector size.
VARIATIONS IN EMISSION RATES
Fourteen of the foundries surveyed provided data on their cupola
emission rates. These data are shown in Table G-l, including melt
rate, emissions per ton of melt, charge composition where available,
and an indication of the method of emission measurement. While
emissions as low as 6 pounds per ton and as high as 36 pounds per ton
were reported, an average of 20 to 21 pounds per ton was reached from
each of the following analyses:
1. Average of the 14 reports.
2. Average of the middle 10 reports with their narrowed
range of 13 to 26 pounds per ton.
3. By developing a weighted average using:
Ib/ton x melt rate
total Ib
Confidence should be placed in these results with due respect for
possible sources of variation. First, the method of measurement can
be the cause for some variation. Second, more accurate data -would
result it the catch were actually weighed for an operating day and if
the collection efficiency were known. Third, calculations in Table
G-l are based on complete collection by fabric filters, and 85 percent
collection by multiple centrifugals where the catch was reported.
Finally, inlet samples, when run for short sampling periods, could be
subjected to the greatest variation due to uneven particulate loadings
in the gas stream or fluctuations in cupola operation.
EXIT CONCENTRATIONS
Table G-2 reports the loss to atmosphere from 12 foundries for
which such data have been obtained from stack gas sampling of the
m
Appendix G
-------
Table G-l. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS I.N CUPOLA STACK GASES
Observation
number
1
2
3
it
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Emi ss ion,
Ib/ton
melt
26
21
36
22
14
6
13
24
20
26
35
7
17
21
Melt
rate,
tons/hr
20.0
10.8
8.75
17.0
40.0
8.0
17.0
7.0
3-5
17.0
10.0
8.0
12.0
12.0
Composition of charge, %
Returns
21
22
35
40
35
20
30
-
50
40
-
30
51
Pig
-
-
45
-
5
25
43
-
20
25
70
-
20
Cast
i ron
scrap
79
78
10
-
30
-
17
-
-
-
30
70
-
Steel
scrap
-
-
10
40
30
55
-
-
30
15
-
-
29
Briquettes
-
-
-
20
-
-
10
-
-
20
-
-
-
Measurement method
Below charge door takeoff. 2,580
Ib in 8 hr in fabric filter—
1,600 Ib in afterburner and
quencher.
Fabric filter-1,800 Ib in 8 hr
Inlet samples at multiple cyclone
Inlet samples at multiple cyclone
Fabri c f i 1 ter catch
Fabric filter catch-4g.4 Ib/hr
Inlet samples at multiple cyclone
Fabric f i 1 ter-22,560 Ib in 136
hr
Fabric filter-69 Ib/hr
2,850 Ib sludge, 2U H20 from 120
tons melt, plus wet cap exit
samples
Multiple cyclone catch 3,000 Ib
in 10 hr; assumed 85% efficient
Fabric filter— 550 Ib in 10 hr
Fabric filter-200 Jb/hr -
Multiple cyclone collector 18
Ib/ton melt catch; assumed 85%
efficient.
33
O
-<
0
-------
Table G-2. EMISSIONS ESCAPING FROM CONTROLLED CUPOLAS
Observation
numbe r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Emissions ,
Ib/ton
6.8
5.4
4.5
5.4
4.6
1.6
4.7
2.5
2.0
1.0
0.68
0.21
Me 1 1 i ng
rate,
tons/hr
17
17
16
21
13
6
20
20
13
10
12
• 50
Collector type and comments
Wet cap
Dry multiple centrifugal 600° F
hot blast - charge: 33% remelt.
472 pig, 10% steel scrap, 10%
cast iron scrap
Dry multiple centrifugal
Dry multiple centrifugal, hot
blast, dry centrifugal precleaner
10 inches water gauge wet collec-
tion efficiency - 86% oily scrap
12 inches water gauge wet clean
scrap, high percentage remelt,
no coke breeze, no afterburner
14 inches water gauge wet 600° F
hot blast - charge: 40% remelt,
20% pig, 27% steel scrap, 13%
cast iron scrap
26 inches water gauge wet
35 inches water gauge wet collec-
tion efficiency 95%
45 inches water gauge wet collec-
tion efficiency - 99%
Electrostatic precipitator
58 Inches water gauge wet charge
40% remelt, 50% steel flashings,
10% cast scrap
cleaned gas outlet. The data have been recalculated to pounds of
emission per ton of metal melted -where performance was reported in
pounds per 1,000 pounds of gas or grains per standard cubic foot. The
former is the more significant because gas volumes for comparable
melting rates fluctuate widely as will be discussed later. The data give
an indication of the order of performance for multiple dry centrifugal
and wet collectors. Data from only one wet cap were available. Because
of the high collection efficiency of fabric collectors and the absence of
visible escapement, stack gas sampling has not been frequent for this
collector type. Table G-3 summarizes the data with the exclusion of
Observation 6,
The data confirm that increased energy input in wet collector
Appendix G
113
-------
Table G-3. PENETRATION OF PARTICULATES BY TYPE
OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Control equipment
Wet cap
Multiple cyclone
Wet col lector
(water gauge in inches)
10-14
26-35
40-60
Penetration ,
Ib/ton melt
6
4
4
2
0.2
8
6
5
2.5
1 .0
devices improves performance, although the order of improvement can
be only generalized. The single wet cap performance may or may not
be typical of emission rates from this collector group.
INDRAFT THROUGH CHARGING DOOR
A substantial portion of exhaust volume handled by collection
equipment consists of: (1) the quantities of outside air pulled inward
through the charging door to confine the stack gases, and (2) the signi-
ficant volume of water vapor generated to cool the hot gases before
reaching the collector and exhauster. In Table G-4, data are shown
for nine foundries, selected because the inlet temperatures were in the
500° F range and regulated by controlled spray-cooling in the gas
stream. If the stack gas temperatures were in the 1, 500° F range,
approximately 25 percent of the gas volume would be water vapor.
Deducting this volume and the known blast volume from the total gives
the volume induced through the charging door. This volume was easily
translated into indraft velocities because information on sizes of
openings was available. The data show a considerable spread. On the
medium and larger size cupolas, where mechanical charging requires
large door openings, an indraft of 450 feet per minute, as opposed to
300 feet per minute, would represent a 50 percent increase in outside
air handled by the system. The impact on collector size and cost can
be visualized from a comparison of Observations 6 and 7 (Table G-2).
Both have the same 8, 000 scfm blast volume, yet 30, 000 scfm was
involved in Observation 6, while 40, 000 scfm--* 33. 5 percent increase-
was installed at Observation 7. Observations 8 and 9 have practically
114 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
Table G-4. RANGE OF INLET VELOCITIES THROUGH CHARGING DOORa
Blast
volume,
scfm
2,000
2JOO
3,800
4,000
5,000
8,000
8,000
10,800
20,000
Water
vapor,15
scfm
1,900
2,100
3,200
3,900
5,000
7,500
10,000
12,000
13,000
Indraft
through
door,
scfm
3,500
3,700
6,000
7,600
11,000
14,500
22,000
26,200
19,000
Total
exhaust,
scfm
7,400
8,500
13,000
15,500
21,000
30,000
40,000
49,000
52,000
Ratio
of indraft
volume to
blast volume
1:5
1:4
1:6
1:9
2:2
l:8d
2:7
2:4
1:0
Charging
door
indraft,
ft/min
900
185C
600
250
480
290
430
435C
2.5
temperatures at exhauster inlet approximately 500° F.
Water vapor assumed to be 25 percent of exhaust volume.
""Closures on charging door opening.
Downdraft takeoff below charging door.
the same size control system, yet the melting rate of No. 9 is almost
double that of No. 8.
Byway of qualifications, indraft volumes could be intentionally
higher than needed for a particular operation where:
1. Collector capacity was designed for higher melting rates.
2. Design anticipated high melt-down temperatures where added
volumes of water vapor would be generated.
To the extent that control system costs are influenced by gas
volumes, however, the data suggest economies may be achieved in
choice of charging door opening size, indraft velocity, and the water
vapor volume with evaporative cooling of the cupola gases.
CHARGING DOOR CLOSURES
Although control equipment size and, thus, its installation and
operating costs, affect foundry profitability, there has still been little
apparent effort to keep the charging opening closed. Stated objections
include:
1. Unreliability of charging door control mechanisms, offering
potential for collision between charging bucket and closure
device.
Appendix G
115
-------
2. Gas escapement during the interval when the charging bucket
unloads and closure device cannot be in place.
3. Sufficient capacity of installed systems to permit operation
without such restrictions.
Nevertheless, the data suggest that greater design attention to
closures and their use could reduce costs. This feasibility has been
demonstrated at several foundries where control of closures has:
1. Reduced the quantities of cold air that must be heated to the
1, 200° to 1, 500° F range, thereby reducing or eliminating
the fuel cost of afterburning.
2. Reduced aspiration of stack gases where charging openings
are exposed to outdoor wind conditions.
3. When applied during meltdown, eliminated the need for
excess collector capacity to handle added water vapor produced
by the then higher stack gas temperatures.
INFLUENCE OF AFTERBURNING ON COLLECTOR SIZE
Afterburning in the cupola stack was a popular method of
reducing visible emissions from unburned combustibles long before
the use of sophisticated gas-cleaning equipment was in general use for
cupola applications. Little attention was paid to the fuel consumption
as long as incineration temperatures were maintained in the turbulent
air stream in the cupola stack,above the charging door. In fact, the
higher the temperature, the greater the stack draft, causing indraft
at the charging opening, and the greater the ability to overcome some
pressure losses from the influence of spark arrestors or wet cap low-
resistance collectors.
The fact that higher temperatures increase gas volume at the
collector inlet and require additional cooling expense in some systems,
however, suggests that better control of fuel supply in afterburner in-
stallations could reduce overall costs. Possible methods of control
include:
1. Cutoff of afterburner fuel during meltdown when temperatures
are in or above incineration range.
2. Development of charging opening closures so that minimum
cold outside air is heated to incineration temperatures.
116 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
-------
3. Analysis of stack gas temperatures. Often there is ample
carbon monoxide available to maintain incineration tempera-
tures with a need only for a. torch to re-ignite in case the
flame is snuffed out during the charge.
Appendix G 117
-------
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