RAPID SURVEY TECHNIQUE
ESTIMATING COMMUNITY
AIR POLLUTION
EMMISSIONS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
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A RAPID SURVEY TECHNIQUE FOR
ESTIMATING COMMUNITY AIR POLLUTION
EMISSIONS
GUNTIS OZOLINS
RAYMOND SMITH
Laboratory of Engineering and Physical Sciences
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Raleigh, North Carolina
October 1966
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The AP series of reports is issued by the National Air Pollution
Control Administration to report the results of scientific and engi-
neering studies, and information of general interest in the field of
air pollution. Information reported in this series includes coverage
of NAPCA intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted
in conjunction with state and local agencies, research institutes,
and industrial organizations. Copies of AP reports may be obtained
upon request, as supplies permit, from the Office of Technical In-
formation and Publications,National Air Pollution Control Adminis-
tration, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1033
Wade Avenue, Raleigh, North Carolina 27605.
2nd printing April 1970
Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-29
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PREFACE
The documentation of air pollution sources and emission strengths
within a community provides the basic framework for air conserva-
tion activities. The extent of the source surveys used in obtaining
this information depends greatly on individual objectives and avail-
able resources. Comprehensive emission inventories, including field
visits, plant surveys, questionnaires, and stack sampling, have been
conducted in a number of major metropolitan areas. The budgetary
and personnel resources required for such programs, however, are
beyond the scope of many communities. This rapid survey method
for conducting an emission inventory has been prepared as a means
of providing reasonable working estimates with limited resources.
The method presented herein utilizes information readily avail-
able in most communities to provide reasonably accurate, yet rapid,
estimates of the major air pollutant emissions of an urban area. The
method does not require extensive plant surveys or source sampling
procedures involving high levels of technical competence and large
expenditures. It is presented in a stepwise format, including discus-
sions of basic assumptions, aimed at guiding a person of moderate
professional training. Field trials of the method in communities
with 350,000 and 2,000,000 inhabitants required 3 and 6 weeks,
respectively, for such a person to complete the survey and basic
report.
An important feature of this method is the concept of reporting
zones. Emissions are assigned to the general geographical localities
where they occur, rather than reported as total values for the entire
metropolitan area. In this manner, areas of high emission strengths
are identified and the distribution patterns of the different pollutants
within the study area may be estimated.
Emission inventory data have many applications in air conserva-
tion programs. They can be used effectively in metropolitan planning,
pollution abatement, initiation of sampling programs, interpretation
of sampling results, and estimation of anticipated pollutant concen-
trations in the atmosphere.
Metropolitan Planning: The emission maps of the community, in
terms of tons per day of pollutants discharged on a sub-area basis,
can provide a guide for future metropolitan planning and zoning
by pinpointing overburdened areas and their relation to populated
zones and areas affected during periods of minimum natural
ventilation.
Pollution Abatement: As an index of relative importance, the
information resulting from the emission survey becomes a useful
guide for a community pollution abatement program. It can indi-
cate the degree of need for intensive abatement of sources in cer-
tain geographic areas, of specific point sources, or of classes of
emitters of specific pollutants. The information is useful in pre-
111
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dieting the approximate effect of specific regulations on emissions
and in pointing out where the "control dollar" may have the
optimum effect.
Sampling Programs: Presentation of emission data on the basis of
reporting zones can provide a basis for optimum location of air
quality sampling stations in a community.
Estimation of Pollutant Concentrations: Through the development
of mathematical meteorological diffusion models, based on the
emissions of contaminants, the ambient concentrations of these
pollutants in various areas of the community may be estimated.
Seasonal variations of these concentrations can also be estimated
with respect to the climatic effect on the use of fuels for space
heating and the attendant increase in pollutant emissions.
The rapid survey technique presented herein is not meant to
replace more detailed surveys where they are needed and where
more extensive resources are available. The rapid method will
provide reasonable information for making intelligent decisions in air
conservation programs in many communities at an earlier time than
might otherwise be possible. With rapid method a beginning can be
made today—a beginning that should be carefully reviewed and
modified with passage of time and the gathering of more detailed
information.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT vii
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE RAPID SURVEY METHOD 1
SUBDIVISION OF THE STUDY AREA INTO REPORTING ZONES..5
COLLECTION AND USE OF PRIMARY INFORMATION 7
Stationary Combustion Sources 7
Fuel-Use Inventory 10
Subdivision of Fuel Use into Process Needs
and Space-Heating Fractions - 13
Determination of Daily Fuel-Use Rates 15
Distribution of Fuel Use to Reporting Zones 17
Mobile Combustion Sources 22
Gasoline Consumption 23
Diesel Fuel Consumption 24
Refuse Combustion Sources 24
Total Area Estimate 26
Disposal at Collective Sites 26
Disposal at Point of Origin 26
Industrial Process Loss Sources 27
CALCULATION OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS 31
Sulfur and Ash Content of Fuels 31
Type of Burning 32
Degree of Control 33
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 35
APPENDIXES - - 37
A. Reference Guide 39
B. Conversion Factors 41
C. A Method for Calculating Domestic Fuel Use from
U. S. Bureau of Census Data 43
D. Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC) 47
E. Metropolitan Areas — Fuel Use Data 49
F. Emission Factors 51
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ABSTRACT
A method is presented for estimating rapidly the major emissions
of air pollutants in a community. The method is based on information
that is readily available in most urban areas; it does not entail ex-
tensive surveys or sampling procedures. Application of this survey
method will yield a series of tables, maps, and diagrams that indicate
(1) the weights of emissions of selected pollutants, by year and by
season; (2) the relative importance of various fuels and types of
sources in producing the emissions; (3) the relative amounts of pol-
lutants emitted in various geographic sub-areas of the community.
Such information constitutes a useful tool for developing an air
conservation program.
Vll
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
RAPID SURVEY METHOD
The categorizing of a community's air pollution emissions as
proposed herein will produce a series of tables, maps, and diagrams
that indicate the following:
1. The annual total and seasonal weight of emissions of selected
pollutants.
2. The relative importance of various fuels and types of sources
in producing the emissions.
3. The relative weights of pollutants emitted in various geo-
graphic sub-areas of the community.
Such information provides an effective tool for developing an air
conservation program. The relative importance of various contribu-
tors to the community's present air pollution problem can be vis-
ualized, as indicated in Figures 1 and 2. On the basis of such data,
planners can project the possible increase of air pollution in the area
in future years.
REFUSE DISPOSAL-
DOMESTIC - COMMERCIAL-
STEAM ELECTRIC UTILITIES-
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES '
DOMESTIC -COMMERCIAL
STEAM ELECTRIC UTILITIES1"
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES^
REFUSE DISPOSAL
DOMESTIC -COMMERCIAL
STEAM ELECTRIC UTILITIES
•INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES
Figure 1 —Sample diagrams showing seasonal variation of relative source strength for a
pollutant.
Since a basic goal of the method is the rapid completion of an
emission survey, a number of simplifying assumptions are made.
These are cited at the point of use in the text. Emphasis is placed
on accurately denning major factors. Where gross estimates are
made, they generally are applied to the decreasingly important por-
tions of the total, factors that would require inordinate amounts of
time to define accurately.
Four general classes of pollutants are specificially considered:
oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, and particulates.
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD
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HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
AVERAGE SPACE HEATING DAY
AREA SOURCES
1000-2500 -
2500-5000
5000-7500
7500-11,000
PER DAY
Figure 2 — Sample emission map of a community.
Although the rapid survey technique stresses the estimation of the
emitted weights of these pollutants, similar techniques may be used
for other pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, if their estimation is
of particular concern in a given community and if appropriate infor-
mation is available.
The emitted weight of each pollutant can be subdivided among
the following four general categories of sources:
1. Stationary combustion sources.
2. Mobile combustion sources.
3. Refuse combustion sources.
4. Industrial and commercial process loss sources.
Stationary combustion sources include all structures, whether large
or small, in which fuels are burned to provide space heating, process
heat, and power. Mobile combustion sources are primarily motor
vehicles, although the contributions from other modes of transpor-
tation, such as railroads, ships, and airplanes, may sometimes be
important. Refuse combustion sources include municipal incinerators,
open burning dumps, and their smaller counterparts—industrial and
domestic incinerators and backyard open burning. Industrial process
losses are emissions of pollutants generated by the process itself
rather than by the combustion of fuels to supply heat or power for
the process.
Seasonal variations in emissions of pollutants from these sources
can be estimated. The major cause of such variation is the cold-
weather use of fuels to provide space heating. This increase in fuel
usage is generally superimposed on the relatively steady day-to-day
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD
-------
use of fuels to generate electricity, to provide heat for industrial
processes, and to operate motor vehicles.
Even with such categorizing of general sources of pollution, an
urban area initially appears to be an overwhelming complex of
pollution sources. The structures from which pollution is emitted
are numbered in the thousands. Additional thousands of sources,
such as automobiles, are mobile. All of the sources, however, can be
divided into a relatively small number of groupings by type and
geographic location, and the estimation of their aggregate pollution
emissions is thus simplified. For example, similar types of structures
tend to clump together. Substantial areas in a community are
primarily residential, commercial, or industrial, and these areas are
readily located from land-use and zoning maps.
These differences in land usage are utilized in dividing the study
area into geographic subdivisions having internal consistency. Major
residential areas are treated as individual, homogeneous sub-areas,
as are major industrial and commercial areas. Such subdivision not
only aids materially in delineating areas from which pollution is
being emitted, but greatly simplifies the calculation of emissions from
the thousands of similar small sources within the area. These are
collectively referred to as an area source.
In addition to the area sources, a community usually contains
a relatively small number (usually 10 to 50) of major fuel users or
large process industries, which are generally well known or easily
delineated. These large individual sources are referred to as point
sources. With respect to their potential emissions of individual
pollutants, such point sources are usually equivalent to hundreds or
thousands of the smaller units that comprise the area sources. The
use of fuels by the point sources and, in some case, their process losses,
can be obtained with relative accuracy, rapidity, and ease.
A community tends to divide into areas of homogeneous uses
of fuel, just as it tends to divide into areas of homogeneous land use.
Whether a given residential area primarily burns coal, oil, or gas
for heat is often a function of age. Geographically the older resi-
dential areas tend to be near the community's core, and the newer
areas tend to be in the suburbs. Various types of fuel tend to have
preferential use, depending on the location of the community and the
nature of the user. For example, residual fuel oil is usually a major
fuel only in a seaport or petroleum refining area. Furthermore, the
physical nature of residual fuel oil is such that it is usually used only
in large boilers, such as those for the generation of electricity, or in
large industrial and commercial establishments. The chemical com-
position of a fuel also tends to be relatively uniform in a given locale.
The coal used will usually have been mined in the nearest major coal
field and thus will contain relatively uniform percentages of ash
and sulfur.
Obtaining information about fuels is also simplified by the fact
that fuels can be brought to a community and distributed by only a
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD
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limited number of transportation methods and firms. The usua
transportation methods, of course, are by truck, railroad, and snip
to central distribution points. Gas is generally distributed by a
public utility.
Point sources usually account for over 50 percent of a com-
munity's total fuel usage and for an even greater percentage ot
specific individual fuels that are used preferentially in large P°wer
plants. Since this portion of the fuel use can be specifically defined
with respect to location and type, only a minor portion of the fuel
usage must be distributed among the various area sources. Thus,
although various estimations are applied in the survey technique, the
grosser ones are limited to the minor rather than major portions of
the fuel use.
In one typical trial application of the survey method, 70 percent
of all the heat and power supplied by fossil fuels was produced by
burning coal and residual fuel oil. Approximately 85 percent of the
total coal usage and 73 percent of the total residual oil usage was
assignable to the specific location of use. In this same community
approximately 70 percent of the sulfur dioxide, 37 percent of the
oxides of nitrogen, and 62 percent of the particulates were definable
as coming from specific major fuel users and refuse disposal sites.
The remaining emissions of individual pollutants were apportioned
fairly accurately to various types of area sources and among various
geographic subdivisions by applying available information on the use
of fuels in domestic, commercial, and industrial structures and on
their locations within the community.
Although fuel usage may be determined and apportioned to
geographic subdivisions, translating this fuel usage into weights of
emission and determining similar emissions from processes depends
on the availability of average emission factors relating to a wide
range of sources. Such factors are provided in Appendix F. Although
these average emission factors may be grossly in error when applied
to an individual source, they provide reasonably accurate estimates
when applied to the relatively large number of similar sources in
an urban area. The resulting calculated weights of emissions allow
fairly accurate relative comparisons, even where the absolute magni-
tudes of the emissions are subject to question.
Finally, the completion of this type of emission survey is sim-
plified and the possible inaccuracies greatly reduced by the avail-
ability of substantial sources of information about most of the larger
American communities. Detailed census information is available
on the domestic use of fuels for communities as small as 2500
population. The Bureau of Census also supplies information on the
use of fuels, by type of industry, in urban areas having over 40,000
manufacturing employees. Other useful information is readily avail-
able from public utilities, local and state government agencies, and
industrial associations. Such sources of information are pointed out
throughout the text and are listed for easy reference in Appendix A.
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD
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SUBDIVISON OF THE STUDY AREA INTO
REPORTING ZONES
The scope of the survey should be established at the beginning
of the study. This will include determining the geographical boun-
daries of the study area, the pollutants to be investigated, and the
desired detail of the study.
The purpose of reporting pollutant emissions by geographic
zones of the study area is to provide information on the distribution
of pollutant emissions within a community. When areas that are
relatively uniform in the makeup of air pollution sources are selected
as reporting zones, the emission rates of pollutants may be expressed
in terms of pounds or tons per unit area and comparisons may be
made among the different zones or areas.
Zones should be selected on the basis of common characteristics
such as land-use patterns, fuel-use patterns, topography, and popula-
tion density. Since a considerable amount of needed data is available
on a census tract basis, it may be beneficial to keep census tracts intact
—grouping census tracts into zones. When land-use and zoning pat-
terns are considered, the resulting zones are either primarily resi-
dential, commercial, or industrial. In subdividing residential areas
into zones, population density as well as housing data are important
to delineate areas that are primarily single-family residential from
large apartment house areas. The differences in fuel types used in
these areas can thus be defined. Integral areas of high industrial or
commercial activity should not be subdivided, but included in one
zone. For example, the central business district should maintain its
identity and be contained in one zone.
Choice of number of zones will determine the relative size of
zones or vice versa. Use of extremely large zones will defeat the
purpose of zone reporting; use of a multitude of small zones will
complicate procedures without significantly increasing the validity
or utility of results. Preliminary experience indicates that zones
should be approximately 2 to 10 square miles in area. Although one
should attempt to keep zones somewhat similar in size and shape,
the zones in the outlying sections of a metropolitan area may be
larger than in the highly urbanized sectors. If the study area is a
very large metropolitan area or a county, it may be necessary to
increase both the size of zones and the number of zones. Irregular
or elongated shapes should be avoided, unless such configurations are
necessary to pinpoint areas of high emission strengths. The influence
of significant point sources will be shown most accurately if they are
oriented toward the center of reporting zones.
The steps involved in the preparation of a reporting zone map
may be summarized as follows:
1. Obtain or draw a map of the study area showing natural
features such as shorelines, rivers, lakes, major arterial
REPORTING ZONES
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streets, and political boundaries. This -map will form the mat
on which reporting zones will be delineated and results
presented.
2. Delineate census tracts on this map. Since much of the avail-
able information is based on census tract data, it is unwise
to divide the tracts.
3. Subdivide the area into zones (grouping census tracts) on the
basis of common characteristics such as land-use and fuel-use
patterns.
4. Where indicated, subdivide the land-use patterns on the basis
of subgroup factors, such as population density in residential
areas.
REPORTING ZONES
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COLLECTION AND USE OF
PRIMARY INFORMATION
STATIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES
All major fuel types used for combustion purposes by stationary
sources should be included in the survey. Generally, these consist
of coal, residual and distillate fuel oil, and gas; other fuels, such as
wood, should be considered if they are used in significant quantities
within the study area. In addition to the quantity of fuel burned,
the chemical composition of fuels also inflluences the emission rates
of certain pollutants. Factors of importance are the ash content of
coal and sulfur contents of all fuels. These components should be
determined for subsequent emission-rate calculations. (See "Calcu-
lation of Pollutant Emissions.")
^ [INSTITUTION I
•--ICOHHERCIAL
Figure 3 — Fuel use categories.
The individual fuels used in all stationary combustion sources
may be subdivided according to user categories as shown in Figure 3.
A breakdown of total fuel consumption by these user categories
allows the use of emission factors developed specifically for each
source catgory. Consideration of the gross differences among these
categories in firing equipment and practices results in better estimates
of pollutant emissions. Subdivision of fuel use by user categories is
also needed for determining fuel-use rates and the distribution of
fuel use to reporting zones.
To define as accurately as possible the quantities of air pollutants
released and the geographical locations of these discharges in a
community, you should further subdivide the fuels consumed by each
of the user categories into those burned by point and by area sources.
Establishments that individually use vast quantities of fuels and may
therefore emit large amounts of pollutants are defined as point
sources. The remaining fuel use is considered to be by the multitude
of smaller fuel users or area sources (see Figure 4).
STATIONARY SOURCES
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\ \,
\
s -*^
r\ p° \
\ x
X
\
MANUFACTURING
ANNUAL
STUDY AREA
USE OF EACH
FUEL
Figure 4 — Subdivision of total fuel use by user categories and type of use.
Generally, a relatively few concerns in a community (10 to 50,
depending on community size) account for more than 60 percent of
the total community consumption of fuels. Usually the point sources
consist of a few large manufacturing concerns and all of the steam
electric utilities in the area. On occasion, an establishment classified
as institutional or commercial may also be included among the point
sources. Examples are university heating plants, large government
buildings, hospitals, and heating plants serving a composite of com-
mercial buildings. Any concern—manufacturing, institutional, or
commercial—using more than 2 percent of any fuel should be con-
sidered as a point source. The 2 percent is suggested as a guide, not
as a definite limit.
Each of the point sources should be considered individually to
determine the exact types and quantities of fuels used, seasonal var-
iations in fuel use, types of firing equipment, effectiveness of control
equipment, and location in the study area. The area sources are
STATIONARY SOURCES
GPO 828—5)9—2
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treated collectively—by estimations of their daily uses of fuels, firing
equipment, and location.
Fuel-use rates and therefore emission rates of air pollutants vary
by season; this survey method provides a basis for determining the
quantities of pollutants released at different times during the year.
The general pattern of the seasonal variation in the total fuel use
in an urban area, illustrated in Figure 5, allows the following
assumptions:
•SPACE HEATING
m
u"
§
a . PROCESS NEEDS
rr
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
MONTHS
Figure 5—Seasonal variation in fuel use rates.
1. A certain quantity of fuel is burned at a relatively uniform
daily rate throughout the year. This fuel is used to provide
energy for industrial processes, to generate power for steam-
electric utilities, and to supply heat for cooking and water
heating in households and commercial establishments. All of
these fuel uses are relatively independent of the ambient
temperature. Although these process uses vary from day to
day and from hour to hour, these variations are assumed to
be minor when compared to seasonal variations. The process
daily fuel-use rates are considered uniform and are assumed
to equal 1/365 of the fuel used for these purposes annually.
2. The remaining fuel use is markedly seasonal. The fuel is
used to satisfy space-heating requirements of industries,
households, institutions, and commercial concerns. This usage
varies from a minimum of zero in summer to a maximum on
STATIONARY SOURCES
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the coldest day of the year. The rate of fuel consumption for
space heating is closely related to the degree-day value (see
"Determination of Daily Fuel Use Rates") and is assumed
to be proportional to the degree-day value.
Therefore, for each of the user categories, two distinct rates
of fuel consumption are considered, i.e., uniform rate for processes
and variable rate for space heating. By subdividing annual fuel-use
into these two fractions, one can estimate the daily fuel consumption
at specified times during the year.
Up to this point, fuel consumption in the study area has been
subdivided first by type of user, then by type of source (point and
area), and finally by type of use — for process needs and space
heating. The next step is to determine the geographical distribution
of fuel use within the study area. Since the locations of all point
sources can be determined precisely, the fuels burned by each of
these sources can be assigned to their exact locations. Methods for
allocating fuel consumption by area sources to reporting zones are
less exact. Domestic fuel use is distributed according to population
density, commercial fuel use according to service employment, and
manufacturing use on the basis of industry type and employment.
Detailed descriptions of the procedure just outlined, including
sources of information, are presented in the following sections.
FUEL-USE INVENTORY
For purposes of this survey technique, the following annual fuel
consumption data are required:
a. Total annual consumption of each fuel.
b. Annual consumption of each fuel by user category.
c. Annual fuel use by each point source.
d. Annual fuel use by area sources.
The sources of data given in the following paragraphs were
chosen to provide these data quickly and with a minimum of field in-
vestigation. If fuel-use data for the study area are not directly
available, an estimate based on the available information is sufficient.
Such estimates may be necessary, for example, if the boundaries of
the study area do not coincide with or include the service boundaries
of utility companies or fuel distributors. Data available from the
U.S. Bureau of Census publications or from national fuel associations
are generally based on city, county, or metropolitan area boundaries,
which again may not coincide with those of the study area.
Total Annual Fuel Consumption
The primary sources of information on the area's total annual
consumption of individual fuels are the local utility companies for
gas usage, National Coal Association for coal consumption, and State
10 STATIONARY SOURCES
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Petroleum Marketers Association for fuel oil consumption. Addi-
tional sources of data for coal and fuel oil are the large local
distributors of these fuels and operators of transportation facilities
(railroads, barge lines, trucking firms). If any of the fuels are sub-
jected to a special tax, data on fuel sales may be available from the
tax division of local or state governments. Since any later assump-
tions with respect to portions of the fuel usage will be based on the
total consumption figure, values for the total annual usage of each
significant fuel should be obtained with the greatest possible accuracy.
Annual Consumption by User Category
1. Manufacturing: Annual fuel consumption by manufacturing
industries is given in the Census of Manufactures publication
MC63(1)—7, "Fuels and Electric Energy Consumed in Manufacturing
Industries," available from the Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D.C. Latest issue is for year 1962. Data are given only for
the 68 standard metropolitan statistical areas with manufacturing
employment of over 40,000. For cities and metropolitan areas not
included in this publication, the manufacturing fuel use must be
estimated on basis of data from fuel distributors.
2. Steam-Electric Utilities: Annual fuel consumption by indi-
vidual utility companies is published yearly in the National Coal
Association publication, "Steam-Electric Plant Factors."
3. Domestic, Institutional, and Commercial: The annual con-
sumption of fuels by domestic, institutional, and commercial users
collectively may be obtained by subtracting manufacturing and
steam-electric utility fuel use from the total consumption of each
individual type of fuel. This quantity will be checked against other
information and divided among the three subgroups by methods
described in a later section.
Annual Consumption by Point Sources
The individual point sources in each of the user categories are
now delineated. If the suggested criterion for point sources is applied
(2 percent or more of a given fuel), the number of plants so deline-
ated will range from about 10 to 50, depending on the size of the
community.
Generally, these point sources within a community or area are
well known. The list of the commonly known sources can be checked
or supplemented by consulting the employment data for industry
groups, such as primary metals or chemicals, known to be large
users of fuel, as given in directory of manufacturers. A directory
of manufacturers is usually compiled and published by state or local
chambers of commerce or government agencies, such as a department
of labor and industry. Electric generating plants are usually point
sources.
You can obtain consumption and other data from each point
source by individual contact. The information required is illustrated
USE INVENTORY n
-------
in a suggested reporting form, Figure 6. Information such as the
rated capacity of each boiler may be obtained during the visit.
Although such information is not used in this emission survey it may
be useful in later air pollution control activities.
A GENERAL INFORMATION
I Name 2 Employment
3 Industrial Classification
4 Location 5 Reporting Zone
FUEL USE
I Tolal annual fuel consumption and fuel types used (entire plant)
Annual Consumption Composition
Process Space Sulfur Ash
Total Needs Heating Content Content
a Coal (tons)
b Residual fuel 01 I (gal)
c DistiM ate fuel oil (gal)
d Gas (cu ft)
e Other
2 Complete the following for each boiler where there are major differences in types of fuel.
type and size of firing equipment or control devices used.
Equipment Rated Capacity Fuel burned Air Pollution Control Equipment0
Boiler No. Type3 (fltu/hr) (tons/yr) Type Ef f iciency
5
b Fuel Oil
Fuel Burned Air Pollution Control Equipment
Boiler No. Rated Capacity1 (gal-yO Type Efficiency;?)
Equipment types:
1 Pulverized Coal with relnjection 5 Cyclone
2 Pulverized Coal without reinjection B Other mechanical stokers
3 Spreader Stoker with reinjection 7 Hand lired
4 Spreader Stoker without reinjection
Ait Pollution Control devices: see AppendU B, Table B3
Rated Capaci ty due I oil)
I Above 1000 hp
2 Below 1000 hp
Figure 6 — Fuel use — point sources.
Annual Consumption by Area Sources
The annual consumption of each fuel in each user category is
divided into two source subgroups—point sources and area sources.
12 STATIONARY SOURCES
-------
It therefore follows that the difference between the annual consump-
tion of fuel by a given user category and that consumed by the point
sources under the respective user category, is the annual fuel use by
area sources in that category. For example, if the annual usage of
coal by the manufacturing category is 1,000,000 tons and three large
manufacturing concerns or point sources collectively use 800,000 tons
per year, the annual consumption by manufacturing area sources is
200,000 tons per year. To facilitate the succeeding steps, the results
of the fuel use inventory may be summarized as shown in Figure 7.
A.
USER
CATEGORIES
TOTAL
MANUFACTURING
POINT SOURCES (TOTAL)
AREA SOURCES
STEAM-ELECTRIC UTILITIES
POINT SOURCES
AREA SOURCES
DOMESTIC, INST., AND COMM.
POINT SOURCES
AREA SOURCES
COAL
tons
RESIDUAL
FUEL OIL
gal Ions
DISTILLATE
FUEL OIL
gal Ions
GAS
cu ft
B. POINT SOURCES (by individual concerns)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 7 — Annual fuel use in the study area.
SUBDIVISION OF FUEL USE INTO PROCESS NEEDS AND
SPACE-HEATING FRACTIONS
The data given in Figure 7, part A, represent the total annual
consumption of fuels by the different source categories. To define the
seasonal variation 'r. fuel use, you must further subdivide fuel con-
PROCESS NEEDS; SPACE HEATING
13
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sumption into quantities of fuel used for space heating and for
process needs.
Point Sources
The fuels consumed in point sources are subdivided into process-
need and space-heating fractions on the basis of information from
each of the point sources individually. If this information is not
readily available, the relative usage should be estimated. This esti-
mate can usually be obtained by using the difference between the
firm's fuel use in summer and winter months as the space-heating
fraction. All the fuels used by steam-electric utilities can be assumed
to be in the process-need fraction of fuels, which are assumed to be
used at a uniform daily rate, unchanged by seasonal variation.
Where large seasonal variations of the process fuel use by point
sources are suspected, additional accuracy may be obtained by using
the actual monthly fuel consumption data for both process and space
heating.
Area Sources
1. Manufacturing: A substantial portion of the total manufac-
turing fuel use is generally centered in point sources. The quantities
of fuels used for space heating and process needs by manufacturing
category point sources have been defined. The remaining fuel use
by the area sources is assumed to be subdivided in a similar manner.
For example, if the total manufacturing coal usage is 1,000,000 tons
and the sum of coal usage by manufacturing point sources is 800,000
tons with 600,000 tons used for process needs and 200,000 tons for
space heating, the remaining 200,000 tons burned by manufacturing
area sources may then be estimated as follows:
600 000
200,000 tons X g() ' = 150,000 tons used for process
' needs by area sources
200,000 tons — 150,000 tons = 50,000 tons used for space heating
by area sources
Although this assumption can introduce an error, the resulting
error in a given zone will be minimal. The error is minimized because
the assumption relates to the smaller portion of the fuel use and the
resultant weights are distributed over a number of zones and aver-
aged over a number of days.
2. Domestic, Institutional and Commercial: The total fuel con-
sumption by this user category consists of a relatively constant "proc~
ess" fuel use for water heating and cooking, and a seasonal fuel use
for space heating. Generally, one can subdivide gas consumption
into space heating and nonspace heating fractions fairly easilv on thp
basis of information available from the local
subdividing the other fuels into these
and cannot be done in a smiilar manner, you should first consider the
14
STATIONARY SOURCES
-------
domestic, commercial, and institutional fuel uses individually. In this
way you can estimate the relative uses of fuels for process needs and
space heating by this source category.
Domestic: Fuels are used in households for space heating, water
heating, and cooking. The relative importance of each fuel for each
of these purposes is shown in the U.S. Census of Housing publication
HC(1), which presents the number of households utilizing each fuel.
In communities where the use of coal and fuel oil for cooking and
water heating is relatively minor (less than 10 percent), such use
may be considered negligible. If the use of fuel oil and coal for these
purposes is considerable, you can estimate the annual consumption
by multiplying the number of households using a given fuel by the
average use of fuel per household. The average annual use of, say,
fuel oil for water heating and cooking per household may be obtained
from the local fuel oil distributors or by using an amount equivalent
to the gas usage per household for these purposes. The annual fuel
consumption for domestic space heating may be estimated by the use
of an empirical formula using degree days, number of households
using a fuel, and an average fuel requirement per household per
degree day. The use of this formula is explained in Appendix C.
Institutional: Total or individual usage in local public buildings
and public schools can be obtained easily and rapidly from the
appropriate local agency. The fuel usage is almost entirely for space
heating. Individual private institutions such as hospitals and colleges
should be treated as indicated below for the commercial category
unless an individual facility is considered as a point source.
Commercial: It is difficult to estimate accurately the quantities
of fuels burned by commercial users or to subdivide them into heating
and nonheating fractions. For the purposes of this survey, the com-
mercial fuel use is assumed to be entirely for space heating.
Information on commercial gas usage may be available from the
gas utility. Where more accurate information is not available, the
difference between total fuel usage and that assigned to other user
categories may be assigned to this class. If reasonable care has been
used in defining total fuel use and the previous subcategory uses, the
introduced error will be relatively small.
DETERMINATION OF DAILY FUEL USE RATES
In the previous section, the total annual consumption of each fuel
by user category was subdivided into two components—annual fuel
consumption for processes and annual fuel consumption for processes
and for space heating. Daily rates of fuel use, corresponding to the
three conditions, i.e., minimum, average, and maximum space-heat-
ing-demand day, can now be determined. The fuel for processes was
assumed to be used at a uniform daily rate, with the daily rate being
equal to 1/365 of the annual fuel consumption. If many of the point
sources in the study area shut down their operations on weekends, you
DAILY FUEL USE RATES 15
-------
may wish to substitute the number of working days for the 365 and to
derive separate average weekday and weekend values.
The variation in the use of fuels for space heating can be denned
on the basis of the degree-day value.* The degree-day data required
for calculating space-heating-demand rates are:
1. Number of days per year showing a degree-day value.
2. Total number of degree days per year.
3. The annual maximum degree-day value.
Degree-day data may be obtained from the U.S. Weather Bureau
publication "Local Climatological Data." For representative results,
consideration of at least the three most recent calendar years is
suggested. The quantity of fuel burned for space heating correspond-
ing to the three conditions can be determined in the following manner:
1. Minimum space-heating-demand day—The minimum degree-
day value is zero and occurs during the summer months. The
space-heating fuel use for this condition is zero, and only the
process fuel use is considered.
2. Average space-heating-demand day—The annual fuel con-
sumption for space heating divided by the number of days
showing a degree-day value yields the rate of fuel consump-
tion for space heating corresponding to the average degree
day.
3. Maximum space-heating-demand day — The space-heating
fuel use rate on the maximum-demand day may be deter-
mined by the relationship:
Maximum degree-day value sx A , ,
_ , , r—r x Annual space-heating
Total no. of degree days per year fugl uge
Add the two rates of fuel use (uniform process usage and variable
space-heating usage) to determine the total daily rate of fuel con-
sumption. For example, from fuel use inventory of study area, the
annual coal consumption by manufacturing area sources is given as:
150,000 tons for process needs
50,000 tons for space heating needs.
From meteorological data,
Number of days showing a degree-day value = 260
Total number of degree days per year = 6,000
Maximum degree-day value = 60
-A degree day is a unit representing one degree declination from a given
point (65°F) in the mean ambient air temperature for one day. For
example, if the average daily temperature is 50°F, the number of heating
degrees for that day is: 65°F—50°F=15. It is a standard unit, reported by
the U.S. Weather Bureau
16 STATIONARY SOURCES
-------
Fuel consumption rates for the three conditions are:
,,. . , 150,000 . „ ,,„ tons
Minimum day: — ^ -- H 0 = 410 -5 -
365 day
Average day: 410 +
Maximum day: 410 +
= 410 + 190 = 600
60
tons
6000 (50,000) =410+ 500 = 910-^
Similar calculations are performed for each fuel by user category
and each point source. The results can be presented in a table, as
shown in Figure 8.
SOURCES
A. ARE* SOURCES
1 Manufacturing
2 Domestic
3 Commercial
4 Institutional
B. POINT SOURCES
1
2
3
4
COAL,
tons
MIN
AVG
MAX
RESID.FUEL OIL,
gal Ions
MIN
AVG
MAX
DIST.FUEL OIL,
gal Ions
MIN
AVG
MAX
GAS,
cu. ft.
MIN
AVG
MAX
Figure 8 — Daily fuel-consumption rates for minimum, maximum, and average space-heating
day.
DISTRIBUTION OF FUEL USE TO REPORTING ZONES
Point Sources
Because relatively few point sources are present in a community
or an area, their exact locations within the study area can be deter-
mined readily. It then becomes a simple matter to assign fuel con-
sumption, as indicated in Figure 5, and subsequently emission rates of
pollutants from these sources to the reporting zones where they
originate.
Area Sources
Although the exact locations of the individual area sources,
whether manufacturing, domestic, commercial, or industrial, are not
DISTRIBUTION TO REPORTING ZONES
17
-------
known the geographical distribution of their aggregate fuel use can be
estimated. The following procedures, although dependent on Personal
judgment, should yield adequate estimates of the geographic distribu-
tion of area fuel use in the community. A substantial portion of the
total fuel use will have already been located in point sources. Other
types of fuel users tend to clump together in residential, commercial,
and industrial areas. Furthermore, obtainable information about the
community will usually provide reasonable guidelines for the appor-
tionment of the individual fuels among zones in a study area. For
example the residential areas that use mostly gas for space heating
can usually be pointed out by the gas utility. These areas are often
the newer residential areas of the community. Conversely, residential
use of coal is often confined to the older areas. The results of the
geographic distribution of fuel use can be compiled in a table similar
to that shown in Figure 9. You need not repeat the calculations for
all three conditions. A multiplication factor
(Maximum or minimum daily fuel use)
(average daily fuel use ) can be applied later to the
REPORTING
ZONE
1
2
3
4
5
7
a
9
TOTALS6
MANUFACTURING
COAL
RESID
FUEL
OIL
DIST
FUEL
OIL
GAS
DOMESTIC
COAL
RESIO
FUEL
OIL
DIST
FUEL
OIL
GAS
COMMERCIAL
COAL
RESID
FUEL
OIL
OIST
FUEL
OIL
GAS
INSTITUTIONAL
COAL
RESID
FUEL
OIL
DIST
FUEL
OIL
GAS
Corresponding to average space-heating day.
^The totals should agree urith those in Figure 5.
Figure 9— Daily fuel consumption rates by reporting rones.
average-day emission rates to yield emissions corresponding to the
minimum and maximum days. The following procedure is to be per-
formed only for the fuel consumption corresponding to average space-
heating day.
1. Manufacturing Area Sources: Note the reporting zones within
the study area that contain concentrations of manufacturing industry.
18
STATIONARY SOURCES
-------
Since only major centers of industrial activity, rather than individual
small plants, are to be considered, the number of reporting zones so
selected will generally be small. Aerial photographs, zoning maps,
land-use maps, geodetic maps, and the Directory of Manufacturers
are most helpful for this purpose.
Estimate the employment by industrial classification (Bureau of
Census) in each reporting zone. The classification system used by the
Bureau of Census is given in Appendix D. The reporting zone and
employment size of each manufacturing concern can be obtained from
the Directory of Manufacturers. Do not include the employment of
concerns considered as point sources. The information may take the
following form:
Chemical Industry
Total employment = 2,000
X Company (point source) = 1,200
Employment in area sources = 800
Employment by zones:
zone a = 500 62%
zoneb = 250 31%
zoned = 50 7%
Allocation of manufacturing fuel use to reporting zones depends on
the available information. If the study area is covered in the U.S.
Census of Manufacturers publication, "Fuels and Electric Energy
Consumed in Manufacturing Industry," and a breakdown of fuel use
by industrial classification is given, then you may allocate fuel use
in accordance with the percentage of employment in each zone as
indicated in the foregoing example. If the study area is not covered
in this publication or if the fuel-use data for the desired industrial
groups have been withheld, the allocation of fuel use to reporting
zones is more difficult. In these cases industrial fuel use can be
allocated to zones by distributing coal and residual fuel oil to zones of
heavier industry and distillate fuel oil and gas to zones of lighter
industry. Land-use maps and inspection or permit data from various
local agencies will be helpful.
If a city is large and complex, its manufacturing fuel use is
usually described fairly well in the references already cited. In the
smaller, less complex communities, for which reference material may
be lacking, the personal knowledge of various city inspectors often
can provide a reasonable basis for apportioning the fuels to the zones,
particularly since some information will be available on employment
by various industry classes in each zone.
2. Domestic, Institutional, and Commercial Area Sources: The
following procedures may be used to distribute domestic, institutional,
and commercial fuel usages.
DISTRIBUTION TO REPORTING ZONES 19
-------
Domestic (including apartment houses): Two procedures are given
for distributing domestic fuel use to reporting zones, ine nrsi is
based on census tract data, which present the number of dwelling
units in each tract using a given fuel for space heating, mese data
have been compiled for 30 metropolitan areas listed m Appendix E.
Upon request, the U.S. Bureau of Census can supply similar data for
other areas at a price of several hundred dollars. With these data, the
procedure for distributing fuel use is simple and accurate. Fuel use
is distributed in proportion to the number of dwelling units using a
given fuel in each reporting zone.
In the absence of census tract data, the following procedure is
suggested:
• Determine the residential population of each zone. A break-
down of residential populations by census tracts for 180
tracted cities and metropolitan areas in the United States is
available in the U.S. Bureau of Census publication PHC(l)
"Census Tracts." These publications can be obtained from
most libraries or from the Government Printing Office in
Washington. You can then calculate the residential popula-
tion of each reporting zone by summing the populations of
census tracts within a given reporting zone. A breakdown
of residential population can also be obtained from popula-
tion density maps, which may be available from a local
planning agency.
• Determine the number of dwelling units in the study area
heated by each fuel. These data are given for the entire city
instead of by census tract in the U.S. Census of Housing
publication HC(1).
• Estimate the quantity of coal burned within each reporting
zone.
a. Select zones that use coal as a space-heating fuel. The use
of coal is generally centered in older commercial and resi-
dential areas that are included in a relatively small
number of reporting zones. Their general locations can
usually be defined by various city inspectors and by the
larger retail suppliers of domestic coal.
b. Rank these zones according to their relative use of coal
and estimate the percentage of the total number of dwell-
ing units in the city using coal that are located in each
zone. For example, the areal distribution of 10,000 dwell-
ing units using coal (as reported in HC(1) ) might be
apportioned on the basis of judgment as follows:
Zone a — 50% or 5000 units
Zone e — 25 % or 2500 units
Zone f — 20% or 2000 units
Zone x — 5% or 500 units
20
STATIONARY SOURCES
-------
The local heating and ventilating, building, and fire de-
partments, as well as retail coal dealers may be of assist-
ance for these estimates.
c. Calculate the rate of coal consumption of each zone in
accordance with the percentages above and the previously
calculated daily coal consumption (Figure 5).
d. Determine the population in each zone using coal for
heat. This can be done simply by multiplying the average
number of inhabitants per unit (from Census of Housing)
by the estimated number of dwelling units using coal. This
population figure will be used to estimate the quantities
of fuels burned in each reporting zone.
• Estimate the quantity of distillate fuel oil (grade no. 2)
burned within each reporting zone in a similar manner.
Although some residual fuel oil may be used in larger apart-
ment houses, this use is usually minor and is ignored in this
analysis. Such use of residual oil is generally reported in
the proper zone in any event, since these apartment houses
are usually in commercial zones where residual fuel oil is
considered.
• Estimate the quantity of gas burned within each reporting
zone:
a. Determine the population of each zone that is not satisfied
by coal and fuel oil.
b. Distribute gas consumption to zones in proportion to this
population.
NOTE: Often specific information on the distribution of
domestic gas usage may be obtained from the local
gas utility. If this is possible, it is preferable to
obtain the fuel oil or coal distribution by dif-
ference.
Institutional: The fuels used by institutions may be distributed to
reporting zones on the basis of school enrollment of each zone. The
school population of each reporting zone may then be calculated by
adding the enrollment of all schools located within the reporting
zones. This information may be obtained from the local school boards.
Although hospitals and public buildings are usually considered insti-
tutional, their fuel use can generally be distributed more accurately
by the method indicated for the commercial category.
Commercial: Distribute the commercial fuel in a manner similar to
domestic fuel use, but use service employment instead of the residen-
tial population as the basis for apportionment.
An estimate of the total employment by service industries in the
study area may be obtained from the U.S. Bureau of Census publica-
DISTRIBUTION TO REPORTING ZONES 21
-------
tion PC(1) "General Social and Economic Characteristics.
employment may be determined by reporting zones in the 101 e
manner.
• Estimate the employment of the central business district and
other areas of high commercial activity. Generally, the
central business district employs 40 to 50 perecnt of the total
service employment. These data may be available from the
local planning agency, traffic control agencies, or the cham-
ber of commerce.
• Distribute the remaining service employment to the report-
ing zones in the same proportion as the residential popu-
lation.
Alternative Distribution Procedure: If the fuel use by domestic,
institutional, and commercial sources cannot be categorized by the
procedures given, you may apply a procedure similar to that out-
lined for distributing domestic fuels and obtain a distribution for
all three categories. In doing this, you would substitute equivalent
population for residential population. Equivalent population of a
reporting zone is the sum of residential, service employment, and
school populations in that zone.
MOBILE COMBUSTION SOURCES
The mobile sources of air pollution include all vehicles that are
propelled by the combustion of fuels. Automobiles, buses, trucks,
locomotives, airplanes, and ships are the most common. Generally,
emissions of pollutants from locomotives, airplanes, and ships,
although significant locally, do not add considerably to the commu-
nity-wide air pollution; for the purposes of a gross and rapid
appraisal of emission rates these sources are not considered. Emission
rates of pollutants from mobile combustion sources are then estimated
on the basis of gasoline and diesel fuel consumption in the area by
automobiles, buses, and trucks.
Total gasoline consumption in an area can be more easily and
accurately denned than consumption of diesel fuel. By assuming
that the gasoline consumption is roughly equal to the gasoline sales
in an area, you may use gasoline sales data as the basis for determin-
ing the emission rates of pollutants. This is not the case for diesel
fuel. The prime users of diesel fuel are the long-haul trucks that may
purchase the fuel in the study area but use most of it outside the
area. Since the diesel vehicles comprise only a small fraction (less
than 2%) of the total traffic in a community, a rough estimate of
diesel fuel consumption is usually sufficient. Use of diesel fuel by
buses of the local transportation company can usually be obtained
accurately.
An index of the geographical distribution of the mobile fiipl use
within a community is the distributional patterns of traffic volumes or
00
MOBILE
SOURCES
-------
counts. In many communities traffic-flow maps have been developed
on the basis of traffic counts. Such flow maps are used to compute
the total vehicle-mileage traveled in a zone. Gasoline and diesel fuel
consumption can be allocated on a vehicle-mile basis to the sub-areas
or reporting zones.
The traffic counts and thus the emission rates of pollutants
exhibit daily and seasonal variations. For the purposes of this survey
method, daily variations in traffic are not considered and the average
daily consumption of fuel is assumed to equal 1/365 of the annual.
As indicated for point sources, these estimates may be refined to con-
sider average weekdays and weekends. The effect of seasonal varia-
tions can also be accounted for. For summer use of gasoline, increase
the emission rates of pollutants for the average day by a ratio of the
average summer-day traffic to the yearly average (approximately
1.09); for the winter use of gasoline, decrease the average-day emis-
sion rates by the ratio of average winter-day traffic to the yearly
average (approximately 0.92).
GASOLINE CONSUMPTION
Three basic items of information are needed for estimating the
gasoline consumption in reporting zones:
1. Total annual sales of gasoline in the study area.
2. Traffic-flow maps, indicating the traffic counts by segments
of the major thoroughfares.
3. Estimate of the seasonal variation in traffic counts.
The sources of these data and the methods of applying them to
estimate gasoline consumption are given in the following paragraphs.
1. Total Annual Gasoline Sales
Gasoline sales data for the city or county may be available from
the State Petroleum Marketers Association. If it is not, you can
obtain an adequate estimate from data in the American Petroleum
Institute publication "Petroleum Facts and Figures" and the U.S.
Bureau of Census publication "Retail Trade." Gasoline consumption
by state is given in "Petroleum Facts and Figures," whereas gasoline
service-station sales in dollars is given by cities, counties, and states
in the U.S. Bureau of Census publication. Since service-station sales
include other items, such as motor oil, batteries, and tires, these
records cannot be used directly to determine the gallonage sold.
Assuming that the ratio of gasoline sales to total service-station sales
is comparatively constant within a state, you may use the following
ratio to estimate the gasoline sales in the study area.
Gasoline sales in study area (gal) =
Service-station sales in study area ($) .
: : = : , .,,... X gas sales in state (gal)
Service-station sales in state ($) 6 '6 '
GASOLINE CONSUMPTION 23
-------
Vehicle registra-
Various checks can be applied to this estimate, v ^ ^^ can ^
tion multiplied by average vehicle mileage per auto p^ estimate of
combined with average miles per gallon to obtain ailable through
yearly gasoline consumption. This information is ^ "Petroleum
references such as "Automobile Facts and Figures
Facts and Figures" for the most recent year.
2. Traffic-Flow Maps
The traffic-flow maps present the average daily traffic volumes
by segments of the major thoroughfares in the community. Although,
the so-called "major" thoroughfares comprise only a traction (20-
30%) of the total street mileage in a community, they carry the
major load of the vehicular traffic. By assuming that the vehicle-
mileage traveled on secondary streets in a zone is proportional to the
vehicle-mileage traveled on the major thoroughfares, one may use the
traffic-flow maps as the basis for distributing total gasoline consump-
tion. The traffic-flow maps or estimates are available from the local
trafficjjpntrol or planning agencies.
3. Estimates
Estimates of seasonal and daily variation in traffic counts may
be obtained from the local traffic control agency.
The mechanics for calculating gasoline usage in each reporting
zone are illustrated in a sample form, Figure 10.
DIESEL FUEL CONSUMPTION
The principal users of diesel fuel are buses and trucks. Generally,
data on fuel consumption by buses are readily available from the local
transit company. These data, coupled with information on location
of bus routes, number of buses, and vehicle-mileage, may be used
to estimate the relative usage of diesel fuel in each reporting zone by
a procedure similar to that used for the distribution of gasoline usage.
Diesel fuel consumption by trucks traveling in the study area
may be estimated roughly by the following procedure:
1. Estimate the vehicle miles (in % of total) traveled by diesel-
powered vehicles in the study area. The local traffic control
agency, state highway department, or state and national
trucking association may be helpful.
2. Calculate the diesel fuel consumption by multiplying the
vehicle-mileage by 5.1 miles/gallon.2
3. Distribute the fuel consumption to reporting zones by assum-
ing the same distribution as for gasoline.
REFUSE COMBUSTION SOURCES
Incineration, open burning, and sanitary landfills are the. rvrH™
pal methods of refuse disposal in urban areas. The burnin pr"
may constitute a significant source of community air pollut US6
REFUSE
-------
(1)
REPORTING
ZONE
1
2
3
(2)
VEHICLE MILES
PER
DAY
(3)
% VEHICLE
MILES
(4)
GASOLINE
CONSUMPTION
Column 1: Reporting zone number
Column 2: Daily vehicle mileage. Multiply indicated traffic
counts by the distance traveled in each zone. The
distances can be scaled from the traffic-flow map.
Delineation of reporting zones on the traffic-flow
map will be helpful.
Column 3: Percentage of vehicle miles. Divide the vehicle-
mileage of each zone by the sum of column 2 and
multiply by 100.
Column 4. Daily fuel usage in each zone. Multiply % of total
vehicle miles (column 3) by the average daily gaso-
line consumption of the study area. The average
daily rate of gasoline consumption is assumed as
1/365 of the annual.
Figure 10 — Daily consumption of gasoline by reporting zones.
ticularly where burning is done in the open or incineration is poor.
The quantities of pollutants released may be estimated on the basis
of type of burning and the quantity of refuse material burned.
The total amount of refuse produced in a community may be esti-
mated. This refuse is disposed of through municipal or private collec-
tion, with disposal at some relatively large collective site; or it remains
uncollected, with disposal at the point of origin, i.e., the individual
REFUSE COMBUSTION
25
-------
home, store, or plant. Information can generally be obtained on e
daily tonnage of refuse disposed of at the collective sites, li tne
method of disposal leads to significant air pollution, these sites are
considered as point sources. The remaining refuse is apportioned as
area source material to the various zones.
The rate of refuse disposal is assumed to be constant throughout
the year. Actually, the rate of refuse production is somewhat higher
than the annual average in the spring and summer.
TOTAL AREA ESTIMATE
Estimates of the total daily tonnage of refuse generated in the
community are generally available from the city agency responsible
for its disposal and from the private haulers. These estimates may or
may not include all of the commercially and industrially generated
refuse. A check figure can be calculated by using national per capita
averages. Generally 4 pounds per capita total refuse and approxi-
mately 3 pounds per capita for combustible refuse will provide a
gross estimate of refuse production. These averages include domestic,
commercial, and industrial refuse.
DISPOSAL AT COLLECTIVE SITES
The quantity of refuse disposed of at specific collective sites,
which include municipal or commercial incinerators, dumps, and
landfills, may be obtained from the local refuse collection agencies.
Although the quantity of refuse disposed of in sanitary landfills or
hauled well outside the survey area for disposal are not considered as
contributing to air pollution in the community, it is important to
define these amounts for subsequent determination of area disposal.
For the remaining tonnage the following information is needed.
Incinerators
The location, operating and design capacities, operating sched-
ules, and efficiency of control equipment should be determined for
each incinerator. This information may be obtained from the public
or private refuse collection agencies or foremen of the individual
installations. The data may be presented in a tabular form, showing
the location (reporting zone) of each incinerator and the average
daily tonnage burned.
Open Burning Dumps
The location of each dump, the burning schedule and the esti-
mated average daily tonnage need to be determined. The sources of
information are the same as for incinerators.
DISPOSAL AT POINT OF ORIGIN
The difference between total area estimate and th
disposed at collective sites may be assumed to be th0 S quantlty
e tne quantity of
26
REFUSE COMBUSTION
-------
refuse burned at the point of origin by domestic incineration and
backyard burning or by industrial-commercial burning of an equiva-
lent type. For purposes of areal distribution and emission-rate calcu-
lations, this quantity must be further sub-divided into industrial-
commercial disposal and domestic disposal. This division can be
based on supplemental information such as burning regulations, data
on issuance of burning permits, and the like. The result will be only
a rough estimate. The quantity of refuse burned domestically can be
distributed to reporting zones in proportion to residential population,
whereas the commercial-industrial refuse is assigned to the com-
mercial-industrial zones.
Usually the portion of the refuse ascribed to domestic or indus-
trial-commercial is delineated by the collection patterns of the gov-
ernmental or private refuse collection systems. Where good residen-
tial collection is made by the community or by contract with private
haulers, the percent of the remaining refuse burned in backyards is
small and most or essentially all of the refuse may be placed in the
industrial-commercial class. In either case, the preferential use of
incineration or open burning at the point of origin and the approxi-
mate degree of such use may be obtained from the agency responsible
for refuse collection or from other agencies such as police and fire
departments. Generally one can specifically account for well over 50
percent of the total overall tonnage of refuse and its method of
disposal.
The data may be compiled in tabular form, as shown in Figure 11.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSS SOURCES
The quantities of the different contaminants discharged from
most industrial and some commercial establishments are attributable
to two general types of operations. First, the pollutants generated
by the combustion of fuels for space heating and process needs, which
were discussed in "Stationary Combustion Sources," and second, the
pollutants generated by the industrial processes themselves. Estima-
tion of emission rates of pollutants associated with the latter is dis-
cussed briefly in this section.
The lack of quantitative data concerning the emissions of pollu-
tants due to industrial process losses and the diversity and multitude
of these sources in a community present difficulties in making a rapid
assessment of the pollution load from these sources. The processes
may contribute to localized air pollution problems in the vicinity of
an individual plant without significantly polluting the community's
total air supply. A single spray-painting operation is an example
of such a localized problem, since the operation may cause specific
odor problems or property damage in its immediate vicinity without
contributing a substantial amount of solvents or aerosols to the
community's air; however, all the spray-painting operations collec-
tively in the community may produce a significant amount of hydro-
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES 27
-------
A COMBUST. REFUSE PRODUCED
1 TOTAL AREA ESTIMATE
2 COLLECTIVE DISPOSAL
3 AREA DISPOSAL
a Domestic
b Industrial
Jons
tons
B COLLECTIVE SOURCES
NAME
ZONE
NO.
DAILY
TONNAGE
PARTICULATE
EFF.CONTROL
C AREA DISPOSAL
AVE. DAILY TONNAGE BURNED
ZONE NO.
DOMESTIC
INDUSTRIAL
Figure 11 — Refuse disposal.
carbons. Accurate definition of the portion of the total pollution re-
sulting from many industrial processes requires considerable skill
with respect to knowledge of both the processes and the test mPthnHc;
Often the portion of the pollution so defined will be fnnnHt ™e . s>
when compared to that resulting from the combus^ of° rue™
number of industrial processes should be examined h iuci°- •"•
in a rapid survey, because of their nature, the size nf +£W6V*?•' ^^
plants, or the concentration of a type of industry £ I mdlvldual
munity. y ln a
28
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES
-------
Emission factors, related mostly to production data, have been
developed for some of the industrial operations that may be impor-
tant in a community survey:
1. Iron and steel mills
2. Ferrus and nonferrus foundries
3. Petroleum refineries
4. Asphalt batching plants
5. Coffee processing
6. Kraft pulp mills
7. Mineral acid production
a. Sulfuric acid
b. Nitric acid
c. Phosphoric acid
8. Cement production
9. Concrete batching
10. Dry cleaning plant solvent emissions
Any other type of process that is suspected of importance on the
basis of complaints or observations of emissions should also be
examined.
Emission rates of pollutants from process losses may be estimated
by considering the type of processes and materials used, the produc-
tion volume, and the efficiency of air pollution control equipment of
each industrial process individually; the appropriate emission factors
given in the appendix are then applied. The procedure for selecting
the important process sources in the study areas and the data required
for emission-rate calculations are given below:
1. Note the name and location of the processes that are to be
considered. This tabulation can be facilitated by the use of
the Directory of Manufacturers, which lists the companies
by industrial classification. Employment data given in this
publication may be used to pinpoint the large sources.
2. Obtain production data (annual and average daily) and the
efficiency of control equipment, if any, from each of the se-
lected concerns.
3. Calculate the emission rates by applying emission factors to
the production data.
4. Assign the average daily emission rates to the respective
reporting zones.
Sometimes the total area loss from certain types of processes may
be estimated with relative ease when compared to the difficulty of
defining all of the individual sources. One example of such an esti-
mate is that described for the loss of solvents from dry cleaning plants
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES 29
-------
(see Appendix F). In this example the losses are based on derived
per capita loss figures. The emissions would be proportioned among
the commercial zones.
Solvent losses from printing and painting operations can be
based on the assumption that all of the solvent is evaporated into the
atmosphere. Estimates of the gallonage of inks or paints sold in the
area can be obtained from major manufacturers of or users of these
products. These sources of information and standard texts will indi-
cate the usual percentages of solvents in the inks and paints. The
solvent losses can be apportioned to the various commercial and
industrial zones on the basis of commercial and industrial employ-
ment if more specific information on area of use is not available.
Paint usage in residential areas is generally minor compared to the
industrial usage. Where the volume of house paint sold in an area
is known, its resultant solvent loss can be apportioned to the zones on
the basis of residential population.
30
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES
-------
CALCULATION OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Products of combustion are formed during the burning of the
various fuels, gasoline, and refuse material, all of which have been
compiled under subheadings. The nature and amounts of these
products reaching the air as pollution depend on the quantity and type
of material burned, the manner of burning, and the collection
efficiency of any control devices used to clean the emissions before
their discharge to the atmosphere. The types and quantities of the
various materials burned have been segregated by location and
general types of combustion processes in tables such as those shown
in Figures 8 through 11. Now this information must be translated
into estimates of pollution emissions. This is accomplished by apply-
ing appropriate emission factors to the various quantities of fuels and
refuse burned. The units most commonly used to report emission
rates are pounds or tons per day.
It is important to note that emission factors represent the average
of a wide range of values. Although they may be used accurately to
predict the total emissions from a large number of similar fuel users
or processes, the application of these factors to an individual or com-
paratively small number of fuel users or industrial processes may
result in a considerable discrepancy between the actual and calcu-
lated values. This discrepancy is minimized somewhat by considering
each user category separately; however, the many design and operat-
ing variables present within a given user category are responsible for
variations in the emission rates. The results, therefore, should be
thought of as relative rather than as absolute emission rates.
In selecting the appropriate emission factors and calculating
emission rates, one must consider the sulfur and ash contents of fuels,
the type of burning method, and the degree of control employed.
SULFUR AND ASH CONTENT OF FUELS
Most of the sulfur in fuels is oxidized in the combustion process
and is emitted to the air primarily as sulfur dioxide. The air used in
the combustion process will pick up and carry a portion of the fuel
out of the stack, usually in the form of particulate fly ash or carbon.
The manner in which the fuel is burned will influence the amount
of these particulates released to the atmosphere.
The sulfur content of coal can vary from less than 1.0 percent
for some anthracite and medium-volatile bituminous coals to over
5 percent for some high-volatile bituminous coal. The ash content
of coal ranges from approximately 3 to 18 percent, depending on
the type.
The sulfur content of fuel oil depends on the grade of oil (Num-
bers 1 through 6) and also on the geographical area of origin. For
example, the sulfur content of No. 2 fuel oil ranges from an average
of 0.24 percent in the eastern United States to approximately 0.35
CALCULATING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS 31
-------
percent in the western regions. Sulfur content also varies with the
grade of oil, ranging from 0.11 percent for No, 1 fue1 oil^o over 3
Percent for No 6 fuel oil. The distillate oils (generally No 2) are
usuaUy used for domestic and light commercial space-heamg pur-
pose The residual fuel oils (Nos. 5 and 6) are used almost entirely
by major commercial and manufacturing firms and by electnc-
eeneratine utilities The other fuel oil grades are special-use fuels.
Their use" in gallons, is substantially less than that of grades 2, 5,
and 6.
The sulfur content of gas is almost negligible, but should be con-
sidered if gas is the principal fuel in the study area.
Point Sources
Since each point source is considered individually, the chemical
composition of fuels burned at each source should be denned precisely
through information from the user. If the specific information is not
available, use the information sources listed for area sources.
Area Sources
Since precise determination of sulfur and ash contents for area
sources would be time-consuming, the use of an average ash and
sulfur content is suggested. You will need an average ash and sulfur
content for coal, average sulfur content of distillate fuel oil (Numbers
1-4, but usually only No. 2), average sulfur content of residual fuel
oil (Numbers 5 and 6), and sulfur content of gas. These data may
be obtained from local distributors of these fuels and checked against
the data published in Mineral Yearbook-Fuels, Bureau of Mines, for
coal; and "Burner Fuel Oils Mineral Industry Survey," Bureau of
Mines, for fuel oil.
TYPE OF BURNING
Although burning methods have been somewhat segregated by
considering each user category independently, variations in firing
equipment within a given user category can produce wide variations
in emission rates of certain pollutants; these variations should be con-
sidered. For example, the release of particulates per unit of coal
burned depends on the type of firing equipment. Similarly, the
emission of pollutants per unit of fuel oil burned depends on the
relative size of the combustion unit.
Point Sources
Since each point source is considered individually, the type of
firing equipment has been defined and listed as indicated in Figure 6.
With this information you can select the appropriate emission factor
for each pollutant from Appendix F.
Area Sources
Following are guidelines for selecting appropriate emission far
tors for area sources.
32
CALCULATXNG POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
-------
1. Combustion of Coal
For particulate emissions from all area sources use the factor for
"All other stokers" in Appendix F, Table F6. Factors for emissions of
various gaseous pollutants are indicated in the appropriate tables in
Appendix F by user category.
2. Combustion of Fuel Oil
All area sources may be assumed to be in the "less than the 1000
hp." category, for selection of emission factors from Table F10.
3. Combustion of Gas
See Table F9.
4. Domestic Refuse Disposal
Select the most widely used method of on-site domestic refuse
disposal and apply the appropriate factor from Tables FIT and F18,
to all on-site domestic refuse burning. Where better definition of the
use of backyard burning or domestic incineration can be obtained
from auxiliary sources of information, apply the specific factors to
each portion of the refuse.
5. Industrial and Commercial Refuse Disposal
Table F17, lists emission factors for both single- and multiple-
chamber incinerators. Since some of the refuse at these sites will also
be open-burned, the intermediate factors for single-chamber incin-
erators may be used for this refuse, unless knowledge of the com-
munity laws and practices allows more definite selection of the factor.
DEGREE OF CONTROL
The emission factors given in Appendix F represent the emission
rates of pollutants on the basis of no control. Releases of gaseous
pollutants — sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbons —
are generally uncontrolled, except in certain process sources, and
may be calculated directly. In addition to the gases, the emissions of
particulates from mobile sources are also uncontrolled and may be
calculated directly. Particulate emissions from some combustion
sources and central refuse disposal incinerators are often reduced by
the use of air pollution control devices. For a realistic picture of
pollutant releases, any reductions of emissions through the use of
control equipment should be considered.
Point Sources
The larger combustion sources that use coal — steam electric
utilities and some manufacturing concerns — generally employ con-
trol devices to reduce the quantity of particulates released to the
atmosphere. Many large refuse incinerators also use control devices.
As indicated in Figure 6, the efficiency of such devices should be
obtained for each point source. The emission rates of particulates
will then equal
CALCULATING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS 33
-------
Fuel used (10Q %—efficiency of collection)
or X Emission factor X ——
Refuse burned
The fuel used or refuse burned is designated in units of weight
or volume consistent with the emission factors given in Appendix F.
In Appendix B, Table B3 presents average efficiencies for the
various kinds of control equipment. These averages may be compared
with information obtained from point sources or may be used when
detailed information is unobtainable. Further information on air
pollution control equipment may be found in texts such as "Air Pol-
lution", edited by Arthur C. Stern, and "Air Pollution Handbook",
edited by Paul L. Magill et al.; or general handbooks such as "Chem-
ical Engineers' Handbook", edited by Robert H. Perry et al.
Area Sources
The smaller combustion sources or ones using lighter fuels are
generally uncontrolled. For the purposes of this survey method, the
emissions of all pollutants, including particulates, are calculated
directly by assuming no control of area sources.
34
CALCULATING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
-------
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
This survey method will yield emission rates in tons per day of
the various pollutants in sub-areas or zones. This information can
then be presented in a number of ways. It can depict the relative
contribution to the various pollutants by source categories (i.e.,
manufacturing sources, mobile sources) in a study area or a reporting
zone. Tables or charts may be prepared to illustrate the buildup
patterns of individual pollutants over an area. The results can be
displayed in various ways that allow comparisons of percentages of
the total of each pollutant resulting from each type of fuel use or by
the category of use, such as coal versus residual oil, manufacturing
versus domestic, or stationary versus mobile sources. If the effects
of point sources versus area sources are of particular interest, the
method of presentation should aid such comparisons. The format
of reporting is dictated by the individual objectives. Remember that
data should be formulated to show desired relationships, not just
meaningless numbers.
Average, Maximum, and Minimum Day. Methods for calculating
the average, maximum, and minimum daily emission rates, where
applicable, have been given in earlier sections. Of the four user cate-
gories discussed, only two, combustion of fuels by stationary sources
and mobile combustion sources are assumed to vary significantly
throughout the year. Space-heating demand was assumed to be
proportional to the degree-day value and thus varies from zero
during the days of zero degree-day value to a maximum emission
rate on the maximum degree day. Transportation emissions, propor-
tional to traffic volume, are generally maximum during summer
months and minimum during winter months. The other two source
categories, process losses and refuse disposal, are assumed to main-
tain uniform operations and thus constant emissions throughout the
year.
In adding the emissions from the different source categories,
remember that during the maximum space-heating-demand day, the
transportation emissions, based on seasonal variation, are generally
minimum, and vice versa. For example, the emission rate during the
maximum space-heating-demand day will equal the sum of maximum
stationary combustion source emission, minimum transportation emis-
sion, process losses, and refuse disposal emissions.
Emission Maps. For each pollutant, the emission rates in tons per
square mile can be presented effectively on a reporting zone map.
This can best be accomplished by categorizing the zones according to
emission rates and then depicting variations of zonal emissions by the
use of colors, shading, or symbols. Such a presentation will show
areas of relatively high, moderate, and light emission rates of each
pollutant. The influence of point sources may be shown by presenting
two sets of maps for each pollutant — one including and the other
omitting emissions from point sources. A few suggested formats
PRESENTING RESULTS 35
-------
for presenting emission inventory data are given in Figures 1, 2,
and 12.
EMISSION RATES (TONS/DAY)
TOTAL STUDY AREA
SOURCE CATEGORY
STATIONARY COMBUSTION
1 Manufacturing
2 Steam Electric Uti 1.
3 Domestic & Commercial
MOBILE SOURCES
REFUSE DISPOSAL
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
LOSSES
TOTALS
MAX. SPACE HEATING DAY
S02
NOX
HC
Part.
AVE. SPACE HEATING DAY
S02
NO,
HC
Part
MIN. SPACE HEATING DAY"
S02
NOX
HC
Part.
EMISSION DENSITY (TONS/Sq. MILE/DAY)
BY REPORTING ZONES
ZONE
NO.
MAX. SPACE HEATING DAY
S02
NO,
HC
Part.
AVE. SPACE HEATING DAY
S02
NOX
HC
Part
MIN. SPACE HEATING DAY
S02
NO,
HC
Part.
EMISSION RATES (TONS/DAY)
POINT SOURCES
ZONE
NO.
POINT SOURCE
S02
HOX
HC
Part.
Figure 12 — Examples of summary fables.
Such tables and maps are only a few of the various methods
by which these data may be presented. Emission inventory data may
be interpreted more easily if additional information is included Such
supplementary information as physical description of the study area
meterological summary, discussion of industries (existing and antici-
pated), and population projection may be included.
36
PRESENTING RESULTS
-------
APPENDIXES
A. Reference Guide
B. Conversion Factors
C. A Method for Calculating Domestic Fuel Use from
U.S. Bureau of Census Data
D. Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC)
E. Metropolitan Areas — Fuel Use Data
F. Emission Factors
-------
APPENDIX A. REFERENCE GUIDE
Data items
Metropolition area map
Population density map
Land-use map
Zoning map
Aerial photographs
Sanborn maps
Census tracts
Annual gas consumption
Annual coal consumption
Annual fuel oil consumption
Manufacturing fuel use
Steam-electric utilities
fuel use
Names and locations of
point sources
Annual fuel use by individual
point sources; quantities used
for heating and process use
Domestic fuel use—-number
of households
Per dwelling unit use of fuels
Institutional fuel consumption
Meteorological data (degree days)
Geographic location of industries
Sources of information
Metropolitan area or city
planning commissions
Local insurance companies
U. S. Bureau of Census
"PHC (1) — Census tracts'"1
Local gas utility company
National Coal Association1"
Local distributors of coal
Transportation facilities
State Petroleum Marketers Assoc.
Local distributors of fuel oil
U. S. Bureau of Census
Census of Manufacturers,
"Fuels and Electric Energy
Consumed in Manufacturing
Industries"1
National Coal Association
"Steam Electric Plant Factors"13
Director of Manufacturers,
Local Chamber of Commerce
Each individual point source
U. S. Bureau of Census,
Census of Housing, "HC(l)"a
Local distributors of fuels
Local government agencies
Board of Education
U. S. Weather Bureau,
"Local Climatological Data"
Aerial photographs
Land-use maps
Directory of Manufacturers
Local building and fire
departments
APPENDIX A
39
-------
Geographic distribution of
domestic fuel use
Geographic distribution of
institutional fuel use
Geographic distribution of
commercial fuel use
Total annual gasoline sales
Geographic distribution of
traffic
Seasonal distribution of traffic
Diesel fuel consumption
Total area estimate of refuse
production
Refuse disposed at collective sites
Location of industries
Production data
Chemical composition of fuels
"Superintendent of Documents
Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D. C.
''National Coal Association
1130 Seventeenth St., N. W.
Washington 25, D. C.
''American Petroleum Institute
1271 Avenue of the Americas
New York 20, New York
dU. S. Department of Interior
Bureau of Mines
Washington 25, D. C.
Land-use maps
U. S. Bureau of Census,
"Census of Housing, HC(1)"
"Number of Heating Units by
Census Tracts"
"PHC (1) —Census Tracts""
Local gas utility company
Local distributors of fuels
Local Board of Education
Land-use maps
Land-use maps
U. S. Bureau of Census,
"PC-C General Economic and
Social Characteristics"11
Local planning agency
"Petroleum Facts and Figures"0
U. S. Bureau of Census,
Census of Business,
"Retail Trade"a
Traffic-flow maps
Local traffic control agency
Local traffic control agency
National Trucking Association
Local transit companies
Local sanitation agency
Private haulers of refuse
Local sanitation agency
Incinerator and dump operators
Directory of Manufacturers
Individual industries
"Mineral Year Book—Fuels"
"Burner Fuel Oils—Mineral
Industry Surveys"3
40
APPENDIX A
GPO 828—519-4
-------
APPENDIX B. CONVERSION FACTORS
TABLE Bl. THERMAL CONVERSION FACTORS
FOR COMPETITIVE FUELS
Solid Fuels Btu (Gross)
Bituminous coal and lignite 26,200,000/net ton
Anthracite (Pennsylvania) 25,400,000/net ton
Briquets and packaged fuels 23,000,000/net ton
Wood including mill wastes 20,960,000/cord
Liquid Fuels
Crude (U.S.) oil 5.8 X lOVbbl
Distillate fuel oils (Grades 1-4) 5.8 X 106/bbl
Residual fuel oils (Grades 5-6) 6.3 X I0fl/bbl
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas, wet 1,075/cuft
Natural gas, dry 1,050/cu ft
Manufactured gas 550/cu ft
TABLE B2. GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS
Weights and Volumes of Petroleum Products
I Barrel = 42 gallons
Pounds Pounds Barrels
Fuel per per per
Gallon Barrel Ton
Crude (U.S.) 7.08 297 6.73
Gasoline 6.17 259 7.72
Distilled oil 7.05 296 6.76
Residual oil 7.88 331 6.04
Asphalt 8.57 364 5.50
Gas
1 therm 100,000 BTU 95 cu ft
TABLE B3. EXPECTED EFFICIENCY OF PARTICULATE
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Estimated
Type of Collection Efficiency, %
Settling 30
Cyclone 80
Electrostatic precipitation 80
Wet scrubbing 85
Mechanical—electrostatic combination 95
Fabric filters "
APPENDIX B 41
-------
APPENDIX C. A METHOD FOR CALCULAT-
ING DOMESTIC FUEL USE FROM U. S.
BUREAU OF CENSUS DATA
Technical Assistance Branch
Division of Air Pollution
A comprehensive census of the U. S. population is made every
10 years. As part of this census, the characteristics and numbers of
dwelling units in various political subdivisions are determined (Cen-
sus of Housing). One item recorded in the Census of Housing is the
number of dwelling units heated with the various types of fuels. Con-
verting this information into domestic fuel use for a given area is
usually required for an inventory of air pollution emissions. A
method of doing this is briefly outlined.
Basic assumptions and data are:
1. Average energy use for space heating in this country is
70 X I0r; Btu/year-household.1
2. Average number of annual heating degree days* for
the country is 4600 (rounded) .J
3. Average size of household: 4.9 rooms/dwelling unit. Use
5 rooms/dwelling unit.2
4. Assumed fossil fuel characteristics
Fuel Heating value Combustion efficiency
Coal 26 X 10° Btu/ton 50%
Oil 145,000 Btu/gallon 60%
Gas 1,000 Btu/cu ft 75%
Derived data:
5. Heating requirements per household
70 X 10" net Btu/year-household = 15,200 net Btu/
4600 degree days/year household-degree day
6. Fuel requirements per household
(a) Coal
15,200 Btu/household-degree day _
(0.50) 26 X 10B Btu/ton coal~~
0.0012 ton coal/household-degree day
*A heating degree day is a unit representing one degree of declination from
a given point (65°F) in the mean ambient air temperature for one day. It
is a standard unit reported by the U.S. Weather Bureau. For example, if
the average daily temperature is 50°F, the number of heating degrees for
that day is: 65°F—50°F=15.
APPENDIX C 43
-------
(b) Oil
15,200 Btu/household-degree day =
(0.60) 145,000 Btu/gallon oil
0.18 gallon/household-degree day
(c) Gas
15,200 Btu/household-degree day _
(0.75) 1,000 Btu/cu ft gas
22.5 cu ft/household-degree day
7. Summary of estimating factors
Coal 0.0012 ton/household-degree day
Oil 0.18 gallon/household-degree day
Gas 22.5 cu ft/household-degree day
(based on 5 rooms/dwelling unit or household)
8. Sample calculation—Chicago, Illinois
(City of Chicago only)
Given data:
(a) From Census of Housing3
Number of dwelling units*
Fuel (rounded)
Coal 458,974 460,000 '
Oil 332,634 335,000
Gas 346,125 350,000
(b) Average size of dwelling unit: 4/4 rooms/unit.
(c) From local climatological data,4 5 e the
average number of annual heating degree days is
6,113.
Calculated domestic coal use
(d) Annual domestic use of coal:
460,000 dwelling units
X 0.0012 ton coal/ dwelling unit-degree day
X 6,113 degree days
= 3,380,000 tons coal/year.
(e) Correction for number of rooms per dwelling unit in
Chicago
3,380,000 tons coal 4.4
X
year 5.0
Use 3,000,000 tons coal/year.
2,970,000 tons/year.
*For purposes of this calculation method, the terms household and dwelling
unit are used interchangeably.
44 APPENDIX C
-------
9. Extension of method
In section 8, the annual domestic coal use was cal-
culated. This calculation can be extended to the deter-
mination of fuel use by the day or month, or by heating
season, by using the number degree days for those
periods. This information is available for most areas.4 5 6
10. Accuracy of estimates
The estimates herein derived are based on averages
and only approximate the true fuel use. This method
yielded results comparable to those from estimates made
by different methods.
REFERENCES
1. Resources in America's Future, H. H. Landberg, L. L. Fischman, and
J. L. Fisher. John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1963.
2. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1962, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C.
3. United States Census of Housing, 1960, Final Report HC(1), No. 15,
State and Small Areas, U.S. Department of Commerce (Similar Reports
are available for each State).
4. (a) Local Climatological Data (Monthly) ($.10).
(b) Local Climatological Data (Annual) ($.15).
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20025.
Prices: Monthly $1.00/year including annual supplement if pub-
lished. (Single copy prices noted above.)
5. Climatography of the United States No. 84, Decennial Census of
United States Climate, Daily Normals of Temperature and Heating
Degree Days, U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, 1963.
For sale by Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20025—$1.75.
6. Contact the local Office of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of
Commerce.
APPENDIX C
-------
APPENDIX D. STANDARD INDUSTRIAL
CLASSIFICATIONS (SIC)
Code"
20 Food and kindred products
21 Tobacco products
22 Textile mill products
23 Apparel and related products
24 Lumber and wood products
25 Furniture and fixtures
26 Paper and allied products
27 Printing and publishing
28 Chemicals and allied products
29 Petroleum and coal products
30 Rubber and plastics products
31 Leather and leather products
32 Stone, clay, and glass products
33 Primary metal industries
34 Fabricated metal products
35 Machinery, except electrical
36 Electrical machinery
37 Transportation equipment
38 Instruments and related products
39) Miscellaneous manufacturing,
19) including ordnance
"Code numbers are those of the U.S. Bureau of Census.
APPENDIX D 47
-------
APPENDIX E. METROPOLITAN AREAS —
FUEL USE DATA
Domestic use of fuels has been allocated by census tracts (U.S. Census
of Housing, 1960) for the following Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Areas (SMSA). These data are available from the Technical Assist-
ance Branch, Division of Air Pollution, Public Health Service, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio.
Alabama
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Illinois
Indiana
Maryland
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Birmingham
Denver
Bridgeport
Hartford
Meridan
New Britain
New Haven
New London-Groton-Norwich
Norwalk
Stamford
Waterbury
Wilmington
Washington (and adjacent area)
Chicago (and adjacent area)
Gary-Hammond-E. Chicago
Baltimore (incl. Annapolis)
St. Louis (incl. adjacent area, 111.).
Munroe County, 111.
Atlantic City
Jersey
Newark
Patterson-Clifton-Passaic
Trenton
New York (incl. boroughs and adj. area)
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton
Harrisburg
Lancaster
Philadelphia (and adjacent area including
New Jersey)
Reading
York
Nashville
APPENDIX E
49
-------
APPENDIX F. EMISSION FACTORS*
INTRODUCTION
The source emission factors presented in this report were com-
piled primarily for use in conducting an air pollutant emission inven-
tory. The compilation is the result of an extensive literature survey
and includes emission factors for the principal combustion and indus-
trial processes. Obviously, the best emission factor to use for any
specific source of air pollution is that resulting from source tests of the
specific source. Unfortunately, many urban areas are not equipped
to conduct the numerous and expensive stack testing studies needed
for an emission inventory. The purpose of this compilation of emis-
sion factors is to provide the best available substitute to air pollution
control agencies unable to conduct extensive source test programs.
In certain cases, particularly in the combustion and refuse dis-
posal areas, a single number is presented for the emission factor for a
specific pollutant. It should be understood that the number is usually
a weighted average of several different values found in the listed
references. The compilation of source emission factors presented is,
in our judgment, the most accurate currently available. As new tech-
nical advances are made, however, and additional emission data
become available in the literature, the present compilation should be
revised to reflect the newer data and developments.
SOURCE EMISSION FACTORS
AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS
Johnson and Flynn have presented emission factors, in the form
of pounds of pollutants emitted per thousand gallons of fuel con-
sumed, for jet and piston aircraft. (1) Revised emission factors for
turboprop aircraft were also obtained. (2) These factors, shown in
Table Fl, are combined and averaged figures for emissions during all
phases of aircraft operation (taxi, takeoff, climbout, approach, and
landing) that take place below the arbitrarily chosen altitude of 3500
feet. It was felt that emissions taking place at cruise altitude (above
3500 feet) were not of concern to air pollution authorities.
Data were obtained for fuel consumption in the three classes of
aircraft, (2) so that the emission factors given in Table F2 could be
expressed in pounds of pollutant emitted per flight. A flight is defined
as the combination of a landing and a takeoff.
ASPHALT BATCHING PLANTS
An asphalt concrete batching plant generally consists of a rotary
dryer, screening and classifying equipment, an aggregate weighing
system, a mixer, storage bins, and conveying equipment. Sand and
"•Compiled by Martin Mayer, Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air
Pollution, U.S. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio.
APPENDIX F 51
-------
Table Fl EMISSION FACTORS FOR AIRCRAFT
BELOW 3500 FEET
(lb/1000 gal of fuel consumed)
Type of emission
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Particulates
Jet aircraft*
6
56
15
37
54
Turbo prop
aircraft
5
40
5
23
12
Piston engine
aircraft
5
2,450
491
147
12
nNo water injection on takeoff.
Table F2. EMISSION FACTORS FOR AIRCRAFT
BELOW 3500 FEET
(lb/flight)a
Jet
Type of emission aircraft
4
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Particulates
engines
4
35
10
23
34
Turbo-prop
aircraft
2 engines
0.3
2
0.3
1.1
0.6
4 engines
1.1
9
1.2
5
2.5
Piston
engine aircraft
2 engines
0.2
74
15
4.4
0.4
4 engines
0.5
245
49
15
1.2
aA flight is the combination of a landing and a takeoff.
bNo water injection on takeoff.
aggregate are charged from bins into a rotary dryer. The dried aggre-
gate at the lower end of the dryer is mechanically conveyed by a
bucket elevator to the screening equipment, where it is classified and
dumped into storage bins. Weighed quantities of the sized products
are then dropped into the mixer along with asphalt, where the batch
is mixed and dumped into trucks for transportation to the paving site.
The combustion gases and fine dust from the rotary drier are ex-
hausted through a precleaner. This is usually a single cyclone, but
twin or multiple cyclones and other devices are also used. The pre-
cleaner catch is then discharged back into the bucket elevator, where
it continues in the process with the main bulk of the dried aggregate.
The exit gas stream of the precleaner is usually passed through air
pollution control equipment, normally scrubbers of the multiple
centrifugal or baffled spray tower type. (3)
Dust and particulate emissions from the scrubbers usually aver-
age around 0.2 pound per ton of product produced. If no scrubbers
are used, the dust and particulate emission averages around 5 pounds
per ton of product produced. (3)
52 APPENDIX F
-------
AUTOMOTIVE AND DIESEL EXHAUST EMISSIONS
The composition of automotive and diesel exhausts is character-
ized by greater amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons than
that of emissions from other fuel burning processes. Automotive and
diesel exhaust emissions, in pounds per 1,000 gallons of fuel consumed,
are given in Table F3. Another way of presenting automobile-emission
factors is in pounds per vehicle mile.
Table F3. EMISSION FACTORS FOR GASOLINE
AND DIESEL ENGINES (lb/1000 gal)
Pollutant
Gasoline engines'1 Diesel engines1"
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Particulates
0.3 gram/1000 galc
2910
524e
113
9
4f
11
10
0.4 gram/1000 gala
60a
180
222f
40
n.a.s
31f
110
"Includes blowby emissions, but not evaporation losses (Reference 4).
bReference 5.
°Reference 6.
aReference 7.
Includes 128 lb/1000 gal blowby emissions (Reference 8).
'Reference 9.
sNot available.
CEMENT PRODUCTION
Raw materials for the manufacture of cement are ground, mixed,
and blended by either a wet or a dry process. In the dry process, the
moisture content of the raw materials does not exceed 1 percent; in
the wet process, a slurry of carefully controlled composition is made,
generally having a moisture content ranging from 30 to 50 percent.
After the raw materials are crushed and ground, they are introduced
into a rotary kiln that is fired with pulverized coal, oil, or gas to pro-
duce a temperature of about 2700°F. Drying, decarbonating, and cal-
cining are accomplished as the material passes through the kiln,
resulting in the formation of a cement clinker. The clinker is cooled,
mixed, ground with gypsum, and bagged for shipment as cement. Dust
and fume in the waste gases of the kiln are the major sources of air
pollution. Gaseous pollutants, notably sulfur dioxide, are also emitted
from the kiln. (10)
APPENDIX F
53
-------
Kiln emissions for the wet process of producing cement range
from 15 to 50 pounds of dust per barrel of cement produced: 28 pounds
of dust per barrel of cement produced is a typical value. In the dry
process, the losses range from 22 to 87 pounds of dust per barrel of
cement produced; 45 pounds of dust per barrel of cement is a typical
value. Control of kiln dust emissions varies considerably depending
upon the type and age of the control system. Typical collection effi-
ciencies are: 80 percent for multicyclones; 90 percent for old electro-
static precipitators; 95 percent for multicyclones plus old electro-
static precipitator systems; 99+ percent for multicyclones plus new
electrostatic precipitator systems; 99.5+ percent for fabric filter units
either alone or in combination with multicyclones. (11)
COFFEE PROCESSING
Because coffee is imported in the form of green beans, it must be
cleaned, blended, roasted, and packaged before it can be sold. The
essential ingredients of the roasted beans may be extracted, spray
dried, and marketed as instant coffee. In the roasting of coffee, chem-
ical changes, such as the degradation of sugars, occur that bring out
the characteristic flavor and aroma of the coffee.
In the indirect-fired roaster, a portion of the roaster gases is re-
circulated through the combustion area for destruction of smoke and
odors by oxidation in the flame. In the direct-fired roaster, all the
roaster gases are vented without recirculation through the flame.
Essentially complete removal of both smoke and odors can be realized
with a properly designed afterburner.
In the cleaner, contaminating materials lighter than the green
beans are separated from the beans by an air stream. In the stoner,
contaminating materials heavier than the roasted beans are separated
from the beans, also by an air stream.
In the cooler, the hot roasted beans are quenched with water,
and emit large quantities of steam and some particulate matter. (32)
Table F4 summarizes the emissions from the various operations
involved in coffee processing.
COMBUSTION
Coal
The burning of coal produces several different kinds of gaseous
pollutants, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides,
aldehydes, and hydrocarbons. The quantities of these pollutants
emitted depend on the composition of the coal, the method of firing,
the size of the unit, and other factors. Table F5 gives average emission
factors for the gaseous pollutants in the three major categories of
coal usage. As a rule of thumb, for these three categories, capacities
of power plant boilers are generally above lOOxlO6 Btu per hour, ca-
pacities of industrial boilers range from 10 to 100x10° Btu per hour,
and capacities of domestic and commercial boilers are generally below
54
APPENDIX F
-------
Table F4. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM COFFEE ROASTING
AND AUXILIARY OPERATIONS
Particulate emissions, Particulate emissions,
without cyclonea with cyclone*
Operation
. , „ Ib/lOOOlb . . f Ib/lOOOlb
grains/scf „' ,_ grams/scf
Indirect fired
roaster0
Direct fired
roaster0
Stoner, cooler
cleaner, and
handling systems
combined
0.3
0.6
-0.6
-0.9
0.01-0.15
0.
3.
.8-4
0-5
0.5-0.
.0
.0
8
0
0
0.
.09-0.
127-0. 15d
.17-0.193-0.22
01-0.017-0.03
0.2-0.58-1
0.9-1.
.12-1
0.1-0.16-0.
.0
.3
,3
"Reference 13.
bReference 12.
''Without afterburners.
aWhen 3 values are given, such as 0.09-0.127-0.15, the center value is the
approximate average and the values at either end are the lowest and
highest values reported.
Table F5. GASEOUS EMISSION FACTORS
FOR COAL COMBUSTION" (Ib/ton of coal burned)
Pollutant Power plants
Aldehydes (HCHO)
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons (CH4)
Oxides of nitrogen (NO2)
Oxides of sulfur (SO,)
0.005
0.5
0.2
20
38 Sb
Industrial
0.005
3
1
20
38 Sb
Domestic and
commercial
0.005
50
10
8
38 Sb
"Reference 14.
bS equals percent sulfur in coal.
Example: If the sulfur content is 2 percent, the oxides of sulfur emis-
sion would be 2x38, or 76 Ib. of sulfur oxides/ton of coal burned.
10x10° Btu per hour. It is generally advisable to deal with large coal-
burning plants (>100xl06 Btu) on an individual basis.
The burning of coal also produces a particulate emission. The
quantity of the emission depends mostly upon the ash content of the
coal and the type of unit and control equipment used. One of the
more interesting constituents of the particulate emission is benzo(a)-
APPENDIX F 55
-------
pyrene, which has been shown to be carcinogenic to laboratory ani-
mals. Table F6 provides average total particulate emission factors
for various types of coal-firing units without control equipment. Sep,-
arate benzo (a) pyrene emission factors have been provided where
available. The operation of electrostatic precipitators has no effect on
the benzo (a) pyrene emission.
Table F6. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS
FOR COAL COMBUSTION (WITHOUT CONTROL EQUIPMENT)
Particulate Benzo ( a) pyrene
emission," emission,13
Type of unit lb/tan of Mg/ton of
coal burned coal burn-^H.
Pulverized - general
Dry bottom 16AC 600
Wet bottom 17AC
Without reinjection 13AC
With reinjection 24AC
Cyclone 2AC 6,000a
Spreader stoker
Without reinjection 13AC 700
With reinjection 20AC
All other stokers 5AC 100,000
Hand-fired equipment 20 12xl06
aReference 14.
bReference 15.
CA equals percent ash in coal.
Example: If the percent ash in the coal is 10 percent, the ash emission
for a cyclone unit would be 2x10 or 20 Ib/ton of coal burned.
"Reference 16.
Table F7 gives the ranges of fly ash collection efficiencies for
various types of control equipment when used on several types of
furnaces. If the type of control equipment used is unknown, the
uncontrolled emission factors can be refined to take into account the
effect of control by using Table F8. Table F8 gives estimates of
particulate emissions for "average" and "good" control. If the emis-
sion values without control from Table 6 are less than those from
Table 8, the smaller number should be used. The values for average
control were calculated from the present ASME Model Ordinance;
those for good control are based upon a proposal being considered by
the ASME Standards Committee for Emission of Smoke and Dust
from the Combustion of Fuel for Indirect Heating. The proposal is
still under study and has not yet been adopted. (14)
56 APPENDIX F
GPO 028-5 I 9-5
-------
Table F7. RANGES OF COLLECTION EFFICIENCIES FOR
COMMON TYPES OF FLY ASH CONTROL EQUIPMENT"
Range of collection efficiencies, %
Type of
furnace
Cyclone furnace
Pulverized unit
Spreader stoker
Other stokers
Electrostatic
precipitator
65 - 99"
80 - 99.9"
High
efficiency
cyclone
30 -40
65 - 75
85-90
90- 95
Low
resistance
cyclone
20-30
40- 60
70 80
75-85
Settling
chamber
expanded
chimney
bases
20 - 30
25 -50
"Reference 14.
bHigh values attained with high efficiency cyclones in series with electro-
static precipitators.
Table F8. ESTIMATES OF CONTROLLED
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS"
Lb particulate/ton of coal burned
Type of control
Average
Good
Power plants
25
10
Industrial
boilers
25
15
Domestic and
commercial plants
25
20
"Reference 14.
Natural Gas
Table F9 shows the emission factors for the combustion of natural
gas in power plants, industrial boilers, and domestic and commercial
heating units. The calculations are based upon a density for natural
gas of 0.05165 pound per standard cubic foot and a heating value of
1000 Btu per standard cubic foot.
Oil
The pollutants emitted in oil combustion are much the same as
in coal combustion. Particulate emissions are considerably lower,
however. As with coal, the sulfur oxide emissions vary with the
sulfur content of the fuel. Table F10 gives the emission factors for
large and for small sources.
APPENDIX F
57
-------
Table F9. EMISSION FACTORS
FOR COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GASa
(lb/106 ft3 of natural gas burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a) pyreneb
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Particulate
aReference 17.
bReference 15.
°Not available.
dReference 9.
Power
plants
1
n.a.c
neligible
neligible
390
0.4
n.a.c
n.a.c
15
Industrial
boilers
2
20,000 ^ig/106 ft3
0.4
negligible
214
0.4
0.3d
62d
18
Domestic and
commercial
heating units
negligible
130,000^g/106ft3
0.4
negligible
116
0.4
0.3d
62a
19
Table F10. EMISSION FACTORS FOR OIL COMBUSTION"
(lb/1000 gal of oil burned)"
Pollutants
Large sources
(lOOOh.p. or more)
Small sources
(1000 h.p. or less)
Aldehydes
Benzo (a) pyr enec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
0.6
5000 /xg/1000 gal
0.04
3.2
40,000/xg/lOOO gal
2
2
(N02)
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Particulate
104
157 Sd
2.4 Sd
8
72
157 Sd
2Sd
12
"Reference 18.
"Density of fuel oil equals 8 Ib/gallon and there are 42 gallons per barrel.
^Reference 15.
dS equals percent sulfur in oil.
Example: If the sulfur content is 2 percent, the sulfur dioxide emission
would be 2x157, or 314 Ib. SO2/1000 gal. oil burned.
58
APPENDIX F
-------
CONCRETE BATCHING PLANTS
Concrete batching plants are generally simple arrangements of
steel hoppers, elevators, and batching scales for proportioning rock,
gravel, and sand aggregates with cement for delivery, usually in
transit mixer trucks. Aggregates are usually crushed and sized in
separate plants and are delivered by truck or belt conveyors to ground
or other storage from which they can be reclaimed and placed in the
batch plant bunkers.
By careful use of sprays, felt, or other filter material over breath-
ers in the cement silos, and canvas curtains drawn around the cement
dump trucks while dumping, dust losses can be controlled. Aggregate
stocks in bunkers are wet down with sprays to prevent dusting. With
careful operation, under stringent Los Angeles standards, losses in
these plants can be held to about 0.025 pound of dust per yard of
concrete. Uncontrolled plants have emissions of about 0.2 pound of
dust per yard on concrete handled.(19)
FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS FOUNDRIES
The emission factors given in Table Fll are for various processes
found in ferrous and non-ferrous foundries. Although the data are
almost all from Los Angeles, they seem to be representative of the
experience with these processes in other parts of the country. In gray
iron cupolas, approximately 1725 pounds of casting are produced for
each ton of raw material processed. In the electric steel melting
furnace and the nonferrous melting furnaces, it can be assumed that
the weight of castings produced equals the weight of raw material
processed.
The control of emissions from gray iron cupolas varies depending
upon the type of control equipment used. Typical collection efficien-
cies are: 75 to 80 percent for a high-efficiency centrifugal collector;
about 40 percent for a dynamic water scrubber; 96-99 percent for a
fabric filter unit; and 94-98 percent for an electrostatic precipitator
installation.
GASOLINE EVAPORATION
A study of the typical pattern of motor gasoline storage and
handling reveals five major points of gasoline emission. These are:
1. Breathing and filling losses from storage tanks at refineries
and bulk terminals.
2. Filling losses from loading tank conveyances at refineries
and bulk terminals.
3. Filling losses from loading underground storage tanks at
service stations.
4. Spillage and filling losses in filling automobile gas tanks at
service stations.
APPENDIX F 59
-------
Table Fl 1 EMISSIONS FROM FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS
FOUNDRIES8
Aerosol emission factor,
Ib/ton of
Process raw material processed
Uncontrolled
Gray iron melting cupolas (avg)
Less than 48 in. I.D.
Less than 48-60 in. I.D.
Greater than 60 in. I.D.
Electric steel melting furnaces (avg)
Less than 5 -ton capacity
5- to 20-ton capacity
50- to 75 -ton capacity
Melting of red brass (< 1% zinc) :
Crucible or pot furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
Electric furnaces
Melting of yellow brass
(> 20% zinc):
Crucible furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
Electric induction type furnaces
Melting of bronze:
Crucible furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Melting of aluminum:
Crucible furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
17.1
12.9
19.5
18.9
8.6
10.6
5.7
9.6
3.3
21.3
16.8
3
14
0.7
3.8
30.6
1.9
5.2
Controlled
0.26b
0.1 7b
10.1C
5.1C
22.8<=
5.7»
4.7"
2.1d
aReference 17.
bWith baghouse control.
cSlag cover used as the only control method.
dWith packed column scrubber and either baghouse or electrostatic pre-
cipitator as secondary collector.
60 APPENDIX F
-------
5. Evaporative losses from the carburetor and gas tank of motor
vehicles.
Breathing loss has been denned as that loss associated with the
thermal expansion and contraction of the vapor space resulting from
the daily temperature cycle. Filling loss has been defined as the
vapors expelled from a tank (by displacement) as a result of
filling. (20)
Splash and submerged fill have been defined by R. L. Chass, et
al.,(2I) as follows: "In splash fill the gasoline enters the top of the
fill pipe and then has a free fall to the liquid surface in the tank.
The free falling tends to break up the liquid stream into droplets. As
these droplets strike the liquid surface, they carry entrained air into
the liquid, and a "boiling" action results as this air escapes up through
the liquid surface. The net effect of these actions is the creation of
additional vapors in the tank.
"In submerged filling, the gasoline flows to the bottom of the
tank through the fill pipe and enters below the surface of the liquid.
This method of filling creates very little disturbances in the liquid
bath and, consequently, less vapor formation than splash filling."
Emission factors are given for both cone roof and floating roof
storage tanks, as well as for splash and submerged fill in tank vehicles
and service station tanks. The degree to which floating roof tanks
and submerged fill are utilized varies from place to place. Ideally, the
gasoline evaporative emission should be calculated on the basis of the
percentage of local utilization of submerged fill and floating roof
tanks. If this is not known, then 75 percent floating roof tanks and 50
percent submerged fill should be assumed. The effect of vapor re-
covery loading arms or tank compression systems has not been
considered.
An average emission factor for hydrocarbons from cone roof
gasoline storage tanks is 47 pounds per day per 1000 barrels of storage
capacity. For floating roof tanks storing gasoline, a typical hydro-
carbon emission is 4.8 pounds per day per 1000 barrels of storage
capacity. More precise values for a specific locality can be calculated
by methods given in the American Petroleum Institute Bulletin 2517,
entitled "Evaporation Loss from Floating Roof Tanks," and Bulletin
2518, entitled "Evaporation Loss from Fixed Roof Tanks." These are
available from the American Petroleum Institute, Division of Tech-
nical Services, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York 20, New York.
Table F12 summarizes the emission factors for gasoline evapor-
ation at the other four major points of emission.
IRON AND STEEL MILLS25
To make steel, iron ore (containing some 60 percent iron oxides)
is reduced to pig iron, and some of its impurities are removed in a
blast furnace; the pig iron is further purified in either open hearths,
Bessemer converters, the basic oxygen process, or electric furnaces.
APPENDIX F 61
-------
Table F12. GASOLINE EVAPORATION EMISSIONS
o
•*]
Point of emission
Filling tank vehicles'1
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash fill and 50% submerged fill
Filling service station tanks0
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash fill and 50% submerged fill
Filling automobile tanks3
Automobile evaporation losses (gas tank and
carburetor)6
Lb/1000 gal
of throughput
8.2
4.9
6.4
11.5
7.3
9.4
11.6
92
Percent loss
by volume"
0.14
0.08
0.11
0.19
0.12
0.15
0.19
1.50
aAn average gasoline specific gravity of 0.73 is assumed.
bReference 23.
"Reference 21.
^Reference 24.
eReference 8.
-------
Various alloying metals (chromium, manganese, etc.) are usually
added to produce specialized types of steel.
Blast furnaces are charged with iron ore, coke, and limestone in
alternating layers. To promote combustion, hot air is blown into the
bottom of the furnace. To produce 1 ton of pig iron requires, on the
average, 1.7 tons of iron ore, 0.9 ton of coke, 0.4 ton of limestone, 0.2
ton of cinder, scale, and scrap, and 4.0 to 4.5 tons of air.
Most of the coke used in the blast furnaces is produced in "by
product" coke ovens from certain grades of bituminous coal. The
distillation products produced are recovered for sale, and gases
remaining after by-product recovery are used for heating the coke
ovens and elsewhere in the plant. Smoke and gases escape only dur-
ing charging and discharging operations; the rest of the process is
normally air tight, but at some plants leakage of smoke and gases
occurs because of poorly fitted oven doors.
Sintering plants convert iron ore fines and blast furnace flue dust
into products more suitable for charging to the blast furnace. This is
done by applying heat to a mixture of the iron-containing materials
and coke or other fuels on a slow-moving grate through which
combustion air is drawn.
In the open hearth process for making steel, a mixture of scrap
iron and steel and pig iron is melted in a shallow rectangular basin
or "hearth" in which various liquid or gaseous fuels provide the heat.
Impurities are removed in a slag. Oxygen injection (lancing) into the
furnace speeds the refining processes, saves fuel, and increases steel
production. Oxygen lancing increases the amount of fume and dust
produced, however.
The basic oxygen process (the LD or Linz-Donawitz process) is
new to the United States, but is gaining increasing application here.
In this process, oxygen is blown onto the surface of the molten bath
at high velocity, resulting in violent agitation and intimate mixing
of oxygen with the pig iron.
Electric furnaces are used primarily to produce special alloy
steels. Heat is furnished by direct-arc-type electrodes extending
through the roof of the furnace. In recent years oxygen has been used
to increase the rate and uniformity of scrap meltdown and to decrease
power consumption.
Bessemer converters are now seldom used. They are pear-shaped,
tilting, steel vessels lined with refractory brick and clay. Impurities
in the molten iron charge are oxidized by air blown through the
metal for about 15 minutes.
A scarfing machine removes surface defects from the steel billets
and slabs before they are shaped or rolled. This is done by applying
jets of oxygen to the surface of the steel and thus removing a thin
upper layer of the metal by rapid oxidation. (25) Emission factors
for the various steel mill processes are shown in Table F13.
APPENDIX F 63
-------
H
2
D
Table F13. EMISSIONS FROM STEEL MILLS
(From reference 26, which is based on data in reference 25)
Before control
Operation Stack loading
grains /set
Blast furnace 7-10
Sintering machine 0.5-3.0
Sinter machine 6.0
discharge-crusher,
screener and cooler
Open hearth 0.1-0.4-2.0
(Not oxygen lanced)
Open hearth 0.1-0.6-2.5
(With oxygen lance)
Electric arc 0,1-0.4-6.0
furnace
Bessemer converter 0.8- > 1 0
Basic oxygen 5-8
furnace
Scarfing machine 0.2-0.8
Coke ovens No data
(By-product type)
, Lb/ton
of product
200
5-20-100
22
1.5-7.5-20.0
9.3
4.5-10.6-37.8
15-17-44
20-40-60
3 Ib/ton
of steel
processed
0.1 % of coal
processed
(Rough estimate
Emission with control
Control
usedc
Preliminary cleaner
(settling chamber or
dry cyclone)"
Primary cleaner
(Wet scrubber)*
Secondary cleaner
(E.S.P. or V.S.)b
Dry cyclone
E.S.P. (in series
with dry cyclone)
Dry cyclone
E.S.P.
V.S.
Baghouse
E.S.P.
V.S.
High efficiency
scrubber
E.S.P.
Baghouse
No practical
method of control
V.S.
E.S.P.
Settling chamber
Emissions can
be minimized
) through equip-
ment design
and operational
techniques
Stack loading
grains/set
3-6
0.05-0.3-0.7"
0.004-0.008
0.2-0.6
0.01-0.05
0.4
0.01-0.05
0.01-0.06
0.01
0.01-0.05
0.01-0.06
0.01
0.01-0.04
0.01
0.03-0.12
0.05
No data
No data
Approximate Approximate volume
Lb/ton efficiency of gases handled
of product „•
5.4
0.1-1.4
2.0
1.0
1.5
0.15
0.15-1.1
0.07
0.2
0.2-1.4
0.2
0.3-0.8
0.1-0.2
0.4
0.4
No data
No data
60
90
90
90
95
93
98
85-98
99
98
85-98
Up to 98
92-97
98-99
99
99
No data
No data
87,000 scfm for a
1000-ton per day
furnace.
120,000-160,000 scfm
for a 1000-ton per day
machine.
17,500 scfm for a
1000-ton per day
machine.
35,000 scfm for a
175-ton furnace.
35,000 scfm for a
175-ton furnace.
Highly variable
depending on type
of hood. May be
about 30,000 scfm
for a 50-ton furnace.
Varies with amount
of oxygen blown.
20 to 25 scfm per
cfm of oxygen blown.
85,000 scfm for a
45-inch, 4-side
machine.
No data.
"When 3 values are given, such as 5-20-100, the center value is the ap-
proximate average and values at either end are the lowest and highest
values reported. AH data are highly variable depending on nature of a
specific piece of equipment, materials being processed, and operating
procedure.
"Used in series. Data on that basis.
=V.S. means venturi scrubber.
E.S.P. means electrostatic precipitator.
-------
KRAFT PULP PLANTS
Before the cellulose from wood can be made into pulp, the lignin
that binds the cellulose fibres together must be removed. In the
kraft process, this is done by treating with an aqueous solution of
sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide. This liquor is mixed with wood
chips in a large, upright, pressure vessel, called a digester, and cooked
for about 3 hours with steam. During the cooking period, the digester
is relieved periodically to reduce the pressure build-up of gases.
When cooking is completed, the bottom of the digester is sud-
denly opened and its contents forced into the blow tank. Here, the
major portion of the spent cooking liquor, containing the dissolved
lignin, is drained, and the pulp enters the initial stage of washing.
From the blow tank the pulp passes through the knotter, where un-
reacted chunks of wood are removed. The pulp is then processed
through intermittent stages of washing and bleaching, after which it
is pressed and dried into the finished product.
Most of the chemicals from the spent cooking liquor are recovered
for reuse in subsequent cooks. The spent, "black," liquor from the
blow tank is concentrated first in a multiple effect evaporator and
then in a direct contact evaporator utilizing recovery furnace flue
gases.
The combustible, concentrated, black liquor thus produced is
burned in a recovery furnace where the inorganic chemicals, to be
recovered, fall to the floor of the furnace in a molten state.
The melt, consisting mainly of sodium sulfide and sodium carbo-
nate, is withdrawn from the furnace and dissolved with water and
weak causticizing plant liquor in a smelt tank. The "green" liquor
thus produced is pumped into a causticizer where the sodium car-
bonate is converted to sodium hydroxide by the addition of calcium
hydroxide. The calcium carbonate produced is converted into calcium
oxide in a lime kiln, and is slaked to produce calcium hydroxide for
further use in the causticizer. The effluent solution produced by the
causticizing reaction is known as "white" liquor and is withdrawn
and re-used in the digestion process.
Table F14 summarizes the emissions from the various processes
involved in a kraft pulp mill. (27)
MINERAL ACID MANUFACTURE
Nitric Acid
In the United States, nitric acid is produced mainly by the high-
pressure catalytic reaction of vaporized, anhydrous ammonia and hot,
filtered air. The resulting mixture of hot nitric oxide and air is cooled,
and additional air is provided to complete the oxidation to nitrogen
dioxide The nitrogen dioxide gases are contacted with water in an
absorbing tower to produce nitric acid. The major emissions are
APPENDIX F 65
-------
O5
O5
Table F14. EMISSION FACTORS FOR KRAFT
PULP PROCESSING3 b
(Ib/ton dry pulp produced)
Gaseous pollutants
APPENDIX F
Source
Digester
blow system
Smelt tank
Lime kiln
Recovery
furnace4
Multiple
effect
evaporator
Oxidation
towers
"Reference 27.
''Reference 28.
°Not available.
Hydrogen
sulfide
0.1-0.7
n.a.c
1
3.6
3.6-7.0
0.7
1.2
0 - 0.5
n.a.°
Methyl
mercaptan
0.9-5.3
n.a.c
negligible
5
n.a.c
n.a.c
0.04
0.003-0.030
n.a.c
Dimethyl
sulfide
0.9-3.8
n.a.c
negligible
3
n.a.c
n.a.c
n.a.c
negligible
0.1
Particulate
pollutants
negligible
20
5
1-2
18.7
150
7-16
12-25
negligible
negligible
negligible
dGaseous sulfurous emissions are greatly
of the flue gases and furnace operating
Type of control
Untreated
Uncontrolled
Water spray
Mesh demister
Scrubber
(approximate 80%
efficient)
Primary stack gas
scrubber
Electrostatic
precipitator
Venturi scrubber
Untreated
Black liquor oxidation
Black liquor oxidation
dependent on the oxygen content
conditions.
-------
nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Emissions of acid mist are
normally insignificant. (29)
Emissions of nitrogen oxides range from 30 to 100 pounds per ton
of acid produced: 55 pounds of nitrogen oxides per ton of acid pro-
duced is a typical value. (30) Generally, 75 to 85 percent of the brown
nitrogen dioxide will be reduced to colorless nitrogen oxide by a cata-
lytic reduction unit. Because of extra fuel requirements, only about
25 percent of the total nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen and
oxygen by catalytic reduction. (31)
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid is produced by two principal
methods — the wet process and the electric furnace process. The wet
process is usually employed when the acid is to be used for fertilizer
production. Electric furnace acid is normally of higher purity and is
used in the manufacture of high-grade chemical and food products.
In the wet process, sulfuric acid and phosphate rock are reacted
in agitated tanks to form phosphoric acid and gypsum. Phosphoric
acid is separated from the gypsum and other insolubles by vacuum
filtration. Usually the gypsum has little market value. The phosphoric
acid is normally concentrated to 50 to 55 percent P2O5 by evaporation.
When superphosphoric acid is made, the acid is concentrated to be-
tween 70 and 85 percent P2O_. Emissions of gaseous fluorides, consist-
ing mostly of SiF4 with some HF, range between 20 to 60 pounds per
ton of P,O, produced. (32)
In the electric furnace process, phosphate rock, siliceous flux, and
coke are heated in an electric furnace to produce elemental phosphor-
ous. The gases containing the phosphorous vapors are passed through
an electrical precipitator to remove entrained dust. In the "one-step"
version of the process, the gases are next mixed with air to form P2O5
before passing to a water scrubber (packed tower) to form phos-
phoric acid. In the "two-step" version of the process, the phosphorous
is condensed and pumped to a tower in which it is burned with air;
and the P2O. formed is hydrated by a water spray in the lower portion
of the tower. The phosphoric acid mist formed is collected by scrub-
bing in packed towers. (33)
Emissions of P,O, are in the range of 3.6 to 5.0 pounds of P2O5
per thousand pounds of elemental phosphorous (PJ burned. (34)
Sulfuric Acid
In the United States, sulfuric acid is mainly produced by the con-
tact process. Elemental sulfur or sulfur-bearing materials are burned
in clean air that has been dried by scrubbing with sulfuric acid.
Among the sulfur-bearing materials used are iron pyrites, acid sludges
from refinery operations, and smelter off-gases. The sulfur dioxide
produced is further oxidized to sulfur trioxide in the presence of a
platinum or vanadium pentoxide catalyst. The sulfur trioxide is then
APPENDIX F 67
-------
contacted with 98 to 99 percent sulfuric acid to produce a more con-
centrated acid. The principal emissions are sulfur dioxide and sulfuric
acid mist. (35)
The emissions of sulfur dioxide range from about 20 to 70 pounds
of sulfur dioxide per ton of acid produced and are unaffected by the
presence of acid mist eliminators. Figure Fl illustrates the sulfur
dioxide emissions for various conversion efficiencies for sulfur dioxide.
Without acid mist eliminators, emissions of acid mist range from 0.3
to 7.5 pounds of acid mist per ton of acid produced. The use of acid
mist eliminators reduces this emission to some 0.02 to 0.2 pound of
acid mist per ton of acid produced. (36)
PETROLEUM REFINERIES
A modern refinery is a maze of pipelines, valves, pumps, towers,
and vessels; the entire operation can be conveniently discussed, how-
ever, in terms of four major steps — separation, conversion, treating,
and blending. The crude oil is first separated into selected fractions
(e.g., gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil). The relative volume of each frac-
tion is determined by the type of crude oil used. Since the relative
volumes of each fraction produced by merely separating the crude
may not conform to the relative demand for each fraction, some of the
less valuable separation products are converted to products with a
greater sale value by splitting, combining, or rearranging the original
molecules.
In the catalytic cracking operation, large molecules are decom-
posed into lower-boiling fractions by heat and pressure in the pres-
ence of catalysts. At the same time, some of the molecules combine
to form larger molecules. The products of cracking are gaseous hy-
drocarbons, gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, fuel oil, and residual oil.
In catalytic reforming, gasoline is used as a feedstock and by
molecular rearrangement, usually including hydrogen removal, gaso-
line of higher quality and octane number is produced. There are three
types of reforming processes in use: fixed bed with and without cata-
lyst regeneration, and the fluidized processes.
Polymerization and alkylation are processes used to produce
gasoline from the gaseous hydrocarbons formed during cracking oper-
ations. Polymerization joins two or more olefins, and alkylation
unites an olefin and an iso-paraffin. Isomerization, another process
used, involves rearrangement of the atoms in a molecule, usually to
form branched-chain hydrocarbons.
The products from both the separation and conversion steps are
treated, usually for the removal of sulfur compounds and gum-
forming materials. As a final step, the refined base stocks are blended
with each other and with various additives to meet product specifica-
tions and to arrive at the most valuable and salable combination of
products.(34) Emission factors for petroleum refineries are shown
in Table Fl5.
68 APPENDIX F
-------
Table F15. EMISSION FACTORS FOR PETROLEUM REFINERIES"
Processes
Units for emission factors
Emission
factor
A. Boilers and process
heaters
Lb hydrocarbon/1000 bbl
oil burned 140
Lb hydrocarbon/1000 ft:;
gas burned 0.026
Lb particulate/1000 bbl oil
burned 800
Lb particulate/1000 ft3 gas
burned 0.02
LbNo2/1000 bbl oil burned 2900
Lb NO,/1000 ft3 gas burned 0.23
Lb CO/1000 bbl oil burned negligible
Lb CO/1000 ft3 gas burned negligible
LbHCHO/lOOObbloil
burned 25
LbHCHO/1000ft3gas
burned 0.0031
B. Fluid catalytic units
Lb hydrocarbon/1000 bbl of
fresh feed 220
Lb particulate/ton of
catalyst circulation 1.8b
Lb No2/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 63
Lb CO/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 13,700
LbHCHO/1000
bbl of fresh feed 19
Lb NH3/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 54
C. Moving bed catalytic Lb hydrocarbon/1000 bbl of
cracking units
87
40
5
fresh feed
Lb particulate/ton of
catalyst circulation
Lb NO2/1000 bbl of fresh
feed
Lb CO/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 3,800
Lb HCHO/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 12
Lb NH3/1000 bbl of fresh
feed 5
APPENDIX F
69
-------
TABLE F15 (Cont.)
Processes
Units for emission factors
Emission-
factor
D. Compressor internal Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 ft3 of
combustion engines fuel gas burned 1.2
Lb NO2/1000 ft3 of fuel gas
burned 0.86
Lb CO/ 1000 ft3 of fuel gas
burned negligible
Lb HCHO/1000 ft3 of fuel
gas burned
Lb NH3/1000 ft3 of fuel gas
burned
0.11
0.2
E. Miscellaneous process
equipment
1. Blowdown system
a. With control
b. Without control
2. Process drains
a. With control
b. Without control
3. Vacuum jets
a. With control
b. Without control
4. Cooling towers
5. Pipeline valves and
flanges
6. Vessel relief valves
7. Pump seals
8. Compressor seals
9. Others (air blowing,
blend changing,
and sampling)
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
waste water
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
vacuum distillation
capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1,000, 000
gal cooling water
capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
Lb hydrocarbon/ 1000 bbl
refinery capacity
5
300
8
210
negligible
130
6
28
11
17
5
10
"Reference 37.
bWith electrostatic precipitator.
°With high efficiency centrifugal separator
70
APPENDIX F
-------
SOLVENT EVAPORATION FROM DRY CLEANING PLANTS
Almost all dry cleaning is performed with three solvents: tetra-
chloroethylene, Stoddard solvent, and safety 140°F solvent. Stoddard
solvent has a minimum flash point of 100°F and a distillation range of
100° to 410°F. Recently a new petroleum solvent, called safety 140"F
solvent, has been introduced that has a minimum flash point of 140°F,
thus lessening the explosion hazard.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are widely used as cleaning solvents.
They are nonflammable and dissolve greases and oils more rapidly,
including substances not soluble in petroleum solvents. Originally,
carbon tetrachloride was used, but had to be discarded because of
its toxicity and corrosiveness. Trichloroethylene is less toxic and not
as corrosive as carbon tetrachloride. Tetrachloroethylene (perchlor-
oethylene) is the most widely used chlorinated dry cleaning agent.
It is less toxic and less corrosive than carbon tetrachloride, and does
not bleed acetate dyes as trichloroethylene does. Because it is ex-
pensive and a health hazard, tetrachloroethylene is often recovered by
use of carbon adsorption beds.
Table F16 gives emission factors for chlorinated and non-chlori-
nated hydrocarbon dry cleaning solvents expressed in pounds per
capita per day. (38)
Table F16 EMISSION FACTORS FOR DRY-CLEANING PLANTS3
Population
Tons chlor-hydrocarbons
emitted/day
Tons petroleum solvents
emitted/day
Totalc
Tons of clothes
cleaned/calendar day
Pounds of clothes
cleaned/capita/year
Pounds of chlor-hydrocarbons
emitted/capita/year
Pounds of hydrocarbon vapors
emitted/capita/year
LA datab
January 1963
6,492,000
15
20
35
158
18
1.7
2.2
Pounds of total organic solvents
emitted/capita/year
BAAPCD data for
1963
3,691,000
7.9
11.5
19.4
92
18.3
1.5
2.3
3.8
a bReference 38.
ci958 data extrapolated to 1963
AppENDIX F 71
-------
Table F17. EMISSION FACTORS FOR INCINERATION
(Ib/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Particulate
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo ( a) pyrene0
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Particulate
"Reference 39.
bReference 42.
°Reference 15.
^Reference 48.
''For incinerator with
References 43-49, 51
72
Municipal
multiple
chamber"
1.1
6,000 /.ig/ton
0.7d
1.4
2.1
1.9
0.3
0.6
6e;12f
Flue-fed
apartment
incinerator1
5
n.a.s
n.a.s
40J
0.1
0.5
0.4
22
26
spray chamber.
Industrial and commercial"
Single
chamber
5-64
100,000 ,j.g/ton
20-200C
20-50C
1.6C
n.a.s
n.a.s
n.a.s
20-25
Multiple
chamber
0.3
500,000 ^g/ton
0.5
0.3
2."
1.8h
n.a.s
n.a.s
4
Domestic single chamber
Without
auxiliary
gas burningk
6
n.a.s
300
100
1.5
2.0
0.4
13
39
With auxiliary
gas burning1
2
n.a.s
n.a.s
1.5
2
2
negligible
4
6
'For incinerator without spray chamber.
References 41, 43, 44, 47-49, 51, 52.
sNot available.
''Reference 50.
iReference 52.
^References 44, 47, 51.
''References 42, 44,
47, 52.
APPENDIX F
GPO 828—519—6
-------
REFUSE DISPOSAL AND OPEN BURNING
Incineration of Waste
Multiple chamber incinerators are made up of three refractory
lined chambers in series. The first chamber, into which the combus-
tible refuse is charged, is called the charging or ignition chamber. In
the middle or mixing chamber, additional air is added to help consume
any organic matter not completely burned in the ignition chamber.
In the last chamber, called the combustion or expansion chamber, the
combustion of gaseous organic materials is completed and the greater
part of the flyash is settled out. This chamber is sometimes equipped
with sprays and wetted baffles that reduce flyash emissions further,
but have little effect on gaseous emissions.
Single chamber incinerators are generally simple contrivances,
consisting of a firebox, door, grate, and flue. Emissions are generally
high, but can be significantly reduced with auxiliary gas afterburners.
Table F17 gives emission factors for the common types of municipal,
industrial, commercial, apartment, and domestic incinerators.
Open Burning
Open burning, whether in dumps or in very simple backyard con-
trivances, gives rise to emissions that are extremely variable and diffi-
cult to measure. Dump fires generally smolder and burn less efficiently
than backyard fires and thus have somewhat higher emissions. The
data for backyard burning were derived from tests on burning a
mixture of 50 percent newspapers and 50 percent grass clippings.
Table F18 gives factors for burning dumps and for backyard burning.
Table F18. EMISSION FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING
(Ib/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrened
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Particulate
Burning dumpa'b
4
250,000 fjig/ton
n.a.e
280
0.6
1.2
2.3
1.5
47
Backyard burning0
3.6
350,000 ^.g/ton
n.a.e
280
0.5
0.8
1.6
1.5f
15Qe
rounds per capita per day of iReference 15.
refuse burned is assumed. cNot available.
bReference 47. 'References 40, 41, 47, 52.
cReference 41. sReference 52.
APpENDIX F 73
-------
Uncontrolled Automobile Body Burning
The emission of particulates from the uncontrolled burning of
automobile bodies would be about 10 pounds of particulates per
automobile burned. (53)
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74 APPENDIX F
-------
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APPENDIX F 75
-------
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76 APPENDIX F
-------
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APPENDIX F * U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970—395-981/63 77
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