ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERIES Air Pollution
AN AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN
FOR
THE NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
LI. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
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AN AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN
FOR
THE NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
James D. Williams
and
Norman G. Edmisten
Technical Assistance Branch
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Air Pollution
Cincinnati, Ohio
September 1965
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The ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERIES of reports was established
to report the results of scientific and engineering studies of man's en-
vironment: The community, whether urban, suburban, or rural, where
he lives, works, and plays; the air, water and earth he uses and reuses;
and the wastes he produces and must dispose of in a way that preserves
these natural resources. This SERIES of reports provides for profes-
sional users a central source of information on the intramural research
activities of the Centers in the Bureau of Disease Prevention and En-
vironmental Control, and on their cooperative activities with State and
local agencies, research institutions, and industrial organizations. The
general subject area of each report is indicated by the letters that
appear in the publication number; the indicators are
AP Air Pollution
RH Radiological Health
UIH Urban and Industrial Health
Reports in the SERIES will be distributed to requesters, as supplies
permit. Requests for reports in the AP SERIES should be directed to
the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, National Center for Air
Pollution Control, Public Health Service, U. S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C. 20201.
Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-18
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Grateful appreciation is extended to those persons and agencies
whose cooperation and participation helped make this report possible.
In particular, acknowledgment is due the late Louis D. Zeidberg, M.D.,
Professor of Epidemiology, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University,
for initiating the total study and conducting the health studies reported
herein and to the Honorable Ben West, former Mayor of Nashville, for
extending personal interest and cooperation.
The following agencies assisted with the study and participated in
the preparation of this report:
1. Davidson County Department of Health.
2. Nashville Department of Public Works, Divison of In-
spection and Permits (Formerly).
3. Vanderbilt University.
4. Nashville Davidson County Planning Commission.
5. Nashville Housing Authority.
6. State of Tennessee, Department of Public Health
Appreciation is extended to the commercial and industrial firms
that completed and returned the air pollutant emission inventory
questionnaire.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the willing assistance of
the Public Health Service staff and the efforts by the authors of the
scientific and technical papers that provide much of the information
included in this report.
iii
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CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ix
SUMMARY 1
RECOMMENDATIONS 5
INTRODUCTION 9
Obj ective of the Report 9
Sources of Information 10
Survey Area 10
Smoke Problems - Historical Report 10
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TRENDS AFFECTING
AIR POLLUTION 15
Population 15
Space Heating Trends and Economic Analysis 17
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS 23
Fuel Combustion in Stationary Sources 23
Motor Vehicles 30
Railroads 33
Refuse Disposal (Solid Waste) 33
Electrical Energy 35
Commercial and Industrial Sources 36
Mineral Industries - Stone, Clay, and Glass . . 33
Wood and Wood Products Industries 39
Chemical Industries 41
Metallurgical and Metal Fabrication Industries 41
Solvents 42
Printing 42
Dry Cleaning 42
Textile and Leather 43
Food and Food Products 43
Discussion of Sources of Air Pollutants 43
AIR QUALITY IN NASHVILLE AREA 45
Air Quality Measurements Made 45
Dustfall 45
Total Suspended Particulate Matter 53
Soiling Index 57
Sulfur Dioxide 62
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Page
Oxidants 68
Aeroallergens 70
Carcinogens 70
DISPERSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS 75
Wind Speeds 75
Vertical Temperature Gradients 79
Temperature 83
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 85
General Discussion 85
Materials Deterioration 85
Health Effects in the Nashville Area 86
Bronchial Asthma 86
Anthracosis 87
Morbidity 89
Mortality 90
Visibility 91
Public Concern About Air Pollution 91
MATHEMATICAL AIR POLLUTION DIFFUSION MODELS AS
AIDS TO ZONING, PLANNING, AND PROGRAM DECISION
MAKING 97
Purpose of Models 97
Test of Volumetric Sulfur Dioxide Diffusion Model.... 98
Application of Sulfur Dioxide Diffusion Model 98
Test of Sulfation Diffusion Model 106
Application of Sulfation Diffusion Model 107
A PROPOSAL FOR AN AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
PROGRAM FOR NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA .... 109
Elements of Air Resource Management Programs .... 109
General Outline of Nashville Metropolitan Area Program 110
Air Quality Monitoring Ill
Sulfur Dioxide Ill
Suspended Particulates 112
Dustfall 112
Oxidants 112
Complaint Records 112
Appraisal of Effects of Air Pollution 114
Air Pollutant Emission Inventory 114
Nashville Metropolitan Area Air Quality Goals 115
Sulfur Dioxide Goal 115
Suspended Particulate Goal 117
Soiling Index Goal 117
Dustfall Goal 118
VI
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Page
Source Emission Reduction to Meet Air Quality Goals . 119
Method of Calculating Reduction Needed to
Meet Goals 119
Sulfur Dioxide Reduction Required 121
Suspended Particulate Matter Reduction Required 122
Approaches to Regulating Pollutant Emissions 124
Reduction of Smoke and Sulfur Dioxide from
Use of Coal 126
Reduction of Ash Emissions from Fuel
Combustion 129
Control of Visible Pollutant Emissions 130
Control of Pollution From Burning of Refuse. . . 131
Control of Particulate Emissions from
Industrial Processes 131
Control of Odor Problems 132
Control of Wind-Blown Surface Dust 134
Transport of Air Pollutants - Meteorology 134
Planning and Zoning Based on Air Quality Goals 134
IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROL PROGRAM 135
REFERENCES 137
APPENDICES 143
A - Nashville and Davidson County Inventory of
Air Contaminant Emissions, Commercial
and Industrial Sources 144
B - Nashville Community Air Pollution Study,
Aerometric Station Network 146
vn
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ABSTRACT
This report is based on the numerous technical and scientific
papers resulting from a major study of air pollution and effects made
in Nashville, Tennessee, by the Public Health Service, Vanderbilt
University, and state and local agencies during 1958-59. These papers
have been supplemented by field investigations to complete the back-
ground information needed for preparation of an air resource manage-
ment program plan. The report summarizes a number of the technical
and scientific papers and uses all of them to develop new concepts as
well as unify new and old approaches to air pollution control in prep-
aration of the air resource management program plan. Air quality
goals and the means to reach those goals are suggested. Supporting
data are provided and methodology adapted for relating air quality
goals to control of emissions. Methods for predicting air pollutant
levels by use of mathematical models are presented. Public opinion
survey results and their implications for the air resource management
program are given. The report has specific use for development of an
air resource management program in Nashville and general use for
program development and reference in many other places.
IX
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AN AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN
FOR
THE NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
SUMMARY
The primary purpose of this report is to assist the citizens and
government of the Nashville Metropolitan Area in understanding the
nature of their air pollution problem and in developing a course of
action to improve air quality and assure clean air in the future by estab-
lishing an air resource management program. As an aid to fulfilling
this purpose, air pollution is defined in considerable detail as it relates
to the Nashville area. In some instances this definition has a unique
application to the Nashville area because of the research conducted
during the study. Ambient air quality goals are developed from the
definition of air pollution, and suggested steps are indicated for the
development of an air resource management program.
This report is based to a considerable extent on a major air pol-
lution study carried on by the Public Health Service in cooperation with
Vanderbilt University and state and local agencies. The study, begun
in the fall of 1957, was carried on intensively in the latter part of 1958
and the first half of 1959. The resulting technical and scientific papers
were the main sources of information for this report. These papers
were supplemented in 1962 by an inventory of industrial air pollutant
emissions.
Nashville has had a long history of smoke problems, with periods
several years ago during which street and automobile lights were re-
quired until mid-morning even though the sky was clear outside the
smoke area. These smoke problems, known to be associated with the
use of high volatile content (soft) coal, were one of the reasons Nash-
ville was selected for the study.
The Nashville Metropolitan Area (Davidson County), with a 1962
population of 415,340, is the capital city of Tennessee and the urban
center for a large region. Its metropolitan area population has doubled
in the past three decades. An even faster growth rate is predicted for
the future because of industrial growth and a new network of express-
ways that will make distant areas more accessible. The Nashville area
has taken a major step toward meeting the problems associated with this
rapid expansion by changing to a metropolitan system of government.
A summary of the estimated principal air pollutant emissions in-
dicates that coal burning contributes 85 percent of the sulfur oxides
and 33 percent of the particulates. Gasoline consumption is a major
source of nitrogen oxides and organic gases. (Carbon monoxide was
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not measured.) Refuse burning also accounts for a large part ol
organic gases. Industries account for a considerable portion ol t e
particulate matter emissions as well as other substances. Because ol
their nature and concentration, these industrial emissions are more
important in certain geographical areas than the quantities in the
emission inventory tend to indicate.
During the 1958-59 air pollution study, over 200,000 aerometric
observations were made at 123 sampling stations. An analysis of these
data indicated that 5,500 people live in areas where the insoluble portion
of the dustfall is over 15 tons per square mile per month. The suspend-
ed particulate matter levels, as measured by the Hi-Vol filter, are over
150 micrograms per cubic meter in an area of 13.2 square miles in
which 77,000 people live. About 7,200 people live in areas where sus-
pended particulate matter is in excess of 200 micrograms per cubic
meter. Over 88,000 people live in areas where soiling, as measured by
the AISI strip filter paper sampler, is classified as "very heavy" (3.0-
3.9 Cohs per 1,000 lineal feet). About 120,000 people live in areas
where reactive sulfur compounds as measured by lead peroxide candles
are in excess of 0.7 milligram sulfur trioxide per 100 square centimeters
per day. The peak concentrations of sulfur dioxide, as measured by
continuous recording equipment, show levels of 0.83 ppm for 2 hours;
1.8 ppm was the highest instantaneous recorded level. When compared
with American cities in which the Continuous Air Monitoring Program
of the Public Health Service has operated, these sulfur dioxide levels
are next to the highest. Chemical analysis of suspended particulates
collected in Nashville reveal the presence of considerable benzo(a)-
pyrene. This polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon is important because
of its demonstrated ability to produce cancer in laboratory animals.
In comparison with eight other cities studied, Nashville had the second
highest level of benzo(a)pyrene. Total weights of particulate matter
indicate that the annual geometric mean levels are about 25 percent
higher than those found in other American cities of comparable size.
It is concluded that Nashville has excessive air pollution.
Meteorological conditions for dispersion of air pollution in Nash-
ville are poor in comparison with those in most areas of the country.
Temperature inversions occur during 30 to 40 percent of the total
hours. There were 31 stagnation cases of 4 days or more each from
1936 to 1956. The seasonal distribution of atmospheric stagnation
periods and calms is: winter, 4 percent; spring, 5 percent; summer,
7 percent; and fall, 11 percent. Thus the fall season is most conducive
to the buildup of pollutants. South and southeast winds predominate.
Topographical influences on airflow cause concentration of air pollution
in the central zone of the metropolitan area.
The relationships between air pollution and bronchial asthma, an-
thracosis, morbidity, and mortality were studied in Nashville. Bronchial
asthma attack rates on days with the highest and lowest sulfur dioxide
values were significantly different. The deposition of anthracotic pig-
ment in lungs observed in 631 consecutive autopsies indicated an in-
2 An Air Resource Management Plan
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crease with age and was more severe in males than females and in
Nashville residents than in out-of-city dwellers. Total morbidity (sick-
ness) and cardiovascular morbidity in those people 55 years old and
older were directly related to the air pollution soiling index and 24-hour
sulfur dioxide levels. In housekeeping females, whose exposure to air
pollution was largely limited to the home environment, direct corre-
lations between total morbidity and air pollution were observed. Res-
piratory disease mortality (death) with the exception of lung and
bronchial cancer, bronchitis, and emphysema - was directly re-
lated to the degree of exposure to sulfation and soiling. Age-specific
respiratory disease mortality rates up to 65 years of age were directly
related to the degree of exposure to air pollution as measured by sul-
fation.
On days when the relative humidity is less than 70 percent, re-
duction in visibility is due, primarily, to particulate matter in the air.
In observations made in Nashville from the Cordell Hull Building during
periods of low humidity, visibility toward the west was almost always
impaired.
As part of the morbidity survey, people in 3,032 dwelling units
were interviewed to determine their awareness of air pollution. Ex-
trapolation of these queries to the total 1961 Nashville population in-
dicates that 50,000 of the 232,000 residents were bothered by air pollu-
tion and that 40,000 to 100,000 residents were bothered by different
effects of air pollution, such as soiling, decreased visibility, odors,
or damage to property.
In research done as part of the study new tools and concepts were
developed. One of these was the use of mathematical atmospheric dif-
fusion models as an aid to predicting air pollution levels. These models
utilize computer programming to handle the complicated task of ana-
lyzing the many parameters of air pollution diffusion to obtain data for
air-pollution-level prediction maps. The resulting method provides
community planners and others with the means for predicting the effects
of a proposed new land use on general air quality and help in developing
an air resource plan that would be part of the comprehensive plan for
the community. Air pollution prediction maps, which are part of this
report, should be valuable to planners in the Nashville area.
A proposal is made for an air resource management program.
This proposal is based on the emission levels, air pollution effects, and
air quality levels found in Nashville. The proposed air resource man-
agement program consists of the following main parts and policies:
1. A continuous air quality monitoring program.
2. A current and continuing air pollutant emission inventory.
3. A full knowledge and use of conditions influencing the transport
of air pollutants.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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4. Air quality goals.
5. Community planning decisions based on air quality goals.
6. Air pollution control decisions and ordinances based on the in-
formation and scientific determinations made regarding air
quality.
The following goals are suggested maximums: 200 micrograms
per cubic meter of suspended particulates, as measured by the Hi-Vol
sampler; 0.1 ppm sulfur dioxide, 24-hour average value; and a soiling
index value of 4.5 Cohs per 1,000 lineal feet. These stated pollution
levels are not to be exceeded over 1 percent of the time. The goal for
dustfall is 10 tons per square mile per month (annual average), as in-
dicated by the water insoluble portion of measured dustfall. Their
justification and bases, as well as the methods by which they may be
reached in terms of emission limits, are discussed.
Some specific air pollution control regulations are recommended,
and some suggestions are made for organization of an air pollution
control program. These are, in general, left to the individuals and
agencies that will be using this report to bring about improvement in
air quality levels and establishment of an air resource management
program in Nashville.
An Air Resource Management Plan
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RECOMMENDATIONS
To obtain air quality in keeping with the needs of the Nashville
Metropolitan area, a comprehensive air resource management program
must be developed. This program must provide the means for making
equitable air resource management decisions and place in effective
operation those measures decided upon. Directed toward both long-
and short-term benefits, the program consists of the following principal
parts:
1. Air Quality Monitoring Air quality monitoring is essential for
the protection of the public health and the operation of an air
resource management program. A monitoring program that
identifies short-time variations and long-term trends must be
established for at least the following air pollutants:
a. Sulfur dioxide.
b. Settleable particulates.
c. Suspended particulates.
d. Oxidants.
2. Appraisal of Effects of Air Pollutants The effects of air pollu-
tants on human health, comfort, and welfare; the soiling and
deterioration of materials; decreased visibility; and damage to
vegetation attributable to air pollution should be monitored on a
continuing basis and studies undertaken when needed.
3. Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Knowledge of the types and
quantities of materials emitted to the atmosphere is conducive
to good air conservation practice and essential for the success-
full operation of an air resource management program, a busi-
ness, or a community. Those practices and mechanisms that
will assure the gathering of this knowledge on a continuing basis
should be established. The data should be made available to
both private and public interests for use in improving existing
air quality control practices and in controlling emissions when
new products are being developed.
4. Air Quality Goals Air quality goals must be established to
limit pollutants to the following values:
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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a. 0.1 ppm sulfur dioxide (24-hour mean value), not to be ex-
ceeded on over 1 percent of the days during any 100-day
period.
b. 200 micrograms per cubic meter of suspended particulate
matter, not to be exceeded on more than 1 percent of the days
during any 100-day period.
c. 4.5 Cohs, soiling index, not to be exceeded over 1 percent of
the time during any 3 months. (Normally based on 2-hour
samples collected on a continuing basis.)
d. 10 tons of dustfall per square mile per month (water insoluble
portion only), not to be exceeded at any location on a yearly
average basis. (Based on 30-day sampling periods.)
These goals apply to any inhabited area or where an effect of
air pollution may be objectionable. Measurements of levels are
based on sampling periods suitable for the pollutant and measur-
ing method used.
5. Air Pollution Control Organization An organization must be
formed, financed, stuffed, and equipped to administer the air
resource management program.
6. Planning and Zoning Air quality must be considered in plan-
ning and zoning decisions and programs. Probable air quality
levels that would result from certain planning decisions should
be estimated. Mathematical atmospheric diffusion models should
be used as an aid in making the estimates. Land use should be
considered in terms of air use, and those uses and locations
that will make the best use of the community air resource should
be established.
7. Education and Information A program of education and infor-
mation must be initiated to inform the people of the Nashville
Metropolitan Area of the air management program objectives
and their roles in accomplishing those objectives.
8. Air Pollutant Emission Regulations Ordinances or rules and
regulations must be enacted and enforced to reach and maintain
ambient air quality goals. The following is a summary of
recommended requirements based on the emission inventory,
measured air quality levels, and air quality goals:
a. Prohibit all open burning.
b. Require that refuse incinerators be of multiple-chamber de-
sign and limit particulate emissions to 0.3 grain per standard
cubic foot from incinerators burning less than 200 pounds
per hour and to 0.2 grain per standard cubic foot from larger
An Air Resource Management Plan
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c. Prohibit emission of smoke as dark or darker than No. 1 on
the Ringelmann chart and emission of other pollutants of such
opacity as to obscure an observer's view to a degree equal to
or greater than does smoke as dark or darker than Ringel-
mann No. 1.
d. Eliminate use of coal in hand-fired units on a progressive
basis over a period of 3 to 5 years.
e. Regulate emission of flyash from combustion of fuels on a
graduated basis that requires better emission control on
larger units than on smaller ones.
f. Limit emission of particulate matter from industrial processes
on a graduated basis that requires better emission control on
larger plants than on smaller ones.
g. Prohibit installation of any new coal-burning units having a
heat input of less than 1,000,000 Btu per hour and, on a pro-
gressive basis, phase out existing coal burning units in this
smaller size range wherever natural gas is available.
h. Limit the sulfur content of fuels to 2 percent by weight during
the months of November through February.
i. Prohibit emission of odorous materials that cause a detectable
odor (by normal observers) in the ambient air in areas used
for residential, recreational, educational, and similar purposes;
cause concentrations of odorous materials in ambient air that
are detectable when diluted with four or more volumes of odor-
free air in commercial areas; or cause concentrations of
odorous materials in ambient air that are detectable when
diluted with 12 or more volumes of odor-free air in industrial
areas.
j. Require that wind-blown surface dust be controlled or pre-
vented.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE OF THE REPORT
The object of this report is to provide information that will help
the citizens and government of the Nashville Metropolitan Area under-
stand the nature and importance of their air pollution problems and to
assist in developing a course of action for improvement of air quality
in the immediate future and for management of air resources in years
to come.
The information presented in this report, although among the most
complete for any community in the world, does not describe all aspects
of the air pollution situation in absolute terms. This deficiency cannot
be avoided because the resources of basic data in the air pollution field
are still limited, although they are expanding as the result of extensive,
current research programs. In some matters conclusions must be
based on the best judgments possible in view of the factual information
available. To delay action until all decisions could be based on com-
plete and exhaustive investigations would permit air pollution problems
to become even more acute.
The general air pollution problem should be considered againstthe
backdrop of community development and the series of problems that arise
in that development. Each problem, in turn, calls for a solution, and
upon being solved, allows for continued advancement to new areas of
community welfare and individual well being. The field of environ-
mental health with its governmental organization is only one part of
that backdrop, which, viewed historically, has the following develop-
mental sequence: Among the very first needs for successful urban
living is a public water supply. A public water supply not only pro-
motes the public health and welfare but also sparks residential and
industrial development and commerce. The public water supply brings
the need for sewers, which in turn leads to the need for sewage treat-
ment. Garbage and rubbish collection and disposal with other vector
control activities follow closely on the heels of sewer service. Food
sanitation, plumbing regulations, and air pollution control follow closely
or proceed concurrently with other activities. Housing improvement
and urban renewal, while not clearly a part of a community development
time sequence, are activities in which many phases of environmental
health meet and thus provide an opportunity for a single solution to
multiple problems. Eventually air resource management becomes of
community concern and within the scope of community action.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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This report is dedicated to assisting the citizens of the N^ ment
Metropolitan area to reach decisions concerning the future m
of that most important and not unlimited resource air.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
This report has been prepared jointly by the City of Nashville, the
Davidson County Health Department, and the United States Public Health
Service. It stems from a decision made by these agencies on January
22, 1962 and recorded in a letter dated February 19, 1962, from the
Public Health Service to Mayor Ben West. Although some additional
studies were done, this report, for the most part, is an interpretation
of appropriate parts of the information collected in the air pollution
research studies done in Nashville from August 1958 through July
1959. i These research studies were done by the Public Health
Service, which used its own staff and resources, and by contract with
Vanderbilt University. The study was conducted in cooperation with
the Tennessee Department of Public Health, Davidson County Health
Department, Office of the Mayor of Nashville, Nashville Division of
Smoke Regulation, and many other governmental and private agencies
and individuals. Numerous scientific papers have resulted from these
studies, and more are to be prepared. As more technical papers be-
come available, they will be valuable for making further plans to im-
prove and conserve the air resources of the Nashville area.
SURVEY AREA
The present report is concerned with all of Davidson County, al-
though greatest attention is given to what was the City of Nashville and
adjacent, highly urbanized areas (Figure 1). The research studies were
done largely within an area about 9 miles in diameter, centered around
the intersection of Ninth and McGavock Streets in the heart of Nashville.
Aerometric data were collected in a network of 119 stations within
this 9-mile-diameter area and at four control stations 3 miles beyond
the station network (Figure 2).
SMOKE PROBLEMS HISTORICAL REPORT
Nashville has had a long history of major smoke problems. A
Weather Bureau report dated 1932, which discussed smoke observations
made from the Stahlman Building, states, ". . . certain observations
(were) made during several (four) winters beginning in 1927-28 ....
Density of smoke was graded on the Ringelmann Scale." Data in the
report indicate the average monthly smoke densities 2,3 for the four
winters at the measurement times specified were as follows:
10 An Air ^source Management Plan
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' J
COMPONENTS OF URBANIZED AREA
INCORPORATED PLACES
IT"! URBAN UNINCORPORATED AREA
RURAL AREAS
BOUNDARY SYMBOLS
COUNTY LINE
MINOR CIVIL, CENSUS, OR COUNTY
DIVISION LINES
Figure 1. Davidson County, Tennessee
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
11
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Ell 20
0)
g
i-i
o
(D
p
I
026 r"'t>i7 I '°68 °89"
A6\ 020 40 061
030 051
LEGEND:
O -
A -
m -
TYPE I
TYPE II
TYPE III
TYPE III M
TYPE III C
TYPE III X (CENTRAL STATION)
013' 031 "--.1352 «"'~073
O22 O42 V./' °63
014 A23 032 °53 _ °74
" A43 A64
O33 054 075
O44 O65 086
4- - NET RADIOMETER
^ - TV TOWER METEOROLOGICAL UNIT
C - CORDELL HULL BUILDING
@ - NASHVILLE MUNICIPAL AIRPORT
(BERRY FIELD)
O96
E)123
0 1 2 3
-^=
SCALE IN MILES
CITY BOUNDARY
Figure 2. Aerometric station network used in 1958- 1959 Nashville community
air pollution study.
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Month 7a.m. 9a.m. 12 noon 4p.m.
December
January
February
2.3
2.1
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.1
Winter 2.2 1.9 1.4 1.2
The detailed records show that there was some smoke nearly every
day in the winter months, although there were several periods of 3 or
4 consecutive days when none was observed.
In 1935, Jones ^ reported: "Few cities in the United States have a
greater smoke nuisance to contend with duringthe winter months than
Nashville, Tennessee. It has been so dense on occasions that the visi-
bility was reduced to zero, the sun's disc invisible from street level,
and street and automobile lights kept burning until after 10:00 a.m.,
although at the same time just outside the smoke area the sky was
brilliantly clear." In 1946 a U.S. Weather Bureau report 5 stated:
"The Nashville smoke height is approximately 250 feet with a radius
of approximately 4 miles. Formation of the smoke shroud over the
city is directly due to meteorological conditions combined with local
geographical features which go to make up a perfect union for stag-
nation of the lower atmosphere."
Although the smoke problem is not so severe now as it was 10 to 20
years ago, the 1958-1959 studies show that considerable further im-
provement should be made.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 13
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COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
AFFECTING AIR POLLUTION
POPULATION
A review of the Nashville City and Davidson County Planning Com-
mission's Population Report Number 4, of February 1960,6 reveals
that for many years prior to World War n, Nashville's growth pattern
followed the major transportation lines that radiated out from the center
of the city. Since World War n, the predominant pattern has been
growth around the edges of the urban area and a decrease in population
in the central part of the city. This changed pattern has been attributed
largely to increasing use of automobile transportation, although the high
air pollution levels in the central part of the city may well have been a
contributing factor. The type of growth of the past few years will prob-
ably continue because of the new network of expressways that is now
making areas distant from the city more accessible. As a result, the
central part of the city may suffer still further decreases in population,
although this trend is being countered by attractive high-rise apartment
buildings, an auditorium, and other features that give the central business
district a new character. The tenants and owners of these new buildings
are not likely to tolerate air pollution, and the success of the whole re-
development venture may be dependent upon reasonably clean air in the
central area.
The exodus from the central city area has left large areas for
industrial development. Industrial land is also being increased by flood
control projects that will allow building on a greater part of the former
river flood plain and by renewal projects that have demolished ap-
proximately 2,700 buildings, have some 1,700 more planned for demoli-
tion, and have hopes of eliminating practically all substandard housing
in the city by 1972. Homes that formerly wafted coal smoke, ash, and
sulfur dioxide into the community atmosphere are being replaced by
new buildings heated with gas, electricity, or oil. This trend plus an
aggressive program for industrial development may materially change
the complexion of the air pollution problem in a very few years.
The population of Nashville increased steadily from 1900 to 1950, but
decreased slightly from 1950 to 1960 (Table 1, Figure 3). The popu-
lation of Davidson County has increased steadily since 1900. Most of
the growth in total county population since 1930 has been in areas out-
side the City of Nashville. In March 1961 the City of Nashville annexed
42.5 square miles, bringing about 80,000 people into the city.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 15
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Table 1. POPULATION a OF DAVIDSON COUNTY,
NASHVILLE, AND TENNESSEE SINCE 1900
Year
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
Davidson County
Total
122,815
149,478
167,815
222,854
257,267
321,758
329,557
337,355
345,154
352,952
36^,751
368,549
376,348
384,146
391,945
399,743
407,500
415,340
Outside city
41,950
39,114
49,473
68,988
89,865
147,451
156,035
164,619
173,203
181,787
190,371
198,955
207,539
216,123
224,707
228,869b
156,613°
. . .
Nashville
80,865
110,364
118,342
153,866
167,402
174,307
173,522
172,736
171,951
171,165
170,380
169,594
168,809
168,023
167,238
170,874b
250,887°
State
of
Tennessee
2,020,616
2,184,789
2,337,885
2,616,556
2,915,841
3,291,718
3,319,255
3,346,792
3,374,329
3,401,866
3,429,404
3,456,941
3,484,478
3,512,015
3,539,552
3,567,089
...
aU. S. Census of Population and Chamber of Commerce estimates
as of April 1, 1962, taken from Reference 28.
Data reflect annexations to City of Nashville -6.9 square miles
included in 1960 Census.
cData reflect 42.5 square miles added to city in March 1961.
Nashville and Davidson County have taken a bold step designed to
meet the needs for improved community government by organizing a
metropolitan system of government. The need for area-wide air pollu-
tion control was among the reasons for this governmental change. Air
pollution does not respect political boundaries; therefore, prevention
and control programs can be most successful when applied over entire
air pollution basins or metropolitan areas.
16
An Air Resource Management Plan
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1900 1910
1920 1930 1940
YEAR
1950 1960
Figure 3. Population trends in Davidson County.
SPACE HEATING TRENDS AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Since World War II the use of coal for space heating has declined
in Nashville. This has been accompanied by a sixfold increase in the
consumption of electricity during this period. The use of natural gas
increased threefold from 1950 to 1960 (Figure 4). Since burning of coal
was the source of approximately 85 percent of the sulfur dioxide and 33
percent of the particulates emitted to the atmosphere in 1958, the trend
away from its use is of primary importance in improving air quality in
Nashville. The following economic analysis will assist in evaluating the
relative costs and other factors relating to use of various fuels.
The Nashville Urban Renewal Project and the Nashville Housing
Authority in developing projects have analyzed the relative merits of
different means of space heating. In a report obtained from a local
architectural firm, gas was recommended on the basis of cost of the
various fuels in large quantities (commercial rates) and consideration
of constructions costs. 7
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
17
-------
1950
1970
o
X
Figure 4. Natural gas consumption and consumers in Davidson County.
To a considerable extent in the cost analysis shown in Table 2 and
other studies, gas and, in some cases, electricity were selected because
of the greater construction costs associated with the use of coal. For
example, a coal storage bin and higher cost chimney would partially
offset the higher fuel cost of gas or electricity. Also, labor costs are
reduced with gas or electric heating as compared to coal, since no labor
is needed to feed fuel to the furnace, nor to remove ashes. Other ad-
vantages of gas and electric heat are easier regulation of the heating
installation and improved cleanliness.
In a housing project fuel cost analysis report prepared in April
1962, coal was not even discussed. This would seem to indicate sub-
stantial acceptance of fuels other than coal for space heating.
Urban renewal and home improvement programs, under the present
fuel price structure and with the policies currently in use, should have
considerable impact on this part of the Nashville air pollution problem.
The 1960 Census reports 120,847 dwelling units in Davidson County;
55,623 of them were in the City of Nashville. For the county as a whole,
39,534 were heated with electricity, 39,919 with gas, and 28,879 with
coal. Of those heated with coal, 17,828 were located within the city
limits (Table 3).
The Nashville health effects survey questionnaire revealed that
only 178 of 2,833, or 6 percent, of the homes surveyed used coal for
cooking as compared to 995, or 33.6 percent, using coal for heating
This indicates that a large number of the homes presently using coal
18
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Table 2. SPACE HEATING COST COMPARISON
r
r
l-i
§
o
p
Heat source
Coal
Residential
Hand-fired WKa
Hand-fired EKb
Stoker-fed WKa
T_
Stoker-fed EKb
80 -Ib bags WKC
Commercial
Hand-fired WKa
Hand-fired EKb
Stoker -fed WKa
L.
Stoker-fed EKb
Natural gas
Residential
Commercial
Fuel oil
Electricity
Gross cost,
cents /therm
5.04
6.46
5.04
6.24
6.25
4.21
6.45
4.21
5.94
9.88
7.88
11.5
21.5
Efficiency of
combustion unit , %
50 - 65
50 70
50 - 65
50 - 65
50 - 70
75 - 80
75 - 80
65 - 80
100
Net cost,
cents /therm
9.17
11.74
7.76
8.91
11.38
7.66
11.74
6.48
9.15
13.06
10.2
15.33
21.5
Average annual
space heating
cost, dollars
96
123
81
94
120
n. a.
n. a.
137
n. a.
161
226
aWestern Kentucky coal in ton plus lots, delivered.
^Eastern Kentucky coal in ton plus lots , delivered.
cWestern Kentucky coal.
dAverage space heating cost for residence of 1200 square feet.
n. a. - Not applicable.
-------
Table 3. DWELLING UNITS AND TYPE OF FUEL USED FOR
SPACE HEATING, COOKING, AND HOT WATER HEATING
IN 1960
All housing units
Occupied units
Fuel used for space
heating
Natural gas
Oil
Coal
Electric
LP gas
Other
None
Fuel used for cooking
Natural gas
Oil
Coal
Electric
LP gas
Other
None
Fuel used for water
heating
Natural gas
Oil
Coal
Electric
LP gas
Other
None
Davidson
County
120,847
114,635
37,850
5,132
28,879
39,534
2,069
1,063
108
19,929
623
4,332
85,607
2,307
895
942
22,089
238
2,529
75,445
1,365
190
12,779
Nashville
55,623
50,990
24,552
1,280
17,828
5,713
1,134
391
92
16,679
519
3,835
27,702
1,054
419
782
16,934
79
2,060
22,718
1,093
96
8,010
aTaken from Reference 8 .
Urban
balance
52,939
50 , 742
12,685
2,589
7,880
27,043
470
59
16
3,084
62
420
46,059
814
143
160
4,845
116
451
42,632
211
20
2,467
Rural
14,285
12,903
613
1,263
3,171
6,778
465
613
166
42
77
11,846
439
333
310
43
18
10,095
61
74
2,302
for space heating have another heat source on the premises and there-
fore could possibly discontinue use of coal for space heating. If the use
of coal for domestic heating were reduced, the entire community would
benefit through a decrease in air pollution, particularly in black smoke
and sulfur dioxide.
20
An Air Resource Managem
ent Plan
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Many people buy coal in small quantities because they do not have
sufficient money available at one time for larger purchases. Heating
costs are relatively high when this is done as indicated by the following.
Consumers Price List Number 102 of the St. Bernard Coal Company
indicates a price of $10.10 per ton at the yard for 7- by 3-inch chunk
coal washed to remove dust. (The sulfur content of 3.0 percent is not
changed materially by this kind of washing.) This coal has a heating
value of 12,000 Btu per pound, or 240 therms per ton; its cost is equiv-
alent to 4.21 cents per therm. This is lower than the coal costs used
in the1 space heating cost summation (Table 2). The difference can
be accounted for by delivery costs. If this same coal is purchased in
80-pound bags, it costs 60 cents per bag, or $15.00 per ton, bringing
the cost to 6.25 cents per therm. On this basis, and in view of the
relatively low efficiency of domestic, hand-fired coal-burning furnaces,
the annual cost of heating an average-size residence would be about
$120. The cost to heat the same residence with gas would be about
$137 (Table 2). In view of the other advantages of gas heating previously
mentioned, the benefits to be achieved seem well worth this small ad-
ditional cost.
The Census of Housing 8 also indicates that in 1960 4,332 dwelling
units used coal for cooking and 2,529 used coal for hot water heating
(Table 3). Some of the dwellings using coal for hot water heating are
apartment houses; the remainder are probably single-family units.
Coal-fired cooking stoves and small coal-fired hot water heaters nearly
always cause emission of excessive smoke and are an inconvenience
out of keeping with modern living. They should be eliminated wherever
feasible and as soon as possible. Gas- or oil-fired units or electrically
operated devices are much preferred.
In conclusion, there are substantial improvements that could be
made in space heating, cooking, and water heating equipment. These
changes would hasten a general trend, which has long existed, and would
provide cleaner air for the people of the Nashville area.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 21
-------
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutants are emitted to the atmosphere from a wide variety
of sources in any metropolitan area. They are among the undesirable
by-products of urban living. Large quantities of contaminants are formed
by burning coal; and lesser quantities, by burning oil or gas. Refuse-
burning in incinerators, dumps, and open fires gives rise to important
quantities of pollutants. Certain industrial, commercial, transportation,
and agricultural activities release pollutants to the atmosphere. The
purpose of this section is to indicate the relative magnitude of these
various sources of pollution as well as the total quantities of various
pollutants being discharged to the atmosphere in the Nashville area.
FUEL COMBUSTION IN STATIONARY SOURCES
The type of fuel used in a community establishes, to a considerable
degree, the nature and quantity of pollutants discharged to the air. Fuels
are burned for space and water heating, for cooking, for power gen-
eration, and for industrial process heating. (Use of fuel in mobile
sources, such as automobiles, is considered later in this report section.)
In general, burning of coal results in more pollutant emissions
than does burning of oil or gas. In hand-fired units, burning coal with-
out causing excessive smoke emissions is very difficult. Coal with a
low volatile content will, in general, produce less smoke than coal with
a high volatile content. Use of mechanical stokers to feed either low
or high volatile coal to a combustion unit reduces emission of smoke
appreciably. Many types of mechanical stokers cause excessive emis-
sion of ash, and dust collecting equipment must be installed in the
exhaust system of the furnace.
No matter how coal is burned, a high percentage of the sulfur in
the coal finds its way into the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide. The same
is true for other fuels; but since coal usually contains more sulfur than
either oil or gas, it releases more sulfur dioxide than the other two
fuels in doing the same heating job. At present, no economically at-
tractive means is known for removing sulfur dioxide from stack gases
although research in this field is very promising. Some coals to be
used for certain purposes can be cleaned or washed in such a way that
about 25 percent 9 of the sulfur is removed. This would, of course,
reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide when the coal is burned.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 23
-------
Oil may be burned with practically no visible smoke
if improper firing practices are used, if fuel unsuitable fora
combustion device is used, or if equipment is defective excessive smoke
emissions may occur. Sulfur content of light fuel oils (Numbers 1 and
2) is generally low; heavier oils (Number 4, 5, and 6) may contain sub-
stantial amounts (Table 4). Nearly all of this sulfur is discharged to
the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide when the oil is burned. Oil also
contains some ash, which may be emitted to the atmosphere in burning
fuel. The amount is very small, however, and only in extreme circum-
stances does it become a matter of community concern as an air
pollutant.
Table 4. WEIGHT PERCENT SULFUR IN VARIOUS FUEL OILS
DETERMINED BY BUREAU OF MINES IN 1961 a
Fuel
grade
1
2
4
5
6
Eastern Region
Min
0.007
0.04
0.18
0.28
0.53
Avg
0.069
0.228
0.84
1.17
1.34
Max
0.17
0.65
2.12
2.50
3.40
Southern Region"
Min
0.01
0.04
0.27
0.28
0.34
Avg
0.068
0.249
c
1.77
1.58
Max
0.21
0.72
1.92
3.10
3.36
Central Region
Min
0.005
0.071
0.27
0.57
0.42
Avg
0.107
0.299
0.90
1.52
1.47
Max
0.48
0.81
2.12
3.5
4.0
aTaken from Reference 10.
Tennessee is located in this region.
cNo averages were computed because only two samples were used in this test.
Burning of natural gas results in very little emission of sulfur
dioxide and practically no emission of smoke.
Burning of all fuels results in emission of oxides of nitrogen
(mainly nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide), the amount depending on
the fuel burned, furnace design, and combustion conditions.
Broad general averages of the amount of several pollutants emitted
in using coal, oil, and gas are shown in Table 5. The merits of each
fuel, from an air pollution point of view, are readily discernible.
The Nashville Metropolitan Area, until recent years, depended
primarly upon high volatile coal for heating. This practice resulted
in a fall-winter chronic air pollution condition during the heating
season. Since World War II, the local use of coal has declined and
natural gas and electricity have become the principal energy sources.
The consumption of electricity increased sixfold since World War II
and during the period 1950-1960 the use of natural gas increased three-
fold (Figure 4). In 1946, coal consumption in the Nashville area was
24
An Air Resource Management Plan
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H
cr
o>
I
I
I
o
Table 5. EMISSION FACTORS FOR CONSUMPTION OF FUEL a
BASED ON BROAD GENERAL AVERAGES
Pollutant
Total solids
Inorganic gases
Sulfur oxides (as SC>2)
Nitrogen oxides (as NO2)
Organic gases
Hydrocarbons
Aldehydes (as HCHO)
Pollutant emitted per 1 , 000 pounds fuel fired, Ib
Coalb
Industrial
22e
63
10
1
n. a.
Residential
and
commercial
12
63
0.2
5
n.a.
Oilc
Industrial
1
9.8
13
0.4
0.07
Residential
and
commercial
1.5
9.8
9
0.25
0.25
Gas d
Industrial
nil
0.028
5
0.1
0.4
Residential
and
commercial
nil
0.028
4
0.1
0.6
aTaken from References 12 and 13.
Coal - sulfur 3.5 percent by weight.
cOil - sulfur 0. 5 percent by weight.
"Natural gas weighs 55 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet and contains 0.0014 percent sulfur by weight.
eAveraged "uncontrolled" emission factor.
n.a. - Data not available.
to
en
-------
o
942,976 tons; by 1955 its usage had dropped to 428,244 tons. The
reason for this decline is partially explained by the extension oi gas
pipelines and improved competitive position of the prices of gas and
electricity as compared to coal. Other advantages of gas and electric-
ity are: elimination of fuel storage space requirements, no manual
handling of fuel, less costly fuel burning equipment, no ash handling,
availability of simple automatic control devices, and cleaner conditions
in the building using the energy. Coupled with these advantages is an
improvement in general community air quality.
A detailed inventory was made of emissions of sulfur dioxide in
the Nashville area in 1958-59.H This inventory indicated that a total
of about 463,200 tons of coal was used per year in the Nashville
urbanized area (the study area shown in Figure 2). About one-third
of this was used in residences, primarily for space heating. One-third
was used in commercial and industrial establishments for space heat-
ing, water heating, and power generation, and the remaining one-third
was used for industrial process heating. The bulk of the coals used in
the Nashville area are from Western Kentucky fields. Varying from
one mine to another (Table 6), these coals have a sulfur content of
about 3.0 to 4.4 percent, an ash content of about 5.5 to 10.5 percent,
and a volatile content of 39 to 44 percent.
The sulfur dioxide emission inventory of 1958-59 indicated that a
total of 25,700,000 gallons of oil was used per year in the Nashville
urbanized area (the study area shown on Figure 2). The distribution
of fuel oil consumption in the 1958-59 inventory was as follows:
Commercial 10,700,000 gallons per year
Industrial 6,290,000 gallons per year
Residential 8,710,000 gallons per year
According to the local fuel oil distributors, the fuel oil used in the
Nashville Metropolitan Area is light distillate oil of grades 1 and 2.
A small percentage of grade 4 or a mixture of grades 2 and 4 is occa-
sionally sold for local consumption. The residual oils, grades 5 and
6, in 1962 were not available in the area. The best estimates available
of the sulfur contents of the several grades of fuel oil used in Nashville
are given in Table 4. In preparing the emission estimates for this
report, an average sulfur content of 0.5 percent was assumed, based
on limited data on the amount of each grade of oil used and the sulfur
content of each grade as indicated in Table 4.*
In February 1962 a questionnaire was sent to 529 establishments
listed in the 1962 Directory of Nashville Manufacturers i5 to determine
the nature and extent of emissions of air contaminants. Replies were
received from 317 firms (60 percent). The types of energy sources used
by these firms for space and process heating are given in Table 7.
*ln the detailed emission inventory prepared in 1958-59, an average sulfur content of 2 1
percent was used. More recent information leads to the conclusion that 0.5 percent is a
better estimate.
26 An Air ^source Management Plan
-------
Table 6. ANALYSIS OF COAL DURING FISCAL YEAR 1958 a
Area, county,
town, and mine
Moisture
(as
received) ,
%
Dry coal analysis, %
Volatile
matter
Fixed
carbon
Ash
Sulfur
Btu/lb
(as
received)
WEST KENTUCKY
Hopkins County
Beulah
Anberb
Meadows
Nortonville :
Blue Flame
6.3
6.1
6.7
Dowson Springs:
Franklin"
Webster County
Providence
Ohio County
Beaver Dam
Ken
5.4
4.9
9.7
39.6
43.6
40.7
43.3
40.6
40.9
49.9
50.7
49.5
51.2
51.3
51.8
10.5
5.7
9.8
5.5
8.1
7.3
4.4
3.3
4.1
3.4
3.1
3.0
12,210
12,880
13,040
13,780
12,810
12,030
EAST KENTUCKY
Harlan County
Cawood
Mill Hidge
Closplint
Clover
Darby
Crummies
Closplint
Evarts
Darmont
3.0
4.2
2.9
3.3
5.0
40.4
38.6
40.6
40.7
36.8
57.1
58.0
57.1
57.4
53.7
2.5
3.4
2.3
1.9
9.5
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.5
1.0
14,610
14 , 360
14,860
14,210
13,080
TENNESSEE
Claiborne County
Clairfield
Arnold
Fork Ridge
Grundy County
Coalmont
Marion County
Palmer
Whitewell
Reels Cove
Scott County
Robbins
Glen May
2.5
3.4
3.8
2.7
2.1
1.9
38.8
40.3
29.8
29.0
29.3
37.6
58.3
56.2
58.3
61.0
62.2
57.6
2.9
3.5
11.9
10.0
8.5
4.8
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
14,370
14,030
12,820
13,280
13,640
14,370
aTaken from Reference 14. Analyses were performed on coals as
bWashed.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
ready for use.
27
-------
Table 7. ENERGY SOURCES FOR SPACE AND PROCESS HEATING
USED BY NASHVILLE FIRMS
Energy source Number using Percent using
Gas
Coal
Electricity
Oil
Wood
No indication
Totals
207
16
22
8
6
259
58
317
80
6
9
3
2
100
100
Fourteen firms reported that they used two or more energy sources.
Seven of these used gas as the primary source with another fuel as a
standby.
Drawing detailed quantitive conclusions on the basis of these frag-
mentary data is hazardous; however, the number of manufacturing
establishments using coal for space and process heating does appear
to be small.
The 1958-59 inventory listed 39 educational institutions as using
approximately 33,000 tons of coal per year for space heating. Govern-
mental facilities use some 39,000 tons of coal per year. The total of
72,000 tons is about 15 percent of the total yearly local coal consumption
and almost 50 percent of the total consumption listed as commercial.
In 1960, about 28,900 housing units in Davidson County were heated
with coal. Nearly 18,000 of these units were within the former city
limits of Nashville. The Nashville health survey of 1959 shows that
38.6 percent of the dwelling units heated with coal contained hand-fired
units. Assuming this percentage to be representative of the former
City of Nashville and the rural area, this would amount to 11,000 homes
heated with hand-fired coal burning units. The percentage of newer
homes heated with hand-fired units would no doubt be less in the urban
balance area. An assumption of 25 percent hand-fired units for this
area gives a total of 7,200 homes in Davidson County in which 45,000
tons of coal per year is consumed in hand-fired heating plants. Ac-
cording to the 1960 census of housing (Table 3), coal is used in 4,332
homes for cooking and in 2,529 for hot-water heating in Davidson
County. An estimated 9,000 tons of coal is used for cooking and hot-
water heating. The total amount of coal consumed in hand-fired com-
bustion units is 54,000 tons. In the remaining coal-heated dwelling
units, an estimated 80,000 tons of coal is used annually in automatic
stoker-fed units.
28 An Air ^source Management Plan
-------
Means used to provide space heating in dwelling units show a
marked difference between the City of Nashville, the urban area out-
side of Nashville, and the remainder of Davidson County (Table 3).
Within the city in 1960, gas was used for space heating in nearly half
the homes and almost 35 percent (18,000) were heated by coal. Only
11 percent were heated electrically. In the urban areas outside of
Nashville, electric heating was most common, being used by about 53
percent of the homes. Only 25 percent used gas, and 16 percent used
coal. In the rural areas, electric heating was used in about half the
homes, but gas was used by only about 5 percent. Coal was used in 24
percent and oil in 10 percent of the homes. These data reflect several
aspects of the situation:
1. There are more multiple dwelling buildings in the city, and
these are more likely to be heated by a central coal-fired unit
than are single-family houses.
2. Homes in the city were built during times when coal was the
most commonly used fuel. Many original installations are still
in use. In urban areas outside of Nashville, homes were built
when gas or electric units were more commonly installed for
space heating.
3. Conversion of coal-fired units to other means of heating prob-
ably has not proceeded so rapidly in the central part of Nash-
ville as in outlying urban areas, partly because the economic
means are not generally so available in central Nashville.
4. More homes in Nashville have gas available to them than do
homes in urbanized areas outside the city, and even fewer homes
in rural areas have gas lines at hand.
In view of these data and the relatively high sulfur and volatile
matter content of the coal used, there is no doubt that coal-fired do-
mestic heating and cooking units are a major source of air pollutants,
especially smoke and sulfur dioxide, particularly in the Nashville city
part of Davidson County.
Natural gas is considered the cleanest of the commonly used fuels.
Some pollutants, however, are emitted to the atmosphere when natural
gas is burned. The principal pollutants are nitrogen oxides, which are
generated when any fuel is burned (Table 5). The consumption of
natural gas (Figure 4) has increased from 4.2 billion cubic feet in 1950
to 14 billion cubic feet in 1960. This figure includes three large in-
dustrial users who buy directly from the main supply lines. The
number of listed consumers has increased, but not proportionately
because 3,800 dwelling units of the Nashville Housing Authority are
listed as 13 consumers using master gas meters. 16
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 29
-------
MOTOR VEHICLES
The role of motor vehicle exhaust in air pollution is of increasing
concern in metropolitan areas throughout the United States. The emis-
sions to the atmosphere from these fuels occur during storage, handling,
and consumption. Estimates of the exhaust products discharged to the
atmosphere are given in Table 8. The exact amounts and composition
are dependent upon engine operating cycles, driving habits, car con-
dition, etc. Other pollutants result from the use of additives such as
alkyl lead compounds (tetraethyl or tetramethyl lead) as antiknock
agents. Under the influence of sunlight, sufficient concentrations of
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in automobile exhaust undergo a
series of complex interactions in the atmosphere that form oxidants
and other organic compounds, many of which are yet to be identified.
These reaction products may cause respiratory irritation, eye irrita-
tion, vegetation damage, and rubber deterioration and also form aero-
sols, which reduce visibility. This type of air pollution is referred to
as photochemical smog.
Table 8. ESTIMATES OF EMISSIONS FROM
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Pollutant
Particulates
Inorganic gases
Oxides of sulfur (as SC^)
Oxides of nitrogen
Carbon monoxide
Organic gases
Aldehydes and ke tones
Other organic gases
Hydrocarbons
Pollutant emitted per 1,000
gal. of fuel burned, Ib
Gasoline
enginesa
llc
5-10
50-150
3000
5
2
200-400
Diesel
engines"
110C
40
160
40
11
n
160
aTaken from Reference 17.
Taken from Reference 18.
cData from Reference 1 o for particulates only.
n - Negligible.
30
An Air Resource Management Plan
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Most of the pollution from automobiles is discharged through the
tailpipe. Hydrocarbons emitted from the crankcase are called "blowby."
They constitute from 20 to 40 percent of the total hydrocarbon losses
from the automobile. Maximum blowby emissions occur during heavy
engine load conditions and the minimum during deceleration. Evapor-
ation from the fuel tank and from the hot carburetor after the engine is
stopped, called "hot soak" losses, amount to some 5 percent of the total
hydrocarbon losses from the automobile. Fuel tank losses depend upon
ambient air temperature. 20
The steadily increasing number of motor vehicles in Davidson County
(Figure 5) reached about 160,000 in 1960. A 1961 report indicated one
registered vehicle for each 2.6 persons. 21 For comparison the con-
centration of automobiles per square mile in several cities is given in
Table 9.
200
180
160
H 140
o
H
O
120
100
80
60
40
20
1940
1950 1960
YEAR
1970
Figure 5. Motor vehicle registration per year in Davidson County.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
31
-------
Table 9. PASSENGER CAR REGISTRATIONS
IN NINE METROPOLITAN AREAS, 1960 a
Principal city in
metropolitan area
Atlanta
Chicago
Columbus
Detroit
Los Angeles
Memphis
NASHVILLE
Portland
Washington, B.C.
Number of
passenger cars
208,147
1,476,968
234,340
955,497
2,033,869
168,075
156,455
216,978
250,254
Metropolitan area ,
square miles
523
954
538
607
1,500
751
533
424
61
Cars per
square mile
397
1,541
424
1,580
1,350
223
294
510
4,100
Persons
per car
2.7
3.4
2.9
2.8
2.4
3.7
2.6
2.4
3.0
aTaken from Reference 20.
Gasoline consumption in Davidson County during 1962 22 was
124,503,000 gallons. Hydrocarbon emissions from the storage, handl-
ing, and use of this gasoline (approximately 1,200 tons per day) are
estimated at 61.2 tons per day. The projected estimate of gasoline
consumption by 1970 is 149,144,000 gallons per year.
Diesel fuel consumption in the Nashville Metropolitan Area amounts
to 3,800,000 gallons per year; 32 percent of this is used by the Nash-
ville Transit Company. ^3 Estimates of emissions from diesel fuel
consumption are listed in Table 8. The objectionable black smoke
frequently associated with diesel exhaust can be reduced greatly by
good engine maintenance, use of the correct grade of fuel, and proper
operation. Diesel engine operation in trucks, and especially buses,
causes odors, which are a frequent cause for complaints by pedestrians
and by motorists driving close behind diesel-powered vehicles.
Emission of automobile crankcase blowby can be reduced some
85 percent by installation of a tube that returns these gases to the engine
intake manifold for consumption during operation. Starting with 1963
models, such devices were being installed in all American manufactured
automobiles. Devices installed by one auto manufacturer have caused
difficulty, however, and this company temporarily discontinued blowby
device installation in 1964 except on cars for delivery in California and
New York, where they are required by law.
By October 1964, four devices for the control of hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions had been approved for installation on new
cars and one for installation on used cars, by the California Motor
Vehicle Pollution Control Board. Also, the automobile manufacturers
have said they will make modifications to the engines of 1966 model
cars for delivery in California to reduce emissions to the degree re-
32
An Air Resource Management Plan
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quired by California law. Developments in this matter are frequently
changing and should be studied continually as they relate to the situation
in Nashville.
RAILROADS
Railways have followed a pattern of development that has decreased
air pollution. For many years steam locomotives were a major source
of smoke, ash, and sulfur dioxide in central Nashville. Steam loco-
motives in use in 1948 operated during 8,545 hours of switching service
and 2,255 hours of road service in the Nashville area. By 1956 these
locomotives had all been replaced by diesel units. Furthermore, the
major switch yard has now been moved away from the center of the
city. These changes have decreased pollution by smoke, ash, and sulfur
dioxide considerably.
These reductions in pollutant emissions would seemingly make it
possible to establish some new industrial plants that emit sulfur dioxide
and particulates without causing a net increase in the air concentration
of these pollutants. It is anticipated, however, that this slack will soon
be taken up and air pollution controls will be needed to meet the needs
for cleaner air in the central part of the metropolitan area. The more
this can be met through planning and zoning, the fewer will be the re-
adjustments required through regulatory air pollution control activities.
REFUSE DISPOSAL (SOLID WASTE)
The method of refuse disposal in any community is an important
factor in its air quality. A desirable method of refuse disposal that
minimizes air pollution and other potential health problems is the
sanitary landfill. The Nashville Metropolitan Area had seven such
disposal sites in service in 1963. Four of the sites served the City of
Nashville and were operated by the City Public Works Department.
Other disposal sites were operated by the County Public Works Depart-
ment. The latter disposal sites were, until July 1, 1961, hampered by
lack of equipment and personnel. Maintaining adequate cover material
was not always possible, and fires were frequent. The disposal op-
erations have generally improved since more operating personnel and
equipment have been made available. Demolition debris and materials
not easily compacted are frequently burned at the disposal sites.
Properly designed incinerators for this material would eliminate the
need for this type of open burning.
Disposal of commercial and industrial refuse is causing some air
pollution problems. Open burning of wastes on the premises of some of
these establishments is a common practice. Others use incinerators
of various kinds, which do a good or poor job of burning the waste, from
an air pollution standpoint, depending on design of the incinerator and
operating practices. Burning of wastes from building demolition on the
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 33
-------
site, also a common practice, results in emission of substantial quan-
tities of smoke, ash, and gaseous combustion products into the at-
mosphere.
Not enough data were accumulated to make a good estimate of air
contaminant emissions from burning of refuse; however, a rough esti-
mate was made by assuming that a total of 726 tons of refuse is produced
per day (3.5 Ib per capita per day 24), that 75 percent of this refuse is
combustible, and that 50 percent of the combustible portion is burned.
Using appropriate emission factors from Tables 10 and 11, it was
calculated that 10,880 pounds of particulate matter and 65,300 pounds
of organic gases are emitted to the atmosphere daily, a major burden
to impose on the air resource.
Table 10. ESTIMATED AIR CONTAMINANT EMISSION FROM CERTAIN
DOMESTIC REFUSE DISPOSAL PRACTICES
Contaminant
Total solids
Inorganic gases
Sulfur oxides (as SC>2)
Nitrogen oxides (as NC
Ammonia (as
Organic gases
Organics
Aldehydes (as HCHO)
Acids (as acetic)
Contaminant emitted per
ton material burned, Ib
Multiple- Backyard trash fires'3
chamber Paper Garden
incineratorsa only clippings
3.5
1.8
2.2
n
n
0.4
n. a.
4.7
1.2
0.5
0.1
145.0
2.1
1.5
n.a.
n.a.
0.6
4.4
415.0
5.7
aTaken from Reference 25.
Taken from Reference 26.
n. a. - No reliable data available.
n Negligible.
34
An Air Resource Management Plan
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Table 11. ESTIMATED AIR CONTAMINANT EMISSIONS FROM CERTAIN
MUNICIPAL REFUSE DISPOSAL PRACTICES a
Contaminant
Total solids
Inorganic gases
Sulfur oxides (as SC>2)
Nitrogen oxides (as NC>2)
Ammonia (as NHs)
H2S
Organic gases
Organics
Aldehydes (as HCHO)
Acid (as acetic)
Contaminant
of material
emitted per ton
disposed
Burning
Incineration
19.7
1.7
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.0
0.5
dump
40.0
1.0
0.5
3.0
240.0
3.4
1.3
of.lb
Sanitary
landfill
Variable13
Trace
Trace
Trace
aTaken from Reference 27.
^Depends on amount of ashes being placed and amount of dust in
cover material. Can be controlled.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Use of electricity creates no air pollution at its point of use. In
Davidson County, electricity is available at an unusually low cost be-
cause of power generated by the Tennessee Valley Authority. Com-
pared with gas, oil, and coal at the consumer level, electricity is more
competitive economically in Davidson County and in other areas served
by TVA than in most other parts of the nation. This has led to rapidly
expanding use of electricity for all purposes, including space heating,
a practice which is more prevalent in the TVA area than in most other
parts of the United States. Use of electricity in Davidson County has
increased from 0.406 billion kilowatt-hours in 1945 to 2.76 billion
kilowatt-hours in 1961 (Table 12).
The ever-increasing demand for electricity in the Tennessee Valley
will probably be met by additional coal-fired steam-electric generating
stations since available hydroelectric power sources in the Tennessee
Valley system are presently being utilized almost completely.
There are no major steam-electric generating stations in Davidson
County. The nearest one is the TVA plant at Gallatin, Tennessee, about
30 miles northeast of Nashville. This plant uses 1,752,000 tons of coal
per year (200 tons per hour). Sulfur dioxide is emitted to the at-
mosphere at a rate of about 12 tons per hour through 180-foot-high
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
35
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Table 12. CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
IN DAVIDSON COUNTY a
Year
1945
1950
1955
1960
1961
Residential use,
kw-hr
138,919,512
408,598,358
810,502,065
1,435,173,277
1,479,519,094
Non-residential use,
kw-hr
266,937,528
446,475,122
690,595,745
1,213,629,664
1,281,458,155
Total use,
kw-hr
405,857,040
855,073,480
1,501,097,810
2,648,802,941
2,760,977,249
Electric
meters
66,603
92,255
111,750
128,664
131,342
aTaken from Reference 28.
stacks. This is about three times as much sulfur dioxide as is emitted
by all sources in Davidson County. Ash emissions are also substantial,
even though good dust collecting equipment is used at the plant. Emis-
sions from the Gallatin plant cause some small increase in sulfur
dioxide, suspended particulate, and nitrogen oxides concentrations in
parts of Davidson County, including Nashville, on days when meteorolog-
ical conditions are conducive to transporting pollutants from the plant
to Davidson County areas.
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
The Nashville Metropolitan Area is the urban center for a large
region and as such has experienced rapid growth as a manufacturing
and wholesale-retail distribution center. Nashville's proximity to
the natural resources and raw materials of the central basin of the
southern United States has encouraged growth of manufacturing in the
area. For example, during 1959, approximately $54,400,000 was in-
vested in new plants and business properties. 21
There is a wide diversification in products manufactured in the
area. Most of the major needs for daily living are represented in the
output of local plants. Food, clothing, shoes, lumber and building
materials, textiles, appliances, furniture, chemicals, printing, en-
graving, foundry products, and metal fabrication are some of the major
groups of products and services of the Nashville Metropolitan Area.
The manufacturing complex is made up of more than 520 establish-
ments of various sizes. A generalized description of the air pollution
from this complex is listed in Table 13.
In February 1962 the Davidson County Health Department sent a
questionnaire entitled "Inventory of Air Contaminant Emissions of
Commercial and Industrial Sources" (Appendix A) to 529 firms listed
in the 1962 Directory of Nashville Manufacturers. 15 The completed
36
An Air Resource Management Plan
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Table 13. SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL AIR
POLLUTION SOURCES a IN NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
Industry
Number
of plants
Contribution to air pollution problems
Stone, clay, and glass
products
38 Dust from ready-mixed concrete, concrete
products, quarrying, glass manufacturing,
cement manufacturing, asphaltie concrete.
Frequent complaints, major contribution.
Chemical and allied
products
33 Wide variety of pollutants depending upon
technology involved; aerosols, vapor,
odors. Localized complaints, minor to
significant contribution.
Food and food
products
Odors from meat packing, processing, and
rendering plants and coffee roasting; dust
from feed grinding and mixing operations.
Localized complaints, minor to significant
contribution.
Lumber and wood
products
47 Smoke from burning wood wastes and saw-
dust, dust from milling and sawing op-
erations, solvent odors and spray paint
mist. Localized complaints, minor
contribution.
Machine shops and
metal products
fabrication
85 Solvent odors from degreasing and spray
painting, spray painting mist, grinding
wheel dust. Localized complaints, minor
contribution.
Metallurgical
processes
Metallic oxides, dust, smoke, gases from
ferrous and nonferrous casting operations.
Localized complaints, minor contribution.
Printing, publishing,
and advertising
110 Solvent odors, lead fumes. Few localized
complaints, minor contribution.
Textiles, leather
goods, paper, and
rubber products
44 Lint, dust, and fines from production
waste; organic vapors from dyeing, bleach-
ing, cleaning, and cementing. Few com-
plaints, minor contribution.
Electronics and
instrument
assembly
15 Emissions usually controlled, but may
produce smoke, dust, or acid mist
emission. Few complaints, negligible
contribution.
aThe contribution to air pollution by fuel consumption is not included
(see Table 5).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
37
-------
questionnaire was returned to the Nashville Department of Public Works,
Division of Smoke Regulation, by 60 percent (317) of the firms. Infor-
mation provided by the responding firms was used to assess the emis-
sions from the commercial and industrial sources in the area.
As a means of accounting for all commercial and industrial pol-
lution sources in the area, the returned questionnaires were cross-
checked with the 1962 Directory of Nashville Manufacturers. A direct
contact was then made with all firms that did not reply originally, pro-
vided their type of operation indicated probable significant emission
of air pollutants. The emission inventory is therefore a total assess-
ment of the emissions from all the commercial and industrial sources
in the area.
To make a precise determination of pollutant emissions, each case
must actually be measured. In some cases, however, emissions can
be estimated on the basis of production of finished goods, or on the
amounts and kinds of raw materials used. Established emission factors
are applied to relate pollutant emission rates to such information.
These factors were developed through actual testing of pollution sources.
Sampling of the effluent of pollution sources in Davidson County was
impractical in the present studies; therefore, the emission inventory
for this report was compiled with the information given by question-
naires and the best available data from the literature. Emissions from
a specific establishment, when determined in this fashion, are only
rough approximations since operations vary widely. If, however, a
sufficient number of operations are covered, errors involved with small
samples tend to disappear and the degree of accuracy of the emission
value for a group of plants engaged in similar processes approaches
the true mean value. The emission inventory, when correlated with
aerometric and meteorological data, provides the basic information for
determining many future air resource management activities.
Mineral Industries - Stone, Clay, and Glass
Dust generated by mechanical crushing, grinding, screening,
transferring, and drying of various materials are the pollutants of
major concern in this group. Concrete batching plants, asphalt mixing
plants, rock quarry operations, etc., are frequently the source of wide-
spread complaints.
By the general nature of these operations, there are many points
for release of dust to the atmosphere. The copious use of water, en-
closed systems, and flexible sleeves can greatly reduce the release
of dusts. These control methods require constant maintenance and
surveillance on the part of management, which are sometimes neg-
lected in operational haste. There is also a tendency to overload some
kinds of plants because of the seasonal fluctuations in product demand.
38
An Air Resource Management Plan
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The cement manufacturing industry has been using gas cleaning
devices on the waste gases from rotary kilns for some time. These
control devices may be such items as cyclones, electrostatic pre-
cipitators, or fabric filters. Depending upon product specifications,
the collected dust is usually returned to the kiln. 29
The solid particulate matter emitted from the mineral industries
in the Nashville Metropolitan Area amounts to about 33 tons or 41 per-
cent of the total in the area per average working day (Table 14). This
does not mean that the emissions are in fact uniform for they tend to
be higher during the warmer seasons because of the increased product
demand. Rock quarrying and crushing operations are not included in
this estimate because no reasonable emission factors are available.
Emissions from the mineral industry can be greatly reduced by util-
ization of appropriate equipment and procedures. For example, in the
Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District, dust emission from 50
asphaltic road mix batching plants with air pollution control equipment
is only 3 tons per day. If controls were not in use, emissions would be
about 34 tons per day.^5
Isolation by the application of restrictive zoning is generally an
effective means of reducing nuisance complaints. The experience of
other areas indicates that the stone and clay industries can be operated
in a manner compatible with surrounding development, but that a
reasonable amount of planned isolation tends to decrease the number
of local problems.
Wood and Wood Products Industries
The primary air pollutant in the lumber and wood products industry
is smoke, which results from the burning of sawdust and wood waste.
Organic vapor emissions from painting and varnishing operations are
of secondary importance, but add to the total load of air pollutants.
In the Nashville area these operations produce over 126 tons of
sawdust and wood waste per day. With proper equipment and operational
care, these materials can be disposed of without excessive pollution
in the following ways: burned in a waste heat boiler, utilized to make
other products, incinerated, or placed in sanitary landfills. Eight of
the reporting plants in Nashville burn their sawdust and wood waste in
waste heat boilers, which have the advantage of recovering energy in
the form of steam from waste material. The boilers in Nashville, how-
ever, often produce large quantities of smoke because wood con-
tains about 50 percent volatile matter and combustion is inefficient in
burners not properly designed for this fuel, especially those that are
hand-fired. Hydrocarbon emissions from these sources were estimated
at roughly 334 tons per year (Table 14). This figure was established by
using an emission factor based on source test data on silo-type in-
cinerators. 30, 31 Acceptable burning of wood wastes would probably
mean that much of the existing equipment would have to be modified
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 39
-------
Table 14. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED PRINCIPAL POLLUTANT.' EMISSIONS IN NASHVILLE
METROPOLITAN AREAa (Data in tons per year)
ff
CO
g
l-j
o
3
(D
a
hi
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Nitrogen oxides
Organic gases
Sulfur oxides
Solids
References used
for emission
factors
CO
cd
1
3
fc
283
2,542
51
12
n
10
o
-------
and wood waste storage bins and constant-rate continuous-fuel-feeding
systems would have to be installed.
Most of the other firms burn their wood waste in barrel-type in-
cinerators or open pits. These methods of disposal do not produce
complete combustion; considerable smoke and ash emissions result,
and local complaints are frequent.
Chemical Industry
The chemical industry is the most diversified of the industrial
classifications; thus, making an accurate emission inventory is ex-
tremely difficult. It is also one of the fastest growing industries and
the spawning ground for new technology, which frequently necessitates
process modification and sometimes a complete change in production
activity, which in turn may rapidly alter the type and quantity of
emissions.
Because of the toxic nature of some of the materials used, air
pollution control measures are often employed. Since the material
lost may have direct monetary value, production economics dictate
an awareness of the extent of losses and possible product recovery.
Because of the magnitude of these operations and the objectionable
nature of many emissions, the contribution to the community air pol-
lution problem can be significant. Chemical industry activities in the
Nashville area result in emissions of about 5.3 tons of particulate
matter and 6.7 tons of organic gases per working day (260 working
days per year). Table 14 summarizes principal emissions on an
annual basis.
Metallurgical and Metal Fabrication Industries
The metal industries of the Nashville Metropolitan Area are of
minor importance in their overall contribution to air pollution. In
melting scrap metal and ingot, foundries emit smoke, dusts, metallic
fumes, and combustion products from the fuel used to support the
process. The particulate matter emissions reduce visibility and pro-
duce soiling, both of which cause frequent local complaints. This is a
small-scale operation. The total castings amounted to only 35 tons of
material per day by the four reporting firms.
Emissions from the metal fabrication, plating, and electronic in-
dustries are organic solvents from painting and degreasing operations,
paint and acid mists, lubricating oil mists, and grinding dust. The
total solvent emission from the metals industry is approximately 173
tons per year.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 41
-------
Solvents
The use of solvents is so extensive that it is difficult to name a
manufactured product made without their use. They are used in con-
siderable quantities in paints, varnishes, enamels, stains, printing inks,
etc., and in the cleaning industry. Unless special preventive means are
employed, nearly all the solvent in these products enters the atmosphere,
The control of solvent vapor emissions has not been widely practiced
because of the dilute concentrations in the effluent gases from the op-
erations involved. Control, however, can be accomplished by direct-
flame incineration, catalytic incineration, adsorption, scrubbing, or
condensation. The adsorption of organic solvent vapors upon activated-
charcoal presently appears to be one of the more promising methods of
control.
The role of solvents in atmospheric photochemical smog reactions
is a field of serious interest. The relative importance of the various
solvents has not been fully established, but many are involved in re-
actions that produce compounds having detrimental effects.
Printing
Some 7,000 people are employed by more than 80 firms of the
printing and publishing industry. This is larger than normal because
Nashville is a center for publishing religious literature. Emissions to
the atmosphere from this industry are mainly organic solvents from
inks and lead fumes from the melting pots of typesetting machines.
Solvent emissions vary in quantity and kind, depending on the method
of printing and the type of ink used. The solvent content of ink varies
from none in newspaper ink to 35 to 40 percent in the heat-set inks used
in the rotogravure process. In Nashville the most common ink used is
a quick-set ink, which contains about 10 percent solvent. Although
emission of solvents by this industry is relatively low for the magni-
tude of operations, it still amounts to an estimated 1.15 tons per day.
Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning is a commercial operation from which a considerable
quantity of organic solvents is emitted. There are about 35 commercial
dry cleaning establishments in the metropolitan area, two-thirds of
which do their cleaning with perchloroethylene. The remaining plants
use Stoddard Solvent or some other aliphatic hydrocarbon mixture. The
total solvent emissions to the atmosphere from this industry amount to
2.21 tons per day, 1.66 tons of which are aliphatic hydrocarbon mixtures.
Solvent consumption amounts to approximately 1 gallon of perchloro-
ethylene per 164 pounds of clothes cleaned, or 1 gallon per 34 pounds of
clothes when Stoddard Solvent is used. Because of the high cost of sol-
vents, it is common practice, when using perchloroethylene, to reduce
losses by installing vapor recovery equipment (usually condensation type).
42 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Textile and Leather
The textile and leather goods industry can be the cause of local
problems from the emission of lints, fine dust, organic vapors, and
mists. Although it is a rather large part of the industrial complex of
this area, it is a minor contributor to air pollution.
Food and Food Products
Emissions from the food and kindred products industry are usually
in the form of odors. Certain operations, such as coffee roasting, food
drying, and meat smoking, give rise to visible and odorous emissions.
Although the total contribution is small in terms of weight, food in-
dustry emissions cause frequent and persistent complaints.
Fine particles from grain handling and feed grinding operations are
often the cause of local complaints. Of the six reporting firms in the
Nashville area, daily average production was 1,175 tons. About 0.5
percent or, 11,149 pounds,per day is lost to the atmosphere. At $3.00
per hundred pounds, it amounts to a recoverable loss of $91,300 per
year.
DISCUSSION OF SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
A summary of estimated emissions of air pollutants was prepared
on the basis of information contained in the foregoing sections (Table
14). These data are only rough estimates and do not include all emis-
sions to the atmosphere in the area, but the data in Tables 13 and 14,
along with the foregoing information, are sufficiently valid to support
the following conclusions.
1. Sulfur dioxide arises mainly (about 85 percent) from the use of
coal. The coal is used in about equal amounts for (a) residential
space heating, (b) commercial and industrial space- and water-
heating and power generation, and (c) industrial process heating.
2. Particulate matter is emitted largely from industrial processes,
coal-fired heating plants, and refuse burning operations. Par-
ticulate from burning of coal and refuse contains a high pro-
portion of small-sized smoke particles, which tend to remain
suspended in the air for a long time. The industrial process
dusts, in general, consist of a high proportion of fairly large
size particles, which tend to settle out of the atmosphere in a
comparatively short time.
3. Emissions of organic gases (mainly hydrocarbons) are attri-
butable largely to use and handling of gasoline and to refuse
burning.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 43
-------
4. Nitrogen oxides are emitted mainly from motor vehicles and
natural-gas-burning furnaces.
5. Localized dust and odor nuisances are attributable mainly to
industrial operations and refuse burning.
44
An Air Resource Management Plan
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AIR QUALITY IN NASHVILLE AREA
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS MADE
Over 200,000 aerometric measurements were made in the Nash-
ville Metropolitan Area from July 1958 through August 1959. Measure-
ments are summarized in Table 15. Other special measurements were
made at various times.
The study area included the City of Nashville and the surrounding
urbanized area. Aerometric stations were established at 123 sites
(Figure 2). Of these, 119 were located at the intersection of lines
forming an equilateral-triangle grid pattern. These stations covered
an area about 9 miles in diameter, centered around Ninth and McGavock
Streets in downtown Nashville (Station 60). Control stations were lo-
cated in the four cardinal compass directions from the central station
and about 3 miles beyond the station network. Specific station locations
are listed in Appendix B. Figure 6 shows a picture of a Type I aero-
metric station. The equipment was mounted on utility poles about 11
feet above ground. These stations were about 0.87 mile apart. Type
n stations using equipment mounted on utility poles (Figure 7) were
established at 25 locations. Type in stations (Figure 8) were established
at 11 locations, including four control stations in semirural areas. De-
tails of the studies conducted can be found in Reference 1.
DUSTFALL
More than 1,400 dustfall samples were collected at 119 urban
stations during the aerometric survey. Each sample represented a
1-month accumulation of settled dust. Results are shown on Figures
9, 10, and 11. 32 Tne data shown cannot be compared directly to data
from most other studies because in this report, geometric means are
used and because only water insoluble dustfall is reported. In most
studies done elsewhere, arithmetic means used to express averages
usually result in a higher mean than if the geometric means are used.33
Most surveys report total water soluble and water insoluble dustfall,
which always gives a value higher than if only water insolubles are
reported. The Nashville data for water insoluble dustfall may be con-
verted to include both kinds of dustfall approximately by multiplying
by 1.8.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 45
-------
Table 15. SUMMARY OF ROUTINE AEROMETRIC PROGRAM, NASHVILLE AIR POLLUTION STUDY
8?
co
s
o
(t)
I
(t
-
Station
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IHM
Number
of
stations
87
25
2
4
Measure-
ments
made
Dustfall
Sulfur
dioxide
MEA
Soiling
(Suspended
particulate)
Sulfur
dioxide
Total wind
Equipment
Plastic duatfall
collectors - wet
bottom
Lead peroxide
candle
UREMENTS MADE A
Sampling tram of
filter paper,
bubbler, trap,
orifice , and pump
Airways Weather
Bureau No. 402
Odometer
Frequency
of
measurement
One 30-day sample
per month
One 30 -day sample
per month
T TYPE I STATIONS
One 24 -hour
sample per day
One 24 -hour
sample per day
One24-hour
total per day
Analyses made
Weight of water insoluble
matter
Sulfur trioxide determined
ALSO MADE AT ALL TYPE II STA1
Change in light transmission
through filter paper
Sulfur dioxide
Total wind movement per 24-
hour period
Analytic method
Filter contents of collector,
dry, and weigh
Barium chloride method for
sulphate, gravimetric
ONS
Photometric
West and Gaeke method
Automatic counter read daily
MEASUHEMENTS MADE AT TYPE I AND TYPE II STATIONS ALSO MADE AT ALL TYPE ID STATIONS
Suspended
participate
Soiling
(Suspended
partlculate)
Sulfur
dioxide
MEA
Wind speed,
wind direction
Temperature ,
relative
High-Vol
filter paper
sampler
AISI strip filter
paper sampler
Automatic
sequential
sampler with
midget bubblers
UBEMENT5 MADE A
Beckman and
WMtley Model
K 100 wind system
Friez
Model 594
One 24 -hour
sample per day
Twelve 2-hour or
stx 4-hour samples
per day
Twelve 2-hour
samples per day
T TYPE m STATIONS
Continuous
strip chart
record
strip chart
All samples - total weight of
particulate matter
One sample in ten - further
anaylses made for total
organic; nitrate; and sulfate
Change in light transmission
through filter paper
Sulfur dioxide
Wind direction - average;
direction - all hourly
from charts
Gravimetric
As uaed In U.S. Public Health
Service National Air Sampling
Network
Photometric
West and Gaeke method
Strip chart observation and
data reduction
data reduction
Remarks
Sampling equipment mounted on utility
poles
Sampling equipment mounted on utility
poles
Laboratory analyses made using Technicon
Autoanalyzer
Sensing elements about 33 feet above
ground
Dustfall also analyzed for water soluble;
benzene soluble; other combustible; ash
Benzene extracts of many samples
fractionated and used for animal studies
of possible carcinogenicity
2-hour samples in high pollution seasons,
4 -hour samples in low pollution seasons
Atmospheric air filtered before passing
through bubbler. Laboratory analyses
made using Technicon Autoanalyzer
Sensing elements about 33 feet above
ground. Fifth highest veering and back-
ing direction used August 1958 through
January 1959.
Region type shelter.
-------
o
1-J
!
3
a
o
Type HI C
Type HI X
(Central
Station)
Cordell
Hull
Building
Television
Tower
Downtown
park area
U.S. Weather
Bureau
Airport
Station,
Berry Field
4
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1
MEASUREMENTS MADE AT TYPE IE STATIONS WERE MADE AT ALL TYPE IE C
2-HOUR SULFUR DIOXIDE MEASUREMENTS WERE NOT MADE
I
STATIONS EXCEPT THAT
MEASUREMENTS MADE AT TYPE III STATIONS MADE ALSO AT THE TYPE IE X STATION
Sulfur
dioxide
Nitrogen
dioxide
Oxidant
Carbon
monoxide
Suspended
participate
matter
collected
Visual range
Photographs
Incoming
radiation
Upper air
wind speed;
wind direction
Net radiation
Upper air
winds
Sunshine
Upper ail-
temperature,
pressure, rela
tive humidity
Thomas Autc-meter
Atmosphere
Analyzer
M.S. A. Luft type
nondispersive
infrared analyzer
Positive displace-
of membrane filter
media
Human observer
Camera
i"SZLterCorp'
Bendix-Friez
Suoml Economical
Net Radiometer
Pilot balloons
and rawinsonde
Marvin Sunshine
Recorder
Radiosonde units
chart record
chart record
Continuous
strip chart
record
Each filter used
2-4 weeks
0900 and 1500 CST
daily
0900 and 1500 CST
Daily
Continuous strip
chart record
Continuous strip
chart record
Four times per
minute recorded
Four per day at
0600, 1200. 1800,
and 2400 CST
Continuous strip
chart record
0600 and 1800 CST
daily
Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Oxidant
Carbon monoxide
Particulate matter mechanically
removed for use as collected
Average hourly total Incoming
radiation
Same as at Type in M stations
Not radiation. (Difference
between incoming solar and sky
radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation)
Wind speed and direction at
specified levels
Minutes of sunshine each hour
Temperature, relative humidity,
and pressure in upper air
Change in electrolytic conduc-
tivity of hydrogen peroxide -
sulfuric acid absorbing solution
Automatically recorded
colorimetrlc analysis based on
method described by Saltzman
Automatically recorded
coloriroetric analysis based on
neutral KI reaction
Absorption of infrared
radiation converted to
electrical output signal
Visibility of certain objects at
known distances away was notec
Appraisal of degree of haze as
shown on pictures
Instrument operates on a
differential heating principle
Same as at Type IE M stations
Output of thermopiles recorded
Instrument is a differential
air thermometer
Nitric oxide channel of recorder not
operated successfully
Collected material used for animal
studies of possible carcinogenicity
Picture taken In three compass directions
Sensing units at 251 5 and 501.5 feet
above ground - recorder at ground level
Located In small park area near downtown
area near Cordell Hull Building
Pilot balloons at 1200 and 2400 CST
Rawinsonde at OGOO and 1800 CST
Other measurements usuall made at
available.
-------
DUSTFALL
CONTAINER
LEAD PEROXIDE CANDLE HOLDER
. I
Figure 6. Typical type I aerometric station. See Table 15 for measurements made.
Figure 7. Type II aeromefnc station (anemometer on top of pole not visible).
See Table 15 for measurements made.
48
An Air Resource Management Plan
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Figure 8. Type III oerometric storion. See Table 15 for measurements made.
Area-wide average insoluble dustfall ranged from about 5 tons per
square mile per month in January and May to about 9 in April. Seasonal
averages over the study area did not vary much, ranging only from
about 6 to 7 tons (Figure 9). There is no doubt that emission of par-
ticulate matter collected in dustfall samplers is greater during colder
months than during warmer months because of furnaces used for space
heating. The data indicate, however, that this increased emission in
colder months is balanced by greater dust generation from some other
cause in the warmer months. Sources that might be responsible for
greater contributions in warmer months include construction work,
concrete batching plants, and asphaltic road mix plants. Also, wind-
blown surface dust is greater in warm months because the earth is
drier and dustier.
Dustfall in the Nashville area varies considerably from place to
place as it does in most other communities. Annual averages for in-
soluble dustfall ranged from less than 5 to more than 15 tons per square
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
49
-------
10
FALL
WINTER
SPRING
SUMMER
SEASON
NOTE: TOTAL SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE DUSTFALL
MAY BE ESTIMATED BY MULTIPLYING VALUES
ON VERTICAL SCALE BY 1.8 .
ANNUAL
MEAN
t-
1/5
Q 10
8
6
4
2
0
1
M
SSSSS//SSSSS/A
i
!
I
I
I
s
I
I
1
_
1
I
-
SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. ANNUAL
MEAN
MONTH
Figure 9. Geometric mean of water insoluble dustfall determined by 119 sampling stations
(See Reference 32).
50
An Air Resource Management Plan
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->15 tons/i
mtle /mo
! - 10.01 TO 15 tons/mileV mo
- 5.01 TO 10 tons/mi leVmo
- UP TO 5 tons/mile
2 ,
Figure 10. Annual geometric mean dustfall determined by network of 119 stations
(See Reference 32).
mile per month (Figure 10). This reflects the fact that much of the
dust that falls at a particular site is most often discharged into the air
from a source nearby.
A reasonable value to use as a maximum permissible dustfall rate
averaged over a year, of the type reported herein, is 10 tons per square
mile per month (water insoluble portion only). This value should relate
to the yearly average for any one station located at a place where
people live or where an undesirable effect would result. Higher
rates of dustfall are associated with excessive soiling of porches,
window sills, automobiles, etc., by settled dust. The dustfall measure-
ment method and the small number of samples collected do not justify
full interpretation of data; however, if the rate of dustfall is highly
variable, yearly means or even monthly accumulative samples will
not be adequate measures of the actual problem. The number of people
living in areas with various dustfall rates (as shown on Figure 10) was
determined. A total of 120,000 people lived in areas with dustfall rates
of 10 to 15 tons per square mile per month, and 5,500 people lived in
areas with more than 15 tons per square mile per month. These latter
areas are considered excessively dirty.
Annual average dustfall rates are one basis for judging such pol-
lution; however, dustfall rates may vary considerably from month to
month at a particular location. Figure 11 depicts this variation. It can
be seen that total dustfall for the area in general does not vary much
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
51
-------
40.0
20.0
,
I-
i/>
ID
I I
ANNUAL
FALL
WINTER
SPRING
NOTE:
TOTAL SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE -\
DUSTFALL MAY BE ESTIMATED
BY MULTIPLYING VALUES ON
VERTICAL SCALE BY 1.8
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% OF SAMPLES « STATED VALUE
Figure 11. Cumulative frequency distribution of water insoluble dustfall determined by
119 sampling stations (See Reference 32).
52
An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
from one season to another. The figure also shows that almost 30
percent of the 1,400 individual samples collected corresponded to 10
tons per square mile per month and that in 10 percent of the samples,
a dustfall of 20 tons per square mile per month, or higher, was found!
In summary, dustfall is not a major and general problem in the
area. There are, however, rather large areas in which dustfall is
somewhat greater than desirable and some limited areas with dustfall
far in excess of desirable levels.
TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
Suspended particulate matter was collected by use of Hi-Vol filter
paper samplers. The amount of particulate matter was determined by
weighing the filter before use and after ambient air had been drawn
through it for 24 hours. The increase in weight was due to particles
removed from the air passing through the filter. Samples were col-
lected daily for a year at seven stations in the urbanized area and at
four control stations in semirural areas about 3 miles beyond the
urbanized areas. Results are summarized in Figures 12 and 13 and
Table 16. 34
The U.S. Public Health Service, in cooperation with state and local
governmental agencies, operates Hi-Vol filter paper samplers in over
200 cities of the United States in a program called the National Air
Sampling Network. Data from cities of various sizes collected during
1957-1961 are shown in Figure 14. Cities the size of Nashville (100,000
to 400,000 population), on the average, experience an atmospheric
particulate loading of 101 micrograms per cubic meter. 35 Nashville's
Table 16. AVERAGE ANNUAL AND SEASONAL GEOMETRIC
MEANS OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
Particulate,
Mg/m3
Nashville 1958-1959a 125
Comparable U.S. cities 1959a 101
Nashville seasonal average"
Fall 141
Winter 135
Spring 119
Summer 107
aNational Air Sampling Network cities with 100,000 to
400,000 population.
Seven urban stations.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 53
-------
1,000 r
800 p
600 -
400
D
y
H-
200
100
80
60
40
20
10
- SPRING
SUMMER
1958
1959
I 1-
001 005 01 02 05 I
_LJ I I
10
I I I
I I I
20 30 10 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
PERCENT OF SAMPLES ^STATED VALUES
Figure 12. Cumulative frequency distributions of suspended particulate matter at seven
stations in urban area (See Reference 34),
average of 125 indicates that for a city its size, Nashville has an un-
usually high loading of particulate matter in its air.
Atmospheric particulate matter over the Nashville area ranges
from 107 micrograms per cubic meter in the summer to 141 in the
fall, and 135 in the winter (Figure 12 and Table 16). The higher con-
centrations in the fall and winter reflect the greater emission of smoke
54
An Air Resource Management Plan
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FALL - 1958
SPRING - 1959
OVER 200 |jg /m
151 T0200|jg/ m3
101 TO 150 (jg/ m3
50 TO 100 pg/ m3
SAMPLING STATIONS
WINTER - 1958-59
SUMMER - 1959
Figure 13. Seasonal geometric mean suspended particulate matter (See Reference 34).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
55
-------
^ 3,000
1 000-3,000
700-1,000
400-700
100-400
50-100
25-50
10-25
NONURBAN
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r-
l
1
1
1
>///;////;//;//////////>///;;*
\
] NASN | |
] NASHVILLE V//A
t i i l l 1 i l l
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
MEAN CONCENTRATION, yg/m3
Figure 14. Mean concentration of suspended particulate matter by population of cities,
1957-1961, and Nashville 1958-1959.
and ash from coal-fired furnaces used for space heating. Also, me-
teorological conditions are less favorable for dispersion of pollutants
in the fall season.
The number of people living in areas with various suspended
particulate loadings was determined on the basis of Figure 13 and
population statistics. About 77,000 residents of the Nashville area
live in a 13.2-square-mile area where the annual geometric mean
particulate loading is in excess of 150 micrograms per cubic meter.
About 7,200 people live in areas where the annual geometric mean
particulate loading is in excess of 200 micrograms per cubic meter.
These areas of high and very high pollution are located in the central
and west-central part of the urban area (Figure 13). This is the area
where many coal-fired heating plants are located; the coal consumption
explains, at least in part, the high pollution levels. Topographic
conditions in the area also favor accumulation of pollution.
On some days, pollution levels in the Nashville area are very high.
For example, on 5 percent of the days of the year, total particulate
loadings exceed 320 micrograms per cubic meter (Figure 12).
In summary, the data clearly show that suspended particulate pol-
lution in the Nashville area is excessive. Conditions are particularly
bad in the fall and winter seasons and in the central parts of the
urbanized area.
56
An Air Resource Management Plan
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SOILING INDEX
Soiling index measurements were made by passing ambient air
through filter paper and then determining the reduction in light trans-
mission through the used filter paper as compared to unused filter
paper. Results are expressed as Cohs (coefficient of haze) per 1,000
lineal feet of air. The measurement provides an approximate index of
the ability of particles in the atmosphere to soil surfaces (e.g. windows,
drapes, and buildings) and to reduce visibility through the atmosphere.
A 24-hour sample was collected daily at 36 Type II and Type IE stations,
including the four semirural control stations. In addition, 2- and 4-
hour samples were collected continually at 11 Type m stations, including
the 4 control stations. The data are summarized in Figures 15 16 17
and 18 and Table 17.34, 36, 37 ' '
Seasonal variation in soiling index was very marked (Figure 16).
Average values in the urban area ranged from almost 2.3 Cohs per
1,000 lineal feet in the winter to about 0.5 in the summer. December
£ 3
n rnr
i 1ir
i ii r
. '-°
X 0.9
Q 0.8
? 0.7
O 0.6
j 0.5
o
"> 0.4
0.3
0.2
FROM ORIGINAL DATA
DIVISION AIR POLLUTION
FIELD STUDIES BRANCH
I I I I I I
0.1
0.01 0.05 1 0.2 0.5 1 2
SEMIRURAL CONTROL
STATION RANGE 0.9 - 1.1
0.50
I I I L
_L
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95
% OF SAMPLES 5 STATED VALUES
98 99 99.8 .9 99.99
Figure 15. Two-hour soiling index cumulative frequency distribution, winter season,
Dec., Jan., Feb. 1958-1959; seven stations, geometric mean.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
57
-------
tn
00
Table 17. WINTER SEASON SOILING INDEX, AVERAGES OF 2-HOUR SAMPLES
ff
CO
o
s
p
Seven urban stations
Month
Deo. 1958
Jan. 1959
Feb. 1959
Winter
season
Geometric
mean,
Cohs/1,000
lineal ft
2.54
2.28
1.98
2.26
Geometric
standard
deviation
1.98
2.24
2.14
2.13
84th
percentile ,
Cohs/1,000
lineal ft
5.00
5.11
4.25
4.83
Four semirural control stations
Month
Nov. 1958
Dec. 1958
Jan. 1959
Feb. 1959
Mar. 1959
Apr. 1959
May 1959
Geometric
mean,
Cohs/1,000
lineal ft
0.76
1.12
0.98
0.87
0.49
0.49
0.27
Geometric
standard
deviation
2.21
1.78
1.97
2.00
2.86
2.21
2.06
84th
percentile,
Cohs/1,000
lineal ft
1.68
1.99
1.93
1.74
1.40
1.08
0.56
s
o>
PI
-------
3.5
3.0
5 2.5
- 2.0
1.5
0.5
I WINTER
SPRING
0-4
4-8
4-8
8-12
«H
Figure 16. Four-hour soiling index determined by seven sampling stations (See Reference 36).
,000
800
600
400
200
0
'
/
/
/
>
/
\^
^~- -.
HEATING DEGREE-DAYS
X
\
^^^
3.0
2.0
0.040
0.020
.
s^
/\
'
^-,
^^v.
"1
4-hr SOILING INDEX
^v.
^V
-
-=^i
^--
^
lA^
'
\ ^~~^
^^^
«^^^
^-^
2-hr SO,
AUG.SEPT.OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB.MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG.
MONTH
Figure 17. Heating degree-days and geometric mean monthly levels for soiling index
and sulfur dioxide, 1958-59, at seven urban stations.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
59
-------
and January values were particularly high. This pattern reflects the
increased emission of smoke and ash from space heating equipment,
especially that which is coal-fired, during the colder months. This is
borne out by the close resemblance of the heating degree-day curve,
sulfur dioxide values, and the monthly average soiling index values
(Figure 17).
Soiling index values at the semirural control stations demonstrate
a monthly and seasonal variation similar to values observed in the
urban area. This variation shows the influence of pollution arising in
the urbanized area on locations about 3 miles beyond the urbanized
area. Winter-month pollution levels at the control stations are four
times some spring-month levels (Table 17). Since few sources of pollu-
tion are near the control stations, the increase is assumed to be due
primarily to pollution carried out into the country from the urban area,
The State of New Jersey has developed a rating system for judging
the severity of soiling in communities. Values from 2.0 to 2.9 Cohs
per 1000 lineal feet are classified as "heavy soiling," and those from
3.0 to 3.9 as "very heavy soiling." 39 These ratings refer to the
capacity of pollutants in the atmosphere to soil clothing, furnishings,
buildings, etc. The number of people living in Nashville areas having
various soiling index values for their atmosphere was determined on
the basis of Figure 18 and population data. About 140,000 people live
in areas where the wintertime soiling index is classified as heavy from
6 to 8 a.m., and about 88,000 people live in areas where the soiling is
classified as very heavy at the same time.
Soiling index values in general are highest from 6 to 10 a.m. Since
Figure 18 shows the 6 to 8 a.m. to be considerably higher than the mid-
night to 2 a.m., soiling index, Nashville is similar to other cities in
this respect. The higher values from 6 to 8 a.m. are due to increased
pollutant emissions as the people start their daily activities and to
generally less favorable meteorological conditions for dispersion of
pollution around 6 a.m. than at most other times.
The geographical area subjected to heavy soiling is much smaller
in the spring than in the winter (Figure 18). Only a very small area in
the central part of Nashville experiences 6 to 8 a.m. soiling values of
2.0 to 2.9 Cohs per 1,000 lineal feet in the spring season, a much
cleaner situation than indicated by the winter season maps.
In summary, the data show that soiling is excessive in Nashville
in the winter season. Soiling is not a serious problem in other seasons,
although on a few days in the spring and fall, soiling is somewhat greater
than desirable. The influence of soiling particles arising in the city
and deposited at locations 3 miles beyond the urban area is significant.
A major source of soiling particles is space heating equipment; coal-
fired furnaces are the greatest contributors to this problem.
60
An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
(MIDNIGHT-2 a.m.)
WINTER
I I 0 - 0.99 Coh/1,000 ft
EH 1.0 - 1.9 Cohs/1,000 ft
El 2.0 - 2.9 Cohs/1,000 ft
H! 3.0 OVER Cohs/1,000 ft
SAMPLING STATIONS
SPRING
(6-8 a.m.)
Figure 18. Comparison of winter and spring geometric mean soiling distributions,
selected 2-hour periods (See Reference 38).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
61
-------
SULFUR DIOXIDE
During the 1-year survey, approximately 12,000 twenty-four-hour
samples and 30,000 two-hour samples of atmospheric sulfur dioxide
were collected and analyzed with a slightly modified tetrachloro-
mercurate (TCM) procedure originally described by West and Gaeke.4"31
This method is very sensitive and quite specific for sulfur dioxide al-
though presence of ozone and nitrogen dioxide in the air being sampled
is thought to cause erroneously low results. The low indicated con-
centrations may also have been caused in part by the sampled air being
passed through a filter paper before entering the sulfur dioxide
absorber.
A Thomas Autometer was used to measure sulfur dioxide con-
tinuously at station 60 (the central station). The Thomas Autometer
is not specific for sulfur dioxide, but responds to any soluble gas that
yields electrolytes in the collecting solution; therefore, some positive
interference (increased values) in evaluating atmospheric sulfur dioxide
may occur.42 The total electrical conductivity of the absorbing
solution is measured and recorded in terms of equivalent sulfur dioxide
concentrations. Although it is not specific for sulfur dioxide, this in-
strument has been widely used for monitoring complex urban atmos-
pheres.
Sulfur dioxide and other reactive sulfur compounds were also
measured by the lead peroxide candle method at 123 sampling stations.
Four of these stations were for control purposes. Lead peroxide paste
was applied to gauze that had been wrapped around a glass jar. The
prepared jars ("candles") were placed in shelters in the field, where
they remained for 30 days. Sulfur dioxide as well as certain other
sulfur compounds in the air react with the lead peroxide to form lead
sulfate, which is measured by chemical analysis. Results are ex-
pressed as milligrams of sulfur trioxide (803) per 100 square centi-
meters of lead peroxide surface per day (mg SOs/lOO cm^/day). The
results are summarized in Table 18 and Figure 19.
Table 18. ANNUAL AND SEASONAL GEOMETRIC MEAN SULFATION
RATESa DETERMINED BY 119-URBAN-STATION NETWORK
80s,
mg/100 cm2/day
Nashville 1958-1959 0.190
Fall
Winter
Spring
Summer
0.173
0.536
0.186
0.073
aTaken from Reference 32.
62 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
4.00
0.01
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
; OF SAMPLES = STATED SULFATION
95 98
Figure 19. Seasonal cumulative frequency distribution measured at 119 sampling
stations (See Reference 32).
A comparison of the three methods of atmospheric sulfur dioxide
measurements as used in the Nashville study was reported by Stalker,
et al. 41 He showed that the relationship between sulfur dioxide
measurements by the TCM method and sulfation as measured by the
lead peroxide candle method, during the winter season, was: 1 nig
SO3/100 cmVday ^ 0.042 ppm SC>2 averaged over 2-hour periods.
The Thomas Autometer measurements of sulfur dioxide averaged
over 2-hour periods were two to three times higher than the 2-hour
TCM measurements and almost two times as high as the 24-hour TCM
measurements. This causes difficulty in interpreting the data. Although
it is probable that the TCM measurements more nearly indicate the
true sulfur dioxide concentrations, it is possible that the actual values
may be higher, as indicated by the Autometer measurements. There is
no doubt that the differences actually occurred, but no adequate expla-
nation is possible in the light of current information. One can only keep
the matter in mind, do the best possible job of interpreting the data, and
hope that further research will provide more useful information.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
63
-------
The geographic distribution of various sulfur dioxide pollution
levels in the winter season as indicated by sulfation rates determined
by the lead peroxide candle method and by the TCM method are shown
in Figure 20.^2 There is good general agreement in results using
the two methods. Highest sulfur dioxide levels prevail in the central
part of the urbanized area. The number of people living in areas with
various atmospheric sulfur dioxide levels as indicated by sulfation
measurements was determined on the basis of Figure 20 and population
statistics. About 120,000 people live in areas where winter season
average sulfation rates exceeded 0.7 mg SOs/lOO cm2/day. This level
of sulfur dioxide pollution is undesirably high.
Sulfur dioxide may cause damage to certain species of vegetation
if present at a concentration of 0.2 ppm or more for an 8-hour period
or at 1.0 ppm for 1 hour. The frequency of occurrence of concen-
trations above 0.2 ppm (Figure 21) is,therefore, of interest. At station
48, about 5 percent of the 2-hour samples collected in the winter time
exceeded 0.2 ppm, and at station 60, about 2.5 percent. At stations 19,
52, 82, and 90, about 1.5 to 2.0 percent of the samples exceeded 0.2
ppm. At four of the seven sampling stations, more than 10 percent of
the 2-hour samples exceeded 0.1 ppm in the winter season, with station
48 experiencing this relatively high level about 24 percent of the time.
Frequency of occurrence of concentrations above 0.1 and 0.2 ppm is
greatest for the 6 to 8 a.m. period of the day and lowest for mid-
afternoon hours (Figure 21).
The months of November through March have the greatest frequency
of occurrence of 2-hour sulfur dioxide concentrations greater than 0.1
and 0.2 ppm (Figure 21). These are the months when use of fuel for
space heating is greatest; therefore, fuel-burning is implicated as a
major contributor to atmospheric sulfur dioxide. The emission in-
ventory confirms this reasoning and shows that coal-burning is the
major source of sulfur dioxide. The data in Figure 21 indicate that
sulfur dioxide is not a problem during the months of April through
September.
On days when meteorological conditions are not favorable for dis-
persion of pollution and emission of pollutants is great, some very high
concentrations of sulfur dioxide occur in Nashville. For example, 0.83
ppm occurred in a 2-hour sample at station 82 from 6 to 8 a.m. on
Christmas Day of 1958. An instantaneous peak of 1.8 ppm was recorded
by the Thomas Autometer at station 60 at about 10 a.m. on January 10,
1959. These were both maximums for the study period of 1958-59.
Continuous automatic recording instruments similar to the Thomas
Autometer are operated by the Public Health Service in six cities.
Several gases in addition to sulfur dioxide are measured in this project,
which is referred to as the "Continuous Air Monitoring Program"
(CAMP) (Figure 22). Sulfur dioxide concentrations from the recorder
operated in Nashville from January to May 1959 indicate more of this
pollutant than in any of the CAMP cities except Chicago. All of the
64 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
0.9 OR MORE mg SOj/100
cm Vday
' 0.7 TO 0.89 mg S03/100
cm /day
; 0.5 TO 0.69 mg S03/100
cm /day
0.3 TO 0.49mg S03/100
cm Vday
0 O
SULFATION RATES
(LEAD PEROXIDE CANDLE METHOD)
E j= 0.04 OR MORE ppm BY
VOLUME
^=0.021 TO 0.03 ppm BY
VOLUME
02= 0.011 TO 0.02 ppm BY
VOLUME
I I- 00 TO 0.01 ppm BY VOLUME
SULFUR DIOXIDE LEVELS
(TCM METHOD)
Figure 20. Comparison of sulfation rates and sulfur dioxide levels; data from 32
type II and type III sampling stations in urban area, winter season geometric
means (See Reference 32).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
65
-------
o
Q
O
z
30 (1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 'I
JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE
MONTH
I I I I I I I |
WINTER SEASON
19 48 52 56 60 82
STATION NO.
90
LEGEND
^ 0.1 ppm
> 0.2 ppm
NOTE:
DATA FROM SEVEN TYPE I
SAMPLING STATIONS IN
URBAN AREA.
0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12
HOUR OF DAY
Figure 21. Two-hour sulfur dioxide concentrations above 0.1 and 0.2 ppm (See Reference 37).
66
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0.01
10
DATA FROM CAMP {CONTINUOUS
AIR MONITORING PROGRAM)
CITIES COLLECTED FROM JAN.
THROUGH MAY, 1962.
30 50 70
% OF DAYS
90
99
Figure 22. Frequency of various 24-hour mean sulfur dioxide concentrations at CAMP
stations and Nashville.
CAMP cities are considerably larger than Nashville, which indicates
that Nashville, in addition to having high sulfur dioxide levels, has
levels far above what it should have, for its size. This reflects the
relatively high emission rates and poor meteorological and topo-
graphical conditions for dispersion of pollutants that exist in Nashville.
The levels of sulfur dioxide during disasters, in which many more
than the usual number of people died, in London, England, Donora,Pa., and
New York City, were in the same range as the maximum levels found in
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
67
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Nashville. 43 The extremely high concentrations did not persist for so
long a time in Nashville; however, there is cause for concern, but not
for panic. Furthermore, sulfur dioxide, while present in abnormally
high quantities during these disasters, is not considered to be the sole
causative agent of the illnesses and deaths that occurred. Laboratory
experiments indicate that other pollutants also play a role in causing
the acute effects experienced by people. Bronchial-asthma attack
rates, total morbidity, cardiovascular morbidity, and respiratory
disease mortality, with certain exceptions, are, however, significantly
higher in Nashville, where exposure to sulfur dioxide and particuTates
as measured by the soiling index are greater. (See Effects section.)
In summary, the data indicate that sulfur dioxide concentrations
in the Nashville area are excessive during the winter space-heating
season.
OXIDANTS
Oxidants, as considered here, are those substances in the atmos-
phere capable of reacting with potassium iodide to release free iodine.
A principal oxidant constituent is ozone, with lesser amounts of alkyl
peroxides, nitrogen dioxide, and several other compounds usually
present. The oxidant complex is not characteristic of emissions from
particular sources as such, but is the result of photochemical re-
actions among atmospheric contaminants (especially hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides) in the presence of sunlight.
The State of California in its standards for ambient air quality,
established the "adverse" level for oxidants at 0.15 ppm for I hour,
as determined by the potassium iodide method. It is the level at which
eye irritation, plant damage, and visibility reduction may be expe-
rienced. 44
Oxidants were measured in Nashville at station 60 in the 1958-1959
study with a continuous recording instrument. Operation of the in-
strument is based on a colorimetric analysis using the buffered po-
tassium iodide reaction. The concentrations were recorded as peaks
and averages within one-half-hour periods. The data for October 1958
through April 1959 are shown in Figure 23. The highest recorded
momentary concentrations were 0.16 ppm, which occurred on October
6, 20, and 21; November 11, 13, and 21; and April 16. The 1/2-hour
average at the time of these peak periods was generally around 0.13
ppm. The meteorological conditions on these days were generally low
wind speed, clear skies, and a 24-hour temperature span of approxi-
mately 30°F. These parameters suggest that a radiation-type in-
version existed. The typical photochemical smog symptoms of Los
Angeles occur most frequently with similar meteorological conditions.
Oxidant values in cities similar to Nashville with respect to air
pollution are generally greatest during the summer months. No
An Air Resource Management Plan
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0.06
u
2
O
u
0.002 -
0.001
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
% OF HALF-HOURS STATED VALUE
Figure 23. Frequency distribution of oxidant peak and of average concentrations,
October 1958 - April 1959.
measurements were made during the summer in Nashville; therefore it
must be inferred that the highest concentrations have not been measured
as yet.
The fact that "adverse" levels of oxidants have been approached in
Nashville indicates the need for a monitoring program for this pol-
lutant with followup measures as indicated by the results of monitoring
and observed effects such as eye irritation and vegetation damage.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
69
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AEROALLERGENS
Reports concerning the aeroallergen investigation made during the
1958-1959 study have not been prepared. This very important subject
is worthy of future supplementary work. Such studies would not alter
the program development considerations presented in this report.
Nashville is situated in an area of the country where pollens are
plentiful. In regard to ragweed pollen, the condition is well stated in
a 1961 publication *° of the American Academy of Allergy: "Tennessee1
no refuge areas are known. Along the crest of the Great Smoky Moun-
tains at Newfound Gap, conditions were found to be good. There are no
accommodations at this point, but there might be places with similar
conditions at similar or higher elevations."
CARCINOGENS
One of the components of particulate matter in the air over cities
is the polynuclear hydrocarbon, benzo(a)pyrene, hereafter referred to
as BaP.
BaP is important because of its demonstrated ability to produce
cancer in laboratory animals and its suspected ability to cause cancer
in man. A constituent of tars, it comes from the destructive dis-
tillation or incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials, includ-
ing coal, oil, refuse, and gasoline. It exists in the atmosphere in the
solid state and, therefore, is collected with other particulates. BaP
is only one of many potential cancer-producing substances in the
atmosphere.
The BaP content of the air over Nashville and other cities is re-
ported in a paper by E. Sawicki, et al. 46 A summary of that paper
follows: "Examination of the BaP content in the air of 131 urban and
non-urban areas in various parts of the country has disclosed that
BaP is universally present. Samples from sites in urban areas yielded
higher concentrations of BaP in the air and in airborne particulates
than those from nonurban areas. The concentration of BaP at these
sites was found to vary from 0.01 to 61 micrograms per 1,000 cubic
meters of air. A 12-month study of the atmospheric BaP concen-
tration in nine large, widely separated American cities has shown
that, for the majority the concentration of BaP in airborne particulates
and in the air is at the highest level during the winter months and at
the lowest level during the summer months. A map of the different
concentrations of BaP found in the air shows a geographic variation
which needs a more thorough study. The lower concentration of BaP
in the particulates and in the air of California communities may be
attributed to less winter heating, use of liquid and gaseous fuels, and
in addition, may be due to the action of California sunshine and oxidiz-
ing atmosphere.
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I in
"The concentration of BaP in the benzene-soluble fractions of par-
ticulates from the air of different urban and nonurban areas varied
from 0.00093 to 0.26 percent. The concentration of BaP in the air-
borne particulates of urban and nonurban areas varied from 0.00001 to
0.041 percent. In cigarette tar the concentration of BaP is in the range
of 0.00002 to 0.0001 percent. 47, 48
"If annual inhalation of BaP may be considered a measure of lung
cancer exposure, this exposure is about 100 times greater for an urban
resident than a nonurban one, and the exposure is greater for a non-
smoker in many large American cities than for a pack-a-day smoker
in a nonurban American community. In many American cities the
exposure to BaP of the urban dweller who smokes a pack a day is
double that of the non-smoking resident."
Table 19 indicates that the air over Nashville exposes a person
to as much BaP as does the smoking of two packs of cigarettes per day.
It also indicates that of the American cities studied, Nashville had
next to the highest level of that pollutant.
Table 19. BENZO(a)PYRENE INHALED PER YEAR
FROM AMBIENT AIR AND FROM SMOKING CALCULATED
FROM MEAN ANNUAL CONCENTRATION IN VARIOUS CITIES a
BaPb,
Sampling sites Mg/yr
Missouri State Forest 0.1
Helena, Montana 0.8
San Francisco, California 14
Los Angeles, California 20
New Orleans, Louisiana 26
Atlanta, Georgia 44
Cigarette smoke, pack a day 60
Cincinnati, Ohio 79
Detroit, Michigan 110
Nashville, Tennessee 120
Birmingham, Alabama 150
London (County Hall), England 320
aTaken from Reference 46.
'3Benzo(a)pyrene.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 71
-------
Table 20, based on data from Sawicki's paper,46 is presented to
illustrate further the relationship of BaP concentrations in Nashville
to other American cities. The number entries indicate the position of
Nashville in relation to other cities. The entry "1st" indicates that
Nashville had the highest concentration of BaP and "9th" the lowest
concentration for the month. There is a tendency to find much larger
amounts of BaP in the atmosphere of Nashville in the fall and winter
seasons. This tendency appeared in most of the nine cities that were
studied, but was so pronounced in Nashville as to place it at the highest
or next to the highest level during those seasons. (No data were avail-
able for August, February, and March.) These data indicate that a
substantial part of the BaP in Nashville's air comes from space-
heating activities. The most likely source is small and inefficient
coal-burning furnaces.
Table 20. COMPARISON OF BENZO(a)PYRENE
CONCENTRATION IN NASHVILLE TO EIGHT OTHER CITIESa
Rating of Nashville
in relation to 8
Month Year other cities^
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June
1958
1958
1958
1958
1958
1958
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
7th
No data
2nd
1st
1st
2nd
2nd
No data
No data
3rd
4th or 5th°
6th or 7thc
Q
Taken from Reference 46.
^Ist indicates highest level of benzo(a)pyrene.
cTwo cities with same values.
Another study by Eugene Sawicki, et al. was extended to seven
hydrocarbons: anthanthrene, coronene, benzo(k)fluoranthene,
benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, perylene, and pyrene. In studies
of carcinogenicity benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(g,h,i)perylene have demon-
strated certain cancer causing activity in animals, while BaP has gen-
erally been rated strongly carcinogenic. 4§ The atmospheric concen-
tration of these polynuclear hydrocarbons for 12 cities is given in
Table 21. In January 1959, the total concentration of the eight hydro-
carbons analyzed in the Nashville air was 111.8 micrograms per 1,000
cubic meters. In comparison, the July 1958 concentration was 9.15
micrograms per 1,000 cubic meters. Of the cities studied, these levels
place Nashville as having the third from highest winter concentration,
dropping to third from lowest in the summer. This variation in seasonal
concentration further demonstrates the tremendous influence of coal
combustion for space heating on air quality in Nashville.
72 An Air Resource Management Plan
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8
Table 21. POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBON CONTENT OF AIR FOR SELECTED CITIES8
0>
i-"
5s
City
Winter 1959
Atlanta
Birmingham
Detroit
Los Angeles
Nashville
New Orleans
San Francisco
Seattle
Sioux Falls
South Bend
Wheeling
Youngs town
Summer 1958
Atlanta
Birmingham
Detroit
Los Angeles
Nashville
New Orleans
San Francisco
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
Month
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Jan,
Feb.
Jan.
Jan. -Mar.
Jan. -Mar.
Jan. -Mar.
Jan. -Mar.
Jan. -Mar.
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
May
Hydrocarbon" . Mg/1,000 m
BghiP
8.9
18
33
18
17
7.3
7.5
14
8.3
12
14
22
5.1
8.3
9.5
2.3
3.4
4.6
2.6
6.0
6.8
BaP
7.4
25
31
5.3
25
4.1
2.3
9.0
4.0
16
21
28
1.6
6.4
6.0
0.5
1.4
2.0
0.25
3.9
3.4
BeP
4.7
10
23
8.1
14
6.4
2 9
_
-
14
-
-
1.5
5.9
5.3
0.63
1.2
3.1
0.54
4.0
2.5
BkF
6.0
13
20
5.7
15
3.9
1.7
8.1
2.7
10
13
18
1.3
4.6
4.9
0.45
1.0
1.8
0.24
3.5
2.5
P
6.0
17
25
6.0
30
2.3
1.9
6.7
4.0
32
22
34
0.73
2.1
2.8
0.27
0.58
0.34
0.09
1.7
2.2
Cor
4.3
3.5
6.4
12
4.6
27
4.9
15
3.7
4.7
3.8
3.4
2.5
2.4
1.8
2.2
1.3
2.5
1.6
2.8
2.9
Per
1.1
5.5
6.0
1.6
4.4
0.8
0.34
2.4
0.82
3.0
2.6
7.4
0.40
2.1
1.7
0.034
0.21
0.39
0.043
0.93
0.78
Anth
0.52
2.2
2.0
0.16
1.8
0.10
0.10
1.0
0.22
1.5
1.4
3.4
0.2
0.25
0.38
0.03
0.06
0.1
0.022
0.07
0.12
Total
38.92
94.2
146.4
56.86
111.8
27.6
21.64
56.2
23.74
93.2
77.8
116.2
13.3
32.05
32.38
6.41
9.15
14.8
5.39
22.9
21.2
Position
9
4
1
7
3
10
12
8
11
5
6
2
6
2
1
8
7
5
9
3
4
-3
03
^Taken from Reference 49.
BghiP=Benzo (g,h,i)perylene, BaP=Benzo(a)pyrene, BeP=Benzo(e)pyrene, BkF=Benzo(k)fluoranthene, P=Pyrene,
Cor=Coronene, Per=Perylene, Anth=Anthanthrene.
cNumber indicates position in relation to other cities for total polycyclic hydrocarbons measured; 1 indicates highest
and 12, lowest.
-------
DISPERSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
The rate at which air pollutants are dispersed in the atmosphere
is governed by meteorological conditions and is influenced by topo-
graphy. Two meteorological factors of prime importance are wind
speed and vertical temperature gradient. As wind speeds increase,
dispersion of pollutants is more rapid and generally lower pollution
levels result. Vertical temperature gradients influence the depth of
the layer of the atmosphere in which pollutants are dispersed and the
rate at which pollutants are dispersed within a layer. Normally, the
air near the ground is warmer than air at higher levels. The warmer
air is lighter than the colder air and tends to rise. This sets up
vertical air currents, which disperse pollutants through a relatively
deep layer of air and lower the pollution concentrations. Sometimes,
however, the air near the ground is cooler than the air at higher levels.
When this occurs, a temperature inversion is said to exist. The cooler
air is heavier than the warmer air above and tends to stay near ground
level. Thus, vertical mixing is minimized and pollutants tend to ac-
cumulate and cause high pollution levels in the layer of air near the
ground. The most common form of atmospheric temperature inversion
is a nocturnal or radiation inversion, which occurs frequently during
night and early morning hours with clear skies and light winds. An-
other type of inversion occurs when warm air masses from aloft
descend in a layer to confine a layer of cooler air closer to the ground.
This condition, in effect, puts a lid over an area and restricts the
vertical dispersion of pollutants. This kind of inversion forms as the
result of broad-scale weather patterns.
WIND SPEEDS
Wind speeds and calm periods influence the buildup of air pollution.
Table 22 defines these conditions both in terms of percent of time and
hours for the year in which the study took place. Wind speeds during
the year of the study averaged 5.8 mph in summer, 6.4 mph in fall,
8.6 mph in winter, and 8.9 mph in spring. These differences are not
so great as those in the Mississippi Valley or plains areas of the
country. They do, however, help define certain influences. For example,
the winds of higher average speeds during the winter heating season
help disperse air pollution. The winds with low average speeds and the
high percent of calm periods of the summer extend through October.
This helps explain the severe buildups of air pollution that are observed
in the fall months.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 75
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Table 22. WIND SPEEDS AND PERCENT OCCURRENCE, AUGUST 1958 TO AUGUST 1959
Year
1958
1958
1958
1958
1958
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
Avg
or total
Month
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Avg
wind
speed
mph
5.3
5.9
5.5
7.8
7.6
9.5
8.8
10.1
9.4
7.3
6.7
5.5
7.4
Calms ,
%
10.1
10.3
11.1
7.6
5.5
3.0
7.0
3.0
4.0
7.8
10.7
14.7
7.9
Calms ,
hr
75
74
83
55
41
22
47
22
29
57
77
109
691
0-3 mph,
%
23.2
20.5
28.0
10.1
10.9
14.6
11.9
8.3
5.9
14.5
14.9
18.3
15.2
0-3 mph,
hr
173
148
208
73
81
109
80
62
43
108
107
136
1328
4-7 mph
%
43.4
36.5
29.8
33.9
32.4
24.5
23.2
26.3
24.3
32.3
33.8
39.6
31.7
4-7 mph
hr
323
263
222
244
241
182
156
196
175
241
243
295
2781
8-12 mph
%
19.5
27.0
24.5
31.3
38.4
28.2
31.6
29.6
39.1
31.0
30.5
22.4
29.4
8-12 mph
hr
145
194
182
225
286
210
212
220
282
231
220
167
2574
12 mph,
%
3.8
5.7
6.6
17.3
12.8
29.7
26.3
32.8
26.7
14.4
10.1
5.0
15.8
12 mph,
hr
28
41
49
123
95
221
177
244
191
107
73
37
1386
Total
hr
744
720
744
720
744
744
672
744
720
744
720
744
8760
s>
f'
1-1
a
g
i-t
o
n>
3
CD
a
-------
Wind speed and direction in small parts of the region around Nash-
ville are influenced by topographic features of the area. The topography
modifies general wind patterns, which are governed by broad area
meteorological conditions. Ralph H. Fredrick of the Office of Climat-
ology of the U.S. Weather Bureau has explained the situation as fol-
lows. 50 "Lines of equal monthly average 24-hour wind movement over
Nashville show a relatively consistent pattern from month to month.
This pattern consists of (1) a zone of strongest wind in the southeastern
portion of the city, (2) a medium speed zone along the northern edge
and in the northwestern sections, and (3) the least wind in an elongated
zone stretching from southwest toward northeast (Figure 24). Close
inspection of topographical conditions and prevailing wind shows a
logical pattern of zones as described below:
"Zone 1. The southern border of the urban area shows an abrupt
topographic change with high hills in its western half and relatively
open area in the eastern half. Also, the prevailing wind for Nashville
is from a southerly direction; therefore, as might be expected, the
southeastern section of the urban area experiences the highest monthly
average wind speed.
"Zone 2. The hills northwest of the city are 700 to 800 feet above
mean sea level. The secondary wind frequency maximum for Nashville
is northwesterly and the average speed of northwesterly winds is greater
than that from other directions. While the hills are high enough to
distort the wind pattern, they do not exert as much influence upon the
wind field as do the higher and more massive hills southwest of the
city. However, this hill influence upon northwesterly winds and the
drag which the uneven urban area exerts upon southerly winds, combine
to make the northwest portion and north central border areas, the
medium speed wind zone labeled Zone 2.
"Zone 3. The high hills south-southwest and southwest of the city
provide the southwest portion of the city with a barrier to the prevail-
ing wind flow. The southwestern quadrant of town is also protected from
westerly winds by lesser hills to the west of the city and from northerly
winds by the long trajectory over the urban area. The center of Nash-
ville is the lowest elevation in the urban area and has the greatest con-
centration of uneven building heights. The northeastern section of the
city is low in wind speed because of the long urban trajectories of winds
from all frequent directions and because elevations in this area are
also quite low. The three areas mentioned combine to form an elongated
SW-NE zone of low wind speed designated as Zone 3."
Zone 3, where low wind speeds occur, includes the central part of
the urbanized area. The low wind speeds and the location of pollution
sources contribute to the highest pollution levels occurring in the
central area rather than in other areas. The foregoing information is
of importance in planning the location of operations that will be new
pollution sources and in general management of the air resource of
the area.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 77
-------
ZONE 1-STRONGEST WINDS
ZONE 2-MEDIUM WINDS
ZONE 3-LIGHT WINDS
Figure 24. Surface wind zones on a contour map of Nashville region.
78
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Wind direction determines the area that will be influenced by a
particular source or a group of sources of pollution. South and south-
southeast winds predominate, with northwesterly winds being next most
common (Figure 25).
VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS
The total frequency of atmospheric temperature inversions in the
Nashville area ranges from 30 to 40 percent of the total hours for
various seasons of the year (Figure 26). 51 This frequency is in the
middle to high part of the range of values reported for various parts
of the nation. These data indicate that moderately poor conditions for
dispersion of pollution exist in Nashville as compared to other parts
of the country.
FALL SEASON
(SEPT.-NOV.)
WINTER SEASON
(DEC.-FEB.)
Figure 25. Wind roses for Nashville from data taken at airport, 1949 - 1954.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
79
-------
WINTER
SUMMER
NUMBERS ON ISOL1NES
INDICATE PERCENT OF
TOTAL HOURS.
ANNUAL
Figure 26. Inversion frequency (See Reference 51).
80
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Korshover has tabulated the frequency of occurrence of atmospheric
stagnation cases lasting 4 or more and 7 or more days. 52 These are
periods when unusually high pollution levels would be expected. The
Nashville area experienced about 31 stagnation cases lasting 4 or more
days with a total of about 146 stagnation days during the 21-year period
1936-1956 (Figure 27). This is among the highest occurring in the area
east of the Rocky Mountains and indicates that the Nashville area has
relatively frequent stagnation conditions, which result in unusually high
pollution levels. About two such prolonged stagnation periods would be
expected annually.
Stagnation periods lasting 7 or more days occur about once every
10 years in the Nashville area (Figure 28). During these periods,
extreme pollution levels would be expected. Again the Nashville area
is in an unfavorable situation compared to other areas.
Stagnation conditions lasting 4 or more days occur most frequently
in the months of June, August, September, October, and November
(Table 23). This agrees with the percent of calms indicated in the
center of the composite wind roses shown in Figure 25.
The suspended particulate levels as measured by Hi-Vol samplers
are highest in the fall, when calms are most prevalent. The sulfur
* NASHVILLE
TOTAL NUMBER OF STAGNATION CASES
TOTAL NUMBER OF STAGNATION DAYS
Figure 27. Occurrence of atmospheric stagnation of 4 or more days duration
1936 - 1956 (See Reference 52).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
81
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Figure 28. Total number of stagnation cases of 7 or more days duration frorr
1936 - 1956 (See Reference 52).
Table 23. MONTHLY FREQUENCY OF ATMOSPHERIC
STAGNATION CASES OF 4 DAYS OR MORE
IN NASHVILLE AREA, 1936 1956a
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Stagnation cases
0
0
0
1
2
5
0
4
4
11
4
0
31
aTaken from Reference 52.
82
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dioxide and soiling values do not reflect the influence of meteorological
conditions as much as they do the emissions of this pollutant due to use
of fuel for space heating.
TEMPERATURE
Another meteorological factor that has an indirect effect on air
pollution levels is temperature since more fuel must be burned for space
heating in colder weather. A measure of space heating and fuel use
requirements is the degree-day. This is the difference between the
average temperature for a day and 65°F. If average temperatures for
a day were 45, the day would be assigned a value of 65 minus 45 or
20 degree-days.
In summary, the data available indicate that meteorological and
topographical features of the Nashville area are conducive to the build-
up of air pollutants.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 83
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EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Acute air pollution episodes have caused illness and death. 53 Con-
siderable information is available concerning conditions that existed
during these tragic occurrences. Information concerning possible
chronic effects, however, is far from adequate although there is an
impressive body of circumstantial evidence that points toward the det-
rimental results of long-term, low-level exposure to air pollutants.
Some of this evidence has resulted from studies in Nashville.
Aside from consideration of health effects, air pollution costs the
people of the United States an estimated $7.5 to $11 billion annually
because of corroded metals; damage to buildings, crops, soil, and
livestock; lowered real estate values; and added costs to industry. ^4
It reduces visibility, which can depress the spirit of the people, in-
crease hazards to air and ground transportation, and bring on a pre-
mature twilight that results in earlier use of artificial light. Residents
of cities and towns pay far more than they realize because air pollution
adds to laundry and cleaning bills, painting, and other associated costs.
The growth and economic progress of some cities have been slowed or
brought to a halt by the cumulative adverse effects of dirty air.
MATERIALS DETERIORATION
The 1958-1959 survey in Nashville did not include studies to evaluate
materials deterioration resulting from air pollution. It is well known
from studies in other areas that damage is caused by soot, tar acids,
and gaseous pollutants such as sulfur dioxide in the ambient atmosphere.
Sulfur that has been oxidized during a combustion process may,
upon release to the atmosphere, unite with atmospheric water vapor to
form corrosive acids. The acidity of the atmosphere is closely related
to the sulfur content. 5^
Soot and other fine particles play important secondary roles in the
corrosion mechanism since the particles make possible the retention
of water and absorbed pollutants on surfaces and thus hasten the de-
struction of materials on which they react. Since tar and tar acids are
sticky, they cling to surfaces and have a prolonged corrosive action.
This damage is especially apparent on limestone buildings where the
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 85
-------
adhering particles enhance the attack of atmospheric acids on the
carbonate bearing stone by producing gypsum, which is dissolved by
rain water, leaving a characteristic pitted surface. A part of the
wall around the Tennessee State Capitol Building shows this type of
damage. A black crust of soot and smoke deposits has built up on it
in places. When pulled off the deposit takes part of the stone with it.
HEALTH EFFECTS IN NASHVILLE AREA
Bronchial Asthma
As part of the Nashville survey, a study was made to determine
relationships between bronchial asthma attacks and air pollution. Re-
sults of this study have been reported by Doctor L.D. Zeidberg and
his co-workers. °6 The summary of this report is as follows:
"A group of 84 patients with bronchial asthma, composed of 49
adults and 35 children reported 3,647 asthmatic attacks during 27,440
person-days of observation, or an overall attack rate of 0.133 per
person day. In adults, the asthmatic attack rate varied directly with
the level of sulfation in their residential environment.
"Attack rates on days with the highest and lowest sulfur dioxide
values were significantly different. When the attack rates were shifted
over one day to take account of possible delayed effects, the differences
were even more significant. The influence of temperature, humidity,
and barometric pressure on the asthmatic attack rate could not be
demonstrated, but wind velocity showed an inverse relationship. Pul-
monary function tests indicated that subjects with a one-second timed
vital capacity of less than 50 percent of the vital capacity had sig-
nificantly higher attack rates than patients with more than 75 percent
function."
Vital capacity, a measure of lung function, is defined as the volume
of air that a person can expire in the fullest possible expiration after
the deepest possible inspiration.
Sulfation rates refer to the lead peroxide candle method of measur-
ing sulfur dioxide. This method gave results in Nashville that were
comparable with those from volumetric sulfur dioxide measurements.
Wind velocities are usually lower when meteorological conditions
are conducive to accumulation of air pollutants; therefore, the finding
that asthmatic attack rates had an inverse relationship to wind velocity
further tends to incriminate air pollution as a cause for increased
asthmatic attack rates and indicates the importance of clean air.
86 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Anthracosis
As part of the Nashville Air Pollution Study, pulmonary anthracosis
was studied and reported on in a paper by Doctor Louis D. Zeidberg
and his co -workers. 5' A summary of this paper follows (see Figures
29, 30, and 31):
"1. In 641 consecutive autopsis performed at Vanderbilt University
Hospital during the years 1953 to 1956, excluding those on
subjects under 5 years of age, microscopic evidence of pul-
monary anthracosis was sought.
"2. The deposition of anthracotic pigment increased with age; it
was more severe in males than in females; and in Nashville
residents compared to out-of-city dwellers. Among Nashville
residents it increased with length of residence in the city, and
was more severe, at least in females, in those who had lived in
the more polluted areas of the city. The influence of occupation
could not be demonstrated because of insufficient occupational
history.
100 i
80
60-
20-
SEX
AGE
ANTHRACOSIS
M F M F
TOTAL 5-24
Fppj NONE TO
iill:) MINIMAL
Figure 29. Age and sex differences in degree of anthracosis found at autopsy in 641
individuals at Vanderbilt University Hospital from 1953 through 1956 (See Reference 57).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
87
-------
100 1
80
RESIDENCE
AGE
ANTHRACOSIS
CO CO
TOTAL 5-24
pgl NONE TO
Si MINIMAL
C - NASHVILLE
^MODERATE ||
0 - OUT-OF-CITY
Figure 30. Age and residence differences in degree of anthracosis found at autopsy in 641
individuals at Vanderbilt University Hospital from 1953 through 1956 (See Reference 57).
80
60
DEGREE OF
ANTHRACOSIS
0-1 NONE TO MINIMAL
2 MODERATE
3 SEVERE
OUT-OF-CITY
0-1 23 0-123
NASHVILLE^20 YR NASHVILLE 20+YR
Figure 31. Residence differences in degree of anthracosis found at autopsy in 466
individuals 45 years of age and over at Vanderbilt University Hospital from 1953 through
1956 (See Reference 57).
88
An Air Resource Management Plan
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"3. No association was found between anthracosis and specific pul-
monary or cardiac symptoms or pathology.
"4. Pulmonary anthracosis appears to reflect an individual's ex-
posure to environmental air polluted with coal dust."
In the text of the report it is observed that "Failure to associate
anthracosis with any other specific pulmonary or cardiac pathology in
this study was not surprising. It is well in line with observations made
by many other investigators who dealt with the usual kind of pathological
material obtained in small sections from collapsed lungs. Only when
the lung is inflated to its normal capacity and whole lung sections are
made and studied, can the association of anthracosis and focal emphy-
sema be demonstrated."
Dr. Charles P. Oderr of New Orleans has observed that for ma-
terial he studied, "the common form of chronic emphysema seems to
develop first in small localized areas which have a high correlation
with trapped perenchymal soot deposits." 58
Anthracosis has been studied intensively as it relates to the oc-
cupational hazards in coal mining; however, it has not been as well
studied in connection with community air pollution. Considerable
difference between occupational and community-air-pollution-caused
anthracosis probably exists because of combustion or distillation
processes that might tend to destroy or to concentrate toxic chemicals
in community air pollutants. There is also evidence that soot particles
may absorb gases or liquids from the air and change their toxic po-
tential.
Considerable time may elapse before a definite decision is reached
regarding the importance of anthracosis in human health. In the mean-
time communities will be faced with the necessity of making decisions
affecting the levels of anthracosis-producing substances in the air.
Morbidity
Morbidity (sickness) was studied as part of the Nashville Air
Pollution Study by Doctor Louis D. Zeidberg and his co-workers. 38
The report summary as it appeared in the American Journal of Public
Health, January 1964 follows:
"A method for studying the association of air pollution and mor-
bidity in an urban population has been described, and its limitations
have been discussed.
"Direct correlations of total morbidity and levels of pollution
as measured by the soiling index and 24-hour sulfur dioxide were
observed among individuals 55 years old and older of the middle
socioeconomic class. Direct correlations for the same aerometric
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 8£
-------
parameters were also noted for cardiovascular diseases, but not for
any other specific group of diseases.
"Refinement of analyses to differentiate home and occupational
environment influences on morbidity revealed that housekeeping white
females manifested direct correlations of pollution and total morbidity
for all aerometric parameters, while working white females showed
none. Non-white females tended to show direct correlations in both
housekeeping and working groups. The effect of pollution on specific
diseases of the respiratory, cardiovascular, or gastrointestinal
systems could not be demonstrated because such breakdowns produced
numbers too small for valid analysis."
Mortality
Mortality (death) was studied as part of the Nashville Air Pollution
Study by Doctor Louis D. Zeidberg and his co-workers. 59 A summary
of their report as presented to the 91st Annual Meeting of the American
Public Health Association in November 1963 is as follows:
"1. The plan of a study of respiratory disease mortality in relation
to air pollution, designed to control socio-economic factors
as well as degree of exposure to air pollutants, has been de-
scribed.
"2. With the exception of lung and bronchial cancer, mortality from
other respiratory disease varied inversely with the socio-
economic class, when the degree of exposure to air pollutants
was kept constant.
"3. With the socio-economic factor controlled, respiratory disease
mortality was directly related to the degree of exposure to sul-
fation and soiling, except for lung and bronchial cancer, and for
bronchitis and emphysema.
"4. Age-specific respiratory disease mortality rates up to 65 years
of age were directly related to the degree of exposure in sul-
fation. After 65 years, the highest rates were observed in the
low pollution group.
"5. At all levels of exposure to sulfation, respiratory disease mor-
tality rates for males were higher than for females. The dif-
ference was especially marked for lung and bronchial cancer
mortality.
"6. With the exception of lung and bronchial cancer, respiratory
disease mortality rates for non-whites were higher than for
whites at high and moderate levels of exposure to sulfation.
90 An Air Resource Management Plan
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"7. The deviation of mortality for lung and bronchial cancer, and
for bronchitis and emphysema from the pattern shown by other
respiratory diseases has been discussed."
VISIBILITY
When the moisture content of the air, as measured by relative
humidity, is below 70 percent, the primary factor influencing visibility
is suspended particulate matter. The obscuring ability of this airborne
matter is dependent primarily on the number of particles and their
size. Large particles usually contribute the most weight to an air
pollution sample, but small particles, those of 1 micron diameter and
smaller, scatter the most light and normally cause most of the de-
crease in visibility.
During the Nashville survey, visibility observations were made in
the morning and afternoon from the roof of the Cordell Hull Building
toward the west, north, and east. Data reported here are for the period
September 17, 1958, to February 28, 1959. The results summarized
in Table 24 are for periods when the relative humidity was below 70
percent. Visibility is always reduced more toward the west of this
observation point than it is in any other direction because pollution
levels are relatively high in this direction (see Figures 13, 18, and 20).
Afternoon observations, in general, show an improvement over morning
conditions, probably because solar radiation promotes better vertical
dispersal of pollutants. The winter season visibility is poorer than
that of the fall season. This is probably a reflection of a greater air
pollution load during the winter months.
California standards for ambient air quality declare that an "ad-
verse" level of particulates has been reached when they are "sufficient
to reduce visibility to less than 3 miles when the relative humidity is
less than 70 percent. 44 Applying this standard to Nashville reveals
that "adverse" conditions existed on 20 of the 37 low-humidity days in
the winter season and on 15 of the 33 low-humidity days in the fall
season.
The appearance of Nashville on days of high particulate loading
and reduced visibility is not pleasing. Photographs taken at times of
low and high pollution (Figures 32 and 33) are typical. Surely all
would agree that the low-pollution day would be the much more desirable
of the two.
PUBLIC CONCERN ABOUT AIR POLLUTION
As part of the morbidity survey done in the Nashville area in
1958-59, a study was made to find out whether people were aware of
air pollution and whether they were bothered by air pollution and its
adverse effects. 60 People in 3,032 dwelling units were interviewed.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 91
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Table 24. FREQUENCY OF REDUCED VISIBILITY IN NASHVILLE;
RELATIVE HUMIDITY LESS THAN 70 PERCENTa
Fall season visibility, miles
1/2
1
1-1/2
3
4
6
Total days visibility reduced
Days with no visibility reduction
Total number of days
Percent of days with reduced
visibility
Number of days visibility reduced
to 3 miles or lessc
Winter season visibility, miles
1/2
1
1-1/2
3
4
6
Total days visibility reduced
Days with no visibility reduction
Total number of days
Percent of days with reduced
visibility
Number of days visibility reduced
to 3 miles or less0
9 a.m.
West
5
5
0
5
11
6
32
1
33
97
15
7
7
5
1
11
6
37
0
37
100
20
North
4
5
5
2
7
4
27
7
34
79
16
8
7
2
7
6
1
31
6
37
84
24
East
7
4
0
1
4
10
26
5
31
84
12
10
3
2
3
7
10
35
0
35
100
18
3 p.m.
West
0
4
2
8
18
1
33
2
35
94
14
1
3
5
5
20
4
38
0
38
100
14
North
0
0
1
2
10
5
18
17
35
51
3
0
3
3
4
13
3
26
12
38
68
10
East
0
0
0
0
1
13
14
21
35
40
0
0
2
2
3
11
10
28
10
38
74
7
aPeriod of observations - September 17, 1958, to February 28, 1959.
September, October, November.
°California standard relating to the "adverse" level of particulates.
"December, January, February.
92
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Figure 32. Photograph taken from Cordell Hull Building on dense air pollution day.
Figure 33. Photograph taken from Cordell Hull Building on relatively clear day.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
93
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The questionnaire was carefully designed to prevent bias, and the people
were not aware that the interview had, as its primary purpose, study
of various facets of the air pollution problem.
The hypothesis postulated in this public opinion survey was: "If the
people of Nashville were aware of air pollution and concerned about
its effects, indications of public awareness and concern would be at a
higher level in areas of higher pollution and vice versa." Responses
to questions did indicate significant increasing awareness and concern
about air pollution as pollution levels increased (as related to actual
aerometric data in the respondent's neighborhood) (Figure 34). Women
were more concerned than men about air pollution. The higher the
socioeconomic status, the greater the correlation between degree of
concern and air pollution levels. Depending on the category of com-
plaint, from 18 to 51 percent of the people interviewed were bothered
by such matters as soiling of homes, automobiles, furnishings, and
laundry; bad smells; haze in the air; and deterioration of metals (Table
25). These data leave no doubt that the people of Nashville believe that
their air is dirty.
100
90
70
O 50
p 40
30
20
10
1 T
\
\
\
AIR POLLUTION INDEX
INDEX OF CONCERN ABOUT
AIR POLLUTION
01234567
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF NASHVILLE, miles
Figure 34. Radial distribution from center of Nashville of air pollution levels and
public concern about air pollution (See Reference 60).
94
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Table 25. RESPONSES TO DIRECT QUESTIONS ON AIR
POLLUTION IN PUBLIC OPINION SURVEYa
Question
Are you bothered with smog ?
In the area where you live are you bothered by :
a. Outside of the house getting dirty fast ?
b. Frequent bad smells in the air ?
c. Automobile getting dirty fast ?
d. Too much dust and dirt collecting on the porch,
window sills, etc?
e. Frequent haze or fog in the air ?
f. Walls, curtains, and furniture getting dirty
too fast ?
g. Laundry getting dirty while hanging out to dry ?
h. Screens and gutters wearing out fast ?
Percent "yes" of
applicable responses
23.0
36.5
26.2
44.3
51.2
28.9
48.7
34.6
18.4
aTaken from Reference 60.
A summary of major conclusions given in the full report on this
survey "^ are as follows:
"1. An extension of the sample population to the total Nashville
population shows that about 50,000 of the 232,000 residents
were bothered by smog (air pollution in general); and from
40,000 to 100,000 residents were bothered by effects of air
pollution such as soiling of surfaces and objects, decreased
visibility, odors, and damage to property.
"2. Thirteen percent of the respondents living in the City of Nash-
ville felt that the city did not do a good job of keeping the city
clean.
"3. The people's awareness of, and concern about, air pollution was
influenced more by frequency of occurrence of days of unusually
high pollution than by high monthly, seasonal or annual average
pollution levels."
The third conclusion, if proved true in a general sense, indicates
that people's desire for clean air may be reached by preventing the
unusually high pollution levels that occur on a relatively small number
of days. Measures to accomplish this would be somewhat different
than measures designed to reduce pollution by the same amount at all
times. They would be measured by 99th percentiles on frequency
distribution graphs of pollutants.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
95
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MATHEMATICAL AIR POLLUTION
DIFFUSION MODELS
AS AIDS TO ZONING, PLANNING,
AND PROGRAM DECISION MAKING
There were two air pollution diffusion models tested in connection
with the Nashville study. The first, sulfur dioxide, used meteorological
and emission data covering 2-hour periods to give calculated levels of
sulfur dioxide that were compared with corresponding 2-hour volumetric
sulfur dioxide measurements. The final results, both calculated and
measured, were 24-hour means. The second diffusion model, sulfation,
utilized published monthly meteorological summaries of hourly observa-
tions and the same basic sulfur dioxide emission data as was used in
the first model test. Its output, monthly average sulfation rates, was
compared with measured sulfation values.
PURPOSE OF MODELS
Community decisions often have major effects on air pollution
levels. For example, a community has a major odor problem due to
an inadequate sewer system or sewage treatment facilities. If that
community made a decision to construct adequate sewers and treat-
ment facilities, the odor would in due time be abated. A decision to
do nothing would assure the continuation of the odor problem. Many
examples of community decisions that would either increase or de-
crease air pollution can be mentioned. It is extremely important, there-
fore, to consider air pollution within the decision-making process of
the community.
To a considerable extent, in the present-day metropolitan area,
decisions center around the planning process, with resultant action
reflected in zoning ordinances and individual guidance based on the
comprehensive plan in its several parts. The present trend of planning
commissions to utilize machine data-handling systems (electronic
computers and others) facilitates study and analysis of air pollution
problems. For example, data cards pertaining to land use could
readily include information concerning the air pollutants emitted on
each parcel of land. Furthermore, it appears possible to utilize this
basic system through suitable computer programming to analyze air
pollution problems, and predict air pollution levels. A start toward
the development of such a system was made during the Nashville
study.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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TEST OF VOLUMETRIC SULFUR DIOXIDE DIFFUSION MODEL
One mathematical air pollution diffusion model tested in Nashville
relates air pollution emission rates and meteorological diffusion
parameters by use of an IBM 7090 computer program. The end results
are maps showing predicted air pollution levels attributable to res-
idential, commercial, and industrial pollution sources. The model,
developed from existing diffusion knowledge, was tested at Nashville
by measuring actual sulfur dioxide levels and comparing them with
calculated (predicted) levels. Further details of the model capabil-
ities and limitations are reported in a paper by D. B. Turner. 61
According to the manuscript 58 percent of all calculated sulfur
dioxide concentrations were within 0.01 ppm of measured concen-
trations and 86 percent were within a factor of 2 + 0.01 ppm of
the calculated values. It further reports a tendency of the model to
overcalculate sulfur dioxide concentrations. This tendency may well
be influenced by a preliminary (since corrected) overestimation of
sulfur dioxide emissions as described in the section on "Sources of
Air Pollutants." The model is discussed here with a recognition that
refinements are needed for general application, but also with the
knowledge that it has been tested for Nashville, and that its capabil-
ities and limitations are known for that city.
APPLICATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE DIFFUSION MODEL
Pollution source strengths, in the present case sulfur dioxide
emission rates, were taken from the sulfur dioxide emission inventory
prepared by H.J. Paulus and his co-workers and reported by Stalker
et al.ll These emission rates were for commercial, residential, and
industrial sources; therefore, calculated sulfur dioxide concentrations
attributable to each source type were,known. Total emission for each
square mile in the area and the percent of the total area-wide emission
from each square mile were plotted on maps. Figure 35 is an example
of this information for an average winter day. Emissions for space
heating were considered by 2-hour periods to establish the diurnal
variations during the day. A day covered the 24-hour period from
2 p.m. to the same time the following day. In the use of the model
reported here, the assumption was made that all residential emissions
occurred at 10 meters above ground level, commercial emissions 25
meters above ground level, and industrial emissions 45 meters above
ground level.
Eight days were selected for purposes of this report for making
predicted (calculated) estimates of ambient-air sulfur dioxide concen-
trations. Seven of these were selected from among the 8 days during
the 1958-59 study when area-wide 24-hour average sulfur dioxide
concentrations were higher than on any other day (Table 26). These
days were selected because of the great interest in days of high pol-
ution and because unavoidable inaccuracies in air pollution measure-
ments are less significant when concentrations are high. The day with
the fourth highest sulfur dioxide level was not used because precipitation
98 An Air Resource Management Plan
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1 I 2 I 3J4 I 5 | 6
15 EH > 3 tons/day
14 g 0.15 to 3 tons/day
r] <0.15 ton/day
10S 11 |12| U3I14/15 16 17 18
Figure 35. Mean winter-season sulfur dioxide emission calculated, Nashville
community air pollution study, square-mile-area boundaries (See Reference 11).
Table 26. RANK OF SULFUR DIOXIDE LEVELS ON DAYS
SELECTED FOR APPLICATION OF DIFFUSION MODEL
Date
Dec. 20-21, 1958
Dec. 21-22, 1958
Dec. 11-12, 1958
Jan 10-11, 1959
Nov. 30-Dec. 1, 1958
Dec. 7-8, 1958
Nov. 21-22, 1958
Jan. 28-29, 1959
Ranka among all days from August 1958
to July 1959 according to observed
24-hour area-wide sulfur dioxide
concentration
40
High to low.
occurred on that day. The diffusion model is not expected to give good
results when rain occurs. The 40th ranking day (January 28-29, 1959)
was selected because sulfur dioxide emissions for that day were rep-
resentative of the average for January 1959.
The high pollution levels experienced on the 7 days selected for
study were associated with low wind speeds, as expected. In Table 27
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
99
-------
Table 27. WIND SPEED FREQUENCIES FOR DAYS SELECTED
FOR APPLICATION OF DIFFUSION MODEL AND
FOR A 5-YEAR PERIOD
Wind speed, mph
0-3
4-7
8 12
13 - 18
19 - 24
25 - 31
32 - 38
% of occurrence
7 selected days
66.6
27.4
6.0
0
0
0
0
Oct. -Mar. (5 yr)
22.8
30.2
25.8
17.3
3.2
0.5
0.2
Apr. -Sept. (Syr)
33.2
37.3
21.7
7.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
and Figure 36 wind speeds on the selected days are compared with
normals determined over extended time periods. Notice that the pro-
portion of 0-3-mph wind speeds for the 7 selected days was 2 and 3
times greater than those for the longer-time-average periods.
Using the sulfur dioxide emission data, actual meteorological data
for the respective days, the mathematical air pollution diffusion model
and machine data processing, calculations were made of predicted
sulfur dioxide concentrations at the center of each square mile on a
9- by 11-mile grid system superimposed on the Nashville area.
Separate concentrations were calculated for sulfur dioxide due to
residential, commercial, and industrial sources of the pollutant. Lines
were drawn connecting locations of equal sulfur dioxide concentrations
due to each of the three types of pollution source. The results are
shown in Figures 37 through 44. Concentrations due to each type of
source may be added together to get the total sulfur dioxide level at
any point in the area on a particular day. This method of plotting
makes it possible to determine at a glance the importance of each type
of source on pollution levels in any particular area on a given day.
The prediction maps can and should be used as a guide in locating
new installations that may emit sulfur dioxide air pollution. For this
use, the probable contribution of the new source or sources should be
calculated and added to those levels indicated on the prediction maps.
This will aid in deciding whether the prospective level is acceptable
or whether a different location should be found for the installation or
controls placed on that and other contributing sources.
The prediction maps can be used to determine the range and magni-
tude of influence of residential, commercial, and industrial emissions
of sulfur dioxide. These, in turn, will assist in consideration of the
effect of certain decisions, for example, the elimination of home heating
with sulfur-bearing coal. The maps would reflect this change as
elimination of all residential source contribution isopleths.
100
An Air Resource Management Plan
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H
S"
s
(B
(+
4
I
l-i
(I)
p
NNW
NNE
NW
WNW
SW
NE
ENE
ESE
SE
SSW
SSE
SSW
SSE
FOR 7 DAYS WITH HIGH SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
PERIOD OF NOVEMBER 1945 - FEBRUARY 1954
Figure 36. Percentage frequency of wind direction and speed in Nashville.
-------
Figure 37. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration in parts per hundred millionf(pphm) in Nashville
on~Dec. 20, 21, 1958.
RESIDENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL
12
Figure 38. Mathematical diffusion mode! test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Dec. 21, 22, 1958.
102
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RESIDENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL
Figure 39. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Dec. 11, 12, 1958.
Figure 40. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Jan. 10, 11, 1959.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
103
-------
10 11 12
Figure 41. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Nov. 30, Dec. 1, 1958.
Figure 42. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Dec. 1, 8, 1958.
104
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RESIDENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL
11 12
Figure 43. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Jan. 28, 29, 1959.
RESIDENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
INDUSTRIAL
Figure 44. Mathematical diffusion model test, predicted 24-hour average sulfur
dioxide concentration (pphm) in Nashville on Nov. 21, 22, 1958.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
105
-------
If an area zoning change were being considered, sulfur dioxide
levels for the square mile or miles involved should be determined
from the maps. For example, if square mile East 3, North 9 is con-
sidered, the following values for the 7 high days are obtained: 0, 1, 0,
12, 3, 3, and 0 pphm (by volume) of sulfur dioxide. This gives a pre-
dicted average for the 7 days of 2.7 pphm (0.027 ppm), which is accept-
able according to the suggested goal of 0.1 ppm maximum 24-hour mean
value. If the square mile East 7 and North 8 is selected, the following
values are obtained: 9, 2, 15, 14, 9, 15, and 2 pphm. This gives an
average for the 7 days of 9.4 pphm (0.094 ppm). For the 3 maximum
days, values are 15, 15, and 14 pphm; the average is 0.15 ppm, which
is above the 0.1 ppm suggested goal. It can be anticipated that the
maximum instantaneous value would be about 3 times the average, or
0.45 ppm.
Although beyond the capability of the present operation, yearly or
seasonal averages or time and frequency of concentrations could
conceivably be predicted through more extensive use of the model
and computer. The model could also be used to predict ambient air
concentrations of any gaseous pollutant for which emissions can be
determined and atmospheric decay rates are known.
These diffusion model studies in Nashville were based on the TCM
(West & Gaeke) method for measuring sulfur dioxide. Although this is
considered to be a precise and reliable method, it may, give values
somewhat lower than true values (see Sulfur Dioxide Measurement
section of this report).
TEST OF SULFATION DIFFUSION MODEL
The test and development of this diffusion model is reported in a
paper entitled "A Prediction Model of Mean Urban Pollution For Use
With Standard Wind Roses." 62 The abstract of this paper is as follows:
"An empirical diffusion equation was used with published summaries
of wind direction and speed frequencies obtained at the Nashville
Weather Bureau station to compute patterns of mean monthly
relative concentrations. The patterns consisted of the relative
concentration contributions from grid points at 1-mile intervals
to the central grid point. An estimate of SO£ emissions for each
square mile of the Nashville area was combined with these relative
concentration patterns, using an electronic computer to obtain
patterns of mean monthly SO2 concentrations. Computations were
made for 5 principal space-heating months.
A network of 123 lead peroxide candle measurement sites provided
patterns of observed SO2 concentrations. While the absolute magni-
tude of the concentrations predicted could not be verified, due to
cumulative uncertainties in the source inventory, and in the in-
terpretation of the candle measurements, the error of prediction
106 An Air Resource Management Plan
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is considered to be less than a factor of two. Predicted and ob-
served patterns were generally similar, with a superimposed
topographic effect on observed concentrations. Hillside locations
facing towards the sources showed generally higher than predicted
values, and valley locations sheltered from the sources by inter-
vening terrain, lower values.
Relative monthly emission rates determined from a comparison
of predicted and observed values for the area showed a close
linear relationship to monthly degree-day totals, for the 5
months considered. A dropoff from the linear trend could be
noted for non-heating and transitional months."
APPLICATION OF SULFATION DIFFUSION MODEL
The application of this model is essentially the same as that for
the model using volumetric sulfur dioxide measurements. The limi-
tations and exceptions are primarily related to the inability to interpret
sulfation results. Sulfation cannot be related specifically to sulfur
dioxide; therefore, the criteria that apply to sulfur dioxide effects do
not apply directly to sulfation measurements. Furthermore, it is quite
possible that other pollutants affecting the sulfation rates may be fully
as important as sulfur dioxide. An additional complication arises
since the long-term averages provided by this diffusion model and the
sulfation measurements do not relate to effects from sulfur dioxide or
other known air pollutants that enter into sulfation reactions because
these effects generally relate to exposures of less than 1 day.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 107
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A PROPOSAL FOR AN AIR RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
FOR NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
ELEMENTS OF AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
The concept of air resource management as compared with and
contrasted to air pollution control is in its infancy; however, some
major activity areas are now evident. They are:
1- A continuing air quality monitoring program. As part of this
function, the effects of air pollution on public health and welfare,
property, vegetation, and visibility will be determined con-
tinually.
2. A current and continuing emission inventory. This is a tabu-
lation of the air pollutant emissions of consequence from any
and all sources. Because it relates to air use, it has much in
common with land use, a planning term. This relationship, in
turn, calls for coordination of responsibilities and activities
of agencies involved in land-use planning and zoning, and air
pollution control.
3. Air quality goals or standards, based on air quality criteria.
This, in essence, is a definition of the air quality sought for
the area. The organization and methods by which these goals
are to be adopted in the Nashville area need to be determined.
4. A thorough knowledge and use of the conditions influencing the
transport of air pollutants. This involves meteorological and
topographical factors influencing diffusion characteristics of
the air mass. In due time, this knowledge helps provide a
better understanding of reactions taking place in the air and
losses of air pollutants with time after emission from sources.
5. Community planning decisions based on air quality goals. In
time this activity will provide an effective means for the pre-
vention of air pollution, assure conservation of the air re-
sources, and assure use of the air resource that is in the
community's best interest.
6. Air pollution control decisions and resulting ordinances based
upon the information and scientific determinations made re-
garding air quality. This activity involves development of land-
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 109
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and air-use plans and pollutant emission regulations and their
implementation, provision for preventing emission of excessive
pollutants from new establishments, negotiation of specific
abatement plans for individual and classes of sources, and de-
termination of violation of various legal requirements. In this
activity the legal force of the community is used in preventing
and controlling emission of pollutants into the atmosphere.
This area should receive substantial attention because its
success is essential.
GENERAL OUTLINE OF NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA PROGRAM
The data available on pollution levels in the air over the Nashville
Metropolitan Area and the adverse effects of this pollution make it clear
that a comprehensive, air resource management program should be
established. The organizational structure needed to do so must be deter-
mined within the framework of the general reorganization under way since
adoption of the metropolitan form of government. This type governmental
organization enhances the possibility of establishing an air resource
management program that covers the air pollution basin adequately.
Ordinances should be written to establish an air resource manage-
ment program and to provide for its organization, financing, and op-
eration. Provision should be made for the following:
1. Establishment of an administrative organization to carry out
the purposes of the ordinance.
2. A mechanism for adopting detailed rules and regulations needed
to implement the purposes of the ordinance.
3. A means for ensuring that new establishments are provided with
adequate facilities for preventing pollutant emissions.
4. Regulatory functions and their relationship to other governmental
activities, especially those of planning, zoning, and building regu-
lation.
5. Establishment of air quality goals.
6. Maintenance of a continuing air pollutant emission inventory.
7. Conduct of air quality monitoring and other necessary studies,
surveys, and investigations.
8. Conduct of hearings and mechanisms for considering granting
of variances from provisions of the ordinance or specific rules
or regulations in certain situations.
110 An Air Resource Management Plan
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9- A schedule of fees for various permits, inspections, tests, etc.,
if desired.
10. Judicial processes and penalties to apply in cases in which
persons fail to comply with the ordinance or rules or regu-
lations .
The money needed to operate a comprehensive governmental air
resource management program in Davidson County is estimated to be
$100,000 to $160,000 per year (1964). This level of activity could best
be achieved over a period of about 2 years to permit orientation and
training of new staff members and orderly acquisition of equipment
and facilities. Although not part of an air pollution ordinance, pro-
visions for financing and personnel policies are central to the success
of the program.
Some specific elements of the proposed Davidson County air re-
source management program and certain key pollutant emission control
measures that should be provided for by ordinance or rule or regulation
are discussed in the following sections.
AIR QUALITY MONITORING
There are two major needs to be met in air quality monitoring in
the Nashville Metropolitan Area. The first of these relates to the estab-
lishment of long-term trends in air quality. The second has to do with
the collection of air quality information needed for regulatory, planning,
and air conservation activities. These activities should all be part of
the comprehensive air resource management program.
Sulfur Dioxide
The long-range phase of the sulfur dioxide monitoring program
could be carried on best with a continuous-recording automatic sampler
located in the central city area and with seven or more lead peroxide
candles distributed throughout the area to follow trends of monthly and
seasonal average levels as well as changes in the pattern of the ge-
ographical distribution of sulfur dioxide. Operation of this network
every third year would be adequate.
For the phase of the program related to regulation of specific
sources, it would be advantageous to have two portable continuous-
recording sulfur dioxide analyzers, which could be readily transported
and placed in operation. If continuous-recording instruments are not
feasible sequential samplers could be used at a lesser cost for equip-
ment but with some sacrifice in usefulness of data obtained.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 111
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Suspended Particulates
Suspended particulates should be measured by means of the Hi-Vol
sampler and the AISI strip filter paper sampler. The former would
measure suspended particulates on a weight basis, and the latter would
indicate the soiling characteristics of airborne particles. Information
obtained from the 1958-59 Nashville study indicates that one centrally
located sampling station would be sufficient to monitor long-range trends.
Three or four samplers of both types should be used from time to time
in connection with specific source control operations of the program.
Dustfall
Even though dustfall measurements are not as meaningful as would
be desirable from a technical standpoint, they do represent the most
commonly used method of measuring particles that cause soiling of
horizontal surfaces. When conducted in a uniform manner over a
period of years and when data obtained are properly interpreted, these
measurements provide an index of the dustfall situation. It is, there-
fore, suggested that seven or more dustfall collectors be operated on a
monthly cycle on a continuing basis. The locations could well coincide
with location of the lead peroxide cylinders used to measure sulfur
contaminants.
Oxidants
An automatic recording instrument would be desirable for measure-
ment of oxidants. If it could not be justified because of cost, short-
time manual sampling near noontime each day could be substituted.
This would be directed toward finding oxidant levels in the central part
of the city as an index of the photochemical smog situation. Operation
during the months of April through October would be adequate since
photochemical smog is not anticipated in colder months of the year.
Complaint Records
A continuing, complete, and organized list of all air pollution com-
plaints is a valuable means of program orientation that augments
technical air quality measurements. Complaints can be used also to
help locate troublesome single sources of pollution and provide con-
siderable indication of public reaction to generalized pollution levels.
This program phase should be organized to show the geographical
distribution of complaints as well as their type and time of occurrence.
The form in Table 28 is suggested for program use in Nashville. Its
use should be keyed to the map grid system discussed under the Dif-
fusion Model section of this report.
112 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Table 28. AIR POLLUTION COMPLAINT RECORD
NO.
SOURCE NAME:_
ADDRESS:
CITY:
cc. 2-6
Yes No.
PREVIOUS RE CORD: [~~l 1 I I 2
cc. 1
COORDINATES
cc. 8-14
TYPES OF PREMISES: Industrial 1 Commercial 2 Public Bldg. 3 Private 4
cc. 15 II II II Res. II
Month Day Year AM PM
DATE OF COMPLAINT: I 1 1 I 1I I 1 1 TIME: I 1 1 1 II 11| 12
ED m!rrmrTrT
cc. 16-21
cc. 22
NATURE OF COMPLAINT: cc. 23
Smoke | | 1
Soot | | 2
Flyash | | 3
SOURCE OF COMPLAINT: cc. 24
Industrial Process 1
Boiler | | 2
Incinerator | | 3
Pollen | | 4
Fumes 5
Dust | | 6
Furnace 4
Motor Vehicle | | 5
Open Burning | | 6
Spray | | 7
Odor | | 8
Other | | 9
(Specify . _)
Demolition | | 7
Sewage | | 8
Other 1 1 9
COMPLAINANT:
Name
_ Telephone .
(Specify )
Coordinates
X Y
Address
Received by:
Via phone
cc. 34
Letter
ce. 31-33
EFFECT OF ALLEGED POLLUTION: cc. 35
D
Soiling | I
Corrosion
Reduced II
Visibility ' '
Eye Irritation | |
Throat | |
Nausea
Yes No
Obnoxious Odor | | 7
D9
Inspection following complaint: [~[ 1 | 11
cc. 36
Vegetation
Damage
Other
(Specify.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
113
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APPRAISAL OF EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Studies of effects of air pollution on the health of the people of the
Nashville area made in 1958-59 have provided much useful information.
Followup studies and studies of other aspects of potential health effects
would be desirable. Such studies are of a research nature; they re-
quire highly skilled specialized personnel who probably will not be
available within the community government. Universities in the area,
which are equipped to perform these studies, should be encouraged to
do (or continue) work in this field. Funds could be provided in part
by the local government. Other potential sources of funds are various
foundations, the Federal Government, and voluntary health organiza-
tions.
Methods of measuring effects of air pollution on materials, such
as soiling and corrosion, are not well established. Certain studies
can and should be made by, or under, the auspices of the Nashville
area air pollution control agency. Since the soiling capacity of Nash-
ville's air has been shown to be rather high, emphasis should be placed
on determination of the economic costs of soiling of buildings, furnish-
ings, clothing, etc. Information of this kind will be of assistance from
time to time as questions concerning the economic aspects of various
pollutant emission control possibilities are raised.
The visible manifestations of air pollution are, to many people,
the principal index of air quality. Everyone notices decreased visi-
bility. Since decreased visibility is an important effect of air pollution
in the Nashville area, routine observations of visual range should be
made on a continuing basis. One observation at 8 a.m. and perhaps
another at 10 a.m. daily would provide useful information over a period
of years. Relative humidity measurements would need to be made at
the same times for evaluation of the visibility observations.
Vegetation, particularly certain species, is susceptible to damage
by air pollutants. Some species react in a specific known way to certain
pollutants at certain concentrations. Surveillance of vegetative re-
action to pollutants can provide information about identity and con-
centration of pollutants and also indicate adverse effects on plants due
to pollutants. At least a modest program of inspection of sensitive
vegetation is recommended. Since a skilled, specialized person is
required, the local government might find it best to secure the part-
time services of a qualified person from a local university.
AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTORY
The emission inventory is an essential part of an air resource
management program. Providing information on sources, quantities,
and qualities of pollutants put into the air assures orientation of the
air resource management program to the principal problems. At the
same time it provides a "yardstick" to measure the reasonableness
114 An Air Resource Management Plan
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and effectiveness of emission limits directed toward meeting air quality
goals.
The emission information contained in this report will serve as a
program basis for a limited period of time. The existing data will have
to be supplemented to keep up to date on a continuing basis.
All major sources of air pollutants should be required to report
yearly on materials discharged into the atmosphere. This reporting
could be considered a conservation measure and one which is, in the
long run, good business. In an economic and product production sense
the pollutants put into the air would constitute one part of a process
materials balance. Certain sources, however, such as automobiles,
refuse burning, home heating, and related items, would need to be
inventoried directly by the air pollution agency. The U. S. Bureau of
the Census, Census of Manufacturing, and Census of Housing publi-
cations are valuable aids for preparing certain inventory parts. In
some instances, census data can be related to census tracts to show
the geographical distribution of emissions. The emission inventory
activity should be coordinated with the activities of the Planning
Commission. Air pollution emissions are actually air use items closely
related to land use. Coordinated and cooperative activity between the
air pollution control agency and the planning agency could be an ef-
fective and efficient way to maintain an emission inventory. In Nash-
ville, this may not be feasible at this time, but it should be a goal
linked with the use of automatic data processing by the planning agency
and to the prediction of air quality levels. (See Prediction Model
section of this report.)
NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA AIR QUALITY GOALS
With sufficient technical and scientific information concerning
effects of various air pollutants and combinations of pollutants, it
would be possible to establish standards of air quality that would be
optimum for any community. As yet the level of technical and sci-
entific endeavor is insufficient to reach this ideal; however, the
Nashville studies and others provide sufficient information to allow
the presentation of air quality goals related to sulfur dioxide, sus-
pended particulates, soiling quality, and dustfall. These goals, as
used here, are considered less rigid than legal standards, thus their
values can be adjusted as found necessary. They provide for better
understanding and community action concerning air quality and are the
basis for establishing legal regulations applicable to emission of air
pollutants from various sources.
Sulfur Dioxide Goal
A sulfur dioxide goal of 0.1 ppm for a 24-hour average, not to be
exceeded on more than 1 percent of the days during any 100-day period,
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 115
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is proposed. This goal, based on the West and Gaeke method of analysis,
should apply to any place where people live or where an undesirable
effect could result from levels above the goal. The goal has been se-
lected on the basis of specific information concerning health effects
observed in Nashville and supplemented by expert opinion from the
fields of health, agriculture, atmospheric chemistry, materials damage,
and others. Some of the information relating to effects of sulfur dioxide
are summarized in Table 29. The maximum short-term concentration
on a day when the 24-hour average is 0.1 ppm would be expected to be
above 0.3 ppm since the peak concentration for a 24-hour period is
sometimes three (or more) times the 24-hour mean concentration.
This is in the realm of conscious response by people since the taste
threshold for sulfur dioxide is 0.3 ppm. 67 Such conscious response
would occur, however, on only a few days of a year.
Table 29. REPORTED ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATIONS AND
POSSIBLE RESPONSES TO SULFUR DIOXIDE AT VARIOUS LEVELS
Human response
where applicable
Subconscious
Conscious
Offensive
Intolerable
Sulfur dioxide
concentration,
ppm
0.2
0.3
0.25-0.4a
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7b
1
5
10
Reported effect
Dark adaptation threshold (Ref. 29). Dam-
age to very sensitive plant life (Ref. 43).
Taste threshold (Ref. 63).
Nashville. Adult asthma attack rate 3
times higher in high SO2 area than in low
SO2 area (Ref. 56).
7-hour exposure injures most sensitive
plants (Ref. 44).
New York smog episode , Nov. 1953, 200
excess deaths (Ref. 64).
Odor threshold of sensitive persons (Ref. 65).
London smog episode , Dec. 1952. 4,000
excess deaths (Ref. 43).
Guinea pig bronchoconstriction (Ref. 66).
Bronchoconstriction in humans (Ref. 44).
Irritation and distress in humans (Ref. 44).
Based on sulfation measurements and converted to Thomas Autometer 24-hour
mean sulfur dioxide values reached or exceeded 1% of time by statistical
methods in References 70 and 71 and values from Figure 22.
"Average concentration during episode.
116
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Suspended Particulate Goal
The suggested goal for suspended particulate matter as measured
by the Hi-Vol filter sampler is 200 micrograms per cubic meter, not
to be exceeded on more than 1 percent of the days during any 100-day
period. This applies to any point where land and air uses are such as
to make an effect objectionable. The Nashville annual average of sus-
pended particulate matter was 125 micrograms per cubic meter. This
compares to an average of 101 micrograms per cubic meter in United
States cities of similar size. The fall season in Nashville produces
higher average values of 141 micrograms per cubic meter and maxi-
mum values of over 600 micrograms per cubic meter. Visibility, public
opinion, high soiling indexes, and in particular the relatively high level
of potential cancer-causing materials in Nashville particulates, all in-
dicate that higher levels of suspended particulates exist than appear
to be in the community's best interests. The suggested goal for sus-
pended particulates is not as scientifically defensible as that for sulfur
dioxide; however, consideration of all the factors involved and the steps
that can be taken to reduce present levels indicate both its desirability
and feasibility.
Soiling Index Goal
An air quality goal related to the soiling index of 4.5 Cohs per 1,000
lineal feet not to be exceeded over 1 percent of the time during any 3
months is proposed. This goal is based on winter season conditions,
reduction of emissions similar to that indicated for particulate matter
as measured by the Hi-Vol filter, and recognition of practical limi-
tations indicated by the measurements at the semirural control stations
in the summer season. It should apply to any place where people live
or land uses are such as to make an effect objectionable. Compared
with the New Jersey suggested air quality classification, a goal of 4.5
Cohs per 1,000 lineal feet seems high. This goal may not result in an
adequate reduction in soiling effects or satisfactory visibility and must
be considered subject to change if future measurements indicate modi-
fication to be desirable.
Figure 15 extended shows a winter season level of 13 Cohs per
1,000 lineal feet exceeded for 1 percent of the time, with an average
of 2.3 Cohs. The proposed goal of 4.5 Cohs calls for a reduction of the
average to 0.8 Coh, which would require a reduction in average emis-
sion levels of 65 percent.
To reach a soiling goal of 3.0 Cohs, not to be exceeded over 1 per-
cent of the time, would require a reduction of 78 percent, giving an
overall average of 0.50 Coh (Figure 15). This does not appear to be
realistic, but would require reductions similar to those needed to
achieve a total suspended particulate loading of 150 micrograms per
cubic meter on not more than 1 percent of the days (Figure 45).
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 117
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10
.01 .051.1 .2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 405060 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8.9 99.99
% OF SAMPLESS STATED VALUE
Figure 45. Frequency distribution of suspended participates, 24-hour
geometric means
In this case, as with other goals based on 1 percent of time oc-
currence, a reduction in peak concentration will result in reaching the
goal without undertaking the total reduction indicated as being needed
by average values.
Dustfall Goal
A dustfall goal of 10 tons per square mile per month, not to be
exceeded by any yearly station average, is proposed. This is based
on water-insoluble dustfall only. If the water-soluble portion of dust-
fall were included, the value would be 18 tons per square mile per
month. These values include normal background dustfall. The dust-
fall measurements are explained in the Air Quality section of this
report.
Since large particles tend to settle out of the air near their sources,
a treatment of the data to indicate percent reduction of emissions
throughout the community needed to reach the air quality goal is not
very useful. The reductions indicated for particulate matter (total
weight and soiling index) are expected to bring about the desired re-
duction in dustfall.
118
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SOURCE EMISSION REDUCTION TO MEET AIR QUALITY GOALS
Reduction of emissions at the source is the principal means ap-
plied to achieve improved air quality and to reach air quality goals.
The three measures of particulates in the goals just discussed are
interrelated; the reduction of one influences the level of others. Sulfur
dioxide emission reduction might also result in a decrease in measured
particulate pollution levels, depending on the measures employed to
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. Reductions in nitrogen oxides,
oxidants and other pollutants generally will not be affected by emission
control measures discussed in this report. Air pollution from natural
sources, such as pollens and molds, smoke from forest and grass fires,
mineral dust, particles from wind erosion, and fragments of eroded
vegetation, likewise will be unaffected.
Method of Calculating Reduction Needed to Meet Goals
To translate air quality goals into action, a means is needed to
determine the desired reduction in pollutant emissions. A practical
solution to this problem consists of plotting the frequency distribution
of pollution concentrations on log probability graph paper and from
this determining the percent reduction needed to obtain a given air
quality. 63 This calculation is accomplished graphically by drawing
a line parallel to the measured pollution distribution line and inter-
secting the 1-percent-of-days abscissa at the desired concentration
(Figure 46). The expected concentration can be determined from this
line for any given percent of samples, sampling times, or time periods.
The source reduction may also be determined mathematically by
using an equation developed by Dr. Ralph I. Larsen, using Los Angeles
aerometric and meteorological data for the years 1955 through 1958. 63
These data were summarized on automatic data handling cards by
means of an appropriate computer program. A second computer pro-
gram was written to perform correlation and regression analysis for
any two variables. This analysis provided the basis for determining
the percent reduction needed to achieve a desired goal from the follow-
ing equation:
Percent of pollution removal = 100
1-
(P.S.) (D.C.)
(F.S.) (mg) (sg)t
where:
*=!
nig. = Existing 24-hour geometric mean concentration, ppm,
etc.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 119
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gg = Standard geometric deviation
t = Number of standard deviations corresponding to the desired
frequency of occurrence
= 2.33 on 1% of days
= 1.28 on 10% of days
P.S. = Present emission source strength, tons/day, Ib/hr, etc.
F.S. = Estimated future emissions source strength, tons/day, Ib/hr,
etc.
lop-
o.sl
0.6
0.4 -
0.2 -
I I
2 0.1
2 0.08
0.04
0.02
1/2 THOMAS--
AUTOMETER
VALUES
II II _
SULFUR DIOXIDE VALUES
BY THOMAS AUTOMETER
GOAL. 0.1 _
49 TO 75% REDUCTION NEEDED
TO REACH GOAL.
J I I I
I I
0 "'I I I I I I I II I I I I I I
0.010.05 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 9S 96 99 99.8.9 99.99
; OF SAMPLES ^STATED VALUE
Figure 46. Sulfur dioxide frequency distribution, Thomas Autometer,
January - June 1959.
120
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D.C. - Desired pollution concentration, ppm, ng/m3, etc., based on
desired time interval.
These graphical and analytical methods can be applied to any pri-
mary pollutant for which the frequency distribution of air concentrations
is known.
Sulfur Dioxide Reduction Required
The atmospheric sulfur dioxide concentration was measured with
a continuous recording Thomas Autometer instrument during the period
January through May 1959 at station 60 in Nashville. Since a frequency
distribution is needed to calculate the percent reduction, these data
were used. As previously discussed, however, in Nashville the TCM
method, which is specific for sulfur dioxide, gave results that were
approximately half of those of the Thomas Autometer. To allow for
the implications of this difference, the Autometer data are handled
as recorded and with a reduction to half-value. The resulting frequency
distributions were plotted on log-probability paper (Figure 46). The
percent reduction is determined graphically by drawing a line parallel
to the plotted frequency distribution line intersecting the 1 percent of
days abscissa at the 0.1-ppm point, the desired sulfur dioxide air
quality goal. This line intersects the 50-percent-of-days abscissa
at a concentration of 0.028 ppm; thus a general reduction of sulfur
dioxide emissions of 75 percent is needed to achieve the desired goal
of 0.10 ppm not to be exceeded on over 1 percent of the time.
The Thomas Autometer data gave a 24-hour geometric mean value
of 0.11 ppm and standard geometric deviation of 1.73 ppm.
Using the desired 24-hour average concentration goal of 0.10 ppm
or lower at any point, and assuming present and future source strength
will remain constant, the percent reduction is determined as follows:
0.10
Percent reduction = 100
(0.11) (1.73)2
.33 J
= 100
= 75% reduction.
1 MP_1
_ 0.395 J
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 121
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This calculation agrees with the graphical determination of 75 percent
reduction needed to achieve the same goal.
A 49 percent reduction in sulfur dioxide is needed to reach the
sulfur dioxide goal if it is assumed that the Thomas Autometer readings
are in fact double the true values for sulfur dioxide. This conclusion
is reached by dividing the 24-hour geometric mean of 0.11 ppm by 2,
plotting this frequency distribution on a graph (Figure 46), and finding
that an overall reduction from 0.055 to 0.028 ppm is indicated. This is
a 49 percent reduction. The true condition probably lies between the
two values given.
Suspended Particulate Matter Reduction Required
The same method of calculation used for the sulfur dioxide re-
duction determinations can also be applied to suspended particulate
matter levels. This would determine the gross pollutant emission
reduction needed to achieve the desired air quality goal. In the case
of particulate matter, there exists a portion of the overall concen-
tration that arises from natural sources (wind entrainment, road dust,
etc.). This background (natural) concentration is considered irre-
ducible; therefore, it was not included in the percent reduction base (see
Figure 45). Background is taken as that reported for nonurban air
sampling stations in the Southeast United States by NASN from 1957
through 1961 (29 micrograms per cubic meter geometric mean and
1.69 standard geometric deviation) rather than 62 micrograms per
cubic meter indicated by the four Nashville study control stations
(Table 30). These control stations reflect urban influences since they
are only 7 miles from the center of the city.
Table 30. SUSPENDED PARTICULATE CONCENTRATION AT FOUR
CONTROL STATIONS AND SOUTHEAST UNITED STATES
Location
Nashville control stations
120
121
122
123
4 stations collectively
National Air Sampling Network,
nonurban, Southeast region
1957-1961
Concentration, /Jg/m^
Geometric mean
63
68
51
68
62
29
Standard
geometric deviation
1.55
1.47
1.70
1.61
1.60
1.69
122
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For those pollutants where the background contribution should be
considered (especially particulates), the log probability plot method is
preferable. The information from the plotted data is used to calculate
the percent source reduction needed to achieve the desired level of air
quality as follows:
Percent of source reduction needed = 100
where:
A = Existing concentration
B = Desired air quality goal concentration
C = Background concentration
Geometric mean concentrations, 99th percentile, or other values
may be used in the calculations; care should be taken to relate the per-
cent reduction required to the values used. In the Nashville calculations
the NASN data from 1957 through 1961 and data from the seven selected
stations from the 1958-59 study were used. NASN, which was estab-
lished in 1953, gives a readily available record of suspended particulate
matter concentrations at one location over a period of years and as such
is used as an index for evaluating general trends. The location of this
station on the City-County Building is classified by the NASN as a
mixed-use area, residential, commercial, and industrial. Values ob-
tained at this station are typical of those for a large part of the central
area of Nashville. This was indicated by the 1958-59 study results,
which showed that one station in this general location plus one control
station yielded essentially the same average value as a network of
seven stations.
The annual 24-hour geometric mean concentration for the seven
selected urban stations used during the study was 125 micrograms per
cubic meter with a standard geometric deviation of 1.825. Applying
the graphical-mathematical method to the data from these seven
stations, an average emission reduction of 73 percent is needed to
obtain a reduction from the 490 micrograms per cubic meter measured
on 1 percent of the days to the desired goal of 200 micrograms per
cubic meter on not more than 1 percent of days (Figure 45). This is
calculated as follows:
K490-94) (200-94)
Percent of pollution removal = 100 |
1(4!
= 73 percent.
The percent reduction would be 77 percent if mean data were used in the
calculation. This resulting difference is explained by the greater
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 123
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standard geometric deviation of the background data giving a greater
relative concentration for 1 percent of days. A 92 percent reduction
would be needed to achieve the more desirable residential goal of 150
micrograms per cubic meter not to be exceeded on more than 1 per-
cent of days.
The annual 24-hour geometric mean concentration at this NASN
station was 127 micrograms per cubic meter with a standard geometric
deviation of 1.57. The graphical solution indicates that an emission
reduction of 59 percent is needed to achieve the desired goal of 200
micrograms per cubic meter on not over 1 percent of the days (Figure
45). The average level would then be 70 micrograms per cubic meter.
By comparison, a 77 percent reduction would be needed to achieve 150
micrograms per cubic meter on not more than 1 percent of days. This
would result in an average level of 52 micrograms per cubic meter,
only 23 above the background values found in nonurban areas.
The results from the seven stations show the effects of both cleaner
and dirtier areas as compared to the single NASN station. The high
values would be associated with industrial areas and the low values
with residential areas. Since industrial areas can not reasonably be
expected to have the same quality air as residential areas, it is ap-
propriate to give more weight to the NASN data and apply the sug-
gested goal to residential and commercial areas.
The temporal distribution of pollutants in the rural and urban areas
appears to be markedly different. Data from NASN for 1957-1961 in-
dicate that high values for the rural areas occur in the summer, and
those for the urban areas occur in the winter; therefore, reduction of
high values (those occurring on 1 percent of the days) in the urban areas
would be accomplished with a somewhat lower percent reduction than
Figure 45 tends to indicate.
APPROACHES TO REGULATING POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
The technical means are available to reduce air pollutant emissions
to the extent necessary to reach the air quality goals described earlier.
Particulate matter emissions can be reduced by installation of dust
collectors on the exhaust of various fuel-burning and industrial-process
operations. Equipment used and certain information about it are given in
Table 31. In other cases, particulate matter emissions can be reduced
by changing the kind or characteristics of fuel used, changing processes
or process materials, changing process or fuel-burning equipment, en-
closure of dusty operations, paving of roadways, and surface stabili-
zation of material storage piles. The means to be used in a given
situation requires specific study from the standpoint of efficiency of
emission control, economics, and technical and practical feasibility.
Emission of sulfur dioxide from fuel-burning installations can be
reduced by using fuel containing less sulfur. Lower sulfur fuels may
124 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
Table 31. APPROXIMATE CHARACTERISTICS OF DUST AND MIST COLLECTION EQUIPMENT51
H
S*
en
(D
g
O
d
O
s
Equipment type
Settling chambers
Simple
Multiple tray
Inertial separators
Baffle chamber
Orifice impaction
Louver type
Gas reversal
Rotating impeller
Cyclones
Single
Multiple
Filters
Tubular
Reverse Jet
Envelope
Electrical precipitators
One-stage
Two-stage
Scrubbers
Spray tower
Jet
Venturi
Cyclonic
Inertial
Packed
Rotating impeller
Purchase
oostb.
dollars/1,000
ft3/min
100
200-600
100
100-300
100-300
100
200-600
100-200
300-600
300-2000
700-1200
300-2000
600-3000
200-600
100-200
400-1000
400-1200
300-1000
400-1000
300-600
400-1200
Smallest
particle
collected,0
V-
40
10
20
2
10
40
5
15
5
<0.1
< 0.1
<0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
10
2
1
5
2
5
2
Pressure
drop,
in. H2O
0.1-0.5
0.1-0.5
0.5-1.5
1-3
0.3-1
0.1-0.4
-
0.5-3
2-10
2-6
2-6
2-6
0.1-0.5
0.1-0.3
0.1-0.5
-
10-15
2-8
2-15
0.5-10
-
Power
used,d
kw/1 , 000
ftVmin
0.1_
O.l"
0.1-0.5
0.2-0.6
0.1-0.2
0.1
0.5-2
0.1-0.6
0.5-2
0.5-1.5
0.7-1.5
0.5-1.5
0.2-0.6
0.2-0.4
0.1-0.2
2-10
2-10
0.6-2
0.8-8
0.6-2
2-10
Remarks
Large, low pressure drop, precleaner.
Difficult to clean, warpage problem.
Power plants, rotary kilns, acid mists.
Acid mists.
Flyash, abrasion problem.
Pfecleaner .
Compact.
Simple, inexpensive, most widely used.
Abrasion and plugging problems.
High efficiency, temperature, and
humidity limits.
More compact, constant flow.
Limited capacity, constant flow possible.
High efficiency, heavy duty, expensive.
Compact, air-conditioning service.
Common, low water use.
Pressure gain, high-velocity liquid Jet.
High-velocity gas stream.
Modified dry collector.
Abrasion problem.
Channeling problem.
Abrasion problem.
to
01
aTaken from Reference 29.
^steel construction, not installed, includes necessary auxiliaries, 1960 prices
GWith 90-95% efficiency by weight.
^Includes pressure loss, water pumping, electrical energy.
-------
sometimes be obtained by changing the source (mine or oil field) from
which fuel is obtained or by removing sulfur from the fuel by physical
or chemical means. Changing from a fuel containing much sulfur to
one containing little sulfur will substantially reduce sulfur dioxide
emissions. Sulfur dioxide emissions from industrial processes can
be reduced by providing close control of processes, changes in raw
materials used, installation of absorbing equipment on exhaust stacks,
or changes in operating procedures.
Control of smoke emissions from fuel-burning plants can be ac-
complished by use of good combustion equipment, by use of proper
operating procedures, and by selection of fuels appropriate for use in
a particular furnace. Prevention of smoke from hand-fired coal-
burning plants is very difficult and can only be reliably controlled by
installation of mechanical firing equipment.
Control of emission of-substances that cause odors can be ac-
complished by use of scrubbers, adsorbers, and exhaust gas incin-
erators. Changes in materials, operating procedures, and process
equipment may also find application to odor control problems.
As a means of regulating emission of pollutants to the atmosphere,
a variety of requirements to be met by several classes of pollutant
sources should be set forth in an ordinance, rule, or regulation. Those
requirements considered necessary to provide Nashville with air in
keeping with the air quality goals set forth earlier herein are given in
the following sections.
Reduction of Smoke and Sulfur Dioxide from Use of Coal
Data from the pollutant emission inventory H show that 463,200
tons of coal per year was used in the Nashville area. Use of coal is
responsible for about 85 percent of the total sulfur dioxide emissions
and 33 percent of the particulate emissions on an annual basis (Table
14). Further consideration of the sources of atmospheric particulate
matter indicates that the combustion of coal in all probability actually
contributes more than 33 percent of the suspended particulate matter
collected by Hi-Vol air samplers and strip filter paper samplers. This
is true because a high proportion of the particles emitted from coal-
burning plants are less than 10 microns in diameter and of low density.68
Particles of 10 microns or less in diameter tend to remain sus-
pended in air and are collected by the air samplers. In contrast, a
relatively high proportion of the particulate matter emitted from sand
and gravel handling industries (some 46 percent of the total particulate
emissions) range from 10 to 1,000 microns in diameter. These larger
particles tend to settle out of the air in a short time. Because of their
rate of fall, they may be excluded from particulate sampler air intakes.
As a practical matter, burning high-volatile-content coal in hand-
fired furnaces and stoves without causing emission of excessive smoke
126 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
is not reasonably possible. Virtually all of the coal used in the Nash-
ville area has a high-volatile-matter content (Table 6). No doubt much
of the smoke pall over Nashville during the space-heating season is
attributable to use of high volatile coal in hand-fired furnaces. Al-
though no precise information is available, it is estimated that about
50,000 tons of high volatile coal is burned per year in residential hand-
fired units. This is about 40 percent of the coal used for heating dwell-
ing units. If smoke from hand-fired coal-burning sources could be
controlled or eliminated, total smoke emissions could be reduced
perhaps 50 to 75 percent. Use of coal of lower-volatile-matter content
in hand-fired units might bring about some reduction in smoke emis-
sions; however, no such coal is readily available at attractive prices,
and the degree of smoke reduction would probably be inadequate in the
long run.
Burning of coal is responsible for about 85 percent of the atmos-
pheric sulfur dioxide in the Nashville area (Table 14). The data in
Table 14 are annual averages. Since a considerable portion of the coal
is used for space heating, the relative emission of sulfur dioxide from
coal combustion would be even greater in the cold winter months. This
peak seasonal use is even more important because of periods of at-
mospheric stability that occur primarily during the fall and early
winter. The 28,879 dwelling units heated by use of coal consume about
4.5 tons of coal each per heating season, 11 amounting to 129,955 tons
annually. These residential units used 28,529 tons, or 23 percent of
the total coal consumed for yearly residential space heating during
December 1958, a month with 886 degree-days. The net effect is shown
in the seasonal increase of sulfur dioxide and soiling index (Figure 17).
The use of coal by commercial and industrial establishments is about
333,000 tons per year. If this coal were used at a uniform rate through-
out the year, average monthly use would be about 28,000 tons per month.
Since a substantial part of this coal is used for space heating, maximum
monthly use is probably about 1-1/2 times this average, or roughly
42,000 tons per month. Thus, during a cold winter month, use of coal
for residential space heating is about 40 percent of the total.
The air quality goal of 0. 1 ppm sulfur dioxide (24-hour average),
not to be exceeded on more than 1 percent of the days, is about equi-
valent to a long-term average concentration of 0.03 ppm sulfur dioxide
(average of a series of 24-hour measurements) (Figure 46). Figure 17
indicates that this goal was exceeded during the study only in the months
of December and January, the 2 coldest months when use of fuels for
space heating was at a maximum. This would indicate that the air
quality goal could be achieved by reducing sulfur dioxide emissions
during these 2 months (and desirably also in November and February,
to allow for temperature variation from year to year.) (See also Figure
21).
The possibilities worthy of consideration for reducing smoke and
sulfur dioxide from use of coal are as follows:
127
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
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1. To reduce smoke emissions, eliminate use of coal in hand-fired
units, and substitute another means of heating (i.e., natural gas,
distillate oil, or electricity) or, less desirably, substitute
stoker-fired units.
2. To reduce sulfur dioxide emissions, reduce the amount of coal
used, and substitute another means of heating (i.e., natural gas,
distillate oil, or electricity) or substitute lower-sulfur-content
coal for presently used high-sulfur-content coal.
The use of coal for residential space and water heating and for
cooking has been declining rapidly over the past 20 or more years.
This is largely due to the convenience and cleanliness of other fuels.
Use of coal requires manual feeding of fuel, removal of ashes, and
periodic replenishment of the stock of fuel. There is no doubt that a
home is cleaner if coal and ashes are not handled on the premises.
Another factor in causing the decreased use has been the improved
competitive cost situation of heating with natural gas and electricity
as compared to coal. The factors tending to make use of coal unde-
sirable are not quite so important or dominant in multiple-family
dwellings heated with a single furnace. The past trend of decreased
use of coal in domestic establishments is likely to continue no matter
what regulatory steps are taken. Nevertheless, in view of the major
reductions of sulfur dioxide and smoke emissions that can be made by
eliminating the use of coal in hand-fired units and the reductions of
sulfur dioxide (and some smoke) that can be made by reducing the total
amount of coal burned during the space-heating season, it is considered
appropriate to consider an ordinance or regulation to be adopted to
accelerate these desirable trends and ensure widespread action. It is
therefore recommended that use of coal in hand-fired furnaces and
stoves of all sizes be prohibited. To provide for orderly compliance
with this requirement, it would be proper to allow a reasonable time
of 3 to 5 years for those persons involved to make the necessary
changes. A schedule for progressive compliance based on geographic
or other factors could be established to ensure that some portions of
the necessary changes were made each year.
As a further means of reducing sulfur oxides, smoke, and ash
emissions, it is recommended that no new coal-burning plants with a
heat input of 1,000,000 Btu per hour or less be permitted and that
existing coal-burning plants of these small sizes be gradually phased
out of existence. Coal-burning plants having a heat input of 1,000,000
Btu per hour or less (e.g. serving a six-family apartment or a smaller
building) are difficult to operate in an ash- and smoke-free manner and
impossible to operate without emission of sulfur oxides. Installing
equipment to reduce ash emissions is not economically feasible. Since
such plants are small, they usually have short chimneys; therefore,
the smoke, ash, and other pollutants emitted often reach neighboring
homes in high concentrations. All things considered, operation of coal-
fired plants in this size range is probably more expensive than use of
other fuels. This requirement should not apply in parts of Davidson
128 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
County where natural gas is not available. In order to prevent economic
hardship, compliance with this requirement could be made effective
with respect to each specific unit as to the time it has been in service
for perhaps 15 years.
The previous measures, if implemented, would bring about a re-
duction of sulfur dioxide emissions during the space-heating season
of some 30 to 40 percent, not enough to accomplish air quality in keep-
ing with the goal for sulfur dioxide. The recommended available means
of achieving the necessary additional reduction would be (1) to establish
2 percent as the maximum allowable sulfur content of coal (or oil) used
by commercial, industrial, and perhaps a few multiple-dwelling es-
tablishments needing rated capacities of more than a million Btu's
per hour or (2) to substitute means of heating such as natural gas or
electricity during the period November through February.
Most coal presently used in the Nashville area comes from Western
Kentucky. It has a sulfur content of 3.0 to 4.4 percent with an average
of probably 3.5 percent. Eastern Kentucky coal and Tennessee coal
have a sulfur content ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 percent (Table 6). To
substitute these lower sulfur coals for the presently used higher sulfur
coal would bring about a reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions of sub-
stantial proportions; however, these lower sulfur coals would cost more.
To minimize this additional cost, requirement for the use of these coals
could be limited to the critical period of November through February.
An alternative would be to switch to natural gas or distillate fuel oil
during this period, provided the available combustion equipment in
specific cases would be adaptable to such action. Another possible
alternative would be to remove some of the sulfur from presently used
Western Kentucky coal by one of several coal cleaning methods. Be-
cause of the characteristics of the sulfur-bearing constitutent of this
particular kind of coal that might be removable (the pyrites) by
available methods, it is unlikely that the sulfur in the Western Kentucky
coal could be reduced substantially at an acceptable cost or even at
any cost. 69 Another problem would be that in sulfur removal pro-
cesses that effect the elimination of major amounts of sulfur, the coal
is crushed into very small sizes. This renders the coal usable only
in furnaces designed to burn coal in suspension.
Reduction of Ash Emissions from Fuel Combustion
The previously suggested measures will provide for reduction of
smoke emissions, but will not necessarily cause a decrease in flyash
emissions. In a practical sense, flyash is controlled by using flyash
collectors, reducing firing rates, or using low-ash-content fuel. In
terms of regulations, an ordinance should provide that flyash emissions
should not exceed the amounts indicated by Figure 47, for the size of
furnace involved Units with a heat input of less than 1,000,000 Btu
per hour would be exempted from this requirement. Since some in-
stallations may have already been equipped with flyash collectors in
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 129
-------
10 100 1.000 5,00010,000
TOTAL HEAT INPUT, million Btu/hr
100,000
Figure 47. Maximum permissible emission of particulate matter from
indirect-heating, fuel-burning installations in Nashville Metropolitan Area.
order to comply with previously existing ordinances, it would be ap-
propriate to exempt such units from the new limitations for a period
of time, perhaps until the unit has been in service 15 years.
Control of Visible Pollutant Emissions
Inefficient combustion of fuels (coal, oil, wood), refuse, and certain
industrial process wastes causes emission of excessive amounts of
particulate matter. These excessive emissions usually result in a
visible plume from the exhaust stack of the basic combustion or process
equipment. The particulate matter contributes to the total loading of
particulates in the atmosphere. To minimize or eliminate these visible
plumes would surely result in a reduction in the particulate loading in
the atmosphere, but available data do not permit estimating the amount
of decrease. Emission of excessive smoke has long been regulated by
enforcement of ordinances prohibiting emissions darker than a stated
shade of the Ringelmann Chart. In recent years, some cities have
regulated emission of particulate matter other than smoke by enforce-
ment of ordinances prohibiting emission of particulate matter of such
opacity (near the stack exit) as to obscure an observer's view to a
degree equal to or greater than does smoke of a stated Ringelmann
shade. Even though the Ringelmann Chart method of quantitating par-
ticulate emissions is less precise than desirable, it is, when used by
trained personnel in a prudent manner, an effective, useful, and econom-
ical means of finding and bringing about control of excessive emissions
130
An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
of smoke and other particulate matter. It is, therefore, recommended
that an ordinance or regulation be adopted to prohibit emission of smoke
as dark or darker than No. 1 on the Ringelmann Chart and emission of
other particulate matter of such opacity as to obscure an observer's
view to a degree equal to or greater than does smoke as dark or darker
than Ringelmann No. 1. This ordinance should apply to all establish-
ments, including residential. Certain exemptions that permit emission
of visible emissions in excess of those stated during brief times when
a fire is being built or equipment is being cleaned or is out of order,
etc., should be provided. Granting a variance to certain establishments
with regard to the opacity limits for particulate emissions other than
smoke may also be advisable. This wDuld be done best on an individual
case basis, after a public hearing.
Control of Pollution from Burning of Refuse
To control air pollution due to burning of combustible wastes
(refuse), a primary requirement should be that no open burning be
done. Burning of refuse in open fires or in any device other than a
properly designed incinerator should not be allowed. To impose this
requirement in the Nashville area would reduce particulate emissions
by about 10 percent. In addition, hydrocarbon emissions would be re-
duced by around 30 percent and some local smoke and odor nuisances
would be eliminated.
Refuse burning incinerators, unless properly designed and op-
erated, can cause smoke, odors, and excessive particulate matter
emissions. It is, therefore, recommended that all newly constructed
incinerators be of multiple-chamber design, or of an equally ef-
fective design for purposes of air pollution control. Additionally, all
newly constructed incinerators should comply with particulate matter
emission limits as follows: from installations burning less than 200
pounds of refuse per hour, not more than 0.3 grain per standard cubic
foot of flue gas; from installations burning 200 or more pounds of
refuse per hour, not more than 0.2 grain per standard cubic foot of
flue gas. (Both flue gas particulate emission values are as corrected
to 12 percent carbon dioxide, not counting carbon dioxide formed by
combustion of auxiliary liquid or gaseous fuel.) Existing incinerators
that are not of multiple-chamber design and those that do not meet
the recommended particulate matter emission limits should be re-
placed or brought into compliance on a specific schedule over a period
of perhaps 5 years. The schedule could be on a geographic basis with
those located in the central part of the city complying in 1 year, those
in another zone in 2 years, and so on.
Control of Particulate Emissions from Industrial Processes
Control of particulate emissions from industrial processes is not
a new concept to industrial management. Many industrial establish-
131
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
-------
ments have long recognized the necessity of controlling air pollution
as a means of maintaining a good public image. In the role of a good
neighbor, some companies have applied control technology to avoid
local point-source problems. In some cases, an entire industry has
developed and adopted the control technology necessary. A recent
survey made among 175 leading industrial firms in the United States
indicates that over a 5-year period the 69 percent that responded would
make expenditures for air pollution control ranging from $1,700 to
$20,000,000 each. Only 5 percent reported no expenditures.66 Because
of the wide variation in process conditions, meteorological conditions,
and necessities for control measures that exist from place to place,
it is rare that a direct transfer of equipment or processes can be made
from one installation to another in the application of control technology.
Thus, each case must be considered individually, and the many facets
involved must be evaluated carefully. The main facet is probably that
of an emission limit or air quality goal. The cost of control equipment
varies considerably and is dependent upon size of operation, temperature,
effluent loading, and many other factors. Table 31 gives some ap-
proximate characteristics, including cost of dust and mist collection
equipment.
To bring about control of particulate matter emissions from indus-
trial processes in the Nashville area, it is recommended that a law or
regulation limiting emissions to various amounts (in pounds per hour)
for various process weights be adopted. Recommended values are given
in Table 32. These values are the same as those used in California by
the San Francisco Bay Area and similar to those used in some other
cities. Essentially, these limitations require a reduction of emissions
of about 80 percent for small operations and 90 percent or more for
large operations. Enforcement of these suggested regulations in
Nashville should provide the desired improvement in general air quality,
prevent local nuisances, and still permit industrial operations to con-
tinue and expand.
Control of Odor Problems
A common complaint of citizens of the Nashville area concerns
presence of odors. The survey made of public awareness of air pol-
lution indicated that 26 percent of the people interviewed were bothered
by odors. These odors arise from a wide variety of sources and are
caused by an extremely large number of chemical compounds and
mixtures of compounds. Pollutant measurement technology has not
yet advanced to the stage where these odor-causing compounds can be
measured in a convenient way nor are there data upon which to base
an assessment of the physiological significance of most of these
materials at concentrations experienced in the ambient air. For
these reasons, emission regulations cannot be written, in most cases,
in terms of specific quantities of emissions of particular pollutants.
Desired atmospheric quality with respect to human olfactory response
132 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Table 32. RECOMMENDED PARTICULATE EMISSION LIMITATIONS
APPLICABLE TO INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS
IN NASHVILLE METROPOLITAN AREA
Process
weight, a
Ib/hr
100
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
5,000
Allowable
emission, k
Ib/hr
0.55
0.88
1.40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
4.76
5.38
5.96
6.52
7.58
Process
weight, a
Ib/hr
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
12,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
Allowable
emission,
Ib/hr
8.56
9.49
10.4
11.2
12.0
13.6
16.5
17.9
19.2
25.2
30.5
35.4
40.0
Process
weight, a
Ib/hr
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
200,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
Allowable
emission,
Ib/hr
41.3
42.5
43.6
44.6
46.3
47.8
49.0
51.2
69.0
77.6
92.7
Process weight is defined as the total weight of all materials introduced into
an operation, including solid fuels, but excluding liquids and gases used as
fuel and air used for purposes of combustion.
"Interpolation of the data in this table for process weight rates up to 60,000
Ib/hr may be accomplished by use of the equation E = 4.10 pO- 67. and
interpolation and extrapolation of the data for process weight rates in excess
of 60,000 Ib/hr may be accomplished by use of the equation E = 55.0
pO. 11 _4o where E = rate of emission in Ib/hr and P = process weight in
tons/hr.
to odorous pollutants can, however, be described, and a number of
zoning laws do embody air pollution performance standards for various
classes of industrial land use. A suitable regulation for the Nashville
Metropolitan Area would prohibit emission of odorous materials in
amounts detectable by the sense of smell by normal human beings in
the ambient air in areas used for residential, recreational, educational,
or similar purposes. In commercial areas, the need for odor-free
air may not be considered so essential so that the presence of mild
concentrations could be permitted. The regulation could prohibit
emission of odorous materials in amounts detectable in commercial
areas when the odorant-bearing air is diluted with four or more volumes
of odor-free air. Requirements for air quality may be even less re-
strictive in industrial areas. Thus, the regulation could prohibit
emission of odorous materials in such amounts as to cause a de-
tectable odor in industrial areas when the air bearing the emitted
odorant is diluted with 12 or more volumes of odor-free air.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
133
-------
Necessary observations of odor can be made by panels of three
or more people. The prescribed dilutions can be prepared by use of
a simple "Scentometer" or by use of glass syringes. 1? Field pro-
cedures for determining the source of odors in an area have been
described in the same reference.
Control of Wind-Blown Surface Dust
Some local dust nuisances are caused by handling or storage of
materials that may become wind-borne. Unpaved roadways and parking
lots may also cause such troubles. An ordinance or regulation is
recommended to prevent this type of nuisance and help meet the air
quality goal for dustfall rates.
TRANSPORT OF AIR POLLUTANTS METEOROLOGY
Sufficient meteorological information is contained in this report
for the initiation of an air resource management program. By using
standard diffusion formulas, estimates of the effects of planned new
sources should be evaluated to determine their impact on air quality
levels and, consequently, on air quality goals.
As resources become available to the air resource management
program, further use of meteorology should be made. The following
are some uses:
1. Predict days with high air pollution potential. This would
supplement the Public Health Service Division of Air
Pollution program and relate specifically to the needs and
conditions of Nashville.
r"~
2. Utilize meteorological and air pollution emission data to
predict probable air quality levels by means of mathematical
diffusion models and automatic data processing.
PLANNING AND ZONING BASED ON AIR QUALITY GOALS
To a considerable extent, in present-day metropolitan areas,
community decisions center around the planning process, with resulting
action reflected in land-use zoning and performance-type ordinances,
and individual guidance based on the comprehensive plan in its several
parts. In general, air pollution has not been seriously considered in
these decisions. This is not surprising because of the lack of technical
information concerning air pollution; however, the technical information
is becoming available and needs to have a suitable organizational pat-
tern to allow its expression. Any air resource management program
established in the Nashville Metropolitan Area should have well-defined
responsibilities and coordinating linkages between program elements
to be able to operate most effectively.
134 An Air Resource Management Plan
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IMPLEMENTATION
OF CONTROL PROGRAM
No matter how extensive or precise may be the studies of air
pollutant emissions, concentrations, and effects, they will all be for
naught unless an aggressive program is instituted to ensure that the
actions necessary to protect and improve the air resource are put
into effect. Results of the various studies must be translated into
specific regulations requiring that certain actions and practices be
followed. Such regulations provide the rules under which both private
parties and the regulatory agency are to operate. While it is true that
many parties will voluntarily do those things necessary to preserve
the air resource, it is wise to have guidelines for them to follow.
There are unfortunately, a few parties who, in the community's best
interest, must be compelled by legal action to conduct their activities
in a manner that will not cause detriment to the community.
The implementation phase of an air resource management program
involves the formulation of specific regulations setting out guidelines
for allowable emissions, operating practices, land- and air-use patterns,
securing of permits to build or operate facilities, etc. Of course, after
formulation, the regulations must be given legal status by incorporation
into an ordinance or by formal adoption as may be prescribed by law.
After the regulations are in effect, the responsible governmental
agencies must take action to foster voluntary compliance and to compel
compliance in those few cases wherein voluntary action is not forth-
coming. This involves locating sources of pollution, determining their
performance as compared to that required, reviewing all pertinent
facets of the particular case, and negotiating specific plans and aggree-
ments to bring about compliance. Then, as time proceeds, the agreed-
upon plan must be followed; and if it is not, appropriate action must be
taken to compel compliance with the regulations. Noncompliance to
the extent that results in legal action does, in fact, occur in a very
small percentage of the cases, but those few cases require skillful and
tactful handling.
Another vital aspect of the implementation aspect of the air re-
source management program relates to public information. If the
people and their elected representatives are to be expected to support
desirable regulations and appropriations, they must be provided with
information on which to base their opinions. If the public and certain
segments of the public are to be expected to do those things required
by air pollution regulations, they must be informed of them and advised
as to the actions they are supposed to take.
135
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
-------
REFERENCES
1. Zeidberg, L. D., J. J. Schueneman, P. A. Humphrey, and R. A.
Prindle. Air pollution and health: General description of a study
in Nashville, Tenn. JAPCA. 11:289-97, June 1961.
2. Williamson, R. M. Visibility - a new element in meteorological
observation. U. S. Weather Bureau. Nashville, Tenn. Nov. 1932.
3. Kenline, P. A. Appraisal of air pollution in Tennessee. Dec. 1956 -
July 1957. SEC. Sept. 1957. 85 pp.
4. Jones, F. V. Effects of local smoke on the climate of Nashville.
U. S. Weather Bureau. Nashville, Tenn. June 1935.
5. Smoke at Nashville. U.S. Weather Bureau. Nashville, Tenn.
Oct. 1946.
6. Population Report Number 4. Nashville City and Davidson County
Planning Commission. Feb. 1960.
7. Private communication with Woolwine, Harwood, and Clark,
Architects. Life and Casualty Building. Nashville, Tenn. Apr.
1962.
8. 1960 Census of Housing. Vol. 1. States and Small Areas, Part 7,
Table 16.
9. Glen, R. A. and R. D. Harris. Liberation of pyrite from steam
coals. Presented at 54th Annual Meeting, APCA, New York, N.Y.
June 11-15, 1961. 26 pp.
10. Blade, O.C. Burner fuel oils, 1961. Mineral Industry Surveys.
U. S. Bureau of Mines. 1961.
11. Stalker, W. W., P. A. Kenline, V. J. Konopinski, and H. J. Paulus.
Nashville sulfur dioxide emission inventory and the relationship of
emission to measured sulfur dioxide. JAPCA. 14:469-74. Nov.
1964.
12 Smith W. S. Emission factors from fuel combustion. Unpublished
summary from literature search. SEC. 1962.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 137
-------
13. Smith, W.S. Atmospheric emissions from fuel oil combustion. An
inventory guide. PHS Publ. No. 999-AP-2. Nov. 1962. 95pp.
14. Aresco, S. J., C. P. Haller, and R. F. Abernethy. Analysis of
tipple and delivered samples of coal. Bureau of Mines, RI 5489.
U. S. Dept. of Int. 1959.
15. Directory of Nashville Manufacturers. Nashville Area Chamber
of Commerce, Research and Information Division, 1962.
16. Private communication with the Nashville Gas and Electric
Company, Nashville, Tenn. Oct. 1962.
17. Weisburd, M. I. Air pollution field operations manual. PHS Publ.
No. 937. 1962.
18. Dickinson, J. E. Air quality of Los Angeles County. Tech. Rep.
Vol. II. Air Pollution Control District, County of Los Angeles.
1961. p. 256.
19. Welsh, G. B. Air pollution in the National Capitol Area. USDHEW,
PHS, Washington, D. C. 1962.
20. Motor vehicles, air pollution, and health A report of the Surgeon
General to the U. S. Congress in compliance with P. L. 86-498.
The Schenck Act, June 1962.
21. Wilbur Smith and Associates. Nashville metropolitan area trans-
portation study, Vol. I. Prepared for Tenn. Dept. of Highways.
1961.
22. Private communication with the Nashville - Davidson County
Planning Commission, Oct. 1962.
23. Private communication with the Nashville Transit Company, Nash-
ville, Tenn. Oct. 1962.
24. Course manual. Urban planning for environmental health. Metro-
politan Planning and Development Training Activities. SEC. Apr.
1962.
25. Tech. Prog. Rep. Control of stationary sources. Vol. 1, Air
Pollution Control District, County of Los Angeles, Los Angeles,
Calif. Apr. 1960. pp. 63, 77.
26. Stanford Research Institute. The smog problem in Los Angeles
County. Third interim report. Western Oil and Gas Association,
Los Angeles, Calif. 1951. p. 44.
27. Eliassen, R. Domestic and municipal sources of air pollution.
Proc. Natl. Conf. Air Pollution. Washington, D. C. Nov. 18-20,
1958. PHS Publ. No. 654. 1959.
138 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
28. Statistical record of growth, Nashville and Davidson County. Nash-
ville Area Chamber of Commerce. 1962.
29. Stern, A. C. Air pollution. Volume II. Academic Press. New York.
1962. pp. 22, 244, 245, and 492.
30. The smog problem in Los Angeles County. Stanford Research
Institute, Menlo Park, Calif. 1950. p. 42.
31. The Louisville air pollution study. Tech. Rep. A61-4. SEC. 1961.
Appendix B.
32. Keagy, D. M., W. Stalker, C. E. Zimmer, and R. C. Dickerson.
Sampling station and time requirements for urban air pollution
survey. Part I. Lead peroxide candles and dustfall collectors.
JAPCA. 11:270-80. June 1961.
33. Wohlers, H.C., and G. B. Bell. Literature review of metropolitan
air pollutant concentrations. Preparation, sampling, and assay of
synthetic atmospheres. Stanford Research Institute. Project No.
SU-1816. Menlo Park, Calif. Nov. 30, 1956.
34. Stalker, W. W., and R. C. Dickerson. Sampling station and time
requirements for urban air pollution surveys. Part II: Suspended
particulate matter and soiling index. JAPCA. 12:11-28. Mar.
1962.
35. Air pollution measurements of the National Air Sampling Network.
Analysis of suspended particulates 1957-1961. USDHEW, PHS,
Washington, D. C. 1962.
36. Stalker, W. W., and R. C. Dickerson. Sampling stations and time
requirements for urban air pollution surveys. Part III. Two- and
four-hour soiling index. JAPCA. 12:170-78, 200. Apr. 1962.
37. Stalker, W. W., R. C. Dickerson, and G. D. Kramer. Sampling
stations and time requirements for urban air pollution surveys.
Part IV: 2- and 24-hour sulfur dioxide and summary of other
pollutants. JAPCA. 12:361-75. Aug. 1962.
38. Zeidberg, L. D., L. A. Prindle, and E. Landau. The Nashville air
pollution study. Part HI: Morbidity in relation to air pollution.
Am. J. Public Health. 54:85-97. Jan. 1964.
39. Monroe, W. A. Statewide air pollution - smoke index. New Jersey
State Dept. Health. Aug. 1958.
40. West. P. W. and G. C. Gaeke. Fixation of sulfur dioxide as
disulfitomercurate (II) and subsequent colorimetric determination.
Anal. Chem. 28:1816-19. Dec. 1956.
139
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
-------
41. Stalker, W., R. C. Dickerson, and G. D. Kramer. Atmospheric
sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. A comparison of methods
of measurement. AIHAJ. 24:68-79. Jan.-Feb. 1963.
42. Giever, P. M., and W. A. Cook. Automatic recording instruments
as applied to air analysis. A.M.A. Arch. Ind. Health. 21:233-49.
Mar. 1960.
43. Air pollution. World Health Organization, Palais Des Nations,
Geneva, Switerzerland. 1961. pp. 162-82.
44. Technical Report of California Standards for Ambient Air Quality
and Motor Vehicle Exhaust. Calif. Dept. Public Health. 1960.
45. American Academy of Allergy. Hay fever holiday. American
Academy of Allergy. Milwaukee, Wise. 1961.
46. Sawicki, E., W. Elbert, T. Hauser, F. Fox, and T. Stanley. Benzo
(a)pyrene content of the air of American communities. AIHAJ.
21:443-51. Dec. 1960.
47. Orris, L., B. L. VanDuuren, A. E. Kosak, N. Nelson, and F. L.
Schmitt. The carcinogenicity for mouse skin and the aromatic
hydrocarbon content of cigarette smoke condensates. J. Nat.
Cancer Inst. 21:577. Sept. 1958.
48. Wynder, E., A. Lipberger, and C. Grener. Experimental production
of cancer with cigarette tar; strain difference. Brit. J. Cancer
10:507. Sept. 1956.
49. Sawicki, E., T. Hauser, W. Elbert, F. Fox, J. Meeker. Polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon composition of the atmosphere in some
large American cities. AIHAJ. 23:37-44. Mar. 1962.
50. Fredrick, R. H. On the representativeness of surface wind ob-
servations using data from Nashville, Tenn. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll.
Pergamon Press. 8:11-19. 1964.
51. Hosier, C.R. Low level inversion frequency in the contiguous
United States. Monthly Weather Rev. 89:319-39. Sept. 1961.
52. Korshover, J. Synoptic climatology of stagnating anticyclones
east of the Rocky Mountains in the United Stated for the period
1936-1956. Tech. Rep. A60-7. SEC. 1960. 15 pp.
53. The air we live in. The health effects of air pollution. PHS. Publ.
No. 640. Reprinted 1961.
54. Air pollution The Public Health Service program. PHS Publ.
No. 984. Dec. 1962.
140 An Air Resource Management Plan
-------
55. Larsen, R. I. Air pollution damage to paint. Am. Paint J. 42:94-95,
108-09. Oct. 14, 1957.
56. Zeidberg, L. D., R. A. Prindle, and E. Landau. The Nashville air
pollution study. I. Sulfur dioxide and bronchial asthma, a prelimi-
nary report. Am. Rev. Respirat. Disease. 84(4):489-503. Oct.
1961.
57. Zeidberg, L.D., and R. A. Prindle. Pulmonary anthracosis as an
index of air pollution. Am. J. Public Health. 53:185-99. Feb. 1963.
58. Oderr, P. Emphysema, soot, and pulmonary circulation micro-
scopic studies of aging lungs. JAMA. 172(18):199-98. Apr. 30, 1960.
59. Zeidberg, L. D., R. J. Horton and E. Landau. The Nashville air
pollution study. Part V. Mortality from diseases of the respiratory
system in relation to air pollution. Presented at 91st Annual Meet-
ing, APHA, Kansas City, Mo. Nov. 1963.
60. Smith, W. S., L. D. Zeidberg, and J. J. Schueneman. Public reaction
to air pollution in Nashville Tenn. JAPCA. 14:418-23. Oct. 1964.
61. Turner, D.B. A diffusion model for an urban area. J. Appl.
Meteorol. 3:83-91. Feb. 1964.
62. Pooler, F., Jr. A prediction model of mean urban pollution for use
with standard wind roses. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution. 4:199-211.
Sept. 1961.
63. Larsen, R. I. A method for determining source reduction required
to meet air quality standards. JAPCA. 11:71-76. Feb. 1961.
64. Greenburg, L., M. B. Jacobs, B.M. Drolette, F. Field., and N. M.
Baverman. Report of an air pollution incident in New York City.
PHR. 77:7-16. Jan. 1962.
65. Ryazonov, V. A. Sensory physiology as basis for air quality stan-
dards. Arch, of Environ. Health. 5:482. Nov. 1962.
66. Air pollution manual. Part I. Evaluation. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
Detroit, Mich., 1960. p. 73.
67. Sax, I.N. Handbook of dangerous materials. Reinhold Publ. Co.,
New York, 1951. pp. 1146-47.
68. Gould, G. Dust collection methods for steam power plants. Part
H. Air Engineering. 3:36-37. May 1961.
69. Tobey, J. E. Effects of preparation and other factors on the
economics of coal buying. Coal Utilization. 10:39-42. Apr. 1956.
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 141
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70. Larsen, R.I., W.W. Stalker, and C.R. Claydon. The radial distri-
bution of sulfur dioxide source strength and concentration in Nash-
ville. JAPCA. 11:529-34. Nov. 1961.
71. Zimmer, C.E. and R.I. Larsen. Calculating air quality and its
control. Paper 91. APCA meeting. Toronto, Canada. June 1965,
or?
27pp.
142 An Air Resource Management Plan
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APPENDICES
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 143
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APPENDIX A
Nashville and Davidson County
Inventory of Air Contaminant Emissions
Commercial and Industrial Sources
Firm Name:
Address:
Plant representative to be contacted
on air pollution matters:
Normal operating sched: hr per day days per year. Total number of employees_
Principal materials processed or used (types and amounts per day):
* PROCESS EMISSIONS
Operations which
are exhausted or
release contaminants
to outside air1
Materials
processed
and used at
operation^
Quantity
of
exhaust
(cfm)
Control
equipment
(if any)3
Dust, Fume, Gas,
etc. , exhausted Basis
of
Type Quantity estimate
USE BACK OF THIS SHEET IF NECESSABY
*EXAMPLES
1. Casting cleaning, spray painting, degreasing, iron-melting cupola, etc.
2. Ten tons per day iron castings cleaned, 10 gal. per day solvent used, 2,000 bbl. per day
cement produced.
3. Baghouse, electrostatic precipitator, cyclone, settling chamber, wet scrubber, etc.
4. Iron oxide and silica dusts, trichlorethylene, formaldehyde, SO2, HCW, etc.
5. Pounds per day, tons per month, or other convenient units, if known.
6. Assumption, material balance, tests by plant personnel or equipment manufacturer, etc,
NOTE: Any supplemental material or data considered pertinent (as reports, summaries,
test results, maps and flow diagrams) may be attached and would be appreciated.
Attach additional report sheet, as necessary.
144 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Inventory of Air Contaminant Emissions - page 2
FUEL COMBUSTION EMISSIONS
Is the firm the only occupant of the factory building in which it is located ? .(Yes, No)
B the answer to the above questions is No, please indicate from whom the FUEL CON-
SUMPTION DATA may be obtained.
FUEL CONSUMPTION DATA
^ ~ Percent sulfur
Fuel Type Amount3 (if known)
1. Coal, coke, fuel oil, gas, electricity, etc.
2. Examples: West Kentucky bituminous, No. 5 fuel oil, natural gas.
3. Examples: Tons per year, gallons per day, cubic feet per month, or other convenient units.
TRASH AND WASTES OPERATION COMBUSTION
Types and amounts of waste materials burned (e.g., 10 cu. ft. per day of paper, 3 bu. per
day of sawdust and wood scraps, 2 tons mixed refuse per month etc. .
Method of burning (e. g. , open dump, incinerator, salvage-process burner, etc.):
SALVAGE OPERATION COMBUSTION
No. of automobiles burned, Ibs. of insulated wire burned, etc. :
Method of burning (e. g. , open dump, incinerator, salvage-process burner, etc.)_
Date Reported by:
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area
145
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APPENDIX B
Nashville Community Air Pollution Study
Aerometric Station Network
Station
Type Code Actual Location of Equipment
I 1 Telephone pole, east side Centennial Blvd. (Ford
access road) 100 feet north of Women's Old Pen.
Road
I 2 Marshall Avenue and Spencer Avenue. Utility pole
across from last house on Spencer Avenue
I 3 Utility pole by Prison Guard House No. 7. Prison
wall, northwest corner
n 4 Utility pole on Centennial Blvd. across from
Ingram Oil and Refining Co.
I 5 Utility pole in front of 6005 Robertson (south
side of street)
H 6 Utility pole near 120 Oceola
I 7 Utility pole in front of 4219 Hydes Ferry Pike
I 8 Utility pole across from 1501 East Stewart Lane
I 9 Davidson County Hospital (Asylum), second
telephone pole from entrance on west side of
Hospital Drive
I 10 Utility pole at 55th and California, northeast
corner
I 11 Utility pole near 53rd and Elkins, 100 feet east
of southwest corner
I 12 Utility pole in front of 5413 Knob Road, south
side near Oakmont Circle
I 13 Utility pole near West End Avenue and White
Bridge Road, rear of Esso Service Station off
White Bridge Road
I 14 Utility pole on Belle Meade Blvd., 300 feet north
of Honeywood, center island
146 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Station
Type Code Actual Location of Equipment
11 15 Utility pole on north side of Meadow View Road,
first pole north of West Hamilton Road
I 16 Third utility pole northwest of Bratton on Hydes
Ferry Pike across from 3701, south side of road
H 17 Utility pole opposite 3006 Hydes Ferry Road
I 18 Utility pole nearest river on west side of 39th
Avenue, north of Centennial Blvd.
ffl A 19 Utility pole at 44th and Michigan, northwest
corner
I 20 Utility pole midway between Wyoming and Idaho
on east side of 42nd Avenue
II 21 Utility pole west side of Cherokee at Valley Road
I 22 Utility pole at Woodmont Circle and Clearview
Drive, northwest corner
n 23 Utility pole on Sneed Road, across road from
4018 Sneed Road
I 24 First utility pole west of Tucker Road on north
side of West Hamilton Ave.
I 25 Utility pole in front of 2310 Alpine, off West
Trinity Lane, southeast side of Alpine
I 26 Second utility pole west of 2815 Clarksville Pike
on south side of pike
I 27 Utility pole near front of 1605 Shrader Lane
I 28 Utility pole in front of 3107 Albion St.
I 29 Utility pole on Park Avenue at rear yard of 327
33rd Avenue, North
I 30 Utility pole on south side of Murphy Road, 100
feet west of North Park Circle
j 31 Utility pole on east side of Bowling Avenue at
Brighton Road
For The
NaShville Metropolitan Area 147
-------
Station
Type Code Actual Location of Equipment
I 32 Utility pole on Cross Creek Road, south of Valley
Brook, L. E. Matthew's yard
I 33 Utility pole at Castleman and Stammer, 4212
Stammer Place
H 34 Fifth utility pole west of Whites Creek Pike on
north side of Moorman's Arm Road
I 35 Utility pole in front of 2704 Old Buena Vista Road
n 36 Utility pole with transformer at Gasser Airport,
300 feet south of hangar (clear with Airport
M. Gasser)
I 37 Utility pole 16th and Clay, southeast corner
I 38 Utility pole in front of 1824 Scovel St.
I 39 South side of Clifton Avenue at street light pole
in front of Rock City Mill
H 40 Utility pole in front of 117 29th Ave., southwest
side of 29th Ave.
I 41 Essex Place, 2508 utility pole on north side
I 42 White Oak Drive, 2816 last utility pole on east
side
II 43 Richard Jones Road, utility pole north side, sixth
utility pole east of Hillsboro Pike
I 44 East side of Lone Oak Road, first utility pole
south of Randolph Place
I 45 Utility pole on east side of Whites Creek Pike
at Francis Street
I 46 First utility pole west of Enloe on north side of
Young's Lane
I 47 Utility pole 3rd and Clay, in front of 2000 3rd
Avenue, North
A+M 48 Nashville Housing Authority, first utility pole
north of Taylor on Delta
148 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Station
ype Code Actual Location of Equipment
1 49 Utility pole at southwest corner 14th and Clinton
1 50 Utility pole 18th and Broadway, northeast corner
(new pole)
I 51 18th and Capers, utility pole at northwest corner
(or second utility pole north of corner on 18th)
m A+M 52 Utility pole in back of and across alley, 1800
Linden (shelter will be in back yard)
I 53 Utility pole in front of 1404 Woodmont
I 54 Utility pole across street from 1120 Duncanwood
Drive, east side of Duncanwood Drive
I 55 Utility pole at mailbox at west side at 2909 Brick
Church Pike
m A 56 Avondale Circle, utility pole vacant lot at 1221
I 57 Utility pole near 1341 Whites Creek Pike on east
side of pike near White Front Market
n 58 First utility pole north of Van Buren on Burns
(back of packing company)
I 59 Utility pole on 4th Avenue, North. First pole
south of Harrison
m A 60 Utility pole at 9th and McGavock, northeast
corner in parking lot. Thomas Autometer
location
I 61 Utility pole across street from 1109 Archer,
north side of street
n 62 Utility pole on west side of Elliott across from
1908 Elliott
I 63 Utility pole on south side of Kirkwood, just west
of Vaulx Lane
H 64 3622 Wilbur Place, high utility pole corner of
yard
65 Utility pole across street from 801 Crestwood,
inside corner of fence
For The Nashville Metropolitan Area 149
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Station
Type Code Actual Location of Equipment
I 66 Utility pole on south side of Lemuel just east of
Hart, west of Dickerson Pike
I 67 Dickerson Pike, utility pole back of Howard
Johnson's, by school drive
I 68 Utility pole on northwest corner of Evanston and
Stockell
I 69 Street light utility pole east side of Meridian
across from 302 Meridian
I 70 Utility pole northeast corner 2nd and Shelby.
Front of Tallman Co.
I 71 Utility pole north side Lindsley at First and
Lindsley, by entrance to Children's Museum
I 72 Utility pole just north of 1500 Martin St., on
east side of Martin
I 73 Utility pole on south side of Craighead about 800
feet west of Bransford
I 74 Utility pole 200 feet west of West Iris Drive on
north side of Thompson Lane (steel tower nearby)
I 75 Use A. T. & T. pole on east side of Franklin
Pike near Norwood
II 76 Utility pole north side of Hart Street in front of
207 Hart, east of Dickerson Road
I 77 Utility pole in front of 2207 Jones Avenue, east
side of Jones
II 78 Utility pole on north side of Blueridge between
Rosedale and Montgomery, across from 806
Blueridge
I 79 Utility pole on west side of Myrtle, across from
703 Myrtle, north of Mansfield
n 80 South side of Shelby Avenue, light pole in front
of 914-916 Shelby Avenue
I 81 6th and Davidson, northeast corner stub pole
150 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Station
Type Code
Actual Location of Equipment
I
n
n
HI A+M 82 Utility pole south side Hart Street in field of
Trevecca College
83 Utility pole near front of 339 Woodycrest
84 Utility pole in alley behind 2503 Winford (south
of Newsome)
85 East side of Sidco, south of Fontana, pole No.
10644-44
I 86 Utility pole east side of Sidco Drive, one pole
north of Howell and Sidco intersection
I 87 Utility pole south side Ben Allen Road at Hutson
Avenue
I 88 North side of Dozier utility pole in front of
1033 Dozier Place
I 89 Utility pole in front of 1314 Greenwood, north-
west corner of 14th and Greenwood
in A+M 90 16th and Forrest, utility pole southwest corner
by 1520 Forrest and shelter house in back yard.
I 91 Utility pole at 16th and Electric Avenue in front
of 1505 Electric (northwest corner)
I 92 Utility pole on west side of Rucker across from
302 Rucker
I 93 Utility pole Foster Avenue, east side 300 feet
north of railroad
I 94 First utility pole north of Lyle on west side of
Foster
I 95 Utility pole at dead end of St. Edwards (north of
Thompson Lane)
I 96 Utility pole east side of Nolensville Road at High
Street by 3312 Nolensville Road
97 Utility pole rear of 1141 Greenfield on west side
of Katherine
n
For
The Nashville Metropolitan Area
151
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Station
Type Code Actual Location of Equipment
I 98 2126 Burns Street utility pole at southwest
corner of Burns and Ann Street
I 99 Utility pole southwest corner of Tillman Lane
and Sky view Drive, in front of 212 Tillman Lane
I 100 Utility pole just north of Shelby Park about 100
feet north of RR underpass on west side of
Riverside Drive
n 101 Near City Pumping Station north of Lebanon Road
I 102 Utility pole on Elm Hill Road at east end of
Greenwood Cemetery by T.V.A. Power Mainten-
ance Bldg.
n 103 North side of Hill Avenue, first utility pole west
of Crutchfield Avenue
I 104 Utility pole 108 Dodge Drive, east side of Dodge
n 105 Next to last utility pole east side of Mavert Drive,
dead end.
I 106 Utility pole in front of 2200 Ridgecrest on west
side of Ridgecrest
I 107 Utility pole side of 2017 McKennel Avenue (east
side of McKennel)
I 108 Utility pole on east side of Brittany Drive in
front of 2612 Brittany Drive
I 109 About 800 feet west of northeast bend of Pumping
Station Road. Utility pole at white stone front
gate of H. E. Buffer
I 110 Utility pole Lebanon Pike south side between
1727 Lebanon Pike and Phillips Service Station
I 111 Utility pole in front of Baltz Brothers on south
side of Elm Hill
I 112 Telephone pole on southeast corner of Rowwood
and Longdale
152 An Air Resource Management Plan
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Station
Type Code
Actual Location of Equipment
1 113 Utility pole, dead end of Carlyle Place, 815
Carlyle Place
I 114 Utility pole in front of 3910 Moss Rose Drive,
east side of Moss Rose Drive
II 115 Utility pole in front of 2710 Traughber Drive,
south side of Traughber Drive
II 116 Utility pole, southwest corner of Dearborn and
Graeme Drive. Utility pole by driveway of 2138
Dearborn
I 117 Utility pole near 128 Quinn Circle, southeast
corner of intersection
n 118 Utility pole on southeast side of Elm Hill by
2003 Elm Hill
I 119 Utility pole east side of Connolly Drive in front
of 894 Connolly Drive
ni
m
m
120
121
122
123
Planned Location
8 miles north
8 miles south
8 miles west
8 miles east
Actual Location of Equipment
Utility pole No. 108 on east
side of Brick Church Pike
across from A. H. Gofer's
house
West side of Old Franklin
Road south of Old Hickory
Blvd.
Utility pole No. 50-1/2, west
side of Old Hickory Blvd.
on west side of Cumberland
River across Clees Ferry.
Robert Buchanan's property
Utility pole on east side of
Templewood at rear of 3122
Cloverwood Drive, property
of H. F. Huffman, Donelson
^u Nashville Metropolitan Area
For The JN«i&"vii c ^^ ^ _ OOVERMMJSW-J ^HINTING OFFICE: ises o- 301-433
153
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