U. S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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GUIDE FOR AIR POLLUTION
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
Prepared under Public Health Service
Contract No. PH-22-68-32
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Programs
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
June 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2M02 - Price 70 cents
Stock Number 5603-0014
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The AP series of reports is issued by the Office of Air Programs.
Environmental Protection Agency, to report the results of scientific and
eniiineerin.il studies, and information of general interest in the field of
air pollution. Information reported in this series includes coverage of
Air Program intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted
in conjunction with state and local agencies, research institutes, and
industrial organizations. Copies of AP reports are available free of
charge to Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, and
nonprofit organizations as supplies permit - from the Office of Tech-
nical Information and Publications, Office of Air Programs. Environ
mental Protection Agency, P. O. Box 12055. Research Triangle Park.
North Carolina 27709. Other requestors may purchase copies from the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Office of Air Programs Publication No. AP -76
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ix
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIR POLLUTION EPISODES 1
1.2 PLANNING FOR EPISODE AVOIDANCE 4
1.2.1 General 4
1.2.2 Information on Atmospheric Conditions 6
1.2.3 Alert Criteria 8
1.2.4 Information on Sources and Control Alternatives .... 9
1.2.5 Responsible Organization with Authority for Source
Curtailment 10
1.2.6 Communications and Procedures for Reporting 11
1.2.7 Implementing the Emergency Action Plan 12
1.3 REFERENCES 18
2. INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS
2.1 POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS 19
2.1.1 Particulates 19
2.1.2 Irritants 20
2.1.3 Oxidants 22
2.1.4 Systemic Poisons 23
2.1.5 Episode Pollutant Levels 25
2.1.6 Emergency Action Plan Criteria 25
2.2 EMISSION SOURCES AND INVENTORIES 27
2.2.1 Emission Inventories 27
2.2.2 Fuel Combustion in Stationary Sources 28
2.2.3 Combustion of Refuse 28
2.2.4 Transportation 31
2.2.5 Industrial Process Emissions 31
2.3 AEROMETRIC MONITORING 33
2.3.1 Site Selection 33
2.3.2 Monitoring Techniques 34
2.4 PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING INFORMATION 37
2.5 REFERENCES 42
111
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Page
3. INFORMATION ON EPISODES
3.1 REGIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING EPISODES 45
3.2 EPISODE METEOROLOGY 49
3.2.1 Forecasting Air Pollution Potentials 49
3.2.2 High Air Pollution Potential Advisories (HAPPA) ... 50
4. CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES
4.1 EMERGENCY ACTION STRATEGIES 53
4.1.1 Simple Strategies 54
4.1.2 Simulated Strategies 57
4.2 EMERGENCY EMISSION CONTROL METHODS . ... 59
4.2.1 Stationary Sources 59
4.2.2 Mobile Sources 63
4.3 EMISSION CURTAILMENT DATA 64
4.3.1 Time-Histories of Pollutant Emissions 65
4.3.2 Advance Notice Required 66
4.3.3 Side Effects 66
4.4 ILLUSTRATIONS OF EMERGENCY CONTROL PROCE-
DURES , 67
4.4.1 Operations of a Typical Emergency Action Plan 67
4.4.2 Emission Reduction Actions (State of New Jersey) .... 73
4.5 USE OF MODELING IN EMERGENCY ACTION PLANS .... 79
4.5.1 Urban Dispersion Models 80
4.5.2 Other Models 80
4.6 REFERENCES 83
5. LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS
FACTORS
5.1 LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATIONS 85
5.1.1 Legal Requirements 85
5.1.2 Recommended Format for Regional Emergency Control
Regulations 89
5.2 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF EPISODES 90
5.3 COSTS RELATED TO EPISODE CONTROL ACTIONS 91
5.3.1 Costs Related to Maintenance of Emergency Action Plans 92
5.3.2 Costs Related to Special-Emergency Equipment . . . 92
5.3.3 Direct Costs of Implementing Emergency Control Actions 92
5.3.4 Costs Related to Raw Material 93
5.3.5 Product Losses . 93
5.3.6 Sales Losses 93
5.3.7 Defaulted Contracts 93
5.3.8 Costs Related to Employees 93
5.3.9 Start-Up Costs 93
5.3.10 Costs Related to Management 93
5.3.11 Costs to Control Agency 94
5.3.12 Miscellaneous Costs 94
IV
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Page
5.4 COMMUNICATION WITH PUBLIC 94
5.4.1 Information Programming Prior to an Alert 94
5.4.2 Information Dissemination During an Alert 98
5.4.3 Information Dissemination Following an Alert 98
5.4.4 Public Education 100
5.5 REFERENCES 100
6. EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS
6.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES 101
6.2 ORGANIZATION 102
6.3 LOCATION 102
6.4 COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS 104
6.5 MANNING REQUIREMENTS 105
6.6 FUNCTIONS OF PRINCIPAL PERSONNEL 107
6.7 PHYSICAL LAYOUT 107
6.8 REPRESENTATIVE COSTS 108
6.9 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES 110
APPENDICES
A. GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS 115
B. HISTORY OF EPISODES 123
C. EPISODE METEOROLOGY 137
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Types of Air Pollutants 19
2-2 Pollutant Levels for 20 Episodes 25
2-3 Air Quality Monitoring Summary 35
2-4 Annual Fuel Consumption in Interstate Air Pollution Study Area,
1963 38
2-5 Air Pollutant Emissions from Combustion of Fuels in Stationary
Sources in Interstate Air Pollution Study Area, 1963 39
2-6 Industrial Coal Use by Burner Type and Type of Air Pollution
Control Device Used in Interstate Air Pollution Study Area, 1963 . 40
4-1 Episode Status versus Pollutant Levels 54
4-2 Pollutant Control Strategies 54
4-3 Cost-Benefit Strategy (Simple) 56
6-1 Manning Requirements , 106
B-l Episode History 124
B-2 Episode History References 133
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 APCO's Role in Planning for Episode Avoidance x
1-1 Frequency of Air Pollution Episodes 3
1-2 Ratio of Episode to Normal Particulate Levels in Boston-New
York Area 3
1-3 Continuous Air Monitoring Project Statistical Data, Washington,
D.C 4
1-4 Continuous Air Monitoring Project Statistical Data, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania 5
1-5 Emergency Action Plan Requirements 7
1-6 Emergency Action System 14
1-7 Information Flow During Routine Surveillance Mode 15
1-8 Information Flow During Partial Activation Mode 16
1-9 Information Flow During Full Activation Mode 17
2-1 Effects of SC>2 on Man 22
2-2 Effects of N02 on Man 23
2-3 Effects of Ozone on Man 24
24 Effects of CO on Man 24
2-5 Typical Source Emission Questionnaire 29
2-6 New York City-Owned Installations: Estimated Annual Oil Con-
sumption, SO2 Emissions, and Fuel Costs 41
2-7 Emissions of Participates from Residential Use of Fuels 42
2-8 Major Industrial Operations 43
3-1 Typical Diurnal Patterns During Incidents of Photochemical Smog
Formation Compared to Normal Monthly Peaks 46
3-2 Forecast High Air Pollution Potential Days 47
3-3 National Weather Service Stations in United States 51
4-1 Simulation and Ideal Modeling in Emergency Action Planning .. 58
4-2 Alternate Emergency Control Actions 60
4-3 Time-History of Pollutant Emissions 66
4-4 Four-Stage Alert Sequence 68
4-5 Pollutant Buildup with Time 82
4-6 Geographic Distribution of Normal Individuals 82
Vll
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Figure Page
4-7 Dose Isopleth During an Episode 83
5-1 Legal Relationships . . 86
5-2 Sample Press Release .... 96
5-3 Flyer Published by the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory
Disease Association . . 99
6-1 Role of Emergency Operations Control Center 101
6-2 System Flow Chart for Emergency Action Center 103
6-3 Typical Emergency Action Center Layout 108
C-l Examples of Effect of Vertical Temperature Variation on Upward
Mixing of Pollutants; Effect of Displacing Parcel of Air 100 m . . 137
C-2 Average Temperature at Various Heights and Times of Day in Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, September and October 1950 138
C-3 Annual Frequency of Low-Level (Ground) Inversions over the
United States, in Percent of Total Hours 139
Vlll
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FOREWORD
This Guide has been made available through the efforts of the Air Pollution
Control Office's (APCO's) Emergency Operations Control Center and is
intended to assist air pollution control officials and local governmental
authorities in the formulation and implementation of emergency action plans
for the avoidance of air pollution episodes. The Guide describes the planning
necessary to forestall the adverse effects of air pollution episodes. Different
regions have various legal and administrative frameworks, as well as different
meteorological, topographical, and emission-source characteristics. Certain
requirements are common to all regions, however, such as the need for: (1)
information on emission sources, (2) information on the meteorology of the
area, and (3) action plans for recognizing potentially severe episodes and
coping with them.
The necessity for developing a guide such as this was established by the
requirements set forth under Section 303 of the Air Quality Amendments of
1970. Section 303 reads as follows:
"Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the Administrator,
upon receipt of evidence that a pollution source or combination of
sources (including moving sources) is presenting an imminent and
substantial endangerment to the health of persons, and that appropriate
State or local authorities have not acted to abate such sources, may bring
suit on behalf of the United States in the appropriate United States
District Court to immediately restrain any person causing or contributing
to the alleged pollution to stop the emission of air pollutants causing or
contributing to such pollution or to take such other action as may be
necessary."1
Within EPA, the Air Pollution Control Office (APCO) is responsible for
implementing the actions required to meet the provisions of the Act. Figure 1
depicts the APCO activities that are aimed at episode prevention and control.
The Critical Areas Report ranked 64 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas
(SMSA) according to criteria based on pollutant, meteorological, and popula-
tion data. Five ranking schemes were used to select the 10 most episode-prone
areas. The episode emergency plans of these cities were then evaluated with
respect to the general nature of the- pollution problems of these cities, the
major elements included in their plans, and the completeness and detail of their
emergency plans.
IX
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ACTIVITIES
OBJECTIVES
CRITICAL AREAS
REPORT
APCO
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
CONTROL CENTER
SPECIFIC ACTION
GUIDES
1. RANK CITIES ACCORDING TO EPISODE POTENTIAL.
2. EVALUATE EMERGENCY PLANS OF TEN MOST
EPISODE-PRONE CITIES
ESTABLISH NATIONAL NETWORK THAT PROVIDES
ASSISTANCE IN:
1. LEGAL ACTIONS
2. SURVEILLANCE
3. ADVISORY REPORTS
4. COORDINATION WITH OTHER FEDERAL
ORGANIZATIONS
5. PREPARATION OF POST-ACTION REPORTS
1. PROVIDE ORGANIZATIONAL ASSISTANCE
2. PROVIDE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Figure 1. APCO'S role in planning for episode avoidance.
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The Emergency Operations Control Center (EOCC) has been established in
Durham, North Carolina. The Center receives and processes data relating to air
pollution episodes and, as required, initiates avoidance actions to supplement
those undertaken by local authorities. The Center essentially functions as an
interface between the policy levels of Federal authority and an actual event or
problem.
Each State is required by Section 110 of the Clean Air Act of 1970^0
adopt and submit to the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agen-
cy a plan that provides for the implementation, maintenance, and enforcement
of national ambient air quality standards within each air quality control region
that is wholly or partly within that State. Each implementation plan must
include a system for curtailing pollutant emissions on an interim basis when-
ever such action appears necessary for the prevention of short-term episodes
of high pollutant concentrations.
The material presented in this Guide covers the planning, technical, social,
economic, legal, and administrative factors of importance in episode avoidance
and control activities and in the establishment of an action center. The first
chapter introduces the reader to the nature of episodes and the second presents
an overview of episode avoidance plans and their implementation. Subsequent
chapters present detailed information on specific topics related to the design
and function of episode avoidance plans.
A glossary of technical terms commonly used is provided at the end of the
Guide. Additional technical references are cited by chapter.
REFERENCES
1. United States Congress. Clean Air Act of 1970. PL 91-604,42 USC1857
etseq., Sections 110 and 303. Washington, D.C. December 1970.
XI
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GUIDE FOR AIR POLLUTION
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
Air pollution episodes occur under meteorological conditions, generally
temperature inversions, that reduce the effective volume of air in which the
pollutants are diluted. As the inversion persists and emission sources continue
to contribute to the community's ambient air, concentrations of pollutants
increase. Thus, just as attainment of regional air quality standards are
dependent upon optional emission reduction strategies selected to achieve
these long-term goals, avoidance of short-term air pollution episodes is
dependent upon an emission reduction plan selected to provide rapid,
short-term emissions control.
Exposure to high pollutant concentrations during episodes has been
associated with excess* human mortality and morbidity. Reduced visibility and
damage to vegetation and animals have also been demonstrated to result from
periods of extreme pollution.
A review of episode documentation showed that one or more of the
following factors was characteristic of each episode:
1. Stagnating anticyclonic weather systems were present.
2. Temperature inversions were noted.
3. Wind speeds were low.
4. Concentrations of smoke, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants increased
to critical levels.
5. Mortality associated with peak concentrations of air pollutants in-
creased.
6. Morbidity increased with air pollution levels.
7. Effects were rapid.
•""Excess" death or mortality is defined as the difference between the death rate during an
episode and that normally associated with the geographical location and season of the
year in question.
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8. Death and illness occurred in all age groups.
9. Excess deaths increased with increasing age.
10. Effects of episodes on health seemed to be due to a combination of
several pollutants.
11. Deaths were generally the result of respiratory or cardiovascular
problems.
12. Coughing and eye irritation that occurred were related to pollution
levels.
13. The duration of episodes generally ranged from 2 to 7 days.
14. Average sulfur dioxide levels ranged from 0.5 to 0.8 ppm.
15. Animals may have succumbed to air pollution.
Many borderline cases of critical air pollution may go unreported. A brief
episode may not be reported in the technical literature because the number of
people severely affected is not large enough to attract public attention. The
1953 episode in New York, for example, was not reported until 9 years
later.1 In his survey of episodes, Goldsmith2 states that:
"The toll of excess mortality and morbidity in disasters has never been
appreciated at the time; therefore, protective measures were not taken."
Since the causes were not known, they were never reported. Awareness of air
pollution is growing, however, and techniques for monitoring pollution are
improving. High Air Pollution Potential Advisories (HAPPA), which are
bulletins that warn of meteorological conditions leading to the accumulation of
air pollutants, were initiated on a regular basis in August
Air pollution episodes are becoming more frequent in the United States.
Figure 1-1 indicates episodes reported in the technical literature over a
100-year period. Reported critical periods of air pollution go back as far as
1873. London has had 10 reported episodes since that date. New York City has
had seven reported episodes since 1953, at least two of which were general
episodes for the entire Eastern United States.2"4 Other well-known episodes
occurred in the Meuse Valley of Belgium and in Donora, Pennsylvania. Minor
"incidents" have been reported in St. Louis, Missouri;5 Cincinnati, Ohio;2
Weirton, West Virginia;7 Rotterdam, Holland;2 Hamburg, Germany;2 and
Osaka, Japan.2 Critical periods of smog have occurred frequently in Los
Angeles, California, and outbreaks of asthma have been reported in New
Orleans, Louisiana, and the Tokyo-Yokohama area of Japan. Detailed
documentation is not available on most of the reported air pollution episodes,
especially those occurring before 1957.
Lynn, Steigerwald, and Ludwig3- have described in some detail the
November-December 1962 air pollution episode in the Eastern United States.
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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Figure 1-2 shows the ratio of "episode" to "normal" participate levels in an
elliptical area from New York to Boston during that incident. Levels of
benzene-soluble organics rose to seven times normal and total particulate
concentrations rose to three to four times normal. Figures 1-3 and 14 show
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Figure 1- 1. Frequency of air pollution episodes.
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1-2. Ratio of episode to normal particulate levels in
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
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CAMP statistical data from Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
during an episode.
1.2 PLANNING FOR EPISODE AVOIDANCE
1.2.1 General
Until recently, most communities in the United States have not had the
means by which to avoid or control air pollution episodes. Little if any action
had been taken to minimize pollutant concentrations during stagnant meteorol-
ogical conditions. The public had likewise received little or no education
concerning ways to reduce the adverse physiological effects of short-term,
severe dosages of pollutants. Positive episode-avoidance action was not taken
because of inadequate knowledge of episode conditions and because of the lack
of advance planning for such emergencies.
We have now reached a point where effective episode planning is feasible.
Improved air quality monitoring and air pollution meteorological systems are
available, and research is being conducted to improve further those sensing
techniques essential for forecasting and evaluating episode conditions. Accurate
forecasts will make it possible for authorities to take the action necessary to
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Figure 1-3. Continuous Air Monitoring Project statistical data,
Washington, D. C.
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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prevent the continued deterioration of ambient air as adverse meteorological
conditions persist.
Public awareness has also stimulated emergency action planning. Allergic
individuals, the elderly, and other persons who are severely affected by high
pollutant concentrations are usually those most concerned about measures for
preventing episodes.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
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The most important goal of the emergency action plan is the temper y
curtailment of the emission of pollutants into the ambient air. Since stagn
air masses will prevent dilution of pollutants, the only feasible method tor
protecting society is to minimize the flow of pollutants from emitters
Adequate planning is necessary to coordinate control efforts and to ensure that
sources are temporarily curtailed as soon as required.
Total community involvement is required for a successful episode-avoidance
plan. It is essential that both large and small emitters cooperate to the fullest
extent possible. Severe episodes will place direct demands on the public in
areas such as curtailing automotive traffic and using less electricity and heat.
Such restrictions are uncommon in our society, but rapid compliance will be
essential during episodes. Each citizen must be made fully aware of his public
responsibility during an episode so that cooperation under emergency
conditions will be immediate and automatic.
The responsibility for devising an emergency action plan will usually rest
with the control agency in each community. The plan must provide a strategy
for optimum action under the specific conditions likely to be encountered in
the community. Expense and inconvenience should be divided as equitably as
possible within the limits imposed by the mandatory requirement that
emissions be decreased to a level that will effectively prevent detrimental
effects.
In designing an emergency action plan, the control authority must capitalize
on available resources. Control agency staff, voluntary manpower, and available
funds must be used effectively in order to meet the needs of the community.
The most recent automatic data processing equipment and telemetry systems
will not necessarily be required; relatively unsophisticated techniques may
adequately serve the needs of many communities. In addition to illustrating the
operations of model emergency action plans, this Guide indicates which
resources are essential for effective episode avoidance.
The requirements for an emergency action plan (EAP) are presented in
Figure 1-5. A discussion of plan requirements follows.
1.2.2 Information on Atmospheric Conditions
Knowledge of atmospheric conditions before, during, and after an episode is
mandatory. Routine air quality and meteorological monitoring provides data
that may be evaluated to determine potential episode conditions. Episodes
themselves are detected by direct measurements of air quality, while potential
episodes are often detected by the presence of meteorological conditions
conducive to the occurrence of episodes. In measuring air quality, concentra-
tions of particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, oxidants, and other
pollutants are monitored by sensing stations located within the region
Meteorological conditions are monitored by weather stations within the
6 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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§
GOAL
TEMPORARY REDUCTION OF SPECIFIC
EMISSION SOURCES TO PREVENT
HAZARDOUS ACCUMULATION OF
POLLUTANTS
DEVELOP
INFORMATION
ON ATMOSPHERIC
CONDITIONS
• AIR QUALITY
MONITORING
• METEOROLOGICAL
MONITORING
• AIR QUALITY
FORECASTING
ESTABLISH
ALERT
CRITERIA
OBTAIN INFORMATION
ON SOURCES AND
THEIR CONTROL
ALTERNATIVES
• EMISSION INVENTORY
•CONTROL ALTERNATIVES
CREATE A
RESPONSIBLE ORGANI-
ZATION WITH AUTHORITY
FOR SOURCE
CURTAILMENT
EFFECTS FROM
POLLUTANT DOSAGE
' MEDICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
• LEGAL AUTHORITY
• DATA ANALYSIS
• DECISION-MAKING
AUTHORITY
• ABATEMENT STRATEGIES
DEVELOP
COMMUNICATIONS &
POST-EPISODE
REPORTING
PROCEDURES
• NOTIFY SOURCES
• INFORMATION
DISSEMINATION
• EVALUATION OF
EPISODE
Figure 1-5. Emergency Action Plan requirements.
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community or by the National Weather Service. As an aid to communities
throughout the nation, High Air Pollution Potential Advisories
prepared and disseminated by the National Meteorological Center
Suitland, Maryland.
The frequency of air quality and meteorological measurements should be
increased during episodes. The control authority will require current data in
order to compare pollutant levels with criteria levels and promptly initiate
emergency control actions when maximum permissible levels are exceeded.
Data on present air quality, as well as forecasts of expected pollutant
concentrations for periods of 24 to 48 hours, are essential to the decision-
making process.
Some specific steps that must be executed in preparing an EAP are:
1. Define the mensural systems necessary to recognize the existence of alert
criteria conditions.
2. Define the physical data to be monitored routinely; specify intensified
monitoring (meteorological and air sampling) during potential episodes.
3. Establish procedures and systems for processing and reviewing data
during potential episodes, including meteorological predictions.
4. Procure enough air-sampling and meteorological data to define concen-
trations of pollutants under various localized conditions.
1.2.3 Alert Criteria
Alert criteria are air pollutant concentrations at which certain pre-planned
episode emission-reduction strategies are implemented. These alert levels must
take into account air quality and meteorological factors, as well as socio-
economic and health considerations within the community. Each community
must devise criteria that meet the needs of the local situation. Guidelines for
developing alert criteria levels are as follows:
1. The first level may only indicate the presence of adverse meteorological
conditions.
2. The second level may be the signal for interim control action to begin,
reflecting the occurrence of poUutant concentrations approaching the
applicable short-term air quality standard.
3. The third level may indicate that air quality is continuing to deteriorate
and that additional control actions are needed.
4. The final alert level may call for an immediate maximum curtailment of
all appropriate sources in the region.
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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The number of alert levels should be compatible with the types of sources
existing in the community and the abatement strategies deemed reasonable.
Throughout the planning phases, emphasis should be on preventing high
pollutant concentrations, rather than on taking corrective action once they
have occurred.
Some steps to be taken in preparing alert criteria for an EAP are as follows:
1. Assemble the emission and air-sampling information necessary to define
the local physical problem.
2. Establish a committee to review and recommend alert criteria; represen-
tatives from medicine, business, meteorology, air pollution engineering,
government, law, and public safety (police) should be included on the
committee.
3. Review the criteria that have been adopted in other, similar areas.
Prepare arguments for revising them or for developing new criteria.
4. Establish responsibility and procedures for calling alerts.
5. Plan for annual review of the alert criteria and for special review
following a major episode.
1.2.4 Information on Sources and Control Alternatives
The objective of an EAP is the immediate reduction of emissions during
episodes so that air quality requirements are met. Control strategies are
normally used to determine the specific control actions and the required degree
of control for each source. These measures are necessarily selective, requiring
emergency curtailment of non-essential, easily controlled sources first and
postponing drastic measures until it becomes apparent that initial curtailments
are insufficient.
Extensive emission data are required for the design of an equitable
abatement strategy and the prediction of the effectiveness of this strategy.
Source data are needed for predictive purposes.
An emission inventory is the accepted method of obtaining source data.
Gross patterns of emissions can be determined from "paper" surveys of
emission sources and subsequent "emission-factor" calculations. Direct deter-
minations of emissions from individual sources are preferred since they are
more accurate. Information obtained from such inventories is generally
categorized by four main types of emission sources:
1. Fuel combustion by stationary sources.
2. Combusion of refuse material.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
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3. Transportation.
4. Industrial processes.
An analysis of emergency source-curtailment alternatives is required in order
to determine potential emission reductions for the community. Each alert level
will require a different degree of source curtailment. Control techniques used
in emergency situations will often differ from those used under normal
conditions. Emergency control alternatives normally include the following
actions:
1. Switching to a low-sulfur fuel.
2. Shifting power loading.
3. Curtailing production operations.
4. Postponing operations.
5. Reducing traffic.
6. Stopping all non-essential activities.
1.2.5 Responsible Organization with Authority
for Source Curtailment
The organization that has responsibility for establishing, enforcing, and
coordinating emergency episode activities that satisfy the requirements of an
EAP will normally develop from or be part of the control agency. This
organization must be capable of utilizing resources available for episode
avoidance. A system must be designed that provides those in authority with
optimum decision-making information and enables them to take the necessary
action.
The organization may obtain the voluntary cooperation of emitters, but it
must also have adequate legal authority to enforce emission reduction plans.
Exactly what will constitute adequate legal authority will depend to some
extent on the way State and local officials interpret the various laws and
ordinances under which they might act. It is desirable, however, that prompt
action be legally possible and that specific penalties be levied for non-
compliance with orders issued to curtail pollution or otherwise deal with an
episode.^
Cooperation in episode-avoidance planning is essential in interstate regions.
Pollutants emitted by sources in one state may be transported across state
boundaries; to cope effectively with episodes, then, all the states involved must
participate in a coordinated effort.
In designing an episode-avoidance organization, certain factors must be
evaluated. Some essential actions to be taken include:
10 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
1. Determining the boundaries of the region and exploring cooperative
relations with adjoining areas, and deciding on interagency strategies for
calling alerts.
2. Establishing the lines of authority for emergency actions (these may be
different at each alert level).
3. Establishing the legal authority to exercise emergency control actions,
including civil or criminal law-enforcement tools.
1.2.6 Communications and Procedures for Reporting
A well-planned information-dissemination program serviced by an efficient
communication system is essential for episode avoidance. The effectiveness of
the episode-avoidance system is highly dependent upon rapid and accurate
transmission of input data from surveillance equipment to the control activity
and abatement instructions from the control authority to the emitters.
The degree of sophistication of this system will vary according to the size of
the city and the resources available. A large city with sufficient resources may
have on-line telemetry systems for rapid transmission of monitoring data. A
small city with restricted funds may depend upon telephone communications,
using city employees such as policemen or firemen. The number of data inputs
is the major factor determining the magnitude and cost of a communication
system.
During an alert, most information will be transmitted to the public through
the news media. Information concerning the duration and intensity of the
episode, health precautions, and other aspects of episode conditions will be
widely disseminated. Certain control directives may be transmitted through the
news media, but most will probably be transmitted by telephone.
Dissemination of information following an alert can serve to clarify 'any
misunderstandings that may have arisen during the alert. In addition, an
evaluation of the severity of the episode, the action that was taken to minimize
hazardous conditions, and public recognition of extra-agency cooperation may
be broadcast after the episode.
Communication activities will:
1. Determine the information desired by State and Federal authorities, and
the form in which it is to be~submitted.
2. Design the local information system, including flow-diagram showing
police, civil defense, public safety, and private communication links;
coordinate with each participant and define roles.
3. Prepare sample news releases; consult with other control agencies
experienced in problems of dealing with the public in these matters.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 11
-------
4. Establish a direct, 24-hour-per-day communications link with major
emission sources; establish contacts and alternates for each.
Documentation of data during the episode and reporting of episode-related
activities are essential parts of an EAP. Such reporting is important tor legal
purposes and for providing more effective actions for future episode control.
Actions related to post-episode reporting should:
1. Determine whether legal documentation of data is required.
2. Prepare an outline of points to be covered in a summary of the event for
news media.
3. Prepare a technical summary, to include a record of the times of
emission-curtailment actions, sampling-station histories, and observed
effects, as well as the climatology of the event.
4. Prepare a report on control agency activities during the "potential-
episode" stage to point out where improvements are possible.
1.2.7 Implementing the Emergency Action Plan
An extremely flexible Emergency Action System (EAS) is needed to
implement an emergency action plan. The EAS will conduct only routine
surveillance under normal conditions but must be capable of expanding its
activities rapidly during episodes. The EAS will usually be developed within an
existing air pollution control agency. The minimum resources required are as
follows:
1. Routine Manning. The services (perhaps only part-time) of one individual
knowledgeable in air quality surveillance.
2. Emergency Manning. The services of a director, an engineer, and
meteorologists during alerts and actual episodes.
3. Meteorological Services. A source of local meteorological data, either a
private weather service or the United States Weather Bureau.
4. Air Quality Monitoring Network. A specified number of air sampling
stations that regularly monitor key pollutants. These stations should be
capable of short-interval sampling during an episode.
5. Emergency Action Center (EAC). A room or area that has been
designated and equipped for emergency action activities.
The EAS will have various modes of operation, the number of which will
depend upon the size of the region, the resources available for episode-
avoidance, and other factors. The operations are based on the degree of
activation of the EAS as it responds to the increasing severity of an episode and
are thus progressively more complex.
12 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
The following discussion will be based on a system of three operational
modes:
1. Routine Surveillance. The condition between emergencies, when the
major activity is surveillance.
2. Partial Activation. The condition created in response to increased
ambient pollutant concentrations or to a forecast of stagnant meteorolo-
gical conditions.
3. Full Activation. The condition during an episode, with the EAS
responding to the emergency.
The EAS will switch from the less complex routine mode to full activation
simultaneously with changes from normal to episode atmospheric conditions.
Additional equipment and manpower are drawn into the EAS as it progresses
from one operational mode to the next higher mode. Figure 1-6 shows how the
respective modes are coordinated.
The Routine Surveillance Mode (Figure 1-7) is the normal mode of
operation. Its essential tasks are the reception, evaluation, and recording of air
quality and meteorological data. Ambient conditions are surveyed in search of
episode indicators; when no indicators are observed, input data are recorded
and other required actions are taken. When increased ambient pollutant
concentrations are observed or when High Air Pollution Potential Advisories
(HAPPA) are announced, operations of the Routine Surveillance Mode are
discontinued and those of the Partial Activation Mode are initiated.
It is important that a standard operating procedure be established. The
operator in charge of routine data inputs should know the precise conditions
that require switching to the Partial Activation Mode of the EAS and should
know how and where he can contact the EAC Coordinator when alert
conditions are forecast.
The EAC staff will have to be supplemented temporarily in order to
perform the additional tasks associated with the Partial Activation Mode
(Figure 1-8). At a minimum, a coordinator (supervisor) and an additional
engineer should join the staff during this mode. The extra staff members will
be necessary because of the increased rate of data input and the need to
communicate with other organizations, the public, and managers of emission
sources.
The input data should be recorded and displayed in the EAC. Adequate
staff should be available to receive, evaluate, and display the relevant data.
The Coordinator should help analyze the situation, direct activities within
the EAC, plan for requirements associated with the Full Activation Mode, and
communicate with outside authorities and the public. An alert should be
publicly announced, and the Coordinator should notify emission sources,
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 13
-------
NON-EPISODE
ROUTINE 1
SURVEILLANCE
MODE
FORECASTS
EPISODE
PARTIAL 2
ACTIVATION
MODE
POOR
AIR
QUALITY
HAPPA
FULL ACTIVATION MODE
| PUBLIC
AIR QUALITY
ijr\kTi TODIK.IO
MUNI I UKINb
NFTWOPK"
i
[
I
1
1
INPUT
RECANPDl°N
ANALYSIS
x/
WEATHER
SERVICE
LOCAL
METEOROLOGY,
CONSULTA-
TION
I
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTER
Figure 1 -6. Emergency Action System
14
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
AIR
QUALITY
MONITORING
NETWORK
WEATHER
SERVICE
INPUT
RECEPTION
AND
ANALYSIS
ENGINEER
OR
METEOROLOGIST
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTER
Figure 1 - 7. Information flow during Routine Surveillance Mode.
request voluntary abatement of non-essential activities, and provide technical
assistance if required.
The Partial Activation Mode will continue until the episode forecast is
retracted or until episode conditions are declared. When the episode forecast is
retracted, the EAC will return to the Routine Surveillance Mode. A report
should be prepared that documents the actions taken during the Partial
Activation Mode and the air quality and meteorological conditions that were
observed.
The Full Activation Mode is initiated when an episode is declared. The EAC
operates at full capacity during this mode, and all essential air pollution control
agency personnel should be actively participating in emergency activities.
Previously designated specialists in medicine, law, engineering, communica-
tions, and transportation should be at the EAC or on call for consultation.
Figure 1-9 shows the organization that coordinates the efforts of these
personnel.
At this stage, there should be direct communication between the Coordi-
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
15
-------
w
2
AIR QUALITY
MONITORING
NETWORK
WEATHER
SERVICE
LOCAL
METEOROLOGIST
\ I
\l
|V| INPUT
/% RECEPTION
"TJ AND
Jfl ANALYSIS
j ENGINEER
/j METEOROLOGIST
/J 1 CLERK
1
g ' "^
1 ^
1 PUBLIC
j
1
DECISION-MAKER
(MAYOR, etc.)
J
^ COORDINATION ^
/ ENGI
0
METEOR
NEER \
R h
OLOGIol,
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTER
~1
L
ABATEMENT xT
NOTIFICATION \\|
ENGINEER \j
|\
UTILITIES
PUBLIC
FACILITIES
i PRIVATE
INDUSTRY AND
COMMERCE
INCINERATION
OPEN BURNING
O
w
Figure 1-8. Information flow during Partial Activation Mode.
-------
CITY SOLICITOR
AND/OR
STATE
ATTORNEY GENERAL
93
1
a
i
AIR QUALITY
MONITORING
NETWORK
WEATHER
SERVICE
I PUBLIC SAFETY
AGENCIES
LOCAL
METEOROLOGIST''
INPUT
RECEPTION
AND
ANALYSIS
ENGINEER
METEOROLOGIST
CLERK
ENGINEER OR
METEOROLOGIST
COMMUNICATIONS
ENGINEER
PUBLIC RELATIONS
SPECIALIST
CONSULTATION
METEOROLOGIST
ABATEMENT ENGR.
PHYSICIAN
LAWYER
TRANSPORTATION
SPECIALIST
CLERK
ABATEMENT
NOTIFICATION
POWER ENGINEER
PROCESS ENGINEER
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTER
Figure 1-9. Information flow during Full Activation Mode.
HOSPITALS
.PHYSICIANS
TELEPHONE
COMPANY
POWER
GENERATION
PUBLIC
FACILITIES
PRIVATE
INDUSTRY AND
COMMERCE
INCINERATION
I OPEN BURNING
-------
nator and the highest-level local authority within the region, such as the mayor
of the principal city. In most cases, this authority will be responsible for direct
contact with the public and will authorize necessary emergency actions. Ihe
City Solicitor (or equivalent officer) and the State Attorney General may also
be involved in certain legal decisions. Channels that require the participation of
persons outside the EAC should be established as part of the standard
operating procedures. Abatement notification to area emission sources will be
transmitted by telephone or in person. The police department may be used to
assist in curtailment of both stationary and mobile source activity.
Upon termination of the episode, a public announcement to that effect will
be made and all sources will be advised that they may return to the normal rate
of activity. An episode report is prepared that documents all actions taken and
records the effects of the episode.
1.3 REFERENCES
1 . Greenburg, Leonard et al. Report of an Air Pollution Incident in New York
City, November 1953. Public Health Service 77(1):7-16, January 1962.
2. "Stern, A. C. (ed.). Air Pollution, Vol. 1. New York, Academic Press, 1962
p. 554-563.
3. Lynn, D. A., B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig. The November-December
1962 Air Pollution Episode in the Eastern United States. U.S. DREW, PHS.
Division of Air Pollution. Washington, D.C. Publication Number 999-AP-7.
September 1964.
4. Fensterstock, Jack C. and R. K. Fankhauser. Thanksgiving 1966 Air
Pollution Episode in the Eastern United States. U.S. DHEW, Public Health
Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication Number AP-45. May 1968.
5. Mills, Clarence A. Air Pollution and Community Health. Boston, Chris-
topher Publishing House, p. 155-161.
6. Niemeyer L. W. Summer Sun-Cincinnati Smog: A Recent Incident. J. Air
Pollution Cont. Assoc. 13(8):381-384, August 1963.
?' S'^7VC V; At™sPheric Pollution, the Problem. Arch. Environ. Health
1.241-247, September 1960.
8. Guidelines for the Development of Air Quality Standards and Implementa-
w r ' Nati°nal Air Pollution Control
ion. Washington, D.C. May 1969.
18
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
2. INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS
2.1 POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS
There is substantial evidence that man-made air pollutants, particularly at
the dosage levels encountered during episodes, result in the following
generalized effects: (1) reduction of visibility; (2) deterioration of fabrics,
metals, and building materials; (3) damage to vegetation and animals; and (4)
injury to man himself.
This chapter summarizes the present body of information on types and
sources of air contaminants, together with their generally accepted effects on
man and his environment. Additional information on the effects of air
contaminants is contained in the Air Quality Criteria documents published by
the Air Pollution Control Office.
Pollutants have been classified1 into four broad categories, as shown in
Table 2-1.
Table 2-1. TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Type
Examples
Participate matter
Irritants
Oxidants
Systemic poisons
Carbonaceous particles, tars, oils, insoluble metal,
fumes and dusts, amorphous lead, organic debris
Gases, such as SOX, NOX, CL; soluble dusts; acidic
mists
Ozone, aldehydes, olefins, peroxyacetyl nitrate
CO, H2S, cyanides, nicotine, pesticides
2.1.1 Particulates
Particles of solid (and occasionally liquid) matter in the air constitute an
important portion of community air pollution in most cities and towns in the
19
-------
United States. Sources of participates include such activities as fuel combus-
tion, manufacturing and processing operations, and open burning ana
incineration of refuse.
Particulate air pollution is widely regarded as objectionable because it is
often aesthetically bothersome, it interferes with visibility, and it is associated
with the soiling and corrosion of metals, fabrics, and other materials. Its
adverse effects on health are subtle but significant nonetheless. In general,
concern about the health effects of particles is related to: (1) the ability of the
human respiratory system to remove such particles from inhaled air and retain
them in the lung; (2) the presence in such particles of mineral substances
having toxic or other physiological effects; (3) the presence in such particles of
poly cyclic hydrocarbons that are known carcinogens; (4) the demonstrated
ability of some fine particles to enhance the harmful physiological activity of
irritant gases when both are simultaneously present in inhaled air; and (5) the
ability of some mineral particles to increase the rate at which sulfur dioxide in
the atmosphere is converted by oxidation to sulfur trioxide, which is far more
active physiologically.
The size of airborne particles has an important bearing on the likelihood of
their reaching the lungs. Generally, coarse particles, about five microns or more
in diameter, lodge in the nasal passages. Smaller particles penetrate into the
lungs at a rate that increases with decreasing particle size. Particles smaller than
two to three microns usually reach the deeper structures of the lungs, where
there is no protective mucous coating.
The ability of particles to accentuate the adverse physiological effects of
simultaneously inhaled gases is one of the most important aspects of health
hazards associated with particulate air pollution. Combinations of gases and
particles have been shown to cause toxicological changes in rodents, resistance
to air flow in the respiratory tract, and bactericidal action.2'3
2.1.2 Irritants
The major irritant gases are the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Documented
severe air pollution episodes have in common the fact that sulfur dioxide levels
in ambient air were excessively high, as were levels of other gases and particles.
Although the pattern was not uniform for all cases, the elderly, the very young,
and those with pre-existing cardiorespiratory disease have been most seriously
affected.
The sulfur oxides found as atmospheric pollutants are sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide, and their acids and acid salts. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum
contain sulfur, and when the fuel burns, the sulfur is converted to sulfur
dioxide and, to a lesser degree, sulfur trioxide. Since fossil fuels are widely used
™lh£™nhed S!fteS t0^at buiWingS and generate electric P°wer> atmospheric
pollution by sulfur oxides is widespread and is especially prevalent in cities.
20
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Petroleum refineries, smelting plants, coke processing plants, sulfuric acid
manufacturing plants, coal refuse banks, and refuse burning activities are also
major sources of sulfurous pollution.
There is considerable evidence that sulfur oxide pollution aggravates existing
respiratory disease in humans and contributes to its development. Sulfur
dioxide alone irritates the upper respiratory tract;4 adsorbed on particulate
matter, the gas can be carried deep into the respiratory tract, where it injures
lung tissue? Sulfuric acid mists of a certain particle size can also penetrate
deeply into the lung and damage tissue.
Epidemiological and clinical studies substantiate that certain persons are
more sensitive to sulfur oxide pollution than others. Prolonged exposure to
relatively low levels of sulfur dioxide has been associated with increased
cardiovascular morbidity in older persons. Prolonged exposure to higher
concentrations of sulfur dioxide has been associated with an increase in
respiratory disease death rates and an increase in complaints by school children
of non-productive cough, mucous membrane irritation, and mucous secretion.
The residual air in the lungs of emphysema patients has been significantly
reduced when the patients breathed ambient air that had been filtered of
pollutants.4'6
Sulfur oxides pollution can also adversely affect more robust individuals.
Experiments in which healthy human volunteers were exposed to sulfur
dioxide concentrations several times higher than the taste-threshold concentra-
tion indicate that such exposures will produce changes in pulmonary function,
including increased respiration rates, decreased respiratory flow rates, and
increased airway resistance. The impairment of function is greater when the
sulfur dioxide is administered together with particulate matter. Some of the
general effects of SC>2 on man are depicted in Figure 2-1.
Oxides of nitrogen are an important group of atmospheric contaminants in
many communities. They are produced during the high-temperature combus-
tion of coal, oil, gas, or gasoline in power plants and in internal combustion
engines. The combustion process fixes* atmospheric nitrogen to produce the
oxides. At high temperatures, nitric oxide is formed first and then reacts with
oxygen in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide. This oxidation is quite
rapid with high concentrations of nitric oxide but much slower with low
concentrations. In sunlight, especially in the presence of organic material—a
situation typified by Los Angeles-type photochemical smog-the conversion of
nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide is greatly accelerated.
Nitrogen dioxide is considerably more toxic than nitric oxide, acting as an
acutely irritating substance. It is more injurious than equal concentrations of
*Nitrogen fixation in this context is the conversion of free nitrogen into combined forms,
specifically the oxides, through combustion.
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 21
-------
Q.
D.
o
t-
<
LU
U
o
U
CN
10.0
5.0
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.
BREATHING DIFFICULTY
INCREASED AIRWAY RESISTANCE
DARK-ADAPTED EYE RESPONSE
TO LIGHT INCREASED BY 25%
ODOR
TASTE
LOWEST DETECTABLE RESPONSE
EFFECTS
Figure 2-1. Effects of SC>2 on man.
carbon monoxide. The proven effects of N02 on man and lower animals are
confined almost entirely to the respiratory tract. With increasing dosage, acute
effects occur, such as odor perception, nasal irritation, discomfort on
breathing, acute respiratory distress, pulmonary edema, and death. Nitrogen
dioxide's relatively low solubility permits its penetration into the lower
respiratory tract. Delayed or chronic pulmonary changes may occur from high
but sublethal concentrations and repeated or continuous exposure of sufficient
magnitude.7"9 Some documented effects of N02 on man are shown in Figure
2-2.
2.1.3 Oxidants
Oxidants are a major class of compounds found in photochemical smog.
Emissions from motor vehicles are a prime factor in the formation of smog in
virtually all parts of the country. Other factors that contribute to smog
formation are the combustion of fuels for heat and electric power generation,
burning of refuse, evaporation of petroleum products, and handling and use of
organic solvents. The principal identifiable oxidants in polluted urban air are
ozone and the peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN).
ToSt Commonly experienced effect of photochemical smog is eye
'-H ^ T^ *" comPone"nts Busing eye irritation have not been
'
d n /8 S°me correl*«°n between the occurrence of eye
and overall levels of oxidants in the atmosphere. A characteristic
22
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
50
E
Q.
Q.
z
o
25
z
LLJ
U
CN
o
13
1-3
PULMONARY IRRITATION
EYE AND NASAL IRRITATION
ODOR THRESHOLD
EFFECTS
Figure 2-2. Effects of N02 on man.
pungent odor is associated with photochemical smog, and ozone is responsible
for the acrid component of this odor.
Studies have shown that it is harder for humans, particularly those suffering
from chronic respiratory disease, to breathe in areas having even a moderate
level of photochemical air pollution (0.10 ppm total oxidant or higher).1'11-12
The effects of ozone on man are shown in Figure 2-3. Although they are not
precisely the same as the effects of other photochemical oxidants, they are
characteristic of this class of pollutants.
2.1.4 Systemic Poisons
The major episode systemic poison is carbon monoxide. Not only is it one
of the most common urban air pollutants, but it can also be one of the most
harmful to man. Its ability to decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood makes this gas lethal in high concentrations. Though all processes
involving the combustion of carbonaceous material produce carbon monoxide,
the motor vehicle is by far the most important source that emits this pollutant
to the atmosphere. The wide use of motor vehicles, coupled with their
discharge of pollutants from points close to the ground, makes them the prime
cause of a community's pollution by carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is a well-understood phenomenon. As with
many other harmful gases, the degree of damage man sustains as a result of
exposure to carbon monoxide is related to the concentration of the gas in
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS
23
-------
OZONE THRESHOLD CONCENTRATIONS,
ppm
2.0
1.5
0.8
0.2
0.05
0;.02
•
UPPER PERMISSIBLE LIMIT —
PULMONARY CONGESTION _
EYE IRRITATION —
NOSE AND THROAT IRRITATION —
nnnp —
EFFECTS
Figure 2-3. Effects of ozone on man.
inhaled air and the length of exposure. 13,14 jhg hazards of carbon monoxide
arise mainly from its strong affinity for hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to
body tissues. When carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin, the tissues
are deprived of needed oxygen. At concentrations of slightly more than 1 ,000
ppm carbon monoxide kills quickly. The recommended upper limit for safety
1000
E
Q.
Q.
u
u
•z.
o
u
100
10
DEATH
DIZZINESS, HEADACHE
NO SIGNIFICANT HAZARD
EFFECTS
Figure 2-4. Effects of CO on man.
24
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
of healthy industrial workers exposed for an 8-hour period is now 50 ppm. At
approximately 100 ppm, most people experience dizziness, headache, lassitude,
and other symptoms. These effects are graphically illustrated in Figure 2-4.
It is quite possible that during episodes the levels of carbon monoxide
reached in vehicles and close to highways are frequently high enough to affect
some especially susceptible persons, such as those suffering from anemia or
other diseases that decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, or those
with cardiorespiratory disease. The extra burden placed on the body by the
reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood induced by carbon
monoxide may cause injury to vital organs. People already burdened by the
presence of carbon monoxide in their blood because of tobacco smoking or
occupational exposure may also be adversely affected by the extra amount of
carbon monoxide they inhale from contaminated air.
2.1.5 Episode Pollutant Levels
Table 2-2 illustrates the variability in episode atmospheres as indicated by
the ranges of pollutants recorded for a sample of 20 episodes.4-5'15"18
Table 2-2. POLLUTANT LEVELS FOR 20 EPISODES
Pollutant or effect Range Average
SO2
Participates
Soiling index
CO
0.1 to 9.8 ppm
200 to 4500 /ug/rn3
1.0 to 8.4 Coh
1 .0 to 25 ppm
0.45 ppm
1760M9/m3
4.3 Coh
9.5 ppm
Ten of the 20 episodes were accompanied by fog; all appeared to be directly
associated with temperature inversion. Effects on people in these areas were
characterized by complaints of eye irritation, upper respiratory involvement,
shortness of breath, aggravation of chronic lower respiratory and cardiovascular
ailments, and, in some cases, death. Excluding the Donora, Pennsylvania,
episode, in which the excess deaths (see definition in Section 1-1) reached 1.54
per thousand population, excess deaths-averaged 0.124 per thousand, ranging
from 0 to 0.6 per thousand.
2.1.6 Emergency Action Plan Criteria
Following are the suggested EAP criteria that trigger the pre-planned
episode emission reduction scheme:
1. Status: Forecast-The Forecast level indicates that an internal watch will
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 25
-------
be activated by a Weather Service HAPPA or equivalent report stating
that a high air pollution potential will exist for the next 36 hours.
2 Status- Alert-The Alert level is that concentration of pollutants at
' which short-term health effects can be expected to occur. An Alert will
be declared when any one of the following levels is reached:
SO2-0.3 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate-3.0 Coh, 24-hour average
SOa and Particulate combined-Product of 24-hour SC>2 average
(ppm) and Coh equal to 0.2
CO- 15 ppm, 8-hour average
Ox-0.1 ppm, 1-hour average
and meteorological conditions are such that this condition can be
expected to continue for 12 or more hours.
3. Status: Warning-The Warning level indicates that air quality is continu-
ing to deteriorate and that additional abatement actions are necessary. A
Warning will be declared when any one of the following levels is reached:
SO2— 0.6 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate— 6.0 Coh, 24-hour average
Combined SC>2 and Coh-Product of 24-hour 862 average (ppm) and
Coh equal to 1 .0
CO— 30 ppm, 8-hour average
Ox— 0.4 ppm, 1-hour average
and meteorological conditions are such that this condition can be
expected to continue for 12 or more hours.
4. Status: Emergency— The Emergency level is that level at which a
substantial endangerment to human health can be expected. These
criteria are absolute in the sense that they represent a level of pollution
that must not be allowed to occur. An Emergency will be declared when
it becomes apparent that any one of the following levels is imminent:
S02— 1.0 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate— 10 Coh, 24-hour average
Combined S02 and Coh-Product of 24-hour S02 average (ppm) and
Coh of 2.4
CO— 50 ppm, 8-hour average
75 ppm, 4-hour average
125 ppm, 1-hour average
Ox— 0.4 ppm, 4-hour average
0.6 ppm, 2-hour average
0.7 ppm, 1 -hour average
HPH! iOUld J?e ^ dear that an Alen- Darning, or Emergency can be
Potent °AnHv,,e °f deteriorating ™ quality alone; a High Air Pollution
fta?uf luld beleS %? ^ ^ ^ "^ ^ ^^ ^°A*
ouia be declared when any monitoring site records ambient pollution
26
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
concentrations above those designated in the criteria. The criteria should be
applied to individual monitoring sites and not to area-wide air quality.
The levels used to designate an Air Pollution Emergency are those that pose
an imminent and substantial danger to public health. Because these levels
should not be permitted to occur, an Air Pollution Emergency should be
declared when it appears that these levels may occur.
2.2 EMISSION SOURCES AND INVENTORIES
Episode avoidance planning must include a study of the sources of pollution
and their emissions. Before any decisions can be made regarding emergency
emission reduction strategies, an accurate, up-to-date inventory of all signifi-
cant air pollution sources in the area must be made.
Air pollutants are emitted by every combustion process and by most
industrial operations. Exactly which sources are problems in any given area can
only be determined by an emission inventory that catalogs all pollution sources
and their locations and emissions. This inventory will be similar to that
obtained for routine air pollution control purposes. It should, however, include
any significant increases in emission levels during specific periods of the year or
at specific times of the day.
2.2.1 Emission Inventories
When an emission inventory is conducted, pollutant sources are divided into
two main categories: area and point sources. Area sources include small
multiple sources such as automobiles and other transportation sources;
residential fuel combustion and refuse disposal; and commercial, institutional,
and small industrial fuel combustion and refuse disposal sources, all of which,
in general, individually emit less than 50 to 100 tons of any pollutant per year.
Point sources are the larger combustion, incinerator, and industrial sources that
individually emit more than 50 to 100 tons of any pollutant per year.
Information with which to estimate emissions can be gathered from a wide
variety of sources. Methods for determining gross patterns of emissions are
described in the Public Health Service publication, "Rapid Survey Technique
for Estimating Community Air Pollution Emissions."1* In this publication,
emission sources are classified as:
1. Fuel combustion in stationary sources.
2. Combustion of refuse material.
3. Transportation.
4. Industrial processes.
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 27
-------
2.2.2 Fuel Combustion in Stationary Sources
These sources should be classified by type of user (that is, industrial
commercial, utility, etc.), type of fuel burned, quantity of fuel consumed, and
geographical location. Sources of data include:
1. Local building, boiler, and similar permit records.
2. Local utilities.
3. Suppliers of fossil fuels.
4. Large-volume fossil fuel users.
5. Local large industries.
6. U.S. Bureau of Census.
7. U.S. Bureau of Mines.
8. State (fuel) associations.
9. State petroleum marketing associations.
10. National Coal Association.
11. American Petroleum Institute.
Chemical analyses of fuels for sulfur and ash content are not always readily
available, except from large-volume users, and may have to be estimated on the
basis of the source of the fuel.
A typical emission questionnaire is shown in Figure 2-5. This type of
questionnaire can be sent to all major fuel users.
The Air Pollution Control Office, 411 West Chapel Hill Street, Durham,
North Carolina, has prepared emission inventories for several cities in the
United States, and personnel in the Air Quality and Emission Data Division are
available for advice and consultation to agencies responsible for air pollution
control.
2.2.3 Combustion of Refuse
Burning is a technique commonly used to reduce the volume of refuse. The
nature and amount of refuse generated have changed noticeably in recent
years. For example, the increased use of paper in packaging material and the
wide use of plastics has resulted in a 2 to 4 percent annual increase in the
amount of refuse generated per capita. Recent studies indicate that about 10
pounds of mixed refuse are generated per capita per day in the United States.
Of this amount, about 5.3 pounds are collected and disposed of on-site at a
dump, landfill, or municipal incinerator.20 Some estimate of the waste disposal
practices used in a particular area must be made, since emissions vary widely,
28
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
2
3
a
i
o
I
AIR CONTAMINANT EMISSIONS SURVEY
Firm nana:
Parson to contact regarding this raport:.
Ualllng addraaa:
Plant addraaa:
ran arm an MLT
»™ ttttC COOHOMATI:
Ntlin of bualnaaa: (Productt)-
Employaaa at plant location: —
. Standard Industrial Claasiflcatlon Cod«_
.: It
il, giv* rang>_
SECTIOM I - FUEL USE FM CENERATICM OF HEAT. STEAM. AND POWER
9*Monal and/or psoli oparat
Eatlmta of pnc«nt of total f
A
Surai
«m. oi
Wkn <"
>
Mart
gril (»•*) '"
10* Mi/k.
on parlod: (3p<
us) constanad
C
tlf
mil"'
irlfy)
o fmwlri* fp*e« h«af: ,.,
D
T«»
tol '"
i 1 F | C
H
Fort dm "»
PMyw ft
HtttCMtrt >•>
an
PWM
•n. '••"'
PvoMnli
(art Myl '«•»'
|
J
Alictonliitmlpml
T» "'
Efflctancy '•"
«
K
Eithwt* We
Typ. >«'
L
mB»r»ra'™
OM1* "-'
SECTION II - REFUSE DISPOSAL
_ On site
Normal on-slu combustion operating schadu
9aasonal and/or paak opanulon parlod: (Spa
A
•
MriiuuiW
I*.1"!
AMlMpvr^"1
f Hnww ptr iffy n^yn Pf *ttK ^fh
rlly)
par yaar
C
MKM««IVM
!>»•""
-------
o
D
W
Nonnal oparatlng achadula:.
Saaaonal and/or puk operation parlod:_
_ Houra par day_
SICTIONHI - PROCESS EMISSIONI
0«ya parwa*
NOTE: For Intarmlitmt opwatlont, Indlcata approxlmata fraquancy and duration ao that aatlmataa of
A
PTDCCUM « op«itrom
r«l«Jini contacninnti
to ibmptw* i*-')
•
c
•Mrtili r>oc«ud ««!/«
aatd it opmUen*
Typt'0'
Qiuntityiwy** '"'
D
»»«m,o<»B
dlldiBIri flo.
precMroi opvitton
E
T«««id«l
•KcM
•m*"-"
t bum tht) *om* li
» cod ryp».
(A) hfollrpl. sourcei may b* grouped if u
(B) Namajplat* data are sufficient.
(O Hand-fired; und*rfMd, traveling-grate or toreador stoker; cyclone fumoce; pulverized, we* or dry bottom with or *rl
rotary or gun-tyt>e all burner; etc.
(0) Fuel data ore to b. reported on on "a* burned bomli."
(E) Co*.., bituminous cool, onthroclte cod; No. 1, 2, 4, 5 or 6 fuel oil; ooturol (ja«: LPC; r*>fln«y or ot*« o«n 001; »
(F) Poundi, ton>. or gallon* p«w yarar.
(G) If unknown, pl*OM glv« nom. and addr.o o( fuel supoli«rt '
(H) Sulfur and ajh contant for oocri lu.1 lhauld b. a w*ighl«Kl avvragat.
(I) Cyclor», scrubbw, •J*crromlollc pr*clpitoior, bog>ou*«, mil Ing cKomb*r. *TC.
tJ) Pl*n»« stot* if •FflclKicy ii o rated or operating offlclanty.
(K) Ry o»h, lulfur o.ldw, «tc. (Includ* cHwnical daKrtpHori)
(U Pounds or ton* p*r yw.
(M) Glv« Hack r.it data If available, or athwrwli* spatclfy boil» used.
(N) Rubblih, oarbog*, mbied garbag. and rubbl.h, -ait. pap"1. -«><* ^'P' or »o***«. •*=•
(0) Indicat. •h.rfher ou-lllafy fu.1 l> u*«j In lneln«otor. ofJ pit burning, and th. amount.
(P) Sulfurlc ocld-chombw aluminum sm.ltlno-cruclW» (umoC>, iron m.ltlr^-cupolo. c»m«)n1 monutoeiure-dry proems.
(CB Acid product, tons; neta! ehorg«i or profited, tons; cem.nf producvl, bbl.; wslveo. consumed, golla
(R) ProcBU motwtol balonc. itudtvs. fi.ld t.,tm by plant of by a,ajulpm-it mar
OF DISPOSAL CODE:
p^-u
2 Sanitary landfill (~ b*"1^
3. Bum*! .« boll* or fumow.
A Inc1r«™»
-------
depending on the mode of disposal. In addition, a questionnaire such as that
shown in Figure 2-5 can be sent to all major refuse disposal facilities. Once the
quantities of refuse and their mode of disposal have been estimated, factors
already available can be used to calculate emissions.21
2.2.4 Transportation
Mobile sources of air pollution include automobiles, buses, locomotives,
trucks, ships, and airplanes. Of these, automobiles, buses, and trucks usually
contribute significantly to general community pollution. Areas around large
airports will, of course, be affected by aircraft emissions.
Automobile emissions can be determined on the basis of gasoline sales in the
study area and available emission factors.21 Diesel-fueled traffic is mostly of
the long-haul type, and emission estimates are based on. mileage, traffic flow,
and emission factors. Traffic flow maps can be used to estimate seasonal
variations in vehicle emissions and to locate major concentrations of vehicle
emissions.
2.2.5 Industrial Process Emissions
A major function of the emission inventory is to quantify emissions from
industrial processes in the area. The steps involved in this portion of the survey
include:
1. Determining the names and locations of all industrial operations in the
area by using a directory of manufacturers, Chamber of Commerce
guide, etc.
2. Obtaining production and emission data through questionnaires, personal
visits, stack testing, or estimating procedures.
3. Calculating emission rates by applying emission factors to production
data.
Irrespective of whether questionnaires are used, personal visits to the larger
industries are desirable so that physical data may be obtained and a cooperative
working atmosphere established between the control agency and industries.
Much more information can be collected from visits than from questionnaires.
The physical data collected should anticipate the use of dispersion
calculations; a sample list of information to be gathered follows:
1. Exact location, including property boundaries.
2. Plant capacity (normal and maximum).
3. Fuel usage by shift, day of week, month, and season.
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 31
-------
4. Fuel type and composition, especially sulfur and ash content.
5. Fuel heating value.
6. Number, length, and frequency of operating levels (if the industrial
process is continuous).
7. Number and frequency of batches (if the industrial process is "batch").
8. Height from which pollutants are emitted, diameter of stack, and
velocity and temperature of exit gases.
9. Emission rate of pollutants in grams per second or pounds per hour,
including variations (mean and standard deviation). If emissions are not
known, the process throughput rates should be obtained and emissions
estimated by using emission factors, material balances, or other
estimating procedures.
10. Size distribution of particles emitted into the atmosphere.
11. Type, age, efficiency, and cost of pollution control equipment.
12. Plans for expansion.
13. Process flow diagrams.
14. Presence of settled dust.
15. Estimation of ventilation and hooding effectiveness.
16. Presence of odors, eye irritants, fallout, etc.
17. Housekeeping practices, as an indication of general maintenance.
18. Individuals to be contacted on air pollution matters and their telephone
numbers (both business and home).
19. Number of supervisory employees.
20. Number of hourly employees (the number of employees is related to
the automobile population, a possible factor in curtailment planning).
Source sampling may also be used to determine emissions. Although this
procedure provides quantitative data, it is time-consuming and only provides
data for the particular condition under which the plant was operating while
tests were conducted.
Some regulations require that certain commercial and industrial sources be
monitored periodically by the owner. This is the case for S02 pollution from
sulfunc acid plants in New Jersey. Other regulations, as in Cleveland, Ohio,
require a "test by a disinterested third party" at the request of the air pollution
control authority, at the owner's expense. In most large air pollution control
thseenf0noWin™;u"Prees;sampling capabmty has been deveioped and is used for
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
1. To validate operating permits.
32
-------
2. To establish emission rates.
3. To test for compliance with emission codes.
For carrying out episode-avoidance plans, source sampling may be desirable
or necessary to determine emissions under other than normal operating
conditions and to test for compliance with curtailment plans.
Few sources can be sampled during an actual episode because of the short
time available. Spot-checking is a useful measure, however, and will tend to
make industries more conscious of the efficacy of their control efforts. Annual
updating of emission data is required to maintain an effective control program.
In large cities, retrieval of emission information in sufficient time to permit
effective judgments during an episode-forecast period may be difficult; in such
situations, automated data storage and retrieval systems are required.
A permit system that calls for review of all new or altered combustion and
process equipment is an extremely strong tool for developing and maintaining
an up-to-date source inventory. The records of other municipal departments
(such as the building department, transportation agencies, and waste disposal
department), together with information from federally supported studies, will
also provide a basis for updating information on emission sources.
2.3 AEROMETRIC MONITORING
The objective of air sampling is to measure pollutants at receptor sites. The
data required for routine air pollution control are usually obtained by random,
continuous, or sequential sampling. Continuous air sampling is desirable for
episode avoidance, since episodes can be expected to last only a few days and
control actions must be promptly imposed. Averaging times of 1 to 4 hours are
usually adequate, although automated systems may use averaging times as short
as 5 minutes. Random sampling at this rate may be impractical; it is probably
no more expensive to collect 5-minute samples continuously for a week than to
-collect 5-minute randomly spaced samples for a week.
Based on alert criteria now in use, 1-hour averaging times are adequate for
surveillance of episode conditions. Shorter averaging times provide information
on data-collecting excursions but increase the need for automation because of
the bulk of the data obtained. Averaging times longer than 6 hours are not
desirable because of the delay in response this imposes. After an alert is
announced, data are needed fairly quickly so that requests for information on
the event can be met.
2.3.1 Site Selection
Designing, a sampling network is difficult, since defining and measuring
effectiveness are elusive processes. If the problem is that of episode avoidance
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 33
-------
rather than the control of chronic air pollution, the measure of effectiveness is
the success achieved in avoiding public health "disasters," given adequate
emission curtailment methods. A single station may be sufficient to describe
conditions in a given area; unless this fact has been established with some
certainty, however, a larger number of stations is desirable.
Selection of the actual number of sampling sites remains a practical
problem. Stalker22 has studied the problem, relating variance estimates to
required accuracy. Tools are available for designing a network on a cost-
effectiveness basis, using optimizing techniques, but have not yet been applied
to this problem. One practical difficulty is the assigning of an effectiveness
measure consistent with the objectives.
Presently, from 3 to 14 sampling stations, employing continuous-monitoring
instrumentation, are in use in large urban areas. Because of the high cost,
network size will probably continue to depend largely on local budgets.
Episode conditions threaten human welfare, and monitoring sites should be
located in areas where this welfare is most threatened:
1. In densely populated areas.
2. Near large stationary sources of pollutants.
3. Near hospitals.
4. Near high-density traffic interchanges.
5. In homes for the aged.
A network of sites is useful in determining the range of pollutant
concentrations within an area. Although the most desirable monitoring sites are
not necessarily the most convenient, consideration should be given, for reasons
of access, security, and existing communications, to the use of public
buildings: schools, firehouses, police stations, hospitals, and water or sewage
plants. In addition, local industrial or commercial installations might be willing
to exchange data or even permit sampling on their sites.
2.3.2 Monitoring Techniques
To avoid episodes, air quality data are needed within a few hours after
pollutant concentrations have been measured. The rapid dissemination of data
is possible via telephone, but the trend is toward automated monitoring
networks. A compilation of methods presently used to measure ambient air
quality is presented in Table 2-3.
Both chemical and physical techniques are utilized in air quality analysis.
Chemical analysis always involves the use of consumable supplies so that
chemicals must be replaced at the same rate at which samples are taken.
34 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Table 2-3. AIR QUALITY MONITORING SUMMARY
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Fluorides
Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitrogen oxides
Oxidants
Particulates
Sulfur dioxide
Principle of
measurement
Colorimetric
Non-dispersive IR
Detector tube
Colorimetric
Flame ionization
Gas chromatography
Chemisorption
on treated tape
Colorimetric
Detector tube
Colorimetric
Colorimetric
Coulometric
Transmission
or reflectance
Gravimetric
Conductivity
Colorimetric
Coulometric
Flame photometric
Operating
mode3
S, M
C
M
S, M
C
C,S,M
S, M
C,S, M
M
C,S, M
C, S, M
C
S
M
C,S, M
C,S, M
C
C
Minimum
sampling
period
4hr
5 min
5 to 30 min
4hr
5 min
5 to 30 min
2hr
30 min
5 min to 30 min
5 min to 1 hr
5 min to 1 hr
5 min
2hr
24 hr
5 min to 1 hr
5 min to 1 hr
5 min
5 min
Cost per unit, $
Continuous
4000
3000
5000 to 10,000
7000
3000
5000
1000
2000 to 5000
2500 to 7000
3500
4000
Sequential
1200b
1200b
1500b
800
1200b
1200b
1200b
1000
1200b
1200b
Manual
250a
150
100a
1008
2503
150
250a
250s
200a
2503
2509
o
90
i
i
8'
I
^—Continuous; S—Sequential; M—Manual
t> Related analytical equipment required.
-------
Currently available instruments store enough chemicals to permit operation
from 3 days to 1 month. In some cases, analytical reagents for specific air
contaminants are toxic or corrosive and require protective storage. The
relatively complex equipment used to make physical measurements must be
properly installed and maintained by trained personnel. Equipment accuracy is
affected by mechanical shock, temperature extremes, variations in power
supply or line voltage, dirty or dusty atmosphere, and corrosive chemicals.
A recent trend in air quality monitoring is the portable laboratory, built like
a house trailer, which can be moved to and operated at different sites. The
mobile trailer offers considerable flexibility in the choice of sampling site and
can be used in the investigation of specific problem areas.
All of the analytical equipment used for air quality monitoring requires
routine servicing. When this equipment is used continuously, personnel must
visit the instrument sites at least twice a week. During episode conditions there
will be no time to check out methods, run blanks, or calibrate instruments.
These procedures must be followed on a predetermined, routine schedule,
probably daily, according to a check list.
The accuracy of all analyses must be established periodically as verification
of analytical results. Automated instruments for field measurement have a
long-term accuracy of about ± 5 percent. Instruments are calibrated with an air
sample of known composition. Regular calibration is necessary to ensure
comparability of measurements with respect to time and location.
An important factor in air monitoring accuracy is the possible interference
by extraneous substances with the chemical procedures used to detect
pollutants. Since typical urban air contains a large number of chemicals, their
effects on detection methods must be considered. Typical interfering sub-
stances that have been identified are:
1. Ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and heavy metal particulates, which affect the
accuracy of sulfur dioxide detection by the West-Gaeke method.
Modifications in the method have been made to minimize these
effects.23
2. Ammonia and nitrous oxide, which interfere with the detection of sulfur
dioxide by the conductivity method.
3. Sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and reducing gases, which interfere
with the detection of oxidants by the neutral buffered-potassium iodide
method.
The interfering substances present will vary from city to city and their
effects must be evaluated by actual measurements. Experienced personnel are
required for reliable analyses of these effects. The Air Pollution Control Office
and other organizations offer training courses in the proper use of chemical
techniques and instruments.
36
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Measurements result in a numerical value of pollutant concentration. There
is a continuous output of data from continuous analyzers. The measured values
are read from meters or recorded on strip-chart recorders. Each analyzer may
have its own recorder, or several may be combined to record on one chart with
a multi-pen or multi-point recorder. In systems with a number of analyzers,
readings are recorded on teleprinters or on punched or magnetic tape. The
teleprinter provides immediate readout, and tapes utilize automatic data
reduction facilities. Consolidation of data should be carefully considered in
order to reduce storage, permit suitable identification, and provide for easy
reduction and analysis.
For decision-making during an episode, data presentation methods should
be evolved that will, ideally, present at a glance the concentrations of each
monitored contaminant in terms of peak reading, current 1-hour average, and
previous 6-hour and 24-hour averages.
2.4 PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING INFORMATION
Whatever methods of inventory, registration, and regulation are used for
emission source intelligence, the result will be data that require continual
sorting and evaluation. In the smaller urban areas, emission inventory data can
be processed and analyzed manually. Maintaining an updated inventory is a
continuing responsibility and, in a large urban area, can involve the
considerable expenditure of funds. Careful planning of an information
processing and display system will help in realizing maximum benefit from the
funds available.
A large urban area will have thousands of sources. Manual processing and
analysis is tedious, and some analyses may be next to impossible to perform
manually in the time available. Computer systems for the storage, retrieval,
processing, and analysis of emission-source data are becoming more common.
The ingredients for such a system are as follows:
1. Acquisition of or access to a computer with both random- and
sequential-access auxiliary storage facilities, so that filing and file
maintenance can be accomplished rapidly and efficiently.
2. Development of a coding system,25 preferably in cooperation with other
urban agencies such as Planning and Housing, Urban Renewal, Building
Permits and Inspection, Public Works, etc. Some data requirements are
common to all of these departments as well as to air pollution control
agencies. Coding parameters should include:
a. Pollution control equipment, cost, and performance.
b. Emission source categories and process rates.
c. Location of sources, keyed to (x, y) mapping coordinates.
d. Types of pollutants.
e. Quantities of pollutants.
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS 37
-------
f. Stack heights and gas flow rates, temperatures, and velocities.
g. Methods and results of curtailment at each alert stage.
h. Complaint histories.
i. Fuel-use information, rates, and fuel-switching capability.
3. Information retrieval programming so that any set of parameters can be
retrieved from the files selectively. For example, the planner may wish to
know the location of all plants using high-sulfur coal that emit an average
daily quantity of 862 between Q\ and Qi and from which participate
pollutants are emitted in excess of Q^.
4. Analysis programming, so that emission source data may be evaluated
and correlated with ambient exposures as desired. In the event that a
computerized real-time monitoring system is used, source-related infor-
mation can be correlated with monitoring data as an aid in making
control decisions.
Table 2-4. ANNUAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IN INTERSTATE
AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
Fuel
Coal, tons/yr
Fuel oil— residual,
gal/yr
Fuel oil-distillate.
gal/yr
Gas, 1 x 106 ft3/yr
Consumer category
Industry3
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam-electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam -electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Industry
Steam -electric utilities
Residential
Other
Total
Annual
consumption
1,628,000
4,874,000
738,000
222,000
7,462,000
106,223,000
642,000
nb
nb
106,865,000
8,284,000
0
120,543,000
6,414,000
135,233,000
68,151
9,252
51,078
2,974
131,454
Percent
of total
21.8
65.3
9.9
3.0
100.0
99.0
0.5
nb
nb
100.0
6.1
0
88.9
5.0
100.0
51.8
7.0
38.9
2.3
100.0
aAn additional 1,327
bn = Negligible.
,000 tons is used in the production of coke.
38
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
s
Ti
>
H
i
"B
Table 2-5. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM COMBUSTION OF FUELS IN STATIONARY
SOURCES IN INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
(tons/year)
Fuel
Coal
Fuel oil
Gas
User category
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Subtotal
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Subtotal
Industrial
Steam electric
Residential
Other
Subtotal
Total
Aldehydes
3
11
1
nb
15
93
nb
113
6
212
111
4
244
20
379
606
B(a)Pa
414
7
157
31
609
10
nb
nb
1
11
2
nb
nb
1
3
623
Carbon
monoxide
2,442
1,220
18,873
3,587
26,100
94
nb
113
6
213
89
nb
74
5
168
26,500
Hydro-
carbons
814
487
3,682
714
5,697
93
nb
113
6
212
nb
nb
244
20
264
6,173
Nitrogen
oxides
16,276
51,261
2,945
571
71,053
2,055
41
2,015
103
4,214
5,376
1,793
2,935
210
10,314
85,581
Sulfur
oxides
98,390
244,443
46,194
13,800
402,827
14,300
31
3,590
198
18,119
15
3
9
nb
27
420,973
Partic-
ulates
37,990
22,400
18,873
5,450
84,713
683
nb
671
34
1,388
423
68
354
27
872
86,973
aBenzo(a)pyrene in Ib/yr.
bn = Negligible.
XO
-------
A
O
Table 2-6. INDUSTRIAL COAL USE BY BURNER TYPE AND TYPE OF Al R POLLUTION
CONTROL DEVICE USED IN INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREA, 1963
Type of
firing
equipment
Underfeed stokers
Chain-grate stokers
Traveling-grate stokers
Hand-fired
Pulverized-coal units
Spreader stokers with ash
reinjection
Spreader stokers without
ash reinjection
Totals
Percent of total
IMo control devices
Number
of
units3
13
24
5
12
2
56
42.8
Quantity of
coal burned.
tons/yr
21,000
244,000
5,600
4,000
8,000
282,600
17.4
Settling chambers
or water sprays
Number
of
units3
5
11
5
6
27
20.6
Quantity of
coal burned.
tons/yr
2,400
325,000
135,000
17,000
479,400
29.3
Cyclones or other
inertia! separators
Number
of
units3
7
3
10
3
1
24
18.3
Quantity of
coal burned.
tons/yr
88,000
23,000
114,000
35,000
28,000
288,000
17.7
Multiclones
or ESPb
Number
of
units3
22
1
1
24
18.3
Quantity of
coal burned.
tons/yr
516,000
50,000
15,000
581,000
35.6
Total
Number
of
units3
18
42
13
12
32
4
10
131
100
Quantity of
coal burned,
tons/yr
23,400
657,000
163,600
4,000
630,000
85,000
68,000
1,631,000
100
O
O
w
>
s
I
O
w
3The number of units given represents the number of boilers, not installations. An installation with two boilers is entered as 2.
bMulti-stage cyclones or electrostatic precipitators.
-------
With or without computers, emission-source information may be presented
in either tabular or graphic form, depending upon the use to which it will be
put. Fuel-use information can be displayed as shown in Table 2-4, which
indicates annual consumption of fuel by consumer category; the amount for
each category is expressed in tons or gallons and as a percentage of the total for
each category, giving the user of the information both absolute and relative
data on coal, oil, and gas. Other examples of tabulated information are shown
in Tables 2-5 and 2-6. Such data may also be represented effectively in bar or
line graphs, as in Figure 2-6.
Another graphic approach to data display is the use of density maps, such as
ESTIMATED ANNUAL CONSUMPTION NO.,6 OIL = 150 xlO'6GALLONS
FUEL USE PATTERN
ESTIMATED
ANNUAL
FUEL COST
$25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
DNO.
6 OIL
ESTIMATED
ANNUAL S02
EMISSIONS,
tons
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
UNO-. 2 OIL
NATURAL GAS AND NO. 2 OIL
I NATURAL GAS AND NO. .4 OIL
Figure 2-6. New York City-owned installations: estimated annual
oil consumption, S02emissions, and fuel costs.
Based on 1966 emission data.
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS
41
-------
the one shown in Figure 2-7, and location maps, as in Figure 2-8. Maps such as
these may be used to advantage in pinpointing the location of present and
potential problem areas when emergency control measures are being planned.
Either total or average emissions are computed for each grid square, and a
density symbol is assigned to the square according to the magnitude of the
emissions.
Careful consideration should be given to the arrangement of data in tabular
or graphic displays so that important relationships among categories of
information are easily seen and understood.
2.5 REFERENCES
1. Anderson, D. 0. Effects of Air Contamination on Health. National
Conference on Air Pollution and Environment. Montreal, Canada. Novem-
ber 1966.
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
tons/yr
I I 0-100
I1 100-500
j~~1 500-1,000
> 1,000
420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540
Figure 2-7. Emissions of particulat.es from residential use of fuels.
42
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Figure 2-8. Major industrial operations.
2. Nadel, J. A. Arch. Environ. Health 7:179, 1963.
3. Lovejoy, F. W. et al. Amer. J. Med. 30:884-892, 1961.
4. Air Conservation. Report of the Air Conservation Commission of the
AAAS. Washington, D.C. Publication Number 80. 1965.
5. Goldsmith, J. R. In: A. C. Stern (ed.). Air Pollution, Vol. 1. New York,
Academic Press, 1962.
6. Mills, Clarence A. Air Pollution and Community Health. Boston, Chris-
topher Publishing House, p. 155-161.
7. Motor Vehicles, Air Pollution, and Health. Report of the Surgeon General
to the U.S. Congress. U.S. DHEW, Public Health Service. Washington, D.C.
June 1962.
8. Purvis, M. R. and R. Ehrlich. Effect of Atmospheric Pollutants on
INFORMATION ON POLLUTANTS
43
-------
Susceptibility to Respiratory Infection. J. Infectious Dis. 113:72-76,
July-August 1963.
9. Air Conservation. Report of the Air Conservation Commission of the
AAAS. Washington, D.C. Publication Number 80. 1965.
10. Stern, A. C. (ed.). Air Pollution, Vol. II. New York, Academic Press, 1962.
11. Apeiger, F. E. and B. Ferris. Amer. Rev. Resp. Dis. 88:205-212, 1963.
12. Motley, H.L. and H.Phelps. Dis. Chest 45:154-162, 1964.
13. Grut, A. Chronic Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. Copenhagen, Ejnar Munks-
gaard, 1949.
14. Von Post-Lingen, M. L. The Significance of Exposure to Small Concentra-
tions of Carbon Monoxide. Proc. Royal Soc. Med. 57(11):1021-1029,
1964.
15. Air Pollution in Donora, Pa. Public Health Bulletin Number 306. 1949.
16. Morbidity and Mortality During the London Fog of 1952. Public Health
Medical Service. London. Report Number 95. 1954.
17. Greenburg et al. Public Health Reports 77:1, 1962.
18. Bradley, W. H., W. Logan, and A. E. Martin. Monthly Bulletin Ministry
Health 17:156-166, 1958.
19. Ozolins, G. and R. Smith. A Rapid Survey Technique for Estimating
Community Air Pollution Emissions. U.S. DHEW, PHS, CPEHS. National
Air Pollution Control Administration. Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number
999-AP-29. October 1966.
20. Black, R. J. et al. The National Solid Wastes Survey. U.S. DHEW, PHS,
Solid Wastes Program. Washington, D.C. October 1968.
21. Duprey, R. L. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S.
DHEW, PHS, CP, EHS. National Air Pollution Control Administration.
Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number 999-AP-42. 1968.
22. Stalker, W. M. et al. Sampling Station and Time Requirements for Urban
Air Pollution Surveys, Part IV. J. Air Pollution Cont. Assoc. 12:361-376,
August 1962.
23. Stern, A. C. (ed.). Air Pollution, Vol. II (Second Ed.). New York,
Academic Press, 1968.
44
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
3. INFORMATION ON EPISODES
3.1 REGIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING EPISODES
The nature and degree of air pollution potential vary considerably across the
United States. The main factors causing these differences are emission
characteristics, meteorology, and topography. For planning purposes, it is
necessary to appreciate the nature of these differences and to identify the
characteristics specific to a given area.
Emission measurements used in detecting episodes are the same as those
used for detecting chronic air pollution control. It is a familiar fact that
oxidants are at present the greatest recognized problem in Los Angeles,
whereas particulates and sulfur dioxide are more serious problems on the
Eastern Seaboard. The need for relating emergency control actions to the local
problem is clear. Plans must be flexible, since emission characteristics will
change as improved, but irregular, pollutant controls are introduced. The
absence of a satisfactory preventive for NOX emissions and the growth of the
automobile population are cases in point. Section 2.2 presented a detailed
overview of the types and character of emission sources that must be
considered in episode-prevention planning.
Diurnal variations represent a local characteristic that could influence the
strategy for declaring alerts (see Figure 3-1). Seasonal variations, such as a
predominance of oxidant pollutants in summer and sulfur dioxide in winter,
may exist in many areas.
The meteorological character of a region depends on geographical location
and local topography. Topography accounts largely for local variations in the
broad-scale weather patterns that dominate an area. The following classifica-
tion of areas based on similarity of weather and topographic conditions, has
been published in the Federal Register'.
Great Lakes-Northeast Area Great Plains Area
Mid-Atlantic Coastal Area Rocky Mountain Area
Appalachian Area Washington Coastal Area
South Florida Area California-Oregon Coastal Area
Of these, the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain Areas are most likely to be
45
-------
E°
E*
< i/5
Q Z
g?°
92
J^UJn
O uO.
z z
o
u
0.00
AUGUST 2, 1963
15h
10
05
PEAK OF
DIURNAL
PATTERN*
FOR MONTH
^HYDROCARBON | | ^
15
a
a
10ck:i-
QLU
e. >, a
of topographic features follows:
46
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
•n
O
H
H^
O
2
i
O
O
w
33 EPISODES WEST
OCT. 1, 1963 toOCT.31, 1969
74 EPISODES EAST
AUG. 1, 1960 to OCT. 31, 1969
Figure 3-2. Forecast high air pollution potential days.
-------
Terrain-Roughness, profile, slope, elevation, valley spacing, valley width.
Flat, open terrain is more exposed to broad-scale movement ot air man is
rough, mountainous terrain, and it is generally less subject to air pollution
episodes.
Vegetation—Dimensional characteristics, physical properties, distribution.
Heavily wooded clusters tend to develop a micro-climate under the leafy
canopy, marked by light winds and temperature inversion. Pollutants
entering this regime may accumulate and may persist longer than in nearby
open areas.
Hydrology-Shape, size, distribution, and dynamic properties of nearby
water bodies. Adjacent land and water surfaces absorb and radiate solar heat
differently; the resulting contrast in temperature helps drive the land-sea
breeze during the warmer months of the year. In coastal communities, when
the wind systems are weak, pollution tends to "slosh back and forth," with
diurnal reversals of the surface wind, which moves off the coast at night and
returning inland by day.
Degree of Urbanization-Compared with the surrounding countryside, cities
influence local weather and pollution distribution in the following ways:
1. Man-made structures reduce wind speed and channel the flow through
streets that lie along the general wind direction.
2. Buildings retain incident daytime heat and radiate it at night to the
surrounding air, thus acting to warm the air through a layer that is
several times higher than the urban skyline.
3. The higher temperature, rougher profile, blocking of wind, and net
influx of air into the city act to increase vertical movement of the air
above the city. Pollutants that might otherwise accumulate under a
nocturnal temperature inversion become distributed through the thicker
layer of atmospheric mixing above the city.
4. The above effects, plus the added presence of particulate matter, act to
increase cloudiness and precipitation near a city.
Topographic factors, coupled with atmospheric processes that vary with
season, time of day, and dominating weather systems, produce complex local
wind patterns. Two patterns associated with the following terrain configura-
tions are especially important in air pollution studies.
!• Ridges-Winds tend to follow the orientation of ridges and troughs in
"ribbed" or "washboard" terrain. Communities may be receptors for
pollution that is channeled over considerable distances along the valleys.
2. Cup-Shaped Valleys-An industrial valley that is virtually surrounded by
peaks and ridges is particularly prone to hazardous levels of air pollution.
Uunng clear, still nights, cold air collects in pools and pockets at the
48
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
valley bottom and may persist for long periods of time. A community
nestled in this terrain may appear picturesque within a morning blanket
of fog and smoke, but it could be suffering severe air contamination.
Deciding what pollutants require control in a given locality now depends
mostly on past research, historical occurrence, and a common-sense view of
existing and predicted emission-source contributions to the atmosphere. Sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxidants, hydrocarbons and their photochemical
products, oxides of nitrogen, and particulate matter are of universal interest;
one or another may be the principal problem in a given area at a given time.
Reduction of these air contaminants will have an impact on ambient
concentrations of trace metals and other low-concentration pollutants.
Individual sources may contribute fluorides, chlorides, odors, and many kinds
of particles in localized areas, but these represent a relatively minor problem in
a "first attack on episodes," in which the concern is the protection of general
health in whole cities and regions.
3.2 EPISODE METEOROLOGY
The two necessary ingredients of an episode are the presence of significant
emission sources and receptors and the occurrence of episode-potential
meteorological conditions.
Normally, pollutants are well-dispersed in the atmosphere by turbulent
mixing and wind transport. Turbulence and wind usually diminish at night and
intensify during the day. From time to time, however, a stagnant high-pressure
system lies over an area for a period of days, during which turbulent mixing
and wind transport are abnormally weak. Under these conditions, airborne
contaminants may accumulate and eventually reach the concentrations that
characterize an air pollution episode.
Hence, episode prediction requires two steps:
1. Predicting the occurrence and duration of episode-potential weather
conditions. These conditions may obtain independently of the presence
or absence of air pollution sources.
2. Predicting concentrations of poliutants resulting from source emissions
in the area affected by episode-potential conditions.
A brief discussion of turbulent mixing, wind transport, and high-pressure
stagnation is included in Appendix C.
3.2.1 Forecasting Air Pollution Potential
Air pollution potential may be defined, from the meteorological standpoint,
INFORMATION ON EPISODES 49
-------
as a set of weather conditions conducive to the occurrence of high
concentrations of air pollutants.
Observations over the United States have indicated that when certain
meteorological conditions are met in the vicinity of a source or sources of air
pollution, the pollutants tend to disperse slowly with respect to the usual rates
of atmospheric diffusion and transport. These conditions are usually a
combination of low mixing height and light winds, which occur most often
near the center of a high-pressure system (anticyclone). The intensified
pollution continues until meteorological conditions change so that the affected
area is ventilated better.
3.2.2 High Air Pollution Potential Advisories (HAPPA)
High Air Pollution Potential Advisories (HAPPA) are reports prepared at the
National Meteorological Center (NMC) in Suitland, Maryland, by meteorolo-
gists of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
Advisories are based on reports received hourly via teletype from Weather
Service stations in the United States and on numerous analyses and forecasts
prepared by the NMC. With its computer facilities, the NMC prepares
mixing-depth and wind-speed data from all upper-air observing stations in the
contiguous United States (about 70 stations). These data are analyzed,
interpreted, and integrated with other meteorological information.
High Air Pollution Potential Advisories based on these data are transmitted
daily at 12:20 p.m., EST, to National Weather Service stations, via teletype
service "C." When meteorological conditions do not warrant issuance of an
advisory, the teletype message is "none today." When the forecast indicates
that an advisory should be issued, the message designates the affected areas.
The daily message indicates significant changes in the boundaries of HAPPA
areas, including termination of an episode.
After extensive experimentation and testing, the HAPPA program went into
routine daily operation on August 1, 1960, to service the portion of the United
States east of the Rocky Mountains. Effective October 1, 1963, the program
was expanded to include all of the contiguous United States.
Because atmospheric transport and dispersion typically vary with location
and with time, the forecasting staff cannot prepare advisories for each city in
the United States. For this reason, NOAA meteorologists limit their forecasts
to areas of at least 75,000 square miles, roughly the size of Oklahoma, in which
stagnation conditions are expected to persist for at least 36 hours. Individual
Weather Service stations may modify .these generalized forecasts on the basis of
local meteorological conditions.
50
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
1
o
i
o
25
8
M
I/I
AJ
Figure 3-3. National Weather Service Stations in United States.
-------
ALABAMA
1- MOBILE
2, HUNTSV1LLE
3. BIRMINGHAM
4. MONTGOMERY
ARIZONA
I. YUMA
2. PHOENIX
3. FLAGS! Aht
4. W1NSLOW
S. TUCSON
ARKANSAS
i. FORT SMITH
2. LITTLE ROCK
3. TEXARKANA
CALIFORNIA
i. EUREKA
2. OAKLAND
3. SAN FRANCISCO
4. SANTA MARIA
5. BURBANK
6. LOS ANGELES
e. SAN DIEGO
9. MOUNT SHASTA
10. RED BLUFf
1 1 - SACRAMENTO
12. STOCKTON
13. FRESNO
14. BAKERSF1ELD
15. POMONA
COLORADO
1. GRAND JUNt TION
2. ALAMOSA
3. DENVER
4. COLORADO SPRINGS
5. PUEBLO
CONNECTICUT
1. BRIDGEPORT
2 NEW HAVEN
3. HARTFORD
DELAWARE
1. Wll MING10N
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
FLORIDA
T. PENSACOLA
2. APALACHICOLA
3. TAI 1 AHASStt
4. JACKSONVILLE
5. ORLANDO
6. DAYTONA tU ACH
7. TAMPA
8. I AKtl AND
9. [ ORT MYFRS
10. PAl M BEACH
Tl. MIAMI
•2. KH WS-ST
GEORGIA
1 . I 01 UMBUS
2. AT; ANIA
3. MAC ON
4. A1HFNS
b. AUGUSTA
(j. SAVANNAH
IDAHO
1. LFWISTON
2. BOISt
3. PO( A IFl 1 0
ILLINOIS
1. MOLINF
2. HO( Kl ORU
3. {' Mil AliO
4. PEORIA
b. SPHINGHELD
6. CAIRO
INDIANA
1 . EVANSVILLE
2. SOUTH BEND
3. INDIANAPOLIS
4. 1 ORl WAYNE
IOWA
1 . SIOUX CITY
2. DES MOINES
3. WAlEflLOO
4. DUBUQUE
KANSAS
T . GOODLAND
2. DODGE CITY
3. CONCORDIA
4. WICHI1A
5. IOPEKA
KENTUCKY
1. LOUISVILLE
2. LEXINGTON
1. SHREVEPOR1
2. Al EXANDRIA
3. I AKE CHARLES
4. BATON ROUGE
b. NEW ORLEANS
MAINE
1. CARIBOU
2. PORTLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
1. WORCESTER
2. BOSTON
3. NANTUCKFT
MARYLAND
t. FREDERICK
2. BALTIMORE
MICHIGAN
i. MAROUETTE
2. tSCANABA
3. SAUt T STE. MARIE
4. AlPENA
5. HOUGHTON LAKE
G. MUSKEGON
/. GRAND RAPIDS
8. I ANSINC,
9. FLINT
10. DETROIT
MINNESOTA
1 . INTERNATIONAl hAU
2. DUI UTH
3. ST. Cl OUD
4. M1NNEAPOI IS
5. ROCHESTER
MISSISSIPPI
t. V1CKSBURG
2. JACKSON
3. Mi- RID IAN
MISSOURI '
1 KANSAS I lf>
2. SPHINlil IN L)
j. ( 01 UMFUA
4. ST . LOUIS
MONTANA
1. KAl ISPH I
1. MISSOUI A
3. HtLtNA
4. C.RtAT 1A1IS
!>. HAVHF
)>. HILl INdS
'. IIL-VSC.QW
NEBRASKA
1. SCOTTS BLUH
2. VALEN IINF
3. NORTH P'. Al 1 t
4. GRAND IS1 AND
5. NORFOI K
6 . LINCOLN
7. OMAHA
NEVADA
2. WINNEMUCCA
3 El KO
4 El Y
5 L AS VEGAS
\ CONCORD
. TRENT ON
2. NEWARK
3. ATI ANTIC CITY
NEW MEXICO
1 . SILVER CITY
3. ROSWEl!
NEW YORK
1. BUFI-ALO
2. ROCHESTER
3. SYRACUSE
4. ALBANY
5. BINGHAMTON
6. NEW YORK CITY
NORTH CAROLINA
1. ASHEVIL 1 E
2. CHARIOTTE
3. WINSTON -SAI EM
4. GREENSBORO
b. RAI EIGH
6. Wll MING10N
;. CAPE HATTERAS
NORTH DAKOTA
1. WILI ISTON
2. BISMARCK
3. 1 AflGO
OHIO
1. CINCINNATI
2. DAYTON
3. TOlEDO
4. COl UMBUS
b. MANS! IEI D
6. Cl EVE1 AND
5 /. AKRON - CANTON
B. YOUNGSTOWN
OKLAHOMA
1. OKI AHOMA Ctl>
2. TUI SA
OREGON
1. ASTORIA
2. SA1FM
3. FUC.hNF
4. MtUIOHD
b. POH1IANO
Li. PI-NLH FTON
PENNSYLVANIA
T. FUll
2. PM 1SHUHC.H
3. WU.LIAMSPOH1
4. Hf-AOING
b. HARRIStlURG
U. SCHANION
/. All tNTOWN
«. PHI1 ALHI PHIA
RHODE ISLAND
1 PROVIDENCE
SOUTH CAROLINA
1 GREENV1LLE-
SPAHTANBURG
3". CHARLESTON
SOUTH DAKOTA
1 RAPID CITY
2. ABERDEEN
3. HURON
4 SIOUX FALi S
TENNESSEE
1. MEMPHIS
2. NASHVILLE
3 CHATTANOOGA
4' KNOXVILIE
5. BRISTOL
TEXAS
1 EL PASO
2. AMARILLO
3. LUBBOCK
B. DEL RIO
6. LAREDO
/. ABILENE
8. SAN ANGELO
9. WICHITA FAl LS
10. FT. WORTH
11. DALLAS
12. WACO
13. SAN ANTONIO
14. AUSTIN
15. VICTORIA
16. CORPUS CHR1STI
1 /. BROWNSVILLE
18. HOUSTON
19. PORT ARTHUR
20. GAI VESTON
UTAH
1. WENDOVER
2. SAI T LAKE CITY
VERMONT
1 - BURl 1NGTON
VIRGINIA
1. ROANOKE
2. IYNCHBURG
3. RICHMOND
4. NORFOLK
WASHINGTON
1. SEATTLE
2. OLYMPIA
3. WENATCHEE
4. YAKIMA
5. SPOKANE
6. WAI I A WAU A
WEST VJRGINIA
1. HUNTINGTON
2. PARKERSBURG
3. CHARl ESTON
4. BFCKLEY
b. HKINS
WISCONSIN
1. LA CROSSt
2. MADISON
3. GREEN BAY
4. MILWAUKEE
WYOMING
t. LANDER
2. SHERIDAN
3. CASPER
4. CHEYENNE
Figure 3-3 (continued). National Weather Service Stations in U.S.
Users of the service should realize that boundaries of the HAPPA forecast
areas cannot be delineated exactly. For practical purposes, the lines defining
the advisory areas should be interpreted as bands roughly 100 miles wide.
To receive these advisories, air pollution control or research officials must
initiate arrangements with the nearest Weather Service station (see Figure 3-3).
Once arrangements have been made, the local Weather Service office will notify
forecast users when their area of interest is included in an advisory. Since the
forecasts are issued for a given area only when meteorological conditions
warrant, it is possible that some affiliates of the program will not receive any
notifications at all and that many will receive them only rarely.
Because the forecasts are for special purposes, NOAA suggests that they be
disseminated through local air pollution agency channels. Any public an-
nouncements should be given as predictions of pollution conditions rather than
WeSSServTcI ofS *"** "^ ^ ** *"** "**"* rather ^ t0 ^
52
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
4. CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES
4.1 EMERGENCY ACTION STRATEGIES
An Emergency Action Strategy (EAS) is an integrated, pre-planned group of
emission curtailment and related actions available to the air pollution control
authority for episode avoidance. The strategy is designed so that it will cause
minimum social and economic inconvenience to the community.
Source emission inventories and specific source curtailment plans are vital
inputs for determining the optimum strategy for emergency control actions.
For each recorded pollutant source, these inputs provide information on: (1)
relative contributions of pollutants, (2) means of reducing pollutant emissions,
(3) proper timing of curtailment actions, and (4) economic penalties of
curtailment actions.
This information must be combined with information on local requirements
for pollutant emission reduction to form the basis of a plan for controlling
individual emitters in order to avoid an episode.
The minimum control action taken should be that required to preclude
health damage to the population of the area. This level of control is usually
determined on the basis of a system that correlates different levels of required
actions with potential health damage. Pollutant exposure for these levels will
vary; a typical breakdown is presented in Table 4-1.
If possible, the emergency actions taken will be graded according to the
various alert levels. Actions can be planned either to correspond to the alert
levels or, in more sophisticated systems, to be flexible and dependent upon
real-time simulation of the episode.
In this chapter, strategies presented for the control of pollutant concen-
trations during an episode will range from the simple case of a single source to
a highly sophisticated real-time simulation. Possible strategies, together with
the information required, are shown in Table 4-2. Each agency must evaluate
its own problems and limitations to determine which plan of action is most
suitable.
53
-------
Table 4-1. EPISODE STATUS VERSUS POLLUTANT LEVELS
Alert level3
0
I
II
III
Status
Forecast
Alert
Warning
Emergency
Condition3
High Air Pollution Potential Advisory
(Meteorology)
Approaches maximum allowable concen-
tration. Still safe, but approaching point
at which preventive action is needed.
Air contamination level at which a prelim-
inary health menace exists.
Air contamination level at which a danger-
ous health menace exists.
3Los Angeles County APCD Rule 156.
Table 4-2. POLLUTANT CONTROL STRATEGIES
Strategies
Simple
Proportional
Sequential
Cost-effect
Simulated
Intermittent modeling
Real-time control
Source
inventory
X
X
X
X
X
Shutdown
plans
X
X
X
X
X
Social and
economic
value
—
—
X
X
X
Diffusion
model for
planning
-
-
—
X
X
Real-time
diffusion
model
-
-
—
-
X
Real-time
economic
effects
-
-
—
-
X
4.1.1 Simple Strategies
In certain localities the great bulk of the pollutants will be emitted by one
to four large power-generating or industrial-processing plants. In such a
situation, control actions center around curtailing these large sources, and a
minimum of simulation is required. Each plant would be required to submit
curtailment plans compatible with the control required for the different alert
levels. Alternate actions by which to achieve these goals would be evaluated by
the source, and the control authority could accept or reject the suggested
plans.
In the typical situation, however, there will be many sources emitting a
3™ f p°llu*ants' Although large sources will contribute a significant
proportion of the pollutants, control of these sources alone may not be
54
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
sufficient to avoid an episode. In addition, the system may involve interacting
elements. For example, it may be desirable to shift power generation from fuel
oil to gas; however, sufficient gas may not be available unless certain industrial
or commercial plants are closed down. Obviously, a number of alternatives
must be considered.
The simplest approach is to identify the pollutants emitted and the rates at
which they are emitted from each source, and then select a control strategy
that will reduce emissions by fixed percentages for each alert level. For these
purposes, ground-level concentrations are considered to be proportional to
emissions, so that cutting emissions by one-third cuts ground-level concentra-
tions by one-third. Typical simple strategies that do not involve detailed
simulation modeling are discussed below.
4.1.1.1 Proportional Strategy
All sources must reduce emissions by fixed percentages corresponding to
different alert levels. This approach may be difficult to implement and can
involve appreciable economic penalties.
4.1.1.2 Sequential Strategy
Selecting the largest controllable sources first, control actions are sequenced
to give the required reduction at each stage. For example, the first action might
be fuel shifting in power generation with a resulting 40 percent reduction in
SC>2 emissions. If the pollutant level continues to build up to the next action
phase, the next largest emitters will be curtailed, and the next, until the
required reduction in emissions is achieved.
4.1.1.3 Cost-Effectiveness
Under this approach, possible control actions are ranked on the basis of
probable disruption of the area's normal life and economy. The cost-
effectiveness determination made is static, inasmuch as estimates and strategies
are evolved well in advance of the episode. Control actions are selected to
provide the reduction desired for each alert level, with the least disturbance to
the community. Some of the actions taken in the early alert phase may be
requests for voluntary compliance, such as restrictions in automobile traffic. As
the episode becomes more severe, compliance will be mandatory and necessary
enforcement actions will be taken.
The cost-effectiveness strategy is the best of those considered, providing the
curtailment survey has supplied an adequate basis for ranking the approximate
effects of the control actions. An illustration of the strategy for a hypothetical
case is shown in Table 4-3. For simplicity, only one pollutant (SOa) is
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 55
-------
Table 4-3. COST-BENEFIT STRATEGY (SIMPLE)
Source
Power generation
Industrial plant A
(Batch processing plant)
Industrial plant B
(Continuous petrol chemical)
Individual incinerators
Municipal incinerators
Automobiles
Commercial heating*^ and power
School heating1-1
Emissions,
tons/day
100
20
5
5
20
20
20
10
Action
and proposed
selected action
Shut down plant
Switch to remote plants
• Switch to low sulfur fuel oil
Switch to natural gas
Immediate shutdown
• No new batch starts
Immediate shutdown
• Leave as is
• Immediate shutdown
• Immediate shutdown
Reduce throughput
Leave as is
Enforced restrictions on use
• Voluntary restrictions on use
Leave as is
Shut down completely
• Reduce work force
Leave as is
• Shut down completely
Reduce length of day
Leave as is
Pollutant
reduction,
tons/day
100
85
70
95
10
5
0
5
20
10
0
15
Social
effect
Very high
None
None
High3
Small
Highb
None
Small
Nonec
None
None
High
10 Moderate
None None
18 ^ Moderate
12 \ Small
I
9 ]K Moderate
6 Small
0 None
Economic
effect
Very high
Moderate
Small
Moderate3
Moderate
Highb
None
None
Small0
Small
None
High
Small
None
Moderate
Small
None
None
None
w
3
o
o
w
I
Assumes that natural gas is being used for other activities such as residential heating, chemical plants, etc. These operations would have to be curtailed
to provide natural gas for power generation.
Plant may be damaged by action.
cThe incinerator can only backlog for 4 days refuse; social and economic penalties become severe if shut down for longer than this. Revert to reduced
throughput at third day of episode.
°*Reduction in power requirement further reduces emissions from power plant.
-------
considered, of which 200 tons per day are normally emitted and distributed as
shown. At an assumed alert stage, a 70 percent reduction in emissions is
desired. The actions chosen to achieve this reduction are selected as the best
compromise between desired emission reduction and economic and social
effects. Obviously this case is appreciably simplified, although the footnotes to
the table indicate a few of the interactions that might occur. The interactions
make computer simulation appealing, but simple approximations are quite
useful and do not require special capabilities.
4.1.2 Simulated Strategies
Much is being done to improve the simple approach. Analytical tools are
being developed with which to make strategy decisions. These tools would be
used intermittently, prior to the episodes, or applied with real-time sensing.
4.1.2.1 Intermittent Modeling
Models can be used as planning tools to compare alternate control actions.
Factors such as population distribution, dose-response, and diurnal cycles may
be considered. Economic effects may be approximated. Intermittent modeling
can be quite simple or extremely complicated, depending upon the amount of
detail included.
4.1.2.2 Real-Time Control
One problem with the strategies previously presented is that they are
predetermined, based on the predicted pattern of an episode. Since an episode
is an uncommon event, the expected pattern may not be followed, and actions
may be poorly timed or more or less severe than required. A more flexible
strategy would offer appreciable advantages, provided there were means for
predicting accurately the results of the control actions. Large-scale, computer-
based management information systems are progressing to the point where this
goal will soon be realized. The basic elements of such a program are shown in
Figure 4-1. These elements include:
1. Real-time or nearly real-time'processing of meteorological and air-
sampling data.
2. Local meteorological forecasts.
3. Episode dispersion model, including local factors and simulation of
effects of transient buildups.
4. Current emission inventory and location of sources.
5. Curtailment plans, including the time required for different actions by
class and location of sources.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 57
-------
6. Economic data showing the effects of curtailment activities.
7. Population distribution and dose-response data.
AIR MONITORING DATA
• METEOROLOGICAL
• AIR SAMPLING
MODEL
• POLLUTANT SOURCE
• METEOROLOGY
• DISPERSION AND BUILDUP
• INTEGRATED DOSE
• ECONOMIC
CONTROL
DISTRICT
INTERACTION
COMPUTER
• ANALYZE MODELED AND
MEASURED DATA
• EVALUATE ALTERNATE
TACTICS AND STRATEGIES
• RECOMMEND ACTION AND
ALTERNATIVES
• SIMULATE RESULTS
OF ACTION
SIMULATION
• WITHOUT REMEDIAL ACTION
• WITH PRINCIPAL
ALTERNATIVE ACTIONS
• DISPLAY EXPECTED
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
• SHOW EXPECTED AND
EXTREME CONDITIONS
CONTROL POLICY DECISION
/MODEL
ADAPTATION (REAL TIME)
TO REFLECT MEASURED
BEHAVIOR
Figure 4-1. Simulation and ideal modeling
in emergency action planning.
The output of such programs would include isopleths of receptor dosage as
a function of time and control strategy, as well as including the economic
penalty associated with the various strategies. The control authority would then
project the results of various strategies and select the best cost-effectiveness
strategy that maintains the population dosage (concentration of pollutants)
nonFede f11^ leVeL Such PIO&a™ are presently under investigation by
"*Ut°ntieS in Chica§° «* by the Air Pollution Control Office. If
they wm represent a powerful t001
58
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
4.2 EMERGENCY EMISSION CONTROL METHODS
The only way to effect a reduction in ambient concentrations of pollutants
during an episode is to reduce emissions from the various sources in the
affected area.
In order to reduce pollutant emissions to the required level, the control
agency must first know which emitters are controllable, the types and
quantities of pollutants being emitted, the time required to reduce emissions,
and the effectiveness of the control action. This information must be obtained
by the local agency through its emission inventory and from emission
curtailment plans supplied by the major emission sources.
Curtailment of industrial and commercial operations, without actual
shutdown, may sometimes represent the most effective means of reducing the
quantities of pollutants emitted. Care should be taken to ensure that the
curtailment will actually result in an overall pollutant reduction. The purposes
of such curtailment include reduction of:
1. Pollutants directly emitted by the affected operation.
2. Power demands upon utilities, to enable them to reduce their emissions.
3. Natural gas usage, so that gas can be used in more essential operations
such as power generation.
4. Transportation requirements, with a resultant lowering of power
demands and mobile-source emissions.
4.2.1 Stationary Sources
Control of all stationary-source emissions during episodes is impractical, but
fuel switching and curtailment of some major sources, among many possible
strategies, can accomplish reductions. Selection of the best approach will
depend upon the mix of emission sources in the given area.
4.2.1.1 Emergency Emission Reduction Actions
Emission control actions that could be implemented as various EAP criteria
levels are reached are given below and in Figure 4-2. Which of these actions
should be implemented can only be determined by a detailed review of each
local situation.
1. Prohibit open burning of trash, leaves, paper, or demolition debris (if
not already prohibited).
2. Prohibit the use of municipal, home, commercial, governmental,
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 59
-------
CATEGORY
OTHER FUEL
BURNING SOURCES
INCINERATION
MANUFACTURING <°>
COMMERCIAL (b>
PROCESSING 1=1
AGRICULTURAL
GOVERNMENT
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OFFICE WORK
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SCHOOLS
GENERAL OFFICE
PUBLIC SAFETY
FOOD DISTRIBUTION
HOSPITAL & MEDICAL
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PUBLIC SAFETY
COMMUNICATIONS
NEWS MEDIA
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(o) Manufacturing includes metallurgical, chemical, petroleum, mineral, paper, mining,
.'b) Commercial includes financial, stores, entertainment, offices, services, wholesale*
(c) Processing includes laundries, dry cleaners, garages, service stations, food prepai
(d) Agricultural processing includes ginning, milling, feed and feed supplement preces
(e) Agricultural field operations include spraying, dusting, field burning, grading, plow
ration,
sing.
Figure 4-2. Alternate emergency control actions.
Criteria levels: 1 = alert status; 2 = warning
status; and 3 = emergency status.
60
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
institutional, or industrial incinerators. Extinguish incinerator fires or,
if that is not practical, bank such fires.
3. Delay start-up of new industrial equipment.
4. Postpone start-up and shut-down of industrial plants.
5. Lance boilers or blow soot only when it is absolutely necessary and
then according to a schedule that takes advantage of the best
meteorological dispersion conditions (usually early in the afternoon).
6. Reduce industrial processes that emit sulfur dioxide and/or fly ash to
minimal operation.
7. Reduce consumption of all heating fuel, by decreasing indoor tempera-
ture to minimum comfort level.
8. Impose on the general population brown-out conditions comparable to
those used during wartime.
9. Close down nonessential commercial, retail, and industrial establish-
ments.
10. Prohibit the cleaning of storage vessels containing toxic or odorous
compounds.
11. Enforce mandatory requirement that industrial batch operations dis-
charging SC>2 be closed down.
12. Require bituminous coal users burning more than 2000 tons of coal
annually to switch to low-sulfur (1 percent or less) coal.
13. Require that all residual oil consumers who use more than 500,000
gallons of residual oil annually switch to low-sulfur (1 percent or less)
oil.
14. Require that natural gas be burned in those industries and power-
generating facilities where gas and equipment are available.
15. Require that all power-generating facilities and all industrial units have
a 5-day supply of low-sulfur (1 percent or less) fuels available for
consumption at all times. This requirement would apply to any boiler
or aggregate of boilers in one location whose total rated hourly capacity
equals or exceeds, for example, 100,000 pounds of steam hourly.
4.2.1.2 Reduction in Fuel-Burning and Industrial-Process
Emissions
A number of actions may be taken to reduce the quantity of emissions from
fuel burning and industrial processes without appreciably affecting the overall
throughput of the operation. These are typically steps that may be eco-
nomically undesirable for normal operation, but that represent feasible
operating modes during potential-episode conditions. Possible actions are
discussed below.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 61
-------
4.2.1.2.1 Fuel switching-Natural gas or light fuel oil may be burned in most
oil-burning facilities and in some coal-fired furnaces. Considerable replanning is
necessary to establish the fuel-switching alternative as a control measure, since
fuel supplies must be available when required.
Large consumers of coal or high-sulfur oil (e.g., power generating plants,
central heating plants, and industrial plants), may have dual fuel capability for
reasons other than air pollution control, in which case this alternative would
require only the necessary communications, distribution of available fuels, and
provision for stock-piling reserve supplies. Many small industrial furnaces have
oil or gas standby furnaces that could be fired up during episodes, thus
reducing the load on coal- or residual-oil-fired furnaces.
Some factors that must be considered in fuel-switching actions are:
1. Availability of substitute fuels.
a. Relative scarcity of alternate fuels.
b. Competitive demands.
2. Availability of storage.
a. Space requirements.
b. Handling facilities.
c. Turnover of stockpile.
3. Technical features.
a. Alternate burners.
b. Ash compatibility with furnace design.
c. Particulate emissions.
d. Auxiliary equipment (heaters, pumps).
The feasibility of substituting low-sulfur oil or gas for high-sulfur coal must
be examined by experienced combustion engineers for each specific situation.
4.2.1.2.2 Industrial process adjustment and/or curtailment-The possibilities
for reducing emissions by process adjustments are practically endless and must
be tailored to each process. If a control agency staff is available, cooperative
analysis with company engineers may turn up possibilities, but in a large city
with thousands of sources this is likely to be possible for only the major point
sources. Any measure contributing to reduced exit loadings or to better
dispersion should be considered a potential means of reducing pollutant levels
in ambient air.
Reduction in process throughput or stoppage of waste stream recirculation
will generally decrease emissions. Delay of certain noncritical functions,
temporary (presumably less profitable) adjustment of control "set-points," and
increasing stack temperatures or velocities are possible general approaches to be
investigated. Soot blowing, cleaning, painting, and chemical recovery opera-
tions may be temporarily deferred.
62
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Again, no general emission-reduction guide can be offered, and each process
must be studied in detail to determine some optimum reduction strategy. This
is especially true for high-temperature continuous operations.
4.2.1.2.3 Increasing collector efficiencies—Some types of emission control
systems are amenable to increased collection efficiency. Thus, the pressure
drop through variable-throat scrubbers can be increased (with a corresponding
increase in fan horsepower), or the liquid flow rates may be increased to
increase efficiency. Electrostatic precipitator efficiency may be increased in
some cases by increasing voltages and/or current (up to a limit), or by
energizing a standby precipitator section, if available. The type of control
equipment used routinely to reduce emissions will dictate the approaches
available in this area.
4.2.1.2.4 Power interchange—The electric power industry must have excess
capacity to handle peak demands and to provide for maintenance of
equipment. During the period preceding a potential episode it may be possible
to shift the electrical load within and between power systems to reduce the
quantity of pollutants emitted in a particular region. Power interchange is a
complex, system-wide procedure involving continuous equalization of genera-
tion and load. Typical actions might include maximum use of hydroelectric or
nuclear power; shifting to plants utilizing low-sulfur fuel; shifting to plants
with superior pollutant removal or dispersion capability (scrubbers, taller
stacks); or shifting to more favorably located plants (downwind). Power
interchange by power companies must be a cooperative effort, and reliance
must be placed on power system engineers to exploit the available alternatives
at the time of the incident.
4.2.1.2.5 Curtailment of nonindustrial operations—Aside from emissions due
to heating, commercial operations are not usually a major source of pollutants.
In the early stages of an alert, it may be desirable to request that commercial
operations reduce heating and/or cooling loads.
Heating and, sometimes, refuse disposal are the main sources of residential
emissions. Requests for voluntary reductions in heating, made by lowering the
thermostat temperature and reducing power consumption, are among the few
reasonable actions that can be taken. A ban on backyard burning can also be
imposed.
In addition to shutdowns of facilities actually emitting pollutants, facilities
that do not directly emit pollutants could be shut down when they indirectly
contribute to pollution through power demands, natural gas usage, and
transportation requirements.
4.2.2 Mobile Sources
The primary mobile source contributing to air pollution is the private auto-
mobile. Control of automobile travel can be voluntary, indirect, or compulsory.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 63
-------
4.2.2.1 Voluntary Control
Requests can be made for voluntary curtailment of unnecessary automobile
traffic.
4.2.2.2 Indirect Control
Indirect control of automobile traffic consists of making travel unnecessary
or inconvenient. Closing down facilities employing large numbers of people will
eliminate much of the travel (both public and private) to places of work.
Entertainment and retail business shutdowns will effectively limit many other
trips. Closing down main thoroughfares (freeways, turnpikes, etc.) and parking
lots will make travel more difficult and less convenient. This is probably the
most effective means of controlling automobile travel.
4.2.2.3 Compulsory Control
A permit system can be established limiting travel on roads to those cars
that have permits. Permits might be given, for example, to workers in medical,
public safety, and other essential industries.
4.3 EMISSION CURTAILMENT DATA
Reducing pollutant emissions as a means of avoiding potential episodes
requires information not ordinarily available to the local control authority.
Information pertaining to fuel switching, shifting of power loading, and
curtailment or postponement of operations can only be obtained through the
development of a close and knowledgeable contact with the sources. These
data should preferably be obtained as part of the emission inventory.
The cost to the control agency of performing a detailed analysis of each
facility would be prohibitive. Instead, the operator of each major source will
need to perform a curtailment or shutdown analysis of his facility, on the basis
of guidelines provided by the agency. A formal Emergency Curtailment Plan
should be prepared by each major source and submitted to the agency for
approval. The plan should specify both the expected emission reduction and
timing of the actions to be taken. The responsibility for economic evaluation
of curtailment actions by major sources rests with each source. The agency
should consult with the source or exercise enforcement powers in cases where
wide discrepancies exist between the effectiveness of the suggested curtailment
and requirements for emission reduction.
A separate questionnaire will be required in order to obtain information
necessary for episode avoidance planning. The elements to be covered by the
questionnaire are:
64
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
1. Dual fuel capability.
a. Advance notice desired.
b. Ash and sulfur content of normal fuel.
c. Ash and sulfur content of alternate fuel.
d. Time required to switch fuel.
e. Seasonal availability of alternate fuel.
f. Added or reduced costs of dual fuel capability (capital and operating
costs).
2. Process curtailment data.
a. Advance notice required.
b. Emission time-history during curtailment (see below).
c. Emission rate after curtailment.
d. Desirable curtailment time.
e. Minimum curtailment time (for "high" alerts).
f. Number of employees released during curtailment.
g. Curtailment period allowable without substantial loss.
h. Time after which curtailment imposes serious (unrecoverable) eco-
nomic burden.
i. Estimated economic loss per day of curtailment.
Each source may be required to submit or to have available for inspection
curtailment plans showing the data detailed above, together with the
operational changes to be made for reducing emissions. Additional information
on time-histories of pollutant emissions, advance notice required, and side
effects is presented in the following sections.
4.3.1 Time-Histories of Pollutant Emissions
The "time-history" is merely a record of changes in pollutant emissions with
time, as shown in Figure 4-3. In planning the curtailment of emissions of a
given pollutant, it is desirable to know the time-history for the following
reasons:
1. Curtailment may cause some emissions to increase temporarily.
2. The time required to achieve 'a reduction in concentrations will be
important for future planning.
3. Emissions during restart may influence the decision to curtail.
The preparation of curves plotting total emissions versus time for a
community will, of course, depend on the summation of individual source
emissions. This will be difficult at the present time, because emissions under
changing operational conditions are not known. Estimates provided by
individual sources, based on knowledge of the operations, can be obtained
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 65
-------
LLJ
_1
CQ
<
QL
<
>
Z
g
to
co
S
LU
1 1 1
CURTAILMENT STARTE
\
NORMAL
ED RE
OPERATION, REDUCED
\
JHtKA 1 1UIN
V
START
r\
r^
i
1
_ X*
CURTAILMENT
II 1 1 1 I 1
12 34567
TIME, hrs
Figure 4-3. Time-history of pollutant emissions.
during the inventory process or as part of a permit system. Better yet,
curtailment emission estimates may be required by regulators of individual
curtailment plans.
The time required for emission reduction may be the most useful data
produced from time-histories. In some cases, emissions may rise during
curtailment before descending to the new reduced level. The effect may not be
severe if the time period of elevated emissions is brief. Where the number of
sources is large, the summation and display of these data are best done by
computer.
4.3.2 Advance Notice Required
The advance notice needed by emitters subject to curtailment may vary
from an hour to several days. This information can be supplied only by persons
having a knowledge of the process and its relationship with other processes,
either within or external to a given operation. The advance notice required and
the details involved in notifying the affected sources are important parts of the
total Emergency Action Plan.
4.3.3 Side Effects
There will be important side-effect considerations in most curtailment
plans:
1. Releasing employees at unusual times may be beneficial in spreading out
traffic flow.
2. Telephone switchboards may be overcrowded.
66
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
3. The suppliers and customers of each emissions source may be affected,
and the curtailment plan for each source should anticipate such effects.
4.4 ILLUSTRATIONS OF EMERGENCY CONTROL
PROCEDURES
In order to illustrate the operation of an Emergency Action Plan (EAP),
descriptions of typical actions to be taken by control agencies during an
episode are presented in this chapter. It is important to realize that the highly
sophisticated systems described are not a prerequisite to all EAP's. A simple
EAP may involve only two or three sampling stations, procedures for curtailing
emission sources, and a single criterion selected to prevent a disaster. An EAP
must fit the needs of each individual situation.
4.4.1 Operations of a Typical Emergency Action Plan
It is assumed that the control agency employs a four-stage system
corresponding to that in Figure 4-4, with each stage defined by particular
pollutant levels or dosage and forecast meteorological conditions. The example
outlined below has been formulated around status criteria developed for one
specific area.l
4.4.1.1 Stage 1. Forecast Stage
The first indication of the potential episode is the meteorological forecast.
The national High Air Pollution Potential Advisory (HAPPA) informs the
control authority that potential episode conditions will exist in the area for at
least the next 36 hours. The control agency prepares for the potential episode
by taking the following actions:
1. Intra-agency:
a. Notifies responsible control agency personnel.
b. Notifies members of the Emergency Action Committee.
c. Requests increased meteorological soundings.
d. Increases the air sampling activity.
e. Plans personnel assignments to provide for continual manning of
control centers.
f. Activates control center (prepares to contact extra-agency groups).
g. Checks communications center.
h. Increases inspection of major sources to assure compliance with
abatement regulations.
i. Uses dispersion model to predict future trend of pollutant levels.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 67
-------
METEOROLOGICAL
MONITORING
STAGE 1
STAGE 2
STAGE 3
STAGE 4 L-
CONTROL
AGENCY
HIGH AIR
POLLUTION
POTENTIAL
FORECAST
AIR
MONITORING
FORECAST
METEOROLOGY CONDITIONS ONLY
• AGENCY PREPARE FOR
POTENTIAL EPISODE
• ADVISE MAJOR SOURCES
CONDITION
CONTINUES
1ST ALERT
SAFE, BUT PREVENTIVE
ACTION REQUIRED
• PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENT
•FUEL SWITCHING
• CURTAIL INCINERATION AND
BURNING
CONDITION
CONTINUES
2ND ALERT
PRELIMINARY HEALTH HAZARD
• SELECTIVE CURTAILMENT
OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES
CONDITION
CONTINUES
3RD ALERT
DANGEROUS HEALTH HAZARD
• MAJOR CURTAILMENT OF ALL
ACTIVITIES IN COMMUNITY
POLLUTANT
INCREASES
TO 3RD LEVEL
Figure 4-4. Four-stage alert sequence.
68
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
2. Extra-agency:
a. Notifies public officials, and police, fire,* and public health depart-
ments of possibility of episode.
b. Requests media—TV, radio, newspapers—to advise public of possible
adverse situations (optional at forecast stage).
c. Notifies industry of condition and requests abbreviated review of
selected curtailment procedures. (In some cases, power generation
might voluntarily switch to gas or to low-sulfur oil or coal).
d. Notifies telephone company of conditions and requests activation of
planned emergency telephone communications.
Basically, these operations are designed to prepare the system for action
during an episode. The primary concern is to observe trends in rising pollutant
levels. In the hypothetical case being presented here, the automated sampling
system indicated steadily rising levels of 862.
4.4.1.2 Stage 2. First Alert
First Alert air pollution levels are attained. Meteorological information
indicates that this condition will persist for at least 12 more hours. The
responsible Control Officer calls a First Alert. Actions immediately taken are as
follows:
1. Intra-Agency:
a. Control Officer formally declares First Alert.
b. Meteorological soundings and air sampling are increased.
c. All agency personnel are notified of schedules for expected duration
of emergency.
d. Field inspections are increased.
e. Decision-making model is employed to determine best actions in case
a second alert level is reached, and to predict future trends.
2. Extra-agency:
a. Public officials—police, fire, and public health-are notified.
b. News media are requested to advise public of adverse conditions using
prepared news release. Public is asked to take the following steps:
(1) Restrict unnecessary travel; use car pools where feasible.
(2) Reduce residential thermostats; avoid using unnecessary electrical
power, restricting it to 40 watts per room.
(3) Stay indoors and rest as much as possible.
(4) Highly sensitive individuals should consult their doctors.
(5) Ban all public incineration and all public fires.
*Fire Departments are often relied upon by the public for emergency information.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 69
-------
c. Notify industry of First Alert level and request activation of
applicable curtailment procedures, namely:
(1) Power generation facilities switch to natural gas and/or low-sulfur
fuel. Recommend switching of maximum load to remote sites and
site C, which is downwind.
(2) City incinerators reduce to 50 percent throughput.
(3) City schools stand by to close if situation persists for 24 more
hours.
(4) Specified large fuel users switch to low-sulfur fuel.
(5) All industries voluntarily minimize the use of electrical power.
(6) Specified industries are not to start any new batches.
(7) Specified industries and commercial operations stand by for
shutdown operations.
d. Request Public Health Officials to alert health agencies for shutdown
operations and for special data to be acquired.
The results of the industrial curtailments are apparent. Nevertheless, SC>2
dosages continue to rise (considering diurnal fluctuations), but at a much
reduced rate. The power company reports public and industrial compliance
with the request for power reduction, as seen in somewhat reduced power
demands. The police department reports no discernible decrease in automobile
traffic. Listed agency phones are essentially out-of-commission, because of the
large number of calls from the public requesting information and reporting
violations that are mostly in the form of small quantities of visible smoke.
Agency communication is unaffected, however, since separate lines are being
used in the control center.
The air sampling system indicates a rapid increase in CO concentrations,
exceeding the First Alert level for this contaminant. The dispersion model
predicts that Second Alert levels will be reached in 8 to 10 hours for CO and in
12 to 14 hours for S02 and particles. Meteorologists indicate that a break in
the weather can be expected in 24 to 48 hours. The Control Officer recognizes
that a Second Alert level will probably be reached and, after discussion with
the Emergency Action Committee, decides that an intermediate status report
to the public is desirable. At this point, the responsible Control Officer notifies
public officials, industry, news media, and the police, fire, and health
departments of the continuing emergency and requests that they be ready to
implement a Second Alert. The news media inform the public of the probability
of a Second Alert and detail the actions to be taken if Second Alert levels are
reached, namely, the closing of many commercial establishments and main
traffic arteries.
4.4.1.3 Stages. Second Alert
The S02 and particulate levels continue to increase until Second Alert levels
are reached. Meteorologists inform the control center that wind speeds will
70
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
increase in 18 hours and precipitation may be expected in 36 to 48 hours. The
Control Officer consults with his technical staff to determine what would
occur if no further action were taken. Meteorological estimates indicate a trend
toward higher levels for SC>2, with Third Alert levels probable in 18 to 24
hours at present emission rates. The Control Officer calls a Second Alert.
Actions immediately taken are as follows:
1. Intra-agency:
a. Control Officer formally declares a Second Alert.
b. Control Officer notifies State Governor of impending state of
emergency (only Governor can declare Third Alert).
c. All previous emergency actions continued.
d. Control Officer notifies agency inspection and enforcement personnel
of Second Alert and requests that they concentrate on inspecting
high-sulfur-fuel-burning facilities required to shut down.
2. Extra-agency:
a. Notifies public officials, including police, fire, and local public health
personnel.
b. Requests police to close main arteries (freeways, parkways, etc.) as
planned.
c. Requests news media to advise public of continuing adverse condi-
tions.
d. Requests public to continue to comply with all previous restrictions.
e. Informs public of closing of main traffic arteries.
f. Informs public of those commercial and business activities that are
curtailed.
g. Notifies industrial and commercial plants of Second Alert, and
requests activation of applicable curtailment procedures, namely:
(1) All previous curtailment actions remain in force.
(2) All burning of high-sulfur fuel is banned for industrial and
commercial units, unless a permit for critical operation has been
issued.
(3) Specified large industries are ordered to shut down or to stand by
for shutdown per curtailment plans.
(4) All nonessential commercial and business operations employing
over 100 employees are ordered closed per curtailment plans.
(5) All restaurants and entertainment establishments are ordered
closed.
(6) All incinerators (both city and private) are order to shut down.
Results are immediately apparent. Within 2 hours, the power company
reports greatly reduced loads, permitting it to switch all loads to remote plants.
The police department requests a 4-hour delay in closing traffic arteries, to
permit workers from closing facilities to get home. Permission is granted by
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 71
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Control Officer. Field inspectors report general compliance with the shutdown
order Enforcement officers are dispatched to two noncomplying plants. Two
of the remote air-sampling stations appear erratic. Technicians are dispatched
to repair them.
The air-sampling data show a slow reduction in SC>2 and particulate
concentrations. The carbon monoxide concentration momentarily increases
and then starts to taper off as traffic decreases. Meteorologists predict a
marked increase in wind speed within the next 12 hours, because of the
approach of a cold front.
Pollution levels continue to fall as atmospheric activity starts to disperse the
pollutants, and finally a light rain begins to fall. Air sampling stations show a
rapid decrease in pollution levels. The episode is over.
The control Officer takes the following actions:
1. Intra-agency:
a. Formally declares the emergency to be over.
b. Notifies State Governor of termination of alert conditions.
c. Notifies all agency employees of termination of alert conditions.
d. Notifies the agency personnel that only a minimum crew is required
after all data are secured for post-episode report.
e. Assigns reporting responsibility to staff; report for news media has
high priority.
2. Extra-agency:
a. Notifies public officials and police, fire, and public health personnel.
b. Requests that public health officials start to collect data on mortality
and morbidity.
c. Requests news media to advise public of termination of alert
conditions.
d. Notifies power and telephone companies of termination, and warns
them to anticipate impact of resumption of normal activities.
e. Notifies industrial, commercial, and business facilities of termination
of the alert.
f. Notifies hospitals of availability of atmospheric data to support health
studies.
A few days after the episode, the agency begins preparation of functional
post-episode reports. One such report for internal distribution is an evaluation
of the effectiveness of agency operations. A technical report is also required on
meteorological, air sampling, and public health data.
The example presented above only serves to illustrate the flow of
information during actual operation of an emergency action plan, and many
72 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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simplifications have been made. A real episode plan, for example, would have
to consider the actual timing of all events relative to normal day-night
variations in emission and weather factors. The example does serve, however,
to illustrate the major elements of a plan, which include:
1, Delineation of responsibility (the Control Officer was the sole critical-
point decision-maker in the hypothetical plan).
2. The necessity for effective communication systems for information
acquisition and dissemination.
3. The importance of real-time air sampling and meteorological data.
4. The value of predictive models in decision making.
5. The need for clear-cut criteria for each alert level.
6. The need for detailed advance planning of all possible actions.
7. The need for self-evaluation in a post-episode report.
4.4.2 Emission Reduction Actions (State of New Jersey)
This Section presents the Standby Plans and Orders (Sections 4 and 5) of
the State of New Jersey for the prevention and control of air pollution
emergencies. This material was taken from Chapter 12 of the New Jersey Air
Pollution Control Code. The effective date of the emergency regulation was
October 24, 1969.
Section 4-STANDBY PLANS
"4.1 Any person responsible for the operation of a source of air
contamination as set forth in Table 1 of this Section shall prepare standby
plans, consistent with good industrial practice and safe operating proce-
dures, for reducing the emission of air contaminants into the outdoor
atmosphere during periods of an AIR POLLUTION ALERT, AIR POLLU-
TION WARNING, and AIR POLLUTION EMERGENCY. Standby plans
shall be designed to reduce or eliminate emissions of air contaminants into
the outdoor atmosphere in accordance with the objectives set forth in
Tables Mil which are made a part of this Section.
4.2 Any person responsible for tfie operation of a source of air contamina-
tion not set forth under Section 4.1 shall, when requested by the
Department in writing, prepare standby plans, consistent with good
industrial practice and safe operating procedures, for reducing the emission
of air contaminants into the outdoor atmoshere during periods of an AIR
POLLUTION ALERT, AIR POLLUTION WARNING, and AIR POLLU-
TION EMERGENCY. Standby plans shall be designed to reduce or
eliminate emissions of air contaminants into the outdoor atmosphere in
accordance with the objectives set forth in Tables I-III.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 73
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TABLE I
EMISSION REDUCTION OBJECTIVES2
Source of Air Contamination
Air Pollution Alert
1. Coal or oil-fired electric power gener-
ating facilities.
a. Substantial reduction by utilization of
fuels having lowest available ash and sulfur
content.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Substantial reduction by diverting electric
power generation to facilities outside of Alert
Area.
2. Coal or oil-fired process steam gener-
ating facilities having a capacity to burn
in excess of four tons of coal per hour or
600 gallons of fuel oil per hour.
a. Substantial reduction by utilization of
fuels having lowest available ash and sulfur
content.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Reduction of steam load demands consis-
tent with continuing plant operations.
3. A — Manufacturing industries of the
following classifications which employ
more than twenty (20) employees at any
one location:
Primary Metals Industries
Petroleum Refining and Related
Industries
Chemical and Allied Products In-
dustries
Paper and Allied Products In-
dustries
Glass, Clay and Concrete Products
Industries
AND
B — Other persons required by the
Department to prepare standby plans.
a. Substantial reduction of air contaminants
from manufacturing operations by curtailing,
postponing, or deferring production and allied
operations.
b. Maximum reduction by deferring trade
waste disposal operations which emit par-
ticles, gases, vapors or malodorous substances.
c. Reduction of heat load demands for proc-
essing consistent with continuing plant opera-
tions.
d. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing or soot blowing.
4. Municipal and commercial refuse dis-
posal operations.
a. Maximum reduction by prevention of open
burning on all refuse disposal areas.
b. Substantial reduction by limiting burning
of refuse in incinerators to the hours between
12:00 Noon and 4:00 p. m.
74
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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TABLE II
EMISSION REDUCTION OBJECTIVES2
Source of Air Contamination
Air Pollution Warning
1. Coal or oil-fired electric power gener-
ating facilities.
a. Maximum reduction by utilization of fuels
having lowest available ash and sulfur content.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Maximum reduction by diverting electric
power generation to facilities outside of Warn-
ing Area.
2. Coal or oil-fired process steam gener-
ating facilities having a capacity to burn
in excess of four tons of coal per hour or
600 gallons of fuel oil per hour.
a. Maximum reduction by utilization of fuels
having the lowest available ash and sulfur
content.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Reduction of steam load demands consis-
tent with continuing plant operations.
d. Making ready for use a plan of action to be
taken if an emergency develops.
3. A — Manufacturing industries of the
following classifications which employ
more than twenty (20) employees at any
one location:
Primary Metals Industries
Petroleum Refining and Related
Industries
Chemical and Allied Products In-
dustries
Paper and Allied Products In-
dustries
Glass, Clay and Concrete Products
Industries
AND
B — Other persons required by the
Department to prepare standby plans.
a. Maximum reduction of air contaminants
from manufacturing operations by, if neces-
sary, assuming reasonable economic hardship
by postponing production and allied opera-
tions.
b. Maximum reduction by deferring trade
waste disposal operations which emit par-
ticles, gases, vapors or malodorous substances.
c. Reduction of heat load demands for proc-
essing consistent with continuing plant opera-
tions.
d. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing or soot blowing.
4. Municipal and commercial refuse dis-
posal operations.
a. Maximum reduction by prevention of open
burning on all refuse disposal areas.
b. Complete elimination of the use of in-
cinerators.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES
75
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TABLE III
EMISSION REDUCTION OBJECTIVES^
Source of Air Contamination
Air Pollution Emergency
1. Coal or oil-fired electric power gener-
ating facilities.
a. Maximum reduction by utilization of fuels
having lowest available ash and sulfur content.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Maximum reduction by diverting electric
power generation to facilities outside of
Emergency Area.
2. Coal or oil-fired process steam gener-
ating facilities having a capacity to burn
in excess of four tons of coal per hour or
600 gallons of fuel oil per hour.
a. Maximum reduction by reducing heat and
steam demands to absolute necessities consis-
tent with preventing equipment damage.
b. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing and soot blowing.
c. Taking the action called for in the emer-
gency plan.
3. A — Manufacturing industries of the
following classifications which employ
more than twenty (20) employees at any
one location:
Primary Metals Industries
Petroleum Refining & Related In-
dustries
Chemical and Allied Products In-
dustries
Paper and Allied Products In-
dustries
Glass, Clay and Concrete Products
Industries
AND
B — Other persons required by the
Department to prepare standby plans.
a. Elimination of air contaminants from man-
ufacturing operations by ceasing, curtailing,
postponing or deferring production and allied
operations to the extent possible without
causing injury to persons or damage to equip-
ment.
b. Elimination of air contaminants from
trade waste disposal processes which emit
particles, gases, vapors or malodorous sub-
stances.
c. Maximum reduction of heat load demands
for processing.
d. Maximum utilization of mid-day (12:00
Noon to 4:00 p. m.) atmospheric turbulence
for boiler lancing or soot blowing.
4. Municipal and commercial refuse dis-
posal operations.
a. Maximum reduction by prevention of open
burning on all refuse disposal areas.
b. Complete elimination of the use of in-
cinerators.
76
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
4.3 Standby plans as required under Sections 4.1 and 4.2 shall be in writing
and show the source of air contamination, the approximate amount of
reduction contaminants and a brief description of the manner in which the
reduction will be achieved during an AIR POLLUTION ALERT, AIR
POLLUTION WARNING, and AIR POLLUTION EMERGENCY.
4.4 During a condition of AIR POLLUTION ALERT, AIR POLLUTION
WARNING, and AIR POLLUTION EMERGENCY standby plans as
required by this Section shall be made available on the premises to any
person authorized to enforce the provisions of the Air Pollution Emergency
Control Act.
4.5 Standby plans as required by this Section shall be submitted to the
Department upon request within thirty days of the receipt of such request;
such standby plans shall be subject to review and approval by the
Department. If, in the opinion of the Department, such standby plans do
not effectively carry out the objectives as set forth in Tables I-III, the
Department may disapprove said standby plans, state its reason for
disapproval and order the preparation of amended standby plans within the
time period specified in the order. Any person aggrieved by the order
requiring the preparation of the revised plan is entitled to a hearing in
accordance with C.26:2C-14.1 of the Air Pollution Control Act. If the
person responsible fails within the time period specified in the order to
submit an amended standby plan which in the opinion of the Department
meets the said objectives, the Department may revise the standby plan to
cause it to meet these objectives. Such revised plan will thereafter be the
standby plan which the person responsible will put into effect upon the
issuance of an appropriate order by the Governor."
Section 5-STANDBY ORDERS
"Following are standby orders which might be appropriate for use by the
Governor upon his declaration that an Air Pollution Emergency exists:
5.1 Air Pollution Alert
a. Any person responsible for the operation of a source of air contamina-
tion as set forth in Table I of Section 4 shall take all AIR POLLUTION
ALERT actions as required for such source of air contamination; and shall
particularly put into effect the standby plans for an AIR POLLUTION
ALERT.
b. There shall be no open burning by any persons of tree waste, vegetation,
refuse, or debris in any form.
c. The use of incinerators for the disposal of any form of solid waste shall
be limited to the hours between 12:00 Noon and 4:00 p.m.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 77
-------
d. Persons operating fuel-burning equipment which requires boiler lancing
or soot blowing shall perform such operations only between the hours of
12:00 Noon and 4:00 p.m.
5.2 Air Pollution Warning
a. Any person responsible for the operation of a source of air contamina-
tion as set forth in Table II of Section 4 shall take all AIR POLLUTION
WARNING actions as required for such source of air contamination; and
shall particularly put into effect the standby plans for an AIR POLLUTION
WARNING.
b. There shall be no open burning by any persons of tree waste, vegetation,
refuse, or debris in any form.
c. The use of incinerators for the disposal of any form of solid waste or
liquid waste shall be prohibited.
d. Persons operating fuel-burning equipment which requires boiler lancing
or soot blowing shall perform such operations only between the hours of
12:00 Noon and 4:00 p.m.
5.3 Air Pollution Emergency
a. Any person responsible for the operation of a source of air contamina-
tion as described in Table III of Section 4 shall take all AIR POLLUTION
EMERGENCY actions as listed as required for such source of air
contamination; and shall particularly put into effect the standby plans for
an AIR POLLUTION EMERGENCY.
b. All manufacturing establishments except those included in Section 5.3a
will institute such action as will result in maximum reduction of air
contaminants from their operations by ceasing, curtailing, or postponing
operations which emit air contaminants to the extent possible without
causing injury to persons or damage to equipment.
c. All places of employment described below shall immediately cease
operations:
(1) Mining and quarrying of non-metallic minerals.
(2) All contract construction work except that which must proceed to
avoid physical harm.
(3) Wholesale trade establishments, i.e., places of business primarily
engaged in selling merchandise to retailers, to industrial, commercial,
institutional or professional users, or to other wholesalers, or acting
as agents in buying merchandise for or selling merchandise to such
persons or companies.
78
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
(4) All offices of local, county, and state government including
authorities, joint meetings, and any other public body; except to
the extent that such offices must continue to operate in order to
enforce the requirements of this order pursuant to statute.
(5) All retail trade establishments except pharmacies and stores
primarily engaged in the sale of food.
(6) Banks; credit agencies other than banks; securities and commodities
brokers, dealers, exchanges and services; offices of insurance
carriers, agents and brokers; real estate offices.
(7) Wholesale and retail laundries; laundry services and cleaning and
dyeing establishments; photographic studios; beauty shops, barber
shops; shoe repair shops.
(8) Advertising offices; consumer credit reporting, adjustment and
collection agencies; duplicating, addressing, blueprinting; photo-
copying, mailing, mailing list and stenographic services; equipment
rental services, commercial testing laboratories.
(9) Automobile repair, automobile services, garages.
(10) Establishments rendering amusement and recreation services includ-
ing motion picture theatres.
(11) Elementary and secondary schools, colleges, universities, profes-
sional schools, junior colleges, vocational schools, and public and
private libraries.
d. There shall be no open burning by any person of tree waste, vegetation,
refuse, or debris in any form.
e. The use of incinerators for the disposal of any form of solid or liquid
waste shall be prohibited.
f. The use of motor vehicles is prohibited except in emergencies with the
approval of local or state police."
4.5 USE OF MODELING IN EMERGENCY ACTION PLANS
In general, a model is a representation of something; specifically, a
mathematical model is the expression of the functional relationships among the
components of the thing being represented. Today, mathematical modeling is
finding wider application than ever before, primarily because computers permit
the rapid solution of complex problems. The equations that make up the
model may describe theoretical or empirical relationships. Usually, it is
necessary to measure some parameters when fitting the model to a specific
situation so that the calculated results represent the actual conditions as
accurately as required.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 79
-------
In air quality work, the end product desired from a model generally is the
simulation of ambient air sampling for different periods of time under different
meteorological conditions at the given locations. Emission reduction costs and
the effects on receptors are problems requiring other models, so that a set of
related models is necessary to cover the fields of interest. Models for studying
the dispersion of air pollutants have been under development since the 1930's
and are now being studied intensively.3"6 Health and economic effects models
for air-pollution work are in the formative stages of development.
4.5.1 Urban Dispersion Models
The transport and dilution of air pollutants can be described by a model
that properly treats the mean and turbulent (or random) structure of the wind.
The values assigned to the mean and turbulent motions are generally derived
from three meteorological factors: wind speed and direction, atmospheric
stability, and mixing heights. These factors are in turn influenced by large-scale
atmospheric circulation, local and regional topography, land-water rela-
tionships, man-made structures, season, time of day, etc. Some of these items
may at times be treated along with the three meteorological factors noted
above.
Wind speed and direction are often ambiguous during an air pollution
episode; that is, wind speed approaches zero and direction is highly variable. As
a consequence, existing urban diffusion models that require discrete values for
the wind can not specify air quality during episode or near-episode conditions.
This is a severe problem and one that is receiving a great deal of urgent
attention.
4.5.2 Other Models
In the analysis of episodic air pollution, some modeling approaches that
appear useful include the use of (1) statistical models that correlate
meteorology and pollutant concentrations, (2) economic models, and (3)
dosage and health-effect models.
4.5.2.1 Statistical Models
As previously indicated, the techniques listed above are either in the initial
application or developmental phases. A discussion, however, of their basic
operating principles, assumptions, input requirements, and possible utilization
in episode control is in order.
Since the meteorological processes in the atmosphere are somewhat random,
statistical or stochastic models can be developed that correlate meteorological
variables with pollutant concentrations. This involves performing regression
80
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
analysis on a large collection of data. The resulting regression equation can be
used as a prediction equation when current or forecast meteorological variables
are used. Work along these lines has been done by the Los Angeles County Air
Pollution Control District.7 The statistical approach requires a large amount of
data to ensure the significance of the results. Because episodes are not frequent
events, the statistical approach is limited to localities that have a large fund of
synchronous air quality and meteorological data.
4.5.2.2 Economic Models
The objective of economic modeling is to simulate the impact on society of
the implementation of an Emergency Action Plan. It is important to note that
the number of cost elements described is not an argument for impeding the
adoption of emergency action plans, since human health is at stake.
Although no models have been completely tested and exercised for
this purpose, several approaches are under development.
The purpose of such techniques is to provide estimates of the comparative
or relative costs of competing control actions, and not to forecast precise costs
suitable for budget administration. Several ground rules are used to develop an
economic model:
1. Major alternative control actions must be defined.
2. Direct and indirect resource requirements for these actions must be
identified and expressed in terms of cost.
3. Investment costs must be identified and distinguished from operating
costs.
4. Costs must be expressed as incremental costs so that only the relevant
costs identifiable with a particular action are included.
5. Time when each cost is incurred must be indicated.
4.5.2.3 Dosage and Health-Effects Models
There are two principal factors .in the determination of the effects of air
pollution on the population: concentration of contaminant (amount per
volume of air) and time of exposure. Dose is defined as the product of the
concentration and the period over which it exists. In Figure 4-5, the dose is
portrayed as the area under the time^concentration curve.
The model necessary for computing the dose consists only of the integration
of concentration with respect to time. The dose of each constituent may be
computed to determine its effects on the exposed population. The total
effects, however, are usually dependent on interactions of several pollutants.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES 81
-------
TIME
Figure 4-5. Pollutant buildup with time.
Integration of the pollutant buildup with time at all the particular
geographical positions of interest will generate the dose isopleths pictured in
Figures 4-6 and 4-7. By superimposing these isopleths on the geographical
distribution of the population, the number of people subjected to the various
doses can be determined.
POSITION, mi
HIGHEST
POPULATION
DENSITY
(AVG. 4000/mi2)
NUMBER x 1Q3 • PERSONS/mi2
Figure 4-6. Geographic distribution of normal individuals.
82
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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S02 ppm-hr
POSITION, mi
Figure 4-7. Dose isopleth during an episode.
4.6 REFERENCES
1. Status Criteria for a High Air Pollution Alert and Warning System. A panel
report prepared by The City College of the City University of New York,
N.Y. December 1967.
2. New Jersey Air Pollution Control Code. Chapter 12, Sections 4 and 5,
Standby Plans and Orders. October 24, 1969.
3. Smith, M. and I. Singer. An Improved Method of Estimating Plant
Source/Emission. J. of Appl. Meteorology 5, 1966.
4. Turner, D. B. A Diffusion Model for an Urban Area. J. of Appl.
Meteorology 3:83, 1964.
5. Miller, M. and G. Holzworth. An Atmospheric Diffusion Model for
Metropolitan Areas. Paper presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Assoc. Paper Number 66-30, 1966.
6. Clarke, J. A Simple Diffusion Model for Calculating Point Concentrations
from Multiple Sources. J. of the Air Pollution Cont. Assoc. 14:347, 1964.
7. Holmes, R. G. and W. G. Macbeth. Statistical Model Relating Meteorological
and Air Pollution Parameters. Paper presented at the 225th Annual Meeting
of the American Meteorological Society. Los Angeles, California. January
30,1964.
CONTROL ACTIONS FOR EPISODES
83
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5. LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL,
AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS
5.1 LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
The authority to act and the ability to act are absolutely essential to the
implementation of an Emergency Action Plan. This chapter is a general
discussion of these two requirements.
The legal and administrative problems associated with episode conditions
must be resolved by the agency prior to any possible alert. Although the
agency itself can and should resolve all administrative problems, it is imperative
that legal counsel be obtained to ensure that the agency has authority to act in
accordance with its Emergency Action Plan. It is the responsibility of the
supporting legal counsel, that is, the city solicitor or staff attorney, to make
this determination. It is, however, the responsibility of the control authority to
seek this counsel at the outset. The agency's attorney should be involved in the
forrnulative stages of the EAP, rather than merely being contacted to "make it
legal" after the plan has been drafted.
5.1.1 Legal Requirements
Specific legal authority must first exist for the implementation of an EAP.
The legislature or governing body must not be prohibited by the State
Constitution from conferring this authority on the air pollution control
agency. Figure 5-1 indicates the legal requirements for rendering the agency's
EAP viable.
All legislation must be consonant with State and Federal constitutional
safeguards. These safeguards require that air pollution control laws be the
proper exercise of the government's police power and that the right to due
process obtain. As is seen in Figure 5-1, the origin of the agency's authority lies
indirectly in a State's Constitution.
It is therefore most important that the EAP be based on the protection of
public health and welfare to satisfy the police power requirement. Should
arbitrary values be chosen for alert levels, for example, the law or regulation
85
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LOCAL
GOVERNING
BODY
DELEGATES
AUTHORITY
TO CREATE
AGENCY
CREATES
AGENCY
*•—
AND
AUTHORITY
t
AIR
POLLUTION
CONTROL
AGENCY
STATE
CONSTITUTION
PERMITS LEGISLATIVE
STATE
LEGISLATURE
Figure 5-1. Legal relationships.
may be deemed invalid since it bears no relation to the public health, safety,
or welfare. The legislative draftsman, therefore, must ascertain that the
supporting data are legally adequate. Compelling reasons must exist for
requiring either individuals or corporations to expend abnormal amounts of
money on episode avoidance plans, equipment, and material.
The legal requirement that the EAP must meet is that of due process. In
general, this safeguard requires that the emergency measures be reasonable,
clear, and appropriate.
When an episode occurs, pollutant-emitting sources must be apprised of
their responsibilities under the EAP in clear and certain terms. The regulation
must be written in such a way that it can be clearly understood by the person
or entity affected. Not all industries will be amenable to the same abatement
actions. The impact that an emitter has on the episode is dependent upon
location, size, and type of process. For example, a power, company cannot be
properly placed in the same classification as the municipal incinerator, but
industrial incinerators and municipal incinerators fall within the same class.
Once a proper classification has been established, all,emitters within .a class
must be treated equally. If one member of a class may continue operations, all
must be permitted to continue.
The EAP cannot be implemented without authority for the plan's creation.
The local authorities must be given the power to regulate either by virtue of
the State Constitution or through State legislative action.
In most cases, State legislative-action will be the approach taken because the
86
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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State has the primary responsibility of protecting its citizens' health and
providing for their safety.
Two approaches may be taken. The first is in the form of a "Disaster Act"
by which the Legislature grants power to the Governor to declare that an
emergency exists within a specified area and to issue orders as required
pursuant to the abatement of the emergency. The language of the law must
provide for reasonable, forcible entry by enforcement personnel to determine
compliance with the Governor's orders and, where compliance is found not to
exist, any necessary action required to produce compliance. Air pollution
control agency personnel will thereby have the authority to shut down a
process or operation. It is also recommended that violation of the Disaster Act
be made a high misdemeanor to discourage noncompliance.
To illustrate the mechanics of a Disaster Act, a brief outline of the "Air
Pollution Emergency Control Act" of the State of New Jersey follows. This act
provides that the State Commissioner of Health, upon determining that air
pollution constitutes an unreasonable and urgent risk to health, communicate
such determination to the Governor. The Governor, upon receipt of such
communication, may declare that an emergency exists and assume powers to:
1. Prohibit, restrict, or condition motor vehicle travel of every kind,
including trucks and buses-in the area.
2. Prohibit, restrict, or condition the operation of retail, commercial,
manufacturing, industrial, or similar activity in the area.
3. Prohibit, restrict, or condition the operation of incinerators in the area.
4. Prohibit, restrict, or condition the burning or other consumption of any
type of fuel in the area.
5. Prohibit, restrict, or condition the burning of any materials whatsoever
in the area.
6. Prohibit, restrict, or condition any and all other activity in the area that
aggravates or potentially aggravates the air pollution emergency.
The United States Departments of Health, Defense, and the State and local
police plus Air Pollution Control enforcement personnel are designated to
enforce the Governor's orders using such reasonable force as required.
Specifically they may:
1. Enter any property or establishment whatsoever-commercial, industrial,
or residential-believed to be violating said order and, if a request does
not produce compliance, cause compliance with said order.
2. Stop, detour, reroute, and prohibit motor vehicle travel and traffic.
3. Disconnect incinerator or other iypes of combustion facilities.
4. Terminate all burning activities.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 87
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5. Close down or restrict the use of business, commercial, retail, manufac-
turing, industrial, or other establishments.
The second approach is to obtain injunctive relief through the courts.
Because of the emergency nature of an episode, it is imperative that a
preliminary mandatory injunction be obtained without delay. Such a proceed-
ing is heard before a judge without a jury. Since it is an equitable action, the
burden-of-proof requires a mere preponderance of evidence as opposed to the
"beyond-a-reasonable-doubt" burden imposed in criminal proceedings.
Various levels of action are specified by an EAP. For the most part,
implementation of the EAP will depend directly upon local legislation and
indirectly upon State legislation, unless the local control agency derives its
authority directly from the State legislature.
The agency should establish legal authority requiring that persons respons-
ible for the operation of a source of air contaminants prepare process emission
data and emergency standby plans. The plans must be consistent with good
industrial practice for reducing emissions in the event that emergency
conditions prevail or are predicted. The standby plans should be designed to
reduce or eliminate emissions in accordance with specific objectives defined in
legislation. The legal authority may include the authorization to enforce the
specific control conditions identified. The control agency should have the right
to approve or disapprove the proposed plans.
These plans, in addition to providing control measures, provide evidence for
preliminary mandatory injunctions.
When episode conditions extend beyond regional boundaries within a State
or result from emissions in one region impinging on another within the State,
cooperation between regions is required. Since this cooperation may not
always be voluntarily obtained, it is necessary that State legislation specify that
emergency abatement action be taken by the offending region. The State
"Disaster Act" could be the vehicle for this provision. As a practical matter,
however, the State legislation should also provide for the submission of an EAP
by each region so that appropriate, cooperative action may be taken when
necessary. In this regard, interregional data acquisition is an important
consideration. Even in the absence of specific State legislation, it is still
important that the control agency seek data from its contiguous regions in
order to support possible injunctive relief.
Many air quality control regions encompass interstate areas, thus causing a
jurisdictional problem. A comprehensive episode-avoidance program should be
developed for application on a regional basis. Such a program can be operated
by mutual agreement between States, with enforcement authority continuing
to reside in the in dividual jurisdictions.
In the absence of a regional authority, parallel legislation may be passed in
88 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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the adjoining States. This legislation should provide that action be taken in
concert to abate emergency situations.
As with intrastate episode-avoidance planning, the interstate program may
have to depend on voluntary cooperation, especially in the acquisition of
emergency control, in the absence of cooperative State legislation.
5.1.2 Recommended Format for Regional Emergency
Control Regulations
Whether the emergency legislation takes the "Disaster Act" approach or the
"injunctive" approach, it is recommended that the following items be included
in the enacted legislation:
1. Purpose.
2. General-When regulations apply.
3. Sampling Stations—Minimum number and general type.
4. Air Sampling—Specify who will establish the procedures.
5. Reports—Nature and frequency.
6. Plans-Requirement that notified industries must submit emission data
and emergency standby plans.
7. Declaration of Alerts—Who will make declarations; on what basis
declaration will be made; who and what entities will be notified;
polluters to maintain system for rapid communication.
8. Definition of Alert Stages.
9. Action to be Taken—Specifies who does what for each alert level;
authority of APC officer to take abatement actions.
10. End of Alert—Specifies procedure for termination.
11. Enforcement—Who has enforcement powers.
o
12. Scientific Committee-Prescribes make-up and duties of this entity;
committee is of a continuing advisory type.
13. Emergency Action Committee-Prescribes make-up and duties of this
entity; committee mainly advises the APC officer during episodes.
The EAP cannot be implemented without authority for the plan's creation.
The local authorities must be given the power to regulate either by virtue of
the State Constitution or through State legislative action.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 89
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5.2 SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF EPISODES
In the broadest sense, social considerations encompass all those factors that
relate to human society, the welfare of human beings as members of society,
the interaction of the individual and the group, and the cooperative and
interdependent relationships among members of the group. Of these, health
and legal considerations are treated in other sections of this Guide. Several
other factors, however, must be considered when plans are made for actions to
be taken during an episode.
1. Any action taken will have social effects.
2. Generally, these effects will increase with the duration of the episode.
3. Initially, the effects will usually be in the nature of inconveniences.
4. The effects are primarily those related to restrictions on freedom of
movement and normal activity, and the anxieties associated with a
pervasive hazard from which there is no escape.
5. Finally, with some exceptions, these effects disappear at the termination
of the episode.
The principal means by which the air pollution control authority can
minimize adverse social effects is education of the public. The planner must
provide for effective public information programs before, during, and after an
episode. The public must be prepared to endure the inconveniences of personal
restriction and to assess calmly the nature of the hazard.
The first social effects felt by the public will be relatively minor
inconveniences resulting from voluntary compliance with appeals to reduce
travel, postpone social functions, and reduce the use of energy-consuming
devices (lighting, heating, and cooling). Even though these inconveniences will
be widespread, they are generally not serious enough to become a major
deterrent to implementation of the emergency plan. These inconveniences
become more serious as the episode continues. Before mandatory travel
restrictions are applied, sufficient warning should be given to allow people to
get home, obtain essential food supplies, or perform other necessary activities
that involve the use of an automobile. This phase requires considerable care in
both planning and execution. Panic must be avoided because the pollution
situation can be made worse through a sharp increase in traffic at this time.
The long-range deleterious effects, however, of enforced immobilization and
virtual isolation can be reduced through adequate preparation.
During the period of the emergency itself, the primary social effect is in the
form of a direct threat to public health. Some other effects that the planner
must recognize are the increasing anxiety of the public, disturbances of
domestic tranquility, requirements for emergency services (medicines and
food), and increased loading of the telephone system.
90 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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When the episode is over, most of these social effects, aside from certain
health and economic factors, will ease and disappear. The planner should
provide, however, for response to a continued public and private clamor for
adequate avoidance procedures, not only by being prepared to face recrimina-
tions but, more importantly, by planning to take advantage of constructive
criticism and sharpened public awareness of episode situations.
Surveys have been conducted in several cities to determine public attitudes
toward air pollution. Generally, these surveys have been oriented toward the
routine situation rather than toward episodes. Based on a survey of Johnstown,
Pennsylvania, Crowe1 concluded that the social characteristics having the
greatest influence on a person's awareness and appreciation of the air pollution
problem are level of education, social position, and location of present
residence. In reviewing six studies in an attempt to find trends in attitude
formation, DeGroot2 found that the main determinant is the actual pollution
level at the location of residence. He concluded that public education should
emphasize what can be done and by whom, since further public dissemination
of information on the existence of air pollution only raises the levels of anxiety
and feelings of social impotence. Medalia3 studied an essentially one-industry
community (Clarkston, Washington) in which awareness of the pollution
problem was closely related to length of residence and occupation of the
household head.
Under severe episode conditions, these findings may not obtain, in that
everyone will be aware of the situation. The extent to which people will define
the condition as an individual or social (community) problem, on the other
hand, may well parallel the findings of the surveys. The air pollution control
planner should conduct a survey of the area of concern in order to determine
beforehand the public attitude in his specific area. Based on these findings, the
planner should educate the public not only for routine situations but also in
such a way as to minimize public and individual anxieties during an episode.
Finally, the intensified post-episode awareness should be used as a basis
for introducing appropriate improvements in the community's control pro-
gram.
5.3 COSTS RELATED TO EPISODE CONTROL ACTIONS
The benefits of improved air quality are as difficult to assess as the costs of
air pollution control. As with any health-related problem, the costs of air
pollution involve human factors that are difficult to express as equivalent
dollars. The benefits of episode control include the avoidance of acute illness
and death. The duration of much of the economic impact is a few days; when
human lives are involved, costs of control are relatively slight in comparison to
the possible benefits. Although several items of cost are discussed here, it is not
suggested that they constitute substantive reasons for impeding the develop-
ment of emergency action plans.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 91
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During the source inventory, information can be gathered that will assist the
air pollution control agency in evaluating part of the economic impact of
emergency action options. It is to industry's advantage to release accurate
economic and emission data, so that actions will be realistic and effective. The
necessary information may be supplied voluntarily, or regulations may be
required. The control agency must scrupulously observe industrial proprietary
rights to economic and technical information.
The costs incurred by industry during an episode will be a combination of
the fixed or regularly recurring costs associated with being prepared for an
episode, and costs approximately proportional to the duration of emergency
abatement action during an episode. Both of these classes of costs will vary
widely in magnitude and nature from place to place, among types of industries,
and among various plants within each industry.
In evaluating economic impact, the costs to industry, direct costs to the
individual, and costs to the community must be considered. Cost categories
include the following:
5.3.1 Costs Related to Maintenance of Emergency
Action Plans
In this category are included the costs to industry incurred in the
compilation of data and in the formulation and updating of Emergency Action
Plans. For most industries, these costs will be nominal.
5.3.2 Costs Related to Special Emergency Equipment
This category includes costs of plant equipment or other capital property
required for emergency emission curtailment. Costs are involved in actions such
as fuel substitution and plant modifications, as well as in the provision of fuel
storage space and handling equipment. This class of costs will be significant in
industries such as power generation that cannot simply shut down.
5.3.3 Direct Costs of Implementing Emergency
Control Actions
Costs of temporarily modifying the normal activity of the plant include
such items as investment in stockpiled low-sulfur fuel; special labor to curtail,
shutdown, or otherwise modify the activity; costs of uneconomic production
runs; and products or processes damaged by shutting down. This class of costs
may be significant in large industries having continuous high-temperature
processes.
92 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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5.3.4 Costs Related to Raw Material
The industry may have to plan for holding or diverting incoming raw
materials during a period of curtailment or shutdown. Transportation during a
severe episode will be severely curtailed, so that some industries may be faced
with storage problems.
5.3.5 Product Losses
These costs, resulting largely from losses in production during curtailment,
are proportional to the duration of the episode, and include, for example, extra
costs for low-sulfur fuel.
5.3.6 Sales Losses
Some sales losses, such as those by transportation systems and amusement
industries, are absolute and cannot be made up by later deliveries. Many sales
of products will be delayed rather than lost, but there may also be some profits
lost as a result of the inability to fill outstanding orders.
5.3.7 Defaulted Contracts
Closely related to lost sales are the costs in penalties, legal fees, and future
business related to defaulted contracts. This may not be a significant item
because of the short time span involved.
5.3.8 Costs Related to Employees
The salaries of some employees will continue through a shutdown; wage
losses will be incurred by others during an episode shutdown.
5.3.9 Start-Up Costs
This class includes costs related to the recall of employees as well as the
direct costs of starting up the plant. These costs are similar to shutdown costs
in that they are one-time and may include such items as uneconomic
production runs, periods of equipment inefficiency, and abnormal material
consumption.
5.3.10 Costs Related to Management
Costs related to management consist of time taken away from production
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 93
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activities before, during, or after the actual episode. Other factors such as
insurance, accounting, and legal costs may also be included. Dealing with
episodes, however, is but a small addition to management duties related to the
conduct of business.
5.3.11 Costs to Control Agency
The costs of an episode per se to the control agency are primarily those
related to additional testing and surveillance and to 24-hour manning of the
emergency control system. Most of the control system will be used for routine
activities as well as during an episode.
5.3.12 Miscellaneous Costs
Additional costs that may be faced by a community include those
associated with: extra policing; extension of the school year; overtime for
post-episode refuse disposal; losses in park vegetation, zoological specimens,
and similar items; the additional load on health agencies during and after
episodes; and emergency deliveries of necessities. This class of costs is sensitive
to the severity, duration, and frequency of episodes, and may be relatively
insignificant.
5.4 COMMUNICATION WITH PUBLIC
A well-planned information dissemination program serviced by an efficient
communication system is essential to successful episode avoidance. To be
effective, the information program must be developed and the communication
system provided beforehand. The information channels involved in an air
pollution alert will vary for each community. They will be the same channels,
however, that are used in day-to-day communication between the control
agency and the public. A summary listing follows of the steps for disseminating
information on air pollution alerts within and outside the control agency.
5.4.1 Information Programming Prior to an Alert
The air pollution control agency is responsible for generating all information
and instructions on what is expected and required of the public during an air
pollution alert. To be most effective, information, especially that related to
alert levels, should be developed and circulated prior to the occurrence of an
episode.
A program for the dissemination of air pollution alert information should
include:
94 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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1. Advance preparation of information covering:
a. Data that will cause the alert warning system to be activated.
b. Explanation of the various stages or levels of the alert.
c. Which actions are voluntary, which are required by law, and at what
stages of the alert they will be required.
d. What the individual can do to protect his family, his health, and his
property during each stage of an episode.
2. Advance development of a program for dissemination of alert warnings.
3. Establishment of priorities for the release of information during an alert.
Some of the primary tools for information dissemination available to an air
pollution control agency are given below.
1. Press Releases
The press release should be the primary means of communicating with
the news media. All information released to the news media should be in
the form of press releases, so that a record of what has been said at what
time and by whom is always available. Sample press releases should be
worked out ahead of time and cleared through administrative channels.
A typical press release4 is shown in Figure 5-2.
2. Press Conferences
Although the press conference provides an opportunity for officials to
appear before representatives of the news media, its use should be
limited to specific times and situations. If all the information can be
contained in a press release, do not call a press conference. Visual
information should be provided at press conferences, such as samples of
monitoring equipment, charts and graphs showing levels of pollution and
weather conditions, and photographs showing air pollution conditions
and the results of compliance with control provisions.
Instances in which a press conference can be useful in an episode
information dissemination program include:
a. Announcement of initial and subsequent stages of the alert. A press
conference is warranted at this time, since the information to be given
to news media is for the widest possible distribution and may be
involved and detailed. It is suggested that representatives of govern-
ment and industry be present at the press conference.
b. Announcement of termination of the alert. Since not all the episode
effects information will have been developed at the time of the alert
termination press conference, an announcement should be made
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 95
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NEWS RaEASE (Date) Agency
Department of Air Pollution Control
v (Address)
(City)
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE CONTACT: (Staff Member Phone No.)
At 12:30 p.m. today (date), the local Weather Service notified the City's
Department of Air Pollution Control that weather conditions consisting of a
htgh pressure area and low wind speeds were developing in the metropolitan
(city) area. These are the same weather conditions that are
being formed over the Eastern seaboard from Maine to the Carolinas. These
weather conditions are expected to continue until late tomorrow (date) and
may result in an increase in the levels of some air pollutants.
"There has been some increase in the levels of sulfur dioxide, but the
proportions of other contaminants have not reached a point at which calling of
an 'air pollution alert' is necessary or required," stated Mr. ,
(title).
Mr. also announced that the Air Pollution Control
Department's laboratory had been placed on a 24-hour operational basis.
NortMlly, the staff works a 40-hour week while the instruments measuring
air quality record their results continually without attention around
the clock. "However") the (title) said,"in order to be fully cognizant
of the problems as they arise, we shall maintain a close watch on the
conditions and report to the public if there is need for any specific
activity." Mr. , air pollution specialist for the (city)
Weather Service, stated that because cool air at the surface was trapped by
a lid of warm air aloft, it would remain stagnant over the (city) area.
It is expected that the Department of Air Pollution Control will issue another
statement within 24 hours.
Figure 5-2. Sample press release.
96 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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indicating a time at which complete information on the effects of the
episode will be available.
c. Announcement of the medical, physiological, sociological, and eco-
nomic effects of an alert. This press conference may be held at a
convenient time following the alert. If this conference1 was announced
at the alert termination press conference, every effort should be made
to hold it as soon as information is available.
3. Telephone Calls
The commercial telephone system will be a primary means for
disseminating information to governmental agencies, large emission
sources, and other individual recipients. Where volume indicates, direct
lines may be arranged for use during emergency periods.
4. Television and Radio Interviews
Every effort should be made to comply with requests for specific radio
and television interviews. Although radio and television interviewers will
be interested specifically in the conditions of the alert, every effort
should be made by the air pollution control agency representative to
include information concerning the agency's day-to-day operation and
concern for the public welfare.
5. Letters of Inquiry
Every air pollution control agency receives letters of inquiry from the
public. These letters are one of the best barometers an air pollution
control agency can have for determining the public attitude toward air
pollution control, and, as well, afford an opportunity for dissemination
of information to interested citizens.
6. Medical Societies and Hospital Associations
Medical societies can be of outstanding service by creating and
disseminating information to physicians concerned with respiratory and
cardiac patients. Aiding in the development of health studies related to
episodes can be a specific function of these organizations.
7. Speaking Dates
A presentation should be prepared for use by control agency speakers
who are asked to speak at civic meetings.
8. Schools
The Board of Education can help by distributing literature through
students to their homes.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 97
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9. Mailings
Although the postage costs will represent a major item, mail distribution
can be used effectively just before an "episode season," if desired.
5.4.2 Information Dissemination During an Alert
Upon notification of a potential episode, the air pollution control agency
should have the episode information plan ready for activation. The following
guidelines for an information program to be used during an air pollution alert
may be adapted to fit the needs and capabilities of the local agency. The
elements of such a plan are unique, although the plan uses the same channels of
communication and the same tools of information dissemination that are used
in day-to-day information programming.
When the local air pollution control agency receives a HAPPA bulletin from
the weather bureau, either by phone or on the NOAA local weather loop, those
in the air pollution control agency responsible for implementing emergency
action are notified. After a decision is made that alert conditions exist, the
lines of communication are as follows:
1. The news media are informed that an air pollution alert has been called
and that within the next forecast period (usually 6 hours) additional
information will be released. Immediate contact is necessary, since the
news media are on the local weather circuit and will already have
received the advisory. Since many of the major sources of air pollution
are also on the NOAA weather loop, they will receive this information at
the same time the news media receive it.
2. The next series of notifications is made to those activities that may be
affected by the initial alert and to those that must muster support forces
or make mechanical or operational changes in their industrial processes
to meet the requirements of the various stages of the alert. This
notification will probably be by telephone.
3. The news media shojold be the ^primary means of communication with
the general public as subsequent stages of the alert are reached. The
announcement of what each "of the various affected segments of the
general public will be required to do can best be communicated through
the news media. In addition to announcing the various alert stages, the
news media will also announce what emergency actions are to be taken.
5.4.3 Information Dissemination Following an Alert
Dissemination of information following an alert can serve to clarify
misunderstandings that arose during the alert. In addition, information can be
98 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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WHEN AIR POLLUTION IS HEAVY
Here's what you can do to help yourself and your neighbor
. Use public transportation wherever possible. Use your
automobile only 1f absolutely necessary. If you must
drive, try to team up with neighbors or co-workers.
AIR POLLUTION FROM AUTOMOBILES
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Reduce room temperatures to the legal minimum, unless
health considerations prevent such action.
AIR POLLUTION FROM HEATING EQUIPMENT
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Stop all outdoor burning.
AIR POLLUTION FROM OPEN OR REFUSE BURNING
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Use as little electricity as possible, either for
lighting or appliances.
AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER PLANTS
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
Observe the restrictions recommended by your health department
or air pollution control agency.
IF YOU SUFFER FROM A RESPIRATORY AILMENT OR HEART CONDITION-
Remaln Indoors with the windows closed.
Don't smoke. Avoid rooms where others are smoking.
Eliminate unnecessary physical exertion.
Stay under your physician's care.
AIR POLLUTION CONTRIBUTES TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE
Figure 5-3. Flyer published by the National Tuberculosis
and Respiratory Disease Association.
LEGAL, SOCIAL, FINANCIAL, AND COMMUNICATIONS FACTORS 99
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disseminated that will result in a better overall air pollution control program
and a more effective episode-avoidance system. Analysis and evaluation of
information collected during the episode may require considerable time. The
channels of communication for post-alert information are the same as those
available to the control agency for information developed prior to and during
the alert. An important item of information that the control agency should
disseminate in the post-alert period is a statement of public recognition of the
cooperation received from other government agencies and from those segments
of industry and the public that have been directly affected.
5.4.4 Public Education
Public education on air pollution should be a continuing program. During
air pollution episodes, short, to-the-point messages should be prepared for
public distribution. The messages may be disseminated by television and
newspapers, or by posters and flyers. A flyer published by the National
Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association (Figure 5-3) is a good
example of such a message.
5.5 REFERENCES
1. Crowe, M. J. Toward A "Definition Model" of Public Perceptions of Air
Pollution. J. Air Pollution Cont. Assoc. 18(3): 154-157, 1965.
2. DeGroot, I. Trends in Public Attitudes Toward Air Pollution. J. Air
Pollution Cont. Assoc. 17(10):679-681, 1967.
3. Medalia, N. Z. Community Perception of Air Quality: An Opinion Survey in
Clarkston, Washington. U.S. DHEW, Public Health Service. Washington,
D.C. Publication Number 999-AP-10. 1965.
4. Glenn, T. A., Jr. Regional Air Pollution Warning System. J. Air Pollution
Cont. Assoc. 16(l):22-24, January 1966.
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6. EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS
This chapter outlines the basic concepts of an Emergency Action Center
(EAC) that will serve as the operational control and communications point
during an episode. Specifically, the EAC will perform the technical functions
required of the local air pollution control agency to avoid or minimize an
episode. Additionally, it will serve as the local terminal of communications
with the APCO Emergency Operations Control Center (EOCC), which
performs analogous functions at the Federal level.
6.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
The objective of the EAC is to serve as the facility for reception and
processing of data relating to air pollution episodes and for determination
and initiation of avoidance actions. The EAC will serve as the interface between
the policy levels of authority and the event or problem. It will accept
information, process raw information into intelligence data, and implement
corrective action based on policy and the processed technical information.
Figure 6-1 illustrates this role. The block labeled "Authority" represents the
AUTHORITY
-
LU
O
LU
y
_j
o
D_
EOCC
INFORMATION
SITUATION
Figure 6-1. Role of Emergency Operations Control Center.
101
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mayor, the commissioner of public health, or the director of the air pollution
control agency, depending upon the action under consideration and the degree
to which policy has been delegated for such actions.
The courses of action open are those discussed in Chapter 9. The underlying
philosophy is that corrective action should be taken by the lowest technically
and politically competent local authority, with higher levels getting involved
only to the extent necessary.
The EAC will issue curtailment action directives to appropriate emission
sources, as specified in the Emergency Action Plan (EAP). The EAC will
inform APCO's EOCC of the air quality and meteorological conditions and of
the abatement actions being taken. Finally, the EAC will prepare post-episode
analyses to expand the data base for future episode avoidance actions.
6.2 ORGANIZATION
One concept of the organization and operation of an EAC is shown in
Figure 6-2. Action could be triggered by one or more of the following: a High
Air Pollution Potential Advisory bulletin (HAPPA), which forecasts widespread
stagnant conditions for an appreciable period of time (predetermined); a report
of air quality poorer than criteria (predetermined); or a request for assistance
from municipal, State, or regional authorities.
While the flow chart is the basic framework around which this EAC
conceptual design is built, it must be recognized that the events, procedures,
and decision points each represent sub-routines. For example, the box labeled
"Activate EAC" represents that portion of the EAC Standard Operating
Procedures (SOP) that tells the duty officer: (1) whom to call in, (2) what
circuits to call up, (3) whom to advise that the EAC is operational, (4) what
additional data to obtain, and (5) other specific actions. Standard Operation
Procedures are outlined in a later section.
6.3 LOCATION
The EAC should be located on the basis of trade-offs among characteristics
weighted according to their importance. Among such characteristics, the most
important are:
1. Availability of technically competent personnel.
2. Compatibility with local organizational structure; that is, functional
command lines.
102 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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g
i
2
O
TERMINATION PHASE
Figure 6-2. System flow chart for Emergency Action Center.
-------
3. Desirability of location as base for future expansion into more
sophisticated control center.
4. Availability of communication links to the rest of the country.
5. Accessibility; that is, proximity to transportation.
6. Proximity to higher authority.
7. Availability of physical space.
8. Accessibility to news media.
9. Proximity of supporting services, such as meteorological services.
The availability of technically competent staff deserves heavy weighting,
since it is uneconomical to man the EAC on a continuing full time basis. Since
episodes are sporadic, personnel will be drawn primarily from other organiza-
tions. The staff should, however, be immediately available when an emergency
arises. Likewise, compatibility with the normal organizational structure
deserves heavy weighting, since a smooth and efficient transition into th?
emergency mode is essential. The location of the EAC should be such that its
activation will create the least possible disruption of routine business.
Communications, transportation, and access to the responsible policy
authority are important elements, but from the operational point of view they
do not have the same priority as the necessary personnel. Of these factors,
however, good communications will be the most important.
Another element to be taken into consideration is growth potential, since
future expansions are more likely to come about by improvement of the initial
EAC rather than through construction of a completely new facility.
Other elements, such as space available and proximity to the news media
and to supporting services, are worthy of consideration but are more amenable
to alternate arrangements, especially if the communications are good.
6.4 COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS
Selected air quality data should be obtained from existing monitoring
networks. In order to keep the amount of data within the limits imposed by
manual processing and yet obtain valid intelligence during an episode, two
pieces of information every 2 hours from no more than 25 locations is about
the optimum reporting rate.
During the episode season, at times when there is no HAPPA or other
meteorological advisory bulletin in effect, reports can be made daily at a
scheduled time; maximum and minimum readings for the day should be
included. If an advisory is in effect, the reporting frequency should be
104 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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increased to every 2 hours. The data could be telephoned in to the EAC , or a
special teletype circuit could be established. The latter would require operators
at the terminals but would provide hard copy. With either telephone or
teletype, the network should be organized to minimize the number of messages
into the EAC.
An EAC staffed with a meteorologist and serving a large and complex
metropolitan region should tie equipped with NOAA Teletype Services A and
C, and a tie-in with the national weather facsimile system, which originates at
the National Meteorological Center in Suitland, Maryland. Supplementary
meteorological data might be available from non-transmitted sources such as air
pollution monitoring systems, cooperative observers, and private or institu-
tional facilities. These data sources should be inventoried and their telephone
numbers listed, since individual telephone calls will be the only practical means
of communication with these sources.
The minimum essential communication equipment required for an EAC of
the type described above would be one facsimile receiver and two teletype
receivers. Telephone service will be required on a continuing basis for daily
reports. During episodes, four lines could be kept busy, one for incoming calls
and one for each of the three professionals. The EAC should have, therefore, at
least one (and preferably two) lines of its own and, in addition, should have
access to three other lines. The additional lines could be those normally used
by key individuals on the emergency roster for conducting routine duties
between episodes.
6.5 MANNING REQUIREMENTS
Representative staffing requirements are summarized in Table 6-1. These
requirements are based on the concept of varying the degree of activation of
the EAC according to the situation.
Between episodes, at least one individual—preferably someone at the
junior-engineer level of experience or higher—should have the primary duty of
maintaining the EAC. His job would involve the receipt and posting of daily
reports on air quality from selected locations, and a daily check of advisories
and other meteorological data. If this principal responsibility does not require
his full time, he can be given other duties outside the EAC. It must be clear
that other duties are secondary to operation of the EAC. Arrangements should
be made to obtain and post weekend and holiday as well as weekday reports.
During the episode season, a duty roster should be maintained of
individuals, in addition to the person in charge of the EAC, who are authorized
to decide when the EAC is to be partially or fully activated. At least one of
these individuals must be available by phone at all times. Duty roster personnel
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS 105
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Table 6-1. MANNING REQUIREMENTS
Activation
level
On-duty
On-cal!
Routine
(non-episode)
Partial3
(local emergency)
Full3
One person (40 hr/wk)
Supervisor
Alternate(s)
Supervisor
Meteorologist(s)
Abatement engineer(s)
Clerk
Duty officer
Meteorologist(s)
Abatement engineer(s)
plus those below:
Public relations
specialists
Medical
Legal
Specialized engineers
Communications
technician
aEAC operates continuously during emergency; manning is scheduled in shifts
as required.
could include those individuals who are designated as full-time supervisors,
meteorologists, and abatement engineers when the EAC is fully activated.
During a widespread episode, the EAC will require full-time participation on
the part of all specialists necessary and available, especially meteorologists and
engineers. At least one person should be in the EAC at all times and, depending
upon the severity of the emergency, others may be required to be physically
present (rather than on call). Consequently, the roster of available personnel
must be sufficiently long to allow the supervisor to assemble his team. Ideally,
the roster should include:
1. Supervisor and two alternates.
2. Meteorologists.
3. Abatement engineers knowledgeable in process emission control, power
plant emission control, vehicular and mass transportation control, and
natural gas and electric power distribution,
4. Medical doctor and alternate.
5. Lawyer and alternate.
6. Public relations specialist and alternate.
106
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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7. Clerks.
8. Communications technician and alternate.
6.6 FUNCTIONS OF PRINCIPAL PERSONNEL
1. Supervisor-In addition to being responsible for the operation of the
EAC, the Supervisor integrates the meteorological forecast and air
quality reports as analyzed by the meteorologist with the recommenda-
tions of the engineer(s) to determine the control options available. He
also formulates the course(s) of action that either he will direct the EAC
to take or will recommend to a higher authority as appropriate.
2. Meteorologist—The meteorologist analyzes meteorological factors that
influence dispersion of air pollutants and makes short-range forecasts for
those areas subject to an episode. He uses not only data from the
National Weather Service (A, C, and Facsimile), but also air quality and
other data reported from the locations under surveillance. His forecast
and associated atmospheric status reports should be in a form directly
usable by the supervisor and higher authorities in their decision-making
processes.
3. Control Engineer—The control engineer makes a technical analysis of the
resources available for emission control and the effectiveness of the
measures being taken to effect the controls. Based on the results, he will
recommend an appropriate curtailment strategy.
6.7 PHYSICAL LAYOUT
The essential consideration here is to have an identifiable location
specifically associated with Emergency Actions. Even if not manned all the
time, the EAC should retain its identity. It should not be merely a makeshift
conversion of someone's office during an actual episode. The displays of trends
and other data should be kept up-to-date between episodes, not only to
maintain "ready" status but also to help keep the organization episode-minded.
Although posting of data should be permitted by authorized personnel only,
the posted data should be available to anyone who cares to drop in and
observe.
The EAC room should be conveniently located in relation to supporting
services, meteorological and communication services in particular. It should not
be an integral part of the meteorological center per se but should be next door
or down the hall if possible.
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS 107
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The data displays for the EAC may be manually maintained. Charts with
movable markers can be used, with magnetic markers for the data points. In
non-episode EAC operations, only the high and low for each day would be
shown. During an episode, or after issuance of a HAPPA bulletin, readings
would be posted every 2 hours.
A room as large as 20 by 30 feet could be required. Although the actual
layout will depend on the size, shape, door and window locations, and other
features of the room finally selected, a representative plan is shown in Figure
6-3.
WAL
b
a
L MAPS ^DISPLAYS
METEOROLOGIST COORDINATOR ENGINEER
\r~
*z
HI E~
7 ^1
CONFERENCE
TABLE
^^C'°
ZJ
•D
D c
^ 1
LERK
ID
FILE
cu
k=T EL E PHONE
Figure 6-3. Typical Emergency Action Center layout.
The layout is designed to accommodate the recommended staff and
equipment during full activation. At least one wall should be free from
windows or other obstructions to permit the mounting of display panels. A
30-foot wall should accommodate up to twenty-seven 2- by 3-foot displays.
The desks of the staff should face the displays and be far enough away, about 6
feet, to allow wide-angle observation. Additional space is allocated to
meteorological service teletypes, files, and a clerk-typist. Teletypes should
preferably be in a separate room to minimize noise in the EAC.
6.8 REPRESENTATIVE COSTS
The initial costs are estimated as follows:
108
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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2 Teletype installations at $50 each $ 100
1 Facsimile at $150 150
2 Telephone lines at $ 10 each 20
10 Displays at $50 each 500
4 Desks at $ 100 each 400
1 File at $50 50
1 Map file at $150 150
1 Typewriter at $400 400
$1770
Monthly costs, not including personnel salary or room rental, are estimated
as follows:
2 Teletypes at $75 each $150
30 Rolls of facsimile paper at $5 each 150
30 Rolls of teletype paper at $1.50 each 45
1 Telpack line at $15 15
2 Telephone lines at $ 10 each 20
$380
The costs for weather services are as follows (redundancy is not required if
these are already available).
Each teletype drop, receive only, $50 installation fee plus $75 per month.
Facsimile: follows GSA schedule; $150 for recorder includes delivery, lease,
and maintenance; paper is between $4 and $7 per roll, which on continuous
service lasts about 2 days.
Other costs would be comparable to those involved in operating a small
business office and involve expenses for telephone lines, expendable office
supplies, etc.
In addition to the minimum essential equipment, it would be desirable to
have a Polaroid camera and film at the EAC, so that reference photographs
may be taken of the display charts. The use of closed-circuit television to
permit remote viewing of displays is considered to be an unwarranted
refinement for the EAC. Between episodes the time lapse in viewing displays is
not crucial; during episodes the situation is sufficiently important to require
that officials who need current information be physically present at the EAC
site.
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS 109
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6.9 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES (SOP)
An SOP will have to be developed during the implementation phase of the
EAC. It should be detailed to the level necessary for the EAC to function. As
experience is gained, the SOP should be modified and expanded to provide a
basis for feasible systematic operations under emergency, and perhaps hectic,
conditions. The SOP should contain information of the types listed below. For
convenience, items are arranged here in the form of an annotated table of
contents for a representative SOP:
Representative Table of Contents
Remarks
1.0 Administration
1.1 Authorization
1.2 Purpose of the EAC
This section can either be a reference to
and abstract of, or an actual copy of,
the memorandum, letter, or other docu-
ment that authorized establishment of
the EAC. It should specify the general
functions of the EAC and assign the
responsibilities for its operation.
Essentially the same information as is
contained in the corresponding section
of this chapter.
1.3 Organization Chart
Should show the organizational relation-
ships of the EAC within the local
government structure. Relationships
during an emergency may be different
from those between emergencies.
1.4 Levels of Activation
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
Contain the same definitions as in Chap-
ter 3.
2.0 Routine Operations
2.1 Manning
Specifies the number and skills of per-
sonnel on duty and on call for both
normal work day and weekend-holiday
schedules. Actual names are not part of
the SOP, but should be listed in separate
duty rosters.
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EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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Representative Table of Contents
2.2 Hours of Operation
2.3 Duties of On-Site Person-
nel
2.4 Duties of On-Call Person-
nel
2.5 Communications Proce-
dures
2.6 Communications
Schedules
2.7 Posting Data
2.8 Reaction to a Potential
Emergency
2.9 Maintenance of Log
3.0 Emergency Operations
3.1 Criteria for Activation
Remarks
Specifies when the EAC is to be manned
during non-emergency conditions.
Statements of the responsibilities and
functions of assigned personnel.
Statements of the responsibilities and
functions of assigned personnel.
Specifies communications procedures
peculiar to the EAC and, by reference,
the procedures used in other systems,
such as Weather Services A and C and
Weather Facsimile, to which the EAC
has access.
Establishes the routine schedules for
reporting of air quality data from loca-
tions under surveillance.
Includes specific instructions for main-
tenance of data displays including:
1. Meaning of symbols.
2. Schedule for updating.
3. Maintenance of permanent records.
4. Authority for changing posted data.
Outlines the expected reaction to:
1. An emergency call.
2. A report of poor air quality.
3. A HAPPA that forecasts stagnant
meteorological conditions.
Contains instructions on:
1. Format of log.
2. What should be recorded.
3. Periodic sign-off (for example,
weekly during non-episode season,
daily during episode season with no
emergency).
4. Disposition of logbook.
Lists conditions to be met for activation
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS
111
-------
Representative Table of Contents
Remarks
3.2 Personnel Rosters
3.3 Activation Procedures
3.4 Reporting Schedules
3.5 Maintenance of Data Dis-
plays
3.6 Criteria for Advising the
Mayor or Equivalent
Authority
3.7 Means of Advising the
Mayor
3.8 Coordination with the City
Counsel or Equivalent
3.9 News Releases
of the EAC. Basically, they should be
similar to the criteria for declaring a
first alert for the area affected.
Specifies the number and skills of per-
sonnel needed to man the EAC. Actual
names are not part of the SOP, but
should be in separate up-to-date duty
rosters.
Lists the steps required to activate the
EAC (1) partially and (2) fully. The
section is specific and includes informa-
tion on personnel to call in, personnel
to alert but not call in, and additional
communications, if any, to activate.
Contains instructions for increasing the
frequency of air quality reports from
affected locations. The normal daily
rate might be increased to a rate as
frequent as once very 2 hours.
In addition to the routine posting of
daily readings, the more frequent read-
ings must be recorded. This article
details changes in display format and
contains instructions for any additional
displays, such as for 6-hour doses, that
may be desirable during an emergency.
Lists types of situations that must be
brought to the personal attention of the
Mayor (or equivalent authority) or his
designated representative.
Sets forth explicit instructions on how
to advise the Mayor or equivalent
authority.
Specifies the procedures by which the
Counsel is alerted for potential legal
action and, if required, asked to initiate
injunctive procedures.
Outlines who can make releases, what
112
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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Representative Table of Contents
3.10 Maintenance of Log Book
4.0 Termination of Emergency
4.1 All-Clear
4.2 Reverting to Routine
Operations
4.3 After-Action Report
Remarks
means should be used, and general
guidelines for requesting assistance of
the news media in making public an-
nouncements.
Contains instructions for keeping a log
of the emergency. It treats the same
type information as in 2.9 above.
Includes
1. Criteria for the "all-clear."
2. Personnel who should be notified
and the means for notifying them.
Instructions for terminating the emerg-
gency operation, releasing personnel and
circuits, changing reporting schedules,
disposition of displays, and similar
items.
Specifies the format, authorship, con-
tent, and distribution of the post-
episode report.
EMERGENCY ACTION CENTERS
113
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APPENDIX A.
GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS
1. Acute
2. Aerosol
3. Air Pollution
4. Air Pollution Index
5. Ambient Air Quality
6. Anticyclone
7. Atmosphere, The
8. Atmosphere, An
Having a sudden onset and a short and
relatively severe course.
A dispersion of solid or liquid particles of
microscopic size in gaseous media. Examples
are smoke, fog, and mist.
The presence of unwanted material in the air.
The term "unwanted material" refers to ma-
terial in sufficient amount and under such
circumstances as to interfere significantly with
comfort, health, or welfare of persons, or with
full use and enjoyment of property.
One of a number of arbitrarily derived mathe-
matical combinations of air pollutants that
gives a single number attempting to describe
the ambient air quality.
A physical and chemical measure of the
concentration of various chemicals in the
outside air. The quality is usually determined
over a specific time period (for example, 5
minutes, 1 hour, 1 day).
An,area of relatively high atmospheric pres-
sure. In the northern hemisphere, the wind
blows spirally outward in a clockwise direc-
tion.
The whole mass of air, composed largely of
oxygen and nitrogen, that surrounds the
earth.
A specific gaseous mass, occurring either
115
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9. Breathing Zone
10. Coh
11. Collection Efficiency
12. Collector
13. Combustion
14. Density
15. Diffusion, Molecular
16. Dispersion
17. Diurnal
18. Droplet
19. Dust
naturally or artificially, that can contain any
number of constituents and in any propor-
tion.
That stratum of the atmosphere in which
people breathe.
Abbreviation for coefficient of haze, a unit of
measurement of visibility interference.
The percentage of a specified substance re-
tained by a gas-cleaning or gas-sampling de-
vice.
A device for removing and retaining contami-
nants from air or other gases. Usually this
term is applied to cleaning devices in exhaust
systems.
The reaction of carbon-containing substances
(or other oxygen-demanding materials) with
oxygen, producing a rapid temperature in-
crease in a flame.
The mass per unit volume of a substance.
A process of spontaneous intermixing of
different substances, attributable to molecular
motion, that tends to produce uniformity of
concentration.
The most general term for a system consisting
of particulate matter suspended in air or other
gases.
Daily, especially pertaining to actions or
events that are completed within 24 hours and
that recur every 24 hours.
A small liquid particle of such size and density
as to fall under still conditions, but which
may remain suspended under turbulent condi-
tions.
A term loosely applied to solid particles
predominantly larger than colloidal and
capable of temporary suspension in air or
other gases.
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EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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20. Dust Fall
21. Dust Loading
The amount of large particulate matter de-
posited per month per square mile of land.
An engineering term for "dust concentra-
tion," usually applied to the contents of
collection ducts and the emissions from
stacks.
22. Efficiency
23. Emissions
24. Emission Inventory
25. Emission Mixture
26. Environment
27. Episode
28. Fly Ash
29. Fog
30. Fume
The ratio of attained performance to absolute
performance, commonly expressed in percent.
The total substances discharged into the air
from a stack, vent, or other source.
A list of primary air pollutants emitted into a
given community's atmosphere, in amounts
(commonly tons) per day, by type of source.
The total mixture in the atmosphere of
emissions from all sources.
The aggregate of all external conditions and
influences affecting the life, development,
and, ultimately, the survival of an organism.
The occurrence of stagnant air masses during
which air pollutants accumulate, so that the
population is exposed to an elevated concen-
tration of airborne contaminants.
The finely divided particles of ash entrained in
flue gases, arising from the combustion of
fuel. The particles of ash may contain incom-
pletely burned fuel.
Visible aerosols in which the dispersed phase
is liquid. In meteorology, a visible aggregate of
minute water droplets suspended in the air
near the earth's surface.
Properly, the solid particles generated by
condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilization from melted substances
and often accompanied by a chemical reaction
such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and some-
times coalesce. Popularly, the term is used in
reference to any or all types of contaminants
GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS
117
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31. Gas
32. Grab Sample
33. Impaction
34. Impinger
35. Inversion
36. Isokinetic
37. Mass Concentration
38. Mist
39. Month
40. Odor
41. Odor Unit
42. Odorant
and, in many laws or regulations, with the
added qualifications that the contaminant
have some unwanted action.
One of the three states of aggregation of
matter, having neither independent shape nor
volume, and tending to expand indefinitely.
A sample of an atmosphere obtained in a very
short period of time, such that the sampling
time is insignificant in comparison with the
duration of the operation or the period being
studied.
A forcible contact of particles (often used
synonymously with impingement).
Broadly, a sampling instrument using impinge-
ment for the collection of particulate matter.
A layer of air in which temperature increases
with height.
A term describing a condition of sampling, in
which the flow of gas into the sampling
device, at the opening or face of the inlet, has
the same flow rate and direction as the
ambient atmosphere being sampled.
Concentration expressed in terms of substance
per unit volume of gas or liquid.
A term loosely applied to dispersions of liquid
droplets, the dispersion being of low concen-
tration and the particles of large size. In
meteorology, a light dispersion of water drop-
lets of sufficient size to be falling.
For reporting analyses of ambient air on a
monthly basis, rate results are calculated to a
base of 30 days.
That property of a substance that affects the
sense of smell.
Unit volume of air at the odor threshold.
Odorous substance.
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EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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43. Opacity Rating
44. Oxidants
45. Particle
46. Particle Concentrations
47. Particle Size
48. Precipitation,
Meteorological
49. Precision
50. Pollutant
51. Receptor
52. Ringelmann Chart
A measurement of the opacity of emissions,
defined as the apparent obscuration of an
observer's vision to a degree equal to the
apparent obscuration ef smoke of a given
rating on the Ringelmann Chart.
A measure of the presence of organic oxidiz-
ing chemicals, such as ozone, in the ambient
air. An indicator of photochemical smog.
A small discrete mass of solid or liquid matter.
Concentration expressed in terms of number
of particles per unit volume of air or other
gas. Note: In expressing particle concen-
trations, the method of determining the con-
centration should be stated.
The size of liquid or solid particles, expressed
as the average or equivalent diameter.
The precipitation of water from the atmo-
sphere in the form of hail, mist, rain, sleet,
and snow. Deposits of dew, fog, and frost are
excluded.
The degree of agreement of reported measure-
ments of the same property. Expressed in
terms of dispersion of test results about the
mean result, obtained by repetitive testing of
a homogenous sample under specified condi-
tions.
Any matter that, upon discharge to the
ambient air, creates or tends to create a
harmful effect upon man, his property, con-
venience or happiness, or that causes the
contamination in ambient air to exceed legally
established limits, or that is defined as a
pollutant by a regulatory agency.
Any person or piece of property upon which
an air pollutant creates an effect.
Actually a series of charts, numbered from 0
to 5, that simulate various smoke densities by
presenting different percentages of black. A
Ringelmann No. 1 is equivalent to 20 percent
GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS
119
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53. Sampling
54. Smog
55. Smoke
56. Soot
57. Synergism
58. Tape Sampler
59. Thermal Turbulence
60. Topography
black; a Ringelmann No. 5, 100 percent. Used
for measuring the opacity of smoke arising
from stacks and other sources by matching
with the actual effluent the various numbers,
or densities, indicated by the charts. Ringel-
mann numbers are sometimes used in setting
emission standards.
A process consisting of the withdrawal or
isolation of a fractional part of a whole. In air
analysis, the separation of a portion of an
ambient atmosphere, with or without simul-
taneous isolation of selected components.
A combination of "smoke" and "fog." Ap-
plied to extensive atmospheric contamination
by aerosols arising partly through natural
processes and partly from human activities.
Often used loosely for any contamination of
the air.
Small gas-borne particles produced by incom-
plete combustion, consisting predominantly
of carbon and other combustible material, and
present in sufficient quantity to be detectable
in the presence of other solids.
Agglomerations of particles or carbon impreg-
nated with "tar" that are formed in the
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous ma-
terial.
The cooperative action of separate substances
such that the total effect is greater than the
sum of the effects of the substances acting
independently.
A device used in the measurement of both
gases and fine particulates. It allows air
sampling to be done automatically at pre-
determined times.
Air movement and mixing caused by con-
vection.
The -configuration of a surface, including its
relief and the position of its natural and
man-made features.
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EPISODE AVOIDANCE
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61. Vapor Tne gaseous phase of matter that normally
exists in a liquid or solid state.
62. Volume Concentration Concentration expressed in terms of gaseous
volume of substance per unit volume of air or
other gas, usually expressed in percent or
parts per million.
63. Week For reporting analysis of ambient air on a
weekly basis, results are calculated to a base
of seven consecutive 24-hour days.
64. Year For reporting analysis of ambient air on a
yearly basis, results are calculated to a base of
twelve 30-day months.
GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS 121
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APPENDIX B. HISTORY OF EPISODES
Most of the air pollution episodes of the past have not been reported.
Today, public awareness is growing and techniques for monitoring are
improving. Future documentation of episodes should therefore be much better
than in the past.
Table B-l presents a list of past episodes. Information given includes the
location and date of the episodes evaluated, pollutant types and concentra-
tions, meteorological conditions, and health effects noted. Table B-2, a
bibliography of episode references, should be of considerable assistance in
providing detailed information relative to many of the documented episodes.
123
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Table B-1. EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date
London
Dec. 9-11, 1873
Jan. 26-29, 1880
Feb. 1882
Dec. 1891
Dec. 28-30, 1892
Nov. 26-Dec. 1,
1948
Dec. 5-9, 1952
Ref
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
2
3
1
2
3
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Pollutants
Type Range
Black suspended 200 to 2800 mg/m3
matter
S02 0.09 to 0.75 ppm
S02 0.09 to 1 .34 ppm
Black suspended 400 to 4500 mg/m3
matter
Meteorology
Fog
Fog
Fog
Fog
Temp, (min) 25 to 43 F
(max) 37 to 54°F
Wind vel. 0 to 4.6 mph
Visibility, 27 to 440 yd
Temp, (min) 24to39°F
(max) 31 to 40°F
Wind vel. 9 to 5.8 mph
Visibility 22 to 240yd
Fog
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
650a
1176
Excess deaths
noted
Excess deaths
noted
779
700 to 800
Bronchitis 4000°
Emphysema
Cardiovascular (ischemic
heart disease)
Acute wheezy chests
Dyspnoea
Fever
Yellow-black sputum
w
o
D
W
n
in
-------
1
§
co
O
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date
London (cont'd.)
Jan. 3-6, 1956
Dec. 2-5, 1957
Dec. 5-10, 1962
Jan. 7-22, 1963
New York, N.Y.
Nov. 18-22, 1953
Ref
2
5
6
11
2
4
5
6
12
1
2
4
8
13
2
1
2
8
14
Type
SO2
Black suspended
matter
S02
Black suspended
matter
Critical levels
set at:
SO2
Black suspended
matter
Smog
S02
S02
Pollutants
Range
0-19 to 0.55 ppm
700 to 2400 mg/m3
0.40 ppm
200 mg/m3
1.98 ppm
highest hourly
concentration
Concentrations
up to 0.86 ppm
2.92 to 8.38 Coh
units
Meteorology
Temp, (min) 29 to 36°F
(max) 36 to 47° F
Wind vel. 0 to 8.1 mph
Visibility 5 to 12,000 yd
Wind <7 mph
Elongated high-
pressure system
3000 ft inversion
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
1000
200 to 250
Wheezy chests 700
Bronchitis
Dyspnoea
Fever
Yellow-black sputum
Heart failure
700
Eye irritation Excess deaths
Coughing noted
-------
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date
New York, N.Y.
(cont'd.)
Nov. 28-Dec. 4,
1962
Dec. 30, 1962-
Jan. 15, 1963
Jan. 29-Feb. 12,
1963
Oct. 10-27, 1963
Ref Type
1 S02
2
15
16 CO
17
18 SO2
Smoke shade
SO2 (24-hr avg)
16 SO2 (24-hr avg)
Smoke shade
2 S02
16 Smoke shade
19 SO2 (avg hourly)
Smoke shade
17 SO2
18
CO
Total hydrocarbons
Pollutants
Range
Max peaks >1.0 ppm
on many days
Max 1-hr avg of
22.4 ppm
0.07 to 1 .5 ppm
(daily avg)
2 to 7 Coh units
0.1 to 0.7 pprn
0 to 0.5 ppm
1 to 6.0 Coh units
0.2 to 0.5 ppm
1.5 to 7 Coh units
0.46 ppm
47% of days »4
Coh units
73% of days
>OAQ ppm
Avg >0.30 ppm for
sustained periods
Max 1-hr avg -
27.5 ppm
- general level 3.0 ppm
Meteorology
Temp. avg. 46 to 57°
Wind speed <2 mph
(early morning and
late evening)
Followed 8 days after
very cold spell.
Very few atm. inver.
Few hr with winds
<5 mph
Few winds <5 mph
Few inversions
Stagnating anticyclones
were absent
Temp, avg >60°F
Few winds >2 mph
Peak of drought
period
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Cardiac
Respiratory
Excess deaths
noted
Influenza 200 to 400
Pneumonia
Vascular lesions
Cardiac
D
Pi
O
B
>
z
o
-------
3
I
*s
o
G
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date
New York, N.Y.
(cont'd.)
Feb. 27-Mar. 10,
1964
Nov. 23-25, 1966
Donora, Penn.
Oct. 27-31, 1948
Ref
16
2
20
21
23
24
25
1
2
3
4
10
22
26
27
Pollutants
Type Range
SO2
Smoke shade
S02
Smoke shade
CO
S02 (last day)
H2SO4 mist
Other sulfur
compounds
03
NOX
Organic compounds
Smoke
0.0 to 7 ppm
2 to 5 Coh units
0.02 to 1 .02 ppm
0.5 to 8.2 Coh
units
1 to 13 ppm
Concentrations unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Meteorology
A few inversions
A few winds <5 mph
Temp, (min) 34 to 49° F
(max) 49 to 65° F
Wind speed 2.7 to 5.6
mph
Temp, inver. during
a:rh. and p.m.
Anticyclonic conditions
Vertical mixing depths
1214 to 1813 feet
Temp, inversion
Fog
Stagnant anticyclone
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Influenza
Pneumonia
Heart disease
Bronchitis
Asthma
Malignant neoplasms of
respiratory system
Vascular lesions of
central nervous system
Cough
Respiratory irritation
Sore throat
Chest constriction
Dyspnoea
Eye irritation
Vomiting
Nausea
Heart diseases
Bronchitis
Excess deaths
noted, 168
-------
Table B-l (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date
Meuse Valley,
Belgium
Dec. 1930
Eastern U.S.
Nov. 27-Dec. 5,
1962
(2 to 7.5 days)
Washington, D.C.
Philadelphia, Penn.
Ref
1
2
3
10
26
28
29
1
15
SO
Pollutants
Type Range
SO2
H2S04
HF
NO2
CO
CO2
Concentrations
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Avg. organic particulate was 6T
times normal level
Avg. particulate was 2 to
normal level
(Avg. of 3 to 13 cities)
S02
CO
Total hydrocarbon
Total oxidants
S02
NO
NO2
Hydrocarbon
Total oxidants
3 times*
0.04 to 0.29 ppm
2 to 24 ppm
2 to 17 ppm
0 to 0.017 ppm
0.04 to 0.45 ppm
0 to >0.65 ppm
0 to 0.22 ppm
1 to 10 ppm
0 to 0.01 ppm
Meteorology
Fog
Wind speed -0.62 mph
Ceiling -246 ft
Temp, inversion
Quasi-stationary
anticyclone
Low winds
Temp. 42 to 50° F
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Cardiovascular 60 to 80e
Hypotension
Alkalosis
Sore throat
Cough
Nausea
Vomiting
PI
2
53
o
o
PI
pi
-------
EC
NN
50
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date Ref
Eastern U.S.
(1962cont'd.)
Cincinnati, Ohio
Chicago, Illinois
New York, N.Y.
Eastern U.S.
Nov. 20-26, 1966
Pittsburgh, Penn.
Birmingham, Ala.
Pollutants
Type Range
SO2
NO
N02
Hydrocarbon
Total Oxidants
Ozone
S02
NO
NO2
S02
SO2 levels peak
in morning
(Pollutant ranges listed
are 24-hour means)
Soiling index
0.01 to 0.28
0 to 0.57 ppm
0.03 to 0.23 ppm
0.3 to 1 .7 ppm
0 to 0.025 ppm
0 to 0.008 ppm
0.05 to 0.87 ppm
0.11 to 0.59 ppm
0.04 to 0.18 ppm
0.07 to 1 .50 ppm
below
0.5 to 2.2 Coh units
Meteorology
Temp. 45 to 52° F
Temp. 45 to 51° F
Temp. 46 to 57° F
Light winds
Poor horizontal
ventilation
Stagnating high-
pressure system
Avg. temp. 32 to 53° F
p.m. mixing depth
990 to 3320 ft
Avg. wind speed
5.5 to 12.5 mph
Avg. temp. 51 to 65° F
p.m. mixing depth
2460 to 3600 ft
Avg. wind speed
1.6 to 9.2 mph
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
GO
-------
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date Ref
New York, N.Y.
Washington, D.C.
o
Boston, Mass.
Philadelphia, Penn.
g
E3
O
O Newark, N.J.
m
1
1
2 Baltimore, Md.
s
Pollutants
Type Range
SO2
CO
Soiling index
SO2
NO
Hydrocarbons
SO2
Suspended
particulate
S02
NO
N02
Hydrocarbons
CO
Suspended particulate
Soiling index
S02
NO
N02
Hydrocarbons
CO
Soiling index
Suspended particulate
Soiling index
0.01 to 0.07 ppm
1 to 13 ppm
2.8 to 6.0 Coh units
0.01 to 0.07 ppm
0.04 to 0.48 ppm
3 to 6 ppm
0.11 to 0.30 ppm
45 to 220 mg/m3
0.03 to 0.26 ppm
0.04 to 0.48 ppm
0.03 to 0.08 ppm
3 to 5 ppm
0 to 1 0 ppm
80 to 390 mg/m3
0.8 to 3.8 Coh units
0.12 to 0.40 ppm
0 to 0.40 ppm
0.02 to 0.1 4 ppm
1 to 13 ppm
1 5 to 32 ppm
1.5 to 6.5 Coh units
20 to 220 mg/m3
0.7 to 1.8 Coh units
Meteorology
Avg. temp. 36 to 54° F
p.m. mixing depth
540 to 3600 ft
Avg. wind speed
3.9 to 10.8 mph
Avg. temp.
p.m. mixing depth
630 to 5 100 ft
Avg. wind speed
3.6 to 8.5 mph
Avg. temp. 34 to 51° F
p.m. mixing depth
845 to 4060 ft
Avg. wind speed
6.0 to 9.5 mph
Avg. temp. 36 to 53° F
p.m. mixing depth
845 to 3880 ft
Avg. wind speed
4.5 to 9.2 mph
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Approx.
24/day
-------
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
1
50
O
•fl
2
i>5
o
Location
and date Ref
Eastern U.S.
(1966cont'd.)
Los Angeles, Calif. 25
Cincinnati, Ohio 30
May 16-17,1962
New Orleans, La. 31
(Since early 32
1950's) 33
Tokoyo— Yokohama, 35
Japan 36
1946-1963
Pollutants
Type Range
Ozone
Hydrocarbons
NOX
Max. hourly concentration
Total oxidant:
5/16 0.14 ppm
5/17 0.19 ppm
NO 5/16 0.13 ppm
5/17 0.1 3 ppm
NO2 5/16 0.20 ppm
5/17 0.24 ppm
Silica crystal
particle (city dump)
Emissions from public
elevator also suspected
Dustfall No data
Sulfation No data
Pollution particularly
noticeable in fall
and winter (evening
and night)
Meteorology
Frequent prolonged
temp, inversions
Smog
Temp. >90°F
Avg. wind speed
<4 mph
Quasi-stationary
anticyclone
Clear skies
High degree of
insolution
Nocturnal radiation
inversion (formed
each night) varied
200 to 400 ft
Associated with winds
of very low velocity
Meteorological con-
ditions unfavorable
for removing air
pollution
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Eye irritation
Mild resistance
to perspiration
Asthma outbreak9
Acute bronchitis
Asthma
Acute attacks coincided
with periods of concentrated
air pollution.
People leaving area; become ill again
on returning.
-------
Table B-1 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY
Location
and date Ref
Minneapolis, 1
Minn., 1956
Weirton, W. Va. 32
Prior to Sept. 1960
Rotterdam 1
Dec. 2-7, 1962
Hamburg 1
Dec. 3-7, 1962
Osaka, Japan 1
Dec. 7-10, 1962
St. Louis, Mo. 37
Nov. 28, 1939h
Pollutants
Type Range
Emissions from processing plants
of grain industry
Associated with carbon monoxide effluent
from industrial stacks
SO2 5 times normal
SC>2 5 times normal
Dust pollution 2 times normal
Pollution levels
high
Smoke (Nighttime dark-
ness through
the day)
Meteorology
Inversion layer,
with stagnation
Temperature inversion
Windless period
Health Effects
Diseases and symptoms Excess deaths
Asthma outbreaks
13 people
hospitalized
Increase in
mortality noted
60
M
3
VI
O
o
n
w
aAlso cattle.
t>Also cattle; excess deaths calculated on 7 and 15 day moving average.
cExcess deaths calculated on 7 day moving average. Deaths occurred on first day. Morbidity coincided closely with mortality.
^43% of population was effected.
PAIso cattle.
f Average of 3-13 cities.
9100 emergency room visits at one hospital with two resulting deaths.
"Known as "Black Tuesday."
-------
Table B-2. EPISODE HISTORY REFERENCES
1. Stern, Arthur C. Air Pollution, Vol. I. Academic Press, New York, 1967.
p. 554-563.
2. Air Quality Criteria: Staff Report of the Subcommittee on Air and Water
Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate. U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. July 1968.
3. Cullumbine, H., R. E. Pattle, and F. Burgress. TheToxicity of Fog. Porter,
England, Medical Division. 1954.
4. Anderson, Donald 0. The Effects of Air Contamination on Health: Part I.
Canadian Medical Assoc. 97:528-536, September 2, 1967.
5. Bradley, W. H. 0., W. P. D. Logan, and A. E. Martin. The London Fog of
December 2nd-5th, 1957. Monthly Bulletin of the Ministry of Health and
the Public Health Laboratory Service, p. 156-166, 1958.
6. Martin, A. E. Mortality and Morbidity Statistics and Air Pollution. Proc.
Roy Sec. Med. 57(10): 969-975, October 1964.
7. Fry, J., J. B. Dillane, and L. Fry. Smog: 1962v1952. Lancet (Letters to
the Editor) (7269) 1326, December 22, 1962.
8. Cassell, E. J. Epidemiology of Air Pollution in Urban Populations.
Presented at Air Pollution and Respiratory Disease: A Progress Report, St.
Vincent's Hospital and Medical Center of New York, New York City.
October 28, 1966.
9. Wilkins, E. T. Air Pollution Aspects of the London Fog of December,
1952. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 80(344) :267-271, April 1954.
10. Markush, R. E. A Modern Broad Street Pump-Current Needs in Air
Pollution. U.S. DHEW, Public Health Service. Division of Air Pollution.
Cincinnati, Ohio. Presented before the Alabama Public Health Association.
March 16, 1961.
11. Gore, A. T. and C. W. Shaddick. Atmospheric Pollution and Mortality in
the County of London. British J. of Prevent. Social Med. (London)
12(2): 104-113, April 1958.
12. Scott, J. A. The London Fog of December 1957. The Medical Officer
99:367, June 20, 1958.
13. Scott, J. A. The London Fog of December 1962. The Medical Officer
109:250-253, April 26, 1963.
HISTORY OF EPISODES 133
-------
Table B-2 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY REFERENCES
14. Greenburg, Leonard et a/. Report of an Air Pollution Incident in New
York City, November 1953. Public Health Reports 77(1):7-16, January
1962.
15. Lynn, D. A., B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig. The November-
December 1962 Air Pollution Episode in the Eastern United States. U.S.
DHEW, PHS. Division of Air Pollution. Washington, D.C. Publication
Number 999-AP-7. September 1964.
16. McCarroll, J. Measurements of Morbidity and Mortality Related to Air
Pollution. Presented at the 59th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association. San Francisco, Calif. Paper Number 66-5. June 20-25, 1966.
17. Ingram, W. et al. Health and the Urban Environment (Air Polution and
Family Illness: II. Two Acute Air Pollution Episodes in New York City).
Arch. Environ. Health 10(2):364-366, February 1965.
18. Greenburg, L. et al. Air Pollution Incidents and Morbidity Studies. Arch.
Environ. Health 10(2):351-356, February 1965.
19. Greenburg, L. et al. Air Pollution Influenza and Mortality in the New York
City Area During January-February 1963. Arch. Environ. Health 15(4):
430-438, October 1967.
20. Fensterstock, Jack C. and R. K. Fankhauser. Thanksgiving 1966 Air
Pollution Episode in Eastern United States. U.S. DHEW, Public Health
Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1968.
21. Glasser, Marvin, Leonard Greenling, and Franklin Field. Mortality and
Morbidity During a Period of High Levels of Air Pollution. Arch. Environ.
Health 15:684-694, December 1967.
22. Cassell, E. J. The Unsolved Problem: The Effect of Air Pollution on
Human Health. Preprint, 1963.
23. Shilen, J. et al. The Donora Smog Disaster. Pennsylvania Dept. of Health,
Bureau of Industrial Hygiene. Harrisburg. 1948.
24. Thompson, D. J. Mortality, 1948-1957, and Morbidity, 1957, Average
Persons Residing in Donora, Pennsylvania During the Smog Episode of
October 1948. University of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Public Health.
1957.
25. Heimann, H. The Air Pollution Problem in the United States. Proc. of the
Roy. Soc. Med. Symp. 6., Sect. II, Medical and Epidemiological Aspects of
Air Pollution 57(10, Part 11): 1000-1005, October 1964.
134 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
Table B-2 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY REFERENCES
26. Foulger, J. H. Physiologic Effects of Chemical Contaminants of the
Atmosphere. Proc. Natl. Air Pollution Symp., I. Pasadena, Calif. 1949. p.
121-128.
27. Schrenk, H. H. et al. Air Pollution in Donora, Pa. (Epidemiology of the
Unusual Smog Episode of October 1948, Preliminary Report). Public
Health Service, Federal Security Agency. Washington, D.C. Public Health
Bulletin Number 306. 1949.
28. Firket, J. The Problem of Cancer of the Lung in the Industrial Area of
Liege During Recent Years. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 51:347-352, 1959.
29. Merrill, M. H. Receptor Effects of Air Pollution. California State Dept. of
Public Health. Berkeley, Calif. Presented at the Interdisciplinary Confer-
ences Atmospheric Pollution, Santa Barbara, Calif. June 1959. p. 1-7.
30. Niemeyer, L. E. Summer Sun—Cincinnati Smog: A Recent Incident. J. Air
Pollution Cont. Assoc. 13(8):381-384, August 1963.
31. Lewis, R., M. M. Gilkenson, Jr., and R. W. Robinson. Air Pollution and
New Orleans Asthma: Part I—Studies, Results, Discussion, Conclusions.
Tulane University, New Orleans, La. School of Medicine and Engineering.
June 1962.
32. Hamill, P. V. V. Atmospheric Pollution, the Problem. Arch. Environ.
Health 1:241-247, September 1960.
33. Kenline, P. A. October 1963 New Orleans Asthma Study. Arch. Environ.
Health 12:295-304, March 1966.
34. Weill, H. et al. Allergenic Pollutants in New Orleans. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. 15(10):467-471, October 1965.
35. Doerner, A. A. Air Pollution and Chronic Lung Disease. Ann. Allergy
23:475-483, October 1965.
36. Beard, R. R., R. J. M. Horton, and R. O. McCaldin. Observations on
Tokyo-Yokahama Asthma and Air Pollution in Japan. Public Health
Report 79(51:439-444, May 1964.
37. Mills, Clarence A. Air Pollution and Community Health. The Christopher
Publishing House, Boston, p. 155-161.
38 Brightmeh, I. J., A. Rihm, Jr., and S. W. Samuels. Air Pollution and
Health: New Facts from New York State. J. Air Pollution Cont. Assoc.
12(6):275-281, June 1962.
HISTORY OF EPISODES 135
-------
Table B-2 (continued). EPISODE HISTORY REFERENCES
39, Prindle, R. A. Air Pollution as a Public Health Hazard. Arch. Environ.
Health 4(4) :401-407, April 1962.
40. Ashe, W. F. Health Effects of Acute Air Pollution Episodes. Ohio
University, Columbus, School of Medicine. Presented at the National
Conference on Air Pollution, Washington, D.C. November 1958.
41. Ingram, W. T., C. Simms, and J. R. McCarroll. Air Research Monitoring
Station System. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. of ASCE 93(SA2):21-31, April 1967.
42. Jutze, G. A. and E. C. Tabor. The Continuous Air Monitoring Program. J.
Air Pollution Cont. Assoc. 13:6, June 1963.
136 EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
APPENDIX C. EPISODE METEOROLOGY
For a given distribution of sources of pollution, the concentration of
pollutants in the atmosphere depends primarily on two factors, the vertical
variation of temperature and the direction and strength of the wind. The
vertical variation of temperature controls the rate at which the contaminants
spread upward and clean air from above is mixed downward into the polluted
air. The wind speed determines how much air the pollution is initially mixed
into, and the irregularities of wind speed and direction govern the rate at which
the pollution spreads horizontally as it is carried downwind.
Figure 1 illustrates why the vertical distribution of temperature is such an
important factor. As illustrated by the solid curve in the middle diagram of the
figure, the temperature usually decreases upward at a rate somewhat less than
the rate of adiabatic cooling of a parcel displaced upward, which is shown by
the dashed line. Thus if a small amount of contaminated air is pushed upward
it will become slightly colder than the surrounding air and tend to fall back,
but because of the small difference in temperature it will fall slowly and have
time to mix with the surroundings and become diluted. If the air has been
heated from below so that its temperature decreases with height more rapidly
than the rate of adiabatic cooling, as in the left diagram, a parcel of air
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
ENVIRONMENT
1.3 C
INVERSION
DISPLACED
PARCEL
14.0 C
12 13 14 15 16 17
13 14 15 16 17
TEMPERATURE, C
13 14 15 16 17
Figure C-1. Examples of effect of vertical temperature varr
ation on upward mixing of pollutants; effect of
displacing parcel of air 100 m.
*Extracted from Neiburger, M. The Role of Meteorology in the Study and Control of Air
Pollution. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 50:957, December 1969.
137
-------
displaced upward will be warmer than the air around it and tend to rise still
further. In this circumstance, pollutants emitted near the ground will diffuse
upward rapidly. But if the condition in the right diagram prevails, in which the
temperature of the layer increases with height, that is, an inversion layer
prevails, a parcel of air displaced upward through the layer would become much
cooler than the surrounding air. Its displacement would be resisted by a
downward force that would keep it from being lifted much and would cause it
to return rapidly to its original position. Pollutants in this last case would not
be mixed upward at all.
Although the temperature usually decreases with height, inversions are not
infrequent, especially near the ground. They occur particularly at night, when
the ground is cooled because of outgoing radiation not compensated for by
incoming radiation from the sun. Thus, in Figure 2, in which the average
hourly temperature at various heights at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, in September
and October 1950, are displayed, an inversion is seen to have existed on the
average from shortly before sunset to shortly after sunrise. Figure 3 shows the
annual frequency of such inversions over the United States, expressed in
percentage of total hours. Inversions occur more than one-fourth of the time
over almost all of the United States. Anywhere pollutants are emitted into the
air, high concentrations can be expected for a considerable part of the time.
5000
o
20 22 '24 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 02
TIME, hr EST
-ISOTHERM
BASE&TOP OF INVERSION
Figure C-2. Average temperature at various heights and times
of day in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, September and
October 1950.
138
EPISODE AVOIDANCE
-------
9
C/3
O
s
s
w
w
O
s
40
-10
Figure C-3. Annual frequency of low-level (ground) inversions over the United States, 4n percent of total hours.
------- |