OUIDE
CONTROL
POLLUTION
In
Small
Urban
J. >. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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GUIDE FOR CONTROL
OF AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
IN SMALL URBAN AREAS
Prepared under Public Health Service
Contract No. PH-22-68-32
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Programs
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
June 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 40 cents
Stock Number 5503-0012
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The AP series of reports is issued by the Office of Air Programs.
Environmental Protection Agency, to report the results of scientific and
engineering studies, and information of general interest in the field of
air pollution. Information reported in this series includes coverage of
Air Program intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted
in conjunction with state and local agencies, research institutes, and
industrial organizations. Copies of AP reports are available free of
charge to Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, and
nonprofit organizations as supplies permit - from the Office of Tech-
nical Information and Publications. Office of Air Programs. Environ -
mental Protection Agency. P. O. Box 12055. Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27709. Other requestors may purchase copies from the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Office of Air Programs Publication No. AP-78
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CONTENTS
Section Page
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES v
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OBJECTIVE 1
1.2 SCOPE 1
1.3 EPISODE BACKGROUND 2
2. DEFINITIONS OF EPISODE FACTORS 5
2.1 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS-THEIR NATURE AND
EFFECTS 5
2.1.1 Participates 5
2.1.2 Sulfur Oxides 6
2.1.3 Carbon Monoxide 7
2.1.4 Oxidants 8
2.1.5 Oxides of Nitrogen 9
2.1.6 Other Pollutants 10
2.2 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED TO AIR POLLU-
TION EPISODES 10
2.2.1 Local Considerations 10
2.2.2 Atmospheric Indicators of Episode Development 13
3. EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN 17
3.1 INTRODUCTION 17
3.2 EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN FORMULATION 18
3.2.1 Responsibility and Authority 18
3.2.2 Emergency Action Criteria 19
3.2.3 Background Information 19
3.2.4 Emergency Source-Curtailment Action 19
3.2.5 Communications 20
3.2.6 Reporting 20
3.3 EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN IMPLEMENTATION 20
3.3.1 Emission Source Inventory 21
3.3.2 Air Quality Observations 23
3.3.3 Atmospheric Dispersion Estimation 24
3.3.4 Communications 25
3.3.5 Socio-Economic Factors 26
3.3.6 Emergency Action Plan Criteria 30
3.3.7 Emission Curtailment 31
111
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Page
4. SUMMARY 33
5. REFERENCES 35
APPENDICES
A. GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS 37
B. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA 45
C. fflGH AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL ADVISORY PROGRAM . 51
D. TAPE SAMPLER 53
E. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE STATIONS IN UNITED
STATES 57
F. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS IN DIFFUSION ESTIMATION 59
IV
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 Frequency of Air Pollution Episodes 3
2-1 Atmospheric Areas of Continental U.S 11
2-2 Schematic Representation of Effect of Vertical Temperature
Gradient on Atmospheric Mixing 15
3-1 Elements of Emergency Action Plan 18
3-2 Sample Press Release 27
3-3 Flyer Published by the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory
Disease Association 29
E-l National Weather Service Stations in United States 58
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
B-l Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter 46
B-2 Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides 47
B-3 Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide 48
B-4 Air Quality Criteria for Ozone Based on Health Effects 49
B-5 Air Quality Criteria for Oxidants Based on Health Effects 50
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GUIDE FOR CONTROL
OF AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
IN SMALL URBAN AREAS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVE
This manual has been made available through the efforts of the Air
Pollution Control Office's (APCO's) Emergency Operations Control Center and
is intended to assist local air pollution control officials concerned with the
design and implementation of emergency action plans for the avoidance of air
pollution episodes. In this document, an air pollution episode is defined briefly
as the occurrence of stagnant air masses during which air pollutants
accumulate, so that the population is exposed to an elevated concentration of
airborne contaminants. It is not specifically designed for utilization in the
"man-made" type incident in which an accident or spill results in a localized
fumigation of emergency proportions. Much of the direction provided herein,
however, will be applicable to such a situation.
1.2 SCOPE
The manual is directed toward the needs of relatively small cities. A city
with a nominal population of 10,000 to 30,000 cannot be expected to have a
highly sophisticated air pollution control authority and often must rely on the
State agency for overall guidance. Limited but effective control actions can be
taken in any area, however; it is not essential that sophisticated air quality
monitoring capabilities and other specialized technical expertise be
immediately available. In spite of limited technological capabilities, local
agencies may be able to take effective action owing to their great familiarity
with their jurisdiction. This manual is then restricted to some of the more basic
procedures and should be a valuable reference for those local air pollution
control authorities with limited resources at their disposal.
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1.3 EPISODE BACKGROUND
The occurrences of air pollution episodes are becoming more frequent with
the growth of our society. Reported critical periods of air pollution date back
as far as 1873. London has had ten reported episodes since that date; New
York City has had seven reported episodes since 1953. At least two of the
latter were general episodes for the entire Eastern United States. Other well-
known episodes occurred in the Meuse Valley of Belgium and in Donora,
Pennsylvania. Minor "incidents" have been reported for St. Louis, Missouri;
Cincinnati, Ohio; Wierton, West Virginia; Rotterdam, Holland; Hamburg,
Germany; and Osaka, Japan. Critical periods of smog have occurred frequently
in Los Angeles, California; and outbreaks of asthma have been reported for
New Orleans, Louisiana, and for the Tokyo-Yokohama area of Japan.
Many incidents of air pollution episodes are borderline cases, and they may
go unreported. An episode may occur for a short period of time but not be
reported in the technical literature because the number of people severely
affected is not large enough to attract public attention. The 1953 episode in
New York was not reported until 9 years later.
Some general indicators of air pollution episodes that can be derived from
the reported literature are:
1. Prolonged anticyclonic weather systems were present.
2. Temperature inversions were noted.
3. Wind speeds were low.
4. Concentrations of smoke, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants in-
creased to critical levels.
5. Mortality associated with peak concentrations of air pollutants
increased.
6. Morbidity was also related to the air pollution levels encountered.
7. The effects were prompt.
8. Death and illness occurred in all age groups.
9. Excessive death rate occurred with increasing age.
10. Effects of episodes on health seemed to be due to a combination of
several pollutants.
11. Deaths generally resulted from the breakdown of human respiratory or
cardiovascular systems.
12. Cough and eye irritation were shown to be related to episode pollution
levels.
13. The duration of episodes generally ranged from 2 to 7 days.
2 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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14. Species other than man may have succumbed to the air pollution
dosages received.
Detailed documentation is not available on most reported air pollution
episodes, especially those occurring before 1957. Lynn, Steigerwald, and
Ludwig have described in some detail the November-December 1962 air
pollution episode in the Eastern United States.1 During this episode,
benzene-soluble organics rose to 7 times their normal, and total particles rose
to approximately 4 times their normal. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur dioxide were also elevated 3 to 6 times their normal.
Fensterstock and Fankhauser have reported on the Thanksgiving 1966 air
pollution episode in the Eastern United States.2 Peak pollution levels were
recorded during this episode, and the death rate increased by approximately 24
deaths per day.
Awareness of air pollution is growing, and techniques for monitoring levels
of pollution are improving. Episode frequency is increasing, as demonstrated
by Figure 1-1, which shows the frequency of air pollution episodes as reported
in the literature.
High Air Pollution Potential Advisories (HAPPA), issued daily by the
National Weather Service, were initiated on a regular basis in August 1960.
Advance warnings of meteorological conditions conducive to the accumulation
o
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Figure 1-1. Frequency of air pollution episodes.
Introduction
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of air pollution are provided by this system. To provide the service, a set of
semi-arbitrary technical conditions has been selected for defining high air
pollution potential. These advisories, plus their possible utilization, will be
discussed later in this guide.
In general terms, a description of weather conditions conducive to air
pollution episodes is as follows:
1. A high-pressure system becomes almost stationary over the area for
several days.
2. No precipitation occurs.
3. Temperatures are generally above normal.
4. Winds range between 0 and 7 miles per hour near the surface, and are
relatively light aloft to at least 18,000 feet (500 millibars).
5. Air at higher elevations is slowly sinking and warming (subsidence).
6. Air in the low levels is stable, that is, it exhibits little motion or mixing
in the vertical layers.
7. Temperature in these layers increases with height (inversion) instead of
decreasing as is normal.
From a meteorological standpoint, a weather situation conducive to the
accumulation of high concentrations of air pollutants is said to have "high
pollution potential," whether pollutant sources actually exist in the underlying
air or not.
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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2. DEFINITIONS OF EPISODE FACTORS
High concentratons of man-made pollutants in the air have produced the
following observed effects:
1. Reduction of visibility.
2. Deterioration of fabrics, metals, and building materials.
3. Damage to vegetation and animals.
4. Injury to man.
If, under chronic conditions, the pollutant levels are sufficient to produce
some of these manifestations, then, under acute (episode) conditions, these
effects can interact to create an emergency or, perhaps, a disaster. When the
population is subjected to these extreme pollution levels, public concern and
cooperation are at a maximum. Compulsory and voluntary emission reduction
is most easily justified and obtained, provided proper direction is available
from the local authority. Thus, this section deals with information that should
help the local authority to understand and define the factors that constitute an
air pollution episode. A glossary of air pollution terminology can be found in
Appendix A.
2.1 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUXANTS-
THEIR NATURE AND EFFECTS
2.1.1 Participates
Particles of solid—and occasionally liquid—matter in the air constitute a
relatively small but important portion of polluted community air in most cities
and towns in the United States. These so-called particulates may be either so
large that they rapidly settle to the ground, or so small that they remain
suspended in the air until they are removed by such natural phenomena as rain
or until they are inhaled by people. Particulates may be quite complex in their
chemical composition. The organic materials found in airborne particles may
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contain aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, acids, bases, phenols, and other
compounds. Airborne particles may also contain any of a wide range of
metallic elements; those most commonly found are silicon, calcium, aluminum,
iron, magnesium, lead, copper, zinc, sodium, and manganese. Sources of
particulates include such activities as fuel combustion, various manufacturing
and processing operations (production of steel, cement, and petroleum
products), and open burning and incineration of refuse.
Particulate air pollution is widely regarded as objectionable because it is
often aesthetically bothersome. It interferes with visibility and is associated
with soiling and corrosion of metals, fabrics, and other materials. Its adverse
effects on health are far more subtle but, nonetheless, significant. In general,
concern about the health effects of particulates is related to (1) the ability of
the human respiratory system to remove particulates from inhaled air and
retain them in the lung, (2) the presence in some particulates of mineral
substances having toxic or other physiological effects, (3) the presence in
particulates of polycyclic hydrocarbons having demonstrated carcinogenic
(cancer-producing) properties, (4) the demonstrated ability of some fine
particles to increase the harmful physiological activity of irritant gases when
both are simultaneously present in inhaled air, and (5) the ability of some
mineral particulates to increase the rate at which sulfur dioxide in the
atmosphere is converted by oxidation to the far more physiologically active
sulfur trioxide.
The size of airborne particles has an important bearing on whether and to
what extent they will reach the lungs. Most coarse particles—those about 5
microns or more in diameter—lodge in the nasal passages. Smaller particles are
more likely to penetrate into the lungs; the rate of penetration increases with
decreasing particle size. Particles smaller than 2 to 3 microns usually reach the
deeper structures of the lungs where there is no protective mucous blanket.
The ability of particles to accentuate the adverse physiological effects of
simultaneously inhaled gas is one of the most important aspects of the health
hazard of particulate air pollution. Combinations of gases and particles have
been shown to cause toxicity changes in rodents, resistance to airflow in the
respiratory tract, and bactericidal action.
Air quality criteria for particulate matter can be found in Appendix B.
2.1.2 Sulfur Oxides
The sulfur oxides (SOX) that are of concern as atmospheric pollutants are
sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and their acids and acid salts. Fossil fuels such as
coal and petroleum contain elemental sulfur; when the fuel burns, the sulfur is
converted to sulfur dioxide and, to a lesser degree, sulfur trioxide. Because
fossil fuels are burned extensively in the United States to heat buildings and to
generate electric power, pollution of the atmosphere with SOX is widespread
6 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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and is especially prevalent in cities. Petroleum refineries, smelting plants,
coke-processing plants, sulfuric acid manufacturing plants, coal-refuse banks,
and refuse-burning activities are also major sources of sulfurous pollution.
The evidence is considerable that SOX pollution aggravates existing
respiratory diseases in humans and contributes to their development. Sulfur
dioxide alone irritates the upper respiratory tract; adsorbed on particulate
matter, the gas can be carried deep into the respiratory tract to injure lung
tissue. Sulfuric acid, when inhaled in a certain particle size, can also deeply
penetrate the lungs and damage tissue.
The documented severe air pollution episodes had common factors: they
occurred in heavily industrialized areas during relatively brief periods of
anticyclonic weather conditions; sulfur dioxide levels were excessively high, as
were levels of other gaseous and particulate pollution. Although the pattern of
effects was not perfectly uniform in all these episodes, generally the elderly,
the very young, and those with pre-existing cardiorespiratory disease were most
affected.
Epidemiological and clinical studies substantiate the evidence that certain
portions of the population are more sensitive than others to SOX pollution. For
example, prolonged exposures to relatively low levels of sulfur dioxide have
been associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity in older persons;
prolonged exposures to higher concentrations of sulfur dioxide have been
associated with an increase in respiratory disease death rates and an increase in
complaints of nonproductive cough, mucous membrane irritation, and mucous
secretion by school children; the residual air in the lungs of emphysematous
patients has been reduced significantly when the patients breathed ambient air
that had been filtered of pollutants.
Sulfur oxides pollution can also adversely affect the more robust segments
of the population. Experiments in which healthy human volunteers were
exposed to sulfur dioxide concentrations several times higher than the taste
threshold concentration indicate that such exposures will produce pulmonary
function changes including increased respiration rates, decreased respiratory
flow rates, and increased airway resistance. The impairment of function was
greater when the sulfur dioxide was administered together with particulate
matter.
Air quality criteria for SOX can be found in Appendix B.
2.1.3 Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common of all urban air
pollutants and one of the most harmful to man. Its ability to impede the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood makes it lethal in high concentrations.
Though all processes involving combustion of carbonaceous material produce
Definitions of Episode Factors
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CO the motor vehicle is by far the most important source from which this
pollutant gas reaches the atmosphere. The wide use of motor vehicles, coupled
with the fact that they discharge pollutants from points close to the gound,
makes them the prime contributor to most people's daily exposure to CO.
Federal standards to control carbon monoxide emissions from new motor
vehicles have been established and became effective beginning with 1968 model
cars and light trucks.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is a well-understood phenomenon. As with
many other harmful gases, the degree of damage that man sustains as a result of
exposure to CO is related to the concentration of the gas in inhaled air and the
length of exposure. The hazards of CO arise mainly from its strong affinity for
hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to body tissues. The effect of CO combining
with hemoglobin is to deprive the tissues of needed oxygen. At concentrations
of slightly more than 1,000 parts per million (ppm), CO kills quickly. Fifty
parts per million is now recommended as the upper limit of safety for healthy
industrial workers exposed for an 8-hour period. At approximately 100 ppm,
most people experience dizziness, headache, lassitude, and other symptoms.
In the January 1956 smog episode, CO concentrations in the ambient air
reached 50 ppm in London and 80 ppm in Salford, England. Inside
automobiles, concentrations were undoubtedly considerably higher. For
comparison, the average CO level in London during 1955 was 15 ppm.
It is quite possible that during episodes, the levels of CO that are reached
both in vehicles and close to the highways are frequently high enough to affect
some especially susceptible persons, such as those already suffering from a
disease associated with a decrease of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
(e.g., anemia) or those suffering from cardiorespiratory disease. The extra
burden that is placed on the body by the reduction of the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood induced by CO may cause injury to vital organs. People
already burdened by the presence in their blood of unusual amounts of CO
because of tobacco smoking or occupational exposure may also be adversely
affected by the extra amount of CO they inhale from contaminated air.
Air quality criteria for CO can be found in Appendix B.
2.1.4 Oxidants
Oxidants are a major class of compounds found in photochemical smog—a
major air pollution problem caused by atmospheric reactions of gases derived
from the combustion of organic fuels. Emissions from motor vehicles are a
prime factor in the formation of photochemical smog in virtually all parts of
the country. Other factors that contribute to smog formation are the
combustion of fuels for heat and electric power, burning of refuse, evaporation
of petroleum products, and handling and use of organic solvents. The principal
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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identifiable oxidants in polluted urban air are ozone, the peroxyacyl nitrates
(PAN), and the oxides of nitrogen (NOx), primarily nitrogen dioxide (N02).
The most commonly experienced effect of photochemical smog is eye
irritation. The components causing eye irritation have not been completely
identified, but there is some correlation between the occurrence of eye
irritation and overall levels of oxidant in the atmosphere. There is a
characteristic pungent odor associated with photochemical smog. Ozone is an
acrid component of this odor.
Studies have shown that it is harder for humans, particularly patients
suffering from chronic respiratory disease, to breathe in areas having even a
moderate level of photochemical air pollution (0.10 ppm total oxidant or
higher). In clinical studies of patients with chronic bronchopulmonary disease
exposed to the ambient Los Angeles smog for 1-week (when compared to the
effects on the same patients breathing filtered air for a similar period), the
most significant and uniform effect of photochemical smog exposure was an
increase in oxygen consumption and a decrease in oxygen content of the blood
(decrease in oxygen tension in arterial blood) during light exercise. Thus, while
the patients were consuming more oxygen, less of it was being made available
to the body. There also was greater difficulty in breathing by the patients
(increased pulmonary airway resistance) when breathing the smoggy air.
Air quality criteria for oxidants and ozone can be found in Appendix B.
2.1.5 Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are a*1 important group of atmospheric
contaminants in many communities. They are produced during the high-
temperature combustion of coal, oil, gas, and gasoline in power plants and
internal combustion engines. The combustion fixes atmospheric nitrogen to
produce the oxides. At the high temperatures, nitric oxide (NO) forms first; in
the atmosphere it reacts with oxygen and is converted to N02. While this
oxidation is very rapid at high concentrations, the rate is much slower at low
concentrations. In sunlight, especially in the presence of organic material as
typified by Los Angeles type photochemical smog, the conversion of NO to
N02 is greatly accelerated.
Nitrogen dioxide, an acutely irritating substance, is considerably more
toxic than NO. In equal concentrations, it is more injurious than CO. The
proven effects of N02 on man and lower animals are confined almost entirely
to the respiratory tract. With increasing dosage, acute effects are expressed as
odor perception, nasal irritation, discomfort in breathing, acute respiratory
distress, pulmonary edema, and death. The relatively low solubility of N02,
however, permits penetration into the lower respiratory tract. Delayed or
chronic pulmonary changes may occur from high but sublethal concentrations
and from repeated or continuous exposures to lesser concentrations.
Definitions of Episode Factors
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It should be noted, however, that other considerations such as plant
damage, visibility reduction, or combined effects with other air pollutants may
be more critical than the adverse health effects of NO2 alone.
2.1.6 Other Pollutants
There are, of course, many air pollutants other than those mentioned here;
and these may be of prime importance in specific localities. Since episode
criteria have not yet been developed for these pollutants, they are not included
here.
2.2 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS RELATED
TO AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
The most important part of training in air pollution meteorology is that
portion concerned with recognizing meteorological conditions associated with
air pollution episodes. Conditions that characterize large-scale air pollution
potential are listed as the HAPPA criteria in Appendix C. For local authorities
who receive no teletype weather service, there is a need to recognize the
existence or imminence of local episode conditions that may or may not be
part of a larger situation. Except for a difference in size of the affected area,
criteria for episodes in a local community are the same as for a statewide area
treated in a HAPPA.
2.2.1 Local Considerations
There is considerable variation in the types and degree of air pollution
potential across the United States. The main factors causing these differences
are emission characteristics, meteorology, and topography. For planning
purposes, it is desirable to appreciate the nature of these differences, and it is
necessary to identify the local "character" of a given area.
Diurnal variations are a part of the local "character" and influence the
strategy of episode control. Seasonal variations, such as predominantly oxidant
pollution in summer and sulfur dioxide pollution in winter, may exist in some
areas.
The meteorological character of a region is determined by geographical
location and local topography. Location identifies the broad-scale weather
patterns that dominate the area, and topography accounts largely for local
variations during particular weather situations. The National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has adopted a classification based on
similarity of weather conditions wherein the contiguous United States is
divided into eight atmospheric areas, shown in Figure 2-1.
10 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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s
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Figure 2-1. Atmospheric areas of the continental United States.
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The Appalachian and Rocky Mountain areas are most likely to be
dominated by stagnant air masses and light winds. The other areas are usually
well ventilated except for local and transitory variations, but the prepon-
derance of sources renders them most subject to episode conditions, especially
when local topographical conditions greatly modify the general circulation
pattern. Topographic factors that can influence the general pattern include:
1. Terrain: Roughness, profile, slope, elevation, valley spacing, and valley
width.
Flat, open terrain is more exposed to broad-scale movement of air
than is rough, mountainous terrain, and it is generally less subject to air
pollution episodes.
2. Vegetation: Dimensional characteristics, physical properties, and dis-
tribution.
Heavily wooded clusters tend to develop a micro-climate under the
leafy canopy, marked by light winds and temperature inversion.
Pollutants entering this regime may accumulate and persist longer than
in nearby open areas.
3. Hydrology: Shape, size, distribution, and dynamic properties of nearby
water bodies.
Adjacent land and water surfaces absorb and radiate solar heat
differently; the resulting contrast in temperature helps to drive the
land-sea breeze during the warmer months of the year. In coastal
communities, when the wind systems are weak, pollution tends to
"slosh back and forth" with the diurnal reversals of the surface wind,
moving off the coast at night and returning inland by day.
4. Culture: Degree of urbanization.
Compared with surrounding countryside, urban areas influence local
weather and pollution distributions in the following ways:
a. Winds: Man-made structures reduce the wind speed and channel the
flow through streets that lie along the general wind direction, tinder
some conditions, pollutants become distributed in waffle-shaped
patterns following the city plan of streets. Peak concentrations may
be lowered.
b. Temperature: Buildings retain incident daytime heat and re-radiate
at night to the surrounding air, thus acting to warm it through a
layer that is several times higher than the urban skyline.
c. Turbulence: The higher temperature, rougher profile, blocking of
wind, and net influx of air into the city act to increase vertical
motions of the air above the city. Pollutants that might otherwise
accumulate under a nocturnal temperature inversion become dis-
tributed through the thicker layer of atmospheric mixing above the
city.
d. Other Effects: The above effects, plus the added presence of
particulate matter, act to increase cloudiness and precipitation near a
12 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
city, particularly downwind from it; precipitation is effective in
removing pollutants from the air.
Combinations of topographical factors, coupled with atmospheric processes
that vary with season, time of day, and dominating weather-map systems,
produce complex local wind patterns. Two patterns associated with terrain
configurations are especially important:
1. Ridges: Winds tend to follow the orientation of ridges and troughs in
"ribbed" or "washboard" terrain. Communities may be receptors for
pollution that is channeled over considerable distances along the valleys.
2. Cup-Shaped Valleys: An industrial valley that is virtually surrounded
by peaks and ridges is particularly prone to hazardous levels of air
pollution. During clear, still nights, cold air collects in pools and pockets
at the valley bottom and may persist for long periods of time. Daytime
heating sets a mountain-valley circulation in motion, but often
pollutants are contained within the valley geometry because winds from
an overriding weather system fail to penetrate the heavy air below.
2.2.2 Atmospheric Indicators of Episode Development
When the air "feels stale," when persistent layers of smoke and haze lie low
over the landscape, and when winds create hardly a stir for several days on end,
chances are that the region lies under the dome of a stagnant high-pressure area
that covers a major portion of the country. This phenomenon is usually caused
by a worldwide slowdown in the normal west-to-east process of the major high-
and low-pressure systems. The slowdown may occur several times a year, and
situations conducive to high air pollution are not infrequent over the entire
United States.
The high pollutant levels that mark the occurrence of air pollution episodes
are caused by the accumulation of emissions over urban areas for some time.
Day-to-day variations in total emissions do not ordinarily account for the
observed rise in ambient concentrations. The principal factor is the meteoro-
logical condition. Usually, pollutants are distributed through the atmosphere by
the actions of outward-moving winds and upward-moving air currents. From
time to time, however, certain features in the atmosphere (inversions) appear
to "clamp a lid" over broad areas, limiting vertical transport; slackening winds
restrict the horizontal transport of pollutants. When these natural conditions
occur in regions with air pollution sources and sensitive receptors and stagnate
for an unusually long period of time, episode potential is high.
2.2.2.1 Mixing Height
Of the two atmospheric properties that limit pollutant transport—wind
speed and mixing height-the latter is relatively unfamiliar to non-meteorol-
Definitions of Episode Factors 13
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ogists and may need explanation. Physically, mixing height is the vertical
extent of turbulent motion within the layer of air next to the ground. The
turbulence may be generated by solar heating of the ground, passage of wind
across rough surfaces below, or by a combination of both. When the wind is
fresh and gusty or when tall cumulus clouds indicate vigorous upward currents
from solar heating, the mixing layer is deep and pollutants are well diluted.
When the air is still, the ground relatively cold, fog and smoke banks low-lying,
and the barometer higher than average, the mixing layer is shallow, and
pollutant concentrations could be high. With normal daytime heating, mixing
layers that are shallow in the morning deepen considerably by afternoon. At
night, as the ground cools, the mixing height again decreases.
2.2.2.2 Lapse Rate and Stability
A discussion of mixing height requires some explanation of lapse rate and
stability. Lapse rate is the rate at which atomospheric temperature is observed
to decrease with elevation. It is the vertical temperature profile, which can be
measured by balloon-borne radiosonde and other methods. On the average,
temperature decreases about 3.5° F with every 1,000 feet of rise, up to the
base of the stratosphere some 6 miles high. The decrease is seldom steady, even
in the free atmosphere well above the ground. Through some layers, the
temperature drop may be faster or slower than through other layers.
Sometimes the temperature holds steady through the layer; the layer is then
said to be isothermal. Sometimes the temperature rises with ascent; the layer is
then said to be an inversion.
If a parcel of air is carried upward by thermal or wind turbulence, it
expands and cools at the rate of 5.4° F per 1,000 feet, provided no moisture
condenses out. This rate of cooling is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Ascending air must be replaced by descending or inflowing air, and a vertical
circulation may develop. Descending or subsiding air becomes warmer at the
adiabatic rate. Thus, an atmospheric layer characterized by a dry adiabatic
lapse rate is or has been a region of significant vertical motion.
In a layer in which the lapse rate exceeds the dry adiabatic (super-
adiabatic), vigorous vertical motion can begin "spontaneously." Such a layer is
said to be unstable, because the vertical motion is self-perpetuating.
Layers in which the lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic are said to be
stable, because vertical motions are limited. The normal lapse rate of 3.5° F per
1,000 feet describes a stable condition; an isothermal condition is more stable;
and an inversion condition in the most stable of all. An inversion layer tends to
suppress vertical motion from below. When a mixing layer is shallow, it is often
so because a strong inversion caps the surface layers of air.
Figure 2-2 show how an inversion may define the top of a mixing layer. In
the morning, the mixing layer hugs the ground at the base of the nocturnal
14 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
inversion. As daytime heating erodes the inversion, the mixing layer rises to 1.4
kilometers, about 4,600 feet. Note that the daytime lapse rate is identical to
the dry adiabatic lapse rate projected upward from the maximum afternoon
temperature at the ground.
O
2.0
-1- 1.5
1.0
0.5
SURFACE
MAXIMUM MIXING HEIGHT
ATYPICAL NIGHTTIME.
'SURFACE INVERSjONy
ADIABATIC LAPSE
RATE _J
V
DAYTIME:
MIXED
LAYER
*
TYPICAL
DAYTIME
: LAPSE
RATE
DAILY MAXIMUM
TEMPERATURE—*-
Figure 2-2. Schematic representation of the effect of vertical
temperature gradient on atmospheric mixing.
Emissions responsible for episodes are the same as those responsible for
"chronic" air pollution. Generally, these emissions are sulfur dioxide,
particulates, and oxidants, or combinations of these in different proportions. It
is a familiar fact that oxidants are at present the greatest recognized problem in
Los Angeles; particulates and sulfur dioxide are serious problems on the East
Coast. The need for basing emergency control actions on the local problem is
clear. Plans must be flexible because emission characteristics are certain to
change with time in kind and quantity due to improved but unequal control of
pollutants.
Definitions of Episode Factors
15
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3. EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This section discusses the
_,_
Emergenc>rAclionTIi51|EAPj/fhe intent js^not to spell out a universal model
~plaii~but to provide a woriclist of ife^"itnars¥ouI3Te considered in designing _
~aria~TmpIe]men'ting a plan. Each area or region contains special ccmditiom and
TirriTtafions, and each planning item must be consideredrin" the light of local
"^requirements. For those areas that are parts of federally designated Air Quality
"'Control Regions, the State must submit to APCO acceptable Emergency
Action Plans as part of the implementation plan for the region.
The necessity for careful and detailed pre-planning, cannot be .over-
empTiasTzed; the time for reaction jnay j>£ iT matter of hours. Planning is
necessary to insure that the required equipment, resources, personnel, ..and
procedures are available and the desired communications^ and control actions^
are ready to be implemented. An air pollution episode is an unusual event; the
emergency actions may be appreciably rnoje drastic Jhan the normal abatement .
activities undertaken to meet long-term air quality goals.
The major elements of an EAP are shown in Figure 3-1 .
In preparing the subsequent material in this section, the following
generalizations were made:
1. The existence of an air pollution control authority is essential, that is,
the community does have at least one official responsible for air
pollution control. The position could be filled by a member of the local
health department.
2. The number of significant stationary emission sources is relatively small,
approximately five to ten.
3. The community is located in an episode-prone area.
4. The population falls into the 10,000 to 30,000 range and has the
municipal services and departments typical of such communities.
17
-------
WEATHER
FACTORS
AIR
QUALITY
OBSERVATION
SOURCE
INVENTORY
SOCIO-
ECONOMIC
FACTORS
DECISION
CRITERIA
EMISSION
CURTAILMENT
EMERGENCY ACTION
PLAN
Figure 3-1. Elements of an Emergency Action Plan.
J
3.2 EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN FORMULATION
There are actually two phases involved in the creation of an EAP. One
phase must be formulated for activities within the air pollution control
authority itself, while the second relates to the interactions between the
authority and others such as governmental agencies, sources of pollution, and
news media. The integration of these two elements into a single "master plan"
involves the following considerations and activities.
3.2.1 Responsibility and Authority
1. Determine the boundaries of the control area and explore cooperative
relations with adjoining areas; decide on interagency strategies in calling
alerts; examine special boundary problems.
18
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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2. Establish the lines of authority for emergency actions. Local agencies
often have authority that has been delegated by the State; but in such
cases the final responsibility still lies with the State.
3. Determine whether an advisory emergency committee will be part of the
plan; each member should have-an alternate.
4. Establish the legal authority to exercise emergency control actions,
including civil or criminal law enforcement tools.
5. Obtain the approval of the mayor, appropriate State authority, and
APCO (if a federally designated region).
3.2.2 Emergency Action Criteria
1. Assemble the available information on emission sources and air quality
to define the local situation.
2. Establish a committee to review and recommend criteria; the committee
should include the disciplines of medicine, meteorology, air pollution
engineering, government, and law and public safety (police).
3. Review the criteria that have been adopted in other similar areas, if any;
prepare arguments for revising them or developing new criteria,
considering episode-proneness, local air quality status, and controllable
elements.
4. Determine the responsibility and establish procedures for emergency
actions.
5. Plan for annual review of criteria, or special review following a major
episode.
3.2.y Background Information
1. Develop emission inventory data, using records of other agencies
(Planning, etc.) where possible; develop means for updating periodically.
2. Define the air quality observation program necessary to recognize
pre-episode conditions.
3. Define the physical data to be obtained during potential and actual
episodes.
tablish procedures for reviewing data during potential and actual
;odes.
mergency Source-Curtailment Actions
Establish the possible emission-curtailment actions to be taken for:
a. Power generation.
Emergency Action Plan
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b. Other industrial sources, by class and size.
c. Commercial sources, by class and size.
d. Incineration and open burning: municipal, commercial, construction,
and residential.
2. Establish which actions should be voluntary and which should be
mandatory.
3. Define inspection and enforcement procedures, including personnel and
equipment requirements.
3.2.5 Communications
1. Establish direct communications with personnel at major emission
sources; establish contacts and alternates for each.
2. Determine the information desired by State and Federal authorities and
the form in which it is desired.
3. Design the local information system utilizing police, civil defense, public
safety, and private communication links; coordinate with each to define
their roles. (Police and taxicab radios can serve as emergency communi-
cation networks.)
4. Prepare sample news releases; consult with other control agencies
experienced in problems of dealing with the public in these matters.
5. Develop recommendations to local medical groups on advising their
patients.
3.2.6 Reporting
1. Determine whether legal documentation of data is required; if so,
simply the HAPPA bulletin plus local sampling station measurements
may suffice.
2. Prepare an outline for a technical summary report; include a record of
the times of emission curtailment actions, air quality observations, and
observed effects, as well as the climatology of the event.
3.3 EMERGENCY ACTION PLAN IMPLEMENTATION
The EAP provides for the flow of information between different elements
and allows for appreciable interaction between the elements. The information
flow into the authority includes data on the current status of the atmosphere.
Information is also required on both pollutant emissions and the availability of
20 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
control actions. The authority interprets the incoming information and, using
judgment in conjunction with such tools as atmospheric dispersion estimates,
predicts the present and future status of the atmosphere. The prediction is then
compared with the air quality criteria established. If the defined levels of
pollutant exposure and expected persistence of meteorological conditions are
reached, the authority calls an alert.
When an alert has been called, information then flows outward from the
authority as planned actions for control of emissions and information
dissemination are executed. Typical communications at this point include:
1. Notification to pertinent personnel of requirements for increased air
quality observations, meteorological measurements, and inspections.
2. Notification to those people most susceptible to acute health problems.
3. Notification to the public (through news media), interested public
officials, and public agencies of the present status.
4. Notification to management of pollutant sources of the requirement to
reduce emissions hi accordance with the EAP.
As the pollution sources reduce emissions into the atmosphere, the effects
are detected by air quality observations; depending on local conditions,
pollutant levels either hold, continue to rise, or decrease. If the pollutant levels
rise, it may be necessary to take more drastic control actions. Surveillance of
air quality and effects continues until the episode terminates. At that point,
communications similar to those listed above are utilized to reduce or stop
observations, inform all interested public parties, and allow sources to resume
normal operating conditions.
The following subsections will discuss those elements both within and
outside the authority that must be considered in the implementation of an
EAP. Each community will have different requirements, budgets, and legal
instruments. It is, therefore, impossible to cover all possibilities, and the reader
should relate his circumstances to the discussion with judgment. Familiarity
with problems encountered by other similar agencies can be a valuable source
of practical information on plan implementation and communication.
3.3.1 Emission Source Inventory
If the impact of emissions from specific sources of pollution is to be
estimated, such emissions must be quantified. More importantly, if emissions
are to be reduced during episodes, the possible means of curtailment must be
identified. It is therefore recommended that the authority obtain as much of
the following information, in as much detail as possible, that is available. A
questionnaire may be used but, if the number of sources is not too great,
visitation and consultation is the method suggested for gathering the following
information:
1. General information.
Emergency Action Plan 21
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a. Location and property boundaries.
b. Plant capacity, normal and maximum.
c. Fuel usage by shift, month, and season.
d. Fuel type and composition, especially sulfur and ash content.
e. Fuel heating value.
f. Input-material flow rates.
g. Number and frequencies of operating levels if process is continuous.
h. Number and frequencies of "batches" if process is "batch."
i. Source emission height and stack diameter.
j. Emission rate of pollutants per unit of input material.
k. Emission gas flow rates and temperatures, including variation.
1. Individuals (and their telephone numbers) to be contacted on air
pollution matters.
m. Type, efficiency, and cost of pollution control equipment.
n. Plans and expansion.
o. Process flow diagrams.
p. Interruptability of batch processes.
2. Dual fuel capability.
a. Advance notice desired.
b. Alternate fuel, ash and sulfur content.
c. Time required to switch fuel.
d. Seasonal availability.of alternate fuel.
e. Added cost of dual fuel capabilities.
3. Process curtailment capability.
a. Advance notice required.
b. Curtailment methods.
c. Emission rate after curtailment.
d. Number of employees released on curtailment.
e. Estimated economic loss per day of curtailment.
In some cases, the source management will not be able to supply pollutant
emission rates; if not, rates may be estimated by techniques described in
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors* Additional assistance may be
obtained from either the appropriate State agency or the Control Agency
Development Division, APCO.
22 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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3.3.2 Air Quality Observations
3.3.2.1 Pollutant Monitoring
Monitoring of atmospheric pollutants by means of sophisticated continu-
ous equipment is not recommended. Operation of such equipment requires
technological skills not usually available within the authority. Furthermore,
such units are relatively expensive to install and operate. Some quantification
of episode levels should be obtained, however.
For particulate matter, the Spot Tape Sampler may be used. It allows the
measurement of spoiling-type particles in the air that generally accumulate
during episode conditions. One unit, plus its companion Spot Evaluator, can
be purchased for under $1,000. It does not require a highly skilled operator
and can be maintained for approximately $200 annually. The Spot Tape
Sampler's accuracy and frequency of measurement are sufficient for the
purpose of determining episode criteria. Appendix D contains detailed
information on this device.
Visual color comparators have been used for short-term measurement of
SOj and oxidants, including N02. The application of such comparators has
been restricted to field survey work where electric power and laboratory
facilities are limited. The use of visual color techniques for measuring pollutant
levels during episode conditions is suggested. Advantages are small initial cost
and simplicity of operation. Usually a low-volume air pump (battery operated),
suitable for aspirating the air sample through a specific reagent to obtain the
desired colored solution, is used. The colored reagent is then matched to a
colored glass filter that has the appropriate spectral characteristics of a known
concentration of the desired constituent. The major disadvantage of the color
comparator is its limited accuracy. Satisfactory agreement (within 20 percent)
was obtained between the visual comparator and spectrophotometric methods
for S02 and N02. The oxidant method has been shown to result in values
somewhat higher than those obtained with the neutral buffered KI methods.
These disadvantages, however, are not a serious obstacle under episode
conditions. A sampling train, a comparator, and standard color disks for
measuring S02, N02) and oxidants (with instructions for their use) are
commercially available for well under $500.
3.3.2.2 Meteorological Monitoring
For the purpose of episode determination, meteorological monitoring is
not recommended for the same reasons advanced for not using sophisticated air
quality monitoring. Two courses are open to the local authority to obtain
weather information needed to make action decisions.
Arrangements should be made with the Weather Service for the local
authority to receive HAPPA bulletins when issued and for consultation with
Emergency Action Plan 23
-------
Weather Service personnel whenever the authority has reason to believe that
the locality may be experiencing episode conditions, even though no NOAA
advisory has been issued. It is important to note that the NOAA advisories are
concerned exclusively with meteorological conditions and not with air quality
per se. An advisory simply states that atmospheric conditions that are
conducive to poor air quality are imminent and are expected to last for a day
or more. The burden is then on the authority to determine whether its area of
responsibility is indeed affected and, if so, what action should be taken.
Appendix C describes the HAPPA Program, and Appendix E shows the
Weather Service offices throughout the country.
Meteorological data such as wind speed, wind direction, and mixing depths
are also available from the Weather Service. These data should be obtained on
an hourly basis during episode periods. If for some reason these data are not
available, hourly averages of wind speed and direction may be made by an
observer at the local airport.
3.3.2.3 Local Observations
The local authority must also rely heavily upon pertinent information and
observations from local sources in order to judge the imminence or severity of
an air pollution episode. These data may include:
1. Reports or observations of persistent poor visibility. Hourly visibility
measurements should be made and recorded during episode periods.
These can be made by observing familiar objects located at known
distances from the observer.
2. Reports or observations of malodors. A record of odor location,
strength, type, and frequency should be kept. These data can serve as an
index to the progression of the episode conditions.
3. Reports from doctors and hospitals on sharp increases in cases involving
respiratory and allergic conditions. Daily communications should be
established with local medical personnel to obtain data on the
occurrence of respiratory ailments during these periods.
3.3.3 Atmospheric Dispersion Estimation
When information relative to the emissions of pollutants from a source, i.e.,
concentration, height of release, and other physical data (Section 3.3.1), is
available in conjunction with data concerning wind speed, direction, atmo-
spheric stability, and mixing height, it is possible for any technically intelligent
layman to estimate the dispersion of the pollutants. These estimates can aid in
determining the need for a specific source to reduce its emissions in order to
avoid an episode. They also allow the authority to predict the relative
24 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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accumulation of pollution from specific sources as weather stagnation is
forecast to persist.
The reference document for modeling is D. Bruce Turner's Workbook of
Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates,4 available on request from APCO's Air
Pollution Technical Information Center (APTIC).
The only simplifications recommended beyond those already presented
are:
1. Stability: Use D curves for morning conditions, B curves for afternoon.
2. Mixing height: Assume it lies well above the point source plume so
that, for downwind concentrations measured over a period of 1 or 2
hours, it is necessary to work only with the Gaussian model.
3. Effective stack height: Add an extra one-third to the known stack
height to account for plume rise; or if the average wind is under 4
meters per second, double the stack height.
4. Since wind speed appears in the denominator on the right-hand side of
the Gaussian diffusion equation, the expression fails under zero wind
conditions. Assume, however, a non-zero wind of 2 meters per second,
since wind speed should average out through the mixing layer, and the
probability of dead calm through the entire layer is small.
Examples of atmospheric diffusion estimation by means of the described
technique are found in Appendix F.
3.3.4 Communications
A potential or actual episode requires rapid control response to changes in
meteorological conditions and pollutant levels. This requirement means that
the design of a communications plan is one of the most important elements in
the implementation of an EAP. A major portion of the communications
network is used to transmit status reports and control actions to non-control-
agency personnel. Individuals and agencies needing such information include:
1. Public Officials—Mayor, Governor, city council, health commissioner,
etc., who may be called upon to participate in a decision-making
process.
2. Personnel at Major Emission Sources—Personnel at major emission
sources require alert-status reports to effect source control plans
designed to reduce emissions. If execution of such plans is mandatory, a
formal system may be required for legal notification of the alert status.
3. Public Safety Agencies-The police, fire, civil defense, and public health
departments may be assigned definite tasks during an alert and need to
Emergency Action Plan 25
-------
be kept informed on the status of the event. In some locations, existing
civil defense, disaster, or emergency networks and procedures may be
available for use. The telephone company, though not a public agency,
similarly needs to be informed, mainly because of the possibility of
overloading facilities.
4. Sensitive Persons—Those people who are most susceptible to acute
health problems must be kept advised during an episode. Thus there
must be a coordinated effort between the local air pollution officials,
public health officials, physicians, hospitals, and the public. It may be ill
advised to notify these sensitive people via the public news media as it is
important that the physician be able -to detect whether a particular
patient is reacting physiologically to the pollution levels or psycholog-
ically to the episodes. Communicating information through the local
health agency or medical society may be more advisable.
5. General Public and News Media—A direct communications link to the
major sources of local news media in the area is required. The use of
good judgment in dealing with news media is extremely important, and
consultation with those experienced in this procedure is highly desirable.
An example of a typical episode news release is shown in Figure 3-2.
An office proximate to the local police communications center is
recommended for the emergency operations control center. It should be
equipped with a minimum of two telephones with separate lines that are at the
disposal of the authority during activation of the EAP. Files should be
provided for all pre-collected information, necessary workbooks, and refer-
ences; "desk-top" space for activities such as map-plotting and calculations
should be included also.
Staggered schedules for regular communications with observers, emission
sources, other public agencies and officials, and the news media must be
established in order to prevent "tie-up" of telephone and radio channels of
contact.
3.3.5 Socio-Economic Factors
3.3.5.1 Social Considerations
In the broadest sense, social considerations encompass all those factors that
relate to human society, the welfare of human beings as members of society,
the interaction of the individual and the group, and the cooperative and
interdependent relationships of members of the group. This section is restricted
to a rather narrow field of human behavior. There are several social factors that
the episode planner must prepare for.
1. It must be realized that any action whatsoever that is taken will have a
social effect.
26 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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NEWS R&EASE - (Date) Agency
Department of A1r Pollution Control
(Address)
(City)
TOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE CONTACT: (Staff Member - Phone No.)
At 12:30 p.m. today (date), the local Weather Service notified the City's
Department of A1r Pollution Control that weather conditions consisting of a
high pressure area and low wind speeds were developing in the metropolitan
(dty) area. These are the same weather conditions that are
being formed over the Eastern seaboard from Maine to the Carol1nas. These
weather conditions are expected to continue until late tomorrow (date) and
may result 1n an Increase 1n the levels of some air pollutants.
"There has been some Increase 1n the levels of sulfur dioxide, but the
proportions of other contaminants have not reached a point at which calling of
an 'air pollution alert1 1s necessary or required," stated Mr. ,
(title).
Mr. also announced that the Air Pollution Control
Department's laboratory had been placed on a 24-hour operational basis.
Hortnally, the staff works a 40-hour week while the instruments measuring
air quality record their results continually without attention around
the clock. "However1) the (title) said,"ln order to be fully cognizant
of the problems as they arise, we shall maintain a close watch on the
conditions and report to the public if there is need for any specific
activity." Mr. , air pollution specialist for the (city)
Weather Service, stated that because cool air at the surface was trapped by
a lid of warm air aloft, 1t would remain stagnant over the (city) area.
It 1s expected that the Department of A1r Pollution Control will issue another
statement within 24 hours.
Figure 3-2. Sample press release.
Emergency Action Plan
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2. Generally, these effects will increase with the duration of the episode.
3. Initially, the effects will be in the nature of inconveniences.
4. The effects are primarily those related to restrictions on normal activity
and the anxieties associated with a pervasive hazard from which there is
no escape.
5. Finally, with some exceptions, these effects disappear at the termina-
tion of the episode.
The principal means available to the local authority to minimize these
types of social effects is through a program of public education. The episode
planner must provide for an effective public information program before,
during, and after an episode. The public must be prepared to endure the
inconveniences of personal restrictions and to assess calmly the nature of the
hazard. Figure 3-3 displays a sample public information approach.
While the public in smaller communities will face only minor inconven-
iences, s :ch as restriction of backyard refuse burning, certain emotional
individuals and some citizens with severe heart or respiratory disease will
undoubtedly become alarmed. The local authority must be able to reassure
such persons that they will be protected from possible injurious effects by
either a reduction of source emissions or a warning to leave the immediate area
of high pollution until the episode terminates.
3.3.5.2 Economic Considerations
It is important to appreciate the fact that the benefits of improved air
quality are as difficult to assess as are the many costs of air pollution control.
As with any health-related control program, the costs involve human factors
that are difficult to express as equivalent dollars. For "episode control," the
benefits include the avoidance of acute illness and death. The duration of much
of the economic impact is a few days; when human lives are involved, the costs
involved in control are relatively slight compared to the possible benefits.
During the source inventory, information can be gathered that will assist
the authority in evaluating part of the economic impact of emergency action
options. It is to industry's advantage to release accurate economic and emission
data to help insure that designed actions are realistic and effective. The
necessary information may be supplied voluntarily or regulations may be
required. The control authority should observe industrial proprietary rights to
economic and technical information.
The costs incurred by industry during an episode will be a combination of
the fixed or regularly recurring costs associated with being prepared for an
episode, and costs approximately proportional to the duration of emergency
abatement action during an episode. Both of these classes of costs will vary
28 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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WHEN AIR POLLUTION IS HEAVY
Here's what you can do to help yourself and your neighbor
. Use public transportation wherever possible. Use your
automobile only If absolutely necessary. If you must
drive, try to team up with neighbors or co-workers.
AIR POLLUTION FROM AUTOMOBILES
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Reduce room temperatures to the legal minimum, unless
health considerations prevent such action.
AIR POLLUTION FROM HEATING EQUIPMENT
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Stop all outdoor burning.
AIR POLLUTION FROM OPEN OR REFUSE BURNING
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
. Use as little electricity as possible, either for
lighting or appliances.
AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER PLANTS
IS A MAJOR PROBLEM
Observe the restrictions recommended by your health department
or air pollution control agency.
IF YOU SUFFER FROM A RESPIRATORY AILMENT OR HEART CONDITION-
Remaln Indoors with the windows closed.
Don't smoke. Avoid rooms where others are smoking.
Eliminate unnecessary physical exertion.
Stay under your physician's care.
AIR POLLUTION CONTRIBUTES TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE
Figure 3-3. Flyer published by the National Tuberculosis and Res-
piratory Disease Association.
29
Emergency Action Plan
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widely in magnitude and nature from place to place, among types of industries,
and among various plants within each industry. Consequently, data should be
collected from each individual plant or plant classification.
3.3.6 Emergency Action Plan Criteria
Following are the suggested EAP criteria that trigger the pre-planned
episode emission reduction scheme:
1. Status: Forecast—The Forecast level indicates that an internal watch
will be activated by a Weather Service HAPPA or equivalent report
stating that a high air pollution potential will exist for the next 36
hours.
2. Status: Alert-The Alert level is that concentration of pollutants at
which short-term health effects can be expected to occur. An Alert will
be declared when any one of the following levels is reached:
SO2—0.3 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate—3.0 Coh, 24-hour average
S02 and Particulate combined—Product of 24-hour S02 average
(ppm) and Coh equal to 0.2
CO—15 ppm, 8-hour average
Ox-0.1 ppm, 1-hour average
and adverse meteorological conditions are expected to continue for 12
or more hours.
3. Status: Warning— The Warning level indicates that air quality is contin-
uing to deteriorate and that additional abatement actions are necessary.
A Warning will be declared when any one of the following levels is
reached:
S02—0.6 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate—6.0 Coh, 24-hour average
Combined S02 and Con-Product of 24-hour S02 average (ppm)
and Coh equal to 1.0
CO—30 ppm, 8-hour average
Ox—0.4 ppm, 1-hour average
and adverse meteorological conditions are expected to continue for 12
or more hours.
4. Status: Emergency-lias Emergency level is that level at which a
substantial endangerment to human health can be expected. These
criteria are absolute in the sense that they represent a level of pollution
that must not be allowed to occur. An Emergency will be declared
when it becomes apparent that any one of the following levels is
imminent:
30 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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SO2 — 1.0 ppm, 24-hour average
Particulate-10 Coh, 24-hour average
Combined S02 and Coh-Product of 24-hour S02 average (ppm)
and Coh of 2.4
CO— 50 ppm, 8-hour average
75 ppm, 4-hour average
125 ppm, 1-hour average
Ox—0.4 ppm, 4-hour average
0.6 ppm, 2-hour average
0.7 ppm, 1-hour average
It should be made clear that an Air Pollution Alert, Warning, or Emergency
can be declared on the basis of deteriorating air quality alone; a High Air
Pollution Potential Advisory need not be in effect. The appropriate episode
status should be declared when any monitoring site records ambient air quality
below that designated in the criteria. The criteria should be applied to
individual monitoring sites and not to area-wide air quality.
The levels used to designate an Air Pollution Emergency are those that pose
an imminent and substantial endangerment to public health. Because these
levels should not be permitted.to occur, an Air Pollution Emergency should be
declared when it appears imminent that these levels may be reached.
3.3.7 Emission Curtailment
The reduction of pollutant emissions as a measure to avoid potential
episodes requires information not ordinarily available to the local authority.
Information pertaining to fuel switching, power interchange, curtailment, and
postponement operations can only be obtained through the development of a
close and knowledgeable contact with the source management. These data
should be obtained as part of the emission inventory. In many instances the
switching to a lower-sulfur-content fuel, postponement of refuse combustion,
and curtailment of nonessential production operations such as the filling of
reservoirs are adequate emission-reduction procedures. Each source manage-
ment should be required to submit curtailment plans covering the elements as
described in the source inventory section, and the operational changes to be
made in curtailing emissions.
The public may be requested to help reduce emissions by keeping heating
and electrical loads to a minimum. All private incineration and open burning
should be curtailed.
The curtailment of major sources can be planned to be implemented on a
voluntary basis. The voluntary actions to be taken should be known to the
authority, and surveillance should be conducted as though the curtailment
were mandatory. Experience to date with voluntary compliance by major
Emergency Action Plan
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emitters has been excellent, and indicates that pollution control is more easily
achieved in the "emergency" case than in the "chronic" case. It is not difficult,
however, to obtain legal authority in the form of a court order for curtailment
of emissions in an emergency situation. In fact, it is recommended that the
legal groundwork be previously laid if a state of extreme noncooperation by
personnel at major emission sources is found to exist.
A list of possible actions to be taken to reduce emissions during the two
curtailment phases of the EAP are as follows:
1. "Watch" situations:
a. Delay the start-up of any new industrial process.
b. Postpone industrial plant start-ups or shutdowns.
c. Request that all power-generating facilities have available a 5-day
supply of low-sulfur fuel (oil or gas) wherever fuel switching is
possible.
d. Request that municipal, home, commercial, and governmental
incineration be minimized.
e. Prohibit all open burning.
2. "Alert" situations:
a. Prohibit the use of home, municipal, commercial, governmental, and
industrial incineration.
b. Prohibit the use of high-sulfur, high-ash fuels for power generation.
c. Prohibit the cleaning of storage vessels that contained toxic or
odorous compounds.
d. Request that all industrial sources reduce activities to a minimum,
and put into effect all emission curtailment plans.
e. Request the public to reduce motor vehicle activity, use of
electricity, and home heating or air conditioning to a minimum level.
32 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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4. SUMMARY
The following items should be considered when formulating a typical EAP.
For convenience, they are arranged as an annotated Table of Contents for a
typical EAP.
Item
1. Administration
1.1 Authorization
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Organization
1.4 Levels of Activation
Remarks
Specifies the general functions of the
EAP and assigns responsibilities for its
operation.
States what the EAP is to accomplish.
Defines the relationships within and
outside the authority.
As defined in Section 3.3.6.
2. Operations
2.1 Manning
2.2 Schedule
2.3 Duties
2.4 Communications
2.5 Data Logging
Specifies the number and skills of per-
sonnel involved in the EAP.
Specifies the sequence of EAP opera-
tions.
Statements of responsibilities.
Specifies procedures, schedules, and
facilities.
Instructions for recording of all infor-
mation.
2.6 Criteria for Activation As defined in Section 3.3.6.
33
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Item
2. Operations—Continued
2.7 Activation Procedures
2.8 Coordination with
Other Agencies
2.9 Means of Emissions
Reduction
2.10 Decision Criteria
Remarks
Specifies the steps required to imple-
ment action phases.
Specifies procedures by which advice
and assistance are obtained.
Specifies control strategies available.
Criteria, designed for the specific com-
munity, which trigger voluntary or man-
datory controls.
3. Termination of Emergency
3.1 AU-Clear
3.2 Reverting to Routine
3.3 After-Action Report
Criteria for all-clear; specify who must
be notified.
Instructions for terminating operations,
releasing personnel, disposition of data,
etc.
Specifies the format, author, and con-
tent of the post-episode report.
34
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
5. REFERENCES
1. Lynn, D. A., B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig. The November-December
1962 Air Pollution Episode in the Eastern United States. U.S. DHEW,
Division of Air Pollution. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1964. PHS Publication No.
999-AP-7.
2. Fensterstock, J. C., and R. K. Fankhauser. Thanksgiving 1966 Air Pollution
Episode in the Eastern United States. U.S. DHEW, PHS, CPEHS, National
Air Pollution Control Administration. Durham, N.C. 1968. NAPCA Publica-
tion No. AP-45.
3. Duprey, R. L. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S. DHEW,
PHS, CPEHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Raleigh, N.C.
1968. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-42.
4. Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates. U.S. DHEW,
PHS, CPEHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Cincinnati,
Ohio. Revised 1969. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-26.
35
-------
APPENDIX A.
GLOSSARY OF AIR POLLUTION TERMS
1. Acute
2. Aerosol
3. Air Pollution
4. Air Pollution Index
5. Ambient Air Quality
6. Anticyclone
7. Atmosphere, The
8. Atmosphere, An
Having a sudden onset and a short and
relatively severe course.
A dispersion of solid or liquid particles of
microscopic size in gaseous media. Examples
are smoke, fog, and mist.
The presence of unwanted material in the air.
The term "unwanted material" refers to ma-
terial in sufficient amount and under such
circumstances as to interfere significantly with
comfort, health, or welfare of persons, or with
full use and enjoyment of property.
One of a number of arbitrarily derived mathe-
matical combinations of air pollutants that
gives a single number attempting to describe
the amibient air quality.
A physical and chemical measure of the
concentration of various chemicals in the
outside air. The quality is usually determined
over a specific time period (for example, 5
minutes, 1 hour, 1 day).
An area of relatively high atmospheric pres-
sure. In the northern hemisphere, the wind
blows spirally outward in a clockwise direc-
tion.
The whole mass of air, composed largely of
oxygen and nitrogen, that surrounds the
earth.
A specific gaseous mass, occurring either
37
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9. Breathing Zone
10. Coh
11. Collection Efficiency
12. Collector
13. Combustion
14. Density
15. Diffusion, Molecular
16. Dispersion
17. Diurnal
18. Dust
19. Dust Fall
20. Dust Loading
38
naturally or artificially, that can contain any
number of constituents and in any propor-
tion.
That stratum of the atmosphere in which
people breathe.
Abbreviation for coefficient of haze, a unit of
measurement of visibility interference.
The percentage of a specified substance re-
tained by a gas-cleaning or gas-sampling de-
vice.
A device for removing and retaining contami-
nants from air or other gases. Usually this
term is applied to cleaning devices in exhaust
systems.
The reaction of carbon-containing substances
(or other oxygen-demanding materials) with
oxygen, producing a rapid temperature in-
crease in a flame.
The mass per unit volume of a substance.
A process of spontaneous intermixing of
different substances, attributable to molecular
motion, that tends to produce uniformity of
concentration.
The most general term for a system consisting
of particulate matter suspended in air or other
gases.
Daily, especially pertaining to actions or
events that are completed within 24 hours and
that recur every 24 hours.
A term loosely applied to solid particles
predominantly larger than colloidal and cap-
able of temporary suspension in air or other
gases.
The amount of large particulate matter de-
posited per month per square mile of land.
An engineering term for "dust concentra-
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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21. Droplet
22. Efficiency
23. Emissions
24. Emission Inventory
25. Emission Mixture
26. Environment
27. Episode
28. Fly Ash
29. Fog
30. Fume
tion," usually applied to the contents of
collection ducts and the emissions from
stacks.
A small liquid particle of such size and density
as to fall under still conditions, but which
may remain suspended under turbulent condi-
tions.
The ratio of attained performance to absolute
performance, commonly expressed in percent.
The total substances discharged into the air
from a stack, vent, or other source.
A list of primary air pollutants emitted into a
given community's atmosphere, in amounts
(commonly tons) per day, by type of source.
The total mixture in the atmosphere of
emissions from all sources.
The aggregate of all external conditions and
influences affecting the life, development,
and, ultimately, the survival of an organism.
The occurrence of stagnant air masses during
which air pollutants accumulate, so that the
population is exposed to an elevated concen-
tration of airborne contaminants.
The finely divided particles of ash entrained in
flue gases, arising from the combustion of
fuel. The particles of ash may contain incom-
pletely burned fuel.
Visible aerosols in which the dispersed phase
is liquid. In meteorology, a visible aggregate of
minute water droplets suspended in the air
near the earth's surface.
Properly, the solid particles generated by
condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilization from melted substances
and often accompanied by a chemical reaction
such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and some-
times coalesce. Popularly, the term is used in
reference to any or all types of contaminants
Glossary of Air Pollution Terms
39
-------
31. Gas
32. Grab Sample
33. Impaction
34. Impinger
35. Inversion
36. Isokinetic
37. Mass Concentration
38. Mist
39. Month
40. Odor
41. Odor Unit
42. Odorant
and, in many laws or regulations, with the
added qualifications that the contaminant
have some unwanted action.
One of the three states of aggregation of
matter, having neither independent shape nor
volume, and tending to expand indefinitely.
A sample of an atmosphere obtained in a very
short period of time, such that the sampling
time is insignificant in comparison with the
duration of the operation or the period being
studied.
A forcible contact of particles (often used
synonymously with impingement).
Broadly, a sampling instrument using impinge-
ment for the collection of participate matter.
A layer of air in which temperature increases
with height.
A term describing a condition of sampling, in
which the flow of gas into the sampling
device, at the opening or face of the inlet, has
the same flow rate and direction as the
ambient atmosphere being sampled.
Concentration expressed in terms of substance
per unit volume of gas or liquid.
A term loosely applied to dispersions of liquid
droplets, the dispersion being of low concen-
tration and the particles of large size. In
meteorology, a light dispersion of water drop-
lets of sufficient size to be falling.
For reporting analyses of ambient air on a
monthly basis, rate results are calculated to a
base of 30 days.
That property of a substance that affects the
sense of smell.
Unit volume of air at the odor threshold.
Odorous substance.
40
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
43. Opacity Rating
44. Oxidants
45. Particle
46. Particle Concentrations
47. Particle Size
48. Precipitation,
Meteorological
49. Precision
50. Pollutant
51. Receptor
52. Ringelmann Chart
A measurement of the opacity of emissions,
defined as the apparent obscuration of an
observer's vision to a degree equal to the
apparent obscuration of smoke of a given
rating on the Ringelmann Chart.
A measure of the presence of organic oxi-
dizing chemicals, such as ozone, in the
ambient air. An indicator of photochemical
smog.
A small discrete mass of solid or liquid matter.
Concentration expressed in terms of number
of particles per unit volume of air or other
gas. Note: In expressing particle concentra-
tions, the method of determining the concen-
tration should be stated.
The size of liquid or solid particles expressed
as the average or equivalent diameter.
The precipitation of water from the at-
mosphere in the form of hail, mist, rain, sleet,
and snow. Deposits of dew, fog, and frost are
excluded.
The degree of agreement of reported measure-
ments of the same property. Expressed in terms
of dispersion of test results about the mean re-
sult, obtained by repetitive testing of a homo-
genous sample under specified conditions.
Any matter that, upon discharge to the
ambient air, creates or tends to create a
harmful effect upon man, his property, con-
venience or happiness, or that causes the
contamination in ambient air to exceed legally
estabh'shed limits, or that is defined as a
pollutant by a regulatory agency.
Any person or piece of property upon which
an air pollutant creates an effect.
Actually a series of charts, numbered from 0
to 5; that simulates various smoke densities by
presenting different percentages of black. A
Ringelmann No. 1 is equivalent to 20 percent
Glossary of Air Pollution Terms
41
-------
53. Sampling
54. Smog
55. Smoke
56. Soot
57. Synergjsm
58. Tape Sampler
59. Thermal Turbulence
60. Topography
black; a Ringelmann No. 5, 100 percent. Used
for measuring the opacity of smoke arising
from stacks and other sources by matching
with the actual effluent the various numbers,
or densities, indicated by the charts. Ringel-
mann numbers are sometimes used in setting
emission standards.
A process consisting of the withdrawal or
isolation of a fractional part of a whole. In air
analysis, the separation of a portion of an
ambient atmosphere, with or without simul-
taneous isolation of selected components.
A combination of "smoke" and "fog." Ap-
plied to extensive atmospheric contamination
by aerosols arising partly through natural
processes and partly from human activities.
Often used loosely for any contamination of
the air.
Small gas-borne particles produced by incom-
plete combustion, consisting predominantly
of carbon and other combustible material, and
present in sufficient quantity to be detectable
in the presence of other solids.
Agglomerations of particles or carbon impreg-
nated with "tar" that are formed in the
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous ma-
terial.
The cooperative action of separate substances
such that the total effect is greater than the
sum of the effects of the substances acting
independently.
A device used in the measurement of both
gases and fine particulates. It allows air
sampling to be done automatically at prede-
termined times.
Air movement and mixing caused by convec-
tion.
The configuration of a surface, including its
relief and the position of its natural and
man-made features.
42
GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
-------
61. Vapor The gaseous phase of matter that normally
exists in a liquid or solid state.
62. Volume Concentration Concentration expressed in terms of gaseous
volume of substance per unit volume of air or
other gas, usually expressed in percent or
parts per million.
63. Week For reporting analysis of ambient air on a
weekly basis, results are calculated to a base
of seven consecutive 24-hour days.
64. Year For reporting analysis of ambient air on a
yearly basis, results are calculated to a base of
twelve 30-day months.
Glossary of Air Pollution Terms 43
-------
APPENDIX B.
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA
45
-------
Table B-1. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA FOR PARTICULATE MATTER8
Concentration,
ng/m3
100
100
1 50-350
100-135
>130
>300
800-1 000
Measurement
methods
Short-term average
high-volume sampling
High-volume sampling
Smoke stain calibra-
bration or long-term
average high-volume
sampling
Long-term average
high-volume sampling
Long-term average
smoke stain cali-
bration
Smoke stain calibra-
tion 24-hr average
Smoke stain calibra-
ration
24-hr average
Effects
Visibility restriction to < 7.5 miles
Damage to materials
Impairment in lung function or
increase in sputum volume of
exposed populations
Increased probability of chronic
respiratory disease mortality
when economic status has been
corrected for
Increased frequency and severity
of lower respiratory tract disease
in children followed from birth
to 1 5 years
Acute worsening of symptoms in
bronchitic patients
Probability of increase in acute
illness and death from respiratory
and cardiac conditions, especially
in persons with chronic cardio-
pulmonary diseases
Conditions
Particle sizes in the range of
0.2-1 .Op and R.H. <70%
Long-term exposure
In the presence of
1 23-300 Mg/m3 sulfur
oxides
Upper temperate latitudes in
presence of increased sulfation.
Three ranges are given and the
concentrations cited are the lower
bounds of the two upper ranges
In the presence of concentrations
of sulfur oxides above 130 ng/m3
Upper temperate latitudes in
presence of more than 630 jug/m3
sulfur oxides
In presence of 750-8,000 /ug/m3
sulfur oxides
Reference
Charlson et al.
Noll etal.
Larrabee et al.
Copson
Holland etal.
Toyama et al.
Lunn et al.
Fletcher etal.
Winkelstein
Douglas et al.
Lawther
Martin et al.
Martin
Lawther
Greenburgetal.
Watanabe
o
S
o
w
•*]
o
90
n
o
H
§
O
•n
>
53
3
i
aThe studies referenced here are discussed in National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-49, Air Quality Criteria for
Paniculate Matter.
-------
Table B-2. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA FOR SULFUR OXIDES
Effect
Visibility impairment
Corrosion
Vegetation damage (alfalfa
mostly, but many other
species are similarly
sensitive)
Odor threshold
Respiratory "symptoms
Respiratory symptoms
Respiratory symptoms
Respiratory symptoms
Respiratory symptoms,
plus impairment of lung
function in children
SC>2 exposure, ppm
0.03 to 0.1 2
0.3
0.47 ppm. 50% of
subjects detect
0.2
>0.05
0.2
0.9
>0.05
Duration
Annual average
8hr
<1 hr
Daily average
Long-term
average
Daily average
Hourly average
Monthly average
Comment
Theoretical work is suggestive, but adequate
measurements of sulfuric acid and sulfate
particles have not been made
Moist temperate climate with
paniculate pollution
Laboratory experiment; other environmental
factors optimal. Field studies are consistent
but dose is difficult to estimate
May be higher for many persons or when
other methods are used
Community exposure exceeding 0.2 ppm
more than 3% of the time
With particulates >100jug/m3
With particulates
With particulates
With particulates
Reference
Upham (1967)
Thomas (1937)
Katz 8t Mac-
Callum (1952)
Manufacturing
Chem. Assn.
(1968)
Bell (1962)
Holland-Stone
(1965), Deane-
Goldsmith-Tuma
(1965)
McCarroll (1966)
Cassell (1965)
Toyama (1964)
o
a
aThe studies referenced here are discussed in National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-50, Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur
Oxides.
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Table B-3. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA FOR CARBON MONOXIDE
Concentration
and method
More than 10-12 ppm
NDIR
About 1 0 ppm
NDIR
More than 8 ppm
NDIR
Mean of 50 ppm
MSA Colorimetric
30 ppm
NDIR
50 ppm
NDI
100-300 ml
Injection of pure
gas into air-
stream
Duration of
averaging
4-5 hr
24 hr
Weekly
average
8hr
8-1 2 hr
90 min
10-15 min
Effect
Increased COHb
0.5-2%.
Possibly increased risk
of auto accidents
Possibly increased case
fatality rate in
hospitalized myo-
cardial infarction
patients
Increased hematocrit.
COHb mean of 3.8% in
smokers and 3.4%
in nonsmokers
Equilibrium value of
5% COHb reached
Threshold for the im-
pairment in time
discrimination. Un-
published data show this
effect with substantially shorter
exposures
Impairment of visual
function detectable
at 4-5% COHb
Comments
Traffic police in Paris and Detroit and
students in Los Angeles. May be over-
whelmed by smoking exposure.
Epidemiological association. Smoking or
alcohol use might contribute or the
association might be spurious. Being
studied in Los Angeles 1963-1968.
Higher case fatality in L.A. area with
higher pollution during the quartile
of weeks with highest CO levels. 1958
data need to be confirmed with later
data. Other factors may be involved.
All occupational exposure data do not
show an effect on hematocrit.
Experimental exposure of nonsmokers.
COHb levels not available, but expected
values about 2%. Certain psycho-
motor test results were impaired at
2% COHb.
Data given for very small number of
subjects.
Reference
Chovin et al.
Clayton et al.
Chovin et al.
Clayton et al.
Cohen et al.
Hofreuter
Smith
State of California,
Department of
Public Health
Beard et al.
Schulte
Halperin et al.
n
o
H
O
i
aThe studies referenced here are discussed in National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-62, Air Quality Criteria for Carbon
Monoxide.
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Table B-4. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA FOR OZONE BASED ON HEALTH EFFECTS*
Effect
Odor detection
Respiratory irritation (nose
and throat), chest con-
striction
Changes in pulmonary functions:
Diminished FEV-| g after
8 weeks
Small decrements in VC, FRC,
and DLCQ in, respectively,
3, 2, and 1 out of 7
subjects
Impaired diffusion
capacity (DLco'
Increased airway
resistance
Reduced VC, severe cough,
inability to concentrate
Acute pulmonary edema
Exposure, ppm
0.02
0.3
0.5
0.2-0.3
0.6-0.8
0.1-1.0
2.0
9.0
Duration
5 min
Continuous during
working hours
(8hr)
3 hr/day
6 days/week for
12 weeks
Continuous during
working hours
2hr
1 hr
2hr
Unknown
Comment
Odor detected in 9/10 subjects within 5 min
Occupational exposure of welders (other
pollutants probably also present).
Experimental exposure. Change returns to
normal 6 weeks after exposure. No
changes observed at 0.2 ppm.
Occupational exposure. All 7 subjects
smoked. Normal values for VC, FRC, and
Dl_co based on predicted value.
Experimental exposure of 11 subjects
Increase in 1/4 at 0.1 ppm and 4/4 at
1.0 ppm.
High temperatures. One subject.
Refers to peak concentration of
occupational exposure. Most of exposure
was to lower level.
Reference
Henschler et al.
Kleinfeld et al.
Bennett
Young et al.
Young et al.
Goldsmith et al.
Griswold et al.
Kleinfeld etal.
t
£•*•
v;
n
aThe studies referenced here are discussed in
Photochemical Oxidants.
National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-63, Air Quality Criteria for
-------
Table B-5. AIR QUALITY CRITERIA FOR OXIDANTS BASED ON HEALTH EFFECTS
-.a
Effects
Eye irritation
Impairment of pulmonary function
(airway resistance)
Aggravation of respiratory
disease: asthma
Impaired performance of
student athletes
Exposure,
PPm
0.1
Regression
about 0.1
0.1 3b
Regression
about 0.1
Duration
5 min
1 week in room
containing ambient
air
Continuous
1 hr +
Comment
Result of panel response.
Subjects were smokers and nonsmokers.
Most subjects had emphysema.
Patients exposed to ambient air. Value
refers to oxidant level at which
number of attacks increased.
Exposure for 1 hour immediately prior to
race.
Reference
Renzetti and
Gobran
Remmers and
Balchum
Schoettlin and
Landau
Wayne et al.
w
*fl
o
*)
n
o
aThe studies referenced here are discussed in National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. AP-63, Air Quality Criteria for
Photochemical Oxidants.
^Calculated from a measured value of 0.25 ppm (phenolphthalein method), which is equivalent to 0.13 (Kl).
O
r
o
53
r
i
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APPENDIX C.
HIGH AIR POLLUTION
POTENTIAL ADVISORY PROGRAM
An air pollution potential message is issued every day at 12:20 p.m., EST,
by the Weather Service National Meteorological Center (NMC) located at
Suitland, Maryland. The message is disseminated over the Service C Network. It
has two parts: a plain-language narrative and a coded message. The narrative
identifies areas for which an air pollution potential condition is forecast. If no
air pollution potential areas are likely, the statement is "None Today." The
narrative may include information added at the forecaster's discretion, such as
a developing situation that does not yet meet the rigid criteria for issuance
of an advisory.
The coded message provides information on current and predicted mixing
heights and average wind speed in the mixing layer for all reporting Weather
Service radiosonde stations in the United States. Computations are based upon
data for 7:00 a.m., EST, which is the time of synoptic upper air soundings
everywhere in the world. Since a vast quantity and variety of data must be
processed to produce the coded message, the entire procedure is computerized,
including the punched paper tape for disseminating the message on teletype
circuits.
The NMC forecaster uses the machine-calculated data as a guide in
determining whether an air pollution potential advisory is warranted. His
decision depends largely upon whether all of the following criteria are met:
1. The affected area must be no smaller than an area approximately
equivalent to a 4-degree latitude-longitude square (about the size of
Oklahoma).
2. No significant precipitation or frontal passages must be observed or
expected for the next 36 hours or so.
3. The surface winds at stations in the area must not average more than 5
knots and/or no more than three individual hourly wind speeds are to
exceed 8 knots during a 24-hour period.
51
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4. The morning urban mixing height must be < 500 meters (about 1,600
ft), and the observed average wind speed through this layer must be < 4
meters/sec (about 9 mph).
5. The numerical product of the afternoon mixing height and the forecast
average wind speed through this layer must be < 6,000 m2 /sec, and the
forecast average wind itself must not exceed 4 m/sec.
6. The 30-hour forecast of the following afternoon's mixing height and
average wind speed must meet the same criteria as in 1. above.
These criteria may appear to be overly stringent. Situations in which all
criteria are satisfied should occur infrequently, and many local air pollution
events would not be covered by HAPPA advisories. This is not unplanned.
"This conservatism on the part of the APP forecaster is by design. In simple
terms, he does not wish to be accused of crying Wolf! The social and
economic consequences of a substantial air pollution episode are suf-
ficiently great such that the APP forecaster would rather miss a few
marginal cases than attempt to forecast all possibilities and cry APP when
none came to pass. He would soon be ignored to the eventual detriment of
the ignorers. Rather he would prefer that his forecasts came to be trusted
so that preventative measures, reducing smoke production, changing fuel
types, and generally restricting pollutant production, could be undertaken
to avoid the possible disastrous consequences of a failure to act.
At present, nothing seemingly can be done about changing the potential;
however, adequate warning coupled with firm measures can go a long way
toward eliminating the Air Pollution in an air pollution potential
episode."1
REFERENCE FOR APPENDIX C
1. Stackpole, J. D. The Air Pollution Potential Forecast Program. Weather
Bureau Technical Memorandum NMC-43. Suitland, Md. November 1967.
52 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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APPENDIX D.
TAPE SAMPLER
D.I PRINCIPLE AND APPLICABILITY
D.I.I Ambient air is drawn through a circular portion of a continuous
strip of filter paper tape 2 inches wide. Particulate matter impinges on the filter
tape in a spot 1 inch in diameter. The sampling spot is automatically advanced
every 2 hours on even-hour increments by a timer and take-up reel mechanism.
In the National Air Surveillance Network, the samplers are operated con-
tinuously, and the tapes are cut weekly, usually after the 8:00 to 10:00 a.m.
spot on Monday.
D.1.2 The spot on the tape is measured in Coh's (from "coefficient of
haze") per 1,000 linear feet of sampled air. Mesaurement is based on light
transmission through the spot sample; clean areas in front of each spot are used
as a reference. Such measurement describes the quantity of particulate matter
in the air in terms of soiling properties.
D.2 RANGE AND SENSITIVITY
D.2.1 In relatively clean atmospheres, the amount of particulate collected
may be insufficient to cause any measurable difference between the reference
blank and the spot. In some cases, the spot may give a negative reading. Such
data are not tabulated. A sampling rate of 15 standard cubic feet per hour and
a sampling time of 2 hours per spot produce the greatest amount of
translatable data.
D.3 INTERFERENCES
D.3.1 Rain and condensation tend to stain the paper filter tape; the
resulting darkened area bears no relation to soiling characteristics of the
atmosphere, because the moisture apparently washes out the sampling tube.
53
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Care therefore must be taken to keep the inlet funnel upside down and the
sampling tube as short as possible.
D.4 PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND STABILITY
D.4.1 Accuracy of airflow measurement is important. Flow through the
filter tape should be set at 15 standard cubic feet per hour. The flow must then
be maintained at 15 and should be checked twice daily. Each instrument must
be individually calibrated on site with an accurate wet-test meter. Thickness
and optical density of the paper tape should be uniform.
D.5 APPARATUS
D.5.1 Sampling
D.5.1.1 Tape Sampler—The instrument consists of a rotary vane vacuum
pump, whose flow is measured by a push-to-test flowmeter (range 0 to 30) and
is adjusted by a needle valve; an automatic timer set for 2-hour intervals; and
an electric take-up motor with necessary electromechanics to change sampling
spots automatically.
D.5.1.2 Filter Paper Roll-Whatman No. 4 filter paper or equivalent, 2
inches wide, indexed with 1/8-inch holes every 2 inches.
D.5.2 Analysis
D.5.2.1 Optical Density Measuring Instrument—Capable of measuring the
optical density of light transmitted through the tape.
D.5.2.2 Automatic Spot Evaluator (optional)—This instrument is con-
venient when large amounts of data are collected. It automatically advances the
tape to each spot, measures light transmission through the spot and reference
area, digitizes the reading, and makes it available for automatic data processing
equipment.
D.6 REAGENTS—None required for sampling or analysis.
D.7 PROCEDURE
D.7.1 Sampling
54 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF. AIR POLLUTION
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D.7.1.1 Thread a new roll of spot tape in the supply reel through the
sampling block and attach to the tape take-up reel core. Turn on the sampler,
and set the timer at zero. Next, set the flowmeter to correspond with a
calibration curve previously obtained to give 15. Turn off the sampler and wait
until an even hour (e.g., 8:00, 10:00, 12:00), then turn on the sampler. The
tape will automatically advance to a clean spot.
D.7.1.2 Check the flowmeter at least twice daily and adjust, if necessary,
to obtain a true flow of 15.
D.7.1.3 Cut the tape weekly for optical density measurement. Leave about
a foot of blank tape on each end for ease of processing and protection. When
removing the tape, mark a beginning and ending date and the time on the
appropriate ends. Mark the date and time on the edge of the tape each day,
usually when the airflow is checked. Do not mark in areas that pass through
the translator light beam and optical cell area; use only the lower 1/4 inch for
marking purposes. Handle the tape by the edges, and do not allow it to pick up
dirt, grease, or moisture.
D.7.2 Analysis
D.7.2.1 Install the exposed tape in the optical-density measuring instru-
ment and read as directed by instrument instructions.
D.8 CALIBRATION
D.8.1 Airflow through the clean filter paper must be maintained at 15. A
wet-test meter may be used if other conditions are standardized. A calibration
curve must be drawn to relate true flow and flowmeter readings in the range of
10 to 20. Flow rate can vary with differences in filter thickness and particulate
loading.
D.8.2 The optical density measuring instrument must also be calibrated
with standard optical densities.
D.9 CALCULATIONS
D.9.1 The Coh is defined as "the quantity of light-scattering solids
deposited on the standard filter tape that produces an optical density of 0.01
when measured by white-light transmittance (where the blank filter is 0 optical
density).
_ measured optical density
optical density per Coh
Tape Sampler 55
-------
_ . , measured optical density
Coh s = ool
D.9.2 Optical density (OD) is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of
the reciprocal of the transmittance.
I 100 I0
OD = log, o Y= log, o % transmittance ' lo& ° 7
where:
T = transmittance
_ intensity of light transmitted through the clean area adjacent to
° ~ the spot
I = intensity of light transmitted through the spot.
D.9.3 Data are reported in Coh's per 1,000 linear feet of an air column of
cross-sectional area equal to that of the spot.
sampled volume _ ft
Lineal feet = area Of sample spot
where: F = sample flow rate, ft3 /min
t = sample time, min
ASp0t = area of the spot, ft2
Therefore:
Coh's per 1,000 lineal ft =
100 (measured OD of spot—measured OD of blank)
ft
LOOOAgpot
Coh's j 10s Aspot (OD of spot-OD of blank)
01 1,000 lineal ft ft
D.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ASTM Standards, Part 23. Standard Method of Test for Paniculate Matter
in the Atmosphere, subtitle, Optical Density of Filtered Deposit. Oct. 1967,
pages 827-834.
56 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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APPENDIX E.
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE STATIONS
IN UNITED STATES
ALABAMA
1. MOBILE
2. HUNTSVILLE
3. BIRMINGHAM
4. MONTGOMERY
ARIZONA
1. YUMA
2. PHOENIX
3. FLAGSTAFF
4. WINSLOW
5. TUCSON
ARKANSAS
1. FORT SMITH
2. LITTLE ROCK
3. TEXARKANA
CALIFORNIA
1. EUREKA
2. OAKLAND
3. SAN FRANCISCO
4. SANTA MARIA
5. BURBANK
6. LOS ANGELES
7. LONG BEACH
8. SAN DIEGO
9. MOUNT SHASTA
10. RED BLUFF
II. SACRAMENTO
12. STOCKTON
13. FRESNO
14. BAKERSFIELD
15. POMONA
COLORADO
1. GRAND JUNCTION
2. ALAMOSA
3. DENVER
4. COLORADO SPRINGS
5. PUEBLO
CONNECTICUT
t. BRIDGEPORT
2, NEW HAVEN
3. HARTFORD
DELAWARE
1. WILMINGTON
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
FLORIDA
1. PENSACOLA
2. APALACHICOLA
3. TALLAHASSEE
4. JACKSONVILLE
5. ORLANDO
6. DAYTONA BEACH
7. TAMPA
8. LAKELAND
9. FORT MYERS
10. PALM BEACH
11. MIAMI
12. KEY WEST
GEORGIA
1. COLUMBUS
2. ATLANTA
3. MACON
4. ATHENS
5. AUGUSTA
6. SAVANNAH
IDAHO
1. LEWISTON
2. BOISE
3. POCATELLO
ILLINOIS
1. MOLINE
2. ROCKFORD
3. CHICAGO
4. PEORIA
5. SPRINGFIELD
6. CAIRO
INDIANA
1. EVANSVILLE
2. SOUTH BEND
3. INDIANAPOLIS
4. FORT WAYNE
IOWA
1. SIOUX CITY
2. DES MOINES
3. WATERLOO
4. DUBUQUE
KANSAS
1. GOODLAND
2. DODGE CITY
3. CONCORDIA
4. WICHITA
5. TOPEKA
KENTUCKY
t. LOUISVILLE
2. LEXINGTON
LOUISIANA
1. SHREVEPORT
2. ALEXANDRIA
3. LAKE CHARLES
4. BATON ROUGE
5. NEW ORLEANS
MAINE
1. CARIBOU
2. PORTLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
1. WORCESTER
2. BOSTON
3. NANTUCKET
MARYLAND
1. FREDERICK
2. BALTIMORE
MICHIGAN
1. MARQUETTE
2. ESCANABA
3. SAULT STE. MARIE
4. ALPENA
5. HOUGHTON LAKE
6. MUSKEGON
7. GRAND RAPIDS
8. LANSING
9. FLINT
10. DETROIT
MINNESOTA
1. INTERNATIONAL FALLS
2. DULUTH
3. ST. CLOUD
4. MINNEAPOLIS
5. ROCHESTER
MISSISSIPPI
1. VICKSBURG
2. JACKSON
3. MERIDIAN
MISSOURI
1. KANSAS CITY
2. SPRINGFIELD
3. COLUMBIA
4. ST. LOUIS
MONTANA
1. KALISPELL
2. MISSOULA
3. HELENA
4. GREAT FALLS
5. HAVRE
6. BILLINGS
7. GLASGOW
57
NEBRASKA
1. SCOTTS BLUFF
2. VALENTINE
3. NORTH PLATTE
4. GRAND ISLAND
5. NORFOLK
6. LINCOLN
7. OMAHA
NEVADA
1. RENO
2. WINNEMUCCA
3. ELKO
4. ELY
5. LAS VEGAS
NEW HAMPSHIRE
1. CONCORD
NEW JERSEY
1. TRENTON
2. NEWARK
3. ATLANTIC CITY
NEW MEXICO
t. SILVER CITY
2. ALBUQUERQUE
3. ROSWELL
NEW YORK
1. BUFFALO
2. ROCHESTER
3. SYRACUSE
4. ALBANY
5. BINGHAMTON
6. NEW YORK CITY
NORTH CAROLINA
1. ASHEVILLE
2. CHARLOTTE
3. WINSTON -SALEM
4. GREENSBORO
5. RALEIGH
6. WILMINGTON
7. CAPE HATTERAS
NORTH DAKOTA
1. WILLISTON
2. BISMARCK
3. FARGO
OHIO
1. CINCINNATI
2. DAYTON
3. TOLEDO
4. COLUMBUS
5. MANSFIELD
6. CLEVELAND
7.- AKRON -CANTON
8. YOUNGSTOWN
OKLAHOMA
1. OKLAHOMA CITY
2. TULSA
OREGON
1. ASTORIA
2. SALEM
3. EUGENE
4. MEDFORD
5. PORTLAND
6. PENDLETON
PENNSYLVANIA
t. ERIE
2. PITTSBURGH
3. WILLIAMSPORT
4. READING
5. HARRISBURG
6. SCRANTON
7. ALLENTOWN
8. PHILADELPHIA
RHODE ISLAND
1. PROVIDENCE
SOUTH CAROLINA
1. GREENVILLE-
SPARTANBURG
2. COLUMBIA
3. CHARLESTON
SOUTH DAKOTA
1. RAPID CITY
2. ABERDEEN
3. HURON
4. SIOUX FALLS
TENNESSEE
1. MEMPHIS
2. NASHVILLE
3. CHATTANOOGA
4. KNOXVILLE
5. BRISTOL
TEXAS
1. EL PASO
2. AMARILLO
3. LUBBOCK
4. MIDLAND
5. DEL RIO
6. LAREDO
7. ABILENE
8. SAN ANGELO
9. WICHITA FALLS
10. FT. WORTH
11. DALLAS
12. WACO
13. SAN ANTONIO
14. AUSTIN
15. VICTORIA
T6. CORPUS CHRISTI
17. BROWNSVILLE
18. HOUSTON
T9. PORT ARTHUR
20. GALVESTON
UTAH
1. WENDOVER
2. SALT LAKE CITY
VERMONT
1. BURLINGTON
VIRGINIA
1. ROANOKE
2. LYNCHBURG
3. RICHMOND
4. NORFOLK
WASHINGTON
1. SEATTLE
2. OLYMPIA
3. WENATCHEE
4. YAKIMA
5. SPOKANE
6. WALLA WALLA
WEST VIRGINIA
1. HUNTINGTON
2. PARKERSBURG
3. CHARLESTON
4. BECKLEY
5. ELKINS
WISCONSIN
1. LA CROSSE
2. MADISON
3. GREEN BAY
4. MILWAUKEE
WYOMING
1. LANDER
2. SHERIDAN
3. CASPER
4. CHEYENNE
-------
00
•fl
o
r
i
•«• /"*•»/ V\i
u
Figure E
-1. National Weather Service Stations in United States.
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APPENDIX F.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS IN
DIFFUSION ESTIMATION
The solutions to the problems listed below refer to tables and figures found
in Bruce Turner's Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, available
from the Environmental Protection Agency's Air Pollution Control Office as
PHS Publication No. 999-AP-26 (revised 1969).
PROBLEM 1. A power plant burns 10 tons per hour of coal containing 3%
sulfur; the effluent is released from a single stack with effective height of
emission of 150 meters. On a sunny afternoon, with the wind at 4 m/sec, what
is the distance to the maximum ground-level concentration, and what is the
concentration at that point?
SOL UTION: To determine the source strength, the amount of sulfur burned
is: 10 tons/hi x 2,000 Ib/ton x 0.03 sulfur = 600 Ib sulfur/hr. Sulfur has a
molecular weight of 32 and combines with 02 with a molecular weight of 32;
therefore, for every mass unit of sulfur burned, there result two mass units of
S02.
n _ 2x(6001b/hrx453.6g/lb)
Q -- 3600sec/hr = 151 ^ S0>
Turn to Figure 3-9 on p. 29 of the Workbook, For a sunny afternoon, consider
stability to be in Class B. Using the curve marked B, at effective height of 150
meters, read the Y-coordinate as 1 km for the downwind distance to the point
of maximum concentration. Read the X-coordinate as 7.5 x 10~6 for maximum
XU/Q, which is the "normalized" concentration. Multiply the last figure by Q/u
to get
_ Xu Q _ 7.5xlCT6 xlSl _
Xmax - QmaxU - - 4
= 2800 /-ig/m3 = 0.098 ppmNPT
59
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PROBLEM 2: For the power plant in Problem 1, at what distance does the
maximum ground-level concentration occur, and what is this concentration
under nighttime or heavy overcast conditions?
SOLUTION: Use D stability curve. From Figure 3-9, D stability, at H of 150
m, distance to the point of maximum ground level concentration is 5.6 km,
and the maximum normalized concentration is 3 .0 x 1 0~6 .
Xmax = 3-0xl°46x151 = 1.1 x 1(T4 g/m3 = 1 10 Mg/m3 = 0.0375 ppm NPT
PROBLEM 3. Under conditions of Problem 1 , what concentration would be
measured at a point 1 .5 km downwind, and 200 m off to the side of the plume
direction?
SOLUTION: Turn to Figure 3-5B. Refer to 1.5 km along the abscissa, follow
the line up the chart to where it intersects the curve for H = 150, then read
across to the left, 6.0 x 10"6 for normalized concentration. However, this
applies to the center line of the plume.
Now turn to Figure 3-2. At downwind distance of 1.5 km, follow the line
up the chart to where it intersects the curve for B, and read to the left a value
for 0y of 225 m. This is the standard deviation of the lateral spread of the
plume concentration. Our point of interest is 200/225 of the distance of the
standard deviation, or 0.889. Turn to Table A-l, on page 66, and read for
0.889 a value of 6.73 x 10"1 . This is the factor to be applied to the centerline
concentration. Hence,
(xu/Q)x,y = 6.0 x 10~6 x 0.673 = 4.038 x 10"'
4.038 xlO'6 xlSl ,„_ ,_
Xx,y = Z ~ 152.5 x 10
= 152.5 jug/m3 = 0.053 ppm NPT
60 GUIDE FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
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