United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Public Affairs (A-107)
Washington DC 20460
September 1987
OPA87-013
Reprinted from the EPA Journal
A Consumer's Guide to
Safer Pesticide Use
-------
The Challenge of Pesticides
An Excerpt from Silent Spring
Rachel Carson, writer and naturalist, raised the public consciousness about pesticides and their dangers in her book,
Silent Spring. This year marks the 25th anniversary of the book. The editors of EPA Journal believe the following excerpt from
Silent Spring eloquently states the challenge of modem pesticides and is appropriate to begin [his issue of the journal, which
focuses on these chemicals and EPA's role in regulating them.
For the first time in the history of the world, every human
being is now subjected to contact with dangerous
chemicals, from the moment of conception until death. In the
less than two decades of their use, the synthetic pesticides
have been so thoroughly distributed throughout the animate
and inanimate world that they occur virtually everywhere.
They have been recovered from most of the major river
systems and even from streams of ground water flowing
unseen through the earth. Residues of these chemicals linger
in soil to which they may have been applied a dozen years
before. They have entered and lodged in the bodies of fish,
birds, reptiles, and domestic and wild animals so universally
that scientists carrying on animal experiments find it almost
impossible to locate subjects free from such contamination.
They have.been found in fish in remote mountain lakes, in
earthworms burrowing in soil, in the eggs of birds—and in
man himself. For these chemicals are now stored in the
bodies of the vast majority of human beings, regardless of age.
They occur in the mother's milk, and probably in the tissues
of the unborn child.
All this has come about because of the sudden rise and
prodigious growth of an industry for the production of
manmade or synthetic chemicals with insecticidal properties.
This industry is a child of the Second World War. In the
course of developing agents of chemical warfare, some of the
chemicals created in the laboratory were found to be lethal to
insects. The discovery did not come by chance: insects were
widely used to test chemicals as agents of death for man.
The result has been a seemingly endless stream of synthetic
insecticides. In being manmade—by ingenious laboratory
manipulation of the molecules, substituting atoms, altering
their arrangement—they differ sharply from the simpler
insecticides of pre-war days. These were derived from
naturally occurring minerals and plant products—compounds
of arsenic, copper, lead, manganese, zinc, and other minerals,
pyrethrum from the dried flowers of chrysanthemums,
nicotine sulphate from some of the relatives of tobacco, and
rotenone from leguminous plants of the East Indies.
What sets the new synthetic insecticides apart is their
enormous biological potency. They have immense power not
merely to poison but to enter into the most vital processes of
the body and change them in sinister and often deadly ways.
Thus, as we shall see, they destroy the very enzymes whose
function is to protect the the body from harm, they block the
oxidation processes from which the body receives its energy,
they prevent the normal functioning of various organs, and
they may initiate in certain cells the slow and irreversible
change that leads to malignancy.
Yet new and more deadly chemicals are added to the list
each year and new uses are devised so that contact with these
materials has become practically worldwide. The production
of synthetic pesticides in the United States soared from
124,259,000 pounds in 1947 to 637,666,000 pounds in
1960—more than a fivefold increase. The wholesale value of
these products was well over a quarter of a billion dollars.
But in the plans and hopes of the industry this enormous
production is only a beginning.
A Who's Who of pesticides is therefore of concern to us all.
If we are going to live so intimately with these
chemicals—eating and drinking them, taking them into the
very marrow of our bones—we had better know something
about their nature and their power.
[Excerpted from Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, published by Houghton Miff Jin Company, Boston. Copyright 1062 by Rachel
L. Carson. Reprinted by permission.)
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Pesticides:
A Consumer's
Guide to Safer
Use
What is a "pest"? An insect, a
fungus, a weed, a rodent, a mite, a
mollusc, a nematode: any plant, animal,
or microorganism that is bothersome,
causes economic losses, or acts as a
disease vector. If people want to get rid
of pests, they use pesticides:
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides.
rodenticides, molluscicides,
nematicides. etc.
The similarity between these words
and a word like "homicide" is no
coincidence. The word element "cide"
derives from the Latin verb that means
"to kill." Simply put, a pesticide is a
killer; that is what it is supposed to be.
But in dealing with a killer, one must be
wary, prudent. One must, to quote
Shakespeare, "make assurance double
sure." This Special Section of EPA
Journal is designed to help you, the
consumer, to be "double sure" that,
when you deal with pesticides, you do
so as safely as current technology
allows.
Pests have been around for a long,
long time. The dinosaur may be extinct.
but a prehistoric monster of another
sort, the cockroach, has been crawling
the earth since the Carboniferous period
"A Consumer's Guide to Safer Pesticide
Lrse" first appeared as a special section
in the May 1987 issue of the EPA Jour-
nal. Susan Te/ada of EPA's Office of
Public Affairs edited the section.
Thanks are oived to many EPA em-
ployees who made valuable contribu-
tions to this section. Frank Davido.
/an Auerbach, Vivian Prunier. Gary Bol-
lard. Tom Elhvanger. Christine Cillis,
and Karen Flagstad. Special thanks to
U'endy Butler and Carol Panasevvich of
EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs and
to Karen Slimak. president of Applied
Science and Technology, Inc.
•*lj '
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-------
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some 350 million years ago. Until
recently, people had to tolerate lice in
their clothing, worms in their food, fleas
in their bedding. But throughout
history, pests have brought problems far
worse than these discomforts. Diseases
transmitted by insects, rodents, and
bacteria led to deadly epidemics.
Famines resulted when locusts, fungi,
and other pests destroyed crops. During
the Great Potato Famine of 1845-49, for
example, Ireland lost almost a third of
its population.
Attempts to use chemicals to control
pests have been made since ancient
times. But it wasn't until World War II,
when many new chemicals were
manufactured for military purposes, that
many pesticide chemicals in use today
were developed.
For several years following the war.
pesticides were viewed as a sort of
miracle. People rushed to use them, and
to use more and more of them, more
and more frequently. Pesticides could
do the job: they could control
long-standing pest problems, eradicate
disease, increase crop yields, and the
range of their potential ill effects was
not apparent.
Then, 25 years ago, in 1962, Rachel
Carson's book. Silent Spring, was
published, and the way people would
look at pesticides changed forever.
Carson warned that the indiscriminate
use of pesticides was poisoning the
natural world. Since Silent Spring,
advances in scientific knowledge and
technology have shown many early fears
about pesticides to be well-founded.
Some cases in point:
• Until fairly recently it was believed
that ground water was protected from
contamination by soil and rock.
Pesticides were thought to be absorbed
by. and bound to, soil until they
degraded. But in 1979. two pesticide
chemicals were discovered in ground
water in several states. Since then, at
least 17 pesticides have been detected
in ground water in 23 states.
• Modern technology has advanced to
the point where chemicals can be
detected in soil and water in minute
quantities, as low as one part per
billion. According to Farm Journal, that's
like finding one copper slug in $10
million worth of pennies.
• Although health risks associated with
many pesticides are still unknown, data
are beginning to accumulate. Last
The Economics of
Pesticides
Pesticides have taken on a crucial
role in the U.S. economy.
Agricultural production now
depends on pesticides, as does an
entire industry sector of
manufacturers, formulators, and
distributors. The following
estimates of U.S. pesticide markets
for 1985 are based on information
from a variety of sources.
• Pesticide use in the U.S. more
than doubled in 21 years, from 540
million pounds of active
ingredients in 1964 to over 1
billion pounds in 1985. While the
agricultural sector has always
accounted for most of this use, its
percentage share has increased,
from 59 percent of total U.S. use in
1964 to 77 percent in 1985.
• Farmers spent $4.6 billion on
pesticides in 1985, nearly four
percent of their total farm
production expenditures.
• Pesticides are used on as many
as two million farms, in 75 million
households, and bv 40,000
commercial pest control firms fa
figure that covers structural as well
as agricultural custom applicators).
Together, these users spent $6.6
billion on pesticides in 1985.
• Thirty major companies produce
most of the basic, technical
pesticide active ingredients sold
and used in the United States. One
hundred smaller companies also
produce pesticide active
ingredients.
• In addition to producers, the
pesticide industry includes more
than 3,000 companies that
formulate pesticides—mixing
active with inert ingredients to
produce end use products—and
29,000 distributors of pesticide •
products.
• More than 11,000 people are
employed by pesticide producers
to do production work only—a
figure that does not include those
employed in research and
development. Tens of thousands
more are employed by pesticide
formulators and distributors.
• Pesticide producers spent $410
million on research and
development in 1985, of which
$120 million went to R&D related
to EPA registration requirements.
• About 400 million pounds of
pesticide active ingredients are
exported each year; 100 million
pounds are imported.
Pesticides are used on approximately
fivo million U.S. /arms for a 1985 total
investment of $4.6 billion. Here a
farmer looks over his wheat crop to
/udge the results of his ivork.
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September, the National Cancer Institute
reported that, in a study of Kansas
farmers, those who were exposed to the
chemical 2,4-D—a popular herbicide in
agriculture and home lawn care
products—were more likely to develop a
certain type of cancer than those who
were not exposed.
• We now know that insects and other
pests develop resistance or immunity to
pesticides. In fact, according to the
World Resources Institute, the number
of species of insect pests resistant to one
or more pesticides almost doubled
between 1969 and 1980, and insect
resistance cost U.S. farmers $150
million in crop losses and increased
applications of chemicals in 1984.
• Some early pesticides—like DDT and
other chlorinated hydrocarbon
compounds—were found to persist
almost indefinitely in the environment.
They move up through the food chain,
from animal or plant organisms to birds,
fish, animals, and eventually to humans
through food, and cause adverse health
effects in some species. DDT was
banned in 1971. Use of most of the
other chlorinated hydrocarbons has also
been banned or sharply restricted,
although some uses still are on the
market.
The cumulative result of these
discoveries has been that EPA now
ranks control of commercially used
pesticides as one of its top priorities.
Americans depend heavily on
pesticides. The United States applies
about 45 percent of all pesticide
production to only 7 percent of the
world's cultivated land. While most
pesticides in the United States are used
on farms (see box, "The Economics of
Pesticides"), home and garden use
accounted for 14 percent of user
expenditures for pesticides in 1985.
EPA's task, under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act, is to ensure that the risks pesticides
pose to human health and the
environment do not outweigh the many
benefits that pesticides provide. Your
task—whether you are among the legion
of home and garden pesticide users, or
whether your only contact with
pesticides comes when you pick out an
orange in the supermarket—is to make
informed decisions about pesticides.
This Special Section of EPA Journal
will give you information to help you
make those decisions, and your
decisions will make a difference, o
How
Regulates
Pesticides
If the neighborhood kids mix up some
lemonade, they can set up a stand on
the street corner and sell their
concoction by the glass. Luckily for all
involved, the decision to produce,
market, and use pesticides cannot be
made so easily. All pesticides marketed
in the U.S. must be registered by EPA.
Pesticide regulation, which is
governed by the Federal Fungicide,
Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act, or
FIFRA, and the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act, or FFDCA, is a very
complicated process. EPA has
"registered" approximately 50,000
pesticide products chiefly on the basis
of their active ingredients—the
biologically active components in those
products. How the Agency handles each
registration submission depends on
whether the product is entirely new or
whether one or more uses already are
registered.
New Pesticides
EPA is responsible under FIFRA for
registering new pesticides to ensure
that, when used according to label
directions, they will not present
unreasonable risks to human health or
the environment. The law requires the
Agency to take into account economic,
social, and environmental cost and
benefits in making decisions. In other
words, pesticide registration is a
pre-market review and licensing
program for all pesticides marketed in
the U.S., whether of domestic or foreign
origin.
Pesticide registration decisions are
based on Agency evaluation of test data
provided by applicants. Required
studies include testing to show whether
a pesticide has the potential to cause
adverse effects in humans, fish, wildlife,
and endangered species. Potential
human risks include acute reactions
such as toxic poisoning and skin and
eye irritation, as well as possible
long-term effects like cancer, birth
defects, or reproductive system
disorders. Data on "environmental fate,"
or how a pesticide behaves in the
environment, also are required so that
EPA can determine, among other things,
whether a pesticide poses a threat to
ground or surface water.
Most registration decisions are for
new formulations containing active
ingredients already registered with EPA,
or new uses of existing products. Other
registration decisions include
applications by states or federal
agencies for emergency exemptions to
allow special use of a pesticide for a
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limited time to cover an unexpected,
localized pest outbreak; registrant
applications for experimental use
permits to develop data supporting full
registration of a new chemical or new
use; conditional registrations pending
full data development for products
containing existing active ingredients;
and for tolerances (or maximum residue
levels allowed) to support registrations
of pesticides on food or feed crops.
Tolerances
Under the FFDCA, EPA sets tolerances,
or maximum legal limits, for pesticide
residues on food commodities marketed
in the U.S. The purpose of the tolerance
Continued on page 6
The pesticide protecting (he ivheat in
this grain elevator in Kudona, .Arkansas,
has had to be registered by EPA. Many
considerations enter into registering a
product such as extensive data to shou
whether or not the pesticide has the
potential for causing adverse effects in
humans, domestic animals and ivildlife.
and whether the chemical poses a
threat to ground or surface ivater. There
are approximately 50,000 registered
pesticide products in commerce.
EPA Options for
Regulation
In regulating pesticides under
FIFRA, EPA chooses from a variety
of options:
(D EPA can continue registration
with no changes. (Risks and
benefits are already in balance.)
(2) EPA can modify the terms and
conditions of the registration to
lower risks.
If the risk is to people who mix,
load, and apply the pesticide, EPA
can require:
• Protective clothing, such as
gloves, hats, respirators,
long-sleeve shirts, long pants,
and/or chemical-resistant aprons.
• Restrictive use of the pesticide,
or use only by persons who have
been certified by the state as
qualified to apply pesticides.
• Prohibition of certain
formulation types, such as dusts or
sprays.
• Protective equipment, such as
enclosed vehicles or closed
mixing/loading systems.
• Warning statements on the label,
such as cancer or birth defect
risks, to encourage greater
compliance with risk reduction
measures stated on the label.
• Reductions in application rates
or in the frequency of applications.
• Prohibition of certain
application methods, such as aerial
spray or backpack sprayers.
• Integrated pest management
practices, such as mechanical
methods or spraying only where
infestation has occurred.
If the risk is to farmworkers who
reenter treated fields, EPA can
require:
• Reentry intervals, which restrict
farmworkers from entering a field
for a certain period of time, unless
they are wearing specified
protective clothing.
• Changes in formulation type or
application rates.
• Posting of signs to warn
farmworkers that treatment has
occurred.
If the risk is to consumers of crops
which have been treated with
pesticides, EPA can require:
• Longer preharvest intervals, so
residues will have more time to
dissipate.
• Changes in the manufacturing
process to reduce levels of
contaminants or impurities.
• Reduction in application rates or
frequencies.
(3) EPA can cancel use of the
pesticide. In such a case, EPA can
either cancel all uses; cancel
certain uses where risks are
particularly high; or phase in
cancellation to allow the
development of alternative
chemicals or technologies.
(4) EPA can suspend use of a
pesticide, on a regular or an
emergency basis, if the Agency
believes the pesticide poses an
imminent hazard. Suspension halts
the use of a pesticide until a
decision on its registration can be
made through the cancellation
process.
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program is to ensure that U.S.
consumers are not exposed to unsafe
food-pesticide residue levels.
Since residue chemistry and
toxicology are far more advanced now
than when pesticides were first
registered in this country, EPA is
upgrading its traditional tolerance
system. Changes include refining dietary
consumption estimates, allowing more
extensive use of group tolerances for
related crops, and calling-in data to
bring the data base up to contemporary
standards. Individual tolerances for
existing pesticides also are being
reassessed as part of the reregistration
process for old pesticides. And, finally,
EPA is revoking tolerances for cancelled
pesticides and setting "action levels"
(for enforcement purposes) for those
cancelled pesticides which take many
years to completely break down in the
environment.
Old Pesticides
Old pesticides registered and in use
before current scientific standards were
established also must be evaluated by
the "no unreasonable adverse effects"
guidelines applied to new pesticides. To
ensure that previously registered
pesticides meet current scientific and
regulatory standards, FIFRA requires
"reregistration" of all existing
pesticides. This is being accomplished
through EPA's "Registrations Standards"
and "Data Call-In" programs.
To produce Registration Standards,
EPA reviews its data on existing active
ingredients to establish various
conditions registrants must meet for
reregistration of pesticide products
containing old active ingredients. In
order to obtain important data before
the Agency completes, or even begins, a
Registration Standard, EPA issues a Data
Call-in to registrants which identifies
data needed for reregistration of the
pesticide.
These data are used to determine
reregistration conditions. Such
conditions may include submission of
additional data; compliance with
product composition, labeling, and
packaging requirements; certain changes
in application methods and label
directions; and restricting some or all
uses of the pesticides to certified
applicators.
EPA is proceeding with Registration
Standards on the basis of clusters of
similar-use pesticides, such as
termiticides, grain fumigants, and
fungicides. High-volume and food-use
pesticides are being assessed first.
When the Agency receives data
indicating a pesticide might cause
unreasonable adverse effects, EPA may
begin a Special Review of that pesticide
to determine whether or not regulatory
action is needed.
Special Review is an intensive
analysis of all the data on a pesticide;
its risk and its benefits. When the
analysis is complete, the Agency chooses
one of the many regulatory options
available—anything from keeping the
current registration "as is" to an
emergency suspension of the pesticide.
(See box on EPA options for regulating
pesticides.)
Finally, since EPA's pesticide
regulation is an open process, outside
experts review EPA's proposed and final
pesticide regulatory actions. This
includes a scientific review of all
cancellations, regulations, and other
major policy actions by an independent
Scientific Advisory Panel composed of
scientists nominated by the National
Institutes of Health and the National
Science Foundation; and a benefits
review by the Secretary of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture to make sure
EPA considered the agricultural benefits
of the pesticide in proposed actions.
The quality of regulatory decisions is
enhanced by the active participation of
those affected. Accordingly, EPA's
Office of Pesticide Programs encourages
public participation in regulatory
decision-making by keeping industry,
commodity, user, farmworker, and
public interest groups informed of the
progress of each decision as it wends its
way through the regulatory process.
Information about proposed pesticide
actions also is available through
organizations involved in pesticide
activities, and through the Federal
Register.
The field of pesticide regulation is
very complex, merging science, public
policy, and law. Since scientific
knowledge constantly changes, as do the
needs of society, the pesticide
regulatory process is far from static. Old
chemicals posing unreasonable risks are
being taken off the market; new, more
thoroughly tested products are replacing
them. EPA will continue to update
pesticide decisions as knowledge
increases and improves. D
Federal Statutory
Authorities
The Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA) governs the licensing, or
registration, of pesticide products.
No pesticide may be marketed in
the U.S. until EPA reviews an
application for registration,
approves each specific use pattern,
and assigns a product registration
number and a pesticide producing
establishment number.
Registration decisions are based
upon data demonstrating that use
will not result in unreasonable
human health or environmental
effects. In other words, FIFRA
balances the risks a pesticide may
pose with its benefits to society.
FIFRA was first enacted in 1947.
The principal amendments were
passed in 1972, establishing the
"no unreasonable adverse effects"
standard, the risk/benefit approach,
and the task of re-evaluating all
previously registered pesticides.
The Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) governs,
among other things, pesticide
residue levels in food or feed crops
marketed in the U.S. Before a
pesticide can be registered under
FIFRA for use on these crops, EPA
sets a tolerance which specifies
an upper limit of allowable
pesticide residues on the crop.
Exemptions may be granted when
scientific data establish that the
residues do not present a hazard to
public health. Tolerances are
intended to be enforcement tools
and are set no higher than
necessary to legitimize registered
applications of pesticides. A
tolerance is not necessarily the
maximum safe level of pesticide
residue.
The Food and Drug
Administration and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture are
responsible for enforcing pesticide
tolerances set by EPA, and for
taking necessary regulatory action.
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Human
Exposure to
Pesticides
Because chemical pesticides are so
widely used in our society, and
because of the properties of many of the
chemicals, low levels of pesticide
residues may actually be found
throughout much of our environment,
and may reach us in a variety of
ways—through food, water, and air.
In regulating pesticides, EPA strives
to ensure that lawful use of these
products will not result in harmful
exposures. Proper use of registered
products should yield residue levels
that are well within established safety
standards. Therefore, the average
American's exposure to low-level
residues, though fairly constant, should
not cause alarm.
Still, many people want to learn what
choices they can make to further reduce
any potential risk associated with the
presence of low-level pesticide residues
in the environment, while still enjoying
the benefits that pesticides offer. Risk
stems both from the toxicity of a
chemical and the degree and duration of
an individual's exposure to it. You
cannot change the inherent toxicity of
pesticide products. But by limiting your
exposure to these products, you can
keep your risks to a minimum.
Below you will find descriptions of
the main pathways of human exposure
to pesticides, as well as suggestions on
ways to reduce overall exposure and
attendant risks. If, however, you suspect
that you suffer from serious chemical
sensitivities, consult an expert to
develop a more personally tailored
approach to managing this problem.
Exposure Through Home Usage
While it is true that, over a lifetime, diet
is the most significant source of
pesticide exposure for the general
public, on a short-term basis, the most
significant exposure source is personal
pesticide use.
Fruits and vegutables should be ivashed
thoroughly nith ivuler. scrub them ivith
a brush and peel them, if possible.
An array of pesticide products,
ranging widely in toxicity and potential
effects, is available "off the shelf" to the
private user. Agency statistics show that
about 91 percent of U.S. households use
pesticides. No special training is
required to purchase or use these
products, and no one is looking over the
user's shoulder, monitoring his
vigilance in reading and following label
instructions. Yet many of these products
are hazardous, especially if they are
stored, handled, or applied improperly.
To minimize the hazards and
maximize the benefits that pesticides
bring, exercise caution and respect
when using any pesticide product. You
will find many tips on how to handle
pesticides covered elsewhere in this
Special Section. Some of the tips bear
repeating.
• When you must use a pesticide, read
and follow all label directions and
precautions. EPA regards labeling as the
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primary means of conveying vital
information about the product. Label
directions are legally enforceable,
carrying the weight of law. Therefore, if
mishaps occur during your use of a
registered pesticide, you may be held
legally responsible. More importantly,
deviating from the label may damage
your health and/or property. Consider
pesticide labeling to be what it is
intended to be: your best guide to using
pesticides safely and effectively.
• Pretend that the pesticide product
you are using is more toxic than you
think it is. Take special precautions to
ensure an extra margin of protection for
yourself, your family, and pets.
• Don't use more pesticide than the
label says. You may not achieve a
higher degree of pest control, and you
will certainly experience a higher
degree of risk.
• If you hire a pest control firm to do
the job, ask the company to use the least
toxic or any chemical-free pest control
means available. For example, some
home pest control companies offer an
electro-gun technique to control termite
and similar infestations by penetrating
infested areas and "frying" the problem
pests without using any chemicals.
• And remember: sometimes a
non-pesticidal approach is as
convenient and effective as its chemical
alternatives. Consider using such
alternative approaches whenever
possible.
Exposure Through Food
Commercial Food
Throughout life—beginning even before
birth—we all are exposed to pesticides.
A major exposure route is through our
diets. We constantly consume small
amounts of pesticides. Field-grown raw
agricultural commodities, as well as
meat, poultry, eggs, and milk, are all
likely to contain measurable pesticide
residues. Ingesting pesticides along with
our food is a price we pay for using
these chemicals to produce an
abundant, varied food supply.
EPA sets standards, called tolerances,
to limit the amount of pesticide residues
that legally may remain in food or feed
marketed through U.S. channels of
commerce. Both domestic and imported
foods are monitored by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) to
ensure compliance with these
tolerances. (See the article on
enforcement.) Further, since residues
degrade over time and through
processing, residue concentrations in or
on most foods are well below
established tolerance levels by the time
the foods are purchased.
Although EPA does limit dietary
pesticide exposure through tolerances,
you may wish to take extra precautions.
You can take several steps to reduce
your exposure to residues in purchased
food.
• Rinse fruit and vegetables thoroughly
with water; scrub them with a brush
and peel them, if possible. Although
this surface cleaning will not remove
"systemic" pesticide residues taken up
into the growing plant, it will remove
much of the existing surface residues,
not to mention any dirt.
• Cook or bake foods to reduce the
amount of some (but not all) pesticide
residues.
• Trim the fat from meat and poultry.
Discard the fats and oils in broths and
pan drippings, since residues of some
pesticides concentrate in fat.
• Take note of any available
information. EPA provides fact sheets
on many frequently-used agricultural
pesticides to aid you in making more
informed choices about the foods you
buy and eat.
Home-grown Food
Growing some of your own food can be
both a pleasurable activity and a way to
reduce your exposure to pesticide
residues in food. But, even here, there
are some things you may want to do to
assure that exposure is limited.
• Before converting land in an urban or
suburban area to gardening, find out
how the land was used previously.
Choose a site that had limited (or no)
chemical applications and where drift
or runoff from your neighbor's activities
will not result in unintended pesticide
residues on your produce. Choose a
garden site strategically to avoid these
potential routes of entry, if possible.
If you are taking over an existing
garden plot, be aware that the soil may
contain pesticide residues from previous
gardening activities. These residues may
remain in the soil for several years,
depending on the persistence of the
pesticides that were used. Rather than
waiting for the residues to decline
naturally over time, you may speed the
process.
• Plant an interim, non-food crop like
annual rye grass, clover, or alfalfa. Such
crops, with their dense, fibrous root
systems, will take up some of the
lingering pesticide residues. Then
discard the crops—don't work them
back into the soil—and continue to
alternate food crops with cover crops in
the off season.
• During sunny periods, turn over the
soil as often as every two to three days
for a week or two. The sunlight will
break down, or photodegrade, some of
the pesticide residues.
Once you do begin gardening, develop
strategies that will reduce your need for
pesticides while maintaining good crop
yields.
• Concentrate on building your garden's
soil, since healthy soil grows healthy
plants. Feed the soil with compost,
manure, etc., to increase its capacity to
support strong crops.
• Select seeds and seedlings from
hardy, disease-resistant varieties. The
resulting plants are less likely to need
pesticides in order to flourish.
• Avoid monoculture gardening
techniques. Instead, alternate rows of
different kinds of plants to prevent
significant pest problems from
developing.
• Rotate your crops yearly to reduce
plant susceptibility to over-wintered
pests.
• Become familiar with integrated pest
management (IPM) techniques, so that
you can manage any pest outbreaks that
do occur without relying solely on
pesticides. (See article on consumer
usage.)
• Mulch your garden with leaves, hay,
grass clippings, shredded/chipped bark,
or seaweed. Avoid using newspapers to
keep down weeds, and sewage sludge to
fertilize plants. Newsprint may contain
heavy metals; sludge may contain heavy
metals and pesticides, both of which
can leach into your soil.
Food from the Wild
While it might seem that hunting your
own game, catching your own fish, or
gathering wild plant foods would
reduce your overall exposure to
pesticides, this isn't necessarily so. Wild
foods hunted, caught, or gathered in
areas where pesticides are most
frequently used outdoors may contain
pesticide residues. Migratory species
also may bear residual pesticides if
these chemicals are used anywhere in
their fly ways.
Tolerances generally are not
established or enforced for pesticides
found in wild game, fowl, fish, or
-------
Pesticides: They're Everywhere
Angelwing. . . Moses in the
Cradle. . . Adam's
Needle. . . Wandering Jew. . . St.
John's Wort. . . Devil's
Ivy. . Jacob's Ladder. . .Star of
Bethlehem. . .
These religious allusions come not
from a collection of Biblical
commentary, but from "Category
31, Ornamental Herbaceous
Plants," one of 99 categories in an
EPA compilation of possible
pesticide application sites. The
EPA list illustrates two important
facts about pesticides: not all are
used in agriculture, and not all
that are used in agriculture are
used to grow fruits and vegetables.
You probably already know
about some of the following places
where pesticides are used. Others
may surprise you. All of the
categories come from the list,
"EPA Site Categories for Preparing
and Coding Pesticide Labeling."
(Remember that "pesticides"
include fungicides, herbicides,
rodenticides, disinfectants,
nematicides, etc., as well as
insecticides.)
• Fiber crops—cotton and hemp,
for example.
• Specialized field crops, such as
tobacco.
• Crops grown for oil, such as
castor bean and safflower.
• Forest trees and Christmas tree
plantations.
• Ornamental lawns and turf, like
golf fairways.
• Ornamental shrubs and vines,
like mistletoe.
• General soil treatments, such as
manure and mulch.
• Household and domestic
dwellings
• Processed non-food products —
textiles and paper, for example.
• Fur and wool-bearing animals,
such as mink and fox; laboratory
and zoo animals; and pets.
(Pesticides are used in animal
sprays, dips, collars, wound
treatments, litter and bedding
treatments, etc.)
• Dairy farm milk-handling
equipment.
• Wood protection treatments,
such as those applied to railroad
ties, lumber, boats, and bridges.
• Aquatic sites, including
swimming pools, diving boards,
fountains, and hot tubs.
• Uncultivated, non-agricultural
areas, such as airport landing
fields, tennis courts, highway
rights-of-way, oil tank farms,
ammunition storage depots,
petroleum tank farms, saw mills,
and drive-in theaters.
• General indoor/outdoor
treatments, in bird roosting areas,
for example, or mosquito
abatement districts.
• Hospitals. Pesticide application
sites include syringes, surgical
instruments, pacemakers, rubber
gloves, bandages, and bedpans.
• Barber shops and beauty shops.
• Mortuaries and funeral homes.
• Industrial preservatives used to
manufacture such items as paints,
vinyl shower curtains, and
disposable diapers.
• Articles used on the human
body, like human hair wigs,
contact lenses, dentures, and
insect repellants.
• Refuse and solid waste sites.
Home trash compactors and
garbage disposals fall in this
category.
• Specialty uses, such as
mothproofing and preserving
animal and plant specimens in
museum collections.
plants. Thus, if you consume food from
the wild, you may want to take the
following steps to reduce your exposure
to pesticide residues.
• Although wild game is very lean and
thus carries a relatively small body
burden of pesticides, avoid hunting in
areas where pesticide usage is very
high.
• Avoid fishing in water bodies where
water contamination is known to have
occurred. Pay attention to posted
signs warning of contamination.
• You may want to consult with fish
and game officials where you plan to
hunt or fish to determine whether there
are any pesticide problems associated
with that area.
• When picking wild plant foods, avoid
gathering right next to a road, utility
right-of-way, or hedgerow between farm
fields which probably has been treated
(directly or indirectly) with pesticides.
Instead, seek out fallow fields, deep
| woods, or other areas where pesticide
use is unlikely.
• When preparing wild foods, trim fat
from meat, and discard skin of fish to
remove as many fat-soluble pesticide
residues as possible. For wild plant
foods, follow the tips provided for
commercial food.
Exposure Through Water
Whether it conies from surface or
ground-water sources, the water flowing
from your tap may contain low levels of
pesticides.
When pesticides are applied to land, a
certain amount may run off the land
into streams and rivers. This runoff,
coupled with industrial discharges, can
result in low-level contamination of
surface water. In certain hydrogeologic
settings—sandy soil, for example, over a
ground-water source that is near the
surface—pesticides can leach down to
the ground water.
EPA's Water Program sets standards
and provides advisory levels for
pesticides and other chemicals that may
be found in drinking water. Public
municipal water systems test their water
periodically and provide treatment or
alternate supply sources if residue
problems arise. Private wells generally
are not tested unless the well owner
requests such analysis.
If you get your drinking water from a
private well, you can reduce the chance
Pesticides are used in swimming
pools to ward off bacteria and
aJgae.
-------
of contaminating your water supply by
following these guidelines.
• Be cautious about using pesticides
and other chemicals on your property,
especially if the well is shallow or is not
tightly constructed. Check with your
EPA regional office or county
cooperative extension service before
using a pesticide outdoors, to determine
whether it is known or suspected to
leach to ground water. Never use or mix
a pesticide near your wellhead.
• To avoid surface pesticide
contamination problems, be sure your
well extends downward to aquifers that
are below, and isolated from, surface
aquifers, and be sure the well shaft is
tightly sealed. If you have questions
about pesticide or other chemical
residues in your well water, contact
your state or county health department.
• If your well water is analyzed and
found to contain pesticide residue levels
above established or recommended
health standards, you may wish to use
an alternate water source such as
bottled water for drinking and cooking.
The best choice is distilled spring water
in glass bottles. Ask your local bottler
for the results of a recent pesticide
analysis.
Exposure Through Air
Outdoors, air currents may carry
pesticides that were applied on adjacent
property or miles away. But there are
steps you can take to reduce your
exposure to airborne pesticide residue,
or drift, outdoors. To reduce your
exposure to airborne pesticides:
• Avoid applying pesticides in windy
weather (when winds exceed 10 mph).
• Use coarse droplet nozzles to reduce
misting.
• Apply the spray as close to the target
as possible.
• Keep the wind to your side so that
sprays and dusts do not blow into your
face.
• If someone else is applying pesticides
outdoors near your home, stay indoors
with your pets and children, keeping
doors and windows closed. If it is very
windy during the pesticide application,
stav inside for an hour or two. If
pesticides are applied frequently near
your home (if you live next to fields
receiving regular pesticide treatment),
consider planting a buffer zone of
thick-branched trees and shrubs upwind
to help serve as a buffer zone and
windbreak.
• In many areas, local governments
require that the public be notified in
advance of area-wide or broad-scale
pesticide spray activities and programs,
through announcements in newspapers,
letters to area residents, or posting of
areas to be treated. Some communities
have also enacted "right to know"
ordinances which require public
notification, usually through posting, of
lawn treatments and other small-scale
outdoor pesticide uses. If your local
government does not require
notifications, either for large- or
small-scale applications, you may want
to work with local officials to develop
such requirements.
Indoors, the air you breathe may bear
pesticide residues long after a pesticide
has been applied to objects in your
home or office, or to indoor surfaces
and crawl spaces. Such problems are
becoming increasingly apparent.
Pesticides dissipate more slowly indoors
than outdoors. In addition, energy
efficiency features built into many
homes reduce air exchange, aggravating
the problem. To limit your exposure to
indoor pesticide residues:
• Use pesticides indoors only when
absolutely necessary, and then use only
limited amounts. Provide adequate
ventilation during and after application.
If you hire a pest control company,
oversee its activities carefully. (See box,
"How to Choose a Pest Control
Company".)
• If pesticides are used inside your
home, air out the house often, since
outdoor air generally is fresher and
purer than indoor air. Open doors and
windows, and run overhead or whole
house fans to exchange indoor air for
outside air rapidly and completely.
• If pesticides have been used
extensively and an indoor air
contamination problem has developed,
clean—scrub—all surfaces where
pesticides may have settled, including
cracks and crevices. Consult a
knowledgeable professional for advice
on appropriate cleaning materials if soap
and water are insufficient.a
Consumers and
Pesticides:
Toward an
Informed
Coexistence
THEY'RE THERE. Whether you see
them or not, you know they're
there—in your home, your vegetable
garden, your lawn, your fruit and shade
trees, your flowers, and on your pets.
They are pests—insects, weeds, fungi,
rodents, and others.
American households and their
surrounding grounds have the dubious
honor of being host not only to the most
common structural pests (termites,
cockroaches, fleas, rodents), but also to
a huge array of pests that are more
commonly associated with agriculture.
Because pests are all
around—sometimes creating a nuisance
but sometimes causing severe financial
loss—consumers increasingly have
turned to pesticides to control them,
and EPA registers thousands of
pesticide products for use in and
around homes.
An EPA survey of household
pesticide use nationwide concluded that
nine out of 10 American households use
pesticides. Of those people participating
in the survey, less than 50 percent read
pesticide labels for information
regarding application procedures and
preventive measures, and only nine
percent used pesticide products with
caution; 85 percent used them without
reservation. Few users sought additional
information on pesticides from outside
sources such as county agricultural
extension agents.
Although the survey was conducted
in 1976 and 1977, there is every reason
to believe that household pesticide use
has only increased in the last 10 years.
In light of this fact, it is important that
consumers make informed choices about
pest control. Those choices will
determine, in part, their overall levels of
exposure and associated risk. The
course of action taken should be based
on achieving the desired result for the
desired period of time, using the least
toxic method, or combination of
methods, to treat the problem.
10
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Before you can control a pest, you must
know what it is. Therefore, the most
important first step in pest control is a
rather obvious one: identify the pest.
Some pests, or signs of them, are
unmistakable. Others are not. For
example, some plant "diseases" are
really indications of insufficient soil
nutrients.
Three sources are particularly helpful
in identifying pests and appropriate pest
control methods: reference books, such
as insect field guides or gardening
books; county agricultural extension
agents; and pesticide dealers.
Before you actually begin pest control,
decide what level of treatment you
want. Is anyone in the family or
neighborhood particularly sensitive to
chemical pesticides? Does your lawn
need to be totally weed-free? Do you
need every fruit, vegetable, or flower
you grow? Will you accept some
blemished produce? In other words, do
you need to eliminate all weeds and
insects, or can you tolerate some pests?
Remember that total pest elimination is
virtually impossible, and requires more
chemical follow-up than pest control.
Remember, too, that to manage any pest
effectively, you must use each method
correctly and abide by all pertinent
local, state, and federal regulations.
Continued on page 14
Tips for Safe
Use
Pesticides are not safe. They are
produced specifically because they
are toxic to something. By heeding
all the following tips, you can
reduce your risks when you use
pesticides.
• All pesticides legally marketed
in the U.S. must bear an
EPA-approved label; check the
label to make sure it bears an EPA
registration number.
• Before using a pesticide, read
the entire label. Even if you have
used the pesticide before, read the
label again—don't trust your
memory. Read all directions,
precautions, and the Statement of
Practical Treatment before you
begin. Use of any pesticide not in
accordance with label directions
and precautions is subject to civil
and/or criminal penalties.
• Do not use a restricted use
pesticide unless you are a certified
applicator. These products are too
dangerous to be used without
special training.
• Follow use directions carefully.
only the amount directed, at
the time and under the conditions
specified, and for the purpose
listed. Don't think that twice the
dosage will do twice the job. It
won't. What's worse, you may
harm yourself, others, or whatever
you are trying to protect.
• Look for one of the following
signal words on the front of the
label. It will tell you how
poisonous a pesticide is if
swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed
through skin.
"DANGER" means highly
poisonous;
"WARNING" means moderately
poisonous;
"CAUTION" means least
hazardous.
• Wear whatever degree of
protective clothing the label
recommends: long sleeves or
pants, impervious gloves, vinyl or
rubber (not canvas or leather)
footwear, hat, safety goggles, and a
respirator. Personal protective
clothing usually is available at
home building supply stores.
• If you must mix or dilute the
pesticide, do so outdoors or in a
well-ventilated area. Mix only the
amount you need and use
recommended portions. (See box,
"Determining Correct Dosage.")
• Keep children and pets away
from areas where you mix or apply
pesticides.
• If a spill occurs, clean it up
promptly. Don't wash it away.
Instead, sprinkle with sawdust,
vermiculite, or kitty litter; sweep
into a plastic garbage bag; and
dispose with the rest of your trash.
• Remove toys from the area to be
treated. Remove food, dishes, pots,
and pans before treating kitchen
cabinets, and don't let pesticides
get on these surfaces. Wait until
shelves dry before refilling them.
• Allow adequate ventilation
when applying pesticides indoors.
Go away from treated areas for at
least the length of time prescribed
by the label. When spraying
outdoors, close the windows of
your home.
• Most surface sprays should be
applied only to limited areas; don't
treat entire floors, walls, or
ceilings. Before spraying, remove
birds and pets, and cover
aquariums and fish bowls.
Continued on page 12
11
-------
Continued from p. 11
• Never place rodent or insect
baits where small children or pets
can reach them.
• When applying spray or dust
outdoors, cover fish ponds, and
avoid applying pesticides near
wells. Always avoid
over-application when treating
lawn, shrubs, or garden. Runoff or
seepage from excess pesticides
may contaminate water supplies.
Excess spray may leave harmful
residues on home-grown produce.
• Keep herbicides away from
non-target plants. Avoid applying
any pesticide to blooming plants,
especially it you see honeybees or
other pollinating insects around
them. Avoid birds' nests when
spraying trees.
• Never spray or dust outdoors on
a windy day.
• Never smoke while applying
pesticides. You could easily carry
traces of the pesticide from hand
to mouth. Also, some products are
flammable.
• Never transfer pesticides to
containers not intended for them,
such as empty soft drink bottles.
Keep pesticides in containers that
clearly and prominently identify
the contents. Properly refasten all
childproof caps.
Determining
Correct Dosage
So much information is packed
onto pesticide labels that there is
usually no room to include
examples of each dilution
applicable to the multitude of
home-use situations. As a result,
label examples may inadvertently
encourage preparation of more
pesticide than is needed. The
excess may contribute to overuse,
safety problems related to storage
and disposal, or simply wasted
expense of unused pesticide.
Determining the correct dosage
for different types of pesticides
requires some simple calculations.
The following information can
help you to prepare the minimum
quantity of pesticide needed for
your immediate use situation.
• Shower and shampoo throughly
after using a pesticide product.
Wash the clothing that you wore
when applying the product
separately from the family laundry.
To prevent tracking chemicals
inside, also rinse boots and shoes.
• Before using a pesticide product,
know what to do in case of
accidental poisoning. (See article
on pesticide emergencies.)
• In a sink or toilet, triple rinse
tools or equipment, including any
containers or utensils used to mix
the chemicals, to remove residues,
• Evaluate the results of your
pesticide use.
For example, the product label
says "For the control of aphids on
tomatoes mix 8 fluid ounces of
pesticide into \ gallon water and
spray until foliage is wet." Your
experience has been that your six
tomato plants require only one
quart of pesticide to wet all the
foliage. Therefore, only 2 fluid
ounces of the pesticide should be
mixed into 1 quart of water. Why?
Because a quart is one*fourth of a
gallon, and 2 fluid ounces mixed
into 1 quart makes the same
strength spray recommended by
the label, but in a quantity that can
be used up all at once.
Consumers can solve problems
similar to this one with careful
arithmetic, good measurements,
and intelligent use of the
information provided here.
How To Measure
If you need to determine the size
of a square or rectangular area,
such as a lawn for a herbicide
application, measure and multiply
the length and width. For example,
an area 10 feet long by 8 feet wide
contains 80 square feet (sq. ft.).
Common area measurements may
involve square yards (1 square
yard = 9 sq. ft.) or square feet (1
sq. ft. = 144 square inches).
If you need to determine the
volume of a space such as a room,
measure and multiply the room's
length, width, and height. For
example, a space 10 feet long, 8
12
-------
If pesticide in spilled, it should he
covered Tvifh kitty litter, sciivduM or
verrniculite. and sirept info a pKi.sIn:
bag to be disposed of uJong u idi Irtish.
Fumes from u pesticide should not be
inhaJed. dnd smoking while mixing
makes a person tuice a* vulnerable lo
inhuJafion.
feet wide, and 8 feet high contains
a volume of 640 cubic feet (cu ft.).
You would use this procedure, for
instance, for an aerosol release to
control cockroaches.
Most residential-use pesticides
are measured in terms of volume.
Some common equivalents are:
1 gallon (gal.)
1 quart
1 pint
1 cup
= 128 fluid ounces (fl. oz.)
= 4 quarts (qt.)
= 8 pints (pt.)
= 16 cups
= 32fl,oz.
= 2 pt
= 4 cups
= 16fl.oz
= 2 cups
= Bfl.oz.
1 tablespoon (tbsp.) = 1/2 fl. oz.
= 3 teaspoons (tsp.)
1 teaspoon
= 1/6fl.oz.
In measuring teaspoons or
tablespoons of pesticide, use only
level spoonfuls, and never use the
same measuring devices for food
preparation.
The following tables provide
examples to help you convert label
information to your specific use
situations. "Amount" can be any
measure of pesticide quantity.
However, the same unit of measure
must be used on both sides of the
chart. For example, 8 fluid ounces
per gallon of water is equivalent to
2 fluid ounces per quart of water.
Pesticide Label Says Mix
Amount of Pesticide Per
8 units 1 gal. water
16 units 1 gal. water
32 units 1 gal. water
128 units 1 gal, water
Pesticide Label Says Apply
Amount of Pesticide Per
1 unit 1,000 sq.ft. EQUALS
2 units 1,000 sq. It. EQUALS
5 units 1,000 sq.ft. EQUALS
10 units 1,000 sq. ft. EQUALS
Pesticide Labe! Says Release
Aerosol Cans Per
1 10,000 cu. ft. EQUALS
1 5,000 cu. ft. EQUALS
1 2,500 cu. ft. EQUALS
Amount 01 Pesticide Pei
1 qt. Water
EQUALS 2 units
EQUALS 4 units
EQUALS 8 units
EQUALS 32 units
A'Tiounioi Pesticide Pet
20,000 sq. ft. 10,000 sq. ft.
20 units 10 units
40 units 20 units
100 units 50 units
200 units 100 units
Cans Pei
20,000 cu. ft. 1 0,000 cu. ft.
2 I
4 2
8 4
1 pt. Water
1 unit
2 units
4 units
16 units
500 sq. ft.
1/2 unit
1 unit
21/2 units
5 units
5,000 cu. ft.
don't use
1
2
Not all dosage rates are included
in the above examples. For rates
not included, remember that, for
pesticides not diluted with water,
proportionally change both the
quantity of pesticide and the area,
volume, or number of items
treated. For example, one-half
pound per 1,000 sq. ft. is
equivalent to one-quarter pound
per 500 sq. ft. For a pesticide
which is diluted with water,
proportionally change the quantity
of pesticide, the quantity of water,
and the area, volume, or number of
items treated. For example,
one-half pound of pesticide in 1
gallon of water applied to
1,000 sq. ft. is equivalent to \ pound
of pesticide in 2 gallons of water
applied to 2,000 sq. ft.
There is a point at which
measurements needed for smaller
quantities of pesticides are too
minute to be accurately measured
with typical domestic measuring
devices. In such cases, the user
can either mix the larger volume,
realizing that there will be leftover
material; obtain a more accurate
measuring device, such as a
graduated cylinder or a scale
which measures small weights; or
search for an alternative pesticide
or less concentrated formulation of
the same pesticide.
13
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r 77
Prevention
There is another important question to
ask in making pest control decisions: Is
there something about the site that
supports the pest population that can lie
eliminated7 The answer to this question
may lead you to take some common
sense steps to modify pest habitat:
• Remove water sources. All pests.
vertebrate or invertebrate, need water
for survival. Fix leaky plumbing and do
not let water accumulate in your home.
That means no water in trays under
your houseplants overnight if you have
a cockroach infestation.
• Remove food sources (if the pest's
food is anything other than the plant or
animal you are trying to protect]. This
could mean placing your food in sealed
glass or plastic containers, not leaving
your pet's tood out for long periods of
time, and placing your refuse in tightly
covered, heavy-gauge garbage cans.
• Remove or destroy pest shelter. Caulk
cracks and crevices to Control
cockroaches; remove from under or
around homes piles of wood that attract
termites; remove and destroy diseased
plants, tree primings, and fallen fruit
that might harbor the pest.
• Remove breeding sites. The presence
of pet manure encourages flies: litter
encourages rodents; and unneeded
standing water provides a perfect
breeding place tor mosquitoes.
• Remove sources of preventable stress
to plants (flowers, trees, vegetable
plants, and turf). Plant at the optimum
time of year. Mulch to reduce
competition and maintain even soil
temperature and moisture. Provide
adequate water.
Non-chemical Controls
If you can practice some of the above
techniques, you will reduce your
chances, or frequency, of pest
infestation. However, if the infestation
is already present, do you have any
control alternatives besides chemical
pesticides?
The answer is an emphatic "yes." One
of several non-chemical treatment
alternatives may be appropriate. Like
preventive techniques, these actions
depend on the site and the pest.
Treatment possibilities include:
• Biological treatments, including
predators such as purple martins,
praying mantises, and lady bugs;
parasites; and pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms like Bacillus
thuringiensis and milky spore disease.
EPA policy is encouraging the
development of biological pesticides.
• Cultural treatments, including land
use, water use. structural and landscape
design, spacing, selection of
disease-resistant seed or plant varieties,
trap crops, crop rotation, and
diversification.
• Mechanical treatments, including
cultivating to control weeds,
hand-picking weeds from turf and pests
from plants, trapping to control rodents
and some insects, and screening living
space to limit mosquito and fly access.
Some people find it difficult to
believe that non-chemical control
methods can be effective. But the fact is,
these methods really work. They do
have some disadvantages: results are not
immediate, and more work may be
needed to make a home or garden less
attractive to pests. But the advantages of
non-chemical methods are many. They
are generally effective for longer periods
of time. They do not create hardy,
pesticide-resistant pest populations.
And they can be used without
safeguards, because they pose virtually
no hazards to human health or the
environment.
Chemical controls
If you decide that chemical pesticides
can provide the best solution to your
problem, and that you want to control
the pests yourself rather than turning
the problem over to a certified pest
control operator, then you have an
important decision to make: which
product to choose. Before making that
decision, learn as much as you can
about a product's active ingredient, its
biologically active agent. How rapidly
does the active ingredient break down?
Is it suspected of causing chronic health
effects? Is it toxic to non-target wildlife
and housepets? Is it known, or
suspected, to leach into ground water?
Here again, your county agricultural
extension agents, reference books,
pesticide dealers, your state lead
pesticide agency, or your regional EPA
office may be able to provide assistance.
When you have narrowed your
choices about active ingredients, you are
ready to select a pesticide product.
Choose the least toxic pesticide that can
achieve the results you desire. Read the
label. It will not only list active
ingredients, but also the target pests (for
example, mites, flies, Japanese beetle
grubs, broad-leafed weeds, algae, etc.),
and where the product may be used (for
example, lawns, specific vegetable
crops, roses, swimming pools, etc.). Be
sure that the place where you intend to
use the pesticide is included among the
sites listed on the label.
This gardener has decided (o avoid
*'i using pesticides and is weeding her
•F vard bv hand.
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Storing and Disposing of Pesticides Safely
Unlike farmers, who often handle large quantities of pesticides, homeowners
tend to use only small amounts. But small amounts can be just as dangerous
as large amounts, if they are not stored or disposed of properly. The following
tips on home storage and disposal can help you handle pesticides safely.
Storage
• Buy only enough product to carry you through the use season to reduce
storage problems.
• Store pesticides away from children and pets as soon as you bring them
into the house, and again immediately after each use. A locked cabinet in a
well-ventilated utility area or garden shed is best.
• Store flammable liquids outside living quarters and away from an ignition
source.
• Mix only the amount you need for the job at hand.
• Never put pesticides in cabinets with, or near, food, medical supplies, or
cleaning materials. Always store pesticides in their original containers,
complete with labels that list ingredients, directions for use, and antidotes in
case of accidental poisoning. Apply transparent tape over the label to keep it
legible. Never transfer pesticides to soft drink bottles or other containers that
children may associate with something to eat or drink. Always properly
refasten child-proof closures or lids.
• Avoid storing pesticides in places where flooding is possible, or in open
places where they might spill or leak into the environment. If you have any
doubt about the content of a container, throw it out.
Disposal
• Follow label directions for guidance on product (and container) disposal.
• To dispose of less than a full container of a liquid pesticide, leave it in the
original container, with the cap securely in place to prevent spills or leaks.
Wrap the container in several layers of newspapers and tie securely. Then
place the package in a covered trash can for routine collection with municipal
refuse (unless your municipality has other requirements).
• Wrap individual packages of dry pesticide formulations in several layers of
newspaper, or place the package in a tight carton or bag, and tape or tie it
closed. As with liquid formulations, place the package in a covered trash can
for routine collection.
• Empty pesticide containers can be as hazardous as full ones, because of
residues remaining inside. It is unlikely that residues can be removed from
empty containers, so never reuse these containers. Handle as above. Treated
this way, small quantities of pesticides are not hazardous to trash collectors or
to the environment. In a properly operated sanitary landfill for municipal
refuse, the pesticides will be sufficiently diluted and contained to negate any
hazardous effects.
• If you do not have a regular trash collection service, crush and then bury
empty pesticide containers at least 18 inches deep in a place on your property
away from water sources, where you grow food, or where children may play.
Do not puncture or burn a pressurized container. It could explode.
• Do not burn pesticide boxes or sacks either outdoors or in apartment
incinerators, since this can create poisonous fumes or gases, or cause an
explosion. Do not pour leftover pesticides down the sink or into the toilet.
Chemicals in the pesticides could interfere with the operation of septic tanks
or pollute waterways, because many municipal wastewater treatment systems
cannot remove all pesticide residues.
• If you have doubts about proper pesticide disposal, contact your local
health department.
• Rinsings and spent dips should be washed down your drain—never pour
ontp the ground.
• Puncture any non-pressurized containers to prevent re-use.
• Watch for local "amnesty days" or opportunities to bring hazardous
household wastes to properly equipped collection stations.
The product you choose will fall into
one of two general classifications of
chemical pesticides: broad spectrum or
selective. Broad spectrum pesticides are
effective against a wide variety of pests.
Selective pesticides are formulated to
control specific pests. Chemical
pesticides may also be direct poisons,
attractants, repellants, growth regulators,
protectants, or systemics.
Active ingredients are formulated in
many ways; choose the formulation best
suited to your site and the pest you are
trying to control. The most common
types of home use pesticide
formulations include:
• Solutions, which contain the active
ingredient and one or more additives,
and readily mix with water.
• Aerosols, which contain one or more
active ingredients and a solvent. They
are ready for immediate use as is.
• Dusts, which contain active
ingredients plus a very fine dry inert
carrier such as clay, talc, or volcanic
ash. Dusts are ready for immediate use
and are applied dry.
• Granulars, which are similar to dusts,
but with larger and heavier particles for
broadcast applications.
• Baits, which are active ingredients
mixed with food or other substances to
attract the pest.
• Wettable powders, which are dry,
finely ground formulations that
generally are mixed with water for spray
application. They also may be used as
dusts.
Depending on the type of formulation
you choose, you may need to dilute or
pre-mix the product. Prepare only the
amount that you need for each
application; don't prepare larger
amounts to store for possible future use.
(See box, "Determining Correct
Dosage.")
Once you have identified the pest,
selected the right pesticide, and
determined proper dosage, you are
ready to use the product. Application
technique and timing is every bit as
important as the material used, so read
the label for directions. That advice—to
read the label—is repeated so often in
this guide that it may become tiresome.
But in fact, the advice cannot be
-------
repeated often enough. Read the label
before you buy a product, and again
before you mix it. before you apply it,
before you store it, and before you
throw it away. The directions on a label
are there for a very good reason: to help
you achieve maximum benefits with
minimum risk.
Chemical pesticides help consumers
eliminate pests in and around their
homes; disinfect their living quarters;
and protect their homes from termites,
clothing from moths, and plants from
insects and disease. But these benefits
depend upon safe use of the products.
Chemical pesticides also have their
disadvantages. They must be used very
carefully to achieve results and protect
users and the environment. Effects are
generally temporary, and repeated
treatments may be required. And,
largely because of pesticide use,
hundreds of insect species, plant
pathogens, and weeds have developed
genetic resistance to more than one
category of pesticide.
Therefore, to achieve best results
when you do use chemical pesticides,
use preventive and non-chemical
treatments along with them. This will
reduce the need for repeated
applications.
The common assumption that
chemical pesticide use equals pest
elimination is incorrect. The assumption
that readily available pesticides are safe
is also incorrect. You should always
evaluate your pesticide use, both before
and after you treat. You should weigh
the benefits of short-term chemical
pesticide control against the even
greater benefits of long-term control
using a variety of techniques.
Knowledge of a range of pest control
techniques gives you the ability to pick
and choose among them. Pests,
unfortunately, will always be around us,
and, if you know about all pest control
options, you will know what to do the
next time THEY'RE THERE, a
How to
Choose a Pest Control
Company
Termites are chomping away at
your house. Roaches are taking
over your kitchen. Mouse
droppings dot your dresser drawer.
You've got a pest control problem
and, you've decided, it's not one
you can solve on your own. You're
concerned by what you've heard
about accidents caused by careless
or ignorant exterminators.
Nevertheless, an exterminator is
what you decide you need.
If you find yourself in a
situation like this, what can you
do to be sure that the pest control
company you hire will do a good
job? Here are some questions you
can ask:
1. Does the company have a good
track record?
Don't rely on the company
salesman to answer this question;
research the answer yourself. Ask
around among neighbors and
friends; have any of them dealt
with the company before? Were
they satisfied with the service they
received? Call the Better Business
Bureau or local consumer office;
have they received any complaints
about the company?
2. Does the company have
insurance? What kind of
insurance? Can the salesman show
some documentation to prove that
the company is insured?
Contractor's general liability
insurance, including insurance for
sudden and accidental pollution,
gives you as a homeowner a
certain degree of protection should
an accident occur while pesticides
are being applied in your home.
More pesticide doesn't necessarily mean
more control, but it may mean more
risk. Read the label carefully for
desirable quantities.
-------
Contractor's workmen's
compensation insurance can also
help protect you should an
employee of the contractor be
injured while working in your
home.
In most states, pest control
companies are not required to buy
insurance, but you should think
twice before dealing with a
company that is uninsured.
3. Is the company licensed?
Regulatory agencies in some states
issue state pest control licenses. It
is illegal to do business in those
states without such a license.
Although the qualifications for a
license vary from state to state, at a
minimum the license requires that
each company have a certified
pesticide applicator (certified
applicators are trained and
certified to use or supervise the
use of any pesticide which is
classified for restricted use)
present in the office on a daily
basis to supervise the work of
exterminators using restricted-use
pesticides. If restricted-use
pesticides are to be used in your
home, make sure the pest control
operator's license is current. Also
ask if the company's employees
are bonded.
You may want to contact your
state lead pesticide agency (usually
the state Department of
Agriculture) to ask about its
pesticide certification and training
programs and to inquire if periodic
re-certification is required for pest
control operators.
In addition to the licenses
required in some states, some
cities also issue pest control
licenses. Again, qualifications
vary, but possession of a city
license—where they are
available—is one more assurance
that the company you are dealing
with should be reputable and
responsible.
4. Is the company affiliated with a
professional pest control
association?
Professional associations—
whether national, state, or local—
keep members informed of new
developments in pest control
methods, safety, training, research,
and regulation. They also have
codes of ethics that members agree
to abide by. The fact that a
company, small or large, chooses
to affiliate itself with a
professional association signals its
concern for the quality of its work.
5. Does the company guarantee its
work in writing? What does the
guarantee cover? How long does it
remain in effect?
As with insurance, you should
think twice about dealing with a
company that is not willing to
guarantee its work. Be sure to find
out what you must do to keep the
guarantee in force. For example, in
the case of termite control
treatments, a guarantee may be
invalidated if structural alterations
Eire made without prior notice to
the pest control company.
6. Is the company willing, and
able, to discuss the treatment
proposed for your home?
Selecting a pest control service is
just as important as selecting other
professional services. Look for the
same high degree of competence
you would expect from a doctor or
lawyer. The company should
inspect your premises and outline
a recommended control program,
including what pests are to be
controlled; the extent of the
infestation; what pesticide
formulation will be used in your
home and why; what techniques
will be used in application; what
alternatives to the formulation and
techniques could be used instead;
what special instructions you
should follow during treatment to
reduce your exposure (such as
vacating the house, emptying the
cupboards, removing pets, etc.);
and what you can do to minimize
the pest problem in the future.
Contracts should be jointly
developed. Any safety concerns
should be noted and reflected in
the choice of pesticides used.
These concerns could include
allergies, age of occupants (infants
or elderly), or pets. You may want
to get two to three bids from
different companies—by value, not
price. What appears to be a bargain
may merit a second look.
Even after you have hired a
company, you should continue
your vigilance. Evaluate results. If
you have reason to believe that
something has gone wrong with
the pesticide application, contact
your state agency with
responsibility for pesticides
(usually the state Department of
Agriculture). Don't let your guard
down, and don't stop asking
questions.
17
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"Someone's
Been Poisoned.
Help!"
What To Do in a
Pesticide Emergency
In recent years, control of pesticides
has been one of EPA's top priorities.
While pesticides can provide
substantial benefits, they can also pose
significant risks. The potential for a
pesticide to produce injury depends
upon several factors:
• Toxicity of the active ingredient.
Toxicity is a measure of the inherent
ability of a chemical to produce injury.
Some pesticides, such as pyrethrins,
have low human toxicity while others,
such as sodium fluoroacetate, are
extremely toxic.
• Dose. The greater the dose of
pesticide, i.e. the amount absorbed, the
greater the risk of injury. Dose is
dependent upon the absolute amount of
the pesticide absorbed relative to the
weight of the person. Therefore, small
amounts of pesticide might produce
illness in a small child while the same
dose in an adult might be relatively
harmless.
* Route of absorption. Swallowing a
pesticide usually creates the most
serious problem. In practice, however,
the most common route of absorption of
pesticides is through the skin, and the
more toxic pesticides have caused
fatalities through this route.
• Duration of exposure. The longer a
person is exposed to pesticides, the
higher the level in the body may occur.
However, there is a point at which an
equilibrium will develop between the
intake and the output. Then, the level
will no longer continue to increase. This
point may be either above or below the
known toxic level.
• Physical and chemical properties.
The distribution and the rates of
breakdown of pesticides in the
environment significantly alter the
likelihood that injury might occur.
• Population at risk. Those who run
the greatest danger of poisoning are
those whose exposure is highest such as
workers who mix, load, or apply
pesticides. Those who pick or consume
pesticide treated foods have much lower
exposures. But as other articles in this
Special Section have pointed out, the
general public also faces the possibility
of exposure. Pesticides may be
encountered in an office or home as the
result of a treatment for ant, roach, or
termite control. Pesticides may also be
encountered outdoors from area-wide
pest control application such as
mosquito abatement programs. One of
the points of highest exposure to some
pesticides occurs right in your own
backyard as you mix and apply
pesticides to your garden or lawn.
Recognizing Pesticide
Poisoning
As with any other chemical,
pesticides may produce injury
externally or internally.
External irritants may cause a
contact-associated skin disease which is
primarily of an irritant
nature—producing redness, itching, or
pimples. It may be an allergic skin
reaction, producing redness, swelling,
or blistering. The mucous membranes of
the eyes, nose, mouth, and throat are
also quite sensitive to chemicals.
Stinging and swelling can occur.
Internal injuries from any chemical
may occur depending upon where a
chemical is transported in the body.
Thus, symptoms are dependent upon
the organ involved. Shortness of breath,
clear sputum production, or rapid
breathing occurs as the result of injury
to the lung. Nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, or diarrhea may
occur as the result of direct injury to the
gastrointestinal tract. Excessive fatigue,
sleepiness, headache, muscle twitching,
and loss of sensation occur as the result
of injury to the nervous system. In
general, each class of pesticide has a set
of symptoms which are unique to that
particular class.
For example, organophosphate
pesticides may produce symptoms of
pesticide poisoning which affect several
different organs, and may progress very
rapidly from very mild to severe.
Symptoms may progress in a matter of
minutes from slight difficulty with
vision to paralysis of the diaphragm
muscle, causing inability to breathe.
Therefore, if someone develops
symptoms after working with pesticides,
seek medical help promptly to
determine if the symptoms are
pesticide-related. In certain cases, blood
or urine can be collected for analysis or
specific exposure tests can be made. It
is better to be too cautious than too late.
It is always important to avoid these
symptoms by minimizing your exposure
(and dose) when mixing and applying
pesticides by wearing gloves and other
protective clothing.
The appropriate first aid treatment
depends upon which pesticide was
used. Here are some tips for first aid
that may precede, but should not
substitute for, medical treatment:
• Poison on skin. Drench skin with
water, and remove contaminated
clothing. Wash skin and hair thoroughly
with soap and water. Dry victim and
wrap in blanket. Later, discard
contaminated clothing or thoroughly
wash it separately from other laundry.
• Chemical burn on skin. Drench skin
with water and remove contaminated
clothing. Cover burned area
immediately with loose, clean, soft
cloth. Do not apply ointments, greases,
powders, or other drugs. Later, discard
or thoroughly wash contaminated
clothing separately from other laundry.
• Poison in eye. Eye membranes absorb
pesticides faster than any other external
part of the body; eye damage can occur
in a few minutes with some types of
pesticides. Hold eyelid open and wash
eye quickly and gently with clean,
running water from the tap or a hose for
15 minutes or more. Do not use eye
drops or chemicals or drugs in the wash
water.
If poison is splashed in the eye, it can
damage sight quickly. To counteract
damage, the eyelid should be held open
and the eye washed quickly and gently
with clean running water/or 15 minutes
or more.
18
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• Inhaled poison. Carry or drag victim
to fresh air immediately. (If proper
protection for yourself is unavailable,
call for emergency equipment from the
fire department.) Open doors and
windows so no one else will be
poisoned by fumes. Loosen victim's
tight clothing. If the victim's skin is
blue or the victim has stopped
breathing, give artificial respiration, and
call rescue service for help.
If poison has been inhaled, the victim
should be carried or dragged into the
fresh air immediately.
• Swallowed poison. A conscious
victim should rinse his mouth with
plenty of water and drink up to one
quart of milk or water to dilute the
pesticide. Induce vomiting only if
instructions to do so are on the label. If
there is no label available to guide you,
do not induce vomiting if the victim has
swallowed a corrosive poison or an
emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution,
or if the victim is unconscious or is
having convulsions.
In dealing with any poisoning, act
fast; speed is crucial.
First Aid for Pesticide
Poisoning
First aid is the first step in treating a
pesticide poisoning. Study the product
label be/ore you use a pesticide,
especially the statement of treatment on
the pesticide label. When you realize a
pesticide poisoning is occurring, be sure
the victim is not being further exposed
to the poison before calling for
emergency help. An unconscious victim
will have to be dragged into fresh air.
Caution: Do not become poisoned
yourself while trying to help. You may
have to put on breathing equipment or
protective clothing to avoid becoming
the second victim.
When initial first aid has been
performed, get medical help
immediately. This advice cannot be
repeated too often. Bring the product
container with its label to the doctor's
office or emergency room where the
victim will be treated; if you bring the
container, keep it out of the passenger
space of your vehicle. The doctor needs
to know what chemical is in the
pesticide before prescribing treatment
(information that is also on the label).
Sometimes the label even includes a
telephone number to call for additional
treatment information.
A good resource in a pesticide
emergency is NPTN, the National
Pesticide Telecommunications Network.
Funded primarily by EPA and operating
out of the Texas Tech University School
of Medicine, NPTN is a toll-free
telephone service. Operators are on call
24 hours a day, 365 days a year, to
provide information on pesticides and
on recognizing and responding to
pesticide poisonings. If necessary, they
can transfer inquiries directly to
affiliated poison control centers.
National Pesticide
Telecommunications Network
Call Toll-Free
1-800-858-7378
NPTN operators can answer questions
about animal as well as human
poisonings. To keep your pets from
being poisoned, follow label directions
on flea and tick products carefully, and
keep pets off lawns that have been newly
treated with weed killers and
insecticides.
EPA is interested in receiving
information on any adverse effects
associated with pesticide exposure. If
you have such information, contact
Frank Davido, Pesticide Incident
Response Officer, Hazard Evaluation
Division (TS-769C), Office of Pesticide
Programs, EPA, 401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460 (telephone
703-557-0576). You should provide as
complete information as possible,
including any official investigation
report of the incident and medical
records concerning adverse health
effects. Medical records will be held in
confidence, a
Pesticide Accidents
in the United States
Question: How many Americans
are poisoned by pesticides each
year?
Answer: No one knows. There is
no centralized, nationwide, annual
survey to provide this information.
However, statistics available from
a variety of sources indicate that
the number of poisoning incidents
is significant.
The American Journal of
Emergency Medicine reported that
poison control centers across the
country received an estimated
85,000 calls in 1985 due to
pesticides. Many of the cases were
treated at home; 24 percent
received some kind of medical
attention. The report was based on
a sample of 48 percent of the
nation's poison control centers.
However, many of these calls
reflect concern about exposure
rather than the onset of an actual
illness.
Also in 1985, an estimated
20,000 persons were taken to U.S.
emergency rooms due to suspected
or actual exposure to toxic levels
of pesticides, according to the U.S.
Consumer Product Safety
Commission. Ten percent of those
going to emergency rooms were
admitted to the hospital for further
treatment and observation.
Pesticides were the second most
frequent cause of poisoning in
young children, following
medicines. The Commission's
report was based on a survey of 65
emergency rooms.
Based on data collected by the
National Center for Health
Statistics and reported in Vital
Statistics of the United States, Vol.
II, an average of 35 deaths per year
due to pesticide poisoning was
reported each year throughout the
1970s in the United States.
19
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Enforcing Pesticide Laws
Two laws govern pesticide use in this
country: the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
and the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Different federal
and state agencies enforce different
provisions of the two laws.
EPA is responsible under FIFRA for
registering pesticides and, under
FFDCA, for setting national tolerances
for residues resulting from use of
pesticides on agricultural crops.
Pesticide tolerances actually serve a
dual regulatory purpose: first, as a
dietary level of pesticide residue that is
considered acceptable; second, as an
indicator of proper pesticide use,
reinforcing FIFRA enforcement
programs.
EPA sets tolerance levels, but two
other federal agencies enforce them. The
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) are responsible for enforcing
tolerances for pesticide residues in food
and animal feed commodities that move
in interstate commerce, or are imported
into the U.S. Individual states also
monitor food commodities to ensure
their compliance with tolerances.
To carry out their enforcement efforts,
both FDA and USDA conduct
monitoring and surveillance programs.
Any commodity bearing residues in
excess of a tolerance, or in the absence
of a tolerance, is considered adulterated,
and may be subject to regulatory action
such as seizure for domestic products,
or barred entry into the U.S. for imports.
FDA enforces tolerances for all food and
feed items except meat, poultry, and egg
products, which are USDA's
responsibility.
If a pesticide is properly applied on a
crop for which it is registered, it is safe
to say that resulting residues will be
within tolerance limits. In fact, federal
and state authorities find that the vast
majority of foods sampled in tolerance
enforcement programs do not contain
illegal pesticide residues. FDA samples
about 12,000 food shipments each year
for pesticide residues, and reports an
overall "pass" rate of 96-98 percent for
both domestic and imported shipments.
Most of the problems found by FDA
indicate that a farmer has used a
pesticide registered for use on one crop
on a different crop, rendering the
residues illegal. This is true for both
domestic and imported commodities.
USDA reports only sporadic violations
of pesticide tolerances, with a "pass"
rate of over 99 percent for both
domestic and imported meat and
poultry products sampled and analyzed
by the USDA Food Safety and
Inspection Service.
Pesticide tolerances apply to
agricultural commodities "at the farm
gate." In general, residues tend to
dissipate, or break down, as time passes
after harvest. If pesticide residues are, in
fact, present at maximum tolerance
levels when produce leaves the farm,
they most likely will be below tolerance
level by the time the produce reaches
the consumer. In many cases, pesticide
residues may be further reduced by
washing, peeling, cooking, and
processing food. However, legal
tolerances are intended to protect
consumers from unsafe pesticide
residue levels, even if the residues are
not reduced below tolerance before the
food is consumed.
Through state/federal cooperative
enforcement agreements, all states
except Nebraska and Wyoming have
assumed, with EPA oversight, primary
enforcement responsibilities for
pesticide use violations. EPA sets FIFRA
enforcement policy and conducts
compliance monitoring and enforcement
in these two states.
Enforcement includes monitoring the
distribution and use of pesticides, and
issuing civil as well as criminal
penalties for violations. For example, it
is unlawful under FIFRA to use a
registered pesticide product in a manner
inconsistent with its label, to alter an
approved label, or to distribute in
commerce any adulterated or
misbranded product.
In addition to the various federal and
state agencies involved, you have a role
to play in enforcing pesticide laws.
Anyone who misuses a pesticide,
either deliberately or carelessly, or who
otherwise violates its labeling, may be
subject to civil or criminal penalties
under FIFRA. If you become aware of
pesticide misuse, or an accident
involving pesticide exposure, you
should report this information to your
state pesticide enforcement agency (in
most states, that agency is the state
Department of Agriculture) or to your
EPA regional office.
With your cooperation, the multitude
of federal and state agencies that enforce
pesticide laws can do an even better job
of making sure that the pesticides used
around your home and on your food are
safely used, n
20
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Today's Change, Tomorrow's
Improvement:
Trends in Regulation
While there are many steps you can
take right now to use pesticides
more safely, what developments are
underway to improve the pesticides to
which you may be exposed during your
lifetime? What changes can you expect
to see in the pesticides of the future?
New pesticides come on the market at
the rate of about 15 per year. They are
thoroughly tested before being
approved, and cannot be sold or used if
there are major data gaps or if the data
show that a chemical poses an
unreasonable risk to man or the
environment.
Many of the new pesticides are
target-specific; that is, they kill what
they are supposed to kill and don't kill
what they are not supposed to kill. They
dissipate quickly and, therefore, are less
likely to bioaccumulate up the food
chain. New pesticides tend to be less
acutely hazardous than many older
pesticides; accidental exposure is less
likely to cause injury or immediate
illness. Potential for chronic toxicity
remains a problem. However, some ot
the new pesticides and many older
pesticides may cause delayed effects
such as chronic disease or cancer.
Insecticide trends
For a variety of reasons, many of the
insecticides introduced in the 1940s and
1950s have gone off the market in the
past few years. Some were found to
pose unacceptable health risks to
people. Many are environmentally
persistent: residues of insecticides
banned years ago are still turning up
today in soil, in water, and in our
bodies. Some old insecticides no longer
were efficacious as insects developed
resistance to them. Patents expired on
many old insecticides, leading to
increased competition and shrinking
profit margins. A final factor leading to
the demise of old insecticides is EPA's
demand for a complete data base for
continued registration of each chemical.
To prepare such a data base would, in
many cases, require extensive testing. If
the product does not general • enough
sales to justify such an investment, it
will probably go off the market.
What will take the place of the
disappearing insecticides?
Synthetic pyrethroids are replacing
some old, broad-spectrum insect
poisons. They are chemically related to
the safe but expensive pyrethrins
obtained from crushed
chrysanthemums.
Another trend is toward use of
biochemicals, such as synthetic sex
attractants that lure male insects to
traps. These insecticides pose very low
hazards to people and non-target
animals. However, they work only with
a relatively small number of insects.
Microbiological pesticides are isolates
of insect pathogens found in nature that
are being used to infect and kill
susceptible insects. These also pose very
low hazards to people and non-target
animals. But their effectiveness is
limited because each insect pathogen is
usually capable of infecting only a
limited number of insect species.
The latest trend is the development of
novel microbiological pesticides. These
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may be exotic microbial species that do
not occur in the habitat of intended use,
or they may be genetically engineered
microbes. The latter typically are made
by inserting genes that carry a desired
trait—such as pathogenicity against a
particular insect—into a harmless
indigenous microbe. While novel
microbiological pesticides hold great
promise for achieving highly targeted
pest control with little risk of
conventional adverse effects, they do
raise the specter of unknown risks. To
date, EPA has not approved any novel
microbiological pesticides for sale. EPA
has approved field testing of a microbe
that is supposed to prevent frost damage
in strawberries, but has not yet registered
any novel microbiological pesticides.
Herbicide trends
Old herbicides decline for many of the
same reasons as old insecticides. The
chief difference is that plant species
rarely develop resistance to herbicides.
(However, the presence of herbicides
favors the development of
pesticide-degrading soil microbes which
decrease herbicide effectiveness.)
The most noteworthy trend in this
area is the development of herbicides
that are effective at very low dosage
rates. A related trend is the
development of new application
technologies that permit very precise
dosing of target weeds. Together, these
two methods can minimize both
applicators' and sensitive species'
exposure to herbicides.
Genetic engineering technology holds
promise here too. For example, genes
for pesticide resistance could be
inserted in desired crops, which could
then flourish even in the presence of
herbicides. Or genes to fix nitrogen
could be inserted into ordinary soil
bacteria typically associated with
nitrogen-depleting crops. This would
decrease the need for synthetic
fertilizers and simplify crop-rotation
schedules.
Disinfectant trends
Conventional pesticides pose hazards
because they can work too well,
poisoning people and animals.
Disinfectants, on the other hand, pose
hazards because they may not work well
enough, exposing people to the
potentially dangerous bacteria and
viruses that they are supposed to kill.
To minimize disinfectant hazards, EPA
is targeting five areas for improvement:
ensuring consistency in efficacy tests;
predicting how well efficacy tests that
work in the research lab will work in
the home or hospital; ensuring quality
control in manufacturing; preventing
toxic effects; and accurate labeling and
advertising. EPA is also requiring
exposure and/or toxicity data on certain
kinds of disinfectants products.
Trends in risk assessment
Risk is assessed by relating toxicity to
exposure; the better the data on toxicity
and exposure, the better the risk
assessments. In using data to
characterize risk, EPA has developed a
"weight-of-evidence" rule to help ensure
consistency in assessing the
cancer-causing potential of a chemical.
Weight-of-evidence means that, when
EPA determines the potential of a
chemical for causing cancer, it considers
not only the results of the study in
question, but also its quality, as well as
22
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Genes/or pest resistance may in
the future be inserted into crops.
making the use of herbicides
unnecessary. Using a microscope
attached to a closed-circuit television,
geneticist Robert Griesbach prepares to
inject a chromosome into a petunia celJ.
magnified 15,000 times. Genetic
engineering for plants is still in its
infancy, but significant possibilities are
forecast.
the results of other studies on the same
kinds of test animals, and the results of
other kinds of predictive tests. EPA is
also beginning to use weight-of-evidence
to assess a chemical's potential to cause
non-cancer risks, such as reproductive
toxicity.
To improve its ability to predict
exposure pathways, EPA requires
registrants to submit data on
environmental fate, residues, and
worker exposure. The Agency has
developed a model for predicting a
pesticide's potential to contaminate
ground water, and a system for
estimating dietary exposure to
pesticides for various segments of the
U.S. population.
The trends are toward pesticides that
are more specific, less toxic, and more
thoroughly tested than the products
they are replacing. As "broad spectrum"
products disappear, users will need to
become better informed about chemical
and non-chemical methods that can be
used to manage pest problems.
In the future, use of pesticides will
pose fewer hazards to man and the
environment, possibly resulting in
improved health of farmworkers and
others who are occupationally exposed
to pesticides and improved vigor among
a myriad of wildlife species. Decreasing
dietary intake of highly toxic chemicals
will result in subtle but real
improvements in the health of the
general public.
The comprehensive testing of all
pesticide products will allow regulatory
officials to better evaluate health and
environmental risks before a pesticide is
introduced into the environment, or in
the case of existing products being
tested under the Agency's reregistration
program, to determine whether an old
product may remain on the market.
It remains to be seen whether our
society's commitment to these goals will
withstand the economic challenge posed
by them, n
Sources of Information on Pesticides
Information from EPA
The following EPA documents are
available upon request from EPA,
Office of Pesticide Programs,
(TS-766C), 401 M Street, S.W.,
Washington, B.C. 20460:
Pesticides Fact Book. Brief
summary of EPA pesticide
regulatory programs.
Labeling Fact Sheet. Brief
description of Agency
requirements for the contents of a
pesticide label.
Pesticide Safety Tips. Suggested
practices for consumers.
Suspended, Cancelled, and
Restricted Pesticides. List of
pesticides which, because of their
hazards, are no longer available for
use by the public.
Recognition and Management of
Pesticide Poisoning. Reference
manual designed for health care
professionals to help diagnose and
treat pesticide poisonings.
Categorizes pesticides according to
toxicity; describes symptoms or
signs of poisoning; and gives
information for confirming
diagnosis and antidotes.
EPA Journal, May 1987, and
reprints of this Special Section.
List of Pesticide Fact Sheets. Lists
the various fact sheets EPA has
printed. Each fact sheet, which
may be obtained separately,
describes a particular pesticide:
what it is used for, who makes it,
when it was registered, how toxic
it is, and regulatory action(s) the
Agency has taken on the pesticide.
The following EPA documents are
available upon request from EPA,
Public Information Center,
(PM-211 B), 401 M Street, S.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20460:
Pesticide Safety for Non-Certified
Mixers, Loaders, and Applicators.
Bilingual (Spanish/English),
illustrated handbook on safety
procedures. Contains guidance on
how to read labels, signs of
poisoning, first aid information,
protective clothing, and safe and
unsafe work practices.
Pesticide Safety for Farmworkers
Bilingual (Spanish/English),
illustrated handbook for
farmworkers on pesticide safety on
the farm and around the home.
Included are safe and unsafe
practices, signs of poisoning, first
aid information, guidance on how
to read a label, and information on
reentry times.
Information from Other
Sources
National Pesticide
Telecommunication Network. Call
1-800-858-PEST (7378) toll-free
to pesticide experts who
can provide information on:
recognizing and treating pesticide
poisoning; pesticide products;
pesticide cleanup and disposal;
contacts for animal poison centers;
enforcement contacts; pesticides
certification and training programs;
and pesticide laws.
National Pesticide Information
Retrieval System (NPIRSj. A
computer network of pesticide
data, including most
non-confidential federal pesticide
registration data; data from
participating states; product
names; names and percentages of
active ingredients in products;
names and addresses of
manufacturers and registrants; use
sites, crops, and pests on which a
product may be used; and EPA
registration numbers.
NPIRS may be accessed through
county agricultural extension
agents, land-grant universities,
state and federal regulatory offices,
crop consultants, pesticide dealers,
various user groups and
organizations, and others working
on pesticide-related activities.
County Agricultural Extension
Agents and pesticide dealers can
provide information on pesticide
use in your locality. Libraries and
book stores contain reference
books and magazines with
information on indoor and outdoor
use of both chemical and non-
chemical means of pest control.
23
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U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
REGIONAL ORGANIZATION
EPA Pesticide Contacts
Headquarters
Policy and Special Projects Staff
Office of Pesticide Programs
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
(703) 557-7102
Region 1
Director, Air Management Division
JFK Federal Building
Room 2311-AAA
Boston, MA 02224
(617) 223-2226
Region 2
Chief, Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Branch
Woodbridge Avenue
Building 209
Edison, NJ 08837
(212) 264-2525
Region 3
Chief, TSCA/FIFRA Enforcement
Section
841 Chestnut Street (3HW13)
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215) 597-8598
Region 4
Chief, Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Branch
345 Courtland Street NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404) 881-1727
Region 5
Chief, Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Branch
536 South Clark Street
Chicago, IL 60605
(312) 353-2291
Region 6
Director, Air and Waste
Management Division
1201 Elm Street
Dallas, TX 75270
(214) 767-2600
Region 7
Chief, Case Preparation and
Technical Assistance Section
727 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
(913) 236-2800
Region 8
One Denver Place
999 18th Street
Suite 1300
Denver, CO 80202
(303) 293-1603
Region 9
Chief, Pesticides and Toxics
Branch
215 Fremont Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 974-8071
Region 10
Chief, Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Branch
Mail Stop 524
1200 6th Street
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 442-5810
State Agencies
Region 1
Connecticut
Director
Dept. of Environmental Protection
Hazardous Materials Management
Unit
State Office Building
165 Capitol Avenue
Hartford, CT 06115
(203) 566-5148
Maine
Director, Pesticides Control Board
State Office Building-Station 28
Augusta, ME 04333
(207) 289-2731
Massachusetts
Chief, Pesticides Bureau
Dept. of Food and Agriculture
100 Cambridge Street, 21st Floor
Boston, MA 02202
(617) 727-7712
New Hampshire
Supervisor, Pesticides Control
Division
Dept. of Agriculture
85 Manchester Street
Concord, NH 03301
(603) 271-3550
Rhode Island
Chief, Division of Agriculture and
Marketing
Dept. of Environmental
Management
22 Hayes Street
Providence, RI 02903
(401) 277-2782
Vermont
Director, Plant Industry Division
Dept. of Agriculture
116 State Street, State Office
Building
Montpetier, VT 05602
(802) 828-2431
Region 2
New Jersey
Chief, Bureau of Pesticide Control
New Jersey Dept. of
Environmental Protection
380 Scotch Road
West Trenton, NJ 08265
(609) 530-1123
New York
Director, Bureau of Pesticides
Dept. of Environmental
Conservation
Rm. 404, 50 Wolf Road
Albany, NY 12233
(518) 457-7482
Puerto Rico
Director, Analysis and Registration
of Agricultural Materials
Puerto Rico Dept. of Agriculture
FOB 10163
Sanrurce, PR 00908
(809) 796-1710 or 1715
Virgin Islands
Director, Pesticide Programs
Division of Natural Resources
Management
Dept. of Conservation and Cultural
Affairs
111 Watergut Homes
Christiansted, St. Crorx
U.S. Virgin Islands 00820
(809) 773-0565
Region 3
Delaware
Delaware Dept. of Agriculture
FOB Drawer D
Dover, DE 19901
(302) 736^1815
District of Columbia
Division of Pesticides and
Hazardous Materials
Dept. of Environmental Services
District of Columbia
5010 Overlook Avenue SW
Washington, DC 20032
(202) 767-8422
Maryland
Chief, Pesticide Applicator's Law
Section
Maryland Dept. of Agriculture
50 Harry S. Truman Parkway
Annapolis, MD 21401
(301) 841-5710
Pennsylvania
Chief, Agronomic Services
Bureau of Plant Industry
Pennsylvania Dept. of Agriculture
2301 N. Cameron Street
Harrisburg, PA 17110
(717) 787-1843
Virginia
Supervisor, Virginia Dept. of
Agriculture and Consumer Service
FOB 1163
Richmond, VA 23209
(804) 786-3798
West Virginia
Director, Plant Pest Control
Division
West Virginia Dept. of Agriculture
Capitol Building
Charleston, WV 25305
(304) 348-2212
Region 4
Alabama
Director, Agriculture
Chemistry/Plant Industry Division
Alabama Dept. of Agriculture and
Commerce
FOB 3336
Montgomery, AL 36193
(205) 261-2656
Florida
Administrator, Dept. of Agriculture
and Consumer Services
Mayo Building, Room 213
Tallahassee, FL 32301
(904) 487-2130
Georgia
Chief, Pesticides Division
Dept. of Agriculture
19 Martin Luther King, Jr. Drive SW
Atlanta, GA 30334
(404) 656^958'
•i'U.S. Governmervt Printing Office: 1987-716-002/60697
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Kentucky
Director, Division of Pesticides
Kentucky Dept of Agriculture
Capitol Plaza Tower
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 564-7274
mjaauxufj|»
Director, Division of Plant Industry
Dept of Agriculture and
Commerce
POB 5207
Mississippi State, MS 39762
(601) 325-3390
North Carolina
Pesticide Administrator, Pest
Control Division
Dept. of Agriculture
State Agriculture Building
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919) 733-3556
South Carolina
Pesticide Supervisor, Plant Pest
Regulatory Service
210 Barre Hall, Clemson
University
Clemson, SC 29631
(803) 656-3005
Tennessee
Director, Plant Industries Division
Dept. of Agriculture
POB 40627, Melrose Station
Nashville, TN 37204
(615) 360-0117
Region 5
Illinois
Chief, Bureau of Plant and Apiary
Protection
Dept. of Agriculture
Ernmerson Building
Springfield, IL 62706
(217) 785-2427
Office of Health Protection
Dept. of Public Health
535 West Jefferson
Springfield, IL 62761
(217) 782^674
Indiana
Pesticide Administrator, Office of
the State Chemist
Dept. of Biochemistry
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907
(317) 494-1587
Michigan
Plant Industry Division
Dept. of Agriculture
Lewis Cass Building
Lansing, MI 48909
(517) 373-1087
Minnesota
Director, Division of Agronomy
Services
Dept. of Agriculture
90 West Plato Blvd.
St. Paul, MN 55107
(612) 297-1161, 296-1161
Ohio
Specialist in Charge of Pesticides
Dept. of Agriculture
8995 East Main Street
Reynoldsburg, OH 43068
(614) 866-6361
Wisconsin
Executive Assistant, Dept of
Agriculture
Trade, and Consumer Protection
POB 8911
Madison, WI 53708
(608) 267-9423
Region 6
Arkansas
Director, Division of Feed,
Fertilizer, and Pesticides
Arkansas State Plant Board
1 Natural Resources Rd.
Little Rock, AR 72205
(501) 225-1598
Louisiana
Office of Agricultural and
Environmental Sciences
Louisiana Dept. of Agriculture
POB 11453
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
(504) 925-3763
New Mexico
Chief, Division of Agricultural and
Environmental Services
New Mexico State Dept. of
Agriculture
POB 3150
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, NM 88003
(505) 646-2133
Oklahoma
Supervisor, Pest Management
Section
Plant Industry Division
Oklahoma State Dept. of
Agriculture
310 NE 28th Street
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
(405) 521-3863 or 3871
Texas
Director, Division of Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences
Texas Dept. of Agriculture
POB 12847
Austin, TX 78711
(512) 463-7524
Region 7
Iowa
Supervisor, Pesticide Control
Section
Iowa Dept. of Agriculture
Henry A. Wallace Building
East 7th Street and Court Avenue
Des Moines, IA 50319
(515) 281-8590
Kansas
Director, Plant Health Division
Kansas State Board of Agriculture
109 SW Ninth Street
Topeka, KS 66612
(913) 296-2263
Missouri
Supervisor, Bureau of Pesticide
Control
Dept. of Agriculture
POB 630
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-2462
Nebraska
Director, Bureau of Plant Industry
Nebraska Dept. of Agriculture
301 Centennial Mall
Lincoln, NE 68509
(402) 471-2341
Region 8
Colorado
Supervisor, Pesticide Section
Division of Plant Industry
Colorado Dept. of Agriculture
4th Floor, 1525 Sherman Street
Denver, CO 80203
(303) 866-2838
Montana
Administrator, Environmental
Management Division
Agriculture-Livestock Building
Room 317, Capitol Station
Sixth and Roberts
Helena, MT 59601
(406) 444-2944
North Dakota
Director, Plant Industries Division
Dept. of Agriculture
State Capitol
Bismarck, ND 58505
(701) 224-2231
South Dakota
Director, Division of Regulatory
Services
South Dakota Dept. of Agriculture
Anderson Building, 445 East
Capitol
Pierre, SD 57501
(605) 773-3375
Utah
Director, Division of Plant
Industries
Dept. of Agriculture
350 North Redwood Road
Salt Lake City, UT 84103
(801) 533-1107
Wyoming
Manager, Plant Industry
Wyoming Dept. of Agriculture
2219 Carey Avenue
Cheyenne, WY 82002
(307) 777-9321
Region 9
Arizona
Administrator, Board of Pesticide
Control
1624 West Adams, Suite 103
Phoenix, AZ 85007
(602) 271-3578
State Chemist, Agriculture
Experiment Station
POB 1586
Mesa, AZ 85201
(602) 833-5442
Executive Secretary, Structural
Pest Control Board
2207 South 48th, Suite M
Tempe, AZ 85282
(602) 271-3664
California
Assistant Director, Division of Pest
Management, Environmental
Protection, and Worker Safety
California Dept. of Food and
Agriculture
Sacramento, CA 95814
(916) 322-6315
Hawaii
Head, Division of Plant Industry
Hawaii Dept. of Agriculture
POB 22159
Honolulu, HI 96822
(808) 548-7124
Nevada
Administrator, Division of Plant
Industry
Nevada Dept. of Agriculture
POB 11100
Reno, NV 89510
(702) 789-0180
Guam
Director, Air and Land Programs
Division Guam Environmental
Protection Agency
POB 2999
Agana, GU 96910
American Samoa
Director, Dept. of Agriculture
POB 366
Pago Pago, American Samoa
96799
Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands
Executive Officer, Trust Territory
Environmental Protection Board
Office of the High Commissioner
Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands
Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950
Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands
Environmental Engineer, Division
of Environmental Quality
Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands
Dr. Torres Hospital
Saipan, Mariana Island 96950
Region 10
Idaho
Supervisor, Pesticide Specialist
and Registrar
Idaho Dept. of Agriculture
POB 790
Boise, ID 83702
(208) 334-3240
Oregon
Assistant Chief, Plant Division
Oregon Dept. of Agriculture
635 Capitol Street NE
Salem, OR 97301
(503) 378-3777
Washington
Pesticide Specialist
Washington Dept. of Agriculture
406 General Administration
Building
Olympia, WA 98504
(206) 735-5064
Alaska
Alaska Dept. of Environmental
Conservation
POB 1088
Palmer, AK 99645
(907) 745-3236
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The Environment.
From
AtoZ
From acid rain to
zooplankton, whatever the
environmental issue, you
can count on the EPA
JOURNAL for current,
comprehensive coverage.
Published 10 times yearly
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JOURNAL hones in on
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perennial problems that
beset the world we live in.
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treatment. The "greenhouse
effect." Hazardous waste
cleanups. Pesticides. The
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