DRAFT REPORT
     IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL
     OF HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
FROM  RUBBER  PROCESSING OPERATIONS
            Contract No. 68-02-1411
                   Task 17
               November 23, 1977
                     by

      T. J. Hoogheem, C. T. Chi, G. M. Rinaldi,
         R. J. McCormick, and T. W. Hughes

          Monsanto Research Corporation
               Dayton Laboratory
              Dayton, Ohio 45407
                 Project Officer

                   Karl Zobel
          Chemical and Petroleum Branch
     Emission Standards and Engineering Division
         Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711
                  Prepared for
     U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
        Office of Air and Waste Management
            Washington, D. C. 20460

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                          DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency
by Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton, Ohio, in fulfillment
of Contract No. 68-02-1411, Task 17.   The contents of this re-
port are reproduced herein as received from the contractor.  The
opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the
authors and not necessarily those of  the Environmental Protection
Agency.  Mention of company or product names is not to be con-
sidered as an endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency-

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              DRAFT REPORT
        IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL
         OF HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
     FROM RUBBER PROCESSING OPERATIONS
                    by

              T. J. Hoogheem
                 C. T. Chi
               G. M. Rinaldi
              R. J. McCormick
               T. W. Hughes

       Monsanto Research Corporation
             Dayton Laboratory
            Dayton, Ohio  45407
             November 23, 1977
     Contract No. 68-02-1411, Task 17
              Project Officer

                Karl Zobel
       Chemical and Petroleum Branch
Emission Standards and Engineering Division
    Research Triangle Park, N.C.  27711
               Prepared for

   U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
    Office of Air and Waste Management
           Washington, DC  20460

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                           PREFACE






     This work was conducted under contract with the Environ-



mental Protection Agency.  The intent of this study was to



develop guidelines for the control of volatile organic com-



pounds from specific sources from the rubber products indus-



tries.  The method employed was to seek actual operations



representing the best performance of existing emission control



technology and estimate the effectiveness of these systems.



The information was supplemented by a literature review, plant



visits and wide industrial experience.
                             111

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                           ABSTRACT






     This report describes a study of nine standard industrial




classified segments of the rubber industry undertaken for the




purpose of identifying and quantifying their hydrocarbon emissions,




The nine segments of the rubber industry studied are:




         SIC 2822   Synthetic Rubber




         SIC 3011   Tires and Inner Tubes




         SIC 3021   Rubber Footwear




         SIC 3031   Reclaimed Rubber




         SIC 3041   Rubber Hose and Belting




         SIC 3069   Fabricated Rubber Goods, N.E.C.




         SIC 3293   Seals, Gaskets, and Packing Devices




         SIC 3357   Wiredrawing and Insulating




         SIC 7534   Tire Retreading




In addition, control alternatives for hydrocarbon emission




reductions are given along with estimated costs of these




alternatives.   A prioritization of the emission reduction




potential based on new source performance standards is also



given.
                             IV

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                          CONTENTS

Section                                                    Page

Preface                                                     iii
Abstract                                                     iv
Figures                                                      ix
Tables                                                       xi

1.   Introduction                                             1

2.   Industry Definition                                      3
     2.1  Elastomer Industry                                  7
     2.2  Fabricated Rubber Products                          9
     2.3  Air Emissions Inventory and Total U.S.
          Hydrocarbon Burden                                 10

3.   Synthetic Elastomers Industry                           13
     3.1  Synthetic Elastomers                               13
          3.1.1  Emulsion Polymerization                     14
          3.1.2  Solution Polymerization                     25

4.   Tires and Inner Tubes                                   34
     4.1  Process Description                                34
          4.1.1  Compounding                                 35
          4.1.2  Tread and Sidewall Forming                  36
          4.1.3  Tire Cord and Belt Forming                  37
          4.1.4  Tire Bead Manufacture                       38
          4.1.5  Inner Liner Production                      39
          4.1.6  Tire Building                               39
          4.1.7  Green Tire Spraying                         39
          4.1.8  Molding and Curing                          40
          4.1.9  Grinding and Buffing Operations             40
          4.1.10 White Sidewall Painting                     40
     4.2  Inner Tube Manufacture                             42
     4.3  Emissions                                          43
          4.3.1  Compounding (Banbury Mixing)                45
          4.3.2  Milling                                     46
          4.3.3  Fabric Cementing                            47
          4.3.4  Calendering                                 4 8
          4.3.5  Extrusion                                   48
          4.3.6  Undertread and Tread End Cementing          49
          4.3.7  Green Tire Spraying                         49
          4.3.8  Curing                                      50
          4.3.9  Fugitive Emissions                          52
          4.3.10 Solvent Storage                             52
          4.3.11 Tire Building                               52
          4.3.12 Other Emission Sources                      53

5.   Rubber Footwear                                         54
     5.1  Process Description                                54
     5.2  Emissions                                          57
                              v

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                    CONTENTS (continued)

Section                                                    Page^

          5.2.1  Compounding                                 57
          5.2.2  Rubber Cementing                            59
          5.2.3  Latex Dipping and Drying                    60
          5.2.4  Curing                                      60
          5.2.5  Molding                                     61
          5.2.6  Milling and Calendering                     62

6.   Rubber Reclaiming                                       63
     6.1  Process Description                                63
          6.1.1  Metal Removal, Size Reduction, and
                 Fiber Separation                            64
          6.1.2  Depolymerization                            66
          6.1.3  Mixing, Refining, Straining, and
                 Packaging                                   VI
     6.2  Emissions                                          72
          6.2.1  Digestion                                   74
          6.2.2  Drying                                      74
          6.2.3  Milling                                     75
          6.2.4  Fugitive                                    75

7.   Rubber Hose and Belting                                 76
     7.1  Process Description                                76
          7.1.1  Belting-Conveyor or Flat Type               76
          7.1.2  Machine-Wrapped Ply Hose                    78
          7.1.3  Hand-Built Hose                             82
          7.1.4  Braided Hose                                85
          7.1.5  Spiralled Hose                              88
     7.2  Emissions                                          88
          7.2.1  Compounding                                 88
          7.2.2  Fabric Cementing                            90
          7.2.3  Hose Extrusion                              90
          7.2.4  Calendering                                 91
          7.2.5  Rubber Cementing Operations                 91
          7.2.6  Curing                                      92
          7.2.7  Milling                                     93

8.   Fabricated Rubber Goods                                 94
     8.1  Process Description                                94
          8.1.1  General Molded Products                     94
          8.1.2  General Extruded Products                   94
          8.1.3  Coated Materials                            95
          8.1.4  Latex-Based Dipped Goods                    97
          8.1.5  Cement-Based Dipped Goods                   102
          8.1.6  Rubber Goods from Porous Molds              103
          8.1.7  Latex Thread                                104
          8.1.8  Latex Foam                                  104
                              VI

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                     CONTENTS (continued)
Section
      8.2  Emissions
           8.2.1  Compounding
           8.2.2  Molding
           8.2.3  Extrusion
           8.2.4  Connection of Extruded Rubber Parts
           8.2.5  Curing of Rubber Parts
           8.2.6  Latex Dipping and Drying
           8.2.7  Adhesive Spraying
           8.2.8  Milling
           8.2.9  Calendering

 9.   Gaskets, Packing and Sealing Devices
      9.1  Process Description
           9.1.1  Compression Molding
           9.1.2  Transfer Molding
           9.1.3  Injection Molding
      9.2  Selected Plants
           9.2.1  Plant A
           9.2.2  Plant B
      9.3  Emissions
           9.3.1  Compounding
           9.3.2  Molding
           9.3.3  Adhesive Spraying
           9.3.4  Milling
           9.3.5  Calendering

10.  Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating
     10.1  Process Description
     10.2  Emissions
           10.2.1  Compounding
           10.2.2  Milling
           10.2.3  Extrusion
           10.2.4  Curing

11.  Tire Retreading
     11.1  Process Description
           11.1.1  Receiving and Sorting
           11.1.2  Buffing
           11.1.3  Cleaning
           11.1.4  Measuring
           11.1.5  Rubber Cement Spraying
           11.1.6  Tread Winding
           11.1.7  Curing
           11.1.8  Finish Buffing
     11.2  Emissions
           11.2.1  Rubber Cement Spraying
           11.2.2  Curing
           11.2.3  Paint and Trim Operations
106
106
108
108
108
109
109
109
109
109

110
110
110
113
113
114
114
115
116
118
118
118
118
118

119
119
120
120
123
123
123

124
124
124
125
125
125
125
125
126
126
126
128
128
128
                             VII

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                    CONTENTS (continued)
Section

12.  Control Technology
     12.1  Solvent and/or Monomer Storage
     12.2  Polymerization or Reactor Section
     12.3  Solvent Purification
     12.4  Butadiene Recovery
     12.5  Desolvent Area, Solution Polymerization
     12.6  Dewatering and Drying
     12.7  Compounding/Banbury Mixing
     12.8  Milling
     12.9  Extrusion
     12.10  Press Curing
     12.11  Calendering
     12.12  Undertread and Treadend Cementing
     12.13  Green Tire Spraying
     12.14  Tire Building
     12.15  Adhesive Spraying or Cementing
     12.16  Molding
     12.17  Batch Curing
     12.18  Fabric Cementing
     12.19  Latex Dipping and Drying
     12.20  Continuous Curing (Rotocure)
     12.21  Reclaimator Processes
     12.22  Paint and Trim Activities

13.  NSPS Prioritization
     13.1  Introduction
     13.2  Model IV
     13.3  Input Variables
           13.3.1  Industrial Factors
           13.3.2  Emission Factors
     13.4  Results of Prioritization

References

Appendices

     A.  Associations Concerned with The Rubber
         Processing Industry
     B.  Partial Plant Listing by Standard Industrial
         Classification Code
     C.  Inspection Manual for Hydrocarbon Emissions
         from Rubber Processing
     D.  Partial Listing of Raw Materials Used in
         The Rubber Industry
     E.  Model IV Computer Program
     F.  Calculation of Emission Factors for Rubber
         Volatilization Emission Sources
     G.  Average Plant Size for Each Industry
     H.  Economic Assumptions in Cost Estimates
Page

 130
 130
 132
 133
 133
 137
 139
 145
 153
 158
 159
 161
 162
 164
 169
 169
 173
 174
 175
 178
 181
 183
 185

 186
 186
 187
 191
 191
 197
 211

 214
 223

 229

 299

 391
 397

 402
 407
 409
                             Vlll

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                        LIST OF FIGURES

Number                                                     Page

 3-1      Schematic flow diagram  for crumb rubber
          production by emulsion  polymerization             18

 3-2      Schematic flow diagram  for latex rubber
          production by emulsion  polymerization             20

 3-3      Schematic flow diagram  for crumb rubber
          production by solution  polymerization             27

 4-1      Tire flowsheet                                    41

 6-1      Schematic flow diagram  of digester process
          for reclaiming rubber                             68

 6-2      Schematic flow diagram  of pan process for
          reclaiming rubber                                 70

 6-3      Schematic flow diagram  of mechanical process
          for reclaiming rubber                             73

 7-1      Belting flowsheet                                 79

 7-2      Ply hose flowsheet                                83

 7-3      Braided or spiralled hose flowsheet               87

 8-1      Flow diagram for the production of typical
          latex-based dipped items                          99

 8-2      Flow diagram for the production of typical
          latex foam items                                 107

 9-1      Schematic flow for manufacture of molded
          rubber products                                  117

10-1      Schematic flow diagram  for production of
          insulated wire and cable using thermo-
          setting polymers (i.e., butyl rubber,
          neoprene, nitrile rubbers, silicone rubbers,
          styrenebutadiene rubbers)                        121

10-2      Schematic flow diagram  for production of
          insulated wire and cable using thermo-
          plastic polymers (i.e., polysulfide rubbers)     122

11-1      Retreading flowsheet                             127

13-1      Applicability of NSPS to construction and
          modification                                     190

                             ix

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                  LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                     Page

 C-l      Flow diagram for emulsion crumb rubber
          production                                       302

 C-2      Flow diagram for solution crumb rubber
          production                                       303

 C-3      Schematic  diagram of  tire manufacturing
          process                                           315

 C-4      Schematic  flow diagram for the  production
          of  typical canvas footwear items                 318

 C-5      Schematic  flow diagram of digester process
          for reclaiming rubber                            327

 C-6      Schematic  flow diagram of pan process  for
          reclaiming rubber                                328

 C-7      Schematic  flow diagram of mechanical process
          for reclaiming rubber                            331

 C-8      Belting  flowsheet                                337

 C-9      Ply hose flowsheet                               342

 C-10      Braided  or spiralled  hose flowsheet               347

 C-ll      Flow diagram for the  production of typical
          latex-based dipped items                          354

 C-12      Flow diagram for the  production of typical
          latex foam items                                 361

 C-13      Schematic  flow for manufacture  of  molded
          rubber products                                  379

 C-14      Schematic  flow diagram for production  of
          insulated  wire and cable  using  thermosetting
          polymers (i.e., butyl rubber, neoprene,
          nitrile  rubbers,  silicone rubbers,  styrene-
          butadiene  rubbers)                                372

 C-15      Schematic  flow diagram for production  of
          insulated  wire and cable  using  thermoplastic
          polymers (i.e., polysulfide rubbers)              379
                              x

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                       LIST OF TABLES

Number                                                     Page

   1      Production of Synthetic Elastomers                 8

   2      U.S. Consumption of Natural and Synthetic
          Rubber                                            11

   3      Estimated Total Hydrocarbon Emissions from
          The Rubber Industry                               12

   4      Emissions Summary of Synthetic Elastomers
          Production                                        21

   5      Volatile Organic Emissions from The Manufacture
          of Tires and Inner Tubes                          44

   6      Volatile Organic Emissions from The Manufacture
          of Rubber Footwear                                58

   7      Volatile Organic Emissions from Reclaiming
          Operations                                        74

   8      Volatile Organic Emissions from Rubber Hose
          and Belting Production                            89

   9      Volatile Organic Emissions from The Production
          of Fabricated Rubber Goods                       108

  10      Volatile Organic Emissions from The Production
          of Rubber Gaskets, Packing, and Sealing Devices  116

  11      Volatile Organic Emissions from Nonferrous
          Wiredrawing and Insulating                       123

  12      Volatile Organic Emissions from Tire Retreading  126

  13      Incineration Costs for A Typical Butadiene
          Recovery Operation                               136

  14      Carbon Adsorption Costs for A Typical Buta-
          diene Recovery Operation                         137

  15      Incineration Costs for A Typical Desolvent
          Operation                                        140

  16      Carbon Adsorption Costs for A Typical
          Desolvent Operation                              141
                             XI

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                 LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Number                                                     Page

  17      Incineration Costs for A Typical Dewatering
          and Drying Operation                              146

  18      Process Parameters for Banbury Mixers             148

  19      Incineration Costs for A Typical Banbury Mixing
          Operation in The Tire and Inner Tubes Industry    149

  20      Incineration Costs for A Typical Banbury Mixing
          Operation in A Rubber Footwear Operation          150

  21      Incineration Costs for A Typical Banbury Mixing
          Operation in The Rubber Hose and Belting
          Industry                                          151

  22      Incineration Costs for A Typical Banbury Mixing
          Operation in The Fabricated Rubber Goods Industry
          and The Gaskets, Packing, and Sealing Devices
          Industry                                          152

  23      Carbon Adsorption Costs for Banbury Mixing        153

  24      Process Parameters for Milling Operations         156

  25      Incineration Costs for Milling Operations         157

  26      Incineration Costs for Typical Undertread
          and Treadend Cementing                            165

  27      Carbon Adsorption Costs for Typical Undertread
          and Treadend Cementing                            Igg

  28      Carbon Adsorption Costs for Typical Green Tire
          Spraying                                          167

  29      Incineration Costs for Typical Green Tire
          Spraying                                          168

  30      Incineration Costs for A Typical Adhesive
          Spraying Operation                                \_T2_

  31      Carbon Adsorption Costs for A Typical Adhesive
          Spraying Operation                                -, 7~

  32      Incineration Costs for A Typical Batch Curing
          Operation                                         ,
                                                            J- /o
                             xxi

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                 LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Number                                                     Page

  33      Incineration Costs for A Typical Fabric
          Cementing Operation                               179

  34      Carbon Adsorption Costs for A Typical Fabric
          Cementing Operation                               180

  35      Incineration Costs for A Typical Latex Dipping
          and Drying Operation                              182

  36      Carbon Adsorption Costs for A Typical Latex
          Dipping and Drying Operation                      183

  37      Costs of A Condenser-Scrubber System for A
          Typical Reclaimator Process                       184

  38      Input Variables for Model IV Prioritization
          of Rubber Products Industries                     192

  39      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Synthetic
          Rubber                     n      s               199

  40      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Tires
          and Inner Tubes            n      s               200

  41      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Rubber
          Footwear                   n                      201

  42      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Reclaimed
          Rubber                     n      S               202

  43      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Hose and
          Belting                    n      S               203

  44      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Fabricated
          Rubber Products            n      S               204

  45      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Gaskets,
          Packing, and Sealing Devices1      s               205

  46      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Nonferrous
          Wiredrawing and Insulating                        206

  47      Factors for Derivation of E  and E  - Tire
          Retreading                 n                      207

  48      No. of  Plants per SIC Utilized in E  Calculations  209
                                            5

  49      Input and Output Variables for Model IV Prior-
          itization of Rubber Products Industries           212

                             xiii

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                LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Number                                                    Page

 B-l      A Partial Geographic Distribution of Rubber
          Products Plants                                  230

 B-2      SIC 2822:  Synthetic Rubber (Vulcanizable
          Elastomers)                                       231

 B-3      SIC 3011:  Tires and Inner Tubes                  235

 B-4      SIC 3021:  Rubber and Plastics Footwear          241

 B-5      SIC 3031:  Reclaimed Rubber                      242

 B-6      SIC 3041:  Rubber and Plastics Hose and Belting  243

 B-7      SIC 3069:  Fabricated Rubber Products N.E.C.     248

 B-8      SIC 3293:  Gaskets,  Pakcing and Sealing Devices  279

 B-9      SIC 3357:  Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating 287

 C-l      Emissions and Control - Synthetic Rubber         307

 C-2      Emissions and Control - Tires and Inner Tubes    316

 C-3      Emissions and Control - Rubber Footwear          321

 C-4      Emissions and Control - Reclaimed Rubber         332

 C-5      Emissions and Control - Hose and  Belting         348

 C-6      Emissions and Control - Fabricated Rubber
          Products                                         352

 C-7      Emissions and Control - Gaskets,  Packing, and
          Sealing Devices                         '        37-^

 C-8      Emissions and Control - Nonferrous Wiredrawing
          and Insulating                                   375

 C-9      Emissions and Control - Tire Retreading          380

 F-l      Materials Emitted During Rubber Vulcanization    404

 G-l      Average Plant Size for Each Industry             408

 H-l      Typical Items Included in Investment Cost of
          Add-On Control Systems                           41
                             xiv

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                 LIST OF TABLES  (continued)

Number                                                    Page

 H-2      Typical Items Included in Annual Costs of
          Add-On Control Systems                           411

 H-3      Assumptions Used in Developing Cost Estimates
          for Catalytic and Noncatalytic Incinerators      412

 H-4      Assumptions Used in Developing Cost Estimates
          for Carbon Adsorbers                             413
                             xv

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                     1.  INTRODUCTION



     This report describes a study that was undertaken  on  nine


standard industrial classified industries which collectively


make up the rubber industry-  This study involved the identifi-


cation and evaluation of technology  for the purpose of  control-


ling hydrocarbons resulting from the production of synthetic


rubber and fabrication of rubber goods.  The nine industries


are individually addressed in the form of 1) a general  process


description with identification of specific emission points,


and 2) identification of both currently installed and industry


available hydrocarbon control technology.  In addition,  the


nine industries are prioritized on the basis of potential


emission reductions resulting from implementation of new


source performance standards.  Appendices include a partial


plant listing for each standard industrial classification


(SIC), a raw materials listing, an inspection manual, a trade


association listing, a copy of the prioritization computer pro-


gram,  a discussion on rubber volatile emission factor estimates
       («^**?«*«W'**^''^"^J'-^"V^          '"" " *" ' "" " ' 1'"'1 '~*'"*:'^'"--A^afssr^f*,.     _ .(,:,^^S^h-'l^™J**^^'"'>'^''?'i!S!?^ "i"lKIC'J!"1"" ''1*

economic assumptions for cost calculations, and derivations of


average plant sizes.

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     No hydrocarbon emission points were sampled under this




study-   Emission factors are estimates based on a number of




information sources.   Sixteen plant visits carried out during




the course of the study provided the largest source of informa-




tion.  The visits confirmed a conclusion reached early in the




study;  i.e.,  that very little quantitative emissions data for




hydrocarbons  in the rubber industry exist.  This fact is con-




firmed when one evaluates emissions data contained in the




National Emissions Data System (NEDS)  for the rubber industry.




Most emission sources involving the working of rubber, where no




solvent is involved,  have neither been verified nor quantified.




Thus, emission factors listed in this  report are estimates based




on extremely  limited source testing data, on-site plant visits,




limited data  obtained from NEDS,  information obtained from state




environmental agencies and trade associations, and contractor



files.



     The reader is referred to Tables  39-47 (on pages 199-207)




for a summary of all emission points and factors for each SIC



and Table 49  (page 213)  for a summary  of the results of the




impact prioritization for the nine rubber industry SIC's.

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                  2.   INDUSTRY DEFINITION






     The rubber products industry is defined as those plants



which produce either synthetic rubber  (vulcanizable elasto-



mers) or fabricated rubber products from natural and synthetic



rubber.  Natural rubber production is not performed in the



United States and will not be covered in this study-  The



U.S. Department of Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics



Administration, Bureau of the Census, has categorized indus-



trial activity in the United States.  The categorization



developed for the various segments of the rubber industry is



used in this study.  The Standard Industrial Classification



(SIC) code definition of each of the nine segments covered



is given below.



Synthetic Rubber (Vulcanizable Elastomers)  (SIC 2822)



This industry comprises establishments primarily engaged in



the manufacture of synthetic rubber by polymerization or co-



polymerization.  An elastomer, for the purpose of this classi-



fication, is a rubberlike material capable of vulcanization,



such as copolymers of butadiene and styrene or butadiene and

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acrylonitrile, polybutadienes,  chloroprene rubbers, and

isobutylene-isoprene copolymers.  Butadiene copolymers contain-

ing less than 50 percent butadiene are classified in industry

2821.  Natural chlorinated rubbers and cyclized rubbers are

considered as semifinished products and are classified in

industry 3069. l

Tires and Inner Tubes (SIC 3011)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

manufacturing pneumatic casings, inner tubes, and solid and

cushion tires for all types of  vehicles, airplanes, farm

equipment, and children's vehicles;  tiring; and camelback

and tire repair and retreading  materials.2

Rubber and Plastics Footwear (SIC 3021)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

manufacturing all rubber and plastics footwear, .  . .  having

rubber or plastic soles vulcanized to the uppers.3  (Processes

specific to the utilization of  plastics  within the rubber and
Preliminary Report,  1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
 Series, Plastics Materials,  Synthetic Rubber, and Man-Made
 Fibers, SIC 2822.  U.S.  Department of Commerce, Social and
 Economic Statistics  Administration, Bureau of the Census.
 Washington, B.C.  November 1974.  6 p.

Preliminary Report,  1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
 Series, Tire and Inner Tubes,  SIC 3011.   U.S. Department of
 Commerce, Social and Economic  Statistics Administration,
 Bureau of the Census.   Washington, D.C.   March 1974.  7'p.

3Preliminary Report,  1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
 Series, Rubber and Plastics  Footwear, SIC 3021.  U.S.
 Department of Commerce,  Social and Economic Statistics
 Administration,  Bureau of the  Census.  Washinaton  n c
 March 1974.  7 p.

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plastics footwear industry were excluded from consideration

in this study.)

Reclaimed Rubber  (SIC 3031)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

reclaiming rubber from scrap rubber tires, tubes, and mis-

cellaneous waste rubber articles by processes which result in

devulcanized, depolymerized or regenerated replasticized pro-

ducts and sold for use as a raw material in the manufacture

of rubber goods with or without admixture with crude rubber

or synthetic rubber.4

Rubber and Plastics Hose and Belting  (SIC 3041)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

manufacturing rubber and plastics hose and belting, including

garden hose.5  (Processes specific to the utilization of plas-

tics within the rubber and plastics hose and belting industry

were excluded from consideration in this study.)
^Preliminary Report, 1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
 Series, Reclaimed Rubber, SIC 3031.  U.S. Department of
 Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics Administration,
 Bureau of the Census.  Washington, D.C.  February 1974.  6 p.

Preliminary Report, 1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
 Series, Rubber and Plastics Hose and Belting, SIC 3041.
 U.S.  Department of Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics
 Administration, Bureau of the Census.  Washington, D.C.
 February 1974.  7 p.

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Fabricated Rubber Products N.E.C.a (SIC 3069)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

manufacturing industrial and mechanical rubber goods, rubber-

ized fabrics and vulcanized rubber clothing, and miscellaneous

rubber specialities and sundries.6

Gaskets, Packing and Sealing Devices  (SIC 3293)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

manufacturing gaskets, gasketing materials, compression pack-

ing, molded packings,  oil seals, and  mechanical seals.  In-

cluded are gaskets, packing and sealing devices made of

leather, rubber, metal, asbestos, and plastics.7

Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating (SIC 3357)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

drawing, drawing and insulating, and  insulating wire and cable

of nonferrous metals from purchased wire bars,  rods, or wire.8
 N.E.C.:   Not elsewhere classified.

6Preliminary Report,  1972  Census of  Manufacturers, Industry
 Series,  Fabricated Rubber Products,  N.E.C.,  SIC 3069-  U.S.
 Department of Commerce, Social  and  Economic  Statistics
 Administration,  Bureau of the Census.   Washington, D.C.
 March 1974.   9 p.

Preliminary Report,  1972  Census of  Manufacturers, Industry
 Series,  Gaskets,  Packing, and Sealing  Devices,  SIC 3293.
 U.S.  Department of Commerce,  Social  and Economic Statistics
 Adminxstration,  Bureau of the Census.   Washington, D C
 March 1974.   6 p.

Preliminary Report,  1972  Census of  Manufacturers, Industry
 Series,  Nonferrous Wiredrawing  and  Insulating,  SIC 3357.
 U.S.  Department of Commerce,  Social  and Economic Statistics
 Administration,  Bureau of the Census.   Washington, D.C.
 March 1974.   15 p.

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Tire Retreading and Repair Shops  (SIC 7534)

This industry includes establishments primarily engaged in

repairing and retreading automotive tires.  Establishments

classified here may either retread customers' tires or retread

tires for sale or exchange to the user or the trade.9

2.1  ELASTOMER INDUSTRY

     The elastomer industry produces high polymers with

special, unique properties.  Elastomers are considered apart

from other polymeric materials because of these unusual pro-

perties and because they generally do not lend themselves to

plastics uses.  By definition, the elastomer activities start

with a monomer, other active chemicals, or with natural elas-

tomeric polymers, and terminate with the formation of a

marketable, rubberlike material.

     The major raw materials are active monomer, certain chem-

icals with active end groups, or natural elastomers which are

compounded or modified.  Many of the same monomers are used

in the synthetic elastomer industry as are used in plastics

and fibers.  Table 1 shows the 1973 production of synthetic

elastomers.10  Natural elastomers were not included because

they are not produced in the United States.  Approximately
 Preliminary Report, 1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry
  Series, Tire Retreading and Repair Shops, SIC 7534.  U.S.
  Department of Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics
  Administration, Bureau of the Census.  Washington, D.C.
  March 1974.  6 p.
10Current Industry Reports.  U.S. Department of Commerce,
  Bureau of the Census.  Washington, D.C.  Series M30A.   1972

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     Table  1.   PRODUCTION  OF  SYNTHETIC ELASTOMERS10
Product type
Styrene-butadiene rubber
Butyl rubber
Neoprene
Nitrile rubber
Polybutadiene
Polyisoprene
Ethylene-propylene
Othersf
Totals
1973 Production,
106 kg
1,536.7
159.9
175b
84.3
336.9
118.7
119.9
84b
2,615.4
Percent o±
total
58.8
6.1
6.7
3.2
12.9
4.5
4.6
3.2
100.0
b
d
   Includes  polybutadiene-styrene-vinylpyridene and
   emulsion  polymerized  polybutadiene.

   Estimated value.
  i
  'Includes  stereo  butadiene  elastomers  (solution
   polymerized).  Excludes  emulsion polymerized polybutadiene.

   Includes  stereo  polyisoprene  elastomers (solution
   polymerized).
  Q
   Includes  solution polymerized ethylene-propylene copolymers
   (EPM)  and ethylene-propylene  terpolymers (EPDM).

   Includes  polyacrylate, polyalkylene  sulfide, chloro-
   sulfonated polyethylene, polyisobutylene,  fluorocarbon
   silicone, and  polyurethane elastomers.   Polyurethane
   foam is excluded because it is a plastic material which
   is considered  in SIC  2821.

78 percent of the elastomers  consumed  in the U.S. were synthe-

tic;  consumption  of natural elastomers  amounted to 22 percent.

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     The chemical composition of an elastomer depends solely



on the monomers, active chemicals, or natural materials used.



The raw materials, or feedstocks, also determine the type and



properties of the product produced.  The properties of the



products are, in turn, usually determined by their end use.



The structure, molecular weight, and various properties are



also determined by the polymerization process, as well as by



the catalysts, shortstops, antioxidants, and other ingredients



used.




2.2  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS



     Consumption of new and reclaimed rubber by the industry



can be reported in three parts:  1) tires and tire products,



including pneumatic and solid tires, inner tubes, retread and



repair materials, flaps, and sundries; 2) other products, in-



cluding footwear, belts, hose, mechanical goods, foam sponge,



and sundries; and 3) wire and cable.  This breakdown permits



observation of trends in total new rubber consumption.  It



also illustrates the dominant position of tires and tire pro-



ducts which consistently use 62 percent to 66 percent of all



new rubber each year.  Wire and cable use a small part of the



total which has remained constant in absolute terms but has



declined from three percent to one percent over the years from



1958 to 1972.  The other products consume the remainder  (about

-------
one-third)  of total new rubber production in manufacturing a

great variety of items.11

The tires and inner tubes industry is thus the major industry

of this source,  accounting for 66% of finished product weight

of the entire fabricated rubber products industry.  The break-

down of consumption of natural and synthetic rubber by end use

as of 1971 is indicated in Table 2.12

2.3  AIR EMISSIONS INVENTORY AND TOTAL U.S. HYDROCARBON BURDEN

     As of January 1977, total hydrocarbon emissions in the

United States, from stationary sources, are estimated to be

1.6 x 1010 kilograms/year.13

     Total hydrocarbon emissions resulting from the production

activities carried out by the rubber industry  (the nine SIC's

covered in this study) are estimated to be 1.38 x 108 kilograms/

year.  This figure represents 0.86 percent of total hydrocarbon

emissions from stationary sources in the United States.
i:iPettigrew, R. F. ,  and F. H. Roninger.  Rubber Reuse and
  Solid Waste Management, Solid Waste Management in the
  Fabricated Rubber Products Industry, 1968.  U.S. Environ-
  mental Protection Agency.  Washington, D.C.  Publication
  SW-22C.  1971.  120 p.

12Richardson, J.,  and M. Herbert.  Forecasting in the Rubber
  Industry.  (Presented at the Joint Meeting of the Chemical
  Marketing Research Association and the Commercial Develop-
  ment Association.   New York.  May 1974.)

13Eimutis, E. C.,  and R. P. Quill.  State-by-State Listing of
  Criteria Pollutant Emissions.  U.S. Environmental Protection
  Agency.  Research Triangle Park, N.C.  EPA-600/2-77-l07b.
  July 1977.   146 p.
                             10

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          Table 2.   U.S. CONSUMPTION OF NATURAL AND
                   SYNTHETIC RUBBER, 197112
Rubber end use
Tires and related products
Molded goods
Automotive
Other
Foam rubber
Shoe products
Hose, tubing
Rubber footwear
0-rings, packing gaskets
Sponge rubber products
Solvent and latex cement
Belts and belting
Wire and cable
Coated fabrics
Floor and wall coverings
Pressure-sensitive tapes
Industrial rolls
Athletic goods
Military goods
Thread (bare)
Drugs and medical sundries
Toys and balloons
All other
Weight %
of total
66.0

4.6
5.2
3.2
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
4.0
Cumulative %
66.0

70.6
75.8
79.0
80.9
82.8
84.4
85.9
87.3
88.6
89.7
90.8
91.9
92.7
93.2
93.7
94.2
94.7
95.2
95.6
96.0
100.0
     The quantity of emissions and percent contribution of

each SIC making up the rubber industry to this total are given

in Table 3.  Tire and inner tube manufacture accounts for 62.74

percent of the total hydrocarbon emissions in the rubber indus-

try.  Five of the nine SIC's covered - tires, rubber footwear,

fabricated rubber goods, synthetic rubber, and hose and

belting - account for 96.2 percent of the total.  These esti-

mates are based on emission factors derived in the following
                            11

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industry descriptions and  annual production figures  described

in the new source performance  standards (NSPS) prioritization

section.

          Table 3. ESTIMATED TOTAL  HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
                   FROM THE RUBBER INDUSTRY

SIC
3011

3021
2822
3041
3069

7534
3031
3293

3357
Product
Tires and inner
tubes
Rubber footwear
Synthetic rubber
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber
goods
Tire retread
Rubber reclaim
Seals, gaskets and
packing devices
Rubber-coated wire
Total hydrocarbon
emissions ,
10 kg/year
86,400

18,749
10,543
10,422
6,380

2", 94 3
1,266
995

33
Percent of
total industry
62.74

13.61
7.65
7.56
4.64

2.14
0.92
0.72

0.02

Cumulative
percent
62.7

76.35
84.00
91.56
96.2

98.34
99.26
99.98

100.0
                             12

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              3.  SYNTHETIC ELASTOMERS INDUSTRY


3.1  SYNTHETIC ELASTOMERS

     For the purposes of this study, styrene butadiene rubber

(SBR) is the major synthetic rubber of concern since it ac-

counts for 58.8% of U.S. synthetic rubber production.  Approxi-

mately 60 percent of the SBR produced is used directly in the

manufacture of tires.  The other 40 percent is used mainly in

footwear, hose, belt, and fabricated goods manufacture.  It

is estimated that more than 96 percent of all styrene butadiene

rubber produced in this country is consumed in the eight rubber

product SIC's covered in this report.12

     Styrene butadiene rubber is produced by two different

processes.  The first, emulsion polymerization, accounts for

90 percent of the total SBR production.  Solution polymeriza-

tion, the newer of the two, accounts for the other 10 percent

of production.l^
 ^Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines
   and New Source Performance Standards for the Tire and Syn-
   thetic Segment of the Rubber Processing Point Source Cate-
   gory-   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Washington,
   D.C.  EPA-440/l-74/013-a.  February 1974.  p. 31-35.
                              13

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 3.1.1  Emulsion Polymerization
 3.1.1.1  Process Description - Emulsion polymerization is
 basically the bulk polymerization of monomer droplets suspended
 in dilute aqueous solution and stabilized by an emulsifier.  In
 this process,  the polymerization  reaction is initiated by free
 radicals generated in  the  water phase.   After the emulsifier
 forms spherical aggregate  or molecules,  monomer swells these
 molecules,  free radicals initiate polymerization,  and a new
 phase is formed,  namely latex  particles.   Monomer droplets in
 the aqueous phase decrease in  number  and completely  disappear
 at about 60 percent conversion.
      The following synthetic rubbers  are  commercially produced
 using emulsion  polymerization:  styrene  butadiene  rubbers
 (SBR),  acrylonitrile butadiene  rubbers  (NBR), neoprene,  fluoro-
 elastomers, and polyacrylates.  More  than  90  percent  of  SBR,
 the major synthetic rubber, is produced by emulsion polymeri-
 zation  as either  rubber latex or rubber crumb.  Processing
 techniques for each of these two types of emulsion produced
 rubber  are discussed below.
     Crumb rubber - The materials  flow for the  continuous  pro-
 duction of crumb SBR by emulsion polymerization is presented
 here as being essentially typical  of all emulsion processes.
 Some monomers have inhibitors added to prevent premature poly-
merization during shipment  and storage.   The inhibitor is
 removed before polymerization by passing the monomer through
 a caustic scrubber in  which a 20 percent NaOH solution is
circulated.
                               14

-------
     Soap solution, catalyst, activator, and modifier are




added to the mixture of monomers before polymerization.  The



soap solution is used to emulsify the monomers in an aqueous




medium.  The ingredients of this solution are generally a rosin



acid soap and a fatty acid soap.  The catalyst, usually a hydro-



peroxide or a peroxysulfate, is a free-radical initiator.  The



activator facilitates the generation of free radicals more



rapidly and at lower temperatures than thermal decomposition



alone.  The modifier adjusts the chain length and molecular



weight distribution of the polymeric rubber during its formation.



     Polymerization proceeds stepwise in a series of reactors.



The reactor train can produce either "cold" (4°C to 7°C,-



0 kPa to 200 kPa) or "hot"  (50°C, 380 kPa to 520 kPa) SBR.



For "cold" polymerization, the monomer/additives emulsion is



cooled prior to reaction, generally using an ammonia or



methanol refrigerant cooling medium.  Each reactor has its own



set of cooling coils (to remove the heat of reaction) and each



is agitated by a mixer.  The residence time in each vessel is



approximately 1 hr.  Conversion of monomer to rubber is



ordinarily carried out to 60 percent or less.   The reaction



mixture is a milky white emulsion called latex.



     Shortstop solution is added to the latex exiting the



reactors to terminate polymerization at the desired conversion.




Two common shortstops are sodium dimethyl dithiocarbamate




[(CH3)2NCSSNa]  and hydroquinone  (1,4-dihydroxybenzene).  The
                             15

-------
"stopped"  latex is held in blowdown tanks which serve as flow-




regulating holding tanks.



     Economics of synthetic rubber production require recovery




and purification of unreacted monomers which may comprise 10




percent to 40 percent of the rubber latex solution.  Butadiene




is first stripped from the latex in a vacuum flash tank at




about 20°C to 30°C.  The butadiene vapors are compressed,




condensed, and recycled to the feed area for mixing with fresh




monomer.  Excess styrene is steam distilled from the latex




under vacuum, condensed and recycled with fresh styrene.




     An antioxidant is added to the stripped latex in a blend




tank to protect the polymer from oxidation.  Different batches,




recipes or dilutions of the stabilized latex can now be mixed




in the blend tanks.




     The latex is transferred from the blend tank to the




coagulator where dilute sulfuric acid (pH 4.0 to 4.5) and




sodium chloride solution are added.  This acid-brine mixture,




called the "coagulation liquor," causes the rubber to precipi-




tate out of the latex.  Carbon black and/or extender oils can




be added to the rubber latex during coagulation - carbon black




in an aqueous slurry  (^5 weight percent) and oil in an aqueous



emulsion.




     The precipitated crumb is separated from the coagulation




liquor on a shaker screen.  The screened crumb is washed with




water in a reslurry tank to remove extraneous compounds, par-




ticularly residual coagulation liquor.  The crumb rubber slurry
                              16

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is next dewatered using vacuum filtration.  Coagulation liquor

blowdown and crumb slurry water overflows are usually passed

through separators called crumb pits to trap the floatable

crumb rubber.

     The rinsed, filtered rubber solids are finally dried

with hot air (50°C to 120°C) in a continuous belt or screen

dryer.  After drying, the rubber is weighed and pressed into

bales.  Normally, bales of synthetic rubber weigh 34 kg and

are wrapped in polyethylene film.15"19

     A schematic flow diagram for crumb rubber production is

shown in Figure 3-1.

     Latex rubber - Latex rubber production includes the same

processing steps as emulsion crumb production with the exception

of latex coagulation and crumb rinsing, drying and baling.
 15Morton, M.  Rubber Technology, Second Edition.  New York,
  Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1973.  p. 228, 231, 251, 280.

 16Horn, D. A., D. R. Tierney, and T. W. Hughes.  Source
  Assessment:  Polychloroprene, State of the Art.  EPA Contract
  68-02-1874, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, N.C.
  September 1977.  95 p.
 17Elastomer Industry—Industrial Catalog Report.  Monsanto
  Research Corporation, Dayton, Ohio, EPA Contract 68-02-1320,
  Task 17.  Unpublished.  42 p.
 18Hughes, T. W., T. E. Ctvrtnicek, D. A. Horn, and R. W. Serth.
  Source Assessment Document No. 24, Rubber Processing.
  Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton, Ohio, EPA Contract
  68-02-1874.  Preliminary document submitted to the Environ-
  mental Protection Agency for review and comments, August 1975,
  152 p.
 19Materials and Compounding Ingredients for Rubber and Plas-
  tics.  Compiled by the Editors of Rubber World.  Louisville,
  Publishers Printing Co., 1965.  720 p.


                              17

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00
                                                                                               PRODUCT
                                                                                              SHIPMENTS
         ^VOLATILE ORGANICS

                 Figure 3-1.
Schematic flow diagram for  crumb rubber  production
     by  emulsion polymerization.

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     Monomer inhibitors are removed by scrubbing with caustic



soda.  Soap solution, catalysts and modifiers are added to the




monomer(s) prior to feeding the reactors.  The number of reac-



tors used is generally less than that used for emulsion crumb



production.  Most latexes are made by the "cold" process with



the polymerization temperature kept at about 4°C to 7°C.  After



polymerization, the latex is sent to a blowdown tank for holding,



At this point stabilizers are added.



     Latex passes from the storage tanks to a vacuum distilla-



tion column for removal of unreacted butadiene.  The unrecovered



butadiene may then be vented to the atmosphere.  Excess styrene



is separated from the latex in a steam stripper, condensed,



containerized and sent to disposal.




     The stripped latex is passed through a series of screen



filters to remove undesirable large solids.  The latex is then



stored in blending tanks for mixing with other ingredients of



the final product such as antioxidants.15~19



     A schematic flow diagram for latex rubber production is



presented in Figure 3-2.



3.1.1.2  Emissions - Table 4 is a summary of emissions from




synthetic elastomer production.  The emission factors presented



are estimated using data provided during plant visits.  The



sources of hydrocarbon emissions in the emulsion polymerization



process can be identified by the general areas within the pro-




cess in which they originate.  These areas are 1) the tank farm



pr monomer storage area, 2) the polymerization or reactor area,
                              19

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                                                        VACUUM SOURCE
                                                         (STEAM JET OR
                                                        VACUUM PUMP )
                                                       WITHOUT CONDENSER
                                      EJECTOR
                                    ( STEAM JET OR
                                    VACUUM PUMP )
                                   WITH CONDENSER
  MONOMER AND
STEAM CONDENSATE
                UNIHIBITED
                                                                                         LATEX BLENDING
                                                                                           AND BULK
                                                                                           STORAGE
ro
o
                                                                                                   LIQUID
                                                                                                   WASTE
                                                                                                          PRODUCT
                                                                                                         SHIPMENTS
         VOLATILE ORGANICS
                    Figure 3-2
Schematic  flow diagram for latex  rubber  production
      by emulsion polymerization.

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Table 4.  EMISSIONS SUMMARY OF SYNTHETIC ELASTOMERS PRODUCTION
Source
Emulsion (90% of tota.1 production)
Styrene storage (breathing)
Solvent storage (fugitive)
Reactor section (fugitive)
Recovery area (fugitive)
Butadiene recovery
Coagulation, dewatering, drying
Solution (10% of total production)
Styrene storage (breathing)
Hexane storage (breathing)
Storage (fugitive)
Purification area (fugitive)
Reactor area (fugitive)
Desolventization (vent)
Desolventization (fugitive)
Dewatering, drying
Emission factor,
g/kg of
rubber produced
0.02
0.07
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.6
0.02
0.5
0.07
0.2
0.61
2.7
0.2
20.2
Percent total
emissions
0.4
1.5
8.9
2.3
13.3
13.3
0.05
1.2
0.25
0.6
1.6
6.6
0.6
49.4
                              21

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3)  the monomer recovery area and 4)  the dewatering and drying




(finishing)  area.



     In the  tank farm area,  the raw monomers,  reactor coolants,




antioxidants,  extender oils,  and miscellaneous plant fuels are




stored.  For SBR emulsion polymerization,  the  monomers are




styrene and  butadiene.  A representative plant can be expected




to have upwards of 80 tanks  in the tank farm ranging in size




from 3.0 x 103 liters to 2.3 x 106 liters.   In the case of




styrene storage, the tank sizes range from 7.75 x 105 liters




to 2.3 x 106 liters.  These  tanks are vented to the atmosphere




to allow for breathing losses in the tanks themselves.  For a




2.3 x 106 liter tank, such breathing losses amount to approxi-




mately 20 kilograms per day.   Using this emission rate, and a




representative plant's yearly production rate  of SBR via emul-




sion polymerization the resultant emission factor is 0.02 grams




per kilogram of synthetic rubber produced.




     The storage of butadiene is carried out in pressurized




vessels or in  vessels located underground or as was the case




at one visited plant, underwater.  Only in the instances where




these vessels  are located above ground does the potential for




emission of  butadiene exist,  such as through pressure relief




valves.  Because of the extreme volatility of  this monomer,




control technology is currently employed to control these emis-




sions by means of connecting the valves to an emergency flare




system.  From  the on-site visits, the feeling is that no emis-




sions from the storage of butadiene, itself, exist.
                             22

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     As mentioned in addition to the storage of the two basic

monomers, a variety of extender oils, antioxidants, recylced

monomers, and fuels are stored in the tank farm area.  Due to

the low volatility of the stored oils, the emission of hydro-

carbons via atmospheric vents is calculated collectively as

less than 0.02 grams per kilogram of SBR produced.

     Fugitive emissions from the tank farm area result from

leaks in compressor seals, pump seals, and pipeline valves.

Collectively, fugitive emissions at a representative plant's

tank farm can be estimated to be about 40 kilograms per day.

Again using a representative plant's annual production figures,

the emission factor is 0.07 grams/kilogram of synthetic rubber

produced.

     The polymerization area contains the pressurized reaction

vessels.  Therefore, no atmospheric losses from the reactors,

themselves, such as through vents are present.  However, fugi-

tive losses through primarily leaks in pipeline valves and

seals do exist.  At a representative plant, these emissions

can be calculated to be about 95 kilograms per day.  Based on

more representative data collected by Houdry20 in a survey of

the industry as a whole, the emission factor for this area is

estimated at 0.40 grams per kilogram of synthetic rubber

produced.

     In emulsion polymerization, unreacted styrene and butadi-

ene are recovered,  separated, and recycled  in the recovery  area.
20Pervier, J. S., et al., Survey Reports on Atmospheric Emis-
  sions from the Petrochemical Industry, Vols 1-3, EPA 450/3-
  730-005-a-c, Office and Air. Quality Planning and Standards,
  RPT, N.C., April 1974.

                              23

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Steam stripping is utilized to recover styrene and vacuum dis-



tillation to recover butadiene.   In the case of styrene, the



stripper, condenser system is entirely closed and any emissions



can be considered as fugitive in nature.   In a representative



plant these emissions can be calculated to be about 45 kilograms



per day.   Again utilizing this plant's annual production, the



emission factor can be calculated to be 0.1 grams per kilogram



of rubber produced.  After butadiene recovery, the remaining



butadiene is~ sent to an absorber after distillation.  In some



plants, less than 1% of the unrecovered butadiene is treated



in an absorber system, which functions only to 1)  rid the sys-



tem of excess noncondensibles (air, oxygen, etc.)  which may



enter the system during vacuum flashing,  gas compression, etc.;



and 2) recover the butadiene present in these gases before



release to the atmosphere or flash system.  The absorber, because



it is less than 100 percent efficient releases quantities of



butadiene to the atmosphere.  Information obtained from state



permit applications for an assumed representative plant yielded



the following:  For a gas flow to the absorber of 80 cubic feet



per minute, 55 percent of the gas by volume can be expected to



be butadiene.   This results in a daily flow of 12,500 pounds



(5675 kilograms)  of butadiene to the absorber.  Assuming that a



normally operating absorber is approximately 97 percent efficient,



over 375 pounds (170 kilograms)  of butadiene would be released



to the atmosphere.  Assuming that these conditions are repre-



sentative and that the absorber is part of the emulsion process,
                              24

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itself, and not a pollution control process, the emission




factor for this point can be calculated to be 0.6 grams per



kilogram of rubber produced.




     The finishing area contains the operations of coagulation,



dewatering, and drying.  In the case of latex production which



represents approximately 10 percent of all SBR via emulsion pro-



duction,14 these operations are not necessary.  The coagulation



process is carried out in open vessels with an unreacted and



unrecovered monomers  (<0.2%) in the emulsion free to evaporate



to the atmosphere.  Dewatering is carried out on drum filters



which are also open to the atmosphere.  The drying operation is



accomplished in enclosed dryers which are vented to the plant



exterior.  These dryers may have many of these such vents  (as



many as fifty).  For a representative plant, the dryer can be



expected to contain 40 such vents with an equivalent height of



39 feet and equivalent diameter of 15 feet.  For an exiting ex-



haust gas flow rate of 127.4 m3/sec  (270,000 SCFM) with a tem-



perature of 49°C  (120°F), the styrene concentration can be



expected to be approximately 5 ppm.  The resultant emission rate



is approximately 500 pounds  (227 kilograms) per day.  Utilizing



these conditions and assuming 90 percent of the SBR production



via emulsion is crumb, the resultant emission factor is calcu-



lated to be 0.6 grams per kilogram of rubber produced.



3.1.2  Solution Polymerization



3.1.2.1  Process Description - Solution polymerization is the




newer process for the production of synthetic crumb rubber in
                              25

-------
the United States.   Solution polymerization systems permit the



use of stereospecific Ziegler-Natta or alkyllithium catalysts



which allow polymerization of monomers,  such as isoprene or buta-



diene, in an appropriate organic solvent so as to obtain the



cis structure characteristic of the natural rubber molecule.




     In addition to the stereoelastomers,  polybutadiene and



polyisoprene, solution polymerization or a variation thereof



is used frequently to produce butyl rubber, solution styrene-



butadiene rubber, ethylene-propylene rubbers (EPDM), silicone



rubbers, polyurethanes, fluoroelastomers,  and epichlorohydrin-



based elastomers.  Solution polymerization can be used to



prepare homo-, co-, and terpolymers.



     Figure 3-3 is a material flow diagram for the production




of crumb SBR by a solution polymerization system whose process-



ing steps are essentially typical of all such systems.




     Monomers as received, containing inhibitors, are first




stripped of these compounds by passage through a caustic soda




(NaOH) scrubber.  The monomers are then dried, i.e., freed of




extraneous water, using either fractionating towers or molecular




sieves.  Drying is crucial since ionic solution polymerizations




using Ziegler-Natta coordination catalysts are extremely




sensitive to polar compounds, such as water, oxygen, and




certain oxygenated organic species.  A few ppm of water is a




necessary and controllable maximum in any of the feed streams




to the polymerization reactor.  Similarly, active hydrogen




compounds and certain hydrocarbons  (acetylenes, cyclopenta-



diene, cyclopentene)  must be excluded.
                              26

-------
                                  RECYCLE SOLVENT
                               HEAVY SLOPS
                              TO INCINERATOR

SHORTSTOP

POLYMER-
IZATION
REACTORS



RUBBER
CEMENT_


CATALYST
RESIDUE
REMOVAL
                                                    BOTTOM
                                                   DECANT LAYER
                                            STEAM,
                                            SOLVENT AND
                                            MONOMER VAPORS
                                                                                                                 T
                                                                                                               PRODUCT
                                                                                                              SHIPMENTS
* VOLATILE ORGANICS
                                                                           COAGULATION
                                                                           AND STEAM
                                                                           STRIPPING
                                                                                                NOTE: EXTENDER OIL AND
                                                                                                     CARBON BLACK ARE
                                                                                                     NOT ADDED TO
                                                                                                     NONEXTENDED RUBBER
                                                                                                     TYPES
              Figure  3-3.
Schematic  flow  diagram  for crumb  rubber production
       by  solution polymerization.

-------
     The purified solvent and monomers are next blended to

form the "mixed feed."   This mixture can be further dried to

remove any remaining traces of water using a desiccant column.

     The dried mixed feed of solvent plus monomers is now

ready for polymerization, and catalysts can be added to the

mixed feed just prior to polymerization, or they can be fed

directly to the reactor.  In some cases, catalyst solutions

may be premixed with a  portion of the monomers under vigorous

agitation to enhance activity and to ensure uniform distribution

in the reactor.

     The blend of solvent,  monomer,  and catalyst is polymerized

in a series of vessels.   The exothermic heat of reaction is

continuously removed through the use of chilled reactor jackets

or internal cooling coils,  the latter employing an ammonia

refrigerant, chilled brine, or glycol solutions.  Temperature

control is important to ensure the desired average molecular

weight and distribution.  The following three temperatures

represent the only such parameters found in the literature on

solution polymerization.
Rubber
EPDM
Polyisoprene
Butyl
Catalyst
Ziegler type
Ziegler type
Aluminum chloride
Solvent
Hexane
Unknown
Methyl chloride
Polymerization
temperature
'v38°C
%49°C
^96°C
     At a rubber solids concentration of 8 percent to 10 per-

cent, the solution viscosity is at a level beyond which further
                                                              I
conversion of monomer to polymer is inadvisable.  Thus, the
                             28

-------
mixture exits the reactor train in the form of a rubber cement.



Polymerization is halted by adding to this a shortstop solution.



In this case, a small quantity of a polar material such as
                            t


water destroys the catalyst.  The stabilized cement is pumped



to storage tanks prior to further processing.



     Excess residues of coordination catalysts are detrimental



to the aging stability of polymeric rubbers.  Therefore, the



undesirable residues are removed as soluble salts in a washing



and decanting operation, sometimes using an alcohol or an



alcohol/water solution.



     At this point, other chemicals and ingredients are added.



An antioxidant is added to the viscous rubber solution to pre-



vent deterioration of the polymer.  A metered flow of a suitable



oil is also added here if the product is to be "oil-extended."



The oil is usually blended with the cement at some point



between the storage tanks and the steam-stripping operation.



Oil-extending serves to reduce the melt viscosity of the rubber



to that required for compounding in subsequent applications.



     Inert fillers, such as clay, whiting, or barytes, are



sometimes added to certain solution-polymerized rubbers to



facilitate handling the rubber mixture.  In these cases, re-



inforcing fillers such as carbon black are added, in a process



known as "masterbatching," to improve unsatisfactory properties



of the rubber.  Oil-extending and masterbatching are used with



solution styrene butadiene rubber, neoprene, stereoelastomers,



and fluoroelastomers.
                             29

-------
     The rubber cement is pumped from storage to the  coagulator




where rubber is precipitated in crumb form with hot water  under




violent agitation.  Surfactants may be added to control  crumb




size and to prevent reagglomeration.  In addition to  coagula-




tion, this operation accomplishes partial vaporization of




the solvent and the unreacted monomer; these vapors pass




overhead.



     In the area collectively known as the desolvent  (solvent




recovery) area, the resultant crumb slurry passes to  steam




strippers to drive off the remaining solvent and monomer.   The




equipment generally consists of either a flash tank or an




agitated kettle stripper.  Steam, solvent, and monomer vapors




pass overhead to a condenser and decanter for recovery-  The




bottom decant layer, saturated in solvent and monomer, is




discharged.   The organicxlayer is sent to a multistage frac-




tionator.  Light fractions are removed in the first column and




generally consist of unreacted light monomer (e.g., butadiene).




This is usually reclaimed at the monomer supply plant.   The




second column produces purified solvent, a heavy monomer-water



fraction, and other heavy components.




     The heavy monomer (e.g.,  styrene) is condensed,  decanted,




and recycled.   The bottom water layer is discharged.  The  puri-




fied solvent is dried before reuse.   The extraneous heavy  com-




ponents stream is waste which can be either decanted  before



disposal or  incinerated as a slop oil.
                            30

-------
     The stripped rubber crumb slurry is separated and washed



with water on vibrating screens.  Part of the slurry rinse



water is recycled to the coagulator with water or steam makeup.



The remaining portion is discharged as overflow.  The screened




rubber is passed through an extruder-dryer for further dewatering



and drying.  As the rubber is extruded through a perforated



die plate, the mechanical action of the screw heats the material



in the barrel to about 143°C.  Dewatering and drying can also



be accomplished using a rotary filter and a hot-air oven dryer.



The dried rubber, usually in the form of pellets, is pressed



into 34-kg bales and usually wrapped in polyethylene for



storage and shipment. 11+~ T 9



3.1.2.2  Emissions - The sources of emissions in the solution



polymerization process can also be identified by the area in



which they occur.  These areas are 1) the tank farm or monomer



and solvent storage area, 2) the solvent purification area,



3) the polymerization or reactor area, 4) the desolvent area



and 5) the finishing area.





     In the tank farm area, emissions are as they were de-



scribed for emulsion with the addition of emissions resulting



from the storage of the solvent, in almost all cases, hexane.



A representative plant can have hexane storage facilities rang-



ing in size from 1.1 x 105 to 2.3 x 105 liters.  These tanks are




vented to the atmosphere, and thus can be expected to have




emissions due to breathing losses.  Plants have measured such



losses and found the vent gas to contain over 50 percent by
                             31

-------
volume of hexane.   The daily mass emission rate has been deter-




mined to be about 500 Ibs (227 kilograms)  per day.  Utilizing




these data and an assumed representative plant's annual produc-




tion via solution polymerization, the calculated emission factor




for hexane storage breathing losses is 0.5 grams per kilogram




of rubber produced.  The emission factor for styrene storage is




the same as for the emulsion process, 0.02 grams per kilogram.




Fugitive emissions are also the same as in the case of the




emulsion tank farm area, 0.07 grams per kilogram.




     In the purification area (solvent and monomer separation),




emissions are present due to leaks in pipeline valves, pump




seals, and compressor seals.  Plants have measured such emis-




sions at rates of approximately 200 Ibs (91 kilograms) per day.




Utilizing this figure and an assumed representative plant's




annual production, an emission factor for fugitive emissions




from the purification area can be calculated to be 0.2 grams




per kilogram of rubber.




     The reactor area emissions result from strainer changes,




anti-oxidant makeup,  etc., and are fugitive in nature.  The emis-




sion factor is calculated to be 0.61 grams/kilogram of product.




     The desolvent area (solvent recovery) has emissions pri-




marily of hexane resulting from unreacted and unrecovered




hexane,  styrene, and butadiene evolving off the crumb rubber




solution.  This coagulated solution is held in surge tanks




which are vented to the plant exterior.  A representative plant




can be expected to have four such vents with an equivalent gas
                              32

-------
flow of 5.7 m3/sec (12,000 SCFM) at a temperature of 69°C



(157°F).   The composition of the gas can be expected to contain



greater than 550 ppm by volume of the two monomers and the sol-



vent.  The mass emission rate will be 2600 Ibs  (1180 kilograms)



per day.  Using  these data and an assumed representative plant's




annual solution production,  an emission factor is calculated



to be 2.7 grams per kilogram of rubber producted.  In addition,



fugitive losses in this area can be expected to result in an



emission factor of 0.2 grams per kilogram.



     The finishing area has emissions due to the operation of



drying of the crumb.   This is the major source of emissions



in synthetic rubber production.  The crumb, itself, has been



found to retain substantial quantities of hexane, even after



steam stripping and dewatering.  Thus, because hexane is still



held tightly within the crumb as it enters the dryer, emissions



from the dryer, itself, are large in magnitude.  The dryers



themselves are oven enclosures with a series of vents or stacks



leading to the plant exterior.  An average plant can have over



35 such stacks approximately 15.2 meters (50 feet) tall leading



from the dryers.  The equivalent flow rate of the exiting gases



can be expected to be 76.0 m3/s (160,000 SCFM) at a temperature



of 52°C (126°F).  The exhaust gas will contain approximately



300 ppm of hexane, styrene,  butadiene, and extender oil.  Uti-



lizing these conditions, the mass emission rate will be 16,300




Ibs (7400 kilograms)  per day.  The resultant emission factor is



20.2 grams per kilogram of rubber produced.
                              33

-------
                  4.   TIRES AND INNER TUBES


4.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION

     Tires consist of five basic parts:   the tread, sidewall,

cord, bead,  and inner liner.   For economic reasons, passenger-

car tire tread is made from a combination of SBR and 25% to 35%

polybutadiene. 21  However, natural rubber is still used in the

production of larger  tires and steel-belted tires.

     Polyisoprene and EPDM are also used in appreciable quanti-

ties by tire manufacturers.  EPDM is used in the cover strip

and white sidewall portion of the tire.

     In the compounding operation,  the raw  crumb  rubber  is  mixed

with a variety of fillers, extenders, curing agents, accelera-

tors, and antioxidants.  A typical compound might contain:22

   • 100 parts rubber

   • 50 parts fillers and extenders

   • 3.5 parts curing and accelerating agents

   • 8.0 parts antioxidants and other ingredients
21Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Second
  Edition,  Vol.  17.   New York,  John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968
  p.  509-540.

22Shreve,  R.  N.   Chemical Process Industries, Third Edition.
  New York,  McGraw-Hill, Inc.,  1967.  905 p.
                             34

-------
     Carbon black and oil are by far the most common fillers




and extenders.  Sulfur, zinc oxide, and any of several sulfon-



amide accelerators comprise the most popular curing combination.



The basic compounding recipes for each type of rubber are



similar, but natural rubber requires different carbon black



loadings, less softener, more sulfur, and more accelerator.



     In addition to these rubber stock precursors, large quan-



tities of rayon, nylon, and polyester cord are consumed in



tire cord and belt manufacture.  Sizable amounts of steel wire



are used in the production of tire beads, and smaller quantities



of steel and fiberglass fabric are used in radial tire pro-



duction.



4.1.1  Compounding



     Compounding and mixing operations are carried out in



Banbury mixers, T-mix extruders, and roller mills.  The Banbury



mixer is a batch-type, internal mixer used to mix fillers,



extenders, reinforcers, pigments, and antioxidants into the raw



rubber to form a nonreactive stock.  These ingredients must be



added in a certain order because some mix better with rubber



than others.  The usual order of mixing is:   (1) accelerators,



(2) reinforcers, (3) antioxidants, and  (4) fillers.  Banbury



mixers are not suitable for the addition of sulfur or other




curing agents because their high operating temperatures cause




premature vulcanization.



     After mixing,  the nonreactive compound is discharged by




gravity from the Banbury to a battery of roll mills.  Here,
                              35

-------
the curing agents plus small quantities of the other ingredi-
ents are added and mixed in to form the reactive stock.  This
compound is sheeted out for immediate use.
     Alternatively, the discharge from the Banbury may be
pelletized and stored.  This allows automatic weighing and mix-
ing in the preparation of reactive stock at some later time.
     Once sheeted out, the rubber stock is tacky and must be
coated with anti-tack solution or powder prior to storage.
These materials effectively prevent sticking once the rubber
has been processed.
4.1.2  Tread and Sidewall Forming
     Rubber stock from the compounding section is fed manually
to a warmup roller mill where it is heated and further mixed.
The heat is provided by the conversion of mechanical energy,
and temperature control is provided by cooling water in the
rolls.  From the warmup mill, the heated stock goes to a strip-
feed mill for final mixing.  This mill is also cooled to control
the temperature of the stock.  The rubber is peeled off the
front roller of the mill in a thin strip and fed continuously
to a single head dual extruder.
     At the extruder, two types of rubber stocks from two dif-
ferent strip mills are joined together at the head to form the
tread and two black sidewalls.  This tread-sidewall combination
trimmed to the proper width leaves the extruder as a continuous
strip while still hot and tacky.
     After extrusion, a cushioning layer is attached to the
underside of the tread.   The tread-sidewall ribbon is then

                              36

-------
labelled, cemented and cut to the proper length.  The trimmings



are manually or automatically transferred back to the proper



strip-feed mill and reprocessed.  The finished tread is then



sent to the building area.



4.1.3  Tire Cord and Belt Forming




     Tire cords and belts are constructed from woven synthetic



fabrics such as rayon, nylon, and polyester.   Upon arrival



from the textile mill, the fabric is unrolled and spliced onto



the tail of the previous roll.  Splicing is done adhesively, or



is carried out by high-speed sewing machines.  This continuous



sheet of fabric is then fed under controlled tension to a latex



dip or cement dip tank.



     After dipping, the fabric is fed past a series of vacuum



suction lines or rotating beater bars to remove excess dip.



Still under tension, the fabric rises through a drying and



baking oven to remove all but the last traces of solvent.



     At the present time, more and more latex dip operations



are being transferred from the individual tire plant to textile



mills.  The reasons for this trend are:



   • Small operations require large capital expenditures.



   • Latex dipping's fast operation oversupplies the plant.



   • Shipping costs for dipped and undipped fabric are the same.




   • One facility handles maintenance and housekeeping problems,
SSteel wire and fiberglass are also used in radial tires
                              37

-------
     Plants which specialize in tire cord and belt pretreat-
ment are classified under SIC 2296, Tire Cord and Fabric,  and
were not considered in this study.
     After pretreatment, the fabric is passed through a  fric-
tion calendering machine where it is impregnated with rubber.
Both sides of the cord plies are coated at once on the four-
roll calenders most commonly used.  Three-roll calenders can
only coat one side of the fabric at a time, increasing the
time requirement for the frictioning operation.
     When the calendering operations are completed, the  rubber-
ized fabric is cooled by large water- or refrigerant-cooled
drums and the tension is released.  The fabric is then rolled,
in a liner and transferred to another area, or cut.
     The rubber stock used in the frictioning operation  is
worked up on a series of warmup mills and strip-feed mills
in the same manner as the tread and sidewall stocks.
4.1.4  Tire Bead Manufacture
     The tire beads are formed by extruding rubber onto  a
series of copper-plated steel wires, which are subsequently
wrapped and cut.   Actually, several strands of rubber-covered
wire are passed through the die of the extruder simultaneously,
then rolled together to make a bead.
     The bead is  wrapped with a rubberized, square-woven fabric,
then rewrapped.   The edges of this second layer of wrapping
extend upward into the sidewall where they are anchored  once
the tire is built.
                              38

-------
     The rubber stock used to coat the wires is worked up in

the same manner as the tread, sidewall, and frictioning stocks.

4.1.5  Inner Liner Production

     The inner liner is formed by calendering or extruding

rubber stock in a manner similar to the tread forming or fabric

frictioning operations. The  rubber compound used  in  this process

is worked up in the manner previously described.

4.1.6  Tire Building

     Each tire is built up as a cylinder on a collapsible,

round, rotating drum slightly larger than the tire itself.3

First, the inner liner is applied to the drum, followed by the

layers of cord.  One layer of cord ties the beads together in

one direction,  the  next layer on  the  other  direction.  The beads

are attached to the tire by  folding over the ends of the cord

fabric, and the belt fabric  is laid onto the cord.  The tread

is then placed over the cord and belt and wrapped around the

beads.  The drum is collapsed, and the green tire is removed.

Rubber cement is used in most tire building operations to tack-

ify the various tire components before assembly.

4.1.7  Green Tire Spraying

     Before molding and curing, the green tire is sprayed with

release agents both inside and out.  These release agents help

to remove air from the tire during molding and to prevent the

tire from sticking to the mold after curing.  Both water- and

solvent-based sprays are used.
 Radial tires are built in the doughnut shape of the final
 product.

                              39

-------
4.1.8  Molding and Curing

     Passenger tires are molded and cured in an automatic press,


An inflatable rubber bladder bag is inflated inside the tire,


causing it to take its characteristic shape.  As the bladder


inflates, the mold is closed over the shaped tire.  Steam heat


is applied through the mold on the outside of the tire and


through the bladder bag on the inside of the tire.   After a

timed, temperature-controlled cure, the bladder is deflated by


a vacuum, and the tire is removed.  Vulcanization usually takes

20 to 60 minutes at 100°C to 200°C.18  During curing, the excess


rubber and trapped air escape through vent holes in the mold.

     Following its removal from the mold, the tire is inflated

with air, and left to cool in the atmosphere.


4.1.9  Grinding and Buffing Operations


     After a tire is cooled, the excess rubber which escaped


through the weepholes is ground off.  If the tire is to be a


whitewall,  additional grinding  is  performed  to  remove  the  black


protective strip.  Final buffing and grinding is then done to

balance the tire for good highway performance.

4.1.10  White Sidewall Painting


     This is the final operation prior to inspection and ship-

ping.  It is usually carried out in spray booths using water-

based paints.


     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 4-1.
 Radial tires are sometimes cured with hot water rather than
 steam.
                              40

-------
                RUBBER



SPLICING
*v 1
LATEX
DIPPING
1
EX CESS DIP
REMOVAL
^ 1
DRYING
L.
k ADDITIVES
t
>

COMPOUNDING
( BANBURY MIXER )
*
ROLL MILL
1
^v..
s*

	 s*



ANTI - TACK
TREATMENT
*

s*
WARMUPMILL
i

s*
STRIP -FEED
MILL


r i - -
*V = "LENDER
t
COOLING
CUTTING
SPLICING

CORD INN
AND BIT LIN

ER
ER
?

EXTRUDER EXTRUDER

CUSH
LA
ATTAC

COC
CU
LAB

X 1
ONING CEMENTING
HMENT jl
WRAF

[TING
ELL ING
S*
CEMENTING
\
PING
ING

TREAD AND BEAD
SIDEWALL
BUILDING
*

GREEN TIRE
SPRAYING
I
MOLDING
CURING
^b

— <*



  ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
Figure 4-1.   Tire  flowsheet,
                41

-------
4.2  INNER TUBE MANUFACTURE14



     Inner tube manufacture is very similar to tire manufacture




in that the process consists of the following steps:




     1.  Preparation or compounding of the raw materials.




     2.  The extrusion of these compounded materials to form




         a tube.



     3.  The building, molding, and curing of the rubber to




         form the final product.




     The basic machinery used in the compounding operation is




similar to that used in tire manufacture; namely, Banbury




mixers and roller mills.  One minor distinction of inner tube




manufacture is the high usage of butyl rubbers.  In addition,




a soap rather than a soapstone solution is sometimes used.




     The process by which the tube is formed is similar to the




extrusion of the tread.  The compounded rubber is fed to an




extruder via a warm-up mill.  Here the rubber is extruded into



a continuous cylinder.




     Once extruded,  the  tube must  be cut  to  length  and  the  ends




spliced together. A valve must also be attached.   Once formed,




the tube must be molded or cured.   Again, this operation is




very similar to that of tire manufacture.  After curing, the




tube is inspected for defects, packaged and sent to warehousing



and shipping.
                              42

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4.3  EMISSIONS23"28

     Table 5 is a summary of emissions from the manufacture of

tires and inner tubes.  Emission points resulting from the pro-

duction of tires are numerous.  In the course of this study,

only some quantification of these points was found.  Thus, in

identifying emission points for this industry, some will be

addressed as potential hydrocarbon emission points due to lack

of source testing data.  For the purpose of this report, any
23Rappaport, S. M.  The Identification of Effluents from Rubber
  Vulcanization.  In:  Proceedings of Conference on Environ-
  mental Aspects of Chemical Use in Rubber Processing Opera-
  tions (March 12-14, 1975, Akron, Ohio).  U.S. Environmental
  Protection Agency.  Washington, D.C.  EPA-560/1-75-002
  (PB 244 172).  July 1975.  p. 185-216.
24Kenson, R. E., P. W. Kalika, and S. Cha.  Odor Sources in
  Rubber Processes and Their Control.  In:  Proceedings of
  Conference on Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
  Rubber Processing Operations (March 12-14, 1975, Akron, Ohio).
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Washington, D.C.
  EPA-560/1-75-002  (PB 244 172).   July 1975.  p. 17-36.
25Guide for Compiling a Comprehensive Emission Inventory
  (Revised).  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-  Research
  Triangle Park, N.C.  Publication No. APTD-1135.  March 1973.
  209 p.

26Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Waste Practices—Rubber
  and Plastics Industry.   (Prepared by Foster D. Snell, Inc.,
  Florham Park, New Jersey, under EPA Contract 68-01-3194, for
  presentation to the Environmental Committee of the Rubber
  Manufacturers Association, Cleveland, Ohio, October 22, 1975.)

27Van Lierops, B., and P- W. Kalika.  Measurement of Hydrocar-
  bon Emissions and Process Ventilation Requirements at a Tire
  Plant.  (Presented at the 68th Annual Meeting of the Air Pol-
  lution Control Association.  Boston.  June 15-20, 1975.)  23 p.

28Kalika,  P. W.  Hydrocarbon Emissions - Classification, Regu-
  lation,  Measurement, and Control.   (Presented at the 3rd
  Environmental Conference of The Rubber Manufacturers Associ-
  ation.  Chicago, Illinois.  October 29-30, 1973.)  18 pp.
                              43

-------
              Table 5.   VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM THE
                   MANUFACTURE OF TIRES AND INNER TUBES
Emission source
Green tire spraying
Fabric cementing
Tire building
Undertread cementing
Tread end cementing
Curing
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion
Solvent storage
TOTALS
Emission factor
g/kg of rubber
product
19.7
5b
3.6
1.25°
0.25
0.22
0.1
0.05
0.046
0.01
0.01
30.23
a
Emission type
Solvent
Solvent
Solvent
Solvent
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Solvent
	
Percent
65.2
16.5
11.9
4.1
0.8
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.04
0.04
99.88
Cumulative
percent
65.2
81.7
93.6
97.7
98.5
99.2
99.5
99.7
99.8
99.84
99.88
99. 889
 Solvent emissions account for 98.5% of volatile organic emissions.  Rubber
 volatiles  account for  1.5% of volatile organic emissions.
b
 Fabric cementing  is  assumed to be  utilized in 50% of the final product
 weight.

 Undertreated cementing is assumed  to be utilized in 50% of the final prod-
 uct weight.
d
 Tread-end  cementing  is assumed to  be utilized in production of 20% of the
 final product weight.
a
"Calendering  is assumed to be utilized in the production of 80% of the final
 product weight.

 Extrusion  is assumed to be utilized in the production of 20% of the final
 product weight.

^Totals do  not equal  100% due to rounding errors.
                                   44

-------
process involving the working of rubber where a temperature



of 72°C is exceeded,23 is considered a potential hydrocarbon



emission point.  Above 72°C, the potential for release of




hydrocarbons from the rubber material, itself, is assumed to



exist.  This assumption is based on the temperature hydrocarbon



release equation developed by Rappaport23 and is discussed in



Appendix F.




4.3.1  Compounding  (Banbury Mixing)



     The Banbury mixer, through mechanical release of heat to



the rubber stock, itself, generates heat.  Normal operating



temperatures in the mixer are between 100°C and 125°C.  The



potential for formation of volatile organics off the rubber



stock, thus exists.



     Emissions data for mixing are scarce.  Available data con-



sists of several stack measurements with emissions reported on



a pounds/hour basis.  The values of the measurements vary by a



factor of 2.  It is not possible to statistically calculate an



emission factor from this data and accurately characterize the



emissions.



     Banbury mixers can vary in size from as small as 2.5 kilo-



grams rubber capacity to 320 kilograms rubber capacity.  In



addition, the actual hydrocarbon concentration in the exit gas



could theoretically be reduced by  the presence of particulate




in the gas stream.  This particulate, mostly carbon black,



could conceivably be adsorbing the hydrocarbons.  Thus, even



proposed temperature-volatilization correlations cannot be
                              45

-------
verified for this emission source.  The engineering estimate




with available data for an emission factor is 0.1 g/kilogram




of rubber stock.  It should be emphasized that this factor must




be verified by additional source testing of mixing emissions in




the future.  The estimate takes into account the relative magni-




tude of this source's emissions to other sources, temperatures




generated in the process and the nature of the rubber stock at




this stage of the tire manufacturing operation.  Additional dis-




cussion of the estimation of this factor is presented in Appen-




dix F.




4.3.2  Milling




     Again, through mechanical working of the rubber, heat is




produced in the milling of rubber.  The temperature of the stock




as it leaves the mill (commonly called the dump temperature) is




from 70°C to 80°C.  As for emissions from compounding, emissions




data are lacking for this source.




     Batch capacities for mills vary from 1 kilogram to 135 kil-




ograms.  The milling process is not continuous and thus an esti-




mate of an emission factor based on stack hourly measurements




would not be correct.  Available data is, however, reported on




a pounds per hour basis.  The hydrocarbon quantities measured




vary by a factor of fifteen.  The problem of calculating an




emission factor for this source includes two additional consid-




erations.  First, at the temperatures involved, any volatile




organics formed can be expected to condense as the exit gases




cool.   In addition,  background hydrocarbon concentrations
                              46

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around the mill, but due to other sources, such as a nearby



tread cementer, can make measurements of hydrocarbons from



milling unrepresentative.  Considering all these variables, an



emission factor for milling is estimated to be 0.05 g/kilogram



of stock processed.  Again, this is an engineering estimate,



based on the limited available data, temperatures involved, and



this source's emission magnitude in relation to other emission



sources.  Additional data are obviously needed to verify or im-



prove on the estimated emission factor.  Additional background



on the estimate of this factor is presented in Appendix F.



4.3.3  Fabric Cementing



     Some tire manufacturer's cement dip or latex dip the



fabric before calendering of the rubber and fabric.  After



application, the solvent in the cement is free to evaporate.



The use of this operation, as mentioned, is not practiced in



all tire manufacturing facilities, but at least one facility



is known to practice this step.  Available emissions data are



scarce, and measured values, on a pounds/hour basis vary by a



factor of greater than ten.  This data itself, again cannot be



used to calculate an emission factor.  As before, additional



source testing data is needed to verify any emission factor



that is estimated.  Based on limited solvent consumption data



and several independent estimates of emissions, the estimate



for an emission factor from fabric cementing is 10 g/kilogram




of stock.
                              47

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4.3.4  Calendering



     Heat to maintain the plasticity of the rubber stock as  it




is bonded to the fabric or steel mesh is furnished by steam-




heated rolls.  Temperatures of between 70°C to 80°C are reached




during the operation.  No data are available on emissions from




this source.  However, based on temperature  alone,  the emissions




from calendering should have the same relative character and




magnitude as emissions from milling.  On this basis alone, an




emission factor for calendering is estimated to be 0.05 g/kilo-




gram of rubber stock.  Source testing is again warranted to




verify or improve on this estimate.  Additional background into




the estimation of this factor is presented in Appendix F.




4.3.5  Extrusion




     As before, heat is generated in this process.  The size of




the extruded product determines the amount of heat and thus the




amount of hydrocarbons released.   As the size of the product




increases, so does the quantity of hydrocarbons released.  Tread




and sidewall extrusion are two examples of these large extruded



products.




     No emissions data are available for extrusion operations.




Temperatures involved vary with the size of rubber stock extru-




ded.   The exact range of temperature is not known, however, the




range of from 70°C to 90°C characteristic of milling and calen-




dering should apply to extrusion as well.  Using this tempera-




ture  basis,  an emission factor for extruding can be estimated




to be 0.05 g/kilogram of stock.  A representative range to
                              48

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allow for the variation in temperature is estimated at from



0.01 to 0.1 g/kilogram rubber.  An example of an extruding



operation in tire manufacture where the emissions will be lower



than the established factor is that for the extrusion of inner



tubes.



4.3.6  Undertread and Tread End Cementing



     This operation uses a solvent-based cement to tackify the




tread before it is sent to the tire building operation.  The



choice of solvent varies, but one source was observed to use a



naphtha-based solvent.  The solvent evaporates rapidly after



being applied.  The emission factor for undertread cementing is



calculated to be 2.5 g/kilogram of rubber, based on information



available from two literature sources27'28 and plant supplied



data for this operation.



     A range of from 2.0 to 3.0 g/kilogram of stock can be ex-



pected from various operations.  The two reference sources27?28



report an emission factor in terms of pounds per square foot of



tread.  The emission factor given was 0.083 kg/m2 of tread.



4.3.7  Green Tire Spraying



     The green tire spraying operation is accomplished at a



spray booth.  Because retention time is extremely short in the



booth, the solvent used in the spray is evaporated to the gener-




al room atmosphere.  Data quantifying this emission point were



found from both literature sources and plant visits.  Emissions




from green tire spraying are estimated to be 215 g/tire based




on data available from two literature sources27'28/ solvent
                              49

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consumption data for this emission source, and assuming complete




evaporation after 5 minutes.



     A tire is assumed here to contain 10.9 kilograms of rubber




stock.  Therefore, an emission factor for  green tire  spraying




based on g/kilogram of rubber stock can be calculated to  be




19.7 g/kilogram of rubber.  This factor assumes that  all  the




solvent applied evaporates before curing.  Variations in  emis-




sion factors for this operation can be expected to exist  from




plant to plant and by the type of solvent  used.  No data  are




available to present such a range.




4.3.8  Curing



     Curing of the unvulcanized, green tire is an operation




involving application of heat and pressure over some  time




interval.  The exact combination of these  variables  is of  course




different for and confidential to each manufacturer.   However,




temperatures should exceed 150°C in all cases and thus  hydro-




carbon emissions result.   Due  to the diverse nature  of the




emission (multiple presses in a large area of the plant),




actual emissions will vary from press to press.




     Emissions data are scarce for curing  operations.  Rappaport,




in his doctoral thesis, heated 50 gram samples of tread stock




for 20 ( + 2)  minutes in a nitrogen-filled chamber at temperatures




from 160°C to 200°C and determined weight  loss gravimetrically.




The maximum weight loss found was 2.73 g/kg.  The average  weight




loss was 2.23 g/kg over the entire temperature range.   In sub-




sequent tests by the supplier of the rubber stock, the  moisture
                              50

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loss (includes water  absorbed  in  the  stock and water  synthesized



by vulcanization reactions) was measured.  The stock supplier



found that water produced by curing operations could amount to



about 2.5 g/kg of the organic material in the stock, itself.



     Realizing the potential inaccuracies inherent to utilizing



these limited data to characterize emissions from the diverse



and chemically complicated process of vulcanization, an emis-



sion factor was calculated.  The maximum weight-loss reported



by Rappaport was 2.73 g/kg. Assuming that 1) all water produced



during vulcanization is vaporized, and 2) the 2.5 g/kg of mois-



ture is the maximum amount produced, the ratio of maximum water



weight loss to maximum total weight loss can be calculated to



be approximately 90% (91.4%).  Again assuming that on the aver-



age 90% of total weight loss during curing is water loss, the



remaining 10% is assumed to be volatile organics.  Again, using




Rappaport"s average weight loss of 2.23 g/kg, the emission



factor is calculated to be:



          (0.1)  (2.23)  = 0.223 g/kg of rubber stock



     In investigating the value of this factor, four calcula-



tions were performed to determine a possible range.  The calcu-




lations are presented in Appendix F.  The calculations show the



emission factor to possibly vary from .024 g/kg to 2.38 g/kg.



Since the emission factor is only valid to within a factor of




10, source testing is needed.
                              51

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 4.3.9   Fugitive  Emissions



     Leaks  from  pump  seals  and valves  used  to  transport sol-




 vents  in  the plant will result in  the  release  of  hydrocarbons.




 No  emission data on fugitive emissions  in tire manufacture were




 found,  and  no emission factor is estimated.




 4.3.10  Solvent  Storage




     Most tire plants have  facilities  to store and mix their




 own solvents and/or cements. Because this mixing  is  done some-




 times  in  open vessels and in some  cases by  hand,  emissions of




 hydrocarbons result.  These operations are  carried out on  a




 batch basis with the quantity of emissions  varying accordingly




 with time.  Available data do not  permit an absolute estimate




 of  this source,  but an emission factor of less  than 0.01 g/kg




 of  rubber is estimated to exist due  to these solvent/cement



 handling  and mixing activities.




 4.3.11  Tire Building




     In tire building operations,  rubber solvent  is utilized to




 tackify the various rubber components before fabrication onto




 the drum.   The amount of solvent utilized per  tire varies  con-




 siderably due to individual tire builder preference.   In the




 instances  where solvent is not used, the rubber has maintained




 its tackiness due to the instantaneous use of the component




after fabrication.   Utilizing plant tire building solvent  con-




sumption data from several tire  plants, the emission factor is



calculated to be 3.6 g/kg of rubber.
                              52

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4.3.12  Other Emission Sources




     Other sources of hydrocarbon emission include bead dipping



and touch-up spraying. No data are available to allow  for esti-



mation of an emission factor for these sources.
                              53

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                    5.   RUBBER FOOTWEAR29


5.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION

     The process description presented here pertains to the

production of canvas footwear, which constitutes the major

product type within the Rubber and Plastics Footwear Industry,

SIC 3021.

     Canvas shoes are the product of a number of processing

operations, including:   compounding of rubber stocks, molding

of the soles, cutting and fabricating of canvas parts, extru-

sion of other rubber components,  construction of the final

product from all these items, and curing of the final product.

     The various rubber stocks received at a canvas footwear

plant are compounded with other processing chemicals in Banbury

mixers or roll mills and then sheeted out.  The compounded,

sheeted stock is next cooled.  Water spraying, immersion in a

cooling water tank or cooling by conduction through stainless
2Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations
  Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
  Fabricated and Reclaimed Rubber Segment of the Rubber Proc-
  essing Point Source Category.  U.S. Environmental Protec-
  tion Agency.  Washington, D.C.  EPA-440/1-7-030.  August
  1974.  213 p.


                             54

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steel belts are the preferred techniques.  After cooling, the

sheeted rubber is dipped in an anti-tack solution to prevent

sticking during storage.

     A canvas shoe is built from four major components:  soles,

inner soles, canvas uppers, and foxing.  Each of these pieces

is made separately by different processes before being brought

together in the shoe-building operation.

     The soles are either cut from uncured rubber sheets or,

more generally, formed using injection, compression, or trans-

fer molding techniques.  The technology employed depends on

the final product.  Compression molding is now more common but

requires more manual labor and produces more molding waste

than automated injection techniques.  The molded soles are

deflashed, usually in a buffing machine.  A coat of latex

adhesive is applied to the soles before they are dried in an

oven.

     Production of the inner soles begins with the preparation

of flat, cellular rubber sheets by extruding or calendering a

special rubber stock.  The extruded sheet can be continuously

cured by passing through heated presses.  Blowing agents, such

as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOs) or azodicarbonamide/    \\   \\   \
                                                  \H2NCN=NCNH2/,

which are mixed into the rubber stock during compounding, de-

compose and release gases which blow the extruded sheet into

cellular sponge.  The inner soles are die-cut from the cellu-

lar sheet.  The blowing agents are emitted to the atmosphere

during mixing.

                             55

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     Canvas uppers for footwear are made from two- or three-



ply fabric.  The canvas material is received at a plant as



single sheets.  These individual plies are coated with latex



or solvent, pulled together, and passed over a steam-heated



drum.  The sheets are stacked and then cut to the proper



dimensions using a die and a press.  The different canvas com-



ponents making up the footwear uppers are stitched together




on sewing machines.



     The foxing, or edging, which protects the joint between



the sole and the canvas uppers, is extruded as a long strip



from rubber stock.



     The shoe is fabricated from its four basic components on



a form called a last.  The canvas upper is cemented at its



edges and placed over the last.  The inner sole is attached to



the bottom of the last.  The bottom of the inner sole and canvas



combination is dipped in a latex-adhesive solution which will



serve to hold the entire shoe together.  Next, the outer sole,



the foxing, and the toe and heel pieces are attached to the



shoe.




     The finished shoes are inspected and placed on racks in



an air-heated autoclave for curing under 30 psi  to  40  psi  total



pressure.  Anhydrous ammonia is injected into the autoclave



to complete the cure, the amount required ranging from 0.9 kg



to 4.5 kg of NH3 for every thousand pairs of shoes cured.  The




curing cycle lasts about 1 hr, at the end of which the ammonia-



air mixture is vented to the atmosphere.
                             56

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     Some shoes are cured without ammonia.  This is done when



the product's tackiness is not very important or when the com-



pounding recipe can be modified to eliminate the tackiness



often associated with conventional air curing.  Steam is not



used for curing because it would stain the canvas parts of the



shoe in many cases.



     Curing is not necessary in some new methods of shoe pro-



duction.  In this process, observed at one of the visited



plants, all shoe components are pieced together by rubber



cement which is manually applied to the components.  The com-



pleted shoe is then dried by forced air to drive off the



cement carrying solvent to complete the process.  This new



process, although small in capacity compared to the conven-



tional production technique, can be expected to produce sub-



stantially more emissions per shoe due to the increased use



of rubber cement in the process.




5.2  EMISSIONS



     Table 6 is a summary of volatile organic emissions from



rubber footwear.  Data used to estimate solvent emissions are



taken from information supplied during plant visits.  Rubber



volatile estimates are based on assumptions presented in



Appendix F.



5.2.1  Compounding



     As mentioned previously, operating temperatures resulting



from Banbury mixing present the potential for hydrocarbon emis-



sions.   Temperatures were found to be lower for compounding




done in rubber foot wear plants than for compounding done in




                             57

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             Table 6.  VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM THE

                   MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER FOOTWEAR
Emission source
Rubber cementing
Molding
Curing
Latex dipping
and drying
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
TOTALS
Emission factor
g/kilogram rubber
95
.nb
.08°
.ld
.1
.05
.05
95.49
a
Emission type
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
	
Percent
99.5
.12
.08
.1
.1
.15
.15
100.1
Cumulative
percent
99.5
99.62
99.7
99.8
99.9
100.05
100.10
100. ie
 Solvent emissions account for 99.6% of volatile organic emissions.   Rubber

 volatiles account for 0.4%.


 Molding is assumed to be utilized in 50% of the final product weight.


 Curing is assumed to be utilized in 50% of the final product wieght.

d
 Latex dipping is assumed to be utilized in 20% of the final product

 weight.

e
 Totals do not add to 100% due to rounding errors.



tire manufacture.   The  reason for this is unknown, but presum-



ably it  is due to  a difference in raw materials.  For  instance,



the difference may be due to higher percentages of natural



rubber used in rubber footwear.   The emission factor  for com-



pounding  done in rubber footwear  manufacture is calculated to



be 0.1 g/kg of rubber,  based on  the compounding  emission  factor



for tire  production.  Though the  actual operating temperature
                                58

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are lower, no data are available to calculate an actual emission




factor compounding in footwear manufacture.



5.2.2  Rubber Cementing




     Rubber cementing in footwear production is both large in



emission quantity and numerous in emission points.  The emis-



sion factors for all these points have been estimated collec-



tively as one factor due to the lack of specific data on




emission quantities for each emission point.  The collective



emission factor represents the following specific emission



points:



     1)  Spreading - An operation quite similar to fabric



         cementing, in which the cement is applied and the



         product is heated in an oven.  No quantification of



         this point was found.



     2)  Combining - An operation similar to calendering,



         except that two sheets of fabric are forced together.



         Some plants use water-based cements in this opera-



         tion, others use solvent.



     3)  Basket sole cementing - The sole is coated with




         cement and inspected for coverage.



     4)  Molded outsole cementing - Automatically coated



         outsoles are produced, and the sole edges are sprayed



         with cement by spray guns, in a booth.  The area is




         usually vented to the plant exterior.




     5)  Sole lining - Cement is applied before the sole is




         applied to the shoe.
                             59

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     6)  Miscellaneous cementing operations - Upper  cementing,




         lacquer application, etc.




     Since data were not available to estimate an emission




factor on each such operation based on either source testing




data or solvent consumption data for each process, solvent




usage for an assumed representative footwear plant was obtained




for an annual basis.  Using plant production figures and assum-




ing that no solvent leaves with the finished product and is




thus emitted, an emission factor for all cementing activities




was arrived at.  The resultant emission factor for these six




identified emission points collectively was calculated to be




95 g/kg of rubber stock.




5.2.3  Latex Dipping and Drying



     After the various components have been attached together,




the shoe or boot is partially or entirely dipped in latex and




dried, either by air or oven.  The emission factor for this




operation is calculated to be 0.5 g/kg of rubber.  This factor




is based on plant information such as latex usage and assuming




all solvent contained in the latex is emitted.  In this opera-




tion, some plants do not, however, use solvent in their latex.



5.2.4   Curing




     The shoe or boot is cured in a batch process similar to




that used for hose and belt batch curing.  The curing vessel




is vented to the plant exterior.




     No data are available for batch curing of rubber footwear.




Using Rappaport's findings for volatilization of rubber stock
                              60

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during vulcanization and allowing for water loss, an emission



factor of 0.22 g/kg of rubber was assumed.  In batch curing the



materials are cured under pressure in a confined vessel.  Any




volatile organics formed cannot be released to the atmosphere



until after curing is completed.  Because these volatile



organics are not vented until curing is completed, it can be



assumed that a portion of the volatiles will condense before



venting occurs.  Assuming 25% to 30% condense before venting



and that the conditions assumed for tire curing apply except



for the condensing, an emission factor for batch curing can



be estimated to be:



               (.72) (.22) = .158



                         = .16 g/kg of rubber



     These assumptions and the estimated emission factor can



only be verified or improved on by actual test measurements



of batch curing operations.  There is no such data available




at this time.



5.2.5  Molding



     All types of molding are used in the industry.  Due to



the temperatures involved, hydrocarbon emissions are possible.



No quantification was found during plant visits.  Based on



previous calculations for tire curing, the emission factor for



molding is estimated to be .22 g/kg of rubber, based on the



assumption that emission from molding are similar to emissions




from tire curing.
                              61

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5.2.6  Milling and Calendering




     Footwear plants usually work the compounded rubber into




the size and shape necessary for downstream operations. Emis-




sions from these operations are as reported for tire manufac-




turing.  Respectively,  these factors are 0.05 g/kg of rubber




for calendering operations and 0.05 g/kg of rubber for milling



activities.
                             62

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                    6.  RUBBER RECLAIMING


6.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION

     J. M. Ball originally defined reclaimed rubber, in the

first edition of Rubber Technology, as  "the product resulting

from the treatment of vulcanized scrap  rubber tires, tubes and

miscellaneous waste rubber articles by  the application of heat

and chemical agents, whereby a substantial 'devulcanization1

or regeneration of the rubber compound  to its original plastic

state is effected, thus permitting the  product to be processed,

compounded, and vulcanized.  Reclaiming is essentially depoly-

merization; the combined sulfur is not  removed.  The product is

sold for use as a raw material in the manufacture of rubber

goods, with or without admixture with crude rubber or synthetic

rubber."30  The United States Department of Commerce has

adopted this definition in the report on Reclaimed Rubber for

the 1972 Census of Manufactures.

     There are currently three different process technologies

used by the rubber reclaiming industry  in the United States:
30Brothers, J. E.  Reclaimed Rubber.  In:  Rubber Technology,
  Second Edition, Morton, M. (Ed.).  New York, Van Nostrand
  Reinhold Co., 1973.  p. 496-514.

                             63

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the digester process, the pan (or heater)  process, and the



mechanical process.  The most common reclaiming technique is



the digester process, which has almost replaced the pan proc-



ess, the oldest of the three.  The mechanical process is the



least practiced.  All three processes use similar methods of



rubber scrap separation and size reduction.  The differences



show up in the depolymerization and final processing.



6.1.1  Metal Removal, Size Reduction, and Fiber Separation



     Scrap rubber received at a reclaiming plant is first



sorted to remove steel-belted or studded tires, which can be



either sent to special processing facilities or discarded as



waste.  Brass and steel valve stems and valve seats are manu-



ally removed from the remaining tires.  The bead wire, which



serves to secure the tire to the wheel rim, may also be cut



out of the tire at this time.



     Next, the scrap rubber is size reduced using either



crackers or hammer mills.  The cracker is a two-roll machine,



having working roll lengths of 76 cm to 107 cm and diameters



of 46 cm to 81 cm.11  Each roll is axially corrugated, and the



two rotate in opposite directions at different speeds.  As the



rubber is dropped into the cracker, the slower roll corruga-



tions momentarily "hold" the waste while the faster roll



corrugations shear, slice, crush, and abrade the waste.  This



process is repeated until all the material passes through a




screen of some predetermined mesh size.  Some reclaimers
                             64

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undertake further size reduction down to less than 10 mesh



using secondary and tertiary crackers.



     A hammer mill is essentially a high-speed rotating drum



which hammers the scrap rubber with pivoting "T" or "I" bars



or with knives mounted on the drum's periphery.  There may be



stationary knives located on the frame within which the drum



revolves, with or without a perforated plate or screen that



retains the scrap until it is sufficiently size reduced to



pass through.  The machine containing drum knives may have a



special feeding device to control the input of the rubber waste.



     Wastes containing reinforcing fiber materials, such as



cotton, rayon, nylon, polyesters, fiberglass, and metal, require



either mechanical fiber separation or chemical fiber degrada-



tion.  The ground rubber-and-fiber mixture is first separated



into streams of different particle size by a screener.  These



streams are conveyed to separation tables which effectively



separate loose fiber from clean rubber by vibration and air



flotation.  This is a continuous operation with recycle and



with free scrap being added at all times.



     The fiber and rubber-fiber portions are next fed into



hammer mills for hammering or scalping.  After the material



has been sufficiently size reduced to pass through a peripheral



screen, it is fed to sifters or beaters.  In these machines,



loose rubber particles separate from the fiber and pass through



a retaining screen, while the fiber is conveyed for recycle,



either to the screener or to another set of hammer mills.
                              65

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     The final operation of the fiber separation  process  is




baling the waste fiber.  This baled fiber is made up  of  small




strands, less than 3.8 cm long, and contains a  small  amount  of




entrapped rubber.11  This fiber is discarded unless there is




a market for its reuse.



     Fiber-separated rubber is next subjected to  fine grinding.




Crackers, similar to those used for primary size  reduction,




grind the rubber to 30-  mesh or smaller.  Hammer  mills can be




used for fine grinding but are not as efficient as crackers.




The finely ground rubber is then screened.  Particles that pass




through the screens are ready for depolymerization, while the




remaining material is recycled for further size reduction.




6.1.2  Depolymerization




     Digester process - Digestion is a wet process using  rubber




scrap that has been ground to thicknesses between 0.63 cm and




0.95 cm.30  The fine,  fiber-free rubber particles are mixed




with water and reclaiming agents and fed to a jacketed auto-




clave.  These digesters can accommodate about 2,300 kg to




2,700 kg of scrap, water, and chemicals in each  reclaim batch.30




The digester is agitated by a series of paddles on a  shaft




which is continuously driven at a slow speed to maintain  the




charge in motion for uniform heat penetration.  The digestion




liquor is heated by the injection of steam, at  pressures




generally around 1.38  MPa (200 psi) for a residence time  of




8 to 12 hours.30  Another reference indicates a residence time




of 5 to 24 hours at a digester temperature of 188°C to 207°C.29
                             66

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Reclaiming agents are fed to the digester with the scrap rubber

to accelerate depolymerization and to impart desirable pro-

cessing properties to the rubber.  Rubber scrap which has not

been mechanically defibered requires chemical degradation during

digestion.  Therefore, defibering agents and plasticizing oils

are added to complete the charge.

     When the digestion is complete, the resultant slurry is

blown down under internal pressure into a blowdown tank.  From

here, the rubber slurry is pumped to a holding tank where

additional water is added for dilution and washing.  After agi-

tation, the mixture is discharged onto vibrating screens where

a series of spray nozzles wash the rubber free from the diges-

tion liquor and hydrolyzed fiber.  The washed scrap is then

passed through a dewatering press.  A small amount of residual

moisture is necessary to prevent excessive buildup of heat

during subsequent refining.  A flow schematic is shown in

Figure 6-1.31

     Reclaiming agents that are used in the digester process

include petroleum- and coal-tar-based oils and resins as well

as various chemical softeners such as di- and trialkylphenol

sulfides and disulfides, mercaptans and amine compounds.  Pre-

ferred amines include aliphatic long-chain  (Cio~Ci^) amines

and primary amines.  Reclaiming agents generally function by
31Ananth, K. P-, T. Weast, D. Bendersky, and L. J. Shannon.
  Waste Material Trace Pollutant Study.  Midwest Research
  Institute, Kansas City, Mo., under EPA Contract 68-02-1324,
  Task 10.  May 1974.  p. 96-106.


                              67

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                       RUBBER SCRAP
                        RECEIVING
                       AND SORTING
                        VALVE STEMS
                      AND VALVE SEATS
                         REMOVAL
                       SIZE REDUCTION
                      FIBER SEPARATION
                       FURTHER SIZE
                        REDUCTION
                        SCREENING
           WATER
    CHEMICALS-
     AND OILS
                        DIGESTIVE
                     DEPOLYMERIZATION
                        SLOWDOWN
           OIL
          RECYCLE
         FILLERS
       AND LIQUIDS'
                         DRYING
MIXING
                         REFINING
                        STRAINING
      ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
                            REUSE OR
                           'DISPOSAL
                                                                 RECLAIMED
                                                                  RUBBER
Figure  6-1.    Schematic  flow  diagram  of  digester process
                    for  reclaiming  rubber.31
                                   68

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catalyzing the oxidative breakdown of polymer chains and sulfur



crosslinks.  It should be noted that natural rubber can be



reclaimed in the absence of reclaiming chemicals.




     Sodium hydroxide  (NaOH) or calcium chloride  (CaCl2) and



zinc chloride  (ZnCl2) are used as defibering agents in the



digester process.  The presence of synthetic rubber, such as



SBR, necessitates the use of metallic chlorides instead of



sodium hydroxide since the latter produces a thermosetting



effect with SBR.



     Pan  (or heater) process - Fiber-separated, fine-ground



scrap is reduced to an even smaller particle size by grinding



on steel rolls.  The rubber is next blended with reclaiming



oils in an open mixer and then placed in stacked shallow



pans.  The depth of treated scrap in these pans may be 15 cm



to 20 cm.30  The stacked pans are placed on a carriage that



can be wheeled into a large horizontal heater, which is a



single-shell pressure vessel.



     In this method of depolymerization, live steam at 1.38 MPa



(200 psi) to 1.55 MPa  (225 psi) is introduced to the heater to



directly contact the rubber scrap.30  Another reference states



that depolymerization is carried out at 185°C  [saturated steam



pressure ^1.12 MPa  (163 psi)] for 2 to 18 hours.29  After this



treatment, the heater is opened, and the reclaimed scrap is



unloaded and cooled.  No drying is required because the small




amount of water remaining will assist in refining.  A flow




schematic is shown in Figure 6-2.
                             69

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RECLAIMING OILS
      FILLERS
    AND LIQUIDS'
                      FIBER - FREE
                     RUBBER SCRAP
                       RECEIVING
                      AND SORTING
                      VALVE STEMS
                    AND VALVE SEATS
                       REMOVAL
                     SIZE REDUCTION
                       SCREENING
MIXING
                       AUTOCLAVE
                   DEPOLYMERIZATION
MIXING
                       REFINING
                       STRAINING
                                       ••A-
                    SLABBING/
                      BALING
                                                                      RECLAIMED
                                                                       RUBBER
          ^VOLATILE  ORGANICS
             Figure 6-2.   Schematic flow diagram of  pan
                  process  for reclaiming  rubber.31
                                      70

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     Mechanical process - Unlike the other two processes,




mechanical reclaiming is continuous.  Fiber-separated, fine-



ground rubber scrap is fed into a high-temperature, high-shear



machine.  The machine is a horizontal cylinder in which a screw



forces material along the chamber wall in the presence of



reclaiming agents and depolymerization catalysts.  Tempera-



tures generated are in the range of 204°c to 260°C with time



requirements between 1 and 4 minutes.31  The discharged re-



claimed rubber needs no drying.



6.1.3  Mixing, Refining, Straining, and Packaging



     Reinforcing materials such as clay, carbon black, and



softeners are most commonly mixed into the rubber using a



horizontal ribbon mixer.  This is an enclosed rectangular box



with a rounded bottom in which mixing is accomplished by a



horizontally driven continuous ribbon, paddles, or a combina-



tion of the two.  The mixed rubber and filler compounds are



next intimately blended in a Banbury internal mixer.  It



usually takes between 1 and 3 minutes to blend the material in



a single batch.  Since extruders permit continuous processing,



more reclaimers are converting to that method of blending.




     The reclaim next undergoes preliminary refining on a



short two-roll mill called a breaker refiner.  The smooth



rolls are of different diameters and rotate at different speeds



so that there is a high friction ratio which tends to form the



stock into a smooth clean sheet, approximately 0.3 mm thick.



The temperature of the rolls is controlled by water cooling.
                             71

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     The sheet is dropped into a screw conveyor which  carries




the reclaim to a strainer.  The  strainer  is  a heavy-duty extrud-




er which contains a wire screen  (10- to  40-mesh openings)  held




between two perforated steel plates in the head of  the machine.




Straining removes such foreign materials as  glass, metal, wood,




or sand from the rubber.  After straining, the rubber  goes on




to a second refiner called a finisher, which  is the  same type




of machine as the breaker.  The final thickness of  the clean




reclaim is between 0.05 mm and 0.25 mm.11




     Each reclaimer may complete his operations by  sending his




product to the customer in the form of slabs, stacked  on pal-




lets, or in bales.  Slabs are made by allowing the  thin sheet




of reclaim to wrap around  a windup roll until  the proper thick-




ness is obtained.  The wrapped layers are then cut  off  the roll,




forming a solid slab of a certain length, width, and weight.




Each slab, weighing approximately 14 kg  to 16 kg, is dusted




with talc to prevent sticking.30  After quality control approval,




the slabs are piled on pallets until the total wieght  is 680 kg




to 910 kg, ready for shipment.30  As an alternative  to  the slab




process, the reclaim sheet can be air conveyed to a  baler,




where the rubber is compacted to form a  bale  of controlled




weight.  The bales are dusted, bagged, stacked on pallets,




tested, and shipped.  A flow schematic is shown in  Figure 6-3.



6.2  EMISSIONS



     Table 7 shows a summary of volatile organic emissions from



rubber reclaiming operations.  Data used to  estimate the emis-



sion factor are from information supplied during plant visits.





                             72

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         FIBER-FILE
       RUBBER SCRAP
         RECEIVING
        AND SORTING
        VALVE STEMS
       AND VALVE SEATS
          REMOVAL
       SIZE REDUCTION
         SCREENING
     HIGH-TEMPERATURE,
        HIGH  SHEAR
      DEPOLYMERIZATION
          MIXING
          REFINING
         STRAINING
•&VOLATILE ORGANICS
SLABBING /
  BALING
                                                      RECLAIMED
                                                       RUBBER
 Figure 6-3.   Schematic  flow diagram  of mechanical
          process  for reclaiming rubber.31
                            73

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              Table 7.  VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM
                      RECLAIMING OPERATIONS
Emission source
Depolymerization
Emission factor
g/kg of rubber
30
Emission type
Solvent and
rubber volatiles
Percent
100
Cumulative
percent
100
6.2.1  Digestion

     The reclamatory operation is the primary  emission point

of hydrocarbons in rubber reclaiming.  The pan,  digestion,  or

mechanical process emits mainly vapors and mists resulting

from the addition of aliphatic and aromatic oils and  solvents

during digestion, or reclaiming.  Based on data  obtained from

state permit applications for an assumed representative rubber

reclaiming plant, the emission factor is calculated to be

30 g/kg of product.  The calculation is made collectively for

all processes since source testing data for specific  operations

are not available.  It is recognized that the  emission factor

will vary with each type of process.

6.2.2  Drying

     After digestion, the reclaim is quenched  with water or

allowed to cool down naturally by confined air (pressure vessel)

before further processing.  If the reclaim is  left to cool  in

the open atmosphere, without a water quench, hydrocarbon emis-

sions will exist.  However, in a representative  plant, no open

air drying without quench is assumed to exist.   No emission

factor is calculated for drying.
                              74

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6.2.3  Milling




     After drying, the reclaim is put onto various mills so



that the rubber can be sheeted out.  Because of residual mois-



ture remaining after quench or due to the nature of the reclam-



atory process itself, insufficient heat (maximum observed 35°C)



is generated to effect any hydrocarbon emissions.  No emission



factor for milling is calculated.



6.2.4  Fugitive




     Residual solvent and oil contained in the reclaim contin-



uously evolves off the reclaim, resulting in the odor associ-



ated with most reclaiming plants.  For a representative plant,



the emission factor is calculated to be less than 0.1 g/kg.



Control of such fugitive emissions is not possible as the odor



is characteristic of the product produced and not due to poor




housekeeping, leaky pumps or faulty valves.
                            75

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                  7.  RUBBER HOSE AND BELTING






7.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION



7.1.1  Belting-Conveyor or Flat Type




     Rubber belting usually consists of a multiple-ply, rub-




berized-fabric carcass sandwiched between two layers of rubber




sheeting.  SBR, natural rubber, and reclaimed rubber are used




in the most common types of belting.  Neoprene, nitrile rubber,




aerylate rubber, polysulfide, polyurethane, fluoroelastomers,




or epichlorohydrin may be used in belting which requires a




high degree of oil-resistance.21  Due to its particular prop-



erties, reclaimed rubber is used only as an extender for the




more expensive polymers.




     Depending upon the choice of raw crumb, a wide variety of




loading pigments, accelerators, plasticizers, antioxidants,




and vulcanizing agents are incorporated into the stock during



mixing.




     Compounding - Compounding and mixing  are  usually  carried




out in Banbury mixers, although compounding mills may be used




in some facilities.  After mixing, the rubber stock is sheeted




out on a sheeting mill and dipped in a soapstone slurry to
                             76

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reduce its tack.  The rubber leaves the rolling mill in a

ribbon several feet wide and approximately 1 inch thick.26

     Both the frictioning and sheeting stocks are worked on

warmup mills prior to subsequent forming operations.

     Forming operations - The hot sheeting stock passes from

the warmup mill through an extruder-calender machine where its

dimensions are fixed.  Wire reinforcement may be extruded with

the rubber stock during this operation to increase the strength

of the belting.  After calendering, the sheet rubber is cooled

in a water spray tank, dried via passage over hot air vents,

and rolled up for storage.

     The frictioning compound passes from the warmup mill to

a friction calender where it is impregnated into the fabric

used to build the carcass of the belt.  This fabric, usually

rayon or nylon, is pretreated by dipping in latex and/or cement

(50% solvent) and drying to a moisture content of less than

one percent.  Drying is carried out immediately prior to

frictioning by passing the dipped fabric over steam-heated

cylinders or platens kept at 115°C, 32 or in other types of

ovens.

     Building - The rubberized, single-ply fabric leaving

the calender is used to build belt carcasses of multiple-ply

thickness.   A variety of techniques are employed in this oper-

ation, depending on the specifications of the final product.
32Stern, H. J.  Rubber:  Natural and Synthetic.  London,
  MacLaren & Sons, Ltd., 1954.  491 p.

                             77

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Once built,  the carcass is sandwiched between two layers of

rubber sheeting by a calendering operation.

     Curing - Belt vulcanization is performed in presses, roto-

cures, or hot-air curing ovens-  A rotocure employs  a  combina-

tion of steam, cooling water, and electric heaters to  continuously

vulcanize the belting as it passes around the curing drum.  Press

curing is effected by two heated belts which hold the  belting

between them under pressure, turn, and drag the belting through

the press.  Unlike the rotocure, the press curing technique is

a batch operation.  Vulcanization requires about 30 minutes at

140°C.32

     After curing, the belting is inspected, cut to  length, and

stored before shipment.

     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 7-1.

7.1.2  Machine-Wrapped Ply Hose

     Materials - Machine-wrapped ply hose consists of  three

components:   the tube  (lining), the reinforcement, and the

outer cover.  The reinforcement is constructed from  rubber-

impregnated fabric, while the tube and cover are made  entirely

from rubber.

     Natural rubber and a wide variety of synthetic  polymers

are used, including SBR, butyl rubber, EPDM, Hypalon,  neoprene,

nitrile rubber, polyisoprene, acrylate rubbers, polysulfides,

polyurethanes, fluoroelastomers, and epichlorohydrin.l8'2l' 33
33Hawley, G.  G.  The Condensed Chemical Dictionary,  Eighth
  Edition.   New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,  1971.   971  p,
                             78

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                    COOLING
               (WATER SPRAY TANK)
                   ANTI-TACK
                   TREATMENT
                    DRYING
                  ; AIR VENTS:
                  CALENDERING
                    CURING
                ( PRESS, ROTOCURE,
                 HOT-AIR OVEN)
                   INSPECTION
                CUTTING TO LENGTH
STORAGE
J
Figure  7-1.    Belting  flowsheet.
                     79

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Reclaimed rubber is sometimes used in conjunction with one of




the more expensive polymers.



     Any number of fillers, softeners, accelerators, activators




antioxidants, pigments, and vulcanizing agents may be combined




with the raw crumb.  The recipe is varied to fit the service




requirements of the final product.




     Compounding - The rubber stock is usually compounded and




mixed in a Banbury mixer and sheeted out on a roll mill in a




ribbon several feet wide and less than 1/2 inch thick.21  This




rubber sheet is subsequently dipped in a soapstone, clay, mica,




or similar slurry and hung up to dry for further processing.




     Tube formation - After drying, the stock is continuously




extruded to form a seamless rubber tube of the desired diam-




eter and wall thickness.  As it leaves the extruder, the tube




is cooled in an open tank by direct contact with cooling water,




dipped in a tank of anti-tack agent such as a zinc stearate




solution, and coiled up for storage.  Soapstone solution is




not used in this dipping operation because its anti-tack prop-




erties are undesirably permanent.




     Reinforcement preparation - The fabric  used  for  reinforce-




ment is received from textile mills in large rolls and impreg-




nated with rubber on both sides by friction calendering.  The




frictioned fabric is then cut on a bias and joined together




by natural tackiness of the material or cemented together with




overlapped seams to form a long strip just wide enough to
                            80

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provide the required number of plies plus an overlap when



wrapped around the tube.




     Outer cover formation - The hose cover is formed by



calendering a thin sheet of rubber stock to the required



thickness and cutting it to the width necessary for a slight



overlap on wrapping.



     Mandrel insertion - From storage, the formed tube is taken



to the building area where it is temporarily enlarged via air



pressure and mounted on a rigid mandrel.  Lubricants are



injected into the tube to prevent it from sticking to itself



or to the mandrel.



     Building - The actual hose building is carried out on a



special purpose "making machine" which consists of three long



steel rolls.  Two of the rolls are fixed parallel to each other



in the same horizontal plane, while the top roll is mounted on



lever arms so it can be raised and lowered.  One or more of



the rolls are power driven.



     When the forming operations are completed, the mandrel-



supported tube is placed in the trough formed by the two



bottom rolls of the making machine.  One lengthwise edge of



the cut fabric is adhered to the tube and the top roll is



brought down into contact with it.  The pressure exerted by



the top roll causes the tube and mandrel to rotate as the



bottom rolls rotate, so the fabric is drawn into the machine



and wrapped around the tube.  The pressure from the top roll



serves the dual purpose of compacting the carcass as it is
                             81

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formed.   This same procedure is repeated with the cover  to




complete the building operation.  Cement and solvent tackifi-




ers may be used to enhance adhesion in this building process.




     Vulcanization - The uncured hose is transferred from the




building area to the curing area where it is loaded into an




open steam autoclave for vulcanization at some predetermined




temperature and pressure.  The  necessary pressure is maintained




by cotton or nylon wraps.



     When vulcanization is complete, the autoclave is vented,




the hose is removed and cooled, and the cloth wrap is stripped




away.  The hose  is  then  removed from the mandrel  with  compressed




air or water and hydraulically tested before final storage and




shipment.  Machine-wrapped ply hose is commonly  produced and




shipped in lengths of about 50 m with internal diameters




ranging from 5 mm to 75 mm.29




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 7-2.




7.1.3  Hand-Built Hose




     Materials - Ply hose is built by hand if it is too  large




in diameter or too long to fit on the three-roll making  machine,




or if it requires special ends, metal reinforcement, or  spe-




cially layered fabric reinforcement.  The raw rubber compound-




ing ingredients used are the same as those used  in the produc-




tion of machine-wrapped ply hose.




     Forming operations - For  hose with internal diameters




less than 100 mm, the tube is  extruded and mounted on the man-




drel as before.29  For  larger  hose, the tube is  formed by




wrapping calendered stock around the mandrel with a  slightly




                            82

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                      COOLING
                    WRAP REMOVAL
                   MANDREL REMOVAL
 TESTING
 STORAGE
EQUIPMENT
^VOLATILE ORGANICS
    Figure 7-2.   Ply  hose flowsheet.
                       83

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overlapping seam.  The steel mandrel is mounted on a series




of double roller stands with one end held in the jaws of  a




power-driven chuck used to rotate it during the building




operation.



     The fabric is frictioned and cut as before, and the  cover




stock is calendered to the desired thickness.




     Building - In the making process, the pretreated fabric




is applied to the mandrel-supported tube by hand.  It is  rolled




down progressively as the mandrel is turned.  The cover stock




is applied in a similar manner.




     Wire reinforcement is used in many types of hand-built




hose:  to prevent collapse in suction hose, to prevent kinking




in pressure hose curved in small radius loops, and to add




strength in high-pressure hose.  The wire in suction hose is




usually placed underneath the main fabric plies for rib sup-




port against external pressure.  In pressure hose, the wire is




placed over the fabric reinforcement for hoop strength against




high internal pressure.  For a combination of these reinforce-




ment properties the wire is placed midway in the fabric plies.




     Wire reinforcement is usually in the form of a closely




spaced helix opposing radial stress but adding little strength




in the axial direction.  If axial strength is also required, the




hose is constructed with two or more even numbers of wire




layers.  Each layer consists of many strands of solid round




wire or cable spiralled around the hose, forming an angle




greater than 45° with its axis.  The direction of the spiral




is reversed with each layer for balanced strength.



                             84

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     In the actual making process, the wire is applied by hand




or by a simple machine using a power-driven chuck to rotate the



mandrel and hose.




     All other manufacturing steps are very similar to those



used in the production of machine-wrapped ply hose.



7.1.4  Braided Hose



     Materials - Braided hose refers to the type of construction



and method of manufacture in which strands of reinforcement are



interlaced as well as spiralled around the tube.  Thus, the



reinforcement consists of yarn or wire rather than sheeted



fabric.  The raw rubber and compounding ingredients used are



essentially the same as those used to make ply hose.



     Tube formation - Processing usually begins with the ex-



trusion of unsupported tubing, providing that the rubber stock



is firm enough in the raw state to resist excessive deformation



and stretching.  When the tubing is too thin, too soft, or when



the internal diameter must be kept within a narrow range, it



must be extruded onto a flexible rubber or plastic mandrel.



The mandrel is at least as long as the tubing itself, and may



have a wire core to prevent stretching.  Once formed, the tube



is temporarily stored on a circular tray or reel.



     Building - From storage the tube is taken to the braider



where the reinforcement is applied.  The tube is drawn through




the center of the machine while the braid is forming on its




surface.  Braid formation is carried out by yarn or wire



carriers weaving in and out on a circular track.  The angle
                             85

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of braiding is adjusted by changing the surface speed of the




overhead takeoff drum or capstan.  When braiding is completed,




the hose passes through a crosshead extruder where a seamless




rubber outer cover is applied.



     Vulcanization - A substantial portion of all braided hose




is vulcanized by the lead sheath process.  The lead casing used




in this operation is formed by means of a  lead press or  extruder.




A lead press deforms solid lead into a continuous sheath; a




lead extruder works with molten lead.   In either case,  the




lead sheath is formed around the green hose as it passes through




the press or extruder.




     If the lead-sheathed hose is nonsupported, it is filled




with water under pressure, wound on reels, and loaded into an




open steam pressure vessel.  The internal water pressure is




maintained throughout the curing cycle to force the hose




against the lead casing.  After curing, the water is drained




from the hose and the lead casing is stripped away for  recycle.




     If the hose is supported, the lead sheath itself applies




some initial pressure by squeezing it against the flexible




mandrel.  However, most of the internal pressure necessary




for a solid, homogenous product is supplied by the expansion




of the hose during the high-temperature vulcanization.  At




the end of the curing period, the lead sheath is removed by




mechanically slitting and pulling away from the cured hose.




The mandrel is removed by means of a high-pressure hydraulic




system.  A flow schematic is shown in Figure 7-3.
                              86

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                            BRAIDER OR
                         SPIRALLING MACHINE
                          COVER EXTRUSION
                           LEAD EXTRUDER
                            OR PRESS
       VOLATILE ORGANICS
                          VULCANIZATION
                          SHEATH REMOVAL
                         MANDREL REMOVAL
 TESTING
 STORAGE
SHIPMENT
Figure  7-3.   Braided  or  spiralled  hose  flowsheet.
                                87

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7.1.5  Spiralled Hose



     In spiralled hose, all the strands in a given layer are




aligned in one direction parallel to each other.  At least




two layers of reinforcement aligned in opposite directions are




thus required for balanced strength.




     Spiralled hose reacts to internal pressure in the same




way that braided hose does, and can be produced at a much




faster rate due to the relative simplicity of the spiralling




machines.  However, spiralled hose is not manufactured in as




broad a size range as braided hose.29




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 7-3.




7.2  EMISSIONS




     Table 8 is a summary of the volatile organic emissions




from rubber hose and belting production.  Solvent data supplied




during plant visits was used to calculate solvent emission




factors.  Rubber volatile assumptions are given in Appendix F.




     In rubber hose and belt manufacture a great diversity of




sizes and shapes of product is produced.  As mentioned in




describing the various processes involved, a large number of




operations are employed which result in the emission of



hydrocarbons.




7.2.1  Compounding




     As mentioned previously, operating temperatures present




the opportunity for hydrocarbon emissions.  Based on the




assumptions set forth for compounding activities in the tire




industry, the emission factor for Banbury mixing is calculated
                              88

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           Table 8.  VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM RUBBER
                     HOSE AND BELTING PRODUCTION

Emission source
Fabric cementing
Rubber cementing
Curing
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion
TOTALS
Emission factor
g/kg of rubber
12. 5b
6.0
.16
.01
.05
.05
.02°
18.83
a
Emission type
Solvent
Solvent
Rubber vo la tiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
—
Percent
66.38
31.86
0.85
0.5
0.25
0.25
0.01
100.1
Cumulative
percent
66.38
98.24
99.09
99.59
99.84
100.09
100.1
100.1
 Solvent emissions account for 98.24%  of volatile organic emissions.
 Rubber volatiles account for 1.96%.
 Fabric cementing is assumed to be utilized in 50% of the final product
 weight.
 Extrusion of hose is assumed to be utilized in 50% of the final product
 weight.
d
 Totals do not equal 100% due to rounding errors.

to be  0.1 g/kg of product produced.   For  some of  the  newer and

smaller  plants in the hose and  belting  industry,  it was found

that these newer plants are  using precompounded rubber stock

and thus  cannot be  expected  to  have this  particular emission

point.   However, in the locations where compounding of this

stock  is  being carried out,  the  associated  emission will still

exist.
                                89

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7.2.2  Fabric Cementing



     As mentioned, the fabric and/or cord is coated with latex




and/or rubber cement either by dipping or spreading.  In both




cases, the coated cord/fabric is either air-dried or oven-




dried.  Emissions are vented to the atmosphere in the case of




oven drying or simply dispersed to the plant atmosphere in the




case of air drying.  For one representative hose and belting




plant, source testing data were obtained for an oven drying,




cord cementing operation.  The vented exhaust gas was found to




contain 3,650 ppm as CH^ of volatile organics.  For another




representative plant, source testing data were also obtained




for a fabric cementer.  Utilizing plant production information




and solvent consumption data, an emission factor for fabric




cementing operations is calculated to be 25 g/kg of product




produced.  It should be noted that in some hose plants, the




need for fabric cementing does not exist and the fabric,




itself, is unnecessary.  In addition, some fabric cementing




is done after curing of the hose, and thus after construc-




tion of the hose, itself.  In this case, the cementing is done




on a cured rubber/fabric combination versus fabric alone.  This




practice is known to exist in the industry.




7.2.3  Hose Extrusion




     Some types of hose are constructed by extrusion over a




mandrel.  Extrusion temperatures vary depending on the wall




thickness of the hose being produced, with the higher tempera-




tures being associated with the larger wall thickness.  Based
                              90

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on the fact that operating temperatures reach greater than 72°



for only 20% of the extruding operations and the fact that



extruders for 20 mm diameter hose reach temperatures of only



30°C, an emission factor is estimated to be 0.04 g/kg of prod-



uct produced.



7.2.4  Calendering



     In this industry, various calendering operations are



used, especially in belt manufacture.  Operating temperatures



again approach or exceed 72°C.  Based on the calculations



utilized for calendering operations in the tire industry, an



emission factor is estimated to be 0.05 g/kg of product.



7.2.5  Rubber Cementing Operations



     Especially in small belt and large hose building opera-



tions, quantities of solvent-based rubber cement are used.



When building the belt by hand, cement is added to each succes-



sive layer of rubber for tackifying purposes.  The same applies



to large hose building.  The amount of cement actually applied



depends strictly on the builder's preference.  Utilizing sol-



vent consumption data obtained from an assumed representative



plant, the emission factor for all such manual cementing activ-



ities is calculated to be 6 g/kg of product produced.  A repre-




sentative average range is estimated to be 5 g/kg to 8 g/kg of




product.  However, for certain individual product types  (large



hose) this figure can reach 100 g/kg of product, based on data




found in this industry -
                              91

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7.2.6  Curing



     Because of the great variation in types of product pro-




duced in this industry and types of curing operation involved,




the emission factor for curing is presented as a range in




value.  In large belt manufacture, curing is continuous over




electrically heated rollers (rotocure).




     Data obtained for one rotocure operation showed that for




a product weight flow of 286 kg per hour, the exhaust gas flow




of 323 mVmin at 32°C had a hydrocarbon concentration of 14 ppm,




or a mass flow of 172 g per hour.  Utilizing these data, an




emission factor for rotocuring operations is calculated to be




0.6 g/kg of product.   This emission factor would apply for




large belt manufacture.  For small belt curing, done in conven-




tional presses, an emission factor based on tire industry press




curing data has been calculated to be 22 g/kg.  In most hose




and small belting manufacture, curing is a batch process in a




closed vessel, either vented to the plant atmosphere or vented




outside the plant completely.   For batch curing operations,




using footwear vulcanization calculations, an emission factor




of .16 g/kg of product is estimated.




     The majority of curing operations (>50%)  in hose and




belting manufacture utilize batch curing.  This study calcu-




lates the emission factor as .16 g/kg of product, realizing




that the actual value will vary with the type of hose or belt



produced.
                              92

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7.2.7  Milling



As previously discussed in Section 4.3.2, the emission factor



for milling operations is calculated to be 0.05 g/kg of product




produced.
                              93

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                 8 .   FABRICATED RUBBER GOODS






8.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION




8.1.1  General Molded Products




     This category includes items such as battery parts, rub-




ber rolls, rubber heels and soles, water bottles, fountain




syringes, nipples, pacifiers, rubber bands, finger cots,




erasers, brushes, combs, mouth pieces, and a wide variety of




mechanical goods.





     Rubber molding typically consists of the following




operations:




   •  Compounding of the rubber stock




   •  Preparation of the mold preforms or blanks




   • Molding




   • Deflashing




8.1.2  General Extruded Products




     General extruded products include rods, tubes, strips,




channels, mats and matting, floor and wall covering, and stair



treads.




     Compounding - The rubber stock is compounded from the




basic ingredients on a compounding mill or in a Banbury mixer.




A wide variety of raw rubbers and compounding ingredients is






                             94

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used, the choice of which depends on the service requirements



of the product.  After mixing, the compound is sheeted out on



a sheeting mill and dipped in a soapstone slurry.




     Extrusion - After compounding, the rubber stock passes



through a warmup mill and then through an extruder where it is



continuously formed into the shape of the final product.  This



green product is cooled in a cooling tank prior to vulcaniza-



tion and, in some cases, dipped in a soapstone slurry for



temporary storage.




     Vulcanization - In the vulcanizing process, extruded



articles are placed in pans which are set on a truck and rolled



into a large steam chamber or heater.  Varnish or lacquer may



be applied before vulcanization to produce a smooth, glossy



finish.



     Rubber articles that would sag or flatten under their own



weight before they could completely set up must be supported



during vulcanization.  In most cases, such articles are embedded



in talc or powdered soapstone.  However, rubber tubing is placed



on a mandrel and wrapped with fabric to insure proper curing.



Vulcanization usually requires about 30 minutes at 140°C to




150°C.19



8.1.3  Coated Materials



     Rubber-coated materials generally consist of woven or



nonwoven fabrics impregnated with a rubber compound.  Synthetic



rubber materials such as acrylic rubber, butadiene-aerylo-




nitrile, butadiene-styrene, chloroprene, chloro-sulfonated
                             95

-------
polyethylene, fluorinated polymeric compositions, polyisobuty-




lene, polysulfide, and silicone polymers are used to impart




physical properties, such as water and solvent resistance,




surface-release characteristics, abrasion resistance, and good




aging.  Typical uses for rubber-coated textiles include rain-




coats, balloon bags, diaphragms, inflatable life rafts, pon-




toons, friction tape, and tarpaulins.




     Compounding - Before the coating process, the rubber




stock is compounded by mixing a variety of extenders, pigments,




accelerators, and antioxidants with the raw crumb.  The fabric




to be coated is usually pretreated at a separate facility, but




may be dipped in latex at the coating plant itself.



     Coating - Rubber coating is performed by three- or four-




roll calenders.  The three-roll calender applies the coat to




one side of the fabric, while four-roll calenders coat both




sides of the fabric simultaneously.  The top roll of the three-




roll calender and the bottom and offset rolls of the four-roll




calender are run at different speeds than the center roll to




friction the rubber into the fabric in a uniform manner.




     Vulcanization - Rubber-coated fabrics are cured at elevated




temperatures for periods of time ranging from ten minutes to




several hours.  For long cures, the ovens may be as much as




30 feet high and hundreds of feet long.  For shorter curing




cycles, the ovens are usually from 6 to 8 feet in height and




8 to 20 feet in length.29  Regardless of size, the curing




oven must have a uniform temperature distribution to obtain
                              96

-------
uniform product quality.  After curing, the coated fabric is



cooled and rolled up for storage.




     Building - Products such as rainwear, rafts, and pontoons



are built using dies or jigs to cut the coated material and



rubber cemented to join the various sections.  This building




operation may or may not take place in the coating plant.



8.1.4  Latex-Based Dipped Goods



     The largest volume latex-based dipped goods are household



gloves, surgical gloves, prophylactics, and balloons.  The



very thin-walled goods are produced by a straight-dip method;



thicker walled items are made by coagulation dipping.



     Compounding - Regardless of which dipping technique is



employed, the rubber latex and compounding ingredients must



first be brought into solution or dispersion form.  Solution



is used when all of the ingredients are water soluble.



Frequently, however, the ingredients are not water soluble,



and it is necessary to emulsify the liquid ingredients and




disperse the solid materials in water.



     Dispersions are prepared from coarse slurries of powder



and water containing small quantities of dispersing agents and



stabilizers.  Typical dispersing agents are sodium 2-naphthylene



sulfonate with formaldehyde and an alkyl metal salt of sulfon-



ated lignin.  These materials are usually employed in concen-




trations of less than one percent by weight.19  Emission of




these agents through evaporation can be expected.
                             97

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     Physically, the dispersions are prepared with grinding




equipment such as colloid mills, ball and pebble mills, ultra-



sonic mills, and attrition mills.  Colloid mills, which break



aggregates but which do not change particle size, are used for



clay, precipitated whiting, zinc oxide, and other such mate-



rials.  The other types of mills mentioned are used to prepare



dispersions of sulfur, antioxidants, and accelerators which



require both aggregate and particle-size reduction.



     Emulsions are prepared by exposing a coarse, aqueous



suspension of ingredients to intense shearing in a colloid



mill, an ultrasonic mill, or a homogenizer.  A homogenizer is



a machine that forces the emulsion through a fine orifice



under high pressure.



     In itself, the preparation of the latex compound is a



very simple operation consisting of weighing and mixing the



proper amounts of various solutions, emulsions, and dispersions.



This is done in a large tank with a mechanical agitator.



     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 8-1.



     Coagulation dipping - The coagulation solution is usually



a mixture of coagulants and organic solvents, such as ethanol



and acetone.  Typical coagulants are calcium nitrate, calcium



chloride, and zinc nitrate.  A surfactant is sometimes added



to the mixture to ensure good "wetting" of the forms, and



release agents are added in cases where the form has a compli-



cated shape and removal of the dipped goods is difficult.  Talc,



clay, and diatomaceous earth are commonly used release agents.
                             98

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FORM
DRYING
(/i
s
&
o
COAGULANT LA
DIP ~*"
SPILLS
LEAKS
WASHDOWN
1
WASTEWATER
LATEX
STORAGE COM
li-COOLING
SPILLS "*- WATER
LEAKS .
WASHDOWN
I
WASTEWATER
COMPOUNDING
INGREDIENTS
SPILLS
LEAKS
WASHDOWN
1
WASTEWATER
CLEANING AGENT
AND RINSE WATER
FORM CLEAN FORM RETURN VIA CLEANING OPERATION
AND RINSE "
SPENT CLEAN ING
AND RINSE WATER
R'NSE jf COOLING 	 RELEASE AGENT 	 1
WATER WASTEWATER WATER
RINSE
WATER
1

TEX DIP PRELIMINARY PRODUCT ° rR.Y' f? Vr™ COOLING PRODUCTS FORM PRODUCT DRYING
TANK DRYING OVEN """ RINSE "*" "4,0,^- TANK STRIPPING RINSE "" DUSTING
STAMPING PAfKARING
1
SPILLS SPENT ™ COOLING WATER o
LEAKS RINSE WATER 2S OVERFLOW g
WASHDOWN 1 ^ - i "
| WASTEWATER || WASTEWATER ^
WASTEWATER " ^

1 ' 	 '
SPENT
RINSE WATER
WASTEWATER
IATFX STERILIZATION fc STERILIZATION
POUNDING TANK RINSE
' U^; COOLING
,-p..,,. WATER SPENT
LEAKS RINSE WATER
WASHDOWN |
| WASTEWATER
WASTEWATER

          * VOLATILE ORGAN ICS




Figure  8-1.   Flow diagram for  the  production of typical  latex-based dipped  items.29

-------
The actual dipping operation is carried out with glazed porce-




lain or polished metal forms transported through the various




processing units by a closed-loop conveyor.  These forms  are




dried and heated to 100°C to 120°C with subsequent emission of




volatiles in a conditioning oven prior to dipping in the




coagulation bath.29




     After coating with coagulants, the forms are dipped  in




the rubber latex compound.  The coagulant film on the surface




of the form causes the rubber emulsion to "break."  The latex




solids coalesce to produce a film of rubber that covers and




adheres to the form.  These coated forms are passed through a




preliminary drying oven with subsequent emission of volatiles




so that the film does not disintegrate and wash away in the




subsequent washing step.




     In the washing operation, the soluble constituents of the




rubber film are leached out and rinsed away in a water bath




maintained at 60°C to 71°C.29  Important constituents of  the




leachate are the emulsifiers used in the original production




of the latex and metal ions from the coagulant mixture.




     The washed forms are sent through a drying oven.  In some




applications, such as rubber gloves manufacture, the goods are




not only dried, but they are heated sufficiently to roll  the




rubber coating downward on itself to form a reinforced cuff




bead.  Usually, the rubber goods are stamped with proprietary




brands and other information, such as size, in a stamping unit



after the drying process.
                             100

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     The rubber products are cured in an oven at temperatures



ranging from 65°C to 95°C.19'29  After curing, the items are




cooled in a water cooling tank and mechanically stripped from



the forms, usually with the aid of a lubricating detergent.



The detergent is subsequently washed from the goods in a rinse



tank.  The final manufacturing operation consists of drying



the goods, dusting them inside and outside with talc to pre-



vent sticking, and packaging.



     In cases where sterilized products are required, such as



surgical gloves, the goods are immersed in a chlorine dip



tank.  The free chlorine concentration in this tank is typ-



ically 1,000 mg/1.  After disinfection, the goods are dipped



in a 7.5°C to 80°C water bath to remove residual chlorine.



These two operations generally occur between the postcure



cooling tank and the final drying and packaging operation.29



     About once a week, it is necessary to clean the forms in



a bath containing a cleaning agent.  If porcelain forms are



used, this cleaning agent is usually chromic acid (mixture of



potassium dichromate, sulfuric acid, and water).  Once cleaned



the forms are passed through a rinse tank equipped with a



fresh water makeup and overflow to blow down the accumulation




of cleaning agent.



     Straight dipping - The straight-dip method is the simplest



of the latex dipping operations.  The forms are dipped directly



in the latex and removed slowly.  After dipping, the form is



slowly rotated while the film is drying to ensure a uniform
                             101

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thickness.  The films are dried at room temperature or  in warm




air at 50°C to 60°C.29



     Thicker articles can be made by a multiple-dipping pro-




cess with intermittent drying.  Latex deposits vary from




0.005 to 0.10 inch per dip, depending on the viscosity of the




latex compound.29




8.1.5  Cement-Based Dipped Goods




     Various products are formed by cement dipping, most




notably protective gloves worn by electrical workers.  The




following discussion focuses on this glove manufacturing




process.




     Compounding - The solid gum rubber for the cement recipe




is compounded in small Banbury mixers or compounding mills.




The gumstock additives include antioxidants, curing agents,




and pigments.




     After mixing, the stock is milled into small particles




to facilitate its dissolution in the solvent.  These rubber




particles are separated by weight into predetermined quantities



and placed in storage bins.




     Rubber cement preparation - The rubber cement is prepared




in blend tanks using fixed amounts of rubber stock and solvent.




The solvent is usually aliphatic, e.g., hexane, or a blend of



petroleum spirits.




     The blended cement is pumped to storage tanks prior to




the dipping operation.  Several cements of different colors




and physical properties are prepared and stored simultaneously.
                            102

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     Dipping - The gloves are formed by dipping glazed porcelain



forms into the rubber cement.  The dipping is carried out auto-



matically and repeated until the desired thickness is reached.



In between dips, the gloves are allowed to drip dry, with



subsequent emission of volatiles to the plant atmosphere.  The



temperature and humidity of the air in the drying room are con-



trolled to ensure good drying conditions.



     When dipping and drying operations are completed, the



gloves are stamped with size and brand information and the



cuff bead is formed by rolling the existing cuff back on itself.



     Curing - Vulcanization is carried out in an open steam



autoclave.  The temperature and length of the cure depend on



the type of glove being worked and the properties of the rubber



used in its formation.



     At the end of the curing cycle the gloves are removed



from the vulcanizer and partially air cooled.  Prior to final



cooling they are dipped in a soapstone slurry.  The slurry



dries, leaving a powder on the gloves, which  is then  stripped



from the form, dusted with talc in a rotating drum, and sent




to the inspection area.



     Periodically, the forms require cleaning.  This opera-



tion is carried out with a scouring slurry followed by rinsing




in water.



8.1.6  Rubber Goods From Porous Molds



     Dolls, squeeze toys, and other rubber sundries are pro-




duced by the porous mold technique.
                             103

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     The molds used in this process are made from plaster of




Paris or unglazed procelain with pore sizes smaller than the




smallest rubber particles.  Latex, compounded in the manner




previously described, is poured through a funnel-shaped opening




into the mold where it is allowed to dwell until a deposit of




the desired thickness has developed on the mold wall.  The




mold is then emptied of excess compound and placed in an oven




to dry at 60°C.29  The interior surfaces of the rubber article




are dusted with talc to prevent sticking when it is removed




from the mold.  Once it is removed, the article may be returned




to the 60°C oven for 30 minutes.




8.1.7  Latex Thread




     Latex thread is produced by extruding the latex compound




through fine orifices into a coagulant bath where it is gelled.




The thread is then toughened, washed, dried, and cured.




Dilute acetic acid is commonly used as the coagulant.




8.1.8  Latex Foam




     The latex used in foam manufacture may consist of natural




rubber, SBR, or a combination of the two.  Before processing,




this latex is compounded with a variety of ingredients as




described in the latex dipping procedure.




     The foams produced are generally in slab or molded form




in the density range of 64 to 128 kg/m3  (4 to 8 lb/ft3).29




They are used to manufacture automotive seating, mattresses,




pillows, carpeting, scatter mats, upholstery, and many other



products.
                             104

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     Dunlop process - In the Dunlop process, the foam is pro-



duced by mechanically whipping the latex to a froth.  This can



be done on a batch basis, but the Oakes continuous mixer is



the standard piece of equipment for this operation.



     Once frothed, the latex must be coagulated to give a



stable foam.  This coagulation, or gelation, is effected by



adding sodium silicofluoride and zinc oxide to the mix.  These



gelling agents remain dormant long enough to allow the froth



to be poured into molds.  When stable latexes are used,



secondary gelling agents may be required to induce coagulation.



Cationic soaps, other salts, and amines are commonly used for



this purpose.



     As soon as the gelling agents are added, the foam is



poured into steam-heated molds and cured, with subsequent emis-



sion of volatiles.  The product is removed when the curing



cycle is completed and washed with water to remove those



ingredients in the latex recipe which are not permanently held



in the foam matrix.  The foam is then dried in a hot-air dryer



and inspected prior to storage and shipment.



     Talalay process - In the Talalay process, the froth is



produced by chemical rather than mechanical means.  Hydrogen



peroxide and enzymatic catalysts are mixed into the latex, and



the mixture is placed into a mold.  The enzyme decomposes the




peroxide, thus liberating oxygen, which causes the latex mix



to foam up and fill the mold.  This foam is rapidly chilled,




and carbon dioxide is introduced to effect gelation.  The
                             105

-------
gelled foam is handled in a manner similar to that  used  in the

Dunlop process.

     A flow schematic is shown in Figure 8-2.

     Foam backing - For supported, flat-stock foam,  a  different

type of gelation agent is used in place of the  sodium  silico-

fluoride formula used in latex foam.  Either ammonium  acetate

or ammonium sulfate is employed in combination  with zinc oxide.

     The froth is prepared with an Oakes mixer, the gelling

agent is added, and the foam is applied to the  fabric  by direct

spreading.    The gelling is carried out at elevated tempera-

tures, usually with the aid of infrared lamps.

     To prevent uneven shrinkage, the fabric is carried through

the high-temperature zone and drying ovens on tenters.


8.2  EMISSIONS

      Table 9 is a summary of the volatile organic  emissions

from the production of fabricated rubber goods.  Emission

factors for solvent use are estimated from data supplied from

a plant visit.  Rubber volatile emission factors are estimated

as presented in Appendix F.

8.2.1  Compounding

      As previously described in Section 4.3.1, the emission

factor is calculated to be 0.1 g/kg of product.
 In some cases,  the foam is spread on a belt which  transfers
 it to the fabric.
                             106

-------






LATEX
STORAGE








CONDENSER
•-* . rnoi iwr
, , WATER



CONDENSATE
WASTEWATER
CONDENSER

*
WATER


VAPOR y*
FREEZE
AGGLOMERATION


LATEX
CONCENTRATION
BY
EVAPORATION





S
CONCENTRATED INTERMEDIATE
LATFX U
LA W STORAGE
CARBON I

DIOXIDEGAS SPILLS
WASHDOWN


.

WASTEWATER




COMPOUNDING AND
CURING AGENTS

s*
GROUN
LATEX CUR INC
*" COMPOUNDING *
X
5
25
fee
	 1
O
UJ
Z
i
SPILLS
WASHDOWN
1
WASTEWATER



-


) BALL MILL
GRINDING OF
COMPOUNDING
AGENTS
ti





s*


! "-"-COOLING
WATER
SPILLS
LEAKS




FOAM PRODUCT
STORAGE AND
SHIPMENT




FOAM
DRYING

W
/**
CLEAN
FOAM
ATER

fOI
RINS
STE
i

\M
ING
PS

RINS'E WATER
| COUNTER-


CURRENT

FO
RINS
STE

W
ING
PS
|
FOAM
PRODUCT

o
O_
o
o

FOAM CURING
PRESSES


                                                                                      WASHDOWN
                                                                                CARBON
                                                                              "DIOXIDEGAS
^VOLATILE ORGANICS
  RINSE

WASTEWATER
                                                                     SPILLS
                                                                   WASHDOWN
                                                                   WASTEWATER
  Figure  8-2.   Flow diagram for  the  production of  typical  latex foam items.29

-------
       Table 9.  VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM THE PRODUCTION
                    OF FABRICATED RUBBER GOODS
Emission source
Bonding of parts
Adhesive spraying
Latex dipping
Molding
Compounding
Curing
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion

TOTALS
Emission factor,
g/kg of rubber
2.0
118 b
0.13b
0.11°
0.1
0.08°
0.05
0.025C
0.015

4.31
a
Emission type
Solvent
Solvent
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles


Percent
46.4
41.76
3.0
2.6
2.3
1.8
1.2
0.6
0.3
d
99.96
Cumulative
percent
46.4
88.16
91.16
93.76
96.06
97.86
99.06
99.66
99.96

99.96
 Solvent emissions account for 91.16% of volatile organic emissions.
 Rubber volatiles account for 8.8%.
 Assumed to be utilized in 25% of the final product weight.
Q
 Assumed to be utilized in 50% of the final product weight.
 Totals do not add to  100% due to rounding errors.
8.2.2  Molding
     As  previously described  in Section 5.2.5,  the emission
factor for molding operations is calculated  to  be 0.22 g/kg
of product.
8.2.3  Extrusion
     As  previously described  in Section 4.3.5,  the emission
factor is  calculated to be  0.03 g/kg of product.
8.2.4  Connection of Extruded Rubber Parts
     Rubber cement is applied to bond various rubber parts
together.   Utilizing solvent  consumption  data for these  opera-
tions and  annual production rates for an  assumed representative
plant, an  emission factor is  calculated to  be 2.0 g/kg of
product  produced.
                                108

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8.2.5  Curing of Rubber Parts




     Usually done in a batch operation, curing of fabricated



rubber goods is very similar to batch curing of other rubber



products such as small hose.  Utilizing the assumptions



presented for other batch curing emissions presented in



Section 5.2.4, the emission factor is calculated to be 0.16 g/kg



of product produced.



8.2.6  Latex Dipping and Drying



     As previously described in Section 5.2.3, the emission



factor is calculated to be 0.5 g/kg of product.




8.2.7  Adhesive Spraying



     As in other cement applications, spraying is done to



tackify the various rubber parts.  The operation usually takes



place in a booth.  Utilizing solvent consumption data for



this operation for an assumed representative plant, the emis-



sion factor is calculated to be 1.8 g/kg of product.



8.2.8  Milling



     As previously described in Section 4.3.2, the emission



factor for milling activities is calculated to be 0.05 g/kg of



product.



8.2.9  Calendering



     As previously described in Section 4.3.4, the emission



factor for calendering operations is calculated to be 0.05 g/kg




of product produced.
                             109

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           9.   GASKETS, PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES






9.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION



     The principal method of manufacturing gaskets, packing




and sealing devices is molding.  This process description29




will consist mainly of general explanations of the three com-




mon molding techniques - compression, transfer, and injection.




The selection of a particular method depends on the rubber




stock used in the production economics.  All three molding




techniques are commonly practiced at a single plant location.




Information specific to SIC 3293, as obtained from two selected




plants,29 will follow the general discussion.




     Larger molding facilities, or those using special recipes




or nonstorable stocks, compound their own rubber stock from




basic ingredients.  Compounding is performed in either a Ban-




bury mixer or a compounding mill.  In some plants, airborne




particulates generated during compounding are controlled by




wet scrubbing equipment.




9.1.1  Compression Molding




     After compounding, the rubber stock is processed on  a




warmup mill and formed to the approximate shape required  for




molding by either calendering or extrusion.  The formed
                             110

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rubber is cooled, often in an open tank, and then dipped in




an anti-tack agent, generally a zinc stearate solution or  its



equivalent.  Soapstone slurry is not used because of its



adverse effects on the quality of the subsequent molding



operation.




     The preforms are prepared from the calendered or extruded



rubber stock by cutting, slicing, or stamping.  Cutting may be



performed by hand or by machine.  Slicing is usually carried



out on a meat slicing machine or guillotine.  Although the



exact shape of the preform is not critical, it must contain



sufficient rubber to fill the mold.



     The preforms are placed into the open mold, usually by



hand.  Sometimes, this is preceded by application of release



agents (powder or liquid) on the mold surfaces.  The mold  is



closed and held, normally by hydraulic oil pressure, during



the curing cycle.  The molds are generally heated by steam



flowing through channels in the mold plates.  Some older sys-



tems are electrically heated.



     When the molding cycle is complete, the items are removed



and sent on to the deflashing operation.  The rubber overflow,



or flash, must be removed from each piece before shipping.



Usually,  deflashing is accomplished using a grinding wheel or



press-operated dies.  In cases where the rubber is not freeze



resistant, the molded articles are tumbled in dry ice  (solid



carbon dioxide)  using machines similar to cement mixers.   The



thin rubber flash becomes brittle and breaks off during tumbling
                            111

-------
while the larger main body of the part is not cooled  as  much




and remains flexible.



     Although not strictly a part of rubber processing,  the




manufacture of metal-bonded items, which consist of a molded




rubber component attached to metal, is often undertaken  in the




same plant as the molding operation.  Grease on the metal




parts, picked up during their production or applied later for




storage and shipping purposes, must first be removed.  Degreas-




ing may be performed in a rotating drum wherein the metal part




is contacted with a suitable solvent, such as trichloroethylene




(CHC1=CC12)•



     The metal surface to which rubber is to be molded must be




further prepared to provide satisfactory adhesion.  In a few




cases, the metal part is pickled with acid.  More often, the




bonding surface is sand blasted for roughening and then  coated




with rubber cement.  This last operation is done by hand for




small items,  whereas larger metal surfaces are sprayed with




cement.  The prepared metal part and its mating rubber com-




ponent are then placed in the mold cavity and processed  in the




same way as an all-rubber product.  Deflashing is done by hand




or with a grinding wheel.




     In some molding plants, molded items of poor quality are




recycled to reclaim the metal component.  The reject  rubber is




ground and buffed from the metal, which is then sand  blasted




clean.  Grinding and buffing create airborne particulates,




which are controlled by wet scrubbers.
                             112

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9.1.2  Transfer Molding




     Rubber for transfer molding is compounded in the same



way as that for compression molding.  The rubber stock blanks,



to be fed into the mold's transfer pot, take the form of



slabs as they are cut from extruded or sheeted rubber stock.



The weight of the blanks is brought within a specified tolerance




by trimming.  Underweight blanks and trimmings are recycled



to the sheet-out mill.




     The transfer cavity, into which a rubber blank is placed,



is fitted with a ram or piston.  The applied force plus the



heat from the mold cause the rubber to be softened and flow



into the molding cavity, curing simultaneously.  Transfer



molds are normally heated by steam and operated by hydraulic



oil systems.  The molded item is deflashed by one of the



methods described for compression-molded items.



     Articles containing metal inserts are usually manufactured



by transfer molding, preparation of the metal component fol-



lowing that described for compression-molded products.



9.1.3  Injection Molding



     Injection molding, the newest technique, is basically



the same as transfer molding except that the rubber stock is



injected into the mold cavities.  There are three types of



injection-molding machines:  one uses a ram to force the soft



rubber through runners into the cavities; another uses a




screw; the third uses a reciprocating screw, a combination  of



the first two.  As the rubber flows through small passages
                             113

-------
under high pressure, the temperature increases and the  com-




pound is cured.



     The molds are often mounted on a revolving turret  which




permits cyclic operation.  To make injection molding profit-




able, very short cycle times are required, generally ranging




from 45 seconds to 90 seconds.29  This necessitates curing




temperatures of approximately 204°C.29  Deflashing can  be




carried out by any of the techniques used for compression-




and transfer-molded products.




9.2  SELECTED PLANTS




     Information on these plants is available from the  open




literature.2 9




9.2.1  Plant A




     This plant manufactures oil seals, o-rings, rubber-to-




metal molded items, and miscellaneous molded rubber products,




using compression and transfer molding.  Its average daily




rubber consumption is 340 kg.29




     The plant's flow sheet contains the following apparatus




described in the discussion of compression molding:




        • Warmup mill




        • Extruder




        • Guillotine (for cutting)




        • Modified meat slicer  (for slicing)




        • Hydraulic mold presses




        • Steam-heated molds
                            114

-------
     Two operating parameters are given.  The mold presses




operate at 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi).29  Steam used for heating



the molds is at 177°C and 862 kPa  (125 psi).29




     Molded items are deflashed in a "wheelabrator" machine,



which freezes the item with liquid nitrogen and then blasts it



with steel shot that is 0.18 mm to 0.30 mm in diameter.29  The



rubber fines and shot are separated, and the fines and dust



are collected in a bag collector.



     Metal parts for composite products are degreased using



perchloroethylene (Cl2C=CCl2) vapor.  The bonding surface is



then sand blasted and finally painted with a bonding agent such



as rubber cement.



9.2.2  Plant B



     This plant produces rubber pipe seals, weather stripping,



and rubber-to-metal molded items.  The daily rubber consump-



tion is 10,100 kg.29



     Compounding is done using a Banbury mill.  Rubber stock,



batched off in sheets, is protected against sticking during



storage by dipping it in soapstone.



     Pipe seals, weather stripping, and molding plugs are



formed using short- or long-barrelled extruders.  The former




require warmup and strip-feed mills, whereas the latter do



not.   The extruded pieces are cooled, dipped, cut, and placed



in pans for autoclave curing.  The rubber articles are then




cured with steam at 690 kPa  (100 psi).29
                             115

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      The ends of  pipe seal rubber are cemented together in an

electric press to  form large,  o-ring-type pipe  seals.  When

bonding rubber to  metal,  the metal part is  degreased, using

trichloroethylene  in  a closed system, and then  sprayed with an

adhesive.  The rubber is  transfer molded to the metal part.

      A flow schematic is shown in Figure 9-1.

9.3  EMISSIONS

      Table 10 is  a summary of the volatile organic emissions

from the production of rubber gaskets, packing  and sealing

devices.  Solvent  data supplied during a plant  visit are used

to estimate solvent emissions.  Rubber volatile emission fac-

tors are estimated as presented in Appendix F.
     Table 10.  VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM THE PRODUCTION OF
            RUBBER GASKETS, PACKING,  AND SEALING DEVICES
Source
Adhesive spraying
Molding
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
TOTALS
Emission factor
g/kg of rubber
3.6
0.22
0.1
0.05
0.05
4.02
a
Emission type
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles
Rubber volatiles

Percent
89.5
5.5
2.5
1.2
1.2
99. 9b
Cumulative
percent
89.5
95.0
97.5
98.7
99.9
99. 9b
  Solvent emissions account for  89.5% of volatile organic emissions.
  Totals do not add to 100% due  to rounding errors.
                              116

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                                                               y
                                                                MOLDED
                                                                PRODUCT
                                                                                                 PRODJJCT
                                                                                                 SHIPMENTS
                                                                                              PARTICULATES
                                                                                               (ORGANIC)
^VOLATILE ORGANICS
        Figure 9-1.   Schematic  flow  for  manufacture of  molded rubber  products.29

-------
9.3.1  Compounding



      As previously described in Section 4.3.1, the emission




factor for compounding operations is calculated to be  0.1  g/kg.




9.3.2  Molding




      As previously described in Section 5.2.5, the emission




factor for molding is calculated to be 0.22 g/kg of product.




9.3.3  Adhesive Spraying




      As in other fabricated rubber industries, spraying of




cement is done to tackify the rubber/metal parts before as-




sembly molding.  Utilizing solvent consumption data for this




operation from an assumed representative plant, an emission




factor if calculated to be 3.6 g/kg of product produced,




assuming no solvent leaves as part of the finished product.




9.3.4  Milling




      As previously described in Section 4.3.2, the emission




factor for milling operations is calculated to be 0.05 g/kg of



product.




9.3.5  Calendering




      As previously described in Section 4.3.4, the emission




factor for calendering operations is calculated to be  0.05 g/kg.
                            118

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         10.  NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING






10.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION



     Extrusion is the preferred method of applying a rubber



compound to wire or cable for the purposes of insulating and/or



protective covering.  When using a suitably modified extruder,



plastics as well as rubber may be employed as insulation.



     A wire to be covered is passed through a right-angle or



side-delivery head.  In this operation, the wire is fed through



the head in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the extru-



der screw.   The head is designed so that the rubber compound



is deflected 90° and completely surrounds the wire.



     The covered cable is pulled through the machine by a



variable-speed hauloff.  A satisfactorily uniform coating is



ensured by regulation of the drawing speed.



     Continuous vulcanization of insulated wire is accomplished



by extrusion directly into a suitable curing device.  This is



usually just a tube fixed to the nozzle of the extruder and




filled with steam at pressures from 1.38 MPa to 1.72 MPa



(13.6 atm to 17.0 atm).l9  Such tubes may be 30.5 meters to



61 meters (100 feet to 200 feet) in length.19  Residence time



for the insulated wire is approximately 15 seconds.19  Glands
                             119

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through which the cable exits the tube prevent  leakage of steam,

Large cables are usually processed in vertical  units,  but hori-

zontal or cantenary-shaped tubes are also available.

     The exterior of insulated wire or cable must be protected

against mechanical and sometimes chemical deterioration.   The

type of protective covering applied will depend on  the ultimate

end use of the cable.  Small wires are covered  with a  braid,

normally of cotton but possibly of rayon or fine metallic wire.

Another means of protection, tough rubber sheathing (TRS), can

be applied to the insulated wire using an extruder  with a side-

delivery head as described previously.  The sheathing  may con-

sist of neoprene (polychloroprene) or another oil-resistant

rubber.  Lastly, some insulated wires and cables may be covered

by an extruded lead sheath explained earlier as a means of

support during vulcanization?^

     Two representative flow schematics are shown in Figures

10-1 and 10-2.

10.2  EMISSIONS

      Table 11 is a summary of the volatile organic emissions

from nonferrous wiredrawing and insulating.

10.2.1  Compounding

      As previously described in Section 4.3.1, the emission

factor for such operations is 0.1 g/kg of product.  During

this study, it was found that greater than 70 percent  of
3ttMcPherson,  A.  T., and A. Klemin.  Engineering Uses  of  Rubber.
  New York,  Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1956.  p.  265-269.
                             120

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                                                   JACKETING
EXTRUSION
INSULATOR


CONTINUOUS
VULCAN IZER
                                               JACKETING
* VOLATILE ORGANICS
     Figure  10-1.  Schematic  flow diagram for production of insulated wire  and
          cable using thermosetting polymers  (i.e.,  butyl rubber, neoprene,
           nitrile rubbers, silicone rubbers, styrene-butadiene rubbers).

-------
 SYNTHETIC
  RUBBERS,
 CHEMICALS
COMPOUNDING,
   MIXING,
   MILLING
^VOLATILE ORGANICS
 RUBBER
 STOCK
———•*»
        GRANULATING
        RUBBER STOCK
                                     RUBBER STOCK
                                                             JACKETING
EXTRUSION
INSULATING
                              V
                                                            TAPE
                                                         CALENDERING
                                                             V
                                                                         PRODUCT
                                                                        SHIPMENTS
   Figure 10-2.   Schematic flow  diagram  for production of  insulated wire  and cable
               using thermoplastic polymers (i.e.,  polysulfide rubbers).

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    Table 11.   VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM NONFERROUS
                 WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Source
Extrusion
Curing
TOTAL
Emission factor,
g/kg rubber
produced
0.04
0.6
0.64
Emission type,
solvent evaporation/
rubber volatilization
Rubber volatilization
Rubber volatilization

Percent
total
emission
6.3
93.7

Percent total emissions rubber volatilization derived:  100%

wiredrawing plants buy rubber stock already compounded, and in

these plants, no such emissions will exist.

 10.2.2  Milling

      As mentioned  in  compounding,  with  greater  than  70  percent

 of  the plants  buying  precompounded stock,  the rubber is bought

 in  strips  requiring no further  milling  activities.   The strips

 can be fed directly to the  extruder.

 10.2.3  Extrusion

      The wire  is coated by  drawing through an extrusion device.

 As  no source testing  data were  located   to allow an  emission

 factor for wiredrawing extruders,  the value of  0.04  g/kg

 used for other extruding operations is  assumed.

 10.2.4  Curing

      As previously described  for  continuous curing operations

 in  Section 7.2.6,  the emission  factor is calculated  at  0.6  g/kg

 of  product.
                             123

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                     11.  TIRE RETREADING






11.1  PROCESS DESCRIPTION



     The tire retreading process consists of a series of




eight unit operations through which worn tires are rendered




serviceable and fit for resale.  With the exception of studded




snow tires, nearly every tire size and design is utilized by




the industry.  The majority of retreaders receive their tires




from scrap dealers, but turn-ins are also a popular source of




supply.




     Raw camelback is nearly always purchased from an outside




supplier.  Very few retreaders compound their own stock.




11.1.1  Receiving and Sorting




     On arrival, the tires are first inspected to determine




whether or not the casing and carcass are in good condition.




There should be no cuts or visible deterioration of the




reinforcing fabric.  Hidden ply separations, the major cause




of tire failure, are detected by injecting air into the tire




shoulders.  Since trapped air itself may cause ply separation,




the tire is vented in the bead area so the air can escape




during molding or on highway flexing.
                             124

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     Tires unfit for retreading are usually passed on to the



reclaiming industry.



11.1.2  Buffing




     After sorting, the tires are sent to the buffing area



where the remaining tread is ground off with a grinding wheel.



The basic objective in this operation is to develop proper



dimensions of the buffed casing to provide an exact fit for



the retread.



11.1.3  Cleaning



     The surface of each newly buffed tire is rendered dust



free with a stiff wire brush.



11.1.4  Measuring



     The clean tire is measured in order to select the correct



curing rim and to assure a tight fit in the matrix.  Tires can



grow up to seven percent of their original width from road



use, so both the width and wall thickness must be measured.11



11.1.5  Rubber Cement Spraying



     Once measured, the tires are taken to the spray area



where they are coated with vulcanizable rubber cement.



11.1.6  Tread Winding



     When the surface of the tire is coated with cement,



strips of tread rubber are wound circumferentially around it




and cut to length.



     Some retreaders "program" the tread on.  In this opera-




tion, the machinist selects a profile to build and the machine



automatically wraps the thin strand of tread until the exact
                             125

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contour is obtained.   The  tread-winding process  typically

requires about 4.53 kg (10 Ib)  of camelback per  passenger-car

tire and 15.85 kg  (35  Ib)  per truck tire.29

11.1.7  Curing

     Each tire goes into a mold for curing at some  specified

temperature for some predetermined length of time.  Most  curing

molds are steam heated, but some older ones are  electrical.

In newer plants, precured  tread is used.  Tires  built  under

the precure system are placed in an autoclave to be vulcanized

to the buffed casing -

11.1.8  Finish Buffing

     After curing, the rubber flash is buffed off and  the

finished product is inspected and shipped.

     A flow schematic  is shown in Figure 11-1.

11.2  EMISSIONS

     Table 12 is a summary of the volatile organic emissions

from tire retreading.  Solvent emission factors are based on

data supplied during plant visits.  Rubber volatile emission

factors are estimated  as presented in Appendix F.

     Table 12.  VOLATILE  ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM TIRE RETREADING

Emission source
Painting and trimming
Cement spraying
Curing
TOTALS
Emission factor,
g/kg of rubber
3.2
2.75
0.09
6.04
Emission typea
Solvent
Solvent
Rubber volatiles
Percent
53
45.5
1.5
100
Cumulative
percent
53.0
98.5
100
 Solvent emissions  account for 98.5% of volatile organic emissions.
 Rubber volatiles account for 1.5%.
                             126

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                           RECEIVING
                          AND SORTING
                            BUFFING
                            CLEANING
                           MEASURING
                            RUBBER
                            CEMENT
                           SPRAYING
                             TREAD
                            WINDING
                            CURING
                            BUFFING
                           INSPECTION
                         MID SHIPPING,

•fr VOLATILE ORGANICS

 Figure 11-1.   Retreading  flowsheet.
                     127

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11.2.1  Rubber Cement Spraying



     Usually in a spray booth, the tire to be retreaded  is




sprayed with a cement immediately before the new tread is




applied.  Utilizing solvent consumption data for this operation




supplied by an assumed representative plant, the emission factor




is calculated to be 2.75 g/kg of rubber.  A representative range




is estimated to be 1.8 to 5.4 g/kg of rubber.  In addition, de-




pending on how the new tread is applied, the tread itself may




be coated with cement.  No quantification of this point was




found; however, this method of applying new tread is thought




to be rapidly disappearing.  The major process of programming




the tread on involves no application of cement to the tread




itself.




11.2.2  Curing




     Because only the new tread is "green," or unvulcanized,




emissions due to curing are substantially less in retreading




than in new tire curing.  The emission factor for curing is




calculated to be 0.09 g/kg of rubber, based on the assumption




that 40 percent of the retread tire is "green" and that the




same curing conditions utilized in new tire curing are used



in retread curing.




11.2.3  Paint and Trim Operations




     The retread tire, after curing, may be coated or cleaned




to give the tire a more aesthetically pleasing look.  The




cleaning or coating solution used may be either water based,




solvent based, or both.  The emission factor for this point
                             128

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is calculated to be 3.2 g/kg, based on solvent consumption



data for this operation supplied by an assumed representative



plant.  An expected range in this factor is estimated to be



from 2.5 to 7.4 g/kg of rubber.
                             129

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                12.  CONTROL TECHNOLOGY35"55


12.1  SOLVENT AND/OR MONOMER STORAGE

12.1.1  Industries to Which the Control is Applicable

     Synthetic Rubber Production

12.1.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                           Control system            Percent
Affected facility            or strategy            reduction

Styrene storage            Floating covers              80
Hexane storage             Adsorption                   80
Butadiene storage          Emergency flare              70
Fugitive sources           Housekeeping              50-80

12.1.3  General Description

     Floating covers are considered state of the art control for

storage tanks.  Regulations currently are in effect demanding

such control.  The use of such covers is widespread in  the

petrochemicals industry.  This method of control is estimated

to result in an 80 percent reduction in emissions.

     Adsorption is also considered state of the art control for

storage tanks.  With the emission confined to a vent, the prob-

lem of obtaining a high collection efficiency is alleviated.  In

addition,  any recovered monomer and/or solvent would have the

potential  to be reused and thus could be considered a savings
35-55See section 14, References, for full citations of  these
     references.
                             130

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against which to weigh initial capital and everyday operating



expenses.  Again, this type of control is known to exist in the



petrochemicals industry.  Eighty percent reduction is estimated.



     In the case of butadiene storage, the volatility and



exposure potential of the monomer has warranted the use of




emergency flare systems to control any releases of butadiene.



A representative plant will have installed such equipment and



can expect the emission reduction to be 70 percent due to incom-



plete combustion of the gas.  Flaring is thus also considered



state of the art control for storage tanks.




     As noted previously, fugitive emissions from the monomer/



solvent storage area result from leaks in compressor seals,



pump seals, and pipeline valves.  The largest emission source



of the three is indicated to be pipeline valves.  Housekeeping



such as daily inspection and immediate repair of pumps and



valves should result in reducing these emissions 50 to 80 per-



cent.  An inspection schedule such as visual inspections every



6 hours and repair within 2 hours or regular head space hydro-



carbon measurements around all pumps and valves with immediate



repair of areas exceeding a designated concentration is con-




sidered practical control.




12.1.4  Cost of Control



     Cost of the add-on floating cover was estimated for an



existing fixed cover storage tank with a capacity of 75,700



liters (20,000 gal).  The incremental capital cost for the



installation of an interval floating cover is approximately




$18,000.   The annualized operating cost is $3,600 including




                             131

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maintenance, depreciation, property tax, insurance,  and

interest charge on capital.  This operating cost does not

include the savings due to the reduction of emission loss of

chemical to the atmosphere.  If the original loss  is greater

than 17,032 liters (4,500 gal)/yr from the 75,700  liter  (20,000

gal) tank  (which is very likely, depending on the  condition of

the storage tank), and assuming that the market value of the

chemical is $0.26/liter  ($1.00/gal), 80 percent reduction in

loss due to installation of the floating cover will  result in

a net saving.

     The capital cost for a smokeless tip flare system that can

be used to control emissions both from the storage tank  farm and

from the butadiene recovery scrubber vent is about $25,000.  The

operating cost for the flare system is approximately $8,000/yr,

including cost of process water and fuel needed to produce steam

for the smokeless tip.

12.2  POLYMERIZATION OR REACTOR SECTION

12.2.1  Industries to Which the Control is Applicable

     Synthetic Rubber Production

12.2.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                              Control system       Percent
     Affected facility         or strategy         reduction

     Reactor  (fugitive)        Housekeeping          50-80

12.2.3  General Description

     In both solution and emulsion polymerization, fugitive

emissions from compressor seal, pump seal, and pipeline  valve
                             132

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leaks exist.  in emulsion, the  emissions  are  styrene  and buta-

diene.  In solution, the emissions  also include hexane.  No

emission from the reactor itself exists due to the polymeriza-

tion reaction occurring in covered, pressurized vessels. This

was observed at visited plants.  Better housekeeping  through

daily inspections should result in  50-80  percent reduction in

fugitive emissions, as mentioned in Section 12.1.3.

12.3  SOLVENT PURIFICATION

12.3.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Synthetic Rubber Production

12.3.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                              Control system      Percent
      Affected facility        or strategy       reduction

     Solvent purification      Housekeeping        50-80
        (fugitive)

12.3.3  General Description

     In solution polymerization, unreacted monomer/solvent is

recovered,  separated, and reused.  Emissions from leaks in

compressors, valves, and pumps again exist.  These fugitive

emissions,  as mentioned earlier, could be reduced by increased

inspection and monitoring.

12.4  BUTADIENE RECOVERY

12.4.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Synthetic Rubber Production

12.4.2  Summary of Available Control Technology
                            133

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                               Control system       Percent
      Affected facility         or strategy        reduction
      Butadiene recovery       Adsorption,            90
                                 incineration,
                                 or flare             90
      Fugitive                 Housekeeping         50-80

 12.4.3   General Description

      In emulsion polymerization,  vacuum distillation is used

 to recover  unreacted  butadiene.   This butadiene is sent either

 to an adsorber or absorber  (scrubber)  to collect the monomer,

 usually followed by condensation  and  decantation.   For  the pur-

 poses of this report,  the absorber or adsorber is  considered

 part  of the process,  and not  a pollution control device.  For a

 representative plant,  the absorber efficiency  can  be expected

 to be 96-97 percent.   Even  after  absorption, the exiting  gas

 will, in some cases,  contain  a high enough  concentration  to

 exceed  the point  source limitation of  18.2  kg/day.   This

 situation is  even more true in the case  of  latex production.

      In  a representative plant, the emission,  after  absorption,

 is  sent  to an  emergency flare system.  Reduction is  estimated

 at  70 percent  due to  incomplete combustion  of  the  emission.

 Adsorption is  also feasible because 1) data indicate  that  the

 gas flow rate  is low  (80-100  scfm) and 2) the  butadiene con-

 centration of  the exit gas is high (2-3  percent  by volume).

     Again,  a potential savings in additional  recovered buta-

diene would exist if this control  option was implemented.  Based

on normal carbon adsorption removal efficiencies, reduction  is

estimated at 90 percent.
                            134

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     Thermal incineration is also technically feasible although



it requires additional fuel and does not allow for recovery of




the butadiene.  Based on normal removal efficiencies common to



thermal incineration, reduction is estimated at 90 percent.



     Fugitive emissions also exist in this area.  Better house-



keeping will result in a reduction of emission from 50 to 80



percent, as mentioned previously.



12.4.4  Cost of Control




     Using the emission factor presented in Section 3 for the



butadiene recovery absorber vent and assuming a hydrocarbon con-



centration of 3.5 volume percent in the vent gas, the flow rate



of this gas stream was estimated to be 0.03 m3/s  (60 scfm) for



a plant with an annual production of 120,000 metric tons of



emulsion SBR.  For control of this emission source by incinera-



tion or by carbon adsorption, dilution of the vent gas to a



concentration below 25% LEL is necessary.  The total gas stream



to be treated thus becomes 0.25 m3/s (500 scfm).



     The costs of incineration and carbon adsorption systems



for the diluted stream are presented in Tables 13 and 14,



respectively.  The items calculated included capital cost,



annualized cost, and cost effectiveness (in terms of $/ton of



hydrocarbons removed).  For the incinerator, the fuel require-



ments are also given.  Due to the small gas flow rate, primary



and secondary heat recovery do not provide much of a reduction



in cost effectiveness for incineration.  The economic assump-



tions used in cost calculations are discussed in Appendix G.



The economics of using a flare system for control of this




                             135

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                                Table  13.   INCINERATION COSTS  FOR A TYPICAL BUTADIENE
                                                 RECOVERY OPERATION
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

57,000
56,000

83,000
64,000

100,000
72,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

18,000
15,000

17,000
14,000

15,000b
13,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

280
230

260
220

230b
200b
Fuel
requirement,
mVyr
fuel oil

74
17

48
11

26b
6b
co
                                q
         Gas flow rate of 0.25 irr/s  (500 scfm) ,  temperature  of  21°C (70°F) ,  hydrocarbon concentration
         of 25% LEL.
         Assumes heat is recovered and used.

-------
          Table 14.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                   BUTADIENE RECOVERY OPERATION3





Adsorption device


Capital
cost,
$

Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed
 Case with no credit for
   recovered solvent             50,000

 Case with recovered solvent
   credited at fuel value        50,000
                21,000
                16,000
320
250
 SGas flow rate of 0.25 m3/s  (500 scfm),  temperature of 21°c (70°F),
  hydrocarbon concentration of 25% LEL.

source,  together with emissions  from the storage tank farm,
have been
have been discussed in Section 12.1.4.

12.5  DESOLVENT AREA, SOLUTION POLYMERIZATION

12.5.1   Industries to Which Control  is  Applicable

     Synthetic  Rubber Production

12.5.2   Summary of Available  Control Technology
     Affected facility
     Solvent  recovery

     Desolvent area
  Control  system        Percent
   or strategy	  reduction

Steam stripping            50
  efficiency  increase
Collection/                 90
  incineration
Carbon adsorption          90
Housekeeping              50-80
     Fugitive

12.5.3  General Description

     After  leaving the reactor area,  the slurry is coagulated

and the unrecovered butadiene, styrene,  and hexane steam  strip-

ped, separated  and recycled for  future use.  The crumb  slurry

is then sent to surge tanks until  the operations of dewatering
                              137

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and drying can commence.  Because of the strong  affinity  of the




crumb for hexane, substantial quantities of unreacted  hexane




remain in the crumb after steam stripping.



     To control this release of hexane both in the  desolvent




area and subsequent downstream operations, the use  of  increased




stripping capacity will aid in recovering more hexane  and




reducing subsequent emissions.  One plant is known  to  be  cur-




rently designing for such a stripping capacity increase.  They




estimate a reduction of 50 percent in emissions.  This control




alternative will be discussed further in the following section




on dewatering and drying.




     Another control alternative is incineration.   Because the




surge tanks are vented, collection of the emission  would  pose




little difficulty.   A reduction of the emissions from  the surge




tank of 90 percent is estimated assuming that common removal




efficiencies utilizing incineration can be expected.




     In addition, emissions from the surge tank  could  also be




recovered using carbon adsorption.  A reduction  of  90  percent is




assumed achievable if removal efficiencies common to carbon




adsorption can be expected.




     In addition, fugitive emissions can be controlled by 50-80




percent if more stringent housekeeping is practiced, as pre-



viously discussed.




12.5.4  Cost of Control




To increase steam stripping efficiency, redesign of the desol-




vent facility will be necessary.  The steam rate applied  and
                             138

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the capacity of the condenser will have to be increased.  In-

formation is not sufficient to make an estimate on the cost of

this process modification.

     The cost of incineration and carbon adsorption systems for

control of this source were estimated based on a gas flow rate

of 5 m3/s (11,000 scfm), gas temperature of 21°C  (70°F), and

a hydrocarbon concentration at 560 ppm based on hexane.  These

parameters are typical of a solution SBR plant with a produc-

tion rate of 120,000 metric tons/yr.  Results of the cost

estimates are presented in Tables 15 and 16 for incineration

and carbon adsorption, respectively.

12.6  DEWATERING AND DRYING

12.6.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Synthetic Rubber Production

12.6.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                                   Control system      Percent
	Affected facility	     or strategy      reduction

Dewatering and drying  (emulsion)   Incineration          90
Dewatering and drying  (solution)   Steam stripping       50
                                   Incineration          90
                                   Use as boiler
                                     combustion air      40

12.6.3  General Description

     After steam stripping, coagulation, and screening, crumb

rubber produced in emulsion polymerization is vacuum dewatered

and dried.  Unreacted styrene is emitted to the plant atmosphere

from the crumb during dewatering and drying.

     The dryer, enclosed and vented, has concentrations of

exhausted styrene of less than 10 ppm.  Incineration of this
                             139

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                            Table  15.   INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL

                                       DESOLVENT OPERATION3
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

117,000
112,000

137,000
130,000

169,000
158,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

180,000
110,000

130,000
80,000

100,000b
75,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

620
380

440
270

340b
260b
Fuel
requirement ,
rnVyr
fuel oil

2,900
1,600

1,900
1,000

l,000b
560b
                     q
Gas flow rate of 5 m°/s  (11,000  scfm) , temperature of  21°C  (70°F) ,  hydrocarbon concentration of

560 ppm based on hexane.
Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

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           Table 16.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                       DESOLVENT OPERATION9
     Adsorption device
Capital
 cost,
   $
Annualized
 operating
   cost,
   $/yr
    Cost
effectiveness,
   $/ton of
 hydrocarbons
   removed
 Case with no credit for
   recovered solvent

 Case with recovered solvent
   credited at fuel value

 Case with solvent credited
   at market value
250,000
250,000
250,000
  90,000
  80,000
  50,000
    300
    270
    170
 3Gas  flow rate of 5 m3/s  (11,000 scfm), temperature of 21°C (70°F),
  hydrocarbon concentration of 560 ppm based on hexane.

exhaust  will reduce the  emission by 90  percent although sub-

stantial quantities of fuel will be necessary.

      In  the case of solution crumb dewatering and drying, the

emission situation is  substantially more severe.   Emissions are

mainly unreacted hexane.   The dewatering step is  entirely the

same  as  in emulsion, with the same ventilation/collection

difficulties.   However,  the concentration of hydrocarbons is

greatly  increased over that in emulsion.   In the  dryer itself,

concentrations average close to 300 ppm with vents in the first

part  of  the dryer averaging greater than 2,000 ppm primarily of

hexane.

12.6.4   Control Alternatives

      As  mentioned previously, members of this industry have

investigated solutions for the control  of this emission point.

A brief  discussion of  the alternatives  available is given below.
                               141

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     Six control alternatives have been investigated:




     •  Process change



     •  Solvent change



     •  Improved stripping process



     •  Fume incineration



     •  Use as boiler combustion air



     •  Carbon adsorption



     For the carbon alternative, other alternatives such as



high energy regeneration have also been considered.  Among



these were solvent washing, vacuum regeneration, and high



temperature regeneration.  None of these attains complete



reactivation of the carbon.  They also have other disadvantages



such as high energy requirements and the fact that the nature



of the processes is technically unverified.



     After review of the six approaches studied, industry



representatives have offered the following conclusions:



     •  Process Change - This involves substituting emulsion



polymerization for solution polymerization.  This was not



deemed technically viable due to the major rebuilding required



and the unsatisfactory characteristics of the final rubber



product and the substantially poorer wastewater characteristics



that would result.




     •  Solvent Change - Substitution of another solvent  such



as pentane was evaluated but deemed unviable due to uncertain-



ties in processing feasibility  (SBR solubility  in pentane)  and



because pentane's increased volatility would lead to increased
                             142

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emissions.  Furthermore, pentane's reactivity gives little



improvement over that of hexane.




     •  Improved Stripping Process - As mentioned earlier, one



company has evaluated the desolventization process and how its



emissions might be reduced.  This evaluation concluded that



emissions leaving the desolvent area could be reduced by



increasing the efficiency of steam stripping.  By reducing emi



sions here, the quantity of hexane liberated by dewatering and



drying  is correspondingly reduced.   Increasing efficiency pri-



marily  requires increased steam usage and condensing capacity.



The company estimates a possible reduction of 50 percent.




     •  Fume Incineration - Three approaches were considered:



afterburning, thermal incineration, and catalytic incineration



Collection of the emissions, as pointed out for the emulsion



process, was immediately recognized as difficult and thus col-



lection efficiency is considered to be less than 100 percent.



The multitude of vents would necessitate many afterburners.



For the purposes of this study, incineration is technically



feasible with a reduction potential of 85 percent to 90 per-



cent.  This assumes a 90 percent collection efficiency and




95 percent control efficiency.



     •  Use As Boiler Combustion Air - This alternative showed



that only 44 percent of the hexane-laden air could be utilized




Technically, the alternative is viable; however, the percent




reduction is lower than that for other options.
                             143

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     .  carbon Adsorption - This alternative  had  been deemed



feasible and one company proceeded to pilot  test two carbon



units on the drying operation.  Initial  tests  showed that



collection efficiencies were low and that  the  carbon bed was




being fouled by a low molecular weight extender  oil  incorporated



in the polymer.  Thus, an attempt was made to  modify the



pilot program to overcome this fouling problem.   The solution



process could not be changed to eliminate  the  fouling contami-



nant.  The oil mist was less than 0.5 ym in  diameter and gas



pretreatment processes to remove both gaseous  and particulate



pollutants were examined.  For gaseous pretreatment,  con-



densation proved unsuccessful due to the low concentrations



involved.  Absorption simply increases the amount of hydro-



carbon since any solvent used to absorb  the  oil  would likewise



have to be removed.  Incineration was disgarded  for  reasons pre-



viously discussed.  The conclusion was that  any  pretreatment,



unless 100 percent efficient, would only delay the fouling



problem.



     In conclusion, the company has decided  on modified strip-



ping, which offers an estimated 50 percent reduction.   This con-



clusion is based on both economical and  technical considera-



tions.   This study also considers incineration a technically



viable alternative with the cost of such discussed in the



proceeding section.




     Also concerning carbon adsorption,  if the oil mist could



be eliminated by removing the extender oil from  the  process
                             144

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 altogether, the option  of  adsorption might then be  technically

 viable.  This major  process  change  resulting in a changed

 final product composition  would  be  possible if  extender  oils

 could be added during compounding in subsequent rubber fabri-

 cation activities.   This proposed process  change would allow

 for carbon adsorption to reduce  emissions  in the 90 percent

 range.  Because this emission point is  the largest of all

 points in the industry, the  viability of such a process  change

 needs serious consideration.  Use of carbon adsorption (90 per-

 cent) versus steam stripping capacity increases (50 percent)

 will result in considerable  additional  reduction in plant

 emissions.

 12.6.5  Cost of Control

     The cost of incineration for this  source was estimated for

 a solution SBR plant with  a  production  rate of  120,000 metric

 tons/yr.  The parameters used in the cost  calculations include

 gas flow rate of 80 m3/s (160,000 scfm), a  temperature of 150°C

 (300°F),  and a hydrocarbon concentration of  300 ppm (based on

C6).   Due to the large volume of waste  gas  to be incinerated,

four  incinerators,  each handling 20 m3/s,  are needed.   Results

of this  cost estimate are given  in Table 17  for both direct

thermal  and catalytic incineration.   Fuel requirements are

also  presented.

12.7   COMPOUNDING/BANBURY MIXING

12.7.1  Industries  to Which Control is Applicable

     Tires  and Inner Tubes
     Rubber Footwear
     Rubber Hose and Belting

                             145

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                       Table  17.   INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL DEWATERING

                                       AND DRYING OPERATION3
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

650,000
980,000

888,000
1,200,000

1,000,000
1,400,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

2,100,000
1,000,000

1,400,000
920,000

i,ioo,ooob
800,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

960
460

640
420

soob
310b
Fuel
requirement,
m3/yr
fuel oil

35,000
18,000

23,000
12,000

i2,ooob
6,300b
3                      a
 Gas flow rate of 80 mVs  (160,000 scfm), temperature of  150°C  (300°F),  hydrocarbon concentration

 of 300 ppm based on Cg•
 Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

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     Fabricated Rubber Goods
     Gaskets,  Packing, and Sealing Devices

12.7.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                           Control System       Percent
     Affected facility      or strategy        reduction

      Banbury mixing       Incineration            90
                           Carbon adsorp-
                             tion                  90

12.7.3  General Description

     Although some plants (less than 10 percent)  buy precom-

pounded rubber stock, most still have at least one mixer per

plant.  Most all mixers  (greater than 90 percent)  presently

have some type of a particulate control installed.  This may be

in the form of a baghouse or scrubber, to name two.  The control

of hydrocarbons from this source has not been noted in the lit-

erature, and control will thus be technology forcing in concept.

Control of hydrocarbons is currently possible, however, as the

facilities utilizing scrubbing could be removing hydrocarbons

in conjunction with the particulate.  The percent reduction

possible is not known to have been measured.

     From a technical standpoint, the control of this emission

point by carbon adsorption is also feasible.  The potential

for fouling of the bed should be eliminated due to the present

use of particulate removal equipment.  Incineration would also

be feasible as the exhaust gas, although low in hydrocarbon

concentration, has sufficient heat to alleviate at least a por-

tion of the supplemental fuel requirements.  Both of these con-

trol options are estimated to be 90 percent efficient as col-

lection will be close to optimum efficiency due to the exhaust

gas being already confined to a vent or stack.

                             147

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12.7.4  Cost of Control

     The cost of control for Banbury mixing varies  from industry

to industry because of the variation in quantities  of  rubber com-

pounds processed by this operation.  Based on the average plant

size defined in Appendix H for each industry, the number of

Banbury mixers, operating time, and gas stream flow rate were

estimated and are given in Table 18.  These process parameters

were used for cost calculation purposes only.  Actual  para-

meters for individual plant, may vary from these average

values.  The concentration of volatile organic materials in the

gas stream to be treated was estimated at 10 ppm (based  on

from a material balance.  A temperature of 21°C (70°F) was

assumed for the exhaust gas.

       Table 18.  PROCESS PARAMETERS FOR BANBURY MIXERS
Industry
Tire and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber
goods
Gaskets, packing, and
sealing devices
Number of
Banbury mixers
2
1
1
1
1
Operating
time,
hr/yr
6,000
1,600
4,000
1,000
1,000
Exhaust gas
flow rate,
m3/s
15
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
 Exhaust gas temperature:  21°C
 Volatile organic compound concentration:  10 ppm based on

The capital and operating costs for control of this source by

incineration and carbon adsorption are presented in Tables 19

through 23 for rubber processing industries which involve
                            148

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              Table 19.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL BANBURY MIXING OPERATION
                              IN THE TIRE AND INNER TUBES INDUSTRY9



Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic


Capital
cost,
$

150,000
210,000

190,000
240,000

230,000
280,000

Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

500,000
250,000

350,000
230,000

280,000b
210,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

280,000
140,000

190,000
130,000

160,000b
120,000b

Fuel
requirement,
m3/yr
fuel oil

5,100
8,600

3,300
5,600

1,800
3,000
Based on process parameters presented in Table 18.
Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

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               Table 20.   INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL BANBURY MIXING OPERATION
                                  IN A RUBBER FOOTWEAR OPERATION9
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

125,000
138,000

150,000
160,000

185,000
190,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

90,000
60,000

80,000
50,000

70,000b
50,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

370,000
250,000

330,000
200,000

290,000b
200,000b
Fuel
requirement ,
m3/yr
fuel oil

1,100
680

720
440

390b
240b
Based on process parameters  defined in Table  18,
Assumes heat is recovered  and utilized.

-------
              Table 21.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL BANBURY MIXING OPERATION
                             IN THE RUBBER HOSE AND BELTING INDUSTRY3
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

125,000
138,000

150,000
160,000

185,000
190,000
Annual! zed
operating
cost,
$/yr

180,000
100,000

130,000
90,000

110,000b
85,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

200,000
110,000

140,000
100,000

120,000b
94,000b
Fuel
requirement,
m3/yr
fuel oil

2,800
1,700

1,800
1,100

980b
600b
Based on process parameters defined in Table 18.
Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

-------
Table 22.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL BANBURY MIXING OPERATION IN THE FABRICATED  RUBBER GOODS
                 INDUSTRY AND THE GASKETS, PACKING, AND SEALING DEVICES INDUSTRY9
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

125,000
138,000

150,000
160,000

185,000
190,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

70,000
45,000

55,000
40,000

50,000b
35,000b
Cost
effectiveness,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

460,000
290,000

360,000
260,000

330,000b
230,000b
Fuel
requirement,
m3/yr
fuel oil

710
430

460
280

250b
150b
 b
Based on process parameters  presented in Table 18.
Assumes heat is recovered  and utilized.

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        Table 23.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR BANBURY MIXING3
Industry

Case with no credit for
recovered organics
Tires and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber goods
Gaskets, packing, and
sealing devices
Case with recovered
organics credited at
fuel value
Tires and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber goods
Gaskets, packing, and
sealing devices
Capital
cost,
$
$


380,000
280,000
280,000
280,000

280,000



380,000
280,000
280,000
280,000

280,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr



143,000
40,000
77,000
25,000

25,000



140,000
39,000
76,000
25,000

25,000
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
organics
removed



79,000
160,000
130,000
160,000

160,000



78,000
160,000
130,000
160,000

160,000
  Based on process parameters defined in Table 18.

Banbury mixing.   The control cost per unit weight  of  organics

removed is very high due to the low concentration  of  organic

materials in the  exhaust gas.

12.8  MILLING

12.8.1  Industries  to Which Control is Applicable

     Tires and Inner Tubes
     Rubber Footwear
     Rubber Hose  and Belting
     Fabricated Rubber Goods
     Gaskets, Packing,  and Sealing Devices
                              153

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 12.8.2   Summary of  Available Control Technology

                                Control system     Percent
      Affected  facility         or strategy       reduction

      Mills,  wary-up mills       Incineration         60

 12.8.3   General Description

      A mill  may be  used  to warm up rubber stock or simply to

 sheet out  the stock,  etc.  Because the emission is open in

 nature,  the  collection efficiency of any  proposed control

 alternative  will be low  (less than 75 percent).   Plants were

 observed where  several mills contained controlled exhaust ven-

 tilation but in general, mill emissions are  free  to disperse

 into  the plant  atmosphere.  Because  of the number of mills and

 their diverse location in a typical  tire  plant, the use of a

 central  control location being  fed by the exhausts from several

 mills is not feasible.  The exhaust  ventilation manifold work

 necessary would be  enormous.  Thus,  control will  have  to be on

 a specific mill basis.  The control  of the larger mills will

 give  the best reduction in hydrocarbon emissions  from  milling

 operations,  in general.   Incineration  is  the only technically

 viable control as adsorption will  demand  gas pretreatment to

 remove any particulate and mists.  Using  the excepted  removal

 efficiency of 70 percent, the maximum reduction of  these emis-

 sions is 60-65 percent.   No such control  of milling  operation

 emissions is known to exist in any of the SIC's covered in

 this  study, and thus the control concept  presented will be

technically forcing.
                            154

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12.8.4  Cost of Control




     The control cost for a milling operation was estimated



for each industry involving this operation based on the proc-



ess parameters presented in Table 24 for average size plants



(see Appendix H).  Since present ventilation practices in



rubber processing plants do not allow effective collection of



exhaust gases for hydrocarbon control purposes, cost estimates



were also made for the case where redesign of the ventilation



system will increase the organic concentration from 2 ppm to



20 ppm based on CH4.




     Results of cost calculations for incineration are given in



Table 25.  Catalytic incineration is not included since the



exhaust gas contains heavy oil mists and solid particles which



will foul the catalysts.  This situation is different from the



case with Banbury mixing where bag filters are usually used to



remove the liquid and solid aerosols.  Also, secondary heat



recovery is not considered because it is doubtful that a rubber



processing plant can utilize the large amount of heat recovered.



     It can be seen from Table 25 that the control cost per



unit weight of organics removed and fuel consumption are



extremely high without redesign of the ventilation system.



Even with redesign to reduce the exhaust gas flow by a factor




of ten, the control cost is still substantial.  It should be



noted also that the cost for the latter case does not include



that of redesign and reconstruction of a new ventilation system.
                             155

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                      Tables 24.   PROCESS PARAMETERS  FOR MILLING  OPERATIONS
Industry
Tires and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber
goods
Gaskets, packing, and
sealing devices
Number
of
mills
15
2
5

2
2
Operating
time
hr/yr
6,000
6,000
6,000

3,800
3,800
Flow rate, m3/s
Before
redesign
38
5
13

5
5
After b
redesign
3.8
0.5
1.3

0.5
0.5
Number of
control units
Before
redesign
2
1
1

1
1
After ,
redesign
1
1
1

1
1
Ul
     Exhaust  temperature:   21°C  (70°F)
     aVolatile organic  compound  concentration:    2  ppm based  on
      Volatile organic  compound  concentration:   20  ppm based  on

-------
                                Table 25.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR MILLING OPERATIONSa
Industry
No heat recovery
(thermal incineration)
Tires and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber goods
Gaskets, Packing, and seals
Primary heat recovery
(thermal incineration)
Tires and inner tubes
Rubber footwear
Hose and belting
Fabricated rubber goods
Gaskets, packing, and seals
Capital cost, 10 3$
Before
redesign


490
115
140
105
105


590
140
180
125
125
After
redesign


110
83
90
80
80


130
110
115
110
110
Annualized
operating cost,
103$/yr
Before
redesign


1,300
180
420
130
130


900
130
290
95
95
After
redesign


130
50
70
30
30


110
40
60
30
30
Cost effectiveness
106$/metric ton of
hydrocarbons removed
Before
redesign


2.2
2.2
2.2
2.5
2.5


1.5
1.6
1.5
1.9
1.9
After
redesign


0.22
0.62
0.36
0.59
0.59


0.18
0.49
0.31
0.59
0.59
Fuel requirement
103m3/yr fuel oil
Before
redesign


21
2.9
7.1
1.8
1.8


13
1.7
4.3
1.1
1.1
After
redesign


2.1
0.29
0.71
0.18
0.18


1.3
0.17
0.43
0.11
0.11
Based on process parameters given in Table 24.

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12.9  EXTRUSION

12.9.1  Industries to Which Control  is  Applicable

     Tires and Inner Tubes
     Rubber Hose and Belting
     Fabricated Rubber Goods
     Nonferrous Wiredrawing and  Insulating

12.9.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                            Control  system         Percent
    Affected facility    	or  strategy	    reduction
        Extruders        Process change
                            (vented extruders)        80

12.9.3  General Description

     The amount of heat generated, and thus hydrocarbons emitted

from extruding operations will depend on the  quantity of rubber

being processed.  In general, the larger the  quantity of rubber

extruded per unit time, the higher the heat generation and thus

hydrocarbon emissions.  This emission point is also  not confined

to a vent.  No confined exhaust ventilation of this  operation

was observed or reported in the literature.   As with milling,

the emission is believed low in concentration and  only partially

collectable.

     One viable control involves a change to  vented  extruders.56

Used extensively in polyvinyl chloride processing, vented ex-

truders allow for more efficient collection of the emissions,

before leaving the extruder itself.  In combination  with a con-

denser, the emissions could be effectively collected and re-

moved from the plant atmosphere.  Assuming that 20 percent of

the emissions result from volatilization off  the  rubber after
56Penn, W. S., PVC Technology, London, England, Applied
  Science Publishers, Limited, 3rd Edition, 1971, pp.  285-287,


                             158

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leaving the extruder (80 percent collectable in the extruder),

the reduction potential is estimated at 80 percent.  No such

control of extruding operations is known to exist in the rubber

industry, and thus this control concept will also be technology

forcing,.  Due to the nature of tire extruding, development of

vented extruders for the tire industry will probably be needed.

Current vented extruders are not directly adaptable to tire

industry extruding operations.

12.10  PRESS CURING

12.10.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Tires and Inner Tubes
     Rubber Hose and Belting
     Tire Retreading

12.10.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                            Control system      Percent
      Affected facility      or strategy       reduction

        Press curing         Incineration         60

12.10.3  General Description

     Temperatures can range from 100°C to 200°C for tire curing

operations.  Hydrocarbon emissions result from these heats and

may occur either through volatilization of species in the stock

or by formation of new species by chemical reactions.  In the

case of tire curing, the emission has been shown to be a result

of volatilization rather than chemical reaction.23  Tires are

cured in presses.  The number of presses in a given plant is

usually about 100, if not more.  They are located over a large

open area which is ventilated or exhausted by large plant fans.
                            159

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In examining control, this fact is of paramount  importance as



it affects collection efficiency greatly.



     Collection options are 1) to collect or enclose the



ventilation of each individual press or 2) to contain the



emission and air flow of the entire press area to a confined



ventilation enclosure.  From this study, the latter is more



feasible.  Even with this proposed ventilation controlled



enclosure, only 70 percent of the emission is estimated to be



collectable.  As the tire is pulled from the press, emissions



will escape not only from the press area enclosure but with



the tire itself.  From this ventilation enclosure, emissions



can be sent to a thermal incineration device.  Incineration is



estimated to be 90 percent  efficient.  Thus total reduction



efficiency is estimated to be 60 percent.



     No control of curing emissions has been observed or re-



ported, and thus this concept will also be technology forcing.



12.10.4  Cost of Control



     For an average size plant in the tire and inner tube



industry producing 20,000 metric tons/yr of product, the ex-



haust gas stream from curing presses has a flow rate of about



100 m3/s (200,000 scfm).  From a material balance, the organics



concentration in this stream is 3.3 ppm based on CH4.  To



incinerate this large gas stream, four incinerators will be



needed.  Since the present ventilation systems do not allow



for effective collection of volatile organics for subsequent



emission control, redesign of the ventilation system is neces-



sary to increase the efficiency of the control system.





                            160

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     The cost  of  controlling this source will be similar to

 that for a milling  operation.   The extremely high control cost

 per unit weight of  organics  removed and fuel requirements

 also apply here.  Readers  are  referred to Section 12.8.4 for

 a discussion on this  matter.

     For an average size tire  retreading shop (processing

 450 metric tons/yr),  the exhaust  gas flow rate for curing

 presses is about  2.3  m3/s  (4,500  scfm).   The concentration of

 volatile organics in  this  stream  is about 1.4 ppm.  The  cost

 effectiveness  is  using  incineration for control  of this  source

 is similar to  the situation  in the tire and  inner tube

 industry.

 12.11  CALENDERING

 12.11.1  Industries to  Which Control is  Applicable

     Tires and Inner  Tubes
     Rubber Footwear
     Rubber Hose  and  Belting
     Fabricated Rubber  Products
     Gaskets, Packing,  and Sealing Devices

 12.11.2  Summary  of Available  Control Technology

                            Control  system      Percent
      Affected facility      or strategy      reduction

         Calendering         Incineration          55

 12.11.3  General  Description

     Calendering  is an operation common  to all rubber manu-

 facturing plants.   Used to bond fabric or steel mesh to a

rubber sheet or between two rubber sheets, the calendering

operation is another source where  due to heat generation,  the

potential exists  for emission of hydrocarbons.  A large piece
                            161

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of equipment, the exhaust ventilation of a calender is usually

not enclosed, although some exhaust control is known to exist

at some plants.  Based on the assumption that 1) hooding is

only 60% efficient in collection and 2) the incineration de-

vice, requiring substantial fuel, will be 90 percent efficient,

this emission point is controllable only to 55 percent.  No such

control is known to exist in the applicable industries at this

time, and thus this concept will also be technology forcing.

12.11.4  Cost of Control

     The process parameters for calendering in industries

involving this operation are the same as those for Banbury

mixing in number of units, operating time, exhaust flow rate,

and gas temperature.  The concentration of organics in the

exhaust gas from a calendering operation is about 5 ppm based

on CH^.  The cost of controlling this source by incineration

and the fuel requirements are similar to those discussed in

Section 12.8.4 for a milling operation.

12.12  UNDERTREAD AND TREADEND CEMENTING

12.12.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Tires and Inner Tubes

12.12.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                             Control system        Percent
     Affected facility        or strategy	     reduction

    Undertread cementer/    Carbon adsorption        90
      Treadend cementer     Incineration             90

12.12.3  General Description

     The operation here is simply a tackifying step used in

tire manufacture where the tread is dipped in rubber cement.


                            162

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This operation is one of the few emission points where hydro-



carbon control is presently installed.  The control system



consists of a ventilation enclosure, which is designed to



capture evaporated solvent from the cementing tank and the




coated tread, and a dual-unit carbon adsorber.  This technology



has been observed to have an overall collection efficiency of



about 94 percent.  The design features of the exhaust ventila-



tion system include 1) adequate dilution of the volatile



vapors, 2) sufficient residence time of tread on the enclosed



conveyor to ensure capture of solvent during drying, and 3)



operator accessibility to areas within the hood, especially



during tread die changes (startup) and periods of scheduled



maintenance.  The total exhaust ventilation flow is routed to



the dual adsorber before being vented to the atmosphere.  The



carbon unit itself consists of two carbon beds operated on an



alternating cycle of adsorbing and steam stripping.



     Approximately 1,340 kg/day of solvent are evaporated from



the cementer.  Of this, approximately 1,206 kg/day are col-



lected and sent to the adsorber.  Ninety-five percent of the



collected solvent is recovered by the steam stripping, con-



densation, and decantation steps.  The recovered solvent is



reused within the plant both in undertread and other cementing




operations.  This control technology is 90 percent efficient.



     The use of incineration is also feasible.  It  is  estimated I




to result in a reduction of the emission of 90 percent.
                             163

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     The use of collection/incineration has  also  been

evaluated by the industry.  The carbon adsorption option was

chosen due to more favorable economics.  This  is  discussed in

the following section.

12.12.4  Cost of Control

     The control cost for this emission source was estimated

based on a gas flow rate of 3.5 m3/s  (7,000  scfm), gas tem-

perature of 21°C (70°F), and solvent concentration of 100 ppm

based on C6.   Results are presented in Tables  26  and 27 for

incineration and carbon adsorption, respectively.

12.13  GREEN TIRE SPRAYING

12.13.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Tires and Inner Tubes

12.13.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                             Control system          Percent
   Affected facility    	or strategy	  reduction

  Green tire spraying   Use of water-based sprays      90
                        Carbon adsorption              80
                        Incineration                   80

12.13.3  General Description

     Control of hydrocarbon emissions from green  tire spraying

by substitution of water-based sprays for solvent-based sprays

has been observed and is considered state-of-the-art control

technology.  This applies to both the inside and  outside of

green tires.

     The spraying operation itself is accomplished in a spray

booth.   Green tires are removed from a storage rack and placed
                            164

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                                Table 26.   INCINERATION COSTS FOR TYPICAL UNDERTREAD
                                               AND TREADEND CEMENTING3

Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

110,000
108,000

130,000
110,000

150,000
130,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

130,000
80,000

100,000
60,000

85,000b
55,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

4,800
3,000

3,700
2,200

3,100
2,000
Fuel
requirement ,
m3/yr
fuel oil

290
170

190
110

100
60
Ul
           Based on gas flow rate of 3.5 m3/s (7,000 scfm),  gas temperature of 21°C (70°F),  and organics
           concentration of 100 ppm based on CQ.

           Assumes that heat is recovered and utilized.

-------
            Table 27.   CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR TYPICAL
                  UNDERTREAD AND TREADEND CEMENTING3
      Adsorption device
Capital
 cost,
   $
Annualized
 operating
   cost,
   $/yr
    Cost
effectiveness,
   $/ton of
 hydrocarbons
   removed
 Case with no credit for
   recovered solvent

 Case with recovered solvent
   credited at fuel value

 Case with solvent credited
   at market value
190,000
190,000
190,000
  62,000
  60,, 000
  55,000
   2,300
   2,200
   2,000
  Based on gas flow rate of 3.5 m3/s (7,000 scfm),  gas temperature of  21°c
  (70°F) , and organics  concentration of'100 ppm based on C6.

in the spray  booth where  the spraying  function is automati-

cally accomplished.  The  tire is then  removed and placed on

another  rack.   Retention  time in the booth is less  than

5 seconds.  Subsequent  evaporation is  to general room exhaust.

Thus, vapor collection  in the booth itself is assumed to be 80

percent  or  less, including overspray of the tire.   If other

than a water-based spray  is substituted, the collection

efficiency  of the vapors  would have to be increased by in-

stalling enclosed drying  tunnels or by increasing the retention

time of  the tires in the  booth.  Using increased collection

and either  carbon adsorption or incineration, this  emission

point is estimated to be  80 percent controllable.

     However,  as mentioned, the elimination of the  emission by

90 percent  through substitution of a water-based spray is
                             166

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feasible.  The  inside spray, primarily needed as  a  release

agent during curing,  is currently known to be water based

(10 percent residual  solvent)  in several plants.  The  outside

spray is needed also  as a release agent; in addition,  it  helps

produce an aesthetically pleasing finished product.  Although

more difficult  to  switch to, water-based outside  sprays have

also been observed and reported in industry.


     Thus, this emission point is considered 90 percent con-

trollable by the substitution of water-based for  solvent-based

sprays in both  inside and outside green tire applications.

12.13.4  Cost of Control

     The cost calculation for this emission source  was based

on a gas flow rate of 5 m3/s (10,000 scfm, two spray booths),

gas temperature of 21°C (70°F), and solvent concentration of

1,000 ppm based on C6.   Tables 28 and 29 give the results for

incineration and carbon adsorption, respectively.

           Table 28. CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR TYPICAL
                       GREEN TIRE SPRAYING3
Adsorption device
Case with no credit for
recovered solvent
Case with recovered solvent
credited at fuel value
Case with solvent credited
at market value
Capital
cost,
$
250,000
250,000
250,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr
90,000
80,000
50,000
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed
250
220
140
aBased on gas flow rate of 5 m3/s  (10,000 scfm)  temperature of 21°C (70°F),
 organics concentration of 1,000 ppm based on C6.
                             167

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                                     Table 29.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR TYPICAL
                                               GREEN TIRE SPRAYING3
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

115,000
130,000

140,000
160,000

160,000
185,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

140,000
110,000

130,000
80,000

ioo,ooob
70,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

390
310

370
220

280b
200b
Fuel
requirement ,
m3/yr
fuel oil

2,400
1,250

1,600
810

840b
440b
oo
          Based on flow rate of 5 m3/s (10,000 scfm),  temperature of 21°C  (70°F), solvent concentration of
          1,000 ppm based on C6.
          Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

-------
     The switch from solvent-based to water-based low solvent

sprays will not require significant capital investment  (as

compared with that of the add-on control).  The difference in

operating cost will result from raw material cost.

12.14  TIRE BUILDING

12.14.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Tire and Inner Tubes

12.14.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                            Control system        Percent
     Affected facility        or strategy        reduction
       Tire Building       Scheduling change        50

12.14.3  General Description

     In this operation, solvent is used to tackify the rubber

components before assembly.  If the rubber components are used

as soon as they are constructed, the components will still be

tacky and will not require solvent.  By improved scheduling of

component arrival to the builder, it is estimated that half of

the present solvent use could be eliminated.  The improved

scheduling could include immediate use of component parts, as

made, during the peak operating shift, or partial solvent

elimination for tackifying certain parts.  In addition, builder

preferences for solvent usage could be minimized.

12.15  ADHESIVE SPRAYING OR CEMENTING

12.15.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber Footwear
     Fabricated Rubber Goods
     Gaskets,  Packing, and Sealing Devices
     Tire Retreading
                            169

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 12.15.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                               Control system          Percent
   Affected facility      	or strategy	     reduction

     Spray booths         Collection/incineration        90
                           Collection/adsorption         90

  Manual applications               None               Unknown

 12.15.3  General Description

      Adhesive spraying  is usually carried out in spray booths

 which are vented to the atmosphere.   However, solvent evapora-

 tion continues to occur after the sprayed part leaves the

 booth.   In order to achieve  collection efficiencies of greater

 than 90 percent,  either 1) the residence  time of the part in

 the  booth must be increased  or 2)  additional ventilation en-

 closure must  be provided around the  part  after it leaves the

 booth.

      The control  of the vapors,  assuming  95  percent collection

 efficiency, based on increasing the  residence time,  can  be

 obtained by either  incineration or carbon adsorption.  Each of

 these controls  is  considered  90  percent efficient.   It must be

 noted that at  present no  control  of  adhesive spraying  by either

 of these  control  systems  has  been reported.   In  addition,

 especially in  footwear  production, a  large number  of such

 booths  exist.

     The  largest percentage of  adhesive applications are

manual  in nature.   The worker,  as in  footwear production, may

use the solvent for  tackifying  a  rubber inner sole  before it

 is placed on the outer  sole.    In  essence, the use  of cement

is dispersed widely over  a plant manufacturing area,  the

quantity used depending not only on the specific  application

                             170

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but on the worker's individual preference.  The application



may be by a knife, a brush, a roller, or even by hand.



     Control of individual applications is not feasible.  The



potential for locating all such applications in a general con-



fined area also is not feasible.  The application points are



just too spread out in the plant.




     In some cases, the substitution of water-based  (low sol-



vent) for solvent-based cements has been reported.   In some



specific applications, this option is viable.  However, the



vast majority of cementing cannot be changed to water-based



cements, and thus this reduction method is not considered to



result in any reduction in emissions.



     Any identification of control for these manual  applica-



tions must be plant specific in nature.  Each plant will have



different numbers of such emission points and different quanti-



ties of emissions resulting from these cementing operations.




12.15.4  Cost of Control



     The cost of control for this source was estimated based



on a gas flow rate of 0.5 m3/s (1,000 scfm), gas temperature of



21.1°C (70°F), and hydrocarbon concentration at 25 percent of



LEL (3,000 ppm based on C5).  Annual operation time was assumed



to be 3,000 hours.  The low gas flow rate and shorter operation



time are characteristics of the source.  Results of  cost calcu-



lations are shown in Tables 30 and 31 for incineration and car-



bon adsorption,  respectively.  Note the increase in  control cost



with the increasing degree of heat recovery in incineration.
                             171

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              Table 30.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                      ADHESIVE SPRAYING OPERATION9
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat
recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

82,000
80,000

110,000
85,000

125,000
90,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

18,000
18,000

21,000
22,000

29,000b
25,000b
Cost
effectiveness,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

205
205

235
245

330b
290b
 Process rate of 0.5 m3/s (1,000 scfm),  temperature of 21.1°C (70°F),
 operation at 25 percent LEL.

 Assumes heat is recovered and used.

           Table 31.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                      ADHESIVE SPRAYING OPERATION3
Adsorption device
Case with no credit for
recovered solvent
Case with recovered solvent
credited at fuel value
Case with solvent credited
at market value
Capital
cost,
$
70,000
70,000
70,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr
25,000
19,000
11,000
Cost
effectiveness,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed
285
220
95
a                     q
 Process rate of 0.5 mi/s (1,000 scfm), temperature of 21.1°C  (70°F).
 operation at 25 percent LEL.
                               172

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This is due to both the small unit size and the low operating

hours.  Considerable fuel is consumed in the frequent startups

and shutdowns, especially when a heat recovery unit is present,

In addition, the incremental investment for heat recovery de-

vices cannot be recovered because of the short time of their

usage.

12.16  MOLDING

12.16.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber Footwear
     Fabricated Rubber Goods
     Gaskets, Packing, and Sealing Devices

12.16.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                              Control system         Percent
     Affected facility   	or strategy	    reduction

       Molding area      Collection/incineration       60

12.16.3 General Description

     Hydrocarbon emissions exist here due to the temperatures

generated in the process.  An operation similar to curing,

molding sometimes takes the place of curing altogether.

Rappaport1s23 equation predicts emissions from this operation

due to temperatures involved and subsequent volatilization of

organics.

     The control depends heavily on collection efficiency.  In

a representative plant, the entire molding area exhaust is

collected and vented to the atmosphere.  It is estimated that

the maximum collection efficiency possible for this operation

is 70 percent.  Control of the vapors by incineration is feas-

ible with a reduction of 90 percent possible.  Overall reduc-

tion potential is thus approximately 60 percent.


                             173

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     It must be noted that no control of this emission  point

has been observed or reported.  A further point must be made

here.  Because most plants have chosen to increase ventilation

in molding areas to meet work environment health requirements,

the resultant air flow containing the hydrocarbons is substan-

tially larger and thus the concentration more dilute.   This

fact makes the control of the emission not only more techni-

cally difficult but considerably more expensive.  In protecting

the health of the worker, the reduction of the emission,

itself, is made more difficult.

12.16.4  Cost of Control

     The cost of control for this source is similar to  that

for press curing discussed in Section 12.10.4.

12.17  BATCH CURING

12.17.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber Footwear
     Rubber Hose and Belting
     Fabricated Rubber Products

12.17.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                            Control system     Percent
       Affected facility      or strategy     reduction

         Batch curing        Incineration        60

12.17.3  General Description

     In batch curing, the operation is closed and pressurized.

The quantity of hydrocarbons produced is less than in press

curing because the steam used in batch curing condenses as the

curing vessel is depressurized, thus also condensing a  portion

of the hydrocarbons.
                             174

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      In  this batch  process,  the vessel is vented to the

 atmosphere.  Thus,  the  problem of collection is reduced some-

 what  on  a  capital cost  basis.   However,  the collection effici-

 ency  is  estimated at  70 percent,  again because emissions are

 still evolving  from the product upon removal.   Incineration

 is  again a technically  feasible control alternative with an

 efficiency of  90 percent.   Overall reduction is again estimated

 at  60 percent.  Again,  this  is proposed control.   No control

 of  batch curing operations  was observed or reported.   This

 control  concept is  thus technology forcing.   Quantification of

 the emission point  is necessary before the feasibility of this

 concept  can be  verified.  This quantification will have to  be

 done  on  a  site-by-site  basis as the great variation in curing

 temperatures will affect the quantity of hydrocarbons emitted.

 12.17.4  Cost of Control

      The cost of control for this  source  was estimated  based

 on gas flow rate of 0.5 m3/s (1,000  scfm), gas  temperature  of

 21°C  (70°F), and organics concentration of 150  ppm based  on

 CHif.  These parameters are typical  for an average  size  footwear

 plant producing 6,500 metric tons of  product/yr.  The results

 of the cost estimates for incineration are presented  in Table

 32.

 12.18  FABRIC CEMENTING

12.18.1   Industries  to Which Control  is Applicable

     Tires  and  Inner Tubes
     Rubber Hose and Belting
                             175

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                                     Table  32.   INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL

                                              BATCH  CURING OPERATION9
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

80,000
50,000

110,000
60,000

120,000
70,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

50,000
40,000

40,000
25,000

35,000b
20,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

80,000
64,000

64,000
40,000

56,000b
32,000b
Fuel
requirement,
m3/yr
fuel oil

280
170

180
110

100b
60b
-J
en
          Based on gas flow rate of  0.5 m3/s  (1,000  scfm) ,  gas  temperature of 21°C (70°F) ,  organics

          concentration of 150 ppm based  on
          Assumes heat is recovered  and utilized.

-------
12.18.2  Summary of Available Control Technology
                            Control system        Percent
     Affected facility       or strategy	     reduction
      Fabric cementer         Incinerator           90
                           Carbon adsorption        85
12.18.3  General Description
     In fabric cementing, a rubber coating is imparted to a
textile substrate with a knife of roller spreader.  After the
cement is applied, the fabric is oven-dried to drive off the
carrier solvent.  The oven itself is vented to the atmosphere.
Thus when considering control, collection of the solvent vapors
can be assumed to be quite high.
     Control of this emission point is known to exist in the
industry.  One representative plant, in producing small-
diametered braided hose, uses thermal incineration to reduce
by 95 percent hydrocarbon vapors resulting from hose-cementing
operations.  The incinerator operates at 760°C (1400°F) and
has heat recovery to the oven itself.  In another representa-
tive plant, solvent vapors from a cord cementer drying oven
are vented to a catalytic incinerator.  The incinerator
operates at about 260°C  (500°F) and is approximately 90 percent
efficient.  An inlet concentration of approximately 3,650 ppm
as CH^ is reduced to approximately 385 ppm as CH4.  This system
is state-of-the-art technology.  The emission point is 90 per-
cent controllable by incineration.
     In addition, carbon adsorption has been reported  to be
installed on various fabric cementers in the rubber industry.
Reduction was reported to be  85 percent, with losses mainly
attributable to solvent handling and less than 100 percent
                              177

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collection efficiency.  This control option  is  state-of-the-

art technology with a reduction of 85 percent achievable.42

12.18.4  Cost of Control

     The cost calculations for control of this  source  were

based on a gas flow rate of 1.5 m3/s (3,000  scfm),  temperature

of 21°C (70°F), and solvent concentration of 1,000  ppm based

on C6.  These process parameters are typical for  average size

plants in the tire and inner tube industry and  in the  hose and

belting industry.  The results of cost estimates  for incinera-

tion and carbon adsorption are given in Tables  33 and  34,

respectively.

12.19  LATEX DIPPING AND DRYING

12.19.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber Footwear
     Fabricated Rubber Goods

12.19.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                            Control system        Percent
     Affected facility       or strategy	      reduction
    Dip tank and dryer     Water-based latex
                             substitution           90
                           Carbon adsorption        85
                           Incineration             85

12.19.3  General Description

     In rubber product production, the stock is dipped before

curing and oven or air drying takes place.   In  a  representative

plant, these dipping operations are collected and exhausted to

the plant exterior.  As with adhesive spray booths, the collec-

tion efficiency of the exhaust enclosure can be increased by

increasing the residence time of the dipped  stock in the
                            178

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                                    Table 33.  INCINERATION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                                            FABRIC CEMENTING OPERATION3

Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

95,000
95,000

115,000
110,000

135,000
125,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

65,000
60,000

50,000
45,000

so,ooob
45,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

720
670

560
500

560b
500b
Fuel
requirement ,
m3/yr
fuel oil

860
510

560
330

300b
180b
V£>
          Based on gas  flow rate  of  1.5 m3/s  (3,000  scfm) ,  temperature of  21°C  (70°F) , and organics
          concentration of 1,000  ppm based  on
          Assumes heat  is recovered  and utilized.

-------
           Table 34.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                     FABRIC CEMENTING OPERATION3
      Adsorption device
Capital
 cost,
   $
Annualized
 operating
   cost,
   $/yr
    Cost
effectiveness,
   $/ton of
 hydrocarbons
   removed
 Case with no credit for
   recovered solvent

 Case with recovered solvent
   credited at fuel value

 Case with solvent credited
   at market value
150,000
150,000
150,000
  33,000
  32,000
  25,000
    370
    360
    280
  Based on gas flow rate of 1.5 m3/s (3,000 scfm),  temperature of 21°c
  (70°F), and organics concentration of 1,000 ppm based on CH^.

enclosure.   Incineration  or carbon adsorption assuming a 95

percent  collection  and  90 percent removal efficiency will con-

trol  this  emission  point  by 85 percent.

      In  some footwear dipping operations,  the base  has been

able  to  be changed  from solvent to water (residual  solvent,

<10%).   It is unknown how many of such  latex solutions have

this  potential but  in the cases where such  substitution can

be made,  the emissions  will be reduced  90 percent.   The con-

trol  by  incineration and  adsorption of  latex dipping  is not

known to  exist in the footwear and fabricated goods industry at

this  time  and control will thus be technology forcing.

12.19.4   Cost of Control

      The  control cost for this source was calculated  based on a

gas flow  rate of 0.5 m3/s (1,000 scfm),  gas temperature of 21°C
                               180

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(70°F)  and organics concentration of 40 ppm based on CHI+.  The

results of cost estimates are summarized in Tables 35 and 36

for incineration and carbon adsorption, respectively.

12.20  CONTINUOUS CURING (ROTOCURE)

12.20.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber Hose and Belting
     Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating

12.20.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                              Control system      Percent
      Affected facility        or strategy       reduction
    Continuous (rotocure)      Incineration         60
      curing

12.20.3  General Description

     Continuous curing or rotocuring is used in large belt

vulcanization.  The emissions are hooded and vented to the

atmosphere.  The collection/incineration alternative is again

technically feasible with an overall reduction of 60 percent.

However, source testing verification is again warranted so

that a concentration can be determined to verify or disprove

the feasibility of this control alternative.

12.20.4  Cost of Control

     A typical rotocure operation has an exhaust gas with a

flow rate of 7.5 m3/s  (15,000 scfm), a temperature of 65°C

(150°F), and an organics concentration of 10 ppm based on CH4.

The cost to control this source by incineration is similar to

that for Banbury mixer as discussed in Section 12.7.4.
                             181

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                                  Table 35.   INCINERATION COSTS  FOR A  TYPICAL  LATEX
                                            DIPPING AND DRYING OPERATION9
Incineration device
No heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Primary and secondary heat recovery
Thermal
Catalytic
Capital
cost,
$

80,000
50,000

110,000
60,000

120,000
70,000
Annualized
operating
cost,
$/yr

50,000
40,000

40,000
25,000

35,000b
20,000b
Cost
effectiveness ,
$/ton of
hydrocarbons
removed

220,000
170,000

170,000
110,000

150,000b
87,000b
Fuel
requirement,
m /yr
fuel oil

290
170

190
110

100b
00
         3Based on gas flow rate of  0.5 m3/s  (1,000  scfm) ,  temperature  of 21°C (70°F) ,  organic
          concentration of 40 ppm based on
          Assumes heat is recovered and utilized.

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          Table 36.  CARBON ADSORPTION COSTS FOR A TYPICAL
                 LATEX DIPPING AND DRYING OPERATION9
     Adsorption device
                              Capital
                              cost,
                                $
Annualized
 operating
   cost,
   $/yr
    Cost
effectiveness,
   $/ton of
 hydrocarbons
   removed
 Case with no credit for
  recovered solvent

 Case with recovered solvent
  credited at fuel value

 Case with solvent credited
  at market value
                              65,000
                              65,000
                              65,000
  25,000
  24,000
  23,000
   110,000
   105,000
   100,000
 9                         q
 Based on flow rate of 0.5 mVs  (1,000  scfm) .  temperature of 21°C  (70°F) ,
 organics concentration of 40 ppm based on CH^.

12.21  RECLAIMATOR PROCESSES

12.21.1   Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Rubber  Reclaiming

12.21.2   Summary of Available Control Technology
      Affected facility
         Reclaimator
                              Control  system
                               or strategy
           Percent
          reduction
                                Adsorption           90

12.21.3   General Description

     As mentioned previously, there are several devulcanization

processes.   All involve  emissions of  oily mists, solvent vapors,

and hydrocarbon vapors from the reclaimed stock itself.   The

emissions are vented  to  the atmosphere by a stack  and are con-

sidered essentially 100  percent collectable.

     Absorption or water scrubbing is considered state-of-

the-art technology.   This control was observed at  an  assumed
                              183

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representative plant.   information  collected indicated that

control  is  90 percent  efficient.  This control  results in a

water pollution problem,  however, and  the observed control has

associated  wastewater  treatment equipment installed.   Oil is

recovered  in this operation and reused in the reclaiming

operation.

     In  some plants, batch pan devulcanization  vessels are

used, mainly for reclaiming inner tubes.   Each  vessel is

depressurized over a period of several hours, and  any emission

is assumed  to condense in the vessel itself.

12.21.4  Cost of Control

     The capital cost  and annualized operating  cost for a con-

senser-scrubber system are given in Table 37.   These  costs are

based on a  gas flow rate  of 0.8 m3/s  (1,500 scfm)  and gas

temperature of 93.3°C  (200°F).  Information is  not sufficient

to calculate the control  cost based on $/ton of hydrocarbons

removed.

             Table 37.  COSTS OF A CONDENSER-SCRUBBER SYSTEM
                  FOR A TYPICAL RECLAIMATOR PROCESS3
                	Costs	$/Year

                Capital cost                   $175,000

                Annualized operating cost
                 Fuels/electricity              16,900
                 Labor                        10,900
                 Replacement parts               2,400
                 Depreciation                  14,000
                 Interest on capital            14,000
                 Taxes and insurance             3,500
                 Building overhead               3,500
                 Byproduct recovery (credit)      -8,400

                TOTAL                        $ 56,800
                aGas flow rate of  0.8 m3/s (1,500 scfm)
                 and temperature of 93.3°C (200°F).
                               184

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12.22  PAINT AND TRIM ACTIVITIES

12.22.1  Industries to Which Control is Applicable

     Tire Retreading

12.22.2  Summary of Available Control Technology

                                 Control system       Percent
	Affected facility	       or strategy        reduction

Painting of retreaded tires    Water-based sprays       90
                                 or paints

12.22.3  General Description

     In this operation, the retreaded tire is painted to give

it a more aesthetically pleasing appearance.  For representa-

tive plants, use of both a solvent-based spray, and a water-

based detergent wash, applied manually, is known to exist.

The washing method is considered state-of-the-art control as

some argument exists against the need for a painting step al-

together.  Using a water-based detergent wash  (<10% residual

solvent), this emission point is 90 percent controllable.  The

painting step can be effectively eliminated.

12.22.4  Cost of Control

     The switch from solvent-based paint to detergent wash

does not require capital investment, nor any significant change

in operating cost.
                              185

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                   13.  NSPS PRIORITIZATION






13.1  INTRODUCTION



     Section 3 of the Clean Air Act charges the Administrator




of the Environmental Protection Agency with the responsibility




of establishing Federal standards of performance  for  new  sta-




tionary sources which may significantly contribute  to air




pollution.  These new source performance standards  (NSPS) will




reflect the degree of emission limitation achievable  through




application of the best demonstrated control technologies, con-




sidering cost.  Due to limited manpower and funding,  it is




not feasible to set standards for all sources  simultaneously.




Therefore, an overall strategy is needed to delineate the pri-




orities by which such standards should be set.  This  strategy




focuses attention on those sources for which implementation




of NSPS would have the greatest impact on reducing  the quan-




tity of atmospheric emissions.  Estimates of the  projected dif-




ferential in emissions with and without anticipated NSPS  are




to serve as the basis for determining these standard-setting




priorities.




     The purpose of this section is to present the  results of




a study to develop such estimates of emission  reduction  for
                             186

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the nine rubber processing industries.  These emission reduc-



tion calculations have been performed using a generalized pri-



ority rating system developed by EPA and known as Model IV.



13.2 MODEL IV




     Model IV was developed by EPA to be used by the Emission



Standards and Engineering Division of the Office of Air Quality



Planning and Standards for assessing numerous industries for



the purpose of establishing priorities for setting NSPS.  The



model mathematically expresses the differential in atmospheric



emissions that can be expected at some future time with and



without implementation of NSPS.



     The potential for emission reduction, T ,  for a specified
period is expressed as:
                         Tr = Ts - Tn
     where T  = Total emissions in the last year of the period
            s


under baseline year control regulations.




     T  = Total emissions in the last year of the period if
      n


the NSPS is implemented in the baseline year and continued to




be effective through the time period.




     The following terms are used in the development of




formulas for calculating the values of T  and T :
                                        o      a



      A = baseline year production capacity (production

                   »


          units/yr)




      B = production capacity from construction and modifica-




          tion to replace obsolete facilities during the time



          period (production units)
                            187

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      C = production capacity  from  construction and modifica-



          tion to increase output above  baseline year capacity



          during the time period  (production units)



     P,  = construction and modification  rate to replace
      b


          obsolete capacity  (decimal  fraction/yr)



     P  = construction and modification  rate to increase
      c


          industry capacity  (decimal  fraction/yr)



     E  = allowable emission factor under  existing regulations
      s


          (mass/unit capacity)



     E  = emission factor with no control  (mass/unit capacity)



     E  = allowable emission factor under  NSPS  (mass/unit



          capacity)



      k = normal fractional utilization  rate of existing



          capacity, assumed constant  during  time interval



     T  = total emissions in the last year of the  period



          assuming no control



     T  = total emissions in baseline year under baseline
      el


          year regulations



     The new source performance standard is  applicable  to con-



trol of emissions from the portion  of the  plant capacities



resulting from construction and modification to replace obso-



lete capacities (i.e., B) and to increase  output above  base-



line capacity (i.e., C).  Other plant capacities (i.e., A - B)



will be regulated by existing regulations.   This relationship
                            188

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is schematically shown in Figure 13-1.57  With the above



revelation,  it can be calculated using the following formula:



                  T  = E k(A - B) + E k(B + C)
                   s    s            s



                     = E k(A + C)                           (2)
                        S



     Similarly, T  can be obtained by:




                 T  = E k(A - B) + E k(B + C)               (3)
                  n    s            n



     Therefore, the potential for emission reduction can be



determined as follows:



                         T  = T  - T
                          r    s    n



                            = k(B + C) (E  - E )             (4)
                                        s    n



     In addition, the following values can be calculated:



                           T  = E kA                        (5)
                            as



                 TU = Euk(A - B) + EUMB + c)



                    = E k(A + C)                            (6)




     Supposing i is the number of years in the period, values



of B and C are determined as follows:



     (a)  If simple growth rate is assumed,



                           B = AiPb                         (7)




                           C = A                            (8)
57Hopper,  T.  G.,  and W. A. Marrone.  Impact of New Source

  Performance Standards on 1985 National Emissions from Sta-

  tionary  Sources,  Vol. I., U.S. Environmental Protection

  Agency.   Research Triangle Park, N.C.  EPA Contract

  68-02-1382, Task  3.   October 24, 1975.  170 p.




                             189

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o

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     (b)  If compound growth rate is assumed,



                     B = A[(l + Pb)1 - 1]




                     C = A[(l + Pc)1 - 1]                  (10)




     In this study, 1975 was selected as the baseline year be-



cause of the availability of production data for that year and



the abnormal operation of the rubber industry in 1976 due to a



prolonged worker strike; 1985 was selected as the last year of



the time period so that results of this study can be compared



directly with those of other studies57 for other industries.



     For the purposes of this study. A, P, , P , k, E , E , and
                                         DC      S   U.


E  are defined as input variables.  T , T , T , T , B, and C
 n                                   a   u   s   n


are referred to as intermediate variables.



13.3 INPUT VARIABLES



     Values of the input variables for each of the nine rubber



processing industries are summarized in Table 38.  The deriva-



tion of these values is described in detail in the following



subsections.  For the purposes of this study, the input vari-



ables are separated into two groups:  k, A, P, , and P  are



defined as industrial factors, whereas E , E , and E  are
                                        us       n


regarded as emission factors.



13.3.1   Industrial Factors



13.3.1.1   Fractional Utilization,  k - This variable represents



the fraction of total existing capacity which is brought into
                            191

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Table 38.   INPUT VARIABLES FOR MODEL  IV PRIORITIZATION OP  RUBBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
SIC
code
2822
3011
3021
3031
3041
3069
3293
3357
7534
Source name
Synthetic rubber
Tires and inner
tubes
Rubber footwear
Reclaimed rubber
Rubber hose and
belting
Fabricated rubber
products, N.E.C.
Gaskets, packing, and
sealing devices
Nonferrous wiredrawing
and insulating
Tire retreading and
repair shops
k
0.89
0.89
0.70
0.75
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.85
A, units/yr
2.18 x 109
kg rubber produced
2.9 x 109
kg rubber
3.0 x 108
kg rubber
1.10 x 108
kg rubber produced
4.49 x 108
kg product
1.12 x 109
kg product
1.8 x 108
kg product
5.73 x 107
kg rubber consumed
5.59 x 108
kg rubber
Pc
+0.032
simple
+0.040
simple
-0.006
simple
-0.046
simple
+0.038
simple
+0.048
simple
+0.054
simple
+0.000
simple
+0.002
simple
Pb
0.045
simple
0.045
simple
0.000
simple
0.000
simple
0.045
simple
0.045
simple
0.045
simple
0.000
simple
0.000
simple
Emission factor
units
g/kg rubber produced
g/kg rubber produced
g/kg rubber produced
g/kg rubber produced
g/kg product
g/kg product
g/kg product
g/kg rubber consumed
g/kg rubber retreaded
E
u
4.1
30.23
95.49
30
18.83
4.31
4.02
0.64
6.04
E
s
1.01
7.75
61. 29
4.5
8.28
4.31
3.82
0. 64
6. 04
E
n
0.77
6.06
60. 92
3.0
7.36
2.75
0.50
0.25
0. 64

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service to produce a given output.   It  is applied to the

capacity-based values of A, B, and C to determine the  impact

on emissions resulting from actual production.

     The k factor for the rubber industry as a whole was de-

termined from the average utilization factor reported  in the

Survey of Current Business for the period 1965 - 1973.58  This

average value is 0.89 and was used for  all rubber processing

industries except for Rubber Footwear,  Reclaimed Rubber, and

Tire Retreading.  The value for Rubber  Footwear was obtained

from contact with a representative at the Rubber Manufacturers

Association.  The value for Reclaimed Rubber was derived from

data contained in an EPA report11 and information received

from a representative of the Rubber  Reclaiming Association.

The value for Tire Retreading was obtained from Reference 11.

13.3.1.2  Production Capacity, A - This variable is defined as

industrial production capacity in the baseline year, 1975.

It is used to derive the values of new  (C) or replaced capacity

(B) in 1985  (Equations 7 to 10) and  to define existing capacity

in 1985 which is not subject to NSPS (A - B).

     In this study, due to the unavailability of capacity

figures, the capacity of each industry was derived from pro-

duction data by using the fractional utilization factor, k.

The 1975 production data for Synthetic Rubber, Tires and Inner
58Survey of Current Business.  U.S. Department of Commerce,
  Bureau of Economic Analysis, Washington, B.C.  5_6(7) , 1976.
                            193

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Tubes, and Reclaimed Rubber were obtained from Reference 58.

For tire production and tire retreading, the production was

multiplied by 10.9 kg of rubber stock per tire to get a produc-

tion figure in kilograms of rubber stock/year.  Values for

Rubber Footwear, Rubber Hose and Belting, and Fabricated

Rubber Products were extrapolated from graphs contained in

Reference 11.  Values for the Gaskets, Packing, and Sealing

Devices industry and the Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating

industry were extrapolated from data reported in the 1972

Census of Manufacturers.59  The tire production value for the

Tire Retreading industry was obtained from personal contact

with a representative of the Tire Retreading Institute.

     Units for capacity were selected to be consistent with

those used by the specific industry and to be compatible with

emission factors.  The amount of product output was used to

quantify the capacity in all but one industry.  This industry

is Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating in which products  in-

clude metal wires that do not contribute to emissions.  There-

fore, the amount of rubber consumed was used  for capacity in

this case.

13.3.1.3  Fractional Increase Rate in Industrial Capacity,  P  -

This variable is defined as the average anticipated growth

rate per year in industrial capacity during the period  1975 to
 591972 Census of Manufacturers,  Industry Series.   U.S.  Depart-
  ment of Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census.   Washington,  D.C.
  1974.


                              194

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1985.   It is applied to production capacity  (A) to determine
C.  It is this value of C to which NSPS can be applied.
     P  values for Rubber Footwear, Rubber Hose and Belting,
      \*r
Fabricated Rubber Products, and Tire Retreading were obtained
from analysis of graphs contained in Reference 11 for the
period 1965 - 1975.  For Reclaimed Rubber, the value was de-
rived from data contained in References 11 and 58 and industry
opinion.  For the Gaskets, Packing, and Sealing Devices indus-
try, it was calculated from the increase in value of total
product shipments from 1967 to 1972, corrected by the change
in price of synthetic rubber for the same period.59  The value
for synthetic rubber was an extrapolation of 1955 - 1974 produc-
tion data.58  The value for tires and inner tubes was estimated
based on a combination of information from References 57, 60,
and 61.  A value of 0.0 was assumed for growth of the Nonferrous
Wiredrawing and Insulating industry because of the increasing
use of plastics, rather than rubber, in this industry.
     In all cases, simple growth rate was assumed because
linear curve fitting of the historical production data gave a
correlation coefficient closer to 1, as compared with that of
exponential curve fitting.  This indicates that the simple
rate rather than the compound rate, can better describe the
growth of the rubber processing industries.
600utlook 1976.  Rubber World.  173(4):23.  January 1976.
6Rubber Consumption to Increase.  Rubber World.  172 (2) ;83
  May 1975.
                              195

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     It should be noted that all figures used to estimate P



were production, not capacity data.  This is because  the corres-



ponding capacity figures were not available.  The use of



production data for this purpose gives the next best  estimate.



     Since the historical growth pattern was simple in nature,



the value of P  was calculated by the following equation:
              c


        Production in year "x" - Production in year "y"

    c ~          (x - y) •  Production in 1975            ( 1J



In the calculation, as shown above, it was necessary  to



relate the growth to the baseline year, 1975.



13.3.1.4  Fractional Replacement Rate of Obsolete Production



Capacity, P,  -  This variable is defined as the average rate



per year at which obsolete production capacity is replaced



during the period 1975 to 1985.  It is expressed as a fraction



and is applied to A to determine B.  It is this value of B to



which NSPS can be applied.  Also, the quantity  (A - B) defines



the existing production capacity in 1985 to which only state



regulations are applicable.



     In this study, the P,  values were obtained by using equip-



ment lifetime based on depreciation guidelines published by



the Internal Revenue Service.62  The allowance permitted by



the IRS is an economic factor used for tax collection purposes



and generally depreciates equipment and facilities over a



shorter term than their actual useful life.  As suggested by



Reference 57, typical equipment and facilities within each
6ttAsset Depreciation Guidelines.  Internal Revenue  Service,

  Washington, D.C.  Publication No. 534.  1976.



                              196

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industry were assumed to have a useful life equal to twice



that allowed by the IRS.  Therefore, the following formula was



used to calculate P, ;
                   b



               Pb = 	1	            (12)

                    2 •  (Asset Guideline Period)



     As can be seen from Table 38, Rubber Footwear, Reclaimed



Rubber, Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating, and Tire Retread-



ing all have a P,  value of zero.  This results from the assump-
             i   "

tion that industries with zero, negative, or very small growth



rates will not replace obsolete capacities with new capacities.



This is likely especially when the present utilization factor



is small  (see Table 38 for k values of the industries having



a P,  value of zero) .
   b


13.3.2  Emission Factors



13.3.2.1  Uncontrolled Emission Factor, E  - This variable



represents the emission  factor for volatile hydrocarbons under



a condition of no control.  It is used to calculate TU/ the



uncontrolled total emissions from an industry in 1985, the



value to which T  and T  may be compared to determine the
                s      n


nationwide impact on emissions of regulations in general.  EU



is also employed to develop E  , the NSPS controlled emission



factor, and E , the emission factor representing control to
             S


the extent required by state regulations.



     E  for each industry was developed by using information



obtained from plant visits and literature sources, and by



engineering estimates.   Details of the derivations have been
                             197

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described in Sections 3 to 11 and will  not be repeated here.



Values of EU for each industry are given  in Table 38.



13.3.2.2  NSPS Controlled Emission Factor,  E   -  This variable



represents the emission factor under the  condition  of  best



control applied to new sources.  It is  used to determine  TR/ the



emissions of volatile hydrocarbons that would  exist in 1985 if



NSPS were applied in 1975.  When T  is  subtracted from T  , the
                                  n                     s


quantitative value of emission reduction,  T ,  is determined.



     The factors considered in the determination of E   included



the best control technology that can be applied  to  new sources,



for each emission source in a representative plant, and the



control efficiency that can be obtained.   The  control  efficiency



was then applied to the uncontrolled emissions from each  emission



source to arrive at the NSPS emissions.   The  summation of the



NSPS emissions for each emission source then gave the  E  for the
                                                        n


industry, expressed in the same unit as that of  E .



     The best control technology and control efficiency were



determined from the literature, government  reports, and plant



visits.  The discussion of these two factors  for each  SIC is



presented in Section 12 of this report.   Tables  39  through



47 give the En and the factors for its  derivation for  the nine



rubber processing industries.  Also shown in these  tables are



factors for the derivation of E , the regulated  emission  factor
                               o


which is described in Section 13.3.2.3.
                             198

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                                                                Table 39.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OP E  AND E  - SYNTHETIC RUBBER
vo
Emission
source
Styrene storage
(breathing)
Solvent storage
(fugitive)
Reactor section
(fugitive)
Recovery area
(fugitive)
Butadiene recovery
Coagulation, dewatering
drying
Styrene storage
(breathing)
Hexane storage
(breathing)
Storage (fugitive)
Purification area
(fugitive)
Reactor area
(fugitive)
Desolventization
(surge vent)
Desolventization
(fugitive)
Dewatering, drying
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
Emu
0.02
0.07
0. 4
0.1
0.6
0.6
Sol
0.02
0.5
0.07
0.2
0.61
2.7
0.2
20.2
Factors for derivation of E

technique
Ision polymerizatic
Floating roof
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Incineration
Incineration
ution polymerizatic
Floating roof
Floating roof
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Improved steam
stripping
Housekeeping
Incineration
Control
efficiency
n (90 percen
80%
50-80%
50-80%
50-80%
90%
90%
n (10 percen
80%
80%
50-80%
50-80%
50-80%
50%
50-80%
90%
NSPS
emissions ,
g/kg
t of total
0.004
0.035
0.2
0.05
0.06
0.06
t of total
0.004
0.1
0.035
0.1
0.30
1.4
0.1
2.0
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrol led
emission rate,
Ib/day
production capa
4
14
78
20
118
118
production capa
4
98
14
39
119
530
39
3,945
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
city)
40
40
40
40
18a
18a
city)
40
40
40
40
40
260b
40
5923
Emission
reduction
reguired
0
0
49%
0
85%a
85%a
0
59%
0
0
66%
50%b
0
85%a
Regulated
emissions ,
g/kg
0.02
0.07
0.2
0.1
0.09
0.09
0.02
0.2
0.04
0.2
0.12
1.4
0.2
3.03
                     COMPOSITE  TOTAL:
                                            E  = 4.1*
                                                                                        E, = 0.77
                     aThe  regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.
                      50 percent  control represents maximum reduction feasible.
                      E   =  0.9  (1.79)  +  0.1 (24.5)
                      U  =  1.61  +  2.45
                         =  4.1
                                                                                                                                               E  =1.01

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                                 Table  40.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - TIRES AND INNER TUBES
                                                                      n      s

Factors for derivation of E
n
Uncontrolled
emissions, Best control
Emission source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering

Fabric cementing

Tire building
Extrusion
NJ Undertread cementing
0
0
Treadend cementing

Green tire spraying
Curing

Solvent storage
TOTAL : E
g/kg
0.1
0
0

5

.3
0
1


0

19
0

0
= 30
.05
.04a
b


.6
.oid
.25e


.25f

.7
.22

.01
.23
Factors for derivation of E0
Average
NSPS uncontrolled
Control emissions, emission rate,
technique efficiency 9~/kg
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration

Ventilation and
incineration
Scheduling change
Process change
Carbon adsorption
or incineration

Carbon adsorption
or incineration
Water base spraying
Ventilation and
incineration
—

90% 0.01
60% 0.02
55% 0.02

60% 2

50% 1.8
80% 0.01
90% 0.12


90% 0.025

90% 1.97
60% 0.09

0.01
E = 6.06
n
Ib/day
10
5
4

500

370
1
125


25

1,970
22

1


Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
c
200

40
15
40


40

2959
15

40



Emission Regulated
reduction emissions,
required 9/kg
0
0
0
C
60%

50%b
0
68%


0

85%9
32%C

0

0.1
0.05
0.04

2

1.8
0.01
0.4


0.25

2.95
0.15

0.01
Es = 7.75
Calendering is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 80 percent of the final product weight.


 Fabric cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 50 percent of the final product weight.

°60 percent control represents maximum reduction feasible.

 Extrusion is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 20 percent of the final product weight.

£Undertread cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 50 percent of the final product weight.


 Treadend cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 10 percent of the final product weight.

gThe regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.

-------
                                                     Table 41.   FACTORS  FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - RUBBER FOOTWEAR
                                                                                           n      s
Emission
source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Rubber Cementing
Latex dipping and drying
Molding
Curing
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
95
o.ic
o.iid
O.OS6
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
36%a
90%
60%
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.02
60.8
0.01
0.04
0.03
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
6
3
3
5,240
6
6
4.4
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15 '
15
15
3,350b
15
15
15
Emission
reduction
reg_uired
0
0
0
36%b
0
0
0
Regulated
emissions ,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
60.8
0.1
0.11
0.08
TOTAL: E = 95.49 E = 60.92 E = 61.29
40 percent of rubber cementing that is performed in a spray booth can be controlled by 90 percent. The other 60 percent of cementing
is done in open space and is not controllable.
N)
O
           These represent the maximum reduction feasible.
          °Latex dipping is assumed to be utilized in 20 percent of the final product weight.
           Molding is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent  of the final product weight.
          6Curing is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.

-------
                                                    Table 42.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND  E   -  RECLAIMED RUBBER
                                                                                          n      s
Emission
source
Depolymerization
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
30
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Condenser and
scrubber
Control
efficiency
90%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
3.0
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
1790
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
270a
Emission
reduction
required
85%a
Regulated
emissions ,
g/kg
4.5
O

NJ
        TOTAL:


        a
E  = 30
 u
E  = 3.0
 n
         "The  regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.
E  =  4.5
 s

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                                          Table 43.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - HOSE AND BELTING
                                                                                n      s
Emission
source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion-Hose
Fabric cementing
Rubber cementing
Curing
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.02a
12. 5b
6.0
0.16
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
Incineration
-
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
80%
90%
-
60%
NSPS
emissions,
gAg
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.004
1.25
6.0
0.06
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
3
1.5
1.5
0.6
390
186
5
Permissible
emis s ion rate ,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
58C
40
0
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
85%°
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.02
1.9
6.0
0.16
O
co
         TOTAL:
         a
                               18.83
E  = 7.36
 n
          Extrusion of hose is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.
          Fabric cementing is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.
         "The regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.

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                          Table 44.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS
                                                                n      s
Emission
source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion
Bonding of parts
Latex dipping
Adhesive spraying
Curing
Molding
Uncontrolled
emissions,
gAg
0.1
0.05
0.025a
0.0153
2.0
0.13b
1.8
0.08a
o.iia
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
-
Process change
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
80%
-
90%
70%
60%
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.003
2.0
0.01
0.54
0.03
0.04
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
1
0.5
0.2
0.15
17
1
15
0.7
0.9
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
40
15
40
15
15
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
gAg
0.1
0.05
0.025
0.015
2.0
0.13
1.8
0.08
0.11
TOTAL:
E  = 4.31
 u
E  = 2.75
 n
 Assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.


 Assumed to be utilized in 25 percent of the final product weight.
E  = 4.31
 s

-------
                           Table  45.   FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - GASKETS, PACKING, AND SEALING DEVICES
                                                                  n      s
Emission
source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Molding
Adhesive
spraying
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.22
3.6
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
60%
90%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.36
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
1.5
0.5
0.5
2.6
42
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
40
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
6%
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.22
3.4
NJ

O

Ul
         TOTAL:
                              4.02
                                                                   E  = 0.5
                                                                    n
E  =3.82
 s

-------
                      Table  46.   FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E   - NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
                                                             n      s
Emission
source
Extrusion
Curing
Uncontrolled
emissions,
gAg
0.04
0.6
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Process change
Incineration
Control
efficiency
80%
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.008
0.24
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
0.9
14
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
gAg
0.04
0.6
to
o
        TOTAL:
                    =0.64
                                                         E  =0.25
                                                          n
E  = 0.64
 s

-------
                                            Table 47.  FACTORS FOR DERIVATION OF E  AND E  - TIRE RETREADING
                                                                                  n      s
Emission
source
Cement spraying
Curing

Painting and trimming
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
2.75
0.09

3.2
Factors for derivation of E
Best control
technique
Incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Process change
(detergent
wash)
Control
efficiency
90%
60%

90%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.275
0.04

0.32
Factors for derivation of E
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
7.2
0.2

8.3
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
40
15

40
Emission
reduction
required
0
0

0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
2.75
0.09

3.2
to
o
-J
           TOTAL:
                                    = 6.04
E  = 0.635
 n
                                                                                                                                        6.04

-------
13.3.2.3  State Regulated Emission Factor,  E^  -  This variable
is the emission factor which represents  the 1975 level of hydro-
carbon emission control required by state and  local  regulations.
It is used to determine T ,  emissions in 1985  under  baseline year
                         o
regulations.  When T  is substracted from T ,  the quantitative
impact of NSPS on emissions is calculated.
     State and local regulations for hydrocarbon emissions are
generally related to the nature of the emission  source.   There
are separate regulations for operations  with and without  involve-
ment of heating.  In both cases, the regulations are further
separated into two types; the "emission  limitation"  type  and the
"percent control" type.
     For most states in which the majority  of  the rubber  products
industry is located, the "emission limitation" type  regulations
are 15 Ib/day for operations involving heating and/or where heat
is released and 40 Ib/day for operations with  no heating  involved
or generated.  These limitations are not to be exceeded unless
85 percent or greater emission reduction is achieved.  This 85
percent control requirement is a "percent control" type
regulation.
     In the determination of E  for an industry,  a typical plant
                              o
size was first determined by dividing the total  capacity  by the
number of plants.  In some SIC's, a percentage of plants  utili-
zing rubber vs. plastic was estimated so as a  plant  size  for
rubber operations only could be determined.  These estimates are
presented in Table 48.  The uncontrolled emissions from each
                             208

-------
source (listed in the second column of Tables 39 through 47)

were then applied to arrive at the average uncontrolled emis-

sion rate (mass/day).  Depending on whether heating is involved

in the operation, the average emission rate was


              Table 48.  NO. OF PLANTS PER SIC
                 UTILIZED IN E  CALCULATIONS
                              s
SIC
Code
2822
3011
3021
3031
3041
3069
3293
3357
7534
TOTAL
No. of Plantsa
(Predicast)
60
122
46
8
112
711
163
262
1,484
% of Rubber59
as Raw Material
-
-
50
-
70
-
50
5
No. of Plants
Processing Rubber
60
122
23
8
78
711
82
13
_b
 Contractor files.
 D0ne contractor data source has listed 2056 retread shops in
 the United States.  For this study, the capacity of a visited
 plant was assumed representative.
                             209

-------
compared to the appropriate emission limitation.  The  following



procedure was used to determine whether control is needed under



baseline year regulations and, if so, the type of regulation



that is applicable.  It was also used to obtain the percent



emission reduction required to meet the baseline year



regulations.



     Supposing   x = average uncontrolled emission rate



                 y - emission rate when the "percent control"



                     is applied



                 z = maximum allowable emission rate when



                     "emission limitation" is applied,



     then   y = x  »  (100 - 85J/100 - 0.15 x.



     If x
-------
emissions.   The factors for derivation of E  for the nine
                                           s


rubber products industries are summarized in Tables 39



through 47.



13.4  RESULTS OF PRIORITIZATION



     The impact of NSPS on emissions from the nine rubber



products industries was evaluated by means of Model IV through



use of a computer program.  A complete listing of the computer



program is given in Appendix E.  Using the input variables



mentioned in Section 13.3, the intermediate variables B, C, T ,
                                                             a


T , and T  were determined.  The quantitative value of emission
 s       n
                              *

reduction by implementing the NSPS in 1975 was then calculated.



     Table 49 summarizes all the input and output variables of



the computer program for the nine industries.  The industries



are listed in decreasing order of emission impact.  The Tires



and Inner Tube industry has the highest impact, meaning that



it has the highest potential for reduction of hydrocarbon



emissions by implementation of NSPS.  This industry is



followed by the Fabricated Rubber Products industry, Gaskets,



Packing, and Sealing Devices industry, Synthetic Rubber indus-



try, the Rubber Hose and Belting industry, and the Tire



Retreading industry.  Nonferrous Wiredrawing and Insulating,



Reclaimed Rubber, and Rubber Footwear have no impact because



of either zero or negative values of B and C.
                              211

-------
              Table 49.   INPUT AND  OUTPUT VARIABLES FOR MODEL IV PRIORITIZATION OF RUBBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
Emission source
Tires and inner tubes
Fabricated rubber products, N.E.C
Gaskets, packing, and sealing
devices
Synthetic rubber
Rubber hose and belting
Tire retreading and repair shops
Nonferrous wiredrawing and
insulating
Reclaimed rubber
Rubber footwear
k
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.89
0.85
0.89
0.75
0.70
Emission
units
g/kg rubber
g/kg product
g/kg product
g/kg product
g/kg product
g/kg rubber
g/kg rubber
consumed
g/kg product
g/kg rubber
Emission rates
Uncontrolled
E
u
30.23
4.31
4.02
4.1
18.83
6.04
0.64
30.00
95.49
Allowable
E
s
7.75
4.31
3.82
1.01
8.28
6.04
0.64
4.50
61.29
E
n
6.06
2.75
0.50
0.77
7.36
0.64
0.25
3.00
60.92
Growth rates ,
decimal/yr
P
c
0.0405
0.0485
0.0545
0.0325
0.0385
0.0025
0.0005
-0.0465
-0.0065
Pb
0.0455
0.0455
0.0455
0.0455
0.0455
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
to
H
NJ

-------
                      Table 49  (continued) .   INPUT  AND OUTPUT VARIABLES FOR MODEL IV PRIORITIZATION OF RUBBER PRODUCTS  INDUSTRIES
Capacity units
Emission source per year
Tires and inner tubes 106 kg, rubber
Fabricated rubber products, N.E.C 103 metric tons,
rubber
Gaskets, packing, and sealing 10 3 metric tons,
devices rubber
Synthetic rubber 10 3 metric tons,
rubber
Rubber hose and belting 103 metric tons,
rubber
Tire retreading and repair shops 105 kg, rubber
Nonferrous wiredrawing and 103 metric tons,
insulating rubber consumed
Reclaimed rubber 103 metric tons,
rubber
Rubber footwear 106 kg, rubber
Capacity
A
1975
2,286.8
1,120.0
180.0
2,180.6
449.0
559.2
57.3
105.2
300.0
B
1985
1,029.0
504.0
81.0
981.3
202.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
C
1985
914.5
537.6
97.2
697.8
170.6
10.9
0.0
-48.4
-18.0
Emissions,
103 metric tons/yr
T
u
1975
86.444
6.380
0.995
10.543
10.422
2.943
0.033
1.266
i8. 749
T
a
1975
15.773
4.296
0.621
1.960
3.309
2.871
0.033
0.355
12.871
T
s
1985
22.161
6.380
0.945
2.597
4.583
2.943
0.033
0.190
12.034
T
n
1985
19.203
4.918
0.414
2.234
5.274
2.866
0.033
0.244
12.039
T -T
s n
3.000
1.500
0.530
0.360
0.310
0.080
0.000
0.000
0.000
T -T
s n
10 3 tons/yr
3.326
1.663
0.587
0.399
0.344
0.089
0.000
0.000
0.000
NJ
I—'
00

-------
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     Protection Agency.  Washington, D.C.  EPA-440/1-7-030.




     August 1974.  213 p.




30.   Brothers, J. E.  Reclaimed Rubber.  In:  Rubber Technology,




     Second Edition, Morton, M.  (Ed.).  New York, Van Nostrand




     Reinhold Co.,  1973.  p. 496-514.




31.   Ananth,  K. P., T. Weast, D. Bendersky, and L. J.  Shannon.




     Waste Material Trace Pollutant Study.  Midwest Research




     Institute, Kansas City, Mo., under EPA Contract 68-02-1324,




     Task 10. May 1974.  p. 96-106.




32.   Stern,  H. J.  Rubber:  Natural and Synthetic.  London,




     MacLaren & Sons, Ltd., 1954.  491 p.




33.   Hawley,  G. G.   The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, Eighth




     Edition.  New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1971.  971 p,




34.   McPherson, A.  T. , and A. Klemin.  Engineering Uses of




     Rubber.   New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1956.




     pp. 265-269.
                            219

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35.   Pervier, J. W.,  R. C. Barley, D. E. Field, B. M.  Friedman,




     R. B. Morris, and W. A. Schwartz.  Survey Reports on Atmos-




     pheric Emissions from the Petrochemical  Industry,  Volume IV.




     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Research Triangle




     Park, N.C.  EPA-450/3-73-005-d.  April 1974.




36.   Package Sorption Device System Study.  U.S. Environmental




     Protection Agency.  Washington, D.C.  EPA-R2-72-202.




     April 1973.  506 p.




37.   North Atlantic Treaty Organization/Committee on the Chal-




     lenges of Modern Society, Expert Panel for Air Pollution




     Control Technology.  Air Pollution:  Control Techniques for




     Hydrocarbon and Organic Solvent Emissions from Stationary




     Sources, N. 19 Final Report.  October 1973.  15 p.




38.   Lund, H. F.  Operating Costs and Procedures of Industrial




     Air Pollution Control Equipment.  In:  Industrial  Pollution




     Control Handbook.  New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1971.



     p. 26-1 to 26-11.




39.   Exhaust Gas Conversion Factors.  Pittsburgh, Air  Pollution




     Control Assocation, 1972.   (Paper 72-88 presented  at the




     65th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,




     Miami.  June 18-20, 1972.)  16 p.




40.   Chemical Process Industry.  In:  Compilation of Air Pollut-




     ant Emission Factors.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.




     Research Triangle Park, N.C.  GAP Pub-AP-42.  February




     1972.  p. 5-1 to 5-26.
                             220

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41.  Do Your Rubber Plant's Odors Bother Your Neighbors?  Rub-




     ber Age. 87_(5) :844-845.  August 1960.




42.  Hood Rubber Co.  Cleans Up with Vapor Adsorption System.




43.  Fight Against Air and Water Pollution.  Rubber Age.




     104_(7) : 51-52.  July 1972.




44.  Stack Heights.  Rubber Age.  106 (5) :49-51.  May 1974.




45.  OSHA and the Rubber Industry.  Rubber Age.  108(3):23-25.




     March 1976.




46.  OSHA and Environmental Considerations.  Rubber Age.




     108_(3) : 31-34.  March 1976.




47.  Downwind, Akron Stinks!  Rubber World.  161(3):49-53.




     December 1969.




48.  GT Kicks the Smoke Habit.  Rubber World.  161 (4) :53-55.




     January 1970.




49.  Downwind, Akron Stinks!, Vol. 2.  Rubber World.




     161^(4) : 73-75.  January 1970.




50.  Downwind, Akron Stinks!, Vol. 3.  Rubber World.




     161. (5) : 45-50.  February 1970.




51.  Solvent Recovery System Proves a Speedy Payout.  Rubber




     World.  165(5):44.  February 1972.




52.  Environmental Health Control for the Rubber Industry.  Rub-




     ber Chemistry and Technology.  4_4_(2) : 512-533 .  April 1971.




53.  Environmental Health Control for the Rubber Industry, Part




     II.  Rubber Chemistry and Technology. 4_5_(1) : 627-637 .




     March 1972.




54.  Vapor Adsorption System.  Rubber Age.  101(6):63.  June 1969.
                             221

-------
55.  Hydrocarbon Pollutant Systems Study, Vol.  1  -  Stationary




     Sources, Effects, and Control.  U.S. Environmental  Protec-




     tion Agency.  Research Triangle Park, N.C.   (PB  219 073.)




     October 1972.  379 p.




56.  Penn.,  W.  S., PVC Technology, London, England, Applied




     Science Publishers,  Limited, 3rd Edition,  1971,




     pp. 285-287.




57.  Hopper, T.  G.,  and W. A.  Marrone.   Impact of New Source




     Performance Standards on 1985 National Emissions from




     Stationary Sources,  Vol.  I.  U.S.  Environmental Protection




     Agency.  Research Triangle Park, N.C.  EPA Contract




     68-02-1382, Task 3.   October 24, 1975.   170 p.




58.  Survey  of  Current Business.  U.S.  Department of Commerce,




     Bureau  of  Economic Analysis, Washington, B.C.  5j5(7) , 1976.




59.  1972 Census of Manufacturers, Industry Series.  U.S. Depart-




     ment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.  Washington, D.C.




     1974.




60-  Outlook 1976.  Rubber World.  173(4);23.  January 1976.




61.  Rubber  Consumption to Increase.  Rubber World.  172(2); 83.




     May 1975.




62.  Asset Depreciation Guidelines.  Internal Revenue Service,




     Washington, D.C.  Publication No.  534.  1976.




63.  Hamersma,  J. W., S.  L. Reynolds, and R. F. Maddalone.




     IERL-RTP Procedures Manual:  Level 1, Environmental Assess-




     ment.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-   Research




     Triangle Park,  N.C.   EPA-600/2-76-160a.  June  1976.  131 p-
                             222

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                          APPENDIX A




  ASSOCIATIONS CONCERNED WITH THE RUBBER PROCESSING  INDUSTRY






American Footwear Industries Association  (Shoe)




1611 North Kent Street




Arlington, Virginia  22209              Phone:   (703) 522-8070




Founded:  1869   Members:   500   Staff:  22




Manufacturers and suppliers of footwear.  Provided information




on all aspects of industry; economic, statistical, technical,




also machinery, materials,  and methods used in shoemaking




throughout the world.  Has  developed standards for men's and




women's footwear.  Presents the Marketing Man of the Year Award,




annually.  Sponsors:  Conferences on footwear management,




management development and  sales and marketing management; semi-




nars on personnel relations and traffic; National Shoe Fair




maintains a library of 2,000 books on International  Trade,




Legislation, Footwear Marketing and Manufacturing.   Committees:




Management Development; Market Research; Marketing;  National




Affairs, Personnel Relations; Standards; Technical;  Traffic.




Publications:  (1) News Bulletin, biweekly; (2) Labor Bulletin,




weekly; (3)  Market Trends, monthly;  (4) Facts and Figures on




Footwear,  annual; (5) Know Your Association, annual.  Publishes
                             223

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books and pamphlets concerning the  footwear industry.  Formerly;




 (1905) National Boot and Shoe Manufacturers Association, (1965)




National Shoe Manufacturers Association;  (1969)  National Foot-




wear Manufacturers Association;  (1972)  American  Footwear




Manufacturers Association.  Convention/Meeting:   annual




American Footwear Institute  (Shoe)




50 Rockefeller Plaza                      Phone:   (212)  586-5777




New York, New York  10020            Alice  Regensburg,  Director




Founded:  1949   Members:  3,000    Staff:   9




Sponsored by four national associations of  retailers, chain




stores, and manufacturers in the  shoe  industry-   Conducts




public relations and promotion programs.  Formerly:   (1966)




National Shoe Institute,  (1969) National  Footwear Institute




American Retreaders Association  (Tire)  (ARA)




P.O. Box 7203                           Phone:   (502) 361-3535




Louisville, Kentucky  40217             P.  Clark,  President




Founded:  1957   Members:  800    Staff:   4




Tire dealers, retreaders and rubber company manufacturers; sup-




pliers to the retreading/tire industry; to  upgrade the retread-




ing industry through exchange of  ideas  and  technical information,




Publications:  Retreader's Journal,  monthly.   Formerly:  (1964)




Central States Retreaders Association.  Convention/Meeting:




annual—always Apr., Louisville,  Kentucky.




International Institute of Synthetic Rubber Producers




45 Rockefeller Plaza                    Phone:   (212) 265-5253



New York, New York  10020            Ralph Lamberson, Mgn. Dir.



Founded:  1960   Members:  41   Staff:  5





                              224

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Synthetic rubber manufacturers.   Promotes  standardization  of




synthetic rubber polymers;  cooperates  with governmental  depart-




ments and agencies  in matters  affecting  the industry;  compiles



statistics.  Has made research grants  to universities  and  insti-




tutes in Japan, United  States,  France, United  Kingdom, Germany,



and the Netherlands.  European office  is in Brussels,  Belgium;



Far Eastern Office  is in  Tokyo,  Japan.   Latin  American office



is in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.   Presents  Institute Annual Award



for technical  and/or general contributions to  the synthetic



rubber industry.  Committees:   Environmental Control;  Nomencla-



ture and Numbering; Operating;  Packaging and Distribution;



Public Relations; Research  and Development;  Rubber  in  Asphalt;



Statistical; Transportation.   Publications:   (1) Directory of



Members, annual;  (2) Proceedings,  annual;  (3)  Elastomers Manual,



biennial.  Convention/Meeting:   annual—always Spring.   1975



Rio De Janeiro, Brazil; 1976 Williamsburg,  Virginia.



Latex Foam Rubber Council (LFRC)



1901 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.           Phone:   (202)  785-2602



Washington, D. C.   20006                 George A. White, Chm.



Founded:  1959   Members:   5    Staff:  5



Manufacturers  of latex  foam rubber and synthetic latex.




National Tire Dealers and Retreaders Association  (NTDRA)



1343 L Street, N.W.                       Phone:   (202) 638-6650



Washington,  D.C.  20005         Jefferson  Keith, Exec. V.  Pres.




Founded:   1920   Members:    4,500   Staff:   27




State Groups:   23   Local Groups:  80
                             225

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Independent tire dealers and retreaders.   Divisions:   Tire



Retreading Institute.  Publications:   (1)  Dealer News,  weekly;



(2) Hotline, bimonthly;  (3) Truck Tire  Service  Directory,  annual



Affilitated with:  Independent Tread Rubber  Manufacturing  Group.



Formerly:  National Association of Independent  Tire Dealers.



Convention Meeting:  annual--1975 October  4-8,  Boston,




Massachusetts.  1976 September 18-22, Houston,  Texas.   1977




September 17-20, Anaheim, California.   1978  September  16-19,




Detroit, Michigan.



Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA)




1901 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.          Phone:   (202)  785-2602




Washington, D.C.  20006            Malcolm R. Lovell, Jr., Pres.




Founded:  1915   Members:  170   Staff:  40




Manufacturers of tires, tubes, mechanical and industrial prod-




ucts, footwear, sporting goods, and other rubber  products.  Cora-




piles monthly, quarterly, and annual statistics on  consumption,




production, and inventory of rubber and rubber  products.   Com-




mittees:  Environment; Governmental Relations;  Industrial  Rela-




tions; Natural Rubber Public Relations; Statistics; Tax; Traffic.




Divisions:  Coated Materials; Flooring; Footwear; Heel  and Sole;




Industrial Rubber Products; Latex Foam; Molded  and  Extruded




Products; 0-Rings;  Oil Seal; Sundries;  Tires.   Publications:




Rubber Highlights,  monthly, also publishes booklets and a  list




of free films and other teaching aids offered by  the rubber




industry.  Affiliated with:  Rubber Shippers Association;




Natural Rubber Shippers Association; Latex Foam Rubber  Council.




Formerly:  (1909) New England Rubber Club;  (1917) Rubber Club






                             226

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of America; (1929) Rubber Association of America.  Convention/



Meeting:,  annual—always third Thursday in November.



Tire Industry Safety Council




National Press Building, Suite 766      Phone:   (202) 783-1022



Washington, D.C.  20004                 Frank Holeman, Dir.



Founded:  1969   Members:  17   Staff:  5




U.S. manufacturers of passenger car tires united to promote



tire safety, tire care and public understanding of the tire



industry.  Distributes news releases, radio and television



public service messages on tire safety, answers inquiries on



tires from news media and the general public, and publishes



tire care materials.



Tire Retreading Institute (TR)



1343 L Street, N.W.                     Phone:   (202) 638-6650



Washington, D.C.  20005                 Philip H. Taft, Dir.



Founded:  1955   Members:  1000   Staff:  10



Independent retreaders of tires.  A division of National Tire



Dealers and Retreaders Association



Tire and Rim Association (TRA)



3200 West Market Street                 Phone:   (216) 836-5553



Akron, Ohio  44313            C. N. Dykes, Exec. V. Pres. and Sec,




Founded:  1903   Members:  55   Staff:  4



Manufacturers of tires, rims, wheels, and related parts.



Establishes standards (primarily dimensional) for tires, tubes,



valves and flaps for passenger cars, motorcycles, trucks, buses,



airplanes and for earthmoving, road building, agricultural and
                             227

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industrial vehicles.  Committees:  Standards  and Technical




Advisory.  Divisions:  Agricultural Tire  and  Rim;  Aircraft Tire




and Rum; Cycle Tire and Rim; Industrial Tire  and Rim;  Off-the-




Road Tire and Rim.  Passenger Care Tire and Rim;  Truck Bus Tire




and Rim; Tube and Valve.  Publications:   Standards Year Book.




Convention/Meeting:  quarterly




Wire Association



209 Montowese Street                    Phone:   (203)  453-2777




Branford, Connecticut  06405   Charles H. Ellwanger, Exec.  Sec.




Founded:  1930   Members:  2,700   Staff:  10




Professional society of operating executives, plant superintend-




ents, engineers, chemists, metallurgist,  and  others concerned




with production in wire mill and insulated wire  plants producing




bars, rods, strip, wire, wire products and electrical  wire and




cable.  Studies production methods, new materials,  and applica-




tions for existing materials; provides advisory  service on tech-




nical and operating problems.  Committees:  Awards;  Papers




Review.   Divisions:  Electrical; Ferrous, Non-Ferrous.  Publica-




tions:   (1) Wire Journal, monthly; (2) Wire Journal Directory/




Catalog, annual.  Convention/Meeting:  annual—1975 October 12-16,




Washington, D.C.  1976 October 25-28, Cleveland,  Ohio.




1977 October 17-20, Boston, Massachusetts.
                              228

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                          APPENDIX B




                    PARTIAL PLANT LISTINGS




          BY STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION CODE






     Table B-l presents a partial geographical distribution of




rubber products plants, by state.  Tables B-2 through B-9 give




available locations of plants in the nine standard industrial




classifications studied.
                             229

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           Table B-l.   A  PARTIAL GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF RUBBER PRODUCTS PLANTS
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
TOTALS
SIC Code
2822




4

2





1
1


5
6


1
4
1
1





4

1
1

7

1
3
1


5
11







60
3011
7


4
15

2


6


5
3
3
1
2

1
3
2
2
1
3
1






2
7

18
5
1
11

3

5
5


2
1

1

122
3021



1
1
1
1

4
2


1
1




4
2
8







2
1


2

2


5
1


3
1




2
1

46a
3031
7






















1





3

1


2


1












8
3041
2

3
3
8
1
1
2
1
1


8
3
1

4



5
4
1

6

4


8

8
1

15
1

4

3

5
6


1

1
1

112a
3069
2

4
8
64
1
23
1
8
30


36
39
3
2
3
2
2
5
36
35
19
5
11

2

7
49

31
17

108
7
4
40
11
7
1
29
17
4

15
5
5
13

711
3293
1



13'

4

1
1


23
2

1
4


1
5
7
2

2


1
1
13

13
2

14
5
3
12

2
1
4
16
1

3


5

16 3a
3357
2

4
4
19

18
3
4
7


15
20
1
1
6
2

3
23
9

2
5



3
25

29
9

9 .


8
12
3

3
6

4
3




262a
7534


















































"_b
Total
Plants
14
0
11
20
124
3
51
6
18
47
0
0
89
69
8
5
24
10
7
14
80
61
24
12
25
0
6
1
13
103
0
85
39
0
175
18
9
84
25
18
2
54
62
5
4
24
6
8
21
0
1,484
Includes plants  consuming plastics as raw materials.
Number of plants unknown.
                                             230

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Table B-2.  SIC 2822:  SYNTHETIC RUBBER (VULCANIZABLE ELASTOMERS)

Company name
American Cyanamid Industrial Chemicals
American Latex Fibre Corporation
American Synthetic Rubber
Amotex Plastics
Copolymer Rubber & Chemical Company
Copolymer Rubber & Chemical Company
Ashland Chemical Company
4
Atlantis Chemical Corporation
Goodrich Gulf Chemicals
B F Goodrich Chemical Division
B F Goodrich Chemical Division
Goodrich Gulf Chemicals
Bailey-Park Urethane Inc
Columbian Carbon Company
Allen Industries Inc
Dow Corning Corporation
Dow Corning Corporation
Dow Corning Corporation
Dow Corning Corporation
E I Du Pont De Nemours
E R Carpenter Company Inc
Exxon Chemical
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
State
New Jersey
Massachusetts
Kentucky
Tennessee
Louisiana
Louisiana
Texas

Michigan
Texas
Kentucky
Ohio
Texas
Tennessee
Louisiana
Michigan
California
Connecticut
Michigan
California
Kentucky
Kentucky
Texas
Tennessee
City
Linden
Lawrence
Louisville
Nashville
Addis
Baton Rouge
Baytown

Troy
Port Neches
Louisville
Akron
Orange
Memphis
Lake Charles
Troy
Costa Mesa
Trumbull
Midland
Irvine
Louisville
Russellville
Baytown
Milan
                                231

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Table B-2 (continued).   SIC 2822:  SYNTHETIC RUBBER  (VULCANIZABLE ELASTOMERS)

Company name
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Plastics Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
General Electric Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire S Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Grand Sheet Metal Products
Me Creary Industrial Products
Mearthane Products
Nassau Chemical Corporation
Norton Co. Chemical Div.
Perma Foam Inc.
Phillips Petro/Copolymer
Rubber Research Elastomrcs
Shell Chemical Company
Spe-De-Way Products Company Inc.

State
Texas
Louisiana
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Indiana
New York
Texas
Ohio
Ohio
Texas
Tennessee
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
New Jersey
Ohio
New Jersey
Texas
Minnesota
California
Oregon

City
Orange
Lake Charles
Akron
Pottstown
Akron
Corry
Elkhart
Waterford
Odessa
Mogadore
Akron
Houston
Chattanooga
Indiana
Cranston
Trenton
Akron
Irvington
Borger
Minneapolis
Torrance
Portland
                                      232

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Table  B-2  (continued).   SIC 2822:   SYNTHETIC RUBBER (VULCANIZABLE ELASTOMERS)

Company name
Kerr Mfg. Division Sybron
Foam & Plastics Tenneco
Petro Tex Chemical
Texas U S Chemical Company
Burkhart Mfg.
Thiokol Chemical Corporation
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc. Synthetic Rubber Div.
Texas US Chemical Company
Dewey & Almy Division W R Grace
State
Michigan
New Jersey
Texas
Texas
Illinois
Mississippi
Louisiana
Louisiana
North Carolina
Connecticut
Texas
Kentucky
City
Romulus
Carlstadt
Houston
Port Neches
Cairo
Moss Point
Baton Rouge
Geismar
Gastonia
Naugatuck
Port Neches
Owensboro
                                      233

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Table B-3.   SIC 3011:   TIRES  AND  INNER  TUBES

Company name
A M F Voit Inc.
Long Mile Rubber Company
Long Mile Rubber Company
Synthane Corporation
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Armstrong Rubber Company
Goodrich Tire Company Inc .
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
B F Goodrich Company Inc.
Master Processing Corporation
Bandag Inc.
Bearcat Tire Company
State
Oregon
Texas
South Carolina
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Mississippi
California
Iowa
Connecticut
Arkansas
Tennessee
Alabama
Ohio
California
Oklahoma
Indiana
Alabama
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Indiana
California
Iowa
Illinois
City
Portland
Dallas
Spartanburg
Oaks
Clinton
Natchez
Los Angeles
Des Moines
West Haven
Little Rock
Madison
Tuscaloosa
Akron
Los Angeles
Miami
Woodburn
Tuscaloosa
Oaks
St Paris
Fort Wayne
Lynwood
Muscatine
Chicago
                     234

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Table B-3 (continued).   SIC 3011:   TIRES AND  INNER TUBES
Company name
Better Monkey Grip Company Inc.
Carlisle Corporation
Commercial Rubber Company Inc.
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company
Denman Rubber Mfg.
Dixie-Cap Rubber Company
Dunlop Tire & Rubber Company
Dunlop Tire & Rubber Company
Dunlop Tire & Rubber Company
Durkee Atwood Company Inc.
Ohio Rubber Company
Eaton Corp. Air Controls Division
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Sieberling Tire S Rubber
Dayton Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
State
Texas
Pennsylvania
California
Mississippi
Arkansas
Ohio
Ohio
Georgia
New York
New York
Alabama
Minnesota
Pennsylvania
North Carolina
California
California
Iowa
Illinois
Ohio
Ohio
Arkansas
North Carolina
Ohio
City
Dallas
Carlisle
Los Angeles
Clarksdale
Texarkana
Findlay
Warren
Athens
Buffalo
Tonawanda
Huntsville
Red Wing
Conneautville
Roxboro
Salinas
South Gate
Des Moines
Decatur
Barberton
Dayton
Russellville
Wilson
Akron
                         235

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Table B-3 (continued).   SIC  3011:  TIRES AND  INNER TUBES

Company name
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Dayton Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire S Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
Golden West Rubber Product
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Kelly Springfield Tire Company
Kelly Springfield Tire Company
State
Tennessee
Oklahoma
Illinois
Georgia
North Carolina
Ohio
California
Texas
Kentucky
Georgia
Ohio
Illinois
California
Virginia
Kentucky
Washington
California
Kansas
Michigan
Ohio
Alabama
Illinois
Texas
City
Nashville
Oklahoma City
Bloomington
Albany
Charlotte
Bryan
City of Industry
Waco
Mayf ield
Macon
Akron
Mount Vernon
Los Angeles
Danville
Madisonville
Chehalis
Los Angeles
Topeka
Jackson
Akron
Gadsden
Freeport
Tyler
                         236

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Table B-3 (continued).   SIC 3011:   TIRES AND INNER TUBES

Company name
Kelly Springfield Tire Company
Lee Tire & Rubber Company Inc.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Lee Tire & Rubber Company
Kelly Springfield Tire Company
Goodyear Tire S Rubber Company
H B Egan Manfg. Company Inc.
Cupples Company Mfg. Inc.
Harrelson Rubber Company
Hercules Tire & Rubber
Poison Rubber Company Inc.
Long Mile Rubber Company
Maine Industrial Rubber
Penna Tire & Rubber Miss.
Mansfield Tire & Rubber Company
Martin Wheel Company Inc.
Me Creary Tire & Rubber
Michelin Renovex Corporation
Micheline Tire Corporation
Michelin Tire Corporation
Mitchell Industrial Tire
Mobat Tire S Rubber Company
Mohawk Rubber Company
State
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
North Carolina
Tennessee
Oklahoma
Missouri
North Carolina
Ohio
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Maine
Mississippi
Ohio
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Oklahoma
South Carolina
South Carolina
Tennessee
California
California
City
Cumberland
Conshohocken
New Bedford
Frazer
Fayetteville
Union City
Muskogee
St. Louis
Asheboro
Findlay
Garrettsville
Export
Westbrook
Tupelo
Mansfield
Tallmadge
Indiana
Oklahoma City
Sandy Springs
Greenville
Chattanooga
Livermore
Stockton
                         237

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Table B-3 (continued).   SIC  3011:  TIRES AND INNER TUBES
Company name
Mohawk Rubber Company
Mohawk Rubber Company
Mohawk Rubber Company
Mohawk Rubber Company Inc.
Mohawk Rubber Company
Model Tire Company
Acme Plastics Inc.
Bridgeport Brass Company
Oliver Tire & Rubber Company
Retreaders Tire Supply Company
Robbins Tire & Rubber Company
Schenuit Tire & Rubber
Schenuit Tire & Rubber
Technical Rubber Company Inc .
Tex Con Tire Inc.
Textile Rubber Company Inc.
Tru Flex Rubber Products
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
State
Arkansas
Ohio
Alabama
Virginia
Pennsylvania
California
Ohio
Connecticut
California
Georgia
Alabama
Maryland
Maryland
Ohio
Texas
Georgia
California
California
Wisconsin
Indiana
Michigan
Georgia
Massachusetts
City
Helena
Akron
Guntersville
Salem
Lancaster
Sacramento
Akron
Bridgeport
Oakland
Warrenton
Tuscumbia
Baltimore
Luthrvl-timnm
Johnstown
Houston
Bowdon
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Eau Claire
Indianapolis
Detroit
Conyers
Chicopee
                         238

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Table B-3 (continued).   SIC 3011:   TIRES AND INNER TUBES
Company name
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Washington Rubber Company
State
Pennsylvania
Oklahoma
Alabama
Pennsylvania
City
Wilkes Barre
Ardmore
Opelika
Canonsburg
                          239

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Table B-4.   SIC 3021:   RUBBER AND PLASTICS FOOTWEAR

Company name
Amedico Products Inc.
Amer Biltrite Footwear Division
Amer Biltrite Footwear Division
Head Ski Division Amf Inc.
Autry Rubber Company Inc.
Bata Shoe Company Inc .
Bata Shoe Company Inc .
Cambridge Rubber Company Inc.
Carroll Shoe Company Inc.
Cambridge Rubber Company Inc.
Carroll Shoe Company
Carroll Shoe Company
Carter Rubber Company Inc.
Servus Rubber Company Inc.
Servus Rubber Company Inc.
Edwin G. Smith Shoe Company
Converse Rubber Company
Converse Rubber-Tyer Division
Converse Rubber Company
Converse Rubber Company
Presque Isle Footwear
Converse Rubber Company
Converse Rubber Company
State
Ohio
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
Colorado
Texas
Indiana
Maryland
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
West Virginia
Pennsylvania
Illinois
Massachusetts
Tennessee
North Carolina
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Maine
Maine
Maine

City
Cleveland
Stoughton
Chelsea
Boulder
Dallas
Salem
Belcamp
Taneytown
Littlestown
Cambridge
Mont Alto
Summer sville
Wilkes Barre
Rock Island
Chicopee
Nashville
Lumberton
Andover
Wilmington
Berlin
Presque Isle
Presque Isle
Presque Isle
                        240

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Table B-4 (continued).   SIC 3021:   RUBBER AND  PLASTICS FOOTWEAR
Company name
Converse Rubber Company
Converse Rubber Company
Gator Shoe Corporation
Arkansas Tech. Ind.
General Foams
Boulevard Shoe Division Genesco
Gerbo Footwear Corporation
Bonan Footwear Company Inc.
Joy Footwear Corporation
La Crosse Rubber Mills Company
Parsons Footwear Inc.
Randolph Mfg. Company Inc.
Rubber Corporation of Pa Inc.
Saddlecraft Inc.
Scottie Industries Inc.
Suave Shoe Corporation
Dorado Footwear Corporation
Sunstar Rubber Inc.
Tingley Rubber Corporation
Totes Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc. Footwear Division
State
Rhode Island
Massachusetts
Florida
Arkansas
Tennessee
Tennessee
Pennsylvania
Maine
Florida
Wisconsin
West Virginia
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
North Carolina
New Hampshire
Florida
Florida
California
New Jersey
Ohio
Georgia
Georgia
Connecticut
City
Bristol
Lawrence
Miami
Batesville
Nashville
Nashville
Huntingdon
Auburn
Hialeah
La Crosse
Parsons
Randolph
West Hazleton
Cherokee
Hudson
Miami Lakes
Hialeah
Garden Grove
S Plainfield
Love land
Dublin
Thomson
Naugatuck
                              241

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Table B-5.   SIC 3031:   RECLAIMED RUBBER
Company name
Centrex Corporation
Howard Rubber Company
Huntingdon Industries Inc.
Laurie Rubber Reclaiming
Midwest Rubber Reclaim Del.
Nearpara Rubber Company
Passaic Rubber Company
U S Rubber Reclaiming
State
Ohio
New York
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Ohio
New Jersey
New Jersey
Mississippi
City
Findlay
Maspeth
Hatfield
E Millstone
Barberton
Trenton
Wayne
Vicksburg
                  242

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Table B-6.  SIC 3041:  RUBBER AND PLASTICS  HOSE  AND BELTING
Company name
Ace Stretch Hose Company
Acme Hamilton Mfg. Corporation
Globe Albany Corporation
Swan Hose Division Amerace
Swan Hose Division Amerace
American Biltrite
Lewis Products Company Inc.
American Biltrite
American Biltrite Rubber
American Rubber Mfg. Company Inc.
Anchor Hose & Rubber Corporation
Kerona Plastic Extrusion
Atco Rubber Products
Atlantic India Rubber
Auburn Plastic Engrg
B F Goodrich- Akron Pit. #1
B F Goodrich- Akron Pit. #2
B F Goodrich Eng. Systems
Badger Powhatan
Bandag Inc.
Bandag Inc.
Buckeye Rubber Products
Buffalo Weaving & Belting
State
Illinois
New Jersey
New York
Oklahoma
Ohio
Tennessee
Tennessee
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
California
New York
California
Michigan
Indiana
Illinois
Ohio
Ohio
South Carolina
Virginia
North Carolina
Texas
Ohio
New York
City
Chicago
Trenton
Buffalo
Stillwater
Bucyrus
Lawrenceburg
Hohenwald
Cambridge
Cambridge
Oakland
Mount Vernon
Stockton
Grand Haven
Goshen
Chicago
Akron
Akron
Elgin
Charlottesville
Oxford
Abilene
Lima
Buffalo
                            243

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Table B-6 (continued).   SIC 3041:   RUBBER AND PLASTICS HOSE AND BELTING

Company name
Flexaust Co-Callahan Minin
Lawrence Hose Company Inc.
Continental Rubber
Cosmoflex Inc.
Crown Products Company
Crushproof Tubing Company Inc.
Custom Rubber Corporation
Dapol Plastics Inc.
Darling R E Company Inc.
Colorite Plastics Company
National Hose Company
Dayco Corporation
Dura Line Corporation
Durkee Atwood Company
E James & Company
Electric Hose & Rubber Company
Electric Hose & Rubber Company
Electric Hose & Rubber Company
Electric Hose & Rubber Company
Extremultus Inc.
Favorite Plastic Corporation
Corban Industries
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company

State
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Missouri
Nebraska
Ohio
Ohio
Massachusetts
Arizona
New Jersey
New Jersey
South Carolina
Kentucky
Minnesota
Illinois .
Texas
Delaware
Nebraska
Nebraska
New Jersey
New York
Florida
Indiana

City
Amesbury
Trenton
Erie
Hannibal
Omaha
McComb
Cleveland
Worcester
Tucson
Ridgefield
Dover
Walterboro
Middle sboro
Minneapolis
Chicago
Olney '
Wilmington
Alliance
Me Cook
Englewood
Brooklyn
Tampa
Noblesville
                                 244

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Table B-6 (continued).   SIC 3041:   RUBBER AND PLASTICS HOSE AND BELTING

Company name
Prescott Industrial Products
Flexfab Inc.
Four D Mfg. Company Inc.
Kent Latex Products Inc .
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
General Rubber & Supply Company
Goodall Rubber Company
Goodall Rubber Company Inc.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Hancock Gross Inc .
Haywood Company
Imperial Eastman Corporation
Industrial Tube Corporation
Insulated Duct & Cable Company
J E Rhoads & Sons
Jet Stream Plastics
John G Shelley Company Inc.
Kennerley Sprat ing Inc.
State
Arkansas
Michigan
West Virginia
Ohio
Kentucky
Colorado
Illinois
Arkansas
Kansas
Kentucky
Illinois
Texas
Nebraska
Illinois
Wisconsin
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Texas
California
New Jersey
Delaware
Arkansas
Massachusetts
California
City
Prescott
Hastings
Glenville
Kent
Elizabethtown
Denver
Galesburg
Si loam Springs
lola
Louisville
Melrose Park
Houston
Lincoln
North Chicago
Sun Prairie
Philadelphia
Brownsville
Dallas
Wilmington
Trenton
Wilmington
Siloam Spring
Wellesley His.
Berkeley
                                 245

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Table B-6 (continued).   SIC 3041:   RUBBER AND PLASTICS HOSE AND BELTING
Company name
Lasco Industries Inc.
Aeroquip Corporation
Aeroquip Corporation
Aeroquip Corporation
Manufacturers Rubber
Master Rubber Processing
Mechanical Rubber Products
Mercer Rubber Company Inc.
Flexible Products Comoany Inc.
Missouri Belting Company Inc.
Murray Corporation of Maryland
Parflex Plt/Parker-Hannif in
Parker Stearns & Company Inc.
Perma Pipe
Plastic Extruders Inc.
Plastiflex Company Inc.
Plastiflex Company Inc.
Plumley Rubber Company
Protective Coatings Inc.
R E Darling Company Inc.
Reeves Rubber Inc.
Resistoflex Corporation
Electro-Mech Div/Robintech
Delford Industries Inc.
State
California
Michigan
Ohio
Ohio
Tennessee
California
New York
New Jersey
Michigan
Missouri
Texas
Ohio
New York
Kentucky
Arizona
Illinois
California
Tennessee
Indiana
Arizona
Alabama
California
New York
New York
City
Montebello
Jackson
Van Wert
Youngstown
Memphis
Long Beach
Warwick
Trenton
Southfield
St. Louis
Palestine
Ravenna
Flushing
Middlesboro
Phoenix
Elk Grove Vlg.
Inglewood
Paris
Fort Wayne
Tucson
Albertville
Anaheim
Vestal
Middletown
                                246

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Table B-6 (continued).  SIC 3041:   RUBBER AND PLASTICS  HOSE AND BELTING
Company name
Rubber Hose Inc.
Samuel Moore & Company Inc.
Scovill Mfg. Company
Semcor
Specification Rubber Products
Amoco Chemical Corporation
Cincinnati Rubber Mfg. Company
Stratoflex Inc.
Superior Rubber Supply
Te Company Inc.
Tuff Lite Corporation
Uniroyal Inc .
Fabric Fire Hose Company Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc .
Victor Balata & Textile
Vulcanized Rubber & Plastics
Fayette Tubular Products
Weatherhead Compay Inc.
Webb Belting Company Inc.
State
Georgia
Ohio
Ohio
Missouri
Alabama
Arkansas
Ohio
Texas
Illinois
Missouri
New Jersey
South Carolina
Connecticut
Iowa
Missouri
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Ohio
Missouri
City
Auburn
Mantua
Hebron
St. Louis
Alabaster
Magnolia
Cincinnati
Fort Worth
Chicago
St. Louis
Edison
Moncks Corner
Sandy Hook
Red Oak
Kennett
Easton
Morrisville
Fayette
Antwerp
Kansas City
                                  247

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Table B-7.   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Kraco Enterprises Inc.
A B Boyd Company
ABC Rubber Company Inc.
A Baker Mfg. Company Inc.
A G I Rubber Company Inc.
A Lakin & Sons Inc.
California Foam Products
Ace Rubber Company Inc.
Ace Rubber Products Inc.
Ace Rubber Products Inc.
Acme Fisher Tank Linings
Acme Machell Company Inc.
Advance Latex Mfg. Company Inc.
Advance Rubber Company Inc.
AHP Medical Inc.
Air O Plastik Corporation
Air Seal Inc.
Airex Rubber Products Corporation
Akro Inc.
Alb Rubber Company Inc.
Albert Trostel Packings
Sperry Rubber & Plastics
Seiko Corporation
State
California
California
Illinois
Indiana
Connecticut
Illinois
California
California
Ohio
Georgia
Kentucky
Wisconsin
California
Minnesota
Georgia
New Jersey
Tennessee
Connecticut
Ohio
Massachusetts
Wisconsin
Indiana
Maryland
City
Compton
San Francisco
Chicago
South Bend
Bridgeport
Chicago
Culver City
South Gate
Akron
Waycross
Louisville
Milwaukee
Culver City
Minneapolis
Columbus
Carlstadt
Shelbyville
Portland
Canton
Somerville
Lake Geneva
Brookville
Kingsville
                          248

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.

Company name
Rice Chadwick Rubber Company
Aldan Rubber Company
Alliance Rubber Company Inc.
Alliance Rubber Company Inc.
Alliance Rubber Company Inc.
Almet of Tennessee
Alton Lamp Mfg. Company Inc.
Amerace Esna Corporation
Amerace-Wheel Products Division
Amerace Molded Products Division
Ripley Shoe Products Company
Accurate Mfg. Company
Boston Ind. Prod/AM Biltrit
Globe-Superior
Acushnet Company
Burma Latex Products Division AHSC
American Latex Corporation
American National Rubber
Patten Pan Avion Division
American Safety Flight System
American Sponge & Chamois
Ames Rubber Corporation
W J Voit Rubber Corporation
State
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Arkansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Texas
Tennessee
Alabama
Tennessee
Mississippi
New Jersey
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Ohio
Indiana
West Virginia
Florida
Florida
New York
New Jersey
Oregon
City
Killbuck
Philadelphia
Alliance
Hot Spring NP
Franklin
Spring City
Humble
Piney Flats
Lineville
Johnson City
Ripley
Garfield
Boston
Philadelphia
New Bedford
Tallmadge
Sullivan
Ceredo
Miami
Miami
Long Island City
Hamburg
Portland
                                249

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Anchor Packing Company Inc.
Anchor Packing Company Inc.
Anderson Rubber Company Inc.
Apex Molded Products Company
Apollo Rubber Company
Approved Parts & Rubber Company
Archer Rubber Company Inc.
Arco Industries Corporation
Armada Rubber Mfg. Company Inc.
Connecticut Hard Rubber Company
Aronab Products Company
Arrowhead Mfg. Company
Art Anson Inc.
Arthur A Oliver & Son Inc.
Ashland Rubber Products
Ashtabula Rubber Company Inc.
Associated Rubber Company Inc.
Associated Rubber Inc.
Astro Molding Inc.
Atlantic Tubing & Rubber
Atlas Sponge Rubber Company
Avon Sole Company Inc.
R F Inc.
State
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Oklahoma
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
Michigan
Michigan
Connecticut
California
Tennessee
Pennsylvania
North Carolina
Ohio
Ohio
Georgia
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Rhode Island
California
Massachusetts
West Virginia
City
Manheim
Philadelphia
Akron
Philadelphia
Tulsa
Winthrop
Milford
Schoolcraft
Armada
New Haven
San Francisco
Lebanon
Allentown
High Point
Ashland
Ashtabula
Tallapoosa
Quakertown
Old Bridge
Cranston
Monrovia
Avon
Grantsville
                                 250

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     Table B-7 (continued).  SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
             Company name
   State
         City
B F Goodrich Company Inc.




Rubber Fabricators Inc.




B F Goodrich Industrial Products Division




General Products Company




B F Goodrich General Products Dv.




Ball Rubber & Plastic Dv.




Ball Corp-Rubber & Plastic




Ball Brothers Industrial Rubber Good




Baltic Rubber & Plastic




Bardon Rubber Products Company Inc.




Earnhardt Mfg.




Barr Rubber Products Company




Barry Controls Inc.




BASF Wyandotte




Bauman Harnish Rubber Plastic




Bearfoot Corporation




Becton Dickinson & Company




Behtel Latex Products Inc.




Bell Rubber Company




Bendix Corporation




Blair Process Company Inc.




Stalwart Rubber Company Inc.




Bonair Boats Company Inc.
California




West Virginia




Tennessee




Tennessee




California




Michigan




Ohio




Michigan




Ohio




Wisconsin




North Carolina




Ohio




Massachusetts




Michigan




Indiana




Ohio




Ohio




Connecticut




Texas




Ohio




Ohio




Ohio




Kansas
Los Angeles




Richwood




Oneida




Clarksville




Modesto




St. Joseph




Chardon




St. Joseph




Baltic




Union Grove




High Point




Sandusky




Watertown




Troy




Garrett




Wadsworth




Canton




Bethel




Dallas




Toledo




Tallmadge




Bedford




Lenexa
                                    251

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Bond Flex Rubber Company Inc.
Bond International Inc.
Brad Ragan Rubber Company Inc.
Bratman Brothers Inc.
Eagle Rubber Company Inc.
Bruckman Rubber Company
Ozite Corporation
Pioneer Rubber Sherwood Medc
Pioneer Rubber/Sherwood MD
Mac Gregor Division Brunswick
Pioneer Rubber/Sherwood MD
Brunswick Rubber Company Inc.
Dullard Clark Company
Burke Industries
Burton Rubber Processing
Burton Rubber Processing
Burton Rubber Processing
Bushings Inc.
Butterworth Company Inc .
Cactus Mat & Patch Mfg. Company
Cadillac Molder Rubber Inc.
Cadillac Rubber & Plastics
Calhoun Chemical & Coating
State
Indiana
Michigan
Virginia
New York
Ohio
Nebraska
West Virginia
Ohio
Ohio
Georgia
Texas
New Jersey
Connecticut
California
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Michigan
Indiana
California
Michigan
Michigan
Georgia
City
Columbia City
Dearborn
Radford
1 New York
Ashland
Hastings
Grafton
Willard
Attica
Covington
Dallas
Deans
Day vi lie
San Jose
Macedonia
Akron
Burton
Royal Oak
Marion
El Monte
Cadillac
Cadillac
Calhoun
                                252

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Table B-7 (continued).  SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Calhoun Padding Inc.
Cardinal Rubber Company Inc.
Geauga Industries Company
Carolina Rubber Hose Company
Fulflex Inc.
Cartex Corporation
Cartex Corporation
Cellular Industries Inc.
Chamberlin Rubber Company Inc.
Chase & Sons Inc.
Chase Walton Elastomers
Chicago Allis Mfg. Corporation
Chicago Manifold Products
Chicago Rubber Company
Circle Rubber Company
Circle Rubber Corporation
Clark Foam Products Company Inc.
Clearview Products Inc.
Coast Craft Rubber Company
Cole Rubber & Plastics
Colonial Chemical Corporation
Colonial Rubber Company
Colox Corporation
State
Georgia
Ohio
Ohio
South Carolina
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Connecticut
New York
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
Illinois
Illinois
Illinois
Minnesota
New Jersey
Illinois
New York
California
California
Georgia
Ohio
Georgia
City
Calhoun
Barberton
Middlefield
Greenville
Bristol
Morrisville
Doylestown
Waterbury
Rochester
Randolph
Hudson
Chicago
Chicago
Waukegan
Eden Prairie
Newark
Chicago
New York
Torrance
Sunnyvale
Dalton
Ravenna
Dalton
                               253

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Gar lock Inc.
Columbia Rubber Mills
Comar Products Inc.
Comdaco Company
Commercial Rubber Corporation
Cone Mills Corporation
Consolidated Rubber
Controlled Rubber Products
Conveyor Belt Service
Riverside Industries Inc.
Cooper Herbert Company
Cooper Industrial Products
Cooper Industrial Products
Corduroy Rubber Company Inc.
Corry Rubber Corporation
Craig Industries Inc.
Cresskill Stillman Rubber
Crest Foam Corporation
Crest Rubber Company Inc.
Crossville Rubber Products
Crown Products Corporation
Crown Rubber Company Inc.
Custom Engineering Company
Custom Rubber Products Inc.
State
North Carolina
Oregon
New Jersey
Missouri
Indiana .
Tennessee
Mississippi
Michigan
Minnesota
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Arkansas
Indiana
Michigan
Pennsylvania
Ohio
New Jersey
New Jersey
Ohio
Tennessee
Missouri
California
Pennsylvania
Texas
City
Gastonia
Portland
Butler
Kansas City
Goshen
Memphis
Natchez
South Haven
Duluth
Riverside
Genesee
El Dorado
Auburn
Grand Rapids
Corry
Canton
E Rutherford
Moonachie
Ravenna
Crossville
St. Louis
Pasadena
Erie
Houston
                                254

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.

Company name
D S Brown Company Inc.
DA Pro Rubber Inc.
Dahlman Inc.
Dalton Carpet Coating
Central Rubber Company Inc.
Southwest Latex Corporation
Tupperware Company
Davis Rubber Company
Three Rivers Rubber Corporation
Dayco Corporation
Colonial Rubber Works Inc.
Dayco Corporation
Allen Ind. Inc. Div Dravo CP
Dean Rubber Mfg. Company
Delta Rubber Company Inc.
Detroit Rubber Company Inc.
Diaphragm Industries Inc.
Dike O Seal Inc.
Dipcraft Mfg. Company
Disogrin Industries
M R Plastics of Georgia
Domestic Film Products
Dixie Foam Products Inc.
State
Ohio
California
Minnesota
Georgia
Illinois
Texas
Rhode Island
Arkansas
Michigan
Missouri
Tennessee
North Carolina
Virginia
Missouri
Connecticut
Michigan
New Hampshire
Illinois
Pennsylvania
New Hampshire
Georgia
Ohio
North Carolina
City
North Baltimore
Van Nuys
Braham
Dalton
Belvidere
Seabrook
N Smithfield
Little Rock
Three Rivers
Springfield
Dyersburg
Waynesville
Richmond
N Kansas City
Moo sup
Detroit
Portsmouth
Chicago
Braddock
Manchester
Adairsville
Millersburg
Hickory
                                255

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Dow Chemical/Dowell Division
Dow Chemical Company
Dow Elco Inc.
Dresco Belting Company Inc.
Dunlap and Kyle Company
Dunne Rubber & Plastic Company
Durable Mat Company Inc.
Duracraft Corporation
Stuart Chase Corporation
E F Houghton & Company
E R Carpenter Company
E T Mfg. Company Inc.
Ohio Rubber Company
Ohio Rubber Oreo Division
Ohio Rubber Company Eagle Pichr.
Eastern Molding Company
Eaton Precision Rubber
Eaton Corporation Molded Products Dv.
Econo Products Inc.
El Monte Rubber Corporation
Elkhart Rubber Works Inc.
Elmhurst Rubber Company Inc.
Prestolite Company
State
Texas
Georgia
California
Massachusetts
Mississippi
Ohio
Ohio
Utah
Massachusetts
Virginia
Virginia
Wisconsin
Ohio
Connecticut
Connecticut
New Jersey
Indiana
Ohio
New York
California
Indiana
New York
New York
City
Wichita Falls
Dalton
Montebello
East Weymouth
Batesville
Ashtabula
Nor walk
Salt Lake City
Randolph
Lynchburg
Richmond
East Troy
Willoughby
Stratford
Norwich
Belleville
Bluffton
Akron
Rochester
El Monte
Elkhart
Elmhurst
Niagara Falls
                                256

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Table B-7 (continued).  SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.

Company name
USM Bailey Division
Enduro Rubber Company Inc.
Enrubco Inc.
A-S-H Molded Products
Mayfair Molded Products
Esco Rubber Company
J G Milligan Company Inc.
Exotic Rubber & Plastics
Ezon Products Company
Fabreeka Products Company Inc.
Falcon-Roxy Tire Corporation
Faultless Rubber Company
Fauver Molding Company Inc.
Featherlike Products Company
National 0 Rings
Ferro Disc Pad Company
Newport Industrial Product
Firestone Coated Fabric Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Stansi Scientific Company
Flexan Corporation
State
New Hampshire
Ohio
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Illinois
California
Tennessee
Michigan
Tennessee
Massachusetts
New York
Ohio
Michigan
California
California
Michigan
Tennessee
Arkansas
Indiana
Ohio
New Jersey
Illinois
Illinois
City
Seabrook
Ravenna
Akron
Malvern
Schiller Park
Brea
Chattanooga
Farmington
Memphis
Dorchester
Bronx
Ashland
Morenci
Los Angeles
Downey
Mt. Clemens
Newport
Magnolia
Noblesville
Akron
West Caldwell
Chicago
Chicago
                              257

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Flexi Mat Corporation
Flexible Products Company
Fo Mac Enterprises Inc.
Foam Products Inc.
Fredericks Rubber Company
Fulfex of N C Inc.
Fullerton Mfg. Company Inc.
Akwell Industries Inc.
Akwell Industries
Gaco Western Inc.
G A F Corporation
GAP Corporation
Gant Industries Inc.
Gardena Rubber Company Inc.
Garland Arts
Garrett Flexible Products
Garrett Flexible Products
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gates Rubber Company Inc.
Gen Industries Inc.
General Elastomer Corporation
General Gasket Corporation
State
Illinois
Michigan
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
Florida
North Carolina
California
Ohio
Alabama
Washington
Tennessee
Georgia
Tennessee
California
New York
Indiana
Indiana
Texas
Iowa
North Carolina
Ohio
Missouri
City
Chicago
Detroit
Tulsa
York Haven
Ft. Lauderdale
Scotland Neck
Fullerton
Akron
Dothan
Seattle
Chattanooga
Dalton
Memphis
Gardena
Brooklyn
Garrett
Garrett
Wichita Falls
Sioux City
Newton
Norwalk
St. Louis
                                 258

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.

Company name
General Latex & Chemical
General Latex & Chemical
General Latex & Chemical
Arkansas Technical
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire Company St. Louis
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
General Tire & Rubber Company
Wilson Rubber Company Inc.
Geneva Rubber Company Inc.
Glas Col Apparatus
Goad Larry & Company Inc.
Goodall Rubber Company Inc.
Goodall Rubber Company Inc.
Goodall Rubber Company Inc.
Goodman Gas Mn. Stpr. Mfg.
Goodwin Golf Mfr.
Goodyear Industrial Product
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation
State
Georgia
North Carolina
Massachusetts
Arkansas
Pennsylvania
Missouri
Indiana
Indiana
Illinois
Oklahoma
Arizona
Ohio
Ohio
Indiana
Missouri
Washington
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
New York
Ohio
New York
California
Arizona
City
Dalton
Charlotte
Cambridge
Batesville
Jeannette
St. Louis
Wabash
Logansport
Elk Grove Vlg.
Ada
Phoenix
Canton
Geneva
Terre Haute
St. Louis
Seattle
Trenton
Folcroft
Brooklyn
Youngs town
New York
Bakersf ield
Litchfield
                                  259

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
Gordon Rubber Packing Company
Goshen Rubber Company Inc.
Clevite Corporation
Gould Inc/Elastomer Division
Gould Inc.
Graflo Rubber Company Inc.
Lorraine Mfg. Company Inc.
Groendyk Mf g . Company Inc .
Rubatex Corporation
Bondtex Inc.
Griffith Rubber Mills Inc.
Griswold Rubber Company Inc.
GSH Corp/Goshen Rubber Inc.
Gulf Belting & Gasket Company
H A King Company Inc.
H C Lien Rubber Company Inc.
Porter H K Company
Haartz Mason Inc.
Hamilton Kent Mfg. Company Inc.
Harbor Rubber & Plastic
State
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Connecticut
Indiana
Ohio
Ohio
Indiana
Virginia
New Jersey
Virginia
Virginia
Virginia
Oregon
Connecticut
North Carolina
Louisiana
Michigan
California
Ohio
Massachusetts
Ohio
California
City
St. Marys
Logan
Marysville
Derby
Goshen
Milan
Napoleon
Angola
Radford
Maywood
Buchanan
Bedford
Bedford
Portland
Moo sup
Snow Hill
New Orleans
Detroit
Los Angeles
Bellefontaine
Watertown
Kent
Long Beach
                                260

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    Table B-7  (continued).   SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
            Company name
   State
        City
Harlemark International




Harper Manufacturing Company




Harry B White Jr Company




Harry Goldman Company




Haweye Rubber Mfg.  Company




Hawthorne Rubber Mfg. Corporation




Henrite Products Corporation




Henry Engineering Company Inc.




Hiawatha Rubber Company




Hickory Springs Mfg. Company Inc.




Home Rubber Company Inc.




Hoover Hanes Rubber Corporation




Hope Company




Byron Jackson Inc.




Byron Jackson Inc.




Huntington Rubber Mills




Huntington Rubber Mills




Hychex Products




IMCO




Imperial Industrial Sales Company




Industrial Electronic Rubber




Industrial Latex Company




Industrial Rubber Cement
Massachusetts




Georgia




Missouri




New York




Iowa




New Jersey




Tennessee




Illinois




Minnesota




Arkansas




New Jersey




Georgia




Massachusetts




California




Iowa




Washington




Oregon




Illinois




Indiana




Ohio




Ohio




New Jersey




California
Framingham




East Point




St. Louis




Bronx




Cedar Rapids




Hawthorne




Morristown




Moline




Minneapolis




Fort Smith




Trenton




Tallapoosa




Fitchburg




Los Angeles




Keokuk




Federal Way




Portland




Chicago




Huntington




Akron




Twinsburg




Wallington




City of Industry
                                     261

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED  RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
Inflated Products Company Inc.
Inmont Corporation
Intermountain Rubber Industry
International Plmbg. Product
International Track System
Interstate Mfg. Company Inc.
All American Engineering
Intl. Packings of Indiana
Intl. Packings of Indiana
Davol Inc.
Davol Dv. Int. Paper
International Foam Inc.
Irving B Moore Corporation
J M Cranz Company Inc.
Easthampton Rubber Thread
United Elastic Rubber Thread
Ja Bar Silicone Corporation
Jacobs Rubber /Bui lard
Jarvis Engineering Company Inc.
Jasper Rubber Company Inc.
Jasper Rubber Products Inc.
JBL Corporation
Jelsco Inc.
State
New York
Indiana
Colorado
New York
Ohio
Massachusetts
Delaware
Indiana
Indiana
Rhode Island
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
New York
Virginia
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Connecticut
Illinois
Georgia
Indiana
New Jersey
Ohio
City
Beacon
Huntington
Commerce City
New York
Ashtabula
Hudson
Wilmington
Morris town
Shelbyville
Providence
Cranston
Corry
Cambridge
Buffalo
Stuart
Easthampton
Andover
Dayville
Lyons
Jasper
Jasper
Hawthorne
Willoughby
                                262

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.

Company name
Jessup Mfg. Company
Jet Rubber Plastics Inc.
John G Milligan & Company
Arbrook Inc. Dv. J & J
Johnson Rubber Company Inc.
Joseph Dixon Crucible Company
Joslyn Mfg. Company Inc.
Judsen Rubber Works Inc.
K & M Rubber Company
Karman Rubber Company Inc.
Kaysam Corporation of America
Kee Industries Inc.
Keener Rubber Company
Keller Stamping Company
Keystone Rubber Products
Kirkhill Rubber Company Inc.
Kismet Products Inc.
La Favorite Rubber Mfg. Company
Koneta Rubber Company Inc.
Pretty Products Inc.
Latex Industries Inc.
Latex Products Inc.
Laurel Rubber Company Inc.
State
Illinois
Ohio
Wisconsin
Texas
Ohio
New Jersey
Ohio
Illinois
Illinois
Ohio
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Georgia
New York
California
Ohio
New Jersey
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
New Jersey
New Jersey
City
Me Henry
Rootstown
Oak Creek
Arlington
Middlefield
Jersey City
Macedonia
Chicago
Arlington Hts.
Akron
Pater son
Seaford
Alliance
Swainsboro
Buffalo
Brea
Painesville
Hawthorne
Wapakoneta
Coshocton
Chippewa Lake
Hawthorne
Garfield
                                 263

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Lavelle Fabricators Inc.
Lavelle Industries Inc.
Central Foam Corporation
Lebanon Ball Company Inc.
Lee Foam Products
Lee Mac Inc.
Legg Company Inc.
Lehigh Rubber Corporation
Aeroquip Corporation
Aeroquip Corporation
Aeroquip Republic Rubber
Lifetime Foam Products Inc.
Ligonier Rubber Company Inc .
Hewitt Robins Rubber opns.
Hewitt Robins Inc.
Lloyd Mf g . Company Inc .
Foamcraft Inc.
Lord Kinematics
Lord Kinematics
Lotridge Rubber Company Inc.
Lubrikup Company Inc.
Ludlow Corporation
Crown Industries
State
Illinois
Wisconsin
Illinois
Pennsylvania
California
Michigan
Kansas
Pennsylvania
California
North Carolina
Virginia
Georgia
Indiana
California
New York
Rhode Island
Indiana
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Pennsylvania
California
Ohio
City
Chicago
Burlington
Chicago
Lebanon
Gardena
Ferndale
Halstead
Morrisville
Burbank
Forest City
Wytheville
Conyers
Ligonier
Los Angeles
Buffalo
Warren
Indianapolis
Erie
Cambridge Spg.
Botkins
Williamsport
Capstrano Bch.
Fremont
                                264

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED  RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Ludlow Corporation
Luxaire Cushion Company Inc.
Lycar Products
Magichemical Company Inc.
Manheim Mfg. & Belting Company
North American Rubber Company
Maple City Rubber Company Inc.
Marathon Rubber Products
Marsan Industries Inc.
Marsh-Armf ield Inc.
Martin Inc.
Master Dynamics Corporation
Maurell Products
Davidson Rubber Company Inc.
Davidson ^Rubber Company
Murray Rubber Company
Murray Rubber Company Inc.
Mercer Rubber Company Inc.
Mercer Rubber Corporation
Metro Rubber Products Corporation
Periflex Dv. Flexible Products
Michigan Rubber Products
Mid States Rubber Products
State
Missouri
Ohio
California
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Wisconsin
Illinois
North Carolina
South Carolina
California
Michigan
New Hampshire
New Hampshire
Texas
Texas
Pennsylvania
New York
Illinois
Michigan
Michigan
Indiana
City
Cape Girardea
Newton Falls
Gardena
Brockton
Manheim
Primes
Norwalk
Wausau
Chicago
Conover
Greenville
Sunnyvale
Oswosso
Dover
Farmington
Houston
Houston
Philadelphia
New York
Morris
Southfield
Cadillac
Princeton
                                265

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC  3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
Middlesex Research Mfg. Company
Midwest Plastics Inc.
Midwest Rubber Company
Midwestern Rubber Products
Minnesota Mining & Mfg.
Minnesota Rubber Company
Quadee Rubber Company
Minor Rubber Company Inc.
Califoam Corporation of America
Califoam Corporation of America
Moeller Mfg. Company Rubber Division
Mogul Rubber Corporation
Webster Rubber Company
Sas Rubber Company
Webster Rubber Division Beebe
Beebe Rubber Company Inc.
Mohican Rubber Company Inc.
Mold Ex Rubber Company
Molded Rubber Plastic Corporation
Monarch Gasket & Roller
Monarch Rubber Company Inc.
Teledyne Monarch
Monarch Rubber Company
State
Massachusetts
Minnesota
Michigan
Indiana
Ohio
Minnesota
South Dakota
New Jersey
California
California
Mississippi
Indiana
Maine
Ohio
Maine
New Hampshire
Ohio
Michigan
Wisconsin
California
West Virginia
Ohio
Maryland
City
Hudson
St. Paul
Deckerville
Goshen
Cincinnati
Minneapolis
Watertown
Bloomf ield
San Leandro
Santa Ana
Greenville
Goshen
Webster
Painesville
Sabattus
Nashua
Ashland
Farmington
Butler
Lynwood
Spencer
Hartville
Baltimore
                                266

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Table B-7 (continued).  SIC 3069:  FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
Monmouth Rubber Corporation
Mono Belting Corporation
Moore Manufacturing Inc.
Morenci Rubber Products
Morristown Foam Corporation
Morristown Molding Inc.
Mosites Rubber Company Inc.
Moxness Products Inc.
Mullins Rubber Products
Muscle Shoals Rubber Company
Patch Rubber Company Inc.
Ace Comb Dv. JB Williams
Nashua Corporation
Natco Products Corporation
National Brewery Rubber
National Latex Products Company
National Latex Products Company
National Rubber Mfg. Company
National Sponge Cushion Company
Nazar Rubber Company Inc.
Neff Perkins Company
Nemo Engineering Company
Neoplastic Industries
State
New Jersey
California
California
Michigan
Tennessee
Tennessee
Texas
Wisconsin
Ohio
Mississippi
Ohio
Arkansas
Illinois
Rhode Island
Wisconsin
Ohio
Ohio
New York
New Jersey
Ohio
Ohio
North Carolina
Minnesota
City
Long Branch
Auburn
Brisbane
Morenci
Morristown
Morristown
Fort Worth
Racine
Dayton
Batesville
Akron
Booneville
Chicago
West Warwick
Butler
Ashland
Ashland
Long Island Cy.
Trenton
Toledo
Perry
Charlotte
Minneapolis
                                 267

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Netherland Rubber Company
New Jersey Rubber Company Inc.
New Jersey Rubber Mfg. Company
Niagara Rubber Corporation
Nichols Engineering Inc.
Norbalt Rubber Corporation
Northern Mining Equip Inc.
Norton Company Burma Latex Division
Charlston Prod-Norton Company
Charles Products Division Norton
Norwalk Foam Pillow Company
Nycoil Company
Nye Rubber Company Inc.
Oak Rubber Company Inc.
Fli Back Company
Oil States Rubber Company Inc.
Ok League For The Blind
Oliver Rubber Company
Oliver Tire & Rubber Company
Okonite Company
0 Sullivan Corporation
Ottawa Rubber Company Inc.
P C F Foam Corporation
State
Ohio
Massachusetts
New Jersey
New Jersey
Connecticut
Ohio
Minnesota
Ohio
South Carolina
South Carolina
Connecticut
New Jersey
Ohio
Ohio
North Carolina
Texas
Oklahoma
New Jersey
California
Pennsylvania
Virginia
Ohio
Indiana
City
Cincinnati
Taunton
Union City
S Plainfield
Shelton
N Baltimore
Hibbing
Tallmadge
Charleston
Clover
Norwalk
Fanwood
Barberton
Ravenna
High Point
Arlington
Oklahoma City
Flemington
Oakland
Philadelphia
Winchester
Bradner
Elkhart
                                268

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
PIC Corporation
Pacific Latex Company Inc.
Pacific Moulded Products
Packaging Assoc Medical
Paeco Rubber Company Inc.
Pam Company Inc.
Pandel Chemical Inc.
H 0 Canfield Company of Virginia
Paragon Rubber Corporation
Parflex Rubber Thread Corporation
Castle Rubber Company Inc.
Park Rubber Company Inc.
Paul Martin Rubber Corporation
Pawling Rubber Corporation
Pelmor Laboratories Inc.
Perl foam Company
Pierce Roberts Rubber Company
Pittman Products Inc.
Plabell Rubber Products
Plastic & Rubber Products Company
Plasticoid Company Inc.
Hodgman Rubber Company
Plymouth Rubber Company Inc.
State
Minnesota
California
California
Tennessee
Ohio
New Jersey
Georgia
Virginia
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania
Illinois
Massachusetts
New York
Pennsylvania
Texas
New Jersey
California
Ohio
California
Maryland
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
City
Peterson
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Columbia
Ravenna
Palisades Park
Cartersville
Iron Gate
Easthampton
Providence
East Butler
Lake Zurich
Holyoke
Pawling
Newton
Houston
Trenton
Huntington Park
Toledo
Ontario
Elk ton
Framingham
Canton
                                 269

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Polysar Laytex Inc.
Precise Mfg. Corporation
Precision Associates Inc.
Precision Rubber Plate Company
Precision Rubber Products Corporation
Presray Corporation
Prices Stamp Manufacturing
Product Development & Mfg.
Proffitt Mfg. Company
Progressive Marking Products
Pulaski Rubber Company Inc.
Loren Products Division Purex
Hadbar Division purolator Inc.
Quabaug Rubber Company
Quality Products Mfg. Company
Quality Rubber Mfg. Company
Quality Rubber Mfg. "Company
Queen City Rubber
Quester Juvenile Products
R C Musson Rubber Company Inc.
Rai Research Corporation
Manhattan Rubber Mfg. Company
RCA Rubber Company
State
Tennessee
New Jersey
Minnesota
Indiana
Arizona
New York
Indiana
Minnesota
Georgia
California
Tennessee
Massachusetts
California
Massachusetts
California
Michigan
Illinois
New York
Ohio
Ohio
New York
Wisconsin
Ohio
City
Chattanooga
Fairfield
Minneapolis
Indianapolis
Phoenix
Pawling
Plainfield
St. Paul
Dalton
South Gate
Pulaski
Lawrence
Alhambra
N Brookfield
Gardena
Wakef ield
Elk Grove
Buffalo
Ravenna
Akron
Long Island City
Neenah
Akron
                                270

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    Table B-7 (contineud).  SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
            Company name
  State
  City
Readco Industries Inc.




Reeves Bros. Vulcan Ure Division




Reeves Bros. Inc.




Reeves Bros. Inc.




Reeves Bros. Inc.




Reeves Rubber Inc.




Reichhold Rubber Latex




Reliable Products Inc.




Reliable Rubber and Plastic




Reliable Rubber Products




Reppenhagen Inc.




Rex Hide Inc.




Chemprene Inc.




Hercules Packing Corporation




Southeastern Rubber Mfg.




Roanoke Belt & Rubber Company




Robin Industries Inc.




Rodhelm Reiss Inc.




Rodic Chemical & Rubber Company




Roller Corporation of America




Roppe Rubber Corporation




Royal Ind-Accurate




Royal Industries
Massachusetts




South Carolina




Virginia




North Carolina




Florida




California




Ohio




Tennessee




New Jersey




Pennsylvania




New York




Pennsylvania




New York




Ohio




Texas




Virginia




Ohio




New Jersey




New Jersey




New Jersey




Ohio




California




California
Reading




Spartanburg




Buena Vista




Hickory




Tampa




San Clemente




Cuyahoga Falls




LobeIvilie




North Bergen




Eddington




Buffalo




East Brady




Beacon




Conneaut




Paris




Roanoke




Cleveland




Belle Mead




North Brunswick




South Plainfield




Fostoria




San Diego




City of Indus
                                     271

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Table B-7 (continued).    SIC 3069:    FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Accurate Products Inc.
Royal Rubber & Mfg. Company, Inc.
Rubber & Silicone Products Company
Rubber Associates Inc.
Rubber Corporation of Arkansas
Rubber Drives Inc.
Rubber Engineering & Manufacturing
Rubber Engineering Development
Rubber Engineering of Arizona
Rubber Engineering of Arizona
Rubber Industries Inc.
Rubber Millers Inc.
Rubber Products Inc.
Rubber Right Products Inc.
Rubber Rolls Inc.
Rubber Service Inc.
Rubber Specialties
Rubber Teck Inc.
Rubbercraft Corporation Inc.
Rubbermaid Inc.
Rubbermaid Specialty Products
Rubbermaid Inc.
Stowe -Woodward Company
State
Illinois
California
New Jersey
Ohio
Arkansas
Minnesota
Utah
California
Arizona
Utah
Minnesota
Maryland
Florida
Illinois
Pennsylvania
California
Connecticut
California
California
Ohio
Georgia
Ohio
Washington
City
Chicago
South Gate
Fairfield
Barberton
De Queen
Crosby
Salt Lake City
Hayward
Phoenix
Salt Lake City
Shakopee
Baltimore
Tampa
Chicago
Meadow Lands
Huntington Park
Seymour
Gardena
Torrance
Wooster
La Grange
Chillicothe
Kelso
                                 272

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
S.W. Industries Inc.
Stowe-Woodward Div. S.W. Industries
Stowe-Woodward Company
Samuel Furiness Mat. Company Inc.
Sandy Valley Rubber Company
Stillman Seal Division Sargent
Kirkhill Inc.
Scarp Heilman Company Inc.
Schacht Rubber Mfg. Company Inc.
Schall Martin Inc.
Schulman Inc.
Scorpion Inc .
Scottdel Inc.
Scougal Rubber Mfg. Company Inc.
M.A. Ferst Ltd. Inc.
Scully Rubber Mfg. Company Inc.
Sea Suits
Gia Mfg. Division Seagrave Ind.
Paramount Industries Div. Seagrave
Searer Rubber Company
Seiberling Latex Products
Shawsheen Rubber Company Inc.
Sheller Globe Corporation
State
Georgia
Massachusetts
Louisiana
New Jersey
Ohio
California
California
Minnesota
Indiana
New York
Illinois
Minnesota
Ohio
Washington
Georgia
Maryland
California
New Jersey
New Jersey
Ohio
Oklahoma
Massachusetts
Indiana
City
Griffin
Newton
Ruston
Edison
Waynesburg
Carlsbad
Downey
Minneapolis
Huntington
Staten Island
East St. Louis
Crosby
Swanton
Seattle
Atlanta
Baltimore
Costa Mesa
Piscataway
Piscataway
Akron
Oklahoma City
Andover
Montpelier
                                273

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Table B-7 (continued).    SIC 3069:    FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Sheller Globe Corp
Sheilds Rubber Corporation
Shreiner Sole Company Inc.
Precision Rubber Products
Silicone Rubber Products
Silveco Rubber Products
Roth Rubber Company Inc.
Smith Rubber Company Inc.
Snyder Paper Corporation
Sonfarrel Inc.
South Haven Rubber Company Inc.
Southeastern Foam Rubber
Southern Graphite Company Inc.
Remington Rand Office
Odonnell Rubber Products
Sponge Rubber Products
St. Clair Rubber Company Inc.
Waukesha Rubber Operations
Illinois Industrial Rubber
Southern Latex Corporation
Standard Rubber Products
Star Glo Rubber Mfg.
Staunton Industries Inc.
State
Iowa
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Tennessee
Michigan
Illinois
Illinois
New York
North Carolina
California
Michigan
North Carolina
Tennessee
New Jersey
Ohio
Connecticut
Michigan
Wisconsin
Illinois
North Carolina
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Michigan
City
Keokuk
Pittsburgh
Killbuck
Lebanon
Inkster
Chicago
Chicago
Rochester
Hickory
Compton
South Haven
High Point
Shelbyville
New Brunswick
Cincinnati
Shelton
Detroit
Waukesha
Ladd
Concord
West Hanover
E . Rutherford
Royal Oak
                                274

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   Table B-7 (continued).    SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
           Company name
  State
  City
Stedfast Rubber Company Inc.




Clifton Mfg Company Inc.




Stephenson and Lawyer Inc.




Sterling Laboratory & Dev.




Sterling Ventures




Stern Rubber and Tool Company




Stowe-Woodward Company




Superior Insulating Tape




Superior Plastic Products




Surco Inc.




Surety Rubber Company, Inc.




Syntex Rubber Company




Syracuse Rubber Products




T & M Rubber Specialties




T F Butterfield Inc.




Sun Rubber Company




Taylor Bros Company Inc.




Technical Rubber Inc.




Teledyne Mecca




Tenneco Chemicals Inc.




Tennessee Mat Company Inc.




Tennessee Wheel and Rubber




Testworth Laboratories Inc.
Massachusetts




Massachusetts




Michigan




New Jersey




California




Minnesota




South Carolina




Missouri




Rhode Island




Pennsylvania




Ohio




Connecticut




Indiana




Indiana




Connecticut




Ohio




Ohio




Connecticut




Texas




Pennsylvania




Tennessee




Tennessee




Indiana
North Easton




Boston




Grand Rapids




Monmouth Junction




Los Angeles




Staples




Spartanburg




St.. Louis




Cumberland




Hatfield




Carrollton




Bridgeport




Syracuse




Goshen




Naugatuck




Barberton




Cleveland




West Haven




Houston




West Hazleton




Nashville




Nashville




Columbia City
                                     275

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Table B-7 (continued).    SIC 3069:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS N.E.C.
Company name
Textile Rubber and Chemical
Thermo Fashion Corporation
Thomasville Products Inc.
Best Manufacturing Company
Pilgrim Latex Thread Company
Tillotson Corporation
Best Manufacturing Company
Tillotson Rubber Company Inc.
Tompkins Rubber Company Inc.
Topstone Rubber Company Inc.
Toyad Corporation
Trailer Equipment Warehouse
Trexler Rubber Company Inc.
Tri-State Products Inc.
Triad Products Company Inc.
Triangle Rubber Company Inc.
Trion Rubber Company Inc.
Tulsa Rubber Company Inc.
Twin City Rubber Works
U.S. Foam Pillow Inc.
Crest Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
State
Georgia
New York
Virginia
Georgia
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
Georgia
New Hampshire
Pennsylvania
Connecticut
Pennsylvania
Texas
Ohio
Tennessee
Ohio
Indiana
Georgia
Oklahoma
Minnesota
New York
Oklahoma
California
Indiana
City
Dalton
Brooklyn
Martinsville
Menlo
Fall River
Needham Heights
Armuchee
Dixville Notch
Plymouth Meeting
Danbury
Latrobe
Fort Worth
Ravenna
Cookeville
Springfield
Goshen
Macon
Tulsa
Minneapolis
New York
Tulsa
Los Angeles
Mishawaka
                                276

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Table B-7 (continued).  SIC 3096:    FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS   N.E.C.
Company name
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Consumer Products
Uniroyal Inc.
Uniroyal Inc.
Latex Riber Industries Division
United Foam Corporation
Affiliated Hospital Products
United Industries Inc.
United Rubber Corporation
Vail Rubber Works Inc.
Veri-Tech Inc/Vernay Labs
Vernay Laboratories Inc.
Viking Industries Inc.
Vip Rubber Company
Volunteer Foam and Supply
Vulcan Corporation
W.H. Salisbury and Company Inc.
W.J. Ruscoe Company
Parke Davis and Company
Weed Stamp and Seal Company
Wefco Rubber Manufacturing Corp.
West Company Inc.
State
Rhode Island
Georgia
Connecticut
Missouri
Pennsylvania
New York
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Connecticut
California
Michigan
Florida
Ohio
Minnesota
California
Tennessee
Tennessee
Illinois
Ohio
South Carolina
Michigan
California
Nebraska
City
Providence
Dal ton
Naugatuck
Maryville
Philadelphia
Beaver Falls
Allentown
Carrollton
Bristol
Los Angeles
St. Joseph
Pompan© Beach
Yellow Springs
Minneapolis
Anaheim
Cookeville
Clarksville
Skokie
Akron
Honea Path
Jackson
Santa Monica
Kearney
                                277

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Table B-7 (continued).   SIC 3096:   FABRICATED RUBBER PRODUCTS  N.E.C.
Company name
West Company Inc.
West Company Inc.
West Company Rubber Division
Western Aspen
Western Rubber Company Inc.
White Rubber Company
Williams Bowman Rubber Company
Wisconsin Rubber Products
Yale Rubber Manufacturing Co. Inc.
Yale Rubber Manufacturing Co. Inc.
Yaleco Industries Inc.
Young Rubber Company
Youngs Drug Products Corp.
Youngs Rubber Corporation
Youngs Drug Products Corporation
Zamal Research Inc.
Zeller Machinery Company Inc.
State
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Florida
Texas
Indiana
Ohio
Illinois
Wisconsin
Michigan
Georgia
Connecticut
Illinois
Georgia
New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey
Florida
City
Millville
Phoenixville
St. Petersburg
Arlington
Goshen
Ravenna
Cicero
Union Grove
Sandusky
Dawson
Guilford
Naperville
Atlanta
Trenton
Piscataway
Garfield
Jacksonville
                                278

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Table B-8    SIC 3293:    GASKETS,  PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
A.B. Boyd Company
A.W. Chesterton Company
A.W. Chesterton Company Inc.
Accurate Felt and Gasket Mfg.
Composite Materials Corp.
Acushnet Process Company
American Gasket
American Packing and Gasket
Appalachian Gasket Company Inc.
Appleton Packing Gasket
Armstrong Cork Company Inc.
Armstrong Cork Company Inc.
Atlantic Asbestos Corporation
B.F. Goodrich Company Inc.
Badger Cork and Mfg. Company Inc.
Baldwin Ehret Hill Inc.
Banks Bros Corporation
Bignam Insulation and Sply
Marvel- Schebler-Borg Warner
Breeding Mfg Company
C.R. Industries
California Gasket Washing
Cap and Seal Company Inc.
State
California
Massachusetts
Massachusetts
Illinois
Connecticut
Texas
Illinois
Texas
Tennessee
Wisconsin
New York
Massachusetts
New York
Minnesota
Wisconsin
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Florida
Missouri
Tennessee
South Dakota
California
Illinois
City
San Leandro
Stoneham
Everett
Chicago
Broad Brook
Fort Worth
Schiller Park
Houston
Elizabethton
Appleton
Fulton
Braintree
Red Hook
New Ulm
Trevor
Valley Forge
Kearny
Ft. Lauderdale
Ballwin
Goodlettsville
Springfield
Gardena
Elgin
                                279

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Table B-8  (continued)   SIC 3293:   GASKETS,  PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
Carolina Gasket and Rubber
Chambers Gasket and Mfg. Company
Chicago Gasket Company
Chicago Rawhide Mfg. Company
Chicago Wilcox Mfg. Company
Cincinnati Gasket Packing
Cleveland Gasket and Mfg. Company
Stemco Mfg. Company Inc.
Gar lock Inc.
Garlock Inc. Mech Rubber Division
Garlock Mech Seal Division
Columbia Asbestos Company
Conover C.E. and Company Inc.
Crane Packing Company Inc.
Dana Corporation
Dana Corp. -Victor Division
Victor Div.Dana Corp
Detroit Die Cutting Company
Detroit Die Cutting Company
Hunt Process Company Inc.
Durabla Manufacturing Company
Packing Engineering Inc.
Wolverine Fabricating and Mfg.
State
North Carolina
Illinois
Illinois
Illinois
Illinois
Ohio
Ohio
Texas
New Jersey
New York
Texas
Oregon
New Jersey
Illinois
Indiana
Illinois
Illinois
Michigan
Michigan
California
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Virginia
City
Greensboro
Chicago
Chicago
Elgin
South Holland
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Longview
Camden
Palmyra
Houston
Portland
Fairfield
Morton Grove
Churubusco
Chicago
Robinson
Royal Oak
Sault St. Marie
Santa Fe Springs
Strafford
Cranford
Blacksburg
                                   280

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Table B-8 (Continued)   SIC 3293:    GASKETS,  PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
Ethylene Gulf Coast Corporation
F.D. Farnam Company
Reflective Laminates
Favorite Gaskets Inc.
Federal Mogul Corporation
Federal Mogul Corporation
Federal Mogul National Seal Div.
Felt Products Mfg. Company
Fibreflex Packing and Mfg. Company
Fitzgerald Mfg. Company
Flexitallic Gasket Company
Flexrock Company
Plasteel Industries
Fluorocarbon Mechanical Seal
Foilpleat Insulation Company
Forest City Foam Products
Forty Eight Insulations
G.T. Sales and Mfg. Inc.
Gasket Mfg. Company Inc.
Gasket Shop Inc.
Gaskets Inc.
Gatke Corporation
General Electric Insul. Mat.
State
Texas
Illinois
California
Illinois
South Carolina
Massachusetts
Ohio
Illinois
Pennsylvania
Connecticut
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Texas
California
Massachusetts
Ohio
Illinois
Kansas
California
California
Wisconsin
Illinois
New York
City
Houston
Lyons
Newburg Park
Chicago
Summerton
Worcester
Van Wert
Skokie
Philadelphia
Torrington
Camden
Ph i lade Iphi a
Houston
Carson
Fall River
Wellington
Aurora
Wichita
Gardena
San Francisco
Rio
Chicago
Schenectady
                                   281

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TABLE B-8 (continued)   SIC 3293:   GASKETS,  PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
Grefco Inc.
GNC Corp./Goshen Rubber Company
Greene Tweed and Company, Inc.
Harco Chemical Inc.
Higbee Rubber Company Inc.
Hoosier Gasket and Mfg. Corp.
Houston Gasket and Packing
Detroit Gasket and Mfg. Company
Detroit Gasket and Mfg. Company
Industrial Gasket and Shim
Industrial Gasket Inc.
Industrial Gasket Packing
Insulation Services Inc.
International Packings Corp.
J & J Readymix Inc.
J.M. Covington Corp.
Jarrow Products Inc.
Lindstrom and King Company
Johns Manville Products Company
Johns Manville Products Company
Joslyn Mfg. and Supply Co.
K. William Beach Mfg. Company
Keene Corporation
State
Kentucky
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Connecticut
New York
Indiana
Texas
Tennessee
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Oregon
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
New Hampshire
Illinois
California
Illinois
New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey
California
Ohio
Pennsylvania
City
Florence
Wilson
North Wales
Bethel
Syracuse
Indianapolis
Houston
Newport
Fremont
Meadow Lands
Portland
Oklahoma City
Tulsa
Bristol
Maple ton
Santa Fe Springs
Chicago
Paterson
New Brunswick
Asbury Park
Los Angeles
Springfield
Valley Forge
                                282

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Table B-8 (continued)  SIC 3293:  GASKETS, PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
L.B. Foster Company
Lamons of Louisiana Inc.
Lisco Fabrication Division Inc.
Longhorn Gasket and Supply
Mac Arthur Company
Mahoning Valley Gasket Company
Manufacturers Gasket Company
Marine and Petroleum
Mario Company Inc.
Me Cord Corporation
Metalclad Insulation Corporation
Metallo Gasket Company
Manufactured Rubber Products Co.
Mineral Fiber Mfg. Company Corp.
Mizell Bros Company
New Jersey Gasket and Mfg.
Nicolet Industries Inc.
Nordstrom Sterling Gasket
Selastomer Chicago Inc.
Selastomer Detroit Inc.
Ohio Gasket and Shim Co. Inc.
Oriental Gasket and Packing
Pamrod Products Company Inc.
State
Tennessee
Texas
Kentucky
Texas
Minnesota
Ohio
Ohio
Texas
New York
Michigan
California
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Georgia
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Oklahoma
Illinois
Michigan
Ohio
Texas
Texas
City
Memphis
Houston
Louisville
Dallas
St. Paul
Warren
Cleveland
Houston
New York
Wyandotte
Compton
New Brunswick
Philadelphia
Coshocton
Atlanta
Almonesson
Ambler
Tulsa
Bensenville
Farmington
Akron
Dallas
Me Queeney
                                 283

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Table B-8 (continued)   SIC  3293:   GASKETS, PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
Parker Seal Company
Parker Seal Co/O-Seal Division
Parker Seal Company
Parker Seal Company
Parker Packing Division
Pettibone Mulliken Corporation
Phelps Packing and Rubber Company
Philadelphia Gasket Mfg.
Pilot Packing Company Inc.
Punch Products Mfg Company Inc.
Raybestos Manhattan Inc.
Rexnord Inc.
Rhopac Inc .
Richards Parents and Murray
Russell Gasket Company Inc.
Sacomo Sierra Inc.
Sar Company Inc.
Standard Packing National Metalisg.
Sealing Devices Inc.
Sealite Inc.
Seaman Products Inc.
Sepco Corporation
Mitchell and Smith
State
Texas
California
Kentucky
Kentucky
Utah
Oregon
Maryland
Pennsylvania
New York
Illinois
South Carolina
Illinois
Illinois
New York
Ohio
Nevada
Texas
New Jersey
New York
California
California
Alabama
Virginia
City
McAllen
Culver City
Lexington
Berea
Salt Lake City
Portland
Baltimore
Philadelphia
Sea Cliff
Chicago
Charleston
Wheeling
Skokie
Mount Vernon
Cleveland
Carson City
Houston
Cr anbury
Lancaster
San Leandro
Sylmar
Birmingham
Norfolk
                                284

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   Table B-8 (continued)  SIC  3293:  GASKETS, PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
            Company name
  State
  City
Smith Products Inc.




Sonotherm Inc.




Southland Cork Company




Staff Gasket Company Inc.




Standard Washer and Mat Inc.




Sterling Packing and Gasket




Star Gasket and Rubber Corp.




Stevens Asbestos Products




Melrath Gasket Div. Tannetic




Tapecoat Company Inc.




Town and Sander Company




T P Company Inc.




Triangle Rubber Company Inc.




Triple P Inc.




Tulsa Pipe Coating Company




United Gasket Corporation




Utex Industries Inc.




Mr. Gasket Company




Wayne Gasket and Rubber Company




Web Seal Inc.




Penn Rillton Company




Williams Products Inc.




Wisconsin Gasket and Mfg. Company
Ohio




New York




Virginia




New York




Connecticut




Texas




Michigan




Oklahoma




Pennsylvania




Illinois




Ohio




New Jersey




New York




Wisconsin




Oklahoma




Illinois




Texas




Ohio




Michigan




New York




Pennsylvania




Michigan




Wisconsin
Cleveland




Buffalo




Norfolk




New York




Manchester




Houston




Mt. Clemens




Tulsa




Philadelphia




Evanston




Warsaw




Monmouth Junction




Bohemia




Necedah




Tulsa




Chicago




Houston




Independence




Mount Clemens




Rochester




W. Elizabeth




Troy




Milwaukee
                                     285

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Table B-8 (continued)   SIC 3293:   GASKETS, PACKING AND SEALING DEVICES
Company name
York Insulation Company Inc.
Zone C J Mfg. Company Inc.
State
New Jersey
Missouri
City
Hillside
St. Louis
                                 286

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Table B-9   SIC  3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Advance Wire Assemblies
Brand Rex Company
Tape Cable Corp
Brand Rex Company
Alcan Cable West
Alcan Cable Corporation
Rea Magnet Wire Co. Inc.
Rea Magnet Wire Co. Inc.
Rea Magnet Wire Co. , Inc.
Rea Magnet Wire Company Inc.
Alloy Industries Inc.
Plessey Connector Division
Alpha Wire Corporation
American Chain and Cable Co.
American Electric Cable Company
American Super Temp.
Western Electric Company Inc.
Western Electric Company Inc.
Western Electric Wire Mill
Western Electric Co. AT&T
Western Electric Co. AT&T
American Wire and Cable Company
Anaconda Wire
State
Illinois
Arkansas
New York
Connecticut
California
Georgia
Indiana
North Carolina
Indiana
Virginia
California
New York
New Jersey
Michigan
Massachusetts
Vermont
Maryland
New York
New Jersey
Georgia
Arizona
Ohio
Connecticut
City
Aurora
Si loam Spring
Rochester
Willimantic
Rocklin
Tucker
Lafayette
Laurinburg
Fort Wayne
Buena Vista
Garden Grove
Plainview
Elizabeth
Adrian
Holyoke
Winooski
Baltimore
Buffalo
Kearny
Nor cross
Phoenix
Cleveland
Hamden
                              287

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Table B-9 (continued)   SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Anaconda Company
Anaconda Wire
Anaconda Wire and Cable
Anaconda Wire and Cable Company
Anaconda Wire and Cable Company
Anaconda Wire and Cable Company
Anaconda Wire and Cable Company
Continental Wire and Cable
Anaconda Systems Wire
Anaconda Wire
Anaconda Wire and Cable
Anchor Wire Corporation
Apex Wire and Cable Corporation
Asco Wire and Cable Company Inc.
Atlantic Wire and Cable Corp.
Auburn Wire Corporation
Aurora Cord and Cable Company
Carol Cable Company
Avent Inc.
Carol Wire and Cable Corporation
B & B Electronics Corporation
Belden Corporation
Electric Cord Products
State
Missouri
North Carolina
California
Indiana
Michigan
Illinois
Georgia
Pennsylvania
Arizona
North Carolina
Kentucky
Tennessee
New York
Connecticut
New York
New York
Illinois
Rhode Island
California
Rhode Island
California
Indiana
North Carolina
City
Harrisonville
Tarboro
Orange
Marion
Muskegon
Sycamore
Watkinsville
York
Phoenix
Eden
Summer svi lie
Goodlettsville
Hauppauge
Bridgeport
Flushing
Auburn
Yorkville
Warren
Los Angeles
Pawtucket
Idyllwild
Richmond
Franklin
                                 288

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Table B 9 (continued)  SIC 3357:  NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING

Company name
Jena Wire and Cable Company
Berkshire Electric Cable
Berkshire Technical Products
Boston Insulated Wire Co.
Bridgeport Enameled Wire
Bryan Mfg. Company Inc.
Burnside Mfg. Company Inc.
C & M Corporation of Conn.
Tensolite Insulated Wire
International Wire Pdt Division
Cerro CATV Products Plant
Cerro Corporation
Rockbestos Wire and Cable
Chester Cable Corporation
Cleveland Insulated Wire
Coleman Cable and Wire Company
Colonial Wire and Cable Company
Colonial Wire and Cable Company
Columbia Cable and Electric
Consolidated Aluminum Corporation
Conetics Inc .
Consolidated Reactive
Hatfield Wire
State
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Indiana
Michigan
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
New Jersey
New York
Connecticut
New York
Ohio
Illinois
New York
New York
New York
Alabama
Georgia
New York
New Jersey
City
Jena
Northampton
Reading
Boston
Stratford
N. Manchester
Spring Lake
Wauregan
Tarrytown
Wyckoff
Freehold
Maspeth
New Haven
Chester
Cleveland
River Grove
Locust Valley
Hauppauge
Brooklyn
Florence
Chamblee
Mamaroneck
Linden
                                  289

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Table B-9 (continued)   SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Hatfield Wire
Continental Copper and Steel
Superior Continental Corporation
Superior Continental Corporation
Superior Continental Corporation
Superior Continental Company
Corona Insulated Wire
Cove New York Inc.
Custom Control Panels Inc.
Rome Cable Div Cyprus Mines
Daburn Electronics Cable
Easy Heat Wirekraft Msp
Prestolite Wire Div. Eltra
Independent Cable Inc.
Excel Wire and Cable Company
Foley Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Apparatus Div.
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
State
New Jersey
New Jersey
Iowa
Texas
North Carolina
North Carolina
New York
New York
Missouri
New York
New York
Indiana
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Ohio
Delaware
Michigan
Arkansas
California
Maryland
California
Texas
Tennessee
City
Hillside
Cranford
Mt. Pleasant
Brownwood
Hickory
Rocky Mount
Farmingdale
Freeport
Maryland Heights
Rome
Bronx
Rolling Prair
Hazleton
Hudson
Tiffin
Lewes
Quincy
Hot Spring NP
Lindsay
Frederick
Sanger
Bonham
Memphis
                                  290

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Table B-9 (continued)  SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
Philadelphia Insulated Wire
General Cable Corporation
General Cable Corporation
Cornish Wire Div General Cable
General Cable Corp
General Cable Corporation
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Company
General Electric Clevelandwire
General Wire Products Company
Gore W L & Associates, Inc.
Collyer Insulated Wire Company
State
Missouri
Michigan
Illinois
Florida
California
Maryland
New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey
Vermont
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Ohio
California
Ohio
Connecticut
Connecticut
Connecticut
Massachusetts
Ohio
Massachusetts
Delaware
Rhode Island
City
St. Louis
Cass City
Monticello
Tampa
Colusa
Elkton
Moorestown
Perth Amboy
New Brunswick
Pownal
Williamstown
Bayonne
Cleveland
Oakland
Dover
Bridgeport
Bridgeport
Bridgeport
Lowell
Euclid
Worcester
Newark
Lincoln
                                 291

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Table B-9 (continued)   SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Kerite Company
Federal Fabricators Inc.
Haveg Industries Inc.
Hendrix Wire and Cable Corporation
Horning Wire
Howmet Corporation
Hudson Wire Company Inc.
Hudson Wire Company Inc.
Improved Seamless Wire Company
Times Wire and Cable Company
Phoenix Cable Company
Times Wire and Cable
American Components Inc.
Intercontinental Wire Company
Plastoid Corporation
Plastoid Corporation
ITT Suprenant Division
ITT Automotive and Electrical
ITT^Cable-Hydrospace Division
Jersey Specialty Company Inc.
Judd Wire Mfg. Corporation
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical
State
Connecticut
New York
Vermont
New Hampshire
Illinois
Massachusetts
New York
Connecticut
Rhode Island
Virginia
Arizona
Connecticut
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
New Jersey
Massachusetts
Georgia
California
New Jersey
Massachusetts
California
Rhode Island
City
Seymour
Vestal
Colchester
Milford
Lake Zurich
Northampton
Ossining
Winsted
Providence
Chatham
Phoenix
Wallingford
Hayesville
Robesonia
Hamburg
Franklin
Clinton
Camilla
National City
Wayne
Turners Falls
San Leandro
Bristol
                                   292

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Table B-9 (continued)   SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical
Kalas Manufacturing Inc.
Kanthal Corporation
Keystone Seneca Wire Cloth
La Valle and Roy Inc.
Laribee Wire Inc.
Lasalle Wire and Cable
Riverside Manufacturing Inc.
Lenz Electric Mfg. Company Inc.
American Insulated Wire
Liberty Copper Wire Division
Jefferson Wire and Cable Corp.
Manger Electric Company Inc.
Kerrigan Lewis Mfg. Company
Metallonics Corporation
Miami Wire and Cable Corporation
Mohawk Wire and Cable Corp.
Molecu Wire Corporation
Montrose Products Company Inc.
Narragansett Wire Company
Kagan Dixon Wire Corporation
National Wire and Cable
Nehring Electrical Works
State
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania
Connecticut
Mississippi
Vermont
New York
Louisiana
Michigan
Illinois
Rhode Island
Illinois
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Illinois
Massachusetts
Florida
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
New Jersey
California
Illinois
City
Portsmouth
Denver
Bethel
Brookhaven
Winooski
Camden
Jena
Dearborn
Chicago
Pawtucket
Downers Grove
Worcester
Stamford
Chicago
Boston
Hialeah
Leominster
Farmingdale
Auburn
Pawtucket
Rahway
Los Angeles
De Kalb
                                293

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Table B-9  (Continued)   SIC 3357:  NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
New England Electric Wire
New Haven Wire and Cable Company
American Flexible Conduit
Whitney Blake Company
Chicago Magnet Wire Corporation
Universal Mfg. Corporation
Okonite Company
Okonite Company
Okonite Company
Okonite Company
Okonite Company
Okonite Company Plant #6
Okonite Company
Owl Wire and Cable Inc.
Pace Wire and Cable Corp.
Paragon Wire and Cable Corp.
Paragon Wire and Cable Corp.
Paterson Wire Company
Pep Industries Inc.
Phelps Dodge Copper Products
Phelps Dodge Magnet Wire
Phelps Dodge Copper Products
Phelps Dodge Communication
State
New Hampshire
Indiana
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Illinois
Mississippi
Kentucky
California
New Jersey
New Jersey
Rhode Island
Massachusetts
New Jersey
New York
New York
Florida
New York
New Jersey
Tennessee
Arkansas
Indiana
Indiana
Kentucky
City
Lisbon
New Haven
New Bedford
New Haven
Elk Grove Vlg.
Gallman
Richmond
Santa Maria
Ramsey
New Brunswick
Rumford
Worcester
Paterson
Canastota
Oceanside
Longwood
Buffalo
Paterson
Nashville
Fordyce
Fort Wayne
Fort Wayne
Elizabeth town
                                294

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Table B-9 (continued)  SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING

Company name
Phelps Dodge Communication
Phelps Dodge Corporation
Precision Cable Company Inc.
Radcliff Wire Inc.
Radix Wire Company Inc.
Raychem Corporation
Reynolds Metals Company Inc.
Reynolds Metals Alloys Plant
Reynolds Cable Plant
Rhode Island Insulating
Ristance Corporation
Gavitt Wire Cable Company
Gavitt Wire and Cable Company Div.
S. Burger Inc.
Vector Cable Company
Seal Wire Company Inc.
Secon Metals Corporation
Sigmund Cohn Corporation
Easy Heat Wirekraft Division
Southwire Company Inc.
Southwire Company
Spargo Wire Company Inc.
Standard Wire and Cable Company
State
New York
Ohio
Texas
Connecticut
Ohio
California
Pennsylvania
Alabama
Arkansas
Rhode Island
Indiana
California
Massachusetts
New Jersey
Texas
North Carolina
New York
New York
Indiana
Georgia
Kentucky
New York
California
City
Yonkers
Hebron
Beaumont
Bristol
Cleveland
Menlo Park
Chester
Sheffield
Malvern
Cranston
Bremen
Escondido
Brookfield
Middlesex
Sugar Land
Shelby
White Plains
Mount Vernon
Lakeville
Carrollton
Hawesville
Rome
Los Angeles
                                 295

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Table B-9 (continued)   SIC  3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Superior Insulated Wire
Techbestos Inc.
Thermatics Inc.
Western Wire and Cable
Teradyne Components Inc.
Kentucky Electronics Inc.
Texas Instruments Inc.
Thermon Mfg. Company INc.
Phalo Corporation
Triangle PWC
Triangle Conduit and Cable
Trio Wire and Cable Corporation
Crescent Wire and Cable Company
Holyoke Wire and Cable Corporation
Simplex Wire and Cable Company
Capital Wire and Cable Corporation
Gar let Inc.
United States Steel Corporation
Essex International Inc.
Essex International Power Conductor
Essex International Inc.
Essex International Inc.
Essex Wire Corporation
State
New York
New Jersey
North Carolina
California
Massachusetts
Kentucky
Massachusetts
Texas
Massachusetts
Connecticut
New Jersey
New York
New Jersey
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Texas
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Kansas
Kentucky
Indiana
South Carolina
Illinois
City
Stony Point
Rutherford
Elm City
Los Angeles
Lowell
Owensboro
Attleboro
San Marcos
Shrewsbury
Jewett City
New Brunswick
Brooklyn
Trenton
Holyoke
Portsmouth
Piano
Old Forge
Worcester
Hoisington
Paducah
Vincennes
Bennettsville
Sycamore
                                  296

-------
Table B-9 (continued)  SIC 3357:  NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Essex Wire Power Conduc. Div.
Wauseon Mf g . -Essex International
Essex Wire Corporation
Essex International Inc.
Essex Wire Corporation
Essex Wire Corporation
Essex International
Essex Int-Magnet Wire Division
Essex Wire Corporation
Essex Wire Corporation
Essex International
Essex Intl-Wire and Cable Div.
Essex International
Essex International
Essex International
Victor Electric Wire
Viking Wire Company
Vincennes Wire and Cable Company
W.L. Gore and Associates Inc.
W.L. Gore and Associates Inc.
Alcoils Inc.
Washburn Wire Company
Waterbury Products Corporation
State
Indiana
Ohio
Illinois
Massachusetts
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Indiana
Michigan
Michigan
Indiana
Indiana
California
South Carolina
Illinois
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Indiana
Arizona
Delaware
Indiana
Rhode Island
New Jersey
City
Marion
Wauseon
Decatur
Peabody
Rockford
Ligonier
Quincy
Fort Wayne
Hillsdale
Three Rivers
Kendallville
Fort Wayne
Anaheim
Chester
Chicago
Warwick
Danbury
Vincennes
Flagstaff
Newark
Columbia City
E . Providence
Hightstown
                                  297

-------
Table B-9 (continued)   SIC 3357:   NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Company name
Western Insulated Wire
Westinghouse Wire Division
Westinghouse Wire Division
Westinghouse Wire Division
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Whitaker Cable Corporation
Whitaker Cable Corporation
Wilbur B. Driver Company
Wire Products Inc.
State
California
Indiana
Pennsylvania
Georgia
Virginia
Missouri
Missouri
South Carolina
Florida
City
Los Angeles
Muncie
Sharon
Athens
Abingdon
Excelsior Spg.
N.Kansas City
Orangeburg
Ft. Lauderdale
                                 298

-------
                          APPENDIX C



          INSPECTION MANUAL FOR HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS



                    FROM RUBBER PROCESSING






1.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM SYNTHETIC



    RUBBER MANUFACTURING



     The synthetic rubber industry comprises establishments



primarily engaged in the manufacture of synthetic rubber by



polymerization or copolymerization.  An elastomer, for the



purpose of this classification, is a rubberlike material capable



of vulcanization, such as copolymers of butadiene and styrene



or butadiene and acrylonitrile, polybutadienes, chloroprene



rubbers, and isobutylene-isoprene copolymers.  Butadiene co-



polymers containing less than  50 percent butadiene are classi-



fied in industry 2821.  Natural chlorinated rubbers are cyclized



rubbers are considered as semifinished products and are classi-



fied in industry 3069.1  A brief description of the manufacture



of styrene butadiene rubber, the major product type within the



synthetic rubber industry (SIC 2822), is presented below to



familiarize the inspector with the basic process operations.



Atmospheric emissions from styrene butadiene rubber  (SBR) pro-




duction are also discussed in  Section 1.2.
                            299

-------
 1.1   Process  Description




 1.1.1 Emulsion  Rubber  Production (Crumb Rubber) - Monomers and



 raw materials used  in the  production of synthetic rubber are



 stored in the tank  farm area.   These storage vessels are equip-



 ped with a  safety relief to  the flare where applicable.  Poly-



 merization  inhibitors are  removed from the monomers by caustic



 washing in  the tank farm area  prior  to transfer to the polymeri-



 zation area.




      In the pigment preparation area the soap solution used to



 carry the polymer in suspension through the reactor is made up



 and pumped  to the reactor  area.   Also,  batch preparation of



 activator,  antioxidants, belt  spray  solution and catalyst solu-



 tion  are performed in this area.   Bulk materials received in



 bags  or drums are stored in  the pigment building.



      All charge  ingredients  are introduced to a precharge cooler



 at the polymerization area just prior  to entering  the  first of



 several reactors.  The reaction is initiated upon  the  addition



 of a  catalyst.   Temperature  of  the reaction (an exothermic



 reaction)  is controlled by passing chilled methanol solution



 through cooling  coils located  inside each reactor.   The reaction



 is terminated when the conversion  target is achieved.



     Unreacted monomers are  recovered  in the recovery  area  where



butadiene is drawn from the  latex  through vacuum tanks.   Any



remaining butadiene and the  residual styrene are stripped from



the latex by steam stripping through a  multiplate  column.   The



stripped latex is stored in  the  finishing or processing area
                            300

-------
in large storage tanks.  In the finishing area the latex is




extended with an extender oil and carbon black (on some rubber



types)  prior to the coagulation of the latex.  In coagulation,



an acid is added to the latex, converting the soap to an organic



acid, thus allowing the rubber to agglomerate into crumb.  The



excess water is treated through the plant's wastewater treat-



ment facility as the rubber crumb is dewatered.  Rubber is



dewatered by mechanically squeezing the crumb and passing the



partly dewatered crumb through a tunnel dryer.  The finished



product is baled into 75-pound units.  A flow schematic is



shown in Figure C-l.



1.1.2  Solution Rubber Production  (Crumb Rubber)  - In solution



rubber production, a solvent is used to carry the polymer



through the reactors and into storage.  This solvent is stripped



from the rubber solution, returned, purified and reused.  A flow




schematic is shown in Figure C-2.



     In the purification area, the heavy and light impurities



are removed from the solvent.  The light impurities are returned



to the monomer storage for reuse.  The heavy impurities are



stored as waste oil and sold whenever a sufficient quantity is



generated.  Also in this area, the monomer and solvent are



dried in preparation for the reaction step.  The caustic washed




monomers are pumped to the reactor area from the storage area.



     In the reactor area, all ingredients are properly intro-




duced into the reactor and reaction is initiated by the addition



of a catalyst.  Polymerized monomers in solvent  (cement) are
                            301

-------
CO
O
NJ
           MONOMER
           STORAGE
           BUTADIENE
 VACUUM
DISTILLATION

STYRENE
STORAGE
ATM. J
SOAP
l_
ACTIVATOR
CATALYST
MODIFIER
f ATM.
EXTENDER OIL


f
AND WASH

INHIBITED MONOMER
»•
TREATED
PROCESS
WATER
~T
SOAP SOLUTION M

EMERGENCY
FLARE
[—TREATED PROCESS WATER

•^
ACTIVATOR
CATALYST
MODIFIER
SOLUTIONS
	 to
J




' — 1 — f ATM.
EMERGENCY L!VE
EXTENDER OIL
CARBON BLACK SLURRY
CON
F
BOILER .
EXHAUST |ATM.
STEAM 	 	
COAGULATING
SULFURIC ACID


ANT 1 OX
M
PING
^'_

COAGULATING o
BRINE g:
L*J

DANT
/
LATEX
STORAGE
^




o'
,
COAGULATION
AND SCREENING
RETURN COAGULATION LIQUID


— »•
SCREENED COAGULATION LIQUID

a
AN
O
13
Cr
z
O

o




MAKEU
WATEF
/

2T
QL
C
ce
5
ijj
Z
Q±
P*
•ft

<
ce
ce
<
S
UJ
Z
QE

CRUMB RINSING
AND OEWATERING ~*
                                                                          ATM.
                                                                                      LIVE-
                                                                                     STEAM
                                                                  RETURN
                                                                            TREATED
                                                                            PROCESS
BOILER
HOUSE

BOILER FEED WATER


WATER
TREATMENT
UNITS
RAW INTAKE WATER

         ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
                     Figure C-l.   Flow  diagram  for  emulsion  crumb  rubber production.

-------
                  ATM.
                                                      EMERGENCY RARE
             ATM.
TO FLARE

   t

MONOMER
RECOVERY
ABSORBER
                                                                    LIGHT
                                                                   MONOMER
                                                                                  EMERGENCY
                                                                                    FLARE

SOLVENT
SEPARATION


SE
|
              HEAVY
             MONOMER
            SEPARATION
                                                                                                             COOLING
                                                                                                            WATER RETURN
                                                                                             MAKEUP WATER     COOLING
                                                                                              I   •       WATER SUPPLY
                     BUTADIENE
                     MONOMER
                     STORAGE
U)
o
GO

MONOMER
STORAGE
FLARE j
CATALYST
IN SOLVENT .

x* I
EMERGENCY
FLARE








                                                                                LIVE STEAM.
                                                                                                      CONDENSATE
                                                                                                 BOILER  (RETURN)
                                                                                                EXHAUST    I
                                                                                                  ATM.
                                           TREATED
                                           PROCESS
                                           WATER
                                                                                    STEAM ^
                                                                                    SUPPLY
t
BOILER
HOUSE



BOILER FEED WATER



TREATMENT
UNITS
                                                                                                                             RAW INTAKE WATER
                   *VOLATILE ORGANICS
                           Figure C-2.    Flow  diagram  for  solution  crumb  rubber  production.

-------
extended with an extender oil and then stored  in  the  desolvent-




ization area.



     The desolventization area removes the  solvent  from the



cement solution and replaces the solvent with  water which  is



used to carry the rubber to the dewatering  and finishing area.



Solvent stripped from the cement with steam is condensed and



returned to the tank farm for storage and purification.



     The rubber crumb is dewatered mechanically by  squeezing,



followed by single-pass tunnel drying in the finishing  area.



The finished product is packaged in 75-pound bales.



1.1.3  Emulsion Polymerization (Latex Rubber)  - Butadiene  is



received in tank cars.  It is unloaded into storage tanks  sub-



merged in concrete pits of water.  Before using for reactions,



it is caustic washed to remove inhibitor and transferred to



washed butadiene tanks.  Centrifugal pumps  charge washed fresh



butadiene from these tanks.  Pumps also charge recycled buta-



diene from recycle storage tanks and the two streams are blended



in the reactor areas for correct purity.



     Styrene is received by tank car or trailer.  It is unloaded



into tanks located in diked enclosures.  Pure  and recycled



styrene are pumped to the reactor areas and blended much the



same as butadiene.



     Soap solutions are made up in tanks and charged to the



reactors by means of pumps via control meters.



     Activator solutions are also made up and  charged to the



reactor.
                            304

-------
     Catalyst, which starts the reactions, is charged from a



weigh scale after other ingredients have been charged and when



the batch has been cooled down to operating temperature.




     Control of reaction temperature is done by a cooling jacket



and coils.  An agitator provides proper mixing of contents.




     When the proper degree of reaction is reached, stopper is



added to stop further reaction.  The reactor is discharged to



the receiver where steam is added to warm the contents and in-



crease the pressure of the residual butadiene.



     The warmed latex is pumped to the degas column which is



held at a vacuum.  The butadiene vapors rise via the top vapor



line to the vacuum pump and compressor.  The compressed and



cooled butadiene returns to storage tanks as a liquid to be



later reblended for recharging to reactors.



     The degassed latex is pumped from the degas tank to the



top of the stripping column.  Steam is introduced at the bottom.



The latex flows down across 8 to 10 perforated plates where



the steam strips the styrene from the latex.  The steam and



styrene vapors rise to the top and are condensed to liquid.



The styrene-water mixture is drained to a decanter where the




styrene rises to the top and the water is drained off the



bottom.  The styrene is returned to storage for reblending.



     The stripped latex is pumped from the bottom of the strip-



ping column to a blend tank where it is held for concentration.



     The dilute latex in the stripping column blend tank is




pumped via a flow meter to the concentrator.
                            305

-------
     After a latex level is reached  in  the  concentrator,  recir-




culation is started.  The latex circulating pump recirculates




the latex through the heater to the  spray nozzle in the concen-




trator to mix with the incoming dilute  latex.   The excess heat




causes flashing of the latex and evaporation of the water




vapors.  The latex falls to the pool of  latex  being recirculated,




Vapors go over the top outlet to the condenser.   The condensate




flows to the decanter.




     When latex reaches the proper solids,  part of the  latex




is diverted to the finished latex blend  tank by means of  a




flow controller.




     When the latex blend tank is filled to the desired level,




it is tested.  The loading of the latex  into tank cars,  tank




trucks, or drums is done as dictated by  shipping schedules.




1.2  Atmospheric Emissions




     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions from synthetic




rubber production are listed in Table C-l.




     It is presently impossible to determine which specific




hydrocarbons are emitted during SBR  production,  as "volatile




organics."  However, the monomers, styrene  and butadiene,  and




the solvent, hexane, are known to be the major hydrocarbon




emissions.




2.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC  EMISSIONS FROM  TIRE




    MANUFACTURING




     The tire and inner tube industry includes establishments




primarily engaged in manufacturing pneumatic casings, inner
                            306

-------
                                                                    Table C-l.  EMISSIONS MJD CONTROL - SYNTHETIC RUBBER
U)
o
Emi ssion
source
Styrene storage
(breathing)
Solvent storage
(fugitive)
Reactor section
(fugitive)
Recovery area
(fugitive)
Butadiene recovery
Coagulation, dewatering
drying
Styrene storage
(breathing)
Hexane storage
(breathing)
Storage (fugitive)
Purification area
(fugitive)
Reactor area
(fugitive)
De solvent! zation
(surge vent)
Desolventization
(fugitive)
Uncontrolled
emissions ,
gAg
0.02
0.07
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.6
0.02
0.5
0.07
0.2
0.61
2.7
0.2
Best control
technique
Control
efficiency
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
Emulsion polymerization (90 percent of total production capacity)
Floating roof
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Incineration
Incineration
Solution polymeri
Floating roof
Floating roof
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Housekeeping
Improved steam
stripping
Housekeeping
80%
50-80%
50-80%
50-80%
90%
90%
zation (10 perc
80%
80%
50-80%
50-80%
50-80%
50%
50-80%
0.004
0.035
0.2
0.05
0.6
0.06
ent of total i
0.004
0.1
0.035
0.1
0.3
1.4
0.1
4
14
78
20
490
120
iroduction capacit
4
98
14
39
119
530
39
40
40
40
40
18a
18a
Y)
40
40
40
40
40
260b
40
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
49%
0
85%a
85%a
0
59%
0
0
66%
50%3
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.02
0.07
0.2
0.1
0.09
0.09
0.02
0.2
0.04
0.2
0.12
1.4
0.2
                     COMPOSITE TOTAL:
                                                   4.1*
                     aThe regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.
                     "50 percent control represents maximum reduction feasible.
                      E  = 0.9 (1.79) + 0.1 (24.5)
                         = 1.61 + 2.45
                         = 4.1
                                                                                                                                                           E_ = 1.01

-------
tubes, and solid and cushion tires for all  types  of  vehicles,




airplanes, farm equipment, and children's vehicles;  tiring; and




camelback and tire repair and retreading materials.2  A  brief




discussion of the manufacture of tires is presented  below to




familiarize the inspector with the basic process  operations.




Atmospheric emissions from tire manufacture are discussed in




Section 2.2.




2.1  Process Description




     The compounding and processing of rubber  involves not only




the thorough incorporation of proper amounts of ingredients but




also the development of characteristics which  will enable the




compound to be easily handled and will provide the desired




qualities in the finished product.




     Though highly desirable qualities in the  finished article,




the inherent toughness and resilience of rubber make  it  a some-




what intractable material which frequently requires  the  repeated




persuasion of powerful machinery to convert it into  the  final



form.




     The development of the finished tire requires a  precise




mixture of several polymers, chemicals, resin, oil and carbon




black.  This is a mechanical mixture with controls to maintain




low heat.  Chemical change occurs in the curing press under




heat and pressure but in a completely closed vessel.  Once




cured the polymers link with the chemical additives  that form a




link that is difficult to break down.




2.1.1  Breakdown - To facilitate compounding and  subsequent pro-




cessing it is necessary to "break down" or work and  soften the




                             308

-------
rubber by passing it one or more times through one or more spe-



cial machines.  Another function of the breakdown process is to



combine several rubbers of different sources or types into one



homogeneous product.  Because of the high viscosity  (or low



plasticity) of rubber, it absorbs considerable power which is



converted by friction within the rubber into sensible heat.  As



a consequence, rubber breakdown and mixing machines are usually



water cooled to keep the rubber temperature below some critical



figure that is determined by its composition.  Oppositely, some



machines are deliberately heated to shorten processing time,



reduce power requirements, or promote a desired reaction.



2.1.2  Plasticator - The plasticator, which is often used for



breaking down either crude or synthetic rubber, is actually a



large extrusion machine which can handle considerable quantities



at one time.  Its working action is so thorough that one pass-



through usually produces the desired plasticity.  The machine



consists essentially of a specially designed rotor or screw



rotating in a cylinder equipped with a suitable extruding head



and driven by a large electric motor through a heavy speed-



reducing gear set.  Provision is made to heat or cool the



working parts.



2.1.3  Compounding and Mixing - After rubber stock has been



broken down, the next step is to add and mix all the several



ingredients that may be required to produce the desired charac-



teristics in the final product.  There are probably thousands



of such materials, though only a few are likely to be used in
                             309

-------
any single product.  The order in which they  are  added  can also

affect the quality of the blend.  While this  order  can  vary

widely among different manufacturers of a given final blend,

the following list of materials and addition  sequence is pre-

sented as a general illustration:

     1.  Rubber constituents

     2.  Plasticizers, softeners, processing  oils,
         antisofteners

     3.  Special carbon blacks

     4.  Accelerators, retarders, antioxidants, sun-check
         inhibitors, activators

     5.  Reinforcing and inert fillers, color pigments,
         stiffeners

     6.  Vulcanizers, fungicides, odorants

     7.  Abrasives, blowing agents

     In general those ingredients which are inert or slowacting

and require maximum mixing can be added quite early in  the

sequence.  On the other hand, the addition of volatile  materi-

als, vulcanizers and other quick-acting chemicals,  and  machine-

damaging abrasives, is postponed as long as possible.

     Rubber becomes more plastic as a consequence of the break-

down process and temperature increase; however, further increase
                                              i
in plasticity can be obtained by the addition of  softeners, com-

monly referred to as "processing oils."  These softeners repre-

sent a large variety of materials, including  petroleum  oils,

special petroleum derivatives, waxes and asphalts.  The use of

a softener will generally reduce mixing and processing  tempera-

tures,  aid in dispersing and incorporating dry compounds,


                             310

-------
improve flow during molding, and reduce "nerve"  (strength or



resistance) during extrusion and calendering.  Synthetic rub-



bers generally require more softener than the natural type.



Since a softener can greatly influence the characteristics of




the final compound, great care is exercised in selecting the



type and quantity used.




     Contrary to common misimpression, the special petroleum-



derived carbon blacks are not mere coloring materials nor inert



fillers but extremely valuable additives which greatly increase



the toughness and wear resistance of rubber.  Of particular



value in automobile tire tread stock, carbon blacks have vastly



increased the useful mileage life of tires.



     Sulfur is still the principal vulcanizing or curing agent



for natural rubber and is also used with the synthetics except



neoprene in which zinc oxide or magnesium oxide are employed.



The sulfur used is a fine, yellow powder of about 99.9 percent



purity.  The amount of sulfur used varies, depending on the



type of rubber being processed, but generally falls in the



range of from 0.5 to 4.0 percent.  As a general rule, vulcaniza-



tion of natural rubber requires about 50 percent more sulfur




than the synthetics.



     Proper mixing provides uniform blending of the ingredients




throughout the rubber.  Two types of machines can be used for



this process, the rubber mill and the internal mixer.



     Rubber mills - Rubber mills are widely used for many pur-



poses such as breakdown, grinding rubber and scrap materials,
                            311

-------
and warming stock in preparation for  the  calender or tubing



machines.  Mills are also used for mixing rubber and compound-



ing ingredients but to a lesser extent  since  the faster and



more thorough internal mixer  ("Banbury")  has  come into such




universal use.



     Mixing in a mill requires skilled  handling.   Broken rubber



is applied to the mill and the various  ingredients are added in



proper order.  The blend has to be continually  folded and



rolled to get the ingredients evenly  dispersed.   This method is



slow and hard to control and it is generally  being displaced by



the internal mixer.



     Internal mixers - In the larger  modern mills, rubber ingre-



dients are blended in internal (Banbury)  mixers  which provide



both fast and uniform blending.



     The internal mixer is of very rugged construction because



of the heavy duty work it must perform  and consequent high



power application.  The machine consists  essentially of an



enclosed trough or mixing chamber inclosing two  mixing rotors



or blades, a hopper into which the raw  materials are fed,  and a



sliding door in the bottom through which  the  mixed batch is



discharged.  The blades of the rotors are formed in interrupted



spirals and the rotors are driven at  slightly different speeds



so as to apply a rubbing and "smearing" action  to the rubber



mix between them.  Water sprays are installed around the body



of the machine and in the rotors to control working temperature




Closely fitting end-thrust adjustments  are provided to absorb
                             312

-------
the slight axial forces developed by the spiral blades, to pre-



vent rubber stock from working out through the housings, and to




facilitate maintenance of close fits and followup as wear occurs.



2-1.4  Calendering - A calender machine usually contains three



adjustable rolls which are used to roll flat sheets of rubber



compound or to press it into either or both sides of fabric or



tire cording.




     The necessary heat to maintain the plasticity of the rub-



ber is furnished by steam heating the rolls.  Since the roll



bearings carry very heavy loads, it is usually necessary to



cool them with water to prevent bearing damage.



     Many problems may arise during calendering such as scorch-



ing of the sheeting, sticking, tearing, blistering or roughness.



Compounders and operators must be able to recognize and correct



the adverse conditions causing these difficulties.



2.1.5  Extrusion - Extrusion is a continuous process for con-



verting rubber stock into long strips of specific cross section,



such as rods, tubes, moldings, sheets or filaments.  Extrusion



machines are usually of the screw type in which warm rubber



stock is fed into the top hopper and forced out by the screw




through the forming die.



     Like calendering, this process requires operators with



skill and knowledge in order to meet the numerous problems that



may arise.  Rate of feed, speed of machine, temperature, plas-




ticity of the rubber stock and presence of dirt are factors



that influence the quality and quantity of product delivered by




the machine.




                            313

-------
2.1.6  Tire Building - Stock components are mechanically




assembled at the tire building machine where  a  skilled  operator




"builds" the tire.  The operation is accomplished  on  a  variety




of machines depending upon tire construction  and degree of auto-




mation.  In all cases, however, the assembly  is accomplished




without the addition of heat or mechanical energy.




2.1.7  Curing - Rubber vulcanization is accomplished  in a




curing press where the addition of heat, pressure  and time pro-




duces a finished product.  The automated tire-curing  press is a




sophisticated electronically controlled piece of equipment




where the three variables are controlled to produce the desired




end product.




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-3.




2.2  Atmospheric Emissions




     Potential sources of hydrocarbon emissions from  tire manu-




facturing are listed in Table C-2.  It is presently impossible




to determine which specific hydrocarbons are  emitted  from these




operations.




3.   PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM RUBBER




     AND PLASTIC FOOTWEAR MANUFACTURING




     The rubber and plastics footwear industry  includes estab-




lishments primarily engaged in manufacturing  all rubber and




plastics footwear. . .having rubber or plastic  soles  vulcanized




to the uppers.3  Processes specific to the utilization  of




plastics within this industry are excluded from further consid-




eration here.  A brief description of the manufacture of canvas
                             314

-------

F
- RUBBER
- BLACK
-OILS

- CHEM.
- PIGMENTS
/*
COMPOUND
'REPARATION
BANBURY)
l»-WASTE
1, 2, 5
-


TIRE
CORD -*•
FABRIC*
STEEL
WIRE*


TYPE OF WASTE CODE
1 - PAPER, CARDBOARD
2 -RUBBER COMPOUND
3 -TEXTILE MATERIALS
4 - METAL
5 - OTHER

FABRIC
COATING
( CALENDERS )
*
CONSTRUCT
TIRE
BEAD

PREPARE TREAD
AND SIDEWALL
( EXTRUDER )
s
WASTE
1, 3, 5

-j -^
WASTE
2, 3,4
S*
1
WASTE
2, 4

CARCASS
PLY
CUTTING
\
BUILD
"GREEN"
TIRE
"1
WASTE y*
9 3 /
{., 3 	 '
MOLD
» AND
LUKL 1 IKL 	 P
IX. 1 *
T * T WA5
WASTE WASTE , 2, 3
2' 3' 4 2 REJECTS
2, 3, 4

QUALITY
• CONTROL
AMr> TFCTIMP
AINU IL.J I IINU
>TE
4
i
PRODUCT
SHIPPED
^VOLATILE ORGANICS
            Figure C-3.  Schematic  diagram of tire manufacturing process.

-------
                                                   Table  C-2.  EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - TIRES AND INNER TUBES
CTl

Uncontrolled
emissions, Best control
Emission source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Fabric cementing

Tire building

Extrusion
Undertread cementing

Treadend cementing

Green tire spraying
Curing

Solvent storage
TOTAL : E
a
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.043
5b

3.6
d
0.01
1.256

0.25f

19.7
0.22

0.01
= 30.23

Average
NSPS uncontrolled
Control emissions, emission rate,
technique efficiency g/kg Ib/day
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Scheduling change

Process change
Carbon adsorption
or incineration
Carbon adsorption
or incineration
Water base spraying
Ventilation and
incineration
—


90% 0.01 10
60% 0.02 5
55% 0.02 4
60% 2 500

50% 1.8 370

80% 0.01 1
90% 0.12 125

90% 0.025 25

90% 1.97 1,970
60% 0.09 22

0.01 1
E = 6.06
n
. -on t-
Permissible Emission Regulated
emission rate, reduction emissions.
Ib/day required g/kg
15 0 0.1
15 0 0.05
15 0 0.04
200C 60%° 2

40 50%b 1.8

15 0 0.01
40 68% 0.4

40 0 0.25

2959 85%g 2.95
15 32%C 0.15

40 0 0.01
Es = 7.75

            Fabric cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 50 percent of the final product weight.
           C60 percent control represents maximum reduction feasible.
            Extrusion is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 20 percent of the final- product weight.
           SUndertread cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 50 percent of the final product weight.
            Treadend cementing is assumed to be utilized in the production of tires in 10 percent of the final product weight.
           9The regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.

-------
footwear, the major product type within the rubber and plastics



footwear industry  (SIC 3021), is presented below to familiarize



the inspector with the basic process operations.  Atmospheric




emissions from rubber footwear manufacture are also discussed,



in Section 3.2.




3.1  Process Description




     The production of canvas footwear involves six steps:



compounding of rubber stocks, molding of the soles, cutting and



fabricating canvas parts, extrusion of other rubber components,



construction of the final product from all these items, and cur-



ing of the final product.  Figure C-4 is a schematic flow dia-



gram of the manufacturing process, which is described briefly



in this section.



     The various rubber stocks received at a canvas footwear



plant are compounded with other processing chemicals in Banbury



mixers or roll mills and then sheeted out.  The sheeted stock



is next cooled and dipped in an anti-tack solution to prevent




sticking during storage.



     A canvas shoe is built from four major components:  soles,



inner soles, canvas uppers, and foxing.  The soles are gener-



ally formed using injection, compression, or transfer molding



techniques.  Compression molding is now more common, but it pro-



duces more molding waste than do automated injection techniques.




After deflashing in a buffing machine, the molded soles are



coated with latex adhesive and then dried in an oven, which may




be electric.
                             317

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CO
                                                                                                        PRODUCT
                                                                                                       SHIPMENTS
                                       WATER
                     * VOLATILE ORGAN ICS
                        Figure C-4.   Schematic  flow diagram for the  production
                                    of typical canvas footwear  items.

-------
     In the production of inner soles, flat, cellular rubber



sheets are prepared by extruding or calendering a rubber stock



containing blowing agents; e.g., sodium bicarbonate or azodi-



carbonamide.  The extruded sheet is continuously cured by



passing through heated presses, during which the blowing agents



decompose and expand the sheet into cellular sponge.  The inner



soles are die-cut from this material.




     Individual sheets of canvas material are coated with latex,



drawn together, and passed over a steam-heated drum to form two-



or three-ply fabric.  These fabricated sheets are cut to the



proper dimensions using a die and a press.  The different can-



vas pieces making up the footwear uppers are then stitched



together on sewing machines.



     The foxing, or edging, is extruded as a long strip from



rubber stock.



     The shoe is assembled from its four basic components on a



form called a last.  The canvas upper is cemented at its edges



and placed over the last.  The inner sole is attached to the



bottom of the last.  The bottom of the inner sole and canvas



combination is dipped in a latex-adhesive solution.  Finally,




the outer sole, the foxing, and the toe and heel pieces are




attached to the shoe.



     The finished shoes are inspected and placed on racks in an




air-heated autoclave for curing.  Anhydrous ammonia is injected



into the autoclave to complete the cure, the amount required



ranging from 0.9 kg to 2.3 kg of NH3 per thousand pairs of
                            319

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shoes cured.  The curing cycle lasts about  1  hr,  at  the  end of




which the ammonia-air mixture is vented to  the atmosphere.




3.2  Atmospheric Emissions




     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions  from rubber




footwear manufacture are listed in Table C-3.




     It is presently impossible to determine  which specific




hydrocarbons are emitted from rubber footwear manufacture as




"volatile organics."  Organic particulates  from  compounding,




mixing, milling, and deflashing will consist  of  fine particles




of natural and/or synthetic rubber.  Several  factors will




affect the species and quantities emitted from rubber footwear




production.  The most important of these are  temperatures




achieved during manufacturing operations and  the  boiling points




(i.e., relative volatility) of rubber processing  chemicals used.




Also pertinent is the exact amount of ammonia used in curing




the finished shoes, the reported range being  from 0.9 kg to




2.3 kg per thousand pairs of shoes.




4.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM RUBBER




    RECLAIMING




     The rubber reclaiming industry includes  establishments




primarily engaged in reclaiming rubber from scrap rubber tires,




tubes, and miscellaneous waste rubber articles by processes




which result in devulcanized, depolymerized or regenerated




replasticized products containing added ingredients.   These




products are sold for use as a raw material in the manufacture




of rubber goods with or without admixture with crude rubber
                             320

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                                                            Table  C-3.   EMISSIONS  AND CONTROL - RUBBER FOOTWEAR
Emission
source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Rubber Cementing
Latex dipping and drying
Molding

Curing

Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
95
0.1°
o.nd

0.08e

Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
36%a
90%
60%

60%

NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.02
60.8
0.01
0.04

0.03

Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
6
3
3
5,240
6
6

4.4

Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
b
3,350
15
15

15

Emission
reduction
required
9%
0
0
36%b
0
0

0

Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
60.8
0.1
0.11

0.08

U)
ho
           TOTAL:
           a
E  =95.49
 u
                                                                                    E  = 60.92
                                                                                                                                                 E  =  61.29
             40  percent of rubber cementing that is performed in a spray booth can be  controlled by  90 percent.  The other 60 percent of cementing is done in
             open space and is not controllable.
             These represent the maximum reduction feasible.
            CLatex dipping is assumed to be utilized in 20 percent of the final product  weight.
             Molding is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.
            SCuring is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.

-------
 or  synthetic  rubber.11   A brief description of the reclaiming of



 rubber  is  presented  below to familiarize the inspector with the



 basic process operations.   Atmospheric emissions from rubber



 reclaiming are discussed in Section 4.2.



 4 .1 Process  Description



     J. M.  Ball originally defined reclaimed rubber, in the



 first edition of Rubber Technology, as "the product resulting



 from the treatment of  vulcanized  scrap rubber tires, tubes and



 miscellaneous waste  rubber articles by the application of heat



 and chemical  agents, whereby a substantial 'devulcanization' or



 regeneration  of the  rubber compound to its original plastic



 state is effected, thus permitting the product to be processed,



 compounded, and vulcanized.   Reclaiming is essentially depoly-



 merization; the combined  sulfur is not removed.   The product is



 sold for use  as a raw material in  the  manufacture of rubber



 goods, with or  without  admixture with  crude rubber or synthetic



 rubber."30   The  United  States  Department of Commerce has



 adopted this  definition  in  the report  on Reclaimed Rubber  for



 the 1972 Census  of Manufacturers.




     There are  currently three different process  technologies



 used by the rubber reclaiming  industry in  the United States:



 the digester process, the pan  (or  heater)  process,  and the



mechanical process.   The most  common reclaiming technique  is



the digester process, which  has almost replaced the  pan pro-




cess,  the oldest of the three.  The mechanical process is  the



least  conventional one, and, as such,  it is  not widely
                            322

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practiced.  All three processes use similar methods of rubber




scrap separation and size reduction.  The differences show up



in the depolymerization and final processing.




4.1.1  Metal Removal, Size Reduction, and Fiber Separation -  •



Scrap rubber received at a reclaiming plant is first sorted to



remove steel-belted or studded tires, which can be either sent



to special processing facilities or discarded as waste.  Brass



and steel valve stems and valve seats are manually removed



from the remaining tires.  The bead wire, which serves to



secure the tire to the wheel rim, may also be cut out of the



tire at this time.



     Next, the scrap rubber is size reduced using either crack-



ers or hammer mills.  The cracker is a two-roll machine, having



working roll lengths of 76 cm to 107 cm and diameters of 46 cm



to 81 cm.11  Each roll is axially corrugated, and the two



rotate in opposite directions at different speeds.  As the rub-



ber is dropped into the cracker, the slower roll corrugations



momentarily "hold" the waste while the faster roll corrugations



shear, slice, crush, and abrade the waste.  This process is



repeated until all the material passes through a screen of



some predetermined mesh size.  Some reclaimers undertake fur-



ther size reduction down to less than 10 mesh using secondary




and tertiary crackers.



     A hammer mill is essentially a high-speed rotating drum



which hammers the scrap rubber with pivoting "T" or "I" bars



or with knives mounted on the drum's periphery.  There may be



stationary knives located on the frame  within which the drum




                            323

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revolves, with or without a perforated plate or  screen  that



retains the scrap until it is sufficiently size  reduced to



pass through.  The machine containing drum knives may have a



special feeding device to control the input of the  rubber waste.



     Wastes containing reinforcing fiber materials,  such as



cotton, rayon, nylon, polyesters, fiberglass, and metal, require



either mechanical fiber separation or chemical fiber degrada-



tion.  The ground rubber-and-fiber mixture is first  separated



into streams of different particle size by a screener.   These



streams are conveyed to separation tables which  effectively



separate loose fiber from clean rubber by vibration  and air



flotation.  This is a continuous operation with  recycle and



with free scrap being added at all times.



     The fiber and rubber-fiber portions are next fed into



hammer mills for hammering or scraping.  After the material



has been sufficiently size reduced to pass through a peripheral



screen, it is fed to sifters or beaters™  In these machines,



loose rubber particles separate from the fiber and pass through



a retaining screen, while the fiber is conveyed  for  recycle,



either to the screener or to another set of hammer mills.



     The final operation of the fiber separation process is



baling the waste fiber.  This baled fiber is made up of small



strands, less than 3.8 cm long, and contains a small amount of



entrapped rubber.11  This fiber is discarded unless  there is



a market for its reuse.




     Fiber-separated rubber is next subjected to fine grinding.



Crackers, similar to those used for primary size reduction,




                            324

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grind the rubber to -30 mesh or smaller.  Hammer mills can be



used for fine grinding but are not as efficient as crackers.



The finely ground rubber is then screened.  Particles that pass



through the screens are ready for depolymerization, while the



remaining material is recycled for further size reduction.



4.1.2  Depolymerization -



     Digester process - Digestion is a wet process using rubber



scrap that has been ground to thicknesses between 0.63 cm and



0.95 cm.29  The fine, fiber-free rubber particles are mixed



with water and reclaiming agents and fed to a jacketed auto-



clave.  These digesters can accommodate about 2,300 kg to



2,700 kg of scrap, water, and chemicals in each reclaim batch.30



The digester is agitated by a series of paddles on a shaft



which is continuously driven at a slow speed to maintain the



charge in motion for uniform heat penetration.  The digestion



liquor is heated by the injection of steam, at pressures



generally around 1.38 MPa  (200 psi) for a residence time of



8 to 12 hours.30  Another reference indicates a residence time



of 5 to 24 hours at a digester temperature of 188°C to 207°C.29



Reclaiming agents are fed to the digester with the scrap rubber



to accelerate depolymerization and to impart desirable pro-



cessing properties to the rubber.  Rubber scrap which has not



been mechanically defibered requires chemical degradation during



digestion.  Therefore, defibering agents  and plasticizing oils




are added to complete the charge.



     When the digestion is complete, the  resultant slurry is




blown down under internal pressure into a blowdown tank.  From





                            325

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here, the rubber slurry is pumped to a holding tank where




additional water is added for dilution and washing.  After agi-




tation, the mixture is discharged onto vibrating screens where




a series of spray nozzles wash the rubber free from the diges-




tion liquor and hydrolyzed fiber.  The washed scrap is then




passed through a dewatering press.  A small amount of residual




moisture is necessary to prevent excessive buildup of heat




during subsequent refining.




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-5.




     Pan (or heater) process - Fiber-separated, fine-ground




scrap is reduced to an even smaller particle size by grinding




on smooth steel rolls.  The rubber is next blended with reclaim-




ing oils in an open mixer and then placed in stacked shallow




pans.  The depth of treated scrap in these pans may be 15 cm




to 20 cm.30  The stacked pans are placed on a carriage that




can be wheeled into a large horizontal heater, which is a




single-shell pressure vessel.




     In this method of depolymerization, live steam at 1.38 MPa




(200 psi) to 1.55 MPa (225 psi)  is introduced to the heater to




directly contact the rubber scrap.30  Another reference states




that depolymerization is carried out at 185°C  [saturated steam




pressure ^1.12 MPa  (163 psi)] for 2 to 18 hours.29  After




this treatment, the heater is opened, and the reclaimed scrap




is unloaded and cooled.   No drying is required because the




small amount of water remaining will assist in refining.




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-6.
                            326

-------
                       RUBBERSCRAP
                         RECEIVING
                        AND SORTING
                        VALVE STEMS
                       AND VALVE SEATS
                         REMOVAL
                       SIZE REDUCTION
                      FIBER SEPARATION
                       FURTHER SIZE
                         REDUCTION
                         SCREENING
                            .REUSE OR
                             DISPOSAL
            WATER
     CHEMICALS-
      AND OILS
            OIL
           RECYCLE
                         DIGESTIVE
                      DEPOLYMERIZATION
                         SLOWDOWN
T
                          DRYING
          FILLERS
        AND LIQUIDS
   MIXING
                         REFINING
                         STRAINING
       ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
                                                               RECLAIMED
                                                                RUBBER
Figure  C-5.    Schematic  flow  diagram  of  digester  process
                     for  reclaiming rubber.31
                                    327

-------
                      FIBER-FREE
                     RUBBER SCRAP
RECLAIMING OILS
                      RECEIVING
                     AND SORTING
                     VALVE STEMS
                    AND VALVE SEATS
                       REMOVAL
                    SIZE REDUCTION
                      SCREENING
                                     sir
MIXING
                      AUTOCLAVE
                   DEPOLYMERIZATION
      FILLERS
    AND LIQUIDS'
MIXING
                       REFINING
                      STRAINING
          •^VOLATILE ORGANICS
                                                                    RECLAIMED
                                                                     RUBBER
       Figure  C-6.   Schematic flow diagram of  pan  process
                       for  reclaiming rubber.31
                                   328

-------
   •  Mechanical process - Unlike the other two processes,



mechanical reclaiming is continuous.  Fiber-separated, fine-



ground rubber scrap is fed into a high-temperature, high-shear



machine.  The machine is a horizontal cylinder in which a screw



forces material along the chamber wall in the presence of



reclaiming agents and depolymerization catalysts.  Tempera-



tures generated are in the range of 177°C to 204°C with time



requirements between 1 and 4 minutes.3 °  The discharged re-



claimed rubber needs no drying.



4.1.3  Mixing, Refining, Straining, and Packaging - Reinforcing



materials such as clay, carbon black, and softeners are



most commonly mixed into the rubber using a horizontal ribbon



mixer.  This is an enclosed rectangular box with a rounded



bottom in which mixing is accomplished by a horizontally



driven continuous ribbon, paddles, or a combination of the two.



The mixed rubber and filler compounds are next intimately



blended in a Banbury internal mixer.  It usually takes between



1 and 3 minutes to blend the material in a single batch.  Since



extruders permit continuous processing, more reclaimers are




converting to that method of blending.



     The reclaim next undergoes preliminary refining  on a




short two-roll mill called a breaker  refiner.  The  smooth



rolls are of different diameters  and  rotate at different speeds



so that there is a high friction  ratio which tends  to form  the




stock into a smooth clean sheet,  approximately 0.3  mm thick.



The temperature of the rolls is controlled by water cooling.
                            329

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     The sheet is dropped into a screw conveyor which  carries



the reclaim to a strainer.  The strainer is a heavy-duty  extrud-



er which contains a wire screen (10- to 40-mesh openings) held



between two perforated steel plates in the head of  the machine.



Straining removes such foreign materials as glass,  metal, wood,



or sand from the rubber.  After straining, the rubber  goes on



to a second refiner called a finisher, which is the same  type



of machine as the breaker.  The final thickness of  the clean



reclaim is between 0.05 mm and 0.25 mm.11



     Each reclaimer may complete his operations by  sending his



product to the customer in the form of slabs, stacked  on  pal-



lets, or in bales.  Slabs are made by allowing the  thin sheet



of reclaim to wrap around a windup roll until the proper  thick-




ness is obtained.  The wrapped layers are then cut  off the roll,



forming a solid slab of a certain length, width, and weight.



Each slab, weighing approximately 14 kg to 16 kg, is dusted



with talc to prevent sticking.30  After quality control approval,



the slabs are piled on pallets until the total weight  is  680 kg



to 910 kg, ready for shipment.30  As an alternative to the slab



process, the reclaim sheet can be air conveyed to a baler,



where the rubber is compacted to form a bale of controlled



weight.  The bales are dusted, bagged, stacked on pallets,



tested, and shipped.




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-7.



4.2  Atmospheric Emissions



     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions from rubber



reclaiming are listed in Table C-4.  At this time,  it  is  not




                            330

-------
            FIBER-FILE
          RUBBER SCRAP
            RECEIVING
           AND SORTING
           VALVE STEMS
          AND VALVE SEATS
             REMOVAL
          SIZE REDUCTION
            SCREENING
        HIGH -TEMPERATURE,
           HIGH - SHEAR
         DEPOLYMERIZATION
             MIXING
   ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
REFINING
I
STRAINING



SLABBING/
BALING
                                                        RECLAIMED
                                                          RUBBER
Figure C-7.   Schematic flow diagram of mechanical  process
                  for reclaiming rubber.31
                               331

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                                                           Table  C-4.   EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - RECLAIMED RUBBER


Emission
source
Depolymerization


Uncontrolled
emissions.
g/kg
30



Best control
technique
Condenser and
scrubber


Control
efficiency
90%


NSPS
emissions.
g/kg
3.0

Average
uncontrolled
emission rate.
Ib/day
1,790


Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
270a


Emission
reduction
required
85%a


Regulated
emissions ,
gAg
4.5

OJ
co
to
           TOTAL:                    E   =  30



           The regulation of 85 percent  reduction  is  applied.
                                                                                     E  = 3.0
                                                                                                                                                     =  4.5

-------
possible to identify the individual hydrocarbon species.



5.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM HOSE AND



    BELT MANUFACTURE




     The hose and belting industry includes establishments pri-



marily engaged in manufacturing rubber and plastic hose and



belting, including garden hose.5   (Processes specific to the



utilization of plastics within the rubber and plastic hose and



belting industry are excluded.)  A brief discussion of the manu-



facture of hose and belting is presented below to familiarize



the inspector with the basic process operations.  Atmospheric



emissions from hose and belt manufacture are discussed in



Section 5.2.



5.1  Process Description



5.1.1  Belting - Conveyor or Flat Type



     Materials - Rubber belting usually consists of a multiple-



ply, rubberized-fabric carcass sandwiched between two layers of



rubber sheeting.  Natural rubber is the most widely used raw



crumb in both the frictioning and sheeting stocks, but syn-



thetic polyisoprene, Hypalon, and reclaimed rubber are also



used.21  Due to its inferior properties, reclaim is sometimes



used as an extender for the more expensive polymers.  In belt-



ing which requires a high degree of oil resistance, Neoprene




is commonly used.



     Depending upon the choice of raw crumb, a wide variety of



loading pigments, accelerators, plasticizers, antioxidants, and



vulcanizing agents are incorporated into the stock during mixing,
                            333

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     Compounding - Compounding and mixing  are  usually carried



out in Banbury mixers, although compounding mills  may be  used



in some facilities.  After mixing, the rubber  stock is sheeted



out on a sheeting mill and dipped in a soapstone slurry to



reduce its tack.  The rubber leaves the rolling mill in a



ribbon several feet wide and less than 1/2 inch thick.26



     Both the frictioning and sheeting stocks  are  worked  on



warmup mills prior to subsequent forming operations.



     Particulate emissions occur when the dry  compounding ingre-



dients such as carbon black and zinc oxide are charged to the



Banbury mixers.  Hydrocarbon emissions from this area are pri-



marily rubber stock volatiles, generated by the heat of mixing



and milling operations.



     Forming operations - The hot sheeting stock passes from



the warmup mill through an extruder-calender machine where its



dimensions are fixed.  Wire reinforcement may  be extruded with



the rubber stock during this operation to increase the strength



of the belting.  After calendering, the sheet  rubber is cooled



in a water spray tank, dried via passage over  hot  air vents,



and rolled up for storage.




     The frictioning compound passes from the  warmup mill to



a friction calender where it is impregnated into the fabric



used to build the carcass of the belt.  This fabric,  usually



rayon or nylon, is pretreated by dipping in latex  and/or  cement



and drying to a moisture content of less than  one  percent.



Drying is carried out immediately prior to frictioning by
                            334

-------
passing the dipped fabric over  steam-heated cylinders or



platens kept at 115°C,32 or in  other types of ovens.




     Extrusion, calendering,  latex dipping and  drying are all



potential sources of volatile organic emissions.  However, the



fabric pretreatment operations  may not be conducted in the belt-



ing plant itself, but  in a separate, specialized facility.



     Building - The rubberized, single-ply fabric leaving



the calender is used to build belt carcasses of multiple-ply



thickness.  A variety  of techniques are employed in this opera-



tion, depending on the specifications of the final product.



Once built, the carcass is sandwiched between two layers of



rubber sheeting by a calendering operation.



     Some minor volatile emissions may be generated by the



calendering process.



     Curing - Belt vulcanization is performed in presses, roto-



cures, or hot-air curing ovens.  A rotocure employs a combina-



tion of steam, cooling water, and  electric heaters to continuously



vulcanize the belting  as it passes around the curing drum.  Press



curing is effected by  two heated belts which hold the belting



between them under pressure, turn,  and drag the belting through



the press.  Unlike the rotocure, the press curing technique is



a batch operation.  Vulcanization  requires about 30 minutes at




140°C.32



     After curing, the belting  is  inspected, cut to length, and




stored before shipment.



     Due to the high operating  temperatures of  the curing equip-




ment, a wide array of  volatile  organics are released to the




                            335

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 atmosphere.   These  include residual monomers and other impuri-




 ties  in  the  raw rubber,  a variety of processing aids and dilu-




 ents  in  the  stock,  and  any number of trace impurities in these




 technical-grade compounding ingredients.




      Miscellaneous  operations  - Fugitive dust emissions result




 from  a variety  of handling and storage operations involving dry,




 powdery  rubber  additives;  e.g., carbon black.  Some plants use




 wet scrubbers to control emissions of this type, particularly




 in the compounding  area.




      A flow  schematic is shown in Figure C-8.




 5.1.2 Machine-Wrapped  Ply Hose -




      Materials  - Machine-wrapped ply hose consists of three




 components:   the tube  (lining), the reinforcement, and the




 outer cover.  The reinforcement is constructed from rubber-




 impregnated  fabric, while  the  tube and cover are made entirely



 from  rubber.




      Natural  rubber and  a  wide variety of synthetic polymers




 are used, including butyl  rubber,  EPM,  EPDM,  Hypalon, Neoprene,




 nitrile rubber, and polyisoprene.   Reclaimed rubber is also used




 in conjunction with one of  the  more  expensive polymers.18/21'22




      Any number of fillers,  softeners,  accelerators,  activators,




 antioxidants, pigments,  and vulcanizing agents may be combined




with  the raw  crumb.  The recipe is varied to fit the service




requirements  of the final  product.




      Compounding - The rubber  stock  is  usually compounded  and




mixed in a Banbury mixer and sheeted out on  a roll mill  in a




ribbon several feet wide and approximately 1 inch thick.26





                             336

-------
                      COOLING
                 (WATER SPRAY TANK:
                     ANTI-TACK
                     TREATMENT
                      DRYING
                    (AIR VENTS)
                    CALENDERING
                      CURING
                  ! PRESS, ROTOCURE,
                   HOT-AIR OVEN)
                     INSPECTION
                  CUTTING TO LENGTH
—*-T STORAGE J
Figure  C-8.   Belting  flowsheet.
                   337

-------
This rubber sheet is subsequently dipped  in  an anti-tack slurry



and hung up to dry for further processing.



     Emissions from the compounding  area  include both hydro-



carbons and particulates.  The particulates  are generated when



the dry compounding ingredients are  charged  to the Banbury.



The hydrocarbon emissions are generated by the heat of mixing,



which volatilizes many of the organic  additives.



     Tube formation - After drying,  the sheeted stock is con-



tinuously extruded to form a seamless  rubber tube of the desired



diameter and wall thickness.  As it  leaves the extruder,  the



tube is cooled in an open tank by direct  contact with cooling



water, dipped in a tank of anti-tack agent such as a zinc



stearate solution, and coiled up for storage.   Soapstone solu-



tion is not used in this dipping operation because its anti-tack



properties are undesirably permanent.



     Emissions from the tube forming operations are probably



negligible.  Some minor hydrocarbon  emissions  may result from



the extrusion process due to the elevated operating temperatures.



     Reinforcement preparation - The fabric  used for reinforce-



ment is received from textile mills  in large rolls and impreg-



nated with rubber on both sides by friction  calendering.   The



frictioned fabric is then cut on a bias and  cemented together



with overlapped seams to form a long strip just wide enough to



provide the required number of plies plus an overlap when



wrapped around the tube.
                            338

-------
     Some organic volatiles in the rubber stock may also be
released during the friction calendering procedure.
     Outer cover formation - The hose cover is formed by
calendering a thin sheet of rubber stock to the required thick-
ness and cutting it to the width necessary for a slight overlap
on wrapping.
     Some organic volatiles may be released from the rubber
stock during calendering.
     Mandrel insertion - From storage, the formed tube is
taken to the building area where it is temporarily enlarged
via air pressure and mounted on a rigid mandrel.  Lubricants
are injected into the tube to prevent it from sticking to
itself or to the mandrel.
     Organic emissions probably occur from volatilization of
the lubricants or release agents used.
     Building - The actual hose building is carried out on a
special purpose "making machine" which consists of three long
steel rolls.  Two of the rolls are fixed parallel to each other
in the same horizontal plane, while the top roll is mounted on
lever arms so it can be raised and lowered.  One or more of
the rolls are power driven.
     When the forming operations are  completed, the mandrel-
supported tube is placed in the trough formed by the two
bottom rolls of the making machine.   One lengthwise edge of
the cut fabric is adhered to the tube and the top  roll  is
                             339

-------
brought down into contact with it.  The pressure  exerted  by




the top roll causes the tube and mandrel to rotate  as  the




bottom rolls rotate, so the fabric is drawn into  the machine




and wrapped around the tube.  The pressure from the top roll




serves the dual purpose of compacting the carcass as it is




formed.  This same procedure is repeated with the cover to




complete the building operation.




     Vulcanization - The uncured hose is transferred from the




building area to the curing area where it is loaded into  an




open steam autoclave for vulcanization at some predetermined




temperature and pressure.  The necessary pressure is maintained




by cotton or nylon wraps.




     When vulcanization is complete, the autoclave  is  vented,




the hose is removed and cooled, and the cloth wrap  is  stripped




away-  The hose is then removed from the mandrel with  compressed




air or water and hydraulically tested before final  storage and




shipment.  Machine-wrapped ply hose is commonly produced  and




shipped in lengths of about 50 m with internal diameters




ranging from 5 mm to 75 mm.29




     A host of volatile organic additives are emitted  during




the relatively high-temperature curing process.  Most  of  these




volatiles are probably released to the atmosphere when the auto-




clave is vented.




     Miscellaneous operations - Particulate emissions  are gener-




ated by a variety of handling and storage operations involving




dry compounding ingredients.
                            340

-------
No information  is  available  concerning  the  use  of  control



equipment in this  industry -




     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-9.



5.1.3  Hand Built  Hose -




     Materials  - Ply hose is built by hand  if it is too large



in diameter or  too long to fit on the three-roll making machine,



or if it requires  special ends, metal reinforcement, or



specially layered  fabric reinforcement.  The raw rubber and



compounding ingredients used are the same as those used in the



production of machine-wrapped ply hose.



     Forming operations - For hose with internal diameters



less than 100 mm,  the tube is extruded  and  mounted on the man-



drel as before.29  For larger hose, the tube is formed by



wrapping calendered stock around the mandrel with a slightly



overlapping seam.  The steel mandrel is mounted on a series



of double roller stands with one end held in the jaws of a



power-driven chuck used to rotate it during the building




operation.



     The fabric is frictioned and cut as before, and the cover




stock is calendered to the desired thickness.



     Building - In the making process,  the  pretreated fabric



is applied to the  mandrel-supported tube by hand.  It is rolled



down progressively as the mandrel is turned.  The  cover stock




is applied in a similar manner.



     Wire reinforcement is used in many types of hand-built



hose:  to prevent  collapse in suction hose, to  prevent kinking
                             341

-------
RUBBER
CEMENT
FABRIC
  ^VOLATILE ORGANICS
                           DRYING
                          ANTI-TACK
                          TREATMENT
                           MANDRa
                          INSERTION
                         BUILDING &.
                         CEMENTING
                          WRAPPING
                        VULCANIZATION
COMPOUNDING
'

ROLL MILL ING
i

ANTI-TACK
TREATMENT
                        TUBE EXTRUSION
                           COOLING
                           (TANK )
                           COOLING
                        WRAP REMOVAL
                       MANDREL REMOVAL
                                     TESTING
                                     STORAGE
                                    SHIPMENT
    Figure  C-9.    Ply  hose flowsheet.
                           342

-------
in pressure hose curved in small radius loops, and to add strength




in high pressure hose.  The wire in suction hose is usually placed



underneath the main fabric plies for rib support against external



pressure.  In pressure hose, the wire is placed over the fabric



reinforcement for hoop strength against high internal pressure.




For a combination of these reinforcement properties the wire is



placed midway in the fabric plies.




     Wire reinforcement is usually in the form of a closely spaced



helix opposing radial stress but adding little strength in the



axial direction.  If axial strength is also required, the hose



is constructed with two or more even numbers of wire layers.



Each layer consists of many strands of solid round wire or cable



spiralled around the hose, forming an angle greater than 45°



with its axis.  The direction of the spiral is reversed with



each layer for balanced strength.



     In the actual making process, the wire is applied by hand



or by a simple machine using a power-driven chuck to rotate the




mandrel and hose.



     All other manufacturing steps are very similar to those



used in the production of machine-wrapped ply hose.




     The same emissions may be expected whether the hose is




built by hand or by machine.



5.1.4  Braided Hose -



     Materials - Braided hose refers to the type of construction



and method of manufacture in which strands of reinforcement are



interlaced as well as spiralled around the tube.  Thus, the
                             343

-------
reinforcement consists of yarn or wire rather than  sheeted



fabric.  The raw rubber and compounding ingredients  used  are



essentially the same as those used to make ply hose.



     Tube formation - Processing usually begins with the  ex-



trusion of unsupported tubing, providing that the rubber  stock



is firm enough in the raw state to resist excessive  deformation



and stretching.  When the tubing is too thin, too soft, or when



the internal diameter must be kept within a narrow range, it



must be extruded onto a flexible rubber or plastic mandrel.



The mandrel is at least as long as the tubing itself, and may



have a wire core to prevent stretching.  Once formed, the tube



is temporarily stored on a circular tray or reel.



     Small quantities of organics may be emitted during the



extrusion process.



     Building - From storage the tube is taken to the braider



where the reinforcement is applied.  The tube is drawn through



the center of the machine while the braid is forming on its



surface.  Braid formation is carried out by yarn or wire



carriers weaving in and out on a circular track.  The angle



of braiding is adjusted by changing the surface speed of  the



overhead takeoff drum or capstan.  When braiding is  completed,



the hose passes through a crosshead extruder where a  seamless



rubber outer cover is applied.



     Some volatile organics from the cover stock are  likely to



be the only emissions from this section of the plant.  These



volatiles are released during the extrusion of the  outer  cover.
                            344

-------
     Vulcanization - A substantial portion of all braided hose



is vulcanized by the lead sheath process.  The lead casing



used in this operation is formed by means of a lead press or



extruder.  A lead press deforms solid lead into a continuous



sheath; a lead extruder works with molten lead.  In either case,



the lead sheath is formed around the uncured hose as it parses



through the press or extruder.




     If the lead-sheathed hose is nonsupported, it is filled



with water under pressure, wound on reels, and loaded into an



open steam pressure vessel.  The internal water pressure is



maintained throughout the curing cycle to force the hose



against the lead casing.  After curing, the water is drained



from the hose and the lead casing is stripped away for recycle.



     If the hose is supported, the lead sheath itself applies



some initial pressure by squeezing it against the flexible



mandrel.  However, most of the internal pressure necessary



for a solid, homogenous product is supplied by the expansion



of the hose during the high-temperature vulcanization.  At the



end of the curing period, the lead sheath is removed by mechani-



cally slitting and pulling away from the cured hose.  The



mandrel is removed by means of a high-pressure hydraulic system.



     Volatiles from the uncured hose are emitted to the atmos-



phere as a result of the high operating temperatures encountered



in the lead extruder and curing vessel.  In theory, some lead



particulates could also be generated by the lead pressing or




reclaiming operations.
                              345

-------
     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-10.




5.1.5  Spiralled Hose - In spiralled hose, all the  strands




in a given layer are aligned in one direction parallel  to




each other.  At least two layers of reinforcement aligned in




opposite directions are thus required for balanced  strength.




     Spiralled hose reacts to internal pressure in  the  same




way that braided hose does, and can be produced at  a much




faster rate due to the relative simplicity of the spiralling




machines.  However, spiralled hose is not manufactured  in as




broad a size range as braided hose.29




5.2  Atmospheric Emissions




     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions from hose and




belting manufacture are listed in Table C-5.  It is not possi-




ble at this time to identify specific hydrocarbon species




contained in these emissions.




6.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM FABRI-




    CATED RUBBER GOODS MANUFACTURE




     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged




in manufacturing industrial and mechanical rubber goods, rub-




berized fabrics and vulcanized rubber clothing, and miscellaneous




rubber specialties and sundries.6  A brief discussion of the




manufacture of fabricated goods is presented below  to familiarize




the inspector with the basic process operations.  Atmospheric




emissions from fabricated rubber goods manufacture  are  dis-




cussed in Section 6.2.
                            346

-------
                              BRAIDER OR
                           SPIRALLING MACHINE
                            COVER EXTRUSION
                             LEAD EXTRUDER
                               OR PRESS
                            VULCANIZATION
        * VOLATILE ORGANICS
                            SHEATH REMOVAL
                           MANDRa REMOVAL
 TESTING
 STORAGE
SHIPMENT
Figure  C-10.   Braided or spiralled  hose  flowsheet.
                               347

-------
                                                     Table  C-5.  EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - HOSE AND BELTING
Emission source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion-hose
Fabric cementing
Rubber cementing
Curing
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.02a
12. 5b
6.0
0.16
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
Incineration
—
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
80%
90%
—
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.004
1.25
6.0
0.06
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
3
1.5
1.5
0.6
390
186
5
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
58C
40
0
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
85%C
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/fcg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.02
1.9
6.0
0.16
CO

>£.

CO
           TOTAL:
                            E  = 18.83
                             u
E  = 7.36
 n
            Extrusion of hose is assumed to be utilized in  50 percent of the final product weight.


            Fabric cementing is assumed to be utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.


           CThe regulation of 85 percent reduction is applied.
E  = 8.28
 s

-------
6.1  Process Description




6.1.1  General Molded Products - This category includes items



such as battery parts, rubber rolls, rubber heels and soles,



water bottles, fountain syringes, nipples, pacifiers, rubber



bands, finger cots, erasers, brushes, combs, mouth pieces, and



a wide variety of mechanical goods.



     Rubber molding typically consists of the following



operations:



   • Compounding of the rubber stock



   • Preparation of the mold preforms or blanks




   • Molding



   • Deflashing



6.1.2  General Extruded Products -  General extruded products



include rods, tubes,  strips, channels, mats and matting, floor




and wall covering, and stair treads.



     Compounding - The rubber stock is compounded from the



basic  ingredients on  a compounding  mill or in a Banbury mixer.



A wide variety of raw rubbers and compounding ingredients are



used,  the choice of which  depends on the  service requirements



of the product.  After mixing, the  compound is sheeted out  on




a  sheeting mill and dipped in a  soapstone slurry.



     Extrusion - After compounding, the rubber stock passes




through a warmup mill and  then through an extruder where  it is



continuously  formed into the  shape  of the final  product.  This



green  product is cooled in a  cooling tank prior  to vulcaniza-




tion and,  in  some  cases, dipped  in  a soapstone slurry for




temporary  storage.



                             349

-------
     Vulcanization - In the vulcanizing process, extruded




articles are placed in pans which are set on a truck and rolled



into a large steam chamber or heater.  Varnish or lacquer may



be applied before vulcanization to produce a smooth, glossy




finish.



     Rubber articles that would sag or flatten under their own



weight before they could completely set up must be supported



during vulcanization.  In most cases, such articles are embedded



in talc or powdered soapstone.  However, rubber tubing is placed



on a mandrel and wrapped with fabric to insure proper curing.



Vulcanization usually requires about 30 minutes at 140°C to



150°C.18



6.1.3  Coated Materials - Rubber-coated materials generally



consist of woven or nonwoven fabrics impregnated with a rubber



compound.  Synthetic rubber materials such as acrylic rubber,



butadiene-acrylonitrile, butadiene-styrene, chloroprene,



chloro-sulfonated polyethylene, fluorinated polymeric compo-



sitions, polyisobutylene, polysulfide, and silicone polymers



are used to impart physical properties, such as water and



solvent resistance, surface-release characteristics, abrasion



resistance, and good aging.  Typical uses for rubber-coated



textiles include raincoats, balloon bags, diaphragms, inflat-



able life rafts, pontoons, friction tape, and tarpaulins.



     Compounding - Before the coating process, the rubber



stock is compounded by mixing a variety of extenders, pigments,



accelerators, and antioxidants with the raw crumb.  The  fabric
                            350

-------
to be coated is usually pretreated at a  separate facility, but



may be dipped in  latex at  the  coating plant  itself.



     Coating - Rubber coating  is performed by three- or four-



roll calenders.   The three-roll calender applies the coat to



one side of the fabric, while  four-roll  calenders coat both



sides of the fabric simultaneously.  The top roll of the three-



roll calender and the bottom and offset  rolls of the four-roll



calender are run  at different  speeds than the center roll to



friction the rubber into the fabric in a uniform manner.



     Vulcanization - Rubber-coated fabrics are cured at elevated



temperatures for  periods of time ranging from ten minutes to



several hours.  For long cures, the ovens may be as much as



30 feet high and  hundreds  of feet long.  For shorter curing



cycles, the ovens are usually  from 6 to  8 feet in height and



8 to 20 feet in length.29  Regardless of size, the curing



oven must have a  uniform temperature distribution to obtain



uniform product quality.   After curing,  the  coated fabric is



cooled and rolled up for storage.



     Building - Products such  as rainwear, rafts, and pontoons



are built using dies or jigs to cut the  coated material and



rubber cements to join the various sections.  This building



operation may or  may not take  place in the coating plant.



6.1.4  Latex-Based Dipped  Goods - The largest volume latex-



based dipped goods are household gloves, surgical gloves,



prophylactics, and balloons.   The very thin-walled goods are



produced by a straight-dip method; thicker walled items are made



by coagulation dipping.




                            351

-------
     Compounding - Regardless of which dipping technique is



employed, the rubber latex and compounding ingredients must



first be brought into solution or dispersion form.  Solution



is used when all of the ingredients are water soluble.



Frequently, however, the ingredients are not water soluble,



and it is necessary to emulsify the liquid ingredients and



disperse the solid materials in water.



     Dispersions are prepared from coarse slurries of powder



and water containing small quantities of dispersing agents and



stabilizers.  Typical dispersing agents are sodium 2-naphthylene



sulfonate with formaldehyde and an alkyl metal salt of sulfon-



ated lignin.  These materials are usually employed in concen-



trations of less than one percent by weight.18



     Physically, the dispersions are prepared with grinding



equipment such as colloid mills, ball and pebble mills, ultra-



sonic mills, and attrition mills.  Colloid mills, which break



aggregates but which do not change particle size, are used for



clay, precipitated whiting, zinc oxide, and other such mate-



rials.  The other types of mills mentioned are used to prepare



dispersions of sulfur, antioxidants, and accelerators which



require both aggregate and particle-size reduction.



     Emulsions are prepared by exposing a coarse, aqueous



suspension of ingredients to intense shearing in a colloid



mill, an ultrasonic mill, or a homogenizer.  A homogenizer is



a machine that forces the emulsion through a fine orifice



under high pressure.
                             352

-------
     In itself, the preparation of the latex compound is a



very simple operation consisting of weighing and mixing the



proper amounts of various solutions, emulsions, and dispersions.



This is done in a large tank with a mechanical agitator.



     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-ll.



     Coagulation dipping - The coagulation solution is usually



a mixture of coagulants and organic solvents, such as ethanol



and acetone.  Typical coagulants are calcium nitrate, calcium



chloride, and zinc nitrate.  A surfactant is sometimes added



to the mixture to ensure good "wetting" of the forms, and



release agents are added in cases where the form has a compli-



cated shape and removal of the dipped goods is difficult.  Talc,



clay, and diatomaceous earth are commonly used release agents.



The actual dipping operations is carried out with glazed porce-



lain or polished metal forms transported through the various



processing units by a closed-loop conveyor.  These forms are



dried and heated to 100°C to 120°C in a conditioning oven prior




to dipping in the coagulation bath.29



     After coating with coagulants, the forms are dipped in



the rubber latex compound.  The coagulant film on the surface



of the form causes the rubber emulsion to "break."  The latex



solids coalesce to produce a film of rubber that covers and



adheres to the form.  These coated forms are passed through a



preliminary drying oven so that the film does not disintegrate




and wash away in the subsequent washing step.
                             353

-------

FORM
DRYING
on
o;
s
COAGULANT LATEX DIP PREL
DIP *" TANK DRY
SPILLS SPILLS
LEAKS LEAKS
WASHDOWN WASHDOWN
1 I
WASTEWATER WASTEWATER
OJ ^-k ^
Ln /^ ^
**" LATEX LATEX
STORAGE COMPOUNDING
CLEANING AGENT
AND RINSE WATER
RINSE
WATER
1
IMINARY PRODUCT
NG OVEN """" RINSE
SPENT
RINSE WATER
1
WASTEWATER

\


FORM CLEAN FORM RETURN VIA CLEANING OPERATION
AND RINSE ""
'
SPENT CLEAN ING
AND RINSE WATER
WAST^ATER " ~| ^EASE AGENT-,
^ S* \ \
H nran nni i IMP •» rnr?i MP — M. COOLING
STAMPING

™ COOLir
i- § OVE
Sd 1
=• g *
ft; WASTE
STERILIZATION
TANK
If '| * — COOLING
M- COOL ING "— *- WAT£R
SPILLS ^ WATER SPILLS WA™
LEAKS LEAKS
WASHDOWN WASHDOWN
RINSE
WATER .•
\ /

PRODUCTS FORM PRODUCT DRYING
"" STRIPPING " RINSE *° DUSTING
p/\rK«,r,iNn
JG WATER t3
}ROW g
CXL
Q_
WATER =•
on

SPENT
RINSE WATER
1
WASTEWATER
STERILIZATION
RINSE
SP
RINSE
ENT
WATER
I
WASTEWATER
              WASTEWATER
                                                                           WASTEWATER
  SPILLS
  LEAKS
WASHDOWN

   I
WASTEWATER
             *VOLATILE ORGANICS


Figure  C-ll.   Flow diagram for the  production of  typical  latex-based dipped  items.29

-------
     In the washing operation, the soluble constituents of



the rubber film are leached out and rinsed away in a water




bath maintained at 60°C to 71°C.29  Important constituents of



the leachate are the emulsifiers used in the original produc-



tion of the latex and metal ions from the coagulant mixture.



     The washed forms are sent through a drying oven.  In some



applications, such as rubber gloves manufacture, the goods are



not only dried, but they are heated sufficiently to roll the



rubber coating downward on itself to form a reinforced cuff



bead.  Usually, the rubber goods are stamped with proprietary



brands and other information, such as size, in a stamping unit



after the drying process.



     The rubber products are cured in an oven at temperatures



ranging from 65°C to 95°C.18'29  After curing, the items are



cooled in a water cooling tank and mechanically stripped from



the forms, usually with the aid of a lubricating detergent.



The detergent is subsequently washed from the goods in a rinse



tank.  The final manufacturing operation consists of drying



the goods, dusting them inside and outside with talc to pre-




vent sticking, and packaging.



     In cases where sterilized products are required, such as



surgical gloves, the goods are immersed in a chlorine dip tank.



The free chlorine concentration in this tank is typically



1,000 mg/1.  After disinfection, the goods are dipped in a



75°C to 80°C water bath to remove residual chlorine.  These



two operations generally occur between the postcure cooling



tank and the final drying and packaging operation.29




                            355

-------
     About once a week, it is necessary to clean the  forms in



a bath containing a cleaning agent.  If porcelain forms are



used, this cleaning agent is usually chromic acid (mixture of



potassium dichromate, sulfuric acid, and water).  Once cleaned



the forms are passed through a rinse tank equipped with a fresh



water makeup and overflow to blow down the accumulation of



cleaning agent.



     Straight dipping - The straight-dip method is the simplest



of the latex dipping operations.  The forms are dipped directly



in the latex and removed slowly.  After dipping, the  form is



slowly rotated while the film is drying to ensure a uniform



thickness.  The films are dried at room temperature or in



warm air at 50°C to 60°C.29



     Thicker articles can be made by a multiple-dipping pro-



cess with intermittent drying.  Latex deposits vary from



0.005 to 0.10 inch per dip, depending on the viscosity of the



latex compound.29




6.1.5  Cement-Based Dipped Goods - Various products are



formed by cement dipping, most notably protective gloves worn



by electrical workers.  The following discussion focuses on



this glove manufacturing process.



     Compounding - The solid gum rubber for the cement recipe



is compounded in small Banbury mixers or compounding  mills.



The gumstock additives include antioxidants, curing agents,



and pigments.
                             356

-------
     After mixing, the stock is milled into small particles



to facilitate its dissolution in the solvent.  These rubber



particles are separated by weight into predetermined quantities



and placed in storage bins.




     Rubber cement preparation - The rubber cement is prepared



in blend tanks using fixed amounts of rubber stock and solvent.



The solvent is usually aliphatic, e.g., hexane, or a blend of



petroleum spirits.




     The blended cement is pumped to storage tanks prior to



the dipping operation.  Several cements of different colors



and physical properties are prepared and stored simultaneously.



     Dipping - The gloves are formed by dipping glazed porcelain



forms into the rubber cement.  The dipping is carried out auto-



matically and repeated until the desired thickness is reached.



In between dips, the gloves are allowed to drip dry.  The



temperature and humidity of the air in the drying room are con-



trolled to ensure good drying conditions.



     When dipping and drying operations are completed, the



gloves are stamped with size and brand information and the



cuff bead is formed by rolling the existing cuff back on itself.



     Curing - Vulcanization is carried out in an open steam




autoclave.  The temperature and length of the cure depend on



the type of glove being worked and the properties of the rubber




used in its formation.



     At the end of the curing cycle the gloves are removed



from the vulcanizer and partially air cooled.  Prior to final
                            357

-------
cooling they are dipped in a soapstone slurry.  The  slurry



dries, leaving a powder on the gloves, which are  then  stripped



from the form, dusted with talc in a rotating drum,  and  sent



to the inspection area.



     Periodically, the forms require cleaning.  This opera-



tion is carried out with a scouring slurry followed  by rinsing



in water.



6.1.6  Rubber Goods From Porous Molds - Dolls, squeeze toys,



and other rubber sundries are produced by the porous mold



technique.



     The molds used in this process are made from plaster of



Paris or unglazed porcelain with pore siz.es smaller  than the



smallest rubber particles.  Latex, compounded in  the manner



previously described, is poured through a funnel-shaped opening



into the mold where it is allowed to dwell until  a deposit of



the desired thickness has developed on the mold wall.  The



mold is then emptied of excess compound and placed in  an oven



to dry at 60°C.29  The interior surfaces of the rubber article



are dusted with talc to prevent sticking when it  is  removed



from the mold.  Once it is removed, the article may  be returned



to the 60°C oven for 30 minutes.



6.1.7  Latex Thread - Latex thread is produced by extruding



the latex compound through fine orifices into a coagulant bath



where it is gelled.  The thread is then toughened, washed,



dried, and cured.  Dilute acetic acid is commonly used as the



coagulant.
                             358

-------
6-1-8  Latex Foam - The latex used in foam manufacture may



consist of natural rubber, SBR, or a combination of the two.



Before processing, this latex is compounded with a variety of



ingredients as described in the latex dipping procedure.



     The foams produced are generally in slab or molded form



in the density range of 64 to 128 kg/m3  (4 to 8 lb/ft3).29



They are used to manufacture automotive seating, mattresses,



pillows, carpeting, scatter mats, upholstery, and many other



products.




     Dunlop process - In the Dunlop process, the foam is pro-



duced by mechanically whipping the latex to a froth.  This can



be done on a batch basis, but the Oakes continuous mixer is



the standard piece of equipment for this operation.



     Once frothed, the latex must be coagulated to give a



stable foam.  This coagulation, or gelation, is effected by



adding sodium silicofluoride and zinc oxide to the mix.  These



gelling agents remain dormant long enough to allow the froth



to be poured into molds.  When stable latexes are used,



secondary gelling agents may be required to induce coagulation.



Cationic soaps, other salts, and amines are commonly used for




this purpose.



     As soon as the gelling agents are added, the foam is



poured into steam-heated molds and cured.  The product is



removed when the curing cycle is completed and washed with



water to remove those ingredients in the latex recipe which



are not permanently held in the foam matrix.  The foam is then
                            359

-------
dried in a hot-air dryer and inspected prior to storage and

shipment.

     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-12.

     Talalay process - In the Talalay process, the froth is

produced by chemical rather than mechanical means.  Hydrogen

peroxide and enzymatic catalysts are mixed into the latex, and

the mixture is placed into a mold.  The enzyme decomposes the

peroxide, thus liberating oxygen, which causes the latex mix

to foam up and fill the mold.  This foam is rapidly chilled,

and carbon dioxide is introduced to effect gelation.  The

gelled foam is handled in a manner similar to that used in

the Dunlop process.

     Foam backing - For supported, flat-stock foam, a different

type of gelatin agent is used in place of the sodium silico-

fluoride formula used in latex foam.  Either ammonium acetate

or ammonium sulfate is employed in combination with zinc oxide.

     The froth is prepared with an Oakes mixer, the gelling

agent is added, and the foam is applied to the fabric by direct

spreading.   The gelling is carried out at elevated tempera-

tures, usually with the aid of infrared lamps.

     To prevent uneven shrinkage, the fabric is carried through

the high-temperature zone and drying ovens on tenters.

6.2  Atmospheric Emissions

     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions from fabri-

cated rubber goods manufacture are listed in Table C-6.
 In some cases, the foam is spread on  a  belt  which transfers
 it to the fabric.
                             360

-------
                                       CONDENSER
                                      — COOLING
                                         WATER
                      CONDENSATE
                      WASTEWATER
                                  WATER
                   COMPOUNDING AND
                    CURING AGENTS

LATEX
STORAGE



FREEZE
AGGLOMERATION


VAPOR
LATEX
CONCENTRATION
BY
EVAPORATION
r
CONCENTRATED
LATEX
CARBON 	 }
DIOXIDEGAS

y*
INTERMEDIATE
LATEX
STORAGE
SPI
WASH
LLS
30WN


S*
COMPOUNDING
X
5
1
GROUND
CURING

I
SPILLS
WASHDOWN
BALL MILL
GRINDING OF
COMPOUNDING
AGENTS
SPI
s*
i j
! "-*• COOL ING
WATER
LLS
                                                        WASTEWATER
                                                                                  WASTEWATER

FOAM PRODUCT
STORAGE AND
SHIPMENT




FOAM
DRYING

W
jtr SU
CLEAN
FOAM

ATER
PPI V -i

FO
RIN5
STE


\M
>ING
PS

RINSE WATER
I COUNTER-


CURRENT

FO
RINS
STE

m
ING
PS
\
FOAM
PRODUCT

Q.
o
o

FOAM CUR ING
PRESSES


                                                                                                   LEAKS
                                                                                                  WASHDOWN
                                                                                            CARBON
                                                                                         "DIOXIDEGAS
* VOLATILE ORGANICS
  RINSE
WASTEWATER
  SPILLS
WASHDOWN
                                                                            WASTEWATER
    Figure  C-12.   Flow diagram for  the production of typical  latex foam items.
                                                                                                          29

-------
                                                Table C-6.   EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - FABRICATED ROBBER PRODUCTS
Emission source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Extrusion
Bonding of parts
Latex dipping
Adhesive spraying
Curing
Molding
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.025°
0.0153
2.0
0.13b
1.8
O.OS3
o.na
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Process change
—
Process change
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
80%
—
90%
70%
60%
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.003
2.0
0.01
0.54
0.03
0.04
Average
uncontrol led
emission rate,
Ib/day
1
0.5
0.2
0.15
17
1
15
0.7
0.9
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
40
15
40
15
15
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.025
0.015
2.0
0.13
1.8
0.08
0.11
CO

CPl

NJ
          TOTAL:
                              E   = 4.31
                              u
E  = 2.75
 • n
                                                                                                                                      E  =  4.31
           Assumed to be  utilized in 50 percent of the final product weight.


           Assumed to be  utilized in 25 percent of the final product weight.

-------
7.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM SEALS



    AND GASKETS MANUFACTURE




     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged



in manufacturing gaskets, gasketing materials, compression



packing, molded packings, oil seals, and mechanical seals.



Included are gaskets, packing, and sealing devices made of



leather, rubber, metal, asbestos, and plastics.7  A brief




discussion of the manufacture of seals and gaskets is presented



below to familiarize the  inspector with the basic process



operations.  Atmospheric  emissions from this type of manu-



facturing are discussed in Section 7.2.



7.1  Process Description



     The principal method of manufacturing gaskets, packing



and sealing devices is molding.  This process description29



will consist mainly of general explanations of the three com-



mon molding techniques -  compression, transfer, and injection.



The selection of a particular method depends on the rubber



stock used in the production economics.  All three molding



techniques are commonly practiced at a single plant location.



Information specific to SIC 3293, as obtained from two selected




plants,29 will follow the general discussion.



     Larger molding facilities, or those using special recipes



or nonstorable stocks, compound their own rubber stock from



basic ingredients.  Compounding is performed in either a Ban-



bury mixer or a compounding mill.  In some plants, airborne



particulates generated during compounding are controlled by




wet scrubbing equipment.





                            363

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7.1.1  Compression Molding - After compounding, the rubber



stock is processed on a warmup mill and formed to the approxi-



mate shape required for molding by either calendering or extru-



sion.  The formed rubber is cooled, often in an open tank, and



then dipped in an anti-tack agent, generally a zinc stearate



solution or its equivalent.  Soapstone slurry is not used



because of its adverse effects on the quality of the subsequent



molding operation.



     The preforms are prepared from the calendered or extruded



rubber stock by cutting, slicing, or stamping.  Cutting may be



performed by hand or by machine.  Slicing is usually carried



out on a meat slicing machine or guillotine.  Although the



exact shape of the preform is not critical, it must contain



sufficient rubber to fill the mold.



     The preforms are placed into the open mold, usually by



hand.  Sometimes, this is preceded by application of release



agents (powder or liquid) on the mold surfaces.  The mold is



closed and held, normally by hydraulic oil pressure, during



the curing cycle.  The molds are generally heated by steam



flowing through channels in the mold plates.  Some older sys-



tems are electrically heated.



     When the molding cycle is complete, the items are removed



and sent on to the deflashing operation.  The rubber overflow,



or flash, must be removed from each piece before shipping.



Usually,  deflashing is accomplished using a grinding wheel or



press-operated dies.  In cases where the rubber is not freeze
                            364

-------
resistant, the molded articles are  tumbled in dry ice  (solid



carbon dioxide) using machines similar to cement mixers.  The



thin rubber flash becomes brittle and breaks off during tumbling



while the larger main body of the part is not cooled as much



and remains flexible.




     Although not strictly a part of rubber processing, the



manufacture of metal-bonded items, which consist of a molded



rubber component attached to metal, is often undertaken in the



same plant as the molding operation.  Grease on the metal



parts, picked up during their production or applied later for



storage and shipping purposes, must first be removed.  Degreas-



ing may be performed in a rotating drum wherein the metal part



is contacted with a suitable solvent, such as trichloroethylene




(CHC1=CC12) .



     The metal surface to which rubber is to be molded must be



further prepared to provide satisfactory adhesion.  In a few



cases, the metal part is pickled with acid.  More often, the




bonding surface is sandblasted for roughening and then coated



with rubber cement.  This last operation is done by hand for



small items, whereas larger metal surfaces are sprayed with



cement.  The prepared metal part and its mating rubber com-



ponent are then placed in the mold  cavity and processed in the



same way as an all-rubber product.  Deflashing is done by hand




or with a grinding wheel.



     In some molding plants, molded items of poor quality are



recycled to reclaim the metal component.  The reject rubber  is
                            365

-------
ground and buffed from the metal, which is then sand blasted



clean.  Grinding and buffing create airborne particulates,



which are controlled by wet scrubbers.



7.1.2  Transfer Molding - Rubber for transfer molding is



compounded in the same way as that for compression molding.



The rubber stock blanks, to be fed into the mold's transfer



pot, take the form of slabs as they are cut from extruded or



sheeted rubber stock.  The weight of the blanks is brought



within a specified tolerance by trimming.  Underweight blanks



and trimmings are recycled to the sheet-out mill.



     The transfer cavity, into which a rubber blank is placed,



is fitted with a ram or piston.  The applied force plus the



heat from the mold cause the rubber to be softened and flow



into the molding cavity, curing simultaneously-  Transfer



molds are normally heated by steam and operated by hydraulic



oil systems.  The molded item is deflashed by one of the



methods described for compression-molded items.



     Articles containing metal inserts are usually manufactured



by transfer molding, preparation of the metal component fol-



lowing that described for compression-molded products.



7.1.3  Injection Molding - Injection molding, the newest



technique, is basically the same as transfer molding except



that the rubber stock is injected into the mold cavities.



There are three types of injection-molding machines - one



uses a ram to force the soft rubber through runners into the



cavities; another uses a screw; the third uses a reciprocating
                            366

-------
screw, a combination of the first two.  As the rubber flows



through small passages under high pressure, the temperature



increases and the compound is cured.




     The molds are often mounted on a revolving turret which



permits cyclic operation.  To make injection molding profitable,



very short cycle times are required, generally ranging from



45 seconds to 90 seconds.29  This necessitates curing tempera-



tures of approximately 204°C.29  Deflashing can be carried



out by any of the techniques used for compression- and



transfer-molded products.



7.2  Selected Plants -



7.2.1  Plant A - This plant manufactures oil seals, o-rings,



rubber-to-metal molded items, and miscellaneous molded rubber



products, using compression and transfer molding.  Its average



daily rubber consumption is 340 kg.29



     The plant's flow sheet contains the following apparatus



described in the discussion of compression molding:




        • Warmup mill



        • Extruder



        • Guillotine  (for cutting)



        • Modified meat slicer  (for slicing)




        • Hydraulic mold presses



        • Steam-heated molds



     Two operating parameters are given.   The mold presses



operate at 13.8 MPa  (2,000 psi)-29  Steam  used  for heating  the




molds is at 177°C and 862 kPa  (125 psi)-29
                            367

-------
     Molded items are deflashed in a "wheelabrator" machine,


which freezes the item with liquid nitrogen and then blasts it


with steel shot that is 0.18 mm to 0.30 mm in diameter.29  The


rubber fines and shot are separated, and the fines and dust


are collected in a bag collector.


     Metal parts for composite products are degreased using


perchloroethylene (C12C=CC12) vapor.  The bonding surface is


then sand blasted and finally painted with a bonding agent such


as rubber cement.
           /

7.2.2  Plant B - This plant produces rubber pipe seals,


weather stripping, and rubber-to-metal molded items.  The


daily rubber consumption is 10,100 kg.29


     Compounding is done using a Banbury mill.  Rubber stock,


batched off in sheets, is protected against sticking during


storage by dipping it in soapstone.


     Pipe seals, weather stripping, and molding plugs are


formed using short- or long-barrelled extruders.  The former


require warmup and strip-feed mills, whereas the latter do not.


The extruded pieces are cooled, dipped, cut, and placed in


pans for autoclave curing.  The rubber articles are then cured


with steam at 690 kPa (100 psi).29


     The ends of pipe seal rubber are cemented together in an


electric press to form large, o-ring-type pipe seals.  When


bonding rubber to metal, the metal part is degreased, using


trichloroethylene in a closed system, and then sprayed with an


adhesive.  The rubber is transfer molded to the metal part.
                            368

-------
     A flow schematic is shown in Figure C-13.



7.3  Atmospheric Emissions




     Emissions from the manufacture of seals and gaskets are



presented in Table C-7.  It is not possible at this time to



identify specific hydrocarbon species contained in these emis-



sions.




8.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM INSU-



    LATED WIRE AND CABLE PRODUCTION




     The nonferrous wiredrawing and insulating industry includes



establishments primarily engaged in drawing, drawing and insu-



lating, and insulating wire and cable of nonferrous metals



from purchased wire bars, rods, or wire.8  A brief description



of insulating wire with rubber compounds is presented below to



familarize the inspector with the basic process operations.



Only extrusion is discussed, since it is the preferred method



of applying rubber insulation or protective covering to wire



or cable.  Atmospheric emissions from this industry are also




discussed, in Section 8.2.



8.1  Process Description



     Manufacture of insulated wire and cable  involves three



basic steps:  extrusion, vulcanization, and protective covering.




Figure C-14 is a schematic flow diagram of the process used



for thermosetting polymers, i.e., butyl rubber, neoprene,



nitrile rubbers, silicone rubbers, and styrene butadiene rub-



ber.  In actual use, these materials are compounded with



reinforcing fillers, pigments, antioxidants,  and  other typical




rubber processing chemicals.





                            369

-------
00
-J
o
          ^VOLATILE ORGWIICS
             Figure C-13.   Schematic  flow for manufacture  of molded rubber products.29

-------
                             Table C-7.  EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - GASKETS, PACKING, AND SEALING DEVICES
Emission source
Compounding
Milling
Calendering
Molding
Adhesive spray
Uncontrolled
emissions,
9/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.22
3.6
Best control
technique
Incineration
Incineration
Incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Incineration
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
55%
60%
90%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.36
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
1.5
0.5
0.5
2.6
42
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
15
15
40
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
0
6%
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.22
3.4
TOTAL:
                 E  = 4.02
                  u
E  = 0.5
 n
                                                                                                                              3.82

-------
CO
                                                            JACKETING
                                     CURE MILL
EXTRUSION
INSULATOR


CONTINUOUS
VULCANIZER
                                                         JACKETING
        * VOLATILE ORGANICS
PRODUCT
SHIPMENT
          Figure C-14.   Schematic flow diagram for  production of  insulated wire and cable
                 using thermosetting polymers  (i.e.,  butyl rubber,  neoprene, nitrile
                       rubbers, silicone rubbers,  styrene-butadiene rubbers).

-------
     A wire to be covered is passed through a right-angle or



side-delivery extruder head.   In this operation, the wire is




fed through the head in a direction perpendicular to the axis



of the extruder screw.  The head is designed so that the rub-



ber compound is deflected 90°  and completely surrounds the wire.



     The covered cable is pulled through the machine by a



variable-speed hauloff.  A satisfactorily uniform coating is



ensured by regulation of the drawing speed.




     Continuous vulcanization  of insulated wire is accomplished



by extrusion directly into a suitable curing device.  This is



usually just a tube fixed to the nozzle of the extruder and



filled with steam at pressures from 1.38 MPa to 1.72 MPa



(13.6 to 17.0 atm).18  Such tubes may be 30.5 meters to 61



meters  (100 to 200 feet) in length.18  Residence time for the



insulated wire is approximately 15 seconds.18  Glands through



which the cable exits the tube prevent leakage of steam.  Large



cables are usually processed in vertical units but horizontal



or catenary-shaped tubes are also available.



     The exterior of insulated wire or cable must be protected



against mechanical and sometimes chemical deterioration.  The



type of protective covering applied will depend on the ultimate



end use of the cable.  Small wires are covered with a braid,



normally of cotton but possibly of rayon or fine metallic



wire.  Another means of protection, tough rubber sheathing



(T.R.S.), can be applied to the insulated wire using an



extruder with a side-delivery  head as described previously-
                            373

-------
The sheathing may consist of neoprene  (polychloroprene) or




another oil-resistant rubber.  Lastly, some insulated wires




and cables may be covered by an extruded lead sheath applied




earlier as a means of support during vulcanization.34




8.2  Atmospheric Emissions




     Potential sources of atmospheric emissions from manufac-




tures of insulated wire and cable are listed in Table C-8.




     The specific hydrocarbons emitted as "volatile organics"




and the composition of organic particulates are undetermined.




There are a few factors which affect both the species and the




quantities of emissions from insulated wire and cable manufac-




ture.  Glands used to trap steam in the vulcanizer tube may or




may not be able to control the emission of organic materials.




The particular combination of rubber processing chemicals used




in which manufacturing operations and the temperatures involved




have an important effect on both the identity and quantity of




hydrocarbons emitted.  Note that vulcanization, the primary




source of volatile organics in the process described above, is




not required for the production of thermoplastic insulation




made from polysulfide rubbers.  Hence, such production poses



no pollution problem.




9.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM TIRE




    RETREADING




     This industry includes establishments primarily engaged




in repairing and retreading automotive tires.  Establishments




classified here may either retread customers' tires or retread




tires for sale or exchange to the user or the trade.9





                            374

-------
                                      Table C-8.  EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - NONFERROUS WIREDRAWING AND INSULATING
Emission
source
Extrusion
Curing
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
0.04
0.6
Best control
technique
Process change
Incineration
Control
efficiency
80%
60%
NSPS
emissions,
g/kg
0.008
0.24
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
0.9
0.14
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
15
15
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
0.03
0.6
U)
^4
cn
          TOTAL:
                          0.64
                                                                   E  = 0.25
                                                                    n
0.64

-------
A brief discussion of the retreading of tires  is presented



below to famaliarize the inspector with the basic process



operations.  Atmospheric emissions from this industry are



discussed in Section 9.2.



9 .1  Process Description



     The tire retreading process consists of a series of eight



unit operations through which worn tires are rendered service-



able and fit for resale.  With the exception of studded snow



tires, nearly every tire size and design is utilized by the



industry-  The majority of retreaders receive their tires from



scrap dealers, but turn-ins are also a popular source of supply.



     Raw camelback is nearly always purchased from an outside



supplier.  Very few retreaders compound their own stock.



9.1.1  Receiving and Sorting - On arrival, the tires are first



inspected to determine whether or not the casing and carcass



are in good condition.  There should be no cuts or visible



deterioration of the reinforcing fabric.  Hidden ply separa-



tions, the major cause of tire failure, are detected by inject-



ing air into the tire shoulders.  Since trapped air itself may



cause ply separation, the tire is vented in the bead area so



the air can escape during molding or on highway flexing.



     Tires unfit for retreading are usually passed on to the



reclaiming industry„




9.1.2  Buffing - After sorting, the tires are sent to the buf-



fing area where the remaining tread is ground off with a grind-




ing wheel.   This process generates rather large quantities of
                            376

-------
rubber particulates.  Very few plants control these emissions,



but low-efficiency gravity collectors, low-temperature fabric



filters, and medium-efficiency centrifugal collectors are known



to be operating at some facilities.




9.1.3  Cleaning - The surface of each newly buffed tire is



rendered dust free with a stiff wire brush.  This generates the



same type of particulate emissions as the buffing process, and



the same types of control are used.




9.1.4  Measuring - The clean tire is measured in order to



select the correct curing rim and to assure a tight fit in the



matrix.  Tires can grow up to seven percent of their original



width from road use, so both the width and wall thickness must



be measured.11



9.1.5  Rubber Cement Spraying - Once measured, the tires are



taken to the spray area where they are coated with vulcanizable



rubber cement.  Hydrocarbon emissions from this operation have



been reported, but are apparently not controlled.



9.1.6  Tread Winding - When the surface of the tire is coated



with cement, strips of tread rubber are wound circumferentially




around it and cut to length.



     Some retreaders "program" the tread on.  In this opera-



tion, the machinist selects a profile to build and the machine



automatically wraps the thin strand of tread until the exact



contour is obtained.  The tread winding process typically



requires about 10 pounds of camelback per passenger-car tire




and 35 pounds per truck tire.29
                            377

-------
9.1.7  Curing - Each tire goes into a mold for curing at  some

specified temperature for some predetermined length of time.

Most curing molds are steam heated, but some older ones are

electrical.

     It is likely that the curing process releases some volatile

organics from the raw tread to the atmosphere.

9.1.8  Finish Buffing - After curing, the rubber flash is buffed

off and the finished product is inspected and shipped.

     This buffing operation should generate the same emissions

and require the same control equipment as the other buffing

operations previously discussed.  A flow schematic is shown

in Figure C-15.

9.2  Atmospheric Emissions

     Emissions from tire retreading are presented in Table

C-9.  It is not possible, at this time, to identify hydro-

carbon species contained in these emissions.

10.  HYDROCARBON SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

     The inspector is referred to the sampling and analysis

procedures outlined in the IERL-RTP Procedures Manual; Level 1,

Environmental Assessment.63  The manual presents all necessary

information for sampling and analysis of hydrocarbons.
63Hamersma, J. W., S. L. Reynolds, and R. F. Maddalone.   IERL-
  RTP Procedures Manual:  Level 1, Environmental Assessment.
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Research Triangle Park,
  North Carolina.  EPA-600/2-76-160a.  June  1976.   131 p.
                            378

-------
                                 RECEIVING
                                AND SORTING
                                  BUFFING
                                 CLEANING
                                MEASURING
                                  RUBBER
                                  CEMENT
                                 SPRAYING
                                  CURING
TREAD
RUBBER


TREAD
WINDING
                                  BUFFING
                                INSPECTION \
          ^VOLATILE ORGANICS   VAND SHIPPING/
Figure C-15.   Schematic  flow diagram for production of
      insulated wire and  cable using thermoplastic
          polymers (i.e.,  polysulfide rubbers).
                            379

-------
                                                    Table C-9.  EMISSIONS AND CONTROL - TIRE RETREADING
Emission source
Cement spraying
Curing
Painting and
trimming
Uncontrolled
emissions,
g/kg
2.75
0.09
3.2
Best control
technique
Incineration
Ventilation and
incineration
Process change
(detergent
wash)
Control
efficiency
90%
60%
90%
NSPS
emissions ,
g/kg
0.275
0.04
0.32
Average
uncontrolled
emission rate,
Ib/day
7.2
0.2
8.3
Permissible
emission rate,
Ib/day
40
15
40
Emission
reduction
required
0
0
0
Regulated
emissions,
g/kg
2.75
0.09
3.2
co
00
o
           TOTAL:
                             E   =6.04
                             u
E  = 0.635
 n
                                                                                                                                      E   =  6.04

-------
     In visiting a specific plant, the inspector should be
aware of the types of sampling that will be required.  These
requirements will vary considerably from one emission point to
another.  This variation in sampling requirements is identified
by emission point in the following discussion.
     In testing the compounding operation, the inspector will
be able to source test due to the existence of a vent or stack
on the process.  Particulate control equipment will probably
already be installed.  Sampling should be done both before and
after the particulate control equipment in order to evaluate
whether this control is also acting to reduce the hydrocarbon
emissions.
     For milling operations, the inspector will see both hooded
and unhooded mills.  There will be some question of whether the
hood is 100 percent efficient in collection and whether any
concentrations measured are from the mill alone or from a com-
bination of mill emission concentrations and plant ambient
concentrations.  Sampling based both on mass balance and source
testing is recommended.
     Extrusion operations will not be hooded; thus, mass bal-
ance measurements will have to be made to verify emissions
from this source.
     Calendering operations also are not hooded and will require
mass balance measurements.
     Molding operations have been observed to be hooded in
some plants and source testing will be possible in these cases.
                            381

-------
Again, the inspector is advised to run mass balances on these
operations because the question of 100 percent efficiency of
the collection device will potentially arise.
     Cementing activities not carried out in a ventilation
enclosure also will need to be sampled using mass balance.
Solvent usage for each operation should be noted.  Cementing
activities carried out in a booth can be source tested.  Resi-
dence time of the material being sprayed should be increased
for the purposes of source testing to assure that all evapora-
tion of the solvent is occurring in the booth.  Fabric cementing
operations will be vented when an oven is included and source
testing will therefore be possible.  Where air drying is
involved, mass balance measurements will be necessary.
     Curing operations for tires and some belting will be
unhooded, thus requiring mass balance measurements.  In the
case of batch curing, the operation will be vented, making
source testing possible.
     In rubber reclaiming, the devulcanization operation is
vented, usually with an absorber or scrubber already installed.
Again, source testing both before and after scrubbing should
be done.
     A checklist, applicable to most operations to be source
tested, is provided below.


                           CHECKLIST
     1.  Operation that produces emissions   	
     2.  Emission point
                            382

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           Stack, vent, other
           Height
           Diameter
           Direction of Discharge
         Exit gas
           Batch or continuous
           Batches/day
           Minutes/batch
           scfm  (70°F/atm)
           Velocity
           Temperature
           Pressure
           Specific gravity
         Raw materials
           Type of materials
           Amount of each used per minute
           Total weight of materials to
             process per minute
           Total weight of materials from
             process as product per minute
           Total weight of materials from
             process as waste per minute
           Amount into process - Amount out of process as product
                               - Amount out of process as waste
                               = potential mass as pollutant

11.  HYDROCARBON EMISSION CONTROL METHODS
11.1  Incineration
     Incineration is a well-developed technique used to control
organic emissions by oxidation of the combustible portion of
waste gases, with water and carbon dioxide as the desired
ultimate product of combustion.
                            383

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     Streams containing low concentrations of organic vapors




lack sufficient fuel value to attain stable, self-sustaining




combustion temperatures.  Such streams are supplied with a




secondary fuel source, usually natural gas, and then burned in




a device called a direct-flame afterburner.  Two types of




equipment are used to burn waste gases whose heating values




are such that additional fuel is not required.  The device is




called a flare if there is no air premixing or an incinerator




if the waste gases are premixed with air before combustion.




11.1.1  Afterburners -




     Direct-flame - Direct-flame afterburners rely on intimate




contact of waste gases with a flame to accomplish oxidation of




organic emissions.  Complete combustion (>90 percent) of most




hydrocarbon species to C02 and water can be achieved at about




650°C to 760°C (1,200°F to 1,400°F).  Removal efficiencies can




be as high as 95 percent.  Burning time varies with types of




effluent and specific technique of incineration from 0.3 second




to 0.6 second.




     For most hydrocarbons, the lower explosive limit (LEL)




corresponds to a heating value of approximately 52 Btu/scf.




For reasons of safety, however, waste gas streams are usually




diluted to 25 percent or less of the LEL concentration before




addition of the secondary fuel and combustion.




     Proper design and performance of direct-flame afterburners




depends upon knowledge of the types of organic species in the




gaseous emissions.  As with any incineration process, the degree
                            384

-------
of completion of oxidation is an important consideration here.
Even when direct-flame incineration gives 98 percent or 99 per-
cent complete combustion, the result may be intermediate oxi-
dation products more noxious than the original waste gases.  A
further drawback is that attempts to increase the efficiency of
combustion of hydrocarbons result in more favorable conditions
for the formation of nitrogen oxides.
     Finally, it is unwise to control organic vapors containing
halogens or sulfur by incineration alone.  Secondary purifica-
tion, such as by liquid scrubbing, may be required to remove
inorganic contaminants from the gas stream to be vented to the
atmosphere.
     Catalytic - Catalytic oxidation is most often applied for
control or elimination of organic emissions when recovery of
the materials present is not desired or economical.  Therefore,
catalytic afterburners are used when the concentrations of con-
taminants in waste streams are very low.  The advantage of
catalytic over direct-flame incineration is that dilute emis-
sions can be oxidized using only small amounts of supplemental
fuel and at much lower operating temperatures [340°C to 680°C
(650°F to 1,250°F)].  A disadvantage is that the efficiencies
of catalytic afterburners are usually somewhat lower than those
of direct-flame units.
     A significant advance in catalytic incineration has been
the recent development of improved catalyst support systems,
namely honeycomb ceramics.  Even so, knowledge of the types
                           385

-------
and concentrations of materials in the waste stream being incin-



erated is required to select and design a properly performing



catalytic system.  It is known that emissions containing sulfur,



halogens, silicon, or heavy metals will poison the platinum-



and palladium-type catalysts normally used.  Particulates also



interfere with the function of catalytic afterburners.  If any



of these catalyst poisons are present in the waste gas stream,



the use of a direct-flame afterburner is preferred.



11.1.2  Flares - A flare is a device for burning waste gases



whose heating value is such that a secondary fuel source is



not needed.   In an elevated flare, smokeless combustion is



achieved by the injection of an inert gas, often steam, into



the combustion zone to promote turbulence and to supply air.



However, the desired smokeless combustion may be accompanied



by an intolerable increase in unburned hydrocarbon emissions



due to the reduced flame temperature.



     Incineration can be justified as an economical emission



control process when a combustible solvent cannot be recovered



in either a sufficient quantity or an uncontaminated condition



for reuse in production.  The presence of catalyst poisons -



sulfur, particulates, halogens - or hydrocarbons that are dif-



ficult to oxidize catalytically suggests a preference for



direct-flame incineration.  Even so, secondary purification,



such as by liquid scrubbing, may be necessary for the removal



of inorganic contaminants.
                            386

-------
     The concentration of organic species in the waste gas



stream is the most important factor influencing control pro-



cess economics in the case of incineration.  A direct-flame



system is more economical at concentrations above 13 percent



to 18 percent LEL; catalytic incineration is preferred at



organic contaminant levels below this range.



11.2  Adsorption




     During the adsorption process, organic vapors are col-



lected on the internal surfaces of a solid, usually activated



carbon.




     Carbon adsorption for solvent recovery is a standard



operation, particularly where the vapor concentration is



relatively high (>500 ppm).  "Packaged" systems are available



from several commercial sources.  The main advantage that



activated carbon has over the adsorbents is its ability to



strongly but reversibly adsorb a wide variety of hydrocarbons,



even in the presence of water vapor.



     Adsorption is an efficient control technique generally



applied when recovery of the adsorbed material, particularly



solvents, is economically desirable.  However, the method has



also seen use in control of very low concentrations of noxious



organics not readily handled by catalytic incineration.  Pre-



liminary studies have been made to evaluate adsorption as a



means of collecting and concentrating dilute hydrocarbon emis-




sions from subsequent disposal by incineration.
                            387

-------
     Adsorption does have some drawbacks.  Particulates in a




waste gas stream may plug and damage the carbon bed.  This may




be avoided by filtering or scrubbing the gases prior to adsorp-




tion.  If the gas to be treated contains several organic com-




pounds, adsorption of the various species will not be uniform.




Generally, compounds are adsorbed in an approximate inverse




relation to their volatilities.  Finally, if a system is to




operate continuously, it must include two or more adsorbent




beds.  One can be used normally for adsorbing organics while




the other is being regenerated for further use.  Cycle time




between steam regenerations is in fact a critical design




variable.




     Activated carbon adsorption with solvent recovery should




be used for emission control where the recovered solvent is




free enough, or can feasibly be made free enough, of contaminants




for reuse in the production process.  Under such circumstances,




there is not a more economical control system.




     Adsorption with incineration cannot be justified on an




economic basis under any conditions which permit normal incin-




erator operations.  Adsorption-incineration without heat recovery




does appear to be attractive for disposal of dilute emissions




(vapor concentration <500 ppm)  that cannot be controlled by




catalytic incineration (i.e., that contain catalyst poisons).




11.3  Absorption




     Absorption involves the transfer of a soluble component




of a gas mixture into a relatively nonvolatile liquid.  In
                            388

-------
waste gas purification, the most commonly used absorbents are



water and mineral oil.




     Though usually classified as production equipment, not



emission control devices, absorbers are used, profitably, when



solvent vapor concentrations are high.  Low concentrations



require long contact time and large quantities of absorbent.



Both of these requirements increase costs unless the absorbent



can be regenerated or the solution can be used as a process



makeup stream.




     Packed and spray towers are preferred to bubble-plate



columns because the former produce lower pressure losses.



Spray towers have the advantage of being able to handle waste



gas streams containing particulates without plugging; however,



they are the least effective method of absorption per se.



     In emission control applications, absorption is best



used with other techniques, such as incineration or adsorption.




11.4  Condensation



     Condensation is a means for the collection and control of



organic emissions by lowering the temperature of a waste gas



stream.  The approach is most feasible for hot vapors that



would be liquid at ambient conditions.



     During condensation, the partial pressure of the material



remaining in the gas phase decreases rapidly, and complete



removal is not possible by this method alone.  Condensers must



usually be followed by another pollution control device, such



as an afterburner.  For this reason, incineration and adsorption
                            389

-------
are both preferred to condensation for control of volatile




organic emissions.




     Condensers have found application in the organic chemical




industry for the purpose of collecting concentrated vapors in




the primary process rather than for the reduction of losses to




the atmosphere.




11.5  Process or Equipment Modification




11.5.1  Solvent Reformulation and Substitution - Since the




advent of legislative codes concerning organic solvents, refor-




mulation has been a widely practiced and accepted method of




controlling solvent emissions.  Higher homologs in any organic




series will have lower vapor pressures, and their use may not




require process or equipment modification.




     In the case of vapor degreasing of metal surfaces, inves-




tigation of alternative organic solvents resulted in the selec-




tion of inhibited 1,1,1-trichloroethane as a satisfactory




replacement for trichloroethylene.




11.5.2  Storage Tank Controls - Storage and transfer of volatile




organics have been identified as a significant source of atmo-




spheric emissions.  The most widely used device for the reduc-




tion of emissions from storage is the floating-roof tank.  This




includes an impermeable cover which floats on the stored liquid




and provides a seal between the floating roof and the tank wall




to prevent evaporation.
                            390

-------
                          APPENDIX D



 PARTIAL LISTING OF RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE RUBBER INDUSTRY






1.   VULCANIZATION MATERIALS



     Accelerators




          Aldehyde-amine condensation products, butyraldehyde-



          aniline condensation products, dithiocarbamates,



          tetramethylthiuram disulfide, benzothiazole sulfen-



          amides, benzothiazoles, hexamethylene tetramine,



          furfurylamines, thioureas



     Activators



          Fatty acids, lead-free zinc oxide, magnesium oxide




     Retarders



          Phthalic anhydride, n-nitroso diphenylamine




     Vulcanizing and curing agents



          Phenol-formaldehyde resins, elemental sulfur,




          magnesium oxide




2.   PROTECTIVE MATERIALS



     Antioxidants, antiozonants, and inhibitors



          Naphthylamines, phenylamines, cresols, phenylene



          diamines
                            391

-------
     Chemical and heat stabilizers




          Barium-cadmium organics, organotin chemicals, barium-




          zinc organics, lead organics




3.    PROCESSING MATERIALS




     Plasticizers and softeners




          Fatty acids, dialkyl phthalates, chlorinated paraffins




          coal tar oil, petroleum oils, castor oil, polyesters,




          stearates




     Peptizers




          Thioxylenols, zinc thiophenate




     Processing aids and dispersing agents




          Paraffins, acidaffins,  nitrogen basis in combination




     Tackifiers




          Phenolic resins,  phenol-formaldehyde resins




4.    EXTENDERS, FILLERS AND REINFORCING MATERIALS




     Carbon black, channel  type




     Carbon black, furnace  types




     Carbon black, thermal  furnace types




     Nonblack materials




          Aluminum silicate, magnesium silicate, calcium




          carbonate, hard clay, barium sulfate, calcium sulfate,




          vulcanized vegetable oil




5.    COLORING MATERIALS




     Inorganic colors




          Black,  blue, brown, grey, green, orange, red, silver,




          violet, white, yellow
                             392

-------
     Organic colors




          Black, blue, brown, orange, green,  red,  violet,  white,



          yellow



     Colors, multiple types



6.    SURFACE MATERIALS



     Dusting, dying, and washing materials




          Aluminum, magnesium, and calcium silicates



     Finishes




          Synthetic waxes, paraffin waxes



     Lubricants (mold and internal)



          Fatty acids, sodium alkyl sulfates, low molecular-



          weight polyethylene



7.    AUXILIARY MATERIALS



     Adhesives and bonding agents



          Phenol-formaldehyde resins



     Blowing agents and blow promoters



          Urea, ammonium carbamate, azodicarbonamide,  sodium



          bicarbonate, sodium carbonate,. N,N-dinitroso




          pentamethylene tetramine



     Odorants and anti-staining agents



          Activated carbon, aromatic compounds




     Polymerization materials



          40% sodium dimethyl dithiocarbamatei alkanolamide|



          sodium alkyl sulfonates; benzoyl peroxide;



          1,4-butanediol,  anhydrous; benzoyl  peroxide, plain or



          in solution with silicone oils or various phthalates



          and phosphates;  solution of cobalt  2-ethylhexoate in





                            393

-------
benzene, 12% metal; mixture of long-chain mercaptans,




primarily dodecyl mercaptan (DDM); di-tertiary butyl




peroxide, 97 wt %, min.; lauryl mercaptan; 1,4-bis




(2-hydroxylpropyl)2-methylpiperazine; organic acid;




electrically-neutral fatty acid condensation product;




diethyl zinc; free acids of complex organic phosphate



esters; methyl dodecyl benzyl trimethyl and methyl




dodecyl xylene bis trimethyl ammonium chloride;




hydrogenated animal fatty acid; hydrogenated tallow




fatty acid; hydroquinone-di(b-hydroxyethyl) ether;




partial anhydrous soap of a disproportionated dis-




tilled tall oil having a ratio of 1:1 rosin-fatty




acids; partial potassium soap of disproportionated




distilled tall oil; liquid potassium soap of a




modified rosin; disproportionated rosin; chemically




modified fatty acid derived from tall oil; lauryl




mercaptan; tertiary dodecyl mercaptan; t-dodecyl




mercaptan; 60:20:20 weight % mixture based on




mercaptan content of C\2i Cm, and Cjg tertiary




mercaptan; 97% cupric acid, 2% lauric acid, 1%




caprylic acid; 92.5% palmitic acid, 5% stearic acid,




1% myristic acid, 1% margaric acid, 0.5% pentadecylic




acid; hydrogenated tallow soap chips  (potassium);




sodium ferric ethylenediaminetetracetate; 40% sodium




dimethyldithiocarbamate; 50% potassium dimethyldithio-




carbamate; hydrogenated tallow soap chips  (sodium);
                  394

-------
     sodium alkyl naphthalene sulfonate; tertiary dodecyl



     mercaptan; ethylene oxide adduct of castor oil;



     sodium salts of a condensed naphthalene sulfonic acid;



     50% aqueous solution of potassium dimethyl



     dithiocarbamate; 40% aqueous solution of sodium



     dimethyl dithiocarbamate; alkyl aryl polyethers;



     amine polyglycol condensate; modified polyethoxy



     adduct; sodium alkylaryl polyether sulfate; dioxtyl



     sodium sulfosuccinate; alkylaryl polyether alcohols;



     alkyl polyether alcohols; sodium alkylaryl polyether



     sulfonates; stearyldimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride;



     disproportionated resin; sodium dimethyl



     dithiocarbamate



Solvents



     Acetone; dipentene, ^70%; other terpene HCs, -x/26%;



     terpene alcohols, ^4%; moisture, 0.05%; mixture of



     terpene HCs; toluene; xylol; cyclohexane; petroleum



     naphtha; petroleum naphthas, with aromatic content



     from 46% to 86%; amyl acetate; commercial benzene;



     normal butyl acetate; secondary butyl acetate; normal



     butyl alcohol; secondary butyl alcohol; butyl ether;



     butyrolactone; secondary octyl alcohol; aromatic



     solvent; cyclohexanol; cyclohexanone; dichloroethyl



     ether; dimethyl ketone, 99.5% wt, min.; aliphatic



     solvent; ethyl acetate; ethyl alcohol; ethylene



     dichloride; ethylene glycol monobutyl ether  (butyl
                        395

-------
"cellosolve"); ethylene glycol monobutyl ether;




normal heptane; hexane; isobutyl acetate; isobutyl




alcohol; essentially 100% isoparaffinic; isopropyl




acetate, normal; methyl chloride; methyl ethyl




ketone; methyl isobutyl ketone, 99% wt, min. ;




methylene chloride, sometimes with stabilizer added;




methyl isoamyl ketone; monochlorobenzene; aliphatic




petroleum naphtha; perchloroethylene; propylene




dichloride; 2-pyrrolidone; aliphatic naphtha; ali-




phatic petroleum solvent; aromatic organic solvent;




proprietary ethyl alcohol; tetrachloroethylene




(perchloroethylene),  sometimes with added stabilizer;




tetrahydrofuran cyclic ether stabilized with 0.025%




butylated hydroxytoluene  (BHT); tetrahydronaphtha-




lene; industrial toluene; trichloroethylene; gum or




wood turpentine; petroleum fractions; industrial




xylene
                  396

-------
                          APPENDIX E




                   MODEL IV COMPUTER PROGRAM






A printout of the Model IV computer program starts on the next




page.
                              397

-------
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
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c
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DATE TODAY: 1/25/77
PROGRAMMER AT MRC:  K. FLAYLER
REQUESTOR:  T. HUGHES
MODEL IV COMPUTER PROGRAM
CHARGE NUMBER 13-022-760-13
200-3117
PROGRAM ORIGINATED AT TRC
THE RESEARCH CORPORATION OF MEW
ENGLAND, AUTHOR: THOMAS HOPPER
DATED at OCTOBER 1975
HOPPER IS NOW WITH EPA BOSTON
PHONE: 617 223-5610
TITLE OF REPORT:
IMPACT OF NEW SOURCE PER-
FORMANCE STANDARDS ON 1985
NATIONAL EMISSIONS FROM
STATIONARY SOURCES  VOLUME I
FINAL REPORT...MAIN TEXT AND
APPENDICES I THRU III
TRC PROJ NO: 32391
PHONE AT TRC: 203 56
PROGRAM MODIFIED 1/28/77
      INTEGER L,S,CR
      DIMENSION IRPB(200),IRPC(200) ,
     1ITD(200),IPLTNT(10,15),PK(200) ,
     2ES(200),EN(200),EU(200),PB(200),A(200),PC(200),B(200),
     3c(200),TU(200),TA(200),TS(200),TN(200),TD(200),IEUNIT(10,200),
     "+IIUNIT(10,200),ISOURC(20,200),15(200),16(200),I ALFA(5,8),
     5IBETA<<*,8)
      DATA L,S/1H6,1HS/
      DATA IALFA  /'GM•,•/K','G «,'   '.«   ',
     2            'GM','/P','AI',«R ' , '   ' ,
     3            'GM«,'/T'.'IR»,«E ' , •   ' ,
      DATA IBETA
•G/' , n
/ • ',
'PA',
•TI',
'US' ,
•E6'.
'E9',
(G1 ,
'
IR'
RE'
ED'
*
G'
U«
'
«S
'S
,
,
•M
, <
,
,
.
,


5E'






                                      'D
                                 /
     2
     3
     t

     5
     6
      CR = 1
      LP = 5
      K = l


          READ IN THE NUMBER OF POLLUTANTS


      READ(CR,99) Kl


          REAC IN THE TABLE NUMBER AND THE
          NUMBER OF SOURCES OF EACH POLLUTANT


   50 READ(CRi100)  11,12


          READ IN POLLUTANT NAME
                              398

-------
      MEAD(CR,101)  
      GO TO 81
   80 B(I)=10.*A(I)*PB(I)
   81 IF(IRPC(I).EQ.S) GO TO 82
      C(I) = ( (1.0+PCd) )**10-1.0)*A(I)
      GO TO 83
   82 C(I)=10.*A(I)*PC(I)
C
C         CALCULATE TOTAL EMISSIONS IN
C         TONS/YEAR
C
   83 TU=10*ITD(I)
      GO TO  91
   88 ITD(I)=TO(I)/100+0.5
      TDd)=ITD(I)
      TD(D=100.*TD(I)
      GO TO  91
                                399

-------
   89 ITD(I)=TU(I)/1000+0.5
      TDI)iJ=l»20)
      IF(PK(I).EQ.0.0)  60 TO 330
      IF(A(I).SE.1000..OR.B(I).GE.1000..OR.C(I).GE.1000, ) 60 TO 305
      GO TO 304
  305 A(I)=Ad)/1.0E6
      B(I)=B(I)/1.0E6
      C(I)=C(I)/1.0E6
      TD(I)=TD(T)/1.0E3
  304 WRITE(LP.306)   PK(I ) ,                   ( lEUNlT(J.I)«J = lt5) i
     lES(I)«EN(I),EU(I),PB(I)»IRPB(I),PC(I)tIRPC(I)«
     2( IIUNITJ Jtl) . J=l.f) . Ad) tB(I) «C(I)
     3TD(I)
      DO "+00 J = l,<+
  tOO IIUNIT(J,I)=IBETA(J,I5(I))
      WRITE(LP,310) 
-------
100 FORMATJ2I5)
101 FORMAT(10A2)
102 FORMAT(20A2)
103 FORMAT(F7.0,l3,4F10.0,Al«FlO.O,Al«I3«Ell,0)
300 FORMAT* lril//35Xi'MODEL  IV PRIORIHZATION OF RUBBER INDUSTRIES'//
   21X,'POLLUTANT/SOURCE, '.10A2//30X»'EMISSION RATES'.SX,
   *•GROWTH RATES•«t8X,'EMISSIONS'/lX,«INDUSTRY',5X»»EMISSION'.7X,
   5'ALLOW ABLE   UNCOIMT•,2Xt'DECIMAL/YEAR'»2Xi'INDUSTRY't7X,'CAPACITY'
   1.20X»'1.0E9 GRAINS/YEAR' >
301 FORMAT(3X»'K' »HXi 'UNITS't8X«'E« . 7X. «E' ^X« 'E' i 5X • »P' »6X i
   1«P'.7X«'UNITS'»5X»'A'.5X.'B'i5X,'C'«1(7X,'T'),6X.'T -T'/
   229Xt'S'.7X.MM',7X«'U'»5Xi'B'.6X,'C'i37X'U'i7X.'A'i7X,'S1«7Xt•N'»
   36X,'S  N'/lX,131('-'»
303 FORMAT(/1X»20A2)
306 FORMAT(1X.F5.2.7X«5A2t3F8.2»2(F6.3.Al«IX)«3X»«VA2»3F6.
   !
-------
                         APPENDIX F

         CALCULATION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR RUBBER
               VOLATILIZATION EMISSION SOURCES
     Throughout the rubber industry, operations are performed

that convert rubber directly into usable end products or into

a physical state where it can then be processed into saleable

end products.

     In the process of this converison, heat is added to the

rubber stock and thus permits certain organics contained in

the rubber to volatilize.  The amount of rubber volatiles formed

is the question of considerable debate at the present time as

(1) little source testing of these emission sources has been

done, (2) the chemical composition of rubber used in the indus-

try varies considerably.

     During this study, actual source testing data were not

found to allow an accurate calculation of emission factors.

The only available literature information consists of the

Rappaport23 thesis and some unpublished research on curing

emissions supplied by one company.  The Rappaport thesis re-

ports on emission tests run on industry supplied rubber stock.

From this research, Rappaport's data allows for a postulated

temperature - percent weight loss equation, which is
                            402

-------
                   C = 0.00212T - 0.15328

where  C = amount of hydrocarbon lost,
           % weight fraction of rubber

       T = curing temperature, °C

     Solving for zero weight loss, the critical temperature is

72.3°C.  Thus, any operation generating more than 72°C can,

according to Rappaport, produce hydrocarbon emissions.

     The following operations can thus potentially generate

hydrocarbons:

     • Compounding

     • Milling

     • Calendering

     • Extrusion

     • Molding

     • Curing

     Since insufficient data are available, emission  factors

for these operations were estimated as follows.

     The highest temperatures generated are in curing.  Rappaport

calculated emission factors for tire curing in the 160°C to

200°C range that averaged 2.23 g/kg of rubber stock.  Unpub-

lished research by one tire company reports that Rappaport's

estimate failed to account for water loss, and based  on their

data, 90% of the reported weight loss can be attributed to

water loss.  Using this figure, the curing emission factor was

estimated to be 0.223 g/kg of rubber stock.  This estimate is

used in the report.
                            403

-------
     An  additional  calculation  can be made based on concentra-


tion of  species found by Rappaport.  Such species  and their


concentration are shown in Table F-l.  The TLV for toluene is


375 mg/m3.   Cost calculations presented  in this report use a


flow rate  of 20,000 cu ft/min for curing and an average tire


production of 7,320 tires/day.


       Table F-l.  MATERIALS EMITTED DURING RUBBER VULCANIZATION23

Material emitted
Toluene
4-Vinyl-l-cyclohexene
Ethyl benzene
m-Xylene
p-Xylene
Styrene
t-Butylisothiocyanate
1, 5-Cyclooctadiene
Benzothiazole
N-sec-butylaniline
1, 5,9-Cyclododecatriene
Methyl naphthalenes
Butadiene trimer
Ethyl naphthalene
Dimethyl naphthalene
Diphenyl guanidine
Source in rubber stock
Polybutadiene rubber
Polybutadiene rubber
Aromatic oil extender
Aromatic oil extender
Aromatic oil extender
Styrene-butadiene rubber

Polybutadiene rubber
Accelerator
Antiozonant
Polybutadiene rubber
Aromatic oil extender
Polybutadiene rubber
Aromatic oil extender
Aromatic oil extender
Accelerator
Relative
cone. ,a'b
ppm by
volume
1.120
0.071
0.078
(0.035)
(0.035)
0.084
(0.090)
0.0063
(0.080)
(0.030)
0.0158
(0.090)
(0.015)
0.010)
0.010
(0.100)
TLV
ppm
100
NA
100
100
100
100
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Cone.
TLV
0.01
—
0.0008
0.0004
0.0004
0.0008
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
 a
 Relative concentrations were obtained by sampling the atmosphere within

 the curing  room.  The values reported indicate concentrations of the
 individual  compounds within the curing room.
 b
 Parentheses around data indicate estimates of concentrations made by
 Monsanto Research Corporation from Rappaport's published  raw data.
                               404

-------
     To find the flow rate per tire, assume that an average

tire weighs 10.9 kg of which 65% is rubber stock.


Flow rate/tire = 20'°0° ft3/min    1,440 min   2.83 x 10~2 M3
                 7,320 tires/day     1 day   x      ft3

                   1 tire
                 x
                       g  k   x  0.65  = M3/kg of rubber  stock


               =  6.64  M3/kg rubber stock

Assuming the  concentration  of toluene  is at the TLV:

Emission factor = (.375  g/M3)(6.64 M3/kg) = 2.49  g/kg of rubber

                   stock.

     In addition,  using  Rappaport's observed concentration

 (.01 TLV), the emission  factor can be  estimated

            (.01) (.375) (6.64)  = .025 g/kg of rubber

Therefore, a  curing emission  factor can be calculated theoret-

ically to range from  .025 to  2.5 g/kg.  This report  lists the

factor as .22 g/kg of  stock.

     For the  other sources, since  no emission  data are  avail-

able, the emission factors  are assumed to vary in proportion

to their temperature,  using the curing emission factor  as a

basis.

     For compounding,  the operating temperature is assumed to

be 100°C.  The temperature  basis for the curing emission factor

is 180°C.  In addition,  due to carbon  black particulate, 20% of

the generated emission is assumed  to be adsorbed  on  the carbon

black and thus becomes organic particulate.  Therefore, the

emission factor for compounding is:
                             405

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     (0.8) (100/180) (.223) = .099 = 0.1 g/kg of rubber  stock




     For milling, an operating temperature of 80°C  is  assumed.




Assuming that 50% of the emissions condense immediately upon




formation due to their temperature being close to the  critical




temperature of 72.3°C, the milling emission factor  is




            (0.5) (80/200) (.223) = .05 g/kg of stock




     Extrusion and calendering are assumed to have  the same




operating temperatures as milling (80°C) and to also have 50%




condensation immediately upon formation.  Thus the  emission




factors are also .05 g/kg of rubber stock.  For some extrusion




operations other than tire manufacture, the temperatures are




less than 80°C and their emission factors are lower than for




tires.




     Molding emissions are assumed to be identical  to  curing




emissions (same temperature)  and the emission factor assumed




equal to that of press curing.




     Other curing processes  (batch,  continuous) assume differ-




ent percent condensibles based on temperature and physical




operation and are both lower than for press curing.  These




estimates are shown in the appropriate emission sections for




batch and continuous curing.




     As is evident from these estimates, source testing data




is required to prove or improve the values given in this



report.
                             406

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                          APPENDIX G



             AVERAGE PLANT SIZE FOR EACH INDUSTRY






     For the purpose of estimating the cost of control for each



volatile organic emitting source in each industry, an average



plant size was defined for each industry to provide the basis



for cost calculations.  This average plant size was used to



derive the rate of exhaust gas flow to be treated.  It was also



used to calculate the concentration of volatile organics in the



gas stream by material balance using the appropriate emission



factor.



     For SIC's 2822, 3021, 3031, 3041, and 3357,  the annual



production for average plants was obtained by dividing the



1975 total national production by the total number of plants.



For SIC's 3011, 3069, and 3293, about 50% of total plants are



small ones producing less than 5% of goods in the respective



industries.  These small plants have less than 50 employes in



SIC 3011 and less than 20 employes in SIC's 3069  and 3293.



For SIC 7534 (tire retreading), owing to lack of  data on the



total number of plants and the plant size distribution, an



annual production of 450 metric tons of product/yr was assumed



for the average plant.  The annual production for average



plants is summarized in Table G-l.





                             407

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 Table G-l.  AVERAGE PLANT  SIZE  FOR EACH INDUSTRY
                                 Annual  production,
	Industry	metric  tons/yr

Synthetic rubber
   (SIC 2822)                           120,000

Tires and inner tubes
   (SIC 3011)                           20,000

Rubber footwear
   (SIC 3021)                             2,700

Rubber reclaiming
   (SIC 3031)                           14,000

Hose and belting
   (SIC 3041)                             6,500

Fabricated rubber goods
   (SIC 3069)                             1,700

Gaskets, packing, and sealing
  devices (SIC 3293)                     1,700

Wire insulating
   (SIC 3357)                             3,000

Tire retreading
   (SIC 7534)                               450
                        408

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                         APPENDIX H



           ECONOMIC ASSUMPTIONS IN COST ESTIMATES






     In the cost estimates for add-on control systems, capital



cost, annualized operating cost, and cost effectiveness



($/metric ton of organics removed) were calculated.  Items in-



cluded in the capital cost and the operating cost are listed



in Tables H-l and H-2, respectively.  Cost effectiveness was



obtained by dividing the annualized operating cost by the total



weight of organics removed per year from the exhaust gas by the



control device.  Table H-3 gives the assumptions used in devel-



oping cost estimates for catalytic and noncatalytic incinera-



tors.  The economic assumptions for carbon adsorbers are pre-




sented in Table H-4.
                             409

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   Table H-l.  TYPICAL ITEMS INCLUDED IN INVESTMENT COST
                  OF ADD-ON CONTROL SYSTEMS
Basic Collection Equipment

Auxiliary Equipment

  Air movement equipment
    Fans and blowers
    Hoods, ducts
    Electrical (motors,  starters,  wire conduits, switches, etc.)

  Liquid movement equipment

    Pumps
    Electrical (motors,  starters, wire conduits, switches, etc.)
    Piping and valves
    Settling tanks

  Instrumentation for measurement and control of:

    Air and/or liquid flow
    Natural gas and/or fuel oil flow
    Temperature and/or pressure
    Operation and capacity
    Power

Research and Development - this might include as stream measure-
ment, pilot plant operations, personnel costs,  etc.

Installation

  Labor to install
  Cleaning the site
  Yard and underground
  Building modification
  Inspection
  Support construction
  Protection of existing facilties
  Supervising and engineering
  Startups

Storage and Disposal Equipment

Contingencies

Sales Tax
                             410

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  Table H-2.  TYPICAL ITEMS INCLUDED IN ANNUAL COSTS
                OF ADD-ON CONTROL SYSTEMS
Capital Charges
Operating Costs
  Utilities needed  to operate the control equipment
  Materials consumed  (such as fuel) in operating the
  control system
  Waste disposal operations
Overhead
  Property taxes
  Insurance
Maintenance Costs
   Replacement of parts and equipment
   Supervision and engineering
  Repairs
  Lubrication
  Surface protection  (such as cleaning and painting)
Offsetting Cost Benefits from Operating Control System
  (such as recovery of valuable byproduct)
                         411

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Table H-3.   ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DEVELOPING COST ESTIMATES FOR
            CATALYTIC AND NONCATALYTIC INCINERATORS
Noncatalytic incinerators designed for both oil and natural gas
operation

Catalytic incinerators designed for natural gas and propane
operation

Catalytic incinerators capable of .80CTF operation below 6% LEL;
1200°F design capability for operation from 6% to 25% LEL

3-year catalyst life

Costs based on outdoor location

Rooftop installation requiring structural steel

Fuel cost of $1.50 million Btu (gross).  Correction factors are
provided to determine operating costs at higher fuel prices.

Electricity at $0.03 kw-hr

Depreciation and interest was taken as 16% of captial invest-
ment.  Annual maintenance was assumed to be 5% of captial cost,
taxes and insurance, 2%, and building overhead, 2%.

Direct labor assessed at 0.5 hr/shift x 730 shifts/yr x $8.00/hr =
$2,920/yr direct labor expense.

Operating time:  2 shifts/day x 8 hr/shift x 365 days/yr =
5,840 hr/yr.  Correction factors are provided to determine
annual cost at different operation times.

The noncatalytic incinerator utilized was based on:

   • 1500°F capability

   • 0.5 s residence time
   • Nozzle mix burner capable of No. 2 thru No. 6 oil firing

   • Forced mixing of the burner products of combustion using a
     slotted cylinder mixing arrangement.  This cylinder allows
     the burner flame to establish itself before radial entry
     of the effluent thru slots in the far end of the cylinder.
   • A portion of the effluent to be incinerated is ducted to
     the burner to serve as combustion air.  This allows the
     burner to act as a raw gas burner, thus saving fuel over
     conventional nozzle mix burners.  This design can thus be
     used, however, when the 02 content of the oven exhaust is
     17% by volume or above.

The catalytic afterburner was costed for two design points, 800
and 1200°F, the higher temperature design is required for LEL
levels exceeding 6%.  (At 600°F into the catalyst and a 6% LEL,
the outlet temperature of the catalyst is approximately 800°F;
at a 25% LEL condition and a minimum initiation temperature of
500°F, the catalyst reaches an outlet temperature of around
1200°F.
                             412

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       Table H-4.  ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DEVELOPING COST
               ESTIMATES FOR CARBON ADSORBERS
Exhaust gases contain benzene and hexane  (50/50 wt %) mixture
in air.

Fuel costs of $1.50/million Btu

Electricity at $0.03/kw-hr

Activated carbon at $0.68/lb

Water at $0.04/thousand gallons

Steam at $2/thousand Ib

5-yr life of activated carbon

Adsorber operating at 100°F

Market value  (December 1975) of benzene = $0.85/gallon

Market value  (December 1975) of hexane =  $0.465/gallon

Normal retrofit situation

Direct labor assessed at 0.5 hr/shift x 730 shifts/yr x $8/hour =
$2,920/yr

Annual maintenance, taxes, insurance, building overhead, depre-
ciation, and interest on borrowed money taken as  25% of capital
investment

Operating time = 5,840 hr/yr
                             413

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                              TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                        (Please read Instruction! OH the reverse before completing)
 1 REPORT NO.
                                                    3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  Identification and  Control of Hydrocarbon
  Emissions from Rubber  Processing Operations
           6. REPORT DATE
                November  23,  1977
           6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
 7. AUTHOR(S)                              .   n _ .
  T.  J.  Hoogheem, C.  T.  Chi, G. M. Rinaldi,
  R.  J.  McCormick,  and  T.  W. Hughes
           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.

             MRC-DA-654
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  Monsanto Research Corporation
  Dayton Laboratory
  1515 Nicholas Road
  Dayton, Ohio  45407
                                                    1O. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
           11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
             No. 68-02-1411,  Task 17
 12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
                                                    13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
  U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency
  Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
  Research Triangle Park,  North Carolina   27711
           14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
 15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 16. ABSTRACT
       This report provides the necessary  guidance for development of
  regulations to limit  emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) of
  hydrocarbons associated with rubber processing operations  of nine indus-
  tries:  Synthetic  Rubber; Tires and Inner Tubes; Rubber  Footwear;
  Reclaimed Rubber;  Rubber Hose and Belting; Fabricated  Rubber Goods, N.E.C.;
  Seals, Gaskets, and Packing Devices; Wiredrawing and Insulating; and
  Tire Retreading.   This  guidance includes control alternatives and esti-
  mated costs of these  alternatives.
                            KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                DESCRIPTORS
Air  pollution
Synthetic rubber; tire  and inner
   tubes;  rubber footwear;  reclaimed
   rubber; rubber hose and  belting;
   fabricated rubber goods;  seals,
   gaskets,  and packing  devices; wire-
   drawing and insulating;  and tire retreading
                                        b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Air Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Organic Vapors
                         COSATI Field/Group
 8 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
                                        19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
                                          Unclassified
                       21. NO. OF PAGES
                            429
                                        20 SECURITY CLASS (This pagr)
                                         Unclassified
                                                                22. PRICE
tPA Form Z2ZO-I (»-73)
                                     414

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