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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PUBLICATIONS
and
ACTIVE PROJECTS
May 1976
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Comprehensive PTanTTTng""ancrTJrird Use Staff
Media Quality Management Division
Office of Air, Land and Water Use
Office of Research and Development
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
202-426-0810
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INTRODUCTION
This annotated bibliography is a collection of published reports
and projects in progress from the Environmental Management
Research Program, Office of Air, Land and Water Use, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Environmental Management Research in EPA is divided into four
general areas: planning, evaluation, implementation and
enforcement. The characteristics of the EMR program that make it
unique within the Agency's overall research program is its
emphasis on intermedia effects (both physical and economic) of
environmental management actions, its research on the integration
of environmental management strategies (that is, development of
information on implementation encentives and institutional
arrangements, as well as physical methods or technological
options for management purposes), and its consideration and
evaluation of the complete range of implementation measures,
including economic incentives, land use management measures,
public education programs, as well as traditional regulatory
mechanisms. Most of EPA's land use research is conducted in the
Environmental Management Program. Information contained in these
research reports should be of particular interest and use in the
preparation of Areawide Waste Treatment Management (208) and Air
Quality Maintenance plans.
Published reports are indicated by the EPA report number. These
reports are available from either the Superintendent of
Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C. 20402,
or the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port
Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
Information on any of the active projects is available from the
comprehensive planning and Land Use Staff at the address or phone
number on the cover of this document.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLANNING 1
EVALUATION 11
IMPLEMENTATION 16
ENFORCEMENT 32
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Planning
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*Huffschmidt, M. and Moreau, D., Planning £or
Regional Environmental Quality Management
and Related Land Use and Transportation
Systems, Final Report: December 1976.
Grant No. R803636-01-0.
The objective of this project is to design a process and
supporting multi-sectoral, continuous planning techniques for
environmental quality management systems and related elements of
natural resource, land use and transportation systems in regions
under significant pressures of urbanization. The project will
specify properties required of analytical methods and related
data sets to support the planning process, including a
rationalization of the planning requirements of EPA, HUD, DOT and
the DOC. The model process will be examined in several differing
organization and administrative contexts.
*Howe, R. and White, N., Development of Residuals
Management Strategies, Interim Report and
Executive Summary, February 1976.
EPA-600/1-76-01/A & B.
The report is a primer on the development of residuals
management strategies. It presents a general planning process
applicable to Areawide Waste Treatment Management and Air Quality
Maintenance plan development, and develops taxonomies of physical
methods (technological options), implementation measures and
institutional arrangements—the components of management
strategies. A procedure for developing and evaluating residuals
management strategies is outlined.
Stone, R. and Smallwood, H., Intermedia Aspects
of Air and Water Pollution Controls, August 1973.
EPA-600/5-73-003.
Transfer of pollutants between the air and water media are
identified for major air and water pollutant control strategies.
Emphasis is on artificial transfer between air or water caused by
pollution control processes. Natural transfers are not treated
in depth and land is considered only as a means for residuals
disposal. Discussions include costs of intermedia transfer from
land to air or water.
Control methods for each intermedia pollutant are discussed;
comparative costs and expected unit process efficiencies are
given. Secondary Residuals disposal methods and problems are
presented.
Institutional factors, regulations and strategies for
pollution control are summarized and discussed, and are
illustrated with a regional study of the Los Angeles Metropolitan
Area.
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Summary data are developed for primary and secondary residuals
discharged nationally and in the California South Coast Region,
along with product/residual ratios for industries represented by
the Standard Industrial Classification Code and other public
economic sectors.
The framework for a mathematical -model is developed for the
prediction of the effects of change in any of the elements of the
production-ebnsumption-pollution-regulaton network.
*Teknekron, Inc., A Study of Water Quality
Impact of the Implementation of Air
Quality Standards, November 1975, Final
Report: March 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-2243.
The objective of this investigation is to examine the impact on
water quality due to the implementation of air quality standards,
with emphasis on the effects of disposal of air pollution control
residuals on groundwater.
The pertinent regulations developed by EPA in compliance with
the Air Quality Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
are reviewed. Air pollutant limitations are presented as well as
water quality standards. An examination is made of the intent of
the laws and regulations as they pertain to groundwater
protection. State solid waste regulations are discussed; those
for the State of California are reviewed in greater detail and
are included as an appendix.
The five industries selected for the study were: the nitric
acid industry, the sulfuric acid industry, the portland cement
industry, municipal incineration, and fossil fuel firmed steam
electric generation. Brief descriptions are presented for each
industry including basic feed stock materials, production
statistics, air pollution control technology, and air pollution
control residuals.
A pollutant transport model is presented for routing aqueous
pollutant species down through the unsaturated zone of the soil
and for showing the basic functional dependencies of pollutant
transport. Data and information is presented on the absorption
behavior of aqueous mercury, the sample pollutant, chosen because
of its known toxicity and occurrance in certain residual
leachates. Further data is presented on dispersion and also on
the general characteristics of soil-pollutant interactions.
The potential environmental intermedia effects for the five
selected industries are reviewed. Emphasis is on types of
residuals produced, disposal techniques, and the potential for
subsequent contamination of the groundwater resource.
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*DeLucia, R. et al., Analysis of Residual
Generation and Discharge from Urban,
Non-Industrial Land Use Activities,
Final Report: March 1977.
Contract No. 68-01-2622.
The project will conduct "activity analyses" of a limited
number of urban, non-industrial land use activites in order to
examine the generation and discharge of residuals (gases, solids,
liquids and energy) from these activities, and to evaluate the
options available for modifying residuals discharge from these
activities. A feasibility study will examine residential
activities; a possible follow-on study will examine commercial,
institutional, and other urban land use activities.
*Perez, A. et al., A Water Quality Model for a
Conjunctive Surface-Groundwater System,
May 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-013.
Considered in this study were both flow and water quality
processes occurring on the ground surface, in the unsaturated
soil zone and in the saturated or groundwater zone. The
objective was to improve already available formulations for the
above processes and subsequently to develop a methodology for
interfacing the individual models.
Emphasis was placed on the modeling of agricultural pollution.
For this reason, nitrogen and phosphorous were the main
substances considered. The selection of the Lake Apopka basin in
Central Florida as the study area was made in accordance with
these project goals. Current data limitations precluded a
complete verification of the model. However, various general
conclusions could be drawn. In the future, the formulation could
be viewed as an instrument for structuring data gathering
efforts.
*Grimsrud et al., Evaluation of Water Quality
Models, Final Report: March 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-2641.
This report is designed as a handbook specifically oriented to
water quality and water resources planners and managers. It
presents a large amount of basic information concerning water
quality modeling, including procedures for model evaluation,
model selection, integration of modeling with planning
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activities, and contracting modeling projects.
Planners without previous experience in water quality modeling
may use the information and procedures included in the handbook
to to determine whether a water quality model could and should be
used in a particular planning program, and which specific model
would be cost-effective. This includes a step-by-step procedure
leading to the rejection or selection of models according to
specific project needs.
The handbook discusses the implications which accompany the
decision to model, including the needs for additonal labor and
specialized technical expertise which are generated. Methods and
procedures for integrating the use and results of water quality
models with other activities of the planning process are
described as well as the respective merits of in-house and
contracted modeling. The handbook also deals with the procedures
for obtaining and using contractual services for water quality
modeling.
Delaware River Basin Commission, Interstate
Planning for Regional Water Supply and
Pollution Control, November 1971.
EPA-16110 FPP 11/71.
This report presents the results of a study of the problem of
water supply and waste disposal in the three-State, six-county
region for which the Tocks Island Reservoir and the Delaware
Water Gap National Recreation Area are planned.
The report presents various alternatives for water supply and
waste disposal in the 1,000 square mile drainage area of the
Tocks Island Reservoir. This region is presently, undergoing
rapid growth as a result not only of the Federal dam, reservoir,
and recreation area projects, but of major new highways,
second-home development, land speculation, and the^ burgeoning
recreation industry.
Peak summer populations are projected over a 50-year period
and utilities systems alternatives which could accommodate such
projected growth are presented in the report. Water supplies in
the region are seen as adequate to meet future demands, with
heavy emphasis in development of groundwater resources. Five
alternative sewerage plans, ranging in degree of regionalization
from 116 local treatment systems to a single system for the
entire region, are outlined including detailed cost estimates.
Preservation of water quality in the region is a primary
objective of the study.
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Alamo Area Council of Governments, Basin
Management for Water Reuse, February 1972.
EPA-16110 EAX 02/72.
Computer programs were developed for the preliminary design
and costing of wastewater renovation by the
lime-clinoptilolite-carbon processes of advanced waste treatment;
for activated sludge treatment; and for pipeline conveyance of
water. These together with methods or or algorithms of lesser
depth for other processes were used to cost water supply and
waste treatment under conditions expected in San Antonio in the
year 2000, for two extreme alternatives: importation of surface
water according to the Texas Water Plan and conventional water
treatment, waste, treatment and disposal by discharge; and
completely closed recycle, discharging no waste water and reusing
all the wastewater after treating it to make it reusable. The
unit costs for these two extremes were about 20c/kilogallon of
water used and the reuse scheme was only 10% more costly than the
conventional scheme, i.e., well within the expected error of the
estimates. It was shown that the seasonality of the water
consumption in the face of non-seasonality of the sewage produced
has an important bearing on the design and cost of reuse systems.
Porcella, D. et al., Comprehensive Management
of Phosphorus Water Pollution, February 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-010.
The environmental problems of phosphorus pollution are
examined using an activity analysis approach to account for
phosphorus inputs to surface waters. For purposes of analysis,
this study assumes phosphorus to be the limiting factor in algal
growth and eutrophication. A mass flow model, generate enough to
be applied to specific lakes or river basins, was developed in
order to relate the flow of phosphorus from.all activities in a
basin to the consequences of eutrophication. Various control
tactics to limit mass flow and thus eutrophication were defined
from the standpoint of both supply and demand for phosphorus
producing products and the management of phosphorus uses.
Combinations of feasible controls, designated as strategies,
were applied to the model to determine the cost-effectiveness of
the strategies in minimizing eutrophication. An hypereutrophic
hypothetical lake basin, Lake Michigan, and Lake Erie were
analyzed as case examples to test the model and control methods.
Overall strategies were derived for the hypothetical lake and
then applied to Erie and Michigan using available information on
these lakes. In simple terms, phosphorus management strategies
seemed feasible for control of eutrophication in present-day Lake
Michigan, while waste treatment together with management
strategies were necessary for Lake Erie.
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Barresi, J. et al., The Northern Maine Regional
Treatment System, April 1973.
EPA-R5-73-013.
Detailed sampling, gaging and laboratory analyses determined
current waste loads from the Aroostook-Prestile Basin's potato
processing industry. Studies indicated that significant
reductions in load could be accomplished by in-plant
conservation. Biological treatment of the residual wastes,
however, was found necessary.
Preliminary designs were prepared for numerous treatment and
loading operations, including joint industry-municipal plants and
regionally inter-connected systems. A transport-treatment
channel system covering some eleven miles was shown to be
technically feasible.
Cost analyses of all viable options and alternatives were
prepared, including capital and operating costs. Annual revenue
requirements for each system were projected, including evaluation
of current State and Federal tgrant-in-aid programs. Joint
municipal-industrial treatment facilities proved the most
economic course of action.
The technical studies of the research and development program
were evaluated for water quality impact on the receiving waters,
as determined by companion river basin studies.
*Spooner, C. et al., A Demonstration of Areawide
Water Resources Planning, June 1975, Final
Report: March 1976.
Grant No. EPA 16110 FEY and S802149.
"<
The Metropolitan Wasington Council of Governments Framework
Water Resources Planning Model developed and and tested under
this study is a comprehensive analytical tool for use in areawide
water resources management planning. The physical simulation
portion was formed by linking component computer models which
test alternative future community development patterns by small
area, estimate water- demands by usage categories, calculate
sewage flows based on water demands and add infiltration/inflow,
simulate stormwater runoff, test application of alternative waste
treatment management systems, and simulate the quality response
of the regions major water body. The impact assessment portion
of the Framework Model includes methodologies for assessing the
fiscal, social, and environmental impacts of alternatives. The
Framework Model has been tested for the Metropolitan Washington
region by identifying the cost-effectiveness of six alternative
areawide water resources management strategies, and is currently
in use in many planning programs.
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Engineering Science. Inc., Development of a Trial
Air Quality Maintenance__Plan Using the Baltimore
Air Quality Control Region, September 1974.
EPA-450/3-74-05G.
This report is a prototype Air Quality Maintenance Plan for
the Baltimore Air Quality Control Region. The report contains an
analysis of whether the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
will be maintained for the ten year period 1975-1985; a trial
plan to maintain the standards which are not expected to be
maintained over that period; and a description of the method used
to develop the trial plan.
The Residual Environmental Quality Management (REQM) framework
is used to identify and rank control measures and to select a
control strategy. This framework provides a systematic analysis
of the range of options available for responding to air quality
maintenance requirements. Matrices developed using the REQM
framework describe the generated residuals and methods for their
prevention as well as secondary impact resulting from
socioeconomic implications of the control measures and policy
instruments.
The plan was prepared using draft EPA guidelines concerning
air quality maintenance area analysis and plan development.
*Bishop, A. B. and Bigler, A Planning Process
for Residuals Management: A Regional
Application, Final Report, August 1976.
Grant No. R803203-01-3.
The project is analyzing the effects associated with resource
development in the Uintah Basin of Northeast Utah. The residuals
management approach is being used to estimate residualsjgenerated
and discharged by new activities and to develop and evaluate
environmental quality management strategies for the basin. A
linear programming model is being used to identify least-cost
alternatives. The results will be applicable to both 208 and AQM
planning requirements. Forecasts of population, employment and
land use for the study area have been made through the
development of the State of Utah's UPED and UPLAND models.
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*Energy & Environmental Analysis, Preparation
of a Prototype Parking Management Plan for the
Metropolitan Washington, D.C., area,
Final Report: March 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-3243.
The contract developed a prototyp'e parking management planning
process using Washington, D.C., as an example. The contractor
developed a plan which minimizes vehicle-miles-travelled (VMT)
through a mix of management strategies, examine the legal and
institutional implications of various strategies, determine those
strategies which can be most effectively implemented, and
evaluate the socio-economic effects of integration of parking
management into the total transportation management program.
Stevens, B. , Criteria for Regional Solid Wast e
Waste Management Planning, December 1974.
EPA-670/5-74-006.
This report consists of a collection of studies on selected
aspects of the problem of regional solid waste management
planning. The research efforts fall into three main subject
areas: the economics of solid waste generation recycling, and
disposal, the economic and social effects of landfills, and the
issues involved in local intergovernmental cooperation for
regional solid waste management. The individual studies are the
following: "A Framework for Evaluating the Economic Effects of
Regional Solid Waste Systems", "Production Functions for Solid
Wastes Disposal"j "Solid Waste Generation Coefficients:
Manufacturing Sectors", "Solid Waste Generation Coefficients:
Non-Manufacturing Sectors", "Perceptions of Landfill Operations
Held by Nearby Residents", and "Efforts at Inte^municipal
Cooperation for Solid Waste Disposal: Why They Fail". The
report also includes a summary of the studies.
Battelle Columbus Labs., Socio-Economic
Factors Affecting Demand for Municipal
Co1lee tion o f HousehoId Refuse, August 1973.
EPA-670/9-73-035.
This study has investigated the relationship between several
socio-economic characteristics and household refuse. In
particular, the two socio-economic variables, income and race,
appear to have significant effects on the demand for
municipally-provided waste collection services. There is a
marked seasonal variation in the comparative effects of income
and race, alone or in combination. One interpretation of these
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effects, based on data from quantities of municipal waste
collected in Chicago, is that solid waste consists of two
components. The basic waste component is constant throughout the
year and is independent of income and race. The additional
component fluctuates greatly with the season, and is lower in the
winter. It is very sensitive toward income and race, except in
midsummer. Then it sterns from different but unidentified
consumption activities, which are independent of income, and are
more popular with nonwhite than with white families.
The general conclusion of this study is that the demand for
household refuse collection service in Chicago is a positive
function of the income level and the fraction of nonwhites using
the municipal service.
Clark, R. and Gillean, J., Systems Simulation and
Solid Wastj_ Planning : A Case Study, July 1973.
EPA-670/5-73-12.
The work cited in this report .shows the successful application
of systems analysis to solid waste management problems in
Cleveland, Ohio, and is intended to illustrate the power of the
"systems approach" when properly applied. Reliable, uniform and
continuous data collection is combined with a dynamic simulation
model to form a system for making short- and long-term management
decisions. As a result of the system's implementation, the city
has brought Cleveland's solid waste management problems under
control.
Pathak, A., Optimal Configuration of a Solid
Waste Management System, May I974. '*•
EPA-670/5-74-007.
A system for the treatment and disposal of the solid waste
generated in a region is developed under the assumptions of a
steady state. The region selected for study comprises two
counties of the San Francisco Bay Area. The wastes under
consideration exclude certain toxic and dangerous fractions as
well as the industrial wastes salvaged at source. Recycling is
assumed to be nonexistent and the flows of wastes and their
treated byproducts are contained within the region. Certain
conventional as well as recently proposed processes constitute
the candidate technologies. An optimal configuration of these
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technologies is sought, the objective being the disposal of waste
in reference to the mode of its financing. In the framework of
steady state planning, the objective of social desirability is
translated to returns through the use of the social discount
rate. Generation of certain byproducts representing
externalities in the economic sense is controlled by constraints.
A linearly constrained mathematical program is obtained which is
optimized through the use of a branch and bound technique.
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Evaluation
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Real Estate Research Corp., The Cost of Sprawl,
U. S. Government Printing, Office, April 1974.
This document attempts to integrate the various economic,
environmental, natural resource and social costs of different
types of residential development. This study is an analysis of
protype development, not of actual developments. The approach
was to assume typical site conditions and an absence of any
existing infrastructure (roads, sewers, etc.) at the site and
then, using standard unit cost figures, to estimate the costs of
building alternative types of development.
The various costs were first estimated for different
neighborhood types, each neighborhood being composed of 1,000
dwelling units of one of the following housing types: single
family homes, conventionally located; single family homes
clustered; townhouses; walkup apartments (two stories); and high
rise apartments (six stories). Since many environmental and some
economic costs cannot be clearly identified on such a small
scale, neighborhoods were aggregated into different communities,
each containing 10,000 dwelling units or a population of 33,000.
Six community types were analyzed,Teach containing a mixture of
the various neighborhood housing types but differing in the
amount of community "planning" and in the average development
density.
The results of the study show a surprising consistency:
"planning" to some extent, but higher densities to a much greater
extent, result in lower economic costs, environmental costs,
natural resource consumption, and some personal costs for a given
number of dwelling units.
*Bateman et al., The Effects of Alternative
Metropolitan Development Patterns: A Study
of the Effects of Alternative Metropolitan
Development Patterns on Economic,
Environmental Quality, Energy Use
and Social Considerations, Final
Report: December 1976.
Inter-Agency Agreement (CEQ, EPA, DOT,
HUD, FEA, NSF) EQ 5AC028.
The study will enumerate, analyze and quantify, where possible,
(1) the enconomic, fiscal, environmental quality, energy and
other resources, social and personal effects of alternative
metropolitan area-wide development patterns, and (2) the effects
on those development patterns of alternative transportation
systems 'and other governmental programs. The of transportation
systems in determining these patterns, and on the relationship
between transportation systems, land use, environmental quality
and energy use.
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Berry, B. et al., Land Use, Urban Form and
Environmental Quality, University of Chicago
Dept. of Geography Research Paper No. 155, 1974.
This study deals with the ways in which urban form and land use
affect the nature and intensity of environmental pollution. The
inquiry proceeds at two scales: (a) from one urban region to
another, and (b) on a more detailed basis within urban regions.
At the first level of analysis, attention is directed to the
effects of different urban forms and land use mixes on the levels
of environmental pollution reported by U.S. government monitoring
stations to be characteristic of the urban regions. At the
second scale, spatial patterns of pollution are related to
spatial patterns of land use within a sample of metropolitan
areas that have different urban forms and that exemplify the
range of pollution types characterizing American urban regions
today. The report is structured cumulatively, to provide an
understanding to those urban forms that naturally generate the
lowest pollution levels, the environmental consequences of
contemporary urban dynamics, and the role that urban planning may
potentially play in the achievement and maintenance of the
nation's environmental quality standards.
Bascoin, S. et al., Secondary Impacts of
Transportation and Wastewater Investments:
Review and Bibliography, January 1975.
EPA-600/5-75-002.
The Bibliography contains a review of over fifty major studies
and three hundred relevant reports related to secondary
environmental impacts on various forms of public investments,
e.g. land based transportations and wastewater treatment and
collection systems. The Bibliography is organized into four
sections:
Section I is subdivided into: (a) a review of
secondary impacts classified according to type of
investment (highways, mass transit, and wastewater
treatment systems): (b) where possible, according to
type of secondary effect (economic, social and land
use); and (c) a brief summary of modeling techniques
which may be utilized to analyze and project likely
secondary environmental impacts. Section II condenses
the finding of about fifty major studies related to
land transportation and wastewater treatment systems.
Section III is an annotated bibliography of about three
hundred relevant studies. Section IV classifies these
literature studies by: (a) impact; (b) investment
type; (c) geographic area examined; (d) type of study;
and (e) type of analytic techniques used in assessing
secondary effects.
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Bascom, S. et al., Secondary Impacts of
Transportation and Wastewater Investments:
Research Results, July 1975.
EPA-600/5-75-013.
The report presents the results of original research on the
extent to which secondary development can be attributed to
highways and wastewater treatment and collection systems, and
conditions under which causal relations appear to exist. Case
studies of recent development trends were made in four
metropolitan regions: Boston, Massachusetts; Denver, Colorado;
Washington, D.C.; and Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota. Data for
the four metropolitan regions were analyzed using econometric
techniques and simulation modeling.
Warner, M. et al., An Assessment Methodology for
The Environmental Impact of Water Resources
Projects, July 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-016.
This report presents materials intended for use by reviewers of
environmental impact statements on major water reservoir
projects. This report is prepared as series of six related but
individually referenced discussions of the following major
topics:
o Reservoir project planning, construction, and
operation activities
o Water quality impacts of reservoir
construction l
o Ecological impacts of reservoir construction
o Economic, social, and aesthetic impacts of
reservoir construction '$
o Review criteria for assessing -general
statement completeness and accuracy
o A review of impact assessment methodologies.
The materials presented attempt to call attention to important
issues or potential impacts that an adequate impact state should
address. In addtion, the water quality and ecological impacts
sections discuss the site-specific conditions under which a given
potential impact may or may not occur.
The section on water quality impacts also presents a detailed
comparison of mathematical models for predicting impacts on water
temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, and some chemical
constituents of surface waters. The sections dealing with x^ater
quality, ecological, and economic-social-aesthetic impacts
include extensive citations to relevant literature the impact
statement reviewer may wish to consult for further information.
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Waddell, T., The Economic Damages of Air Pollution, 1974
EPA-600/5-74-012.
A benefit-cost analytical framework for environmetnal
decision-making is outlined. The methods that have been or can
be used to estimate the damages of air pollution are identified.
These methods are: (1) technical coefficients of production and
consumption; (2) market studies; (3) opinion surveys of air
pollution sufferers; (4) litigation surveys; (5) political
expressions of social choice; and (6) the delphi method. The
strengths and weaknesses of each method are discussed.
The technical coefficients methods is utilized in estimating
the value of air pollution damage to human health, to man-made
materials, and to vegetation. A market study method, the site
differential or property value approach, was used to estimate
aesthetic and soiling-related costs. Economic losses asociated
with air pollution effects on domestic animals and wildlife and
the natural environment are not estimated because of data
limitations.
Estimates of damages are allocated by major pollutant and
source categories. The utility and limitations of gross damage
estimates are discussed, and comparison with other such estimates
is made. One of the major informational gaps identified is the
economic effects of automobile and related air pollutants on
human health and welfare.
Dornbusch, D. and Barrager, S., Benefits of
Water Pollution Control on Property Values,
1973.
EPA-600/5-73-005.
This study was undertaken to determine the current
state-of-knowledge concerning the measurement of the potential
benefit of water pollution control on property values, and to
analyze the relationship between water quality parameters and
property values at several sites where water pollution has been
substantially reduced in recent years. Multiple-regression
analysis and an interview technique were employed to study the
relationship between residential and recreational property values
and water quality components. Study sites were located on San
Diego Bay and the Kanawha, Ohio, and Willamette Rivers. It was
found that effective pollution abatement on badly polluted water
bodies can increase the value of single-family homes situated on
water front lots by 8 to 25 percent, and that these water quality
improvements can affect property values up to 4000 feet away from
the water's edge. It was also found that the measurable water
quality parameters which have the greatest influence on property
values are dissolved oxygen concentration, fecal coliform
concentrations, clarity, visual pollutants (trash and debris),
toxic chemicals, and pH.
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Case study results were combined with water pollution survey to
estimate the national benefit expressed in increased residential,
recreational and rural waterfront property values, to be gained
from water pollution abatement.
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Implementation
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Strong, A. and Keene, J., Environmental
Protection Through Public and Private
Development Controls, May 1973.
EPA-R5-73-.018.
The studies described in this report are an integral part of a
much larger study of land management for purposes of water
resource protection. The larger study is popularly known as the
"Brandywine Project."
The EPA-supported research is classified into three principal
categories: (1) research directly related to the Brandywine
Project; (2) investigation of public regulatory and less than fee
controls on development; and (3) shaping of the concept of a
private development corporation. The research approach is
predominantly legal and governmental. In all instances in which
information is available, citizen response to the various
development controls has been examined and is included in the
research reports.
The research conclusion is that greater use of larger scale
public and private control of land development will not only
contribute significantly to water resource protection but will
increase private benefits. Increasing use of these forms of
controls are predicted despite a substantial amount of opposition
from private landowners.
Coughlin, R. and Hammer, T., Stream Quality
Preservation Through Planned Urban
Development, May 1973. *
EPA-R5-73-019.
'\
The effects of a land use plan to restrict urban development
in areas critical to the water resource system are identified
through empirical studies. Specifically, relationships are
established between amount, density, type, and location of urban
development, on the one hand, and stream water quality and stream
channel enlargement on the other. The amount of open space with
such a plan as compared to that with normal development is
determined. Water quality, as perceived by untrained field
observers, and the relationship between the water quality and
overall site preferences are studied. Pilot studies concerning
the preferences of a sample of observers for various lanscape
characteristics are reported.
The evaluation of these effects is approached through
household surveys designed to determine how use of and preference
for stream sites is related to water quality of stream and
distance of residence from stream. In addition, the effect of
preserved open space on adjacent land values is explored
empirically.
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Kaiser, E. et al., Promoting Environmental
Quality Through Urban Planning and
Controls, February 1974.
EPA-600/5-73-015.
This study focuses on the changing awareness and current
practices in promoting environmental quality through urban
planning and control in local and metropolitan planning agencies.
To provide perspective for understanding the current scene, it
reviews the mainstream and cutting edge practices and
orientations of the 1960"s in the following sectors of planning
activity related to environmental quality: comprehensive
planning; planning for urban spatial structure (land use, open
space, and transportation); urban design (urban renewal and
planning for esthetic objectives); and urban environmental
management (air, water and noise). It indicates that planners
during that period reflected society as a whole and were little
concerned with environmental quality as related to natural
systems.
A national survey of urban and regional planning agencies was
conducted. The findings indicate,, that environmental awareness in
such agencies followed rather than led national environmental
awareness through the 1960's. There is indication of
considerable current environmental concern but of only modest
planning and implementation activity with indirect introduction
of environmental goals into a broad range of traditional urban
planning concerns. Local government is currently the weak link
in the intergovernmental environmental policy framework mainly
because it lacks technical capacity and is underutilized by
higher levels of government. However, the findings suggest that
local governments do have a strong sense of responsibility and
would respond positively to further encouragement of greater
participation in environmental planning.
The study then reviews the more promising and ^innovative
approaches that form the cutting edge of awareness and practice
in four sectors of planning activity that are related to
environmental quality
Thurovj, C. et al. , Performance Controls for
Sensitive Lands: A Practical Guide for
LocalAdministrators, March 1975.
EPA-600/5-75-005.
This report is to be used as a handbook by local planning
officials in planning for and regulating the use: of the five
distinct natural areas: streams creeks, wetls, woodls,
hillsides, groundwater aquifer recharge areas. Each section is
devoted to the discussion of local regulation of land use in
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areas identified as "sensitive"; and each area is discussed in
terms of its ecology and value to the public, current regulatory
practices, and recommended programs for regulating the area.
Also included are appendices showing where and how to go about
getting technical assistance from existing governmental agencies
and examples of local ordinances for protecting the
environmentally sensitive areas.
The final section is a monograph on environmental performance
standards, the result of a preliminary study on the feasibility
of extending the performance standard concept used in industry to
regulation of the environment. Its purpose is to explore this
possibility and to suggest new areas for research.
*Alford et al., Evaluation of the Use of
Existing and Modified Land Use
Implementation Measures to Achieve
and Maintain Environmental Quality,
Final Report: June 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-3231.
To analyze land use instruments (e.g., zoning, subdivision
regulations, mapped street ordinances, building/construction
codes), commonly used by local governments, to determine the ways
in which they indirectly influence environmental quality through
the regulation of land use; to develop model ordinances or other
appropriate regulatory instruments which can be used by local
governments and which build upon commonly used local instruments.
*Kneese, A. and Church, A., Effec_tiv eness of
Local/Regional Policy Instrument In '*
Achieving and Maintaining Environmental
Quality Objectives, Final Report:
August 1976.
Grant Nol R803539-01-0.
To investigate and evaluate the cost-effectiveness of existing
local/ regional policy instruments in achieving and maintaining
environmental quality objectives over an intermediate planning
horizon (10-20 years) through the process of affecting the
characteristics, location and performance of urban and suburban
development and the conversion of rural areas. The instruments
to be evaluated include tax policy, capital improvements
programming, and police power mechanisms. The
Albuquerque/Bernalillo County region will be used as a case
study.
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Vermont Dept. of Water Resources - Agency of
Environmental Conservation, Development of a
State Effluent Charge System , February 1972.
EPA-1611 GNTO 2/72.
Following passage of legislation"authorizing the levying of
pollution charges against certain waste dischargers, the State of
Vermont's Dept. of Water Resources began consideration of
procedures and regulations to implement the law. This report
documents experiences during the the first two years of the
program.
The objectives sought were first, to select, develop and
implement a pollution charge structure and system under
provisions of No. 252 of the Vermont, Acts of 1969 and, second, to
demonstrate the problems, limitations, and potentialities of the
Vermont system or variations thereof.
The Vermont permit and fee system has been developed and is
presently being implemented. Various methods of fee calculation
are discussed and the reasons for selection of one (annualized
cost of treatment) are set forth. The issues of incentive effect
on dischargers, relation of dischargers to instream economic
damages, equity, constitutionality, economic efficiency,
technical and administrative feasibility and income potential are
discussed in the context of Vermont law and administrative
procedures.
DeLucia, R., An Evaluation of Marketable
Effluent Permit Systems. September 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-030. '
This report is a study of the practical problems nnd^rospects
of using marketable effluent permits (MEP) as a water pollution
control tool. Under such a system, pollution rights are
contigent upon possession of permits; the permits and acquired
and/or traded through an auction or market. This study details
the requirements of MEP systems, discusses their theoretical
advantages, and examines them through the use of industrial
organization theory, comparisons with analogous markets, and a
simulation model. The simulation model employs Mohawk River data
to determine the effect of different system parameters on the
operation of a MEP system. The legal and administrative aspects
of the marketable permit system are also dealt with. The
conclusion is that marketable permits are a promising control
tool for many river basins.
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Irwin, W. and Liroff, R., Economic Disincentives
for Pollution Control:: Legal, Political and
Administrative Dimensions, July 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-026.
This report defines an economic disincentive as a monetary
charge levied by government on conduct which is not illegal but
which does impose social costs, for the principal purpose of
discouraging the conduct. Disincentives are distinguished from
other legal mechanisms which may have incidental economic
disincentive effects, e.g., fines, user charges, and license
fees. The constitutionality of federal or state imposition of
disiscentives is examised and the authority of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and the states to utilize
disincentives under selected federal environmental states is
discussed. The charges imposed by several European countries are
described and distinguished from disincentives. The history of
some previous proposals for federal disincentives is reviewed and
suggestions for additional disincentives which might be feasible
are offered.
Ferrar, T. et al., Finanicial Incentives and
Pollution Control: A Case Study, April 1975.
EPA-600--5/75-007.
Confronted with shortages of low-sulfur content residual fuel
oil, several air-pollution-control authorities in the
northeastern states were forced to relax air-quality standards
during the winters of 1972-73 and 1973-74. The authorities did
so by granting variances to their sulfur- standards for, residual
fuel oil. The characteristics of these variances provide the
basis for this analysis.
Extensive investigation of variance strategies have shown that
a general (uniform) variance structure coupled with a fuel-oil
surcharge represents a desirable variance policy. The report
recommends, however, that a fuel-oil surcharge should be designed
to more than compensate for the price (and/or profit)
differentials between conforming and nonconforming fuel oil. The
report also examines alternative policies such as emission taxes
and quantity controls.
Atkinson, S. and Lewis, D., A Cost Evaluation of
Alternative Air Quality Control Strategies,
January 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-003.
Total regional costs for meeting particulate air quality
standards by controlling stationary sources were estimated for
two different least-cost strategies and compared with traditional
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(State Implementation Plan or SIP) strategies. Included in the
evaluation were the variations in marginal control costs from
source to source and in the impact a source may have as a
function of location, stack height, etc.; the impact on total
regional costs of increasingly stringent ambient air quality
standards; costs of alternative emissions tax strategies; and
marginal costs and benefits of control.
Results indicated that an emissions-least-cost (ELC) strategy
captures only one-half of the total potential savings achieved by
an ambient-least-cost (ALC) strategy in attaining a given air
quality standard and that the ALC strategy required as little as
one-tenth the expenditure of the SIP strategy. Similarly, it was
shown that a policy which employs a single emissions tax based on
mass emissions, rather than implementing the ALC solution to
attain a desired air quality, sacrifices substantial savings
since the emissions tax strategy can be no cheaper than the ELC
solution.
A comparison of marginal costs and benefit figures for health
and welfare at the primary standard indicated that stricter
control was economically justified. Marginal control costs of
the secondary ambient air quality standard were found to be four
times the level of the primary standard.
Bingham, T. et al., Cost Effectiveness of A
Uniform National Sulfur Emissions Tax,
February 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-009.
This study provides an initial examination of the effectiveness
and costs of a uniform national tax on the major emitters of
sulfur compounds.
Since current legislative and political considerations,Coupled
with the still advancing state-of-the-art in sulfur oxide flue
gas control techniques, make the implementation of such a tax
unlikely before 1978, this study is directed toward the goal of
evaluating, the potential costs and implicit reductions in
emissions that would occur in the presence of various tax rates
on sulfur emissions during that year. Although most of the
results address the national impact of such a policy tool on each
of the five major sulfur emissions categories, some attention is
also given to regional effects and to the intrafuel price effects
of such a tax.
Based on the results of the research presented in this study,
it appears that a national tax on the sulfur emissions of the
five major sources of this pollutant would be an effective means
of inducing emissions reductions.
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Sharefkin, M., The Economic and Environmental
Benefits from Improving Electrical Rate
Structures, November 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-033.
Quantitative estimates of the internal cost savings to be
derived from changes in the pricing of electric power are devised
and evaluated. The econometric literature on electricity demand
is surveyed, and elasticity values are selected which are
parameters for the overall benefit measures. A method for
using reported utility data to estimate the cost of delivered
power—at the system peak and off the system peak, and for each
customer class—is devised. Data on five electric utilities is
used to make estimates of the potential benefits from
improvements in the pricing of electric trie power, for each
customer class in each system. The estimated potential benefits
are sufficiently large to merit load curve studies by block for
residential customers. Such studies are necessary preliminaries
to a definitive assessment of the proposals for so called rate
inversion.
*Bingham, T. et al., Allocative and Distributive
Effects of Alternative Air_Quality Attainment
Policies, October 1974, Final Report: March 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-0484.
This study provides projections of the allocative and
distributive effects of emission standards, several types
emission charges, and a combination of standards and charges
(called "hybrid programs") as applied to the major point sources
of sulfur emissions in the St. Louis and Cleveland Air Quality
Control Regions. The allocative effects relate to the aggregate
level of the resource costs whereas the distributive effects
concern the incidence of the private costs of a policy
instrument. The central focus of this study was to identify the
trade-off between allocative efficiency and negative
redistributive effects.
The capital and operating costs and abatement efficiencies of
abatement alternatives have been included in a programed,
deterministic, simulation model that uses a comparative statics
approach in estimating costs and emissions under each policy
approach. The specific policy, instruments considered in the
analysis fall into three broad categories: direct controls,
price incentives, and hybrid programs. The results of the
different policy approaches are compared.
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*Charles River Associates, Inc., Economic Analyses
of Policies_for Contr_olling_Automotive Air
Pollution In the Los Angeles Region, March 1974,
Final Report: March 1976.
This report evaluates the effectiveness of four incentives
measures which are designed to cause less use of automobiles and,
in some instances, to cause a higher proportion of low-emission
automobiles to be owned. These measures are: increased gasoline
taxes; parking surcharges; emission taxes; and extension of route
miles by conventional bus.
To determine the effect of the policies on travel in the Los
Angeles area, a disaggregate behavioral model of travel demand
was applied to estimate the impacts of the policies on 1974
travel behavior. To determine the effects of an emissions tax on
the size and age distribution of the auto stock in the Los
Angeles area, a model of auto stock adjustments was developed and
applied.
The cost effectiveness of the policies was calculated by
determining the cost per VMT reduced by each strategy. Two types
of costs were calculated: costs t,o individuals, including tax
payments and the opportunity cost of travel foregone; resource
costs, including the opportunity cost of travel forgone, the cost
of bus system improvements, and the costs of administering an
emissions inspection tax program.
The study's conclusions suggest that a gasoline tax is
significantly more cost-effective in reducing VMT's than a
parking tax and taxes based on emission rates will have a large
impact on the age distribution of cars.
Trzyna, T., Environmental Impact Requirement in the
States: NEPA's Offspring, April 1974. ^
EPA-600/5-74-006.
There is a growing trend in the States to adopt requirements
for environmental impact statements like those in the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Fifteen States and Puerto Rico
now require impact statements for a wide range of activities
significantly affecting the quality of the environment, and
several others apply the process to limited classes of projects.
At least twenty other States have such requirements under
consideration
The State requirements are summarized and compared to each
other and to the national act. Some key issues are discussed:
contents of the impact statement, applicability
to private projects and local governments, relation to land use
regulation, enforcement, and citizen participation
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There are many problems involved in adapting the impact
requirement to State needs and institutions. More evaluation of
State programs is needed, and a new organization should be
created to facilitate communication among the States on
administration of impact statement programs.
Trzyna, T. and Jokela, A., California Environmental
Quality Act; Innovation in State and Local
Decision-Making, October 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-023.
The California Environmental Quality Act of 1970 (CEQA)
requires State and local agencies to prepare an environmental
impact report on public and private projects that may have a
significant effect on the environment. It is patterned after the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969.
The development and current status of California's
environmental impact assessment program is described. CEQA was
virtually ignored during its first two years, largely because
there was no clear authority or deadline for issuance of detailed
guidelines. The turning point was CEQA's judicial discovery and
enforcement by the California Supreme Court, and its subsequent
amendment by the State Legislature.
CEQA's greatest impact has been on private projects permitted
by cities and counties. In many localities, environmental impact
reports clearly influence decisions on such permits. Still, some
State and local agencies are not fully complying with CEQA, and
the act's implementation is hampered by the lack of a State
agency with authority and resources to enforce it.' Based on
California's experience, some general recommendations are made
for other States considering adopting similar requirements.
Fensterstock, J. and Speaker, D., Use of Environmental
Analyses of Wastewater Facilities by Local
Government, July 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-015.
Environmental analyses (assessments, environmental impact
statements, negative declarations, appraisals, etc.) on
wastewater treatment facilities reflecting Council of
Environmental Quality and Environmental Protection Agency
guidelines in force during the period of 1970 through 1972, were
reviewed and evaluated. Case studies selected ensured
representation of different types of both jurisdictional patterns
and locational settings. The study process reviewed
decision-making flows, organizational structures, public and
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state government roles, and EPA regional office review processes.
The general conclusions reached showed that environmental
considerations played a relatively minor role in the
decision-making processes.
The analysis detected both substantive and procedural problems.
The problems include: inadequate environmental orientation of
staffs; exclusion of public input; intra-organizational
conflicts; and inadequate Federal guidelines.
Recommendations which would be appropriate for local, state and
Federal implementation include: Federal funding to state and
local agencies for training staffs; more precise Federal
guidelines; legislative changes; and suggestions to improve
public participation in the entire decision-making process.
Milgrom, J., Can Federal Procurement Practices Be Used
To Reduce Solid Waste, October 1973.
EPA-670/5-74-003.
Although the Federal Government purchases only a small
percentage of the domestic output of most commercial products,
the purchase of these products can have a greater impact on the
economy than these small percentages suggest, because of the
multiplier or "ripple" effect.
In this study it was recognized that this "ripple" effect
exists and certain conditions that tend to promote it were also
identified. However, the "ripple" effect could not be
quantified. Nevertheless, even on a qualitative basis the
"ripple" effect was an essential criterion in the selection of
those product specifications among the more than 50,,000 that
should be modified to effectively promote recycling and/or reduce
the generation of solid waste.
On the basis of the analysis of all product categories,
modifying Government specifications for packaging materials and
systems will have the greatest impact on reducing solid waste.
The Government uses 6 to 10 percent of all packaging in the
United States (based on value), according to estimates made by
some Government agencies. The Government buys packaging
indirectly when it buys most products, and the Government also
purchases packaging . materials directly, such as corregated
shipping cases and metal drums, for various shipping
applications. Because packaging is a very "visible" purchase,
and because it is widely used in the economy, potentially, then,
the "ripple" effect of this purchase can be very great.
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Ernst, E., Evaluation of Feasibility and Economic
Implications of Pricing Mechanisms in Solid
Waste Management, January 1975.
EPA-670/5-75-001.
This study analyzes the potential of pricing mechanisms in
solid waste management systems. Such pricing mechanisms have
been suggested as appropriate means for encouraging greater
efficiency of resource, both within the solid waste management
system proper and among sources of solid wastes.
The study reviews the limited empirical evidence concerning
supply and demand characteristics in markets for solids waste
management (primarily collection) services. The analysis of
processing and disposal and ancillary SWM services is hampered by
the diversity of existing systems, and remaining problems in the
conceptual clarification of the services provided.
The analysis of cost functions in the collection and
transportation sub-system suggest that these cost functions are
subject to variable returns to scale. For smaller communities,
there are economies of scale with respect to the amount of waste
handled. For larger communities, scale effects vanish.
The available literature provides sufficiently strong evidence
for the importance of both prices (and pricing policies) and
incomes as determinants of the amount of waste collected per
household. This evidence is used in an exploratory numerical
analysis employing decision-theoretic elements to assess the
likely impact of pricing mechanisms. The analysis suggests that
total system costs could be reduced through pricing mechanisms,
even though there would be a tendency to rely more on
self-disposal as prices for collection services increase.
The study suggests a feasible method for implementing an
effective pricing mechanism in SVJM systems.
Carter, S. et al., Environmental Management
and Local Government, February 1974.
EPA-600/5-73-016.
This report presents the results of a study of environmental
management and local government. The study has two main
components: (1) a survey of chief executives in cities over
10,000 population and counties over 50,000; and, (2) a series of
field studies of local environmental management in Dallas, Texas;
Inglewood, California; Miamisburg, Ohio; and the Peidmont Triad
Region (Forsyth and Guilford Counties), North Carolina.
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The major topics covered in the study include perception of the
definition of environment, priority of environment as a local
policy issue, and types of environmental problems facing each
local government; adoption of local policy statement on the
environment; existence of citizen environmental boards,
environmental agencies, environmental sections in master plans,
land use controls, other environmental controls, moratoria,
environmental quality standards, environmental impact assessment
procedures, environmental law suits, tax incentives and penality
charges; factors contributing to and factors creating obstacles
to development of environmental programs; and, relations with
state and federal agencies.
Hein, C. et al., Regional governmenta1 Arrangements
in Metropolitan Areas: Nine Case Studies,
January 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-024.
The findings indicate that the' core of what is called
metropolitan government in the United States is the county,
usually reorganized and given urban powers. There are no
multi-county general purpose metropolitan governments in the
United States.
Patterns of regional governmental arrangements based on the
urban county were judged more effective in dealing with emerging
environmental management problems than patterns based on special
districts and regional councils of government; the two-tier
federation was judged about equal to the best of the urban county
arrangements. '
In virtually every case, further state action was needed to
make the regional arrangements more effective. Metropolitan
regional reorganization has occurred in over 20% of the states,
and therefore should be possible in most urban states.
*Parker, F., et al., Ingegrating Environmental
Planning and Management in State Government,
Final Report: January 1976.
Grant No. R803171-01-0.
This study was conducted by the Center for Urban and Regional
Studies at the University of North Carolina, working with the
Council of State Governments, and consisted of three main
elements: (1) a literature search; (2) a 50~state survey, and
(3) a study workshop. The literature search examined previous
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studies and documents prepared by various States in connection
with their own studies of environmental management, as well as
writings in the fields of management and public administration.
The survey was made of all state air, water, and solid waste
environmental program officials; the heads of environmental
departments; state planners; state budget officers; Governor's
aides; and Legislative Service Agency staff. The survey was
designed to elicit information about the use of specific
techniques of coordination and integration within the States, as
well as the attitudes of the state officials toward the need for
and current level of coordination and integration in their
States.
Four research questions served as the basis for the study: 1)
What organizational and nonorganizational coordinative techniques
are now being used in the States? 2) How effective has each of
these techniques been in the achievement of integrated
environmental management? 3) What factors contribute to a State's
adoption of particular techniques? 4) What are the perceptions of
State officials as to the need and usefulness of integration, and
what are the various techniques employed?
Summary conclusions and recommendations from this study
include: 1) There is no ideal state organization to promote
integration and coordination. However, the health department
approach ranks behind the little EPA and superagency approaches
in its rating of effectiveness by most state officials. 2)
Environmental department heads stress the need to pursue the
coordination of planning, granting of permits, regulation, and
environmental standard-setting activities among the pollution
control programs. 3) The use of environmental policy,
environmental plans, environmental coordinating councils, and
environmental impact statement review should be « seen as
complementary activities. None of the techniques was seen by
state officials as individually being very effective ig* promoting
coordination. 4) There is some indication that ihteragency
councils are seen as most effective when given substantive
program responsibilities. 5) Careful attention should be paid to
the coordinative potential of state land use planning, coastal
zone management, and critical areas management programs. The
potential of these programs lies in the direct and indirect
environmental impacts of alternative land use patterns and the
scope of decision-making inherent in these growth management
programs. 6) When considering the formation of an environmental
superagency, should be given to including state development
programs. Very few state environmental superagencies presently
include any development programs. Superagencies typically have
joined environmental protection programs with conservation
programs such as forestry, parks and recreations, and fish and
wildlife.
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*Rink, D., Evaluation of Altejji^ative
Institutional Arrangements for
Regional Environmental Management,
Final Report: February 1976.
Grant No. 803847.
In meeting its research objectives, this study will: (1)
identify the regional components of the major environmental
problems, (2) describe, the present intergovernmental system of
regulations, programs, organizations, etc., for regional
environmental management, (3) assess the potential impact of
recent or proposed policy changes that could significantly alter
the institutional arrangements for regional environmental
management, (4) develop criteria and supporting arguments for
evaluating alternative institutional arrangements and (5) outline
several alternative procedures by which public officials or their
representatives can use the criteria.
*Gleeson, M. et al., Case Study jjf the
Twin CitiesMetropolitan Council as an
Environmental Management Organization,
Final Report: January 1976.
Grant No. R803406-01-0.
The primary tasks of this investigation included: (1) An
organizational history of the environmental mangement system in
the Twin Cities area focusing on the Metropolitan Council, (2) a
description of the current operating system, and (3) a number of
specific studies which sought to analyze the operation of the
system. «
An understanding of the larger concept of governance in the
Twin Cities is necessary to an understanding of the system of
environmental management in the region. While a review of
environmentally oriented special districts would be appropriate
in some other metropolitan regions of the nation, it is
inappropriate in the Twin Cities. The current legislative policy
is opposed to further independent agencies. The principal actor
among the many metropolitan agencies is the Metropolitan Council.
A description and analysis of the Council, its surrounding
organizations, and its broad ranges of implementation and
management tools is useful for suggesting how other areawide
environmental management organizations might be formed or adapted
to meet the requirements of federal legislation, Accordingly, the
study sets out to describe and analyze the strategy for regional
environmental mangement as it has evolved since 1967 in the Twin
Cities area. The study examines the array of implementation
tools used by the Council, the ties between implementation tools
and Council policy statements, linkages between the
implementation tools themselves and the relationship of this
array of management mechanisms to the broader institutional
structure of which the Council is a part.
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The results of selected case analyses of the Metropolitan
Council as an environmental management organization deal with the
institutional arrangements defined by the Council—institutional
arrangements defined here as decision-making structures. The
first case deals with one special characteristic of the Council
as an environmental management organization—its being a
multi-functional regional jurisdiction. The second case deals
with another special characteristic of the Council—its being a
policy-making body without direct operating authority (for the
most part).
Brief recommendations are made for case studies of
environmental quality management in other urban areas.
Gorden, et al., Development of Environmental
Management Performance Criteria, Draft Report:
June 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-3556.
This study is intended to address the general research area of
Evaluation Methods and to develop a set of criteria and
techniques for measuring the performance effectiveness of
environmental quality management strategies being carried out by
state, regional and local environmental management agencies. The
following objectives are to be met by this study: A) To develop
criteria for the evalution of environmental management strategies
and the management performance of regional environmental
programs. B) To develop techniques to analyze the effectiveness
of institutional configurations used in achieving regional
environmental quality objectives. C) To determine applicability
of the criteria by conducting pilot tests evaluating past
performance of particular environmental quality* plans,
strategies, or policies.
For the purposes of this study, regional environmental} quality
management organizations are defined as those (public)
organizations having decision and enforcement authority over
environmental quality matters at the (sub-state) regional or
local government level. Included in this definition would be
Councils of Governments, 208 Water Quality Agencies, other
special-purpose environmental quality agencies, city and county
functional departments responsible for environmental quality
management, or institutional configurations which combine
authority from several of these organizations. Management
performance, for purposes of this study, may be defined as the
"operation" of a set of control measures and implementation
instruments implemented through an organization, ordinance, or
set of institutional arrangements, which together comprise an
environmental quality management strategy. As such, each
component (control measure, implementation instrument, etc.)
"performs" or "operates" with a varying degree of effectiveness
in contributing to the overall strategy.
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*Gorden et al., Regional Opportunities for
Induatrial Residuals I Management, March 1975,
Final Report: March 1976.
Contract No. 68-01-2295
This investigation attempted to uncover the principles of
success in several cases of regional industrial residual
management. The study explores the environmental and economic
benefits of residuals management by taking a regional and
intermedia (land, water, and air) approach. This involves both
tracing the residuals as they flow through a region and seeking
opportunities for economics of scale in the treatment of
recovery.
The report presents the data base of specific cases in New
Jersey, New York, Vermont, Texas, and California, and also
describes some additional partial cases in other areas of the
country. Profiles of success, that is, the preconditions for
success in the various cases, are described. Then the
environmental, economic, and energy related factors are set in
context and their role in encouraging successful action is shown.
The background information needed for success and the methods of
its collection are defined. Organizational factors, both
internal and external, including the role of government, are
examined.
An illustration of the methodology of defining and developing
opportunities is given as it applies to industrial residuals in
the San Francisco Bay area. This leads to recognition of the
need to take new institutional steps toward action.
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Enforcement
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Beckers, C. et al., Quantitative Methods for
Preliminary Design of Water Quality
Surveillance Systems,, November 1972.
EPA-R5-72-001
This report presents the development and successful
demonstration of quantitative design methods for preliminary
design of water quality surveillance systems. It includes a
comprehensive set of quantitative design procedures in handbook
form for use within the existing capabilities of governmental
water quality agencies. The quantitative methods are intended
for use in design of monitoring systems that satisfy an abatement
objective. The preliminary design includes specification of
station locations, sampling frequencies, and priorities.
Incorporation of such practical engineering concerns as cost,
reliability and maintainability, and computerization of the
procedure are recommended areaii for additional development.
The methods are based on a systems approach, in which the
performance of the total surveillance system is evaluated as a
whole. A new method for establishing sampling frequency is
developed, based on a unique formulation of sampling design
problem.
The quantitative preliminary des'iga methods are demonstrated to
function satisfactorily on che Wabash River Basin. It is
concluded that the methods incorporated in the "User Handbook"
represent an acceptable met'aod for use by governmental water
quality agencies under the existing constraints.
Ward, R., Data Acquisition Systems in Water
Quality Management, May 1973.
EPA-R5-73-014 " ».
The role of routine water quality water quality surveillance in
a water quality management program was investigated. This
included a delineation of the objectives of a state water quality
program based upon the state and federal laws. Seven specific
objectives are listed under the two general objectives of
prevention and abatement. These seven specific objectives are
planning; research; aid programs; technical assistance;
regulation; enforcement; and data collection, processing, and
dissemination.
The information requirements of the objectives were delineated
in general terms. Each objective was broken down into the
general activities required fcr its accomplishment and the data
needed for each activity was identified.
A survey of the current state-of-the-arl: of grab ssampling,
automatic monitoring, and remote sensing was performed. Each
data acquisition technique was, analyzed as to its capabilities,
reliability, and cost.
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With the above information, a design procedure was developed
for designing a state water quality surveillance program which is
responsive to the objectives of the agency. The design procedure
has two major aspects: (1) determination of the state agency's
strategy with respect to its attack on water pollution, and (2)
characterization of the streams in the state so that rational
decisions with respect to sampling location and frequency can be
made. The optimum grab sampling network was designed and then
the possibilities of substituting automatic monitoring and remote
sensing and various points in the surveillance system were
explored.
The design procedure was applied to the State of Colorado and a
water quality monitoring system was developed for the Water
Pollution Control Division of the Colorado Department of Health.
Financial and manpower constraints were considered in the design.
Beckers, C. and Chamberlain, S., Design of
Cost-Effective Water Quality Surveillance
Systems, January 1974. *
EPA-600/5-74-004.
This report presents the development and successful
demonstration of quantitative methods for the design of river
basin water quality surveillance systems for pollution abatement.
The methods provide a systematic approach to the consideration of
expected stream conditions, system characteristics, equipment
performance, and cost in the selection of a preferred system
design from among a number of candidates.
The methods are based on a systems approach in which'the total
system is evaluated for cost and effectiveness. They make
extensive use of mathematics previously developed to describe the
effectiveness of sampling in the context of abatement. The
analysis of candidate system performance draws heavily tin
reliability and maintainability engineering technology. Data
availability remains a constraint to the general application of
the methods, but acquisition of the necessary data is wholly
within the prerogatives of governmental agencies operating
monitoring systems.
The methods are computerized and the computer programs are
detailed in this report. They make use of the information
available from the computerized river basin models now under
general development.
The computerized design methods are demonstrated to function
satisfactorily on the Beaver River Basin when artificial data is
used to supplement the data base. It is concluded that the
methods .are acceptable for use by governmental water quality
agencies under the existing constraints.
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Cohen, A. et al. , A Quantitative Method for
Effluent Compliance Monitoring Resource
Allocation, September, 1975.
EPA-600/5-75-015.
This report develops and demonstrates a quantitative method for
the preliminary design of effluent standard surveillance systems.
The principal output of the report is a procedure to be used in
water quality programs to determine the frequency of effluent
compliance monitoring visits. The procedure allocates compliance
monitoring budgetary resources so as to minimize environmental
damage. It utilizes a statistical model of the effluents that is
obtained from self-monitoring and compliance monitoring data.
The procedure is demonstrated on an example river basin using
data supplied by the State of Michigan.
Guenther, G. et al., Michigan Water Resources
Enforcement and Information System, July 1973.
EPA-R5-73-020.
This report depicts a workable interactive Federal/State
water-pollution control enforcement and information system. The
project demonstrated interactive computer graphics as a method of
output presentation.
Two systems were interfaced—Michigan's Water Information
System for Enforcement (WISE) and EPA's STORET system. The WISE
system is used to alert enforcement personnel to problems through
exception reporting, and to provide follow-up information on
these problems. STORET is utilized as a storage and retrieval
system for water quality and inventory information. As
information enters WISE, certain inputs are coded forstorage in
STORET. The interface mechanism is a common numbering system.
Because WISE is modular in design, it can be used in part or in
total by other agencies.
Careful consideration should be given to the information that
will comprise the computer file. ^Administrative, procedural, and
auditing techniques should be completely set down before
proceeding with management's commitment to the system. Microfilm
should be used when feasible, both as Computer Output Microfilm
(COM) and in manual files.
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*McIntire, M., Improved Procedures for Municipal
Regulation of Industrial Discharges To
Public Sewers. Final Report: March 1976.
Grant No. 801372.
This report reviews the current status of local government
control of industrial wastes discharged into publicly owned
treatment works and finds them ineffective as a means of
controlling large scale industrial activities. Sewer use
regulations are usually established by local ordinance which
specify the nature and character of pollutants which can and
cannot be discharged, and provide for criminal-type penalties for
violation. Violations of such regulations are difficult to
detect, difficult to prove in a court of law under the high
burden of proof and due process safeguards required by the
criminal process.
This report suggests an effective and economical regulatory
scheme for complying with the federal pretreatment and effluent
standards and the federal cost-recovery requirements imposed on
federally-financed treatment works. The approach requires the
industry to contract with the public entity for industrial
wastewater treatment by a document (1) establishing relationships
between units of production (an easily verified statistic) and
character and quantity of waste, (2) requiring installation of
control manhole, continuous recording flow measuring device and
sewer shut-off mechanism, (3) establishing a simple
self-reporting system from the industrial user to the public
entity, and (4) setting remedies for minor and major breaches.
Data gathering, verification, charges for service anti inspection
are simplified, yet sufficient to support a. court action. All
legal activity related to enforcement would be of a ci^il nature,
rather than criminal.
Each industrial wastewater treatment contract is individually
negotiated under an enabling ordinance detailing criteria and
establishing the substantive and formal provision of each such
contract. A form of such ordinance is included.
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Downing, P. and Watson, W., Enforcement
Economics in Air PollutionControl,
Dec. 1973.
EPA-600/5-73-014.
This report investigates the effects of alternative en
forcement strategies on the pollution control activities of the
firm. There are a number of tradeoffs available to a firm
including delay and noncompliance which allow it to minimize
expected pollution control costs. These are identified within
the context of a generalized behavioral model for the firm and an
empirical study is undertaken to determine their importance.
In a simulation of current enforcement of the federal new
source particulate matter discharge standard for coal-fired power
plants (start-up compliance or certification tests for pollution
control devices plus fines for violating in-operation emission
standards) it is found that cost-minimizing power plants will
install relatively costly pollution control technology and
frequently violate federal fly ash standards. Two alternative
enforcement strategies for overcoming these shortcoming, namely
compliance tests in combination with emission, taxes and emission
taxes alone, are analyzed.
It is recommended that enforcement agencies give careful
consideration to management costs imposed upon the firm and the
control agency by an implementation and enforcement scheme. In
the case of the federal fly ash discharge standard for coal-fired
power plants it is , tentatively concluded that emission tax
enforcement would probably result in an approximate minimization
of the sum of firm and enforcement agency resource costs. The
general applicability of this result to other enforcement
problems is discussed.
*TRW, Inc., Critical Uncertainties Associated
With Alternative Vjshicle Exhaust Emission
Control Programs, September 1975, Final
Report: March 1976,.
Contract No. 68-01-2927.
This report focuses upon identifying and characterizing a
number of factors that contribute to the uncertainty associated
with performance of various vehicle exhaust emission control
programs (EECPs). These program include inspection/ maintenance
(I/M) procedures, retrofit, fuel modification schemes, and
I/M-retrofit combinations.
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The methodology for evaluating I/M programs consists of a
computer simulation of the basic process over time. Experimental
data on individual retrofit devices were statistically analyzed
and fuel modification procedures were reviewed using engineering
cost estimates. Finally, optimal (least-cost) I/M-retrofit
combinations are determined using two alternative integer
programming formulations.
The potential impact of the following factors on I/M were found
to be highly uncertain: individual engine and emission
deterioration rates; extent of owner or mechanic tampering; the
extent of voluntary maintenance; effectiveness of the service
industry in repairing engine parameters; cost factors for
programs including vehicle owner time lost during the inspection
and repair process. Futhermore, the effectiveness and cost
measures of these programs are often quite sensitive to
variations in these parameters and thus themselves highly
uncertain.
The study also revealed that there are significant
uncertainties regarding the estimates for retrofit program
effectiveness and cost. These uncertainties may tend to limit
the potential application of retrofit control programs.
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Demonstration
of a State Water Quality Management
Information System, August 1974.
EPA-600/5-74-022.
This report is documentation of the Pennsylvania Water Quality
Management Information System (WAMIS). The report is divided
into two volumes. The first is a program manager's overview of
the system, while the second is a compilation of elements
required for system application. The program manager's^overview
discusses the objectives of the system and its development,
describes the operations of the various system modules, including
required inputs and outputs as well as uses to which the system
may be. put, estimates manpower and operating cost requirements,
and summarizes methods for system application. Detailed
documentaion of elements required to apply the existing three
system modules - the Facility Status, Water Quality, and Contact
Modules - is included in Volume II. Volume II includes system
inputs with detailed coding instructions, sample output reports,
and documentation of each of the three system modules. Module
documentation is comprised of system inputs and outputs,
operator's instructions, and all program books. Sufficient
information is provided to enable application of WAMIS modules by
other states or jurisdictions. Volume II is available only
through EPA Headquarters, Office of Research and Development.
Wast Building
Headquarters ReposSfo?
1301 Constitution Avenue N.W. _37_
3340 - Mallet
ishington, DC
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