THE UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
AGENCY'S
CONTRIBUTION TO
^ SAFE
< DRINKING
-* WATER
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INTRODUCTION
Few things have more influence on man's health than the food he eats and the water he
drinks. Sanskrit sources dating back to 2000 BC indicate the connection between water and
health was recognized by early civilizations, but for centuries succeeding generations
failed to take advantage of this early knowledge and their communities were ravaged by
water-borne disease outbreaks.
In the last 100 years, however, the achievements in the water supply field have been
remarkable. One can now travel anywhere in the United States and drink water from
public supplies with little fear of getting sick. However, if we were to suggest that the
quality, safety, and adequacy of the municipal water supply systems in America today are
above reproach, we would be guilty of hypocrisy. Our concern should not be limited solely
to community water supply systems. Studies have shown that a large segment of the
population served by individual water supply systems are consuming unsafe water. Addi-
tionally, some 20 million people do not have running water in their home and must haul
water from questionable sources.
A basic problem to be recognized is that while our national water resources are fixed our
need for water is continually increasing. This, combined with the growing volumes and
varieties of pollutants entering our surface and groundwater, forecasts serious problems for
the future. While major strides are being made in water pollution control and more effi-
cient use of water through reuse and recycling is being implemented, the final line of
defense is the water supply system itself.
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However, a nation which has developed the technology to reach the moon still does not
have the ability to detect all of the potentially dangerous chemical and biological sub-
stances in our drinking water, has little knowledge of the long-range health effects of many
such contaminants, and has not yet developed fully effective and practical treatment
methods.
In many areas of the country, water shortages will necessitate thorough consideration of
the reclamation and reuse of wastewaters. The health impacts and aspects of such reuse for
drinking and other human purposes must be investigated and evaluated.
The absence of adequate planning has resulted in the proliferation of water supply
systems to serve metropolitan areas. Many of these systems are too small for efficient or
safe operation, thereby resulting in hazards to the health of the public. Inadequacies in the
construction, operations and maintenance of drinking water supply systems have caused
disease outbreaks. Increased surveillance of drinking water supply systems is needed to
control and prevent public health hazards.
We are confident, however, that through the continued cooperative efforts of the water
supply industry, the state water supply and pollution control agencies, and the EPA that
current problems, can be solved and future challenges successfully met. The following
pages describe EPA's contributions toward the provision of an adequate supply of safe'
water for all Americans.
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INVENTORY OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
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INVENTORY
EPA is responsible for the maintenance of a National inventory of water supply systems
serving the public. The water supply inventory was started in the Public Health Service in
1939. It was published at 5-year intervals until 1963. The 1963 inventory listed 19,236
supplies serving 150 million people. Most of the supplies were small, about 85% served
5,000 or fewer persons. About one-half of the people served by water supplies were served
by the 399 supplies serving more than 100,000 persons. The other half were served by the
18,837 small supplies. About 75% of the supplies used ground water, 18% surface water,
and 7% mixed sources.
EPA is initiating an update of the inventory. Data collection will be started in the spring
of 1972 and is to be completed within one year. It is anticipated that over 30,000 water
supply systems will be identified. Collection of the data will require a high degree of
cooperation among the EPA, State and local governments, and the utility industry.
The new forms on which the data will be collected have been essentially completed. They
have been designed with the assistance of potential users of the data - the Conference of
State Sanitary Engineers, the American Water Works Association, the National Water Well
Association - and Federal Agencies involved in the field of water supply.
Data from completed forms will be key-punched and fed into the EPA computer as soon
as it is received. A computer program is being developed to allow analysis and print-out
of the data in a variety of forms.
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Membership
Mr. Henry J. Ongerth
Mr. George W. Burke, Jr.
Mr. James B. Coulter
Dr. Charles C. Croft
Mr. H. O. Hartung
Dr. Hollis S. Ingraham
Dr. T. E. Larson
Mr. Garmon C. McCall
Mrs. Jessie W. Rudnick
Mr. Gerald C. Smith
Dr. Richard L. Woodward
Dr. John A. Zapp
Mr. Emil C. Jensen
Dr. William J. Hausler
Mr. William N. Long
of the Public Advisory Committee
Conference of State Sanitary Engineers
Water Pollution Control Federation
American Public Health Association
Association of State and Territorial Public Health
Laboratory Directors
American Water Works Association
Association of State and Territorial Health Officers
American Chemical Society
National Water Well Association
League of Women Voters
National Association of Water Companies
American Society of Civil Engineers
Society of Toxicology
Council of State Governments
Society for Microbiology
Water Supply Programs Division, OWP, EPA
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STANDARDS
Standards for potable water in this country were first issued in 1912 in response to
legislation designed to prevent the interstate spread of communicable disease. Over the
years they have been modified and expanded many times. The current revision appears as
the 1962 U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards. When EPA was established,
the standard setting authority for potable water was transferred to the new Agency.
In recognition of the need to revise and update certain portions of the Standards, an EPA-
sponsored task force of technical experts was assembled to develop recommended revisions c/5
to the 1962 Standards. Their work is now completed and the Administrator has assembled ^
a public advisory committee to review the recommended revisions and report their ^
findings to him. O
Noteworthy changes proposed are: ^
The addition of a standard plate count to the bacteriological standards. e/»
A provision to allow the partial substitution of chlorine residual determinations for
coh'form samples.
A reduction of allowable turbidity from 5 to 1 turbidity units.
Turbidity to be removed from the esthetic standards list to the health related
standards list.
The addition of a sodium standard to protect those persons on a restricted sodium
diet
The addition of a limit for mercury.
The addition of pesticide concentration limits.
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CERTIFICATION STATUS BY STATES
AS OF JULY 1, 1971
APPROVED 531 - 130 PROVISIONAL APPROVAL
1-2
NEW HAMPSHIRE 2-0
DELAWARE 2-2
NEW JERSEY 17-12
MARYLAND 5_j
WASHINGTON D C 1-u
PUERTO RICO 4-2
VIRGIN ISLANDS O-i
GUAM i-u
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CERTIFICATION
Under the authority of the Interstate Quarantine Regulations, EPA is responsible for the
certification of water supply systems serving trains, planes, busses, and vessels crossing
state lines or using international ports 01 terminals.
Classifications are based on information and recommendations provided by the states.
This is supplemented by Federal or Joint State-Federal Surveys of the water supply systems.
Supplies that are found to be in substantial compliance with the Federal Drinking Water z
Standards are classified as Approved. Where serious deficiencies exist in the actual water o
quality, the surveillance provided, or the physical facilities and their operation, the supply ^
is Prohibited for use by interstate carriers. A provisionally approved classification is given <.
if there are significant deficiencies, however, an imminent and substantial danger to
health does not exist
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As of July 1, 1971, there were 661 water supply systems serving interstate carriers as well Wl
as a resident population of 80 million people; 531 systems were approved and 130 were CJ
provisionally approved. In addition, between August of 1970 and March of 1972, 15
supplies have been prohibited for use by interstate carriers.
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RESEARCH
The foundation under "An Adequate Supply of Safe Drinking Water for All Americans" is
an effective research program. This program is essential for the promulgation of drinking
water quality standards, the improvement in water storage, treatment and distribution
practices, and intelligent surveillance and monitoring of drinking water supply systems.
Major research activities include:
Epidemiological investigations of water-borne diseases and toxicities to elucidate
the relationship between water quality and disease. Such information is essential in
the development of drinking water standards.
Development and application of methods for the isolation and identification of
viruses and bacterial pathogens of sufficient sensitivity to detect the quantities
likely to be present in finished drinking water. The products of this research are
applicable to the development of treatment methods, to the development of
bacterial criteria for drinking water, and to the determination of finished drinking
water quality.
Development and application of methods for recovery and identification of organics
in drinking water. These procedures will isolate organics from the water in an
unaltered state and provide means for identification, purification, and the produc-
tion of a material suitable for lexicological assessment.
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Studies to determine the acute and the long-range chronic effects of organic and
inorganic chemicals that may be found in drinking water. Many of the 12,000
different toxic chemicals in industrial use today may find their way into drinking
water sources. Knowledge of the long-range effects of man's exposure to water is
essential for the development of safe tolerance limits for these materials in drinking
water.
Development and evaluation of water treatment processes. Conventional water
treatment processes are ineffective in removing many inorganic and organic
chemicals that may be found in drinking supply sources. Research is conducted to CJ
develop and evaluate innovated processes and techniques for the removal of these DC
potentially toxic chemicals. Recent studies have demonstrated that many types of [J
enteric viruses are resistant to the usual levels of chlorine doses. e/5
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Development of simple rapid methods for detection and quantification of bacteria, DC
chemicals, and toxic agents in water. Many of the current assay methods for con-
taminants in water are complicated and time-consuming. They are, therefore, not
applicable to routine monitoring of drinking water supplies, particularly if the
analyses are to be conducted in water plant laboratories or by field investigations
personnel. Current studies include the development of bacterial assays that can be
completed in a few hours; automated analytical systems for chemical constituents;
and rapid screening tests using cell culture techniques for toxic agents in water.
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SPECIAL FIELD STUDIES
AND INVESTIGATIONS
Special studies are a key part of the EPA's water supply program. Through this means, vital
information is obtained which is then used to shape and direct EPA's activities in research,
training, standards development and technical assistance.
THE COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY STUDY
This study, which was completed in 1970, consisted of a detailed evaluation of 969
community water supply systems throughout the country. A broad range of system
sizes, types of source waters, and complexity of treatment facilities were included.
Primary findings were as follows:
36% of 2,600 individual tap water samples contained one or more bacteriological or
chemical constituents exceeding the limits of the Drinking Water Standards.
56% of the systems evidenced physical deficiencies.
77% of the plant operators were inadequately trained in water microbiology and
46% were deficient in chemistry relating to their plant operation.
79% of the systems were not inspected by State or county authorities in the last full
calendar year prior to the study.
Overall, the smaller systems evidenced more numerous deficiencies than the larger ones.
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PILOT STUDIES OF FEDERALLY-RELATED WATER SUPPLIES AT RECREATIONAL
AREAS AND REST STOPS
A study of water supplies at Federal reservoir installations constructed by the Corps of
Engineers has been completed.
A similar study of water supplies constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation is under way
and studies of water supplies at national park camp areas and along Federal Interstate high-
ways are in the planning stages. uj
The results of pilot studies completed show 15 percent of the water supplies exceed O
bacteriological quality limits and 23 percent of the supplies exceed either the bacteriologi- ^
cal or the chemical mandatory limits. CO
INDIVIDUAL WATER SUPPLY STUDIES <
Drinking water for more than 50 million Americans is supplied from individual wells, JjJ
springs, rain-water catchments or unprotected surface water sources. Historically and o-
traditionally, ground water coming from its natural environment has been considered of
good sanitary quality safe to drink, if palatable.
However, recent studies of these individual drinking water systems in several states have
shown that a large segment of our population is drinking water that is bacteriologically
unsafe and of poor chemical quality. The results of the surveys indicate that more than
1/3 of the water supplies sampled are potentially hazardous to the users.
SPECIAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING STUDIES
Periodically, the need arises to conduct studies to determine the presence of particular
contaminants, rather than to gain information about a type of water supply system. Recent
examples of these studies are investigations to detect the presence of herbicides and
mercury in drinking water.
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TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Through the provision of technical assistance to State and local governmental groups and
water utilities, EPA is able to disseminate and promote the use of the latest technological
developments and practices in the water supply industry. The technical assistance takes
several forms:
Evaluation of State Water Supply Programs
Where requested by a State, EPA will perform a comprehensive evaluation of their
water supply program. These evaluations are being made as a result of the findings of
the 1970 Community Water Supply Study of 969 water systems which revealed
inadequacies in State surveillance programs. The evaluations involve a representative
sample of water supply systems and include a review of State laws, rules, regula-
tions, and policies; surveillance, monitoring, training, and technical assistance
activities; a study of their bacteriological and chemical analytical capability; and
field evaluations of selected water supply systems supported by bacteriological and
chemical analysis of water quality.
Evaluations have been completed or are in progress in the following states:
Connecticut New Jersey Maryland
Idaho New Mexico Wyoming
Kansas Ohio Kentucky
Tennessee
Results of the evaluations are used by the States to improve their program.
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Specialized Assistance
To the limit of staff availability, EPA personnel are available to provide specialized
technical assistance through its Regional Offices. Regional staff receives back-up
support from EPA Headquarters and laboratory personnel.
Publications
The EPA has available a series of publications providing information on water supply UJ
systems and related areas. They are available through the Government Printing ||
Office or the Environmental Protection Agency. A partial listing is as follows: ^
Community Water Supply Study, Analysis of National Survey Findings (EPA) e/>
Community Water Supply Study, Significance of National Findings (EPA) 5/3
Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards (PHS 956) **
A Guide to the Interstate Carrier Water Supply Certification Program (EPA) U
Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water Supplies (PHS 1820) £
Individual Water Supply Systems (PHS 24)*
Water Supply and Plumbing Cross-Connections (PHS 957)
Evaluation of Water Laboratories (PHS 999-EE-l)
Health Guidelines for Water and Related Land Resources Planning, Development,
and Management (EPA)
*Under Revision
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TRAINING
As the need for water treatment becomes more necessary to insure safe drinking water,
and as treatment methods and monitoring requirements become more complex, the need
for training increases. Presently, EPA offers three types of training for water supply
personnel:
Specialized Short Courses presented at EPA's National
Training Center in Cincinnati, Ohio:
Ground Water Technology Oct. 16-20, 1972
Fluoride Determinations in Water Nov. 6-8, 1972
Operation and Control of Water Systems Supplied from Wells Dec. 4-8, 1972
Unit Processes - Water Treatment Plant Operation Jan. 15-19, 1973
Special Analytical Techniques - Thin Layer Chromotography Feb. 12-14, 1973
Water Supply Sanitary Survey Mar. 19-21, 1973
Chemical Examination of Drinking Water Apr. 16-20, 1973
Bacteriological examination of Drinking Water Apr. 23-27, 1973
Special Analytical Techniques Atomic Absorption June 4-6, 1973
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Specialized Courses presented at field locations:
In recognition of the difficulties that many of the smaller water supply systems and
some states have in sending their personnel to Cincinnati for training, EPA has
recently increased the number of courses that it presents at various field locations.
The following courses have been presented in the field.
Fluoride Determinations in Water
Ground Water Technology
Operation and Control of Water Systems Supplied from Wells
Short Course for Water Treatment Plant Operators
EPA, in cooperation with the Department of Labor, is providing funds and
technical assistance to governmental and educational institutions for the purpose
of presenting basic training for water treatment plant operators. These courses
combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. In FY 72, grants have been
awarded to the States of Vermont, Maine, and West Virginia, and to the Indiana
Vocational Technical College.
Packaged training courses and training aids are currently under development These will
be made available to State and local governments and the water supply industry to assist
them sponsor training programs.
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EPA POLICY STATEMENT ON WATER REUSE
The demand for water is increasing both through population growth and changing life
styles brought about by advancing technology, while the supply of water from nature
remains basically constant from year to year. This is not to imply that we are or will
shortly be out of water, although water shortages are of great concern in some regions.
Rather, we must recognize the need to use and reuse wastewater whenever possible.
Therefore,
1. EPA supports and encourages the development and practices of successive waste-
water reclamation, reuse, recycling and recharge as a major element in water
quality management, providing the reclamation systems are designed and operated
so as to avoid health hazards to the people or damage to the environment.
2. EPA recognizes and supports the potential for wastewater reuse in agriculture,
industrial, municipal, recreational, and groundwater recharge applications.
3. EPA does not support the direct interconnection of wastewater reclamation plants
with municipal water treatment plants.
4. EPA will continue to support reuse research and demonstration projects.
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USE OF WASTEWATER AS A POTABLE WATER SOURCE
The concurrent use of the Nation's rivers and lakes for both municipal water supply and
waste disposal has been practiced for many years in many areas of the country. It is
estimated that 50% of the Nation's population now derives their water supply from
surface sources which have also received a variety of industrial wastes, untreated sewage,
urban runoff and effluent from a variety of sewage treatment plants. Public health
officials have relied upon time of travel or storage and treatment to protect the public
against infectious diseases and toxic substances. Water quality standards and treatment
requirements applicable to surface sources used for water supply permit the discharge of
relatively high quantities of wastes. JJj
Indirect reuse for municipal public water supply is a fact of life; however, direct reuse is LLI
a new matter requiring careful research and investigation before introduction. DC
rr
Health problems in a direct interconnection or in a recycling situation relate to viruses, uj
bacterial build-up, chemical build-up, the possibility of accidental spills or sabotage and a ^
questionable record of reliability in the operation of wastewater treatment plants. Viruses S
are difficult to identify and measure and are more resistant to disinfection than _
bacteria. Carbon columns and other possible advanced waste treatment elements may o
harbor bacteria and contribute to the development of unhealthful levels of bacteria in a >.
recycling situation. o
The direct introduction of chemicals from a waste-stream and their build-up through Q
potable system-waste system recycling can present increased long-term chronic hazards, o-
presently undefined. Accidental spills or sabotage present an acute threat which cannot ^
be disregarded, as anyone can throw anything down the drain; some system of holding uj
and dilution reservoirs may need to be provided between the reclamation plant and the
potable water intake together with biological and chemical monitoring. With regard to the
reliability of reclamation plant operation, studies in California have shown that 60% of
wastewater treatment plants studied had some breakdown during the year. Observations
of engineers and others confirm that reliability is a common problem in wastewater
treatment plants; safeguards must be provided to prevent the introduction of non-treated
or poorly treated wastes into a potable water system.
For the above reasons, EPA does not support the direct interconnection of waste-water
reclamation plants with municipal water treatment plants.
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UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
Regional Offices Phone
Boston, Massachusetts 02203 617-223-7210
New York, New York 10007 212-264-25 25
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106 215-597-9800
Atlanta, Georgia 30309 404-526-5727
Chicago, Illinois 60606
Dallas, Texas 75202
312-353-5250
214-749-1962
Kansas City, Missouri 64106 816-374-5493
Denver, Colorado 80203 303-837-3895
San Francisco, Calif. 94102 415-556-2320
Seattle, Washington 98101 206-442-1220
States Covered
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, D.C.
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Tennessee
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada,
American Samoa, Guam, Trust Territories
of Pacific Islands, Wake Island
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
MAY 20, 1972
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