FOREST HARVEST-REGENERATION ACTIVITIES
AND
PROTECTION OF WATER QUALITY
».%£»£ai&a*&i?afe
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION X
12OO Sixth Avenue Seattle .Washington
981O1
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11940
T
EPA Review Notice
This document is a draft report, submitted for review and comment
which will be the basis for revisions, as appropriate, to be incorporated
in a final report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
Scope
Forest Statistics
Overview
Report Format and Use
Glossary
Acknowledgements
1-1
1-1
1-3
1-7
1-9
1-14
1-16
1-20
COMMERCIAL FOREST LANDS OF REGION X
Fisheries Resources
Interior Alaska
Coastal Alaska
Western Olympics
Coastal Washington and Oregon
Klamath Mountains
Puget-Willamette Trough
Western Cascades
Eastern Cascades - North
Eastern Cascades - South
Blue Mountains
Okanogan Highlands
Northern Idaho
Intermountain
2-1
2-6
2-9
2-14
2-19
2-23
2-2?
2-31
2-36
2-40
2-45
2-48
2-51
2-55
2-58
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ii
FOREST PRACTICES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST 3-1
Logging Systems 3-1
Silvicultural Systems 3-22
Log Storage 3-31
Regeneration Practices 3-36
Logging Residue Management 3-4l
IMPACT' OF FOREST PRACTICES ON WATER QUALITY 4-1
Suspended Materials 4-1
Suspended Inorganic Material 4-1
Suspended Organic Material 4-27
Reforestation Effects on Suspended Sediment 4-28
Effect of Sediment on Fish Resources 4-29
Thermal Pollution 4-30
Logging Activities and Their Effects 4-30
. Water Temperature Manipulation 4-36
Chemical Pollution . 4-42
Effects of Logging Activities 4-43
PLANNING AND CONTROL 5-1
Planning 5-3
Basic Methodology 5-3
Basic information 5-6
Alternative plan elements 5-7
Priorities, goals and objectives 5-8
Synthesis 5-9
Selection 5-9
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ill
Implementation 5-9
Public involvement 5-10
Information Requirements 5-10
Forest land water quality planning 5-10
Prediction 5-17
Hydrologic 5-18
Water quality 5-18
Erosion rates and sediment yields 5-19
Models of aquatic ecosystems 5-19
Plant competition models 5-20
Meteorological models 5-21
Impact monitoring 5-22
Water temperature 5-23
Suspended sediment 5-23
Dissolved oxygen 5-24
Specific conductance 5-24
Predicting Effects 5-25
General methodology 5-25
Soil erosion methods 5-28
Water temperature 5-32
Peak flow accentuation and 5-36
channel erosion
Aquatic or marine eco-system modeling 5-39
Sensitive Areas and Facilities Location 5-42
Stream channels 5-43
Stream banks and water influence 5-49
environs
General 5-50
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iv
Thermal 5-53
Sediment . 5-58
Marine, lake or reservoir environments 5-59
Steep slopes and unstable soils 5-62
Facilities location and logging 5-66
system layout
Silvicultural System Selection 5-70
Clearcutting 5-75
Selection . . 5-77
Shelterwood 5-79
Seed-tree cutting method 5-81
Logging Method Selection . 5-82
Felling and bucking . 5-85
Tractor 5-87
High-lead 5-88
Skyline 5-89
Idaho jammer and shovel skidder 5-900
Balloon 5-90
Helicopter 5-91
Horses 5-92
Control 5-95
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1-1
INTRODUCTION
DRAFT
Purpose
This report is a preliminary draft and intended for
review purposes. Comments, editorial suggestions and addi-
tional information are hereby solicited. A final revised
draft should be available for printing in mid-1975.
Section 304 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500) directs the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to address the nature and extent of non-
point pollution sources, including pollutants generated by
silvicultural activities, and the processes, procedures and
methods for preventing such pollution. To accomplish this the
nonpoint pollution sources have been allocated to the various
regions of the EPA. Region X of the EPA, covering Alaska,
Washington, Oregon and Idaho have been specifically assigned
the Section 304 responsibilities related to silvicultural ac-
tivities. This Region X program involves the compilation of
technical and legal/institutional guideline information re-
lating to reduction, elimination and prevention of water
pollution from such sources, and the development of methods
and procedures for effective utilization of the information.
The EPA will eventually develop an implementation strategy,
and for the present is proceeding to define the "best available
technology" for preventing such silviculturally-related
pollution.
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1-2
The "best available technology" for preventing pollution
resulting from silvicultural activities is being compiled and
summarized through three consultant efforts which are intended
to have little or no overlap. The first project, almost com-
pleted, Involves methods of controlling pollution through the
planning, design, construction and maintenance of logging
roads. The second contract involves control of water pollution
resulting from the application of forest chemicals. The third
contract, which is the subject of this report concerns logging,
residue management and reforestation activities. The intent
is to summarize "state-of-the-art" techniques for preventing
water pollution, not to prescribe or recommend comprehensive
standards.
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1-3
Scope
This study geographically covers Idaho, Oregon, Washing-
ton and Alaska which comprise Region X of the EPA. The region
has been divided into the following subregions based on simi-
lar forest zones, hydrologic and meteorologic characteristics,
land systems and institutional constraints (see Figure 1):
1. Interior Alaska
2. Coastal Alaska
3-. Western Olympics
4. Coastal Washington and Oregon
5. Klamath Mountains
6. Puget - Willamette Trough
7. Western Cascades
8. Eastern Cascades - North
9. Eastern Cascades - South
10. Blue Mountains
11. Okanogan Highland
12. Northern Idaho
13. Intermountain
The following technical areas as they relate to water
quality are dealt with:
Harvest Methods
clearcut
shelterwood
seed tree
selection
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1-lJ
EPA REGION X
ASHINGTON
CH.YMPIA y I
(6) / (
Figure 1
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1-5
Forest Management Practices
thinning
reforestation
scarification
terracing
Logging and Transportation Equipment Systems and
Methods
aerial
cable
tractor
horselogging
skid trails
landing and staging areas
water rafting and storage
equipment- (selection and operation)
haul roads (planning criteria related to the
selection of harvest and logging methods)
Residue Management Practices
salvage and use
burning
burial
retention on-slte
reduction (selection and planning of harvest
and logging method )
The report presents the following types of water quality
protection information related to sedimentation and thermal
and chemical pollution:
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Planning approaches and design criteria
Tables that summarize cause/effect information
related to logging and harvesting methods
Monitoring considerations
Models and optimization methods
Descriptions of equipment and methods
Summaries of handbooks, research studies and
recommendations
An annotated bibliography and a listing of
references
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1-7
Forest Statistics
FT
Of the nearly 157 million acres of land in the Pacific
Northwest (states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho) nearly
59 million acres have been classified as commercial forest
lands in either public or private ownership. An additional
16.5 million acres have been classified as non-commercial
forest lands. Non-commercial lands include those that are
unproductive or are productive forest land held in reserve.
The coastal region of Alaska, which is almost entirely forested,
consists of over 5-8 million acres of commercial forest land and
more than 10 million acres of non-commercial forest lands.
Consequently, approximately one-half of Region X is comprised
of forest land of both a commercial and non-commercial nature.
Prom the standpoint of area covered the most important
forest types are Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine. Of the total
area of commercial and non-commercial land well over one-third
is occupied by Douglas fir, an additional third consisting of
ponderosa pine forests and the balance occupied by several
forest types including hemlock-sitka spruce, white pine,
lodgepole pine, western larch, and true fir-spruce. The hem-
lock-spruce type, confined almost entirely to a narrow belt
along the coast, covers over 3.5 million acres in Washington
and Oregon. Consequently, including Alaska the hemlock-spruce
type comprise over 7 million acres in Region X.
Of the substantial quantity of non-commercial forest land
/'
in the Pacific Northwest the bulk of that in the Douglas fir
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type is held in various reserves. In contrast to the Douglas
fir type, non-commercial ponderosa pine lands are largely 'un-
productive lands in the arid inland regions.
The ownership pattern of forest lands in the Pacific
Northwest contrasts markedly with ownership in other parts
of the continental United States. Approximately 65% of timber
lands in the three northwest states are in some form of public
ownership, 2Q% by industry and the balance classified as farm
land.
The interior forests of Alaska occupy almost 120 million
acres, or 35 percent of the total land area. The balance of
interior Alaska consists of grassland, tundra, swamp, barren
rock, and a very small part as agricultural lands. The
forested areas are chiefly white spruce and white birch.
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1-9
Overview
Due to the economic significance in the Northwest of
commercial and sport fishing and the wood products industries,
both timber harvesting and water quality protection are very
important. The Region's wide range of physical and biological
characteristics make it impossible to solve all the forest-
associated water quality problems through region-wide standards,
The most efficient solutions involve site specific planning
and new techniques. However, water quality protection is
compatible with timber harvest in much of the region.
A basic land use decision concerning whether the primary •
allocation of the specific land unit is for wood fiber or
other purposes must be made before addressing specific water
quality protection objectives. This allocation relates only
partially to the information presented in this report. Once
this basic land use allocation is made and understood, water
quality can generally be protected through planning and effec-
tive plan implementation. However, much of the current forest
management controversy appears to be as much related to the
question of land use allocation as to water quality protection.
This report relates primarily to water quality protection
needed as a result of timber harvesting on "commercial" forest
lands (i.e., those lands allocated to wood fiber production).
However, in some cases, it may have value in the question of
land use allocation.
Because of the wide physical and biological variations
within Region X, research conclusions are often taken out of
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context and applied inappropriately. For Instance, certain
water quality arguments against clearcutting may be relevant
on the Idaho Batholith but not applicable to coastal areas in
Washington and Oregon due to significant differences in soils,
hydrology, climate, and forest type. On the other hand, a
rationalization favoring clearcutting based on potential
environmental benefits may be applicable to some sites in
western Oregon but have little if any relevance on the Idaho
Batholith.
Throughout Region X there are significant potentials for
adverse water quality impact from many facets of timber harvest,
residue management and regeneration. The most significant of
these potential impacts appears to be related to erosion and
sedimentation but in many areas thermal pollution is a major
if not the most significant potential problem. Nutrients held
by the soil media and vegetation can result in significant
water quality problems but this is generally ,of less severity
than sediment and elevated water temperature.
There are wide variations in the applicability of the
techniques and methods presented in this report. This results
from the varying significance from one sub-region to another
of physical or biological factors such as:
temperature regime
soils/hydrologic characteristics
geology
fisheries
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DRAFT
precipitation pattern
aspect
forest types
For example, the main benefit of buffer strips on the Idaho
Batholith may result from the sediment interception potential
of such strips, but in the coastal zone the primary value is
in preserving a water temperature regime conducive to resident
and anadromous fish species. The effects of changing the
temperature regime are also often different from subregion to
subregion. In western Oregon the fisheries can be detrimen-
tally affected by streamside vegetation removal due to increases
in temperatures but in some other subreglons a beneficial
fishery effect may result from slight temperature increases.
To add to the complexity many observers believe that in Alaska
the most significant adverse temperature effect is the more
thorough and longer freezing of the streams that~can result
from changing the micro-climate through vegetation removal
adjacent to streams. Another example concerns the relative
significance of the impact of residue management on water
quality. Old growth stands can produce large amounts (of slash
when logged which may result in an organic chemical pollution
problem. In other areas there appears to be very little water
pollution potential from the entire range of residue management
alternatives provided the slash is removed from the water-
influence zone.
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Because of the complexity and diversity of the problem
the significant advances in water quality protection can be
made through specific site planning involving interdiscipli-
nary teams and predictive or impact models, expanded utiliza-
tion of advanced logging equipment, and engineering guidelines
which have been developed for the specific areas Involved.
Planning methodologies and predictive models -now available to
forest management planners are numerous and embrace a wide
range of sophistication. It is the opinion of the project
team that the Federal agencies, particularly the U.S. Forest
Service have started to vigorously apply progressive land use
planning techniques that incorporate water quality goals in
most areas. There does appear to be an absence of formal
water quality protection constraints other than those imposed
by public agencies within some segments of industry.
Certain special problems were viewed by the project team.
These included, for example, the accidental removal by county
crews of the protective vegetation left along forest roads
for erosion control purposes. Another such unusual problem
is that of high runoff rates resulting in roadside rivulets
along logging roads by an overapplication of dust control water,
Due to differences throughout the region in the availabili-
ty of management expertise, field personnel, advanced logging
equipment and automated analysis technology, a number of
levels of water quality management is required. In addition,
differences in field control from one operation to another will
necessitate different types of management approaches. Where
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sophisticated planning and engineering is done and field control
is adequate, specific water quality prescriptions, or plans,
can be developed for each site.
On the other hand, where field control, planning or
engineering is inadequate rules-of-thumb and legally enforce-
able guidelines are required. While this "codification"
approach can result in solutions that vary from slightly in-
efficient to counter-productive, the most common implication
is inefficiency. Unfortunately the predominant situation in
Region X requires generally applicable guideline approaches
to water quality management for the present.
In summary, there are areas within the region where the
water quality problems are simple and lend themselves to
straightforward solutions. Other areas exist where advanced
logging methods and complex design and planning programs are
needed to protect water quality. Still other areas exist
where the cost of remedial or preventative measures is so
great as to suggest that no exploitation of the timber may be
the best approach to water quality protection.
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Report Format and Use
This report is presented in two volumes. The first
contains the basic text of the report and Volume II presents
both an annotated bibliography and a reference section.
The report emphasizes summarization of research, cur-
rently applied prediction, prevention and control techniques,
and guidelines/criteria for preventing water pollution.
Subregioris have been defined due to the frequent need
for specifying the applicability and relevance of the re-
search information and "best available technology" presented.
The sub-regional descriptions are presented in Section Two.
As various aspects of the study are discussed, reference will
be made when needed;to situations in which the method is most
applicable and if possible, to circumstances or locations
where the method may not be relevant. An alternative report
structure would have been to include separate subreglonal
sections for each method, but this approach was not taken due
to the enormous potential for redundancy.
Section Three summarizes the current forest practices
utilized in Region X. Although these summaries are brief,
they are sufficient to facilitate a general understanding of
the report.
Section Four addresses' the impact on water quality of
the various forest practices presented in Section Three. Sub-
sections are included concerning sedimentation, thermal pollu-
tion, and chemical pollution.
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DRAFT
1-15
In Section Five of the report, various methods and
approaches to planning and control are described. Emphasis
is placed on providing the reader with summaries concerning:
(1) the selection of silvicultural or logging systems based
on water., quality impact, (2) planning approaches and simula-
tion models, (3) specific operational, design or planning
constraints, and (*!) the information requirements for moni-
toring, prediction or planning purposes.
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Glossary
ACCELERATED EROSION - the wearing away of the soil at a rate
faster than it is being created.
ANADROMOUS - pertaining to fishes which ascend rivers to spawn.
CROSS DRAINS - a shallow ditch, water bar, or trench cut across
a road at. an angle, for diverting surface runoff from the road.
CUTTING METHODS
a) Clearcutting - removal of the entire stand, all trees
large and small, in one cut.
Types of clearcutting
Patch cutting - Patch cutting is a series of
clearcuttings made in patches. In the first
cut portions of the stand are selected which
for some reason should be cut before the rest
of the stand. In succeeding operations patches
are enlarged or new patches are created else-
: where in the stand. When cutting patches with
time intervals, between operations, each patch
can be recognized as.an individual stand.
Alternate strips - The stand is divided into
a series of'strips. Alternate strips are cut
with the uncut strips serving as a seed source
for reproduction. After reproduction is se-
cured, the leave strips are cut.
Continuous clear-cutting - The stand is cut on
a continually advancing front, i.e., no blocks,
strips, or edges are left to serve as seed
sources.
b) Group selection - A modification of the selection
methods where mature timber is removed in small groups
rather than by single trees.
c) Selection - Removal of mature timber, usually the old-
est or largest trees, either as single scattered tree
or in small groups at relatively short intervals,
commonly 5 to 20 years, repeated indefinitely, by means
of which the continuous establishment of natural repro-
duction is encouraged and an uneven-aged stand is main-
tained.
d) Shelterwood - Removal of the mature timber in a series
of cuttings, which extend over a period of years, equal
usually to not more than one-quarter and one-tenth of
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the time required to grow the crop by means of which
the establishment of natural reproduction under the
partial shelter of seed trees is encouraged.
DEBRIS - material of organic origin such as slash, slabs or
sawdust. • . .
EPHEMERAL STREAM - a waterway which flows during and shortly
after storms but which is normally dry.
EROSION - the group of processes whereby soil or rock materials
is loosened or dissolved and removed from any part of the
earth's surface. Soil loss on natural slopes is usually small
and referred to as geologic erosion. Where natural conditions
have been disturbed, the rate of erosion increases rapidly
and is referred to as accelerated erosion.
HAULING - transportation of trees or cut logs from the forest
to sawmill or similar destination.
INFILTRATION - the flow or movement of water through the soil
surface into the ground.
INTERMITTENT STREAM - a waterway which flows during moist
periods of the year but which is seasonally dry.
% . . •
INTOLERANCE - the incapacity of a tree to develop and grow in
the shade of and in competition with other trees.
JACKSON TURBIDITY UNIT - a standard unit of measurement for
determining turbidity.
LOGGING METHODS
a) Cable logging - system of logging where logs are trans-
ported from stump to landing by means of steel cable
and winch.
b) Ground lead logging - cable logging with a low speed,
stationary machine, the lead block being a few feet
off the ground.
c) High lead logging - a modification of ground lead
logging,, wherein the main lead block is placed on a
spar tree, generally 100 to 125 feet above the ground,
giving a lifting effect to the Incoming logs.
d) Jammer logging - a stationary, low-lead, mechanical
winch and cable system to pull logs over the soil sur-
face from points on a field to a central location
during tree harvest.
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e) Tractor logging - any system of logging In which a
tractor operating as a mobile unit furnishes motive
po.wer in skidding logs.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION - a pollutant which enters a water
body from diffuse origins on the watershed and does not result
from discernible, confined, or discrete conveyances.
OUTSLOPED ROADS - where a road surface slopes downward from
the toe of the cut to the road shoulder.
PEAK PLOW - maximum stream discharge occurring from snow melts
or rainstorms.
RAFTING OF LOGS - the act of floating tied logs for transport
in water.
SEDIMENT - water worked fragments which have been detached,
transported, suspended, or settled in water. Fragments moved
by air are excluded from this*report.
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT - the movement of soil particles in water
suspension over the land surface.
SILVICULTURE (Webster) - "a phase of forestry dealing with the
development and care of forests." In this "report the defini-
tion includes all activities related to trees, from seed to
sawlog/pulpwood, and the harvest and transport of the products
from the forest to the first logging road.
SKID TRAILS - a disturbance of the forest floor resulting from
logs being pulled over the surface.
SLUMPING'- movement of patches of the top foot of soil or more,
when a surface layer resting upon a compacted lower layer of
soil becomes saturated. The combined weight of soil and water
causes a slip between the two layers.
SOIL AGGREGATE - soil particles held together by internal
forces in a single mass such as clod, prism, block, or granule.
SOIL COMPACTION - decrease in soil macro-pore space owing to
pressure or force exerted on the soil surface.
SURFACE RUNOFF - water that flows over the ground surface and
into streams and rivers.
WATER BAR - a log of small diameter laid at a slight angle to
direction of skid trail and staked in place. Purpose is to
divert surface runoff into undisturbed areas.
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WATER POLLUTION - a degradation of quality of water for a
specified use.
YARDING OF LOGS - the act of assembling logs in a specified
location after cutting for the purpose of further transport.
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Acknowledgments
FT
Information was requested and received from federal and state
state agencies, industries, associations, conservations groups, and
research organizations. Such information was generally from agencies
or states in the Northwest, but it was also provided by other regions
and Canada. We are especially indebted to the U.S. Forest Service,
the Weyerhaeuser Corporation, the Boise Cascade Corporation, the
Ketchikan Pulp Company, and agencies of the states of Alaska, Oregon,
Washington, and Idaho for assisting us with field trips to view
various field operations. The University of Alaska, Oregon State
University and the University of Idaho provided time and information.
The project director from Montgomery Engineers is Mr. H. Tom Davis
with assistance provided by Mr. Fred Hagius. Dr. Benjamin A. Jayne,
* *
Director of the Center for Quantitative Science in Forestry, Fisheries,
and Wildlife, University of Washington, is the project forester with
assistance provided by Mr. Clifford W. Wylie, consulting forester, and
Mr. Roger Guernsey, consulting forester. Dr. David D. Wooldridge,
Associate Professor of Forest Hydrology, College of Forest Resources,
University of Washington, served as a special consultant concerning
forest soils and hydrology. Mr. John Somerville, Montgomery Engineers
provided the basic management of the project.
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FT
Hundreds of separate items of information including re-
search papers, Forest Service manuals, handbooks of all des-
criptions, special association or organization papers, and
verbal communications have been utilized in the study.
Written communication has occurred with all groups having an
identifiable interest in the results of the study. Numerous
telephone conversations and personal visits have occurred with
groups having particular interest in the study.
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. COMMERCIAL FOREST LANDS OF REGION X
Region X has been subdivided into subregions on the basis
of uniformity of forest type, uniformity of usual silvicultural
practices and similarities in climate, physiography and hy-
drology. Justification, for this subdivision is based on uni-
form silvicultural practices including residue management and
forest stand regeneration within a subregion. Influence of a
given forest land management practice on water quality varies
from one subregion to another based on the season and free
water input to a hydrologic regime.
At lower -elevations in western Washington and Oregon,
most precipitation occurs as rain which is immediately avail-
able to streams for a hydrologic response and transportation
of dissolved and suspended materials. In contrast, precipita-
tion occuring as snow at higher elevations accumulates during
the winter and is released as a free water input to streams
during the melt season. Thus, the solvent action of water in
passing through the forest soil and.erosive action in streams
and rivers is concentrated in the late spring and early summer.
Storms which cause flooding in western Washington and Oregon
in November and December have little impact on streamflow in
the snow accumulating zones. Conversely, a warm light rain-
storm might produce what is termed a Chinook condition east
of the Cascades which causes flooding due to very rapidly
melting snow (usually accompanied by vigorous winds). It is
not uncommon to have temperatures rise from sub-freezing
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(0 to 15°F) to. 50 to 55°P in less than an hour. Chinook con-
ditions frequently produce localized flooding from small trib-
utaries, but usually are not sustained long enough to produce
flooding on major rivers.
The following discussion of subregions in Region X will
identify major forest species of the commercial forests sum-
marizing the occurrence of dominant types, climate, geology,
and soil parent material where possible. These data present
a framework for discussion of interacting water quality prob-
lems with forest management, soils erosion and basic hydrology.
The magnitude of water quality problems to a large degree de-
pends on associated water resources or uses of water that are
affected. The importance of sports and commercial fisheries
in Region X dictates consideration must be given to impacts on
fisheries resources in t-he various subregions. Later dis-
cussions will expand on the relative importance of water tem-
perature .and suspended or dissolved materials.
Based on the above rationale, Region X has been divided
into the following subregions:
Interior Alaska
Coastal Alaska
Western Olympics
Coastal Washington and Oregon
Klamath Mountains
Puget-Willamette Trough
Western Cascades
Eastern Cascades - North
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Eastern Cascades - South
Blue Mountains
Qkanogan Highlands
Northern Idaho
Intermountain
-The diversity of climate,, forest vegetation, soils, geol-
ogy and man's impact on the forest environment of the above
subregions is obvious. While there is justification for sepa-
rating the discussion of certain subregions there is also equal
Justification for consolidating many of these subregions as a '
particular discussion is pertinent to the larger region.
Climate of Region X is a function of the location and
intensity of the semi-permanent high and low pressure cells
over the North Pacific Ocean. In summer a strong high pres-
sure cell develops over .the Northeast Pacific which causes
air to ci-reulate in a clockwise direction around the cell.
This circulation results in a prevailing westerly and north-.
westerly flows of air masses which are comparatively dry,
cool and stable. In fall and winter an Aleutian low pressure
cell develops, intensifies and moves southward resulting in
a,counterclockwise flow of air across the Pacific Northwest.
Prevailing wind directions b.ecome south to southwesterly
transporting very moist air masses in equilibrium with the
ocean temperature across the Pacific Northwest. Condensation
occurs as these warm moist air masses move over the cooler
land surfaces. The climate generally resulting from the pre-
vailing winds is typically cool, relatively dry in summer
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inland from the foggy coastal zone yet mild and wet during the
winter.
Temperatures along the coastal zone are also significant-
ly influenced by the prevailing ocean currents. The nearshore
current reverses direction between summer and winter. In sum-
mer the California current flows south while in winter the
Davidson inshore current moves north. Water temperatures a-
long the Washington-Oregon coast range from 48°F in February
and March .to 58°P in August. The average air temperature in
mid-summer ranges from 50 to 60°F, while coldest average win-
ter temperatures range from 42 to 44°F. These dominating in-
fluences affect the climate of southern interior Alaska,
Coastal Alaska and Coastal Washington and Oregon and provide
the maritime climate common to Region X.
The mild humid temp.erate climate of Coastal Washington,
Oregon and Alaska results in a common forest type, the western
hemlock-Sitka spruce (Ruth and Harris, 1973) where western
hemlock and Sltka spruce are the dominant forest species.
Over this ,200Q-mile long strip of coast there are variations
in the admixtures of associated species. Near Cook Inlet
Sitka spruce becomes the dominant species while to the south
western hemlock gives way to an increasing component of stand
composition in Douglas fir and redwood. Douglas fir occurs
along the coast of Washington and Oregon in decreasing amounts
with increasing latitude. It does not occur in coastal Alaska.
Characteristics of climate make fire a significant ecological
factor in the western hemlock type of Washington and Oregon;
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however, Coastal Alaska is continuously far too wet to ever
burn. Franklin and Dyrness (1973) consider western hemlock
to be the climatic climax species.throughout the subregions
of: the Western Olympics, Coastal Washington and Oregon; the
Western Cascades; and much of the Puget-Willamette Trough.
Those areas of the Willamette- Valley not included are lower
elevations in dryer, warmer habitats. Eastern extensions of
the western hemlock type are recognized in valleys along the
east slope of the Cascades Mountains in Washington and Northern
Oregon and west slopes of Northern Idaho.
The mixed conifer type east of the Cascade crest melds
with the Coastal types before developing the typical charac-
teristics of the northern Rocky Mountain forest types. Frank-
lin and Dyrness (1973) cite the work of Daubenmire which in-
dicates a continuum of climatic climax species from warm, dry
to cold, wet habitats in the following order: ponderosa pine,
Douglas fir, western larch, lodgepole pine, grand fir, western
white pine, western red cedar, western hemlock, Engelmann
spruce, subalpine fir, mountain hemlock and whitebark pine.
Forest stands or species occur in a .complex intermix as affect-
ed by: elevation, local habitat, soils and local climate
east of the Cascade Mountains.
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2-6
Fisheries Resources
Commercial and sports fisheries resources of Region X
are dependent on aquatic habitat or on streams and lakes
within the commercial forest zone for reproduction and rear-
ing. The more important species utilizing the fresh water
environment are: pink (humpback) salmon, chum (dog) salmon,
sockeye (red) salmon, Chinook (king) salmon, coho (silver)
salmon, .rainbow and steelhead trout, cutthroat trout, and
Dolly Varden'trout. The spawning habitats of reproducing
species consists of suitable gravel with a continous supply
of high, quality water. Spawning beds must be protected from
physical damage by floating debris or depositions of sediment
while eggs are in the gravel. The quality of the aquatic
environment is also important for the rearing and growth of
juvenile fish.
While.the life cycle habits of many of the species have
many aspects in common, there are sufficient differences in
their use of the fresh water environment that a distinction
should be made between certain species. Pink and chum sal-
mon utilize fresh water only for spawning and egg incubation.
These species, spawn low in streams very close to salt water
in early fall, with fry emerging from stream bed gravels from
late March to early May. Pry may migrate to salt water imme-
diately or remain in the stream for a very short time. The
life cycle in the ocean requires one and a half to three and
a half years, then adults return to their streams of origin
to spawn. Pink and_chum salmon are important throughout
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2-7
southeast Alaska and in many of the rivers..of Puget Sound.
Sockeye salmon generally require a lake in the river
system used for reproduction. Adults move upstream to the
lake where they spawn in upper tributaries. The emerging
fry then migrate to the lake where they spend one or more
years as.residents. On reaching migratory size, they return
to the ocean to complete their life cycle. The very red
flesh of the sockeye salmon makes it one of the most prized
commercial species. It is a particularly important species
in the Columbia River system. Chinook and coho salmon and
steelhead trout utilize rivers throughout coastal Alaska,
Washington, Oregon and Northern California. Chinook salmon
are the largest of the Pacific salmon, and generally favor
larger river systems. There are runs in most of the large
rivers from the Yukon south' to San Francisco Bay. Three
races of. Chinook salmon are commonly recognized based on the
time of entry into fresh water. Spring Chinooks enter these
streams as early as March and April, while later runs peak
in mid-July, and a fall run enters the ^streams in September
and October. Coho salmon have a much wider range of suitable
stream habitats as they will enter both large and small streams
for spawning. Both coho and Chinook juveniles spend one or
more years in fresh water before reaching migratory size to
return to the ocean. They will then spend one or more years
in the ocean completing their life cycle to return to spawn
in fresh water. Rainbow trout (steelhead) and cutthroat
trout also have similar life cycles, entering fresh water
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2-8
from the ocean to spawn, with juveniles spending differing
times in the fresh water. The primary difference between
trout and.salmon in life cycle is that trout do not die after
spawning'.and may return to spawn in fresh water several times.
Most major water bodies in Region X either have natural
populations of fish that are important for sport or commer-
cial use or have Introduced species. Physical barriers have
caused natural landlocking of both the salmon and trout in
particular river systems. Landlocked sockeye salmon (silver
trout and kokanee) are important in many of the larger lakes
tributary: t.o the Columbia River.
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2-9
Interior Alaska
Interior Alaska is usually considered that portion north
of the coastal zone and west of the Kenai Peninsula. The vast
area of Interior Alaska has greatly varied topography, vegeta-
tive cover and climatic conditions. Permafrost is found on
.varying aspects to varying -depths throughout much of Interior
Alaska. The occurrence and depth to permafrost greatly influ-
ences the vegetative type, vegetative patterns and annual
growth. In general Interior Alaska is a dry region; however,
permafrost holds all moisture near the soil surface resulting
in a relatively heavy ground cover of grasses, mosses and
shrubs which retard any surface runoff.
Forest Types
Interior forests extend to arctic slopes on the north;
however, the better fore-st stands are confined to lower slopes
and valley bottoms of larger rivers and their major tributaries.
The principal forest regions include the drainages of the
Susitana, Copper, Tanana, Yukon and Kuskowim Rivers. Forest
stands are classed commercial in the Interior if the site is
capable of producing 20 cubic feet of wood per acre per year.
Interior forest types are seldom pure in species composi-
tion. They are usually a mixture of four major commercial spe-
cies. The most important of which is white spruce followed by
paper birch, quaking aspen, and balsam poplar. White spruce
is generally classed as the climax forest species on most
commercial forest lands of the Interior. The best stands of
white spruce occur on well-drained soils in river bottoms.
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2-10
FT
Mature stands generally require 100 to 150 years for develop-
ment. Spruce stands destroyed by fire commonly reseed to
aspen or birch with some mixing of white spruces. •• Wh'ite spruce
is shade tolerant so eventually will become dominant in the
understory and replace the hardwoods.
Paper birch is the second most important species occurring
on 5.1 million acres of forest land. Birch matures at 80 to
100 years of age and if not harvested becomes very defective
and is replaced by the spruce understory.
Quaking aspen like birch frequently reseeds recent burns.
It is fast growing usually maturing in 60 to 80 years to be
replaced by spruce. Aspen is widespread in mixed stands
throughout the Interior but grows especially well on south
slopes and well-drained soils.
Balsam-poplar is the major species on 2.0 million acres
but also occurs widely in mixture with other species through-
out the Interior. The best commercial stands of balsam pop-
lar occur on well-drained river valley soils. Trees will
range from 80 to 100 feet tall and up to 24 Inches in diameter.
The commercial importance of timber stands in Interior
Alaska has been compared with the Lake States region. It is
estimated based on a 100-year rotation that Interior Alaska
could provide enough pulpwood to sustain the operation of 10
pulp mills producing 500 tons of pulp per day. This is
equivalent to an annual allowable cut of 900 million board
feet of saw timber.
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2-11
Climate
The .climate of Interior Alaska varies from a moderate
continental in the southern portion near Cook Inlet to the
subarctic climate of the remainder of Interior Alaska. In
the transition between coastal and Interior Alaska (Kenai
Peninsula, area)-,, mean annual temperatures vary from 32 to 35°F,
with the months of June, July and August having average
monthly temperatures in excess of 55°F. In the coldest months,
temperatures average 10 to 12°F. Precipitation is also rela-
tively uniform, showing moderate orographic influences. Over
a broad area in the Kenai-Kodiak area, average annual precipi-
tation varies from 30 to 40 inches.
The climate of Fairbanks might be considered as somewhat of
an average for interior forested areas. Interior Alaska cli-
mate is.influenced by -several large mountain barriers which
form effective blocks to the flow of warm moist air from-^he
north Pacific Ocean. The lack of a moderating influence of
maritime air results in greater extremes in temperature both
highs and lows than coastal areas. The average annual tem-
perature of Fairbanks is 26°F and .can vary locally depending
on elevation and aspect from 15 to 36°F. In Fairbanks, the
official all-time low temperature was -66°F in January 1934,
with the highest temperature recorded 99°F in July 1919.
On the average the frost free growing season is approximately
90 days.
The Alaska Range south of Fairbanks forms a very effective
barrier to moist air movement from the south. As a result
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2-12
Fairbanks lies in the rain shadow with average annual precipi-
tation of about 10 inches. Maximum monthly precipitation
usually occurs in July and August (1.9 and 2.1 inches) with
minimum amounts of precipitation between February and April
(0.3 to 0.7 inches). Rainfall intensities are light to
moderate, with up to 0.3 inches per hour, and maximum daily
rainfall of 3.4 inches.
Geology and Soils
Underlying bedrock of Interior Alaska is predominantly
Tertiary sediments with older Jurassic granitic intrusives.
Uplifted sediments make up parts of the Alaska Range with
Precambrian schists and a number of intrusive and extrusive
igneous rocks occurring farther to the north. Many of the
broad valleys contain very deep alluvial deposits of sand
and gravel. During the 'Pleistocene glaciers covered most of
Interior Alaska lowlands (regions occupied by commercial
forests). Much of the existing topography is a result of re-
worked material and depositions by the glaciers.
As is common in association with glacial activity, many
of the soils are windblown loess. These soils occur through-
out the interior in depositions of a foot to 10 to 15 feet.
In many places the highly erodible loess soils have been re-
deposited as alluvial soils in the valleys through normal
erosional processes. Soils of the commercial forest stands
are generally podzols (spodosols) developed on loess or
alluvium in some cases mixed with ash. Muskeg develops on wet
soils (Histosols) and in depressions. Areas of very young
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2-13
AFT
loess or ash and in some cases recent alluvial deposits are f
immature and are classed as Regosols.
Hydrology
The flow regimes of Interior Alaska streams closely paral-
lel those expected from the cold snow zone. Since 40$ of the
annual precipitation usually occurs as snow, the snow accumu-
la'tes and is released in a melt season from May through August.
Streamflow from snowraelt is augmented by rainfall in July and
August, the wettest months of the year. The spring breakup
(May) results in a very rapid increase in streamflow, with
peak flows usually occurring for two weeks immediately fol-
lowing breakup. There is a gradual decrease In flow through
summer, with minimum flows occurring during the winter freeze-
up. Over an extended area of the Interior, the average annual
runoff is about ten inches per year; however, this can be
highly variable depending on annual precipitation and summer
temperatures. It is not uncommon to have a two- to three-fold
variation in annual water yield in a very few years.
For example, the average annual flow of the Chena River at
Fairbanks varied from 708 cubic feet per second (cfs) in 1958
to 1230 cfs in 1959, 2603 cfs in 1962, 1293 cfs in 1966, and
3160 cfs in 1967. Summer flooding is a usual occurrence and
highly variable water yields can result from a combination of
warm temperatures and/or excessive summer precipitation. Water
yields per unit land area vary from very low during freeze up
to 37 cubic feet per second per square mile (cfsm) on the
Chena River (1980 square miles of watershed).
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2-14
Coastal Alaska
Coastal Alaska comprises an area of about 33 million acres
of which 15.8 million acres are forested. A forested area is
defined as one which has at least 10$ stocking with trees.
The forested zone consists of 5.8 million acres of commercial
forest land. The commercial forest land is described as an
area of 8000 board feet of saw timber per acre in minimum
areas of 10 acres or more. Volumes are based on the Inter-
national quarter-inch rule.
Coastal Alaska is made up of hundreds of islands with a
narrow mainland broken by many fjords and inlets. The islands
vary in size from those of less than an acre to islands such
as Kodiak (2.3 million acres) and Prince of Wales (1.6 million
acres). Coastal Alaska is about 150 miles wide at its widest
point between the Gulf of Alaska and Canadian border and 800
air miles long from Ketchikan to the Anchorage-Cook Inlet
area.
Forest Types
Alaska's coastal forests are an extension of the temperate
coastal rain forests of Washington and Oregon. The major
difference in forest type is the absence of Douglas-^fir and
an increase in Sitka spruce in the north. Commercial forests
extend westward along the Alaskan coast to Cook Inlet and
Kodiak Island. In the southeast near Ketchikan, forest stands
are composed primarily of western hemlock and Sitka spruce.
Randomly interspersed and in occasional small blocks are
stands of western red cedar and Alaska cedar. Commercial
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2-15
hardwoods such as red alder and black cottonwood are confined
to stream bottoms and exposed mineral soil in slide areas.
Progressing northwest, western red cedar and Alaska cedar
become much less important occurring primarily in swamps as
far westward as Port Wells on Prince William Sound. Commer-
cially important stands of cottonwood occur in the Haines
area and on most alluvial soils to the west. Sitka spruce
becomes an increasingly important component of the forest
stand in the northwest coastal regions and in the only conifer
occurring on Kodiak and Afognak Islands. Old growth saw
timber comprises Q^% of the commercial forests of coastal
Alaska.
Geology and Soils
Land forms of southeast Alaska exhibit the complex effects
of Pleistocene glaciation with great variety of bedrock types.
There are extensive areas of granitic, metamorphic, volcanic
and calcareous rocks. Granitic rock forms are generally more
massive and resistant to the erosional powers of glaciers;
consequently, they form the most extensive mountain systems
with steeper topography to glaciated valley bottoms. Cal-
careous (marble and limestone) bedrocks are extensively frac-
tured providing excellent subsurface drainage. Frequently
these soil parent materials provide a relatively good site
for growth of commercial forest.
Glacial ice covered most of southeast Alaska, including
the islands, during the maximum advance of Pleistocene gla-
ciers. The great pressure of glacial ice overriding
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2-16
previously deposited tills formed extensive areas of compacted
till'. These compacted tills occur to elevations of about
1500 feet in many of the U-shaped valleys.
Till deposits become thinner with increasing elevation
and also tend to be thicker on south and west facing slopes
than on north or east facing slopes. Most valley bottoms are
U-shaped with low terraces of varying ages developed from
relatively recent alluvium or deposits reworked by glacial
melt rivers.
Post glacial, ash and pumice deposits occur over an ex-
tensive area on Revilla, Kruzof, Baranof and Chichagof Is-
lands. These deposits evidently occurred as the Pleistocene
ice age ended. Ash and pumice mantles the sides and upper
valley walls and has been redeposited on terraces in major
river valleys.
Climate
The climate of southeast Alaska can be described as w,et
and cool. Summers are relatively cool and extreme cold
weather is uncommon except at higher elevations. Precipita-
tion is abunaant year-around with October often the wettest
month of the year. Average annual precipitation near tide
water is about 100 to 150 inches. With relatively small
increases in elevation, precipitation ranges to 200 to 300
inches. Rainfall rates are moderate (0.3 to .5 inches per
hour) and often of long duration. The frost-free growing
season varies from about 100 days in northern areas removed
from the water to about 200 days at tide water in the
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2-17
FT
southeastern areas. Maximum summer day lengths range from
I7h hours at Ketchikan to IQ% hours near Juneau and 19% near
Anchorage. Overcast and cloudiness is the rule for most of
southeast Alaska. From June to September the Juneau airport
reports only 21% of the possible sunshine.
Hydrology
Coastal Alaska falls within the hydrologic regime of
the warm snow zone. Large amounts of precipitation (20
inches) occur'during October and November, with temperatures
cooling in December as snow begins to accumulate. Frequent
warm rainstorms occur even after snow accumulation begins,
with the snow pack transmitting water to the soil and streams.
The combination of steep slopes and abundant precipitation
with shallow soils produces streams with highly variable
flow characteristics, particularly for streams that do not
have large lakes in their watersheds. Surface runoff varies
from 60 to 100 inches for lower elevation watersheds to 100
to 150 inches and more for intermediate and higher elevations.
Perennial snow fields and glaciers are a major compo-
nent of the water resources of Coastal Alaska. Most larger
streams have elevations in their upper reaches which receive
very heavy snowfall. Snowmelt initiates in early April,
reaching a peak in late June or July; thus maximum stream-
flow occurs during the season of reduced precipitation.
The mean annual discharge per unit of land area varies
from 8.5 to 19.1 cfsm, with an average of 13.8 cfsm. Maxi-
mum flood flows exceed 300 cfsm from many of the smaller
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DRAFT
2-18
watersheds during extended durations of heavy rainstorms.
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2-19
Western Olympics
The coastal zone of the Olympic Peninsula combines forest
types of the narrow shoreline Sitka spruce type with the west-
ern hemlock type. Soils and land forms of the Western Olympics,
like Coastal Alaska, are dominated by Pleistocene glaciation.
Lower elevation land forms are usually of gentle topography
forming a coastal plain of varying width from Neah Bay south
to Grays Harbor.
Forest Types
Near the ocean, Sitka spruce is the dominant species
extending up river valleys on recent alluvial soils, frequently
for many miles. The western hemlock zone is confied to ele-
vations below 3000 feet. Coniferous stands of these zones
are typically very dense with large diameter, very tall trees,
probably the most productive commercial forest in the world.
The species composition consists of western hemlock, Sitka
spruce, western red cedar, and Douglas fir. Stand volumes.
range from non-commercial in cedar swamps on compacted till
to 400,000 board feet per acre on well-drained soils of old
growth Douglas fir. At higher elevations removed from the
caost, Pacific silver fir becomes an important species. Red
alder and cottonwood occur in commercial stands on recent
alluvial soils along major rivers.
The zone also includes the Olympic Rain Forest. Plant
communities representative of the Olympic Rain Forest occur on
old river terraces in the U-shaped valley bottoms of the
Bogochiel, Hoh, Quinault and Queets Rivers. Dominant species
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2-20
are western hemlock and Sitka spruce with occasional western
red cedar and Douglas fir. Abundant rainfall and frequent
summer fog also allows luxuriant development of epiphytic
plants.
Climate
The climate of the Western Olympics is definitely mari-
time as air masses move inland from the Pacific Ocean. These
air masses are nearly always saturated as evaporation from the
Ocean is an equilibrium with their temperature. During colder
periods of the year, condensation occurs as the air masses
move across the colder land mass. Maximum rainfall occurs in
December and January (15 to 20 inches) with minimum amounts
in July and August (2 to 4 inches). Precipitation averages
70 to 90 inches at low elevations, increasing rapidly with
elevation and distance inland to 150 to.170 inches at 1000
feet and in excess of 200 inches at higher elevations. Rain-
fall intensities are usually moderate (O.lJ to ,6 inches per
hour) but may occur for long duration resulting in 5 to 10
inches of rain per day.
The average annual maximum temperature is 58°P. at Porks
with an average annual minimum of 40°F and mean of 49°F. The
coldest month is January with an average temperature of 39°P.
while the warmest is August with an average temperature of 72Op
Extreme temperatures of -4°F and 101°F have been recorded.
The average frost free .growing season is about 200 days.
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2-21
FT
Unusual weather conditions are a frequent occurrence along
the Pacific Coast. Winds of 70 miles per hour occur almost
annually, frequently causing extensive blowdown. Relative
humidities are always high with significant amounts of sum-
mer fog during rainless periods. Fog intercepted in the
forest canopy causes a substantial amount of fog drip aug-
menting the soil moisture supply during otherwise rainless
periods. Departure in the ususal weather of the coastal
area occurs with east winds which bring low humidities and
low temperatures during the winter, or low humidity and high
temperatures during the summer.
Geology and Soils
The central core of the Olympic Peninsula is made up of
the very rugged Olympic Mountains which are surrounded by a
glacially reworked, almost level lowlands or coastal plain.
Ridges radiating from the Olympic Mountains slope from high
elevations of 6000 feet, with major rivers occurring between
these ridges. All major rivers are broad U-shaped valleys
showing the dominating influences of glacial erosion. Bed-
rock of the Olympics consist of a volcanic horseshoe shaped
formation extending from Neah Bay east along the north sides
of the Olympics, south along Hood Canal and then east just
south of Lake Quinault. The main Olympic Mountains are com-
prised of a sedimentary deposit of Tertiary origin. Rocks
are largely graywackes with interbedded slates, siltstones,
and conglomerates.
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2-22
Soils of the lower elevations formed on well-drained
soils are largely reddish brown lateritics. At higher ele-
vatons podzolization is the dominant soil forming process.
A large variety of soils have formed on glacial materials,
the type of soil is influenced by the degree of compaction,
slope and internal drainage. Alluvial soils of a variety of
textures occupy terraces and valley bottoms adjacent to
major rivers. Other soils have been formed from marine
terrac.es and glacial outwash fans.
Hydrology
The hydrologic regime of low elevation forest basins of
the Western Olympics are classically that of the rainfall
zone with summer lowflow in rainless periods and peaks in
winter. Snow is relatively unimportant ranging from one to
two inches per year close to the ocean, to five to twenty
inches a few miles inland-. Sriowcover below 1500 feet is
usually persistent for only a few days melting with rising
temperature as the storms turn to rain. Average annual
runoff varies from 60 inches at lower elevations to 1^0 for
the mid-elevations. Major rivers flowing from high snowfall
zones of the interior Olympic Mountains have runoff of 160
to over 200 inches per year. Low flow water yields range
from 0.1 cfsm for rivers without snow zones to 1.1 cfsm
(Hoh River) with perennial snow fields. Maximum yield ranges
from 186 cfsm (Hoh River) to 280 cfsm (Soleduck River). The
average yield is about 6.7 cfsm.
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2-23
FT
Coastal Washington and Oregon
The subregion of Coastal Washington and Oregon extends
south from Grays Harbor to the vicinity of Coos Bay. The
subregion essentially drains the western side of the Coast
Range. Valleys are typically water eroded, with very limited
glacial activity in the headwaters of a few streams with
sources at higher elevations. Vegetation is somewhat similar
to that of the Western Olympics, with increasing amounts of
Douglas fir farther south.
Forest Types
The ocean side of the Coast Range is classed as the
western hemlock zone (Franklin and Dyrness, 1973). In this
zone, western hemlock is expected to be the climax species.
Large areas of the zone, however, are dominated by second
growth and some old growth Douglas fir forests. Much of the
subregion has been logged or logged and burned during the
past 150 years. Douglas fir regeneration is frequently
favored over western hemlock on mineral soil, particularly
in the hotter, drier areas of the zone. Major forest species
are Douglas fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, grand
fir, Sitka spruce (near the ocean) and western white pine in
random locations. In Oregon, near the southern limits of the
zone, incense cedar, sugar pine and occasional ponderosa pine
occur. Near the upper elevational limit of the zone, Pacific
silver fir occurs in mixed stands with western hemlock.
Important hardwoods include red alder and black cotton-
wood in northern portions of the zone, with increasing amounts
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2-24
DRAFT
of big-leafed maple, Oregon ash, madrone, white oak and tan
oak in southern Oregon.
Climate
The maritime climate of the Pacific Coast prevails
throughout this zone. Annual precipitation averages 60 to
70 inches near sea level in southern portions of.the zone, to
80 to 90 inches in southwest Washington. Near the crest of
the Coast Range, average annual precipitation varies from
100 to 200 inches, .depending largely on elevation. Maximum
rainfall rates are moderate (0.4 to .6 inches per hour), with
4 to 6 inches per day total. Snow on the ground seldom per-
sists for more than just a few days, except at higher eleva-
tions.
Mean annual temperatures range from 53°F near sea level
in Oregon to 50°P In the Grays Harbor area of Washington.
Average annual maximum temperatures range from 6l°P in the
south to 59°F in the north. Average annual low temperatures
show about the same spread, with 45°F in the south and 42°F
in Grays Harbor. The average low temperatures during the
coldest months show a 6° departure (40°P in the south, 34°F
at Grays Harbor), thus greatly lengthening the frost free
growing season from about 200 days in Grays Harbor to over
300 days in the south. The long term average sunshine varies
from about 25% in the winter to near 50? in the summer. Fog
occurs often in both summer and winter.
Geology and Soils
The Coast Range from the Willipa Hills in the north to
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2-25
Coos Bay in the south is a complex of Eocene volcanics and
Miocene sedimentary depositions (with certain interrelated
volcanics). Oligocene sedimentary formations, which include
siltstones, shales and sandstones, are found in northwest
Oregon and the Willipa Hills of southwest Washington. These
again are intermixed .with extensive basalt flows which have
occurred mostly along northern sections of the Oregon Coast
Range and the Willipa Hills.
Land forms show the dominating effect of high rainfall
from prevailing western winds. Valleys are typically V-shaped
with steep side slopes and active erosional processes.
Soils developing on well-drained forest soils are typi-
cally classified as reddish-brown lateritics. These soils
are relatively heavy-textured, with very high surface organic
matter content. On steep mountainside slopes, soils tend to
be shallower, with a stony .loam texture often classed as
western brown forest soils.
Hydrology
The hydrologic regime of Coastal Washington and Oregon
is very similar to that of the Western Olympics. Rainfall
predominates as a free water input, with maximum runoff
occurring in December and January, the months of highest
amounts of precipitation. Runoff can be highly variable
from year to year, as indicated by the Siletz River in Oregon.
Runoff during the period of record has varied from less than
60 inches to over 1^5 inches per year. Average annual runoff
varies from 40 inches to 80 inches in southern portions of
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2-26
the Coast Range to 120 Inches in northwest Oregon and the
/
Willipa Hills of southwest Washington. Coastal areas of
Washington and of Oregon have very high water yields, with
very dynamic river channels. Flood flows of 150 to 250 cfsm
are often sustained during periods of long duration of mod-
erately heavy rainfall. Maximum flooding often occurs with
the melting of several inches of snow over an extended eleva-
tional range by very heavy warm rains, Average flows are
i\ to 6 cfsm, with a summer low of 0.1 cfsm.
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2-2?
Klamath Mountains
The Klamath Mountains of southwest Oregon have been
separated as a subregion based on their complex geologic
formation, with related problems of mass movement, surface
soil erosion and forest regeneration following timber harvest.
The Klamath subregion includes the drainage of the Coos River
and south, and interior valleys of the south forks of the
Umpqua and Rogue Rivers.
Complexity of the subregion is somewhat indicated by
the annual precipitation patterns, which vary from 100 to
200 inches along the coast to 20 inches in the interior
valleys. This distribution of precipitation develops an
equally diverse pattern of vegetation, with impact on soil
formation processes.
Forest Types
The Klamath region is probably one of the most diverse
in terms of variability in climate, soils in combination with
the influences of aspect, and elevation. The forest types
have been termed generally mixed conifer. . The mixed forest
includes Douglas fir, sugar pine, ponderosa pine and incense
cedar, with a significant component of white fir and grand
fir. These species occur in varying abundance throughout
the western Cascade Range, the Siskiyou Mountains and por-
tions of the east slope of the Coast Range.
On the ocean side of the Coast Range, significant amounts
of redwood, Sitka spruce and western hemlock occur. These
species are intermixed in the river bottoms as well as on
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2-28
the steeper hillsides. Their occurrence is confined to the
mild, humid climate fronting the ocean, and their distribu-
tion becomes very limited in the interior valleys. Coastal
forests under humid temperate conditions obtain maximum size
in diameter and height, along with greatest longevity of
northwest conifers. Redwood and western red cedar frequently
exceed a thousand years in age, with diameters up to 10 and
12 feet and heights in excess of 250 feet. These stands
contain very high quality trees, with some of the maximum
recorded amounts of biomass per acre.
Climate
The Klamath region contains two contrasting climates.
That of the coastal area is relatively wet, with very
little year-round temperature change. There is considerable
rain during the late fall, winter and early spring, and
usually a large amount of fog and low clouds during the
summer. Average annual precipitation varies from 100 to 200
inches at higher elevations Immediately adjacent to the coast.
Rainfall of 75 to 85 inches is common at sea level. The
frost-free growing season at low elevations Is in excess of
300 days. The interior valleys of the Umpqua and Rogue
Rivers have a greatly modifed climate, as they lie in the
rain shadow of the Coast Range. At lower elevations on the
valley floor, average annual precipitation ranges from 20 to
35 inches. There is a gradual increase going both east and
west to the Coast Range and the Cascades. Maximum rainfall
from the Coast Range exceed 100 inches; however, the Cascades
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2-29
DRAFT
have few locations that exceed 60 to 80 inches.
Average monthly temperatures range from 35 to iJO°F dur-
ing the coldest months to around 70°P in the warmest months.
Lowest temperatures observed are about -12°F, with, a maxi-
mum of 115°P.
Geology and Soils
The Klamath Mountains are a complex range in southwest-
ern Oregon and northern California.. The northernmost portion
of the range in Oregon is commonly called the Siskiyou Moun-
tains. Geologically, these mountains are the oldest formation
in Oregon. Terrain of the region is very rugged and deeply
dissected. Geologic formations are quite complex, with areas
of deposition of volcanic tuffs and sedimentary rocks which
have been subsequently metamorphosed, largely into schists,
gneisses, marbles and metavolcanics. Other formations have
intruded to include a variety of granitics, diorites and
pyorites.
Soils of the subregion, reflecting the general influence
of climates and plants fall into two main groupings. Those
of the western portion are considerably wetter and more humid
than those of the dry eastern condition. Soils of the west-
v
ern part generally fall in the reddish brown lateritic group.
Parent materials for these soils include both sedimentary
and igneous rocks. In the western portion there are major
drainages which also contain a variety of well developed
alluvial soils on terraces. Well drained soils of silt and
clay textures develop western brown forest soils. Poorly
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2-30
drained streamside soils develop humic gleys.
Soils of the eastern portion of the region are classified
most closely as reddish brown lateritics; however, they are
continuously dry for long periods during the summer. These
soils are relative shallow and show less profile development.
They usually form on sedimentary parent materials. Granitic
parent materials usually give rise to a Regosol soil of very
low fertility. Soils formed from granitic parent materials
are very coarse and well drained.
Hydrology
Major drainages in the Klamath region include the Umpqua
and Rogue Rivers. These rivers bisect the Coast Range, and
thus have characteristics of both the coastal rainfall zone
and the snowpack zone at higher elevations. Discharge from
smaller streams with their "basins totally within the coastal
rainfall zone have peak discharges (2^0 cfsm) in December
and January, at times of maximum rainfall. Plows decline
rapidly through March and April to minimum flows in August
and September (0.06 cfsm). The Rogue River, gauged at an
interior location, shows flow characteristics similar to
those of the warm snow zone. Peak flows are sustained from
February through May. Minimum flows occur in September and
October. When the Rogue is gauged near the mouth at Gold
Beach, it responds to the. pattern of coastal rainfall, with
peak flows occurring in January and minimum flows in Septem-
ber. Threefold variations in average annual yield are common
for rivers in the Klamath region.
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2-31
Puget-Willamette Trough
The Puget-Willamette Trough subregion includes the lower
elevations on the western slopes of the Cascades and the
eastern slopes of the Olympics and the Coast Range. The
general characteristics of the maritime climate and distribu-
tion of plant species are quite similar to the Coast"Range.
Howevers the Coast Range provides a barrier for movement of
air masses, resulting in a marked rain shadow effect along
the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and in many places in
the valley bottom. The Puget-Willamette Trough is bounded
on the west by the crest of the Coast Range and on the east
by the elevational transition to the warm snowpack which
approximately coincides with increased dominance of Pacific
silver fir in the forest stand.
Forest Types
Old growth Douglas fir forests of the Puget-Willamette
Trough are unparalleled for quality and volume for use as
saw timber. Soils of the lowland valleys were some of the
most fertile in the northwest and have been extensively con-
verted to agricultural uses. Throughout much of the Puget-
Willamette Trough, western hemlock is considered to be the
potential climax species. Currently, much of the zone has
been logged and burned. Extensive areas were once converted
to agricultural uses, but have reverted to forest growth.
Douglas fir continues to be the dominant species in many of
the second growth stands. "Northern portions of the zone
contain mixtures of Douglas fir, western hemlock and western
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2-32
white pine, with western red cedar and Sitka spruce occurring
sporadically in favored habitats, Higher elevations on both
the east and west sides of the zone grade into Pacific silver
fir.
The warmer, drier valleys of the Willamette often pre-
clude the occurrence of mesic species found farther north.
Drier areas of the valley contain a mosaic of white oak,
.grasslands and chaparral shrub communities. The species
composition o.f much of the Willamette Valley is much more
complex as mesic species occur in favored habitats, but also
the low rainfall and higher temperatures introduce a variety
of plant communities adapted to the drier sites. Extensive
areas of prairie or grassland were apparently native to the
Willamette Valley,- although they may have been maintained
by the Indians through burning.
Climate
The Puget-Willamette Trough contains some of the most
diverse precipitation patterns of any of the subregions.
Northern portions of the Puget Sound area are strongly in-
fluenced by the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains. The
Dungeness Spit has less than 15 inches of average annual
precipitation. Most of the Puget Sound lowlands average
30 to 40 inches, with rapid increases with increasing eleva-
tion on the west slope of the Cascades. Similar precipita-
tion patterns occur in the Willamette Valley. High rainfall
(up to 200 inches) on the summit of the Coast Range decreases
very rapidly to lows of 40 to 45 inches in the valley bottoms,
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2-33
Again, rapid increases in precipitation occur with higher
elevations on the western slopes of the Oregon Cascades (50
to 70 inches). Maximum rainfall rates are moderate, seldom
exceeding 0.5 inches per hour and 2 to 4 inches per day.
There is an expected progression in mean temperature
from north to south. Mean annual temperature at Bellingham
is 49°F, with the warmest months, July and August, averaging
7^°F maximum temperature. Coldest months are January and
February, with mean average low temperatures about 30°F.
Lowest temperatures of record are 0°F or slightly below,
with maximum temperatures near 100°F.
Geology and Soils
The Puget-Willamette Trough is dominated in current
land form and in many aspects of soils by the Pleistocene
glaciation. Landforms and-soils are dominated by effects
of flooding, redeposition of materials and formation of
alluvial'terraces throughout the subregions.
The Willamette Valley is bordered on the west by a vari-
ety of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Eocene age. These
Include pillow basalts, conglomerates, sandstones and silt-
stones. Less resistant materials have eroded, forming a
series of east-west valleys with resistant formations form-
ing ridges as extensions of the Coast Range. The western
margin of the Cascade Range is made up of marine sediments
of Oligocene and Miocene age outcrops. Columbia River
basalts also occur on eastern portions of this subreglon.
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2-34
DRAFT
In the Puget Sound region, the soils and landform are
dominated by erosional and depositional activltes of the
Vashon glaciation. Again, glacial deposits have been reworked
by river's, and in some cases till deposits have been reworked
and severely compacted.
The extreme variability of soil parent materials of the
Puget-Willamette Trough, combined with the effects of exten-
sive glaciation and reworking by meltwater, produce a very
complex pattern of soils. These range from very shallow
residual soils to deep silty alluvials and lacustrine depo-
sits in the valley floors. Soils range from Regosols through
brown podzolics to western brown forest soils, and under
conditions of higher rainfall and moderate temperatures,
reddish brown lateritics. These soils generally have a well
developed forest floor layer with varying incorporations of
organic matter, depending on soil formation processes and
varying depth of weathering dependent on precipitation and
vegetation.
Hydrology
Smaller streams with their watersheds completely within
the subregion of the Puget-Willamette Trough ha,ve flow
regimes which respond immediately to the free water input
as rain. Peak flows occur in December and January immediately
after rainfall maximums. Runoff varies from 5 to 15 inches
per year, depending on precipitation. River systems drain-
ing the east slope of the Coast Range have average annual
runoff from 40 to over 100 inches, again depending on
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2-35
precipitation of the basin. Most.major rivers flowing west
from the Cascade Mountains integrate the effects of the rain-
fall, warm snow, and frequently the cold snow zone. The
combined effects of rainfall and the warm snow zone usually
i
dominate, with peak discharges occurring during December and
January, and with lowest .flows in August and September.
Other streams of the region are typically affected by annual
precipitation, with the mean runoff possibly varying several-
fold between'successive years. Mean annual water yield aver-
ages 3 to 5 cfsm, with maximums of 60 to 180 cfsm and lows of
0.2 to 0,9 cfsm.
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2-36
Western Cascades
The Western Cascades subregion is bordered on the west
by the Puget-Willamette Trough, on the southwest by the Kla-
<
math fountains and on the east by the boundary between the
commercial and non-commercial forest zone. This boundary
approximates the boundary between the warm snow zone and the
cold snow zone (about 3500 feet). The western boundary along
the Puget-Willamette Trough approximates the boundary between
the rainfall zone of the lowlands and the warm snow zone.
The West Cascades subregion has many features in common with
the Coastal Washington-Oregon subregions.
Forest Types
The Western Cascades has been classified (Franklin and
Dyrness, 1973) as the Pacific silver fir zone. It is a zone
intermediate between the temperate mesaphytlc vegetation of
the western hemlock lowlands and the mountain hemlock sub-
alpine zone. It occurs at elevations approximately 2000 to
4000 feet between the Canadian border and central Oregon.
Forest composition of this zone varies widely depending on
age, stand history and local habitat, usually consisting of
western hemlock, Douglas fir, western red cedar and varying
amounts of western white pine and Englemann spruce and sub-
alpine species, depending on location.
Climate
Climate of the Western Cascades subregion is wetter and
cooler than the adjacent lowlands with considerably more of
the precipitation in the form of snow. The winter pack
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2-37
usually accumulates in depths of up to 8 to 10 feet at upper
boundaries of the zone. Snow is usually persistent from late
October until May. Throughout the winter however, maximum
temperatures consistently rise above freezing, thus the snow-
pack delivers free water to the soil sustaining higher levels
of streamflow. Average annual precipitation ranges from 70
to 90 inches or more with maximums occurring in December and
January (10 to 13 inches) and minimum amounts in July and
August" (1 to 2 inches). Amounts of precipitation can vary
widely in short distances due to orographic effects of domi-
nant land features or rainshadows. Maximum rainfall rates
seldom exceed 0.5 inches per hour with daily accumulations of
3 to 5 inches.
Average annual temperatures of the zone are about 42°F,
with average maximum temperatures in July of 72°F and aver-
age minimum temperatures in January of 22°P. vThe frost free
growing season varies from 120 to 150 days per year.
Geology and Soils
The West Cascade Subregion could be divided into several
lesser units based on origin of geologic material. From Mt.
Rai-ner south, volcanic racks predomiate of the Oligocene-
Miocene era. These are mainly andesite flows with Intermixed
breccias in Washington with similar young volcanics and pyro-
clastics in the Western Cascades of Oregon. Major peaks of
this area include Mt. Rainier, Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Adams,
Mt. Hood, Mt. Jefferson and the Three Sisters. Oregon peaks
may have originated during the late Pleiocene while other
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2-38
portions are of the older volcanics. Areas adjacent to these
volcanic peaks are frequently mantled with pumice deposits
of varying age, thickness and- origin. The topography gen-
erally exhibits the effects of Pleistocene glaciation, but
land forms are generally much less rugged than those farther
north as the glaciation -was much less extensive. North along
the west slope of the Cascades from Mt. Rainier, bedrock is
frequently much older sedimentary materials which have been
extensively folded and metamorphosed. Sedimentary deposits
occurred in the late Cretaceous with gradual uplifting during
the Pliocene. Gradual uplifting exposed intruded granitics
of Tertiary age as well as older rocks in some areas. Major
volcanic peaks were built concurrently with volcanism of the
southern portions .of the subregion. Extensive Pleistocene
glaciation has carved deep U-shaped glacial valleys with
associated depositions of till and reworked alluvial materials,
Soils are formed from glacial deposits, reworked by
rivers and residual soils. The dominant soil forming pro-
cess is podzilation particularly at higher elevations with
accumulations of forest floor material. Very shallow soils
grade into Regosols and wetter locations into humic gleys.
To the south soils are dominated by the occurrence of ejected
volcanic materials and glacially reworked soil parent ma-
terial. The central portion of the Western Cascades in
Oregon is predominantly pyroclastics. These include tuffs,
breccias and agglomerates. Glaciation and erosion has
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2-39
resulted in steeper slopes and rugged topography. Southeast
portions of the subregion tend to have large amounts of
pumice and ash as a soil parent material.
Hydrology
The hydrology of the Western Cascade subregion matches
the regime of the warm snow pack zone. An early peak
discharge frequently occurs in December and January coinci-
dent with maximum rain in lower elevation tributaries.
Another peak occurs in late March or early April as snow
melts at higher elevations. Annual runoff varies from 30
to 60 inches. This represents a mean annual water yield of
about 4 cfsm with an instantaneous peak discharge of 70 cfsm
and minimum flows of 0.2 cfsm. Floods on major drainages of
this subregion usually occur as a result of rapid melting
of early snowfall by he'avy, warm rains.
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2-40
Eastern Cascades - North
The Eastern Cascades are that portion of the commercial
forest zone bounded by the subalpine on the west, the Oka-
nogan Highlands on the northeast, the arid grasslands on the
east and Mount Rainier on the south.
Forest Types
Douglas fir is the dominant, and probably climax species
in the more mesic habitats of this zone, giving way to pon-
derosa pine at lowest elevations and less annual precipitation.
The forest composition varies widely with microhabitat and
past history, but generally consists of Douglas fir mixed
with western hemlock, Engelmann spruce and western red cedar
in higher elevation valleys, with extensive area^s of lodge-
pole pine. With departure from high snow pack zones and
warmer summer temperatures,' western larch and ponderosa pine
become significant components of the stand. Moist stream
bottoms frequently contain significant amounts of grand fir.
Ponderosa pine occurs in pure and mixed stands to elevations
of 4,000 to 5,000 feet on south exposures. North aspects are
dominantly Douglas fir and'western larch. Lodgepole pine is
f
a fire type, occurring in relatively pure stands on old burns.
The lower elevation limit of forests generally follows the
zone of 15 inches of mean annual precipitation. As south
aspects tend to be hotter and drier, forest stands are very
open, with interspersed sagebrush, bitterbrush and grasses.
Reasonably dense stands occur on gently sloping or nearly
level land. Ponderosa pine'dominates in zones of lesser
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2-41
annual precipitation.
Climate
The climate of the. commercial forest zone of the East-
ern Cascades varies from the moist subalpine snow zone at
higher elevations to the arid, ponderosa pine/grass type at
low elevations. The Cascade Range forms a barrier to the
easterly movement of moist air from over the Pacific, result-
ing in greatly reduced annual precipitation. The combination
of the Cascades and Rocky Mountains forms a trough for north-
south movement of air masses, resulting in seasonally very
warm or cold conditions. Prevailing air mass movements are
from west to east, resulting in a maritime climate.
The orographic lifting and then descent of air masses
results in a marked warming by compression, with rapidly
decreasing precipitation eastward from':the Cascades summit.
Stevens Pass averages about 80 inches of annual precipitation
(elevation 4,000 feet), with a decrease to 24 inches in 20
miles to Leavenworth (elevation 1,100 feet), and a further
decrease in 15 miles to less than 9 inches at Wenatchee.
Seventy-five percent of the annual precipitation occurs
between late October and early March. During this period,
the bulk of the precipitation occurs as snowfall. Through
much of the zone, annual precipitation averages 25 to 40
inches.
Extremes in temperature are common throughout the zone.
Maximum summer temperatures are frequently in excess of 100°F,
with minimum temperatures ranging from 10 to 30°P or more
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2-42
below 0°F. Average annual temperature for much of the zone
varies from 45 to 50°F. Maximum average monthly temperatures
occur during July and August, ranging from 85 to 90°F. Mini-
mum average temperatures occur during January and range from
18 to 20°F. The growing season ranges from 130 days In the
north to 150 days In the south.
Movement of moist air masses over the Cascades during
the summer frequently results in instability of lapse rates,
with intense-thunderstorms. Rain and hail associated with
these thunderstorms yield maximum rainfall rates of 6 inches
per hour for short duration (5 to 10 minutes). Such storms
produce flash floods and mud flows from localized forest
drainages, but do not cover a sufficiently large area to
produce flooding on major basins.
Geology and Soils
The geology of the Eastern Cascades is similar to that
of the west side. Uplifting occurred during the Pliocene,
with exposure of large areas of intruded granitics, includ-
ing granodiorite, with metamorphosism of these formations
into gneisses and schists.' A large area of Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks (Swank sandstones) occurs between the acid
igneous granodiorite types (Chelan Batholith) to the north
and the basic igneous Columbia River basalt flows to the south,
This formation has been steeply tilted in places, giving rise
to highly erodable soils. Topography of the Columbia River
basalts is considerably more gentle than granitic formations
farther north. Valley glaciers did extend eastward down
-------
major rivers; however, their impact is somewhat lessened.
Northern portions of the zone were completely overridden
by the continental icecap while valley glaciation dominates
valley land forms. 'Granite and granodiorite parent materials
form inherently unstable soils. Soils formed from Swank
sandstones are also quite unstable, while soils formed on
basalt tend to be more stable.
Soils of the higher elevations exhibit a dominating
influence of 'organic matter accumulations, with acid leaching
to form podzols. Western brown forest soils form in more
humid situations, with poorly developed Regosols in areas of
surface soil erosion or limited moisture supply.
Hydrology
The Eastern Cascades are predominantly in the hydrologic
regime of the cold snow zone. Temperatures are consistently
below freezing during seasons of maximum precipitation. Snow
accumulates throughout the winter, to melt during late spring
and early summer. Low flows occur during the coldest portions
of. the winter (January and February). Elevation zones with less
than 15 to 18 inches of annual precipitation will not produce
streamflow except under conditions of high-intensity storm or
rain on snow. High snow pack zones of the alpine and subal-
pine produce 60 to 100 inches of runoff per year. Lower
elevations and watersheds with south exposure tend to produce
peak discharge earlier in the melt season (March and April)
as compared with higher elevations and north-facing slopes.
Major floods of this subregion occur as a result of delayed
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2-44
melt, with synchronization of melt from a wide range of eleva-
tional zones and heavy, late-spring rainfall (4 to 6 inches
in 36 to 48 hours). The mean annual water yield is 1 to 3
cfsm, with instantaneous flood flows of 25 to 31 cfsm and
minimum flows of 0.1 to .2 cfsm.
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2-15
Eastern Cascades - South
RAFT
The eastern slopes of the Cascades have been differenti-
ated with the geologic formations associated with Mount
Rainier and the extensive Columbia River basalt flows. The
area between Mount Rainier and the Columbia River is suffici-
ently similar to the Eastern Cascades of Oregon to be considered
as one subregion. Most of the terrain is relatively gentle,
interrupted at intervals by glaciated river channels. The
area is dotted with volcanic peaks and cones of varying age,
size and elevation. Geologically, portions of the area are
very young, with recent lava flows. Most of the geologic
formations, however, were extruded during volcanism in the
late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Materials include a host of
andesites and basalts, often obscured by mantles of pumice
or ash. Locally, glacial deposits are abundant as major
mountain peaks are typically mantled with snow, giving rise
to accumulation areas for massive glaclation. Valley walls
i
are frequently quite steep, with depositions of till and
alluvial material in the valleys.
Soils of the subregion are generally quite young, but
usually showing Initial stages of podzolization. • Brown pod-
zolic soils also develop on certain parent materials, but
yield a poorly developed &2 horizon. Soils of recent ash
or pumice deposits show little profile development and are
usually classified as Regosols.
Forest Types
The mixed conifer zone of the northern portion of the
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2-46
DRAFT
eastern slopes of the Cascades grades from one of predomi-
nantly Douglas fir-ponderosa pine to a grand fir-Douglas fir
type. Other species include ponderosa pine, lodgepble pine
and western larch. White fir and sugar pine occur in southern
portions of the zone in Oregon, with significant amounts of
western hemlock and western red cedar in localized habitats.
Climate
The climate of the Eastern Cascades farther south is
essentially a' continuation of that in the northern area.
As the Cascade Mountains do not represent an imposing clima-
tic barrier in a continuous manner, some of the rain shadow
effects are of less importance. The drift of polar air from
Canada between the Cascades and the Rockies occurs with com-
plexing effects on temperature and precipitation. Precipi-
tation averages 60 to 80 inches annually at upper boundaries
of the subregion, with 25 to 30 Inches in lower elevations.
About two-thirds of this precipitation occurs in a five-month
period between November and March, mainly as snow.
The mean annual temperatures tend to vary from 45 to 50°F;
however, they represent an'expanding range in lows and highs.
Recorded temperatures range from -10 to -30°F, with average
maximum temperatures of 85 to 90°P in July and average mini-
mums of 14 to 20°F in January. The frost free growing season
ranges from 90 to 120 days.
Hydrology
The flows of major rivers draining eastern slopes of the
Cascades parallels that of the cold snow regime, with peak
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DRAFT
discharges In late May and minimum flows during the coldest
months, January and February. Water yields vary from ^0 to
60 inches at higher elevations to 10 inches or less near the
forest-grass boundary. Extensive areas .of ash and pumice do
not show the usual distribution or intensity of stream chan-
nels because of rapid percolation in ash and pumice beds.
In places, numerous large springs deliver substantial flow of
water to surface runoff. Over extended areas surface waters
are extremely sparse. The Deschutes River, which combines
the drainage of an extensive area of the zone in Oregon,
sustains average annual water production of 0.5 cfsm, with
instantaneous peak flows of 7.2 cfsm and minimum flows of
0.2 cfsm.
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2-48
Blue Mountains
The Blue Mountains are comprised of several mountain
ranges in northeast Oregon, with a small area in southeast
Washington. The subregion is discontinuous with the balance
of the forest zones of eastern Oregon and Washington in that
it is separated by the interior Columbia Basin of Washington
and the high deserts of Oregon. With increasing elevation,
forests again reappear as precipitation increases due to oro-
graphic lifting.
Forest Types
The Blue Mountains iriclude both the ponderps^ pine type
and the grand fir-Douglas fir type, as defined by Franklin
and Dyrness. Limited areas of mixed conifers occur at higher
elevations. Climax ponderosa pine is widely distributed in
northeast Oregon and southeast Washington at the boundary
between the sagebrush-grass zone and the forest zone.
The upper limits of the ponderosa pine forest grade into
Douglas fir, grand fir and white fir depending on locale.
Lodgepole pine also occurs in association with ponderosa pine-*-
lodgepole pine on the more 'mesic sites, while drier sites are
occupied by ponderosa pine. Other mesic sites are frequently
occupied by quaking aspen. In transition zones to sagebrush
and bitterbrush, groundcover is frequently pine grass-elk
sedge.
Climate
The climate of the Blue Mountains is dominated by Pacific
maritime air masses moving eastward. Orographic lifting causes
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2-49
rapid increase in annual precipitation with increasing eleva-
tion. Annual precipitation varies from 30 inches at lower
elevations to about 80 inches at the crest.of the Wallowa
Mountains. The major portion of precipitation occurs as
snow, with amounts exceeding 150 inches at higher elevations.
The'diverse topography results in an equally diverse distri-
bution of both precipitation and seasonal temperatures. The
frost free growing season ranges from 100 to 140 days per
year, with temperature extremes similar to those of the east-
ern slopes of the Cascades.
Geology and Soils
The eastern portions of the Blue Mountains span a vari-
ety of rock types over several geologic eras. Permian forma-
tions consist of schists, limestones, slates, tuff and chert.
Triassic sedimentary formations also occur intermixed, but
are discontinuous due to erosion. Certain portions of the
Wallowa Mountains appear to be extensions of the granitic
formations of the Idaho Batholith. Other portions have
recent depositions of Miocene lavas. Widespread glaciation
occurred during the Pleistocene, with typical moraines,
deposits and outwashes. Western portions of the Blue Moun-
tains (John Day and west) are some of the oldest rock forma-
tions in Oregon. Limestone, mudstone and sandstone of
Paleozoic formations occur in this western region. Certain
of these formations in the vicinity of John Day are widely
known for their abundant vertebrate fossils.
The Blue Mountains have been covered frequently with
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2-50
ash and fine pumice as aerial deposits. Subsequent erosion
has removed much of the ash from south-facing slopes. Re-
working by wind has also been common, with loess deposits.
Forested soils developed on ash and fine pumice characteris-
tically develop brown, podzolic soils. These soils have also
developed on loess deposits. South aspects show lesser amounts
of soil development due to frequent burning and intermittent
vegetative cover. Soils of these situations are frequently
classed as Regosols.
Hydrology
The hydrologic regimes of streams of the Blue Mountains
closely parallel those of the cold snow zone. Snows accumu-
late during winter months to be released as snowmelt. Lower
elevations and south aspects release snow as a free water
input to streams in March and April. Northern aspects and
higher elevations retain snow cover for release in mid- to
late May. Annual water production is relatively low, with
much of the Blue Mountains yielding 1 to 10 inches per year
of runoff. Higher elevation.snow packs in the Wallowa Moun-
tains average 30 to 40 Inches of runoff. The Grande Ronde
River has a mean annual discharge of 1 cfsm, with peak flows
of 10 cfsm and minimum flows of 0.1 cfsm. The John Day
River, a. major drainage in the western portion of the Blue
Mountains, has a mean annual flow of 0.3 cfsm, with peak
discharges of 5.6 cfsm and instantaneous low flows of near
zero. Localized flooding often occurs as a result of warm
rains on the snow pack.
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2-51
Okanogan Highlands
The Okanogan Highlands are bounded by the Eastern Cas-
cades on the west, Northern Idaho subregion on the east,
Canadian border to the north and Columbia River to the south.
The Okanogan Highlands contain the most extensive area of
ponderosa pine timber type in the state of Washington. A
small area of interior western hemlock and western red cedar
occurs in the northeast corner.
Forest Types •
Forest types of the Okanogan Highlands subregion vary
from pure ponderosa pine at lower elevations in mixture with
sagebrush and bitterbrush, to ponderosa pine, grand fir and
Douglas fir mixtures on gentle north slopes. Aspen occurs
extensively in riparian and poorly drained habitats. More
mesic sites include significant amounts of western hemlock
and grand fir. Lodgepole pine frequently occurs in extensive
pure stands following fire. Groundcover of pine grass and
elk sedge are common. Protection of the ponderosa pine forests
from fire has resulted in an increase .in tolerant grand fir
with a dense understory of ceanothus.
Climate
The climate of the Okanogan Highlands is somewhat of an anomaly
for the Pacific Northwest. Precipitation is much more consis-
tent throughout each month of the year, with the driest months
of July and August receiving about half the rain (1 inch) of
the amount received in the wettest months of December and
January (2.1 inches). The wettest month is June, with 2.3
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2-52
inches. Grand Coulee Dam, with an average precipitation of
10.7 inches, receives approximately one-rthird of its total
precipitation in the growing season months of April, May
and June. Laurier, with a July-August rainfall of 1 inch
and total annual of 20 inches, has more growing season rain-
fall than areas in the Eastern Cascades subregion with 70 to
90 inches of annual precipitation. This growing season rain-
fall is able to sustain good forest growth in 10 to 20 inches
of average annual precipitation. Winter precipitation is
primarily snow, with 2 to 4 feet at lower elevations and 6 to
10 feet in higher locations.
Temperatures of the Okanogan Highlands are very similar
to those of the Eastern Cascades - North. Mean annual tem-
peratures vary from 50°F at Grand Coulee Dam to ^7°F at
Laurier. Coldest months are January and February, with mean
average low temperatures of 21°F and 14°F. respectively. The
frost free growing season varies from 100 to 128 days per
year, with the last frost in mid-May and the early frost in
mid- to late September.
late September.
Geology and Soils
Land form of the Okanogan Highlands is in considerable
contrast to many others of the subregions of the northwest.
The exposed bedrock formations and the topography have resulted
entirely from a major lobe of the Cordilleran icecap which
covered this area during Pleistocene glaciation. The usual
\
complex of glacial drift and reworked deposits are found
-------
2-53
throughout the area.
Bedrock geology is equally complex. Rocks of the Pale-
zoic occur in the eastern portion of the subregion. Rocks
of this formation Include quartzite, graywacke, slate, green-
stone and some limestone. Granitic rocks of the Mesozoic
*
are most abundant of the area. These include some granitics
and granodiorite. Limited areas of Tertiary deposition occur
adjacent to major river valleys, with the most recent Tertiary
eruptions consisting of andesite and basalt.
Soils of the subregion are equally complex in that recent
deposits of ash have been reworked through erosion, providng
a host of soil parent materials of widely varying textures.
The soil formation process is dominantly podzolization,
resulting frequently in well developed A2 horizons underlain
by high iron content B horizons. Extensive areas are.classed
as Regosols due to erosional processes or weak soil profile
development. Soil erosion potential is relatively low as
topography is usually gentle. Soils are noncohesive, how-
ever, and quite erosive, so disturbance of vegetation on the
steeper slopes will result'in significant soil movement both
from high intensity growing season rainstorms and from
snowmelt.
Hydrology
The Okanogan Highlands subregion is one of the most arid
commercial forest zones in the Pacific Northwest. The bulk
of the area receives less than 20 inches of annual precipi-
tation. Combining low precipitation with very pervious soils
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2-54
results In a very low density network of surface runoff.
Annual runoff ranges from zero to about 10 inches, with the
bulk of the area averaging 5 inches. Mean annual water
yields range from 0.4 to .8 cfsm, with maximum flooding 6 to
9 cfsm and minimum flows near zero (0.02 cfsm).
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2-55
Northern Idaho
The Northern Idaho subregion is bounded on the north
and east by the state boundary, on the south by the Salmon
River and on the west as an extension of the Okanogan High-
lands subregion. A distinction is made as Northern Idaho is
considerably more humid than the Okanogan Highlands. Signi-
ficant increases in annual precipitation occur as air masses
approach the Selkirk and Bitterroot Mountain Ranges.
Forest Types •
There is a progression of forest types from lower eleva-
tions on the west to higher elevations in the mountain ranges
bordering the subregion in the east. Ponderosa pine inter-
mixes with Douglas fir and lodgepole pine at lower elevations.
With increasing elevation and annual precipitation, western
larch, western white pine,-grand fir, Engelmann spruce and
subalpine fir become important. Interior western hemlock
and western red cedar often form climax forests.
Climate
The climate of the Northern Idaho subregion is typical of
that of the cold snow hydrologic regime. Annual precipitation
varies from 15 inches at lower elevations at the boundary of
the commercial forest to 50 inches near the summit of the
Selkirk and Bitterroot Mountain Ranges. The annual distri-
bution is typically maritime, with driest months in July
and August, and wettest months in December and January.
About 70$ of the annual precipitation occurs during the snow
accumulation season of October through March.
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2-56
Temperature regimes are very similar to those of the
Okanogan Highlands. Warmest areas are at the lower boundary
of the commercial forest (Spokane), with mean annual temper-
atures of 48°F. The average maximum monthly temperature is
8il°P in July, and the average minimum monthly temperature is
18°F in January. Increase in elevation (such as Mullen Pass,
6,000 feet) results in significant decrease in temperature.
At Mullen Pass mean annual temperature is 37°F> ranging from a
monthly maximum temperature of 69°F in July to a minimum of
l4°P in January. The frost free growing season varies from
less than 90 days at higher elevations to 150 days at lower
elevations in the ponderosa pine zone.
Geology and Soils
Northern portions of the subregion show the dominating
influence of Pleistocene gLaciation, with rolling topography
and deep glacial deposits. Bedrock geology is quite complex
in that glacial erosion Intermixed with Tertiary lava flows
leave a complex of deep lake deposits with exposed basalt.
Erosion of the Kaniksu Batholith forms the Selkirk Mountains.
Continental glaciation carved the Purcell Trench as far
south as Lake Coeur d'Alene, where a glacial moraine now
impounds the lake. An extensive area of Columbia River basalts
occurs in the vicinity of Lake Coeur d'Alene. These flows
overlay the Precambrian sedimentary rocks which also form
the Bitterroot Range. Considerable metamorphism occurred
where the basalts contact the northern boundary of the Idaho
Batholith.
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2-57
DRAFT
Forest soils of the subregion reflect the increasing
moisture, with stronger processes of podzolization resulting
in increased profile development. Regosols occur on eroded
granitic materials of the Kaniksu Batholith. The young
Columbia River basalts also have an eroded phase which classes
as Regosols or Undeveloped soils. The effects"of continental
glaciation have generally removed the weathered granitic sur-
face' materials1. Formations of Northern Idaho are not as
erosive as those 'farther south, in the Idaho Batholith.'
Hydrology' • '
Several major 'rivers bisect the Northern Idaho subregion
both east and west and from the north and south. The major
drainage is the Clark Fork of the Flathead River, which has
i-ts headwaters near the Continental Divide in west central
Montana. The Koofrenai River also" flows into the northeast
corner of Idaho from Montana. Average annual runoff varies
':from less than 10 inches at lower elevations in the ponderosa
pine zone to about 40 inches at highest elevations in the
Selkirk-Bitterroot Mountains. Water yields average 2- cfsm
with instantaneous flood flows ranging from 5 to'7 cfsm (St.
Joe and Coeur d'Alehe. Rivers), with minimum flows of less
than 0.1 cfsm.
-------
:-.'-.: . 2-53,. ' - ^
Intermountain
The Intermounta^n subregion is that area of commercial
forest qf Idaho bounded on the north by the Northern Idaho
subregion (approximately the Salmon River), and on the south-
west by sagebrush grass.: It is separated from Northern Idaho
based primarily on'the effects of continental glaciation on
land form. Glaciation effects in the Intermountain subregion
are limited to higher elevations where alpine glaciers'locally
*' ' • '
affected the •soils and topography. Parent materials of much
of the area are Precambrian, metamorph'ics and other intrusives,
Precambrain sedimentary rocks also occur in a complex inter-
mixture,
Forest Types
Forest types are typical of the ponderosa pine-Rocky
Mountain Douglas fir forests which cover about 20 million
acres of northeast Washington, Idaho and.Montana. Ponderosa
pine is dominant and climaxes at lower elevations in mixtures
with Douglas fir. With increasing elevation and'more humid
conditions, western larch, Engelmann spruce and lodgepole
pine make up significant components of the fcrept stand.
Localized in humid river bottoms, grand fir is also an
important species.
Climate
The commercial forest zone occupies a precipitation
range from.15 inches at lower elevations to 50 inches .of
annual precipitation at higher elevations in :the Salmon
River Mountains. Precipitation is typically maritime, with
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2-59
maximum amounts occurring in November through February.
However, there is an extension of growing season rainfall,
with significant amounts of rain occurring through June. For
example, McCall, Idaho, receives 28 inches of average annual
precipitation, of which 5.5 inches occur between May and
August. Snowfall accumulates to maximums of 100 to 200 inches
at higher elevations in the mountains.
Temperatures show the expected relationship with eleva-
tion for mean annual, highs and lows. Boise has a mean annual
temperature of 51°F, an average July maximum of 90°F, and an
average January minimum of 27°F. At higher elevations in the
more mountainous areas, Lemhi has an average January temper-
ature of 17°F, with an average July temperature of 6i»°F. The
frost free growing season ranges from 140 days at lower eleva-
tions to less than 90 days-at upper limits of the commercial
forest zone.
Geology and Soils
The Intermountain subregion is probably famous as the
location of the Idaho Batholith. This Cretaceous granitic
intrusive has weathered in-place for the last 70 to 90 million
years. It is an extremely large outcrop covering over 14
thousand square miles. While uniform in its origin, it con-
tains a host of grain and crystal sizes in various areas.
Most grain sizes are relatively large, weathering to a very
coarse-textured soil. The soil texture in combination with
relatively steep topography has resulted in one of the most
erosive geologic formations of the commercial forest area of
-------
2-60
the western United States.
The. eastern boundary of the Intermountain subregion in
Idaho is formed by the Beaverhead, Lemhi and Lost River Ranges,
These ranges are Precambrian and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.
Older rocks of the Precambrian include slates and mudstones,
while rocks of the Paleozoic are predominantly limestones
and dolomites.
Soils of the Intermountain zone are predominantly podzols
or Regosols. • Areas of gentle topography frequently build up
a sufficient forest floor layer to initiate processes of soil
formation. Acids leaching result in development of A~ hori-
zons on finer-textured materials. Erosion and limited accumu-
lations of forest floor material results in extensive areas
of immature soils.
Hydrology
The hydrologic regime of the Intermountain subregion
closely parallels those of the cold snow zone. Snow packs
accumulate throughout the winter, to be released as snowmelt
with peak flows occurring in late May. As typical within
the zone, so/th exposures and lower elevations melt in late
March and April. Average annual runoff varies from insigni-
ficant amounts at lower elevations in the ponderosa pine
zone to maximums of JJO inches in the higher mountain ranges
of the Bitterroot-Beaverhead, Water production of a typical
river such as the Salmon averages 0.8 cfsm, with a maximum
of 8 during .flood flow and a low of 0.1 cfsm.
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3-1
FOREST PRACTICES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Logging Systems
Systems for the movement of logs from the forest site
to a landing can be categorized as one of two types in the
Pacific Northwest. Tractive skidding is used over the entire
region but is restricted to terrain of moderate slope.
Cable logging of which there are several forms has been
largely restricted to the west slope of the Cascades. How-
ever, cable logging systems were recently introduced into
the interior but primarily on an experimental basis. Jammer
logging, used almost exclusively In the northern Rocky
Mountains, can be categorized as a particular type of cable
logging. Its use is restricted almost entirely to the inter-
mountain region, in particular northern Idaho. Tractor and
Jammer logging are associated predominately with some form
of selection or partial cutting. Whereas cable logging is
used primarily for clear cut logging.
At one time tractive skidding was accomplished entirely
with animals primarily mules, horses, and oxen. Many mules
and horses are still used for skidding and hauling logs, par-
ticularly in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the
United States. However, animal skidding has all but dis-
appeared in the Pacific Northwest. Recent years have wit-
nessed a resurgence of interest in animal skidding primarily
due to concerns over environmental damage inflicted by the
use of mechanized logging equipment.
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3-2
Various accessory items of equipment are available for
use with tractors that reduce the degree of contact between
log and ground. Efficiency of skidding is improved and the
amount of site disturbance, in particular soil compaction,
that results from log skidding is reduced. Arches, sulkies,
skidding pans, scoots, and sleds are commonly used for this
purpose.
The sulky is a wheel mounted device for raising clear
of the ground the end of the log nearest the tractor. The
arch is tractor mounted and serves essentially the same
function. Both arches and sulkies have undergone intensive
development and when used integrally with a winch are ex-
tremely beneficial both from the standpoint of logging
efficiency and minimization of site disturbance. The wire
rope choker is used almost exclusively for attachment of
log to tractor.
.Recent years have witnessed the introduction of rubber-
tired wheel skidders (see Fig. 3-1). They have the advantage
of greater speed and mobility, but suffer from limitations
of traction and flotation. This type of tractor is normally
fitted with a winch for partial lifting of logs during skid-
ding, and with a front blade for movement of debris and road
building. They range from 30 to 375 horsepower and weigh
between 5 and 30 tons. The units consist of a compact, arti-
culated frame and come equipped with other four- or two-wheeled
drive systems.
-------
DRAFT
RUBBER TIRED TRACTOR LOGGING
Figure 3-1
-------
DRAFT
Ground skidding witfy animals is limited by slope; sur-
face conditions, log size, skidding distance, and skid road
spacing. Moderate slopes with favorable grade in the direc-
tion of skid are ideal. Adverse grades of 3 percent or more
place an undue strain on most animals. Similarly, rocky
ground, heavy brush, and swampy areas can easily overtax
animals. Animal skidding is still practiced in New England
and the southeast where log sizes are normally small in con-
trast to the Pacific Northwest, The maximum skidding dis-
tance of which most animals are capable under favorable
conditions rarely exceeds 500 feet. Consequently, the
reading system must be fairly dense for animal skidding.
Clearly, there exist many limitations to the use of
animals for movement of logs. It is noted, however, that
in the few instances for which data is available that site
disturbance during animal logging is substantially less
than that brought about by skidding with crawler tractors.
Diesel-powered crawler tractors were first used for
logging in the early 1930'.s. Drawbar horsepower of these
units range from 50 to 250 for the largest and weights range
from 5 to 30 tons. With but few exceptions tractors are
limited to down slope skidding. Logging tractors are nor-
mally equipped with a. winch on the rear which serves a number
of purposes among which is the capability of skidding logs
short distances from the -felling site to the tractor. When
used properly this feature can substantially reduce the
area used for tractor skid trails.
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3-5
DRAFT
Articulated hydraulically operated grapples have recently
been added to the larger rubber-tired skidders. With such
devices considerable flexibility for winching logs to the
tractor, for skidding, and for positioning logs at the land-
ing is introduced.
Cable yarding, introduced in the late 1800's and used
primarily on the west slope of the Cascade mountains, is
designed to move logs from stump to landing by a machine
equipped with multiple winches, commonly called a yarder.
Yarders are mounted on rubber tires or crawler tracks for
mobility between log landings. Logs are moved by reeling
in a wire rope called the mainline. Chokers, looped around
the log, are attached to the butt rigging, which in turn is
attached to the mainline. The haulback line is used to
return the butt rigging to the stump site. The direction
of movement is controlled by the use of several blocks hung
on stumps, trees, or portable steel towers.
The high lead system requires that the main line lead
block be hung high above the ground on a spar tree or steel
tower. The portable steel tower, ranging from 90 to 120
feet in height, is now used almost exclusively in high lead
logging. The tower is instrumental in providing lift for
the forward end of the log in order to reduce friction between
log and ground and to minimize soil disturbance.
The skyline systems drag or carry the logs suspended
from a carriage which rides on a cable stretched between
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3-6
DRAFT
a head spar at the log landing and a tail hold at the far
end of the yarding road. On many logging sites proper.
positioning of the two spars on both sides of slopes which
are concave make it possible to lift the logs free of the
ground. Consequently, the skyline system serves to reduce
to a near minimum the amount of ground disturbance which
occurs during logging.
Cable logging systems are highly efficient for logging
steep rough ground on which tractors cannot operate. They
can operate in any direction—upslope, downslope, and along
the contour and during any kind of weather. Most importantly
cable logging systems result in far less ground disturbance
than tractive logging systems. Cable logging also offers
the advantage of a large concentration of power operating
from a stationary position.
The high lead is the most commonly used cable system
(Fig. 3-2). The elevation of the mainline lead block on a
steel tower serves to exert a vertical component of force
which lifts the forward end of the log over stumps or other
obstacles. The system is most effective when yarding up-
slope at^distances not in excess of 1000 feet. Although down-
slope and sldeslope yarding can be accomplished with high
lead systems, control of log movement is minimal and more
site damage results. The system is best suited for clearcut
settings.
-------
HIGH-LEAD LOGGING
Figure 3-2
-------
3-8
FT
Mobile yarder-loaders, or mobile loggers Introduced on
the west side of the Cascades in recent years, are a modifi-
cation of the high lead system which offers greater control
of log movement (Fig. 3-3). Usually track mounted, these
units make it possible to vary the lead by swinging the boom
on which the mainline lead block is mounted. Consequently,
better control of log movement is possible. Because the
booms on these units are much shorter than the towers used
for conventional high lead logging log, lift is reduced.
Consequently, efficient yarding distance is reduced and more
soil disturbance can result at the extremities of the setting.
The jammer, shown in Pig. 3-4, which came into widespread
i^se in the northern Rocky Mountain region following World
War II, is considered to be. the forerunner of the mobile
logger. The Jammer is either track or wheel mounted. A
vertical mast supports a pivoting pole boom which is set in
a socket at the base of the mast. The units are equipped
with either a one- or a two-drum winch. One drum is used
to power the skidding line and the other the haulback line
if used. Normally the skidding line is equipped with tongs
for attachment to the log. Oftentimes haulback of the tongs
is accomplished by hand or by an operator skilled in the
motion of the boom. Jammer logging is limited to distances
of 300 to 400 feet. Consequently, an intense network of
roads, oriented predominately parallel to the contour is
required for use of this particular system.
-------
MOBILE YARDER-LOADER
Figure 3-3
-------
T
(To Be Furnished in Final Report)
Figure 3-
Jaminer
-------
3-11
Skyline systems (see Fig. 3-5) are the most versatile of
all of the cable logging methods. Introduced to the Pacific
Northwest from Michigan at the turn of the century, the use
of skylines began to decline with the conversion from rail-
road to truck transport systems. The introduction of multi-
span skyline systems in the late 19^0rs and the awakening of
environmental interests in the late I960's have served to
rekindle interest in the use of skyline logging systems.
The standing skyline, also termed tightline system,
uses a cable stretched between a head spar and a tail spar,
and attached to stumps at both ends. Single span tightline
systems include the north bend, the modified north bend (also
called south bend), and the interlocking skidder variations.
The north bend, which is the simplest of the three,
requires a carriage for travel on the skyline, a bull block
and fall block for movement of the mainline and tall block,
and tail block and corner block for control of the haulback
line. Control of mainline and haulback line tension can be
used to provide lift of the logs and thereby avoid obstacles
and minimize site damage. The modified north bend system is
characterized by improved control of movement between the
fall block and the carriage. Consequently, improved lift
over the older north bend system is offered.
Both systems can be used with any high lead yarder with
sufficient line capacity. Consequently, both .are popular
skyline systems. Both operate best when yarding upslope or
-------
SKYLINE LOGGING
Figure 3-5
-------
3-13
on moderate downslopes. Yarding distances of up to 2000
feet are not uncommon. This system is also used frequently
for swinging between cold decks.
The interlocking skldder (Pig. 3-6) is a tightline
system which requires a special yarding machine and carriage.
The yarder is equipped with three drums which can be inter-
locked so that they will operate together. Using this type
of yarder and a more complex carriage provides a system
which offers close control of log skidding. The interlocking
skidder is particularly suitable for operating over rough
topography for either upslope or downslope yarding. If
adequate deflection is available,, logs can be yarded completely
free of contact with the ground. Because greater control of
log movement is possible systems of this type are particularly
efficient for selective logging.
Slackline systems require a special yarder with a large
skyline drum. The skyline extends through the main block at
the head spar, then through the carriage and to the tail spar.
The mainline, haul line and chokers are all attached to the
underside of the carriage. Lift of the turn of }.ogs is pro-
vided by tensioning the skyline. Skidding is accomplished
with the mainline, and return of the carriage is afforded by
the haulback line.
Logs can be lifted clear of the ground during yarding
or the forward end can be lifted leaving a part of the log
to drag on the ground. Yarding distances of 1500 feet are
-------
(To Be Furnished in Final Report)
Figure 3-6
Interlocking Skidder
-------
3-15
not uncommon but the system is capable of much greater
distances. The system is adaptable to up- or down-slope
yarding, on steep slopes, or across canyons.
For many years loggers have on occasion rigged running
skyline systems using ordinary high lead equipment (Fig. 3-5)•
Such a system is particularly useful for yarding down steep
slopes or across narrow canyons. The butt rigging is hung
from a traveling block which rides on the haulback line.
The haulback line extends from the headspar out through the
tail block located well above the ground and back to the
rear of the carriage. The mainline is attached to the front
of the carriage. Lift of the turn of logs is provided by
adjusting tension in the haulback line. Yarding is accom-
plished with the mainline. -An interlocking yarder makes it
possible to operate both haulback and mainline drum at the
same rate. Consequently, the logs can be kept entirely free
of the ground.
Recently mobile yarders have been equipped with inter-
locking drums and special running skyline carriages.
These systems frequently referred to as skyline cranes are
equipped with either wire rope chokers or grapples. Use of
the grapple makes it possible to yard with only a two-man
crew; yarder operator and spotter. Swing of the booms offers
some control of log movement. Booms, restricted to heights
of 50 feet or less, limit the amount of lift of the logs that
is possible. Not uncommonly a. crawler tractor is used for
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3-16
the tail hold in order that the yarder road can be changed
rapidly. However, many operators have found the system
much more efficient if a block anchored well up in a tree
is used as the tail hold. Use of the tractor does introduce
additional site disturbance since the tractor must be moved
to various locations on the setting.
A crane equipped with a running skyline and either
chokers or a grapple is a highly efficient and adaptable
yarding machine. Logs can be yarded for distances up to
1200-1500 feet. The system can be moved with minimal losses
of time. Logs can frequently be lifted clear of the ground
thus minimizing soil disturbance. Both uphill or downhill
logging can be accomplished. By moving the crane along a
truck road with changes of the tail hold as needed, a near
parallel network of yarding roads results. Logs are thereby
distributed along the edge of the road rather than being
concentrated at a landing. Clearly, this type of logging
system has considerable potential for reducing site damage.
Skyline cranes developed in the alpine forests of
northern Europe are designed to transport logs suspended
above the ground from a carriage traveling on a cable. The
Wyssen skyline crane was introduced in North America in the
late igiJO's. These systems can be categorized as stand-
ing skylines, which combine both lateral and longitudinal
yarding capability. Single span and multi-span systems
are possible. The systems are capable of lateral
-------
3-17
skidding distances of up to 250 feet. Logs can be yarded
either partially or completely suspended above the ground.
The multispan system is designed for complete suspension of
the logs except during initial lateral skidding.
The multispan systems permit long skyline roads by the
use of intermediate supports. Consequently, large areas can
be yarded with but minimal site disturbance. Soil disturbance
which does occur is limited largely to short distances along
the contour. Consequently, erosion problems are reduced to
a minimum. Yarding distances up to 6,000 feet have been
reported. Indeed, one of the major advantages of the skyline
crane is the unusually large yarding distance that is possible,
These systems are adapted for both upslope and downslope
yarding.
Balloon yarding was tested in northern Europe during
^
the 1950's, and in Canada and the United States in the 1960's.
Helium-filled balloons of a variety of types and sizes are
used to provide lift of the logs. As shown in Fig. 3-7, a
conventional yarding machine with mainline and haulback line
drums is required for movement of the balloon and attached
logs. A tail block and a series of corner blocks are required
in order to bring the balloon close to the surface for attach-
ing the logs. The blocks are moved as is needed to bring
the balloon down to the ground at various locations. Each
turn of logs can be lifted entirely free of the ground
-------
BALLOON LOGGING
Figure 3-7
-------
3-19
surface. Hence, the system is particularly adaptable to
logging steep slopes with fragile soil which are highly
susceptible to erosion.
One of the more recent innovations in yarding involves
the use of helicopters (Fig. 3-8). Although the first suc-
cessful helicopter flew only 35 years ago, experimental
attempts at using helicopters for logging were initiated in
Scotland as early as 1956. Since that time helicopters have
been used on an experimental basis in Canada, Russia and the
western United States. The helicopter has been described as
an infinitely mobile yarder which could eliminate many of the
constraints that hamper conventional logging systems in
areas of environmental concern. However, helicopter logging
has engineering and environmental protection problems in
addition to the problems posed by a complex and expensive
yarding system.
Helicopters suitable for logging in the Pacific North-
west cost between $200,000 and $2,000,000. Lift capacity
for the larger models ranges from 12,000 to 20,000 pounds;
for the medium models 5,000 to 9,000 pounds and less than
5,000'pounds for the smaller models.
A typical yarding cycle consists of 1) flying from the
landing to the pickup point, 2) hovering during attachment
of the chokers to the tag line, 3) flying from pickup point
to landing with the turn of logs, and finally *0 hovering
.at the landing to release the load. Typical cycle time
-------
(Photo Furnished)
Helicopter Logging
Figure 3-8
Helicopter bringing a log to a landing in the Boise National Forest
-------
3-21
FT
ranges from 1.5 to 3-0 minutes. In contrast to cable logging
methods, a large crew is needed to service the entire opera-
tion. A typical crew might consist of four pilots, three
helicopter maintenance mechanics, a chaser, two hookers,
four choke setters, and a loader operator.
At this particular stage in its development, it would
appear that helicopter logging is suitable primarily for
high quality, high value stands. Small log size, low stand
density, or high defect can cause helicopter operations to
be totally uneconomical. Clearly, helicopter logging can
reduce site disturbance to a bare minimum. The system is
thought to have promise on sites which are highly susceptible
to erosion and other forms of soil damage.
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3-22
Silvicultural Systems
In general four silvicultural systems are used in the
management of western coniferous forests—selection, shelter-
wood, seed tree, and clearcutting. In the Pacific Northwest,
selection cutting is restricted almost entirely to the drier
inland areas. In contrast shel.terwood, seed tree, and clear-
cutting are practiced in the Cascades on the slopes west of
the summit. All three lead to an even-aged forest. In this
region clearcutting predominates except in the drier regions
of southern Oregon. Clearcutting is also practiced in the
inland region where artificial regeneration is used and
i
even-aged stands are a management objective.
Both mature and immature trees, either singly or in
groups, are removed in the selection system. Regeneration
is established almost continuously, leading to an uneven-
aged stand. Individual (single) tree selection leads to
an increase in the proportion of shade-tolerant species in
the forest, whereas group selection will tend to maintain a
higher proportion of the less shade-tolerant species. Group
selection can result in the removal of all trees from a zone
from a fraction of an acre up to one or two acres in size.
With the removal of larger groups, the forest has the appear-
ance of small clearcut patches.
The shelterwood system requires the removal of the stand
in a series of cuts. The new stand regenerates under the
cover of a partial forest. The new even-aged stand develops
in the open after the final cut. This system is especially
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3-23
well adapted to species or sites where protective cover is
needed for the new reproduction,.or where the shelterwood
gives the regeneration an advantage over undesired competing
vegetation.
The seed tree system requires the removal of nearly
all the timber of an area, usually in one cut. Especially
selected, vigorous, wind-firm trees of the desired species
are left scattered over the area to provide a natural source
of seed. With the advent of highly developed techniques for
artificial regeneration of coniferous forests, the use of this
particular system is destined to receive less use in the
future.
Clearcutting involves the complete removal of the timber
stand over a given area in a single cut. This particular
system permits the use of intensive management practices in
site preparation and regeneration of the new forest. Even-
aged forest result from clearcutting. Clearcuts range in
size from a few to several hundred acres. The areas range
in shape from nearly square patches to long narrow strips
oriented parallel but more often normal to the contour.
Recently attempts have been made to clearcut in units that
resemble the triangular-shaped avalanche zones of the higher
elevations. Regeneration can be achieved through natural
seeding. However, the larger clearcuts frequently must be
regenerated artificially. Hand planting of nursery stock
is considered to be the most reliable method for regeneration.
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3-24
In the hemlock-spruce forests, which occupy a coastal
strip extending from Alaska to northern California, clear-
cutting is practiced almost exclusively. With but few ex-
ceptions these clearcuts are regenerated naturally from seed
disseminated by the surrounding stand. Artificial regenera-
tion is used only on rare occasions, usually for the purpose
of increasing the proportion of a particular species such as
spruce or to add a component of Douglas fir.
The shelterwood silvicultural system can also be used
in this forest type to produce even-aged stands. Since
hemlock is the most shade tolerant, the leaving of an over-
story favors hemlock reproduction and nearly pure even-aged
stands of hemlock result. Such cutting can provide some
control of competing shrubs, that are promoted by full sun-
light.
Coastal Douglas fir occupies a region of several million
acres on the west side of the Cascades in Washington and
Oregon. It is a subclimax species which is intermediate in
shade tolerance. Silvlcal and regeneration requirements of
coastal Douglas fir suggest the use of even-aged management
by means of the clearcutting, seed tree, or shelterwood
system. Clearcutting is by far the most commonly used system
for harvesting Douglas fir. Patches 40 to 60 acres in size
in a variety of shapes occur with considerable frequency.
If the clearcuts are of moderate size natural regenera-
tion will usually occur within a relatively short period.
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3-25
however, regeneration is somewhat more difficult on the
hotter south facing slopes, on areas where frost damage
occurs, and where a natural source of seed is inadequate.
Consequently, the trend is toward artificial regeneration
on all clearcuts. Clearcutting is particularly desirable
in regions where heavy concentrations of slash occur.
On the drier slopes characterized by high levels of
radiation, the shelterwood system has proven to be more
satisfactory than clearcutting. Regeneration is established
either artificially by planting or naturally if adequate
seed sources are available. Planting is usually necessary
on the more difficult steep, shallow soil, dry sites.
The mixed conifer zone of southwestern Oregon, a
transition between the Douglas fir forests of coastal Oregon
and Washington and the pine forests of northern California
and eastern Oregon, includes Douglas fir, Sltka spruce,
Port Orford cedar, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, incense cedar,
grand fir and white fir. This unusually diverse collection
of species offers a wide range of shade tolerance, drought
resistance, and resistance to disease and insect attack.
Except under conditions of high soil moisture, clearcuts
do not regenerate naturally. Furthermore, the seed tree
system does not provide sufficient protection for stand
regeneration. Shelterwood cutting is indicated for most
of the region. The degree of overstory required is dictated
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3-26
FT
by the species and site conditions. Selection cutting is
appropriate where continuous forest cover is needed. As
suggested earlier, clearcutting can be practiced in areas
with adequate soil moisture. Areas along the coast can be
clearcut. However, planting in these areas is required
because of the relatively dense understory and high rodent
population.
The upper slopes of the Cascades on the west side and
coast range supports true fir-mountain hemlock forests which
consist principally of Douglas fir, Pacific silver fir,
Shasta red fur, noble fir, western hemlock, mountain hemlock,
and western white pine. Both the shelterwood and clearcutting
systems are used for management of these forests. The shelter
wood system can be designed-to provide sufficient light and
seed for regeneration of these species. It is particularly
applicable at the higher elevations near the upper limits of
the coniferous forest. Clearcutting is practiced throughout
much of this forest type in particular where site conditions
are not subject to severe changes in temperature and exposure.
Artificial regeneration is frequently required where clearcut
management is practiced.
The mixed pine-fir type of the east slope of the Cascades
consists principally of ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, lodge-
pole pine, grand fir, and western larch. Mixed stands of
ponderosa pine and Douglas fir at the lower elevation give
way to western larch and lodgepole pine at moderate elevations
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3-27
AFT
and finally to mountain hemlock and subalpine fir at the
higher elevations.
Ecological conditions and difficulties with disease
in this forest type point toward even-aged management.
Consequently, the shelterwood, seed tree, and clearcutting
methods are indicated. The shelterwood system is preferred
on the more harsh sites in which regeneration is difficult.
Clearcutting followed by artificial regeneration, particu-
larly planting, is indicated for sites not subject to
extremes of temperature and moisture. Clearcutting may be
required in stands which are heavily infested with mistletoe.
The northwestern ponderosa pine forests occupy an
extensive region of eastern Oregon and Washington and the
southern part of Idaho. Since its range encompasses great
diversity in climate, -topography, and site conditions, a
wide variety of regeneration practices can be applied.
Consequently, depending on local conditions shelterwood,
seed tree, clearcutting and the selection cutting methods
are practiced. On the more moist sites natural regeneration
occurs readily. However, planting is nearly always necessary
in areas of low rainfall.
Western white pine and associated species as a forest
type is found in the subregions of Northern Idaho and
Eastern Washington. It consists of a mixture of the very
light-demanding species of western larch and lodgepole pine
with the increasingly shade tolerant species of western
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3-28
white pine, Rocky Mountain Douglas fir, grand fir, western
red cedar, western hemlock, Engelmann spruce, and subalpine
fir. Any of the even-aged sllvicultural systems can be
applied if the objective is to favor light-demanding species.
Natural regeneration can be obtained from all systems,
although in stands with heavy concentrations of residue,
olearcutting with burning followed by artificial regeneration
often proves to be the most satisfactory. If the objective
is to manage for more shade tolerant species, such as
hemlock, red cedar and grand fir, the selection system by
individual tree or groups should be used. It is also used
where continuous forest cover is needed,
The western larch type found mainly in the Northern
Idaho, Okanogan, and Eastern Washington subregions is a
very light-demanding, pioneer species which has been main-
tained over the years by wildfire. Because of its silvical
traits, the even-aged silvicultural systems of shelterwood,
seed-tree or clearcutting in patches can best maintain this
type. Other systems will favor its more .shade tolerant
competitors. Susceptibility to severe dwarf mistletoe
damage may demand clearcutting to prevent reinfection of the
larch regeneration. Larch casebearer, a foliage eating
insect, has caused reduced growth and light seed crops in
recent years especially in northern Idaho and northeastern
Washington. The chances for natural regeneration are sub-
stantially reduced.
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3-29
Lodgepole pine covers a wide range of sites in all
subregions east of the Cascade Range. Large acreages of
pure lodgepole pine sometimes occur. In other situations
it is mixed with other conifers. Like larch, it is very
light-demanding and will b.e replaced by its more shade
tolerant neighbors in forest succession. Due to problems
of disease, lack of wind firmness, and slash residue,
clearcutting is most often the only practical method of
harvesting this species especially where it grows in nearly
pure stands. Partial cuts can be used where mixtures of
shade tolerant trees are associated with the lodgepole
pine and where carefully controlled shelterwood systems
are used. .
The ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain Douglas fir
forests in the subregions of Northern Idaho, Intermountain,
and Blue Mountains have similar characteristics and can be
managed in much the same way as the mixed pine-fir of
eastern Oregon and Washington as previously described.
The Engelmann Spruce-subalpine fir type occupy the
cool moist sites at higher elevations of the Intermountain,
Blue Mountains and Northern Idaho subregions. These species
are shade-tolerant and grow in climax or near climax
associations but often are not all-aged in structure.
They are difficult to regenerate on many sites. If risks
of disease, windfall, and beetle attack are high, small
clearcuts are about the only system useable. ' If watershed
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3-30
or aesthetic considerations rank high it may be necessary
to leave the stand uncut. There are opportunities for
selection and shelterwood systems depending on the structure
of the stand.
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3-31
T
Log Storage
Because of the need to sort and to provide inventories
for wood processing plants such as saw mills and pulp mills,
a wide range of log storage facilities are maintained
throughout the Pacific Northwest. Typical among these
storage facilities are: cold decks of logs at landings in
the woods, log sorting facilities located in close proximity
to the forest site, and log sorting yards at or near wood
conversion plants. The relatively small concentration of
logs on cold decks or landings at remote locations in the
woods are usually of a highly temporary nature. This type
of storage facility is ground based but in some instances
may be adjacent to an intermittent or permanent stream or
a freshwater lake. In contrast> the remote log sorting
facility designed to process logs for one or more drainages
and the log sorting facilities maintained near conversion
plants are either ground or water based.
Prior to World War II and the wide availability and
usage of heavy equipment for handling logs, the bulk of
sorting, yards were located on water. Mill ponds were common
in all parts of the Pacific Northwest. In the inland region
water storage facilities were located on either free flowing
rivers equipped with small dams to provide areas of quiet
water or on freshwater lakes. The forest products indus-
tries located on the coast of Washington, Oregon, and
southeast Alaska have used saltwater bays and estuaries for
log storage.
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3-32
In general water-dependent log handling and storage
facilities in southeast Alaska are of four types:
1) sale area dumping sites
2) sale area raft collecting and storage sites
3) winter raft and storage sites
4) mill storage and sorting sites
Because of the water-oriented geography and lack of
roads, most commercially harvested timber in southeast
Alaska is stored and transported on marine waters. By way
of contrast, the size of saltwater storage facilities on
the coasts of Washington and Oregon are much reduced, due
primarily to a more highly developed land transportation
system. In Alaska small bays and estuaries have proven to
be the most desired location for log handling facilities.
Teredo damage is at a minimum in these locales, particularly
if a stream is continually supplying freshwater to the bay.
Furthermore, small bays provide excellent protection from
winter storms off the Gulf of Alaska.
Recent years have witnessed a return to more intense
use of land-based log sorting and storage facilities. As
suggested earlier, the development of highly mobile heavy
equipment for log handling has been instrumental in bringing
about this change, in addition to the greater flexibility
in forest industry operations brought about by land-based
sorting yards.
Many of these yards process large volumes of logs.
Consequently, sorting yards that range upwards of 80 acres
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3-33
in area are not uncommon. Much of the area will be occupied
by logs in storage. A considerable quantity of debris in
the form of bark and wood fragments collects in the yards
and must be disposed of periodically. Because of the fire
hazard associated with such large volumes of logs and
because of difficulties in manufacturing partially dried
wood, large storage yards are nearly always equipped with
sprinkling systems. For the most part these systems operate
continuously, particularly in the drier summer months.
Although, evaporative losses are high from these sites, it
is not uncommon to have spent sprinkler water draining into
nearby streams and lakes.
Many of the problems of water pollution brought about
by log storage are closely related to the methods by which
logs are placed in or removed from storage, particularly
water storage. Free fall of Togs singly or in bundles
tends to dislodge bark in substantially larger quantities
than easy let-down methods. Large quantities of bark
dislodged during unloading in the water are responsible
of course, for buildup of debris, as well as for increased
concentrations of leachates.
A wide range of methods are employed at water storage
facilities for placing logs .in the water. In the inland
region the smaller operations may resort simply to dumping
logs directly from trucks into the water storage facility.
Dumping a load of logs, such as might be contained on a
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3-34
log truck, results in considerable impact between logs,
impact with each other, with the surface of the water and
perhaps with the bottom if the storage facility is shallow.
However, it is much more common practice to bundle logs
with steel bands.while still in place on the truck.
Subsequently, the entire bundle is lifted from the truck
and eased into the water. In some instances, particularly
in Southeast Alaska, logs are bundled on the land and later
skidded or slid into the water. Also in Alaska logs are
occasionally dumped on the beaches, banded into bundles
and later towed to deeper water at high tide. Of all of
these methods it is clear that bundling of logs on land
followed by lifting and easing the bundle into the water .
tends to minimize the amount of bark and wood debris
introduced into the water.
After the logs have been introduced into the water, a
variety of handling sequences follow, depending on the
particular operation. If the logs have been introduced
singly and water transport is to follow, it is a common but
by no means exclusive practice to bundle the logs prior
to rafting and movement. On the other hand, logs introduced
singly at a mill site are more likely to be sorted and held
in reserve for processing. There are indications of
unusually long water storage periods in some parts of the
Pacific Northwest as evidenced by the growth of small
plants and shrubs on logs in water storage.
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3-35
FT
If transport by water is to follow log dumping, it is
common practice to tie the bundles together in the form of
large rectangular rafts which might contain of the order of
500 M board feet. A bundle will contain 5-15 M board-feet.
Completed rafts are usually stored for a short period prior
to being towed to a raft storage area or to a mill storage
and sorting area.
Once the logs have arrived at the mill site, the
bundles are frequently lifted from the water, broken down
and sorted prior to processing. Alternatively, the bundles
may be broken down in the water followed by single log
water storage and sorting.
As suggested earlier in this section the location of
storage areas and the method of log handling has a highly
significant bearing on the extent of water pollution
associated with log storage. Clearly, water storage has
a far greater potential for introducing pollutants than
land based storage. Furthermore, log handling in bundles
rather than singly, taking care to minimize impact loading
during introduction to and removal from the water is all-
important for minimizing the quantity of wood debris and
bark that enters the water.
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3-36
FT
Regeneration Practices
In the Pacific Northwest regeneration practices fall
into two broad categories: 1) seeding and 2) planting of
nursery stock. Seeding is accomplished by artificial
means, usually machine application of seed over extensive
areas. Alternatively, seeding may be accomplished by the
natural distribution of seed from trees which are left
following harvest of the timber. In the latter circumstance
regeneration is, of course, a basic component of the
silvicultural system.
Natural regeneration following clearcutting requires
a source of viable seed of one or more species of interest
in the surrounding stand. As one might expect, the size
of the clearcut, topography, prevailing wind direction and
many other factors have "a significant bearing on the
success of natural regeneration of clearcut areas. The
shelterwood, seed tree, and selection systems offer marked
contrast to clearcutting. in that provision is made for a
seed source in the immediate vicinity of the harvest area.
Nonetheless, numerous other problems arise in obtaining
regeneration in the area from which timber has been removed.
Some species will, regenerate rapidly on cut over areas
If the site conditions are at all conducive to their
reestablishment. For example, adequate stocking and
frequently overstocking of hemlock occurs in the spruce-
hemlock zone following clearcutting. Providing that all
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3-37
the critical environmental factors are favorable, Douglas
fir will regenerate naturally on many sites in most parts
of the Pacific Northwest. Notwithstanding, natural
reestablishment of Douglas fir is much more difficult than
for hemlock in the coastal zone. Similarly, given the
proper clrc-umstances, ponderosa pine will regenerate
naturally in many parts of its natural range. Nonetheless,
there are many situations, particularly on the drier, less
fertile sites, that are subject to extremes of temperature
and radiation on which natural regeneration is difficult
if not impossible to obtain.
Because of difficult regeneration problems oh many
cut over lands, modern forest practices have become more
highly oriented toward the use of artificial means for
reestablishing forests."- Artificial seeding, usually by
aerial means, and hand planting are being practiced with
increasing frequency by both private and public agencies.
Both planting and artificial seeding frequently
require some form of land preparation beforehand. Almost
without .exception site preparation involves a measure of
soil disturbance. Not infrequently partial or complete
removal of the layer of duff and litter and exposure of
mineral soil is involved. Observations over a long period
of time in the western United States indicates clearly
that some exposure of mineral soil is nearly always
essential for regeneration whether by planting or artificial
seeding.
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3-38
Typically, one or more of three distinctive methods
are used in the Pacific Northwest to prepare sites for
artificial regeneration:
1) burning for removal of large as well as fine
residue;
2) scarification, usually by the use of crawler
tractors equipped with brush blades, or tractors
equipped with large rake systems. Also, an
especially prepared tool is sometimes dragged
over the ground surface with high lead yarding
equipment;
3) deep plowing or terracing with crawler tractors
to create small benches on steep hillsides which
impede runoff and promote the retention of
moisture in tire soil.
In addition to these treatments, it should be pointed
out that the reestablishment of forest cover on brush lands
is frequently accomplished by means of herbicidal treatment
to kill the brush. Later, burning and/or scarification is
employed prior to seeding or planting. The conversion of
brush lands as well as lands occupied by inferior species
has and will continue for some time to be a major manage-
ment, activity in the Pacific Northwest.
Of these techniques, controlled burning is by far the
most prevalent. Scarification by tractor Is practiced
where costs are not prohibitive, slopes are relatively
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3-39
gentle, and site conditions are such that some mechanical
disturbance is required in order to expose mineral soil.
Frequently burning and tractor scarification are practiced
together.
Scarification using a tool fastened to the butt rigging
of a high lead yarding system has received limited use on
the west side of the Cascade Range. Because this particular
technique does not require the movement of heavy equipment
over the surface of the growing site with concomitant
compaction of the soil, it holds considerable potential as
a rapid and relatively efficient scheme for obtaining the
degree of site disturbance- needed for regeneration of
certain species.
Terracing is a relatively new method of site preparation
which up to the present time has been practiced only in the
inland region. Normally accomplished with a crawler tractor
equipped with a deep plow, its objective as suggested
earlier is to provide a means for retaining moisture on
steep slopes in areas of low annual precipitation.
Controlled burning is practiced in virtually all forest
types of the Pacific Northwest. As pointed out earlier,
broadcast burning, and .piling and burning predominate. In
order to prepare the site adequately for regeneration close
control of fire is essential. Burns of high intensity are
damaging to soil structure, decrease wettability, and
result in the loss of valuable nutrients. On the other
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3-^0
hand, low intensity burns, particularly in areas of high
slash density, may not reduce residue volumes adequately for
for efficient regeneration.
Tractor scarification is accomplished with a crawler
tractor equipped with a toothed brush blade. Several
passes over the area to be prepared may be necessary in
order to remove brush, old stumps, and other obstacles
that occupy growing space. The objective of scarification
is to obtain an intermixing of litter and duff with mineral
soil such that soil adequate for regeneration is exposed
and that the litter and duff act as a mulch for retention
of water and slow release of nutrients. If the volumes
are excessive, windrowing of brush and residue may be
essential in order to provide sufficient space for planting.
As indicated earlier burning of the windrowed material
before planting is sometimes practiced.
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3-'11
Logging Residue Management
Residue, principally in the form of defective logs,
branches and tops which remain on the growing site following
logging, has been a source of concern to foresters for many
•years. The loss of usable fiber has been cited by those
concerned principally with utilization. Not infrequently
the recreationist, who has objected strongly to the practice
of clearcutting, is repulsed more by the unusually large
quantity of debris left behind than by the actual removal
of timber. The professional forester is concerned about
a number of aspects of logging slash, among which the control
of wildfire oftentimes receives top priority. However, the
influence of slash and control procedures on insect infes-
tation, on regeneration of the new forest, and on the quality
of water from forested watersheds is also of extreme
importance.
Considerably more attention has been drawn to the
problem of logging residues in the past few years. As the
costs of timber management have increased,, there is naturally
more concern with extracting as much of the resource as
possible and also with reducing the cost of all aspects of
forestry operations. More intense use of forested lands
for recreational purposes has brought additional people in
contact with the problem. Consequently, professional
foresters are now acutely aware of the need for much more
intensive planning for the management of residues.
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Harvesting operations produce large quantities of
residue, but so do many other forest operations. Small
trees, tree limbs, and tops are left as residue following
precommercial thinning. Clearing of roads oftentimes
generates large volumes of residue. Similarly, the clearing
of right of way for utilities, land clearing for urban
development as well as agriculture, and for other types of
improvements are responsible for the production of sizable
volumes of residue. One source of residue frequently
overlooked in the past is that generated during the
conversion of forest lands from undesirable to more
desirable vegetation. The conversion of brush lands to
sawtimber and the conversion of one timber type such as alder
to a softwood, a frequent occurrence on the west slope of
the Cascade Ranget will 'frequently produce large volumes of
residue.
The quantity of slash remaining after timber harvest
in the forests of the Pacific Northwest is governed primarily
by species, stand volume, and percent defect. Without
question, the old growth western red cedar stands along the
Washington and Oregon coasts are the highest producers of
logging slash. As an example, the volume of slash produced
by logging of western red cedar on the Quinault Indian lands
may exceed 200 tons per acre. Numerous decadent old-growth
Douglas fir stands on the west side of the Cascade Range
produce volumes of slash that exceed 100 tons per acre. In
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FT
contrast,. slash production of the forests in the inland parts
.of the Pacific Northwest is normally, substantially smaller.
This is primarily a reflection of the lower volumes of
timber per acre on the more arid lands of eastern Oregon
and Washington as well as northern Idaho.
Typically residue management techniques fall into four
broad categories:
1) no treatment;
2) dispersal over the growing site;
3) complete or partial destroying by methods such
as burning or burying;
4) mechanical processing into a form for redistribution
on the site or into a form usable for the production
of fiber or whole wood.
For the most part forest residues- are simply burned.
Burning techniques have undergone considerable development
over the years and certain practices are area specific in
the Pacific Northwest. Burying as a means of eliminating
residues is hardly out of the experimental stage. Minimum
experience is available on this method of control,
Utilization experts much prefer the production of
usable materials from residue. Although highly desirable,
product utilization is fraught with many problems of
efficient mechanical processing and with high costs.
Recently, increased attention has been given to the possibility
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of preprocessing residues at or near the forest site and
dispersing the residue over the growing area. This is a
form of utilization, albeit not one normally considered as
a possible alternative. Equipment for crushing or chopping
residues in place has been developed and tested in the
western United States. Generally speaking the equipment is
suitable only for areas in which residue sizes and total
volumes are relatively low.
Portable chippers, available for many years, have
recently undergone more intensive development. Larger
models more adaptable to a variety of sites both with and
without debarking facilities are now available. A few trials
of the newer chippers have demonstrated that chips can be
produced at remote locations. Subsequently, the chips can
be returned to the growing site or they can be blown into
a van for transport to a processing plant. Potentially a
wide variety of end products are possible since both unbarked
and barked chips can be produced.
Even though several options are available for the
management of residues, prescribed burning is and will
continue to be the most prevalent management method practiced
in the region. Burning is a well established forest manage-
ment tool. The technology of fire control, now highly
developed, is such that the probability of fire escape has
been greatly reduced over that of past years.
Several forms of prescribed burning are practiced in
the Pacific Northwest. Area slash burning, piling and
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3-45
burning, and light underburning are by far the most commonly
used control methods. These burning techniques have been
used extensively for a number of years. More recently the
use of incinerators, sometimes referred to as bin burning,
has been introduced for disposal of residue in heavy use
areas such as campgrounds, ski areas, along roads and near
developments. Incinerators can be of simple design such
as especially prepared open pits. Alternatively, portable
prefabricated steel bins are sometimes used. Bin burners
have to date received only limited use for residue manage-
ment .
Area burning, more frequently called broadcast burning,
is the most widely used of all burning techniques. Although
used primarily on the west side of the Cascade Range in
clear cuts., broadcast burning is used occasionally in the
pine areas east of the Cascades where residue volumes are
lower. Slash burning, a carefully planned operation, is
usually done, in the fall although summer burning is sometimes
practiced along the coast. Fire lines are built either by
hand or with bulldozers around the area to be burned. Site
disturbance of this type can be responsible for adding
sediments to runoff waters if not carefully planned and
controlled. Snags are felled to lessen danger of fire escape
and prelocated pumps, hose systems, tankers, and standby
fire crews may be used.
Piling and burning is practiced primarily in the forests
of the inland Pacific Northwest. This method is usually
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3-^6
FT
associated with selection cutting or with the shelterwood
silvicultural system. Piling before burning affords a
measure of protection to the remaining stand. Depending
on the quantity, size, and dispersal of residue, piling is
accomplished either by hand or with the use of machines.
Machine piling is more common and the slash is bunched in
piles or is windrowed. Bulldozers are equipped with special
brush blades with teeth in order to minimize the quantity
of soil that is deposited in the slash piles. Other types
of piling equipment have been used but the bulldozer receives
widest use. It should be noted that windrowing of slash is
also practiced on the west slope of the Cascade Range as a
part of the scarification of lands prior to artificial
regeneration. This particular topic is addressed in more
detail later.
Light underburning of uncut forest is a practice
confined largely to the southern states. This particular
control method has been suggested for ponderosa pine but
to date has been used very little.
Since 1970 a practice termed YUMing (Yarding
Unmerchantable Material) has been practiced for the manage-
ment of residues on the west side forests. Either during
or following the yarding of merchantable material the larger
size classes of residue are yarded to the landing. In some
instances, especially designed high lead yarding systems are
moved in following regular logging for yarding of the
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residue. The material is piled at the landing for eventual
burning. ; If the volume of such material is substantial and
relatively sound, and market conditions are favorable, it
may be sold on the pulp market.
As suggested earlier, the mechanical treatment of resi-
due and dispersal over.the site has received only limited
use to date. Two treatment methods prevail: chipping
followed by dispersal over the site, and crushing or masti-
cating of the residue in place. Chipping is costly. In
areas of high volume of slash, chips can reach a depth of
several inches and thereby add to the fire danger and impede
regeneration. On the other hand, chips protect the soil
surface from high impact rainfall and can serve as an
impediment to surface erosion. '
Machines for crushing, chopping, or masticating
residues in place normally must pass over the logged site
at least twice before the residue is tolerable from a fire
hazard standpoint. The practice is limited to gentle slopes,
When practiced on heavy soils under wet conditions, soil
compaction can result. As is the case for chips, crushed
residue can result in some measure of soil erosion control.
The management of residues is associated, closely with
many aspects of forest management, including fire prevention
and control, and protection from insects and disease as well
as mammals and birds. Reproduction problems are associated
with residues. Soils are modified by burning through loss
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3-48
of nitrogen, boron, sulfur, and phosphorous. Burning
decreases wettability, usually in proportion to the burn.
Burns that remove duff cover from steep clearcut slopes may
suffer dry ravel erosion until revegetated. The incorpora-
tion of residues into the soil will improve aeration,
infiltration and moisture retention properties of the soil.
The destruction of residue will increase groundwater
temporarily by the amount of transpiration .eliminated.
Residue treatments that channel runoff or reduce infiltra-
tion rates affect the timing of peak flow of streams.
Burned residues release ions which can be transported to
streams and lakes to lower water quality. Severe burns
are known to increase the susceptibility of the growing
site to surface erosion until the area is revegetated.
When present in streams, residues increase the biochemical
oxygen demand. Any residue treatment which disturbs litter
and surface soil can lead to stream sedimentation. Residue
in stream channels modifies stream behavior so that sedi-
mentation may be increased. Flush outs of debris dams
caused by residue in streams has been responsible for
channel scouring.
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14-1
IMPACT OF FOREST PRACTICES ON WATER QUALITY
Suspended Materials
This pollution source can be divided into inorganic and
organic suspended sediments. By far, .inorganic sediments (i.e.,
sands, r-ilts, and clays) are the major polluting agents from
wildland watersheds. Organic suspended sediments cause less
of a problem and receive less attention. Leachates from these
materials can degrade water quality as well as the suspended
particles themselves.
Suspended Inorganics Material
Erosion of soil produces sediment in the streams draining
frofn forest lands. Three major erosion processes are of con-
cern in forest lands: surface erosion, mass soil movement,
and channel erosion. Forestry practices can influence and
accelerate all three of these processes through disturbing
and exposing mineral soil, damaging soil structure, and elimi-
nating the mechanical reinforcement.
Roads are considered to be the most significant contrib-
utlm* factor of erosion. In the Northern Region of the U. S.
Forest Service, studies and observations have shown that as
much as 90* of the sediment produced from timber sale areas
comes from roads (Packer and Chrlstensen, n.d.). In other
arenr, tho percentages will bo different. In any case, the non-
road contribution would bo significant oven 1f the sod.1ment
from roruls. wore eliminated. The accelerated erosion from
road conr-i.ruction ic not within the scope of this report.
-------
•.-:
*
Therefore, only the accelerated erosion caused by silvlcultural
practices, logging practices, residue management, and re-
forestation will be discussed.
Su r f ace e rosion. Surface.erosion is the direct result
of rain striking unprotected soil surfaces, detaching soil
particles, and transporting them hy overland flow across the
soil surface. Harvest methods and logging systems disturb and
expose- mineral soil in varying degree? (see Table 4-1). Clear-
cutting with tractor logging is the most destructive of all
the techniques (wheel skidding is also often severe) when
considering compaction of soil. Skyline yarding, in all
cases, Is less severe than -high-lead yarding. Grapple yardinr
systems are intermediate between skyline and high-lead or
jammers, as they combine features of each. Balloon yarding
is substantially less severe than skyline yarding. Helicopter
yarding probably results in the least compaction because it
transports logs free in the air over most of the logged areas.
There have been numerous studies relating 'to forestry
practice impacts on accelerated surface erosion and sedimen-
tation (see Table 4-2). The great variety of techniques and
machines used in the operation? provide alternatives for
minimizing watershed damage on many sites. A major rule here
is the less the compact!ve and disturbing contact with the
fore;-t .floor, the le:;s watershed damage resulting from skidding
and lo.-itl.nr..
r.u.-pendc.i :-.
-------
Table 4-1. Soil Disturbance by Various Logging Methods"'(excluding'road areas)
Treatment
1. Clearcut
Crawler (tractor)
Highlead
Skyline
Balloon
2. Partial cut
Crawler
Jammer cable
Horse
3. Partial cut
Crawler
Skyline
4. Partial cut
Crawler
Wheeled skidder
5. Clearcut
Highlead
Skyline
6. Clearcut
Tractor
7. Cable skidding
Tractor skidding on bare soil
Tractor skidding on snov;
Helicopter
Soil Disturbance.
.Source.
% Compacted %
6^ -
43
1.3 •'
21
15
12
•
22
5
22
12
—
—
55 of Area Observed
41
: SOil 31
13
3
Bare Soil . .
14.1
12.1
6.0
15.5
20.9
29.4
11.1
12.1
6.4 •
26.1
to be Eroded
Dyrness, 1965
•Dyrness, 196?
Dyrness, 1972
Garrison and
Rur.rr.el, 1951
Wooldridpe ,
I960
McDonald,
1969
Ruth,
1967
f.teinV;rcnner &
Gessel, 1955
Klcck, 1973
Remarks "
Douglas-fir forest type
in the Crercn Cascades
Ponderosa pine for-.vst
ranrelands 'in e.i-ctern
Oregon and' Washington
Mixed conifer foresl
type in eastern
Mixed conifer forest type
Ore-gen coastal forests
Western Washington
ihe percentage of the Icr-rod
2 " C 'i C C '.I C: r V C d tO t C: 5 r C G'"- ci
V;ac r.oasured followinf: Icj/;-
gin;3 and two surfer rain-
storms
-------
Table 4-1. Continued
Treatment . Soil Disturbance Source . •....'.. Remarks
8. Balloon logging Soil disturbance' was noted Gardner et al., Idaho
only at the yarding areas. 1973
This method Is well adapted
to steep slopes (45 to 9.0?)
and shallow and/or fragile
soils.
.Cr
I
-------
Table «-2- Impact of Vai
Treatment
1..Clearcut
2. Clearcut logging
3. Legging
t. Timber cutting
Skidding of logs
5. Clearcut with high
lead system-
Clearcut and burning
6. Clearcut with sky-
line system
Skyline followed by
slash burning
•ious Lodging Techniques on Suspended Sediment
Variation in Suspended Sediment Source
Clearcut with
high lead
I.'-ot significant.
Hot significant.
Hot significant.
Hot significant.
Can increase sediment sig-
nificantly.
Not significant (<15 ppn)
Sediment yields increased
about five-fold. Maxiirium con-
centrations went from 970 ppm
to 7,600 ppm after the fire.
Not significant.
Sediment concentrations (100
to 150 ppm) for two years were
67 and 28 tir.es greater than
those recorded on an undis-
turbed .watershed during the
sane periods.
The increasing sediment in
streams draining these logged
areas averaged more.than
100 times the undisturbed
condition over a period of
Meehan et al.,
19C9
Hornbeck, 1968
James, 1957
Packer, 1967
Brown & Krygier,
1971
Fredriksen,
1970
Fredriksen,
1970
Remarks
Southeast Alaska
Two Fernow watersheds
Maybeso Creek, Alaska
Oregon Coast Range
-tr
I
West Oregon Cascades
Notes that sediment had
been trapped by logging
debris and was released
only after burning.
Western Oregon, H. J. Andrews
Experimental Forest
-------
Table 4-2. Continued
Variation in Susoended Sediment • Sources
Remarks
7. C'learcut and tree^
left in place
8. Clearcut and trees
left in place
9. Clearcut and care-
fully Iccged with
little -disturbance
to the soil surface
10. Clearcut and trees
left in place
Logged by horse and
oxen skidding (no
truck haul roads
were built)
r.o increase in sediment
occurred during the first year,
but streamflow increased 65%
Ke.".lirlble increase in stream-
water turbidity; however, the
participate natter was in-
creased about fourfold.
A minor effect on water turbid-
ity during the first year; the
mean concentration .was 6 times
greater (16.5 Ppm compared to
2.7 ppm) and the maximum 14
times greater (72 ppm to 5-3
ppm) on the clearcut than on
the uncut forest. These dif-
ferences in concentration
became negligible during the
next 4 years.
The result was no increase in
overland flow and no increase
in stream sedimentation.
Stream turbidities during a 3-
nionth summer period averaged
9*J Ppm; and maximum turbidity,
consisting largely of mineral
soil, was 3500 ppm. The control
watershed averaged 10 ppm and
the maximum was 80 ppm (pri-
marily organic material).
Liberm-un and
Hoover, 1948
Liken et al.,
1970
Lynch et al.,
1972
Oils, 1957
Study done on the Hubbard
Brook Experimental Forest,
New Hampshire
Study done in central Penn-
sylvania in the erosion-
resistant, sandstone ridge
mountainous watersheds of
the Ridge and Valley Pro-
vince of the Horth Appala-
chian Mountains.
Study done at the Coweeta
Hydrologic watershed
-------
Table 4-2. Continued
Treatment
11. Strip and block
clearcutting
12. Clearcut (no plan)
Diar.eter Unit
Extensive selection
(well planned)
Intensive selection
Control
13- Clearcut
(deforested)
14. Clearcut entire
watershed
Partial patch cut
(302) and left
streamside vegetation
15. Commercial clearcut
Variation in Suspended Sediment Sources
When' harvest method v;as precise- Horn, I960
ly described and carefully
supervised with reforestation
-initiated soon after the opera-
tions, the lorred watersheds
had no noticeable reduction in
water quality (i.e., no in-
creased sedimentation).
Maximun Turbidities (JTU)
55,000
5,200
210
25
15
Erosion increased about 8-fold
in the clearcut area, although
always remained slight
Significant increase in sus-
pended sediment
No significant change or
increase in sediment
Found that infiltration rates
after logging remained well
above maximum rainfall intensi
Reinhart et al.,
1963
Hoyt and
Troxell,
1932
Lantz, 1971
Reinhart, 1964
Remarks
Fernow Experimental Forest
in West Virginia. The dif-
ferences in turbidities
attributed primarily to
different skid road layouts
and construction. These max-
imum turbidities occurred
during and immediately
after logging.
Wagon Wheel Gap area of
Colorado
Coastal watershed in Oregon
Fernow Experimental Forest
in West Virginia
-------
Table b-2. Continued
Treatment
15- (continued)
Selective cutting
under careful
conditions
16. Silviculture
17. Clearcutting with
erosion hazard
18. Clearcutting
Selection cutting
Logging
Variation in Suspended Sediment Sources
ties except on skid-roads. As a
result, overland flow and surface . .
erosion were largely confined to
these skid-road areas.
Remarks
Did not greatly affect the rate
of sedimentation in adjacent
streams.
Forest Cover
(percent)
20
40
60
80
100
Sediment Yield
(tons/sq ml/yr)
iiOO
200
90
45
22
Rich et a.l.,
1961
Work and
Keller, 1963
Workman Creek experimental
watershed In central
Arizona
Potomac River Basin
Xr
00
(The above data computed from a
regression equation of the data
collected.)
The maximum measurement under
careful cutting and logging was
83 ppm—far below the 56,000 ppm
maximum measurement for the hap-
hazardly logged commercial clear-
cutting.
The maximum measurement under
intensive selection cut and
careful logging was 25 ppm,
while the maximum turbidities
of streams was 56,000 ppm on
the commercial clearcut.
Hornbeck, 1967
Hornbeck and
Reinhart, 1964
Fernow Experimental Forest,
West Virginia
-------
Table *i-2. Continued
Treatment
Variation in Suspended Sediment Sources
TO
J- ? •
stcr. selection
• group selection
Locking
20. Effect of logging
and aspect
21. Direct ground
skidding of logs
by teams
22. Tractor skid trails
a.High-order gradient
<103 drained by
water bars
b.Poor skid trails
no lir.it on gradient
no water bars
1. Soil was exposed by haul road
and skid trail'on '8.12..of total
silviculturally treated area.
2. Cutting by stem selection
exposed about 1. ^ times more
r.ineral soil than cutting by
group selection.
3- 10-ft rnir.ir.um width of buf-
fer strip was a fair margin of
safety but a wider minimum
strip, perhaps 30 ft across,
would have been more desirable.
Logging increased sediment move-
ment by fourfold on plots on
southwest slopes with ^2% bare
soil. On northwest slopes with
3% bare soil, sediment increased
fivefold, but the total amount
was only 5% of that on the
southwest slope.
The rate of loss is 4,370
ft3/acre of skid road for a
three-month period.
55 Ib/acre of eroded soil after
first year of logging
433 Ib/acre
Haupt and Kidd,
1965
Bethlamy, 196?
Hoover, 195*4
Trimble and
Weitzman, 1953
Remarks
Boise Basin Experimental
Forest in central Idaho
\o
Study done in central Idaho,
Differing amounts of sedi-
ment were probably due to
differences in organic
content of the soil.
Southern Appalachian Moun-
tains with steep topography
Fernow Experimental Forest,
West Virginia
-------
Table 4-?. Continued
Treat rr.er.t
23. Jar.r.-?r and skyline
24. Logged
25- Burning Douglas-fir
slash
26. Slash burning
Variation ir.
:sn-er.ded
1. Ho difference in erosion
resulted frcrr. the tv:o skidding
systems as applied in the- study
2. Lor~'r.£ operations alone
(excludinr; roadc) increased
sedirr.ent action by about 60/5.
A good correlation v/as found
between peak overflow and ac-
cumulated sedir-.ent volume. The
relationships indicate that a
major part of the sediment load
is derived from channel erosion
Slash burning alters the phys-
ical properties of the soil
in a manner such as to reduce
its ability -to absorb moisture
during periods of plentiful
rainfall.
Sources
I-'.o;:ahan and
Kldd, 1972
, 1972
Leaf, 1966
Meal et al.,
1965
Remarks
Study done in the Idaho
batholith of central Idaho
on steep, sandy soils.
High mountain watersheds In
central Colorado (Praser
Experimental Forest)
i
M
O
Western Oregon
Severe burning reduced the per- Tarrant, 1956
eolation rate in the soil,
which gives an increase in sur-
face runoff causing soil erosion.
Since severe burns usually cover
a very sir.ail portion of the total
surface of a slash-burned area,
it is concluded that the overall
influence on moisture properties
of the soils studied is niinor.
-------
Table *J-2. Continued
Variation in Suspended Sc-dir.ent Sources
21. ?reccrlt-ed burning
28. Slash burning
29. Clearcut and burned
30. Logging
Slash disposal
.In five locations studied., soil
erosion v:as .greater in the areas
treated by prescribed burning, .
by factors ranging from 7 to
1,500 as compared to the un-
turned forests.
The extent of severe burn
rarely exceeds 53 of the area
and in most cases is less.
Temporarily impaired watershed
protection and increased over-
land flow and erosion. Maximum
soil erosion (168 Ibs/acre)
from sncwmelt overland flow
was during the second year and
treatment. Maximum soil' erosion
from summer storms was 151 Ibs/ •
acre and 1,505 Ibs/acre on a
different experimental watershed,
Vegetal recovery returned con-
ditions to near prelogging
status within four years.
Water yield from snow zone run-
off can be influenced both in
amount and time of delivery by
the mar.ner in which the areas
are logged and by brush removal.
Ralston and
Hatchell, 1971
Tarrant, 1956
Debyle and
Parker, 1972
Anderson et al.,
I960
Remarks
Study areas were In the
southern United States
Douglas-fir region
Larch and Douglas-fir ^
forests type of western »-•
Montana. Broadcast burned,
Cascade-Sierra Nevada
Mountains, California
-------
Table 4-2- Continued
Treatment
31. Logging
Slash burning
32. High lead logging
Slash burning
33- Logging
Prescribed burning
Variation in Suspended Sediment Sourcejj.
A Douglas-fir lodging operation
disturbs surface soil conditions
and leaves on the ground a great
accumulation of slash. The total
quantity of slash per acre
averaged 24,000 ft3, including.
15,000 ft 3 of small branch wood,
twigs, chips, bark, and slabs.
1. Only 8? of the soil surface
was severely burned.
2. Logging by the high lead
method and slash burning in
the fall after rainfall has
occurred have had no appre-
ciable detrimental effects
upon soil structure.
1. Burning drastically reduced
the proportion of the ground
surface protected by plants,
litter, and logging residue to
less than 505?.
2. Overland flow from the logged-
burned areas was from two to
several times greater than that
from the unlogged-unburned ones.
3. Soil erosion from the logged-
burned plots averaged 56 Ibs/
acre the. first year after burning,
but then increased to 168 Ib/acre
in the second year, while none of
the unlog.ged-unburned plots pro-
duced any soil erosion from snow-
melt flow during the 7 years
fcllov.-.inr turnip.:-.
Isaac et al.,
1937
Remarks
Wind River Experimental
Forest, Carson, Washington
Dyrness and
Youngberg,
1957
Reddish brown latosol soils
of the Coast Range of .fe-
west ern Oregon
ro
Packer and
Williams,
1966
Larch, Douglas-fir forests,
northern Rocky Mountains
-------
Table 4-2. Continued
Treatment
3*». Wildfire
35- Fire
36. Fire
37. Logging
Grazing
Variation in Suspended Sediment Sources
During the first summer approxi-
mately 1 acre-foot of sediment
was eroded from the burn. Sedi-
ment was. deposited in unburned
foreat vegetation immediately
below the burn, in the stream
channel, and in the weir pond.
Heat from forest fires creates
a water repellent barrier in the
soil. The severity of this con-
dition is positively correlated
with burning temperatures.
High fire temperatures at the
soil surface actually reduce
infiltration rates by the pro-
duction of a non-wettable
layer, inducing increased ero-
sion by overland flow.
In a logged area, it v/as esti-
mated that 50S of the sediment-
ation production is caused by
logging, 20% is natural, 155?
caused by deer use and 15% by
cattle and sheep grazing.
Rich, 1962
Remarks
Ponderosa pine forest
of central Arizona
Debano, 1968
Study done In southern
California
Swanston, 1971
Klubber, 1967
North coastal California
>
-------
FT
Anderson and Wallls, 1963). By combining the effects of all
the various potential sources of sediment, they found that the
sediment potential for nonagricultural lands varies by a
factor of 100 and from agricultural lands by a factor of 7.
Timber management planning to minimize erosion-should
consider the following physiop:raphical causes of erosion.
Climate. The basic climatic factors affecting erosion
are precipitation intensity, duration, and drop impact: freeze-
thaw relationships in the surface soils; and the historical
climatolopical constraints on soil formation (annual moisture
and temperature).
Precipitation intensity, duration, and drop impact affect
the detachment of soil particles and the concentration and
patterns of runoff. Borst and Woodburn (19^2) isolated the
Influences and Importance of raindrop impact and found a 95*
reduction in soil loss when the soil was protected from drop
impact (equal quantities of overland flow). The velocity and
turbulence of overland flow controls the transport of detached
soil particles and affects detachment.
Cycles of freezing and thaxvinrr. of the surface soil can
separate the r.oil masses and increase the susceptibility to
erosion by weakening the soil structure and increasing the
turbulence of flow by rouphenlnp the soil surface.
Wischmeier (1959) developed a rainfall erosion index
that correlated kinetic energy times the 30-mirmte maximum
intensity with soil loss. On an individual storm basis, the
rainfall erosion index explained 72 to 97* of the variation
-------
H-15
in erosion for bare soils. Generally, soil erosion losses
are believed to be caused by relatively few storms, with two-
year or longer return periods, but a recent study by Piest
found that 50% of the annual soil loss in 72 watersheds was
contributed by storms that could expect to occur several times
a year.
Soil characteristics. Soil properties pertinent to the
erosion process include physical, chemical, organic, saturation,
parent material, and resistance to detachment.
Wooldridge (1970) concludes that "mean v/ater stable
aggregate size" was of most value for assessing soil erosion
hazard of forest and rain soils. Middleton (1930) developed
two indices for indicating inherent soil erodibility, the
"dispersion ratio," and the "erosion ratio." Both are based
on laboratory determinations of aggregate stability, particle
size distribution, and moisture content. Henderson (1951)
developed a "surface aggregation" ratio with the "surface"
component referring to the amount of surface in square centi-
meters per gram on particles larger than silt. The aggregation
portion refers to the amount of aggregated silt and clay.
Wooldridge showed a considerable decrease in mean
aggregate size with increasing erodibility.
In general, the physical properties important are the
size and shape of the particles or aggregates and the soil
compaction. Compaction generally retards particle detachment,
but also has an inverse relationship by reducing infiltration
and Increasing overland flow.
-------
1-16
DRAFT
Wallace and Stevan (1961) evaluated through regression
analysis the effects of chemicals (calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium) on erosion, and found that calcium and
magnesium had a positive and significant correlation with soil
erodibility due to ionic dispersion and flocculatlon.
Organic content was found by Wooldridge to have a
significant effect on erosion primarily through affecting the
variation in 'mean aggregate size. Willen (1965) also found
that those soils which were the most stable had the highest
organic matter content. This organic content is affected by
vegetation, precipitation, and other climatic factors,
consequently varying with aspect and elevation.
Saturation or water content of soils affect the buoyancy
of the particles and the capillary forces, thereby affecting
the resistance to detachment.
Parent material affects erodibility, and Andre and
Anderson (1961) demonstrated that the soils derived from acid
igneous rockr. tend to be considerably more erodible than soils
derived from other parent materials. Wallace and Willen ranked
12 parent materials in the following manner:
Erorl.! Mo pnrent materials — rranite, quartz
d i o r 1 1". e , t'r-inodiorite , CeTnozoic nonmarine
sedlmcntr., schist
rmediate — diorite, a variety of metamorphic
roc KG
N o n e r o d 1 b_l o - - C e n o z o i c marine, basalt and frabbro,
pre-Ceno;:oic marine sediments, perldotite and
serpentinite, and andeslte
Resistance to detachment also depends on cohesion (or
electrical bonding), adhesion (or chemical and physical
-------
4-17
RAFT
cementation), compaction, and the effective diameter-surface
area relationships. Cohesion, adhesion, and compaction affect
the internal forces holding the soil together. The effective
diameter-surface area relationships affect the detachment
force.
Hydrologic characteristics. Hydrologic characteristics
affecting the erosion process include the infiltration-runoff
relationships, cover, runoff characteristics, soil-water
interfacial characteristics, and snowmelt.
Infiltration-runoff relationships include percolation,
or the surface water intake potential; permeability, or the
potential groundwater flow rate; and the surface detention
and storage capability of the land surface.
One of the most important factors involved in the erosion
process is the amount of cover, which not only protects the
soil surface from raindrop detachment but aids significantly
in the interception, retention, and infiltration process.
Such cover can consist of either plants, litter and organic
humus, or artificial cover such as jute blankets. Lowdermilk
(1930) concluded that the beneficial effects of litter cover
were not due to its water absorbing capacity, but rather to its
action in protecting soil from the destructive action of rain-
drops. Packer (1957) in the Boise Basin in Idaho, found that
total ground cover and the maximum si~e of bare soil openings
i-xerted the most influence on the erosion process, and concluded
that in order to minimize runoff and erosion ground cover
-------
4-18
density should be at least 70?, with maximum size of bare
openings no greater than four inches.
Figure 4-1, taken from Wooldridge (1970), shows the relation
between ground cover and erosion for range land in central
Utah.
Plow concentrationst velocities of flow, and the amount
of suspended.material, including both size and quantity, are
important factors in runoff which greatly affect erosion.
Most forested areas have little, if any, surface runoff, and
consequently very little natural erosion.
Soil-water interfacial characteristics depend on water
velocity and surface roughness. Surface roughness can move
the flow boundary layer up, creating a zero velocity layer at
the surface which reduces entrainment capacity. Such roughness
creates settling areas that reduce sediment transport (rip-
rapping).
Snowmelt affects erosion in much the same way as precipi-
tation. Maximum and average melt rates and total volume of
the snow pack are Important. Although concentrations may be
considerably less than during the summer, most soil movement
occur? during the snowmelt (high runoff) periods.
Topography. The primary elements related to the topo-
graphic effects on erosion include elevation, slope, and
aspect.
Elevation affects erosion primarily through its relation-
ship with r.oil formation and climate.
-------
JfcL
1-19
FT
2400
Time from
beginning
of rain
(minutes)
30
25
20
15
10
50 60 70
'CROWD COVER (PERCENT)
FKJUH-: 1»-1. RELATIONS OF CUMULATIVE SOIL
ERODED WITH GHOUND COVER
-------
H-20
The percentage of slope and the length of slope affect
runoff velocities and erosion.
Aspect or exposure has been Investigated by Bethlahmy
(1967) in central Idaho, who found that erosion was much more
severe on southwest facing slopes. He concluded that this is
primarily due to differences in the organic content of the
soil which relates to soil formation and climatic variables.
Mass soil movement. Soil mass movements in timbered
areas were broken down by Swanston (1970, 197*0 into two
major groups, differentiated roughly on the basis of type of
material, depth of movement, and character of failure surface.
The first and widespread group includes debris slides, debris
avalanches, and debris flows. These often involve initial
failure of a relatively shallow, coheslonless soil mass on
steep slopes as a consequence of surface loading, increased
soil water levels, or removal of mechanical support. The
second group includes deep seated soil creep, slumps, and
earthflows. These three entities are closely related in terms
of their occurrence and genetic process.
The contributing factor of timber harvesting in
accelerating coil mass movements was a lessening of the
mechanical support of the slope, chiefly by timber cutting
and burning.
Bishop and Stevens (196'O have also shown a direct
correlation between timber harvesting and accelerated soil
r.asr. movements following heavy rains In the fall of 19&1.
More detailed work in this area by Swanston (1967, 1969, 1970)
-------
4-21
has shown' that sections of almost every logged slope exceed
that natural angle of stability of the soils ( ts4°). Dyrness
(1967) 'investigated accelerated soil mass movements on the
west flank of the Cascade Range following heavy rains in the
winter of 1964-1965. He reported that out of 47 recorded
debris avalanches, debris flows, earthflows, and slumps, 12%
were directly associated with roads and 11% with logging.
A study by Rothacher and Glazebrook (1968) found that in
the national forests of Region VI on highly erosive granodiorite
soils, slopes over 40$ cannot be clearcut without considerable
soil loss from numerous slides.
A second major contributor to accelerated mass movements
is fire, both wlldland fire and slash burning. This is .due
largely to the destruction of the natural mechanical supports
of soils.
Both controlled slash burning and wildland fire in
forested areas are often followed by increased rate of
surface erosion (Dyrness, 1967). Krammes (I960, 1965) re-
ported that in October 1959, a wildfire swept through the Los
Angeles River Watershed and debris movement began almost
immediately after the fire passed. Great quantities of debris
moved downslope and into stream channels. The increase in
the production of sediment by mass soil movements is from
10 to 16 times greater. Packer and Williams (1966) investi-
gated the effects of logging and prescribed burning on the
hydrologic and soil stability behavior of larch-Douglas fir
forests in the northern Rocky Mountains. They showed that
-------
4-22
DRAFT
both logging and prescribed burning treatments significantly
influenced soil and vegetative characteristics and altered
runoff and soil erosion behavior.
Logging residue frequently hinders forest regeneration.
It can prevent seed from reaching the forest floor. It can
affect seed germination and seedling survival adversely by
denying them sufficient moisture and/or light. On the other
hand, logging residue can be beneficial in the regeneration
of some forest species by providing protection and shade.
Finally, logging residue can constitute a serious physical
barrier to planting, especially by machines (Packer, 1971).
A prescribed broadcast burning of logging residue on
clearcuts in the Pacific Northwest, on the average, left
47.2% of the area unburned, 45.8% lightly burned, and only
5.4% severely burned (Tarrant, 1956; Dyrness and Youngberg,
1957). These results suggest that the prescribed use of fire
in forest lands does not have to be highly destructive to the
soil structure.
The forest cover affects the deep-seated stability of
soil slopes in two ways: (1) through affecting the hydrologlc
regime in the soil"mantle and (2) by mechanical reinforcement
from its root system.
Actually, little information exists concerning the effect
of clearcutting. However, Bishop and Stevens (1964) noted a
significant increase in the frequency of slides in their study
area after logging. Croft and Adams (1950) concluded that
before modern day land use, landslides were rare, and possibly
-------
4-23
absent from their study area. Kittredge (1948) observed that
in the coast ranges near San Francisco many slides occur in
wet years on the heavily grazed, grassland-covered, clay
soils, but that similar slides do not occur on the same soils
in the eucalyptus plantations of more than 25 years old.
Kawaguchi (1956, 1959) emphasizes the value of a well-rooted
forest cover for minimizing landslides. Gray (1969) concluded
that there was a definite relationship between clearcutting
and mass soil failures and pointed out that "There has been
no rational attempt to predict what will be the factor of
safety of a natural slope against sliding before and after
clearcutting." Gray is presently continuing his research in
developing such a predictive tool.
Varnes (1958) grouped the variables affecting slope
stability into (1) .those tending to reduce shear strength and
(2) those increasing shear stress. The following table
(Table 4-3) shows the factors contributing to instability of
earth slopes, according to Varnes.
Gray listed the possible ways vegetation might affect
the balance of forces as follows:
1. Mechanical reinforcement from the roots: Indirect
evidence reported in the literature suggests that
this may be the most important effect of trees on
slope stability. Presumably deep-rooted species of
trees or woody shrubs whose roots penetrate through
the soil mantle to bedrock would enhance stability
the most. Conversely, removal of such a vegetal
cover with subsequent rotting and deterioration of
the roots would have the most serious consequences
Root density studies as a function of depth have
been reported in the literature (Gaiser, 1952;
Patric et al., 1965), but no studies have been
reported which isolate the contribution to slope
stability of various root systems.
-------
TABLE l|-3
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO INSTABILITY OF EARTH SLOPES
(After Varnes, 1958)
Factors that Contribute to High Shear Stress
Factors that Contribute to Low Shear Strength
A. Removal of lateral Support
1. Erosion - bank cuttiVig by streams and
rivers
2. Human agencies - cuts, canals, pits, etc.
B, Surcharge
1. Natural agencies - vt of snov, ice and
rainwater
2. Human agencies - fills, buildings, etc,
C, Transitory Earth Stresses - earthquakes
D. Regional Tilting
E. Removal of Underlying Support
1. Subaerial weathering - solutioning by
ground water
2. Subterranean erosion •• piping
3. Human agencies - mining
F. Lateral Pressures
1. Water in vertical cracks
2. Freezing water in cracks
3. Swelling
U, Root wedging
A, Initial State
1« Composition - inherently weak materials
2, Texture - loose soils, metastable grain
structures
J. Gross structure - faults, jointing, bedding
planes, varving, etc.
B» Changes Due to Weathering and Other Physico-
Chemical Reactions
1. Frost action and thermal expansion
2. Hydration of clay minerals
3. Drying and cracking **
k. Leaching
C. Changes in Intergrannular Forces Due to Pore Water
1. Buoyancy.in saturated state
2. Loss in capillary tension upon saturation
3. Seepage pressure of percolating ground water
D. Changes in Structure
1, Fissuring of preconsolidated clays due to
release of lateral restraint
2. Grain structure collapse upon disturbance
ro
-c=-
-------
4-25
2. Surcharge: At first glance this would appear to
increase shear stress, but the effect is largely
negated by a concomitant increase in shear strength
'due to the confining effect of the surcharge.
Furthermore, Bishop and Stevens (1964) estimate
that the surcharge due to the weight of the forest
(spruce and hemlock) amounts to only 50 psf. This
is equivalent to a layer of soil only 6 inches thick.
Although the surcharge will have little effect on
the calculated factor of safety, it will affect
creep rates to some extent as shown later.
3. 'Wind throwing' and 'root wedging*; Strong winds
blowing parallel to the.slope will exert an over-
turning moment on the trees. This can lead to so-
called wind throwing of trees which creates localized
disturbances in the soil mantle. Wind throwing is
a fairly common occurrence in some forests, but it
normally affects only aged and diseased trees. The
total down slope force created by a wind blowing
through a forest and hence its overall effect on
slope stability has never been evaluated. The
effect of root wedging, an alleged tendency of
roots to penetrate a soil, thereby loosening it up
or opening cracks and fissures, likewise is presently
unknown. Judging by evidence reported in the
literature, particularly the observations by Bishop
and Stevens (1964), the beneficial effects of root
systems on slope stability far outweigh any possible
adverse effects.
4. Modification of soil moisture distribution and pore
water pressure: Trees transpire water through their
leaves and this in turn depletes soil moisture.
Hoover (1953) has measured the ability of a pine
forest to deplete soil moisture to considerable depth
and to reduce or eliminate the runoff from winter
rains. Soil moisture depletion produces negative
pore water pressure (or suction), which as seen
previously is conducive to slope stability. A
forest can also intercept moisture either in the
crowns of trees or in the ground litter.
Gray developed three principal equations that can be used
to determine the influence of a key variable, such as piezo-
metric level on slope stability. These three equations concern
(1) factor of safety of the slope, (2) allowable height of
piezometric level, and (3) the maximum rate of planar depth
creep.
-------
4-26
Gray concluded that as the piezometric level approaches
the surface of the soil layer, the creep rate accelerates
markedly.
Through calculating a factor of safety, Gray maintains
it is possible to classify forested areas in terms of suscep-
tibility to slope failure based on slope data and measurement.
Gray concluded that by using "Ter-stepanian" equations we can
(1) classify forested areas in terms of susceptibility to
slope failure'based on slope data and measurements of soil
strength properties and average piezometric levels and (2)
evaluate the probable effect of clearcutting on slope stability
Swanston (1967) had good results in calculating the
critical piezometric level in a drainage basin in Southeast
Alaska.
Dyrness (196?) showed the relationship between the
occurrence of mass movement events and certain site factors
in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest.
The best means of preventing landslides, earth flows,
slips, and other mass soil movements is through consideration
of this aspect in the planning process and the avoidance of
critical areas.
Channel erosion. The logging debris in the streams can
divert stormflow from the channel to the road and/or the
streambank, resulting in excessive erosion (Lull and Reinhart,
1963). Rice and Wallis (1962) reported that 13* of the 3,000
feet of stream channel measured showed severe logging distur-
bance. In most cases, bulldozers had scoured or filled the
former channel.
-------
1-27
Suspended Organic Material
Logging and related activities can introduce living and
dead particles of plants into streams. The investigation in
this area has been sparse. As mentioned earlier, organic
sediments can degrade water quality by decreasing dissolved
oxygen in the water and by releasing organic solutes by
leaching.
Lammel (1973) described the natural debris accumulation
in five small streams in western Oregon. He found that, total
residue increased after clearcut falling in all streams
excep.t. the one w.ith a wide (50 m) buffer strip. Residue
volume increased from 1.2 to 3-3 times greater than before
falling. .But a prescribed method of felling can prevent
debris accumulation in the streams (Burwell9 1971; McGreer,
1973).
Froehlich (1973) reported that logging, especially at
the tree-falling stage, can produce large changes in debris
loads. .Directional falling with the tree-pulling system can
reduce quantity of material reaching the channel to a very
small amount. Buffer strips were found to be effective
debris barriers even when they were not continuous or of
large widths.
Meehan, _et al. (1969) noted that the number of large
pieces capable of jamming two Alaskan streams increased during
four years of patchcutting. One watershed was about 20% logged
and debris in the stream channel increased by 23%. About 25%
of the area was logged in the second watershed and debris in
-------
4-28
RAFT
the stream channel increased by 62%.. Debris in an unlogged
watershed nearby increased about 7/2 during the same period.
A major problem with debris in streams is that it forms
debris jams. Failure of debris Jam release vast quantities
of water together with logs, rocks, and impounded sediment.
This results in abrasion of the channel banks, exposing fresh
surface to erosion, as well as scouring the stream channels.
Sediment released by the failure is often distributed great
distances downstream, filling pools and the gravel bed of
streams.
Reforestation Effects on Suspended Sediments
The severely disturbed soils by logging recover very
slowly. The average time required for soil structure to
return to the undisturbed state was estimated to be from 9 to
18 years (Anderson, 1972; Hatchell, jet al. , 1970).
Tree planting on the areas recently clearcut and on
eroded soils in forested areas has been an increasingly
popular and effective practice to enhance water quality. The
Tennessee Valley Authority (1962) reported that tree planting
on the White Hollow and Pine Tree Branch Watersheds reduced
96% of sediment yield over a period of 20 years. Wark and
Keller (1963) showed that a five-fold increase in forest cover
produced an 18-fold reduction in sediment yield.
Ursic (1969) found that on two watersheds that were
burned and planted to pine in northern Mississippi, the average
sediment yield after 5 to 7 years was less than one-half of
that during the years prior to planting when sediment was
-------
4-29
DRAFT
very high due to logging and burning. .Ursic (1965) also found
that establishing pine on actively eroding abandoned fields
had in two decades reduced sedimentation to amounts probably
not in excess of the geologic norm for undisturbed climax
forests of northern Mississippi.
Effect of Sediment on Fish Eeeources
There are essentially two mechanisms by which sediment
can affect reproduction via the "redd" environment—it affects
the intragravel water flow or acts as a physical barrier to
emergence. A small percentage increase of sediment less than
3.327 mm or 0.833 mm in a given stream could reduce the
emergent fry survival and the reproductive capabilities of
that stream considerably (Koski, 1972).
Chapman (1962) investigated the effects of logging upon
fish resources in the West Coast. He found that when slash
was not removed from a stream after logging, there was a 75%
decrease in spawning salmon because of the migration barrier.
-------
•4-30
Thermal Pollution
Stream temperature, as a water quality parameter modified
by silvicultural practices, is of prime importance in modifi-
cation of the aquatic ecosystems. Thermal pollution, especially
in coastal Oregon has gained much attention, as the streams
and rivers of this area provide a habitat to valuable anadromous
and resident fish species. Temperature increases can have a
profound influence on dissolved oxygen, disease, increased
competition from undesirable species, and vitality. Even
direct mortality can result from Increased stream temperatures.
Stream eutrophication is also associated with increased
temperatures.
Daily temperature variation in undisturbed streams is
approximately 2.2°C(4°P) or more. This value will increase
to about 5.6°C(10°P) or higher when all shade along the stream
has been removed. In instances where the natural stream
temperatures are in the upper range of the fish requirements,
the complete removal of streamside vegetation and exposure of
the stream to direct solar radiation can raise temperatures
above the tolerance limits of most salmonoids.
Logging Activities and Their Effects
Temperature change brought about by logging is directly
proportional to the amount of exposure to solar radiation the
stream surface experiences and the heat load applied to this
surface area. However, the change of temperature is inversely
proportional to the rate of flow (Brown, 1970). This can
be expressed in the form:
-------
DRAFT
AT = 0. 00026? (AxH)
D
where AT = predicted change In temperature
A = surface area in square feet of the
stream exposed by clearcutting,
excluding isolated pools
H = rate of heat absorbed by the stream
in British Thermal Units
D = minimum discharge rate in cubic
feet per second
0.000267 = the constant that converts discharge
in cubic feet per second to pounds
of water per minute
For a detailed description of the application of the method
see Brown (1969).
Recent studies suggest that stream temperatures are most
drastically altered during periods of low flow after removal
of a high percentage of streamside vegetation. Therefore, any
logging method or sllvicultural activity that exposes a large
area of the stream surface to sunlight can cause substantial
changes in water temperature, especially during low flow
periods.
As shown in Table 4-^4, numerous studies have provided data
to substantiate the inference that stream temperatures increase
when streamside vegetation is removed. The amount of tempera-
ture increase is proportional to the factors cited above. It
is clear that increased exposure to solar radiation caused by
the removal of riparian vegetation is the major factor.
However, it is noted that certain stream characteristics can
mute the impact of incident radiation on temperature increases.
-------
Table 4-4. Variation in Stream
Treatment
1. Watershed of 850 acres
with 2555 clearcut in
three patches, buffer
strips used (50-100 ft.
wide)
2. 175-acre watershed,
clearcut burned and no
buffers
3. Clearcut, no buffer
Most riparian vegetation
removed (due to flood
scour)
Debris accumulated in
stream and provided .shade
Slash burning
5. Clearcut, no buffer
6. Compared unshaded stream
to shaded undisturbed
forest stream
7. Lower half of watershed
clearcut
Temperatures Due to Removal of
Temperature Variations
No significant change in
stream temperatures
+14° P mean monthly maximum
+28° F annual maximum
(570 to 85° F) significantly
higher maximum stream temper-
atures in growing season,
lower minimum in dormant
+7° - 120 p mean monthly
maximum
+4° P mean monthly maximum
+14° F mean monthly maximum
+9° P mean monthly maximum
+9° to 20° F maximum on
unshaded stream
+7° F maximum increase
Streamside Vegetation
Source Remarks
Brown & Krygier,
1970
Brown & Krygier,
.1970
Eschnaer, 1963
Levno &
Rothacher, 1967
Levno &
Rothacher, 1967
Levno &
Rothacher, 1969
Meehan et al.,
1969
Green, 1950
Patric, 1969
Oregon Coastal
Streams
rv>
0.01 cfs during
low flow
Location West
Virginia
Oregon Cascades
Oregon Cascades
Oregon Cascades
Southeast Alaska
Coweeta Experimental
Forest, North
Carolina
West Virginia
-------
Table 4-4. Continued
Treatment
Temperature Variations
8. Complete removal of stream- +12° P maximum increase
side vegetation on 70-and (66° to 78° P)
23-acre watersheds
9- Various logging methods
that left no riparian
vegetation
10. Removal of riparian and
surrounding trees
11. Clearcut, no buffer
(175 acres)
12. Removal of riparian
vegetation by fire
13• Various logging methods
Use of buffer and alter-
nate cut and uncut blocks
on stream
Water temperature increased
about 1.5° to 2.0° F per
mile in unshaded areas com-
pared to 0.5° P per mile in
shaded areas
Produced a marked rise in
summer temperatures
+16° P (59° to 75° F)
maximum increase
Maximum diurnal fluctua-
tions were 29° P before
cutting
+10° F maximum increase
Increase in maximum temper-
ature (stream temperature
seldom exceeded 70° P
because of cool climate
of coastal fog belt)
Temperatures remained
normal
Source
Swift & Messer,
1971
Fisk, 1966
Gray & Edington,
1969
HalL, 1967
Hall, 1969
Helvey, 1972
Kopperdahl et al.,
1971
Remarks
Southern
Appalachians
California
Redwood Forests
i
U)
UJ
Oregon Coastal
Streams
North-Central
Washington
Northern California
Coastal Streams
-------
Table 4-4. Continued
Treatment
14. Clearcut
15- Clearcut and burned, no
buffer
16. Clearcut, no buffer
Temperature Variations
+10.3° F maximum mean weekly
difference; maximum stream
temperature was 70.5° P.
+9° P mean daily difference
between control and cut areas
+11° F (59° - 70° F)
was difference between
upstream timbered sections
and downstream logged areas.
Temperatures greater than
68° F lasted only a few
hours each day.
Notes that stream temper-
atures increase much more
rapidly than in unlogged
areas and maximum stream
temperature was reached
2.5 hours after peak solar
radiation.
Source
Likens et al.,
1970
Remarks
New Hampshire,
White Mountains
Narver, 1972
Coastal Streams of
Vancouver Island
Salo et al., 1973
Salmon Streams of
Southeast Alaska
-------
4-35
According to equation (4..1), the temperature change
brought about by a specified quantity of heat is inversely
proportional to the volume of water heated, i.e.j the discharge
of the stream. Therefore, streams with low discharge rates
should heat faster and undergo a higher maximum change in
temperature. Variation in the magnitude of temperature
changes observed in several different studies is partially
due to this factor.
The stream surface area exposed to the sun by clear-
cutting is another important factor which causes variation .
in the magnitude of temperature change. As mentioned earlier,
temperature change and stream surface area exposed are directly
proportional. Therefore, the temperature of a narrow, deep
stream will not increase as rapidly nor to the same level as
a wide, shallow stream of equal discharge rate. The latter
is an important, factor to consider when comparing and analyzing
absolute temperature changes from various studies following
logging.
One final consideration that can be a source of variation
in results from study to study is the amount of heat absorption
by the streambed. On small, clear streams a high percentage
of the solar radiation incident on the stream will be trans-
mitted to the bottom. Depending on the nature of the stream
bottom, heat flow can be as high as 15 to 20% of the incident
heat (Brown, 1969). Consequently, maximum temperatures will
be lower and a lower duirnal fluctuation will be observed.
-------
4-36
Also, the streambed will emit heat during the night,
thereby reducing minimum nocturnal temperatures.
Water Temperature Manipulation
The preceding discussion suggests that thermal pollution
of forest streams is basically the result of the absence of
protection from direct solar energy. Therefore, any silvi-
cultural activity that removes riparian vegetation will subject
water temperatures to substantially higher radiation loads,
depending on amount of increased exposure of the stream to
solar energy. Other factors such as increased suspended
sediment and debris accumulations can also produce changes in
water temperature by altering the spectral properties and
discharge of the stream. Accumulations of logging residuals
in the stream will decrease the current and broaden the surface
area. These conditions, are likely to produce greater tempera-
ture increases also, since more surface area is. present to
absorb direct solar radiation for a longer period of time.
However, conditions such as these usually don't create thermal
pollution problems to the degree that the removal of riparian
vegetation does.
Consequently, the primary concern of the land manager
during any silvicultural operation is that of preventing thermal
pollution of small streams by controlling streamside vegetation.
The practices to be adopted depend on existing water quality
standards and the nature of the aquatic ecosystem.
The use of buffer strips between the logged area and the
stream has proven to be effective in preventing increases in
-------
4-37
FT
water temperatures (Brown and Krygier, 1970; Brown, et al,,
1971; Swift and Messer, 1971). Table 4-4 shows clearly that
a buffer strip substantially reduces net radiation incident on
the stream when compared to no protection at all. The
effectiveness of buffer strips has been repeatedly shown
by a number of studies (Brown and Krygier, 1970; Brown,
e_t al., 1971; Swift and Messer, 1971). The global
radiation is the amount received from above the vegetational
cover. Global radiation minus reflection is the expected net
radiation, i.e., the amount of energy the stream surface would
receive if shade from trees was not available. The net
radiation for Cedar Creek was recorded within an uncut block
of timber. The net radiation for Little Rock Creek was
recorded within a 50 to 80 foot wide buffer strip. Note that
the strip was nearly as effective as the uncut block in
attenuating the solar energy.
To be effective the buffer strip must prevent a significant
change in the area of the stream which is exposed. The
orientation of the stream is highly important. For example,
if the stream flows in an east-west direction, a buffer strip
on the north side would be ineffective in shading and con-
trolling stream .water temperatures.
The efficiency of a buffer strip is best estimated by
measuring the angular canopy density rather than width or
height of the streamside vegetation (Brazier and Brown, 1972).
That portion of the canopy actually providing shade to the
stream during the critical midday hours can be determined
-------
FT
using a canopy mirror placed in the stream, pointed south and
tilted to the complement of the zenith angle of the sun during
the period of high thermal loading. Using this method, vegeta-
tion providing the actual shade can be left and the rest removed
if desired.
Equation 1 can be used to obtain estimates on the limits
of exposure of streams without imposing detrimental effects to
valuable fish populations. Table *J-5 lists desirable temperature
limits. Given a maximum temperature that can be tolerated,
equation 1 can be rearranged to determine the maximum amount
of stream area (A) that can be exposed.
Since small streams drain into larger tributaries, one
must consider downstream impacts as well. The thermal effect
of a tributary entering into a main stream can be estimated by
the following equation:
Adjusted temperature = Dm T + Dt Tt (4.2)
Dm + Dt
where D is the discharge, T is temperature, and the subscripts
m and t denote the temperature and discharges of the main
stream and tributary. This equation weights the resultant
temperature by discharge. A small tributary entering into a
large mainstream will have a negligible effect on mainstream
temperatures. However, if a large area is clearcut and the
tributaries draining these areas all have high temperatures,
their impact on the mainstream can be significant.
A heated stream is cooled as it continues downstream
due both to the inflow of cooler tributary streams and the
-------
4-39
Table 4-5. Optimum Temperatures for Pish Life
Optimum Temperatures
Resident situations (trout)
winter 42 - 58° F
summer 45 - 68° P
Migration.routes (anadromous
salmonoids) 45 - 60° F
Spawning areas (resident and
anadromous salmonoids) 45 - 55° F
Rearing areas (resident and
anadromous salmonoids) 50 - 60° F
-------
4-40
presence of shade as it passes through .protected areas. The
shade does not cool water in streams, rather, it reduces
variations in stream temperatures (EPA #430, 1973).
It should be pointed out that in cases where riparian
vegetation has been removed completely and stream temperatures
increased significantly, maximum temperatures will drop as the
area revegetates and shade is again provided. In some cases
stream temperatures have nearly returned to those of pre-
logging levels within three or four years.
Thermal pollution of streams by silvicultural activities
can be controlled, if the forester carefully plans various
operations with emphasis on maintaining streamside vegetation
to control temperature fluctuations within a predetermined
range. The amount of shade and the logging technique, of
course, will vary with each stream. By using the above
relationships water quality can be preserved during and after
removal of the timber.
Solar loading has been identified as the most important
factor in increasing the temperature of streams. Maintenance
of buffer strips in a relatively undisturbed fashion has been
suggested and demonstrated as a solution on research water-
sheds. Coastal Alaska has identified potential decreases in
water temperature by increased radiation loss as an important
aspect of buffer strip removal. Cold conditions allow the
development of increased amounts of anchor-ice which
physically damage eggs while they are in the gravel through
freezing. If forest canopy removal increases the insulation
-------
4-41
value of a snowpack over a stream, then removal of the buffer
strip maintains higher water temperatures. Portions of the
western Olympics and southeast Alaska would benefit from
increased low temperatures as many of the smaller headwater
streams are below optimum temperature. Increasing average
low temperatures without detrimental effect on maximum
temperatures is a complex problem.
-------
ChemlcL.1 Pollution
This discussion of organic and chemical "pollutants" from
logging activities is divided into two sections: (1) dissolved
inorganic materials including both minerals and oxygen and
(2) dissolved organic materials from forest debris, i.e.,
leaves, bark, logs, etc. that accumulated due to logging, and
the storage and rafting of logs in lakes and rivers as well as
saltwater lays and estuaries. These constituents, of course,
occur naturally in streams. However, they are regarded as
"pollutants" when concentrated to abnormally high levels due
to the activities of man on forested watersheds.
Alteration of the aquatic ecosystem by the production of
algae blooms is oftentimes considered to be the major undesirable
effect of chemical pollutants. Changes in color, odor, and
taste are also frequently cited as undesirable effects.
Dissolved oxygen deficits often occur due to the death and
decay of the algae which removes oxygen from the. water by
aerobic decomposition. All of these can be toxic to fish and
other aquatic organisms. Under some circumstances, particu-
larly where the stream is municipal water source, effects on
potability must be considered.
Research on this subject has been relatively sparse. The
literature indicates that the impact of logging activities
through chemical pollutants varies greatly from one area to
another, depending on various factors such as soil type,
vegetation recovery rate, mode of precipitation, to name
only a few.
-------
FT
During the past few years the quality of water, especially
in small streams from forested watersheds, has been under more
intense investigation. The influence of water quality on
native and anadromous fish population is of particular con-
cern. The streams of the coastal regions of Oregon and
Washington, which are important rearing areas for these fish,
are supplied by water from forests subjected to several
impacts of forest management practices. The result of these
activities-can and often does produce changes in the chemistry
of dissolved water. The harvesting of timber generally
accelerates the addition of both dissolved inorganic and
organic substances into the stream. The effect of these
materials which result from logging activities is at present
not entirely clear.
Effects of Logging Activities
Disturbance of the forest, whether by man or by natural
disasters, tends to produce similar results—a disruption in
the nutrient cycle. Since water is the primary transporter
of these dissolved constituents, variations in concentrations
in streams will result from all forms of disturbance. The
trees, once removed, no longer take up nutrients. Logging
residue increases the quantity of forest litter. Also,
removal of the forest canopy produces drastic changes in the
microclimate. The temperature and moisture content of the
soil increases, thereby promoting increase in the activity of
microorganisms that decompose forest litter. The level of
anions necessary for the leaching of cations from the disturbed
-------
watershed is raised as a result of this sequence of events.
Increases in dissolved organic material in streams can also
result from an accumulation of logging debris in the stream
itself.
Dissolved inorganic constituents.
Minerals (nutrients). The level of concentration of
nutrients in streams draining watersheds which have been cut
and/or burned is dependent on several factors Including soil
type, forest type, climate, and method of treatment (see
Table 4-6).
Brown (1972) explains that:
Soil characteristics, such as porosity and
texture determine the pathway and rate of
water movement in or over soil, soil
erodibility, and how strongly nutrients
will be held within the soil matrix. Vege-
tation characteristics, such as species
composition, influence the rate of nutrient
uptake. The revegetation rate influences
the rapidity with which recycling begins
after system disruption. The form, chemistry,
amount, and Intensity of precipitation
influence the leaching rate.
Table 4-6 describes how concentrations of nutrients vary
with different treatments and site conditions. Studies at the
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, of which there were two
(Pierce, et al., 1972; Likens, et al.. 1970), showed
relatively large increases in most cations following treatment.
In the first study a herbicide was applied after the vegeta-
tion had been cut and left. In a second study commercially
valuable timber was removed after clearcutting. Both studies
showed increased concentrations of the nitrate anion and of
several cations. The latter study, in which the logs were
-------
Table 4-6. Forestry Practice Impacts on Dissolved Inorganic Materials
Treatment . Variations in Concentration Maximums (mg/1) Source
1. Clearcut
(12 h'a)
(29-7 acres)
2. Clearcut
3-
Clearcut
and left
(nothing
removed)
Before Clearcut After Clearcut
NOf 2 . 0
Ca ++• 1.5
Mg++ 0 . 4
K+ 0.3
Na+ 1 . 3
SOii" 7.0
NHn + 0.3
Cl 0.7
Average Maximum
November, 1971,
(1
Concentrations
for 7 Clearcut
year)
23.0
3.0
0.8
1.2
1.3
6.0
0.7
0.9
(mg/1) April-
Watersheds
After Clearcut Control
N03" 2-9
Ca++ 2.7
16.7
5.3
Maximum Concentrations (mg/1)
Before
Clearcut
N03~ 1 . 0
Ca;H- 2.5
Mg++ 0 . 4
K+ 0.5
Na+ 1 . 6
SQf 7.8
Cl - 0.8
S102 5.5
Al 0.2
After
Clearcut
90.0
12.0
2.0
4.2
2-7
5-2
1.4
7-6
3-2
Control
(uncut)
4.0
1.8
0.4
0.3
1.1
8.0
1.0
7.5
0.3
Pierce et al.,
1972
Remarks
Conducted in the White
Mountains of New Hampshire.
Shallow, infertile, pod-
zolized soils, 20% slope,
south facing cut in 1970.
i
-Cr
Ul
Pierce et al.,
1972
Liken et al.,
1970
Same conditions as above
except slope and aspect.
These watersheds were cut
in 1968, 1969, and 1970.
Same locations as above.
Cut in 1965 (Oct-Nov).
No logging or roads.
Herbicide applied.
-------
Table 4-6. Continued
Treatment
4. Clearcut and
slash burning
Variations in Concentration (mg/1)
Maximum
(after cutting
and burning)
12-Day Average
Clearcut Control
NQ3-
Ca-H-
Mg++
K+
Na+
P04
HCOo
NHo
Fe
Mn
0.60
31-0
10.8
4.4
6.7
0.13
21.6
7.6
0.04
0.44
0.43
17.0
6.4
1.89
4.90
0.05
15.8
1.19 '
*
0.11
0.01
4.1
1.3
0.49
3.0
0.05
4.11
*
*
*
Clearcut
with rain-
storms
*Below level of detection
Annual Net Losses
Ca++
Na+
47 kg/ha
28 kg/ha
11 kg/ha
1.5 kg/ha
5- Clearcut of 25$
in 3 small patches
(buffer strips of
alder left)
Clearcut and
burned
Maximum
NO.
N03~
Before
Cutting
3-20
0.75
After
Cutting
2.96
2.10
Control
2.82
Other elements showed no increase
or increased only slightly after
treatment.
Source
Fredriksen,
1971
Fredriksen,
1972
Alsea Water-
shed Study
(Brown, 1972)
Remarks
Old growth Douglas-fir
stands in Oregon's Cascade
Range. Soils range from
shallow and stony to moder-
ately deep, well-developed
profiles. The three most
prominent soils average
about 380 cm in depth and
vary in texture from loam
to clay loam.
-Cr
I
-Cr
cr\
Annual loss of nutrient is
dominated by winter rain-
storms arising from the
Pacific Ocean through
Douglas-fir ecosystem.
The control and the 25%
clearcut watersheds were
covered with Douglas-fir
and alder in equal propor-
tions with alder on the
streamslde sites. The tota
clearcut and burned water-
shed was predominantly
Douglas-fir. The study area
was in the Oregon Coast
Range.
-------
able 4-6. Continued
reatment Maximum Concentrations (PPM) In Overland Flow
Control
Clearcut
and burned
Clearcut
Clearcut
1 yr after Control
treatment
P
Mg
Ca
58
9
13-5
10
0.6
7.5
2 yr after
treatment
4
1
6
PPM
6
0.3
6
NO.
Maximum
6.4
A.verage Range
1.3 to 4.5
The effect on other nutrients
was negligible.
Measured elemental movement in soil water and
concluded that "total elemental movement, as
measured by N, K, Ca, increased slightly from
both the forest floor and 3$ in. depth. In
all cases, the amount is less than 1% of the
total element in the soil system moved below
36 in. The increase in release of elements was
greatest immediately after clearcutting, after
which the release of elements in the drainage
water was equal to or less than the original
level. In all cases, elemental movement was
greatest at the beginning of the wet season
in September and October. Because of the in-
creased amounts of water passing through the
soil after clearcutting, the actual elemental
composition of the drainage water was lower."
Source
DeByle and
Packer, 1972
Reinhart,
1973
Gessel and
Cole, 1965
Remarks
This study was done in the
larch and Douglas-fir forest
types. The concentrations
recorded were of overland
flow and not taken directly
from streams.
Study area in White Moun-
tains of New Hampshire. Pod-
zol soils with large accumu-
lation of organic matter on
surface and mineral horizons
generally low in available
nutrients and low ability
to retain nutrients.
Study area is the Cedar
River watershed which is a
source of the Seattle
City water supply.
-------
Table 4-6. Continued
Treatment
9. Wildfire
Variations in Water Quality
No specific effect of fire on the ionic com-
position of the stream. It was postulated
that ash constluents were dissolved by light
rainfall and leached into the permeable
forest soil before the first snow. Because
of the acidic nature of the soil, the dis-
solved cations were absorbed on the exchange
complex rather than washed directly into
the stream.
No abnormal concentrations of dissolved
oxygen, alkalinity hardness, dissolved
solids, phosphate, chloride, sulfate,
nitrate, tannin and lignin, or pH were
detected. Carbon dioxide was low in most
streams, except in one where it reached
8 ppm during decomposition of logging
debris in the summer of 1968.
.1. Clearcutting The net losses of Ca++, Mg++, Na+, and K+
were 9, 8, 3 and 20 times greater, respec-
tively than similar losses from undisturbed.
.0. Logging and
road con-
struction
Source
Johnson and
Needham,
1966
Kopperdahl
et al., 1971
Bormann
et al., 1968
Remarks
The study was made in
California on a mountain-
bus area of an altitude of
5,000 feet on well drained
soils of andesite and
andesite breccia parent
material.
Water quality was monitored
in six coastal streams in
northern California. Four
were subjected to logging
(method not described) and
two were controls.
Determine the effects of
removal of vegetation on
nutrient yields.
-------
T
removed and the site was allowed to revegetate, showed less
drastic increases in ion concentrations. This change was
attributed to the revegetation of the site which tends to
minimize nutrient losses and thus promote "a return to steady-
state cycling characteristic of a mature forest" (Marks and
Bororan, 1972). The shading of the forest floor by the new
vegetation reduces surface temperatures and the rate of
decomposition of organic matter.
Prom Table 4-6 it can be seen that in almost all cases
most nutrients exhibited increased concentrations following
harvesting on the watershed. In the majority of cases, the
increase was small and declined rapidly as the watershed was
revegetated.
In summary, nutrient concentrations following logging are
a result of several characteristics that describe a watershed,
i.e., soil, vegetation, and climate. Vegetation characteristics,
such as species composition, influence the rate of nutrient
uptake. The rate of revegetation influences the rapidity with
which recycling begins after watershed disturbance. Several
characteristics of the soil such as porosity and texture,
determine the pathway and the rate of water movement in or
over soil. These same characteristics also Influence soil
erodibility and the tenacity with which the nutrients are held
within the soil matrix. The form, chemistry, amount, and
intensity of precipitation influences the rate of leaching.
Dissolved oxygen. The character and productivity of
aquatic ecosystems in small, forested streams is significantly
-------
4-50
FT
influenced by the concentration of dissolved oxygen (D.O.).
Pish and other aquatic organisms depend on oxygen for survival,
growth, and development. Various forestry practices change
the D.O. concentration in small streams, either directly or
indirectly. Changes in stream temperature brought about by
the removal of streamside vegetation, increases in nutrient
concentrations as a result of harvesting, and the accumulation
of logging debris in the stream are some of the more important
practices which effect D.O. concentration.
Dissolved oxygen in a stream is a function of the water
temperature, Churchill e_t al, (1962) have reported an empirical
equation for calculating the temperature effect on dissolved
oxygen:
S = 14.652 - 0.41022T + 0.0079910T2 - 0.000077774T3
Where: S = the solubility of oxygen, mg/1
And: T =* .temperature, °C
Channel characteristics, such as slope, roughness, and
cross-section, which controls the rate of oxygen exchange
between water and air, also have a significant effect on D.O.
concentrations.
Aquatic microorganisms utilize organic materials in the
stream as a source of energy and thereby modify oxygen
content. The organic material is often described as the bio-
chemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD represents the amount of
x_
oxygen required by microorganisms for decomposing organic
materials in the stream.
Forestry practices can influence the amount of oxygen in
-------
4-51
T
streams in several ways. Removing vegetation that shades the
stream will increase the water .temperature and lower the D.O.
The accumulation of logging debris in streams influences oxygen
levels in two ways: (1) Needles, small branches, bark, etc.
which contain organic substances are rapidly leached into the
stream and consumed by the microorganisms. These materials
have a very high BOD. (2) The restriction of water by debris
.dams reduces aeration. This ponding effect increases stream
surface area and accentuates temperature increases.
The increased concentrations of nutrients leached from
the forest floor can also cause oxygen deficits indirectly.
Stream eutrophication can result from an increased concentration
of nutrients. Subsequently, when the stream flora dies, large
amounts of oxygen can be consumed in the decay process.
Unfortunately, a minimum of research results are available
in this domain. A study by Hall and Lantz (1969) showed._that
in one short reach of a stream containing an accumulation of
debris, D.O. levels dropped to less than 1.0 ppm. On a nearby
watershed that was not logged, D.O. levels were at the satura-
tion level of about 10 ppm. After stream cleaning and the
removal of debris from the channel by fall rains, surface
waters returned to saturation levels of oxygen.
Slack and Feltz (1968) have reported the effect of leaf
fall on water quality changes in a small Virginia stream.
Oxygen concentration dropped from 8 to less than 1 mg/1 when
leaf fall rate increased from 2 to 2g/m2 day ~1. After natural
flushing by a storm the D.O. climbed to a level greater than
11 mg/1.
-------
FT
A recent study by Ponce (1974) includes data describing
the potential, for oxygen extraction by decomposition of finely
divided logging debris and slash typical of that found in the
Pacific Northwest. This data on oxygen depletion might prove
to be useful in developing a predictive model for water
quality management on forested lands.
The storage of logs in water produces'leachates with a
significant quantity of BOD substances. Atkinson (1971)
found that the highest BOD, 1.36/ft. of submerged surface
area, was exerted by leachates from ponderosa pine stored
with the bark removed. The study also included Douglas fir
and western hemlock.
Narver (1970) found that the introduction of logging
debris particularly leaves, small branches and bark into a
stream can result in a change in the D.O. content of the
water. He also noted that soluable organic substances such as
woodsugars, leached from logs, exerts a considerable C.O.D.
(chemical oxygen demand). Further, rate of leaching did not
decline over a period of 80 days.
Dissolved organic constituents. It is now recognized
that the .presence of logging slash in streams, as well as the
storage of logs in water, can result in the introduction of
leachates in the water. Some of these leachates are toxic to
fish and other aquatic organisms. The taste, color, and odor
of the water can also be degraded due to high concentrations
of organic solutes. Nevertheless, relatively few studies are
available which report measurements of organic solutes in
water resulting from forestry practices.
-------
4-53
FT
Atkinson (1971) points out that test results show that
leachates removed from Douglas fir logs stored in fresh water
possess a slight acute toxlcity. to fish. A TLmg/- of 2D%
leachate by volume, for a 50-year-old Douglas fir log, was the
most toxic leachate observed. Leachates from ponderosa pine,
hemlock, and older Douglas fir logs stored under identical
conditions produced no measurable acute toxicity.
Buchanan (1971) tested the toxicity of spruce bark,
hemlock bark,' and barite ore to Dungeness crab and shrimp
larvae. He found that spruce bark'had the highest toxicity
of the three materials tested. When cessation of swimming
was used as a criterion of toxic effect, the 24-hour EC,-Q
levels wer.e 53 and 210 mg/1 for shrimp and crab larvae,
respectively, and the 48-hour ECCQ'S were 45 and 190 mg/1,
respectively. Hemlock bark proved to be the least toxic.
Buchanan and Tate (1973) also tested the. acute toxicity
of sitka spruce and western hemlock bark to pink salmon fry,
adults and larvae of pink shrimp, and the larvae of Dungeness
crab. Using death as the criterion, the 96-hour Ec,-n for
spruce bark leachates to salmon fry was 100 to 120 mg/1. The
96-hour Echo's for hemlock using death was 56 mg/1. Although
hemlock had little effect on the invertebrates tested, spruce
bark leachates were consistently toxic to both vertebrates
and invertebrates. Using death again, the 96-hour ECCQ'S
for spruce bark leachates to larval shrimp, adult shrimp, and
larval crabs were 415, 205 and 530 mg/1, respectively. The
96-hour ECCQ'S using loss of swimming for larval shrimp and
-------
4-51
DR
larval crabs were 155 and 255 mg/1, respectively. For shrimp
larvae, spruce bark particles were found to be 2 to 6 times
more toxic than leachates.
A study by Graham (1970) on the quantity and properties
of substances leached from logs floating in water, and the
rate of leaching of these substances reports that ponderosa
pine logs contributed measurably greater quantities of soluble
organic materials and color-producing substances than Douglas-
fir logs. Leaching rate appeared to be affected by the con-
centration of soluble organic materials in the stagnant
holding water. However, experiments showed that in flowing
water the leaching rate was nearly constant. Extrapolation of
laboratory test data to field conditions resulted in a
prediction that 800 pounds of COD per day would be contributed
by approximately 8 million board feet of floating logs to a
typical log storage facility.
Narver (1970) believes that soluble organic materials
such as wobdsugars, tannins, and lignln-llke substances
leached from logs can produce a considerable COD along with
yellow and brown colors in water.
A recent study by Ponce (1971*) to determine the BOD of
finely divided logging debris in stream water resulted in an
indirect measure of soluble organic leachates. He also
determined the toxicity of the leachates on guppies and steel-
head trout fry. The concentration of material needed to
produce toxic effects was so high that oxygen depletion probably
would be responsible for death long before the leachate had
effect.
-------
4-55
Schaumburg (1970) proposes that large accumulations of
logging debris in a small sluggish stream could result in
toxic concentrations of log leachates.
-------
5-1
PLANNING AND CONTROL
DRAFT
Previous sections of this report have outlined sub-
regions of Region X, described the forest practices utilized
in the Region and presented research summaries concerning the
impacts of such forest practices on water quality. This
section presents a summary of planning and control methods
which represent the state-of-the-art for preventing water
pollution from logging, residue management and reforestation.
The purpose of this study was not to develop new methods but
to summarize existing technology.
Most of the information in.this section has been ex-
cerpted from the literature concerning water quality and
forest management. Only the Information relating logging,
residue management and reforestation to water quality protec-
tion, and to some degree fisheries, is presented. In some
cases, the total context of the original paper may be obscure;
however, the meaning and significance of the water quality
portions of such information have been preserved. A small
percentage of this section, by necessity, results from the
objective synthesization of available Information for the
specific purposes of this report.
Timber harvest has certain features that relate to water
quality protection, as follows:
o the activity is areally dispersed and distributed
over time
o physical, biological and chemical factors vary
-------
5-2
DRAFT
considerably from site to site and from sub-region
to sub-iregion, resulting in widely varying water
pollution potentials
o levels and types of management quality control cover
a wide range within the region
o the knowledge and field testing of methods for re-
ducing water quality impacts vary significantly
within the four-state study area
o the values and uses of similar water bodies differ
from one sub-region to another
For these reasons, water quality improvement technology
for timber management activities is distinguished from point
source control technology, industrial, municipal and other
point source effluents can generally be adequately improved
through a more specific, narrower range of alternative methods
than pollutant discharges from nonpoint sources. These basic
differences result in a much greater potential for improving
the quality of runoff from timber harvest areas through site-
specific, interdisciplinary planning than for point source
discharges. Certain standard requirements for timber harvest-
ing can be beneficial for water quality purposes, but the
greatest potential benefit appears to involve site-specific
planning. This section of the report includes sub-sections
on planning and control.
-------
5-3
Planning
DRAFT
Planning Is the process of analyzing and evaluating
potential future actions and their Implications, followed by
the selection of a plan that can best realize multiple goals.
These goals should be determined early in the process, but
after some of the base data and site conditions are under-
stood. Planning is best summarized as the process of fore-
thought and strategy selection. It must be followed by
implementation, meaning the transformation of the plan into
action programs, projects and performance criteria. Figure
5-1 illustrates a basic planning methodology.
Basic Methodology
Water quality planning on forest lands should be integrated
into a comprehensive forest land use planning effort and not
treated as a separate process. The team of planners respon-
sible for such planning on forest lands should be interdis-
ciplinary and include the following types of backgrounds:
o aquatic biology and water quality
o forestry
o soils/geology
o hydrology and geohydrology
o fisheries and wildlife
o engineering
o economics
In addition, the planning team should include represen-
tation by the pertinent federal, .state and local agencies
-------
PUBLIC
INPUT
5-4
DETERMINATION OF CONDITIONS
Problems, Needs and Opportunities
I
INFORMATION COLLECTION
I
ANALYSIS
FORMULATION OF
ALTERNATIVE PLAN ELEMENTS
I
IMPACT PREDICTION
i
DETERMINATION OF
PRIORITIES, GOALS
AND OBJECTIVES
SYNTHESIS OF
ALTERNATIVE OPTIMUM PLANS
SELECTION
I
IMPLE MENT A TIO N
Action Plans and Programs
Policies and
Performance Criteria
DRAFT
FIGURE 5-1. BASIC PLANNING METHODOLOGY
-------
5-5
DRAFT
such as fish and wildlife, planning and environmental agencies.
For nonpublic lands, formal interagency planning teams may not
be feasible. However, the interdisciplinary nature of the
effort is still important, and early involvement of state,
federal and local .regulatory agencies can save time in the
long run.
The planning methodology depleted in Figure 5-1 should
not be interpreted to imply that all elements of forest land
planning must proceed simultaneously through this procedural
logic. The basic data required for decision-making in certain
planning areas may be adequate much earlier than in other
areas, and the needs more critical. Most importantly, some
types of early decisions do not preclude other important
planning options. Once the information base .is adequate for
these limited-committal decisions, it may be acceptable, and
often desirable, to initiate limited action early in the pro-
cess, provided that proper plan selection procedures are
followed. For example, it may be desirable to revegetate the
critical slope areas within a previously logged watershed
before finalization of a comprehensive land use plan due to
a) critical water quality needs for early revegetation,--b)
program scheduling needs and early availability of manpower
and/or funds, and c) the non-preclusion of other management
options. The following criteria should be satisfied in order
for such early decisions to be advisable:
o other important management/planning options are
not precluded,
-------
5-6
DRAFT
o the information base is adequate for the type of
decision contemplated, and
o delayed action would result in adverse effects on
the basic physical resources involved.
An important additional consideration affecting the
desirability of such early decision-making would be the
availability of financial or manpower resources now that
might not be available at the time of plan finalization.
The planning process must be a continuing program, not
only to direct land mangement in new geographic areas, but
to refine, revise or expand previously made planning deci-
sions in response to pew or feedback information. The
success of planning and implementation programs should be
monitored and evaluated continually. As such information is
fed back into the ongoing planning process, existing land
use plans may require revision to provide for greater
efficiency and effectiveness.
The following discussion follows the methodology pre-
sented in Figure 5-1:
Basic information. The first phases of a forest land
use planning process should involve a) a determination of the
conditions which will constrain the planning, and b) collec-
tion and analysis of the Information and data pertinent to
the study. Certain types of information required for the
planning will be available, but additional data may be neces-
sary. In general, the type of forest land information re-
quired for water quality planning includes:
-------
5-7
DRAFT
1. soils
2. geologic
3. hydrologic and geohydrologic
ty. tree species, forest types and stand densities
5. water quality (background and existing levels)
6. topographic
7. meteorologic
8. erosion rates and sediment yields
9. aquatic and/or marine biology
There are numerous potential sources of such information
which are outlined later in this section. For most studies,
however, many of the information needs will require collect-
ing or assembly specifically for the planning study.
A preliminary overview of the study area's intrinsic
physical/environmental, social and economic qualities is
needed to determine the problems, needs and opportunities
requiring emphasis. Public involvement is advisable during
this phase, which in effect.is the first attempt to set
study goals. General information requirements are defined
and the method and scope to be used are determined.
Alternative plan elements. During this phase, the
planning study is divided into logically separable elements
(e.g., logging method selection), analyzed, and the impact
and implications predicted. Such impact prediction should
include environmental, social, economic and financial analy-
ses. All such elements and their impacts are interrelated,
necesitating a reiterative type of analysis where the effects
-------
5-8
DRAFT
of one alternative and its mitigation measures are taken into
consideration in the analysis of other elements. The number
of Interrelationships requiring separate analysis, however,
can usually be minimized to allow a reasonably simplified
analysis procedure. Where this is impossible, computer
models, particularly for impact prediction, are available
and are discussed later in this section.
Priorities, goals and objectives. One of the most impor-
tant planning phases involves the determination of all the
implicit and explicit goals, objectives and priorities of
the study. These study "directives" must be understood by
the planning team and interested parties external to the
planning effort, particularly the public if the land involved
is public, if public agency approval is required, or if pub-
lic resources are affected.
For water quality planning, recent national goals and
objectives have been established by Congress through the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Pub-
lic Law 92-500). In addition, all states have enacted legis-
lation that defines water quality goals which should be in-
cluded in forest land use planning. Additional goals have
been set through laws and regulations specific to federal or
state forest resource agencies. Many local land use agencies
have also formally expressed water quality goals, and more
local water quality requirements are likely through the im-
plementation of the local/areawide planning section of P.L.
92-500 (Section 208). These local water quality requirements
-------
5-9
DRAFT
are generally embodied in local ordinances which are legally
binding on private, state and federal lands (P.L. 92-500,
Section 313).
Goals, and the more specific objectives, should be out-
lined for each land unit according to its characteristics and
values in addition to the goals mandated by federal, state
and local laws. Throughout the planning process, choices and
tradeoffs will be made according to value judgements by the
planning team. The "priorities" for choosing one alternative
over another should be explicit and formulated early in the
process.
Synthesis. Once the potential elements of the final
plan and the implications ace understood, alternative plans
can be synthesized. Such alternatives should represent a
range of optimum methods to achieve various, possibly con-
flicting goals. Examples of such goals include resource
conservation, regional development, national economic stabil-
ity, private economics and environmental quality.
Selection. Once the alternative plans are examined, a
selection can be made. The final plan may be one of the
alternatives examined, or a combination of parts of various
plans. The .examination of alternatives can serve to stimu-
late thinking on entirely new approaches. At this point in
the process, external parties, particularly the public on
public land, should be aware of 'the process and choices
being made.
Implementation. Planning is no more than the means to
-------
5-10
an end •— the initiation of efficient, effective programs
and policies. Plan implementation can involve, for example,
broad or specific policies for guiding forest management
decisions, action plans such as a watershed rehabilitation
plan, financial or funding programs, and performance criteria
by which to judge the logging methods used within the project
area.
Public involvement. Informing the interested public
throughout the planning effort and encouraging their comments
and involvement is beneficial, and for public lands, necessary.
In this way, individuals are given the opportunity to express
their values and concerns and the planning process is strenth-
ened through early exposure to criticism and a broad spectrum
of information.
Information Requirements
Planning information requirements vary according to the
specific use anticipated, and .these types of data can be
categorized as for:
1. forest-land water quality planning per se,
2. predicting effects, and
3. monitoring impacts.
Forest-land water quality planning. Federal agencies
such as the U. S. Forest Service have compiled a considerable
amount of information relating to forest lands within their
jurisdictions. Such agencies also have expertise available
to generate additional information for planning purposes if
necessary. On state or private lands this is not always the
-------
5-11
case. For such lands, the following outline of possible
information sources is presented:
1. Soils
a. U. S. Soil Conservation Service
b. County agricultural extension agents
c. Adjoining land owners (i.e., private, USFS, BLM)
d. Local land use agencies
e. Independent surveys for the plan being studied
2. Geologic
a. U. S. Geologic Survey
b. State mining or geologic agencies
c. Universities
. . d. Adjoining land owners (i.e., private, USFS, BLM)
e. Independent surveys for the plan being studied
3. Hydrologic and geohydrologic
a. U. S. Geologic Survey
b. State water agencies
c. Universities
d. Water user' organizations
e. Independent monitoring for the plan being studied
4. Tree species, forest types and stand densities
a. State forest resource agencies
.b. Universities
c. County extension agents
d. Adjoining land owners (i.e., private, USFS, BLM)
e. Independent surveys for the plan being studied
5. Water quality
-------
5-12
DRAFT
a. U. S. Geologic Survey
b. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
c. State environmental agencies
d. State water agencies
e. Universities
f. Independent monitoring for the plan being studied
6. Topographic
a. U, S. Geologic Survey
b. Adjoining land owners (i.e., private, USPS, BLM)
c. Local land use agencies
d. Private mapping and aerial photography companies
e. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
Offices (USDA)
f. Independent mapping for the plan being studied
7. Meteorologic
a. National Weather Service (U. S. .Department of
Commerce)
b. Universities
c. County agricultural extension agents
d. Independent monitoring for the plan being studied
8. Erosion rates and sediment yields
a. U. S. Soil Conservation Service
b. U. S. Geologic Survey
c. Local land use agencies
d. County agricultural extension agents
e. Universities
f. Adjoining land owners (i.e., private, USPS, BLM)
-------
5-13
g. Independent study for the plan being studied
One important requirement for forest land planning is
an inventory of the land systems involved. Wertz and Arnold
(1972) have outlined the requirements for such a land system
inventory, which is presented as Figure 5-2.
In addition, the "System Outline" for the land base por-
tion of an integrated environmBntal inventory as proposed by
Wertz and Arnold is presented as Figure 5-3.
Certain basic hydrologicai and meteorological informa-
tion is needed for forest land planning as follows:
1. Annual hydrographs for key locations for at least
three to five years
2. Peak flow hydrographs for major flood flows for at
least five years
3. Stream order definitions
4. Precipitation, including snow, preferably as iso-
hyetal maps (annual average yield, maximum precip-
itation)
5. Critical event precipitation patterns
6. Erosion rates and sediment yields
In areas where streams or lakes present important forest-
values or may be affected by forest activities, limnological
and stream habitat information is required. Base aquatic
habitat information involves a minimum of one-year data col-
lection prior to the planned watershed disturbance.
The U. S. Forest Service Northern Region has prepared a
publication concerning lakes entitled "Lake Habitat Survey"
-------
5-14
Adapted Froni^' r-
R. J. Alvis 1971
THE LAND SYSTEM
'
A. Lathology
;; Kind and character of the bedrock;*
B. Climate "
Kinds, magnitudes, and frequencies of climatic occurrences.
C. Age
The time required to reach the present stage of development
of lands. . , . .
D.- Soils ,- '. .'.I''-.""• '" ;'."."'"' •'!•'•• '•••
The unconsolidated portion of the earth's land surface which can
support plant growth.
E. Geologic structure • '
The arrangement, internal features, and shape of rock forma-
tions.
F. Landform
The shape and configuration of units of the earth's surface.
G. Plant ecology
Plant community identification and relationships with other
elements of the environment,
II. Land system
A conceptual device which achieves an integrated overview of
the relationships between geologic and climatic history, soils
and plant ecology, as an aid in understanding land resources.
A. Relations of components to land system
Basic Components Lathology Geologic Structure Climate
(Independent)
: TIME
Manifest Components Soils Landforms Plant Ecology
(Dependent, related)
Figure 5-2
from Wertz and Arnold (1972)
-------
5-15
Cot*gory
vn
IV
m
n
LAND BASE PORTION OF INTEGRATED
ENVIRONMENTAL
Basit for DollnoaHoa .,,'
Phyaographic Basic Element*
Ihvvince Structure, lithology, climate.
First order stratification. -••
Section Baiif Element* '
Structure, lithology, climate,
. ...;.'- •• Second order stratification.
Subsection Bdtie Element*
Structure, lithology, climate,
Third order stratification.
Landtype Manifett Elcmcntt .
Association Soils, landform, biosphere.,
First order stratification.
Landtype Manifest Element*
Soils, landform, biosphere,
Second order stratification.
Landtype Manifett Element*
Phase Soils, landform, biosphere. '
Third order stratification.
Site Represents integration of all
environmental elements. Units
are generally • not delineated
on map. •
Sbo long* Principal Application
1000s of sq. Nationwide or broad
miles regional data summary.
,. -.
100s to 1000s
of sq. miles
Broad re^onal nun-
mary. Basic geologic,
climatic, vegetative da-
ta for design of indi-
vidual resource inven-
toriet,
10s to 100s of Strategic management
sq. miles direction, broad area
1 to 10s of
sq. miles
1/10 to 1 sq.
mile
1/100 to 1/10
sq. mile
Acres or less
Summary of resource
information and re-
source allocation.
Comprehensive plan-
ning, resource plans,
development standards,
local coning.
Project
plans.
development
Provides precise under-
standing of ecosystems.
Sampling will be for
defining broader units,
for research, and for
detailed on-site project
action programs.
Figure 5-3
from Wertz and Arnold (1972)
-------
5-16
(197*0. This publication, involving guidelines for such sur-
veys, is recommended as a basic reference for lake habitat
information collection.
Platts (1974) discusses an inventory method for aquatic
systems in a publication entitled "Geomorphic and Aquatic
Conditions Influencing Salmonids and Stream Classification,"
which should be generally applicable in the Northwest. Platts
collected the following information:
1. Stream., pool and riffle widths to the nearest foot
2. Pour stream depths at equal intervals across the
stream to the nearest inch
3. Ratings, locations and features of pools
4. Stream channel surface material classifications
5. Cover, conditions and types of streambanks
6. Channel elevations and gradients
7. Geologic process groups and geomorphic types
8. Stream order
9. Whether the watershed was disturbed or undisturbed
10. Pish species, their numbers, and the length of
fish occurring in selected streams between tran-
sect one and transect two
The data requirements for planning are considerably
different than for impact monitoring, particularly in cases
where impact data may be used in court as part of a legal
proceeding. Planning information should be comprehensive in
order to establish the basic character of the area in question,
Trends and unique or special intrinsic qualities require
-------
5-17
AFT
emphasis as opposed to specificity. Planning involves gen-
eral constraints and the avoidance of problem areas, so
specific data are not nearly so important as comprehensive
data. Trend projection and broad scope statistical analysis
are particularly useful in planning.
The reader is referred to "Three Approaches to Environ-
mental Resource Analysis," a report prepared by the Landscape
Architecture Research Office of the Graduate School of Design,
Harvard University (1967). The three planning approaches
presented have general applicability to land use planning,
and include planning method articles by G. Angus Hills,
Phillip H. Lewis and Ian L. McHarg.
Prediction. The type of data required for prediction
iuwJels generally varies somewhat from that required for plan-
ning and impact monitoring. The consistency of analysis pro-
cedures is of secondary importance for planning information,
provided the trends are reflected. Prediction methods, how-
ever, usually require very specific types of data and analysis,
since computer programs or analytical procedures are devel-
oped assuming a specific data input. Occasionally, a non-
specified but similar type of available data can be utilized
through program revision, provided the necessary data rela-
tionships can be defined.
The data most often required for models related to water
quality and silviculture generally fall into one of the
following categories:
1. hydrology
-------
5-18
2. water quality
3. erosion rates and sediment yields
4. precipitation
5. aquatic or marine biology
6. cover type and density
Certain considerations are important for each of the
above types of data, including:
a. length of data collection period required for
adequate significance
b. collection pattern or sampling network
c. critical periods requiring sampling
(e.g., spawning)
Hydrologia. Hydrologic models involving frequency of
occurrence, e.g., peak flood flows, require a minimum of
three to five years of data, preferably ten to fifty years.
The location of data collection stations should show the
normal and altered situations. .
Simulation models generally require more types of data
but involve shorter time periods for usefulness. Most hydro-
logic data is collected continuously.
Water quality. Water quality data collection is often
coordinated with hydrologic data collection networks, but
usually continuous data is not taken for water quality pre-
diction modeling purposes. "Grab" sampling for select para-
meters at critical periods is.the most common approach.
The water quality parameters generally significant to
silvicultural activities include:
-------
5-19
1. dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand
2. nutrients
3. temperature
4. turbidity and/or suspended solids
Erosion rates and sediment yields. Models to describe
erosion processes are based either on a phenomenological base
or are constructed from first principles using Newton's laws
of motion, the laws of viscous forces, and some of the basic
concepts of fluid mechanics. Because of the complexity of
developing models from first principles, most of those that
have been developed, including the equation developed by
Megahan (1971*), are of a phenomenological basis.
This type of approach is relatively straightforward and
frequently leads to an ordinary differential equation of low
order which requires auxiliary conditions for integration.
Typically, one or two constants appear in these equations that
are characteristic of a particular soil type. Before the
equations can be applied, it is necessary to conduct simple
erosion experiments and evaluate the constants for each soil
type under consideration. Once experimental data are avail-
able from a range of soil types, it may be possible to approx-
imate the constants for untested soils based on comparative
structure as a basis.
Models of aquatic ecosystems. The most commonly used
models of aquatic ecosystems are based on man and energy flow
from the lower to higher trophic levels of the system. A
typical aquatic model might include the aquatic plants as
-------
5-20
the first trophic level involved in fixing radiant energy.
Other trophic levels present would include benthic organisms,
herbivores, and at least one or possibly more levels of
carnivores.
Typically, these flow models require information on the
rate of .transfer of energy from one level to the next. Rates
may depend on several factors, including the biomass available
at other trophic levels and constants characteristic of feed-
ing rates, reproduction, mortality, etc. These types of
models are most frequently designed as compartment type sim-
ulation models. Some investigators prefer to use first order
linear or possibly nonlinear differential equations to couple
trophic levels. If simulation Is used, the computer can_b.e.
programmed to step through a series of time Increments and
provide information on the biomass at each level as a func-
tion of time. If the system has been modeled as a set of
simultaneous differential equations, it is sometimes possible
to obtain an analytical solution. Irrespective of the type
of model used, a large investment of time and effort is
essential to obtain the data necessary to. characterize ..a
particular aquatic ecosystem.
Plant competition models. Models that can be used to
predict the rate of revegetation of forested areas subjected
to logging would be of enormous value for predicting erosion
rates, stream sedimentation, and the concentration of organic
pollutants in surface waters. Unfortunately, a limited amount
of research has been conducted in this domain. Nonetheless,
-------
5-21
AFT
a voluminous literature exists in the field(of plant ecology
that could be used for purposes of model construction.
Ideally, models of this type would be designed to predict
the time rate of change of plant density on areas subjected
to some form of disturbance. In all likelihood, the model
would be phenomenological in nature and would take the form
of ordinary or partial differential equations. A few attempts
at developing models of this type for intertidal communities
have been reported. The governing equations usually appear
in the form of a partial differential equation which is first
order in time and second order in two spatial dimensions.
It is much too early to predict the success of these
models. Clearly, much remains to be accomplished in their
development, and more time will be required to collect the
constants typical of highly competitive plant communities.
Meteorological models. Not unlike erosion processes,
models designed to predict meteorological conditions can be
founded on first principles or can be simply descriptive of
the gross processes observed. Using first principles from
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics is in principle possible
but highly unlikely to yield useful models, particularly in
the micrometeorological situation of primary interest in this
report.
Alternatively, observed phenomena can be used to devise
simulation models which will yield useful results under spe-
cific circumstances. Few such models have been 'developed in
micrometeorology, and the macro models available are in
-------
5-22
DRAFT
general much too coarse for predictive purposes of the type
needed in ecology.
Most of the emphasis in micrometeorology in ecology has
been directed toward energy balance models which can be used
only to predict or to describe the energy budget of relatively
simple ecosystems. Information on surface absorptivitles and
emisslvities of the many surfaces present is required. How-
ever, these models are limited in scope and at present hold
little promise of application to water pollution problems.
Impact monitoring. Monitoring .the water quality or
aquatic life impact of silvicultural practices presents a
complex array of problems which are usually best assigned to
specialists. The highly diverse hydrological regimes of
Region X, with great seasonal sariablity as well as year-to-
year variability in average conditions, create problems in
impact monitoring that usually require careful Instrumentation
and sound statistical analysis. Those parameters that lend
themselves most to routine monitoring include measurements of
temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, turbid-
ity and suspended solids. In most cases, commercially avail-
able instrumentation is adequate for accurate measurement of
the above parameters when instruments are properly calibrated.
Analysis of biological properties such as coliform or dis-
solved organic and inorganic chemicals usually requires
sophisticated instrumentation and specific sample handling
methods.
Detection of the impact of silvicultural practices may
-------
5-E3
DRAFT
be evaluated by selected sampling upstream and downstream
from the activity to be monitored. If no inflow occurs and
it has been previously established that the parameters mea-
sured should be unaffected through that reach of the stream,
then samples so compared should be useful. The shortest
possible time period should exist between the two sample
intervals. If complete mixing cannot be achieved, or a sub-
stantial inflow occurs from underground or surface flow, then
results will be of less value.
Water temperature. Water temperature can be measured
to establish the effects of canopy removal which would reduce
shading or increase the solar loading on the small streams.
Plows of greater than 5 cfs will probably be unaffected by
shade removal. (Brown, personal communication (1974): Samp-
ling location should be shaded so solar radiation does not
affect reading of the sensor. Maximum and minimum tempera-
tures are important along with the duration of the exposure,
particularly to maximum temperatures.)
Suspended sediment. The measurement of suspended sedi-
ment establishes the impact of silvicultural practices on the
physical condition of the stream. Suspended materials are
transported as a function of the energy of the stream; thus
there is a stratification within the stream with heavier,
denser materials near the bottom and lighter, less dense
materials near the surface. Depth-integrated samples are
usually taken for most accurate results. The rate of verti-
cal movement of the depth-integrated sampler should approximate
-------
5-24
DRAFT
the rate of horizontal movement of the flow of the stream.
Dissolved oxygen. Organic debris that ends up in the
stream channel as a result of timber-felling or yarding can
consume dissolved oxygen in the decomposition process. Dis-
solved oxygen is also a function of water temperature; thus
increases in water temperature will reduce the dissolved
oxygen concentration. •
Several portable meters are available for field measure-
ment of dissolved oxygen. Oxygen-permeable membranes are
placed across a sensor, which is then immersed for determi-
nation of dissolved oxygen. As the meter reads in percent
saturation, it is calibrated against the atmosphere.
Low temperature w,ater usually maintains a higher oxygen
concentration than warmer water. The most critical period
for dissolved oxygen is during warm summer months when bio-
logical activity is high and water temperatures are also high.
Accurate determination of the effects of silvicultural
practices on dissolved oxygen can be made by taking measure-
ments upstream and downstream from the affected area.
Specific conductance. Specific conductance is a mea-
sure of the electric current carrying capacity of water.
Increasing values of specific conductance indicate an in-
creasing load of dissolved ions; low values of specific
conductance generally indicate very clean, pure water.
Specific conductance meters must be calibrated using
standard solutions for the approximate range of values of
the stream water in question. It is corrected to a standard
-------
5-25
DRAFT
temperature of 25° C, usually internally within the meter.
Predicting .Effects
General methodology. Methods for predicting the effect
of forest practices on various environmental factors have been
of interest to those concerned with forestry for many years.
Such methods are applicable to water quality, aquatic eco-
system analysis, growth rates expected given certain stand
and environmental variables, and the influence of various
levels of fire intensity on site productivity. All predic-
tion methods being used or developed have the same essential
character — given a set of conditions, a prediction may be
made, with some degree of certainty, about the effect of
specific practices.
One of the first prediction methods used was that of
statistical analysis which provided the basis for some of
the earliest models used in forestry. Many of the models,
particularly those based on regression, were of a predictive
character and thereby replaced or reinforced some of the
earlier rules of thumb. Most importantly, statistical methods,
based on probabilistic concepts, made it possible to devise
predictive models which were stochastic in nature. One of
the most Important uses of models is the more definitive
description of a problem.
Multiple regression has been used extensively in forestry
to predict the influence of several independent variables on
a single dependent variable; for example, the effect of soil
nutrients, soil moisture and temperature on tree growth..
-------
5-26
DRAFT
Similarly, analysis of variance has been used to test differ-
ences between treatments.
Over the years, many deterministic models have also been
used in forestry. Prediction of the board or cubic foot vol-
ume of a tree is based on a geometric model of log size and
shape. Similarly, the models used by forest engineers for
predicting road cut and fill volumes are based on simple geo-
metric models which provide the basis for deterministic pre-
dictive equations. Other examples can be cited. Those out-
lined above are but a few examples of two broad classes of
models which have been, and will continue to be, used for
predictive purposes in forestry.
The rapid increase in the use of models has led to some
confusion in concepts and terminology. Not infrequently, the
term "model" is thought to mean "computer model". Computer
modeling is becoming more widely applied in forestry, par-
ticularly as it becomes desirable to attack multi-variable
problems with complex interrelationships. To others, "onodel"
implies an iconic or geometric representation of a particular
object or system. Still others speak of "flow models", which
trace the movement of information through an organization,
or material through a set of processes.
"Simulation models", frequently but not necessarily used
in conjunction with a computer, are designed to simulate or
mimic a particular phenomenon. Many phenomena are of such
complexity as to defy the straightforward application of
mathematics. In such instances, computer simulation is
-------
5-27
DRAFT
adopted. It Is noted that to many the term "model" implies
a mathematical equation.
All models are simplifications of a real phenomenon.
In development of many models, the geometric or iconic model
is the first stage of the process. This type of model is an
attempt at simplification in Che form of a drawing which
captures the salient features of the phenomenon. The results
can range from a simple geometric representation to a flow
diagram.
Primarily, variables as well as the essential parameters
are identified and specified as part of the model. Inter-
relationships between variables are noted diagrammatically,
sometimes by the use of simple directional arrows.
Quantification follows if the problem is such that math-
ematics can be applied. The mathematics may be of a deter-
ministic or probabilistic nature. Because of the stochastic
character of many problems in forestry, the latter predomi-
nates. Complex problems which cannot be written in mathema-
tical form are frequently coded for computer manipulation.
For a variety of reasons, computers are being widely
used with models. Mathematical models may be highly nonlin-.
ear and numerical methods.required, or it may be necessary to
solve a number of algebraic or differential equations simul-
taneously. The computer is nearly always required in this
type of circumstance. Not infrequently, a number of stochas-
tic variables constitute the model. The computer is essential
for storing and processing Information in such instances.
-------
5-28
DRAFT
The final step in the application of modeling is com-
paring the model prediction with the behavior of the real
system, sometimes called verification. Modeling has been
justified on occasion for the clarity and definity it can
bring to a problem. Notwithstanding, the test of any model
is its predictive capability. Clearly, model precision is
governed by many aspects of the total process, including
available data, the precision of relationships between vari-
ables, and the degree to which the problem can be defined.
Several models of both a stochastic.and deterministic nature
are described in subsequent sections. For the most part,
these models are expressed in deterministic form. However,
it is recognized that many of the parameters Included in
equations are determined by the conditions of specific
forest sites.
Soil erosion methods. The prediction of soil erosion
involves a complex interaction of variables;'consequently the
development of models for analysis is difficult. To quote
Wooldridge concerning such models (1970),
...frequently their greatest'value is in the
manipulation of the various factors to see if
they give realistic estimation for soil loss and
relationships between factors.
W-isahmeier equation. Smith and Wischmeier (1962) have
developed an equation to predict the average soil loss in tons
per acre. Although this equation is primarily intended for
agricultural land, it provides insight into the soil erosion
process and may, upon modification, be useful for predicting
-------
5-29
DRAFT
erosion for bare soils resulting from logging road construc-
tion or vegetation removal. The Wischmeier equation is
presented as follows (Equation 5.1):
A = RKLSCP 5.1
where A = the average annual soil loss
in tons per acre
R = the rainfall-erosion index
. K =.the soil credibility factor
(range from 0.02-0.50)
L & S = the topographic factors
Allength of slope in feet
7275
S = 0.52 + 0.36s + 0.52s2
"6.613~~
C & P = crop management and erosion
control practices
Another expression of soil erosion similar to the. Wisch-
meier equation was developed earlier by Musgrave (19^7). At
this time, the Musgrave equation has not been adapted for use
In the west. Dissmeyer (197D developed an equation to eval-
uate the effect of disturbance on suspended sediments and
surface water, and alternative methods for reducing erosion
and sedimentation. This method, the "First Approximation of
Suspended Sediment" (PASS) has been used primarily in the
southeast and considers gully and channel erosion.
Megahan erosion model* A model, or equation, has been
developed by Megahan (197^b) that may be used to predict sur-
face erosion (not mass erosion) from watersheds which have
experienced reading and logging. A negative exponential
equation containing three parameters was derived to describe
time trends in surface erosion on severely disturbed soils
-------
5-30
DRAFT
(primarily roads). This "model" Is most appropriate on Idaho
Bathollth soils, and is presented as follows:
Et = E^ - S0 *e~kt -1) .5.2
E^ = the total erosion since disturbance
(tons/mi )
En = the erosion rate to be expected after
a long period, assuming no major dis-
turbance; this value is an estimate
of the long-term norm for the site
(tons mi day )
SQ = the amount of material available to
be eroded at time zero after distur-
bance (tons/mi )
k = an index of the rate of decline of
erosion following disturbance; this
can be thought of as an index of the
recovery potential for the site in
question (day""1)
t = days of elapsed time since disturbance
Data from four different studies of surface erosion on
roads constructed from the granitic materials found in the
Idaho Batholith were used by Megahan to develop the equation
parameters. Two eff these studies, Deep Creek and Silver
Creek, involve erosion from the entire road prism (cut slopes
+ road bed + fill slopes). The other two studies, in the
Bogus Basin and Deadwood River areas, w.ere located on double-
lane forest roads and designed to.measure erosion on road
fill slopes only. Plotted data from these studies were used
to determine En, SQ and k. The long term erosion rate (En)
determined in the Deep Creek data was validated by comparison
with average sediment yields for Ditch Creek in the Silver
Creek study area.
It was found that the erosion rate for undisturbed lands
on the Idaho Batholith average about 0.07 ton/mile2/day. For
-------
5-31
the first year after disturbance, erosion rates per unit of
area involved in road construction were three orders of mag-
nitude greater than those on similar undisturbed land, and
after almost forty years they are still one order of magni-
tude greater. According to Megahan, "The potential for dam-
age by such accelerated erosion should be apparent." The
study found that, "By far the largest percentage of soil loss
occurs within one to two years after disturbance.", and that,
"Erosion control measures must be applied immediately after
disturbance to be effective."
Rainfall intensity data were used to illustrate that
variations in erosion forces, as indexed by a rainfall kinetic
energy times the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity, "the
credibility index", were not the cause of the time trends in
surface erosion. Although vegetation growth can be an im-
portant factor in reducing accelerated erosion, it did not
cause the rapid erosion decreases found In the cases studied.
The.evidence suggests that surface armoring was a dominant
factor causing the time trends in surface erosion. The sig-
nificance of time trends in surface erosion Is discussed in
the paper.
Other studies, including those by Anderson (1972) and
Frederickson (1970b), have found decreasing time trends in
sediment from poorly logged areas in California and in
Oregon, respectively.
The Megahan equation is a valuable tool for estimating
potential soil losses from reading and logging systems on
-------
5-32
DRAFT
the Idaho Batholith. It does require some field data from
logged areas of a similar character in order to determine
the basic parameters of the soil/hydrologic zone in question.
Water temperature. Increases in stream water tempera-
ture are caused primarily by increased exposure of the stream
to direct solar radiation as a result of removing streamside
vegetation (Brown 1966, Brown and Krygler 1967, and Brown
1970a). Shade removal may increase radiation loads by six
to seven times (Brown 1970). Air temperature and the cooling
effects of evaporation are much less Important than solar
radiation in controlling temperature on small, unshaded
streams. Brown (1970) found that solar radiation accounted
for over 95 percent of the heat input during the midday period
in midsummer.
Several silvicultural practices can change or influence
the nonclimatic factors which affect the amount of heat re-
ceived at the stream surface. These factors include:
1. vegetation
2. topography
3. stream channel characteristics
4. inflow of surface and ground water
5. area, depth and velocity of the stream
Streamside shade is the most important factor influenc-
ing changes in water temperature over which the land manager
has some control. By maintaining vegetative cover of such
height and density as to adequately shade the stream during
periods of maximum solar radiation, water temperature increases
-------
5-33
can be prevented and/or minimized as necessary to meet man-
agement goals. The replacement of vegetation after clear-
cutting along streams may be an acceptable means of rapidly
reestablishing vegetation that could adequately provide shade
protection and thereby reduce increased stream temperatures.
Another approach to reducing the impact of clearcutting along
streamsides and the resultant changes in temperature could be
accomplished through predicting what temperature changes might
occur by regulating the silviculture system and the size of
cutting units.
Brown (1966, 1969) has developed a technique by using
an energy budget for predicting temperature changes of small
streams once the streamside vegetation has been removed.
The general equation for the energy budget takes the
form, Brown (1969):
AS = QNR± QE ± QC ± QH ± QA 5.3
where AS = net change in energy stored
QNR = net thermal radiation flux
QE = evaporative flux
Qc = conductive flux
QH = convective flux
Qft = advective flux
The sign is positive for energy added to the stream and
negative for energy losses. The budget techniques used for
temperature prediction seek to evaluate the net change in the
energy level of the stream (AS). Net thermal radiation is
the difference between total incoming and total outgoing
all-wave thermal radiation. This flux can be measured direct-
ly with a net radiometer.
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5-34
DRAFT
Heat is added or removed by condensation or evaporation
at the surface of a stream. The amount of heat exchanged is
a function of the latent heat of evaporation and the vapor
pressure gradient at the stream-air interface (Brown 1969):
QE = 0.6140 U (ew - ea) 5.4
where Q™ = evaporative flux (Btu/ft2 - min)
U = wind speed (miles/hour)
ew = saturated vapor pressure at the
temperature of the stream (inches
of mercury)
ea = ambient atmospheric vapor pressure
(inches of mercury)
0.6140 = exchange coefficient (k x latent
heat of vaporization, L)
Conduction describes a molecule-to-molecule heat trans-
fer process. Conduction occurs at the bottom of small, clear
streams because thermal energy reaching the stream surface is
not strongly attenuated by water only a few inches deep.
Conduction is computed as the product' of the thermal conduc-
tivity and the measured temperature gradient of the bottom
material (Brown 1969):
Qc = K (dT/dz) 5.5
where Qc = conduction (Btu/ft2 min"1)
dT/dz = temperature gradient in the bottom
material (op/inch)
K = thermal conductivity of the bottom
material (Btu/ft2 inch-1 min"1 op-1)
Convection occurs at the stream surface. It results
from boundary layer conduction and subsequent transfer of
heat through displacement of the mass fluid. Wind speed and
the temperature gradient between the air and water are the
driving forces for convective heat transfer at the air-water
interface (Brown 1969):
-------
5-35
QH - 0. .000.2 U P (Tw - Ta) 5.6
where QH = convection (Btu/ft2 min"1)
0.0002 = exchange coefficient
U = wind speed (mph)
P = atmospheric pressure (inches of
mercury)
= water temperature (°P)
= ambient air temperature (°F)
Energy is added to a stream by introducing water at a
different temperature. This transfer of energy from some
source outside the area being considered is termed advection.
Advective energy comes from precipitation, tributary streams,
or ground water inflow. If the volume and temperature of
this inflow are known, the stream temperature may be adjusted
by a simple mixing or temperature-dilution ratio.
The predicted water temperature change is then a func-
tion of the heat applied and the volume of water heated.
Tw = A xAS x 0.00026? 5.7
where T^ = predicted temperature change (°F)
As = change in energy storage
(Btu/ft2 min-1)
A = surface area of study section (ft2)
P = discharge (cfs)
0.000267 = constant converting discharge from
cfs to pounds of water per minute
On unshaded stretches, net all-wave radiation is the
predominant energy source during the day; evaporation and
convection account for less than 10 percent of the total
energy change. Conduction of heat into the stream bottom is
an important energy balance component only on shallow streams
having a bedrock bottom. Up to 25 percent of the energy
absorbed by such a stream is transferred into the bed.
-------
5-36
DRAFT
Therefore, the maximum daily stream water increase is esti
mated by:
AS = QNR 5.8
= A *AS x 0.00026?
The above equation can be used to predict what tempera-
ture increase might occur on the site. The impact that such
increases can have downstream is predicted by the following
mixing ratio formula (Brown 1970a) :
T = Dm Tm + Dt Tt 5 9
Dm + Dt
where T = temperature of the main stem after
the tributary enters
Dm = discharge of main stem before trib-
utary enters
Dt = discharge of tributary
Tm = temperature of main stem before
tributary enters
T£ = temperature of tributary
Peak flow accentuation and channel erosion. The U. S.
Forest Service, Region I, has developed a procedure (water
yield increase analysis procedure) for predicting increases
in water yield and peak flows due to timber management (or
vegetation manipulation) . The procedure includes methods
for locating, sizing and phasing timber management activities
to assure that the percentage of flow increase remains within
acceptable limits, as determined by channel stability and soil
erosion hazards.
This procedure is explained in "Forest Hydrology: Part
II, Hydrologic Effects of Vegetation Manipulation," U.S.D.A.
Forest Service, and is summarized as follows:
1. Determination of the normal annual runoff for the
-------
5-37
DRAFT
subject watershed from SCS and USGS information.
2. Determination of the allowable increase limits for
annual yield and periods of maximum channel impact peak flows
as affected by (a) soil erosion hazard ratings, (b) stream
channel stability, (c) on-site analyses (streambed inspection),
and (d) average annual peak flow patterns and departures..
3. Synthesization of the water yield, peak flows and
channel impact periods due to actual or potential vegetation
manipulation operations. Such water yield and hydrograph
changes are affected by: (a) equivalent clearcut areas and
locations, (b) evapotranspiration changes, (c) redistribution
of snow accumulation patterns due to timber management acti-
vities, and (d) changes in interception patterps.
4. Synchronization of proposed harvest patterns, loca-
tions and phasing in order to stay within the accepted yield
and peak flow limitations.
These procedures were developed primarily as a part of
planning programs for the Nez Perce and Panhandle National
Forests. The "Forest Hydrology, Part II" handbook details
four variations of the procedure. While the methodology is
still in the development stage, the basic approach is sound
and presents a significant first step toward including chan-
nel erosion analysis in forest management planning.
The guidelines, curves and functions (which must be
developed for each individual watershed) are based on the
following:
1. geology
-------
5-38
DRAFT
2. soil erosion hazards
3. mean annual runoff
4. stream order
5. hydrologic recovery rate
6. stream channel stability
7. hydrologic response
8. type of vegetation manipulation
9. past use or abuse by man
10. wildfire and flood history
In proposing a matrix evaluation format, the publication
lists the following information .needs: watershed size, soil
types, soil mass failure hazard, soil surface erosion hazard,
geologic type, drainage pattern, mean slope, habitat type,
commercial timber type, channel stability, stream order,
basin orientation, stream gradient, on-site water use, off-
site water use, past watershed natural activities, past water-
shed man activities, mean basin elevation, mean basin precip-
itation, mean basin runoff, hydrologic condition, proposed
method of logging and proposed sllvicultural treatment. An
overall consideration is the conformance to State water quality
standards.
The report lists five alternatives for meeting estab-
lished water yield increase guidelines, as follows:
1. Increase or decrease the area or size of vegetation
to be removed
2. Modify the method of removal, i.e., clearcut vs.
shelterwood harvest
-------
5-39
3. Collect additional soil, geology and hydrology
data, i.e., refined input data
lj. Modify the harvest by energy slopes to desynchro-
nize the increased water yield
5. Exceed guidelines after inclusion of mitigation
such as these measures: (a), sediment basins,
(b) road stabilization, (c) debris clearing, (d)
bank stabilization, (e) progressive revegetation,
(f) high lead logging, etc., (g) buffer strips,
(h) channel stabilization, (i) eliminate spring
logging, (j) modify method of harvest
The report presents a useful "Stream Reach Inventory and
Channel Stability Evaluation" procedure and form which is
presented in Figure 5-3& and 5-3b. The report also goes into
detail concerning the calculation of acceptable limits for
increases in yields and peak flows, primarily based on chan-
nel characteristics and soil/slope information.
Aquatic or marine eco-system modeling. Numerous models
are available for predicting the effects of pollutant dis-
charges on a water body. Most of these, models synthesize the
concentration of pollutants at critical locations. For a
lake, reservoir or marine environment, these locations may
vary by depth and distance from the discharge, or be primari-
ly determined by critical aquatic or marine life areas. For
stream environments, the evaluation points are downstream
from the pollutant discharge, generally at critical locations
such as just above a community water supply or major
-------
Foroot
. NOE3
Reoch BaoerlptiLca &;. ,,..'. • .. ;-•• .'^v^/^-V U/;; ,,.-•- ,. .• . :. ...
Other XdentiflcafciBGa •"••' "-••••-?-.•>'•".,•«.•:.•»• -'"rV :•.»"•, >*^..-"••-• .••••. ' ••
Other
Aerial .';
Phote
Strecn. §(Uo Survey Data
& Diochorso At
CrodieaS ' % Sinuooity goei® '
Channel Plow Potters ' " •'.
Soilo
"_ ' !?So ^alesftes? '_ , ' S/o B&ochai?0o
°° • •.'-.) •-.[• • __jft.9.r.i'.?>.-: -•;.—fi
tiracj ..';'.. ••'..•-•• •>-.-' >:':••' V1.'.1 •,••,'• • , . .
Osrdoi?.,
cfo
-•r-
asi«3/os Geologic
•< '>')'.:.y(>5"':'':'v. ^'''^'.'"'' -;">.;.';/" '';'•'' • '"'..••-;; *-." > •''•.' •••• •.' '• •.- -
of dobrio jroo
Size Composition of J 2. Largo bould@i?a0 3° -5-
Bottom Katorfallo | 3. Spnll' bouldoro,
(Total to 100X) ' 1 4. LorgQ rubblop S"-12W
Hen the i? and Othatr Bc;?agto
.
Uoa Q oeparafce raeing (Soza 2oir eacto Jongeto o2 ofctreos 6ha6 appoairo oiqiSLas,, Coaplaeo 6he invanaory iteao
above uoing taopOj docioi pJ>o&oo0 oad ?iojl<3 o&oorvaSioao QQ<3 QQaou?cc30eoo Ga eho' oppooitQ oido of EJiio
P08e» tho. channel and odjacene ?Ho«3 pioia bomtso Q?Q o«jS>jac£2voiy iroeafl, aitcp by aeea,, folloulns oa
on-tha-ground inopec£loa0 Clsclo caly cao o$ &9 oiewoeiooo Bca°e Espy im ca a oinglo indicator
oz- a oiBQlSL gsrowp og indico£o?o b^U uoo ehsa all gos e2»o oooe fijlosBjootie woluQ. ao indicaaoro ' ore inier-
relotsd po don't <8t«ll oa ony owe item ffoff loaso 0o efea beoe-ycna com and Ehs piuoeo and Binuoeo shouW
bolonco^'cut. Keep In Bind (thoC each ieen ditrecely osr 'indirecely oeeto to anoeair thsreo baoic. queotionos
(1) Khot ore the magnitude oS the hydraulic fosrceo Q£ «orlt (to detach and fctranopocfc jSio vayjouo organic
and inorgonic bonk ao& cfeansoil cooponentof (32 Hot? ?QOioEGQG a so £heoe eoapoaeatto to t!S>Q recent otreoa-
?lo« foffeop ezseirted ca thsa? (5) Kiat io C&e cflpaeity o2 £&Q. otroao So" ad Just and recover £rcn po=
tenfcial changao in (floo voluao and/or increaooa is osditeant pscduct$ca?
'' ' '
aw gsms
SOJJS^RATIOHS
-.That portioa of e&o topogsraphic cnwo •oeceicsi
froa the break in tho genoiral plp^q eg tho .ouffroamdiBis
to the nonaal high latei? jiisQ. ^?Gr?eotrial'plo8aeo 6 aniaalo
normally inhabit thio area. •."'•.'•--. •' •. "-.;-. .f'-.K." f •".
Lovsr Bonks - The intermittently oubmerged p'ortloa of the'
channel crooo oectioa Ifsroa ESao norssal hUgfe ootos1 lisa to tfeo
water °o edge during the cusaeir lot? floy posleflo • '
SJjo oubeergod portico of tha cEjonnol croaa
section t&ich is totally an aquatic
Strega StORG - The height of water ia the channel at the tieo of rating io recorded on tho top holf of
this page using numbero 1 through 3. Thesp oicierOp ao ojsoea belo^,, relate to the ourface water elev-
Qticn relotivo to the nonaal hig& VQ&QK lias. A deciaa! dUvioicn ahould be uoed to eore precioely
define conditions, le. 3.5 aeano 3/4tho of tho channel bonko are under water QS the tiae of rating.
•AJ^TT^-^-^^ -^^ ^^-^-^^ _3 o ?loodiag(> ao gloo& plQln'io ccapietely covered. •
High. Channel full to the nonaol high water lino.
>3 ° Moderate. Bottoa and ^ of lav^-s bonbo matted.
. Bottom ec^erod bett ^ery little of the lot^ir bantco tat.'
Booentially no Sl&a. Hater nay ofcasxS Isa bottoo depreooicno.
Uoo an aoteriok behind all eatioateo that ccuWJ bo raeaaured but tmrcsa°&. . • ••
-------
R-X STREAM CHANNEL STABILITY FIELD EVALUATION FORM
Item Rated
UPPER BANKS
Landform Slope
Hoss Wasting
(Existing or Potential)
Debris Jan Potential
(Floatable Objects)
Bank Protection
from
Vegetation
LOUER BANKS
Channel Capacity
lank Rock Content
Obstructions
Flow Deflectors
Sediment Traps
Cutting
Deposition
, BOTTOM
Rock Angularity
Brightness
Consolidation or
Particle Packing
Bottom Size Distribution
& Percent Stable Materials
Scouring and
Deposition
Clinging Aquatic
Vegetation
(Moss & Alsae)
Stability Indicators by Classes
EXCELLENT
Bank slope gradient <30%
No evidence of past or
lotential for future maso
wasting Into channels.
Essentially absent from
immediate channel area.
90% + plant density. Vigor
and variety suggests a .
leep, denae root maoo.
(2)
(3)
(2)
(3)
Ample for present pluo gome
increases. Peak flows. con=
tained, H/D ratio < 7.
65% + with large, angular
boulders 12" + numerous o
Rocks , old logs firmly
embedded. Flow pattern *.'
of pool & rifflse oteble ;
without cutting or
deposition.
^ittle or none evident, . •
Infrequent raw banks less
than 6" high senerallv.
[•ittle or no enlargement
of channel or point bars.
sharp edges and cornero0
plane surfaces roughened.
Surfaces dull, darkened, or
otalned. Gen. not "bright".
Assorted sizes tightly
packed and/or Tv^r tapping.
No change '.n sizes evident.
Stable ***..r '.t-'j 80-100%,
Less than 5% of the bottom
affected by scouring end
deposition.
Abundant, Growth largely
moos like, dark green, per-
anniQl. In swift water too.
(1)
(2)
(2)
(4)
(4)
a>
00
(2)
<4>
(6)
(1)
COLUMN TOTALS -<» [ ""
GOOD FAIR II POOR
lank slope gradient 30-40%
Infrequent and/or very small
Mostly healed over. Low
future potential.
Present but mostly small
twigs and limbs.
70-90% density. Fe*jar plant
opacleo or lower vigor
suggests a less dense o?
deep root mass.
<*>
(6)
(4)
(6)
Adequate. Overbank flowa
rare, Width to Depth (V/D)
ratio 8=15.
40 to 65%, swatly .email
boulders to cobble 6=12",
Saae present,,* causing
erosive cross currents and
minor pool filling, Cbstruc°
tions end deflectors nesssr
and lee a firm.
Some, intermittently at
outcurvos & constrictions.
Raw banks may be up to 12",
Some new increao in bar
formation,, most 2rca>
coarse Bravolo,
(2)
(4)
«
(8)
(8)
Rounded corners & edges 0
surfaces smooth & flat.
Mostly dull but may have
up to 35% bright surfaces.
Moderately packed with
some overlapping.
Distribution shift slight.
Stable materials 50=80%,
5=30% affected. Scour at
constrictions and where
grades steepen. Some
dflpjtaAfc*xm_ ln.j>ooXs „
Ccrcaon. Algol forms in low
velocity & pool areas. Moas
(2)
(2>
(4)
(8)
12)
(2)
Bank slope gradient 40-60%
Moderate frequency & size,
with some raw spots eroded
>y water during_higJL flotea.
Present 0 volume and size
are both increasing.
50=70% density, Lorcsr vigor
and otlll fewer spacleo •
form a somewhat shallow and
discontinuous root mass*
J&1
(9)
(6)
(9)
Barely contains present
>eaks. Occasional overbank
floods. W/D ratio 15=25,,
20 to 40% , with most in the
^3=6" diesieter claso,,_
Moderately frequent,, eodar-
ately unstable obstructions
& deflectors move with high
water causing bank cutting
and fillins of pools.
Significant, Cuts 12"=24"
algh. Root mat overbango
and sloughing evident.
Moderate deposition of new
gravel & coarse sand on
old and some new bars, .
Comoro & edges vail rcaad=
ed in tiso dimensions.
Mixture, 50=50% dull and
bright, A 15%,, ie 35=65%,
Mostly a loose assortment
with no apparent overlap.
Moderate change in sizes.
Stable materials 20=50%,
30-50% affected. Deposits
& scour at obstructions,
constrictions, and bends.
Seme fillins of pools.
Present but spotty, eostly
in backwater areas. Season0
al blooms make rocks nlick«
(3)
<&)
(6)
[12)
*
W)
(3)
(a>
to
112)
38>
(3)
•~L — 1 • • : ~n — ~l
Bank slope gradient 60% +
Frequent or large, causing
sediment nearly yearlong OR
imminent danger of same.
Moderate to heavy amounts,
predominantly larger sizes.
<50% denoity plus fetrsr
opecies 6 less vigor indi=
cate poor, discontinuous „
and ohallow root mass,
(8)
(8)
(12)
Inadequate. Overbank flows
common, H/D ratio >25.
<20% rock fragments of
jsrereel oiEesn 1-3" or less.
Frequent obstructions and
daflectors cauoe bank ero-
sion yearlong, Sed, traps
fullD channel migration
occuring .
Alraoot continuous cuts,
oojae over 24" high. Fail-
ure of -overhangs frequent.
Extensive deposits of pre-
dcrdnafraly fine particles,
Accelerated bar development f
(4)
W
(8)
tl.)
CIS)
Hell reucdod in all diraan-
siona, ourfaces smooth.
PredosiBately bright, 65% +„
ecqiosed or scoured surfaces.
No packing evident. Loose
asBortEant,, easily moved.
Marfasd distribution change.
Stable materials 0-20%.
More than 50% of the bottom
in a stato of flux or change
nearly yearlong.
Perennial types scarce or
absent. Tallow-green, short
Sera blcsa FYJ? be present.
(4)
(4)
to
:w>
,4)
(4)
• I.
. I.
Add the values in each column for a total reach score here. (E.____+ C. + F. + P._
Reach score of: <38=E»cellent, 39-76-Good, 77-114= Fair, 115*=Poor.
Figure 5-3b
Rl-2500-5 (6/73)
-------
5-42
tributary confluence.
Water quality or aquatic and marine eco-system models
can be very beneficial for predicting the effects of silvi-
cultural practices on water bodies. Through reiterative
analysis, alternative land use and management schemes can
be evaluated for water quality impact.
One of the most useful models for stream eco-systems
was developed by Chen and Orlob (1972). The data require-
ments for this model are very specific and the program must
be adapted to the particular stream- Involved. This type of
model differs from the water quality types in that the bio-
logical or aquatic life effects are examined as contrasted
to water quality per se. Essentially, the same model is
available for lake, reservoir and marine environments.
Sensitive Areas and Facilities Location
Planning is the most Important key to preventing water
pollution from timber harvesting, logging, residue manage-
ment and reforestation. The most important consideration
in such planning is avoiding or minimizing the soil and vege-
tation disturbances on or affecting sensitive areas. Such
areas include:
o stream channels
o stream banks and water influence environs
o marine, lake or reservoir environments
o steep slopes or unstable soils .
A complementary and equally important planning objective
is the location of facilities and layout of logging systems
-------
5-43
in a manner that not only avoids and protects sensitive areas
but capitalizes on land that is 1) the most stable, and 2)
has a minimum potential for producing water pollution impacts.
Cosens (1951) concluded that preventing logging damage
would be made easier by:
1. Preparing and carrying out a detailed logging
plan aimed at reduction of damage.
2. properly training and supervising logging crews.
3. Focusing engineering and logging ingenuity on
designing equipment that will lessen damage to
the advance growth as well as increase efficiency
of yarding logs.
Stream channels. Based on the available information,
the following criteria for stream channels would protect the
quality of waters on, or affected by, timber harvest areas:
o Utilize experienced fisheries management special-
ists and State Pish and Game Department personnel
to determine 1) -the importance of the stream for
fisheries and water quality, and 2) special manage-
ment requirements for stream channel protection.
o Remove all debris and residue attributable to tim-
ber harvesting from below the high water level,
except where such debris will definitely improve
stream channel structure.
o Avoid using construction equipment or skidding logs
in or across streambeds; yard across streams only if
logs are fully suspended above the stream channel.
o Fell and limb trees away from all streams and water-
courses.
-------
5-44
o Avoid channel alterations.
o Avoid locating landings, slash piles and other
facilities or residuals within any watercourse.
o For stream channels or watercourses in which flow
is intermittent and fish spawning or rearing is
negligible:
a) remove slash and other timber harvest debris
below the high water level
b) hold surface disturbance to a minimum
c) minimize the operation of logging and con-
struction equipment below the high water level
and allow such .operation only during no^flow
periods and if downstream fisheries will not
be affected
o Obtain written concurrence for a specific plan from
State water rights, fisheries and environmental
agencies before diverting water from any stream.
o Provide for the protection and maintenance of
streamside vegetation as discussed later in this
section.
The Alaska Departments of Pish and Game and Natural
Resources and the U. S. Forest Service (197*0 have recommend-
ed the following to protect stream channels in Alaska:
o Clear debris from streams.
o Avoid skidding logs in, or across, streambeds.
o Avoid using equipment in the streams.
The following two stream protection guidelines also have
-------
5-45
merit:
o Fell the trees away from drainage channels to
keep the slash out of waterways (Hopkins 1959).
o Conduct all operations so as to preclude inter-
ference with the resident or migratory fisheries
of the area. Do not divert the water out of any
stream without the written approval of the State
fishery biologist who has jurisdiction over the
area Involved and the State engineer who is con-
cerned with the administration of water rights
(FWPCA 1970).
In addressing the question of guidelines for planning
forest practice rules in Class II streams in Oregon (streams
of little or no value for fish spawning or rearing, but which
affect downstream water quality), the Oregon Department of
Forestry concluded the following:
-*•• Positive preventive measures must be taken to keep
the material out of streams.
2. The greatest concern is the potential for 'sluice-
outs' which could carry material to Class I streams.
3. Stream clearance requirements can be relaxed where:
a. the is no 'sluice-out' potential,
b. 'sluice-outs' cannot reach Class I streams.
4. Due to steeper gradients, low flows and narrow can-
yons characterizing Class II streams, water quality
problems, particularly with regard to dissolved oxy-
gen temperature, appear-to be minimal.
5. Where cleanup is required, it should be done in a
manner least likely .to create undesirable disturb-
ance.
6. Presence of slash in streams can have a beneficial
effect on some streams, through the sediment trap-
ping and shading capabilities.
THE FOLLOWING GUIDELINE IS INTENDED TO AMPLIFY THE
ABOVE POINTS:
Positive Preventive Measures
1) Trees should be felled away from Class II streams
-------
5-46
whenever possible. Improper felling practice is
probably the greatest single contributor to debris
in Class II streams. Because of the usual time
lag between felling and yarding, limbs and tops
which fall into streams may cause damage to water
quality which persists even after removal after
yarding.
2) When it can be done, trees which do fall into
streams should be yarded out a least to a point
above the high water level before removing limbs
and tops. Pine material such as needles has a
greater effect on dissolved oxygen than does larg-
. er material.
3) Avoid yarding across Class II streams where possi-
ble, to minimize disturbance of the bed and banks.
One of the most comprehensive assemblies of guidelines
for stream channel protection is being applied by the U. S.
Forest Service Intermountain and Northern Regions. Portions
of these criteria are related to logging roads, but much of
it is related to timber harvesting^ logging, residue manage-
ment or reforestation activities. These criteria summarize
a number of important stream channel protection concepts.
Only the portions related to harvesting, logging, residue or
reforestation are presented, as follows:
Procedural criteria All activities that may signi-
ficantly affect stream hydrology or aquatic environment
will be reviewed prior to commencing work, using a
multidisciplinary approach including appropriate inputs
from a fishery biologist and/or aquatic ecologlst, hy-
drologist, soil scientist, engineer, landscape architect,
and other disciplines as needed.
A fishery biologist and/or aquatic ecologist will
evaluate the stream area considered for alteration as
an anadromous or resident fishery and the effects of the
proposed alteration to onsite and offslte aquatic envi-
ronments .
All significant stream alteration projects will be
evaluated by a multidisciplinary team of appropriate
specialists to determine alternative methods to meet
-------
5-47
stream channel protection objectives.
The land manager, utilizing the multidisciplinary
inputs, will assure that any necessary stream alteration
is carried out in accordance with prescribed specifica-
tions to at least meet the following performance criteria,
Performance criteria Avoid, channel changes wherever
this is possible.
.In any needed channel work, every reasonable effort
shall be made to preserve or minimize adverse effects on
the natural aquatic environment.
Where channel changes are deemed necessary, natural
channel velocities shall not be increased in the affected
stream reach. This will be assured by installing drop
structures, by constructing acceptable meanders, or by
other approved methods. Where drop structures are in-
stalled they shall be designed to permit fish passage,
if this is an established occurrence.
Construction and other activities affecting stream
channels shall be limited to those periods when such
activities will have the least detrimental effect on the
aquatic environment, unless emergency situations deem
otherwise.
Adequate mitigation measures shall be taken if con-
struction or other activities will adversely affect water
temperatures.
Construction and other activities affecting channels
above spawning areas shall be deferred if they will ad-
versely affect eggs or alevins in the gravel.
During construction and other activities affecting
channels, areas containing anadromous fish redds shall
be protected.
When channel changes or alterations are the best
alternative, mitigating measures shall be provided to
foster replacement of the aquatic habitat to as near
natural condition as Is possible.
Streamside vegetation shall be maintained if feas-
ible or, if destroyed, shall be replaced to provide for
the necessary needs of the aquatic environment.
When channel changes are unavoidable, new channels
shall be completed, Including scour and erosion protec-
tion, before turning water into them.
-------
5-48
Logs shall not be yarded across a stream unless
fully suspended above the stream channel.
Skidding of logs across a perennial stream is pro-
hibited.
No activity shall be undertaken which will heed-
lessly or permanently degrade present water quality.
Construction equipment service areas shall be lo-
cated and treated to prevent gas, oil, or other contam-
inants from washing or leaching into streams.
Streamside vegetation shall be protected or re-
placed when its removal.can result in:
1) Increased stream temperature detrimental to
aquatic habitat.
2) Increased turbidity, bedload, and suspended solids
which would be detrimental to fish spawning beds
or other aquatic habitat.
Transport of sediment from disturbed areas shall be
minimized by ponding, vegetative barrier strips, or
other means.
Log landings shall not be located adjacent to stream
channels or on areas where surface runoff will discharge
directly into the channel.
Construction shall be avoided during wet season or
other undesirable runoff periods to minimize sedimenta-
tion directly into streams. If construction is essential
during such periods, sedimentation.damage will be mini-
mized by installing debris basins .or using other methods
to trap sediment.
Wheeled, track-laying or other heavy equipment shall
not be operated in stream, courses except when approved
by the land manager at crossings designated by him; or if
essential to construction activities as specifically
authorized by the land manager.
Slash piles shall be located away from streams or
drainage channels so that residues will not reach peren-
nial streams.
In timber harvest areas and on road rights-of-way,
buffer strips shall be left near streams to maintain
existing water temperatures.
. Flushing of desilting basins, ponds, and reservoirs
-------
5-49
into streams Is prohibited.
Borrowing materials from stream channels shall be
practiced only when this is not detrimental to water
quality, fisheries, or channel hydraulics.
Stream banks and water Influence environs-. One of the
most important forest land areas to protect for water quality
purposes is the land adjacent to streams and watercourses.
Retaining vegetation and minimizing soil disturbance in such
\
zones can significantly reduce water quality Impacts by:
o retention of stream shading and temperature
regimes favorable to salmonid fisheries
o minimization of drop impact, soil particle en-
trainment and subsequent sedimentation during
periods of high flow or intense rainfall
o interception and deposition of sediment, particu-
larly the larger particles, in the small rivulets
resulting from major storms
The question of "buffer zones" or "leave strips" has
received much emphasis, particularly during the past five
years. It must be stressed that this report deals with such
zones only insofar as they contribute to the protection of
water quality. Other important forest land management goals,
e.g., wildlife protection, may also require the retention of
the vegetation adjacent to streams. Such requirements.will
not always coincide with the water quality requirements for
buffer zones. The primary point is that there are multiple
needs for maintaining vegetation along streams that should be
analyzed separately and then synthesized.
-------
5-50
DRAFT
It appears that .some form of minimum requirements for
buffer zones along spawning or rearing streams is advisable
in most of the sub-regions covered by this report. However,
such requirements will vary considerably from one sub-region
to another because of differences in topography, hydrology,
meteorology, silvlcultural practices, soils, fisheries and
geology. The ideal approach involves minimum requirements,
based on a range of stream classifications, that are subject
to enlargement or revision through comprehensive interdiscip-
linary planning. The objectives of such planning and revision
should be to achieve a level of water quality protection that
1) adequately protects the fishery, 2) meets state and federal
water quality requirements, and 3) provides an equal or great-
er protection than the minimum specified. With this proced-
ure, the differences in stream use and classification can be
recognized.
General. In a brief to the Select Standing Committee on
Forestry and Fisheries of the British Columbia Legislature,
Narber, Mason and Mundy (1973) made the following observations
concerning stream bank management:
Blanket, ironclad provisions for green strips along
all streams should not be adopted; both the operator and
the resource managers should remain flexible and each
stream or stream section should be evaluated individually
on an integrated resource basis. However, we suspect
that in most cases leaving untouched a strip of non-
merchantable deciduous or coniferous vegetation two or
three times the width of the stream channel on both sides
of the stream will satisfy most requirements for stream
protection.
r
We urge that top priority be given to improving the
inventory of fisheries, wildlife and recreational values
-------
5-51
in our/.water sheds. Frequently in the past solutions to
logging-fish conflicts have been delayed or resulted in
unsatisfactory decisions because the fisheries or wild-
life resource was not known as precisely as required.
However, this requirement for better inventory data should
not delay the implementation of strong, workable guide-
lines .
Because of our concern for the health of. streams,
we view with alarm the continued practice of alder sup-
pression. A number of studies to further evaluate the
importance of streamside alder are underway on Vancouver
Island, but some general comments are in order. Alders
are by far the most common deciduous tree species along
our coastal streams and appear to be valuable in bank
stabilization, shade, leaf fall, insect production,
nitrogen fixation and site improvement. Alder probably
should not be removed from stream banks in the logging
of old growth stands and where logging has already
occurred, the regeneration of streambanks with alder
should be encouraged rather than discouraged. In Ore-
gon and Washington, alders are not generally cut or
treated with herbicides along streams.; if plantations
are infested with juvenile alder, aerial spraying is
undertaken - usually by helicopter and well away from
water courses.
•Streeby (1970) offered the following in connection with
buffer strips:
Buffer strips have been receiving a great deal of
attention as a method of protecting streams and the
stream environment. But they are not equally useful in
all places. The desirability of applying buffer strips
IB dependent on three classes of factors—physical-
biotic factors, outside cultural factors, and management
objectives. Some potential costs and benefits associated
with buffer strips are identified, but all these costs
and benefits should not be expressed in dollar terms.
Rather, all costs and benefits associated with each man-
agement objective should be explicitly recognized in
their own natural measure of contribution to goals, and
.decisions should be made on the basis of this informa-
tion. (Author's abstract.)
The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1970)
suggested the following guidelines:
Leave all hardwood trees, shrubs, grasses, rocks,
and natural "down" timber wherever they afford shade over
a perennial stream or maintain the integrity of the soil
-------
5-52
near such a stream.
Carefully and selectively log the mature timber
from the buffer strip in such a way that shading and
filtering effects are not destroyed. Protect the buffer
strips by leaving stumps high enough to prevent any sub-
sequently-felled, up-slope trees from sliding or rolling
through the strips and into the streams.
Neither an optimum nor a minimum width can be set
arbitrarily for buffer strips. It is recommended, how-
ever, that a minimum width of 75 feet on each side of
the stream be used as a guide for establishing buffer
strips. At the same time it must be realized that the
necessary width will vary with steepness of the terrain,
the nature of the undercover, the kind of soil, and the
amount of timber that is to be removed.
One modification of the buffer strip plan calls for
the removal of only dead, dying, mature, and high risk
trees from strips at least 75 feet wide on medium sized
or larger streams. It provides also for removal of all
merchantable trees from within a 15-foot strip along
each bank of the stream. Such removal relieves pressure
on stream banks and prevents weakening the support for
larger trees and thus prevents stream bank destruction.
Where old growth timber must all be removed because
it is subject to windthrow (for example, pure western
hemlock) and where it is difficult to leave full-width
buffer strips of timber to shade the stream, plan to re-
establish cover along the stream after cutting is com-
pleted. Fast-growing deciduous species will be required
to restore shade as quickly as possible. In the mean-
time, leaving the understory vegetation as undisturbed
as possible will result in the filtering of the runoff
and the stabilizing of the soil.
Anderson (1973), summarizing other authors, reports,
"Since an optimum width cannot be arbitrarily established for
buffer strips, a minimum of 75 feet on each side of the stream'
is recommended."
The following recommendations were made by a consultant
(Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc., and J. B. Gilbert Associ-
ates, 1972) to the California Water Resource Board concerning
operations on the California north coast:
-------
5-53
In order to protect water course character and water
quality, each logging plan shall contain detailed descrip-
tions of water course protection strips (WPS). For that
part of the logging area bordering perennial and inter-
mittent streams the WPS shall have a width of 100 feet;
variations from this width may be Justified if the stream
protective qualities of the strip are maintained or im-
proved. Any logging operations in the strip must be done
without the use of heavy machinery and adequate to meet
the purpose and goals as described in this section.
Rules regulating the detailed characteristics of the
WPS based at least on stream class, topography, climate
and soil types shall be adopted by the Board.
Concurrent with logging and any associated activity,
all slash, debris and hazardous conditions shall be re-
moved from the water course protection strip in a manner
that maintains or improves the quality of the strip.
Slash, debris and sidecast earth that presents a hazard
to the WPS or water course as a result of surface water
flows, shall be removed or stabilized prior to the start
of the rainy season.
Thermal. One of the impacts of forest land management
is an increase in water temperature when shade-producing
vegetation is removed. Some nonclimatic factors and influences
that should be considered are described below:
Latitude Since the angle of the sun varies with
latitude, vegetation that shades the stream effectively
at high latitude is less effective at lower latitudes.
At lower latitudes, vegetative cover should be taller
to provide adequate shade.
Stream width Brush or hardwoods can effectively
shade small, narrow streams, while conifers or taller
vegetation are needed to fully shade wide streams.
Therefore, the wider the stream, the taller the vegeta-
tion needed to provide shade.
Topographic shading and 'orientation At certain
times of the day, topographic influences on the south
-------
5-54
side of an east-west oriented stream are effective in
shading the stream without any vegetative cover; but
on north-south oriented streams, the effect of vegeta-
tive cover is needed on both sides of the stream. At
midday, the vegetation which overhangs or is immediately
adjacent to the stream is the most effective. Later in
the day, when the declination of the sun has changed,
vegetation further from the stream can also provide shade,
Spacing of_ vegetation If vegetation is not spaced
closely enough, the stream may .not be effectively shaded
even though the vegetation is of sufficient height.
Tables 5-1 and 5-2 show how tree density or stocking
affect the light intensity (Resler n.d.).
Table 5-1
Stand Density Effects on Light Intensity
% of fully stocked light intensity
Stand removed (% of open)
stem density 0 8
25 11
50 26
75 55
canopy closure 0 4
25 6
50 16
75 43
basal area 0 10
25 15
50 27
75 52
-------
5-55
Table 5-2
Spacing Effect on Light Intensities
spacing (ft) trees light Intensity
(number/acre) (% open)
4 jt 4 2721 15
6x6 1210 16
7x7 889 36
9x9 538 60
Type of vegetation A mature stand of conifers,
with much of the lower bole free of limbs, may offer
only partial shade, whereas a younger, bushy stand of
trees may provide more shade. Understory species,
such as hardwoods or brush, generally provide very
adequate shade for small streams.
Area and volume of_ stream Temperature change is
directly proportional to the area of stream exposed and
the duration of exposure, and indirectly to the volume
of water. The temperature change will be higher for
wider streams with shallow water than for narrow streams
with deep water.
Stream gradient The stream directly influences the
flow speed. The higher the flow speed, the shorter the
exposure time. Therefore, fast-flowing streams heat up
less than slow, low gradient streams,
Channel type The type of stream bottom or channel
can strongly influence stream temperature. Soil rock
bottoms act as a heat sink storing the sun's energy.
As a consequence, stream temperature does not rise nor
cool as rapidly. In contrast, gravel, sand, or boulder
-------
5-56
bottoms will both heat and cool more rapidly.
Water temperature' criteria Brett (1952) notes that
the upper and lower limits of temperature which a fish
can withstand define the extreme of his tolerable envi-
ronment. The lethal temperature and thermal tolerances
vary from species to species. Salmonids have the lowest
thermal tolerance, with the maximum upper lethal temper-
ature barely exceeding 77°P. Anderson (1973) reviewed
the literatures about the ideal and maximum water tem-
peratures for various fish species. He summarizes as
follows:
Table 5-3
Ideal and Maximum Temperature Ranges by Species
fish species ideal temperature maximum temperature
Op Op
salmon
spawning 45 - 55 57-5-60
rearing 50-60 77
migrating 45 - 60 77
trout
rainbow 70-80 83
eastern brook 66-70 75
brown 70 - 80
largemouth bass and
bluegill 55 90
resident trout 45 - 68
Brown and Brazier (1973) report several conclusions in
a study of the effect of buffer strips on stream temperature:
The results of this study lead to some interesting
conclusions about designing buffer strips for tempera-
ture control.
Commercial timber volume alone is not an important
criterion for temperature control. The effectiveness of
buffer strips in controlling temperature changes is
-------
5-57
independent of timber volume.
Width of the buffer strip alone is not an important
criterion for control of stream temperature. For the
streams in this study, the maximum shading ability of
the average strip was reached within a width of 80 feet;
90 .percent of that maximum was reached within 55 feet.
Specifying standard 100- to 200-foot buffer strips for
all streams, which usually assures protection, generally
will include more timber in the strip than is necessary.
Angular canopy density is correlated well with
stream temperature control. It is the only single cri-
terion the forester can use that will assure him ade-
quate temperature control for the stream without over-
designing the buffer strip.
The U. S. Forest Service water quality guides include
the following information:
The heights, of vegetative cover needed to provide
effective shade for various stream widths and latitudes
are listed in the table below. The data shown are those
which occur in mid-July when water temperatures are more
likely to be critical.
Height of Vegetative Cover Needed to Offer Shade
Stream Width Latitude 42° Latitude 45° Latitude 49°
(ft.) Height of Cover (ft.)
2 6 .5 4 .
4 20 9 7
8 21 18 15
12 31 2? 23
18 47 40 34
20 52 • 45 38
30 78 67 56
40 104 90 75
50 - 130 112 94
75 195 169 141
100 260 225 188
The height of vegetative cover needed for any width
of stream and any latitude can be calculated used the
formula:
tangent A = ^ or
height (ft.) = natural trigonometric function
of the tangent of the sun angle
times stream width (ft.)
-------
5-58
The sun angle for any latitude for any date in ques-
tion can be calculated by referring to a solar ephemeris
to obtain apparent declination and using the following
formula: .
solar angle = 90 - (latitude - apparent declination)
Sediment. In a central Idaho ponderosa pine cutting
which covered sixteen small watersheds, Haupt and Kidd (1965) °
found with careful planning and good logging supervision that
sediment did not reach the stream with undisturbed buffer
strips averaging more than 30 feet wide. When strips were
reduced to an 8-foot width, however, sediment entered the
stream. As was to be expected, proximity of a road to the
stream affected the frequency with which sediment flows
reached the stream when 8-foot buffer strips were being used.
Trimble and Sartz (1957) recommend the guidelines listed
as Table 5-4. •
Table 5-4
Recommended Widths for Filter Strips
(after Trimble and Sartz, 1957)
slope of land width of filtration
% strips in feet
0 .25
10 45
20 65
30 85
40 105
50 125
60 145
70 165
It has been suggested by Trimball and Sartz (1957) that
a logging road should be a minimum of "25 feet plus 2 feet
for each one percent of slope between stream and road." A
curve was prepared showing the relationship between degree
-------
5-59
of slope and the distance sediment Is carried by storm runoff
which Is shown as Figure' $-l\.
o o o o o 6 o o <
SS22'»»S8!
J.33J HI '4M3HI03S .
O
5 "°
•j
5; MO
S,,o
Vi
f .0.
$ ,u
/
/
s
0.__0 OBSERVED DATA (WEIGHTED VALUE) ,
••i
x
/
.*
RECOMMENDED FILTER STRIPS
— — MUNICIPAL WATERSHEDS
— — GENERAL SITUATIONS
%
•
x'
X
•x
V
f
X
4.
ti
-1-
1
>
Jf
/
-i
4.
+
X"
X
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x-f
v+
•-f-f
V
X
X
^~
x<
X
4
_x
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f
+
^r^
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+^
-+
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y
^
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. 1
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FOR:
/
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^^^
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JT
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^P^
**,
f
O S 10 IS. to t» SO JS 40 4S SO SS 60 65 TO 7S
PERCENT SLOPE OF LAND BETWEEN ROAD AND STREAM
Figure 5-4: Relationship between degree of slope
and the distance sediment is carried
by storm runoff.
Marine3 lake or reservoir environments. The management
for water quality purposes of estuaries, lakes or reservoirs
and the adjacent land and vegetation has not been the subject
of extensive research. Such shoreline management has most
often been practiced for esthetic, wildlife er recreational
purposes rather than water quality per se.
While the importance of shoreline protection to water
quality is apparently greater for small to medium sized streams
-------
5-60
than for estuaries, lakes or reservoirs, this general rule
can be expected to have exceptions. Small fresh- or salt-
water bodies, particularly shallow spawning or rearing areas,
can present a high.potential for water quality degradation.
This depends on:
o exposure
o normal temperature regime
o hydraulic characteristics (flushing)
o soil/slope characteristics
o relative amount of the sensitive area affected
For example, a shallow, narrow estuarine area normally
provided with shade by tall trees along a steep, erodible
shoreline to the south could be subjected to dramatic therm-
al and sedimentation impacts if the vegetation is removed and
the soil extensively disturbed. If such an area is an impor-
tant rearing area for fish, the biological Impacts could be
severe. Since such areas are generally less active hydraul-
ically than streams, under certain conditions the potential
for adverse effects could be greater.
The U. S. Forest Service proposed the following three
guidelines for the Southern Chilkat Study Area, Tongass
National Forest, which exert a significant influence on a
productive marine environment:!
o Consult a biologist prior to any developmental
action along the shoreline and estuarine areas.
o Give preference to dryland storage and barging
in any logging activity.
o Exclude any timber harvest within approximately
-------
5-61
a one-fourth mile fringe of the shoreline except
for salvage of blowdown, Insect, disease, or fire
damaged timber.
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA), Juneau,
Alaska, has recommended the following to reduce the adverse
impact of fisheries from log dumps and raft storage apeas:
1. Maximize the distance between the mouths and
intertidal channels of anadromous fish streams
and the sites.
2. Maximize the distance between tide flats and sub-
tidal beds of aquatic vegetation and the sites.
3. Use the steepest shores having the least inter-
tidal and subtidal zone.
4. Minimize disturbance of the shoreline as a result
of clearing, road building and other activities
that might produce silt or otherwise disrupt the
estuarine environment.
5. Minimize storage time for rafted logs before trans-
port to the mill.
6. Minimize the number of active dump sites and log
storage areas in any given bay or bay complex.
7. Minimize the filling of intertidal and subtidal
aseas for the construction of log dumps, fuel trans-
fer facilities, equipment loading ramps, etc.
8. Minimize the use of intertidal areas as a source of
borrow.
9- Minimize interference with other established uses
such as commercial and sport fishing, hunting and
anchorages for commercial and recreational boats.
10. Whenever possible locate sites outside bays, along
straits and channels.
11. Locate dump sites in deep bays rather than in shal-
low bays. Select bays without sills or other natural
restrictions to tidal exchange.
12. Locate dump site near mouths of bays rather than at
heads of bays unless the environment at the mouth
of the particular bay in question has some special
significance.
-------
5-62
13. Use the deepest water possible for booming grounds
and log raft storage areas.
14. Select sites that accomodate future timber develop-
ment without requiring continual relocation.
Steep slopes and unstable soils. Areas of steep slopes
or....unstable soils present potential water quality problems
that are best avoided whenever possible. The most advantag- -
eous approach involves the critical/sensitive soil and slope
areas being identified and allocated to low disturbance uses,
such as no roads and minimum to no timber harvest. Informa-
tion pertinent to the study of steep slopes and critical soils
as affecting water quality can be found in Section 4 (pages
14-26).
The following guidelines summarize the water quality
protection criteria for timber harvest, logging, residue
management and reforestation:
o A land systems management plan, including programs
for minimizing soil loss, erosion and mass soil
failure, should be developed for all forest land
units by experienced soil scientists and geologists.
o Avoid locating skid trails in ravines or V-notches.
o Limb logs before yarding if they are to be ground-
skidded.
o Apply zone-sensitive saturation (max/min) and slope
limits to each type of logging used, particularly
tractor logging.
o Minimize soil disturbance through the use of aerial
logging methods such as skyline, running skyline,
-------
5-63
helicopter or balloon systems In steep-sloped or
unstable soil zones (e.g., the Idaho Batholith).
0 Consider the use of slash for soil protection
purposes.
o , .Consider limiting logging to periods when snow
cover can provide protection to the soil and
understory.
9?he following portions of this section are excerpted
from various sources.
In a report concerning the California Forest Protective
Law, Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc., has proposed certain
standards to the Watershed Conservation Board that pertain to
critical areas and the location of facilities as follows:
The Board shall set permissible Soil loss levels
for the district areas.
The Board shall monitor logging operations and
shall report individual and cumulative soil losses
attributable to logging.
Permittee shall include an erosion control pro-
gram in each logging plan describing in detail the
facilities and techniques used to keep soil losses
at permissible levels.
Permittee shall pay the cost of erosion monitoring.
The Alaska Departments of Pish and Game and Natural
Resources and the U. S. Forest Service have outlined the
following for minimizing erosion and sedimentation from steep
slope or unstable soil areas:
Avoid logging in critical V-notch areas.
Avoid yarding across or out of V-notches.
Revegetate disturbed soil.
The Oregon Soil Conservation Service prepared a paper
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5-64
entitled "Agronomy Practices Standards and Specifications for
Critical Area Planting." These standards can be applied to
any area of surface disturbance with some modification for
each site. The two following are pertinent to steep slopes
an unstable soils:
On soils with a severe erosion hazard, the slope
length must be limited to a distance that will help
prevent erosion and rilling. Diversion above the slope
may be required; also adequate drainage, a stable channel
for the water course to prevent cutting action, and a
stable flat area for draining discharge or drop struc-
ture are usually necessary. Urban areas will need a
well designed water disposal system.
Use a mulch where seeding problems are severe or
seeding establishment is difficult.
W. J. Kidd, U. S. Forest Service, in studies on the
Idaho Batholith, summarized his research on 569 intervals
of 105 logging skidtrails as follows:
1. Erosion is greater and rate of healing is slower
on soil derived from granite than on soil from
basalt.
2. More soil is eroded from skidtrails unavoidably
located in ravine bottoms than from trails on
sidehills.
3. Control structures that divert water off the skid-
trail onto undisturbed forest floors are superior
to those that only retard water movement and filter
out sediment along the skldtrail.
4. Any increase in spacing between control structures
is accompanied by increase in soil movement.
5. Optimum spacing between erosion control structures
depends on the percent of slope, whether location
of the skidtrail is on a sidehlll or in a ravine,
and the soil parent material.
Kidd concluded that proper treatment of bared skidtrails
after logging reduces the hazard of potential erosion. He
-------
5-65
also concluded that all types of erosion control structures
on skidtrails were generally Ineffective in ravine bottoms.
Water diverting structures (log water bars and cross ditches)
are more effective than the sediment filtering methods (slash
dams and lopping and scattering of slash).
Gonsior and Gardner (1971) proposed design criteria for
the improvement of logging roads in areas subject to slope
failure. Since road design has been dealt with in a previous
report, those recommendations will not be listed, but the
reader is referred to that publication when areas subject to
slope failure are involved in road design, landing location,
or the location of other logging facilities.
The Tongass National Forest (1971*) proposed the follow-
ing as a means of reducing soil disturbance:
Utilize winter snow conditions and frozen ground
to minimize soil disturbance during timber harvest.
Hopkins (1957) made the following observations concern-
ing the minimization of soil disturbance:
Limb the logs before yarding. Be sure the loggers
know the location of the skid trails. Then, they can
place the trees so that yarding crews can roll and skid
the logs with a minimum amount of soil disturbance.
Slash disposal is often considered solely as a
method of reducing fire hazard. Don't overlook the
opportunity, however, for using slash from tops and
other debris to minimize or prevent erosion damage.
Slash and litter properly placed in skid trails will
lessen soil movement and divert excess water out of
trails; improperly placed, it is ineffective, wasteful
of effort, and may even increase erosion. Place the
material in good contact with the soil and the larger
pieces at such angles that they will lead water out of
the skidway at frequent intervals. Portable chippers,
- now in use on two of the southern California national
forests, will chip slash and blow a mulch into old skid
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5-66
trails and other bare and unstable areas. In general,
the combination of good road location, well-placed
waterbreaks, and slash placement in critical spots,
will provide effective erosion protection.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1970)
recommended the following soil protection criteria:
Limb all logs before yarding in order to minimize
disturbance of soil and damage to reproduction and
water quality.
Avoid tractor yarding on all saturated areas and
on all slopes steeper than 30 percent. On critical
soils, limit crawler-tractor yarding to slopes of less
than 15 percent.
Minimize logging road construction on very steep
slopes or fragile areas by using skyline or balloon
yarding systems.
Consider the use of helicopters, balloons, or
modified cable systems for logging of areas that would
have high conventional yarding costs or for fragile,
sensitive areas.
Take all possible care to avoid damage to the soils
of forested slopes, and to the soil and water of natural
meadows as well. Minimize this damage by operating the
logging equipment only when soil moisture conditions are
such that excessive damage will not result.
Limit tractor-built firelines to areas where they
will not involve problems in soil instability.
Table 5-5 is taken from the FWPCA (1970) report.
Facilities location and logging system layout. The
emphasis of this section up to now has been on avoiding or
minimizing disturbances on critical or sensitive areas. While
such avoidance is necessary, proper timber management planning
should also include the identification and utilization of
stable areas for locating logging facilities (e.g., landings)
and systems (e.g., skid trails).
In most northwest forest sub-regions, the greatest
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5-67
Table 5-5
RELATIVE EROSION HAZARD OF LOGGING AREAS
IN RELATION TO SITE FACTORS
Site Factors
High
Erosion
Hazard
Moderate
Erosion
Hazard
Low
Erosion
Hazard
Parent rock
Sedimentary
Acid Igneous and Metamorphic
Granite, Sandstone,
diorite, vol- schist, shale,
canic ash, slate, con-
pumice, some glomerates,
schists chert
Basic Igneous
(Lava rocks)
Basalt, ande-
site, serpen-
tine
Soil
Light ,
textured,—
with little
or no clay
Medium textured, Heavy tex-
with consider- tured, largely
able clay clay and adobe
Mantle
stability
Slope
Precipita-
tion
Vegetation
and other
organic mat-
ter on and
in the soil
Unstable
mantles
(cutbank
stability
Class V)
Steep
(over 50%)
Heavy winter
rains or in-
tense summer
storms
None to very
little
Mantles of Stable mantles
questionable (Classes I, II
stability and III
(cutbank sta-
bility Class
IV)
Moderate Gentle
(20-50?) (0-20$)
Mainly snow Heavy snow or
with some light rain
rain
Moderate Large, amounts
amounts
Soil texture refers to the size and distribution of the
mineral particles in the soil, the range extending from
sand (light texture) to clay (heavy texture).
-------
5-68
potential for reducing stream sedimentation related to silvi-
cultural activities appears to lie in the minimization of
logging road and skid trail densities. Much of the litera-
ture concerning the Idaho Batholith, for instance, indicates
that erosion and sedimentation is heavily influenced by the
extent of the area disturbed by roads (Megahan and Kidd,
1972a and b).
Because of this relationship between logging roads,
density and sedimentation, one method offers significant
advantages for water quality protection. This is simply the
reiterative layout on a topographic map of alternative road
systems with the concommitant harvest and logging systems.
This analysis allows the selection of a combination that
minimizes soil exposure due to cut/fill and road surfaces.
Such road/logging system selection should consider the
following:
o minimizing total road density and soil disturbance
o avoiding critical or sensitive areas
o long term harvesting plans for areas allocated to
intensive commercial timber use
o minimizing cut/fill surface area and ensuring that
cut/fill slopes are less than maximum limits set
for each soil type
Certain models or procedures have been developed for
locating timber management facilities. Most of these "models"
are based on economic feasibility, but could have programs for
minimizing water quality degradation incorporated with a
-------
5-69
minimum of effort. It is not within the scope of this report
to present detailed descriptions for each one. However, the
following list is presented to acquaint the reader with the
types of models presently available that may have considerable
potential through modification for use in water quality man-
agement planning:
1. LOCATION-ALLOCATION MODELS FOR ESTABLISHING
FACILITIES .(Gibson and Rodenburg* 197M
2. OPTIMUM REFUELING FOR HELICOPTER LOGGING: A
MODEL (Gibson, 1974)
3. HELICOPTER LOGGING: A MODEL FOR LOCATING
LANDINGS (Egging and Gibson, 1974)
4'. RUNNING SKYLINE DESIGN WITH A DESK TOP
COMPUTER/PLOTTER (Parson, Studier and
Lysons, 1971)
5. RESOURCE-ALLOCATION PROCEDURE FOR PLANNING
AND SCHEDULING ACTIVITIES DEPENDENT ON A
LIMITED RESOURCE POOL (Carson and Burke, 1972)
6. ROAD AND LANDING CRITERIA FOR MOVABLE-CRANE
YARDING SYSTEMS (Burke, 1972)
7. AUTOMATED ANALYSIS OF TIMBER ACCESS ROAD
ALTERNATIVES (Burke, 197*0
Hopkins (1957) stated the following as a guideline for
locating landings:
Locate landings in natural, level openings and on
firm dry ground whenever possible. In moderate terrain
this is easily attained; in steep country, careful des-
ignation of landing sites is necessary to minimize water-
shed damage. Often you can make landings by widening
the haul roads at some distance from water courses.
Cribbing built with cull or unmerchantable logs and
chunks on the downhill side will support a landing fill
and thus minimize excavation.
The following criteria were formulated by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration (1970):
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5-70
Correlate all skid trail locations with cutting
areas, topography, soil types, and climatic factors.
Locate such trails carefully and drain them adequately
so that muddy and turbid waters will be kept out of
stream channels and off stream banks. Use temporary
-log or metal culverts wherever such trails must cro.ss
stream channels, and keep the number of such .crossings
as few as possible. Use each skid trail only a small
number of times in order to avoid soil gouging and
compacting and the channelization of runoff.
Locate log landing areas on firm dry ground away
from live stream channels wherever possible. Widening
of the logging road will permit this in some places.
Borrow the material for the extra fill from a long
stretch of road rather than from a single spot, thus
keeping the cut slopes reduced in extent. Use cull or
unmerchantable logs and chunks to form a cribbing on
the downhill side to support the fill for the landing
and thus minimize the borrow excavation and help control
slumping and erosion.
Avoid servicing tractors, trucks, and similar equip-
ment on forest lands adjacent to roads, lakes, streams,
or recreational facilities. Permit no contaminants to
remain in the logging area following completion of
operations.
Maintain in a clean and sanitary condition all
improvements such as camps, mills, quarries, and the
grounds adjacent thereto that are us'ed in connection
with the timber harvesting process. Locate all build-
ings, toilets, garbage pits, and other structures in
those places that will prevent pollution <3f the water
in streams, ponds, or lakes.
Locate log loading or log storage areas (landings)
along ridge tops, on other .areas having gentle slopes,
or along widened road areas.
Place landings in the channels of intermittent
streams only in those emergency situations where no
safe alternative locations can be found. Adequately
drain any landing that must be. placed in such channels.
Immediately after completing all log loading from
these landings, clear the channel to its full capacity,
spread the fill material in areas where it' will remain
stable, and reseed those areas to herbaceous vegetation.
Si.lvicultural System Selection
The harvest or cutting method used has historically
been based on the silvlcs of the tree species present, the
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5-71
profitability, of the system used to extract the wood products,
and the type of logging equipment available in the region.
However, the selection of the silvicultural system directly
affects the water pollution potential of the harvest and
logging, operation. By recognizing this relationship, the
water pollution potential of an area to be logged can be
reduced through the selection of the silvicultural system.
To reduce the effects of any silvicultural system on
water quality, a number of general recommendations may be
followed:
1. Know the classes of stream within the cutting areas
and the degree of protection needed (Washington-
Oregon Forest Practices Acts 1974).
2. Design cutting areas to reduce logging impact on
streams so as to avoid yarding across the streams
and minimize disturbance to stream bed and banks.
3- Choose the type and size of logging equipment that
will minimize soil disturbance.
4. Use buffer strips of vegetation along streams to
intercept sediments and organic material and main-
tain normal water temperatures (Anderson 1973).
5. Avoid logging of steep unstable slopes which have
. landslide potential. Guidelines for identifying
such areas are available for coastal Alaska (Swan-
ston 1969).
6. Develop general drainage plans jointly with all
owners in the vicinity of the operations.
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5-72
7. Design the clearcut with a minimum of roads (Fred-
erlckson 1971)•
8. Locate landings away from stream courses in easily
drained areas to avoid mud accumulations and so
that skid trails will not contribute excessive
drainage into them.
9. Avoid falling trees into or across streams whenever
possible. Remove logging debris from stream chan-
nels (SAP 1959).
10. Restrict cable logging to uphill yarding. Depend-
ing on soil conditions, tractor or wheel skidding
should be restricted on steep slopes and immediately
after heavy rains or snow melt periods (SAP 1959).
11. Revegetate the area as soon as possible after log-
ging. Stabilize roads, skid trails and landings.
12. Periodically inspect drainage previously established
through proper construction of skid trails, landings,
spur roads and fire lines and maintain to avoid
future site degradation (SAP 1959).
13. Locate skid, trails in tractor logging where they
can be drained and construct with discontinuous
grades (SAP 1959).
I1!. Maintain good supervision of the personnel respon-
sible for the operations.
The recommendations listed above apply to all silvicul-
tural systems.
Studies in the Wagon Wheel Gap watersheds in Colorado,
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the Coweeta Experimental Forest in North Carolina, and the
Hubbard-Brook watersheds in New Hampshire have demonstrated
that the felling of trees alone contributes very little to
overland .flow or soil erosion. However, because each harvest
technique necessitates different types and amounts of road
building and other soil disturbances, soil erosion is a
function of harvest technique. Table 5-6 presents some
typical data that illustrate sediment production as related
to different logging and harvesting practices.
Table 5-6
Maximum Turbidities Under Pour Cutting Practices on the
Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia
(taken from Hornbeck and Reinhart, 1964)
Quality of Maximum
Logging Operation Cutting Practice Turbidity (ppm)
very poor 1.* commercial clearcut 56,000
poor 2. diameter-limit 5,200
good 3- extensive selection 210
very good 4. intensive selection 25
undisturbed (control watershed) 15
* Numbers refer to the cutting practice descriptions which
follow.
The following restrictions were placed on the logging
operation in each cutting practice:
1. In the commercial clearcut, no restrictions were
placed on the logger; he was permitted to harvest
. the timber in what he considered the quickest,
most economical method.
2. The only restriction in the diameter-limit cut was
the installation of water bars (diversions) in the
skidroads at specific intervals.. The water bars
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5-74
T
divert water off the road and onto the undisturbed
soil, where it may be absorbed safely.
3. Requirements on the extensive selection cut were
the installation of water bars, 20 percent maximum
grade of skidroad, and no skidding in stream channels.
*J. The logging operation was most carefully controlled
in the intensive selection cut; requirements in this
treatment were installation of water bars, a 10
percent maximum grade of skidroad, no skidding in
or near streams, and seeding disturbed%areas fol-
lowing logging.
Studies on the water supply watersheds of Seattle, Wash-
ington, and Oregon City, Oregon (Horn I960 and Thompson I960),
illustrate that sedimentation can be independent of harvesting
method. Harvesting methods included strip or block clearcut-
ting, but in each case the logging operation was precisely
prescribed and carefully supervised, with the roads designed
to minimize erosion and reforestation initiated 'soon after
the operation, Both watersheds were logged without a notice-
able reduction in water quality.
Rothwell (1971) presented Table 5-7 to illustrate the
degree of disturbance associated with each cutting method.
Table 5-7
Cutting Method Versus Degree of Site Disturbance
cutting method degree of disturbance
clearcut high
seed tree
shelterwood
group selection
selection low
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T
The following describes the various silvicultural sys-
tems relative to water quality impact.
Clearcutting is a silvicultural system in which the old
crop is cleared over a considerable area at one time. This
system is not suitable on fragile soils or on sites charac-
terized by severe climatic conditions. .Some advantages of
the clearcutting system include:
1. Logging damage to growing stock is prevented be-
cause immature trees are concentrated in stands
other than those being harvested (Hawley and
Smith 195*0,
2. Losses from windthrow are kept to a minimum (Haw-
ley and Smith 195*0 .
3. It is profitable and efficient with the lowest
production cost per unit of any harvesting system
(Archie and Baumgartner n.d., Harris 197*0-
*J. One of the best methods for regeneration of shade
intolerant species in even-aged stands is found
in clearcutting (Hawley and Smith 195*0-
5. This system is desirable for handling diseased or
insect-infested stands (Harris 197*0-
6. The method is simple and easy to practice (Twight
1973).
Several disadvantages of clearcutting are well
known :
1. The clearcutting system temporarily destroys forest
cover, changing the microclimate of the area (Haw-
ley and Smith 195*0 -
2. The potential for disease and insect epidemics may
increase in large, even-aged stands (Harris 197**)-
3- Fire hazard is Increased, and suitability of the
area for some types of wildlife may be reduced
(Hawley and Smith 195*0.-
*J . There is a risk of deterioration of the physical
properties of the soil (Hawley and Smith 195*1).
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5-76
5. Clearcutting tends to. reduce protection against
erosion, landslides, snow&lides and rapid runoff
of water, depending on the care taken in planning
the clearcut (Hawiey and Smith 1954).
6. Aesthetically it is the least desirable of the
harvesting systems used in the region (Hawiey and
Smith 195^).
7. In some areas and sites, regeneration may be diffi-
cult due to invasion of brush species or microcli-
matic changes (Archie and Baumgartner n.d.).
A number of lectural papers have addressed the question
of the advantages and disadvantages of clearcutting. Other
publications for reference include EPA Report #430/9-73-010:
"Ecological Forestry for Douglas Fir Region," by Twight 1973;
and "The Effects of Clearcutting and Burning on Water Quality,"
by Snyder 1973.
Clearcutting exposes the entire forest floor from stump
level down to the direct impact of precipitation. The soil
is protected by stumps, slash and duff to some degree even
after yarding, but measures must be 'taken to protect the
watershed to lessen this impact.
Streams within and below a clearcut may show water tem-
peratures that vary considerably-after timber harvest.
From Rothwell (1971):
If Clearcutting is employed* careful consideration
should be given in the logging plan to size and distri-
bution, both areal and temporal, of the cutting blocks.
Generally speaking, increasing the size of clearcut^
blocks and shortening the cutting cycle will increase
the potential for watershed damage.
Considering a watershed as a whole, large clearcuts
and a short cutting cycle concentrate the disturbance
in area and time and increase the impact on watershed
values. Furthermore, large cut blocks may create hab-
itats that are difficult to revegetate, thereby extending
the recovery period.
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T
Small cut blocks and longer cutting cycles may re-
sult in the same total amount of disturbance, but dis-
tribution in time and area reduces impact. In addition,
residual vegetation maintains a forest environment and
reduces and slows runoff, erosion, and the amount of
sediment entering streams.
Selection is an uneven-aged silvicultural system in
which trees are removed individually, on a dispersed basis,
from a large area each year; Ideally over a whole forest or
'working circle, but from practical considerations almost
always over the annual groups of cutting series. Regenera-
tion is mainly natural and the crop is ideally all-aged (SAP
Term. 1971). A modification of this system in which trees
are removed in small groups at a time is called the group-
selection system.
Within the Pacific Northwest, the selection system is
used mainly east of the Cascade Range and in southwest Oregon
east of the coastal zone. Single tree selection tends to
favor shade tolerant species, whereas group selection tends
to maintain .a higher proportion of the less shade tolerant
species. The selection system frequently is used where con-
tinuous forest cover is needed in.addition to maintaining an
all-aged forest. The system is used in all regions subject
to intense public use, such as campgrounds and recreation
. areas.
Some advantages and disadvantages of the selection
system are listed below (Hawley and Smith 195*0:
Advantages:
1. A high degree of protection is afforded the site
as well as to the reproduction.
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5-78
2. Danger of windthrow of the trees is quite low.
3. The mixture of age classes tends to reduce the
danger of outbreak of injurious Insects and disease,
' as the environmental conditions are maintained in
nearly constant state.
^.. From the aesthetic standpoint it is the best sys-
tem, owing to its picturesque uneven-aged form
and the absence of anything approaching clearcutting.
5. For some types of wildlife, the group-selection
modification is beneficial because of the balance
between cover and food supply.
6. The selection method is the only practicable means
of securing a sustained annual or periodic income
on very small forest ownerships.
Disadvantages:
1. The system requires relatively light cuttings car-
ried out at frequent intervals, which increases
logging costs.
2. Because of'the mixture of age classes, it is neces-
sary to take extreme care to prevent logging injury
.to remaining stems.
3. The selection method has a tendency to favor repro-
duction of shade tolerant species over that of
shade intolerant species unless modifications of
the system are used.
*J. Intensive application of the .method requires great
skill on the part of the forester and close super-
vision of logging. There may be a tendency to de-
generate the system into a form of high-grading,
which lowers the productivity of the forest.
The inherent characteristics of the selection system
place it at the top of the four silvicultural systems with
regard to maintaining high water quality when skilfully ap-
plied. The biggest drawback is the frequent return to the
forest for the periodic or even annual cutting, resulting
in small disturbances occurring with greater frequency than
with other silvicultural systems.
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5-79
To. reduce the impact on water quality., all the recommen-
dations in this section should be reviewed. In addition,
care should be used to stabilize skid trails, landings and
roads after each harvest (FWPCA 1970).
Shelterwood is an even-aged silvicultural system in
which, in order to provide a source of seed and/or protection
.for regeneration, the stand is removed in two or more cuttings,
the first of which is ordinarily the seed cutting and the last
is the final cutting, any intervening cuttings being termed
removal cuttings (SAP Term. 1971). The system is adaptable
to a large number of species (Hawley and Smith 197*0.
In the Pacific Northwest, the Shelterwood system is used
in the coastal stands of Oregon and Washington where it favors
hemlock (Williamson 1966). In Alaska, Shelterwood cutting
experience is lacking (Ruth and Harris 1973). Recent
trials using the Shelterwood method have been successful in
providing natural regeneration.in portions of the high Cas-
cades in Oregon as noted by Williamson (1973). Throughout
the remaining regions, Shelterwood is practiced to varying
degrees, and it appears that it will be increasingly used as
a silvicultural system. The regions east of the Cascade
Range are characterized by a wide variety of climatic and
/
biological factors. In some regions such as northern Idaho,
a large number of tree species may be adaptable to the Shel-
terwood system.
Some advantages of the Shelterwood system include (Haw-
ley and Smith 1954, USDA 1973):
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5-80
1. Natural reproduction is more complete, and certain
than under other methods which create even-aged
forests.
2. The average length of rotation can be shortened
because one even-aged crop starts before the pre-
ceding one is harvested.
3. It is especially adapted to species or sites where
shelter is needed for the new reproduction, or
where the shelterwood gives the desired regenera-
tion an advantage over undesired competing vegetation,
4. It is superior to all other systems except the
selection method with respect to protection of the
site and aesthetic considerations.
5. Slash disposal is less of a problem than with clear-
cutting or seed-tree methods because each cutting
leaves less debris and shaded conditions reduce
the danger of fire.
6. If handled correctly., the principle of retaining
the best trees of the most desirable species as a
seed source improves the characteristics of the
future stand.
Some disadvantages include:
1. Intensive application of the shelterwood system
. requires markets for products of small size and
low grade for full utilization.
2. The system cannot be applied in cases where iso-
lated trees are unusually susceptible to damage
by wind.
3. Greater technical skill- is needed than for clear-
cutting or seed-tree methods, but probably less
than equally intensive application of the selection
method.
4. More frequent return to the area with its attend-
ant disturbance of the forest cover is necessary
than with clearcuttlng or seed-tree, but less so
than with the selection system.
Because the shelterwood system disturbs the site less
than all other silvicultural systems, with the possible ex-
ception of the selection method, its effect on the watershed
is relatively low. Depending on the number* of successive
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cuttings and the intervals of time between them, the major
factor is the degree of cover disturbance at each return.
To reduce the impact of the shelterwood system on water
quality, it is necessary to review previous recommendations
noted under clearcutting and, as was the case for the selection
method, to stabilize sources of water pollution after each
successive harvest.
Seed-tree cutting method, not a true silvicultural
system, is the removal in one cut of the mature timber from
an area, save for a small number of seed-bearers left singly
or in small groups (SAP Term. 1971)• Only a small percentage
of the original volume, ordinarily less than 10 percent, is
left standing in the seed-trees. After a new crop is estab-
lished the seed-trees may be removed in a second cutting or
left. The retention of some trees on the cutover area is
the distinction from clearcutting. In general, the method
is applicable only to wind disseminated species that frequent-
ly bear large crops of seeds and can become established in
exposed locations (Hawley and Smith 195*0 •
In the Pacific Northwest, the seed-tree cutting method
was used much more extensively in the past, especially east
of the Cascades, than at present. The method has been de-
clining in use in favor of shelterwood or selection methods
which are more advantageous and adaptable to various site
conditions.
The advantages and disadvantages of using the seed-tree
method are very similar in many instances to the clearcut
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method, but there are important differences as listed below:
Advantages:
1. As contrasted to clearcutting, with natural repro-
duction, it provide better control of the species
in the new crop, since only desirable species are
left for seed-trees. The supply of seed is also
more uniformly distributed and may be even more
abundant than when clearcutting is used (Hawley
and Smith 1954).
Disadvantages:
1. There is serious danger of windtfarow of the isolated
seed-trees before they have restocked the cutover
area. Therefore, windflrm species must be selected
(Hawley and Smith 195*0.
2. Seed-trees may be lost before they can be salvaged,
and values represented may be substantial (Hawley
and Smith 1954).
3. Unlike clearcutting, the seed-tree method is rarely
applicable in stands of overmature timber because
the individual trees may be too decadent to serve
the purpose or too valuable to leave (Hawley and
Smith 1954).
4. Scattered seed-trees, may tend to self-pollinate,
resulting in inferior seedlings or infertile seed.
•\
Under this system, because it exposes the forest floor
only slightly less than clearcutting, the effect on the water-
shed is quite similar to clearcutting. When it becomes nec-
essary to return to the area to remove the seed-trees after
their purpose has been accomplished, the ground is subjected
-to another round of logging with concommitant disturbance.
For this reason, the period of water quality impact will often
be longer than for clearcutting and of similar peak magnitudes.
Logging Method Selection
The selection of the logging method and its attendant
equipment has depended in the past on the silvicultural
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5-83
system to. be used, the type of equipment available, logging
costs, the constraints of climate and soil conditions, and
state or federal regulations. Just as the silvlcultural sys-
tem selection affects water quality, so does the selection of
the logging method. Thus one element of timber management
planning for water quality purposes should involve the evalu-
ation and selection of logging methods that minimize adverse
water quality impacts.
Lyson and Twito (1973) have enumerated some environment-
al and silvicultural criteria for determining the type of
logging method to be chosen:
Environmental and silvicultural criteria
Minimum landing area
Minimum access road density
capability to yard extended distances
capability for uphill and downhill yarding
Minimum soil and water disturbance, including
soil compaction
Minimum impact of fish, wildlife and range habitat
Suitability for partial cuts and clearcuts
minimum damage .to residual stand
Suitability for harvesting irregular-shaped settings
Suitability for clean yarding
Minimum energy consumption and air pollution
Economic criteria
Minimum yarding cost
maximum production per man-day
maximum production per invested capital
minimum maintenance
Minimum sensitivity to yield per acre
minimum move-in cost
minimum set-up cost
Maximum return on stumpage
Minimum invested capital
Maximum reliability
Physical criteria
Minimum sensitivity to ground profile
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5-84
Compatibility, with the timber size
Minimum sensitivity to atmospheric conditions
Compatibility with health and safety co.des
Compatibility with road restrictions
To Illustrate the range of soil disturbance associated
with the various logging methods, Figure 5-5 and Table 5-8,
presented below, are taken from Dyrness (1972).
•o
TO
•60
60
40
50
to
10
Balloon
UNDISTURBED
suetmy
DISTURBED
DEEPLY
DISTURBED
COMPACTED
Figure .5-5.
Soil Surface Condition Following Tractor,
High-Lead, Skyline and Balloon Logging
in the Western Cascades of Oregon
(taken from Dyrness 1972)
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5-85
Table 5-8
Effects' of Log Transport System on Forest Soils
T
log transport
system
balloon
skyline
high lead
tractor
percentage of
logged watershed
with bare soil
6.0
12.1
percentage of
logged
watershed with
compacted soil
1.7
3.4
9.1
26.4
35.1
Felling and bucking. The initial phase of a. logging
operation is the felling of the tree and then the bucking or
cutting of the stem into suitable log lengths, either where
the tree fell or at a log landing. Although this phase of
the operation contributes a comparatively low impact to water
quality, there are a few points that should be considered.
A number of felling patterns are in use, but one of the
classic types is the herringbone pattern. Trees are felled
at an angle df from 30° to 45° to the skid road. This prac-
tice tends to reduce damages to the residual- stems, as well
as to the forest floor, as it provides a better lead for the
skidding machinery. Soil erosion, especially in the shelter-
wood and selection silvicultural systems, is reduced by correct
felling patterns in connection with skyline logging in thin-
nings of Douglas fir on steep slopes.
Most trees are felled using power saws or a feller-
buncher machine. Where individuals cut the trees, an assist
by cables.or hydraulic jacks is often given. For instance,
Burwell (1970) noted:
Fe-lling trees uphill using a truck-mounted donkey
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5-86
and climber to attach the line, prevents breakage and
distributes limbs and tops on slopes. Instead of in stream
bottoms. Costs are two. to. three times those of comparable
conventional cutting. . Savings include the intangibles of
Increased safety, lessened breakage, reduction of slash to
eliminate burning and enable quicker regeneration, and
reduction of expensive creek cleaning. These may more
than offset additional costs. (Author's abstract).
Hydraulic jacks accomplish the same task and are probably
less time-consuming and more flexible to use, depending on
conditions involved.
McGreer (197*0 reported that in a study in western Ore-
gon, "conventional felling added an average of 47 tons of
debris per 100 feet of stream whereas cable-assist felling
added only 14 tons per station, thus demonstrating its appli-
cability as a stream protection technique." He also noted
that stream debris removal costs were fairly low for the
observed buffer strips. With conventional felling treatment,
cleanup costs average about two and one-half times that of
cable-assist felling.
Construction of beds to minimize breakage of large heavy
trees (Sommer 1973) has been used in the past, and renewed
interest in this technique is being shown. Besides a value
loss if the trees break up into unusable pieces, this debris
may slide downhill into stream bottoms, eventually causing
dams and possible flushing downstream to cause further damage.
The cutting of high stumps (high-stumping) is sometimes
done to keep upslope felled timber from rolling into streams.
Lane (verbal communication, 197*0 noted, however, that this
practice used occasionally in western Oregon has not always
proven to be a good technique because of other associated
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5-87
problems.
Limbing includes th.e removal of branches and unusable
portions of the top of the tree. If accomplished before
skidding or yarding, soil disturbance and subsequent soil
erosion is minimized. The disturbance may be of somewhat
less consequence on snow-covered or frozen ground.
A combination of the feller-buncher machine and grapple
skidders may preclude limbing until the logs reach the land-
ing. A "harvester"-type machine, which fells the tree, feeds
tree lengths through a delimbing device and bunches them for
skidding, is fairly new and is at present limited by terrain
and timber size.
Tractor. Tractors, including track-laying types and
rubber-tired wheel skidders, are used in all parts of the
Pacific Northwest. Wheel types are more common in eastern
Washington and Oregon, the Intermountain region, Blue Moun-
tains, Okanogan and northern Idaho than in Alaska and western
Washington and Oregon, due to maximum efficiency in the less
dense timberland of these regions. However, the track-laying
type is a more versatile machine and can be used for jobs
other than skidding.
If care is not used, both machines result in soil dis-
turbance and consequent erosion. In moist soils, the wheel
skidder is generally the worst of the two in compacting soil,
as the tracked type has more flotation. Winch lines reduce
skidding distance and reduce ground disturbance in marshy
areas. A sound rule of thumb is to limit these machines to
T
-------
5-88
less than 30 .percent .slopes. Special conditions must be used
on steeper slopes. If pre-built .skid trails are not necessary,
the use of wheel skidders is advantageous since less of the
soil mantle is disturbed.
The feller-buncher, which shears the tree from the stump
and bunches the stems for skidding or loading, is becoming
popular for use on the gentle slopes. Tracked or wheeled types
are available. Very little if any research has been done in
the Pacific Northwest concerning soil mantle disturbance with
this machine. However, the soil disturbance apparently In-
creases over conventional saw felling. The feller-buncher
must maneuver up to each tree to be felled and thereby covers
more of the cutting area than skidding machines. Most of the
comparative ratings of the various types of logging equipment
list the tractor as causing the greatest soil mantle dis-
turbance .
High-leadj_ High-lead, one of several cable logging
methods, is used mainly in clearcutting and is found almost
entirely on the west side of the Cascade Range and in Alaska.
Of the cable logging methods, it is responsible for the great-
est degree of soil disturbance. Nevertheless, the disturbance
is much reduced as compared to tractors. This is especially
true en a comparative basis if high-lead yarding is conducted
uphill. The resultant pattern of yarding paths radiates down
and out from the landing, tending to disperse runoff evenly
over the slope. The erosion-potential- is considerably reduced
(Rothwell 1971). Tractors skid downhill and the resultant
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5-89
T
skid trails converge at the bottom landing, concentrating
runoff. The high-lead method can operate on steep slopes,
but Is not as flexible as other skidding equipment. Care
must be taken in planning settings to avoid yarding across
streams and of filling intermittent stream beds with debris
which if not removed may sluice out later into downstream
.waters.
Skyline. Basically there are three types of skylines:
tight line, slack line and the running skyline. Several mod-
ifications of each of these types as outlined in an earlier
section are in use, but all are cable systems.
Their greatest use has occurred west of the Cascade
Range and in Alaska, primarily on clearcuts. More recently
they have been used in other parts of the Northwest on all
types of silvicultural systems. Some forms are adapted for
thinning stands of small trees and low volumes. Efficient
interlock mechanisms have helped to increase their popularity.
Suspension of at least one end of the log reduces soil mantle
disturbance.
Skyline logging is normally rated ahead of high-lead
and tractor logging in terms of watershed impact. Skyline
logging, especially the running skyline, is improving steadily
with the development of more mobile and versatile equipment.
The fact that the skyline method can be used in partial cuts
would indicate that the shelterwood and selection silvicultural
systems-may "be used more intensively. These are the systems
with the least effect on water quality. Lyson and Twito (1973)
-------
5-90
AFT
have suggested that the running skyline may become the pri-
mary logging system where there is need to operate economi-
cally and to reduce the environmental impact of timber har-
vesting.
Idaho jammer and shovel skidder. These machines use the
cable system and are mounted on tracks or wheels. They are
not widely used west of the Cascade Range. Shovels with an
average yarding distance of 75 feet are used to skid right-
of-way timber. The Idaho jammer is gradually fading from use
in northern Idaho and the Intermountain region. Used both
in partial cuts and in clearcuts, it has an average skidding
distance of about 450 feet and. is used mostly on the steeper
slopes in place of tractors. Skidding with jammers necessi-
tates a fairly extensive road system, but the skidding of
the logs causes less disturbance to the soil mantle than
tractors.
Megahan and Kidd (1972) compared the effects of jammer
and skyline logging systems and reported:
Erosion plots and sediment dams were used to evalu-
ate the effects of jammer and skyline logging systems
on erosion and sedimentation in steep, ephemeral drain-
ages in the Idaho Batholith of central Idaho. Five-year
plot data indicated that no difference in erosion resulted
from the two skidding systems as .applied in the study.
Sediment dam data obtained concurrently showed that the
logging operations alone (excluding roads) increased sed-
iment production by a factor of about 0.6 over the natural
sedimentation rate. Roads associated with the Jammer log-
ging system increased sediment production an average of
about 750 times over the natural rate for the six-year
period following construction.
Balloon. The balloon method of logging is of fairly
recent origin and has been tried in various parts of the
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5-91
FT
Pacific Northwest.
An EPA publication concerning pollution from silvicul-
tural activities reports (EPA 1973) :
Balloon logging: Gardner, Jacobsen and Hartsog
(1973) reviewed the practice of balloon logging in Idaho,
especially as it has had a new thrust because of its low
pollution potential.
The system of balloon logging is well adapted to
steep slopes (^5% to 90%) and shallow and/or fragile
soils, where only helicopter logging or skyline logging
may compete. The study suggests that the system is also
adapted to selective logging where the minimum harvest
is about 70 cubic meters per hectare (12,000 board feet
per acre).
Balloon logging causes soil disturbance only at the
yarding areas, from which trucks haul the logs to the
mill. Yarding areas can be as far as 91^ meters (3,000
feet) apart but they must be downhill and therefore may
be a hazard to streams.
The primary concern of many operators is the failure of
the balloon fabric, loss "of'helium, snow and wind hazard and
the high Initial cost of approximately $500,000 (Peters 1973).
More experience and study of this system is needed before its
place in logging methods is established.
Helicopter. Another recently developed logging method
is the helicopter, which is in effect an extremely mobile
and flexible yarding machine. Helicopters have been used
in almost all parts of the Pacific Northwest. Much more
experience with them is needed to determine their contribution
to preventing water pollution.
Their extremely high hourly operating costs, often $500
to $2,000 (Burke 1973), weather restrictions, altitudinal
limits, and lack of suitable landing locations are the main
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5-92
DRAFT
disadvantages of the use of helicopters. Nevertheless, their
obvious potential for minimizing pollution is substantial.
Helicopters can be used in any type of sllvicultural
system, but may be best suited for certain types of applica-
tions, including removal of insect- or disease-damaged trees,
high timber values, inaccessible areas, widely scattered
pockets of high-value trees, areas of fragile soils, or where
aesthetics cannot be protected by other means.
The helicopter rates at the top in causing the least
amount of soil disturbance of any logging system. However,
log landings and helicopter service pads are potential water
pollution sources.
Where helicopters are used to eliminate unjustifiable
road building costs or in inaccessible areas, these log land-
Ings and servicing pads are generally difficult to locate and
ace often near vulnerable streams. Indirectly, the indepen-
dence of this logging method from the road system may subject
the area to later problems in residue management, reforesta-
tion, fire control and other silvicultural and administrative
work.
Horses. Horse logging is the oldest method used in the
region. Early-day logging made use of the ox and the horse,
both of which faded from use for obvious reasons.
Lately there has been a minor revival of the horse in
all parts of the study region. The horse is limited to skid-
ding on slopes of less than 20. percent and to the weight of
the log being skidded. The animal is often more economical
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5-93
than other logging methods in selection-type cuttings where
aesthetic values must be. maintained, and in thinning young
stands of timber. The horse's impac't on water quality is
very low, as noted in a study by Garrison and Rummell (1951)
which compared the various effects of horse, cable and trac-
tor logging on soil disturbances and impacts .on grasses,
shrubs and weeds in ponderosa pine rangelands of Oregon and
Washington.
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5-94
Control
This section deals with the measures that can be taken
to limit the water quality impacts after the particular
forest practice has taken place. Although planning and
knowledge of the various factors which lead to water pollu-
tion will reduce the need for control and remedial measures
after the forest practice has been carried out, post opera-
tion control is also important.
Reducing the amount of residue, or slash, which can
impact water quality, from a previously logged area can be
beneficial. However, it is often economically infeasible
unless some of the material can be utilized.
Yarding unmerchantable material (YUM) is sometimes pro-
fitable when market conditions are favorable. The unmer-
/
chantable material can be converted to pulp chips at the site,
or in special situations hauled to the mill for log fuel and
energy conversion. It also may be chipped for on-site use,
and by spreading or incorporating it into the soil, erosion
potential can be reduced. These systems are generally em-
ployed on clearcut areas. In the Pacific Northwest, this
method is practiced mainly west of the Cascade Range where
the volume of. debris .is high., .such,as in old growth coastal
Douglas fir or western hemlock-Sitka spruce types. If the
material is not chipped, it can be burned at the landing.
Anot-her--met-hod--adapted—to.- -clearest- or--seed-tree-systerns
is chopping, crushing or masticating the slash with a variety
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FT
of machines designed for the purpose. Decay of the material
Is hastened and the residue Is mixed with the top; few Inches
of the forest floor. Soil erosion Is reduced and overland
flow of soils Is limited. Burying of residues has been used
but will probably be limited to right-of-ways and for aes-
thetic reasons. Unless burying sites are picked with care,
this method can increase the area of soil surface disturbed.
All of these aforementioned systems reduce potential blockage
of streams by debris, but they also disturb the soil mantle
for the second time.
Dozer piling or windrowing of slash is used to a large
degree for disposal (see Fig. 5-6). The piles are generally
burned, but windrows are sometimes left to enhance protection
of reproduction (U. S--. Navy 1973). During dozer piling, care
should be taken to avoid burning residual trees and to insure
that subsequent burned material will not drain into streams.
Under certain conditions where piles were burned under a light
snow cover, wood tars entered a municipal watershed. It is
sometimes necessary to modify or change bulldozer slash dis-
posal operations ori steep slopes to reduce soil disturbance
that results from continuous downhill piling of slash (Bitter-
root Report, USPS 1970). Both of these residue management
methods disturb the soil mantle. The tradeoff involves the
possibility of further erosion as against reduced wildfire
hazards and better preparation for revegetating the site.
Dispersal of slash over the area by machine or limbing
and scattering by hand is practiced for the most part on
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5-96
(Photo will print in finished report)
Figure 5-6. Bulldozer Piling of Slash
Bulldozer piling of logging residues, while sometimes
necessary for site preparation, further disturbs the soil
mantle and often requires additional measures for erosion
control.
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5-97
DRAFT
partial cuts where the main objective is fire hazard reduc-
tion. In clearcuts. of lodgepole pine, dispersal may be used
as a reforestation technique with subsequent burning which
opens the serotinous cones for seed dispersal. Dispersal of
slash may be required by state regulations in some sub-regions
under certain conditions in order to reduce fire hazard (States
of Idaho, Washington and Oregon), but it is also helpful in
reducing soil erosion by creating small sediment dams more
uniformly over the logged area. The depth of the slash is
also reduced, which can facilitate regeneration. With some
tree species, the logging residue may aid regeneration by
providing shade and protection.
Broadcast burning has been one of the most widely used
methods for reduction of woody residues on clearcuts. It is
usually necessary to construct firelines around the area
before burning. The FWPCA (1970) advised these precautions
to limit water pollution from firelines constructed as part
of the slash residue management activities:
Limit tractor-built firelines to areas where they
will not involve problems in.soil instability.
Adequately 'cross-ditch' all firelines at time of
construction and revegetate them with adapted grasses
and legumes.
Rosgen (1973) added:
Construct hand lines instead of dozer lines for
fuel breaks on steep, erodible slopes and adjacent to
stream buffer strips.
Packer and Williams (197*0, in a study of larch-Douglas
fir foreuts in the Northern Rocky Mountains, concluded:
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5-98
Results of this study show that the Jammer type
logging employed on these timber harvest units produces
changes in surface soil properties and vegetative char-
acteristics that enhance the hydrologic and soil stability
performance of larch-Douglas" fir watersheds on Belt series
soils. They also show that prescribed burning exerts
effects on these same soil properties and vegetative
characteristics that are detrimental to watershed per-
formance for runoff and soil erosion control. This
impairment of watershed protection conditions and the
attendant increases in runoff and erosion appear to be
of a rather temporary nature, recovery occurring within
only a few years. A possible exception of this conclu-
sion may be the south-facing aspects, which, being the
driest aspect, suffered the most intensive burns, exhi-
bited the most adverse effects to soil and vegetative
characteristics as a result of burning, and responded
most poorly in the improvement of these characteristics
during the 7 years following burning, It is believed
that the south aspects still remain in a more delicate
runoff and erosional balance than any of the other aspects,
Finally, the soil erosion behavior of the logged-
burned units appears to be related more to the amount
of total protective cover on the ground and to the mag-
nitude of climatic events than to any other measured
site factors. The effects of logging and burning on
protective cover conditions and their subsequent change
with time can be predicted. The magnitude and recurrence
interval of climatic events capable of generating over-
land flow and soil erosion on logged and burned water-
sheds are not so readily predictable. There is no
question that logging and prescribed burning on gentle
to moderately steep slopes of larch-Douglas fir water-
sheds on Belt series soils creates a runoff and soil
erosion hazard. The moderate degree of this hazard and
the relative rapidity with which it declines indicate .
that, with the possible exception of south-facing as-
pects, this type of treatment is probably not permanently
damaging to the watershed protection characteristics of
these forests. The extent to which this conclusion
applies on steeply-sloping'watersheds is being investi-
gated on Newman Ridge in the Lolo National Forest in
western Montana.
The Western Forestry and Conservation Association (1972)
included the following, concerning prescribed burning, as .to
information needed on this subject:
1. Predictive models to enable the manager to select
a burning schedule for a given set of conditions,
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5-99
:AFT
topography, and other relevant factors, that will
result in the minimum environmental impact.
2. A knowledge of the conditions under which natural
accumulations of fuel occur, the rate of accumula-
tion, and.how the organic material can be reduced
without burning.
3. Decision models that will assist the manager in
evaluating, the consequences of his selection from
alternatives open to him, including the calculation
of the probabilities of fire escape as part of the
models.
4. More intensive studies to determine the effects of
fire on forest ecosystems over time, and the effects
of non-burning as well.
Prompt revegetation of forest land for control of soil
erosion and reduction in water pollution, has been expounded
for many years by the U. S. Forest Service, Soil Conservation
Service, State agencies, private industry, and research
institutions. It is one of the most important methods of
post-operation control available. Residue management is an
•integral part of revegetation and most often the covering of
the exposed soil with trees and herbaceous plants is the end
result of residue management.
Reforestation efforts often require some type of site
preparation to receive the seedling trees or seed. The main
types of site preparation involve the use of fire, chemicals,
and mecha.nlcal means .
Chemicals are used in site preparation in some parts of
the region to reduce or eliminate competing herbs, grasses
and shrubs. This study is not directed to the control of water
pollution resulting from the application of forest chemicals,
so mention is made here only to alert the reader to the fact
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5-100
DRAFT
that reforestation includes this method of site preparation.
Mechanical methods :of site preparation during the last
ten years have included: saarlfication, stripping, arid
terracing (Packer 1971a).
Machine scarification can be accomplished and still leave
duff and small portions of woody material to provide adequate
cover over most of the area. Alternatively, debris can be
spread in irregular patterns over the site. Packer (1971)
shows that by creating depressions, this kind of treatment
usually increases the storage capacity of the land, but sel-
dom increases the overland flow and soil erosion hazard.
Avoiding fefccessive scarification will reduce the impact on
the watershed (Rosgen 1973).
Stripping involves removal of long strips of competing
vegetation along the contour of the land by tractors. The
strip is generally narrow for hand planting. Interruption
of ground water flow and control of soil mantle disturbance
is inherent in the narrow width. Furrows constructed along
the strips may impart greater control. Packer (1971) cautions
that, "in preparing sites that slope directly to stream chan-
nels, untreated ground should be left (as a buffer to water
and soil movement) between strip sites and the stream."
The type of terracing used today was initiated in south-
ern Idaho (USPS Intermountain Region) and is commonly used
on dry, moisture-definifent, often erosive soils. The sites
may have a heavy-~cover^of brush ~or contrain" unusually steep
slopes. Some terraces -result In a contour bench while others
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5-101
DRAFT
are built .to slope slightly inward. Packer (19.71) states
little erosion has resulted since its first .use in southern
Idaho. A II. S. Forest Service task force appraisal (1969-
1970) on the Bitterroot National Forest found few signs of
serious erosion on most of the terraced slopes but cautioned
that long-run erosion could not be determined as yet. Data
regarding slope, geologic origin of material and hydrologic pro-
cesses—including subsurface flow characteristics and soil
mechanics—should be obtained before selecting areas to be
terraced.
After site preparation, planting is initiated as the
control desired. Hand planting or seeding, aerial seeding,
or auger planting generally entail truck transportation.
Machine planting requires tractors with some potential for
further erosion if the planting is done a year or more after
post-harvesting stabilization, a subject treated in the next
sub-section.
Immediate reforestation of the harvested area is usually
desirable. Washington and Oregon State forest practice regu-
lations now require regeneration within one to six years,
depending on the region and type of regeneration. The Wash-
ington Act also prohibits the use of heavy equipment for site
preparation under certain conditions of soil type or soil
moisture and water areas. A number of regulations address
the practice of terracing or contouring, particularly with
respect tc water drainage. As of March 1975, the Washington
State Forest Practices Act has not been finalized regarding
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5-102
terracing and contouring.
The Weyerhaeuser Company has initiated a program of
"High Yield Forestry" and accelerated reforestation with a
goal of regenerating the harvested areas within a 12-month
period. Although the program Involves much more than is
noted herein, attention is brought to the idea of quickly
revegetating the harvested area, which in turn reduces the
impact of logging on the watershed. The program includes:
1. containerized seedlings
2. hand planting within one year after harvesting
3. soil surveys for site determination
4. planting during the winter
5. seed selection from similar sites
6. planning coordination between harvesting,
nursery planting and reforestation
Of critical importance in preventing or limiting water
pollution from forest operations is the stabilization of the
surface of the land after it has been subjected to a high
degree of disturbance. Measures taken at this stage of man-
agement must necessarily compensate for mistakes made in
planning the original operation. By the same token, good
planning and close supervision of the forest management acti-
vities will minimize the need for extensive post-harvesting
measures. Although post-harvesting implies a final note to
logging operations, one must recognize that it may be neces-
sary to institute many of the guidelines which follow on a
progressive basis as the forest activities proceed or when
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FT
temporary shutdown of activities continues for a period of a
few w.eeks. or months. It also includes any activity which dis-
turbs the watershed and not Just that due to logging.
Ground skidding of logs by tractive type machines entails
the building of skid trails or skid roads. The furrows which
result during skidding are a main source of runoff and erosion.
Some types of cable systems using downhill yarding or skyline
systems with one end of the log dragging create a similar type
of disturbance. Cross drains, also called cross ditches or
water bars, are frequently used as a method of control after
logging. A number of guidelines for the spacing of cross
drains are available and depend on such things as climate,
soil structure, topography, parent rock and percent grade.
Each user must obtain additional information as to suitability
of his particular area, as well as the conditions, before
using any one guide. The drain can be constructed with a
bulldozer, or at times, hand-shoveled. Log water bars can
also be used in place of a ditch as described by Kidd (1963).
Sopper and Hull (1967) maintain that:
...logging or skidding of logs from forests can
sometimes increase sedimentation considerably, depending
upon the location and drainage of skidways, the credi-
bility and stoniness of soils, and the rapidity of re-
vegetation of skidways; roads that are Inadequately
drained or are located too close to streams are the
main cause of deterioration in forests.
A series of water bars that divert runoff onto undis-
turbed vegetation will help reduce accumulation of the runoff
on skid roads and landings (Rdthwell 197D• Rothwell also
suggests a useful rule for spacing cross drains: the distance
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5-104
between each structure in feet should be equal to 1000 divided
by the percent of road grade. Care should be taken when ap-
plying this rule of thumb by considering the factors mentioned
previously.
Snow or frozen conditions can pose special problems in
constructing water bars on skid roads or spur roads. In
Alaska, northern Idaho, the Intermountairi, Blue Mountains,
eastern Oregon, and Washington and the Okanogan sub-regions,
logging on the snow or on frozen ground is common. If the
snow is deep or ground frozen, skid track may not be apparent,
but often times warmer conditions prevail for periods of time
and the soil mantle becomes incised. At the termination of
logging, snow may have recovered the area or machines cannot
adequately cross ditch. During the spring melt, it may be
impossible to return to the harvested ground and runoff dam-
age can be severe.
Occasionally, skid roads may have temporary fills.
Various types of culverts will be placed in them, and for
all practical purposes, they become a temporary road. Ros-
gen (1973) suggests removing this type of structure at the
termination of logging or prior to expected seasonal runoff.
Skid roads can be revegetated and more will be discussed
about this at the end of the section. Slash dams or lopping
and scattering of slash in skid trails may be helpful (Kidd
1963).
Log landings are an important source of sediment and
require post-operation stabilization. The following
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5-105
procedures may be used:
Landing fill., like road fill, is. an accumulation
of unstable, loose soil highly susceptible to erosion.
Cribbing, using cull logs or seeding and mulching can
impart a degree of stability to the fill (California
. Water Resources Board).
Upon abandonment, 'erosion-proof all landings by
adequately ditching or mulching with forest litter, as
needed. Establish a herbaceous cover on those areas
that will be used again in repeated cutting cycles and
restock to coniferous species those landings, located
in clearcut areas, that will not be reused for a long
time, if ever (PWPCA 1970).
Oregon State Forest Practices Rules state: "Leave or
place debris and reestablish drainage on landings after use
to guard against future soil movement."
The following measures-can.be used on spur roads and
skid roads which may approximate spur roads (Rothwell 1971):
Secondary roads that are closed or seldom used •
should be 'put to bed', i.e., provisions should be made
for erosion control. Open-topped culverts should be
replaced with cross drains to control and direct runoff
from road surfaces. In the spacing of cross drains,
guides outlined should be followed. Steps to follow in
the construction of cross .drains are:
1. Excavate roadbed to a minimum depth of 6 inches next
to the cut bank and 8 inches at the road edge, with
a definite adverse grade on the downgrade side of
the cross drain.
2. Spread excavated material on the roadbed below the
cross drain to a depth of not more than 3 Inches.
3. Extend the cross drain to the full width of the road
so that water drains downhill from the toe of the
cut bank to'the shoulder.
4. Tie the cross drain into the cut bank at the upper
end of the cross drain.
5. The-long-axis-of-the-~cross--drain should form an
angle of not less than 30° with a line perpendicular
to the center line of the road.
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AFT
After logging operations, logging roads should
be completely closed to travel. Where this is not
feasible, traffic should be regulated, especially during
wet weather when roads are easily damaged. Periodic
inspections for damage and necessary repairs should be
made.
Streams, especially the intermittent type, may become
plugged with logging debris. When dry streambeds become
plugged, they may eventually sluice out, causing problems
further downstream. State forest practice rules generally
are written to avoid this occurrence. It may be necessary
to remove material by machine methods which will not. further
disturb the channel and banks. Hand methods will also be
required in some instances.
Suggestions concerning how much debris should be removed
have been proposed by Rothacher (I960):
The author points out problems associated with the
question of where logging debris should be removed from
streams. He suggests that if a stream is fed by a
watershed larger than 40 acres, logs and chunks should
be withheld from the stream or removed before the winter
flows.
The Washington State interim forest rules refer to not
removing deadfalls which are firmly embedded in the bed of
certain classes of streams without the permission of the
Department of Fisheries and Game.
Wastes from machinery used in logging include oils, fuels,
filters, containers, pieces of metal and wire rope. All may
contribute to pollution of the watershed. Removal of these
items is required by some states in the Pacific Northwest.
According to most public health agencies, human sanitation
facilities should be removed and wastes neutralized.
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5-107
The use of catchment and sediment ponds in post-harvest-
ing rehabilitation are generally used in connection with the
road system.
Revegetation is one of the best control measures that
can be used for stabilization of the land. Its most negative
feature is the time period for it to become effective. Re-
turning the cover to. the exposed soil is essential whether
it be in the form of trees, shrubs, herbs or grasses. The
type of plants to be used and instructions in seeding or
planting can be obtained from a number of federal and state
agencies concerned with the management of natural resources.
Exposed soil can also"be*stabilized through-soil: binders,
mulching and light terracing (FWPCA 1970).
In all control work, supervision is very important.
The success of any forest management program will be limited
by the quality of the field application and the ability of
field personnel to handle special problems that emerge
during the operation.
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R-l
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DRAFT
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R-2
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Blahm, Theodore H., Walter C. Marshall, and George R. Snyder,
1972.
Effect of chemical fire retardants on the survival of
juvenile salmonids. Natl. Marine Fish. Serv., Environ-
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DRAFT
Blodgett, J.C., 1970..
Water temperatures of California streams, north coastal
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Bollen, VLB., and K.C. Lu, 1968.
Nitrogen transformations in soils beneath red alder and
conifers. In Biology of alder, J.M. Trappe, J.F. Frank-
lin, R.F. Tarrant, and G.M. Hansen (eds.), NW Sci.
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Douglas fir bark tannin decomposition in two forest
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___, 1969a.
Properties of tree bark in relation to their agricul-
tural utilization. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-77,
36 p.
1969b.
The soil as a biological system and its ecological sig-
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, and K.C. Lu, 1970.
Sour sawdust and bark—its origin, properties, and ef-
fect on plants. USDA Forest Serv. Pap. PNW-108, 13 p.
, 1971.
Salty bark as a soil amendment. USDA Forest Serv. Res.
Pap. PNW-128, 16 p.
Bolsinger, Charles L., 1971.
Timber resources of the Puget Sound area. USDA Forest
Serv, Res. Bull. PNW-36, 72 p.
Bolstad, Roger, 1971.
Catline rehabilitation and restoration. In Fire in the
northern environment—a symposium. University of Alas-
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Bormann, F.H., and G.E. Likens, 1967a.
Nutrient cycling. Science 155(3761) :42^-i»29 .
, and G.E. Likens, 1967b.
Nutrient ramifications of clearcutting a forest eco-
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__, G.E.'Likens, D.W. Fisher, and R.S. Pierce, 1968.
Nutrient loss accelerated by clearcutting of a forest
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, G.E. Likens and J.S. Eaton, 1969.
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Biotlc regulation of particulate and solution losses
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,. and G.E. Likens, 1970..
The nutrient cycles of an ecosystem. Scientific Ameri-
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Borst and Woodburn, 1942..
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
Boyd, R.J., 1969.
Some case histories of natural regeneration in the
western white pine type. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap.
INT-63, 24 p.
Brazier, John R., and George W. Brown, 1972.
Buffer strips for stream temperature control. Oregon
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, 1973.
Controlling water temperature with buffer strips. M.S.
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Brett, 1952
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Brown, G.W., 1966.
Temperature prediction using energy budget techniques
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, and J. Krygier, 1967.
Changing water temperature in small mountain streams.
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Predicting temperatures of small streams. Water Resource
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Effect of clearcutting on stream temperature. Water
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, 1970a.
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DRAFT
1970b.
Water temperature in small streams as influenced by
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environment* Oregon State University.
, and J.T. Krygier, 1971.
Clearcut logging and sediment production in the Oregon
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Water temperature in the Steamboat Drainage. USD A Forest
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__, 1972a.
The Alsea watershed study. Loggers Handbook 32:13-15-
, 1972b.
Forestry and water quality. School of Forestry, Oregon
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, 1972c.
An improved temperature prediction model for small
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Logging and water quality in the Pacific Northwest. In
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Buffer strips for stream temperature control. Forest
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Nutrient losses after clearcut logging and slash burn-
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Buchanan, D.V., 1971.
Some preliminary toxiclty studies of log bark and barite
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__ , and P.S. Tate, 1973.
Acute toxicity of spruce and hemlock bark to some estu-
arine organisms in SE Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada.
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DRAFT
Bulla, L.A., Jr., C.M. Gilmour, and W.B. Bollen, 1968.
Enzymatic versus nonenzymatlc denitrification in soil.
In Amer. Soc. for Microbiol. Bacteriol. Proc. 1968:4 (A22)
C.M. Gilmour, and W.B. Bollen, 1970.
Nonbiological reduction of nitrite in soil. Nature 225
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Some references on watershed management. USDA Forest
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,1963.
Water quality problems originating on wild lands. In
Symposium on forest watershed management, Oregon State
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Burke, Doyle, 1972.
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, 1973.
Helicopter logging: advantages and disadvantages must
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Automated analysis of timber access road alternatives.
USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-27.
Burns, J.E., 1970.
The importance of streamside vegetation to trout and
salmon in British Columbia. Dept. Rec. and Conserv.,
Vancouver Island Reg., Fish and Wildlife Branch, Fish
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Burwell, Dave, 1971.
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felling. In A symposium—forest land uses and the stream
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R-8
Calhoun, Alex, and Charles Seeley, 1963.
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Pish & Game, Inland Fish. Admin. Rep. 63-2, 15 p.
, 1967.
Stream damage. ' In Man's effect on California watersheds,
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Fish, forest, and water. Oregon State Game Comm. Bull.
July, p. 3-6.
Campbell, R.G., JvR. Willis and J-T. May, 1973.
Soil disturbance by logging with rubber-tired skidders.
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Carson and Burke, 1972.
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
Carter, Michael R., R.B. Gardner and David B. Brown, 1973.
Optimum economic layout of forest harvesting work roads.
USDA Forest Serv. Intermtn. Forest and Range Exp. Sta.
Res. Pap. INT-133.
Chandra, P., and W.B. Bollen, 1966.
Gibrel: effect on decomposition of plant materials.
Science 153:1663-1664.
Chapman, D.W., 1962.
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J. Forestry 60(8):533-537.
:, 1963.
Physical and biological effects of forest practices upon
stream ecology. In Symposium—forest watershed manage-
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Chen, Carl W. and G.T. Orlob, 1972.
Ecologic simulation for aquatic environments. Final re->
port to the Office of Water Resources Research, Water
Resources Engineers, Inc.
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DRAFT
Churchill, M.A., R.A. Buckingham and H.L. Elmore, 1962.
The prediction of stream aeration rates. TVA Div. of
Health and Safety, Chattanooga, 98 p.
Clayton, James L., and Chester E. Jensen, 1973.
Water retention of granitic soils in the Idaho Batho-
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Cole, D.W., 1963.
Release of elements in the forest floor and migration
through associated soil profiles. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ.
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S.P. Gesselj and S.F. Dice, 196?.
Distribution and cycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, potas-
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mineral cycling in a natural ecosystem. Univ. of Maine,
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Nutrient output from managed forests. Eutrophication:
causes, consequences, correctives. Nat. Acad. of Sci.,
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Land use and ecological factors in relation to sediment
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, 1969.
Forest Service research in erosion control. Transactions
of the ASAE 12(1):75-79-
Corbett, E.S., and R.M. Rice, 1967.
Soil slippage increased by brush conversion. USDA Forest
Serv. Res. Note PSW-128.
Cordone, Almo J., 1956.
Effects of logging on fish production. Calif. Fish &
Game, Inland Fish Admin. Rep. 56-7, 98 p.
Cormack, R.G.H., 1949.
A study of trout streamside cover in logged over and
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Cosens, R.D., 1952.
Reducing logging damage. USDA Forest Serv. Calif. Forest
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DRAFT
Croft, A.R., and J.A. Adams, 1950.
Landslides and sedimentation in the North Fork of Ogden
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, and Marvin D. Hoover, 1951.
The relation of forests to our water supply. J. Forestry
49(4):245-249.
Curry, Robert R., 1971.
Soil destruction associated with forest management and
prospects for recovery in geologic time. Univ. of
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Curtis, James D., 1964.
What do you mean, 'site preparation1? U.S. Forest Serv.
Intermtn. Forest & Range Exper. Sta. Res Note INT-15, 8 p.
Curtis, W.R., 1971.
Strip mining, erosion and sedimentation. Transactions
of the ASAE 14(3):434-436.
Davis, H.T., 1971.
The non-silvicultural aspects of timber harvest. Report
for the Boise Cascade Co., 39 p.
DeBano, L.F., and J.S. Krammes, 1966.
Water repellent soils and their relationship to wildfire
temperatures. Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. 11:14-19.
. 1968.
The relationship between heat treatment and water repel-
lency in soils. Univ. of California, Riverside, p. 265-27S
DeByle, N.V., and P.E. Packer, 1972.
Plant nutrient and soil losses in overland flow from
burned forest clearcuts. In National symposium on water-
sheds in transition, Amer. Water Res. Assoc.1 and Colorado
State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo., pp. 296-307.
Dellberg, R.A., and J.N. Taylor, 1962.
Erosion control on timberland at harvest. J. of Soil
and Water Conserv. 17(4):177-1?8.
DeWitt, John W., 1968.
Streamside vegetation and small coastal salmon streams.
In Richard T. Myren (ed.), Forum on the relation between
logging and salmon, Proc. Forum Amer. Inst. Fish. Res.
Biol., Alaska Dist., Juneau, pp. 38-4?.
Dlls, R.E., 1957-
The Coweeta hydrologic laboratory. USDA Forest Serv. SE
Exper. Sta., 40 p.
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DRAFT
Dissmeyer, G.E., 1971.
Estimating the impact of forest management on water
quality. Presented at Coop. Watershed Management Work-
shop, U.S. Forest Serv., Memphis, Tenn.
, 1973-
Evaluating the impact of individual forest management
practices on suspended sediment. J. of Soil and Water
Conservation.
Douglas, J.E., and J.D. Helvey, 1971.
Effects of some forest resource management alternatives
on storm hydrograph characteristics in the S. Appalach-
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Dunford, E., and S. Weitzman, 1955.
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_ , I960.
Logging methods in relation to streamflow and erosion.
5th World Forestry Congress Proc,, Seattle, Washington,
Vol. 3, Sec. VII, pp. 1703-1708.
Dyrness, C.T., and C.T. Youngberg, 1957-
The effect of logging and slash burning on soil struc-
ture. Soil Science Society Proc. 21(4) :
C.T. Youngberg, and Robert H. Ruth, 1957-
Some effects of logging and slash burning on physical
soil properties "in the Corvallis watershed. USDA Forest
Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-14, 15 p.
, 1965a.
Effect of logging and slash burning on understory vege-
tation in the J.J. Andrews experimental forest. USDA
Forest Serv. Res. Note PNW-31, 13 p.
, 1965b. .
Soil surface condition following tractor and high-lead
logging in the Oregon Cascades. J. of Forestry 63(4):
272-275-
, 1966.
Erodibility and erosion potential of forest watersheds.
Int. Symposium Forest Hydrol., Permagon Press, Oxford
and N.Y., pp. 599-611.
, and C.T. Youngberg, 1966.
Soil-vegetation relationships within the ponderosa pine
type in the central Oregon pumice region. Ecology
47:122-138.
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DRAFT
, 1967a.
Erodibility and erosion potential of forest watersheds.
In_ Intl. symposium on forest hydrology, William E. Soper
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, 1967b.
Mass soil movements in the H.J. Andrews experimental
forest. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-42.
, 1967c.
Soil surface conditions following skyline logging. USDA
Forest Serv. Res.' Note PNW-55-
, 1969a.
Early plant succession following logging and slash burn-
in in Pseudotsuga forests in Oregon. Abstracts of papers
presented at XI Intl. Botanical Congress, p. 50.
, 1969b.
Hydrologic properties of soils on three small watersheds
in the western Cascades of Oregon. USDA Forest Serv.
Res. Note PNW-111, 17 p.
, 1970.
Stabilization of newly constructed road backslopes by
mulch and grass-legume treatments. USDA Forest Serv.
Res. Note PNW-123, 5 p.
, 1972.
Soil surface conditions following balloon logging. USDA
Forest Serv. Res. Note PNW-182.
> 1973.
Early stages of plant succession following logging and
burning in the western Cascades of Oregon. Ecology
54(l):57-69-
Edington, John R., 1969.
The impact of logging on the ecology of two trout streams
in north Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, 73 p.
Egging and Gibson, 1974.
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
Ellis, M.M., 1936.
Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic environments.
Ecology 17(1):29-42.
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R-13
Ellis, Robert J., (n.d.)
Preliminary biological survey of log rafting and dump-
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Review, 35(5-6).
Eschner, Arthur R., and Jack Larmoyeux, 1963.
Logging and trout: four experimental forest practices
and their effect on water quality. Prog. Fish-Culture
25(2):59-67-
Evans, Willis A., I960.
The effect of current west coast logging practices upon
fisheries resources. Soc. Amer. Forest Proc. 1959:106-108
Everts, C-urtiss M. , Jr., 1957.
Water quality depends on good forest management. Soc.
Amer. Forest Proc. 1956:199-201.
Ferrell, W.K., I960.
The control of stream flow and water quality through
timber harvesting. In_ E.F. Eldridge (ed.), Water prob-
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Res. Proc., U.S. Public Health Serv. Reg. IX, Portland,
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Fisk, Leonard, Eric Gerstung, Richard Hansen, and John
Thomas, 1966.
Stream damage surveys—1966. Calif, Fish & Game, Inland
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Foiles, Marvin W., and James D. Curtis, 1973.
Regeneration of ponderosa pine in the northern Rocky
Mountain-intermountain region. USDA Forest Serv. Res.
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Fowler, W.B., 1970.
Photorecording for target information and readout stor-
age of remotely sensed temperature. Proc. of the Conf.
on Electronic Instrumentation, Moscow, Idaho, p. 117
(abstract).
Franklin, Jerry P., and C.T. Dyrness, 1969.
Vegetation of Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Serv.
Res. Pap. PNW-80, 216 p.
C.T. Dyrness, and W.H. Moir, 1970.
A reconnaissance method for forest site classification,
Shinrin Richi XII(1), Meguro, Tokyo, Japan, 14 p.
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A checklist of vascular plants on the H.J. Andrews ex-
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DRAFT
, Frederick Hall, C.T. Dyrness, and Chris Maser, 1972,
Federal research natural areas in Oregon and .Washington-r-
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Sedimentation after logging road construction in a small
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_ _, 1965.
Christmas storm damage on the H.J. Andrews experimental
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A battery powered proportional stream water sampler.
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Comparative water quality—natural and disturbed streams
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Erosion and sedimentation following road construction
and timber harvest on unstable soils in three small wes-
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, 1971.
Comparative chemical water quality-natural and disturbed
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, 1972a.
Impact of forest management on stream water quality in
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Nutrient budget of a Douglas fir on an experimental water-
shed in western Oregon. Res. on coniferous forest eco-
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Portland, pp. 115-138.
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R-15
Freeland, P.D., 1956.
Effects of complete cutting of forest vegetation and
subsequent annual cutting of regrowth upon some pedo-
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Froelich, Henry A., 1971.
Logging debris—managing a problem. Iri James Morris
(ed.), Proc. of a symposium—forest land uses and stream
environment, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, pp. 112-117.
, 1973.
Natural and man-caused slash in headwater streams.
Loggers Handbook 33:15-17.
Fullerton, E.G., 1972.
Fish, wildlife, and logging practices in the Sierra.
Presented to Assem. Comm. Nat. Resources & Conserv.,
Lake Tahoe, Nevada, 7 p.
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Major environmental factors that affect the location,
design, and construction of stabilized forest roads.
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Forest road standards as related to economics and the
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Balloon logging. Agric. Engr., Feb., pp. 14-17.
, and W.S. Hartsog, 1973.
Logging equipment, methods, and cost for near complete
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Improved utilization and disposal of logging residues.
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Garrison, G.A., and R.S. Rummel, 1951.
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Gasser, 1952.
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
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DRAFT
Gaufin, Arden R., 1973-
Water quality requirements of aquatic Insects. Ecolog-
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Influence of removal of forest cover on movement of water
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Movement of elements through a forest soil as influenced
by tree removal and fertilizer addition. Forest soil
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Gibbons, D.R., and E.G. Salo, 1973.
An annotated bibliography of the effects of logging on
fish of the western U.S. and Canada. U.S. Forest Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW-10.
Gibson, David P., and John Rodenberg, 1974.
Local: location-allocation for establishing facilities.
In Proc. Amer. Inst. of Industrial Engrs., spring conf.,
Norcross, Georgia, pp. 391-400.
Gleason, Clark H., 1958.
Watershed management—an annotated bibliography of ero-
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Califi Forest and Range Exper. Sta., U.S. Forest Serv.
Tech. Pap. 23, 79 p. •
Goodyear Aerospace Corp., 1964.
Balloon logging systems phase 1—analytical study. Pre-
pared for U.S. Forest Serv., PNW Region, Portland.
Gonsior, M,J., and R.B. Gardner, 1971.
Investigation of slope failures in the Idaho Batholith.
U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. INT-97.
William S. Hartsog, and Glen L. Martin, 1974.
Failure surfaces in infinite slopes. U.S. Forest Serv.
Res.-Pap. INT-150, 33 P-
Graham, John LeRoy, 1970.
Pollutants leached from selected species of wood in log
storage waters. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ., Cor-
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Gray, Donald H., 1969.
Effects of forest clearcutting on the stability of
natural slopes. Progress Rept. Univ. of Michigan ORA
Proj. 01939, 67 P.
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DRAFT
Gray, J.R.A., and J.M. Edington, 1969.
Effect of woodland clearance on stream temperature.
J. Fish. Res. Board, Can. 26:399-403.
Green, Geoffrey E., 1950..
Land use and trout streams. J. Soil & Water Conserv.
5(3):125-126. .
Grett, J.R., 1956.
Some principles in the thermal requirements of fish
Qtrly.Rev. Bio. 31(2):75-8?.
Grondal, Bror L., 1945.
Relation of runoff and water quality to land and forest
use in Cedar River watershed. J. Amer. Water Works
Assoc. 37(1):15-20.
Hall, Dale 0., 1967.
Broadcast seeding ponderosa pine on the Challenge exper-
imental forest. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.. Note PSW-144, 4 p
, 1968.
Terracing and broadcast burning for pine seedling and
planting operations. U.S. Forest Serv. Pap. INT 68-141,
12 p.
, 1971.
Ponderosa pine planting techniques, survival, and height
growth in the Idaho Batholith. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.
Pap, INT-104, 28 p.
Hall, James D., 1967.
Alsea watershed study. Oregon State Univ., Dept. of
Fish & Wildlife Pam., 11 p.
, and Richard L. -Lantz, 1969.
Effects of logging on the habitat of coho salmon and
cutthroat trout in coastal streams. In T.G, Northcote
(ed.), Proc. of a symposium—salmon and trout in streams,
Univ. o.f British Columbia, Vancouver, pp. 355-375.
Hansen, G., G. Carter, W. Towne, and G. O'Neal, 1971.
Log storage and rafting in public waters. A task force
report approved by PNW Pollution Control Council.
Hard, John S., 1974.
The forest ecosystem of SE Alaska—II, forest insects.
USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW-13.
Harris, A.S., 1961.
The physical effect of logging on salmon streams in SE
Alaska. llth annual Alaskan Sci. Conf. Proc.
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DRAFT
, K.O. Hutchinson, W.R. Meehan, D.N. Swanston, A.E.
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Clearcutting, reforestation and stand development. J.
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Hartong, Allan L., 1971.
An analysis of retardant use. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.
Pap. INT-103, 40 p.
Hatchell, Q.E., C.W. Ralston, and R.R. Foil, 1970.
Soil disturbances in logging. J. of Forestry 68(12):
. 772-775.
Haupt, Harold P., 1956.
Variation in areal disturbance produced by harvesting
methods in ponderosa pine. U.S. Forest Serv. Intermtn.
Forest & Range Exper. Sta., 6 p.
, 1959a.
A method for controlling sediment from logging roads.
U.S. Forest Serv. Misc. Pub. No. 22.
, 1959b.
Road and slope characteristics affecting sediment move-
ment from logging roads. J. of Forestry 57(5):329-332 .
3 H.C. Rickard, and L.E. Finn, 1963.
Effect of severe rainstorms on insloped and outsloped
roads. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Note INT-1.
, and W.J. Kidd, Jr., 1965.
Good logging practices reduce sedimentation in central
Idaho. J. of Forestry 63(9):664-670.
Helmers, A.E., 1966.
Some effects of log jams and flooding in a salmon spawn-
ing stream. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Note NOR-14, 4 p.
Helvey, J.D., 1972.
Firsfe year effects of wildfire on water yield and stream
temperature in north-central Washington. In Proc. of Natl.
symposium on watersheds in transition, Amer. Water Res.
Assn. and Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, pp. 308-312.
Henderson, 1951.
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
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R-19
DRAFT
Hendrickson, William H., 1972.
Perspectives on fire and ecosystems in the U.S.; Fire in
the environment—symposium proc., Denver, Colo., pp. 29-33'
Herman, Francis R., I960.
A test of skyline cable logging on steep slopes—a pro-
gress report. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. No. 53, 17 P-
Hoover, M.D. , 1944.
Effect of removal of forest vegetation on water yields.
A.G.U. Trans. 6:969-977-
, 1952.
Water and timber management. J. Soil and Water Conserv.
7:75-78.
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(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
Careless skidding reduces benefits of forest cover on
watershed protection. J. Forestry 43:765-766.
Hopkins, W. , 1957-
Watershed management consideration for sanitation-salvage
logging in S. California. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Note
No. 121, 4 p.
Horn, G.F., I960.
Watershed management in the Department of the Interior:
three case studies in cooperation. J. of Forestry 58(4):
302-304.
Hornbeck, J.W., and K.G. Reinhart,.1964.
Water quality and soil erosion as affected by logging in
steep terrain. J. of Soil and V/ater Conserv. 19(l):23-27-
,, 1967.
Clearcutting and the erosion hazard. Northern Logger and
Timber Processor I6(4):l4-15, 38-39, 43.
, 1968.
Protecting water quality during and after clearcutting.
J. of Soil and Water Conserv. 23 (1):19-20.
, R.S. Pierce, and C.A. Federer, 1970.
Streamflow changes after forest clearing in New England.
Water Resource Res. 6(4):1124-1132.
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R-20
DRAFT
Hoyt, W.G., and H.C. Troxell, 1932.
Forests and streamflow. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engr. Proc .
56:1039-1066.
Isaac, L.A., and H.G. Hopkins, 1937.
The forest soil of the Douglas fir region, and changes
wrought upon it by logging and slash burning. Ecology
18(2) :
James, G.A. , 1956.
The physical effect of logging on salmon streams of SE
Alaska. U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. No. 5, 4 9 p.
, 1957.
The effect of logging on discharge, temperature and sed-
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Note NOR-39, 2 p.
Jeffrey, W. , 1968.
Forest harvesting and water management. Forest Chron.
Johnson, C.M., and P.R. Needham, 1966.
Ionic composition of Sagehen Creek, California, following
an adjacent fire. Ecology ^7:636-639.
Johnson, E.A.., and J.L. Kovner, 1956.
Effect on streamflow of cutting a forest understory.
Forest Sci. 2(2) :82-91.
Johnson, F.W., 1953.
Forest and trout. J. Forestry 51(8) :551-554 .
Johnson, J.E., 1974.
Forest products pollution control annotated bibliography.
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VP-X-100, 11 p.
Johnson, N., F. Likens, F. Bormanri, D. Fisher, 1969.
A working model for the variation in stream water chem-
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Jones and Stokes Assoc.. , Inc., and J.B. Gilbert Assoc., 1972.
A study to develop administrative and regulatory prac-
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State Water Res. Board, Sacramento, 72 p.
_ , 1973a.
A method for regulating timber harvest and road construc-
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R-21
1973b.
A method for regulating timber harvest and road construc-
tion activity for water quality protection in northern
. California, Vol. II-review and problem and annotated bib-
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Kawaguchi, T., and Senshi Namba, 1956.
Landslide and erosion control. Rin-Go-Shiken-Hokoku,
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, et al, 1959-
Landslides and soil losses of the mountain districts of
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Japan Forest Exper. Sta. Bull. No. 117:83-120.
Kays, M. Allan, 1970.
Western Cascades volcanic series, South Umpqua Palls
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Kelley, Gerald Dennis, 1968.
A comparison of several methods for erosion measurement
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Kidd, W.J,, Jr., 1963.
Soil erosion control structures on skid trails. U.S.
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Effects of seedbed treatment on grass establishment on
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Soil constraints on logging road construction on steep
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Kittredge, J., 1948.
Forest influences. McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 390 p.
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Forest erosion control fertilization and streamflow nitro-
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__, and W.B. Fowler, 1971b.
An inexpensive water sampler. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.
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, 1972a.
Soil moisture trends on mountain watersheds following
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ham, Washington, p. 7 (abstract).
-------
R-22
1972b.
DRAFT
Snowmelt temperature influence on infiltration and soil
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_, 1973a.
Helicopter logging reduces soil surface disturbance.
Proc. 46th Annual Meet. NW Sci. Assn., Whitman College,
Walla Walla, Washington.
, 1973b.
Selection of timber harvesting method may be based on
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Klubben, L.M., 1967.
Forest'land management and sediment production in the
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Kochenderfer, J.N., 1970. .
Erosion control on logging roads in the Appalachians.
U.S. Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NE-158.
Kopperdahl, Fredic R., James W. Burns, and Gary E. Smith, 1971.
Water quality of some logged and uhlogged California
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19 p.,
Koski, K.V., 1972.
Effects of sediment on fish resources. Presentation at
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Krammes, J.S., I960.
Erosion from mountain side slopes after fire in southern
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, 1965.
Seasonal debris movement from steep mountainside slopes
in sputhern California. Proc. federal interagency sed-
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Krygier, James T., 1971;
Studies on effects of watershed practices on streams.
U.S.E.P.A. Grant 13010EGA, Oregon State Univ., 173 p.
Kunigk, W.A. , 19*15.
Relation of runoff and water quality to land and forest
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R-23
Lane,
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
DRAFT
Lantz, Richard L. , 1967.
An ecological study of the effects of logging on salmo-
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, 1970.
Effects of logging on aquatic resources. Irr H.J. Rayner,
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, 1971-
Guidelines for stream protection in logging operations.
Oregon State Game Comm., Rep. Res. Div., Portland, 29 p.
Larmel, R., 1973.
Natural debris and logging residue within the stream
environment. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis,
49 p.
Larse, R.W., 1970.
Prevention and control of erosion and stream sedimenta-
tion from forest roads. In Proc. of a symposium—forest
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Corvallis.
Leaf, C.F., 1966.
Sediment yields from high mountain watersheds, central
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Levno, A., and J. Rothacher, 1967.
Increases in maximum stream temperature after logging in
old growth Douglas fir watersheds. U.S. Forest Serv.
Res. Note PNW-65.
and J. Rothacher, 1969.
Increases in maximum stream temperatures after slash
burning in a small experimental watershed. U.S. Forest
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Li, C.Y., K.C. Lu, J.M. Trappe, and W.B. Bollen, 1968.
Enzyme nitrate reductase of some parasitic fungi. U.S.
Forest Serv. Res. Note PNW-79, 4 p.
Lieberman, J.A., and M.D. Hoover, 1948a.
The effect of uncontrolled logging on stream turbidity.
Water and Sewage Works 95(7):255-258.
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R-24
, and M.D. Hoover, 1948b.
Protecting quality of streamflow by better logging.
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Likens, G.E., P. Bormann, N. Johnson, and R. Pierce, 196?.
The calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium budgets
for a small forested ecosystem. Ecology 48:722-785.
, P. Bormann, and N. Johnson, 1969-
Nitrification: importance to nutrient losses from a
cutover forested eqosystem. Science 163:1205-1206.
, P. Bormann, and Noye Johnson, 1970.
Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on
nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed eco-
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Lotspeich, Frederick B., Ernest W. Mueller and Paul J. Prey,
1970. . .
Effects of large scale forest fires on water quality in
interior Alaska. USDI, 155 p.
Lowdermilk, W.C., 1930.
Influence of forest litter on runoff, percolation, and
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Luchin, Luciano Valentino, 1968.
Determination of a water balance for the Bull Run water-
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, and K.G. Reinhart, 1972.
Forests and floods in the eastern United States. U.S.
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Changes in streamflow following partial clearcutting on
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sheds in transition, Amer. Water Resources Assn. and
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Lyson and Twito, 1973.
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
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R-25
jL '
Mann, Charles N., 19&9.
Mechanics of running skylines. U.S. Forest Serv. Res.
Pap. PNW-75.
Marks, , and F.H. Bormann, 1972.
Revegetation following forest clearcutting. Science
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Marston, R.B. , 1967.
Pollutional concentrations and loads of. some natural
constituents and their relation to streamflow before
and after roadbuilding in some small Alsea River water-
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McColl, J.G., and D.W. Cole, 1968,
A mechanism of cation transport in a forest soil. NW
Sci.
McDonald, G.A.., 1969.
Forest soil disturbance from wheeled and crawler skid-
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McGreer, D.J. , 1973.
Stream protections and three timber-felling techniques-
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•• 1974. ' .
(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
McMynn, R.G., 1970.
'Green belts' or 'leave strips' to protect fish! Why?
Dept. Rec. & Conserv., Commer. Fish. Br., Victoria,
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Meehan, William R. (n.d.).
Effects of gravel cleaning on bottom organisms in three
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, 1968.
Relationship of shade cover to stream temperature in SE
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Some effects of clearcutting on salmon habitat of two
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, 1970,
Some effects of shade cover on stream temperature in SW
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R-26
The forest ecosystem of SE Alaska- — fish habitats. U.S.
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The forest ecosystem of SE Alaska— -wildife habitats.
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Megahan, Walter F., (n.d.).
Subsurface flow interception by a logging road in moun-
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_ ._, and W.J. Kidd, .1972a.
Effect of logging roads on sediment production rates in
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Effects of logging and logging roads on erosion and sed-
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.' , 1972c.
Logging, erosion, sedimentation — are they dirty words?
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Erosion over time on severly disturbed granitic soils:
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_, 1974b.
An erosion sediment model for programming timber: pros
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, 1974c.
Water quality management on forest lands in the northwest
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Mersereau, R.C., and C.T. Dyrness, 1972.
Accelerated mass wasting after logging and slash burning
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Meyer, L.D., 1965-
Mathematical relationships governing soil erosion by
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R-27
Middleton, H.E. 1930.
Properties of soils that influence soil erosion. USDA
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Mihursky, J.A., and V.S. Kennedy, 1967.
Water temperature criteria to protect aquatic life. In
A symposium on water quality criteria to protect aqua-
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Miner, Norman H., 1968.
Natural filtering of suspended soil by a stream at a low
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Moore, Duane G., 1971.
Principles of monitoring. Proc. 1971 short course for
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Morrison, I.G., 1973,
Environmental impacts of forest management practices.
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The quantitative evaluation of factors in water erosion-
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Effects of logging debris on fish production. In Proc.
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_
A survey of some possible effects of logging on two
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_ , J.C. Mason and J.H. Mundie, 1973-
Streambank management — a brief to the Select Standing
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DRAFT
Neale, Alfred T., 1953.
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(Reference to be supplied in final report.)
Nobel, E.L., 1963.
Sediment reduction through watershed rehabilitation. In
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Pacific Northwest Pollution Control Council, 1971.
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R-29
, 1951.
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__, 1953.
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, 1957a.
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Elevations, aspects, and cover effects on maximum snow-
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Criteria for designing and locating logging roads to
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R-30
DRAFT
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DRAFT
Pierce, R.S. , 1965-
Water quality problems related to timber culture and
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' _ , C. Martin, C. Reeves, G. Likens and F. Bormann,
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The biochemical oxygen demand of Douglas fir needles and
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Ralston, C.W., and G.E. Hatchell, 1971.
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Reinhart, K.G., and A.R. Eschner, 1962. •
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DRAFT
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DRAFT
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, T. Hoffman, and S. Olson, 1965.
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DRAFT
Steinbrenner, E.G., and S.P. Gessel, 1955-
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Forest soil survey on Weyerhaeuser lands in the Pacific
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DRAFT
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R-39
K.C. Lu, W.B. Bollen, .and C.S. Chen, 1968a.
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R-40
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