COMMITTEE ON THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN SOCIETY
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UNITED STATES
LPPSD
TECHNICAL INFORMATION EXCHANGE
DOCUMENT
NO. 2
A Summary Report of the
Automotive Power Systems Contractors
Coordination Meeting
Ann Arbor, Michigan
May 13-16, 1974
ALTERNATIVE AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS DIVISION
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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FOREWORD
ABOUT THE MEETING
In an effort to stimulate and promote the maximum rate of technical
progress toward the country's clean air objectives, the Alternative
Automotive Power Systems Division holds periodic coordination and
progress meetings with all of its contractors, staff^ consultants,
prospective contractors, and selected guests. The meetings focus
attention on the status of the programs and provides an opportunity
for interaction between the participants on problem areas of mutual
interest.
This report summarizes the presentations and discussions at the
seventh such meeting held on May 13-16, 1974, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Documentation such as this is believed to be both an effective and
timely means of providing a full and up-to-date accounting of the
AAPS Program progress in the U. S.
This document includes:
The key issues under consideration in the
AAPS Division
Gas Turbine Engine Program
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Rankine Cycle Engine Programs
Diesel Engine Study, Alternative Fuel Investigations,
Combustion Studies, Electric Vehicle Impact Study,
and Hydrogen Storage Investigations.
Each of these presentations is summarized along with the pertinent
questions, comments and items of discussion. Wherever possible
specific data, principle conclusions, and key illustrations are
included.
Additional supplementary material contained in the appendices
include explanatory notes on the AAPS Division in the EPA organization
(Appendix A); a list of attendees and representatives (Appendix B);
a review of the background and evolution of the new EPA Highway
Test Cycle (Appendix C); a final report on the health hazards of
nickel oxide regenerator seal materials (Appendix D) and a biblio-
graphy of AAPSD reports released through May 1974 (Appendix E).
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE
FOREWORD
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. SPECIAL SESSION ON KEY ISSUES UNDER CONSIDERATION BY
EPA, AAPS DIVISION, TO ACHIEVE A BALANCED PROGRAM, BY
JOHN J. BROGAN, DIVISION DIRECTOR 1
A. Objective of Special Session 1
B. Orientation and Background of AAPS Division Within
the Environmental Protection Agency 1
C. The Purpose, Approach and Evolution of AAPS Program 3
D. Key Issues Include: Fuel Economy, Emissions, Cost
and Critical Materials 4
E. Key Issues To Be Incorporated in Balanced AAPS Program 5
F. Preliminary Conclusions, Directions and Criteria for
New Programs 20
II. SUMMARY OF CURRENT STATUS, PLANS, AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS ON AAPS
PROGRAMS, BY GEORGE M. THUR, CHIEF, AAPS DEVELOPMENT BRANCH 30
A. Gas Turbines 30
B. Rankine Engines 31
C. Alternative Fuels Program 33
D. Electric Vehicles 33
E. Overall AAPS Status and Accomplishments 34
III. GAS TURBINE ENGINE PROGRAM 38
A. Baseline Engine Project - Chrysler 38
B. Baseline Engine Project Support - NASA, Lewis Research
Center 79
C. Baseline Vehicle Tests to Date - EPA 90
D. Low Cost Integrated Control for Baseline Gas Turbine
Program - AiResearch 91
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E. Low Cost Turbine Wheel Manufacturing Process -
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Corp 104
F. Gas Turbine Low Emission Combustion System - Solar 124
G. Oxide Recuperator Technology Program - Owens-Illinois 130
H. Ceramic Regenerator Reliability - Ford Motor Company
(Guest Presentation) 136
I. Ceramics for Turbines - U.S. Army Materials and Mechanics
Research Center (Guest Presentation) 139
J. Continuously Variable Transmission Program - EPA 154
K. Potential Health Hazard of Nickel Compound Emissions from
Automotive Gas Turbine Engines Using Nickel Oxide Base
Regenerator Seals - EPA (Summary and Conclusions) 159
L. Ceramic Materials Development Advanced Materials
Engineering, Ltd., England (Guest Presentation) 162
M. General Purpose Programmable Analog Control - Ultra
Electronics, Inc., England (Guest Presentation) 165
IV. RANKINE ENGINE PROGRAMS 170
A. Overview of Trends, Objectives, and Status - EPA 170
B. Water Base Reciprocating System - Scientific Energy
Sy s terns, Inc 173
C. Organic Reciprocating Engine - Thermo Electron Corp 189
D. California Clean Car Program - California State Assembly
(Guest Presentation) 208
E. Advanced Boiler Studies - Carnegie Mellon University 216
V. DIESEL ENGINES, ALTERNATIVE FUELS, ELECTRIC VEHICLES, AND NEW
EPA FUEL ECONOMY TEST CYCLE 222
A. Diesel Engine Study Ricardo, Ltd., England 222
B. Alternate Fuels - Institute of Gas Technology 232
C. Alternate Fuels - Esso Research and Engineering 239
D. Combustion Studies - Bureau of Mines (Guest Presentation).... 251
E. Fundamental Combustion Research - National Science
Foundation (Guest Presentation) 253
F. Storage of Hydrogen by Hydrides - Brookhaven National
Laboratory 253
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Page
G. Gasoline-Hydrogen Fuel Blends - Jet Propulsion Laboratory.... 259
H. Electric Vehicle Impact Study for Los Angeles - General
Research Corporation 271
I. New EPA Highway Fuel Economy Test Cycle - EPA, Emission
Control Technology Division, Procedures Development Branch... 292
APPENDIX A - Orientation of Alternative Automotive Power Systems
Division in EPA Organization
APPENDIX B - List of Attendees and Representatives
APPENDIX C - Development of the EPA Composite Highway Driving Cycle
APPENDIX D - The Potential Health Hazard of Nickel Compound Emissions
from Automotive Gas Turbine Engines Using Nickel Oxide
Base Regenerator Seals (Background and Documentation)
APPENDIX E - Alternative Automotive Power Systems Division - Annual,
Final, and Summary Reports - May, 1974
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I. SPECIAL SESSION ON KEY ISSUES UNDER CONSIDERATION BY EPA. AAPS DIVISION.
TO ACHIEVE A BALANCED PROGRAM, BY JOHN J. BROGAN, DIVISION DIRECTOR
A. Objective of Special Session
The Alternative Automotive Power Systems Division is in the process of planning
an expanded program of automotive research and technology development. This
program is an integral part of the $10 billion, 5-year program of energy
related Research & Development announced in January this year.
By outlining the background and current thoughts on the general direction
which this program might take, it is hoped to stimulate subsequent reactions,
comments, and suggestions from the broad sector of the technical community
represented at this conference.
B. Orientation and Background of AAPS Division Within the Environmental
Protection Agency
The AAPS Division reports to the Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control,
under Eric Stork, Deputy Assistant Administrator. He in turn reports to the
EPA Administrator, Russell Train, through Roger Strelow, Assistant Administrator
for Air and Waste Management. (A somewhat more detailed description of the
organization is shown in Appendix A.)
The AAPS Division is comprised of two branches, Power Systems Development Branch,
under George Thur, and Alternative Systems Analysis Branch, under Graham Hagey
(Fig. 1).
The Power Systems Development Branch focuses on development of component and
system hardware, such as: the work on turbo compounding, transmissions and
the Rankine and Brayton cycle engine development projects. The Power Systems
Analysis Branch focuses on assessment and evaluation of available engine and
fuel technologies, and assessment of the impacts associated with the use of
alternative fuels and battery powered electric cars. One branch develops; the
other branch studies.
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POWER SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT BRAMCH
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS BRANCH
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ALTERNATIVE POWER PLANfyFUELS
POWEK PLANTS-
EFFICIENT
LOW POLLUTING
QUIET
FUfLS--
LOW COST
LOW POLLUTING
SAFE
•EVALUATE FEASIBILITY
•ASSESS IMPACT ON;
ENVIRONMENT
ECONOMY
NATURAL RESOURCES
•ASSESS DEVELOPMENT STATUS
•FOSTER*PROMOTE DEVELOPMENT
•DEVELOP*DISSEMINATE INFORMATION
FOR STRATEGIES'-
NATIONAL
REGIONAL
Fig. 1 Alternative Automotive Power Systems Division
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The need for an alternative power system development program was identified in
late 1969. The Office of Science and Technology, then headed by Dr. Lee
DuBridge, expressed concern to the President about:
• the automobile's significant contribution to our nation's deteri-
orating ambient air quality
• the exhaust emissions standards required in future years - through
the end of this century - might have to be so stringent that the
conventional engine might not be capable of being clean enough
• the technologies needed to produce alternative power systems should
at least be available to the nation if needed
• the auto industry had no serious alternative engine development
programs underway and none were planned.
As a result, a Federal program was recommended to serve as a stimulus to
industry and to provide this base of technology. The President announced the
program in his Message on The Environment early in 1970. The program is
managed by the Environmental Protection Agency AAPS Division in Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
C. The Purpose, Approach and Evolution of AAPS Program
The purpose of the program is to evaluate powerplant alternatives to the con-
ventional engine. In some cases the evaluations did not require development
of new hardware systems; however, for some powerplants development has been
necessary. The program was focused initially on power systems that offered
the potential of being inherently clean compared to the conventional engine.
In 1972 the program scope was broadened to include studies of alternative
fuels and battery powered systems; energy efficiency was elevated to share
equal importance with low emissions in the hardware development program. The
Rankine cycle and gas turbine systems are the two technologies currently in
various hardware stages in this program.
Until a year ago the AAPS Division assisted in funding the Army program on stra-
tified charge engine development. The AAPS Division charter permits development
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to the end of the Advanced Development phase where engineering prototypes can
be tested in motor vehicles. The Army program, having different constraints,
is carrying the stratified charge engine into the next phase, Engineering
Development In which soft tooling is to be provided.
On December 1, 1973 the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) pre-
sented the President with a 5-year, $10 billion-total, energy R&D package which
included a new program that emphasized automotive energy R&D. The EPA is
responsible for a portion of this new program. Basically the ongoing AAPS
program and the new energy oriented program overlap by about one year starting
in Fiscal Year 1975. The new program basically broadens the scope of the on-
going program in that additional types of power systems will be developed
through to demonstration of engineering prototypes in motor vehicles. This
expanded scope may permit a next generation of hardware development beyond
that originally contemplated - for the gas turbine, for example.
D. Key Issues Include: Fuel Economy, Emissions, Cost and Critical Materials
The automobile is deeply entwined in modern economy and life style. In the
U.S. it is relied upon more than any other mode of transportation. The follow-
ing data from 1971 and 1972 attempt to place the automobile in its nationwide
perspective. Automobiles represent:
• 827o of total U.S. registered automotive ground transportation
vehicles
• 71Z of total U.S. automotive transport fuel use
• 20.57o of total U.S. energy use (Includes fuel consumed by auto-
mobiles and the energy used in manufacturing them.)
• 30.17o of total U.S. petroleum use
• 107o of total U.S. steel and aluminum use
• 5 to 407o of total U.S. use of critical materials
• 147o of total U.S. imports (percent of dollar value of imported
automotive products - new cars, engines, fuel)
• 27.57o of total U.S. pollution toxicity
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It is clear that the automobile is a major factor which impacts on national
issues of: energy, pollution, natural resources and on the economy of the
country. The drop in Gross National Product in the first quarter of 1974
was in large measure due to the drop in sales and manufacture of automobiles
and components. The nation's balance of payments deficits will be relatively
large now that imported petroleum has tripled in price - another illustration
of the importance of the automobile to the national economy.
The issues facing the automobile industry have traditionally included achieve-
ment of low initial cost. This remains an important issue. Since the 1960's
emissions have become another important issue and, more recently, fuel economy
has been recognized as far more important than it had been in the past. These
issues and others have influenced engine and vehicle systems design and will
continue to do so because, once exposed, they never disappear completely.
Because a program is being planned that must somehow relate to these past and
current issues it is also important to anticipate other potential issues that
have not yet surfaced. Dwindling domestic natural resources is expected to
be the next critical issue.
Consideration of these various issues emphasizes the need for a balanced
program both in its technical content and its timing (Fig. 2).
E. Key Issues To Be Incorporated in Balanced AAPS Program
The automobile caused pollution issue has been faced by the industry, and sig-
nificant reductions in CO, unburned hydrocarbons, and NOx have been achieved;
however, it should be remembered that in any Federally sponsored program on
new engines and/or fuels that the same or even more stringent standards must
be met if the gains already made on the emissions issue are to be retained. If
impact on the fuel or energy problem is achieved by exceeding the emission stan-
dards, then a step backward would have been taken.
Consider the automobile and its relationship to petroleum consumption. Figure 3
shows this for four different scenarios. Taking the known domestic petroleum
reserves and assuming that through intensive exploration etc. that these
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ENERGY
NATURAL
RESOURCES
POLLUTION
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
Fig. 2 A Balanced AAPS Program
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CO
UJ
EC
S 80
UJ
K
UJ
Q
£ 60
o
Q
40 -
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reserves somehow could be increased by a factor of 5 (Ref: Meadows and the
Club of Rome Report), and assuming that the automobile's share of these total
resources remains fixed,then Curve 1 applies where the current nationwide
average fuel economy of 13.6 mpg remains fixed for all cars on the road with
projected growth in numbers of vehicles assumed. Under these extreme circum-
stances we would be out of domestic petroleum before the year 2000.
Curve 2 assumes introduction into the marketplace of 10 million new vehicles
yearly starting in 1975 and getting an average of 30% improvement overall in
fuel economy perhaps due to lower power/weight, rear axle ratio change,
increase in smaller size car mix, etc. This kind of improvement (if it could
be achieved) would increase the 'run-out' point by about 5 years.
Curve 3 continues with the Curve 2 scenario, but additionally considers intro-
duction into the marketplace by 1980 and after, of automobiles with a 100%
improvement (doubling) in fuel economy (to 28 mpg). This would result in an
extra 3 years. If Curve 3 is achievable, it may be so with use of completely
different engines and vehicular system concepts than those available today.
Finally Curve 4 is similar to Curve 2 and 3 until 1985 where 40 mpg overall
average for new automobiles would be introduced and would continue thereafter.
To achieve 40 mpg may well require a major industry/government R&D effort.
If successful that would give us an additional 20 years over the baseline,
Curve 1. Under crisis conditions that could be significant.
Although it is not necessary to agree now on the practicability of achieving
these fuel economy levels at least the trends are apparent:
1. If no one does anything - either the public, industry, or the
Government - and petroleum is considered in the future as uncon-
strained as in the past, then the petroleum would be gone by 2000.
2. If a business as usual stance is adopted, an extra couple of years
may be achieved.
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3. If Federally sponsored research focuses only on energy conversion
efficiency improvements with only long range impact, the effects
will be insignificant.
4. A major government/industry effort to improve efficiency of energy
conversion in automobiles may still gain only about 20 years on this
basis.
This does not say that working on improvements in energy conversion efficiency
are wasted effort. However, it is only one area where research is needed;
research is also needed in conjunction with other parallel development acti-
vities.
When it comes to measures that may have short term impact, increasing cost to
the consumer is frequently mentioned as a natural means to reduce consumption.
This could take the form of a tax for example; however, it probably would take
an enormous increase in gasoline cost to have an appreciable effect on con-
sumption. In Europe, since lifting the embargo, even higher gasoline prices
than shown in Fig. 4, have hardly made a dent in total consumption rates.
Other so-called institutional measures would include modal shifts, carpooling
and even regulatory measures. Institutional changes then do offer the possi-
bility of near-term impact. What is needed here is knowledge - knowledge of
what can and cannot be accomplished on current engine and vehicle systems.
Other means considered to reduce petroleum energy consumption include use of
alternative fuels. Figure 5 applies to the total petroleum consumption (not
just to autos) because it is a more straightforward illustration than one
made up only for automobiles. The shaded dots through 1972 are historical
data; the dots for later years are from Shell estimates. Using the best
estimates available to us on realistic growth of availability of either methanol
from coal, gasoline-like fuel from coal or gasoline-like fuel from shale, the
projected impact is shown. It is apparent that if alternative fuels come as
currently expected, they cannot have significant impact until the 1990 time
period. It should be noted that the President's Project Independence aims at
moving these curves back to 1.0.
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INCOME PCK CAPITA IN US DOLLARS
AVENGE ftUCf Of GASOLINE PER GALLON
2/0
I
I—1
o
.50
USA.
COMMOH MARKET
IHDIA
*/,904
1.03
JAPAN
Fig. 4 The Price of Gasoline in Relation to Income
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1.0
V)
Ul
I 0.8
o
fl 0.6
o
o
o
oc
a.
o
CO
0.4
O
O
0.2
SHALE OIL AND COAL AS
SUBSTITUTE SOURCES FOR
LIQUID FUELS
IMPORTS
CRUDE OIL
DOMESTIC
CRUDE OIL
EITHER SHALE OIL OR COAL
AS SUBSTITUTE SOURCE FOR
LIQUID FUELS
0
1950
I
1960
1970
1980
1990
YEAR
2000
2010
Fig. 5 Alternate Fuel Sources
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The separate effects of higher energy conversion efficiency, alternative
fuels, and institutional changes on a baseline petroleum consumption curve
have been discussed. Each by itself can contribute somewhat toward changing
the slope of the consumption curve. This is the impact we seek, but when
applied together, the combined impact can be appreciable. Hence, to effect
needed reductions in consumption, a balanced technology program is one of the
important factors needed.
By standing back and looking to the past and future regarding energy sources
for transportation it is recognized that all of the fossil fuel sources are
finite. Also, changes in demand or consumption merely lengthen the time to
ultimate depletion; therefore, although we expect certain alternative fuels
will come along, current planning should consider how to make effective use of
the virtually unlimited nuclear and solar sources of energy (Fig. 6).
Looking at these future energy sources and how they can be used for transpor-
tation fuel gives further guidance for directions of effort. As illustrated
in Fig. 7 the primary energy source must go through some intermediate form
and then through a conversion device to provide motive power for the transpor-
tation vehicle. Crude oil (or shale oil) or coal are compatible with internal
and external conversion devices either in their conventional or somewhat
advanced form. When the intermediate energy form is heat or electrical power
(or is used for hydrogen generation) new transportation conversion systems will
be needed. Probably these will be either electric or heat storage driven, or
completely new hydrogen propulsion systems. New fuel distribution and handling
systems also will be needed.
Now consider natural resources. The issue anticipated in the near future is
the limitation of our mineral resources and the demands on our reserves of
natural resources for the automobile. Tabulated in Fig. 8 are the amounts of
various materials found in a typical 1970 car (4100 Ibs). We have shown
the weights of material used directly in the manufactured auto and the amounts
of material needed in the after-market to keep the vehicle on the road for its
average 10-year life. It is seen that the automobile accounts for significant
percentages of the total U.S. use of many of these materials.
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SUPPLY
DEMAND
(PROJECT INDEPENDENCE)
IMPORTED CRUDE OIL
(U.S. SHORTAGE)
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX/XXXXXX
yxxxxxxx
'X/XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XX/XXXXxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXX/XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES
(LIQUID FUELS FROM
COAL AND/OR OIL SHALE)
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
NUCLEAR & SOLAR
X X XX XXX XXXX XX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
DOMESTIC CRUDE OIL
XXXXXXxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
xxxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxx
XXX
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
XXXXXX/XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxx^xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxX/xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
' 'XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
"'xxxxxxxxxxx
TIME
Fig. 6 Future Projection of Energy Sources for Transportation Fuels
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MAJOR ENERGY SOURCES
CRUDE OIL
INTERMEDIATE FORM
REFINED LIQUID FUEL
TRANSPORTATION
CONVERSION DEVICES
INTERNAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
EXTERNAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
COAL
GAS
LIQUID FUEL
ELECTRICAL
INTERNAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
EXTERNAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
ELECTRIC STORAGE
HEAT STORAGE
-p-
i
NUCLEAR
ELECTRICAL
HEAT
ELECTRIC STORAGE
HEAT STORAGE
INT AND/OR EXT COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
SOLAR
ELECTRICITY
HEAT
ELECTRIC STORAGE
HEAT STORAGE
INT AND/OR EXT COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Fig. 7 Using Future Energy Sources for Transportation Fuel
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METAL
IRON
ALUMINUM
LEAD
COPPER
ZINC
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
MOLYBDENUM
MANGANESE
TIN
DIRECT
AFTER MARKET
(POUNDS/AUTO)
3,500
65
28
30
65
4.5
8
.5
12
2
496
17.7
99.3
7.9
12.2
.35
.23
-
3.5
.04
TOTAL
AUTO USE
1973
TOTAL
U.S. USE
1970
(MILLIONS OF POUNDS)
38,633
799.5
1,230.7
366.4
746.4
46.9
79.6
4.8
149.9
19.7
324,000
7,835
2,710
4,370
2,300
311
684
76
2,296
164
PERCENT
USED IN
U.S. AUTOS
(1950 - 1970 AVG.)
10
9
40
7.3
28.4
13.7
9.1
5.6
5.7
10.5
Fig. 8 Auto Metal Consumption
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Figure 9 shows the methodology used to obtain years of supply remaining which
appear in Fig. 10. Considered are: total world reserve of each metal, total
U.S. annual consumption of the metal as well as the fraction of the annual
U.S. consumption of the metal needed for automobiles. Assuming that this
'share' remains fixed, an estimate can be made of the years until depletion
of the world reserve.
Obviously this will change if the average car weight changes and also as the
mix of materials in the car changes. A 2500 Ib. vehicle and a 4100 Ib. vehicle
were studied. Also, it is unlikely that the U.S. will continue to get as large
a share of the world use as other countries develop. New reserves may also
be found that will change the picture somewhat - but at least some perspective
can be obtained from these data. It is added that the recycling situation
today has been considered with each material and has been factored into the
results shown. For example, lead has a 607« recycle rate, iron 47%, tin 5%,
etc. (Based on Dept. of Interior Data)
Thus, serious problems lie ahead if materials like lead, zinc and tin continue
to be used at current rates. The trend toward lower car weights will help
somewhat, but the major influences will be the net balance between increasing
demand for these materials from the rest of the world and the discovery of new
supplies. The true picture is not easy to pin down since the actual reserves
are often masked by economic and trade policies and even by the tax laws.
This area needs much more intensive study, particularly when looking ahead to
possibilities like the electric car and battery storage. Basically, natural
resources are finite, and as new solutions to shortages of energy are sought,
blind alleys involving other resources should be avoided. The path must be
carefully chosen and consideration given to how much of the needed critical
materials can be recycled.
Another aspect of natural resources is the impact on balance of payments.
Figure 11 shows how the amount of certain materials used in the automobile
compares with the total percent of those materials imported by the U.S. It
is seen that if the content of certain materials in the car, like copper,
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U.S. SHARE
= % ANNUAL
USE
U.S. AUTO ANNUAL
USE
U.S. AUTO SHARE
= % ANNUAL USE
/ #• SCOOPS =
| #• YEARS
I
X^ I
')
WORLD RESERVE
"U.S. SHARE" OF
WORLD RESERVE
"U.S. AUTO SHARE"
OF WORLD RESERVE
Data Source - U.S. Bureau of Mines,
"Mineral Facts and Problems," 1970
Fig. 9 Methodology for Determining Years of Supply Remaining
for Critical Materials (All Data Static at 1970)
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400
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300
CO
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200
100
O 1971 WT. ^ PROJ.
4091 #• CAR
WEIGHTS
DOT- 2 GROWTH
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LEAD
MOLYB- COPPER
DENUM
MANGA-
NESE
ALUMI-
NUM
NICKEL
IRON
CHRO-
MIUM
10 Years to Depletion of U. S. Auto Reserve - Materials
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
o
oc
40
30
20
10
{"")
I—I
% OF TOTAL U.S.
USE IMPORTED
% OF TOTAL U.S.
USE FOR AUTOS
I
1
MOLYB-
DENUM
COPPER IRON
LEAD ZINC NICKEL
MATERIALS
TIN
ALUMI-
NUM
MANGA-
NESE
CHRO
MIUM
Fig. II Natural Resources - Auto Use and Imports (1970)
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Lead, iron and zinc, could be reduced, there could probably be an immediate
benefit from reduced imports.
F. Preliminary Conclusions, Directions and Criteria for New Programs
Integration of the above data and observations has lead to the following
primary conclusions:
• Alternative fuels appear required to achieve "Project Independence".
• Major improvements in conventional and alternative propulsion
systems will:
a) extend depletion time of domestic oil reserves
b) reduce the magnitude of the import peak
c) accelerate achievement of Project Independence
• Future energy sources, such as solar and nuclear, will require
different propulsion systems than will petroleum and its substi-
tutes .
• Major national programs are required to achieve impact.
Some of the secondary conclusions are:
• Small early improvements may have far more impact on the major
issues in the long run than big improvements that take a long
time to achieve.
• The trend to small cars must be encouraged, with the objective for
even smaller utilitarian design in the future.
• Future automobiles must be considered as part of the "Transporta-
tion System" to optimize impact on the issues. Strategy and auto
design have to get together.
• Efforts to improve energy or resource conservation by increasing
vehicle useful life must be planned carefully. The inertia of the
system increases with vehicle life and introduction time for changes.
Based on these conclusions, three broad areas have been selected for program
direction; specific projects are being selected in each area; feedback from
this meeting will weigh heavily in the selection of projects:
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• Improved Energy Conversion System Development
» Alternative Fuel and Fuel Systems Development
• Advanced Energy Systems Development
The primary criteria being used in selecting the projects are:
• Lead time to impact
• Impact potential
— Energy
- Fuel
— Materials
— Pollution
• Public acceptance
— Safety
— Performance
— Cost
• Industry acceptance
It is anticipated that discussion and feedback from this meeting will assist
in quantifying the above criteria. It is recognized that industry acceptance
of any new technology developed by the Government is imperative. Without it,
innovations will not be implemented and will not reach the market place; the
impact on national issues will be zero.
Consequently, the proposed objective and specific goals for the new program are
GOAL
IMPLEMENT A BALANCED PROGRAM IN AUTOMOTIVE GROUND TRANSPORTATION
THAT PROVIDES TECHNOLOGY FOR INDUSTRY AND GOVERNMENT TO IMPACT ON
NATIONAL ISSUES SUCH AS ENERGY, NATURAL RESOURCES, POLLUTION AND
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.
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OBJECTIVES
• CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- CONVENTIONAL FUEL
DEMONSTRATE AND EVALUATE IN A VEHICLE AN AUTOMOTIVE PROPUL-
SION SYSTEM TO DOUBLE THE FUEL ECONOMY OF CURRENT (1974)
AUTOMOBILES WHILE MEETING 1977 EMISSION STANDARDS.
- UNCONVENTIONAL FUEL
DEMONSTRATE AND EVALUATE IN A VEHICLE AN ADVANCED AUTOMOTIVE
PROPULSION SYSTEM WHICH IS CONSTRUCTED OF NONCRITICAL
MATERIALS AND WHICH OPERATES ON PLENTIFUL NONPETROLEUM FUELS
WHILE MEETING 1977 EMISSION STANDARDS.
• CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
- MATERIALS
DEMONSTRATE AND EVALUATE IN A VEHICLE AN ADVANCED AUTOMOTIVE
POWER SYSTEM USING NONCRITICAL MATERIALS, INCLUDING NONMETALLIC
MATERIALS, WHICH WILL MEET 1977 EMISSION STANDARDS AND HAVE
HIGH FUEL ECONOMY.
- MATERIALS AND ENERGY
DEMONSTRATE AND EVALUATE IN A VEHICLE AN ADVANCED AUTOMOTIVE
POWER SYSTEM WHOSE LIFE AND DURABILITY ARE DOUBLE THAT OF PRE-
SENT SYSTEMS WHILE MEETING FUEL ECONOMY AND EMISSION STANDARDS.
Questions and Comments
Question (Mr. Scully, U.S. Army Tank Automotive Command): It is understood
that if hydrogen were economically available, present technology engines
and machines could be used with little modification and no sacrifice in
emission performance or life style. What progress is being made toward
this possible solution to the fuel problem?
Answer: No practical approach to the key problem of on-board storage of
hydrogen has been identified. If this, and economical production prob-
lems can be solved, hydrogen may become a promising alternative fuel.
-22-
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A recent Request For Proposal to a large sector of the technical community,
soliciting new approaches to the problem, had disappointing results.
Three small programs on storing hydrogen in other forms are being con-
sidered. No practical cryogenic system was suggested. Another RFP is
expected to be issued in about 6 months.
Projections in the ESSO, Alternative Fuel Study (See Section V-C)
indicate that hydrogen will not be available in quantities sufficient
to supply any significant percentage of the requirements until after
the year 2000.
Comment (Walter Stewart, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory): Los Alamos has
under development a liquid hydrogen storage and re-fueling system for
automotive applications.
Question (Dr. Brown, University of Rhode Island): In trying to develop a
program for a new Diesel engine, with some half dozen agencies, it
was apparent that no one group or agency is coordinating automotive pro-
pulsion research and development at the national level. Is this situation
being corrected? Also, the current AAPS Program seems primarily con-
cerned with demonstration and evaluation of concepts which are nominally
within five years of engineering or production prototypes. This does not
seem to allow for the growth and development of newer, more advanced
concepts which often require more than five years of research and develop-
ment.
Answer: The confusion in coordinating Government automotive research and
development is recognized, both in and outside the Government, particu-
larly since the Office of Science and Technology was dropped. It is
anticipated that the new Energy Research and Development Agency will be
the vehicle which will correct this situation. It should also be recog-
nized that the AAPS program constitutes a new situation for the Govern-
ment. Heretofore, development of consumer oriented hardware was left
entirely to industry. But, as pointed out earlier, the automobile has
a broad impact on our economy, environment, and resources justifying
limited activity on critical problems. Consequently, the AAPS program
has evolved with the care and caution which a new situation in Government
-23-
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activity warrants. As the needs and requirements of the Nation are more
clearly defined, it is expected that a longer term, better funded program
will emerge.
Answer: A representative from DOT pointed out that R&D in the automotive area
is coordinated once a year. Agencies are kept informed of each others
activities. Each Agency submits a budget to the Office of Management and
Budget. Congress decides what is to be done. Past policy has left near
term R&D in this area to industry; whereas, long term effort has been
supported by the Government.
Question (Mr. Huber, Consultant): In considering the automotive issues over
the years; i.e., cost (1900-1965), emissions (1965), energy (1974), and
natural resources (anticipated in 1975), no mention was made of the
initial issue which started the whole sequence — the desire for a personal
transportation system. Now, since the more widely dispersed urban popu-
lation centers are heavily dependent on frequently available autos and
trucks, contemplated changes in propulsion systems must take into con-
sideration the effect on the ability of the car to meet present socio-
economic needs for basic transportation. For example, the near term
electric car will not have the cruising radius, it will have poorer
performance, and it may use more, not less, resources since a lot of lead
is required in lead-acid batteries. And now, two cars are needed to meet
all demands whereas, heretofore, one was adequate. So, the electric car
for emissions might not be a real cure when the other issues are con-
sidered. Are these basic transportation requirements being considered?
Answer: Because of low cost, wide availability of the automobile, many
segments of our earlier transportation system in major cities such as
streetcars, trains, and busses have deteriorated or stopped. Industry
and population centers have dispersed. As a result of current issues,
the transportation system is even now in the process of being reconstructed
to meet the needs of the people. A big problem has evolved; significant
action and changes are required to solve the problem.
The Department of Transportation has been addressing this problem. The
annual budget went from 2 million dollars this year to 6 million dollars
-24-
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for the next fiscal year. This effort is directed to discerning the
facts, evaluating approaches and understanding the needs, secondary
costs and ramifications of various potential solutions. It is to provide
information on which to base policy.
Question (R. W. Hurn, Bureau of Mines): It was mentioned that any relaxation
of emission standards would constitute a loss of progress. It is
suggested that required emission levels be considered from the technical
viewpoint of the trade-offs involved with the cost of energy and environ-
mental control.
In considering hydrogen as a future fuel, it was pointed out that all of
the current alternative fuels are hydrogen deficient unless they are to
be used as solid fuels. A very big problem is where will enough hydrogen
be found to convert the solid fuels?
Answer: The National Academy of Science is examining the trade-offs between
emission levels and energy cost; they will be making recommendations to
Congress probably this summer. It is expected that these recommendations
will reflect the results of these studies and may or may not be the same
as present legislated standards.
Question (Dr. W. tfryniszak, Clarke Chapman): Regarding Fig. 3, what is the
basis of assuming a factor of 5 for increased recoverable oil reserves?
It sounds high compared to the 2 or 3 which has been mentioned in England.
Answer; The intent of the chart in Fig. 3 is to determine, qualitatively,
the relative impact of an early versus a late entry of our advanced trans-
portation system on the depletion of recoverable world oil reserves. So
a more accurate basis, other than that used by Meadows, for estimating
new discoveries was not warranted. The values used were 40 billion
barrels of crude—present reserves — times 5 for future discovery gives
200 billion barrels. It was assumed that 30 percent of this would be
used for surface transportation.
-25-
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Question (Don Lapedes, Aerospace Corporation): The lead time from concept
to mass production in the automotive industry can be 15 to 20 years,
so impact or effect of current research on new concepts is necessarily
far off. What are the prospects for reducing this lead time, so that
needed effect or impact can be realized sooner?
Answer: The most likely place to reduce lead time is in the R&D phases to
reduce the time required to reach the production engineering stage.
Parallel effort on several candidate approaches and concepts can- compress
the time required for the R&D phases, but it must be accepted that a
much larger Government/Industry investment will be required to bring this
about. Current and past efforts have been more of the series type because
of the limited money available for R&D.
Question (John Stone, Mitre Corporation): One approach to conservation of
energy and resources is to reduce the demand for individual transportation
systems. Is the Government investigating such plausible substitutes as
telecommunications?
Answer (Bob Husted, DOT): Such factors as telecommunications, aimed at
reducing the vehicle miles traveled, have been studied and are being
planned for future programs.
Question (Carl Bachle, Consultant): What is the total amount of money being
spent by the Government on R&D in this area; how much should be spent?
Answer: In FY '74 about 20 million dollars were budgeted; in FY "75 about 32
million dollars are budgeted. This includes in-house salaries, paper
studies, hardware, etc. being spent in AEG, NSF, EPA, DOD, DOT and NASA.
This indicates how splintered the effort is. The amount which should be
spent will depend on the top level leadership in assessing the gravity of
the energy crisis and establishing the specific goals to be reached.
With established goals, requirements can be identified and costs estimated.
Question (Carl Bachle, Consultant): With the apparent need for short term
improvement in fuel economy, why is so little effort and emphasis being
given to the Diesel engine?
-26-
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Answer: Considerable attention is being given to the Diesel engine; however,
due to planning and procurement lead time in the Government, very little
about this effort has been released as yet.
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power Systems): Has serious consideration
been given to chemicals which can be produced from crops (such as methanol,
ethanol, acetone, etc.) as alternative fuels?
Answer: Two contractors are studying all of the alternative fuels available
from domestic sources. Methanol derived from coal is a leading contender.
These programs are reviewed and discussed in Section V-B and C.
Comment (Commander E. Tyrrel, Department of Trade and Industry - London):
Many people in England believe that the advantages of liquid hydrocarbons
as a fuel for transportation vehicles are so great as compared to other
uses that in the short term perhaps they should be conserved and used only
for that purpose.
Answer: There seems to be general agreement in the U.S. that liquid hydro-
carbons will be used in automobiles at least through the end of this
century. Pressure will be on stationary power systems to use substitute
fuels.
Question: What are the AAPS funding plans for the automotive R&D, particularly
regarding increased effort?
Answer; The AAPS Division budget started FY '74 at 7 million dollars. During
the year, it was increased to 12 million dollars. The budget submitted
for FY '75 is 17 million dollars. It is not known how this will change
during the next year (FY-75). Current plans call for approximately 6
million dollars for the continuation of the current gas turbine and Rankine
engine programs; 11 million dollars will be devoted to the other aspects of
the AAPS effort including: use of alternate fuels, electric propulsion
system studies, investigations of new concepts and in-house overhead.
-27-
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Comment (Paul Vickers, General Motors Research): Some of the solutions to
the energy crisis might ultimately limit the individual's freedom of
mobility. Care should be taken to make sure realistic emission standards
are set in view of all of the surrounding priorities and circumstances.
Comment (Ernest Petrick, U.S. Army Tank Automotive Command): Concerning the
proposed goals above, it is imperative that the specific duty cycle of
the vehicle be specified along with the method and instrumentation for
measuring the fuel economy. On this basis, numerical values for fuel
economy of current (1974) automobiles should be established and the
numerical goals set for future vehicles to achieve within a specified
time frame.
It is suggested that the non-critical materials element be eliminated
from the "unconventional fuel" goal; it is really part of the "conserva-
tion of natural resources" goal.
It seems that a basic decision should be made as to whether to develop
the fuel to satisfy the current engine/vehicle requirements, or to
develop the engine to satisfy the fuel requirements.
Questions (Dr. Sternlicht, M.T.I.): Because the American economy is definitely
tied to the automobile as well as housing and other items, because the
national issues identified are major, and because potential pay-off of
the AAPS program is very big, the following three questions are important
to the future development of the AAPS program:
• How does the AAPS Program get a balanced share of Government
attention, so that it gets commensurate funding and priority?
• How do you motivate people in the technical community to partici-
pate and contribute to the program?
• How is the time reduced which is required to transfer the technology
to the industry at large, and into meaningful production activity;
i.e., early achievement of Project Independence, higher living
standards, and increased automotive exports?
-28-
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Answer: Strong industrial support and endorsement of the AAPS program through
their representatives in Washington would be very helpful in getting a
balanced share of attention and an appropriate priority level established,
It seems that the technical community is getting motivated; perhaps the
problem is how to accelerate the motivation.
The AAPS Coordination Meeting is one means of disseminating information
and getting direct response from knowledgeable people in the industry.
Comment (A. F. Underwood, Consultant): At the recent SAE Meeting in Los
Angeles, three standard vehicles were operating which provided 30-40 mpg
with "Standard" car performance. These cars, with a form of Diesel
engine, are in production not in the U.S.; 70-100 mpg are projected. (No
other information was available.)
Stratified charge engines and Stirling engines have the same potential
fuel economy with low emissions and should be getting AAPS attention in
the 1980's.
Question: In typical free enterprise systems, the communication link and lead
time between the consumer in the market place and the provider (industry)
is generally short and relatively direct. Lead time for feedback is of
the order of one year. In a situation such as the energy crisis where
lead times are longer - 10 years or more - and there is broad impact on
the public, wherein lies the responsibility for alerting and informing
the public, so that industry can get appropriate feedback in time to pur-
sue the needed product development? Is this a Government responsibility
of should industry handle it?
Answer: No answer presently exists.
-29-
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II. SUMMARY OF CURRENT STATUS, PLANS, AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS ON AAPS PROGRAMS,
BY GEORGE M. THUR, CHIEF, POWER SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
AAPS Division activities have encompassed the following avenues of approach to
alternate power systems:
• Gas Turbine Engines
• Rankine Cycle Engines
• Stratified Charge Engines (Further engineering development now
completely under Army support)
• Diesel Engines (Supplemental budget increase during FY '74 now
permits support of needed programs on Diesel engines. These are
being implemented. )
• Rotary Otto Cycle Engines
• Stirling Cycle Engines
• Hybrid Engines (Heat Engine/Battery; Heat Engine/Flywheel)
• Electric Vehicles
• Alternative Fuels
• Improvements in Conventional Systems
To date, emphasis has been on the gas turbine and Rankine engines. Work is
in its early stages on alternative fuels and electrics. These are discussed
in more detail below along with a summary of the general AAPS status and
accomplishments.
A. Gas Turbines
The gas turbine programs are structured to focus on the prime problem areas
associated with gas turbines:
• Emissions - high NOx particularly
• High manufacturing cost
• Low part-load fuel economy
-30-
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The original Brayton Power Systems Development Team is shown in Fig. 12.
Under an inter-agency agreement, NASA (Lewis Research Center) has been testing
and characterizing Chrysler's Baseline Engine since September 1973. Current
attention is focused on identification of all of the various losses, particu-
larly heat loss. This information constitutes important input and guidance for
design of the next generation engine. Of the eight different combustor tech-
nology contractors, the Solar approach was selected for adaptation to the
Baseline Engine. Work continues on recuperators and regenerators. A program
is being implemented with Ford Motor Company to concentrate on the known
problems of the ceramic regenerator. Pratt & Whitney has recently achieved
very promising results on the low cost turbine wheel manufacturing program.
There were a number of studies (reported at previous meetings) on cost and
economics. Work continues on the major gas turbine program at Chrysler on
component and system improvements as well as the gas turbine upgrading program.
Since the last AAPS Coordination Meeting, an important decision was made to
redirect the program from an intermediate size automobile to a compact car.
This has involved major changes and modification of the effort at both Chrysler
and NASA. Preliminary design has been started on an upgraded engine for compact
car requirements.
In-house effort at EPA has concentrated on vehicle tests including emission
and particulate measurements and evaluation of test procedures. The objective
is to use the technology evolving from the Baseline Engine Program and the
advanced technology programs, and to demonstrate a gas turbine vehicle with
good fuel economy and low emissions in calendar year 1976.
NASA is also looking at the technology for applications beyond 1976 including
such items as ceramics, gas bearings, advanced aerodynamic designs and cool-
ing concepts. With these elements, it may be possible to have a 20 mpg gas
turbine vehicle on the road within 10 years.
B. Rankine Engines
The Rankine Program has concentrated on the following problem areas:
• Emissions (problem now considered under control)
• Condenser size and weight
-31-
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AAPS
BRAYTON POWER SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT TEAM
MSA LEWIS TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM
COMBUSTOR HEATEXCH.
MFC
(LOWCOST)
CATALYTIC
(INHOUSE)
SOLAR
GE
ALRC
\OWENS ILLINOIS
^CORNING
EPA TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS
COMBUSTOR HEATEKCH. MF6(LOWCOST) SWPIES
WLLIAMSRES.
SOLAR
A/R
PfW
MTI
NORTH RES.
6E
ALRC
\OWENS ILLINOIS VA/K
SCORNING \-Ptw
ECONOMIC
VWIU/AMS
RES.
ADVANCED
TURB. P£S.
SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT
A/R
NASA (LEWIS)
CHRYSLER
SYSTEM AERODYNAMIC
IMPROVEMENT IMPROVEMENT
COMPONENT
TESTING
POWERSYSTEM
TESTING
\TURBINE
\COMPRE5SOR
WOW PASSAGES
SYSTEM
IMPROVEMENT
COMPONENT
TESTING
rOWER$r$TEM
TESTING
•VEHICLE TESTING
COMPONENT
IMPROVEMENT
GAS TURBINE
UPGRADING
-CONTROLS
- HT.EXCH.
- TRANSMISSION
- INHOUSECOMWSTOR
- GFE (FROM NASA TECH. PROBRAMS)
- NOZZLE ACTUATOR
-FREEROTOR
Fig. 12 AAPS Brayton Power Systems Development Team
-------
• Control complexity
• Freezing (when using water as the working fluid)
• Thermal degradation problem (when using organic fluids)
• Lubrication problem of reciprocating systems
• Valve design problems of reciprocating systems
• Boiler size and weight
Initially, technology programs and four different engine developments were
pursued: reciprocating organic and steam systems; and rotary (turbine)
organic and steam systems. The reciprocating steam engine of Scientific
Energy Systems, Inc. was selected at the end of 1973 for further development
through the prototype stage; the Thermo Electron organic reciprocating engine
is continuing at a reduced level of effort as a back-up system.
The implications of switching to a compact car with the SES engine are being
assessed. This means that the demonstration in a car originally scheduled for
late 1975 will have to be re-scheduled in 1976.
C. Alternative Fuels Program
The objective of the Alternative Fuels Program is to evaluate the impact of
using other fuels in automotiles and trucks on the national economy, environ-
ment and resources. These fuels include: methanol, gasoline and distillates
from coal, shale and hydrogen. Research is being conducted on these fuels to
characterize their use in current and projected automotive engines.
The present feasibility studies on the above fuels are to be completed in July
1974. The impact study is to begin in July 1974. Combustion research on
methanol, gasoline and distillates was started in May 1974; research programs
on hydrogen storage in metal hydrides and chemical carriers are in progress.
D. Electric Vehicles
The objective is to evaluate the potential impact of electric cars on the
nation's economy, environment, and natural resources. Applicable critical
technology is to be developed. The impact study for Los Angeles is to be com-
pleted in November 1974. Studies for Philadelphia and St. Louis are to begin
in July 1974.
-33-
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E. Overall AAPS Status and Accomplishments
The 12 million dollar AAPS Division budget for FY 1974 is broken down according
to the type of effort and purpose of the effort in Fig. 13. This and the pre-
ceeding effort since inception of the AAPS program in 1970 have resulted in a
number of accomplishments:
Management Accomplishments
• Established working relationship with automotive industry
• Principal Government group conducting automotive R&D
• Established and maintained technology transfer process
• Identified need for new transportation criteria
• Involved other governmental agencies
• Developed understanding of automotive engineering practices
• In 1972 established action plan to impact national need
Technical Accomplishments - Gas Turbine
• Achieved 1977 emission levels under steady-state conditions
• Completed 3500 hours durability test
• Developed unconventional combustion concepts
Technical Accomplishments - Rankine
• Bettered 1977 emission standards by 50%
• Achieved peak steady-state fuel economy of 16 mpg on preprototype
system
• Packaging feasibility demonstrated without vehicle modification
• Component sizes and weights reduced
• Characterization of organic fluids and lubricants
• Generation of computer system design tools
• Developed unconventional combustion concepts
Technology Spin-Off - Gas Turbine
Much of the technology developed for the AAPS program has promise for commercial
use in other sectors of the economy as follows:
-34-
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U)
U1
I
EXPLORATORY
DEVELOPMENT
IMPROVED SFC
52%
^^^^VED~A^CK~^-~
Fig. 13 FY '74 Budget - $12,000,000
-------
• Low Emission Combustor —
• Ceramic Heat Exchangers —
• Improved Manufacturing —
Process for Turbine
Wheels
Land Gas Turbines, Aircraft,
Total Energy Systems
Exhaust Heat Recovery for Heating
Units, Power Systems
Low Cost Turbine Wheels for
Turbo Charging Units, Aircraft
and Land Gas Turbine Units
Technology Spin-Off - Rankine
• Organic Rankine
— Indoor Personnel Carriers
— Bottoming Cycle for Ship and
Stationary Powerplants
• High Temp Lubricant — Special Purpose Engines
• Efficient - High
Pressure Water Pumps
• Low Emissions Burner
and Compact Boiler
• Improved Heat Exchanger
Surfaces
Quick Auto Wash Industry
Home Water Heating Systems
Home Furnace (Stationary and Mobile)
Water Heaters
Total Energy Systems
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
Auto Radiators
Technology Transfer
Communication and transfer of the technology developed on the AAPS program is
being accomplished through the following media-
• Interaction through Government contracts and Government agencies
— 37 Contracts issued
- 3 Government interagency agreements (NASA, DOD, DOT)
• Technical Reports
— Over 60 technical reports issued
-36-
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Meetings
Seven AAPS coordination meetings to date (every 4-5 months)
500
TOTAL
ATTENDEES 25°
NUMBER OF
INDUSTRY AND
FOREIGN VISITORS
— Status Review Meetings
— GM - 2 meetings/year
— Ford - 4 meetings/year
— Chrysler - 2 meetings/year
Questions and Comments
Question (Dr. D. Walzer, Volkswagen): What horsepower range is being con-
sidered for the gas turbine in the compact car in 1976-1979?
Answer: The present Chrysler program is considering 100 hp unaugmented and
122 hp augmented. No projections have been made for 1979.
-37-
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III. GAS TURBINE ENGINE PROGRAM
A. Baseline Engine Project by C. E. Wagner, T. D. Nogle. R. C. Patnpreen,
and J. I. Gutnaer, Chrysler Corp.
Objective and Overall Status: The basic program objective is to show that the
gas turbine is a credible alternate automotive powerplant. Using Chrysler's
sixth generation engine as a state-of-the-art baseline engine, improvement pro-
grams are being conducted as a basis for designing, building and demonstrating
an upgraded state-of-the-art engine.
Specifically, the final program goal is to demonstrate the Upgraded Engine
powered vehicle which:
• Uses significantly less fuel than a comparably powered spark
ignition reciprocating engine.
• Meets the original 1976 emission standards.
• Has the potential for being mass produced and marketed compe-
titively.
Delivery to the program of 7 Baseline Engines and 3 Baseline Vehicles has been
accomplished, baseline improvement efforts continue, and an Upgraded Engine
design is underway (Fig. 14).
Baseline Vehicle Documentation: Performance measurements resulting from the
installation of a 150 hp Baseline engine in a 1973 intermediate size sedan
indicated an elapsed time for 0-60 mph on an 85°F day of about 12 seconds
(Fig. 15). Peak fuel economy approaches 16 mpg (Fig. 16). Some noise measure-
ments comparing the turbine to a standard S.I., reciprocating engine installa-
tion are as follows:
Turbine Reciprocating
Idle - Front (Fig. 17) 71 dB(A) 66 dB(A)
Idle - Rear 63 dB(A) 68 dB(A)
Interior - 30 tnph (Fig. 18) 60 dB(A) 59 dB(A)
Interior - 60 mph 70 dB(A) 72 dB(A)
-38-
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1973
BASELINE ENGINES
MPROVEMENT PROGRAM
UPGRADED ENGINE
1975
1976
Fig. 14 Baseline Gas Turbine Development Program Timing
-39-
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Car 618, 4650 Lb. Total Test Wt.
3/19/74 T1 = 33.5°F
HR 78-14 Tires (Radial )
Feet
-2000
_ _1500
_ _IOOO
— _ 500
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, Seconds
Fig- 15 Baseline Vehicle Performance Speed and Di
Distance vs .
-40-
-------
CAR 618
3/15/71*
HR 78-14 Tires
With oil temperature control
With manual nozzle control
Tl Range 33° - 38°F
16.0
15.0
14.0
c
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V
13.0
12.0
11 .0
T8 = 1300°F Actual
T8 = Match at Ambient
(1132° - 1148°F)
10.0
~i
0
20
60
MPH
el
100
Fig. 16 Baseline Vehicle Fuel Economy — Effect of Match Temperature
"At Ambient" on Fuel Economy (Economy vs. MPH)
-41-
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Fig. 17 Comparative Vehicle Noise Tests - Idle, Vehicle Front
(3 Ft. Ahead, 5 Ft. Up)
-42-
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Baseline Turbine, 1973 Vehicle
1974 Production S.I., V-8
Baseline Turbine, 1966 Vehicle
Symbol
A - A
X - X
O - O
Meter
dB(A)
60
59
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CENTER FREQUENCY OF THIRD OCTAVE BAND - H*
Fig. 18 Comparative Vehicle Noise Tests - 30 MPH, Driver's Right Ear
-43-
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Engine Improvement - Burner/Emissions: Support of the Baseline Program has
included providing necessary burner hardware for all engines and vehicles.
General burner performance and durability are continually being upgraded, but
current designs are generally satisfactory for the Program. Some Baseline
Vehicle emissions are shown in Fig. 19.
Fixture and vehicle emission results for one Chrysler proprietary burner (FL15)
are shown in Figs. 20, 21, and 22. This burner provides very good emissions
when total engine systems are optimized as in Test 5 (Fig. 22). However, com-
plete development of this burner is not being pursued as it does not show
promise of meeting the long-range requirements of 0.4 gram/mile.
Results of a second proprietary burner are shown in Fig. 23 compared to Base-
line and FL15 burners when operated over an engine dynamometer test cycle.
Though by no means fully developed, this burner does show potential of meeting
the 0.4 gram/mile NOx level if the transient spiking can be greatly reduced.
Continued efforts on this burner and its control system will attempt to accomp-
lish this.
An adaptor has been readied for evaluation of the Solar burner at Chrysler
facilities (Fig. 24).
Engine Development - Ceramic Regenerator: This program consists of:
• Evaluating available state-of-the-art cores to determine per-
formance life and cost potential in an automotive application.
• Developing a non-NiO rubbing seal.
• Arriving at a specification for the Upgraded Engine regenerator.
While an alternate seal material is being developed, NiO seals will be used.
Extra processing precautions being taken by the supplier of NiO seals, however,
have delayed delivery. Core evaluations to date have required use of graphite
seals thereby limiting running to 1100-1200°F levels. The seal program is
getting underway using four-head friction test units and a wear test unit
(Fig. 25). Zirconium oxide is being evaluated initially as a possible alter-
native to nickel oxide.
-44-
-------
Test
No.
7
8
9
Test
Cold
Cold
Cold
Type
1975
1975
1975
Power
Turbi ne
Nozzl e
Cam
B
B
B
Corrected
HC
Hot FID
.742
.540
.5^6
Grams/Mi 1
e
CO NOx
NDIR Cl
8.70 1
9.51 1
9.05 2
.52
.80
.09
16
17
18
Cold
Cold
Cold
1975
1975
1975
G
G
G
1 .432
1.500
0.515
4.55 2
3.91 2
4.78 1
.45
.61
.87
Original 1975 Standards, Goal .41 3.4 3.1
Fig. 19 Selected Baseline Vehicle Emissions
Car 667 - Vehicle B
-45-
-------
1400 100-4
350
300
250
90-
80.
70
60 _
Q_
0.
O
O
Q.
Q.
.200 ^ 50.
x
o
.150
.100
. 50
40-
30-
20-
0
L 0
0
O Run 437, 12/14/73, FL7 Assembly - Baseline
+Run 436, 12/14/731
-Run 438, 12/14/73J FL15 AssemblV
Concentrations vs. Gas Generator Speed
50
100
50
200
50
NOx
60
70 80
Percent Speed
1300 1300 1300 1300
Actual Cycle Temperature °F
90
1300
100
1350
Fig- 20 Chrysler Burner Program - Steady State Emissions, A-Fixture
-46-
-------
8o _|
70 -
60 -
50 -
Q.
Q_
x
o
30
20
10
0
Burner Fixture
Fixed Power Turbine Nozzles
Diesel Fuel
Baseline Burner, FL7
FL15 Concept
50% - 1100° T8 to
70% Speed and
Return
50% - 1200° T8 to
80% Speed and
Return
Time
Fig. 21 Chrysler Burner Program Acceleration NO Formation
X
-47-
-------
Corrected
Grams/Mi1e
Test
No.
1A
IB
2
3A
3B
4A
4B
5A
5B
Power
Test Turbine
Type HC Control Nozzle*
Hot '72 Relight M,B
M M M>B
Cold '75 Continuous M,B
Fl ame
Hot '72 " M,B
M,B
" " F,B
F,B
ii ii p
M ii p
Blow-By
1 ncl uded
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
HC
Hot
FID
1.52
1.10
- .26
- .16
- .35
- .39
- .38
- .40
- .20
CO
NDIR
K55
1.39
3.99
3.68
1.74
4.94
3.90
3.08
1 =94
NOx
Cl
2.69
2.60
2.21
2.03
1.81
1.63
1.47
1.46
1.54
M
F
B
Modulated for part load temperature scheduling.
Fixed at maximum power setting for all power levels.
With braking stroke.
Fig. 22 Chrysler Burner Concept FL15-Vehicle Tests
Diesel Fuel, 4500 Lb„ Inertia
December 1973
-48-
-------
70
60
50
30
20
10
0
Baseline with Variable
Second Stage Nozzles
FL15 with Fixed Nozzles
Proprietary Burner with
Variable Nozzles
0
Minutes
Fig. 23 Cycle NO Room 4 Development Cycle
-49-
-------
Solar Burner
Mounti ng Fl ange
Quartz
Wi ndow
Burner
Outlet Flow
Chrysler Engine
Mounti ng Flange
Regenerated
Vortex
Entry
Fig. 24 Solar Burner Adaptor
-50-
-------
I
Ul
Fig. 25 Ceramic Regenerator Seal - Friction and Wear Test Fixture, Exterior
-------
Engine Improvement - Integrated Control System: A low cost control system to
meet Upgraded Engine requirements is being developed by Garrett Corporation
under a subcontract. Their progress is summarized in Section III-D.
Tests have been run to determine engine characteristics while the gas generator
is accelerating. Results, shown in Fig. 26, indicate that under a fast accelera-
tion stable compressor operation well into the steady state surge range is
possible.
Engine Improvement - Low Cost Turbine Wheel Manufacturing: Sample Baseline
compressor turbine wheels are currently being cast from a proprietary Garrett
Corporation reusable pattern process. Progress by Pratt-Whitney on their
superplastic forging process is reported in Section III-E.
Engine Improvement - Torque Converter Lock-up: Preliminary evaluation (Figs.
27 and 28) indicates no fuel economy improvement on drive cycles. However,
engine braking improvement is noticeable and the improved performance could be
translated into a proportionately smaller base engine design.
Engine Improvement - Linerless Insulation: Both Foseco and Chrysler propri-
etary materials are being evaluated on the Program endurance engine (Fig. 29).
To date, the materials have been tested for over 300 hours with no significant
deterioration. In addition to life and performance, a prime objective of this
task is an assessment of possible high volume cost advantages.
Engine Improvement - Variable Inlet Guide Vanes: The purpose of variable inlet
guide vanes (VIGV) is to improve fuel economy by:
• power augmentation at 10070 speed and
• lower operating-line flows at 5070 speed.
At 100% speed (Fig. 30), the VIGV deflects the inlet flow opposite engine
rotation to increase compressor pressure ratio and flow which increases
engine power. This augmentation allows for the design of a basically smaller
engine, which improves fuel economy in the driving range (5070-7070 Ngg).
-52-
-------
4.20
3.80
T8 = 1300/85
at 100% N
3.40
Compressor Map;
Assembly 284
3.00
V,
2.60
2.20
A-128-1 PP 106-401 AF
Constant T8 = 1300/85
x x 1 Sec. Accel.
D— •—D 4 Sec. Accel .
No surge was experienced
during the accelerations.
.00
Airflow, Lb/Se<
.60
1.00
.40
.80
2.20
2.60
Fig. 26 Variation of Engine Operating Line with Acceleration Time
-53-
-------
-B&M LOCK-UP
TORQUE CONVERTER
GEAR
LOW
KICKDOWN
DIRECT
REVERSE
PARK
LOCK-UP
RATIO
2.45
1.45
1.00
2.20
MEMBERS APPLIED
C2 4 B2 OR TW.
C2 &Bi
Cl &C2
Ci &Ba
Ci Cz&Bz
Cj CAN BE APPLIED
MANUALLY IN ALL
DRIVE CONDITIONS
SHIFT SEQUENCE P-R-D-L
LOCK-UP T/C
CONTROL
LOCATED IN OIL PAN \
TO CLUTCH
Fig. 27 Torque Converter Lock-Up System
-54-
-------
Lock-Up at Standard
1-2 Shift (6% Slip)
Economy
FDC 8.1 MPG 8.1 MPG
FEC 13.0 MPG 13.0 MPG
20-80 MPH
Steady State, Avg. 13.0 MPG 12.5 MPG
Emi ssions
NOx 10-15% Red. Base
Performance
0-30 4.3 4.3
0-60 11.7 12.1
50-70 7.1 7-6
Fig. 28 Torque Converter Lock-Up Evaluation (Preliminary Results)
-55-
-------
Fig. 29 Endurance Engine with Linerless Insulation
-------
I
Ln
o
4->
CO
QL
CD
15
(D
!_
Q_
VIGV Trave
+60° VIGV 0° VIGV
Present Operating Line
Change to Operating
Li ne
Corr Flow
Fig. 30 Changes in Engine Operating Line on Compressor Map With VIGV Application
-------
At 50% speed (Fig. 30), engine power levels in the driving range (between
30 mph and idle) are currently achieved by reduction in turbine inlet tempera-
ture. Improvement in fuel economy and better emissions control could be
obtained if the turbine inlet temperature could be maintained at a high level,
while compressor flow and pressure ratio are reduced. This can be accomplished
by using the VIGV to deflect the flow in the direction of engine rotation.
The amount of VIGV actuation would depend on the power level needed at any
given point in the 30 mph to idle driving range.
Variable inlet guide vanes were adapted to the Baseline compressor (Fig. 31)
and evaluated on a compressor test rig (Figs. 32, 33, and 34). The Baseline
compressor rotor consists of the familiar integral inducer/impeller combina-
tion and an additional separate inducer. Tests were conducted with and without
the separate inducer. The purpose of the separate inducer is to provide a
wide range of stall-free flow between 5070 and 1007o speed for a fixed geometry
compressor. It seemed possible that the use of VIGV might preclude the need
for a separate inducer.
Test results showed that, at 507« speed, the low inlet blade angle of the
integral inducer provides 3 points higher efficiency at 60° of VIGV deflection
angle than the high inlet blade angle of the separate inducer (Figs. 35-38).
At 1007o speed and -30° of VIGV deflection angle, the separate inducer provides
67« change of flow and pressure ratio, while the integral inducer provides only
27..
Thus, the test results show that the VIGV can perform as intended with a
properly matched inducer. The goal now is to obtain a single angle which will
provide the best compromise of optimum fuel economy between high-speed and
low-speed operation.
Upgraded Engine Design: The goals of the Upgraded Engine Program are to pro-
vide much better fuel economy while meeting the original 1976 emission standards
in an otherwise satisfactory automotive powerplant. This can be accomplished
with a 100 hp basic Upgraded design using augmentation to 122 hp for vehicle
acceleration. Installation of this engine (Fig. 39) in a compact vehicle
-58-
-------
SECTION A-A
•I-THERMOCOUPLE RAKE
I-TOTAL PRESSURE RAKE
8 ELEMENTS IN EACH RAKE1
THERMOCOUPLES
3 ROWS
4 ELEMENTS EACH
nnnnnnnn
•TOTAL PRESSURE RAKES
3 ROWS
8 ELEMENTS EACH
PROXIMITY
PROBE
FIXED VANE
Fig. 31 Instrumentation of Baseline Engine Compressor Test Rig with
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes
-------
Fig. 32 Baseline Engine Variable Inlet Guide Vane Assembly With
Actuator and Guide Vane Angle Calibration Fixture
-60-
-------
Fig. 33 Baseline Engine Compressor Test Rig Compressor & Diffuser
Assembly with Impeller Discharge Total Pressure Probes
-61-
-------
/
Fig. 34 Baseline Engine Compressor Test Rig with Simulated Car
Inlet System and With Actuator For VIGV'S
-------
RbOEMBLY
DATE
IMPELLER
01FFUSER
HXIRL CLERRRNCE
FLOW NOZZLE
CI.ERRfiNCE PROBE
ft!R INLET
VIGV RNGLES
RUN NO.
DESIGN SPEED
T(REF)
287-VIGV BRSElINE-VRNE flNGLC RT ZERO
3-13-74
852B-P/N 28C4S60-407 (SHORT SHROUD)
2303132 -2.524 lNi«2 THRORT RREfl -NO.117
.02blNS.
NO cj"1 .423 INS . THRORT DIR.
EDDY-CURRENT TYPE
LRTERRL ISlnULftTtO CRR INLET-SrSTEM I
0 OECREESICHORD RX I RL ) -BflSEl INE
8007.0 — SCSI .0
44510 RPM
S5'F
STflTIC-TOTflL RRTING
ASSEMBLE 28U-A926 COMPRESSOR
BASELINE-AXIAL INtET SYSTM.
NO GUIDE VANES, -p
-4-..
THRUST BEARING FAILURE-® 95% SURGE POINT
MAX. STOPCAPPROX.
^^ • 60 DfiG.):
o 15 i.00 i.:s i.50
• 15 .' .00 ; 25
CORR RIR FLOW-LB/SfC
J.lb
Fig. 35 Compressor Stage Performance
-63-
-------
80
70
60
o
c
-------
.80 —
4-
LJ
.70
o
c
0)
u .60
.50
70
0° Guide Vane Angle
O B-36 Compressor
Q B-52 Compressor
Rotational Speed, %-50
.80
.70 HT
>s
u
c
0)
o «60 ~~ -
50 —
40
.5
I
-6
Fig. 37
60° Guide Vane Angle
A B-36
O B-52
__
.7
8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Airflow-
-Lbs/Sec
Performance Comparison of B-52 and B-36 Compressors With
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes
-65-
-------
©
O-0° Vane Angle
A - 30° Vane Angle
AXIAL INLET
2.2
Ai rflow -
2.5
Wi/T
2.2
- Lbs/Sec
2.3
2.5
2.6
Fig. 38 B-36 Compressor Performance with VIGV at 100% Speed with
Laterial and Axial Inlets
-------
Fig. 39 92 K.W. (123 HP) Upgraded Engine for Compact Vehicle
Horizontal Cross Section
-------
engine compartment (Fig. 40) requires no major vehicle modifications. The
accessory drive system (Fig. 41) is of the free rotor concept whereby both
engine and vehicle accessories are driven from the power turbine.
Predicted low speed fuel consumption for the Upgraded Engine in a compact
vehicle is about 50% less than that for the Baseline Engine in an intermediate
size vehicle (Figs. 42 and 43). This improvement is due to three major factors.
Improvement in component efficiencies (Fig. 44) account for 15% of the total.
Reduction of internal leakages account for 8%, and reducing the engine and
vehicle size accounts for the remaining 18%.
Questions and Comments
Question: Two materials (Foseco and a Chrysler proprietary material) are
being evaluated for the linerless insulation. Does this not constitute
a vendor comparison?
Answer: The prime concern is to assess the true potential engine cost with
the linerless insulation, particularly since the high cost and complication
of the metal liner is recognized. Production is still too far off to
begin to limit potential vendors; all likely avenues are being considered.
Question: What is the life of the current graphite ceramic regenerator seals?
Answer: It depends on the running temperature. Present rig tests are limited
to about 1200°F which gives 20-30 hours (50 hours maximum) of life for a
set of seals - almost unsuitable except for very limited testing at
light load, low torque operation. The hot cross arm seals are critical.
Question: What seals are used in the Baseline Engine?
Answer: The Baseline Engine uses a metallic regenerator and a Chrysler pro-
prietary seal. The cross arm seal is a sprayed metal seal of proprietary
composition. This gives excellent, full engine life and has many thou-
sands of hours of operation. However, the trend is to higher cycle
temperatures for the Upgraded Engine; hence it is believed that ceramic
regenerators will be necessary. The seals for metallic regenerators are
inappropriate, and so different seals must be developed.
-68-
-------
Fig. 40 91 K.W. (123 HP) Upgraded Engine with Single Ceramic
Regenerator Tilted 20° Compact Vehicle Installation
-------
GAS GENERATOR-,
V^OTOR /
5,OOORPM
POWER TURBINE
ROTOR
0-*Z4,000 RPM
£ COMPRESSOR
BELT DRIVE
POWER STEERING
i ALTERNATOR
BELT DRIVE
OIL PUMP
AIR PUnP
OVER
RUNNING
CLUTCH
REGENERATOR —
(T4LTED 20°)
31 RPM
Fig. 41 Gear Schematic for Upgraded Gas Turbine
(Preliminary)
-------
32
28
0)
"5 20
0)
Q
§ 16
r—•
'ro
,,
o_ I i
8
"Upgraded"
Compact Vehicle
"Baseline"
Intermediate Vehicle
40 50 60
Miles Per Hour
Fig. 42 Road Load Fuel Economy
-71-
-------
i
•~j
N3
2.0
1.6
1.2
X
.0
_l
^
O
LJ_
00
m
E
13
8
Upgraded Engin
8 1012
Baseli ne Enqi ne
16 20 40
Output Horsepower
60 80 100 120 160 200
Fig. 43 Engine Characterization
-------
.96
= 92
.88
8k
o
c
a)
o
.80
76
72
.68
0
.4 .6 .8
Relative Output Power
1 .0
Fig. 44 Component Efficiency Comparison
-73-
-------
Question: What is the goal in cycle temperatures?
Answer: There is no real limit; once the regenerator limitation is overcome
the turbine wheel temperature will be limiting. Nominally, the higher the
cycle temperature the higher the specific output of the engine, the
better the engine package and the higher the fuel economy. Present regen-
erator temperature is limited to 1350°F; the Upgraded Engine is designed
for 1400°F. If the rest of the engine would allow it, temperatures
would be pushed even higher.
Comment: Although NOx is the most difficult pollutant to eliminate in the
gas turbine, it is emphasized that all of the pollutants (unburned hydro-
carbon, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen) must be reduced. There
are still important variations in test results due to test systems as
indicated in tests 3A and 3B and 5A and 5B in Fig. 22. For the most
promising burner (proprietary burner of Chrysler's) the 507o speed CO
levels are down to about 100 ppm.
Question: Has the burner development emission test cycle used by Chrysler for
burner development test results been correlated with test results from a
vehicle running the actual Federal Driving Cycle?
Answer: There has been only very limited testing of burners on both test
cycles; it is believed to be premature to try to establish a detailed
correlation at this time. However, the general results and trends of
one cycle seem to be reflected in the results of the other cycle.
Question: It was stated that reduction of emission "spikes" during the
transients will require close coordination of both burner design and the
control system. Does this imply that Chrysler's proprietary burner has
variable geometry?
Answer: It is not appropriate to discuss that point at this time.
Comment: The Chrysler proprietary burner gives somewhat better emission
results on gasoline (mainly NOx) than on diesel fuel, but efforts con-
tinue to get low NOx on diesel fuel.
-74-
-------
Question (Dr. Bucheim, Volkswagen): Does the endurance test cycle include
both high and low load operation?
Answer: The endurance cycle is more severe than actual road operation. It
includes, in addition to both high and low load operation, numerous
transients of rapid acceleration and deceleration, and shut down for
maximum soak back.
Question (Dr. Bucheim, Volkswagen): What background emission levels have been
experienced in testing?
Answer: Background emissions have been running 1-2 ppm of Hexane with 6-12 ppm
Carbon - moderately high ambient levels. Corrections are made for these
to approach the Standards. In some instances emissions lower than ambient
levels are measured indicating very low or close to zero emissions from
the engine. These low levels correlate with probe measurements made in
various parts of the burner.
Question (Arthur Underwood, Consultant): Just as emphasis seems to have shifted
from emissions to fuel economy, it appears that the need for NQx levels as
low as 0.4 grams/mile may not really be necessary. What is EPA doing to
raise the value for the NOx Standard quickly, so that less time and
money will be wasted meeting unnecessarily low NOx Standards?
Answer: The AAPS Division works toward satisfying the Standards set by other
groups. The program is formed to satisfy these requirements. When the
requirements change, the program will be modified accordingly.
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power Systems): In this presentation the
approach to reducing NOx seems to have been mutually exclusive of effort
to increase cycle temperature and fuel economy. Also, the problem is
being approached from predominantly an engineering basis. Has any atten-
tion been given to the basic chemical and more scientific approach such
as determining activation energy of NOx, etc?
Answer: The general approach to NOx reduction is with lean combustion, par-
ticularly in the primary zone because the turbine operates on an overall
lean fuel-air ratio. Increasing the cycle temperature helps because it
-75-
-------
extends the lean limit; combustion temperature can be reduced with
increased cycle temperature. Significant NOx formation starts above
3000°F; however, depending on the burner configuration, residence time,
etc., significant NOx can begin to form above 2600 to 2700°F. Some of
the earlier AAPS programs on combustion supplied fundamental guidance for
the current engineering developments. Practical hardware development
certainly requires a combined scientific-engineering approach.
Question: Is there a design using inlet guide vanes which will satisfy the
extremes of operating conditions and, if the IGV's replace the variable
power turbine nozzles, what happens to the dynamic braking capability?
What is the resulting net gain or loss in efficiency?
Answer: Based on the compressor tests to date, it does appear that a practical
design over the operating range of the engine is achievable using IGV's.
The net gain in fuel economy over the driving cycle has not yet been
determined. At the outset of the IGV investigation it was recognized
that an alternate means of dynamic braking would be required. Several
potential alternates were identified, but have not yet been investigated.
Question (Homer Wood, H. G. Wood and Associates): The compressor efficiency
levels seem to be low relative to the state-of-the-art of a few years ago.
Is this because of the low specific speed? If so, the optimization pro-
cess with IGV's will have to be repeated when the specific speed is
raised to get higher efficiencies.
Answer: The specific speeds are not that low, but performance is based on
outlet static/inlet total measurements and the discharge is diffused
down to about 0.05 Mach Number in the regenerator (compared to aircraft
practice of about 0.2 Mach Number into the burner). The higher diffusion
and perhaps a less efficient wheel cause lower efficiency. There are a
number of detailed aerodynamic improvements which can be made in the
compressor design.
Question (Prof. w. Hryniszak, Clarke Chapman): What is a reasonable compressor
efficiency to expect for the future production compressors in this size
range? It seems the value varies from a "mystic" 85% to a "realistic" 75%.
-76-
-------
Answer: A concise answer is not possible since there must be a compromise
between full power, where very little operation is required, and part
power, where most of the operation takes place (50 to 7570 gas generator
speed). Compromises involve specific speed, running clearances on front
face (0.010 inch at rated speed; larger at lower speed rather than 0.003
inch), low speed pressure ratio with ability to accelerate to high pres-
sure ratio. It was also pointed out that the current program (scheduled
to conclude in 1975) is a stepping stone, and an advanced program aimed
perhaps at 1979 (with much more ambitious fuel economy targets), might be
expected to have an entirely different engine concept and configuration.
Question (Peter Walzer, Volkswagen): Is it not better to design for a larger
surge margin and sacrifice efficiency, so that higher temperatures can
be used for part load operation?
Answer: Consideration is presently being given to backward swept compressor
blades, so that maximum efficiency can be achieved without sacrificing
surge margin.
Question: What fuel is used for the fuel economy projections? What is vehicle
weight? What is projected acceleration time of the engine from idle to
maximum?
Answer: Diesel fuel is used; the test weight of the vehicle is 3500 pounds.
The engine acceleration is competitive. In the compact vehicle with
augmentation (122 hp) 0-60 mph is 13 seconds. It is also expected to
test the Upgraded Engine in the intermediate sized vehicle.
Question: Is there any rough idea of the production cost of the Upgraded
Engine compared to the Baseline Engine and the conventional piston engine?
Answer: No numbers are presently available, but ultimately it must be competi-
tive. At present, because of increased complexity,it will cost more.
Prime objectives of the current program are low emissions and high fuel
economy. Obviously a lot remains to be done to reduce production cost
and optimize performance.
-77-
-------
Question: What are the metal temperatures on the gas generator and power
turbine wheels?
Answer: Under steady state conditions the nozzle temperature is very close to
the gas temperature. The wheel temperature is about 200°F lower than gas
temperature. The Chrysler quarterly report will contain these values.
Question: Is the accessibility of the regenerator satisfactory from a
maintenance viewpoint?
Answer: The Upgraded Engine configuration (Figs. 39 and 40) is very satis-
factory. Ultimately, it is hoped that the regenerator core and the seals
will not have to be repaired or replaced.
Question: How would engine packaging change for different vehicle restrictions?
What about rear engine mounting?
Answer: The present engine configuration seems well suited for both inter-
mediate and compact vehicles. It circumvents many problems encountered
in previous vehicle installations getting the large exhaust ducts out and
interference with the steering column and gear. No consideration has
been given to rear mounted engines or vehicles of different configuration.
The single regenerator results in a narrower engine.
Question: How is an 18% improvement in fuel economy obtained by reducing
engine size? It is generally believed that the efficiency of an engine
decreases with reduction in size.
Answer: In the vehicle application the 18% improvement in fuel economy, due
to reduced engine size, is attributed to: (1) engine operates at higher
specific power (fuel rate at 70% rated power is lower than at 50% power),
(2) power augmentation due to water injection (increases mass flow through
turbine without exceeding temperature limits), and (3) the weight of the
vehicle is lower (switch from standard to compact car).
-78-
-------
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): Carter Enterprises, Inc. has
been demonstrating and riding people in their steam car here at the
conference. Will information on this privately funded development be
presented at the meeting?
Answer: The information and data on this car have not yet been fully processed
for presentation.
B. Baseline Engine Project Support, by D. Packe, NASA, Lewis Research Center
This is a brief overview of the status of NASA efforts to support EPA's
successful demonstration of a gas turbine-powered vehicle.
NASA's major areas of effort are in providing aerodynamic designs for the
three rotating components.of the Upgraded Engine (including their gas flow
paths), component testing, and work on selected advanced technology.
In the October, 1973 meeting Mr. Hal Rohlik presented preliminary NASA design
data on the two turbines and compressor for the 120 hp Upgraded Engine. Since
that meeting, EPA has redirected the program to the intermediate vehicle size
and correspondingly reduced the engine size to 100 hp. New aerodynamic designs
for the smaller engine are now being coordinated with Chrysler to verify their
physical compatibility with the Upgraded Engine mechanical design constraints.
Instrumentation and installation of the ambient air aerodynamic test rigs at
Lewis are proceeding on schedule. These will be employed to obtain detail
performance maps of each of the engine aerodynamic components.
The gas turbine engine test facility and data acquisition system are now fully
operational. A complete performance map of the Baseline Engine has been
obtained and the data are in general agreement with earlier Chrysler data.
Currently attention is focused on an experimental investigation to determine
the sources of major engine heat losses. Some of these should be recoverable.
In the areas of new technology NASA combustion specialists have initiated an
R&D effort on low-emission catalytic combustors. Promising catalytic substrates
-79-
-------
will be procured from industry and integrated with in-house combustor designs
using fuel/air premix and prevaporization features. Both fixed and variable
geometry configurations will be investigated.
In another area, using a NASA-developed Strainrange Partitioning analysis,
the low-cycle fatigue behavior of several automotive turbine alloys will be
experimentally determined. The results of these tests will provide a rational
basis for alloy selection. When the test results are used in conjunction with
the stress/strain/thermal analysis, the expected thermal fatigue life of the
integral turbine disc and blades may be calculated. It is planned to test
AF2-1DA and P.A. 101 alloys over a range of cycle-to-failure, time-to-failure,
temperature, Strainrange, and cycle wave shape. Two publications on these
techniques are from ASTM Special Technology Publication No. 520, 1973:
• "Temperature Effects on the Strainrange Partitioning Approach
for Creep Fatigue Analysis"
• "The Challenge to Unified Treatment of High Temperature Fatigue -
A Partisan Proposal Based on Strainrange Partitioning"
The remainder of the NASA portion of this report summarizes the work to date
on the part load performance of the 120 hp Upgraded Engine (before recent EPA
redirections to the 100 hp engine for the compact and intermediate vehicle
size). This is of prime importance because the vehicle will be operating under
part-load conditions during most of its useful life.
An existing NASA jet engine performance computer program was modified to reflect
a two-shaft automotive engine configuration as shown schematically in Fig. 45.
The modified program can provide:
• Component matching; i.e., with given component maps the performance
of the system can be defined; or with given system design or per-
formance, the individual component maps can be defined.
• Off-design performance can be computed.
• Simulation can be incorporated for variations in: aerodynamics, com-
bustors, heat exchangers, bleed flows, thermal losses, and
pressure drops.
-80-
-------
HEAT RECOVERY
LOW SPD. COMP. REMOVAL-^
00
GENENG
(2 SPOOL VERSION)
MODIFICATIONS
AUTO ENG,
SHAFT POWER
EXTRACTION
(LO & HI SPEED TURBINES)
Figure 45
-------
Figure 46 is a schematic of the engine showing how the program is set up to
account for these various factors. This very closely models the Baseline and
Upgraded Engines.
Compressor and turbine maps are shown in Figs. 47 and 48. The corresponding
SFC curve over the load range is shown in Fig. 49 and is also compared with
Baseline Engine test results.
The series of three curves (Figs. 50, 51, and 52) show the effect of various
match point criteria and that a gear change (Fig. 52) can produce a better
match over the load range without an undue sacrifice in SFC and without exceed-
ing the creep stress limit.
This type of investigation is now being repeated for the 100 hp Upgraded
Engine in accordance with EPA's redirection of the program to the compact
vehicle.
As reflected by the above material, major emphasis has been on the short term
support of the AAPS Program particularly on aerodynamics and heat loss areas
for the Upgraded Engine. However, it should be mentioned that discussions are
in progress between NASA and EPA on a longer range, technology oriented gas
turbine program.
Questions and Comments
Question (C. Amann, General Motors Technical Center): On the compressor map,
maximum efficiency islands are well removed from the surge limit. This
is not typical of radial bladed compressors. Does it mean that backward
swept blades are being used? If so, what effect does polar moment of inertia
have on angular acceleration? Also, on the turbine map (Fig. 48) it
appears that the operating line is removed off of maximum efficiency
by about 1% points. Why is this?
Answer: Backward swept blades are not being used. Although efficiency levels
are about as expected at design, these are calculated off-design results.
It is expected that the tests of the actual engine will show the maximum
efficiency lines will be closer to the surge limit.
-82-
-------
EXH.
AP
00
INT. _
HEAT RECOVERY
EFF., A P.LSEALS
COMB.
•ft
A?* ^ &
i^M"
HP
•BLEED. POINTS
Fig. 46 Gas Turbine Engine Model Schematic
-------
o 5"
00
I-
Q
.4
.B
1.0
».? l.t /.6
FLOW - w/T/l,
1.8
Fig. 47 Radial Compressor 120 HP Upgraded Engine
-------
T't
2
.* .« l.o /.? L-t 1.6 1.8 2.0
Fig. 48 Radial Compressor Drive Turbine 120 HP Upgraded Engine
-85-
-------
1.4
a.
CO
<^
2:
O
Q.
CO
O
O
LU
ID
u_
O
u_
O
k_U
a.
to
1.2
1.0
• .8
NASA BASELINE TESTS
I20'hp UPGRADED DESIGN
20 . 40 60 80 100 120
ENGINE HORSEPOWER
140 160
Fig. 49 SFC Versus Power 2-Spool Automotive G.T,
-86-
-------
o
Q.
OS.
o
120
10)
80
50
40
30
20
14
10.
8
NGG- 100*
MIN'IMUM SFC
OPERATING LINE
CREEP STRESS
ROAD LOAD LINE
jf_ _ 30 MPH
I 1. 5 2 3 4
-------
UJ
O
o.
Of
o
120
100
80
60
40
30
20
14
10
8
MINIMUM S.F.C.
OPERATING LINE
_- 30MPH
_CREEP STRESS
K^LIMIT
ROAD LOAD LINE
SFC PENALTY
10*
1.5
3 4 5 6 7 8 10
(IftOOQRPM)
Fig. 51 120 HP Upgraded Engine Creep Stress Limit Match
-88-
-------
120
100
80
60
40
30
o
OL
UJ
20
14
10
8
NGG
ROAD LOAD
MINIMUM SFC
OPERATING LINE
GEAR CHANGE
-- 40MPH
_/_ 30MPH
1.5 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 IQ
(IO.OOORPM)
Fig. 52 120 HP Upgraded Engine with Gear Change
-89-
-------
Concerning the turbine performance, in upgrading the turbine there were
some residual constraints, believed to be stress in the case from the
earlier design, which had to be satisfied. Hence, the operating line is
not on the maximum efficiency line.
C. Baseline Vehicle Tests to Date - EPA, by Anthony Earth, Emission Control
Technology Division
Because the gas turbine exhaust flow far exceeds the capacity of the standard
emission measuring equipment used for piston engines and because the concen-
tration of pollutants is much smaller, new procedures for testing turbine
vehicles must be developed.
The approach is to use the dynamometer room as the constant volume as in the
standard CVS method of testing emissions. The flow into the room is sampled
to get the background or ambient emission level; the room outflow is sampled
to determine engine emission level. The outflow is restricted to 5500 cftn.
The vehicle is run over the Federal Driving Cycle sampling continuously in the
standard way. To calibrate the air flow, a known mass of propane is injected
into the room and the mixture sampled before and after the tests. Because of
the large size of the room and the inherent cleanliness of this type of engine,
the concentration of pollutants is very low; so care and some improvements in
techniques are required.
Only a limited number of tests have been run to date. CO levels of 3.5 grams
per mile, NOx levels of 2.7 grams per mile, and a fuel economy of 7.3 miles
per gallon have been measured over the Federal Driving Cycle. These should
be corrected to account for a higher temperature in the room after the test
than before the test. This will result in less than a 5% change (decrease in
emission levels and increase in fuel economy).
Questions and Comments: None
-90-
-------
D. Low Cost Integrated Control for Baseline Gas Turbine Program, by Leon
Lewis, AiResearch
AiResearch has been working since last November with Chrysler Corporation to
develop a low cost integrated control system for the Upgraded Gas Turbine
Engine. The latest Program Plan, reflecting recent modifications to include
two additional sets of equipment, is shown in Fig. 53. Emphasis to date has
been on analysis of the Baseline Engine characteristics and simulation studies
for the Upgraded Engine along with the design and fabrication of the first
Preprototype system. The program status is as follows:
• Analytical tools have been established.
• Preliminary engine tests of fuel metering system completed.
• First Preprototype control system in final stages of integration
testing at AiResearch; delivery to Chrysler scheduled before end
of May.
• Second and third Preprototype control systems in advanced stage of
construction.
• Design concepts established for development of Prototype control.
Engine simulation, a joint effort by Chrysler and AiResearch, is based on the
notation shown in Fig. 54 and the following simulation input data:
• Compressor maps (including variable I.G.V.)
• Heat exchanger maps
• Combustor functions
• Turbine maps (including variable nozzle)
• Flow leaks (one of the more difficult elements to allocate)
• Heat leaks (one of the more difficult elements to allocate)
• Drive train characteristics
• Vehicle road load and accessories
• Water injection
The simulation model can then be used to produce steady state and transient
solutions on the behavior of the engine and be used for:
-91-
-------
BASELINE ENGINE SIMULATION MODEL
CONSTRUCT PROGRAM
BASELINE ENGINE EVALUATION
SIMULATION STUDIES FOR
UPGRADED ENGINE
PREPROTOTYPE SYSTEM NO. 1
DESIGN, FAB AND TEST
PREPROTOTYPE SYSTEM NO. 2
DESIGN, FAB AND TEST
PREPROTOTYPE SYSTEM NO. 3
DESIGN FAB AND TEST
ENGINE/VEHICLE TESTING
DEVELOPMENT PROTOTYPE SYSTEM
ANALYSIS DESIGN AND TEST
UPGRADED ENGINE CONTROL
DEFINE CONTROL CONCEPT
PRODUCTION PROTOTYPE SYSTEM
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
N
D
t
J
,
F
M
A
M
^
19-
J
74
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A
A
L
A
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197
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A
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.
J
Fig. 53 Integrated Engine Control System Program Plan
-------
VO
INLET
.PLENUM
AMBIENT
V V RECUPERATOR
^v^ O
^—
8
COMBUSTOR
VARIABLE
POWER
TURBINE
NOZZLES
COMPRESSOR
GAS GENERATOR
TURBINE
POWER
TURBINE
STATION
NO.
1 __
2 __
3 __
4 __
5
DESCRIPTION
_ COMPRESSOR INLET
_ COMPRESSOR OUTLET
._ REGENERATOR COLD SIDE INLET
._ REGENERATOR COLD SIDE OUTLET
._ COMPRESSOR TURBINE INLET
6 COMPRESSOR TURBINE OUTLET
6.3 POWER TURBINE NOZZLE INLET
7 POWER TURBINE OUTLET
8 REGENERATOR HOT SIDE INLET
9 REGENERATOR HOT SIDE OUTLET
Fig. 54 Chrysler Engine Station Notation
-------
• Steady-state control requirement definition
• Transient control requirement definition
• Control concept tradeoff studies
• Control system sensor selection
• Control system failure mode analysis
A comparison of model results and engine test data in Fig. 55 show the accuracy
of the simulation. Some further improvements are still being incorporated.
Thus, the achievements to date are:
• Model is operational in both steady-state and transient modes.
• Preprototype control system defined and evaluated on model.
• Model transient accuracy verified by preliminary engine tests at
Chrysler.
A functional diagram of the Preprototype integrated control system is shown in
Fig. 56. A table of corresponding symbols is in Fig. 57. All possible options
which might be required are included for evaluation. From this point on, the
intent is to reduce and simplify the number and complexity of the system
elements.
Figure 58 shows one of the electronic modules which is typical of the mini-
computers used for each of the functions shown. Features of the fuel system
computer are:
• Gas Generator Range Governor
— Idle power augmentation
— Maximum power computation
• Acceleration Fuel Schedule
- Hot restart limiting
— Tcj limiting
— Minimum acceleration fuel
• Deceleration Fuel Schedule
• Alternate Fuel System Deceleration Shut-Off
• Max. Gas Generator Speed Control with Start/Park Limiting
• Power Turbine Overspeed Governor
-94-
-------
GAS
GENERATOR
SPEED
TURBINE INLET
TEMPERATURE
FUEL FLOW
CO
b
50
40
30
20
2200
// \ MODEL
RESULTS
ENGINE
TEST
o
111"
1800
5
tc
HI
I 1400
HI
ENGINE TEST
MODEL RESULTS
0.5 1.0 1.5
TIME, SECONDS
2.0
Fig. 55 Comparison of Model Results with Engine Test Data
(Acceleration From 50% Ngg to 100% Ngg)
-95-
-------
w
7-
N
99
FUEL
SYSTEM
COMPUTER
NOZZLE
ANGLE
COMPUTER
COMBUSTOR
CONTROL
COMPUTER
NOZZLE
ACTUATOR
IGV
ANGLE
COMPUTER
IGV
ACTUATOR
0
ACTUATOR
WATER INJEC-
TION CONTROL
SOLENOID
VALVE
+12V-
START-
START/PARK-
OILPRES.-
START
SEQUENCE
AND
ENGINE
PROTECTION
COMPUTER
FUELSHUTOFF
VALVE
FUEL DELIVERY
SYSTEM
STARTER
SOLENOID
INDICATOR
LIGHTS
Fig. 56 Simplified Functional Diagram Preprototype Integrated Control System
-96-
-------
T5 GAS GENERATOR TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE
T8 LOW PRESSURE REGENERATOR INLET TEMPERATURE
Ta AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Pa AMBIENT PRESSURE
Ngg GAS GENERATOR SHAFT SPEED
J?L CORRECTED GAS GENERATOR SPEED
v/0
p DCI A
5 AMBIENT PRESSURE CORRECTION, = -1 -
' 14.7 PSIA
0 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CORRECTION, = ~1-
545 R
NQS OUTPUT SHAFT SPEED
a THROTTLE PEDAL POSITION
0 POWER TURBINE NOZZLE ANGLE POSITION
X INLET GUIDE VANE ANGLE POSITION
0 VARIABLE GEOMETRY BURNER POSITION
Wf FUEL FLOW IN POUNDS PER HOUR
Fig. 57 Table of Symbols
-97-
-------
NOZZLE
CONTROL
REFERENCE
POTENTIOMETERS
FUEL CONTROL
REFERENCE
POTENTIOMETERS
T5 NOZZLE (£
T8 ([
IDLE
IDLE
INDICATING LOGIC
AND DRIVERS
START SEQUENCE AND
ENGINE PROTECTION
FUEL SYSTEM
COMPUTER
FUEL SYSTEM
DRIVER
NOZZLE CONTROL
AND DRIVER
SIGNAL
CONDITIONERS
POWER SUPPLY
y\ ^"^
LOW-LEVEL
SIGNALS
DIAGNOSTICS
POWER AND HIGH
LEVEL SIGNALS
INPUT/OUTPUT
CONNECTORS
Fig. 58 Electronic Control
Firs t Preprototype Control
-------
The nozzle control computer incorporates the following:
• Nozzle braking logic
• Tg temperature control in power mode and braking mode
• Idle and low speed power turbine governing
• Power turbine overspeed control
• 15 temperature control
The nozzle trim actuator is shown installed on the engine in Fig. 59. The
nozzle trim actuator:
• Provides trim function by operating in series with Chrysler
nozzle actuator
• Powered by 50 to 100 psi fluid pressure from the turbine
lubrication system
• Responds to signals from integrated gas turbine system controller
• Designed for full stroke against operating load in 0.10 seconds
• Frequency response flat to three cps
• Thirty thousand cycles of endurance testing complete prior to
delivery of first unit
• First unit shipped March 26, 1974
The Prototype nozzle actuator is in development (Fig. 60). It provides power
modulation, braking function, and braking modulation as well as power modula-
tion velocity and braking velocity additive for maximum response. Component
development tests have started; design is scheduled for completion June 30, 1974;
endurance tests are to start September 30, 1974; and two units with spares are
to be shipped November 30, 1974.
Parallel development of the inlet guide vane actuator is in progress. Its
functions and status are as follows:
• Positions guide vanes at inlet to compressor
• Powered by 50 to 100 psi fluid pressure from the turbine lubri-
cation system
• Responds to signals from integrated gas turbine system controller
-99-
-------
o
o
Fig. 59 Chrysler Fuel Control Nozzle Trim Actuator Installation
-------
o
Fig. 60 Chrysler Fuel Control
Development Nozzle Actuator
-------
• Designed for full stroke against operating load in 0.20 seconds
• Servo loop closed by side mounted potentiometer
• First unit scheduled for assembly week of May 13, 1974 and shipment
July 31, 1974
• Frequency response expected equivalent to trim actuator
A schematic of the motor driven fuel pump and its performance is shown in
Fig. 61.
Questions and Comments
Question: Concerning the motor driven fuel pump, does the system postulate a
constant volumetric efficiency for the pump, or is there a feedback of
actual fuel flow rate?
Answer: The present philosophy is that performance degradation due to loss of
volumetric efficiency effects only the transient response and has no
effect on steady state accuracy of the system. If the system goes to
production, it means the scale factor for pump speed to fuel flow would
have to be adjusted periodically - analogous to a "tune-up".
Question: Are transient pressure effects of the compressor included in the
dynamic model?
Answer: It is not known how to define these transient effects on this model
until the results of tests on the actual engines with the system are
available. These effects may be significant, so this information should
be very helpful.
Question: How long does it take for the variable nozzle to move after control
actuation is started?
Answer: First movement of the actuator is in less than 50 milliseconds.
-102-
-------
FUEL TO
ENGINE
NOZZLE
FUEL FROM BOOST
PUMP
SPEED FEEDBACK SIGNAL
SPEED PICK-UP
CONTROL
INPUT SIGNAL
SIGNAL
PULSE WIDTH
MODULATION
CONTROL
12VDC
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
IPUMP PERFORMANCE MAPI
'0 8 16 24 32 40 48
PUMP SPEED X 1000
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
OF MOTOR ELECTRICAL INPUT
MAXIMUM FLOW
AVERAGE INPUT VOLTAGE
V
IN
TIME
IDLE FLOW
'IN
AVERAGE INPUT VOLTAGE
TIME
Fig. 61 Motor-Driven Fuel Pump - Chrysler Automotive Gas
Turbine Integrated Control System
-103-
-------
E. Low Cost Turbine Wheel Manufacturing Process, by Marvin Allen, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft Corp.
The Florida Research and Development Center is under contract to EPA to
demonstrate the feasibility of low cost production of automotive turbine
rotors by the Gatorizing process.
The general objectives of the two-phase program are:
Phase I
• Design and fabricate the dies and experimentally demonstrate
low-cost, mass-production manufacturing techniques for automotive
turbine disks.
• Estimate the tooling and manufacturing cost for a representative
automotive turbine disk for production rates of one million
turbine disks per year.
Phase II
• Produce, evaluate, and deliver compressor turbine disks using the
recommended manufacturing process for demonstration in the EPA
Baseline Gas Turbine Engine.
The current contract authorizes only the first phase, as shown in Fig. 62.
The program was initiated 26 April 1973 and is comprised of five major tasks:
• Task 1 Baseline Process Demonstration
• Task 2 Process Parameter Evaluation
• Task 3 - Generation of Design Data
• Task 4 - Definition of Manufacturing Process
• Task 5 - Manufacturing Cost Estimate
The Task 1 basic process demonstration involves the procurement of the program
material, the designing and fabrication of preform forging dies, and the GATORIZING
of the initial preform for Baseline mechanical properties. The selected pro-
cessing parameters for the raw material, the GATORIZING parameters, and the heat
treatment were currently used to produce the wrought IN100 components for the
F100 engine (the F100 engine powers the F-15 air superiority fighter).
-104-
-------
PHASE I
BILLET MATERIAL PROCUREMENT
DESIGN DIES
DIE MATERIAL PROCUREMENT
MACHINE DIES AND INSTALL
FORGING TRIALS AND HEAT
TREATMENT
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
BLADE HEAT-TREAT STUDIES
FORMULATE AND DESIGN
HANDBOOK FLOW SHEETS
COST ANALYSIS
REPORTS
MONTHLY REPORTS
INTERIM REPORT
FINAL DRAFT
EPA REVIEW
FINAL REPORT
1973
1974
MONTHS
Fig. 62 Phase I Program Schedule
-------
The parametric evaluation, Task 2, involves the evaluation of additional
forging parameters and heat treatments. The alternate processing will be
designed to create the most favorable structure in the preform for subsequent
finish forging and to establish a thermal process, which produces mechanical
properties consistent with Chrysler's design requirements. The final part of
Task 2 is the forging and evaluation of GATORIZED, integrally bladed rotors.
The design data generation, Task 3, involves the establishment of complete
design curves for the short-time, long-time, and cyclic properties. It was
anticipated that the optimum heat treatment for the disk portion of the wheel
(LCF consideration) might not be adequate for the blades (stress-rupture
consideration). Therefore, additional thermal cycles aimed at producing
higher properties in the blade operating temperature range (1700 to 1800°F)
will be evaluated.
The Task 4 Manufacturing Process Definition actually describes two separate
tasks. The first is the preparation of detailed process sheets for the manu-
facture of the finished rotor; the second is the preparation of design data
sheets to identify trade-offs in rotor design and performance versus produci-
bility and cost.
In Task 5, a detailed Manufacturing Cost Estimate for producing the wrought
turbine rotor in quantities of 100,000, 1,000,000 and 10,000,000 pieces
annually will be prepared. The processing sequence will follow that prepared
in Task 4 and identify additional research and development, fixed and variable
costs, and the impact of the alternate production rates.
By April 1974, Tasks 1, 2 and 4 had been completed. The bladed rotors for the
Task 3 design data have been forged and heat treated and are currently being
cut up for test specimens. Finally, the Manufacturing Cost Estimate, Task 5,
will be completed by 30 May 1974.
A two-step forging sequence was selected to GATORIZE the rotors. The first
step produced a nonbladed oversized preform, which has a twofold purpose:
(1) to ensure proper metal distribution for forging the bladed rotor; and (2)
to further enhance the forgeability of the material. The second step reduces
the disk area to final dimensions and fills the blade die insert cavities.
-106-
-------
The final bladed rotor design was completed and the tooling fabricated. A
cross section of this tooling is shown in Fig. 63. The cavities for the 53
blades are formed by simple split inserts. The finished machined tooling is
shown in Fig. 64.
Eight forging mults 44.45 mm (1.750 in.) in diameter by 85.85 mm (3.38 in.)
high were machined from the extruded stock. The mults, after being coated with
a boron nitride lubricant, were GATORIZED to the preform configuration. In
the as-forged configuration the preform exhibited a uniform, fully recrystal-
lized fine-grained structure (ASTM 8 to 10 when viewed at 1000X).
These preforms were used for the Task 1 and portions of the Task 2 evaluation
as summarized in Fig. 65. The test specimens for the mechanical property and/
or structural evaluation were located within and machined from the forgings as
shown in Fig. 66. The depicted cut-up diagram was used for both the preform
and bladed rotor evaluation.
The remaining preforms were used to determine the effect of forging temperature
and solution temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties. Mechani-
cal properties did not vary significantly with forging temperatures in the
1038°C (1900°F) to 1093°C (2000°F) range. Room temperature tensile properties
are shown in Fig. 67. The reasons for the variation in tensile ductility
have not been fully explained. Elevated tamperature tensile strength was
insensitive to forging temperature over the entire range investigated. Again
a degree of inconsistency in ductility was noted. The elevated temperature
tensile data are presented in Fig. 68.
Two preforms were used to establish the effects of alternate heat treatments.
Gradient bars cut from one of the preforms were used to determine the effect
of heat treatment on microstructure. The second preform was cut in half, and
each half given a heat treatment selected from the gradient bar evaluation.
The purpose of this evaluation was to establish a heat treatment (primarily
modified solution temperature) to produce a coarser grained structure, which
would exhibit mechanical properties commensurate (primarily stress-rupture)
-107-
-------
TOP KNOCKOUT PIN
BOTTOM DIE
TOP DIE
HOLD DOWN
RINGS
DIE INSERTS
BOTTOM KNOCKOUT
SYSTEM
Fig. 63 Tool for Phase I - Task 2 Bladed Rotor
-108-
-------
I
—
o
Fig. 64 Finish Machined Bladed Rotor Tooling and Preform
-------
o
I
PROFORM FORGE TEMPERATURE
S/IM °C °F
23
2-4
2-5
2-8
2-7
1010
1038
1038
1066
1093
1850
1900
1900
1950
2000
2-2A
2-2B
2-6
2-6B
1038
1038
1038
1038
1900
1900
1900
1900
HEAT TREATMENT
BASELINE:
1121°C (2050°F) SOLUTION,
OIL QUENCH
871°C (1600°F) AIR COOL
982°C (1800°F) AIR COOL
649°C (1200°F) AIR COOL
760°C (1400°F) AIR COOL
1163°C (2125°F) SOLUTION,
AIR COOL + BASELINE
1177°C (2150°F) SOLUTION,
AIR COOL + BASELINE
VARIOUS
1177°C (2150°F) SOLUTION,
AIR COOL + BASELINE
PROGRAM USE
ASTM GRAIN SIZE
PREDOMINATE OCCASIONAL
FORGE TEMPERATURE 10.5 - 13.5
STUDY
BASELINE DATA 10.5 - 13.5
BASELINE DATA 10.5 - 13.5
FORGE TEMPERATURE 11.5 - 13.5
STUDY
FORGE TEMPEATURE 9.5 - 12.5
STUDY
BLADE PROPERTY 4.0 - 6.0 AND
CHARACTERIZATION 8.0 - 13.5
BLADE PROPERTY 3.0 - 4.0
CHARACTERIZATION
GRADIENT BAR STUDY
BLADE PROPERTY
CHARACTERIZATION
10.0
10.0
9.5
13.5
6.0 - 8.0
2.0 - 4.0
5.0 - 10.0
Fig. 65 Summary of Preform Evaluation
-------
CREEP-RUPTURE
V-NOTCH
RUPTURE
LCF
CREEP-RUPTURE
TENSILE
TENSILE
TENSILE
TENSILE
V-NOTCH
RUPTURE
CREEP-RUPTURE
CREEP-RUPTURE
Fig. 66 Cut-Up Diagram
-111-
-------
ROTOR PREFORM DATA
BASELINE HEAT TREATMENT
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2°C 1010°C 1038°C 1066°C 1093°C
)0°F 1850°F 1900°F 1950°F 2000°F
FORGE TEMPERATURE
Fig. 67 Room Temperature Tensile Properties vs.Forging Temperature
-------
ROTOR PREFORM DATA
BASELINE HEAT TREATMENT
g 1172
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5 1103
X
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Fig. 68 760°C (1400°F) Tensile Properties vs Forging Temperature
-------
with blade operating temperatures. These halves were subsequently cut up for
mechanical property evaluation. The effect of these heat treatments on
tensile strengths is shown in Fig. 69. As expected the coarser grained material
exhibited a loss in tensile strengths. However, a significant increase in
creep-rupture life was achieved (Fig. 70). The data referred to as baseline
represent material forged at all four forging temperatures and given the base-
line heat treatment.
Four preforms were used for the initial bladed rotor forging trials. Because
it was determined during the preform evaluations that forging temperature had
no significant effect on mechanical properties, these and subsequent forgings
were produced at a temperature commensurate with optimum forgeability. The
first bladed rotor forging trial resulted in the partially bladed rotor. The
lack of blade fill was attributed to the degree of taper in the airfoil thick-
ness (root to tip). The blade cavities were opened up 0.010 to 0.020 in. to
minimize the frictional forces. The resulting modified blade cross sections
are shown in Fig. 71. The first forging attempt with the modified blade
inserts resulted in a fully bladed rotor as shown in Fig. 72. Two additional
bladed rotors were subsequently forged. The four rotor forgings (one with
underfilled blades) were heat treated, cut-up and evaluated to complete the
Task 2 and Task 3B evaluations. A summary of the bladed rotor evaluations is
given in Fig. 73. The results of this evaluation established the processing
parameters for the rotors used to generate design data. Forging at alternate
strain rates in the range of 0.6 to 1.0 in./in./min. had no effect on mechanical
properties or microstructure.
Two additional variations of the heat treatment used to produce a coarse
grained structure were evaluated. The aim was to achieve the highest LCF
capability commensurate with the coarse grain size. Figures 74, 75 and 76
show that, while sacrificing tensile strength (compared to baseline), one of
the alternate heat treatments resulted in the highest LCF capability and
maintained the desired level of stress-rupture strength. This heat treatment
was, therefore, selected for the Task 3 Design Data.
-114-
-------
1517
1379
CM 1241
ROTOR PREFORM DATA
1038°C (1900°F) FORGE TEMPERATURE
c
2
1103
965
f 827
CO
LLJ
^ 689
CO
z
UJ
*" 552
414
276
<£^U
200
180
(75
•* 160
I
I-
g 140
UJ
CC
M 120
LJU
| 100
UJ
H
80
60
40
1
T
¥
^2
<'
OAD - ULTIMATE
•AB - 0.2% YIELI
O+ - BASELINE
1121° C (2(
AA - 11630C (21:
QB - 1177° C (2ie
STRENGTH
D STRENGTH
HEAT TREAT
D50°F) SOLUTION
15° F) SOLUTION + E
>0°F) SOLUTION + B
5ASELINE |
AS EL IN E
3
r
1
ROOM
TEMP
760°C
1400° F
TEST TEMPERATURE
927°C
1700° F
982°C
1800°F
Fig. 69 Tensile Properties vs Solution Temperature
-------
100
ROTOR PREFORM DATA
CO
CO
CO
LU
DC
CO
10
SOLUTION TEMPERATURE
O - BASELINE - 1121°C (2050°F)
(ALL FORGE TEMPERATURES)
A - 1163°C (2125°F) + BASELINE
D - 1177°C (2150°F) + BASELINE
42
44 45 46 47 48
PARAMETER = T(20 + LOG t) x 1Q'3
49
50
Fig. 70 Stress Rupture Capability vs Solution Temperature
-------
TIP
MIDSPAN
ROOT
CURRENT DESIGN
MODIFIED TOOLING
Fig. 71 Modified Blade Cross-Section
-117-
-------
Fig. 72 Fully Bladed Rotor Forging
-118-
-------
ROTOR FORGE TEMPERATURE HEAT TREATMENT
S/N PREFORM ROTOR
°C (°F) °C (°F)
2-9 1038 1900 1093 2000 BASELINE
PROGRAM USE
ALTERNATE STRAIN
RATE STUDY
ASTM GRAIN SIZE
PREDOMINATE OCCASIONAL
11.5 - 13.5
2-10
1038 1900 1093 2000 1177°C (2150°F) SOLUTION, ALTERNATE HEAT
AIR COOL + 1121°C (2050°F) TREAT STUDY
SOLUTION, AIR COOL + BASELINE
STABLIZATION AND AGE
3.0 - 4.0
7.0 - 10.0
2-11
1038 1900 1093 2000 1177°C (2150°F) SOLUTION, AIF! ALTERNATE HEAT
COOL + 1066°C (1950°F) TREAT STUDY
SOLUTION, AIR COOL +
BASELINE STABILIZATION AND AGE
4.0 - 6.0
7.0 - 8.0
2-12A
1038 1900 1093 2000 1163°C (2125°F) SOLUTION, AIR BLADE PROPERTY
COOL + BASELINE CHARACTERIZATION
3.0 - 4.0
6.0 - 10.0
2-12B
1038 1900 1093 2000 1177°C (2150°F) SOLUTION, AIR BLADE PROPERTY
COOL + BASELINE CHARACTERIZATION
4.0 - 6.0
6.0 - 8.0
Fig. 73 Summary of Bladed Rotor Evaluation
-------
1038°C (1900°F)/1093°C (2000°F) FORGE TEMPERATURE
1517
1379|
1241
1103i
.£
I
I
H
(3
Z
LU
QC
965
827
689
220
200
180
160
140
z
LU
cc
120
552
414
276
138
100
80
60
40
20
-Q-
o
O 0 BASELINE:
1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
A A 1163°C (2125°F) AIR COOL +
1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
a
v
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL +
1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL +
1121°C (2050°F) AIR COOL
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL +
1066°C (1950°F) AIR COOL
GAE] VO ULTIMATE STRENGTH
0.2% YIELD STRENGTH
A
ROOM
TEMP
760°C
1400°F
927°C
1700°F
982°C
1800°F
FORGE TEMPERATURE
Fig. 74 Tensile Properties vs Heat Treatment - Bladed Rotor Data
-120-
-------
100
1038°C (1900°F)/1093°C(2000°F) FORGE TEMPERATURE
H
EAT TREATMENT | |
O - BASELINE: 1121°C (2050°F)
OIL QUENCH |
A - 1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL +
1121°C (2050°F) AIR COOL
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL +
1066°C (1950°F) AIR COOL
1163°C (2125°F) AIR COOL +
1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
c/5
CO
LU
CC
H
C/J
NOTE: TYPICAL CURVES FROM PREFORM DATA, FIGURE 16
I I I I I I
PARAMETER = T(20 + LOG t) x 10
-3
Fig. 75 Stress Rupture Capability vs Heat Treatment - Bladed Rotor Data
-------
CYCLES TO FAILURE
Tl
H-
0<3
o
8
N3
I
P) O
I O
o
O /-N
3 !-•
en -J
rt O
(a o
3 O
H-
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ft) P
CD O*
h1- I—1
3 H-
09 rt
w <
IT TO
H
P> rc
H- n>
OQ to
I
w
I—"
Cb
rt
O
i-t
BASELINE:
1121°C (2050°F)
OIL QUENCH
1163°C (2125°F), AIR COOL
1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
1177°C (2150°F), AIR COOL
+ 1121°C (2050°F) OIL QUENCH
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL
+ 1121°C (2050°F) AIR COOL
1177°C (2150°F) AIR COOL
+ 1066°C (1950°F) AIR COOL
(DO
O
O O
00
O
o
-------
An important conclusion is that preferential heat treatment of the blade area
is not necessary to maximize stress-rupture and LCF strength.
The remaining effort on the Phase I program includes:
• Complete design data: tensile, creep-rupture and LCF.
• Complete the "Manufacturing Design Handbook".
• Complete the production cost analysis.
Questions and Comments
Question: It appears that trailing edge thickness of the blades and disk
thickness are about twice that in current engines. What about loss in
aerodynamic performance and reduced acceleration of the wheel?
Answer: The disk dimensions are the same as the current engine design except
for the pockets under the blade roots. These were not necessary to
demonstrate the fabrication process. In Phase II the web thickness will
be reduced almost 2/3 without sacrificing strength and giving an even
lighter wheel. Although trailing edge thicknesses can be reduced to
0.018 to 0.020 inch, it probably will not be possible to get down to the
present 0.012 inch. It is being suggested that comparative tests be
run in Phase II to measure the loss in performance. Similar experiences
with aircraft engines have shown that the small losses predicted analyti-
cally often do not show up as a measurable degradation in engine performance.
Question: How long does it take from receipt of the billet to the forged
product including the aging?
Answer: Using a single forge practice, the forging time is 7 minutes. Heat
treatment and aging could be as long as 26 hours. There are some techniques
whereby this time may be reduced.
-123-
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F. Gas Turbine Low Emission Combustion System, by D. J. White, Solar,
Division of International Harvester
The present low emission combustor program at Solar is the culmination of
several years of intensive research in this field; i.e., combustor concepts
developed and proved in previous programs have been further expanded to ensure
practical application to an automotive gas turbine engine. The overall objec-
tive of the program is to develop a low emission combustion system for instal-
lation and demonstration in the EPA/AAPS Baseline Gas Turbine Engine.
Three specific program goals have been defined:
• The combustor should be capable of operating over the entire
engine cycle.
• The combustor should meet one-half or less of the original 1976
Federal Automotive Emission Standards:
NOx (as N02) - 0.20 gm/mile
CO - 1.70 gm/mile
UHC (as CH, oc) - 0.21 gm/mile
1 . O J
• The combustor/actuating mechanism should meet the engine interface
requirements.
In the initial phase of the program test optimization of models of the key
combustor components was accomplished. Design, based on these various compo-
nents such as the variable geometry port and the ignition system, was then
integrated into a full-scale prototype combustor.
This combustor (Figs. 77, 78, and 79) includes all necessary wall cooling
devices and a fully modulating variable area port and actuating mechanism
system.
At present the combustor is still on the test stand undergoing mechanism
development and final emissions evaluation. Control of the variable area ports
on the test rig is manual through a remote, electrical actuator. Cold lightoff
is achieved using a torch igniter mounted on the side of the primary zone body.
A spark ignition system is used, in addition, to provide hot relights.
-124-
-------
ill SOLAR
Fig. 77 Layout of Phase II JIC-B Combustor
Fig. 78 JIC-B Variable Geometry Low Emission Combustor
Fig. 79 JIC-B Variable Geometry Low Emission Combustor
-125-
-------
Emission levels obtained during testing over the Simulated Federal Driving
Cycle, indicate the feasibility of meeting one-half of original 1976 Emission
Standards (see Figs. 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, and 85). Problems of mechanism
reliability still exist. The mechanism design criteria require the mechanism
to be capable of:
• Operating in an oxidizing environment up to 1200°F
• Moving the ports from full open to full closed positions in
l/20th of a second
• Operating reliably with minimal actuation forces and minimal
movement
• Operating without significant air leakage
Problems which have come up include:
• Failure of graphite bushings (seals for actuating rods)
• Misalignment of actuating cam rings
• Rotation of actuating rods and cam follower mechanism
Solutions to these mechanism problems will involve:
• Positive cam ring centering system
• Longer and more effective bushings
• Cam follower arrangement that does not rotate or is insensitive
to rotation
Obviously, further development will be needed before such a combustor/engine
combination can be used to power a vehicle. However, it can be concluded that
the original 1976 Emission Standards can be satisfied with this burner if
Point 2 on the FDC will permit 8 pounds per hour fuel flow (see Fig. 86). The
mechanism works over the full operating range of the engine, but its life is
unknown. Integration with the control system is required for activation.
Questions and Comments
Comment: Prime effort on this combustion system has been focused on achieve-
ment of low emissions; relatively little effort has been devoted to
-126-
-------
"f
Ipph)
idecel]
6
10
15.5
25. 5
57.5
P4
(psig)
10
6
6
10
17
13
T4
m
1150
1150
975
1150
1150
1150
T5
m
(decell
1300
1220
1470
1560
2220
a
(Ib/secl
0.90
0.75
0.75
0.90
1.15
1.00
TIME
.(%) (Sec)
6.41 68
1 1 .44 1 57
29.67 407
37.90 520
8.75 120
5.83 60
100.00 1372
Overall mileage: 8.347 mpg on 7.5 miles
lit SOLAR
Fig. 80 Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Mode
EMISSIONS RATIO
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
UHC
NOX
PORT OPENINGS
PRIMARY = 16%
DILUTION = 100%
CYCLE POINT FDC NO. 2
COMB. PRESS. = 13 PSIO
COMB. TEMP. =1150 DEG.F
PROGRAM GOAL
0.04 0.06 0.08
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
ill SOLAR
100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE RISE-DEG.F
Fig. 81 Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
EMISSIONS RATIO
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
DESIGN
PO
- CYCLE POINT FDC POINT 3
COMB. PRESS. = 6 PSIG
' COMB. TEMP. = 975 DEG.F
CO~^
^\
UHC\\
1 1 ta^d.
NT Z. — N O x
/
1
I
I PORT OPENINGS
/ PRIMARY = 18%
/ DILUTION = 100%
/
' PROGRAM GOAL
Mfe^ 1 1
000 002 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
I I I I I 1
0 100 200 300 400 500
, TEMPERATURE RISE-DEG. F
ill SOLAR
Fig. 82 Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
-127-
-------
EMISSIONS RATIO
8.00
4.00
2.00
DESIGN
PO
FEDERAL DRIVING
CYCLE PT. NO. 4
COMB. PRESS. 10 PSIG
COMB. TEMP. 1 150 DEC. F
CO
UHC^^^ V
Su2
NT 1 NOX
/
/ PORT OPENINGS
/ PRIMARY 34%
/ DILUTION 82%
./ PROGRAM GOAL
<,
0.02 0.04 006 0.06 0.10 0. 2
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
1 1 1
1 1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE RISE-DEC F
ill SOLAR
Fig. 83 Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
Fig, 84
EMIS.
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Mist
>IONS RATIO
DESIGN ..„
POINT /— N°X
FEDERAL DRIVING POINT NO. 5 / PORT OPENINGS:
"COMB. PRESS. 17 PSIG / PRIMARY 30%
COMB. TEMP. 1150 DEG. F / DILUTION 80%
CO ' \ / PROGRAM GOAL
I 1
0.02 0.04
1
\ / UHC
1 1^*" — i • | 1
0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 014
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
1 1 1 1
100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE RISE-DEG F
LAH
Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
EMIS
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.
ill SI
5IONS RATIO
- CYCLE POINT
COMB. PRESS
- COMB. TEMP
CO.
DESIGN .
PONT Z..NOX
FDC NO. 6 /
13 PSIG /
1150 DEG. F /
S PORT OPENINGS
S PRIMARY 70 %
^S DILUTION 20 %
V ^f*^^ PROGRAM GOAL
, , ""'^^^^ j j , ,
4 0.16 0.16
1
700
IIA*
0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.30 0.32
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
1 1 1 1 ' 1
600 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
TEMPERATURE RISE-DEG F
Fig. 85 Simulated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
-128-
-------
*B
fi
NOX IAS N02I -
CO
UHC (AS CM, 5I -
ORIGINAL
1976 STANDARDS
0.4 gm/mlle
3.4 gm/mile
0.42 gm/mile
PROGRAM COALS
0.2 gm/mile
1.7 gm/mfle
0.21 gm/mile
RESULTS
0.34
3.379
0.155
ASED ON ESTIMATES FOR POINT 2 AT 8 LBS/HR
vND POINT 6.
ii SOUM
Fig. 86 JIC-B Combustor Integrated Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
-129-
-------
mechanical development and packaging. The program requirements have
changed in the course of the program; increasingly difficult goals have
been established.
Question: Does the Point 2 data represent a flashback or normal operating
condition?
Answer: Point 2 data represents a normal operational mode. Monitoring
thermocouples in the port indicate when flashback occurs. Also, CO
emissions suddenly increase very rapidly.
Question: Have you measured the effect on emissions of step changes in fuel
flow and variable geometry?
Answer: Attempts have just recently been made to make step changes from
Point Number 2 to Point Number 6. This is difficult to do with three
manual controls to operate (2 controlling variable geometry and one for
the fuel valve). Also it is difficult to integrate the emission traces.
Data from these attempts are being processed now, and will be reported
subsequently. Also such tests will be run on the Chrysler engine.
G. Oxide Recuperator Technology Program, by K. R. Kormanyoa, Owens-Illinois
Corp.
The project objective is the investigation of low expansion glass-ceramic
materials for the fabrication of low cost recuperators for automotive gas-
turbine engines. The program is divided into six complementary tasks dealing
with specific aspects of recuperator design and fabrication inherent to the
use of a glass-ceramic material:
• Task 1 - Parametric design analysis
• Task 2 - Sample fabrication to establish manufacturing feasibility
• Task 3 - Conceptual design
• Task 4 - Core fabrication and testing
• Task 5 Seal development
• Task 6 - Trade-off evaluation and cost estimates
-130-
-------
The work through Task 3 has been completed and previously reported. The
sample core fabrication and testing, Task 4, are discussed here. Objectives
for the next period are suggested.
Single pass crossflow test cores were fabricated using Cer-Vit^ C-126 glass-
ceramic material. The test cores were 5-inch cubes using 0.025 inch ID tubes
with a 0.002-inch wall (Fig. 87). Each of the cores was leak tested measuring
cross circuit leakage as a function of pressure (Fig. 88); the results indicated
that it would be possible to successfully fabricate low leakage recuperators
and that the current fabrication technique requires refinement to achieve
consistent leakage properties.
A pressure burst test on one of the cores showed that the core survived 11
atmospheres absolute at room temperature, implying that a glass-ceramic
recuperator should be able to withstand operating pressures expected with an
acceptable safety margin.
A thermal cycle test rig was fabricated and tested. It allows hot and cold
air to be alternately passed through one flow path while ambient temperature
air is continuously passed through the other path to approximate the temperature
transients of an engine start-up. Fracture of a core tested in the rig follow-
ing one thermal cycle (Fig. 89) indicates that the thermal properties of the
material system in matrix form require additional investigation. The importance
of an operable metal-ceramic interface system has been reinforced.
In view of the observed cross-leakage data scatter between individual samples,
a contract extension has been proposed, the direction of which is to refine
the existing fabrication process to the point that test cores can be fabricated
with consistently low cross circuit leakage. The fabrication effort being
considered will include counterflow as well as crossflow test cores since the
probability exists that a counterflow unit will be the final design requirement.
Also matrix property characterization is needed including such critical factors
as ultimate matrix strength, heat transfer properties, etc.
-131-
-------
U)
ro
i
Fig. 87 Typical 5-Inch Glass Ceramic Test: Core
-------
ISO
I
I—"
u>
I
~ 50
ui
O
<
*
<
UI
CORE NO. 3
CORE NO.6
CORE NO. 5
CORE NO. I
REFERENCE POINT*
I
345
ATMOSPHERES ABSOLUTE
6
^REPRESENTS 0.5% LEAKAGE BASED ON A TASK III SIZED
RECUPERATOR FOR A 411 COMPRESSOR RATIO AND I-LB./SEC FLOW
Fig. 88 Test Core Leakage Rates
-------
$=
«s
1600
1400
~ 1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
ESTIMATE OF START-UP
TOR A RECUPERATED ENGINE
TEST RIG CYCLE
AS RUN ON CORE NO. I
3 4
TIME (MINUTES)
5
6
Fig. 89 Test Rig Thermal Cycle
-134-
-------
Questions and Comments
Question: Has consideration been given to the configuration that might be
used with the Baseline Engine?
Answer: Results of Task 3 indicate that a minimum volume single pass, cross-
flow, rectangular configuration should be suitable - about 34-inch high
(no flow side), 6-inch gas flow length, and 8-inch air flow length.
Hydraulic diameter is about 0.025-inch in both flow directions. It would
be mounted on the side in a manner similar to the present Baseline Engine
regenerator.
Question: What about the problem of plugging without the benefit of alternating
reverse flow as in the regenerator?
Answer: Clean combustion is required.
Question: Why are ceramic materials chosen for the heat exchanger?
Answer: The trend in engine development is toward higher operating temperatures
to achieve lower fuel rates. Ceramic materials should be able to with-
stand these higher temperatures at a lower cost than the more exotic high
temperature metals.
Comment: The size of the single pass, cross flow heat exchanger quoted above
is for equivalent thermal effectiveness and pressure drop of a regenerator.
Question: Was the burst test run over an extended period of time? Has possible
stress corrosion been examined?
Answer: Stress corrosion has not been investigated. Pressure was increased in
a series of plateaus to 11 atmospheres, the limit of the test rig.
Comment (Tom Sebestyen, EPA): It was pointed out that the original intent of
the present program is to demonstrate the fabrication technology so that
overall development is still in the very early stages.
Comment (Representative from Climax Molybdenum): The ceramics versus metal
heat exchanger controversy has been of interest for a number of years.
Some new stainless steel alloys have been developed which have about twice
-135-
-------
the creep-rupture strength of 430 stainless. They should be good,
economical candidate materials for heat exchanger applications up to 1400
or 1500°F. It is doubtful if the ceramic materials discussed above would
be suitable for long-term applications in the 1750°F range.
Comment (Tom Sebestyen, EPA): These are still points of discussion and
controversy. The intent of the technology programs is to develop infor-
mation and know-how for advanced engines which may require heat exchangers
in the 1800 and 1900°F range on a relatively near-term basis.
H. Ceramic Regenerator Reliability, by Chris Rahnke, Ford Motor Company
(Guest Presentation)
EPA is negotiating a program with Ford Motor Company to develop a ceramic
regenerator which will satisfy the requirements of the EPA Chrysler automotive
gas turbine; i.e., up to 800°C (1475°F inlet temperature) and have a B-10 life
of 3500 hours when operating on a passenger car duty cycle with diesel fuel
No. 1, No. 2, and/or unleaded gasoline.
Ford has been running regenerators in engines for several years accumulating
more than 100,000 hours of operation on a large sample of lithium-aluminum-
silicate (LAS) cores from two different suppliers. This operating experience
has shown the major causes of failures to be: excessive thermal stresses and
chemical attack on the matrix material.
Because the periphery is surrounded by relatively cold compressor discharge
air and the center part by hot exhaust gas, tensile stresses are set up around
the rim and compressive stresses are set up in the center part of the core.
When high enough, these stresses cause cracks in the matrix and ultimate failure
of the core. A 100°F rise in regenerator inlet temperature will cause a 25%
increase in stress. Hence, high inlet temperatures are a major cause of
failures.
The source of chemical attack is sodium, potassium, and sulfur from fuel
impurities, and ingested road salt. Sodium and potassium attack the hot side;
sulfur in the form of sulfuric acid attacks the cold side leaching the lithium
out of the matrix material thereby increasing its thermal coefficient of
expansion and causing mechanical failure of the core.
-136-
-------
Corrective measures include:
• Mechanical design techniques to relieve thermal stress and
regenerator drive loads at the rim of the core.
• Coatings to protect LAS material from exposure to deleterious
chemicals.
• Low expansion materials which are impervious to chemical attack
such as magnesium-aluminum-silicates (MAS). The major effort is
being expended on this approach.
• Fabrication methods and matrix geometries which would result in
superior and more consistent material quality.
The EPA/FORD program includes three phases as follows:
Phase One: Summary report on previous experience, data and state-of-the-art
with ceramic regenerator cores at Ford Motor Company. This will include:
description of failure modes, thermal stress, analytical techniques and calcu-
lation of regenerator safety factors, and laboratory and engine operating
experiences.
Phase Two: Laboratory and engine durability tests on new regenerator materials,
fabrication techniques and coatings. Tests will be conducted on the Ford 707
engine; correlating factors will be established so that durability data can
be applied to the EPA Chrysler automotive turbine and other engines. Between
10,000 and 20,000 hours of dynamometer testing will be conducted (corresponds
to 20,000 to 40,000 core hours) on a large sample of cores this year.
Phase Three: A report will be submitted providing the design method and speci-
fication needed for a passenger car regenerator system which will meet EPA
durability objectives. Completion date is April 1, 1975.
Questions and Comments
Question: To what extent is the EPA/Ford Program a mutual effort as compared
to a more conventional contracted effort?
-137-
-------
Answer: Ford is providing a report summarizing extensive test and development
background. Design work done earlier this year on new design techniques
to reduce rim stress and new drive techniques will be reflected in the
test cores of Phase Two which will be made of MAS and coated LAS materials.
Cores will be supplied by: Corning Glass, G.T.E. Sylvania, Coors Porcelain,
and W. R. Grace.
Question: Are seals included in the program?
Answer: Seals are excluded. Just the regenerator, its mount, and its drive
are included.
Question: Have tests been run with atmospheric pressure on both sides of the
disk with the outside pressurized to improve the stresses?
Answer: This configuration has not been run. However, failures have been
correlated with calculated stresses at given temperatures. This constitutes
a calculation of the structural strength.
Question: What are the stresses under transient as compared to steady-state
conditions?
Answer: Analysis shows that the transient stresses under start-up (worst
condition) are about 1070 higher than steady-state stresses.
Question: What are current acceptable temperature levels for the core inlet?
What diameters were you working with?
Answer: Temperature tolerance varies widely with stress relief in the rim and
the duty cycle. Some cores have operated without failure for brief
periods at 1750°F with a stress relieved rim. A 28.5 inch O.D. core was
used, but the stress does not seem to vary much with the size of the core
provided the radius ratios of the seals are about the same.
-138-
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I. Ceramics for Turbines, by Dr. E. M. Lenoe. U.S. Army Materials and
Mechanics Research Center (Guest Presentation)
The Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center(AMMRC) is engaged in partici-
pative monitoring of a "Brittle Materials Design, High Temperature Gas Turbine"
program. This program, funded by Advanced Research Projects Agency, Westing-
house, and Ford, aims at building a gas turbine entirely from ceramic materials,
Specific tasks are to demonstrate:
• Ceramic vanes operating at 2500°F in a 30-Mw central station
turbine
• An all-ceramic 100 to 500 hp class engine including rotors,
stators, ducting, regenerators, combustors and nozzles.
The ARPA program is at mid-point; considerable progress has been made.
Primary ceramic materials have been identified, ceramic component design
iterations have been completed, and process development has led to the fabrica-
tion of ceramic parts which have been tested with encouraging results. A
technology base to utilize uncooled high temperature ceramic components has
been established. This is the key to increasing gas turbine operating tempera-
tures so that significant improvements is specific fuel consumption and
specific power can be realized.
This briefing:
• Briefly reviews the status of the ARPA project
• Discusses AMMRC supporting in-house studies
• Describes a planning study recently contracted between the
Environmental Protection Agency and the AMMRC-Planning Directorate
2500°F Target for Propulsion and Power Systems: It is widely known that
propulsion and power generation represents a most promising area for using high
temperature, high strength ceramic materials. Several of the more apparent
advantages of ceramics are:
-139-
-------
• Increased turbine inlet temperature
(Lower fuel consumption/hp or kw)
• Enhanced erosion-corrosion resistance
• Multiple fuel capability (all volatile hydrocarbons)
• Lower cost than superalloys and no strategic materials
• Elimination of cooling
Another major reason for the increasing interest in ceramic gas turbines is
because of their beneficial impact on problems of energy, air pollution and
materials resources. Considering the fuel and oil consumption of passenger
cars, it is imperative that fossil fuels be more efficiently utilized.
Obviously, one can reduce the size of cars and develop an alternate power
plant with improved fuel economy, lighter weight and multifuel capability.
In assessing and comparing engine performance it is important to choose a
representative driving cycle. Recently, Ford Motor Company compared estimated
ceramic gas turbine and piston engine fuel consumption on a basis of:
257, city driving
387» suburban driving
377, driving at 50 mph
Figure 90 suggests in a general way that the potential improvement in fuel
utilization is of the order of 30%.
As for power generator applications, by 1990 the demand for electrical energy
is expected to increase by more than a factor of 3. Coal and nuclear energy
will remain as significant fuel sources. Consequently, there is great
incentive to develop a power generating system which will most effectively
use coal. Of the current fossil fueled power plant systems, the combined
gas turbine and steam plant is the most efficient with a conversion of 42%.
This can be raised to more than 50% by improving the gas turbine system
efficiency through higher inlet temperature. The importance of ceramics is
that they provide the only direct materials approach to reaching inlet tempera-
tures of 2500 F and higher, where gains are greatest. Other approaches such as
metal cooling have an anticipated limit in the region of about 2150°F because
of the necessity for using residual instead of clean distillate fuels.
-140-
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130
RELATIVE
FUEL 120
CONSUMPTION
110
CERAMIC GAS TURBINE
GASOLINE PISTON ENGINE
I n DIESEL ENGINE
VEHICULAR TURBINE
CITY/SUBURBAN DRIVING
MAXIMUM POWER
APPLICATIONS
Fig. 90 Ceramic Gas Turbine/Piston Engine Fuel Economy Comparison
-141-
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In tests to date, ceramic components have shown potential strength and corro-
sion resistance to meet an uncooled 2500°F turbine goal by the 1980's. Note
that the operation of large power generating turbines with only the vanes
uncooled, at 2500°F would also yield 20% more power with the same fuel input
(Fig. 91).
To attain 2500°F turbine inlet temperatures without cooling in engines of Army
interest, means that ceramic materials will have to be employed in the hot
flow path (combustors, nozzles, vanes, rotors, shrouds and ducting). In
addition, it appears that ceramic materials can offer improved performance of
bearings and seals in high temperature or unlubricated environments. The use
of ceramics in both large and small military gas turbine engines should lead
to the following advantages:
• Reduced weight and more efficient field power generators
• Reduced weight engines for craft and vehicles with:
— greater range
— greater payload
— enhanced air mobility
• Reduction in weight with increased efficiency for:
— aircraft engines
— auxiliary power units
— primary power plants for limited life applications
• Strategic advantage of reduced dependence on foreign hydrocarbon
fue Is
In addition to these, there is a logistic advantage in less fuel to be trans-
ported, handled, and stored, as well as a multifuel capability. Viewed against
the background of a national fuel shortage, the goal of a 20% decrease in
specific fuel consumption is particularly attractive. Similarly, reducing
dependence on chromium and nickel based superalloys appears to be prudent
based on projected estimates of materials availability and domestic resources.
The ARPA program has caused a world-wide flurry of activity in ceramic materials
development. Currently more than eighteen turbine manufacturers have tested or
-142-
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50
GAS TURBINE
EFFICIENCY -
40
30
20
CERAMIC VANES
PRECOOLED
AIR
_TO VANES
CERAMIC VANES
AND BLADES
ZERO BLEEDS
AND LEAKAGE
•CONVENTIONAL
AIR COOLING
I I
COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE RATIO
I I
100 120 140 160 180
GAS TURBINE POWER PER UNIT
AIRFLOW - KW/LB/SEC
200
Fig. 91 Gas Turbine Performance at Turbine Inlet Temperature - 2400 F
-143-
-------
fabricated ceramic hardware in the United States, Great Britain, Germany and
Japan. Thus it is appropriate to accelerate utilization of high temperature,
high strength ceramics in energy conversion systems.
Some Current Engine Results: Results to date have demonstrated that the sta-
tionary hot flow path components can go through an actual engine test (2000 F
with metal rotors) and still be serviceable after a testing sequence of: (1)
cold static testing; (2) hot static testing, including 50 light-ups; and (3)
hot dynamic testing at 55% maximum design speed for 25 hours. (These compo-
nents will be subjected to further testing.)
On the basis of these tests, it is now apparent that stationary reaction
bonded silicon nitride components have demonstrated performance capability for
application to non-man rated, short-lived engines, such as target drones,
RPV's, or GT powered missiles. An example of how design iterations are leading
to increased component life and reliability can be seen from the improved
reaction bonded silicon nitride (RBSN) component performance shown in Figs. 92,
93, and 94).
Shown in Fig. 95 is a so-called duo-density rotor concept employing injection
molded, reaction bonded silicon nitride hub. Such parts have been successfully spin-
tested at more than 57,000 rpm.
During the project, numerous materials and processing techniques have been
studied. Thus a technology base has been established which involves techniques
to produce high temperature ceramic parts at low cost and with little or no
machining, depending on the production techniques. Slip castings, injection
molding, chemical vapor deposition and glass forming methods certainly result
in lower strength materials, but they offer the advantage of economy of pro-
duction.
In the hot pressed materials, on the other hand, the machining and finishing
requirements have been thoroughly investigated so that cost estimates can now
be made on a more realistic basis. Furthermore, in order to minimize machining,
hot pressing to shape of silicon nitride and silicon carbide has been explored.
-144-
-------
-CRACK LOCATION
OUTER BELL SECTION
INNER BELL SECTION
FAILED AS INDICATED
6 4.5 62
HOT HOT
I I
STATIC DYNAMIC LITES
HOURS
I
47 95
HOURS
8
STILL SERVICABLE
OUTER BELL SECTION
Fig. 92 Design Modification Leading to Improved Nose Cone Performance
-145-
-------
MAXIMUM
PART LIFE
TO DATE-
HRS
•
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
i
x
A -
/ -
x x'
/ c -
/ c ..
/ /^
x /
/
, DES A /
- STATORS -*-/
EXHIBITED /
" 5 HRS HOT ^— -*B
fj
.DYNAMIC LIFE / B
r , N
-------
Design
B
C
Number of
Stators
Tested
9
7
Total
Hours
151
212
Total
Lights
356
611
Total
Number of
Broken or
Cracked
Blades
60
7
Average
Hours Per
Failure
2.5
30.3
Average
Lights Per
Failure
5.9
87.3
• AN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE IMPROVEMENT
0 MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING HISTORY CONSTANT
Fig. 94 Design Iteration Results for First Stage Stators
-147-
-------
HOT-PRESSED
REACTION
SINTERED
Si3N4
Fig. 95 The Duo-Density Rotor Concept
-148-
-------
It is possible to produce high quality hot pressings with compound curvatures.
The rotor hub in the duo-density rotor wheel, for instance, has been success-
fully produced in a single hot pressing with minimum machining required.
As for progress on the Westinghouse stationary turbine, a full scale model of a
stator vane assembly has been constructed. Twenty vane assembly components
have been completed and a vane assembly has been successfully tested at 2200°F.
A 2500 F test rig for vane component .testing is under construction and further
elevated temperature, full scale vane tests will be completed. In addition,
during the past two years, Westinghouse has measured engineering properties of
silicon nitride and silicon carbide ceramics at temperatures up to 2500 F. A
first-design study iteration of a first-stage rotor blade for a 30Mw gas tur-
bine has been completed. The results are encouraging as the maximum predicted
tensile stress (38,000 psi) is within the capability of current materials.
Current technology levels indicate a number of immediate opportunities for
Army application of ceramics in propulsion and power generation:
• Nozzle guide vanes for APU's
— Increased erosion resistance demonstrated
— Benefit - reduction of maintenance
• Ceramic roller bearings
— Increased fatigue life
— Non-lubricated operation
• Limited life engines
— Stationary hot flow path
— Components for drones, RPV's, and missiles
Work in these areas is being pursued both in the ARPA program on design,
specific materials and processing improvement; and in-house on a more general
basis. AMMRC's role in these areas has been to provide an in-depth technology
base and to address critical problems which might otherwise be ignored.
AMMRC Support: In addition to monitoring the program AMMRC has provided
support in numerous areas including:
-149-
-------
• Critical review and analysis of program
• Critical review of reports
• Technical assistance to contractor in radiography failure analysis,
nitriding kinetics, neutron activation analysis, etc.
• Information dissemination to gas turbine and materials industries
(Technology transfer)
• Organizing conferences on ceramic turbines
In addition to Army sponsored studies of basic processing technology in
silicon nitride and silicon carbide, under ARPA funding, AMMRC has been
conducting investigations into design, analysis, and mechanical properties
characterization procedures for high performance structural ceramics. In the
area of properties measurements, a variety of stress states have been studied.
This includes flexure tests on various sizes of beams and two types of tension
experiments. Conventional contoured tension configurations as well as thinning
hydroburst tests have been completed on several types of silicon nitride and
silicon carbide. Ring tests have been conducted on hot pressed silicon nitride
(HS-130) and chemical vapor deposited silicon carbide.
In the area of probability based analysis, reliability equations have now been
programmed to treat all types of statistical distributions, including empirical
probability data. The treatment is based on numerical integration techniques
and transformation equations. Emphasis of the work in probability theories
will now be on the algebra of non-normal functions and application of various
approximate solution techniques to problems of fracture, creep and combined
stress failure. Future properties characterization will deal with high tempera-
ture materials properties.
Figures 96, 97, and 98 indicate current in-house studies, outline the general
program and indicate missing design information in our Mechanics of Brittle
Materials studies.
Most recently EPA has requested that AMMRC prepare a planning document relating
to ceramics technology.
-150-
-------
e
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
FRACTURE
BEHAVIOR
NONDESTRUCTIVE
EVALUATION
CURRENT STUDIES
TENSION (TWO TYPES)
FLEXURE
(1/3, 1/4 POINT LOADS)
RESULT
TORSION
HIGH FREQUENCY FATIGU
WORK OF RUPTURE
CRACK INITIATION AND
PROPAGATION
STUDY'CRITICAL DEFECT
CORRELATE WITH
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STANDARD TESTS
DESIGN DATA
SIGNIFICANCE OF
FLAWS
Fig. 96 Statistical Evaluation of Ceramics
-------
STRENGTH
VARIABILITY IN LOADS1
MATERIAL PROPERTIES1
ANALYSIS'
FRACTURE
CRITICAL DEFECT SIZES
INSPECTION PERIODS'
LIFE PREDICTION'
CREEP
TORSION AND TENSION
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
RESPONSE UNDER"
VARYING LOADS
• Currently planned in ARPA Program
x Not currently addressed by ARPA Program
n R&D capabilities known to exist elsewhere
v R&D capabilities at AMMRC
CLOSED FORM
SOLUTIONS
APPROXIMATE07
METHODS
ALGEBRA OFDV
NON-NORMAL
FUNCTIONS
Fig. 97 Design and Analysis of Brittle Materials AMMRC Probability Based Analysis
-152-
-------
0 FA I LURE THEORY FOR COMBINED STRESS0 v
©CREEP LAWS (TENSION, TORSION, COMPRESS I ON)DV
• FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION - FRACTURE MECHANICS PREDICTION1*7
n R&D capabilities at AMMRC
v R&D capabilities known to exist elsewhere
Fig. 98 Missing Data
-153-
-------
Analysis of the Potential for Ceramics in Automotive Gas Turbine Engines: The
objective of the survey is to prepare an in-depth critical assessment and
planning document aimed at delineating the technology developments required
to ensure expeditious and efficient application of ceramics materials to
alternate automotive power sources. This document will address: potential
applications, available materials, pacing materials problems, current status
of ceramic component development and testing, pacing processing and produci-
bility problems, and design approaches for maximizing reliability. Specific
research and development tasks and suggested vendors, as well as materials
supply., engineering, and manufacturing sources and deficiencies will be
enumerated. Priorities and costing for the suggested program will be provided.
The program will consider the time frame between the present and five years
hence. It is anticipated that copies of the document will be distributed in
July 1974.
Contents of the study are illustrated in Fig. 99 through 102. The potential
applications, materials, problems, available ceramics and current status of
component development will be described (Fig. 99). Pacing materials problems
will be identified on a component-by-component basis (Fig. 100). Materials
and processes with approximate temperature limitations (Fig. 101) will be
documented. A summary of the general content of the document is illustrated
in Fig. 102. It is anticipated that the survey will be of interest to the gas
turbine industry; the opportunity to participate in this work is appreciated.
Questions and Comments: None
J. Continuously Variable Transmission Program, by Dyer Kenney, EPA
Proposals are being evaluated for the first phase of a possible two phase
program. A recent study for EPA by Mechanical Technology Incorporated and
Sundstrand, Inc. concluded that it is possible with present technology to
build continuously variable transmissions which could improve fuel economy by
25 to 307o. Also, the most viable types are the hydromechanical and the traction.
Two contractors (one for each type) will be selected for Phase I.
-154-
-------
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
COMPONENTS
ENVIRONMENTS
GENERAL PACING MATERIALS
PROBLEMS
AVAILABLE CERAMICS
CURRENT STATUS OF
COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT •
AND TESTING
PACING PROCESSING AND
PRODUCIBILITY PROBLEMS
• DESIGN AND RELIABILITY
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
SUITABILITY
SUPPLY
VOLUME
COSTS
STATE OF CONFIDENCE
KNOWN CAPABILITIES
KNOWN PROBLEMS
UNKNOWNS (BEST GUESS)
COMPONENT
MATERIALS
TEST METHODOLOGY
STATISTICAL EVALUATION
OF MATERIALS
NONDESTRUCTIVE
EVALUATION
ANALYTIC METHODOLOGY
AND VARIANCE
ENVIRONMENT
FABRICATION
TECHNOLOGY
NOW
1 - 2 YEARS
3 - 5 YEARS
COMPONENTS
MATERIALS
ENVIRONMENT
PROCESSES
RELIABILITY
ANALYSIS
OPTIMIZATION OF
TEST AND ANALYSIS
PROCEDURES
Fig. 99 Ceramics for Small Gas Turbine Applications
-------
PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
COMPONENTS
CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
STATORS
OTHER COMPONENTS
• Currently planned In the ARPA Program
x Not currently addressed by ARPA Program
+ Only partially addressed by ARPA Program
v R&D capabilities at AMMRC
n R&D capabilities known to exist elsewhere
o No known capabilities in this area
PACING MATERIALS PROBLEMS
INCREASE DENSITY (STRENGTH)1
OF INJECTION MOLD RBSN
IMPROVE CREEP RESISTANCE*
OF RBSN AT 2400 F
EVALUATE EFFECTS OF THERMAL**7
AND MECHANICAL (INCLUDING
ACOUSTIC) FATIGUE ON
STRENGTH OF RBSN AND SiC
FABRICATED BY VARIOUS
FORMING TCCHNIQUES
INVESTIGATE EFFECTS OF+VD
EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS
TURBINE ATMOSPHERES (I.E.,
DIFFERENT FUELS AND
ADDITIVES) ON ROOM
TEMPERATURE AND HIGH
TtMPERATURE STRENGTH
AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(INCLUDE STATIC FATIGUE DUE
TO MOISTURE FOR VARIOUS
GRADES OF RBSN AND SIC)
SIMILAR BREAKOUT
Fig. 100 "Spiderchart"for Pacing Materials Problems
-156-
-------
CERAMIC
COMPONENT
1ST STAGE
STATOR
2ND STAGE
STATOR
1ST STAGE
ROTOR
2ND STAGE
ROTOR
1ST STAGE
SHROUD
2ND STAGE
SHROUD
INLET NOSE
CONE
COMBUSTOR
REGENERATORS
MATERIALS
SOURCES
MATERIAL
. MAX.
PART
TEMP.
°F
2400
2100
2300
2000
2300
2000
2500
3000
1800
Si3N4
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
SiC
X
X
X
L-A-S
0
PROCESS
COLD
PRESSING
V
V
SLIP
CASTING
V
V
V
V
V
V
X
INJ.
MOLDING
V
V
V
V
N/
HOT
PRESSING
V
V
CHEM.
VAP.
DEP.
X
X
PAPER
WRAPPING
-
0
GLASS
FORMING
0
Data from Mr. A. F. McLean
Fig. 101 Materials and Processes for Ceramic Components for Ford
Ceramic Engine Operating at T0I.T. of 2500°F Uncooled
-------
Ul
00
1
"^--^APPLICATIONS
1 ANALYSTS----^*
CRITICAL
PROPERTIES
IMPORTANT
PROPERTIES
CANDIDATE
CERAMICS
AVAILABLE
MANUFACTURING
TECHNIQUE
COSTS
SOURCES
STATUS OF
CURRENT DEMO.
PROGRAMS -
LOCATION
PLANNED EFFORTS
SUGGESTED
PRIORITIZED
ADDITIONAL R&D
PROGRAMS
STATORS
•HIGH TEMPERATURE
CAPABILITY
•THERMAL SHOCK AND
THERMAL FATIGUE
RESISTANCE
•CORROSION -EROSION
RESISTANCE IN
TURBINE ATMOSPHERE
•EASE OF FABRICABILITY
• LOW THERMAL EXPANSION
• IMPACT RESISTANCE
•STRENGTH > 40, 000 PSI
•RBSN
»SIC
CRYSTAR
SINTERED
»SI ALONS
•Al N
•CLASS CERAMICS (AT
LOWER TEMPERATURES)
•RBSN
INJECTION MOLD
SLIP CAST
BISQUE FIRE AND
MACHINE
ISOSTATIC PRESS
PROPRIETARY
METHODS
•SIC
SINTER
SLIP CAST AND
SINTER
RBSN
$2/STATOR IN LOTS
OF 200,000
IAME ESTIMATE!
FORD MOTOR COMPANY
NORTON COMPANY
AME LIMITED
RUN g 2000 F T. I.T. '
-^100 HR STATIC
^ 30 HR DYNAMIC
~270 LIGHTS
FORD MOTOR COMPANY
ROTORS
SHROUDS
COMBU5TORS
DUCTING
REGENERATORS
• HIGH TEMPERATURE
CAPABILITY
• LOW THERMAL
EXCURSION
• THERMAL SHOCK
RESISTANCE
• CORROSION RESISTANCE
Na. S. Pb OR OTHER
FUEL ADDITIVES
• LAS
• MAS
• AI-TITANATE
• RBSN
RECUPERATORS
• HIGH TEMPERATURE
CAPABILITY
• THERMAL SHOCK
RESISTANCE
• CORROSION RESISTANCE
Na, S, Pb OR OTHER
FUEL ADDITIVES
• LAS
• MAS
• AI-TITANATE
• RBSN
• SIC
SEALS AND
BEARINGS
INSULATION
Fig. 102 Ceramics for Small Gas Turbine Applications
-------
Phase I is scoped as a 6-month, 8400 man-hour effort to do a preliminary
design for an I.C. engine and for the AAPS candidate engines. It is hoped
that one transmission can be designed which can do the job, with minor modifi-
cations, for both the I.C. engine and the alternate engines. Then a final
design will be made, probably for the I.C. engine, because an I.C. engine
will be used for subsequent tests.
Phase II (optional depending on Phase I results) will be a 12-month effort
to (1) fabricate and (2) test two of the transmissions on dynamometer--both
steady-state and transient tests will be compared against an automatic trans-
mission on an I.C. engine. Task 3 is to test the transmission in a vehicle
to verify performance and fuel economy. Baseline tests will also be run with
a vehicle and an automatic transmission. Task 4 will be a cost estimate for
1,000,000 units per year of a continuously variable transmission. Deliverable
items are two transmissions, critical spare parts, final report with log books
and analyses, and vehicles purchased.
The contract is to be awarded before the end of this Fiscal Year.
K. Potential Health Hazard of Nickel Compound Emissions from Automotive Gas
Turbine Engines Using Nickel Oxide Base Regenerator Seals by R.Schulz, EPA
The EPA National Environmental Research Center surveyed the toxicologic
literature on the carcinogenicity of NiO (Reference 1 - Appendix D). The
principal concerns found over the release of additional NiO to the atmosphere
were as follows:
• The compound porduces muscle sarcomas when injected into rats.
• Nickel oxide may function as a cocarcinogen when introduced into
the lungs with a known carcinogen.
3
• Low level (100-150 yg/m ) nickel oxide exposure may result in
histological changes in bronchi and alveoli.
• Nickel oxide is cleared relatively slowly from the respiratory tract
• Cigarette smoking may impair clearance of nickel oxide and potenti-
ate tissue damage.
• Nickel oxide has been implicated by association in the higher inci-
dence of nasal and lung cancer observed among nickel workers.
-159-
-------
Estimates of NiO emission rates from gas turbine powered autos have been made
on the basis of wear rate calculations and from preliminary testing of a
prototype gas turbine car with NiO based regenerator seals. From these
estimates it appears that an emission factor of 0.003 to 0.005 grams NiO per
mile could be expected. While further seal development and testing of other
prototype gas turbine vehicles might result in lower NiO emission rates, it
seemed worthwhile to determine if emissions of NiO from automobiles at a level
of approximately 0.005 grams NiO/mile pose an unacceptable risk.
The industrial threshold limit value (TLV) for nickel and its soluble salts is
1000 yg/m for 8 hours per day. The present urban ambient nickel concentra-
tions are as follows:
3
• National 1968 arithmetic average 0.036 y g/nf
n~
3
3
1968 maximum 1.300 yg/m
• 1969 maximum quarterly 0.330 y g/m~
NiO exposures were estimated (Reference 2 - Appendix D) based upon the exten-
sive projections developed by the EPA Office of Research and Development
which modeled sulfate exposures from oxidation catalysts. The projected expo-
sures were made for NiO on and near major arterial throughways, assuming 257o
of vehicle miles with turbine engine vehicles, and NiO emissions are 0.005 gm/
mile from the turbine engine vehicles and zero from the remaining vehicles.
The estimated incremental exposures for worst meteorological conditions are:
• 1 hour peak 12.4 ygm/m
o
• 24 hour average 1.45 ygm/m
•3
• Incremental 24 hour 0.88 ygm/m
It is concluded that the emission of NiO from automotive turbine engines of
0.005 grams/mile and the attendant exposure of the public to the incremental
increases of this metal oxide is an unnecessary risk. Evidence against nickel
oxide is sufficient to warrant development of alternate materials for use in
automobile turbine engine rubbing seals. Since urban ambient levels of nickel
are relatively high at present, due consideration should be given to any sources
likely to increase these levels.
-160-
-------
While it is probably safe to assume that we will not have 257=, of the light-duty
motor vehicles mileage attributable to turbine powered vehicles for a decade,
at least, it is appropriate to identify the emission levels of non-regulated
pollutants from all alternate power systems early in the development stages in
order to properly assess the total environmental impact of their potential use.
NiO emissions from turbines is but one example of this concern,and it should
encourage emissions characterization of the other alternate powerplants cur-
rently under intensive development.
It is recommended that the following be pursued by industry and government as
part of their automotive gas turbine development programs:
• Consider alternate seal materials that do not pose a health hazard
or make design changes to minimize or reduce nickel emissions.
• Identify the form of nickel compounds emitted.
It is further recommended that EPA expand the non-regulated emissions charac-
terization program relative to automotive gas turbines and other alternate
powerplants. Also, the National Academy of Science should be advised of this
study by EPA so that they may consider this issue within the perspective of
their study on nickel.
Questions and Comments
Question: What was the source of the 1968 maximum and the 1969 maximum
quarterly concentrations?
Answer: These concentrations were encountered in Portland, Maine and New York
City, but the source of the pollutants is not known. EPA is on the alert
for any sort of contaminant which represents a health hazard. Any marked
increase in a known pollutant is investigated as to source and cause.
Question (Paul Reynolds, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): Has anyone identified a
problem with fuel catalysts used with stainless steel in the exhaust system?
Answer: The pollution could be in the form of particulates or a compound like
nickel carbonyl (very toxic) which can be produced by carbon monoxide in
contact with nickel particles. However, this is not believed to be a pro-
blem with gas turbines because the exhaust temperatures are far above the
100 to 120 F dissociation temperature. This has not been investigated.
-161-
-------
Question: Have nickel emissions been measured around airports where aircraft
turbine engines have been running?
Answer: EPA has a network of stations measuring various pollutants in the air;
some of these are undoubtedly near airports. No correlation in the
vicinity of airports has been reported or investigated as far as is known
at this time.
L. Ceramic Materials Development, by John Egenolf, Advanced Materials
Engineering, Ltd., England (Guest Presentation)
In the three and a half years since it was organized, AME has focused primarily
on the processing and fabrication techniques for the practical application of
reaction bonded silicon nitride. One of the major application areas is power
systems where overall economics is of prime importance. Some of the early
vanes and a nozzle ring are shown in Fig. 103. The nozzle ring (for Plessey)
is 6 to 7 inches outside diameter. Using the fabrication characteristics of
silicon nitride, the molded blades are bonded to the outer and inner shrouds
(cut from a solid) during the nitriding process. RBSN is not being recommended
for rotating components.
Also shown in Fig. 103 are typical burner liners in which thin film and bandage
wrapping techniques, developed earlier for heat exchangers, have been applied.
Much of the early thin film technology was developed in conjunction with British
Leyland requirements for regenerator disks. Early disks were single pieces,
15-inch OD. Interest in recuperators also focused attention on reducing the
permeability of the ceramic materials. This led to work on alloying silicon
nitride and densifying or sealing the material. By matching the thermal coef-
ficients of expansion of both the densifying agent and the silicon nitride,
some of the thermal shock loss in the material property was restored.
Some of the later, modular designs of regenerators and recuperators aimed at
mitigating thermal stress and repair cost are shown in Fig. 104. Also indi-
cated is a foam matrix, as well as the extruded honeycomb matrix, which can be
-162-
-------
combustion
chamber
hers
nozzles
and blades
Plessey Co. Ltd., M.T.U., M.A.N. and other customers for the kind use of photographs.
Fig. 103 Typical Ceramic Components
-163-
-------
•ii*
•lit
•m
Fig. 104 Heat Exchanger Models
-164-
-------
used not only for regenerator segments but also for high temperature insulation
systems. It is believed that silicon nitride has an important role to play in
future heat exchangers.
Questions and Comments; None
M. General Purpose Programmable Analog Control - by D. Court, Ultra Electronics,
Inc., England (Guest Presentation)
Electronic analog control systems have been used successfully to control gas
turbine engines for industrial and vehicular applications. Their initial
introduction arose largely from the need to control engine temperature accu-
rately for both economic and durability reasons. The ability of electronic
controllers, however, to accept readily any input as a control parameter and
use it as the basis of control in a particular mode of operation has meant that
in many cases, an electronic controller currently offers the most economic
control for a given application.
A typical automotive gas turbine engine control system achieved electronically
is shown in Fig. 105. Input signals on the left-hand side: from the accelera-
tor pedal; the gas generator speed, NG; the intake air temperature, T.; the
turbine entry temperature, TT; and the output shaft speed, NQ; are converted
into voltage signals. These are used as inputs to an electronic analog com-
puter which computes the correct fuel flow and nozzle actuator position from
these inputs. Electrical outputs to drive the fuel metering valve and the
nozzle actuator are shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 105.
Controllers of this type possess two major characteristics, their low cost and
their flexibility. The low cost has arisen because the basic blocks in Fig. 105
are largely constructed from semi-conductor integrated circuits. During the
last few years, the overall market for these circuits has greatly increased in
volume, and extremely low unit costs have resulted. The second advantage,
flexibility, is particularly desirable and economical during the development
of a control, because, as with an electronic analog computer, changes in control
schedules can be achieved with modest changes in the electrical interconnections
between the hardware.
-165-
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©
4®
5> I ACCEL PEDAL
NOZZLE
ACTUATOR
Fig. 105 Basic Electronic Analog Control System
-166-
-------
During the last few years, however, there have been further developments of
electronic controllers with the two objectives of: (a) reducing their cost,
and (b) increasing their flexibility. The approach that has generally been
adopted to achieve these ends is that of "programmability" and sequential
operation of the computational elements. Instead of performing the control
calculations simultaneously and in parallel using a large number of computa-
tional elements as shown in Fig. 105, a single computational element is used
which is under the control of a stored program. This performs each of the
required calculations, stores the intermediate results, and finally produces
the required fuel flow and nozzle actuator position. The sequence of calcu-
lations is performed repetitively at high speed, so that the fuel flow and
nozzle position are updated at intervals much shorter than the response times
of the engine being controlled.
An approach like this has the ability to achieve the two objectives for the
following reasons. First, a single computational element is "time-shared"
between the various control loops, and, for fairly complex control systems,
this can lead to a decrease in the overall volume of electronics. Secondly,
the control laws are completely defined by the stored program; thus, by chan-
ging the stored program, the control laws can be completely changed. Within
the constraints of the sensor inputs and actuator outputs provided initially,
the flexibility is unlimited.
A schematic of the general purpose programmable analog control is shown in
Fig. 106. This control system provides the following:
• The optimum solution to the twin problems of control capability
and low cost.
• Calculations performed directly on sensor signals in analog form
to provide analog signals that can be used directly to drive the
system actuators. The basic element of this system is an analog
computer which is programmed from a stored digital program.
• A programmable system a control engineer can understand immediately
and operate within hours.
• A final system, the size, cost and reliability of which is attractive.
-167-
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gg
IGNAL
ONDITIONING
i -1
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DIGITAL PROGRAM COUNTER
1 JUMP TO
4
DIGITAL PROGRAM MEMORY
6 BITS
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12 INPUT
10 BITS \^i |Ro|i
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ANALOG
5 BITS
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ARITHMETIC UNIT
4, 8 WAY
M'XERS
22
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24 BIT INSTRUCTION WORD
INPUT
OUTPUT
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[MAX GAIN (1111111111)= 10.23]
EXAMPLE FUNCTIONS
12
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FUEL DEMAND
SPEED
DEMAND
12
PROG.
1.
1.
3.
Ngg
001100
001100
000101
0011001000
0110100111
0110100111
01111
10110
01111
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0 0 1
1 0 0
FUEL
DEMAND
Fig. 106 General Purpose Programmable Analog Control
-168-
-------
For more detailed description or information see (1) "Developments in Pro-
grammable Analog Control Systems" by J. R. Dent and A. D. Bergman, Ultra
Electronics, Ltd., 136 Mansfield Road, Western Avenue, Acton, London N30RT,
England, this is A.S.M.E. Paper No. 74 GT 117, presented at 1974 Gas Turbine
Conference and Products Show in Zurich.
Questions and Comments
Comment (T. Sebestyen, EPA): This system has been used in a number of practical
control applications including gas turbines and industrial chemical
processes.
-169-
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IV. RANKINE ENGINE PROGRAMS
A. Overview of Trends. Objectives, and Status, by Steve Luchter, EPA
As indicated in Fig. 107, the Rankine Program was initiated with a broad base
of technology and system contractors. Four preprototype system developments
(covering water-base fluid reciprocating and turbine; and organic fluid
reciprocating and turbine approaches) were carried essentially through
January 1974. In February 1974, approximately in accordance with the sche-
dule in Fig. 108, decisions were made:
• To pursue the water base, reciprocating system through the proto-
type system evaluation with Scientific Energy Systems, Inc.
• To use the organic, reciprocating system as a back-up with Thermo
Electron Corporation.
• To evaluate the prototype system in a "compact" car rather than
the standard vehicle as originally planned.
Since the last Coordination Conference (October 1974), activities have focused
primarily on two areas:
• Continued testing on preprototype engines to extract the maximum
information from them. Emphasis has been on system dynamics and
on the valving of the organic engine.
• Design of the Prototype Engine.
Test results continue to show steady-state emission levels well below 1977
Standards. Steady-state fuel economy results are approaching those of spark
ignition engines.
Use of the preprototype hardware will continue. The engine will be installed
in a vehicle for further development of the control system. Called the Control
Development Simulator, it is expected to be operational on a dynamometer by the
end of 1974.
Prototype development will continue in parallel.
-170-
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ENVIRONMENTAL EROTECTIOH
AGENCY
NASA LERCI
CONTRACT TECHNICAL R$D
1QNITORING SUPPORT PROGRAMS
TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS |
COMBUSTOR
-SOAR
GBO SCIENCE
LTD
-PAXVE
-MTTELLfc
SYSTEM CONTRACTORS
WATER BASE
ORGANIC WITH RECIPROCATOR
STEAM ENGINE SYSTEMS
THERMO ELECTRON CO
-RICARDO
- AMERICAN MOTORS
LESSO
- BENDIX
L
FORD
I CONDENSER
MODELING
STUDIES
GARRETT
"AIRESEARCH
T
GE
LUBRICATION 11 FLUIDS | [FEEDPUMP |
GENERAL
ELECTRIC
LMONSANTO
ORGANIC WITH TURBINE
AEROJET
-GM
Fig. 107 Rankine System Development Team
-------
CALENPAZ
TECHNOLOGY MOG&AMS
EM/SS/ONS
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Fig. 108 Rankine System Schedule
-------
B. Water Base Reciprocating System, by Jack H. Vernon and Roger Dernier,
Scientific Energy Systems, Inc.
Perspective on Rankine Development: Although progress has been made on
vehicular steam engines by numerous people and organizations since the early
1900's (Stanley, Doble, White, Besler and GM, to name a few), it is only over
the last three years of the AAPS programs, that a concerted effort has been
made to bring it all together. By focusing the latest technology on specific
goals and requirements in a conscious effort to develop a low pollution
Rankine engine, potentially competitive with the I.e. automotive engine,
remarkable progress has been made in a short time with nominal investment.
The incentives motivating this effort stem from the present environmental laws
Although the present rate of improvement and progress is relatively high, a
fully developed, competitive engine is still in the distant future; a large
amount of work remains to be done.
Features of SES System: The following lists the principal features of the SES
Preprototype System (Fig. 109):
• Working fluid: pure water - 1000°F, 1000 Psig at boiler exit
• Fail-safe freeze protection: working inventory drained to heated
sump on shut down - flexible bladder in sump for emergency
• Reciprocating expander: 4 cyl in-line - 135 cu. in. displacement,
trunk piston lubricated with natural base-stock oil, uniflow
exhaust, variable cut-off control, plain shell type bearings, and
cam and tappet valve train
• Design point: EPA/AAPS vehicle specification
Maximum steam flow = 20 Ib./min.
• Maximum expander power: (85°F ambient, high gear)
Gross hp = 158 @ 1500 rpm
Net hp into transmission = 138 @ 1500 rpm
• Compact, low emission boiler; 19.5-in. diameter by 18.5-in. long;
heat input to water at maximum power = 1.58 x 10 BTU/hr.
• Condenser heat rejection at maximum power = 1.21 x 10 BTU/hr.
-173-
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-p-
I
Fig. 109 SES Automotive Steam System Mock-Up
-------
• Simple feedwater pump with fixed displacement, direct drive,
efficient flow control by inlet valve modulation
• Practical installation with good accessibility, only minor chassis
changes, conventional arrangement, good cooling air flow, and
conventional seals (not hermetic)
Current Status and Recent Achievements: The data shown in Figs. 110 and 111,
based on the best available steady-state laboratory data, show that emissions
should be well below statutory 1977 standards. Fuel economy up to 15.45 mpg
is shown in Fig. 112. Fuel economy projections, based on steady-state perfor-
mance, for the Federal Driving Cycle, are shown in Fig. 113.
Cumulative development test hours to date are as follows:
• System Testing 391 hours
(Current Build 115)
• Single Cylinder 847 hours
(Over 30 hp 38)
(Rated, 40 hp 2%)
(Max Single Build 200)
• Vapor Generators 2035 hours
(Max Single Build 905)
• Prototype Pumps 3930 hours
(Max Single Build 600)
Some of the improvements in expander efficiency and auxiliary power require-
ments are shown in Figs. 114 and 115.
Controls are an important part of the current test and development effort:
• Automatic start-up has been incorporated in the control system
• Idle steam conditions reached in 19 seconds from key "on"
• Flame holder temperature is used for closed loop fuel-air ratio
control
-175-
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100
90
80
70
60
50
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
MILES PER HOUR
Fig. 110 Steady-State Emissions (Based on Measured
Steady-State Emissions and Current System
Fuel Economy)
-176-
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SES PROJECTION
NOx = 0.18
CO = 0.43
UHC = 0. 18
1976 STANDARDS
0.40
3. 40
0.41
GRAMS/MILE
GRAMS/MILE
GRAMS/MILE
COMPUTATION BASED ON MEASURED EMISSIONS
FROM PREPROTOTYPE STEAM GENERATOR, 10
MPG AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY, 25% AVERAGE
FIRING RATE.
0.50 GRAMS ON
ON SHUT-DOWN.
INCLUDES
IGNITION
MEASURED
AND 0.25
UHC OF
GRAMS
Fig. Ill Cold Start Federal Driving Cycle Emissions
-177-
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CURRENT TEST
CORRECTED (I)
RAW DATA
POINTS
MAY 1973 TEST
1
1
1
1
1
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
MILES PER HOUR
CD CORRECTED FOR VALVE STEM SEALS
AND DIRECT STEAM LINE TO EXPANDER
Fig. 112 Steady State Road Load Fuel Economy (4600 Pound Vehicle)
-178-
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VEHICLE:
SYSTEM:
DRIVE TRAIN:
EXPANDER IDLE SPEED:
1+600 LB. TEST WEIGHT, 12. FTZ DRAG-AREA PRODUCT
CURRENT PERFORMANCE
3 SP. AUTO TRANS, 11.75" DIAM. TORQUE CONVERTER.
250 RPM.
FDC FUEL ECONOMY
HOT START
COLD START (1)
ACCESSORY LOAD W/0 AIR COND. (2)
ACCESSORY LOAD WITH AIR COND.
10.22 MPG
8.64 MPG
9.22 MPG
8.04 MPG
NOTES: (1) STEAM GENERATOR WARM-UP OF 17 SEC, AT 80% OF FULL
FIRING RATE (USING 0.065 GAL. FUEL).
(2) POWER OF 2 HP. AT EXPANDER IDLE SPEED, 5 HP. AT
MAXIMUM SPEED AND LINEAR CHANGE WITH SPEED.
(3) POWER OF 4 HP. AT EXPANDER IDLE SPEED, 15 HP. AT
MAXIMUM SPEED AND LINEAR CHANGE WITH SPEED.
Fig. 113 Federal Driving Cycle Fuel Economy Projected from
Steady State Performance
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EXPANDER GROSS HORSEPOWER
Fig. 114 Expander Efficiency
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STEAM FLOW RATE LB/HR
Fig. 115 Auxiliary Power Requirements
-181-
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• Only two driver inputs
— Key on/off
- Power demand (accelerator pedal)
• Automatic cold start enrichment from mixture temperature signal
• Basic control mode is anticipatory with temperature and pressure
feedback
• Control options
— Driver input to expander cut-off or firing rate
— Active evaporator bypass control
— Temperature control at superheater inlet or outlet
The preliminary system transient response is too slow. Transient loop tests
are in progress incorporating the boiler feed pump, the boiler, the steam
throttle and the controls. The key factor determining the response is the
metal energy change with load. Secondary factors are: maximum firing rate,
firing rate of change, control strategy, and base load (i.e., like a "flight
idle").
The strategy for improved boiler response is through energy leveling (by
reduced tube weight, revised pass order, and passive evaporator by-pass) and
control options (active evaporator by-pass control and variable boiler pressure
to level energy change). The following comparison of the current Model 5 with
the new Model 7 (see Fig. 116) boiler indicates some of these improvements:
Model 5 Model 7
• Maximum steam flow, Ib./min. 20 20
• Tubing weight, Ib. 98 61
• Metal energy change, idle to full load, BTU 1,430 100
• Superheater temperature control point exit inlet
Prototype Compact Car: A scaled version of the Preprototype Engine is to be
installed and evaluated in a compact car. EPA performance specifications for
the compact car are:
-182-
-------
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DEMAND
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MODULATION CONTROL
Fig. 116 Model 7 Boiler and Control Strategy
-------
• Emissions to be h of 1977 standards
• Standing start: 440 feet in 10 seconds
60 tnph in 17.5 seconds
• Merging traffic - 25 to 70 mph in 20 seconds
• DOT high speed pass in 17 seconds (max 80 mph)
• 30 percent grade at 5 mph
• Fuel economy at 50 mph, 20 mpg
• FDC fuel economy, 15 mpg
The base vehicle is a 1975 Plymouth Valiant. The engine power and configuration
will be as follows:
• Gross expander power - 90 hp
• Maximum steam flow of 800 Ib. per hour
• Basic engine arrangement and cycle will be scaled from the
Preprototype Engine.
• Vapor generator - 17.5 in. diameter by 17 in. long, weight 52 Ibs.
• Expander - 4 cylinder, in-line, 65 cu. in. displacement, 4000 rpm,
no step-up gear
• Condenser - single fan, aluminum core, 3.8 sq. ft., 4 in. depth,
20 fins per inch on air side
• Feedwater pump - present pump with reduced bore
• Transmission - production 3-speed automatic
A breakdown of projected vehicle weight is as follows:
• Base vehicle without powerplant, WQ = 2131 Ib.
• Prototype propulsion system
— Expander 225 Ib.
— Condenser & Fan 60
— Vapor Generator 52
— Feedpump 16
— Auxiliary Drives 35
- Working Fluid, 4 gal. 34
-184-
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— Freeze Protection 18
— Transmission 180
— Miscellaneous 80
— Vehicle Related (Exhaust, propshaft,
axle, battery, fuel & tank) 380
• Propulsion System Weight Wp = 1080 (Comparable
weight for a
6 cylinder pro-
duction Valiant
is 1055 Ibs.)
• Curb Weight WG = 3211
• Test Weight WT = 3611
• Gross Weight Wr = 3911
Lr
Work in Progress
• Continued durability development on preprototype hardware.
• Controls development on chassis dynamometer. Preprototype Engine
being installed, in Plymouth for the work - called Control Develop-
ment Simulator.
• Light weight boiler for rapid throttle response (current tube
bundle is 98 pounds); light weight tube bundle is 61 pounds;
compact car tube bundle is 35 pounds
• Prototype design includes:
— improved economy with refined expander, valve train refine-
ments, and thermal isolation
— study of compact and standard car systems
— car selection and final prototype design in Fall 1974
Questions and Comments
Question (N. Moore, JPL): How does the inlet valve unloading concept work on
the feedwater pump?
-185-
-------
Answer: The inlet valve on each cylinder is a spring loaded ball valve. Also
at each inlet is an electric solenoid with a shaft which holds the valve
open when activated. By cycling the three solenoids with the control
signal, the flow can be regulated in accordance with the demand of the
control.
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): Have you considered going to
higher cycle temperatures?
Answer: Higher temperatures have been considered, but dropped, because the
potential gain of perhaps 1 to 1% mpg for a 200°F increase does not seem
commensurate with the risks of wrecking the engine and getting into a
lot of unknowns which would not help the program at this time.
Question (Scott Carpenter, Advanced Power Systems): How were the reductions
in the boiler weight (90 Ibs. down to 60 Ibs.) and the BTU energy loss
(1400 BTU down to 100 BTU) achieved?
Answer: The BTU reduction is not a loss, but is the amount of energy which
is added to the tube in the course of getting up to the desired steam
conditions. The reductions were achieved primarily through smaller
tubing in the economizer and the evaporator, aluminum finning on the
economizer, and redistribution of the tube passes (for reducing energy
change). One of the evaporator passes was put up by the fire.
Question (Paul Vickers, GM Research Center): Why haven't vehicle emissions
been measured?
Answer: The engine has not been installed in a vehicle as yet. Equipment
for running transient tests will not be ready until next winter. Stan-
dard EPA emissions test equipment is installed and will be used.
Question (Comdr. E. Tyrrel, Dept. of Trade & Industry, England): What type of
water quality is required for this engine? Are there de-aeration pro-
visions, and what is the boiler tube material? CO. corrosion of ferritic
materials is a problem over 600°F. What is the thermodynamic efficiency
of the cycle?
-186-
-------
Answer: Over-all thermal efficiency is 16-17%. City water is run through a
demineralizer. No provision is made to measure water quality. Deposits
from the demineralized city water have not been observed. The boiler
tubing material is stainless steel. No corrosion problems have been
identified. Tubes from a boiler which ran 900 hours were cut up. No
problems were detected. The condenser pressure is a little over ambient
at all times, 20 Psia. A de-aerator valve is set to blow off non-
condensable gases when the system is running.
Question (R. R. Stephenson, JPL): Please clarify the time to get up to
operating conditions.
Answer: At present it actually takes 19 seconds to get from the turn of the
key up to 500 Psig and 500 F idling conditions. EPA, to account for
warm-up fuel consumption, asks how long it takes at an 807» firing rate
to get up to 1000 Psig and 1000°F. Some of the calculations show 17
seconds. This has not yet been accomplished. At present, it is esti-
mated that another 2% to 3 seconds are required to get to 1000 Psig and
1000°F.
Question (T. Duffy, Solar): What is the fuel flow at idle and what are
pressure and temperature goals in terms of transient limits?
Answer: Idle flow is about 5 pounds per hour (uncertain). It is intended to
control pressure within + 50 Psi and temperature within + 50 F. The
tolerance of the system to such excursions during acceleration and dece-
leration is not yet clear.
Question (Dr. Max Bentele, Xamag, Inc.): Why do you use an automatic 3-speed
transmission when the inherent torque ratio of the steam expander is so
good?
Answer: If available, a 2-speed, manual power-shift transmission without a
torque converter would be best. To eliminate the transmission or a gear
change of some sort completely would probably be impractical because it
would lead to an oversize condenser which would in turn be too large for
the vehicle.
-187-
-------
Question (Dr. F. Paul, Carnegie Mellon University): What are the response
times with the controlled and uncontrolled vapor generator?
Answer: Tests are sketchy in this area. Largest step change so far was from
idle to 6070 power while driving an eddy current dynamometer. Estimates
indicate about a 3-second first order time constant on a controlled boiler.
This is still very preliminary.
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): What is the basis for the road
load horsepower versus various speeds (i.e., the basis for the fuel
economy curves in Fig. 112)?
Answer: Road load horsepower versus speed figures were established by EPA and
take into account wind resistance as well as rolling resistance. This
seems to be generally accepted by people such as DOT and others in the
industry. Drive train losses at 30 tnph were taken as 837o. This then is
combined with estimated auxiliary and accessory powers to get power
required from the expander and corresponding fuel economy.
Question (Mr. Jack Edwards, Rohr Corp.): What is the cranking time and starter
horsepower? Is thermal efficiency of the boiler compromised by reducing
the thermal inertia of the boiler?
Answer: It presently takes 19 seconds to get up to idle steam flow. Approxi-
mately another 10 seconds might be required to get the expander up to
speed to drive accessories, etc. A conventional starting motor, operating
at a higher speed, is used. The thermal efficiency of the boiler is
compromised about 2% out of 92% at idle as a result of reducing its
thermal inertia.
Question (Dr. Douglas Court, Ultra Electronics): Where do you expect to mount
the "black box" controls in the vehicle installation?
Answer: No attempt has been made yet at packaging or compacting the control
system.
-188-
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Question (Mr. Tom Duffy, Solar): What are the transient characteristics of the
flame holder temperature as these will have an important effect on your
feedback control system? Also, what approach is being used for flame
detection?
Answer: The automatic feedback system is being used in the starting cycle; it
has a 3/4-second smooth response in going from idle to 10070 fuel rate; it
works very well. A cadmium sulfide cell is used as a flame detector.
C. Organic Reciprocating Engine, by Jack Armstrong, Thermo Electron Corp.
A schematic diagram of the Thermo Electron, Organic Rankine Cycle Engine is
shown in Fig. 117. The principal characterics of the Preprototype Engine are
as follows:
• Working Fluid
Freezing Point
Lubricant
Thermal Stability
Fluorinol-85
85 mole % CF CH OH
15 mole % H0
-82°F
Commercial Refrigeration Oil
(Sun Oil Product)
Capsule tests indicate potential
for use to 660 F
Reference Car and Transmission 1972 Ford Galaxie 500
• Expander Gross Shaft Power
• Peak Cycle Temperature
• Peak Cycle Pressure
3-Speed Automatic
145.5 hp
550°F
700 Psia
Preprototype Engine Program: The program status on the Preprototype Engine is
as follows:
• Fluorinol-85 baseline performance has been established. The test
range has included cruise speeds from idle to 70 mph (level grade
and acceleration), inlet pressures from 400-700 Psia, and maximum
-189-
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BURNER BOILER
ASSEMBLY
IvTTAKE AIR
BOILER TUBING
COMBUSTION //
EXHAUST
LOW PRESSURE LIQUID
9860 Ib/hr
CAST IRON
ENGINE BLOCK
PISTON TYPE
BOILER FEED PUNP
COMBUSTION
QASSES
HIGH PRESSURE
ORGANIC VAPOR
LOW PRESSURE
ORGANIC VAPOR
ORGANIC
LIQUID
FINS TUBE
CONDENSER
73000lb/hr
Fig. 117 Thermo Electron Rankine Cycle Engine Schematic Diagram
-190-
-------
inlet temperatures to 625°F. Expander driven auxiliaries include:
condenser fans, feedpump, lube oil pump, alternator, and hydraulic
pump for valves. The test system is close-coupled and arranged as
it would be in the vehicle installation. The ram air facility
provides realistic system simulation up to 90 mph.
• Up to 507» improvement in fuel economy has been measured (See
Fig. 118).
• Emission measurements show pollution levels well below 1976 stan-
dards (See Fig. 119).
• The BICERI (British Internal Combustion Engine Research Institute)
valve has been demonstrated.
• Idle operation (about 250 rpm) has been simulated.
• Control testing is in progress. This has been done on a component
by component basis; the complete control system is to be ready for
test by the end of June 1974. It is a "predictive" control; inputs
are expander intake valve cut-off set by accelerator positions, and
expander rpm. The predictive settings are: blower motor rpm,
air/EGR shutter position, fuel pump rpm, and feedpump displacement.
Major feedbacks are: organic fluid pressure for feedpump displace-
ment, organic fluid temperature for the corresponding air/fuel
setting, and condenser pressure for fan speed control.
Prototype Engine Program: Design of the Prototype Engine for the compact car
is based on information generated by the Preprototype Engine. The performance
reference is the 1974 Ford Pinto with less than the 1977 Federal Emission
Standards.
The program status on the Prototype Engine is as follows:
• Trade-off studies are completed. The resulting system and
component characteristics and features are shown in Figs. 120,
121, 122, 123, 124, and 125.
• Compact car design options are developed (See Figs. 126, 127, and
128).
-191-
-------
20
18
16
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FEB 1974 (CORRECTED FOR
FACILITY INDUCED
PENALTIES)
FEB 1974 (AS MEASURED)
DEC 1973 GOAL
JAN 1974
I
JULY 1973
10
20
30 40 50
ROAD LOAD (MPH)
60
70
80
Fig. 118 Preprototype System Fuel Economy - FL-85 Baseline
-------
EMISSIONS FOR FEDERAL DRIVING CYCLE
POLLUTANT
UHC
CO
NOX
1976
FEDERAL
STANDARD
[GMS/MILE]
0.41
3.40
0.40
EMISSIONS
[GMS/MILE]
0.17
0.21
0.275
1. BASED ON STEADY STATE TEST DATA.
2. INCLUDES 30 SECONDS FIRING AT 58 LBS/HR FOR START-UP SIMULATION.
3. FUEL CONSUMPTION 10.2 MPG FOR FEDERAL DRIVING CYCLE.
Fig. 119 Emissions for Federal Driving Cycle
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WEIGHT CLASS
WORKING FLUID
MINIMUM PUMPING TEMPERATURE
FREEZING POINT
PEAK TEMPERATURE
PEAK PRESSURE
EXPANDER SHAFT POWER
EXPANDER SPEED
MAXIMUM FIRING RATE
MAXIMUM FLOW RATE
2500-3000 LBS
(TEST WEIGHT)
FL-50
-28 °F
-82 °F
650 °F
800 PS IA
60 HP
2000 RPM
1.06 x 106 Btu/Hr
2370 LBS/HR
Fig. 120 System Characteristics
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MAXIMUM FIRING RATE
EFFICIENCY
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
MAXIMUM FUEL FLOW RATE
MAXIMUM AIR FLOW RATE
1.06 x 106 Btu/hr
80%
650 °F
800 psia
52.7 Ibs/hr
988.3 Ibs/hr
COMBUSTION GAS SIDE PRESSURE
PRESSURE DROP 9 inches w.c.
WORKING FLUID SIDE
PRESSURE DROP 120 psi
BLOWER SHAFT POWER 0.5
FEATURES
• RADIAL COMBUSTOR/VAPOR GENERATOR
• INTEGRATED BLOWER/ROTARY ATOMIZER
• THREE-PASS CROSS PARALLEL, CROSS COUNTER FLOW
ARRANGEMENT
Fig. 121 Design Point Characteristics of Combustor/Vapor Generator
-195-
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CONDENSER
HEAT TRANSFER RATE
EFFECTIVENESS
CONDENSING TEMPERATURE
CONDENSING PRESSURE
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
AIR FLOW RATE
CORE PRESSURE DROP
REGENERATOR
HEAT TRANSFER RATE
EFFECTIVENESS
FEATURES
669,000 Btu/hr
0.80
212°F
31.8 psia
85°F
27,400 Ibm/hr
3 inches w.c.
94,300 Btu/hr
0.70
• INTEGRATED CONDENSER-REGENERATOR
• REGENERATOR: TWO PASS CROSS COUNTER FLOW
• CONDENSER: CROSS FLOW
• BRAZED ALUMINUM CONSTRUCTION
• AIR-COOLED
• ENGINE MOUNTED
Fig. 122 Design Point Characteristics of Condenser-Regenerator
-196-
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TOTAL FLOW
INLET TEMPERATURE
SPEED
PRESSURE RISE (TOTAL)
PRESSURE RISE (STATIC)
FAN SHAFT POWER
FEATURES
• TUBE AXIAL
• CAST ALUMINUM CONSTRUCTION
• ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVEN
• FRONT MOUNTED
27,400 Ibm/hr
85° F
2460 rpm
2.0 inches w.c.
1.2 inches w.c.
2.9 hp
Fig. 123 Design Point Characteristics of Condenser Fan
-197-
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• CYLINDERS - 2
• BORE - 3.25 INCHES
• STROKE - 3.00 INCHES
• RATED SPEED - 2000 RPM
• INLET VALVING - HYDRAULICALLY ACTUATED
• UNIFLOW EXHAUST PORTING
• FEATURES - VARIABLE CUT-OFF VALVING
ALUMINUM BLOCK WITH IRON
LINERS
Fig. 124 Expander Design Characteristics
-198-
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FLOW RATE 4.6 GPM at 1000 rpm
NUMBER OF CYLINDERS 3 in-line
BORE 1.2 inches
STROKE 0.4 inch (maximum)
FEATURES
• VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
• INTEGRATED INTO EXPANDER BLOCK
• PUMP DISPLACEMENT AND EXPANDER CUT-OFF CONTROL
MECHANICALLY INTEGRATED
Fig. 125 Feedpump Design Characteristics
-199-
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APOR GENERATOR.
to
o
D
CONDENSER PAN
CONDENSER
TRANS MISS ION
3OOST PUMP
Fig. 126 Organic Rankine Engine (Pinto - Side View)
-------
to
o
BOOST PUMP
TRANSMISSION
, VAPOR GENERATOR
CONDENSER -REG-ENERATOR
CONDENSER FAN
Fig. 127 Organic Rankine Engine (Pinto - Top View)
-------
CONDENSER FAN
Ni
O
Isj
I
VAL.VING- PUMP
FEEDPUMP
VAPOR GENERATOR
BOOST PUMP
REGENERATOR
CONDENSER
Fig. 128 Organic Rankine Engine
(Pinto - Front View)
-------
• Major component layouts and specifications are completed.
• Single cylinder test is in progress.
Calculated fuel economy characteristics for the engine in a Pinto are shown in
Fig. 129 for different transmission options. The calculated 0-60 mph accelera-
tion time for the Pinto with a four-speed standard transmission and the organic
Rankine engine is 19.1 seconds, whereas for the Pinto with the same transmission
and an I.C. engine it is 16.5 seconds.
Improvements of the Prototype Engine relative to the Preprototype system are
summarized in Fig. 130.
Questions and Comments
Question (S. S. Miner, Miner Machine Development Co.): How is the cut-off
regulation obtained hydraulically on the BICERI valve?
Answer: The hydraulic distributor has a helix cut in a cylinder which is
positioned axially by the control. This varies the time that the valve
is exposed to hydraulic pressure thus providing a variable cut-off.
Question (H. Moore, Jet Propulsion Laboratory): How does the fuel economy
of the organic system compare with that of the steam system?
Answer: Thermal efficiencies and fuel economy values are comparable (about
15-17% thermal efficiency); however, the organic system is operating at
a lower peak tempe
versus 1000 Psia).
a lower peak temperature (600 F versus 1000 F) and pressure (800 Psia
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): Referring to the calculated fuel
economy curves in Fig. 129, it appears that 30 mpg at 30 mph exceeds ideal
efficiency capability of the organic fluid cycle. How is this explained?
Answer: This is a practical efficiency and does not exceed the ideal. Details
of this figure will be discussed separately if desired.
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4 SPEED MANUAL
— 3 SPEED AUTOMATIC
NO TRANSMISSION
Fig. 129 Pinto - 60 HP — Calculated Fuel Economy
-------
1. IMPROVED SFC WITH FLUORINOL-50.
2. REDUCED COMPONENT SIZE DUE TO REDUCED FLOW RATE.
3. REDUCED SYSTEM WEIGHT, ALUMINUM EXPANDER AND
REGENERATOR.
4. REDUCED NUMBER OF PARTS, TWO-CYLINDER EXPANDER,
THREE-CYLINDER PUMP, ONE FAN.
5. ONE SHAFT SEAL.
6. IMPROVED INTAKE VALVE DESIGN.
7. INTEGRATED EXPANDER, FEEDPUMP, INTAKE VALVE, AND
HYDRAULIC PUMP
8. INTEGRATED CUT-OFF AND FEEDPUMP CONTROLS.
9. REDUCED PARASITICS.
10. INTEGRATED REGENERATOR AND CONDENSER.
11. ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN CONDENSER FAN WITH ENERGY STORAGE
FOR TRANSIENT.
12. ELIMINATED RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN COMPONENTS, NO
FLEX LINES.
13. IMPROVED PACKAGING AND FLEXIBLE CONFIGURATION.
Fig. 130 Improvements Relative to Preprototype System
-205-
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Question (Lawrence Linden, MIT): The ambient design point temperature of 85 F
was used for the condenser on both the S.E.S. and the Thermo Electron
systems. What happens to performance at higher temperature? Is there a
practical maximum?
Answer: Performance suffers at higher ambient temperatures, probably not much
at 95°F, but at about 115 F the vehicle couldn't operate. On the other
o
hand, performance improves at temperatures lower than 85 F.
Question (Y. Friedman, SES): Have you noticed any increase in condenser
pressure or fan horsepower with extended running due to degradation of
working fluid? How poisonous are decomposition products of the fluid?
What is the solubility of oil in Fluorinal-85 and 50?
Answer- The working fluid has undergone over 2000 hours of continuous testing
in the dynamic loop; several 3KW systems have been delivered to the Army,
and these are operating. No problems with gradual degradation of the
fluid at normal operating temperatures have been encountered. If exposed
to temperatures above established stability limits it will decompose, but
time of exposure is a factor. The fluid is classified as non-toxic. Oil
is insoluble in the working fluid.
Question (R. Niggemann, Sundstrand Aviation): What physically happens to the
system if you operate above the stability limits of the working fluid?
Why was the piston expander selected over the turbine expander?
Answer: Although it is possible to operate for limited time above the stability
limits of the working fluid, the performance degrades. Sludge, acids and
non-condensible gases are formed. Although the peak turbine efficiency
is high over a narrow speed range, the vehicle application requires opera-
tion over a wide range of speed and load. The piston expander has much
better over-all efficiency under these load and operating conditions.
Question (T. Duffy, Solar): What is the means for closing the loop on the
feedback combustor control?
Answer: The key measurement is the tub'e wall temperature on the superheater.
This is monitored to avoid overheating and degradation of the working
fluid.
-206-
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Question (E. Heffner, GM Technical Center): Does EPA intend to test the
steam and organic Rankine systems in the standard 4500 pound car?
Answer (Steve Luchter, EPA): The decision was made to use the steam engine for
the prototype and to continue with the organic engine as a back-up system.
Simultaneously it was decided to demonstrate the prototype steam system
in a compact car. No fully drivable, 4500 pound car is planned. At
present there is no plan to put the organic system in a compact car;
however, the right is reserved by the Government to do this at a later
date if the situation warrants it.
Question (Arthur Underwood, Consultant): What is EPA doing to alleviate the
unnecessarily low NOx (0.4 grams/mile) requirement? It is understood
some recommendations have been made.
Answer (Steve Luchter, EPA): Some internal work has been going on at Durham
regarding the health effects of various NOx levels. Information about
possible conclusions and/or recommendations has not been received.
Appropriate contacts will be identified, so that inquiries can be made.
Question (J. Abbin, Sandia Laboratories): What expander and feedpump effi-
ciencies have been demonstrated and what efficiencies are anticipated for
the Prototype Engine?
Answer: Feedpump efficiencies vary between 70-857=. Expander efficiencies
vary between 50 and 70%. At road load the expander efficiency is about
6070. These are measured values.
Question (L. Linder, MIT): Are there manufacturing problems associated with
the Rankine engines analogous to those encountered by gas turbines with
heat exchangers and turbine wheels?
Answer: One of the major advantages of the Rankine engine is its producibility.
Operating temperatures and pressures are moderate; materials of construc-
tion are not unusual or scarce; methods of manufacturing and processing
are used for or adaptable to automotive and Diesel engine practice. Thou-
sands of hours of compatibility tests have been run on the lubricants,
working fluids, and materials of construction. All of the materials
currently involved are compatible and commonly available.
-207-
-------
Question (Dr. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): On a previous program we had to pay
$85 per gallon of Fluorinol-85. What are the prospects for reducing that
price?
Answer: In production quantities projected prices for Fluorinol-85 range from
85 cents to $1.25 per pound.
D. California Clean Car Program, by M. Wenstrom, California Research, and
R. Renner Consultant (Guest Presentation)
The California Clean Car Project is being funded primarily by the State
Assembly with the two prime contractors supplying supplementary funding. Two
steam powered automobiles have been built, one by the Aerojet Liquid Rocket
Company of Sacramento, and the other by Steam Power Systems, Inc. of San Diego.
Accomplishments to date are-
• Contract work began on development of two steam cars, November 15,
1972.
• Most major system components were fabricated and tested by November
15, 1973.
• Bench testing of complete systems was underway by February 1974.
• First operation of a test chassis on steam power (SPS) was on
March 16, 1974.
• Both automobiles were completed and operational by May 1, 1974.
• Vehicles were ready for first public display and demonstration
on May 15, 1974.
It is planned to make system improvements until July 15, 1974, and then to
subject the vehicles to testing and evaluation by state agencies. A final
report will be issued by the Assembly Office of Research in the fall of 1974.
It was recognized that in a project involving limitations in time and resources,
equal attention could not be given to all aspects of development. Therefore,
a conservative approach was needed. For example, given the choice between
achieving low exhaust emissions or good fuel economy, it was decided to con-
centrate on the former, while leaving the latter for future work.
-208-
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Aerojet's powerplant features a single-stage impulse steam turbine, driving
through a hydrostatic transmission. The complete powerplant is located in the
normal engine compartment and transmission tunnel. A steam generator built by
Scientific Energy Systems and based on a design developed for the Environmental
Protection Agency is used. Low emission characteristics have already been
validated by test.
SPS has built a four-cylinder, double-acting compound-expansion steam engine.
Power is delivered through a two-speed automatic mechanical transmission. The
steam generator and condenser are located in the front of the car, with the
engine, transaxle, and auxiliaries in the rear. The SPS car is also deriving
benefit from EPA-funded combustion and steam generator research. Their steam
generator has been supplied by the Solar Division of International Harvester Co,
Figures 131 and 132 show the two automobiles. The Aerojet car is a converted
1973 Chevrolet Vega coupe, while the body and chassis of the SPS car are of
special construction and tailored to the powerplant configuration.
Figure 133 summarizes the characteristics of the vehicles and their propulsion
systems. Figure 134 gives some of the test results to date, together with the
expectations for this summer's testing. Figure 135 gives emissions standards
and expected projected results.
Some of the development problems encountered include: fuel economy, system
weight, noise, oxides of nitrogen, and controls.
During the last half of this summer, the cars will be evaluated with the
assistance of state agencies. The technical evaluation will ascertain whether
the state's goals have been met. It will also serve to provide much test data
that have been lacking in regard to modern steam cars. Such data can provide a
base of departure for future research and development.
Questions and Comments
Question (Dr. G. A. Brown, University of Rhode Island): How is it the term
"adequate" is used for the performance of the steam bus when the
-209-
-------
O
i
FEED PUMP
CONDENSER
TRANSMISSION
REGENERATOR
TURBINE
Fig. 131 Artist's Rendering of Aerojet Steam-Powered Vega
-------
Fig. 132 Steam Power Systems Car Prior to Engine Installation
-211-
-------
Vehicle
Aerojet
SPS
Type
Vehicle construction
Approx. curb weight, Ib (wet)
Max. rated Payload, Ib.
Gross Weight, fully loaded, Ib,
Chevrolet Vega Special Construction
Unit body Chassis w/separate body
2,905 3,030
705 750
3,655 3,780
Power System
Steam Generator Type
Burner Type
Rated max. Steam Flow, Ib/hr
Rated max. fuel flow, Ib/hr
Expander Type
No. of expansion stages
Expander rated gross hp
Expander rated rpm, max.
Expander inlet pressure, psia
Steam temperature, F
Condenser frontal area, ft
Condenser thickness, in.
Powerplant dry weight, Ib*
Monotube
Air Atomizing
660
50
Impulse turbine
60
60,000
500
1,000
4.1
4.5
970
Monotube
Spinning Cup
650
48
4-cyl. recip.
(double acting)
2
65
2,400
1,000
800
6.1
3.6
940
Powerplant dry weight includes transmission but not differential,
and excludes batteries, fuel tank, and driver's controls.
Fig. 133 Vehicle and Powerplant Characteristics
-212-
-------
Aerojet SPS
Tested Performance as of May 3, 1974
(mostly inferred from system
bench tests)
Power System Max. net bhp a 48 45
Specific fuel cons., lb/bhp-hr (a) 0.95 1.03
Idle Fuel cons., Ib/hr 11.7 6.2
Cold starting time:
First movement of car, sec. 155 130
- To full power, sec. 315 270
Est. best fuel mileage, mpg . . 12 12
Max. Road Horsepower Developed *• ' 36
Expected Performance - July 15, 1974
Emissions, CO, g/mi (c) 0.5 1.2
Emissions, HC g/mi (c) 0.1 0.14
Emissions, NOX g/mi (c) 0.17 0.22
Urban fuel mileage, mpg (c' 8-10 9-11
Best fuel mileage, mpg 16 17
Max. speed, 0% grade, mph 75 84
Max. speed, 5% grade, mph 50 57
Sound levels, exterior @ 50'
SAE J968A, dBA 74 74
Sound levels, interior, dBA 72 72
Fig. 134 Powerplant and Vehicle: Test Data and Performance Expectations
(a) Best performance, based on net power into
transmission after all powerplant auxiliaries
are driven.
(b) Aerojet, by chassis dynomometer; SPS, by acceleration
trails. Installed systems had not yet been tuned to
optimum levels.
(c) Over Federal Driving Cycle.
-213-
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EMISSIONS LEVELS
(Grams/mile)
CO HC NOX
1974 Standards 39.0 3.2 2.0
Original 1976
Federal Standards 3.4 0.41 0.4
California Clean Car
Project Goals 1.7 0.2 0.2
Range of expected
values, California
Clean Car Project 0.2-0.8 0.05-0.1 0.14-0.2
Fig. 135 Comparison Emission Standards and Projected Results
*The original standards of 0.41 g/mi HC, 3.4 g/mi CO and
0.4 g/mi NO have now been postponed - perhaps until the
1980's. Project goal for emissions is to demonstrate no
more than one-half of the original 1976 Federal standards,
-214-
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performance, according to the numbers, is only one-third to one-seventh
that of a comparable Diesel bus? Why is effort being devoted to a closed
cycle, turbine drive when it is generally known and accepted that the
part load fuel economy is inherently very low?
Answer: Reports on the California Steam Bus Program present quantitative data
in comparison with Diesel engine data; the lower fuel economy was not
hidden; however, the buses did operate well enough to go from stop to
stop, picking up and dropping off passengers in regular revenue service.
These buses operated over regular routes including the hills in San
Francisco.
Concerning the turbine efficiency, it is important to compare the drive
system including the turbine gear box and transmission. The Aerojet
combination acts to keep the turbine running over its optimum, high
efficiency speed range. On this basis it compares favorably with other
systems.
Question (Joseph Abbin, Sandia Labs): What fuel economies are projected for
the California Steam Cars?
Answer: Concerning the SPS system, avenues of approach for improved fuel
economy are:
• Reduction of heat transfer and steam leakage losses
• Improved valve timing
• Reduced water rates at light loads
• Reduced parasitic power losses; possibly exhaust steam driven
condenser and boiler fans.
Aerojet expects to get about 14 mpg with a high speed transmission.
There is an advanced compound type cycle which could possibly yield up to
20 mpg; however, it is beyond the scope of the present contract.
Question (E. Doyle, Thermo Electron): Why are the start-up times to first
movement as long as they are?
-215-
-------
Answer: These are not due to boiler limitations (Boiler is less than 30
seconds), but to other current system limitations. Since the cars have
literally been running only a few days, the starts have purposely been
conservative until more is learned about these systems in these vehicles.
It is expected that these times will be substantially reduced as testing
proceeds.
Question (Dr. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): What is the valve system in reciprocating
expander?
Answer: Double acting piston valves are used with variable cut-off provided
by a swing eccentric mechanism which changes the phase angle and stroke
length of the valve simultaneously.
E. Advanced Boiler Studies, by Dr. Frank Paul, Carnegie Mellon University
The Mechanical Engineering Department of Carnegie Mellon University received
a grant from EPA for research addressed to an improved vapor generator design
for Rankine cycle automobile engines. Work was initiated in May 1973.
To date, this work has included a survey of commercial contractors, EPA
contractors, and other manufacturers of vapor generators; an evaluation of new
and existing heat transfer technology; and preliminary synthesis of a new
design configuration based on transient response and compactness.
General constraints imposed for the survey were: volume less than 40 cubic
feet and a firing rate of 3 million BTU per hour. From the 56 inquiries and
36 responses to the survey, the following commercial vapor generator manufac-
turers were able to come at least close to the imposed constraints, although
all were low pressure, relatively large designs:
• Single or multiple monotube (oil or gas fired)
— Clayton Manufacturing
— Vapor Corporation
— Kanzler Steam Transport, Div. of Autocoast
-216-
-------
• Pot type with fire tubes (oil or gas fired)
— Eclipse Lookout
— James Leffel
• Pot type with electric heating
— Chromalox Division of Emerson
- P. M. Lattner
The industrial developers for small Rankine Cycle engines include:
• EPA contractors (All single and multiple monotube)
— Aerojet Liquid Rocket
— Lear Motors
— Scientific Energy Systems
— Thermo Electron
— Solar
• Other Manufacturers
— DuPont (Doerner rotational)
— Inter Continental (Huttner rotational)
— Saab-Scandia (Multiple tube capillary)
Conclusions from the survey were:
• No commercial manufacturers of vapor generators were identified as
applicable to automotive Rankine Cycle engines.
• Recent technology development has concentrated on single or multiple
monotube designs for compactness. Monotube designs are limited by
slow process time constants on the order of 10 to 20 seconds.
As a result of the survey and analytical consideration of the fundamental
factors and phenomenon controlling the response and size of the basic heat
transfer equipment, a new conceptual design was synthesized. Generically,
the design is a rotational preheater/boiler plus a monotube superheater as
shown schematically in Fig. 136. This approach provides a "sharp" liquid-
vapor interface, with "flash" boiling. It also provides a lumped rather
than distributed configuration which reduces resident time theoretically
improving response. Anticipated problem areas include:
-217-
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FINNED SURFACES
L_JJ U U U U
PREHEATER/BOILER
SUPERHEATER
Fig. 136 Vapor Generator Schematic
-------
• Internal heat transfer in the preheater/boiler
Critical heat flux is important. Boiling heat transfer in
high acceleration and pressure fields permit the preheater
(economizer) and boiler to be designed as a single rotational
unit. Boiling heat transfer is improved in centrifugal force
fields. Effects of pressure are not well established when
combined with centrifugal force fields.
• Preheater/boiler shell stresses
Strength and materials selection pose design constraints.
(The monotube superheater is not considered a problem.)
Practical geometric limits are: maximum diameter - 12 inches;
maximum wall thickness - 0.125 inches.
• External combustion gas heat transfer
• Transient behavior
The calculated dynamic response of a rotational preheater/boiler plus mono-
tube superheater, designed to match SES mass flow and heat flux rates at
full power is shown in Fig. 137. Key dimensions of such a system are:
• Preheater/Boiler:
— Diameter = 12 inches
-Wall Thickness = 0.125 inches
— Length = 32.4 inches
— Finned Surface (Double Effective Surface Area)
• Superheater:
— External Tube Diameter =0.5 inches
— Internal Tube Diameter = 0.37 inches
— Length = 26 feet
— Finned Surface (Double Effective Surface Area)
The transient response of the present monotube is about 20 seconds as compared
to about 2 seconds (calculated) for the rotational plus monotube superheater.
-219-
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3250
3000,
FLAME TEMPERATURE, Tf
-*•
uoo-
1325.-
Lbm/hr
Sec.
INLET BOILER FLOW, mLi
1200-
1400-
1300--
1200
(13 0.6 0.9 1.2 15 18 2.1 24 27 3.0 33 3.6 3.9 42 Sec.
Lbm/hr.
OUTLET BOILER FLOW, m
SUPERHEATER FLOW, ms
1150-
1100 t^s/
1000
950
1010
1000
SUPERHEATER PRESSURE, Ps
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2J 24 27 3.0 33 36 39
SUPERHEATER TEMPERATURE, Ts
Fig. 137 Vapor Generator Response (Full Power Condition)
-220-
-------
Compactness in terms of preliminary weight and volume estimates compare as
follows:
Monotube: 3.2 cu. ft.; 125 Ib. (est.)
Rotational plus monotube superheater: 5.3 cu. ft. ''est.); 100 Ib. (est.)
The next proposed steps are:
• Construction and laboratory evaluation of a scaled bench test
design under
— Steady-state conditions
— Dynamic conditions
• Analysis of the design for
— Heat transfer
— Strength and geometry
— Dynamic response
Questions and Comments
Question (C. Amann, GM Technical Center): The prime problem is the high
pressure rotating seal. How do you plan to approach this problem?
Answer: The high pressure (1000 Psi), high temperature (600 F) is recognized
as a major problem. Some information on this will be obtained during
the bench tests. Some information may also be available from the work
of Dornier and Huettner on their lower pressure seals.
Question (Y. Friedman, SES): Where is the economizer in the design? If no
economizer is used, very fast response can be achieved, but efficiency
is sacrificed. Is this factor taken into account?
Answer: Sub-cooled water (about 220 F) is taken into the boiler and, in
essence, the preheater and boiler are integrated. It is planned to mix
the feed water with the boiling water in a way which will not inhibit the
boiling process. Efficiency characteristics have not yet been considered
in detail.
Question (Dr. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): How much water will be in the boiler?
Answer: About 2 pounds of water are maintained in the boiler during the
transients.
-221-
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V. DIESEL ENGINES. ALTERNATIVE FUELS, ELECTRIC VEHICLES, AND NEW EPA FUEL
ECONOMY TEST CYCLE
Diesel Engine Study, Ricardo, Ltd., England (Presented by J. J. McFadden.
EPA)
The scope of the program encompasses four main tasks: (1) Comprehensive
Literature Search, (2) Problem Area Trade-Off Methodology, (3) Engine Con-
figuration Study, and (4) Recommendations for Further Research. Tasks 1 and
2 are complete; Tasks 3 and 4 are in progress and will be completed in about
one month.
The performance aspects used and a comparison of the weighting factors deter-
mined by a committee and by 18 experienced members of the Ricardo staff are
shown in Fig. 138. Some of the conclusions reached in Task 2 are as follows:
• Black Smoke
— Not an aesthetic problem if engine complies with 1974
federal smoke regulation. (Attainable by attention to
local mixing and overall air-fuel ratio at rated conditions.)
— Project vehicle has such a high power to weight ratio that
visible smoke conditions should only be attained for
extremely short periods during hard accelerations.
— Turbocharged engines may have a low speed transient problem.
(The Comprex is one possible approach to a solution.)
• Blue Smoke
— Can be unpleasant from sidewalk, particularly as it is most
commonly formed under idle conditions. This problem can be
minimized by careful attention to combustion chamber design
and fuel injection equipment characteristics.
• Odor
~ Small high speed Diesel can have an odor problem, particu-
larly at light load conditions if misfire conditions are
approached. It can be minimized by addition of light load
advance.
-222-
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1.
2.
3-
k.
5.
6.
7-
8.
9-
10.
11
.12.
13.
IV
15.
16.
17.
18.
19-
20.
21'.
22.
23-
2«i.
25.
26.
SMOKE
PARTICULATES
ODOUR
N02
HC
CO
S02
HC REACTIVITY
EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS
MISC. EMISSIONS
NOISE (DRIVE BY)
PACKAGE VOLUME
PACKAGE WEIGHT
FUEL ECONOMY
FUEL COST
VEHICLE FIRST COST
MAINTENANCE COST
STARTABILITY
HOT ORIVEABILITY
COLO ORIVEABILITY
TORQU.E RISE
DURABILITY
HEAT LOSS
FIRE-RISK.
IDLING NOISE
TORQUE RECOIL
COMMITTEE
. AVERAGE
..yT-— .f .....:.
10 20
°/o WEIGHTING
Fig. 138 Light Duty Vehicle Powerplant Survey Results
-223-
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- Odor at full load is minimized by combustion chamber develop-
ment and reduction of smoke levels.
— The identification of several odorous components has been
achieved, but quantitative assessment has yet to be perfected.
The Arthur D. Little Odormeter may advance technology in
this area to a significant extent.
• Gaseous emissions
— Turbocharging increases NOx levels by increasing charge tem-
perature, but allows further retard for the same smoke limit.
— Exhaust gas recirculation is effective in reducing NOx levels,
particularly over CVS cycle where it reduces mass flow rates
but durability has yet to be proved. It increases smoke
levels.
— Water injection is also effective in reducing NOx, but has
the benefit of not significantly altering engine performance.
Logistics/installation/engine durability problems make this
approach unattractive.
— Timing retard is the most effective single parameter for
reducing emission levels. Smoke limited performance of
indirect injection (I.D.I.) engines normally deteriorates
less rapidly with retard than from direct injection (D.I.)
engines.
— From limited data available, emission levels from 2-stroke
engines should be of same order as from 4-stroke engines of
similar performance.
— From heavy duty experience, it is predicted that application
of a D.I. chamber will increase NOx and CO levels; also, HC
levels may rise rapidly at retarded timings.
— It is predicted that a high speed (1000 rev/min) conventional
naturally aspirated D.I. engine could not achieve primary
target levels due to low smoke limited performance at
retarded timings.
-224-
-------
• Gaseous Emissions, Naturally Aspirated 4-Stroke Indirect Injection
— 3.4 G/mile CO can be achieved.
— 0.4 G/mile HC may be attainable on prototype vehicles. The
possibility of maintaining this level in production without
the use of hang-on devices is open to doubt.
— 1.5 G/mile NOx can just be achieved from a prototype current
generation engine using timing retard alone. Exhaust gas
recycle may be necessary to allow sufficient margin for
production compliance.
— 0.4 G/mile NOx has been achieved with a highly modified
prototype engine in a European type vehicle. This target
could not be achieved with a practical American vehicle.
— From most conventional engines, mass emissions of all pollu-
tants increase over CVS-2 with engine swept volume, NOx to
a lesser extent than HC and CO.
— A low powered vehicle would have less difficulty in attaining
the target objectives with the additional benefit of improved
fuel economy.
The Engine Configuration Study (Task 3) includes consideration of the engine
schemes shown in Fig. 139. Probably the most viable candidate for short term,
minimum lead time consideration is the naturally aspirated, indirect injection,
V8 concept described in Figs. 140 and 141. As a retrofit concept, existing
gasoline engine tooling could be effectively implemented and the light duty
Diesel could be developed within a relatively short development cycle.
The Prototype Vehicle Specifications which the various engine schemes are
supposed to fulfill are:
• 3500 Ib. vehicle
• Acceleration: 0-60 mph in 13.5 seconds
20-70 mph in 15 seconds
• High speed pass maneuver to 80 mph in 15 seconds
-225-
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V8 V6 Inline V6 Inline V6 Inline 6 4 Cyl. 2 Rotor
NA TC 6 TC TC 6 TC 2 Stroke 2 Stroke Compound 2 Stage
IDI IDI IDI DI DI LoopIDI T£ro DI Rotary
Bore in.
Stroke in.
HP
Piston area
sq. in.
Swept Volume
cu. in.
Weight
Box Volume
HP/cu. in.
Swept Volume
HP/sq. in. ,
Piston Area
HP/ft3 Box
Volume
3.46
3.86
128
75.3
290
700.
11.18
0.44.
1.7
11.45
3.54
3.94
128
59.1
232.7
680
11.6
0.55
2.16
11.03
3.54
3.94
128
59.1
232.7
_ 7?0
12.7
0.55
2.16
10.08
3.66
3.7
128
63.1
233.6
660
11.0
0.55
- i
2.0
11.63
3.66
3.7
128
63.1
233.6
680
12.0
0.55
2»0
10.66
3.89
4.48
128
71. .3
320
760
12.7
0.4
1.8
la. os
3.26
4.48
128
*
50.1
224.8
800
16.77
0.57
2.55
7.63
3.66
3.66
128
42.1
154.1
670
11.3
0.83
3.04
11.33
-
-
128
-
-
500
9.16
t
_
_
13.98
Ib/cu.in Swept
Volume - 2.41 "2.92 3.09 2.83 2.91 2.37 3.56 4.35
lb/HP
5.47 6.1 6.4 5.16 5.31 5.9
6.25 5.23
3.9
Fig. 139 EPA Diesel Impact Study -
Engines Under Consideration
-226-
-------
3.46" (88 nun) x 3.86" (98 mm) x -V8
292 CID (4.78 LIT)
128 BHP @ 4000 REV/MIN (88 LB/IN2 BMEP)
210 LB. FT. TORQUE @ 2000 REV/MIN (109 LB/IN2 BMEP)
PISTON SPEED = 2560 FT/MIN (13 m/s)
HP/IN2 PISTON AREA = 1.71
Fig. 140 Engine Configuration Study - 4-Stroke Naturally Aspirated
Comet Vb
-227-
-------
120
100
I
\
X
I
-------
• Primary emissions goals: 0.41 gm/mi HC
3.40 gm/mi CO
1.50 gm/mi NOx
« Secondary Emissions Goals: Same except 0.4 gm/mi NOx.
For comparison, a standard European gasoline engine rated at 130 BHP at 5000
rpm is being used (see Figs. 142 and 143).
Questions and Comments
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): Will these engines have better
acceleration, fuel consumption, etc. than the Mercedes Diesel, which is
perhaps the most widely marketed Diesel engine in the U.S.?
Answer: Subjectively, the driveability of the lower weight Diesel seems to
be much more acceptable and lively than the heavier engines.
Comment (Mr. Reynolds, Jet'Propulsion Laboratory): A Diesel vehicle is being
run on the West Coast. (About 100 vehicles have been converted to
Diesels to date.) It uses a Ricardo designed, 6-cylinder, indirect
injection engine. The turbo-charged version produces 130 hp; it weighs
550 Ibs. Over the EPA, Federal Driving Cycle, it gets 24.8 mpg with
about 0.2 G/mi HC, 2.0 G/mi CO, and 1.0 G/mi NOx.
Question (T. Duffy, Solar): What is the part load BSFC of the Diesel concept,
particularly at about 0.1 of rated power (average FDC power requirement
is about 0.1 max power)?
Answer: Part load data are not readily available; this will be followed up.
Question (C. Amann, GM Technical Center): Although infrequent smoke is men-
tioned, is the ultimate objective to eliminate all smoke?
Answer: Yes
Comment (C. Amann, GM Technical Center): Add-on devices were mentioned as a
means of achieving 0.4 gm/mi HC levels. However, thermal and catalytic
reactors require elevated temperature to work. Because the Diesel has
very good light load fuel economy, the exhaust temperatures are very low;
hence, these add-on devices may not work.
-229-
-------
183 CID (3 LITRE) 6'CYLINDER ENGINE
SPECIFICATIONS TO .MEET PRIMARY EMISSIONS TARGETS
PETROL INJECTION; OXIDISING CATALYST, EGR + AIR INJECTION
OR
CLOSE TOLERANCE CARBURETTORS IN PLACE OF PETROL*INJECTION
ENGINE WEIGHT - ^00 LB
FUEL CONSUMPTION - 15 KPG (U.S.) ON LA-*»
PREDICTED.EMISSIONS - HC 0.1, CO 0.5, NOx.1/3
PROBLEM AREAS:
1. CATALYST DURABILITY (30 000 MILES)
2; USE OF NOBLE METALS (BEING REDUCED)
3. COST OF EMISSIONS CONTROL DEVICES-(ABOUT $200
PRODUCT TON COST)
Fig. 142 130 BHP Gasoline Engine
-230-
-------
130-
I2o
100
80
/5"oo 2ooo
->ooo 3Soo 4000
Fig. 143 EPA Diesel Impact Study — Estimated Performance Curve for
Gasoline Engine
-231-
-------
In comparing the Diesel engine with the European gasoline engine in a
3500 Ib. vehicle, it is important to make sure the difference in weight
of the gasoline and Diesel engines is properly accounted for. The heavier
Diesel will in turn require a heavier vehicle structure to support the
weight.
Question (Robert Miller, Eaton Corporation): What is meant by your term
"retrofit"?
Answer: For the short term scheme, it appears that a conversion or retrofit
from gasoline to Diesel is a possibility.
Question: If Mercedes1 4-cylinder, 240D engine were doubled to 8 cylinders,
it would closely match the displacement and power of the 130 hp engine
scheme suggested. How would it compare in performance? Have emissions
data been taken on the 4-cylinder 240D?
Answer: It is expected that the performance would be quite similar. Emissions
data have been taken on the Mercedes 240D.
B. Alternate Fuels, by J. B. Pangborn, Institute of Gas Technology
The objective of this study is to assess the technical and economic feasibility
of alternative fuels for automotive transportation. Because of the unsatis-
factory situation now developing in which the U.S. is becoming increasingly
dependent on imported petroleum, the major emphasis in the selection of an
alternative fuel is based on its long-term availability from domestic sources.
In addition, economics, competition with other energy applications for limited
energy resources, safety, handling, environmental impacts, and system com-
patibility are being taken into account. This study is limited to chemical
fuels, and, except for fuel cell vehicles which use a chemical fuel, electric
vehicles are excluded.
In recent years the United States has realized that its projected supply of
crude oil will not be sufficient to meet the expected increased demands of the
future. In fact, current projections of crude oil supply and prtroleum fuel
utilization show that, beginning in the period 1975-1980, the domestic
-232-
-------
petroleum supply may not satisfy the U.S. transportation energy demand.
Since ground transportation, chiefly automobiles, consumes a majority of the
transportation energy, automobiles probably will have to find another energy
source and possibly even a new fuel before the turn of the century.
The initial consideration list of domestic energy sources, four abundant
auxiliary material sources, and potential alternative fuels that could be
synthesized from these energy and material sources are given below. The con-
ventional crude oil and natural gas resource base is excluded. Also excluded
is any fuel that would produce significant amounts of combustion products
which are not normally found in air.
Auxiliary Material Potential Automotive
Energy Sources Sources Fuels
Coal Air (0 , CO , N ) Acetylene
Shale oil Rock (limestone) Ammonia
Tar sands Water Carbon monoxide
Uranium and thorium Land Coal
Nuclear fusion Distillate oils
Solar radiation Ethanol
Solid wastes (garbage) Gasoline (C,- - C,0)
Animal wastes Heavy oils
Wind power Hydrazine
Tidal power Hydrogen
Hydropower LPG (synthetic)
Geothermal heat Methanol
Methyl amines
Natural gas (C.. - C )
Napthas
Vegetable oils
The criteria used for fuel selection are based on the following factors:
• Adequacy of energy and material availability and competing
demands for fuel
• Safety (toxicity) and handling properties of fuels
-233-
-------
• Relative compatibility with transport and utilization facilities
• Severity of environmental impacts and resource depletion
• Fuel system economics
Figure 144 shows schematically the fuel selection procedure and required
information inputs.
To assemble, evaluate, and compare the pertinent fuel information, numerical
values were assigned to the merits of the various fuels and were used to con-
struct Fig. 145. This is a tabulation of the relative merits of the alterna-
tive fuels, and when quantitative data allow, the values have been normalized
to that of standard gasoline (the reference base). This is an illustrative
and overall time frame table. The study program actually deals with three
separate treatments, one for each of the time frames, 1975-85, 1985-2000, and
beyond the year 2000. The rating system for fuel selection is outlined below:
• Synthesis Technology:
1 = Probable; commercial process, or demonstration plants
coule be built
2 = Possible; developmental, needs pilot plants
3 = Speculative; conceptual or laboratory methods
5 = Moderate technology gap
• Fuel Availability:
1 = Probable; energy supply available and fuel not required
elsewhere
2 = Possible; energy potentially available and fuel not
required elsewhere, but is desired as a chemical commodity
3 = Speculative; energy supply doubtful and/or fuel is
desired elsewhere
5 = Eliminated; energy supply not adequate and/or the fuel is
required for a deficit elsewhere
• Safety and Handling:
- Toxicity ratio = ( PP"1 fuf )~l
ppm gasoline
— Transportability (bulk):
-234-
-------
POTENTIAL
ALTERNATIVE
FUEL
ENERGY AND
MATERIAL
RESOURCES
SYNTHESIS ROUTES
ECONOMIC MODEL
ENERGY DEMAND-SUPPLY
AND UTILIZATION
IS
SYNTHESI
TECHNOLOGY
KNOWN?
BASE ADEQUATE?
• Special Components
RATE ADEQUATE?
FUEL SELECTION (Surviving
Candidates)—
• Relative Ranking,
Subjective and
Qualitative; or
* Normalization to
Gasoline and
Ranking
IDENTIFY
TECHNOLOGY/INFORMATION
GAPS
GASOLINE REFERENCE BASE
SELECTED FUELS
Fig. 144 Alternative Fuel Evaluation Chart
-------
1
ho
Co
ON
1
Synthesis
Fuel Technology
C2H2 1
NHi 1
CO 1
Coal (SRC) 2
Distillates .
(Diesel Oils)
CZH,OH l
(Agricultural)
Reference 1
Syn Gasoline 1
NZH4 2
H; (liquid) j
from
SLPG (propane) 5
CHjOH 1
CHj.MHj 2
SNG 1
Vegetable Oil 1
Fuel Availability Safety
and Handling
Compatibility
Competition
'75-'85 '85-2000 2000+ Tojcicity Transoortabilitv Tankage Transmission
222 0
222 5
222 5
222 0
222 1
5 5 3 0. 2
123 1
222 1
2 2 2 500
222 0
553 0
222 2.5
2 2 2 50
553 0
553 0
3 23.2
2 4. 7
2 41
2 2. 2
1 2. 0
1 2. 6
1 2
1 2
3 7. 6
1 6. 2
1 2.4
1 3.8
1 3.4
1 3. 1
1 2. 1
5
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
5
2
2
2
3
2
2
Conventional
Distillation Engine
3
3
5
3
2
2
1
1
5
3
3
2
5
3
2
5
3
3
5
5
2
1
1
5
2
2
2
5
2
5
Unconventional
Engine
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
Costs
Environmental at
Effects Station
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
5
2
1 5
0. 7
0. 9
4
1
1. 2
<>
2.2
1. 4
1. I
3
1. 4
10
Sco re
fEl
5c . 2
32. -
'I . 5
30. 3
24 9
31. 3
10
1 3. 2
54c. -
27. 4
33. a
25. 4
33. -,
30. 5
40. 1
Ratin,
11
S
12
c
T
-
1
1
14
4
Q
3
13
5
10
Fig. 145 Fuel Selection by Ranking Relative to Gasoline
-------
1 = Excellent; liquid or gas transport, can be piped (like
gasoline or natural gas) and can be carried (pure) in
simple tanks
2 = Good; solids transport, or can be piped after special
precautions or preparations
3 = Poor; cannot be piped or carried conveniently, must be
added to a carrying agent for handling and safety
m , , fuel tankage weight . , fuel tankage volume
— Tankage = ( — r °-.—;— ) + ( ^~. , i
gasoline tankage weight gasoline tankage volume
Compatibility:
— Transmission and distribution:
1 = Probably compatible; can use the present system
2 = Possibly compatible; has its own system or can use the
present system with modifications, some new equipment is
needed
3 = Compatibility is speculative; essentially all new equip-
ment is needed for a workable system
5 = Eliminated; not only incompatible, but new, sophisticated
equipment is needed that is beyond practicality
— Engine Compatibility
1 = Probably compatible
2 = Possibly compatible
3 = Compatibility is speculative
5 = Eliminated, presumed incompatible
Environmental Effects:
Only solvent-refined coal (SRC) will produce emissions of the
type that are beyond the capability of automotive emission
controls that are now under development. Overall system
effects are indeterminate at this time. All fuels are given
a "2", except coal which is given a "5".
Costs:
Utilization costs, $/mile, are not included. The costs are
for the fuels at the service station. The reference gasoline
cost (extax) is $2.60 (1973).
-237-
-------
est fuel cost
gasoline cost
Conclusions: According to the rankings and final rating of Fig. 145, the most
promising alternative fuels are synthetic gasoline and hydrocarbon distillates.
Methanol is the next most attractive liquid fuel. Thus, further, more detailed
comparisons between methanol and synthetic gasolines are justified. Hydrogen
is a speculative fuel, which will become more attractive as fossil carbon
resources are depleted.
The final phase of this study is now in the process of completion. It involves
the development of recommendations and scenarios for the introduction of the
most promising alternative fuels in each of the three time periods.
Questions and Comments
Question (C. 0. Thomas, Institute for Energy Analysis): In the presentation,
assured coal resources were given as 1.6 trillion tons. This figure has
been unchanged in the literature since 1942; it may be misleading. More
recently, a distinction has been made between "resource base" and "recover-
able reserves" by current technology and economics. Numbers as low as
200 million tons (lower by a factor of 8) are currently being used for
recoverable reserves. (Ref: McElvy, Science, 1972, and Paul Averett,
USGS Professional Paper No. 82.) The reason for bringing this up is that
the oil and chemical industry in the past have been far more rigorous in
treating proven reserves and recoverable reserves than the coal industry.
If comparisons are to be made between coal and oil industries, they should
use the same basis for comparison.
Answer: This is correct and allowance for this factor is taken into considera-
tion in the analysis. The 1.6 trillion tons represents an upper bound;
not all of it is economically recoverable.
Question (Dr. J. E. Davoud, D-Cycle Power): A 170 efficiency was mentioned for
solar conversion and agricultural conversion of crops to fuel. This is
generally accepted, but are there prospects for improving this, such as:
selected breeding, fast growing crops, etc?
Answer: There are prospects for improvement to perhaps 2% (double), but beyond
that it is doubtful.
-238-
-------
C. Alternative Fuels, by Dr. R. M. Kant, Esso Reserach and Engineering
This program is being conducted toward the same objectives and with the same
scope and work statement as the IGT program reviewed above.
An initial list of candidate fuels was narrowed down in the first phase of the
study and the following fuels were identified for detailed analysis: gasoline
and distillate from shale and coal, and methanol from coal (Fig. 146). The
first part of the analysis focused on the economics of producing, manufacturing
and marketing these fuels. The conversion technology in each case was chosen
on the basis of a combination of factors: (1) a good probability that it will
be commercialized, (2) capable of producing high yields of liquids and (3)
availability of sufficient published information to allow an economic analysis
(Fig. 147). It is likely that processes other than those indicated will also
be commercialized and may eventually be favored. It is simply too early to
make such a judgment.
Based on the choice of technology, it was possible to estimate the cost of
the various alternate fuels at various stages between the recovery of the
resource and the distribution of the final automotive fuel at the pump. It
is estimated that none of these fuels will be produced in significant quanti-
ties before 1979 in the case of shale fuels and 1981-83 in the case of hydro-
carbon liquids from coal. The technology for producing methanol from coal via
coal gasification is further along than the other alternates, but, allowing
for construction time, it is difficult to see how such a commercial plant
could be on-stream before 1979 at the earliest. Projections were made for
these fuel costs through the year 2000 (Fig. 148). These projections attempt
to take account of potential improvements in technology as well as compensating
features such as increasing cost of coal and the need to build new pipelines.
The projections also show the effect of the so-called "learning curve" repre-
senting evolutionary improvements rather than more substantial breakthroughs
in technology. The relative cost of the fuels is not changed over this time
period.
-239-
-------
FUEL
SOURCE
ro
-P-
o
GASOLI NE
D I STI LLATE
METHANOL
ETHANOL
METHANE
HYDROGEN
AMMONIA
HYDRAZ I NE
SHALE
COAL
COAL
CARBOHYDRATES
COAL
COAL OR WATER
COAL OR WATER
AMMON I A
CHOSEN FOR
DETA I LED STUDY
Fig. 146 Candidate Fuels
-------
-p-
h->
I
| SHALE
UNDERGROUND
MINING
1
RETORTI NG
Tosco RETORT
UPGRADING
SEVERE HYDRO G.
BOTTOMS COKING
PIPELINING
SYNCRUDE
To R E F,
REF I N I NG
CRACKING,
REFORMING
D I STRIBUTI 0
GASOLINE &
DISTILLATE
c"o"AT"l
^
SURFACE MINING]
HYDROGENATION
H-COAL
LURGI FOR H
PIPELINING
SYNCRUDE
To REF,
REF I N I NG
CRACKING,
REFORMING
D I STRIBUT I 0
GASOLINE &
DISTILLATE
GAS I F I CAT I ON +
METHANOL SYNTHES I S
LURGI FOR CO+H2
Low PRESS, METH,
SYNTH,
PIPELINING
(OR UNIT TRAI
METHANOL To
BULK TERM,
D I STRI BUT I ON
METHANOL OR METH,/
GASOL, BLENDED AT PUMP
Fig. 147 Process Basis for Economic Evaluation
-------
COAL GASOL,
F GASOI .
, 00
h 3 , 00
$/MM BTU
AT PUMP,
Ex, TAX
h 2 , 00
1980
1990
2000
Fig. 148 Cost Projections for Alternative Fuels
-242-
-------
The efficiencies of resource utilization are another parameter for assessing
alternative fuels (Fig. 149). The overall efficiency for the production of
shale fuels is lower than that for coal fuels, reflecting losses during under-
ground mining and retorting. Improvements in these two areas might reasonably
be expected as the industry grows, which would affect the overall efficiency
of resource utilization. Alternatively, the efficiency of coal liquefaction
could be improved if more selective catalysts and processes are developed. In
the case of methanol from coal, the particular Lurgi gasification process
benefits from the potential utilization of liquid by-products as process fuel.
If this is not possible, the efficiency of the overall methanol production
scheme would be significantly lower than that for coal liquefaction.
Another major part of the study considered the performance of these alternate
fuels. Unfortunately, there are relatively few data on the product quality
and the performance of shale and coal derived fuels. It was therefore
necessary to infer potential problems and advantages on the basis of very
limited information.
Gasolines from coal and shale are expected to have similar aromatics content
to petroleum gasolines at high octane numbers (Fig. 150).
Shale distillates are expected to have acceptable cetane numbers for use as
automotive Diesel fuels. However, these materials are rather paraffinic and
could lead to excessive pour points in low temperature truck applications.
De-waxing or pour depressant additives are potential solutions to this pro-
blem. Coal distillates probably will have cetane numbers too low for use as
Diesel fuels. The solutions to this problem would include diversion of the
distillate to other uses, blending with shale or petroleum fractions, or the
use of cetane improvers. More data are required to evaluate the suitability
of coal distillates as gas turbine fuels.
Turning to methanol, this alternative fuel could lead to increased thermal
efficiencies in spark-ignition engines (Fig. 151), if proper modifications are
made, taking account of high octane number, low volatility, high heat of
-243-
-------
SHALE HYDROCARBONS
MINING
RETORTING
UPG RAD ING & REFINING
OVERALL
COAL HYDROCARBONS
MINING
LIQUEFACTION
REFINING
OVERALL
METHANOL FROM COAL
MINING
SYNTHES I S
OVERALL
FRACTION OF ENERGY
IN CRUDE RECOVERED IN
TOTAL PRODUCT
G A S 0 L, & D I S T,
GASOLINE CO-PRODUCTS
0 , 70
0,33
0 , 85
0,55
n
U i
n
u ,
n
u ,
n
u ,
,
n
U i
0 ,
F; n
0 U
° n
O U
q r
o 0
7 ^
1 j
8r -•
b
c c. *
O J
55
0 , 82
0 , 39
0 , 95
0 , 60
* ASSUMES LIQUID BY-PRODUCTS FROM GASIFICATION CAN BE
USED AS FUEL,
Fig. 149 Efficiencies of Resource Utilization
-------
GASOLINES
t LIKE PETROLEUM AT HIGH OCTANES
--CA, 60% AROMATICS AT 95 RES, 0, N, (CLEAR)
--DUE TO CATALYTIC REFORMING RESPONSE OF
NAPHTHAS
• COAL NAPHTHAS MORE AROMATIC THAN SHALE NAPHTHAS
t NEED MOTOR AND ROAD OCTANE DATA
• NO SULFUR OR NITROGEN PROBLEMS FORESEEN
D I ST I LLATES
ho • ---- —
• SHALE DISTILLATES SHOULD HAVE ACCEPTABLE CETANE
NUMBER (40-45), BUT MAY HAVE POUR POINT PROBLEMS
FOR LOW-TEMP, TRUCK APPLICS,
• COAL DISTILLATES PROBABLY WILL HAVE CETANE
NUMBERS TOO LOW FOR AUTO, DIESELS: CAN DIVERT
TO OTHER USES, BLEND, USE CETANE IMPROVERS, ETC,
t NO SULFUR OR NITROGEN PROBLEMS FORESEEN
t NEED DIESEL AND GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE DATA
Fig. 150 Performance of Coal and Shale Gasoline and Distillates
-------
ON
I
I POTENTIAL FOR EFFICIENCY INCREASE IN SPARK-
IGNITION ENGINES-- IF MODIFICATIONS TAKE
ACCOUNT OF :
-- HIGH OCTANE NUMBER, BY INCREASING COMP,
RATIO,
-- LOW VOLATILITY, HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION,
AND LOW HEAT OF COMBUSTION,
• SUCH A MODIFIED ENGINE WOULD NOT BE SUITABLE
FOR CONVENTIONAL FUELS,
I EXCELLENT POTENTIAL AS GAS TURBINE FUEL,
I PROMISING FUEL CELL FUEL --EITHER DIRECTLY
OR VIA REFORMING TO H 2,
Fig. 151 Performance of Methanol
-------
vaporization and low heat of combustion. However, such a modified engine would
not be suitable for conventional fuels. Methanol has excellent potential as a
gas turbine fuel, particularly for stationary turbines where distribution costs
are much lower than in the case of automotive fuels. Finally, methanol is an
attractive fuel for fuel cells either for direct use or via reforming to
hydrogen.
Recently, much publicity has been given to the proposal to use methanol/gaso-
line blends as an automotive fuel in the near-term future. It is important to
assess the potential problems and advantages associated with such a strategy
(Fig. 152). Methanol/gasoline blends are very water sensitive so that it is
essential that a dry blend be supplied to the consumer and that it not pick
up significant quantities of water during use. Conceivably, it may be possible
to prevent or circumvent this water sensitivity problem, but information in
this area is not yet available. Also, methanol and gasoline form extremely
non-ideal solutions which leads to high vapor pressures. In the case of
gasoline, the high vapor pressure would probably result in vapor lock, neces-
sitating a reformulation of the gasoline by backing out butanes and possibly
some pentanes. If this is necessary, the value of adding methanol, from the
point of view of energy conservation, is questionable, unless alternate dis-
position is provided for the displaced hydrocarbons which is of higher value
than their use in gasoline. It is important to demonstrate the effect of
these potential problems on vehicle driveability — e.g., acceleration,
starting, stalling, etc.
On the other hand, the use of methanol/gasoline blends would have certain
benefits including high blending octane and potentially some improvement in
fuel economy measured in miles per BTU. Emissions with methanol/gasoline
blends would be lower, in most modes of operation, but the improvement would
not be sufficient to attain 1975+ standards without the use of catalytic
converters.
In the course of the study, a number of information gaps were identified
(Fig. 153). Most of these involve the need for developing new and improved
technology as well as commercially demonstrating the effectiveness of
existing technology.
-247-
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N>
I
I DEFINE POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AND ADVANTAGES FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES,
I POTENTIAL PROBLEMS:
-- WATER SENSITIVITY: PHASE S E P ' N, WITH <0,5%
H20 FOR 15% MEOH AT R, TEMP, --ANY COST-
EFFECT I VE F I XES?
-- VOLAT I LITY AND VAPOR LOCK : NON-IDEAL SOLU-
TIONS LEAD TO HIGH VAPOR PRESSURES - - T0 AVOID
VAPOR LOCK, MAY HAVE TO BACK OUT C4( + C5),
-- PR I VEAB I L I TY ; DO ABOVE RESULT IN POOR
PERFORMANCE -- I S LEANING OUT WITH METHANOL
A P ROBLEM?
I PROBABLE BENEF I TS :
--HIGH BLENDING OCTANE
-- LOWER EMISSIONS
--IMPROVED FUEL ECONOMY (MILES/BTU)
Fig. 152 Performance of Methanol/Gasoline Blends
-------
FUEL AREA NEEDED
HYDROCARBONS MINING+ -LARGE DEMO, OF SPENT
FROM SHALE RETORTING SHALE DISPOSAL
*- I N SITU RETORT ING
UPGRADING+ -BETTER DENITROG, CATS
REFINING -MILD V S, SEVERE U P -
G RAD ING AT MINE
HYDROCARBONS LIQUEFACTION *-MORE EFFICIENT PROCESS
F ROM COAL FO R Ho F ROM COAL
*- MORE SELECTIVE HYDRO G,
| REACT I ON
REFINING -RESPONSE OF PROCESSES
TO VARIOUS QUALITY
COALS
METHANOL MANUFACTURE * - IMPROVED COAL GASIF,
FROM COAL PROCESS
- MORE EFFICIENT MeOH
SYNTHES I S
FOR ALL FUELS NEED PRODUCT QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE
DATA, ALONE AND IN BLENDS, IN VARIOUS AUTO, POWER PLANTS,
Fig. 153 Summary of Data Gaps
-------
The overall conclusions of the study indicate that coal and oil shale are the
best source for alternative automotive fuels. Although the resource is vast,
environmental, social, legal, as well as technical constraints will limit the
rate of production. As a result, complete replacement of petroleum with
synthetic fuels is improbable and unnecessary until after the year 2000.
Shale and coal hydrocarbons will be blended with petroleum as they become
available. Their compatibility with petroleum is a major advantage. Capital
commitments are now being made which tends to confirm this scenario.
Methanol could also be an alternative fuel for spark-ignition engines, but
the modifications required would make the engine unsuitable for operating on
conventional fuels. It seems more desirable to dedicate methanol for use in
gas turbines, particularly of the stationary variety. This would release
hydrocarbons, which are now being used in this application, for use as auto-
motive fuel.
Questions and Comments
Question (P. Wilson, Chrysler Corporation): Please explain the 20% to 30%
improvement in I.e. engine efficiency using methanol.
Answer: To take full advantage of the characteristics of the methanol, sig-
nificant changes in engine design such as compression ratio, carburetion,
manifold design, etc. can bring about such improvements in efficiency.
Question (R. Probst, Federal Mogul Corporation): Is work being done on
methanol-based fuels mixed with materials other than gasoline?
Answer: Shale and coal derived materials should blend as well with methanol
as gasoline. Work using other non-hydrocarbon materials has not been
reported if it is going on. Higher molecular weight material just won't
mix, so you are limited to gasoline types of material, ethers or higher
boiling alcohols.
-250-
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Question (Dr. L. Eltinge, Eaton Corporation): Where does the rising cost of
petroleum cross the declining costs of alternative fuels shown in Fig. 148?
Answer: There is really no way of projecting what the price of petroleum
will be due to numerous political as well as economic factors which
will influence the price. Over the last year, the ex-tax price has gone
from $2.60 to $3.50/MM BTU's at the pump. It might go as high as $4.00
before reaching a plateau, or even declining.
Question (Dr. W. Hrynischak, Clarke Chapman): What effect can nuclear heat
have on coal gasification and shale oil extraction?
Answer: It can have a very pronounced effect on cost. Gulf-Shell is con-
sidering various schemes for using the High Temperature Gas Cooled
Reactor for coal conversion. But considering the time to design, build
and test the system (5-7 years to prove system), it will be 10-15 years
before significant production can be achieved. This factor was not
considered in the study.
D. Combustion Studies, by Richard W. Hurn, U.S. Bureau of Mines (Guest
Presentation)
In late March, the U.S. Bureau of Mines signed an inter-agency agreement with
the EPA to do a jointly supported experimental investigation of the per-
formance of:
• methanol and methyl fuel
• methanol-gasoline (derived from synthetics) blends (basically
91 and 96 octane levels; and aromatics in the range of 15
and 40%)
• coal and shale derived gasoline distillate fuels.
-251-
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Tests will be run with engines on dynamometers and in vehicles on current
production and on near term candidate low emission alternate automotive power-
plants. Lean combustion limits, emissions and fuel economy maps, stoichio-
tnetry of mixtures, blend stability, water-alcohol miscibility, and motor-road
octanes will be investigated. Prime attention will be focused on problems
anticipated for the customer-user of the fuels.
Recent requests of the Government for industry to recommend realistic alter-
native fuels to give relief from dependence on foreign sources of crude oil
in the 1980-1985 time frame resulted in only one clear answer: coal gaisfica-
tion and methanol. This explains the focus on methanol.
Fifty barrels of synthetic crude produced from Utah coal is being obtained.
This will be further processed by pertinent current technology and processes
to gasoline and distillates for test and evaluation at the Bureau of Mines.
It is expected that these fuels will have hydrogen deficiency.
Questions and Comments
Comment (T. A. Guldman, Chevron Research): Since the Bureau of Mines asked
the Industry to suggest alternate fuels, a large amount of capital
(about $400,000,000) has been invested in shale; also, the suggestion
has been made to substitute coal for liquid fuels (residual) which are
being burned. This provides some alternatives other than just methanol.
Methanol has enough disadvantages so that its introduction could be
delayed. Corrosion and cost are examples. Materials compatibility is
an important consideration.
Answer: Corrosion and materials compatibility problems are recognized and are
being considered in the program. Large production of shale oil is of
definite interest, but economic and environmental problems are very
difficult in the near term time frame.
-252-
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E. Fundamental Combustion Research - National Science Foundation (Guest
Presentation)
As part of an expanded effort by EPA and others to coordinate the various
activities in alternate automotive fuels research and development, EPA is
working with NSF to conduct fundamental engine combustion research.
About $700,000 will be spent in FY '74 and about $1,000,000 in FY '75 for
research grants at a number of universities on fundamental research as related
to conventional engines and near term future alternate engines, such as the
stratified charge engine. They will be looking at microscopic or fundamental
combustion of current and alternate fuels to expand our knowledge and tech-
nology in this area.
F. Storage of Hydrogen by Hydrides, by J. J. Reilly, Brookhaven National
Laboratory
Hydrogen would make an ideal fuel for almost all types of energy converters
including the internal combustion engine. It is essentially non-polluting
and it can be made from readily available, abundant raw materials and primary
energy sources. However, a major problem involved in using hydrogen as a
common fuel is the difficulty encountered in its storage and bulk (non-pipe-
line) transport.
Storage as a compressed gas seems impractical and hopelessly non-competitive
because of the weight, expense and bulk of the storage vessels. Liquid hydro-
gen may be useful in certain circumstances, but the energy required for lique-
faction is a large fraction of that which is later generated by its combustion.
An even more important consideration is that liquid hydrogen would present a
serious and, probably, insoluble safety problem if it were to be considered as
a common fuel for individual use (e.g., automobile). However, there is an
alternative to the conventional storage methods which at this date appears
quite attractive, i.e., storage of hydrogen as a metal hydride. It is well
known that some hydrides contain far more hydrogen per unit volume than does
liquid hydrogen. It has been the goal of the Brookhaven research program to
develop hydrides - or, rather, hydrogen-metal systems - which will have a high
hydrogen content and which will meet certain requirements imposed by their use
in conjunction with devices that use hydrogen for the production of energy.
-253-
-------
Some of the pertinent properties of metal-hydrogen systems in general are
summarized. Those of interest for our purpose are exothermic; i.e., heat is
evolved when hydrogen is absorbed. They are almost always reversible, and
the hydrogen can be recovered by lowering the pressure below, or raising the
temperature above, the pressure and temperature required for the absorption
process. At a given temperature, each hydride is in equilibrium with a definite
pressure of hydrogen, its "decomposition pressure". If hydrogen is withdrawn
and the pressure drops, decomposition occurs until the evolved hydrogen has
built up to the decomposition pressure again.
This pressure is a function not only of the temperature but also of the amount
of hydrogen in the solid phase. This quantity is not usually constant, as
in stoichiometric compounds such as chlorides, but can often vary within
rather wide limits. The way in which the dissociation pressure changes with
the composition of the solid is shown in Fig. 154 for a typical, if slightly
idealized, system. As hydrogen is taken up by the metal and the ratio H/M
increases, the equilibrium pressure increases rather steeply until the point A
is reached. Up to this point the solid consists of a solution of hydrogen in
metal rather than a compound. At higher concentrations, however, a second
phase appears, having the composition B; and the addition of hydrogen will not
result in an increase of the equilibrium pressure until all of the solid phase
has attained this composition. Above this "plateau" region, further enrich-
ment of the solid in hydrogen requires a steep increase in pressure. The
curves labeled T and T, in the same figure show the effect on the pressure-
composition relation of raising the temperature. At temperatures above 400 C,
hysteresis is usually absent and the equilibrium pressure is the same whether
hydrogen has been added to or removed from the system.
Hydride heats of formation, AH , can be determined either by calorimetry or
by determining the temperature-dependence of decomposition pressure. Hydrides
which have a high decomposition pressure at low temperatures generally have a
relatively small value of AH .
-254-
-------
UJ
a:
=>
CO
CO
LJ
IT
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Z
LJ
O
O
a:
a
B
HYDROGEN-TO -METAL RATIO
Fig. 154 Pressure vs. Composition Isotherms in a
Typical Hydrogen-Metal System
-255-
-------
Rates of hydrogen-metal reactions vary widely, and depend on several factors.
One is the intrinsic nature of the system. Thus, certain titanium-cobalt
alloys react, even when in large chunks, almost as fast as hydrogen can be
supplied, while pure magnesium powder reacts very slowly. Another factor is
cleanliness of metal surface; an oxide film will often result in a long
induction period before a good rate is attained. Still another factor is the
state of subdivision of the metal. This can usually be greatly increased by
subjecting a sample to a series of hydriding-dehydriding cycles. Absolute
surface areas as high as 2 square meters per gram have been obtained in this
way, and the product was highly active toward hydrogen. Finally, it is possi-
ble to increase the rate of the combination reaction by the addition of small
quantities of solid catalysts. Thus, the formation of MgH is accelerated
by the presence of nickel (or more accurately Mg Ni).
There are a number of criteria by which one may judge the suitability of a
metal-hydrogen system for energy storage. For example, it was mentioned
above that the hydrides are exothermic and that energy must be supplied for
their decomposition. This need not, however, be a source of inefficiency.
All energy producing devices, whether fuel cells or combustion engines,
produce waste heat and it should be possible to utilize this heat for the
decomposition of the dydride. We therefore require a balance between the heat
produced and that required, both as to quantity and quality (temperature).
In other words, the hydride should have an appreciable decomposition pressure
(at least one atmosphere) at the temperature of operation of the energy-
producing device. The application of hydride storage to hydrogen fueled
vehicles is shown in Fig. 155. There are, of course, additional criteria
by which one can judge the worth of a material according to one's particular
needs. For example, a unique set of criteria has been developed by which any
candidate metal-hydrogen system can be measured against the EPA program goals.
These criteria are listed as Fig. 156. We have also experimentally screened
a large number of alloys. All of these materials, when judged by this parti-
cular set of criteria, score lower than catalyzed magnesium hydride and can
be eliminated as hydrogen storage media. It should be noted that the criteria,
as presently constituted, include reversibility. This specification, when
-256-
-------
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-------
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Criteria:
Revers ibi1ity
x - Series reactions required to constitute hydride and
process is not simple or cheap.
1 - Special apparatus and extreme conditions are necessary
5 - Reaction Cakes place in situ with heating, cooling or
pressurization
Hydrogen Content (by weight)
x - Contains less than 5% hydrogen
1 - Contains 5 - 107.
3 - Contains 10 - 207.
5 - Contains more than 207.
Hydrogen Content (by volume)
22
x - Contains less than A x 10 atoms H/ml of hydride
1 - Contains 4 to 6 x 10 atoms H/ml of hydride
2 - Contains 6 to 8 x 1022 atoms H/ml of hydride
3 - Contains 8 to 10 x 1022 atoms H/ml of hydride
5 - Contains more than 10 x 10 atoms H/ml of hydride
Pressure/Temperature Relation
x - P > 2000 psia @ 150°F
T > 570°F @ 15 psia
1 - P = 1 to 2000 psia @ 150° F
T = 390 to 570°F @ 15 psia
2 - P = 500 to 1000 psia 15 psia @ 5°F
Heat of Dissociation
x - Heat Dissoc (Hp) > 0.4 Ht. of Combustion (Hg) of hydrogen
1 - 0.2 < HD/Hc < 0.4
3 - 0.1 < HD/ He < 0.2
5 - HD/Hc < 0.1
Safety (Hydrided and Dehydrided)
x - More hazardous than gasoline
1 - Same overall degree of hazard as gasoline
3 - Somewhat less hazardous than gasoline
5 - Significantly less hazardous Chan gasoline
Cost/Availability
x - More than $1000 (20 gal. gasoline equivalent) near or long term
Long range availability unlikely
1 - $500 to $1000 near and long term
Long range availability in doubt
3 - $200 to$500 near and long term
Availability reasonably certain
5 - <$200 near and long term
Availability certain
Physical Properties
x - Low melting point. Volatile in operating range. Corrosive, etc.
1 - Properties marginally acceptable
5 - Acceptable
Reaction Kinetics
x - Rate inadequate regardless of equipment design
1 - Rate adequate but equipment complex
5 - Rate adequate in simple equipment
Thermal Conductivity
x - Limits hydrogen availability regardless of equipment
1 - Acceptable for use but with complex heat exchange equipment
5 - Rate adequate in simple equipment
Cyclic Stability - physical
x - Effective for < 100 cycles
1 - Effective for 100 to 300 cycles
3 - Effective for 300 to 500 cycles
5 - Effective for more than 500 cycles
Cyclic Stability - contamination
x - Less than 300 cycles with high purity gas (HPG)
Less than 100 cycles with normal purity gas (NPG)
1 - 300 to 500 cycles (HPG)
100 to 300 cycles (NPG)
< 100 cycle s with impure gas (IG)
3 - > 500 cycles with HPG
> 300 cycles with NPG
100-300 cycles with IG
5 - > 500 cycles with NPG
^> 3OO cycles with IG
Key:
1
x -
0 -
to 5 -
Rejects
Unknown
candidate
Racing scale
-------
applied in the usual sense, eliminates certain complex hydrides (e.g.,
Mg(AlH.)„), which otherwise may be very attractive as hydrogen storage media.
At present such compounds can only be made indirectly using wet chemical
techniques.
Future work will examine the possibility of simplifying the synthesis of such
compounds through the use of catalysts and/or alternate wet chemical reactions.
Thus, if simple novel syntheses are possible, such systems, even if not
directly reversible, could then be considered as practical hydrogen storage
media.
Questions and Comments
Question: How do you store hydrogen in the hydride; do you have to refri-
gerate the system?
Answer: While charging the system, heat of formation is removed by water or
coolant. While storing, the pressure is raised to the equilibrium
pressure; this may be 300-400 Psi.
G. Gasoline-Hydrogen Fuel Blends, by R. Breshears, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
A high-efficiency, low-emission engine development project is currently
underway, sponsored by NASA and EPA. The feasibility demonstration phase
has been completed and the validation phase is now in progress.
The system has the potential of meeting the EPA 1977 standards while sig-
nificantly improving fuel economy. It will use current fuels and engines,
will have similar response characteristics to current engines, and will be
low in cost considering both initial cost and fuel savings.
The concept (See. Fig. 157) is to use small amounts of hydrogen to allow the
burning of gasoline at ultra-lean conditions. The hydrogen is generated
aboard the vehicle by feeding gasoline and air to a hydrogen generator which
produces hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The generated gas is mixed with gaso-
line and fed to a conventional engine. The required hydrogen is produced in
-259-
-------
ACCELERATOR
GASOLINE
FLOW CONTROL I
VALVE
T
GASOLINE
O
I
"I
GENERATOR
+ CO
AIR
INDUCTION SYSTEM
AIR
l
CONVENTIONAL
ENGINE
Fig-
157 JPL System for Low Emission Combustion in a Conventional SI Engine
-------
the generator, and no hydrogen is stored aboard the vehicle. Previously,
water was also fed to the hydrogen generator, but recent generator develop-
ments allow elimination of water feed.
In the initial single cylinder, CFR-engine work emissions from various
fuels were compared in terms of grams of emission per horsepower-hour pro-
duced and combustion conditions expressed in terms of equivalence ratio.
In CFR engine experiments it was shown that NOx emissions from gasoline could
be reduced slightly by lean operation. With gasoline fuel levels equivalent
to the EPA 1977 standard could not be achieved because misfire limits the
minimum equivalence ratio to about 0.63. With hydrogen, however, the engine
was operated down to equivalence ratios of 0.1 where the NOx emissions are
less than 1/100 of the EPA standard and in fact down to the EPA ambient air
standard (0.25 ppm). Since the extremely low NOx emissions achievable by
lean combustion with pure hydrogen are not required, it is more practical to
use small amounts of hydrogen to extend the operating range for gasoline down
into the ultra-lean region. It is desirable to limit the amount of hydrogen
needed to minimize the generator size and reduce the effect of generator inef-
ficiency on overall fuel economy. Mixtures of hydrogen and gasoline in both
the CFR and V-8 engines showed very low NOx emissions in the ultra-lean region
(Fig. 158). Carbon monoxide emissions were measured and found also to be
below the EPA 1977 standards, as long as adequate quantities of hydrogen were
used to avoid misfire (Fig. 159). Hydrocarbon emissions have been measured
and found to be above the EPA 1977 standard (Fig. 160). Further work will be
needed to reduce hydrocarbon emissions.
The engine thermal efficiency was measured and found to be substantially
increased by operation in the ultra-lean region (Fig. 161). Engine thermal
efficiency data were taken across the rpm range at level road load conditions
with gasoline only at maximum efficiency spark advance and equivalence ratio.
The data for the same engine and induction system, but using hydrogen and gaso-
line, showed a substantial increase of thermal efficiency. A further increase
in efficiency was shown by increasing turbulence in the combustion chamber.
This was done by using shrouded valves (Fig. 162); other techniques should
also be effective.
-261-
-------
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1 0 H2 + INDOLENE-30
| ° O INDOLENE-30 ONLY
1
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Fig. 158 NO Emissions V-8 Engine
X
-262-
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(_0
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g
GO
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o H2 + I NDOLENE-30
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1972 EPAJTANDARp
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.3 .4 .5 .6
EQUIVALENCE RATIO 0
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8
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1.0
Fig. 159 CO Emissions V-8 Engine
-------
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14
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CO
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0 A
01 4
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1977 EPA STANDARD
(0.41 gm/mi EQUIVALENT)
\
A H2 ONLY
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d INDOLENE-30 ONLY
O
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_______ * _____________ ofio __ o-.o.
1 - L - ^__LA^Ar— L - Ar— L - 1 - L
0
.1
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EQUIVALENCE RATIO <*>
Fig. 160 Hydrocarbon Emissions V-8 Engine
-------
40
o
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iz 30
i
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ON
<
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20
10
A
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H2 ONLY
H2 + INDOLENE-30
INDOLENE-30 ONLY
0
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EQUIVALENCE RATIO 0
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.8
.9
1.0
Fig. 161 Thermal Efficiency V-8 Engine
-------
ON
ON
I
45
40
< 30
S 25
<
O
o
— 20
15
1200
1500
H2 GASOLINE AND
SHROUDED VALVES
o
H2 + GASOLINE
GASOLINE ONLY
V-8 ENGINE SYSTEM
AUTOTRONICS INDUCTION
LEVEL ROAD LOAD
HIGH GEAR
1800 2100
ENGINE SPEED, rpm
2400
2700
Fig. 162 Turbulence Effects on Engine Efficiency
-------
The current V-8 engine hydrogen requirements to avoid misfire are about 67,
hydrogen by weight in fuel at an equivalence ratio of 0.55. This should be
compared with the lean flammibility limit of 1.57, by weight of hydrogen. The
CFR-engine requires about 2% hydrogen to avoid misfire (Fig. 163). This
indicates that substantial reduction in the V-8 engine hydrogen requirements
should be possible. Testing has been initiated to evaluate the effects of
engine modifications, such as improved fuel atomization and distribution,
improved ignition system, and increased combustion chamber turbulence on the
lean limit hydrogen requirements and hydrocarbon emissions.
The most critical development of this system is the hydrogen generator.
The design chosen is similar to that used for commercial production of hydrogen
from hydrocarbons. (The process is called partial oxidation hydrogen genera-
tion. See Fig. 164,) In this process, gasoline and air are reacted at 1500
to 2000 F, forming hydrogen, carbon monoxide, plus various hydrocarbons and
diluents. Heat is supplied by pumping air into the generator and burning a
portion of the gasoline. The reaction takes place in a reactor with or
without the use of catalysts. The maximum theoretical hydrogen yield for a
hydrogen generator with water, gasoline and air feed in 29% by volume. When
no water feed is used, the generator air/fuel mass ratio must be greater than
5 to avoid soot formation. Under these conditions the maximum theoretical
hydrogen yield is 247, by volume. The current catalytic generator will yield
227, by volume hydrogen without producing soot. This operation is achieved
only with gasoline and air feed, and no water is used. The catalytic generator
has an efficiency of 8070. These data show a major improvement over the much
larger and earlier thermal generator which produced 14.57, by volume hydrogen
with an efficiency of 67% and required water feed (Fig. 165).
Engine and hydrogen generator integration tests were made with the V-8 engine
and the early thermal generator and also with a catalytic generator. The
early thermal generator/engine combination showed about the same thermal
efficiency as the unmodified engine. The higher performance catalytic hydro-
gen generator engine combination showed a substantial efficiency increase as
compared with the unmodified engine. This improvement is in terms of the
-267-
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100
CO
Y//////////////.
§xHIGH EMISSION^
;%LOW EMISSION^
OPERATING
OPERATING
- LEAN
FLAMM ABILITY
LIMIT
BOTTLED GAS
/^OPERATING POINT^
// .\\X\\V\\X\. \\XXVXVV N.VX
CFR ENGINE
MISFIRE LIMIT
BASELINE DESIGN
V-8 ENGINE
MISFIRE LIMIT
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
EQUIVALENCE RATIO,
Fig. 163 Engine Hydrogen Requirements
-268-
-------
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AIR
GASOLINE
8 CO + 9 H,
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0000000000OC
000000000000
GENERATOR
PRODUCTS TO ENGINE
Fig. 164 Partial Oxidation Hydrogen Generator
-269-
-------
40
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CO
30
20
Q
>- 10
0
0
THEORETICAL EQUILIBRIUM
CALCULATIONS (NO WATER)
CURRENT CATALYTIC
GENERATOR
PERFORMANCE DATA
(NO WATER)
EARLY THERMAL GENERATOR
PERFORMANCE
(WATER/FUEL = 0.8)
345
AIR/FUEL MASS RATIO
8
Fig. 165 Hydrogen Generator Performance
-------
combined indicated thermal efficiency of the engine/generator combination
(Fig. 166). The baseline design point represents an improved engine with
reduced hydrogen requirements. This represents a 2570 increase in efficiency
over the unmodified engine.
A bottled-gas car has been built (Fig. 167) which used the experimental
induction system and uses hydrogen from high-pressure cylinders mounted in the
trunk. This car was tested using the EPA CVS cycle. The results to date
show a dramatic reduction of NOx and CO emissions and a reduction of 34% in
total fuel BTU's (Fig. 168). In a hydrogen-generator-equipped car, approxi-
mately 257o improvement in fuel economy is expected.
The overall status of the JPL system is:
• A compact high-performance hydrogen generator has been demonstrated.
• A V-8 engine has been operated with a hydrogen generator.
• The bottled-gas car shows high efficiency, low NOx, and CO
emissions.
Future plans include:
• Fully characterize the engine/generator combination.
• Investigate the generator start-up and control problems.
• Test the engine modifications to reduce engine hydrogen require-
ments.
Current plans call for completion of the characterization by September 1, 1974.
Questions and Comments: None
H. Electric Vehicle Impact Study for Los Angeles, by William Hamilton,
General Research Corporation
This study, although it focuses on the Los Angeles region, includes national
implications of regional electric car use. Its ultimate concern is the com-
prehensive impacts of battery-electric car introduction in a conventional-
automobile situation; it does not address hybrid-electric, steam, or other auto-
motive alternatives. Impacts are sought on: environment, resources, economy,
and society in 1980, 1990 and 2000.
-271-
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50
K3
~vl
fO
ENGINE/CATALYTIC GENERATOR
INTEGRATION TEST DATA
o
40
ENGINE ONLY
CXL
LJLJ
n:
o
LU
<
O
30
20
OQ
^
O
o
10
0
0.2
BASELINE DESIGN POINT
ENGINE AND CATALYTIC
H2 GENERATOR PREDICTION
UNMODIFIED
ENGINE
EARLY THERMAL
GENERATOR/ENGINE
INTEGRATION TEST DATA
EARLY THERMAL
GENERATOR/ENGINE
PREDICTION
0.4 0.6 0.8
SYSTEM EQUIVALENCE RATIO
i.o
1.2
Fig. 166 Engine/Hydrogen Generator Thermal Efficiency
-------
Fig. 167 Bottled Gas Car Installation
-------
-P-
i
UNMODIFIED
VEHICLE
2.29
43.91
1.75
12,700
BOTTLED
GAS CAR
2.6
1.6
0.52
8400
EPA 1977
STANDARD
0.41
3.4
0.4
HYDROCARBONS (GM/MI)
CARBON MONOXIDE (GM/MI)
NITROGEN OXIDES (GM/MI)
FUEL BTU/MILE"
STATUS
TUNING OF CONTROL SYSTEM CONTINUING FUTURE TESTS EXPECTED TO
SHOW NOX BELOW STANDARD
•TOTAL GASOLINE AND HYDROGEN BTU's
Fig. 168 Bottled Gas Car Test Results
-------
The basis for impact calculation is a characterization of electric cars per-
formed under subcontract by Minicars, Inc., of Santa Barbara, California.
Figure 169 shows parametric vehicle gross weights for a small shopping car
and for a larger car with freeway commuting capability, together with specific
range--weight combinations selected for subsequent use in the study. Ranges
shown were evaluated on the SAE Residential and Metropolitan Area Driving
Cycles, respectively. Maximum ranges at constant speed are over twice the
figures shown. Figure 170 shows the performance of the batteries assumed for
these 1980 calculations, together with performance of several advanced lead-
acid traction batteries which have already been operated in experimental
electric cars. Also shown is the performance of a lithium-sulfur battery
which current development programs are expected to make available by 1990;
its superior performance essentially removes electric car range restrictions
forecast for 1980. As Fig. 171 suggests, even the 4-passenger vehicle is
quite small, in the subcompact class; but adequate weight and space allowances
are provided for compliance with future safety standards.
The impact of electric cars is measured relative to a future without electric
cars. This future has been defined through the series of baseline projec-
tions: population, transportation, energy, economy and air quality. The
ground rule in all these baseline projections has been "no surprises", that
is, no drastic rationing of gasoline or electricity, nor other major disloca-
tion of existing economic, social, and technological patterns. The baseline
projections collectively envision much-reduced rates of population growth in
Los Angeles, a very moderate expansion of transportation demand and the free-
way system, a reduced but still substantial growth in the supply and demand
for electric power, and a major improvement in air quality due to enforcement
of existing automobile emission regulations.
Figure 172 shows an important product of the baseline energy projection:
future fuel economy of the average automobile. The chart includes both the
actual fuel economy over the past 40 years for all cars on the road and the
measured economy for average new cars since 1957. Circles for future years
are legislative and research goals and standards advanced during the past year.
-275-
-------
6000
5000
4-PASSENGER
5 4000
»•.
h-
x
(D
LU
^ 3000
2000
oL
0
20
40 60
RANGE, mi
2-PASSENGER
80
100
Fig. 169 Electric Car Weight Versus Range 1980
-276-
-------
1000
LITHIUM-SULFUR
100
oo
•M
+-•
CO
10
1980
FORECAST
1 I Mill
1990 FORECAST
10
100
1000
watt hr/lb
Fig. 170 Battery Characteristics
-277-
-------
FOUR PASSENGER VEHICLE CONFIGURATION
00
SCALE
Fig. 171 Four Passenger Vehicle Configuration
-------
25i-
20
(D
0.
>- 15
O
z
O
LU
D
LL
10
I
0
1930 1940
O /
7)
I
I
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR
Fig. 172 Projected Auto Fuel Economy
-279-
-------
The baseline projection, which calls for a doubling of gasoline mileage by
the end of the century, is based primarily on a near-term target cited by the
EPA and a 1984 goal stated in legislation passed by the Senate six months ago.
Figure 173 compares the baseline fuel economy projection with prospects for
electric cars. Here energy consumption has been transformed into fuel BTU
consumed, either in the ICE automobile or in the power plant supplying recharge
electricity. Points are shown in Fig. 173 for both 2- and 4-passenger electric
cars; even the 4-passenger cars promise to remain as economical as the rapidly-
improving baseline ICE car. In fairness, however, it must be noted that the
baseline ICE car will provide more performance and accomodations than the
4-passenger electrics. In these respects the electrics are comparable to such
subcompacts as today's Pinto--which is already more energy efficient than the
1980 electric counterpart is likely to be.
The energy baseline projection also investigated prospective availability of
recharge power. Supply and demand were forecasted for peak days of future
years, as illustrated for 1990 in Fig. 174. The shaded area of this chart
shows capacity available, after reasonable allowances for maintenance, for
overnight recharge of electric cars. By the year 2000, this available capa-
city will be adequate for electrification of all Los Angeles automobiles.
It will generally be obtainable by activating oil-fired plants in the Los
Angeles Air Basin, which will then be relegated to peaking service so that
base loads may be met by cleaner, cheaper energy sources.
Baseline forecasts of NOx emissions in the Los Angeles region are shown in
Fig. 175. Given emission controls now in prospect, they will drop signifi-
cantly by 1990, while the automotive share drops even more dramatically. As
Fig. 176 shows, automotive hydrocarbon emissions will similarly be reduced in
future years to a very low relative and absolute level, as will CO emissions
shown in Fig. 177. Even without electric cars, then, Los Angeles air quality
is headed for a major improvement. Equally important, it will become rela-
tively independent of future vehicular emissions. In this sort of future,
electric cars can only produce relatively modest further improvement. A
-280-
-------
12,000
10,000
LU
Q_
D
H
00
LL
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
\AVERAGE NEW 1C CAR
\
LEAD-ACID^.
BATTERY CARS^
*PINTOf
• D
HONDA
V | ITUII IM
0
LITHIUM-SULFUR
BATTERY CARS
1970
1980 1990
YEAR
2000
Fig. 173 Comparative Energy Consumption
-281-
-------
100% i-
25%
0
MIDNIGHT GAM
COAL AND GAS
NUCLEAR
HYDRO
NOON
6PM
MIDNIGHT
Fig. 174 Hourly Electricity Demand and Supply - Aug 1990
-282-
-------
00
o
0.7
0.6
0.5
a
DC
LU 0.4
Q_
CO
Z
O
0.3
CO
5 09
GO 0-2
CO
0.1
0
TOTAL
VEHICLES
"POWER
PLANTS
i
1960 1970 1980 1990
YEAR
2000
Fig. 175 Baseline Emissions: NO
x
-283-
-------
1.5r
ro
o
Q 1.0
DC
LLI
Q_
CO
2
O
h-
co
CO
CO
0.5
TOTAL
0
1960 1970
1980
YEAR
1990 2000
Fig. 176 Baseline Emissions:
HC
-284-
-------
10
CO
o
8
DC
LU
Q_
CO
O
H
co"
4
CO
CO
LU
0
1960
1970
1980
YEAR
I
1990 2000
Fig. 177 Baseline Emissions: CO
-285-
-------
detailed series of air pollution model runs has been completed for electric
cars; its results, now being documented, are not easily summarized because
they vary from one locale to another, depending on powerplant emission
plumes.
Direct cost impacts of electric car use are illustrated in Fig. 178. Electric
cars will be initially more expensive than their gasoline-fueled counterparts,
but will last longer and will require less maintenance. Battery depreciation,
however, leads to significantly higher total cost, at least until new battery
technology appears. Figure 178 shows ranges of costs for 1990 ICE automobiles
in 1973 dollars, with gasoline price ranging from 50-80c per gallon, and for
expected average annual usage of 10,000 miles. Because their limited range
qualifies them primarily for use as second cars, the lead-acid electric cars
are likely to be driven only 6300 miles per year, at per-mile costs considerably
higher than gasoline-fueled cars. The range of costs shown results from the
range of uncertainty in cycle life of future batteries.
Until advanced batteries arrive, the extra cost of electric car operation will
be among the more important economic impacts. There will also be a signifi-
cant shift in regional economic activity. Substantial economic activity in
the South Coast Air Basin will be affected by a shift from gasoline to electric
automobiles. Where activity expands, or simply shifts to another kind of
merchandizing, the impact is beneficial or moderate; but in gasoline sales,
which electric cars will simply eliminate, significant adverse impacts arise.
Jobs thus eliminated are particularly sensitive because they require few
skills and are thus among the already limited prospects for disadvantaged
groups.
Even when restricted to second-car use, and to single-family dwellings with
off-street parking so that overnight recharge is easily arranged, a million
Los Angeles automobiles could be electric in 1980, with much larger numbers in
1990 and 2000 when high-performance batteries make daily range adequate for
first-car use in most households.
-286-
-------
30
25
._ 20
E
§ 15
H
co
O
10
1990 ICE
AVERAGE
LEAD-ACID ELECTRIC
LITHIUM-SULFUR ELECTRIC
1990 ICE
SUBCOMPACT
0
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
ANNUAL MILEAGE
Fig. 178 Comparative Car Costs
-287-
-------
The estimated number of electric cars likely to be saleable in Los Angeles
under current market conditions is shown as the lower curve in Fig. 179.
"High" or "medium" use curves in this chart presume public policies and
actions encouraging electric car use and/or discouraging gasoline-fueled
car use. Gasoline, for example, might be taxed sufficiently to eliminate
the cost disadvantages of the electric cars, or a purchase tax on ICE cars
might be imposed to achieve the same overall result. Elimination of the
cost disadvantage for the lead-acid battery cars would require a gasoline tax
of at least $1.70 per gallon or a purchase tax of $2400, even given the lower
cost associated with the most optimistic battery cycle life. The impact of
any such taxes obviously becomes a major consideration in the overall cost
and benefit assessment for electric cars.
The impact study has recently been expanded to include several intermediate
performance batteries. Once parametric impacts have been developed for
cars using these batteries, overall cost-benefit ledgers and assessments of
the most desirable level of electric car use will be completed. The project
is now to be concluded in October.
Questions and Comments
Question: Referring to Fig. 174, the oil fired peaking power is usually the
most expensive and least efficient power generated. Is this the elec-
tricity which is contemplated for recharging the electric car batteries?
Answer: It is assumed that ways will be found to get new, more efficient
power plants on-line. But there are major conflicts in the Los Angeles
area between power companies and the environmentalists. Agencies require
10 and 20 year forecasts from the utilities; if new plants are not
permitted, then shortages and compromises can be expected.
Question (J. Appeldoorn, Esso Research): In Fig. 173, is this on-board
BTU/mi? If not, the battery powered car consumption should be multi-
plied by 2% to take into account the efficiency of the power plant and
if peaking power is used, the factor should be 5.
-288-
-------
Ni
00
co
CO
DC
< 9
CJ *
0
UPPER BOUND
HIGH USE POLICY
FREE MARKET
MEDIUM USE POLICY
1980
2000
Fig. 179 Electric Car Population Projections
-------
Answer: The BTU's plotted are the BTU's in the fuel burned at the power
plant. Power plant and electric power distribution efficiencies are
taken into consideration. Projections are for more efficient plants
and not the jet engine-type peaking plants which are less efficient.
Comment (Dr. A. R. Landgrebe, AEC): It was pointed out that the August load
curve (Ref. Fig. 173) is the worst month of the year for Los Angeles;
more base load power would be available at other times of the year. It
is believed that the advanced batteries will be available by the early
1980's; not 1990's. An AEC study shows that an electric car with energy
from a reactor would be twice as efficient as a car driven with synthetic
fuels.
Comment (Art Underwood, Consultant): Personal experience with golf carts
has shown that practical maintenance on current electric vehicles is
about three times that of a Cadillac from the consumer's viewpoint.
The nuisance of inspecting and watering numerous cells and failure of
relays were mentioned.
Answer: More advanced electric vehicles will avoid relay reliability problems
with solid state control elements. A number of new developments like
sealed lead-acid batteries should avoid or minimize watering incon-
venience.
Comment (Dr. J. Salihi, Otis Elevator Company): The market for golf carts
is continuiug to grow.
Question (S. Snyder, Ford Motor Company): The study is evolving to the
practical and economic factors necessary to reach conclusions. One of
the key questions is what is the cost of ownership of an electric vehicle
on a fully comparable basis? If an electric vehicle is slightly more
expensive, what is the packageability and performance? The American
customer is extremely sensitive to these two factors. The electric car
is heavy and less roomy due to space used by batteries.
Answer: Although difficult to predict, it is expected that the electric
vehicle will indeed be significantly more expensive to operate (more
than 10%). With the VW equaling sales of the Pinto at half the horse-
-290-
-------
power per ton and performance about equal to that of the electric, it
is hard to say performance rules out the electric. Also recent surveys
of customers are showing increasing concern for fuel economy and reli-
ability and other factors. These are easier for the electric to achieve.
Question (Carl Thomas, Institute for Energy Analysis): Are you or any group
you are aware of looking at a hybrid-flywheel battery system with regen-
erative braking capability?
Answer: This is not being actively considered by EPA at this time, but there
is the possibility of re-considering such systems in FY 1975.
Question (Cmdr. E. Tyrrel, Dept of Trade and Industry, England): What about
the availability and price of such materials as lead, lithium, and sulfur?
Has this been taken into consideration?
Answer: These and other materials have been investigated on the economic-
availability basis. Because this study only concerns Los Angeles at
present, the quantities for that area are not significant on a national
basis. However, the national implications will be covered in more depth
in the final report.
Question: There is considerable question about the applicability of the car
usage survey data from the Los Angeles transportation survey. Selected
sampling of a few individuals indicates that quite often the second car
in a family is used for long trips as well as the first car. Also, it
is often used simultaneously for long trips by other members of the family,
Answer: All of the potentially useful data from the Los Angeles transportation
survey was not dug out. The time and money for further effort on this
data were not available. Its shortcomings and limitations are recognized.
Question (M. Laurente, Department of Transportation): What is the cause for
increasing cost of the lead-acid batteries (Fig. 178)?
Answer: Life estimates for lead-acid batteries vary by a factor of 3:1.
Annual replacement of the battery was assumed. A replacement might cost
as much as $1000. More reliable data on life cycle costs are needed for
this application. Even less is known about lithium-sulfur batteries.
-291-
-------
Question (Petro-Electric): Can you say anything about Petro-Electric hybrid
engine now on test?
Answer: Petro-Electric has a vehicle under test at EPA. It is a hybrid heat
engine (Wankel) - lead-acid battery, d c motor driven vehicle. No other
information is presently available.
I. New EPA Highway Fuel Economy Test Cycle, by C. D. Paulsell, EPA, Emission
Control Technology Division, Procedures Development Branch
The EPA has for several years recognized that the light duty vehicle emission
certification procedure provides reliable, reproducible information which can
JL.
be utilized for calculation of vehicle fuel economy . The certification test
procedure incorporates a chassis dynamometer that exercises the test vehicle
to simulate the power required of the vehicle during an urban drive in a major
•fc-jf
metropolitan area . The carbon mass emissions from these tests can be used
to calculate the average urban fuel economy; this calculation equally applies
to all the vehicle types tested during the certification process and permits
the effect of vehicle design parameters on urban fuel economy to be assessed.
Publication of these urban fuel economy data for all classes of vehicles pro-
vides the consumer with one piece of information he can include as a criterion
for determining the suitability of any given vehicle for filling his needs.
The fact that more than half of the total vehicle miles accumulated are
traveled in urban areas reflects the importance of knowing urban fuel economy.
The average vehicle owner tends to ignore urban ("aroung town") fuel economy
because it is usually less than highway fuel economy and because highway fuel
economy is more conveniently measured. Thus, the typical-vehicle owner has
conditioned himself to expect fuel economy data to refer to highway type
A Report on Automotive Fuel Economy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air and Water Programs, Mobile Source Air Pollution Control,
October 1973.
•Jf-fc
Development of the Federal Urban Driving Schedule, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Paper No. 730553.
-292-
-------
operations and the publication of urban fuel economy data does not provide
the information relative to his personal experience. Highway travel accounts
for more than 40% of the total vehicle miles traveled making highway fuel
economy a useful and valid criterion for judging vehicle performance. An
appropriate dynamometer vehicle exercise which simulates typical highway
operation could also be employed to measure highway fuel economy data. Pub-
lication of both equally valid fuel economy rates would be useful information
for many individuals.
Thus, the purpose of this program was to measure road speed versus time pro-
files of vehicle operation on all types of highways and non-urban roads and
to reduce these profiles to characteristic parameters which could be used to
develop a composite driving cycle. This driving cycle could then be used to
measure vehicle fuel economy under typical highway operation as simulated on
a chassis dynamometer.
Through a very careful procedure of taking and analyzing road test data with
several vehicles (described in detail in Appendix C) a composite Highway
Driving Cycle was developed as shown both graphically in Fig. 180 and in
tabular form in Fig. 181.
-293-
-------
Fig. 180 Composite Highway Driving Trace
START
-------
KJ
VO
Ul
Segment
Lenght
(IN)
9.5
11.5
17.0
12.5
( 0.13)
( 9.60)
(11.53)
(17.00)
(12.60)
( 0.13)
50.5 (51.0 )
Inches
Segment
(Idle)
D
C
A
B
(Idle)
Overall
Total
Average
Speed
(MPH)
41.157
43.841
56.096
48.421
48.595
( o
(40
(43
(56
(48
( o
(48
MPH
.0 )
.736)
.835)
.110)
.230)
.0 )
.200)
Distance
Traveled
(Miles)
1.629
2.101
3.973
2.522
10.225
Mil
( 0.0 )
( 1.629)
( 2.107)
( 3.974)
( 2.532)
( o.o )
(10.242)
es
Elapsed
Time
(MIN) (SEC)
2.375
2.875
4.250
3.125
12.625
Minutes
2
144
173
255
189
2
765
Seconds
% Total
Miles
15.93
20.55
38.85
24.67
100.02
( o.o )
( 15.91)
20.57)
( 38.80)
( 24.72)
( o.o )
(100.0%)
(12.750)
NOTE: Previous overall average speed did not include 4 second idle period.
Fig. 181 Characteristics of Composite Highway Driving Cycle*
*
Values applicable to the amended version
(Mon. April 22, 1974) are shown in parentheses.
-------
APPENDIX A
ORIENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE
AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS DIVISION
IN EPA ORGANIZATION
-------
APPENDIX A
ORIENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS DIVISION IN EPA ORGANIZATION
The EPA organization has five Assistant Administrators reporting to the
Administrator, Russell Train: (1) Planning and Management, (2) Enforcement,
(3) Water and Hazardous Materials, (4) Research and Development, and (5) Air
and Waste Management. AAPS reports through Roger Strelow, Assistant Administra-
tor for Air and Waste Management. Air and Waste Management, in turn, is
comprised of five (5) offices as shown in Fig. A-l.
AAPS Division is part of the Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control under
Deputy Assistant Administrator, Eric Stork, in Washington, D.C. Mr. Stork has
four major functions, all located in Ann Arbor, Michigan. As shown in Fig. A-2
the AAPS Division is one of these functions.
A-l
-------
US. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROJECTION AGENCY
ADMINISTRATOR
DEPVTYWUM
ASST. ADMINISTRATOR
fOR AIR AND
WASTE MANAGEMENT \
Off ICE Of
AIR QUAUTY
PLUMING
MD STANDARDS
Off 1C6 Of
MOBILE SOVRCi
AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL
Off/C£0f
SOUP WASTE
MANAGEMfXT
PKOGMMS
OfftCE Of
RADIATION
PROGRAMS
OfftCE Of
AND CONTROL
Figure A-1
-------
DEPUTY ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR
MOBILE SOURCE
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
OFFICE OF
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
BRANCHES:
ADM/NtSTMTM
LAgOMTOKY SVPHW
ALTERNATIVE
AUTOMOTIVE POWEJ?
SYSTEMS DIVISION
BRANCHES:
ALTFWAT/Vt SYSTEMS
VULYS/S
POW& SYSTfMS
CERTIFICATION AND
SURVEILLANCE DIVISION
BRANCHES:
EMISSION CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
BRANCHES:
f*OCtW*£S WtUOPMEMT
Ptoovcnw QUAun
TEST AMD EVALUATION
Figure A-2
-------
APPENDIX B
LIST OF ATTENDEES AND REPRESENTATIVES
-------
APPENDIX B
LIST OF ATTENDEES AND REPRESENTATIVES
Consultants
Altman, Peter
Bachle, Carl
Dickerson, Dorman
Gay, Errol J.
Harmon, Rob ert
Huber, Paul
Mills, Ken D.
Percival, Worth
Roensch, Max M.
Siegan, Bruce
Underwood, Art
Way, Gilbert
U. S. Government Agencies
ARMY MATERIALS & MECHANICS RESEARCH CENTER
ARMY MOBILITY EQUIPMENT R&D CENTER
ARMY TANK AUTOMOTIVE COMMAND
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LAB
BUREAU OF MINES
DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT - CANADA
DEPARTMENT OF TRADE & INDUSTRY - ENGLAND
Lenoe, E. M.
Messier, Donald
Belt, Richard
Checklich, George
Engle, Gene
Jessel, Alfred
Machala, Paul
Petrick, Dr. Ernest
Raggio, David G.
Rambie, Edward
Santo, H.
Scully, Andrew
Tripp, David
Whitcomb, William
Woodward, Robert
Landgrebe, Dr. Albert R.
Stewart, Walter
Hoffman, Ken
Reilly, J. J.
Waide, Charles
Hum, R. W.
Reid, R.
Tyrrel, Commander E.
B-l
-------
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION - WASHINGTON, B.C.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY - ANN ARBOR
FEDERAL ENERGY OFFIC2 - WASHINGTON, B.C.
GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION
INSTITUE DE RECHERCHE DES TRANSPORTS, FRANCE
INSTITUTE FOR DEFENSE ANALYSIS
JET PROPULSION LAB
Compton, Roger
Fay, David
Hirsh, Dan
Husted, Robert
Laurente, Michael
Miller, Harold
Raithel, Wilhelm
Johnson, James
Kittredge, George
McSarley, J. A.
Tate, Bill
Barber, Kenneth
Brogan, John
Cain, William
Ecklund, Gene
Hagey, Graham
Hopkins, Howard
Hutchins, Peter
Kaykaty, Gabriel
Kenney, Dyer
Kramer, Saunders B.
Luchter, Stephen
Mirsky, William
Murrell, Dill
Naser, Howard
Paulsell, Don
Schulz, Robert
Sebestyen, Tom
Sutton, Pat
Szczepaniack, Ed
Thur, George
Thomson,.Dr. Robb
Ullrich, Robert
Pierre, Dreyer
Hamilton, Robert C.
Riddiel, F. R.
Barber, Thomas
Breshears, R.
Laumann, G.
Meisenholder, G. W.
Moore, Nick
Phen, Robert
Raymond, R.
Riebling, Robert
Spiegel, Joe
Stephenson, R. Rhoads
B-2
-------
LOS ALAMOS SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY
NAVAL ENGINEERING CENTER
NASA, HEADQUARTERS
NASA, LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER
SANDLA LABORATORIES
UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE
Stewart, Walter
Byrnes, William F.
Johnson, Paul
Van Landingham, Earl E
Butze, Fritz
Heller, Jack
Packe, Dan
Stone, Phil
Wong, Robert
Wood, James
Blackwell, Arlyn, N.
Hartley, Danny
Jones, M. 0.
Gerlach, Lewis
Press
AUTOMOTIVE NEWS
CHILTON BUSINESS PUBLICATIONS
GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS
MC GRAW-HILL PUBLISHERS
PRODUCTION MAGAZINE
STEAM AUTOMOBILE CLUB
UNITED PRESS INTERNATIONAL
WALL STREET JOURNAL
Rowland, Roger
Eshelman, Ralph
Farmer, Robert
Hampton, William
Hopkins, Charles
Lyon, Robert
Lechtzin, Edward
Condacci, Greg
B-3
-------
Industrial, Educational and Research Organizations
ADVANCED MATERIALS ENGINEERING LTD., ENGLAND
ADVANCED POWER SYSTEMS
AEROJET LIQUID ROCKET CO.
AEROSPACE CORPORATION
AIRESEARCH MFG. CO.
ALLIED CHEMICAL
AMERICAN AIRLINES
AMERICAN HONDA
AMERICAN MOTORS
ARTHUR D. LITTLE INC.
ATLANTIC RICHFIELD
AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH ASSOCIATES
AVCO
BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE
BATTELLE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
BENDIX CORPORATION
BORG WARNER CORPORATION
ROBERT BOSCH CORP.
WM. BROBECK AND ASSOC.
Egenolf, J.
Hryniszak, Dr. W.
Carpenter, Scott
Wyle, Steve
Jones, Roy
Rudnicki, Mark
Lapedes, Don
Meltzer, Dr. Joe
Castor, Jere
Lewis, Leon
Allen, Robert
Porter, G. R.
Amito, Eiji
Burke, Carl
Green, Raymond
Jones, W.
Porter, G. R.
Hurter, Donald
Lease, C. A.
Mrstik, A. V.
Bungh, Howard M.
Paulovich, R.
Hazard, Herb
Loscutoff, Walter
Datwyler, Walter
Mayer, Endre
McGlinn, E. J.
Hallberg, Irving
Mercure, Robert
Denneler, Kurt
Brobeck, W. M.
Younger, Francis
B-4
-------
CALSPAN CORPORATION
CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY
JAY CARTER ENTERPRISES
CATERPILLAR TRACTOR CO.
CELANESE CHEMICAL CO.
CHAMPION SPARK PLUG
CHANDLER EVANS
CHEVRON RESEARCH
CHRYSLER CORPORATION
Davis, James
Macken, Dr. Nelson
Negeanu, M.
Paul, Dr. Frank
Carter, Jay Jr.
Kuykendall, Hugh
Billington, L. J.
Kline, Jan C.
Baker, Norman
Lentz, L. R.
Riordan, Mike
Guldrman, R. A.
Alexander, Bert
Angell, Peter
Ball, G. A.
Callison, James C.
Cogswell, Dewane
Collister, Howard
Dudash, Jim
Franceschina, J.
Golec, Thomas
Gross, Jerome
Hagen, F. A.
Huebner, George
Koontz, H. E.
LeFevre, H. P.
Lewakowski, J. J.
Mann, L. B.
Martin, F.
McGuire, Larry
McNulty, William
Miklos, A. A.
Nogle, Tom
Otto, A. K.
Pamperin, R. C.
Power, W.
Roy, A.
Samples, Doran K.
Schmidt, Fred
Scobel, Ken
Sparks, N. W.
Stecher, George
Stempien, Bill
Stoyack, Joseph
Sumaer, J. I.
Valeri, Russ
Wagner, Chuck
Willson, P. J.
B-5
-------
CLIMAX MOLYBDENEUM
CORNING GLASS WORKS
CUMMINS ENGINE CO.
D CYCLE POWER SYSTEMS
DANA CORPORATION
JOHN DEERE
DUPONT
EATON CORP.
ESCHER TECHNOLOGY
ESSO RESEARCH
ETHYL CORPORATION
EXCELLO
EXXON CHEMICAL
FEDERAL MOGUL
FORD MOTOR COMPANY
Morrow, Hugh
Spenseller, D. L.
Lanning, John
McBeath, C.
Wardale, David
Mather, K. J.
Davoud, Dr. J. E.
Charlesworth, W.
Stewart, Tom H.
Green, Karl F.
Van Burskirk, 0. R.
Chute, Richard
Confair, Les
Danis, L. J.
Eltinge, Dr. L.
Mueller, Bob
Richardson, Robert
Saeters, R. A.
Escher, William
Tison, Roy
Appledoorn, John
Furlong, L. E.
Kant, F.
Salvesfen, R. H.
Clark, Gill
Sneed, Richard B.
Zeitz, A. H. Jr.
Weldy, R. K.
Pennekamp, E. F. H.
Castledine, W.
Probst, Robert
Auiler, J. E.
Bates, Bradford
Blumberg, Paul
Chapman, W. I.
Daby, Eric
Davis, D. A.
Fisher, E. A.
Fuciniari, C. A.
B-6
-------
FORD MOTOR COMPANY
(cont.)
FOSECO INC.
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE
GARRETT CORPORATION
GENERAL ELECTRIC
GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION
GENERAL MOTORS DETROIT DIESEL
GENERAL MOTORS TECHNICAL CENTER
Gratch, Serge
Havsted, P- H.
Howes, B.
Laurance, Neal
Macauley, William
Marshall, A. E.
Mason, F. J.
McLean, A.
Mumford, Jack
Paluszny, A.
Peitsch, G.
Peters, Norman
Philips, C. W.
Rahnke, C.
Rossi, L. R.
Secord, John
Snyder, S. F.
Stadler, H.
Stockton, Thomas R.
Swatman, Ivan
Wade, W.
Hawthorne, P.
Rice, Ron
Rauch, Burton
Bartlett, Parker
Flinn, Donald E.
Miliacca, Lee
Bond, Jim
Dutram, Leonard
Frank, R. G.
Keister, J. E.
Ely, K. B.
Casey, Gary L.
Colucci, Joseph M.
Fleming, J. D.
Stebar, R. F.
Baugh, E.
Mayo, George
Sullivan, Robert
Agnew, W. G.
Amann, Ch ar1es
Bell, Albert H.
Chana, Howard
Collman, John
Cornelius, Walter
Dimick, David
Feiten, James B.
B-7
-------
GENERAL MOTORS TECHNICAL CENTER
(cont.)
GENERAL OPTIONICS
GENERAL RESEARCH
GTE-SYLVANIA
HOLLY CARBURETOR
HORST POWER SYSTEMS
HOWMET
INSTITUTE FOR ENERGY ANALYSIS
INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY
INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL COMPANY
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY
ISUZU MOTORS
KELSEY-HAYES
Frederickson, Hans
Hammond, D. C.
Hanley, George
Hartman, Dr. J. L.
Heffner, Earl
Hietbrink, Earl
Huellmantel, L. W.
Kutchey, J. A.
Malik, M. J.
Mathews, Charles
Mitchell, Harry
Niepoth, George
Nordenson, G. E.
Skellenger, G.
Stettler, R.
Vickers, Paul
Whorf, R. P.
Elythe, Richard
Hamilton, William
Corcoran, Richard
Kleiner, R.
Brantman, Leon
McCabe, Pat
Horst, Tom E.
Kelly, George
Boyle, Jim
Higgins, Mike
Thomas, Carl 0.
Fore, James G.
Gillis, Jay
Pangborn, Dr. John
Bech, N. G.
Billin, R. M.
Tuffnell, Glenn W.
Jones, T.
Tsukagawa, Satoru
Adler, Irving
Havel, C. J.
Miles, Thomas E.
B-8
-------
ROBERT KEYES & ASSOC.
KLOECKNER-HUMBOLDT-DEUTZ/GERMANY
LEYLAND MOTORS
LOCKHEED
LUBRIZOL CORPORATION
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY INCORPORATED
MERCEDES BENZ
MINER MACHINE DEVELOPMENT CO.
MITRE CORPORATION
MITSUBISHI MOTOR CO., JAPAN
MOBIL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
MONSANTO CORP.
MOTOROLA
R. D. MUELLER & ASSOC.
NISSAN MOTOR CO.
JOSEPH LUCAS NORTH AMERICA, INC.
NORTH AMERICAN PHILLIPS
NORTH AMERICAN ROCKWELL-ROCKETDYNE
Schweppe, Howard
Killmann, I. G.
Barnard, Mark
Lawson, Jim
Fuchs, E. J.
Scher, R. W.
Sieloff, Frank
Linden, Lawrence
Decker, Otto
Raber, R. A.
Sternlicht, Dr. Beno
Diefenbacher, Eberhard
Miner, S. S.
Stone, John
Ishimaru, Y.
Okazaki, Y.
Saito, Y.
Takaishi, Takeo
Takebe, T.
Crosthwait, Richard E.
Perry, R. H.
Miller, Dr. David
Winslow, Frank
Copeland, John
Lace, Mel
Mathey, Charles
Ronci, Bill
Parker, Andrew
Shadis, William
Saito, T.
Burgess, Anthony
Mandell, John
Loeffler, Larry
Lynch, Brian
Bremer, George
Combs, Paul
B-9
-------
NORTON COMPANY
OAKLAND UNIVERSITY
ONAN CORPORATION
ORSHANSKY TRANSMISSION
OTIS ELEVATOR
OWENS-ILLINOIS
NOEL PENNY TURBINES
PHILIPS PETROLEUM CO.
RAY POTTER & ASSOCIATES
POWER DYNETICS
PRATT WHITNEY AIRCRAFT
QUEST D CYCLE POWER
RICAKDO CONSULTING ENGINEERS, ENGLAND
ROHR CORP-
ROLLS ROYCE MOTOR LTD.
C. G. A. ROSEN
SAAB SCANIA
SCIENTIFIC ENERGY SYSTEMS, INC.
SHELL OIL COMPANY
Houck, E. W.
Blythe, James
Drury, E. A.
Lehmann, W. J.
Huntley, P.
Salihi, Dr. Jalel
Brock, T. W.
Gray, Marion
Kormanyos, Ken R.
Pel, Y. K.
Woulbroun, J. M.
Noble, Dr. David
Silverstone, Dr. C. E.
Schinner, Robert M.
Potter, Ray
Wood, Homer
Allen, Marvin
Billman, Lou
Wagner, W. Barry
Wildman, William
Palmer, Mike
Edwards, Jack
Williams, T.
Harshum, James A.
Koch, Berhl
Palm, Bengt
Blake, D. 0.
Dernier, Roger
Friedman, Tizhak
Hoagland, Dr. Lawrence
Syniuta, Walter
Vernon, Jack
Abbin, Joseph Jr.
Burstain, I. G.
Curtis, J. R.
Hendrickson, C. H.
Yatsko, Edward
B-10
-------
SOLAR, DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER
SUN COAST RESEARCH
SUN OIL COMPANY
SUNDSTRAND AVIATION
TECTONICS RESEARCH
TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL MOTORS
TEXACO, INC.
THERMO ELECTRON CORPORATION
THERMO MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
TOYO KOGYO LTD.
TOYOTA MOTOR CO.
TRACOR INC.
TRW
ULTRA ELECTRONICS
UNITED AIRCRAFT OF CANADA
UNITED AIRCRAFT RESEARCH LAB
UNITED PRESS INTERNATIONAL
UNITED STIRLING
UNITED TURBINE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Duffy, T. E.
White, David
Loomis, W. Warren
Toulmin, H. A.
Adam, A. Warren
Niggemann, Richard
Braun, A. T.
Blackburne, E.
Karaba, Al
Marks, D.
Hopkins, Stephen
Armstrong, Jack
Doyle, Ed
Patel, Parimal
Witzel, Walter
Yano, Robert
Yamate, Noriaki
Kinoshita, Takahiko
N akamura, Keny a
Takagi, Hidemasa
Gres, M. E.
Kraus, James
Richardson, Neal
Court, D. J.
Dent, John
Stoten, Mike
Greenwald, Larry
Lechtzin, Ed
Ortegren, Lars
Haggblad, H.
Kronogard, S. 0.
Malmrup, Lars
Sawyer, Prof. Robert
B-ll
-------
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND
UNIVERSITY OF UTAH
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
VOLKSWAGON
WALLIS MOTOR RES.
WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY
WESTINGHOUSE
WHITE MOTOR CO.
XAMAG, INC.
Anderson, Dr. R. W.
Bolt, Prof. Jay
Lady, Edward R.
Nichols, Prof. J. Arthur
Yang, Dr. Wen
Brown, Dr. G. A.
Zenger, Jerry
Myers, Phil
Bucheim, Rolf
Walzer, Dr. Peter
Wallis, Marvin E.
Singh, Dr. T.
Johnson, R. H.
Simpson, F. 0. M.
Bentele, Dr. Max
B-12
-------
APPENDIX C
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EPA COMPOSITE HIGHWAY DRIVING CYCLE
-------
APPENDIX C
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EPA COMPOSITE HIGHWAY DRIVING CYCLE
Highway Driving Characterization; The Department of Transportation segregates
road systems into either of two categories on the basis of principal area
characteristics. The two categories are urban and rural (highway), which are
differentiated because of functional differences in land use,road networks, and
travel characteristics*. DOT experience indicates that this differentiation in
characteristics occurs in places of 5,000 population. Rural (highway) road
networks are adequate if place populations are less than 5,000 and urban traffic
networks are required if the place populations exceed 5,000. In order to
characterize road types within either category the Department of Transportation
has developed a "Functional Classification Concept" which classifies each high-
way, road, or street according to the principal service that it renders. This
system of classification develops a hierarchy of route types. Lowest in the
hierarchy are the local roads and streets, where trips begin and end. These
trip ends are characterized by low speeds, unlimited access, and penetration
of neighborhoods. At the top of the hierarchy are the arterials designed to
accommodate high volumes of through traffic. Intermediate facilities or col-
lectors accommodate the necessary transition from local roads and streets to
arterials. Outside urban areas, the main road type classifications are:
A. Principal arterial system
a. Interstate
b. Other principal arterials
B. Minor arterial system
C. Collector
a. Major collectors
b. Minor collectors
D. Local system.
The development of rural systems classification starts at the top of the hier-
archy and works down. First the principal and minor arterial systems are
developed on a statewide basis. Then the collector and local classifications are
developed on a more localized (county) basis.
*Part II of the 1972 National Highway Needs Report, House Document No. 92-266
C-l
-------
On the basis of the above classification scheme, the percent of total highway
vehicle miles traveled has been calculated for each road type:
TABLE C-l
Percent of highway vehicle
Type of Highway miles traveled
A. Principal arterials 39.5
B. Minor arterials 22.4
C. Collectors 23.9
D. Locals 14.2
100 %
Highway operation represents between 40 and 50% of total vehicle miles traveled,
a value which continually decreases as urbanization increases. These percentages
are the basis for constructing a composite highway driving cycle to simulate all
types of highway operation.
For this study, five routes incorporating each road type to be traveled during
the characterization were selected by EPA personnel. Figure C-l is a map of the
general area. Figure C-2 illustrates a sample route which was designed to cover i
variety of road types for equipment check out tests. On the first run of this
route the data recording equipment functioned properly, but the vehicle experi-
enced a fuel system failure. The test equipment was transferred to the stand-by
vehicle and the replacement vehicle and equipment were checked out on the
dynamometer. Since the equipment had functioned properly on the sample route
and everything functioned well when checked on the dynamometer, the route
shown on Fig. C-3 was run first. This is primarily a type B (minor arterial)
route with 61% type B roads, 28% type A (major arterial) roads and 11% type C
(collector) roads. The second route, Fig. C-4, is a type A route with 100%
type A roads. Figure C-5 illustrates a type C route with 447, type C roads, 227.
type D (local) roads, 17% type A roads and 17% type B roads. The fourth data
collection run was a rerun of the sample route, Fig. C-2. This route consists
of 47% type D roads, 43% type C roads and 10% of type A roads. The fifth route
was run on a freeway in Ohio subject to 55 MPH speed limits, consists of 100%
type A roads (Fig. C-6).
C-2
-------
n
i
.' S-"-^L»J
'-"' _ v
' I ; :.' •,),': :.
10/ld I nunon ...» ,
I Jf^ _j .-. » „
V/'J «-„!._.1 i t
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Ij Be.o,ng,on A /QP? ,/j
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1 I 1 T
0?) \ I lalnjsliu'f ! I
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"J •'t. l ..'—l — '---'fsVy-1 Q'^'TLIMTI \"-^' v«t-i —1 I l I w~—. •
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iis^WLj J^ R-r T— j-^Ss^i
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-H' n:vrbw^-~^( *J^n\-4r-i /lA'^iC^-15^ • ^*L—>
u U-H iv^^, e'-H52^ i -/l^^r^r^l}^ -
r^.:.!, ""•"it-"'-r{Vrrr;fc!L'7 ©.^.J (Lie! Wm^i /-.; ' D'^V ©I - .>k""tol» i R»™ H^l Mu"°"V1''
7- .,..""" T ~ ©-"Q J-''» '"•-. '- i . V;^reV" W')T'"r'c~-^^T'~ l'^"r-Fentoni Cff% oJw-'T-Ba N ' I, 1—N4- Nm©
-.?•>•. |i-"'*a 7,^ Ji !-; -"-^ -/-•--•—/—>>'—/; 1, i .-- 5 ||D < ^ ~~ Sx-tsf^r*^ \ ^y v.c«a^ I' I \ Hj«n^'
|ii * ! ft?.'. ^=v •••'.-'-•' I iil1"110'*! io*Gf0« I wSffiv ;^- . »> ' sD , - X^**,'!11 M^S J;...
J©i Q«: 4 VLLAHSIHOi'H ©^'JL - -. v . (T I" ' U* -r- — ^tfv«-"*' o,,:V":'-H" X'
•-H4^-vl:- p.t,«™Jt^:^^^^=df^-Ui,;0">illt kJ fed *«-*^ / ^i • 0,-iw i J^te) iRl<)i^ay •' ;(?""°?8
CoMwater- ' S oj--,1 . »"*" L \ f'—j'~~V~1—u,, ' ""•" H~; TT^V I ~
/r ft u" •'• ., r - • -. L. \ 5 ^ J • Mm ou. • • I > ! ' T / !
••-:... ' '• •'i- |, ' | 1 'I ' ' _L ? i B"cl1 ^—:' '.J. ' ^ 1 '- -L-Hl
• ••••:* i ; .rbf^t-f-^r-A^^'A(f?i-;-HHt'4 -^^
--^V^^T'^^i®^
^L^'^kfv^RM ier-^'JS^-"^! ^J
c-'-i.' x:,- •l--1 v-^^.-v^ f-««"« "»11 l^ivta -oil ~Nr"'i i F»"*« «i i^n'i••"!:» .fell «/!^,Cr;!:
-,T> ./•
• X^l DlfAIIMlNI 01 iUr| HrC.*4WAlll N.
• [ FlAVH INfOfAJAHQ-4 CfN!l« |
L A K E """"
Isro SI GiSji
Fig. C-l General Area Travelled
-------
Fig. C-2 Sample Run "D" Route
C-4
-------
' l..**f
-*/.-^5
.'/') •'i1
-•::'(•>:
^iJLANSIN&pa. ^
« ©1%©* Efct'jAaaL
•I n^r;.r»v-V-!. »*.m.
^ %\,
•'^-
«55i'
4 "-'Sfej
U" DETROIT.
•
Fig. C-3 "B" Route
C-5
-------
•^•I.OA
. . -Vfilr
^
Fig.
c_4 "A" Route
C-6
-------
-^Mj
Pig. C-5 "c" Route
C-7
-------
Ann Arior'j;:^ ^v -• w,..r
-'^1- i •^
Fig. C-6 "A-55 MPH" Route
C-8
-------
During this data collection process, 460 feet of chart were used, which at
4 inches of chart travel per minute represents about 23 hours of data, collected
over a total distance of about 1050 miles. During all travel, an observer
accompanied the driver to make notes about the trip and to log pertinent data.
Vehicle Instrumentation; The vehicle used to collect data in this program was
a 1971 Ford Ranchwagon with a 429 CID-4V engine, 3 speed automatic transmission,
and a 2.75 ratio rear axle. This vehicle had been previously instrumented for
a study of vehicle operation and driving profiles. The instrumentation included
a manifold vacuum transducer, digital timer (seconds), a driveshaft torquemeter,
and driveshaft speed pickup. The signals from the driveshaft were scaled and
recorded on a stripchart moving at a rate of 4 inches per minute to produce the
same time base as the federal urban driving cycle. All of the instrumentation
was calibrated and checked on a chassis dynamometer to verify true speed and
torque readings. The vehicle contained a static inverter power supply to pro-
vide 120 volt, 60 cps electricity. This supply was used on all calibrations and
testing.
The true road speed was checked against the vehicle speedometer to permit a
quick calibration of the recorder on the road. A panel meter which indicated
driveshaft speed also facilitated a third check on true speed and calibration
stability. Calibration checks indicated good stability through the entire program.
The torquemeter had a shunt resistor which was used to calibrate the gain of the
torquemeter. The torque readings were scaled to measure from -200 to +800
foot-pounds. Torque readings were used to assess the variation in throttle
position for various velocity profiles. No problems were incurred with this
measurement.
Data Verification and Analysis: For ease of analysis, the 460 feet of recorder
chart gathered during this experiment were displayed on the walls of the office
hallway at the EPA Ann Arbor laboratory. The charts were properly identified
according to route number and were reviewed and verified by the route observers.
There was one observer on each drive and three observers were used in the program.
These observers reviewed their own traces and verified comments. They identified
C-9
-------
route segments according to type of road, A through D, determined which seg-
ments represented urban (population above 5,000) driving and deleted the urban
segments. Data reduction consisted of tabulating route speeds at 15 second
(1 inch) intervals to determine the maximum, minimum and average segment speeds.
Total segment time, distance, number of stops, number of major speed deviations
per mile for each segment were calculated. A speed deviation was defined as an
excursion greater than + 5 mph from a line connecting end-point velocities on
six inch intervals (1.5 min) of the entire segment.
These data were compiled from all of the charts for each road type and the
average characteristics were determined for each road type. These data are
presented in Table C-2.
Table C-2
Road Type
A
B
C
D
Composite
^Composite
Speed
'e rage Highway
Average
Speed
MPH
57.16
49.42
45.80
39.78
49.43*
Characteristics
Stops/mile
0.0100
0.0575
0.1260
0.2360
0.08
1
Speed
Deviations/
mile
0.070
0.439
0.484
0.598
0.327
/A'
(.395/A + .224/B + .239/C + .142/D
(Also, see footnote
on Page C-l.)
After these road type characteristics and the composite highway trip charac-
teristics had been determined, a driving cycle selection committee was designated.
This committee was composed of the three observers and three other EPA staff
engineers. The committee reviewed the data, decided that a nominal 10 mile high-
way route would be optimum for laboratory testing and agreed on a method for
obtaining the route. The committee split into three groups of 2 persons each,
one observer and one other engineer. Each group was to select and combine the
appropriate lengths and types of road segments to produce a route with character-
istics equivalent to the actual composite characteristics. Each group traced the
selected sections of the actual speed versus time charts to come up with the
C-10
-------
composite route. After the three candidate routes were prepared, the committee
reconvened and evaluated the relative merits of each route. As might be
expected, the three routes were quite comparable with each having special
features which that group felt were particularly important. After a thorough
analysis and discussion, the committee constructed a composite route which
contained the best features of all three routes. Figure 181 (Section V-I) pre-
sents the average characteristics of the composite route. Figure 180 (Section V-I)
is a photoreduction of the driving chart and represents a graphical illus-
tration of the speed-time trace as read from right to left, because of the
direction of chart paper travel.
Table C-3
Comparative Analysis of Cycle Characteristics
Average Speed % Miles Traveled
Road Type Goal Actual Diff. Goal Actual Diff.
A
B
C
D
57.16
49.42
45.80
39.78
56.10
48.42
43.84
41.16
-1.06
1.00
-1.96
+1.38
39.5
22.4
23.9
14.2
38.8
24.7
20.6
15.9
-0.70
+2.30
-3.30
+1.70
Composite 49.43 48.59 -0.84 100.0 100.0 0.00
Table C-3 compares the final characteristics of the Table in Fig, 181 (Section
V-I) with the goals shown in Table C-2. It is readily apparent that the highway
driving cycle closely approximates the real world conditions. All average speeds
are within +2.0 MPH of the real world average and the percentages of the distance
traveled in each segment are within + 47o of the DOT values.
During the construction of this cycle, the committee decided to use actual
on-road traces to represent each segment. This decision placed two restrictions
on the end points of the segments; the slopes and speeds had to be continuous
at the segment junctions. Furthermore the committee thought the most realistic
sequence of road segments would be DCAB. The cycle would start from an idle,
contain four speed deviations (one each in B and D, two in C) and end with a
deceleration to a stop and idle. For the convenience of the driver, who also
controls the CVS sampling, a 2 second idle period was included at the beginning
and the end of the cycle. The on-road data indicated the average idle time was
0.063 minutes/mile for all road types traveled.
C-ll
-------
Obviously, a change in any of these criteria for one segment impacts on the
characteristics of the adjacent segments as well as the overall composite cycle
characteristics.
One general observation about the B and C segments should be made. It was
sometimes difficult to distinguish whether a road was strictly a type B or type
C. Since their characteristics are very similar, a rigid distinction and duplica-
tion in the cycle was not considered critical.
The driving cycle shown in Fig.181(Section V-I) was constructed from all of these
criteria and is considered to be an accurate representation of all the types of
highway driving normally encountered.
The characteristics of this highway driving cycle were determined by tabulating
the velocities at each 0.1 inch of chart which represents 1.5 seconds.
This tabulation was converted to a digital table which listed the highway driving
cycle velocities for each of the 758 one second intervals. The trace was then
scaled to the same chart paper used for the Federal Urban Cycle. The tabulation
is shown in Table C-4.
C-12
-------
EPA HIGHWAY FUEL ECONOMY DRIVING CYCLE
SPEED (MPH) VS TIME (SEC-)
>EC MPH
0 SAMPLE ON
1 0.0
? n.o
3 ? • 0
4 4.9
S M.I
7
8
9
1C
i •
13
iS
17
1*
!9
20
21
23
^s
/-6
^7
>"".
29
30
31
i?
33
34
'15
36
37
34
J9
•,11
41
•».?
43
44
4S
46
-7
4M
t,'v
1 1 . J
1-.5
1 7.3
1 v.6
-• ^ /)
>->'. -t
?f'f\
?*.o
?•''.<}
30. a
30. .'
31.5
3.>.->
33. b
3-. 6
.V..9
"*->. 1
3o.7
3s. 9
35.8
3S.3
3-4.9
34.5
34.6
34.8
3S.1
3S.7
36.1
36.2
36. S
36.7
36.9
37.0
37.0
37.0
37.0
3 7 . 0
37.0
37.1
37.3
37.8
ScC
51
S3
5h
57
Srt
S9
60
^ 1
63
hi.
6S
66
67
r,f<
6 9
70
71
72
73
74
7b
76
77
78
79
-10
"1
•i?
-(3
64
<-b
"6
£ 7
8*
«9
90
91
42
93
44
'.'5
96
97
t:H
99
•MPH
3M.J
40 I 7
4r-!9
43.5
-.-'..0
4 ' . S
4 4 . -.b
46. M
'. 6 . 9
47.1)
47.1
4'7.<-:
•'. ? . 3
47. . b
46.9
47.1
47.4
47.7
•trt.O
41.2
SFC:
100
101
10,'
103
104
1U3
107
lOr
1 i I
! 1 :
11 '
114
115
117
1 19
121
122
12 '
1 ?•'-
12-.
1 ^f..
12 7
l?s
1 24
13,,
13!
132
1 3 3
l"i->
1 3r>
136
137
1 3r-
1 39
I-*!)
IT J
142
143
li*4
14S
14r
147
14f
144
MP^
41.1
44.0
44.0
44.1
44."'
4C.4
44. S
"+4.S
4^.5
44.4
44.1
4.'-.9
4 K . 0
4H.4
4-.1
•+7.7
47. 4
47.3
<4 7 .S
47. H
•* 7 , •)
41. 0
47.9
47.9
«7.9
4H.O
4r .0
4-.0
47.4
47. 3
46.0
43.3
41.2
39. b
39.2
34.0
34.0
3^. 1
3--/.S
40.1
41 . ('
42.0
43.1
43.7
SFC
isn
IS?
1S4
IS*
1S7
ISM
1S9
IrO
1' i
1^-r
163
164
\f--K
U.6
167
i ••>•
IT.C;
17n
171
r/2
173
174
17s
i?6
177
17rt
1 79
I -fit
1-1
182
I'O
1-4
li-.S
Inr
1S7
1<-H
Ir9
1 >•• 0
1 4)
142
1^3
l4tt
14S
196
147
148
149
-,<*. 1
44.3
44.4
•*4 .6
44.7
4b.2
4b.7
•*b.9
46.3
HO.H
-.1 .4
•» 7. v)
47.1
47.6
47.4
4i.G
•* -: . (l
H / . t
4 7. a
4 / . j
^^. 7
4^.2
4b.9
•+S. 7
4D.b
4b.-.
4s.3
->S.O
44.0
43.1
42.?
<*l.b
41. B
42.1
H^.9
43. 'j
4!>.9
43.6
43.3
«»J. U
4 J. 1
4.J.4
43.9
H4.3
4-+.0
4-*. 9
4<*.H
-+4.4
43.9
200
201
202
203
206
2 • 'j 7
20e»
209
210
^1 !
tL 1 2
213
214
<^lb
21o
217
21b
219
--20
221
?22
223
224
c-iC^
?26
2^7
22c*
229
230
231
232
23J
23«*
2ib
23fc
237
23B
239
2^u
2^.1
2^2
243
244
24b
2-«D
2^7
24b
249
MPH
43.^
43.2
43.2
43.1
43. u
43.0
43.1
43.4
43.9
44.0
43.b
4i.6
41. rj
40.7
4.I.U
4 '1.0
<*0.3
41.0
4>.0
42.7
43. 1
43.2
43.4
45.9
44.3
44.7
4-3.1
•+S.4
tb.B
46. b
46.9
47.2
47.4
47. J
47. j
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.0
47.0
4b.4
46.8
46.9
47.0
47.2
47. D
47.9
4d.O
48.0
StC
2bO
?b 3
2b6
257
2oet
2-3 •»
2.^0
2cl
2b2
2b3
264
26b
2^6
267
2&o
269
270
271
272
273,'
274
2 7b
276
277
278
279
2aO
2al
2d2
213
2d4
2ob
216
217
2ad
2r.4
290
2-»l
292
293
294
29b
296
297
29a
29-*
MPH
48.0
•.8.0
48.0
48. I
48.2
48.2
48. I
48.6
48.9
49. I
«9. I
49. I
49. I
49. I
49.0
48.9
' 48.2
47.7
47.5
47.2
<+6.7
46.2
46.0
45.8
45.6
45.4
45.2
45.0
44.7
44.5
44.2
43.5
42. b
42.0
40.1
3ft. 6
37.5
35.4
34.7
34.0
33.3
32.5
31.7
30.6
29.6
28.8
28. 4
26.6
29.5
31.4
SEC
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
->12
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
. 321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
336
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
346
349
MPH
33.4
35.6
37.5
39.1
40.2
41.1
41.8
42.4
42.8
43.3
43.3
44.3
44.7
45.0
45.2
45.4
45.5
45.8
46.0
46.1
46.5
46.8
47.1
47.7
48.3
49.0
49.7
50.3
51.0
51.7
52.4
53.1
53. ri
54.5
5b.2
55.8
56.4
56.9
57.0
57.1
57.3
57.6
57. &
58.0
58.1
5«.4
58.7
58.8
5o.9
59.0
SEC
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
362
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
MPH
59.0
58.9
58.8
58.6
58.4
58.2
58.1
58.0
57.9
57.6
57.4
57.2
57.1
57.0
57.0
56.9
56.9
56.9
57.0
57.0
57.0
57.0
57. C
57.0
57.0
57.0
57.0
56.9
56.8
56.5
56.2
56.0
56.0
56.0
56.1
56.4
56.7
56.9
57.1
57.3
57.4
57.4
57.2
57.0
56.9
56.6
56.3
56.1
56.4
56.7
-------
TABLE C-4 (Continued)
Si-C
SKC
-EC
a EX
se.c
KPH
SEC
MPH
SEC
MPH
400
40 1
40?
4.') 3
40-4
405
406
40H
409
41 0
41 1
4!2
413
414
415
416
417
4 18
410
4^0
4rM
4^2
423
*(•<*
4/5
4/b
«•?. /
428
429
430
431
432
433
4 14
4 >5
4 )6
437
438
439
4-40
4-41
4-4?
4*3
4-44
4-5
446
4., 7
4.4H
4^.9
57.1
S7.S
5 8 '. 0
->8.0
5*io
5H.O
58.0
57.9
5/.H
57.7
57.7
-7.8
57.9
So.O
58.1
58.4
58.9
5 *. 1
59.4
59. H
59.9
59.9
59.8
59.6
5 ).4
59.2
59. 1
59.0
58.9
58. 7
58.6
5^.5
58.4
5Q..4
5H.3
5*'. 2
5r. . 1
58.0
57.9
57.9
57.9
57.9
57.9
5».0
5«. 1
5H.1
58.2
5H.2
4-0
451
452
453
-55
456
457
u59
•'.60
4'' 1
4i--2
4'- 3
4r>4
(»*5
•466
467
— fi H
4 r. -)
470
471
47?
471
474
-75
476
-77
478
479
480
4M
4f.2
t,*3
4^4
4>-5
4^6
4H7
4HH
<.«9
i.^0
•'. '^ 1
4*4?
4'>3
494
4»)5
-96
<4C/7
i.9-1
499
58. r
b8 . 1
5d.O
5-i.l;
b'1.0
5>J.O
57.9
57.9
58.1
68.1
58.2
58.3
58.3
58.3
58.2
58. 1
5 .8 . 0
5/.a
57.5
57. 1
57.0
56.6
56. 1
56. !l
5i.b
55.5
55.2
55.1
5i.O
54.9
54.9
54.9
54.9
54. V
54.9
55.0
55.0
55.0
55.0
55.0
55.0
55.1
55. 1
5'.i.0
54.9
54.9
5-. 8
500
5 ;l 1
5 0 .-
50^
505
So r,
5fi 7
50
5fi<*
-> ; ii
5 1 \
512
51 3
5 i -
5 1 5
5 ! (->
517
51 n
51^,
5?i!
b 2 1
->2?
->23
5?4
5?r>
5f")
5? 7
5?-i
5?1-
53;)
531
53^
^ ' -5
5 i —
53^
53-
537
538
53^
54 ,;
541
54?
543
544
54r>
54b
547
54.^
5-9
54. 7
54.6
54.4
5-.. J
~>4 . J
5- . 2
54 . 1
5-. 1
-,". 1
5 -> . 0
b . .11
5 . . o
5-4.0
5- .0
54. i)
-4.0
54.0
5-. 1
5-1-./
r.- .5
5- .8
5-. 9
55 . 0
55.1
Vi.2
bb.2
5s. J
5-,. 4
55.5
55. b
55.7
5 -'. . M
H5.9
b'-.u
5-^.U
5". . !l
5b.C
5b.()
5^.0
5';. .J
5b.O
5 1-> . 0
5-^.1!
5r>.u
5n. j
5n . 0
5o.O
55. v
5-.. 9
55.9
550
551
55?
5S~»
55-.
555
55^
55'
55*
55 ••>
Sr- n
5^1
5f>?
563
5hi*
5^5
565
5«-.7
5. '-8
^6^<
5/0
571
57?
"-.73
574
575
I'f*
5/7
578
579
5f 0
SHI
5P2
5P3
5h-
5^5
5.fc.ft
5P7
bi-".
589
5^0
591
59?
593
594
595
5<.JA
597
5Q8
599
55.8
b5.o
55.4
55.?
5r>. 1
55.1;
St. 9
54. b
5«4 .4
5<*./
5-. 1
53.8
53.4
53.3
bj.l
52.^
52.6
52.4
52.2
5^.1
52. U
52.0
52.0
52. i)
52.1
j^.O
5^.0
51.9
51 .6
51 .4
51.1
50. 7
50.3
- V.I
49.3
48.7
4rf .2
48. 1
4P.O
4/i.O
4n.l
48.4
4t4.9
49.0
49.1
"9.1
41P.O
H-y.O
4n. 9
-8. b
'iOO
nO I
OL'2
b03
b>T4
60b
bOr>
b07
b08
b09
111)
oil
612
b!3
014
r>15
ol 6
617
Dl.T
619
b2U
021
022
o23
b24
t>^5
r>2b
627
628
r.29
030
b31
632
633
63-
o35
bjo
b37
63d
b39
640
04 1
b42
043
644
645
o40
647
64o
o4v
4H.3
48.0
47.9
H 7 . b
47.7
47.9
48.3
49.0
49.1
4^.0
4M.9
40.0
47.1
46. C
4b. \
4lS. 1
46.2
4b.v
47. b
4-^.0
49. 1
bO.fc
51 .5
52.2
52.7
53.0
b3.6
54.0
54.1
54.4
54.7
55.1
55.4
55.4
55.0
5*4.5
5 3 . b
52.5
^).(L
48.2
46.5
46.2
46.0
46.0
46. J
46. h
47. D
48.2
48.0
^0.5
650
obi
fcD2
653
654
655
056
657
65H
659
6oO
661
662
063
6b4
665
6Ob
667
66d
66-y
6/0
671
672
6/3
ft /A
675
b76
6/7
67d
679
680
6dl
662
683
604
685
b86
687
6-18
689
690
691
692
693
O9n
6->b
696
697
t.9«
699
50.2
50.7
51.1
51.7
52.2
52.5
52.1
51.6
bl.l
51 .0
51 .0
51.1
51.4
51.7
52.0
52.2
52.5
52.8
^2.7
52.6
52.3
52.3
52.4
52.5
52.7
52.7
52.4
52.1
51.7
51.1
50.5
50.1
49.8
49.7
49.6
49.5
49.5
49.7
50. C
50.2
50.6
51.1
51 .6
51.9
52.0
52.1
52.4
52.9
53.3
53.7
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
• 722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
7JO
731
732
733
734-
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
54.2
54.5
54.8
55.0
55.5
55.9
56.1
56.3
56.4
56.5
56.7
56.9
57.0
57.3
57.7
56.2
5H.8
59.1
59.2
59.1
58.8
58.5
53.1
57.7
57.3
57.1
56.8
56.5
56.2
55.5
54.6
54.1
53.7
53.2
52.9
52.5
52.0
51.3
50.5
49.5
48.5
47.6
46.8
45.6
44.2
42.5
39.2
35.9
32.6
29.3
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
MON
'
26.8
24.5
21.5
19.5
17.4
15.1
12.4
9.7
7.0
5.0
3.3
2.0
0.7
0.0
0.0
SAMPLE OFF
APR 22/74
-------
APPENDIX D
The Potential Health Hazard of
Nickel Compound Emissions from
Automotive Gas Turbine Engines Using
Nickel Oxide Base Regenerator Seals
by
Robert B. Schulz
EPA - AAPS Division
April 1974
-------
CONTENTS
FORWARD ii
1. INTRODUCTION D-l
2. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Section III-K
3. CARCINOGENICITY OF NICKEL OXIDE D-3
3.1 Survey of Effects D-3
3.2 Experimental Evidence D-5
3.3 Industrial Experience D-6
3.4 Summary of Health Hazards D-7
4. PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS FROM A GAS TURBINE AUTOMOBILE D-9
5. ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION ANALYSIS D-13
6. NICKEL CARBONYL HAZARD D-18
7. REFERENCES D-20
-i-
-------
FOREWORD
This study was begun as a result of a letter from Mr. Eberhard
Tiefenbacher of Daimler-Benz Aktiengesellschaft, Germany, pointing out
the carcinogenic hazard of nickel oxide exhaust from automotive gas
turbine engines which use this material in their regenerator rubbing
seals.
This report was prepared by Mr. Robert B. Schulz of the
Alternative Automotive Power Systems Division, Office of the Mobile
Source Air Pollution Control, Office of Air and Waste Management,
Environmental Protection Agency. The author wishes to acknowledge
that a major portion of the survey on the Carcinogenic Potential of
Nickel Oxide and all of the related findings and recommendations
were written by Dr. Michael D. Waters, Ph.D., Research Biochemist,
Pathobiology Research Branch, Dr. Philip B. Kane, M.D., Research
Pathologist, Pathobiology Research Branch, and Dr. David L. Coffin,
V.M.D., Chief, Pathobiology Research Branch, all of the Experimental
Biology Laboratory, National Environmental Research Center, Research
Triangle Park, Environmental Protection Agency.
The atmospheric concentration analysis was performed by the
Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency,
and reported to the author by Mr. John B. Moran. The particulate
measurement was performed by the Dow Chemical Company, Midland,
Michigan under contract to the Emission Control Technology Division,
Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control, Environmental Protection
Agency. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance provided by
-11-
-------
Mr. Tony Ashby, the Emission Control Technology Division Project Officer
and Mr. Otto J. Manary of the Dow Chemical Company for their assistance
with the particulate measurement. The author also acknowledges the
assistance of Mr. Clay Hubean of Williams Research Corporation, Walled
Lake, Michigan in providing information about the WR-26 turbine engine.
-111-
-------
1. INTRODUCTION
The potential public health impact of nickel oxide emissions
from automotive gas turbine engines being developed for light and
heavy duty applications has been investigated by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. A promising technological improvement for the gas
turbine engine is to use ceramic regenerators (rotary heat exchangers)
to achieve high efficiency. At present, the most widely known and
used composition for the high temperature rubbing seals required by
such regenerators contains NiO (nickel oxide) and CaF£ (calcium fluoride)
Since various nickel compounds are known or suspected carcinogens, this
has raised the question of whether anticipated wear of those seals in
use would lead to emission rates of NiO which could pose a new air
pollution problem.
D-l
-------
2. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
These are included as Section III-K in the main body of this
report.
D-2
-------
3. CARCINOGENICITY OF NICKEL OXIDE
3.1 Survey of Effects
A survey on the carcinogenic potential of nickel oxide (with
recommendations regarding its use in automobile gas turbine engines
as a rubbing seal material), was conducted by Waters, Kane and Coffin
(Reference 1) of the Pathobiology Research Branch, Experimental Biology
Laboratory, National Environmental Research Center, Research Triangle
Park. They were unable to find published reports that related directly
to the potential carcinogencity of nickel oxide as it may be produced
as an automobile exhaust product. The survey of Index Medicus from
January 1963 to December 1970 and a National Library of Medicine Medline
Search from January 1971 to June 1973 (pre-prints) yielded essentially
the same information found by the author in a preliminary survey (Reference
3).
Nickel is classified as a recognized respiratory carcinogen
based on the increased mortality from cancer of the nose and from
cancer of the lung experienced by nickel refinery workers exposed to
nickel carbonyl (Reference 4). Nickel Oxide should be classified as
a potential respiratory carcinogen because the incriminating evidence
is predominantly restricted to observations made in experimental
animals.
Malignant tumors have been produced in different animal species
by a variety of nickel compounds introduced by different routes
(Reference 5). Intramuscular injection of nickel oxide dusts into C3H
and Swiss Mice resulted in the development of sacromas (Reference 6).
D-3
-------
NiO dust Implanted in the muscle tissue of NIH black rats resulted in
tumors (Reference 7). The less soluble nickel compounds, such as
nickel oxide, have been found to have the higher carcinogenic potential .
Human evidence is at present not available linking nickel oxides to the
development of cancer of the respiratory system in man. Chronic expo-
sure to nickel oxide fumes of metal dressers in a steelworks showed
(Reference 8) no evidence of lung cancer after 19 years. NiO is in-
cluded in a chronic exposure study (Reference 9) of the cocarcinogenic-
ity of cigarette smoke and various industrial pollutants in hamsters.
The above evidence supports the classification of NiO as a potential
respiratory carcinogen, with further evidence needed to change the
classification to suspected or recognized respiratory carcinogen.
Being a potential respiratory carcinogen, however, is probably enough
to cause serious concern about the level of NiO concentration in the
exhaust of an automobile gas turbine engine.
At the present time, nickel oxide is implicated as a potential
carcinogen principally through association with the group of nickel
compounds whose carcinogenic properties are well documented by indus-
trial experience and experimental investigation (References 10 and 11).
In general, the forms found to be sparingly soluble in water at 37°C
(nickel dust, nickel sulfide, nickel carbonate, nickel oxide, nickel
carbonyl and nickelocene) have been identified as carcinogens. To
quote Sunderman (Reference 10):
"Intraosseous, intramuscular, subcutaneous and intra-
plural injections of the insoluble nickel compounds have
resulted in the development of osteogenic sarcomas, fibro-
sarcomas and rhabdomysarcomas. It is significant that
D-4
-------
induction of carcinomas of the histological types that
occur among nickel workers (i.e. squamous cell and
anaplastic carcinomas) has only been accomplished fol-
lowing exposures by the respiratory route."
3.2 Experimental Evidence
Aside from reports of induction of rhabdomyosarcomas by intra-
muscular implantation of nickel oxide (Reference 6 and 7), the most
incriminating experimental evidence against this compound is that it
may function as a cocarcinogen. Toda (Reference 12) has reported that
intratracheal administration of a mixture of nickel oxide and methyl-
cholanthrene to rats resulted in a much greater incidence of pulmonary
carcinomas than in rats which received methylcholanthrene alone.
Other studies which are pertinent to the discussion are the
following: Bingham, et al. (Reference 13) have shown that exposure
of rats at approximately l/10th of the current threshold limit value
(TLV) (Img/m3) for nickel results in hypersecretion in the bronchial
epithelium and focal infiltration by lymphocytes in the alveolar walls
and perivascular spaces. Alveolar macrophages displaying an altered
size distribution profile could be recovered by lavage in increasing
numbers with repeated exposure to nickel oxide. Furthermore, focal
thickened areas were evident in alveolar walls and occasionally in the
respiratory bronchi. These changes, though not necessarily of pathologic
significance or irreversible, occur at such low levels of exposure as
to warrant further investigation. It should be clearly recognized
that TVL's cannot be validly applied to the general population since
they are intended to provide guidelines for industrial workday exposure
of healthy individuals.
D-5
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In agreement with the ICRP Committee II Task Group on Lung
Dynamics (Reference 14), Wehner and Craig (Reference 9) have demon-
strated that nickel oxide displays moderate lung retention. In their
studies using Syrian golden hamster, "Nearly 20% of the inhaled nickel
oxide was retained in the lungs after initial clearance, and 45% of
this was still present after 45 days." Nickel oxide concentrations
ranged from 10 to 190 ug/liter. The compound was not acutely toxic to
hamsters at any level employed. However, prolonged lung retention
increases the concern over the possibility of inducing chronic changes.
The minimum latent period for induction of tumors by finely divided
nickel is reported by Hueper (Reference 15) to be 6 months. It should
be noted that some animals in the Wehner and Craig study (Reference 9)
are being observed for chronic changes.
Sanders et al. (Reference 16) have shown that the degree of
solubilization of nickel oxide particles in biological fluids (tissue
culture medium 199) is slight but measurable. Their studies with
Syrian golden hamsters demonstrated that more nickel oxide particles
were found free in alveolar lumens when pulmonsary clearance was
impaired by exposure to cigarette smoke. This effect might be expected
to potentiate adverse responses to nickel oxide although none were
described. It should be pointed out that many individuals within the
general population will display impaired clerance mechanisms because
of underlying broncho-pulmonary disease.
3.3 Industrial Experience
Nickel workers undoubtedly have a higher prevelance of nasal
D-6
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and respiratory cancer than the general population. Sunderman (Reference
10) concluded that the incidence of lung cancer among nickel workers
ranged from 2.2 to 16 times the incidence in the general population,
and the reported incidence of cancer of the nose and paranasal sinuses
was 37 to 196 times the expected values. Despite the fact that nickel
oxide is a usual component of refining dust it is difficult to define
its relative role as a causative agent. Nickel oxide is a minor component
of dust (e.g. 6.3%) as compared with nickel sulfide (e.g. 59.0%) and the
latter has been shown to yield a significantly higher incidence of
rhabdomyosarcomas in rats (Reference 6). Furthermore, it is often impos-
sible to dissociate the carcinogenic properties of nickel compounds from
those of other metals that are usually present. The recent report by
Saknyn and Shabynina (Reference 17) on the increased mortality from
cancer among workers exposed to nickel oxide and sulfide, for example,
also mentioned the presence of arsenic and cobalt in the refining
atmosphere.
3.4 Summary of Health Hazards
The principal concerns over the release of additional nickel oxide
to the atmosphere relate to the following facts:
1. The compound produces muscle sarcomas when the injected
into rats (Reference 6 and 7).
2. Nickel oxide may function as a cocarcinogen when intro-
duced into the lungs with a known carcinogen (Reference 12).
3. Low level (100-150 /jg/m^) nickel oxide exposure may result
in histological changes in bronchi and alveoli (Reference 13).
D-7
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4. Nickel oxide is cleared relatively slowly from the
respiratory tract (Reference 15).
5. Cigarette smoking may impair clearance of nickel
oxide and potentiate tissue damage (Reference 16).
6. Nickel oxide has been implicated by association in
the higher incidence of nasal and lung cancer ob-
served among nickel workers (Reference 10, 11, 17).
D-8
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4. PARTICULATE MEASUREMENT
The exhaust particulates from the Williams Research Corporation
gas turbine powered AMC Hornet automobile were measured at The Dow
Chemical Company in Midland, Michigan (Reference 18). This prototype
vehicle was powered by the WR-26 gas turbine engine which utilized two
ceramic disc regenerators. The flame sprayed regenerator rubbing seal
material composition was 90 percent NiO and 10 percent CaF2.
Vehicle testing was done on a dynamometer using the following
vehicle driving test procedures:
MFCCS Modified 1975 Federal Driving Cycle Cold Start 41 min.
FCHS 1975 Federal Driving Cycle Hot Start 23 min.
50MPHSS Steady State 50 MPH Hot Start 60 min.
Only one-half of the engine exhaust was measured. A 5-inch
stainless-steel flexible tube was used to couple the exhaust pipe to
the exhaust inlet of the dilution tube. A description of the particulate
measurement methods is contained in Reference 19.
A summary of the measured total particulates, trace nickel and
trace calcium is given in Table I. The total particulates reported in
the table were collected with a millipore filter. The NiO emissions
rate was determined from the percent nickel from emission spectroscope
analysis of the total particulate and assumes all NiO.
It was discovered after the test that engine transmission oil
was collected in the particulate sample. The oil vent pipe was connected
into the exhaust pipe used for exhaust measurement. A trace element
analysis of the synthetic ENCO Turbine Oil 274 gave a nickel concentration
D-9
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TABLE D-l
PARTICIPATE MEASUREMENT TEST RESULTS
Vehicle
Test
No.
260 A
260 B
260 C
M 260 D
o
Test
Mode
MFCCS
FCHS
FCHS
50 MPH SS
WR-26
Total
Particulate3
(Grams /mile)
.676
.288
.269
.139
Gas Turbine Vehicle
Trace Nib
(Percent)
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.3
NiOc
(Grams /Mile)
.0034
.0025
.0020
.0005
Trace Cab
(Percent)
1.1
3.4
3.6
0.7
CaF2c
(Grams /Mile)
.015
.019
.019
.019
142 mm millipore filter
Trace metals analysis of exhaust particulate
•^
"Assumes all NiO or CaF2, 19.84 mph or 50 mph
-------
of < 1 ppm and a calcium concentration of 7 ppm. It was concluded
that the transmission oil probably did not affect the nickel particulate
measurement, but did raise the total particulate measurements.
It was planned to re-run the test series, however, before this could
be done, the engine had to be overhauled.
After 68 hours of operation the WR-26 gas turbine engine was
overhauled because of excess leakage through the regenerator seals.
It was found that the high pressure hot side insulation had broken
loose and lodged under the seals, causing the excess leakage, The in-
sulation material was sodium silicate (water glass) and asbestos.
Significant amounts of nickel have been found in other asbestos, and
therefore the insulation could be a source of some of the nickel in
the exhaust particulate. This was not investigated further because
there was sufficient NiO/CaF2 seal wear to account for the nickel
emissions.
The extent of regenerator seal wear required seal replacement*
In general, the wear was uneven, with little or no wear in some areas,
and wear almost through to the base plate in other areas. The estimated
average wear on the four high pressure seals was 0.009 inch. A detailed
dimensional inspection of the seals was not made before engine running,
so it was impossible to obtain accurate seal wear rates.
An attempt was made by analysis to correlate the estimated average
seal wear rate with the particulates measured in grains/mile. There was
good agreement between the calculated NiO emission rate of 0.040 grams/
mile and the measured NiO emission rate given in Table I. The calculated
D-ll
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CaF2 emission rate was 0.0045 grams/mile, which is much less than the
measured CaF2 emission rate. This may be because CaF2 is the lubricant
which flows under pressure from the NiO solid matrix during regenerator
operation.
The measured NiO emission rate ranged from 0.0005 grams/mile
for the 50 MPH steady state test to 0.0034 grams/mile for the modified
federal driving cycle cold test. An estimate of 0.003 to 0.005 grams
NiO per mile was given to the EPA Monitoring and Data Analysis Division,
Source Receptor Analysis Branch to do their atmospheric concentration
analysis. The somewhat higher estimate of the NiO emissions was made
to be conservative and account for the lower power output of the WR-26
engine, rated at 80 horsepower compared to a more likely range of
100 to 150 horsepower if automobile gas turbines were used widely.
This doesn't necessarily follow, however, as improvements in engine
performance and seal design should go toward reducing the seal wear
rate.
It is therefore important to obtain additional particulate
measurements on gas turbine automobile and heavy duty vehicles. EPA
intends to measure the particulates from the Chrysler Baseline Engine
after it has been converted from metal to ceramic regenerators. Initial
testing of the Baseline Engine will be done with NiO/CaF2 seals, in
order to obtain baseline seal and ceramic regenerator performance. It is
however, EPA's intention to develop an alternate seal material for the
Baseline Engine that does not use NiO or other hazardous materials.
D-12
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5. ATMOSHPERIC CONCENTRATION ANALYSIS
The industrial threshold limit values (TLVs) for nickel and its
compounds are summarized as follows:
Material TLV fmg/m3)
Nickel carbonyl .007 (7 Jig/m3)
Nickel, metal and soluble 1 (1000 ug/m3)
salts (as nickel)
This is the safe level for an 8 hour per day, 5 working day per
week exposure. Ambient air quality standards for the general population
would be set at much lower levels than this. Further, the data obtained
with low level (100-150jug/m3) nickel oxide exposure suggest that the
TLV may be too high. Also NiO is not a soluble salt, but rather is a
nearly insoluble oxide, and therefore the TLV may not necessarily apply.
Ambient urban concentrations of nickel in 1968 varied from a
low arithmetic mean of .006/tg/m3 to a high of .224^/g/m3 (Reference 20).
The maximum concentration observed was in Portland, Maine (1.30)^g/m3).
The frequency distribution for nickel in Portland for 1968 was as follows:
Frequency Distribution, Percent
Min. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Max.
(Ni -jug/m3) .009 .009 .016 .02 .03 .052 .11 .13 .46 .73 1.3
The average arithmetic mean urban concentration of nickel from 84 urban
NASN stations in 1968 was .036 J»g/m3. A typical distribution for the
"average" urban site was as follows:
Oakland, California
Frequency Distribution, Percent
Min. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Max.
(Ni -/ig/m3) .006 .011 .013 .016 .017 .026 .03 .034 .037 .097 .140
D-13
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The maximum yearly average urban nickel concentration for 1969
O
occurred in New York City (0.173/ig/m ) with a quarterly composite maxi-
mum of 0.330 /ig/m3 which occurred for the 1st quarter of 1969.
Nickel has been determined as one of the trace metals in automo-
tive exhaust particulate under contract programs conducted by both the
EPA Office for Research and Development (ORD) and the EPA Office of Air
and Water Programs (OAWP) over the last three years. A review of all
related reports and prepared estimates of nickel (as the mono-oxide)
emissions from various automotive power systems give the ranges and "best
estimate" emission rates are summarized in Table II.
The concentrations of nickel in various fuels has been reported
by Lee and von Lehmden (Reference 21) as well as the source emissions
levels of nickel. These are summarized in Table III.
NiO exposures were estimated based upon the extensive projections
developed by ORD which modeled sulfate exposures from oxidation catalysts
on conventional piston engines. The projected exposures were made for
NiO on and near major arterial throughways with the following assumptions:
1. 25% of vehicle miles with turbine engine vehicles,
2. Nickel mono-oxide emissions are .005 gm/mile from
turbine engine vehicles and zero from the remaining
vehicles.
D-14
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TABLE D-II
NICKEL EMISSIONS FROM LIGHT-DUTY
MOTOR VEHICLES (CALCULATED AS N10)
Vehicle System
C onvent ional/current
Conventional/oxidation
catalyst
Conventional/Quester
catalyst
Conventional/thermal reacter
Diesel (LDMV)
Stratified Charge
Turbine (LDMV) (Williams)
*OAWP data and estimate
(1) one data point only
NiO Emissions in grains/mile
Range Best System
.000009 - .00025 .00003
.000005 - .0001 .00001
.0003 (1)
.00067 (1)
.00008 (1)
.0002 (1)
.0005 - .0034
.0003
.0006
.00008
.0002
.005*
D-15
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TABI£ D-III
CONCENTRATION OF NICKEL IN FUELS
Source
Fuels: Gasoline'-^
Fuel oil
Consumer purchased fuel
additives
Fuel additives
(2)
Concentration, wt. % of nickel
.0003 - .0005
.0001 - .01
.00003
0
Source Emissions:
Phosphate rock
Zn/Cu Smelter
Ferro alloy
Brass/bronze Smelter
Coal Flyash
Coal fired powerplant
Pb Smelter
Cement plants
Fe/Steel foundry
Incinerator
.0001
.0001
.01
.001
.001
.0001
0
.01
.001
.01
.01
.01
.1
.1
.008
.01
.0001
.1
.1
.1
(1) Fuel Surveillance Program (F & FA) and Contract Program (CPS-22-69-145)
(2) Based upon current records in Office of Fuel and Fuel Additive
Registration, ORD, NERC/RTP-
D-16
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The results of the exposure analysis are as follows :
1 hour peak exposure (vehicle occupant, 12.4
worst meteorology, worst wind condition)
1 hour peak exposure (pedestrian,
worst meteorology, worst wind condition) 8.8
24 hour average exposure (as 1 hour
conditions) l.AS
Incremental 24 hour exposure (as 1 hour
conditions, commuter living near throughway) 0.88
It is concluded that the emission of NiO from automotive tur-
bine engines of .005 grams /mile and the attendant exposure of the public
to the incremental increases of this metal oxide is an unnecessary risk. The
evidence against nickel oxide is sufficient to warrant development of
alternate materials for use in automobile turbine engine rubbing seals.
Since urban ambient levels of nickel are relatively high at present,
due consideration should be given to any sources likely to increase these
levels .
D-17
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6. NICKEL CARBONYL HAZARD
It is also possible that the operation of an engine which
generates impure nickel and carbon monoxide from combustion might result
in conditions favorable for formation of nickel carbonyl in the exhaust
stream. Nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4, may be present wherever carbon monoxide
contacts nickel and nickel alloys. Therefore, if nickel oxide is to be
considered further, it should be demonstrated that nickel carbonyl is not
a combustion product. The case for extreme toxicity and carcinogenicity
of nickel carbonyl is virtually unquestioned (Reference 10).
Reference 22 gives the equilibrium concentrations of Ni(CO)^ as
a function of temperature, total pressure, and CO concentration at levels
of 0.0005 to 3.0 mole-percent in the feed gas. This would be an estimate
of the maximum concentration of nickel carbonyl from a reacting system.
Other data indicates that nickel carbonyl can be formed in significant
concentrations at 120°F any time the concentration of carbon monoxide
exceeds 100 ppm in the presence of finely divided nickel. The nickel
carbonyl readily decomposes at temperature above 140°F and forms nickel
oxide in dry air and/or nickel carbonate in moist air.
The WR-26 automotive turbine engine exhaust temperature is 200°F
at idle to 500°F at full power. These temperatures are high enough to
prevent the formation of nickel carbonyl. This should also be the case
with other automotive gas turbine engines.
The actual presence of NiO in the WR-26 turbine engine exhaust
has not been confirmed. Only a trace element measurement of nickel in
the exhaust particulate has been made. Some of the nickel may be the more
D-18
-------
soluble nickel sulfate, N1S04, or possibly the very toxic form of nickel
carbonyl, Ni(CO),. As the emission of nickel carbonyl would greatly
increase the public health risk, it would be prudent to identify the foBm
of the nickel compounds emitted.
D-lf
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REFERENCES
1. M.D. Waters, P.B. Kane and D.L. Coffin, Survey on the Carcinogenic
Potential of Nickel Oxide, (Memo from M.D. Waters, Experimental
Biology Laboratory; National Environmental Research Center,
Environmental Protection Agency, May 29, 1973).
2. J.B. Moran, Potential Public Health Risk of NiO Emissions from
Gas Turbine Light-Duty Motor Vehicle Powerplants, (Memo from J.B.
Moran, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection
Agency, December 5, 1973).
3. R.B. Schulz, Potential Carcinogenic Hazard from Automobile Gas
Turbine Engine Exhaust of Nickel Oxide Regenerator Rubbing Seal
Material, (Memo, Alternative Automobile Power Systems Division,
Environmental Protection Agency, April 20, 1973).
4. G. Kazantzis, Chromium and Nickel, Ann. Occup. Hyg., 15t 25-29 (1972).
5. F.W. Sunderman, Jr., Metal Carcinogenesis in Experimental Animals,
Food and Cosmetics Toxicology, 9_: 105-120 (1971).
6. J.P.W. Gilman, Metal Carcinogenesis, II A Study on the Carcinogenic
Activity of Cobalt, Copper, Iron, and Nickel Compounds, Cancer
Research, 22_: 158-162 (February 1962).
7. W.W. Payne, Carcinogenicity of Nickel Compounds in Experimental
Animals, Proc. of the American Assoc. for Cancer Research, 5_: 50
(1964).
8. J.G. Jones and C.G. Warner, Chronic Exposure to Iron Oxide, Chromium
Oxide, and Nickel Oxide Fumes of Metal Dressers in a Steelworks,
Brit. J. Industr. Med.. 2£: 169-177 (1972).
9. A.P. Wehner and O.K. Craig, Toxicology of Inhaled NiO and CoO in
Syrian Golden Hamsters, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 33; 146-55 (March
1972)
10. F.W. Sunderman, Jr., Nickel Carcinogenesis, Pis. Chest. Vol. 54,
No. 6 (December 1968).
11. E. Mastromatteo, Nickel: A Review of Its Occupational Health Aspects,
J. Occupa. of Med.. Vol. 9, No. 3 (March 1967).
12. M. Toda, Experimental Studies of Occupational Lung Cancer, Bull Tokyo
Med. Dent. U.. 9 (3): 440 (1963).
D-20
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13. E. Bingham, W. Barkley, M. Zerwas, K. Stemmer and P. Taylor,
Responses of Alveolar Macrophages to Metals, I. Inhalation of Lead
and Nickel, Arch. Environ. Health, Vol. 25 (December 1972).
14. ICRP Committee II, Task Group on Lung Dynamics: Deposition and
Retention for Internal Dosimetry of the Human Respiratory Tract,
Health Phys. 12_: 1963 (1966).
15. W.C. Hueper, Texas Repts. Biol. Med.. 10, 167 (1952).
16. C. Sanders, T. Jackson, R. Adee, G. Powers and A. Wehner,
Distribution of Inhaled Metal Oxides Particles in Pulmonary
Alveoli, Arch. Intern. Med.. Vol. 127 (June 1971).
17. A.V. Saknyn and N.K. Shabynina, Some Statistical Materials on
Carcinogenic Hazards in the Production of Nickel on an Ore Oxide
Base, Industr. Hyg. and Occupa. Pis., 14; 10-13 (November, 1970).
18. Chassis Dynamometer Vehicle Test Report No. 5, Dow Chemical
Company, Midland, Michigan (August 13, 1973).
19. The Dow Chemical Company, Effect of Fuel Additives on the Chemical
and Physical Characteristics of Particulate Emissions in Automotive
Exhaust, EPA-R2-72-066 (December 1972).
20. Air Quality Data for Metals, 1968 and 1969 (APTD-1467).
21. R.E. Lee and D.J. von Lehmden, Trace Metal Pollution in the Environment,
APCA Journal. 23, No. 10 (October 1973).
22. R.S. Brief, F.S. Venable, and R.S. Ajemian, Nickel Carbonyl: Its
Detection and Potential for Formation, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 26;
72 (1965).
D-21
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APPENDIX E
ALTERNATIVE AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS DIVISION
ANNUAL, FINAL, AND SUMMARY REPORTS
MAY 1974
-------
ALTERNATIVE AUTOMOTIVE POWER SYSTEMS DIVISION
ANNUAL, FINAL, AND SUMMARY REPORTS
MAY 1974
The attached list of publications are annual, summary and final
reports of work performed under study and development contracts and
interagency agreements funded by the Alternative Automotive Power
Systems (AAPS) Program of the Office of Air and Water Programs (OAWP)
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The Air Pollution Technical Data (APTD) Series and Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Series Reports are issued to report technical
data of interest to a limited readership.
These reports may be obtained in either paper copy or microfiche
format by specifying the NTIS Accession Number and submitting the amount
listed (payment must accompany orders) to the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS).
National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22151
Telephone: (703)321-8543
The absence of an NTIS Accession Number indicates that the report
is not presently available from the NTIS. Inquiries regarding future
availability may be directed to the AAPS Program Office.
Alternative Automotive Power Systems Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
2929 Plymouth Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
Telephone: (313)761-5230 Ext. 296
Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, and non-profit
oraanizations may obtain copies of these reports, free of charge, as sup-
plies permit, by requesting the publication number (APTD Series or EPA
Series) from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center (APTIC).
Air Pollution Technical Information Center
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Telephone: (919) 549-2573
E-l
-------
INDEX
RANKINE CYCLE BRAYTON CYCLE HEAT ENGINE/
POWER SYSTEM POWER SYSTEM FLYWHEEL HYBRID
APTD - 0573 APTD - 0958 APTD - 0750
0574 1226 1121
0707 1290 1181
0959 1291 1182
0960 1343 1344
0961 1359 1468
0980 1374
1154 1441
1155 1454
1357 1457 HEAT ENGINE/
1358 1517 BATTERY HYBRID
1516 1546 ARTD _ Q724
1517 1558 0?25
1545 EPA-460/9-73-001 0762
1554 Q957
1558 1346
1563 1355
1564 1468
1565
1566
EPA-460/3-73-001
MODELS BATTERY DEVELOPMENT
APTD - 0960 APTD - 0875
0961 1126
0966 1345
APPENDIX
STRATIFIED CHARGE RELATED REPORTS
ENGINE
APTD - 1356
E-2
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APTD SERIES REPORTS
APTD - 0573 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 193-418
REPORT DATE: June 1970 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: CPA 22-69-132 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Thermo Electron Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Conceptual Design Rankine Cycle Power System With Organic
Working Fluid and Reciprocating Engine for Passenger Vehicles."
APTD - 0574 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 193-417
REPORT DATE: June 1970 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: CPA 22-69-128 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: The Marquardt Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Study of Continuous Flow Combustion Systems for External
Combustion Vehicle Powerplants."
APTD - 0707 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 202-196
REPORT DATE: Undated NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-106 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Solar Division of International Harvester Company
REPORT TITLE: "Low Emission Burner for Rankine Cycle Engines for Automobiles."
APTD - 0724 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 201-645
REPORT DATE: June 1, 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: F04701-70-C-0059 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: The Aerospace Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Hybrid Heat Engine/Electric Systems Study." (Volume I)
APTD - 0725 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 201-646
REPORT DATE: June 1, 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: F04701-70-C-0059 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: The Aerospace Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Hybrid Heat Engine/Electric Systems Study." (Volume II)
APTD -0750 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 200-143
REPORT DATE: April 30, 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-104 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Lockheed Missiles and Space Company
REPORT TITLE: "Flywheel Feasibility Study and Demonstration."
APTD - 0762 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 203-463
REPORT DATE: April 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHSH 71-002 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1 45
CONTRACTOR: TRW Systems Group
REPORT TITLE: "Analysis and Advanced Design Study of an Electromechanical
Transmission."
E-3
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ARID - 0875 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 205-254
REPORT DATE: July 1971 (Annual )* NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: W-31-107-Eng-38 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Argonne National Laboratory . ....
REPORT TITLE: "Development of High-Energy Batteries for Electric Vehicles.
APTD - 0957 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 198-093
REPORT DATE: January 28, 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-107 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Mini cars, Inc. H
REPORT TITLE: "Emission Optimization of Heat Engine/Electric Vehicle.
APTD - 0958 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 202-251
REPORT DATE: August 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-115 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: United Aircraft Research Laboratories
REPORT TITLE: "Manufacturing Cost Study of Selected Gas Turbine Automobile
Engine Concepts"
APTD - 0959 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 208-237
REPORT DATE: August 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-123 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: AiResearch Manufacturing Company
REPORT TITLE: "Compact Condenser for Rankine Cycle Engines."
APTD - 0960 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 209-277
REPORT DATE: February 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-111 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: General Electric Company
REPORT TITLE: "Modeling, Analysis, and Evaluation of Rankine Cycle Propul-
sion Systems." (Volume I).
APTD - 0961 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 209-278
REPORT DATE: February 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-111 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: General Electric Company
REPORT TITLE: "Modeling, Analysis, and Evaluation of Rankine Cycle Propul-
sion Systems." (Volume II).
APTD - 0966 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 209-286
REPORT DATE: October 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.75**
CONTRACT NUMBER: Fl9628-71-C-0002 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: The Mitre Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Advanced Automotive Power System Structured Value Analysis
Model."
*NOTE: See APTD-1126 for July 1970 Annual Report.
**Paper copy not presently available from NTIS.
E-4
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APTD - 0980 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: July 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-125 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Paxve, Inc.
REPORT TITLE: "Evaluation of a Low NOx Burner."
APTD - 1121 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 210-057
REPORT DATE: February 25, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0034 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Sundstrand Aviation
REPORT TITLE: "Hybrid Propulsion System Transmission Evaluation."
APTD - 1126 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 197-576
REPORT DATE: July 1970 (Annual)* NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: W-31-107-Eng-38 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Argonne National Laboratory
REPORT TITLE: "Development of High-Energy Batteries for Electric Vehicles."
APTD - 1154 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: Pb 210-836
REPORT DATE: May 5, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-102 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Thermo Electron Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Detailed Design, Rankine-Cycle Power System With Organic-
Based Working Fluid and Reciprocating Expander for Automo-
bile Propulsion" (Volume I - Technical Report).
APTD - 1155 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 210-837
REPORT DATE: May 5, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70-102 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Thermo Electron Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Detailed Design,Rankine-Cycle Power System With Organic-
Based Working Fluid and Reciprocating Expander for Automo-
bile Propulsion" (Volume II - Appendices).
APTD - 1181 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 212-097
REPORT DATE: November 1971 NTIS PAPFR COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0033 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Mechanical Technology Incorporated
REPORT TITLE: "Feasibility Analysis of the Transmission for a Flywheel/
Heat Engine Hybrid Propulsion System."
APTD - 1182 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-342
REPORT DATE: July 31, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0048 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc.
REPORT TITLE: "Flywheel Drive Systems Study."
*NOTE: See APTC-0875 for July 1971 Annual Report
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APTD _ -|226 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 220-148
REPORT DATE: August 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHSH 71-003 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Thermo Mechanical Systems Company
REPORT TITLE: "The Study of Low Emission Vehicle Powerplants Using
Gaseous Working Fluids."
ARID - 1290 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: May 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0013 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: United Aircraft Research Laboratories
REPORT TITLE: "Automotive Gas Turbine Optimum Configuration Study."
APTD - 1291* NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-389
REPORT DATE: July 14, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0012 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: AiResearch Manufacturing Company of Arizona
REPORT TITLE: "Automobile Gas Turbine Optimization Study"
APTD - 1343 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-370
REPORT DATE: June 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0406 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: General Electric Company
REPORT TITLE: "Automobile Gas Turbine - Optimum Cycle Selection Study."
APTD - 1344 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-417
REPORT DATE: March 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.75
CONTRACT NUMBER: "N00017-62-C-0604 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: John Hopkins University - Applied Physics Laboratory
REPORT TITLE: "Heat-Engine/Mechanical-Energy-Storage Hybrid Propulsion
Systems for Vehicles."
APTD - 1345 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-257
REPORT DATE: April 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0028 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1 45
CONTRACTOR: TRW Systems Group
REPORT TITLE: "Develop High Charge and Discharge Rate Lead/Acid Battery
Technology."
APTDn- ^46 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: November 1971 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE'
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHSH 71-009 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE!
CONTRACTOR: Tyco Laboratories, Incorporated
REPORT TITLE: "Lead/Acid Battery Development for Heat Engine/Electric
Hybrid Vehicles."
*NOTE: APTD-1546 is a Summary of This Report.
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APTD - 1355 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 213-280
REPORT DATE: April 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0058 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: TRW Systems Group
REPORT TITLE: "Cost and Emission Studies of a Heat Engine/Battery Hybrid
Family Car."
APTD - 1356 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: January 31V1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0040 (Phase II) NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.
REPORT TITLE: "An Evaluation of the Stratified Charge Engine (SCE)
Concept."
APTD - 1357 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 222-849
REPORT DATE: December 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $5 50
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0430 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1*45
CONTRACTOR: Chandler Evans
REPORT TITLE: "Vapor Generator Feed Pump for Rankine Cycle Automotive
Propulsion System (Chandler Evans)."
APTD - 1358 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: pe 222-871
REPORT DATE: December 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3 50
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0437 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Lear Motors Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Vapor Generator Feed Pump for Rankine Cycle Automotive
Propulsion System."
APTD - 1359* NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: December 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0405 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Williams Research Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Automotive Gas Turbine Economic Analysis."
APTD - 1374 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: February 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0014 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: AiResearch Manufacturing Company of Arizona
REPORT TITLE: "Low NOx Emission Combustor Development for Automobile
Gas Turbine Engines."
APTD - 1441 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PR 222 AIR
REPORT DATE: February 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $7 05
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0016 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1*45
CONTRACTOR: Solar Division, International Harvester Company
REPORT TITLE: "Low NOx Emission Combustor for Automobile Gas Turbine
Engines."
NOTE: See Supplement Report EPA-460/9-73-001
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APTD - 1454 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 222-340
REPORT DATE: February 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $11.25
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0017 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Northern Research and Engineering Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Low NOx Emission Combustor for Automobile Gas Turbine
Engines (Northern Research and Engineering Corporation).
APTD - 1457 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 222-075
REPORT DATE: February 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $6.75
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0015 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: United Aircraft of Canada Limited
REPORT TITLE: "Low NOx Emission Combustor for Automobile Gas Turbine
Engines."
APTD - 1468 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: March 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: Interagency NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Bureau of Mines
REPORT TITLE: "Emission Characteristics of Spark Ignition Internal
Combustion Engines Used as the Prime Mover in a Hybrid
System."
APTD - 1516 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: April 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: EHS 70^17 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Battelle Columbus Laboratories
REPORT TITLE: "Low Emission Burners for Automotive Rankine Cycle
Engines."
APTD - 1517 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: May 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0033 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Mechanical Technology Incorporated
REPORT TITLE: "Transmission for Advanced Automotive Single-Shaft Gas
Turbine and Turbo-Rankine Engine."
- 1545 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 222-349
REPORT DATE: July 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $11 25
PRIME CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0004 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $ 45
PRIME CONTRACTOR: Steam Engine Systems Corporation
SUB CONTRACTOR: The Bendix Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Steam Car Control Analysis."
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APTD - 1546 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: September 15, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0012 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: A1Research Manufacturing Company of Arizona
REPORT TITLE: "Automobile Gas Turbine Engine Study"
NOTE: This is a summary report of APTD-1291.
APTD - 1554 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: June, 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0019 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: University of Michigan
REPORT TITLE: "Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Performance of Heated
Perforated Flat Plates"
APTD - 1558 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: December 15, 1972 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0034 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Sunstrand Aviation
REPORT TITLE: "Transmission Study for Turbine and Rankine Cycle Engines"
APTD - 1563 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: June 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0030 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Monsanto Research Corporation/Sunstrand Avtatton
REPORT TITLE: "Optimum Working Fluids for Automotive Rankine Engines,
Volume I - Executive Summary"
APTD - 1564 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: June 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0030 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Monsanto Research Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Optimum Working Fluids for Automotive Rankine Engines,
Volume II - Technical Section"
APTD - 1565 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: June 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0030 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Monsanto Research Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Optimum Working Fluids for Automotive Rankine Engines,
Volume III - Technical Section - Appendices"
APTD - 1566 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: June 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0030 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
PRIME CONTRACTOR: Monsanto Research Corporation
SUBCONTRACTOR: Sunstrand Aviatton
REPORT TITLE: "Optimum Working Fluids for Automotive Rankine Engines,
Volume IV - Engine Design Optimization"
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EPA SERIES REPORTS
EPA - 460/9-73-001 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: July 1?73 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0405 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Williams Research Corporation
REPORT TITLE: "Automotive Gas Turbine Economic Analysis, Investment
Cast Turbine Wheel Supplement"
NOTE: This is a supplement to APTD - 1359.
EPA - 460/3-73-001 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: September 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0461 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: General Electric Company
REPORT TITLE: "Development of Low Emission Porous-Plate Combustor
for Automotive Gas Turbine and Rankine Cycle Engines"
EPA - 460/3-73-003 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: October 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-01-0408 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: General Flectric Company
REPORT TITLE: "Design of Recriprocating Single Cylinder
Expanders for Steam Final Report"
EPA - 460/3-73-004 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER:
REPORT DATE: October 1973 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE:
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0036 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE:
CONTRACTOR: Solar Division International Harvester Company
REPORT TITLE: "Low Emission Combustor/Vapor Generator for Automobile
Rankine Cycle Engines".
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APPENDIX
REPORTS RELATED TO THE AAPS PROGRAM
APTD - 69-51 NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 192-321
REPORT DATE: October 1969 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: PH 86-67-109 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Battelle Memorial Institute
REPORT TITLE: "Study of Unconventional Thermal, Mechanical, and Nuclear
Low-Pollution-Potential Power Sources for Urban Vehicles."
APTD - 69-52 ' NTIS ACCESSION NUMBER: PB 194-814
REPORT DATE: October 1969 NTIS PAPER COPY PRICE: $3.00
CONTRACT NUMBER: PH 86-67-108 NTIS MICROFICHE PRICE: $1.45
CONTRACTOR: Arthur D. Little, Inc.
REPORT TITLE: "Prospects for Electric Vehicles, A Study of Low-Pollution-
Potential Vehicles - Electric."
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