AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION OF THE
GREAT LAKES BASIN
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY • WATER QUALITY OFFICE
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
OF THE GREAT LAKES BASIN
Combined Report by Canada and the
United States
July 1, 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.50
Stock Number 5501-0134
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
UNITED STATES SECTION - PART A
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. POLLUTION PROBLEMS 3
III. PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE ACTIVITIES 51
IV. ADEQUACY OF CURRENT LAND USE PRACTICES 55
V. CURRENT PLANNING, ADVISORY AND REGULATORY STANDARDS 63
VI. APPENDIX, DATA ON PESTICIDE USE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION ... 69
CANADIAN SECTION - PART B
I. FERTILIZER USE AND POLLUTION 1
II. PESTICIDE USE AND POLLUTION 32
III. WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL OF FARM ANIMAL AND POULTRY
MANURES 43
IV. PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE ACTIVITIES FOR
NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND (VARIOUS GOVERNMENT LEVELS) 65
V. CURRENT PLANNING, ADVISORY AND REGULATORY STANDARDS 73
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 78
APPENDICES 88
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S
We wish to gratefully acknowledge the contributions and
assistance provided by Messers J. Biniek, R. J. Mondloch,
E. E. Fenton, H. G. Geyer, M. L. Cotner, J. Lunin and
L. K. Kelley of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
H. Bernard, J. D. Denit and M. C. LaVeille of the
Environmental Protection Agency in preparation of this
report. In addition, the suggestions and assistance
provided by Mr. Arthur Kurtz, Wisconsin; Carl T. Blomgren
Illinois; Lyle Smith, Minnesota; George Eagle, Ohio;
Eugene Seebald, New York; Oral Hert, Indiana; Leland
Boll, Pennsylvania; Ralph McMullen, Michigan, and numerous
other State Officials is appreciated.
Allen Cywin, Chairman David Ward, Co-Chairman
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CAEADIAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful appreciation is extended to all those who
contributed to the preparation of this report. This includes
the original members of the study-group together with those
who assisted them in the preparation of material.
The members of the study-group were:
Professor Tom Lane, Department of Soil Science,
University of Guelph
Dr. M. H. Miller, Head, Department of Soil Science,
University of Guelph
Professor J.B. Robinson, Department of Microbiology,
University of Guelph
Mr. W.A. Steggles, Supervisor, Water Quality Surveys,
Division of Sanitary Engineering, Ontario Water
Resources Commission
Mr. S.A. Black, Division of Research, Ontario Water
Resources Commission
Mr. T.M. Kurtz, Assistant Chief Engineer, Engineering
Section Conservation Authorities Branch, Ontario
Department of Energy and Resources Management
Mr. B.E. Beeler, Director, Soils and Crops Branch,
Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food
Mr. K.B. Turner, Forest Protection Branch, Ontario
Department of Lands and Forests
Dr. E. Mastromatteo, Director, Environmental Health
Services Branch, Ontario Department of Health
Dr. E.Y. Spencer, Director, Research Institute, Canada
Department of Agriculture.
Secretary of Study-Group: Maurice F. McKenna, Farm
Economics, Co-operatives and Statistics Branch,
Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food.
Chairman of Study-Group: Deputy Minister, Ontario
Department of Agriculture and Food.
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Those assisting in the preparation of the report, but
not members of the study-group were:
Mr. Steve Selbach, River Basin Surveys Program Engineer,
Water Quality Surveys Branch, Ontario Water Resources
Commission
Mr. W.L. Smith, Chief, Pesticide Control Service, Ontario
Department of Health
Mr. W. Nap, Soils and Crops Branch, Ontario Department
of Agriculture and Food, and
Dr. R. Frank, Director, Provincial Pesticide Residue
Testing Laboratory, Guelph, Ontario.
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PART A
UNITED STATES SECTION
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INTRODUCTION
This report is intended to be a State-of-the-Art document
concerning abatement of pollution of the Great Lakes Basin, as
specifically influenced by agricultural and related sources. It
was compiled by technical personnel, from appropriate fields in
universities and governmental departments in Canada and the
United States. Primarily it relates to the identification of the
impact of agricultural and related activities on the pollution of
the Great Lakes Basin.
The major constituents of these non-point sources of
pollution which were studied included: 1) runoff and release of
nutrients, pesticides, and herbicides and degradation by-products
as a consequence of the application of agricultural chemicals;
2) runoff of pollutants from animal and poultry production
operations and from associated animal waste management structures
and lands used for ultimate disposal; 3) sedimentation resulting
from current land use practices, including land influenced by
agricultural activities and by local, state and federal activities
on public lands, highways and parks. Also under study was the
scope of current planning, advisory and regulatory functions of
the United States and Canadian Governments.
The findings of some of the basic research conducted to
date by both Nations, and the substance of the programs of the
numerous regulatory agencies involved, are presented in this
text.
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Its purpose is one of motivating development of more
comprehensively effective and universally applicable methodology
for the management of wastes from agricultural and related
activities, and the amelioration of the invaluable water resources
throughout the Great Lakes Basin.
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II. POLLUTION PROBLEMS
Background
For the purpose of establishing a basis on which to discuss the Great
Lakes Basin pollution problems arising from land use activities, such
as agriculture and forestry, it will be helpful to briefly consider
the geological history and the spread of white-man's civilization
throughout the region.
The landscape of the Great Lakes Basin, and indeed the formation of
the Great Lakes themselves, owes its present form to the moulding
action of the great continental glaciers of the Pleistocene era.
Resulting from the sporadic advancement and recession of the ice sheets,
many topographical features remain which make the region unique for
considerations of soil characteristics and land use. Moraines, formed
of ridges of mixed glacial debris (unsorted and unstratified boulders,
sand, and silt, collectively called till) stretch for miles and mark
the forward positions of the glaciers. Behind them lie striated rock
floors strewn with till and erratic boulders. Innumerable lakes and
marshes mark places where the vanished glacier gouged its floor, or
blocked older drainage with debris, or left a stagnant ice block half
buried in an outwash apron. Fans of outwash spread from gaps in the
moraine; beyond the fans are sheets of loess (loam consisting chiefly
of silt particles carried by the wind) or terraces of silt.
In general then, the Great Lakes Basin is covered by a thick blanket
of glacial drift over most of its surface. The soils in the Basin are
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developed in a wide variety of material. These materials include
stratified glacial drift; undifferentiated glacial till; outwash silt,
sand, and gravel; and lacustrine clay, silt, and sand. The soils have
great variability in their mode of origin and they range from the
sandy-loam to the loamy-sand types. Loamy soils generally adsorb water
will, will firmly adsorb phosphates, and have a high natural nitrogen
content. These characteristics make the land usually suitable for
carrying out general farming, although local conditions such as high
clay content or thin topsoil with high rock content may alter the
general condition.
Land settlement in the Great Lakes Area began about 1820. Prior to
this time the area was inhabited by Indians and a few French fur traders,
Except for small cutivated areas around the sites of present large
cities and near some Indian villages, nearly all of the area was
covered by forests.
The southern half of the lower peninsula of Michigan, northern Ohio,
Indiana and southern Wisconsin, had several small open prairies that
later became focal points for early settlements. These areas also had
substantial oak forests which were favored by early settlers because
of the comparative ease with which they could be cleared for farms.
Most of the remaining land in the area was covered with mixed hard-
woods — primarily maple, hickory, elm, ash and basswood. Forests
containing pines were found in some parts of southern Michigan, for
example, in the Saginaw Valley and in sandy areas along Lake Michigan.
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Pine was a much more common component of the forests in the northern
two-thirds of Michigan, northern Wisconsin and east central Minnesota
where they were found associated with stands of other conifers and
hardwoods. These were the forests providing the famous pineries that
attracted and supported the lumbering business.
The first major change in land use came with land settlement, land
clearing and shifting of much of the land into farms. By 1850, 4.4
million acres were in farms and only 1.9 million acres were considered
improved farm land. The area increased rapidly to 13 million acres of
improved farm land by 1920.
Logging started as early as 1840 and was well past its peak by 1920.
The pine and other conifers used for lumber were harvested first, the
hardwood and pulp species were logged later. With the exception of a
few small areas there are no stands of merchantable virgin timber left.
Early logging produced products used in the Civil War and in the re-
building of Chicago after its fire. The establishment of the mining
industry in Minnesota and Michigan was aided by the proximity of a
large timber supply.
Following logging of the merchantable timber in. the virgin stands, the
logging de'bris (slash) was burned, often because of State law require-
ments or to clear the land for the agricultural development that was
expected to follow the logging. Early observers assumed that farming
would naturally follow the lumbering, and timberland owners expected
to cut their merchantable timber and then sell the partially cleared
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lands to prospective farmers. The next major phase of land use emerged
with the problem of these cutover lands.
For various reasons, such as poor soil, lack of markets, and a climate,
particularly in northern Michigan, Wisconsin and east central Minnesota,
the agricultural development was not successful. Only some farms
located on good land prospered.
Newly cleared farms were abandoned rapidly. The demand for cutover
land all but disappeared and hundreds of owners stopped paying taxes
on any except their choice holdings. In 1932, 17.2 million acres,
almost half of the land areas of the State of Michigan, was tax delin-
quent. By 1941, some 4.5 million acres had reverted to the State.
Thousands of additional acres were saved from possible reversion by
Federal purchase programs under which lands were acquired for national
forests, wildlife refuges and military purposes.
The farm settlement and logging period also brought major changes in
water use. The majority of the rivers having flows adequate for power
production were dammed for that purpose years ago. With land
clearing the area lost much of the cover that had impeded the rapid
discharge of flood waters. Soil erosion caused muddy streams and
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siltation problems. The growth of cities and industries gave rise to
tremendous new demands for water.
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II. POLLUTION PROBLEMS
A. Introduction
Any pollutional contribution from agricultural production practices
(as distinguished from food processing operations) to the Great
Lakes results from substances dissolved in water or transported by
water and sediment. Of major concern are plant nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus) , pesticides, and organics which deplete dissolved
oxygen. Sediments are important as a physical detriment, as poss-
ible carriers for phosphates and pesticides, and because of their
economic impact. Each of these pollution problems are associated
with crop and livestock management practices.
It would be desirable to be able to quantify and identify the source
of each pollutant that enters the Great Lakes. There is, however,
little specific data available to permit reasonably reliable estimates,
especially for agricultural or non-urban areas. In non-urban areas
there is a wide variety of land use ranging from woodland to inten-
sively cultivated areas which makes it difficult to achieve any
reliable estimate. Moreover, it is difficult to evaluate contribution
from various land-use practices on a large watershed because most of
them contain some urban areas.
Considerable data are available on sediment production, and nutrient
and pesticide losses in runoff from small plots and small watersheds
for some land management systems. In addition, a limited amount of
information has been gathered which reliably reflects the impact of
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sediment, nutrient, pesticide and feedlot runoff pollution on the
Great Lakes.
For the present, broad estimates must be made to define the problem,
to plan control measures and recommend an R&D program.
B. Nutrients - Fertilizers
Since much emphasis has been placed on nutrients, agriculture's
contribution to the nitrogen and phosphorus content of water must be
evaluated.
Nutrients enter surface water by discharges of raw or treated sewage,
some industrial wastes, and runoff and seepage from land and animal
feedlots. Following rainstorms, there is evidence that runoff of
chemical fertilizers from cultivated lands can be a significant
source of plant nutrients found in streams and lakes. The variations
in the potential for contributions from this source are extensive,
however, some limited studies of agricultural watersheds show that
fertilizer runoff is likely to be severe following intense storms.
Many attempts have been made to correlate the increased consumption
of fertilizers with water pollution. The amounts of fertilizer
used in the Great Lakes Basin in 1964 is shown in Table 1. About
83 percent of the nitrogen and phosphorus is used on crop and
pasture land, and the remaining 17 percent used on non-farm areas.
Fertilizer consumption is increasing and it is estimated that it will
continue to increase at the rate of 5 percent per year for the next
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few years coincident with the need for increased levels of production.
A generalized decrease in the cost of fertilizers, plus higher labor
costs have also contributed to increases in fertilizer usage and to
a tendency to overfertilize crops. Where high rates of nitrogen
fertilization are used, leaching losses may occur. Nitrates are
highly soluble and move readily with water. Contributions from
fertilizer are difficult to evaluate, however, because losses due to
denitrification and gains from fixation processes are difficult to
quantify. All of these processes are affected by management practices,
soil type and climatic conditions. It is estimated that for average
conditions, a crop will use about 60 percent of nitrogen applied as
fertilizer. Our present state of knowledge does not permit complete,
universal quantification of the disposition of the remaining 40
percent. A pollution hazard can occur when the available nitrogen
exceeds withdrawal by the crop and there is an excess of water to
cause leaching,into groundwater reserves or runoff to rivers.
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TABLE 1. — Fertilizer Use in the Great Lakes Basin by Agricultural Subregions* 1964 (Tons)
Crop & pastureland
N P K
i
H1
I-1
ASR 4
ASR 5
ASR 6
ASR 7
ASR 20
ASR 39
ASR 40
ASR 41
ASR 52
ASR 53
ASR 54
TOTAL
3,243
4,695
13,345
8,646
14,148
118,601
50,184
13,776
33,676
19,548
6,945
286,809
3,208
3,904
8,966
6,736
10,990
55,691
32,446
7,158
16,983
15,627
5,799
167,508
5,323
5,863
15,733
10,742
22,107
99,513
54,435
13,661
23,404
45,922
14,010
310,713
Nonfarm
N
462
787
6,746
6,212
12,150
14,043
12,535
1,037
4,483
1,011
2,573
62,399
P
278
254
2,174
2,133
6,603
7,548
4,627
362
5,075
344
1,656
31,054
K
556
460
3,944
4,060
6,934
17,103
8,178
689
10,336
711
2,136
55,107
3
5
20
14
26
132
62
14
38
20
9
348
N
,705
,484
,091
,858
,298
,644
,719
,813
,159
,559
,518
,848
total
P
3,486
4,158
11,140
8,869
17,593
63,239
37,073
7,520
22,058
15,971
7,455
198,562
K
5,879
6,323
19,677
14,902
29,041
116,616
62,613
14,350
33,740
46,633
16,146
365,920
*See Figure 1 for location of Agricultural Subregion
*Based upon National data, the increase in use is approximately twenty (20) percent for farm and non-
farm users by 1970.
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I
Figure 1 — Agricultural Subregions in the Great Lakes Basin
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into groundwater reserves or runoff to rivers.
Normally, applied phosphorus is strongly fixed in the soil.
Moreover, leaching losses occur only under rare circumstances
in most soils. Losses usually occur during the erosion process
where phosphates are adsorbed on eroded soil particles. It is
estimated that 1,000 pounds of phosphorus. Thus, when sediments
enter a watercourse or body of water, they serve as a source of
phosphorus, although the amount in true solution may be very
small and is made available under only certain limited circum-
stances. There is also evidence that certain sediments may act
as scavengers, actuallly removing phosphates, from solution, and
thereby decreasing pollution of water. However, the immense vol-
umes of sediments which reach the lakes each year is such that the
absolute contribution of phosphorus cannot be underestimated.
As previously mentioned, much emphasis has been placed on runoff,
or agricultural drainage. Research on plots and small watersheds
has yielded some information. Studies at Choshocton, Ohio showed
that over a three-year period, average annual losses of nitrate
nitrogen and phosphorus from farmland runoff were 3.86 and 0.06
pounds per acre (Ibs./A) respectively, as compared to 0.92 and
0.04 Ibs./A for woodland.
Agricultural sub-surface drainage must also be considered. Studies
Unpublished data - Taylor, Edwards and Simpson, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Soil and Water
Conservation Research Division.
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o
on tile drain effluents at Tiffin, Ohio, showed annual losses
of nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus of 2 and less than 0.04 Ibs./A
o
respectively. Studies of large drainage areas in Wisconsin, showed
annual losses in base flow of total nitrogen and phosphorus to be
1.0 and 0.1 Ibs./A respectively. These unit loss rates appear
quite low. When multiplied by the large acreages in drainage basins,
however, the absolute contribution of nutrients is significant. This
is illustrated in figures 2 through 5,which show data on nitrates
and orthophospate concentrations representative of those from a
large watershed in the northern midwest.
Several studies have shown that phosphorus losses from cropland is
associated almost entirely with erosion. Due to the sporadic
character of soil composition, no precise statement can be made
about the general rate of this type of phosphorus movement, but
some broad estimates are possible. Experiments with cotton and
corn in Virginia showed a loss of 5 tons per acre of soil containing
1,000 ppm. of phosphorus.
o
Schwab, Taylor, and Waldron - Ohio Report on Research and
Development, page 87, July-August 1970.
3
Minshall, Nichols and Witzel - Water Resources Research
5:706, 1969.
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This represents a loss of 10 pounds of phosphorus per acre
per year. Under high erosion, the loss may reach 30 to 50
pounds. Additional data on nutrient runoff from an agri-
cultural watershed in Kansas (figures 5 and 6) further empha-
sizes the potential severity of the total nutrient runoff
problem.
Up to 50 percent of the total phosphorus in a surface soil
may be present in organic forms. Little information is
available on the biological activity of organic phosphates
in streams, and new analytical procedures may be necessary
to reveal its true significance.
The information shown in Table 2, further amplifies the dis-
parity found in data relating to pollution due to agricultural
runoff of nutrients. But the table does show that approximate
mean values for rural runoff exceed all other sources combined.
What is needed is an intensive program designed to determine
the actual contribution of nutrients in the Great Lakes from
agricultural practices so that control measures and research
needs may be promulgated.
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Eutrophication
A major concern in the Great Lakes is accelerated eutrophica-
tion. This is attributable to a myriad of factors including
nutrient enrichment due to vast inflows of nitrogen and phos-
phorus, minor nutrients, and organic carbon sources. Domestic
sewage remains a major source of these elements. Drainage
from rural sources may also contribute appreciably because of
the vast area involved. The actual contribution on a per-acre
basis, however, has not been assessed. Sources of lesser
consequences would be natural sources such as mineralization
of soil organic matter and decay of plant residues, contri-
butions from wildlife, and natural shoreline erosion of the
lakes.
There exists an undeniable need to survey the actual contribu-
tions of all agricultural sources of pollution in the Great
Lakes to establish a basis for prescribing means to abate,
prevent or control these sources.
C. Pesticides
Pesticide usage on agricultural lands and urban sites has
increased tremendously in the past two decades. During this
period, water pollution due to pesticides also has increased
although the degree of pollution is variable between water-
sheds. The pollution of lakes, streams, and estuaries
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I
V*
0.1
ItjO
•DISCHARGE, cu ft/sec
-PHOSPHORUS, mg/l
•NITROGEN, mg/l
1 KT'OCr'NOV' PIC JAN1
1967 I
1 MM 'API 'DMV' JUN ' jw.' AIM '
1968
> ' OCT MOV KC
R* 'MM'AM ' MAY 'JUN
1969
Figure 2 — Concentration of Nutrients and Flow in the Des Moines River at Boone, Iowa
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24,000
16,OOO
8,000
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
36,000
24,000
12.000
•DISCHARGE, cu ft/sec —
CHLOROPHYLL A, rng/rt-
PHOSPHORUS, Ib/day
DOMESTIC AND
INDUSTRIAL
WASTEWATER
(1,575 Ib P/day)
JAN I FEB I MAR I APR I MAY I JUN I
1969
Figure 3 — Phosphorous, Chlorophyll A and Flow in the
Des Moines River During a Wet Period.
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24,000
16,000
DISCHARGE , cu ft/sec -
-CHLOROPHYLL A, mg/l
NITROGEN, Ib/day
DOMESTIC
AND INDUSTRIAL
WASTEWATER
(6,350lbN/day)
JAN I FEB I MAR ' APR I MAY ' JUN I
1969
Figure 4 — Nitrogen, Chlorophyll A, and Flow in the Des Moines
River During a Wet Period.
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350
300
i
NJ
O
I
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TABLE 2 — ESTIMATE OF NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES*
Source Nitrogen Phosphorus
106 Ib./yr. 106lb./yr.
Domestic Waste 1100-1600 200-500
Industrial Waste 1000
Rural Runoff - Agricultural
Land 1500-15,000 120-1200
Non-Agricultural Land 400-1900 150-170
Farm Animal Waste 1000
Urban Runoff 110-1100 11-170
Rainfall 30-590 3-9
*Task Group 2610 P. Sources of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Water Supplies.
JAWWA 59:344-366 1967
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Table 3 — Synoptic Survey of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides 1n Surface Waters, September 1966 *
Concentration in mlcrograms per
Location D1eldr1n
Great Lakes Region
St. Lawrence River;
Massena, N. Y. ND
Lake Erie: Buffalo,
N.Y. ND
Detroit River: Detroit,
Michigan ND
St. Mary's River:
Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan ND
Lake Superior:
Duluth, Minn. ND
Lake Michigan:
Milwaukee, Wis. ND
Maumee River: Toledo,
Ohio ND
St. Joseph River;
Benton Harbor,
Mich. P
Grand River: Grand
Haven, M1ch. P
Detroit River: Grosse
Isle, Mich. ND
Fox River: Green
Bay, W ND
ND - Indicates none detected.
P - Indicates presumptive. Data
chromatography were highly 1
and quantification.
Endrln
ND
ND
ND
ND
.022
ND
ND
.029
ND
ND
.007
are reported
ndicatlve but
DDT
ND
ND
ND
ND
.026
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
liter
DDE
.002
ND
ND
ND
P
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
DDD
ND
ND
ND
P
.005
ND
.006
.013
.009
.012
.007
as presumptive in instances
meet all
requirements
Heptachlor
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
where the results
BHC
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
.003
ND
ND
ND
of
for positive identification
* Excerpt from Green et al. - MAS Symposium on "Agriculture and the Quality of our Environment."
December, 1966.
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by pesticides may occur as the result of application of these
materials to crops, soils, livestock, and in communities to
control such pests as mosquitoes. The residues may contami-
nate water as the result of soil runoff, or through sewage from
streets, homes, etc., that eventually reach natural water
resources. Moreover, insecticides applied for various purposes
may drift into aquatic environments.
The necessity to use insecticides for efficient crop and
livestock production and to protect people in agricultural
areas from attack by pests is fully understood. Alternative
methods of control from most pests are still lacking and con-
siderable work is required to develop improved pest control
(and environmentally innocuous) chemicals. For the present,
it is impossible to control most pests effectively in agri-
cultural environments or in aquatic environments without
chemical pesticides.
Pesticides can be classified into two broad groups: persistent
and non-persistent. The latter are readily degraded, and
are not considered a significent chronic pollution problem.
However, spills or indiscriminate use can cause severe
pollution effects. The persistent pesticides, primarily
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chlorinated hydrocarbons, are of major concern. These
compounds have limited solubility in water and become
pollutants of water largely by (1) adsorption to clay
particles in sediment; and (2) solution in water and/or
organic carriers.
Of the Great Lakes, current information reveals that the
greatest pesticide problem occurs in Lake Michigan. For
the other lakes, there is either low usage of pesticide
in the watershed or detention times are apparently too
short for a problem to develop. Although no compre-
hensive data for the entire Lake Michigan watershed is avail-
able, some estimates are available for certain areas.
For example, a total of 13,702 pounds of aldrin, 3,913 pounds
of dieldrin and 127,516 pounds of DDT were estimated to
have been used in the Wisconsin Lake Michigan watershed.
Definitive research data on the extent of pesticide
pollution from agricultural lands are extremely limited.
Studies using dieldrin at Coshocton, Ohio, show that in a
12-month period, 0.005 percent of that applied was lost in runoff.
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Most studies indicated that the absolute amount of pesticide
residues actually reaching water through runoff and drift is
usually very small, involving quantities generally within the
parts per billion range. This is illustrated in the results
of a synoptic survey of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
in surface waters of the Ohio River Basin and Great Lakes
Region (Table 3). However, the impace on organisms in water
may still be substantial. Fish, shrimp, mussels and other
aquatic animals concentrate the low level residues in their
bodies by selective absorption of the pesticide residues, by
screening out residues by gills through the intake of large
quantities of water, and by the phenomenon of biological
magnification of residues through food chains. Not only are
pesticides toxic to fish (e.g. 0.1 ppb of dieldrin has been
shown toxic to fish fry), but also are accumulated in body
tissue throughout the food chain, thus affecting wildlife
survival and human food supplies.
Considerable pesticide pollution arises from misuse. This
includes accidental spills, careless application practices,
and 'improper disposal of containers and wastes. Much of this
can be avoided by more careful handling of these materials or
legislative action to require return of spent containers, etc.
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Losses on sediment may vary from 0 to 3 percent of that applied,
depending upon the degree of erosion.
Since runoff losses are often small, conservation and practices
to control erosion will greatly minimize water pollution hazards
from pesticides.
Research has been conducted in Waynesville, North Carolina
to determine runoff of herbicides from small watersheds as
influenced by slope, vegetative cover, rainfall, and other
edaphic factors. Similar research has also been conducted
at Watkinsville, Georgia, to determine extent of herbicide
runoff under simulated rainfall conditions as influenced by
different soil conditions. In genreal, the herbicide runoff
was directly related to the movement of soil particles by
erosion. There was little or no evidence of herbicide
movement independent of the movement of soil particles.
Additional research is being conducted in Athens, Georgia
(EPA) to develop a mathematical model to predict the amount
of runoff of any pesticide under any climatic and geologic
circumstance for all areas of the United States. Field plot
tests of the model are underway and it is anticipated that
full scale testing will be warranted by 1972.
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D. Poultry and Animal Wastes
Potential pollution from animal wastes will depend upon the
number and type of livestock, size and type of operational
units, and waste disposal methods used. The primary problems
associated with the runoff from confined animal operations
are organic waste load, nutrients, dissolved solids (salts)
and pathogenic organisms.
Characteristics of animal wastes vary with the type and size
of animal, the diet fed, and many other variables. As a
point of reference, average pollutional characteristics of
different types of animal wastes are shown in Table 4. These
values will also vary considerably with storage and handling
practices. Actual pollution contribution must be assessed on
the basis of that fraction that finds its way into a water
resource.
Feedlot runoff is high in dissolved and suspended organic
compounds and has a high oxygen demand and frequently lowers the
dissolved oxygen content of the water, making it hazardous
to aquatic biota. Runoff from two experimental feedlots at
Kansas State University showed ammonia concentrations up to 140
mg/1, COD 1,000 to 3,000 mg/1 and BOD from 400-1500 mg/1.
2nd Compendium of Agricultural Feedlot pollution, FWQA,
Kansas City, Missouri, 1969.
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No fish kills that were attributable to feedlot runoff have
been reported in the Great Lakes region; however, eighty-seven
such kills were reported in 1968 across the Nation.
Furthermore, microbial decomposition of these compounds
results in the production of carbon dioxide which could
stimulate algal growth. Nutrient contributions, primarily
nitrogen and phosphorus, could also stimulate algal growth
in bodies of water where these nutrients are growth-limiting,
(Figure 6). In certain areas of intensive livestock or poultry
production there is some concern of possible nitrate pollution
of surface or ground waters. The degree of water borne disease
transmission from animal to man is not adequately documented
however, high concentrations of total coliform, fecal coliform,
and streptococci are found in animal feedlot runoff.
A representative graph of these noted at one test site is
shows in figure 7. Salmonella organisms are usually present,
but others such as leptospirosis have also been reported.
Because of the growing trend in the Lakes area and elsewhere
toward intensive operations, it is important to consider waste
management practices which help prevent the potential for
runoff pollution. For example, animals on pasture distribute
their wastes on the land and the pollution potential may be
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negligible. On the other hand, in confined dairy farming
operations in the Great Lakes Region, farmers frequently spread
accumulated manure on the snow during the winter months, which
promotes pollution of the runoff when the snow melts.
Manure disposal to the land is decreasing due to high level
costs and the low price of chemical fertilizers. Manures are
then being "stockpiled" where this or land spreading takes
place, the practice presents a potential hazard especially
when there is a Spring thaw and "slug" runoff occurs. Other
practices involving application of solid or liquid animal
wastes to the land could create a problem if necessary manage-
ment precautions including rates and times of applications are
now followed.
There are many remedial methods for preventing water pollution
from animal wastes some of which may be effective for modest
operations. These include use of anaerobic plue aerobic lagoons,
diversion structures to prevent runoff from entering a stream,
land disposal of solid and liquid wastes, and site selection
to minimize surface and groundwater pollution. Optimum pollu-
tion control practices must be tailored for each situation
taking into consideration soil, topographic, geologic, vegeta-
tive, climatic and other factors. Design criteria will also
be determined by size and type of animal unit desired.
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TABLE 4 — Average Pollutional Characteristics of Animal Wastes Weight Units (Pounds per Day*)'
1
u>
o
**
Animal Total BOD COD
Solids
Chickens 0.066 0.015 0.047
(4-5 Ibs)
Swine 0.74 0.33 0.73
(100 Ibs)
Dairy Cattle 8.2 1.20 7.1
(1000 Ibs)
Beef Cattle 3.6 1.02 3.26
(1000 Ibs)
* Ib./day means Ib . /day . animal
**Dry solids
Nitrogen
Total Ammonia Po^5
0.0033 0.0015 0.0026
0.055 0.024 0.025
0.41 0.23 0.12
0.26 0.11
Loehr, R.C. Pollution inplications of animal wastes - A Forward Oriented Review.
FWQA - July 1968.
-------
930
O
0)
60
M
efl
O
-------
o
o
o
o
o
Soldier Creek—Near Goff,Kansas
o
o
o
o
o
o,
o
a
o
o
n)
•H
n
0)
4J
o
c<5
o-f
Figure 7 - - Characteristic
Bacteria^ Pollution
Associated With Agricultural
Land and Feedlot Runoff
Total Coliform
— Fecal Coliform
.-.———... Fecal Streptococcus
0.1
• I
10 30 50 70 90 99 99.9
Per Cent fo Time Value Equaled or Exceeded
-3Z-
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38.4%
Agricultural
Land
47.4%
Forested
Land
8.4%
Urban -
Built-Up
Figure 8 — Land Use Patterns for the Great Lakes Basin,U.S. 1967
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Geologic Erosion
30%
Agricultural Land
Sheet Erosion
37%
Figure 9 — Estimated Sediment Contributions by Source;
Great Lakes Basin, U.S., 1967
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TABLE 5 ~ SEDIMENT DELIVERED TO LAKE ERIEJ
Unit
Stream-
Sheet (A) bank (B)Ufbari(C)Roadside(P) Total
Black River
St. Clair Complex
Clinton River
Rouge River
Huron River
Swan Creek Complex
Raisin River
Maumee River
Toussaint-Portage Complex
Sandusdy River
Huron-Vermillion Complex
Black-Rocky Complex
Cuyahoga
Chagrin Complex
Ashtabula-Conneaut
Erie-Chautaugua
Chattaragus
Tonawanda Complex
Basin Total
Percent of Total
* Measured USGS Data
32,600
22,200
38,500
107,600
57,400
58,300
116,200
1,159,000
111,900
223,700
214,000
119,100
183,000
28,500
15 , 300
50,400
16,700
34,800
2,610,3000
94
1,400
1,300
1,500
1,400
1,600
700
2,800
7,000
2,100
2,300
2,000
1.90Q
1,600
1,000
700
1,600
1,300
3,200
36,800
1.0-i
(A) Based on an average annual rate computed
_
-
8,000
22,000
6,000
-
-
13,000
-
-
-
9,000
16,000
8,000
-
8,000
-
17,000
21,000
107,000 21,000
4.0- 1,0~
from conservation
34,000
23,500
48,000
131,000
65,000
59,000
119,000
*1,179,OQQ
114,000
* 226,000
216,000
130, OOQ
* 200, 60Q
37,500
16,000
60,000
18,000
55,000
21.000
2,775,100
100
needs data
by soil resource areas. Delivery ratios applied based upon drainage
area size averages.
(B) Based upon average erosion rate of 27 tons per square mile found in
recent streambank erosion study. Delivery ratio applied.
(C) From special evaluation of urban erosion, Great Lakes Basin Framework
Study. Delivery ratios applied.
(D) Based upon recent roadside erosion study in Wisconsin. Delivery
ratios applied.
^Great Lakes Basin Framework Study - Land Use and Management
Appendix 13 Aug. 1970.
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TABLE 6 « SEDIMENT DELIVERED TO LAKE MICHIGAN ]/
Hydro! ogle Unit
Menonrfnee Complex
Me nominee River
Peshtigo River
Oconto & Pensaukee Complex
Saunrico Complex
Fox River
Green Bay Complex
Chicago-Milwaukee Complex
Wisconsin
Indiana
Illinois
St. Joseph River
Black River South Haven
Complex
Kalamazoo River
Black River-Ottawa Complex
Grand River
Muskegon River
Sable Complex
Manistee River
Traverse Complex
Seoul Choix-Groscap Complex
Manistique River
Bay De Noe Complex
Escanaba River
Total Lake Michigan
Basin
Annual Tons Delivered From:
Sheet Erosion Streambank
25,000
21 ,000
7,000
36 ,000
7,000
138,000
217,000
199,000
232,000
-
310,000
79 ,000
144,000
31 ,000
217,000
43,000
97,000
25,000
85,000
5,000
3,000
4,000
4,000
1,929,000(A)
K • * 1 » «
25,000
17,000
19,000
61,000(B)
Urban
Construction
3,000
20,000
26 ,000
49,000(C)
Roadside
4,000(D
Grand Total Delivered to Lake
Michigan: 2,
)43,000 Tons Per Year
(A) Based upon computed sheet erosion rates and delivery ratios applied by
hydro!ogic units.
(B) Based upon recent streambank erosion study, mean average of 27 tons per
square mile erosion, delivery ratios applied.
(C) Based upon special urban erosion study, delivery ratios applied.
(D) Based partly upon special roadside erosion study in Wisconsin. Erosion
rate estimated at 20 tons per acre, delivery ratios applied.
J7Great Lakes Basin Framework Study - Land Use and Management
Appendix 13 August 1970
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TABLE 7 — SEDIMENT DELIVERED TO LAKE SUPERIOR !_/
Unit
Erosion Source
Sheet Streambank
Tons Per Year
Urban . Roadside . Total
Superior Slope Complex
St. Louis River
Nemadji River
Apostle Islands Complex
Bad River
Montreal River
Porcupine Mountain Complex
Ontonagon River
Kenasna Peninsula Complex
Sturgeon River
Huron Mountain Complex
Grand Marain Complex
Tehquanenen River
Sault Complex
Basin Total
Percent of Total
24,100
6,400
4,200
25,700
8,500
2,400
11,100
2,800
14,200
2,200
5,900
7,300
1,100
1,700
117,600
64 A
5,600
3,000
500
4,200
1,000
400
2,500
1,300
3,300
900
2,300
2,900
900
600
29,400
16 B
15,400
15,400
8 C
21 ,600
21,600
12 D
59,200
29,900
9,500
2,800
13,600
4,100
17,500
3,100
8,200
10,200
2,000
2,300
21,600
184,000
100
A Based on an average annual rate computed from conservation needs data by
soil resources areas. Delivery ratios applied based upon drainage area
size averages.
B Based upon average erosion rate of 27 tons per square mile found in recent
Streambank erosion study. Delivery ratios applied.
C Duluth-Superior Metropolitan area. Based upon present average annual
erosion from urban construction of 76,000 tons (from urban erosion
evaluations in Great Lakes Basin Framework Study). Delivery ratio of
25 percent assumed.
D Based upon recent roadside erosion study in Wisconsin. Rate of 20 tons
erosion per square mile. Delivery ratios applied.
J/ Great Lakes Basin Framework Study - Land Use and Management Appendix 13
August 1970
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Little specific information regarding the magnitude of the
animal waste pollution hazard in the Great Lakes watersheds,
is available. However, from data that is available, it is
estimated that 15,000 tons of phosphorus and 67,000 tons of
nitrogen are produced by the cattle, chicken and hog population
in the United States section of the Lake Erie basin (Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968). It is estimated
that 9,000 tons of phosphorus and 45,000 tons of nitrogen are
produced by the cattle, chicken and hog population in the
United States section of the Lake Ontario basin. Again,
it must be emphasized that these are total figures, and that
the actual contribution to the respective lakes from these
wastes may represent only a small fraction of this total.
E. Sediment
Sediment can be a serious pollutant. Deposition of silt in lakes
and reservoirs is detrimental, and rectification by dredging
is very costly and creates other pollution problems. Silt, as
enumerated earlier, also serves as a primary transport medium for
both phosphates and pesticides. The colloidal and organic
fractions are usually the most active in this respect. The
degree to which sediment can adsorb and transport phosphates
and pesticides depends upon its chemical and mineralogical
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characteristics. Particulate organic matter can serve as
a carrier until it is broken down by microorganisms. Since
sediment is such an important constituent of water pollutants,
it deserves special consideration. At least 4 billion tons
of sediment are produced through erosion in the United States
annually. Of this, about 2 billion tons are washed into
streams and up to 1 billion tons reach tide-water.
The sediment contribution to the Lakes Erie, Michigan and
Superior from their basins are shown in Tables 5, 6, and 7.
Major contributory sources, such as sheet, streambank, urban
and roadside erosion, are indicated. To further evaluate
these sources, the land use distribution in the Great Lakes
Basin is shown in Figure 8. The percentage contribution
from each of these sources is shown in Figure 9.
Actually, the Great Lakes Basin produced only 0.4 percent of
the Nation's total sediment. Less than 25 percent of the
total land area in the Great Lakes Basin is rural land with
an erosion hazard. Except for the Maumee River sub-basin,
the concentration of sediment in streams is less than 270
ppm. In the Maumee River sub-basin concentrations range from
270 to 1900 ppm, and contributes two million tons per year
of sediment to Lake Erie.
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Direct measurement of the total phosphorus concentration,
including that on the suspended mineral material, is not a
useful measure of the amount available for plant growth. Most
of the phosphorus is inert, i.e. dissolves very slowly. The
reactive surface-adsorbed fraction usually comprises less
than 5 or 10 percent of the whole. Thus, the amount of biolo-
gically active phosphorus is a small fraction of the total
in sediment-laden stream waters. For example, water containing
a sediment load of 0.1 percent by weight, with 1,000 ppm of
phosphorus in the sediment, would have a total phosphorus
concentration of 1.0 ppm. The amount in true solution might
be 0.1 ppm or less which may still be sufficient to trigger
algae growth. Settling out of the sediment will carry down
considerable amounts of phosphorus that may be re-suspended
in the upper water under storm conditions. In some instances,
suspended sediment may actually remove phosphorus from solution,
thereby lowering the concentration of soluble phosphorus.
Thus, sediment may act as a sink for phosphorus rather than
a source. On the other hand, it is known that phosphates will
be slowly released from bottom sediments to be redissolved
in the carrier streams.
Technology is currently available to minimize sediment
production from various sources. Continuing implementation
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of soil and water management practices is necessary to
conform to changes in land management and construction
patterns.
Land Disposal of Municipal Wastes
The disposal of municipal wastes and sludges for application
to land for land beneficiation or for crop growth is receiving
greater attention.
Several concepts are being demonstrated to obtain the neces-
sary technological, water quality, and operational data to
determine the usefulness and/or limitations of this method
of waste management.
The Pennsylvania State University has demonstrated that
secondary sewage effluent can be disposed of safely on
agricultural land. Full scale demonstrations of sewage
effluent and sludge disposal utilizing the most advanced
technology and management controls are being sponsored by
the Environmental Protection Agency in Muskegon, Michigan and
Chicago, Illinois. In Phoenix, Arizona, it has been demonstrated
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that by careful management secondary effluents can be safely
used for ground water recharge.
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F. Agency Descriptions
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
The Environmental Protection Agency is the agency with direct statu-
tory responsibility for conducting programs leading to the abatement,
prevention, and control of all water quality problems. The agency's
ultimate function is one of enforcement (with monitoring and surveillance),
however, the total program encompasses an extensive (approximately 50
million dollars) in-house and extramural (contract and grant) program
in Research and Development, and the one billion dollar Federal Con-
struction Grant program (for municipal sewage facilities). In addition,
EPA is involved with numerous Federal cooperative programs, pollution
control training and education; and State cooperative program and planning
grants program including basin-wide planning to incorporate agricultural
water users and pollution sources.
Within the Research and Development program, agricultural pollution
control is a major concern, and currently accounts for about 7 percent
of the Research and Development budget. Included are research, develop-
ment and demonstration projects into improved methods to alleviate or
abate all agricultural sources of pollution. The improved methods are
designed to help agricultural entrepreneurs obtain waste discharges the
quality of which is sufficient to meet water quality standards in any
locale in the country.
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
The Federal Pollution Control Program in agriculture is abetted by
programs being conducted by several USDA agencies that provide both
financial and technical assistance to help private landowners apply
proper land use and resource conservation practices to their land. These
practices result in soil and water conservation and in many cases have
the added benefit of pollution abatement particularly in sediment control.
Some of the agencies direct similar resource management programs on
publicly owned lands. Other agencies carry on research and provide
technical information and support to these operations agencies.
The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS), through
its established system of State and local elected farmer committees,
administers a series of assistance programs which includes the Agricult-
ural Conservation Program (ACP). The AGP authorizes federal cost-sharing
with farmers for carrying out conservation practices relating to soil,
water, wildlife, and woodland, and recently for specific pollution
abatement practices. The main area of concern in the early phases of
pollution abatement has been with feedlots and other sources of animal
wastes. In 1969, approximately $8,5 million was used for practices that
directly or indirectly help prevent or abate pollution (primarily due
to sediment) in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence watersheds.
Research to support the land and water resource programs of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture is conducted by the Agricultural Research Service
CARS). Within the total ARS program, a limited amount of funds are
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allocated for pollution control. Specific projects relate to pollution
from land-use sources and include investigations on: hydrologic perfor-
mance of agricultural watersheds; erosion and sedimentation; soil pro-
perties, processes, and management; and practices and systems for
preventing or controlling contamination of soil and water resources by
agricultural chemicals and farm wastes. In other research, emphasis is
being placed on reducing the amount of hazardous pesticides in the
environment by developing alternative measures for pest control, e.g.
sterilization.
The Economic Research Service carries out a program of economic research
designed to benefit farmers. Some of the major activities include re-
search on marketing, domestic and foreign economy, farm production, and
natural resources. In the latter area are included analyses of the man-
agement of land and water resources, such as the economics of water
management on farms, costs and returns of water and soil conserving
practices, and alternatives for improving water quality.
Another agency which is involved in research is the Cooperative State
Research Service. This Service adminsters Federal grant programs for
agricultural and forestry research conducted at State agricultural
experiment stations and certain other State institutions. Research on
water pollution as related to agriculture, forestry and rural areas is
included. All of the agricultural experiment stations in the Great Lakes
States are conducting research on nutrient enrichment of waters. Some
are including the contribution of soil erosion and water runoff and the
role of sediment-nitrogen and sediment-phosphorus interactions in
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eutrophication. Additional research is being conducted on pesticide
usage, transport, and degradation, animal waste management, soil and
crop management to minimize soil erosion, and the disposal of sewage
sludge and sewage plant effluent on agricultural and forest lands.
Conservation of the soil through technical assistance to individuals,
groups, cities and towns, and county and state governments is the role
of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS). Specifically, the SCS develops
and carries out a national soil and water conservation program through
soil and water conservation districts, administers the national coop-
erative soil survey, develops and carries out watershed-protection,
flood-prevention, and river-basin investigation projects, helps local
sponsors develop and carry out multi-county resource conservation and
development projects, and gives technical assistance to land owners and
operators participating in the conservation-credit and cost sharing
programs of the Farmers Home Administration and Agricultural Stabiliza-
tion and Conservation Service. The SCS conducted a "National Conservation
Needs Inventory" which outlined 1066 small watersheds in the Great Lakes
St. Lawrence region. Three hundred-three of these, covering approx-
imately 24,500,000 acres, are considered feasible for development for
water and land conservation and flood control under Public Law 566
(83rd Congress, 1954). Local sponsoring organizations have made
application for 74 of these, 31 have been authorized for planning, and
authorization for construction has been given for 21 projects. Eight
projects have now been completed with a total area of 381,000 acres.
The Cooperative Extension Service conducts a continuing overall educar-
tional program to aid the public. Part of this effort is concerned
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with the possible health hazards of water, air, and land pollution.
Safe and effective methods for using pesticides and fertilizers which
will result in maximum production advantage and minimum adverse effects
on living conditions and plant and animal life forms are stressed.
There are county offices in nearly all of the counties in the Great
Lakes and St. Lawrence River watersheds. The staffs in the watershed
area plan to devote approximately 40 man-years to education work on
pollution abatement in FY 1971. Responsibility for applying sound con-
servation and utilization practices to the natural resources of the
National Forests and for promoting these practices among all forest
landowners rests with the Forest Service. Cooperation with private
landowners, and with State, local, or private organizations is the role
of the State and Private Forestry Service. The programs of this
division are aimed at protecting the forests and watersheds against
fire, insects, and disease, encouraging better forest practices,
aiding in the distribution of planting stock for forests, and
stimulating the development and proper management of State, County,
and Community forests. A total of $4,377,000 in FY 1971 was
allocated by the Forest Service to the States in the Great Lakes area for
State and Private Forestry Cooperation.
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
The National Park Service operates a system of national parks, monuments,
and similar reservations throughout the United States. In addition to
providing for the public enjoyment of the parks, the Park Service is
required to give the fullest possible protection to the natural resources
comprising such parks. The protection program consists not only of the
prevention of fires, stream pollution, and injury to natural, historic,
or prehistoric features, but also of restricting uses that are incom-
patible with the basic purposes of the parks. Six National Park Service
Areas are located in the Great Lakes Basin Area; although not all areas
are fully developed nor has total land acquisition been completed, the
total area of presently authorized Parks is approximately 755,000 acres.
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STATE AGENCIES
Many sub-groups within the various state governments are involved in
programs relative to land use, such as the Departments of Agriculture,
Highways, Natural Resources and Pollution Control. The organization
and responsibilities of the groups differ from state to state, but in
general the Departments of Agriculture will support programs to inform
the agricultural communities on subjects of farming practices, market-
ing, pesticides application, and livestock production and frequently will
advise the legislative branch on matters of control of pesticide usage,
livestock wastes and other agricultural pollutants.
The Highway Departments, responsible for state roadway construction and
maintenance, apply guidelines for reducing pollution during construction
and for minimizing pollution from application of chemicals for soil
conditioning, pest control along right-of-ways, and surface treatment
during winter conditions. The State Highway Departments advise the
county and municipal highway departments on recommended procedures but do
not have any direct control over their practices.
The organization of the pollution control agencies differs widely from
state to state; the agencies have varying degrees of responsibility
dependent upon the particular environmental control laws of the state.
All states have water quality standards which describe the quality of
water to be maintained on the various Interstate watercourses and most
states in addition have adopted criteria for their intrastate waters.
It would be on the basis of the limits on pollutants, detailed in the
water quality standards, that most pollution control agencies would
haye s.ome degree of control over agricultural operations,
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On the other hand, in states where a particular potential problem may
exist, such as from livestock feedlots, special regulations have been
proposed and in some instances enacted into law (excerpts for the State
of Kansas Agricultural Waste Control Law are given in the appendix).
None of the states within the Great Lakes Region now have feedlot
pollution regulations although several states have drafted proposed
controls which are in various stages of approval and adoption.
Similarly, pesticide regulations have been adopted or are being
considered in several states. These regulations range from the banning
of certain long - lasting chemicals from all use in the environment to
the licensing of professional application firms and distributors of
chemicals on restricted lists.
To consider some problems of widespread occurrence, regional committees
are sometimes established. Once such group is the 5-State Governors'
Interdisciplinary Pesticide Committee. Authorized on September 2,
1969, representatives from various areas or disciplines in Michigan,
Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin were formed into the
Committee and charged with considering the pesticide problems that
are unique to the Lake Michigan Basin. A survey, detailing the
general farm use of pesticides, has been make for the five states
through the cooperation of the State-Federal Statistical Reporting
Services in each of the states.
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III. PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE ACTIVITIES
Although there are large numbers of agencies, Federal, State, and local,
that have programs relating to land use activities, many are ineffective
in significantly abating pollution from agriculture or other land use
operations. Chiefly this is due to limitations imposed by the working
of the basic law, charter, or order that has established the agency and
which delineates the areas in which the body is empowered to operate.
For example, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) activities in the Great
Lakes Region are limited to the technical assistance and advisory pro-
grams detailed elsewhere in this report. The SCS programs have been
established for the purpose of conserving soil and establishing optimum
agricultural conditions. The emphasis has not been on retarding erosion
because of its pollutional properties. Therefore, in areas of the
region where there is little local agricultural interest in the SCS pro-
grams nothing has been or can be done to abate soil erosion even though
it may be extensive. These same comments generally apply to the Agricult-
ural Conservation Program of the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
vation Service. While it is true that some pollution has been abated by
past programs of these agencies, it has not been and still is not their
main emphasis.
The lack of local interest in utilizing the existing soil conservation
programs of the SCS and ASCS may be the product of several factors.
Primarily, there is a lack of understanding and appreciation of the
pollutional effects of soil erosion in the majority of the agricultural
community. This exists
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in spite of an extensive and commendable educational program conducted by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture through the Extension Service and
"other agencies and through some State advisory services. Because of
economic pressures, many farms are currently financially marginal
operations and their operators cannot afford to take pollution abate-
ment steps even with the help of certain cost-sharing programs. Other
individuals are reluctant to spend any money unless it will bring them
some monetary return. And lastly, there is a feeling of distrust among
many operators for becoming involved in any way with governmental programs,
At the present time the agricultural advisory agencies must rely upon
local initiative to install their practices. They have no provisions
whereby their assistance is mandatory or even that if their planning
design assistance is requested, that it must be followed. The Soil
Conservation Service's recently completed National Conservation Needs
Inventory clearly outlines areas where erosion control practices could
effectively be installed; however, there is no law or regulation which
will direct Federal, State, or local efforts in implement programs on
these priority areas.
The Soil Conservation Service, through Congressional action has been
empowered to cost share with farmers in the Great Plains region for the
installation of extensive land conservation practices. This program
allows up to $25,000 for a broad program of conservation practices to be
installed on a farm and establishes a total land management scheme on the
property of the cooperating landowner. Such a comprehensive program is
lacking in the Great Lakes Region.
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While public ownership of the land makes possible the implementation of
standardized conservation and pollution control programs, it by no means
is the optimum condition and often is not totally effective except in the
case of involved and informed citizenry. For example, in most cases fed-
eral and state highway departments are doing a good job of applying
erosion control measures to highway rights-of-way over which they have
jurisdiction. This cannot be said for many of the country and township
highways. Frequently, unprotected highways roadbanks are major sources
of sediment accumulating in streams. Responsible units of government
recognize the problem; however, funds are usually limited so that funds
are used primarily to provide a transportation facility for vehicles.
Problems may develop in local areas for which there is no adequate means
of coping with the situation. The National Forests in the Great Lakes
watershed received a total of 7,001,800 visitor days of recreation use
during calandar year 1969. Studies indicate this use is increasing by
5% - 7% per year. While this indicates a real potential for pollution
of the environment, the current pollution abatement program will result
in Forest Service facilities which are adequate to meet sanitation needs
in most areas. However, there are local situtations which are potentially
serious pollution threats. An example is along the rivers in the Manistee
National Forest in Michigan which are visited by thousands of salmon fish-
ermen each fall. Most of the land along these streams is privately owned
and consequently has no recreational developments and few public sanitation
facilities. The Forest Service is striving to meet this problem, but
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public ownership of land adjacent to these rivers appears to be essential
to solving it.
The problem of land management for pollution control on the National
Forests is complicated by intermingled ownerships. Farm ponds, stream
impoundments, stream side pastures, and faulty septic systems on private
holdings make watershed improvement and protection difficult. Warm water,
nutrient enrichment of the water, and sedimentation downstream are pro-
blems given to the whole watershed. Cooperative ventures of all landowners
are needed under such programs as Public Law 566.
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IV. Adequacy of Current Land Use Practices
Total land area of the region is 84.3 million acres. Of this acreage
70.7 million acres are non-federal rural land, 7 million acres are
classified urban and built-up, 6.2 million acres are Federally owned,
and 0.4 million acres are in water areas less than 40 acres in size.
Nonfederal Rural Land
The conservation needs inventory compiled by the U.S. Department of
agriculture covers the 70.7 million acres of rural land, which is 84
percent of the total area. By land uses this acreage is:
Cropland - 28.5 million acres (40%)
Pasture - 3.5 million acres (5%)
Forest - 34.2 million acres (48%)
Other - 5.5 million acres (7%)
Because treatments for cropland and other land are primarily for
conserving the soil resource, the needs are based largely on land
capability class and subclass. Pastureland and forest needs are based
on the condition of the plant cover in relation to the potential of the
soil to produce such vegetation as well as for soil conservation.
Treatment was considered adequate on 31.9 million acres (45%) of the
land in inventory. By land uses the adequately treated acreage is:
12.2 million acres (43%) of the cropland
1.1 million acres (31%) of the pastureland
15.3 million acres (45%) of the forest land
3.3 million acres (74%) of the other land
The inventory shows that 88 percent of all cropland is in capability
classes I, II, and III. This large percentage represents cropland
which is of a type which safely lends itself to use for crop production
1-1967 land use and treatment needs inventory for the Great Lakes Water
Resource Region adjusted and projected to include Herkimer, Oneida, and
St. Lawrence Counties in New York, and Menominee County, Wisconsin; and to
exclude Franklin County, New York;
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provided supporting conservation practices are applied and the proper
choice of plants is made. Another 9 percent of the cropland is in
class IV which is useable as cropland provided it is very carefully
managed. The remaining 3 percent is in classes V, VI, VII, and VIII
and is generally unsuitable for cultivation without major treatment.
Land in these last four classes, however, lends itself to such uses
as grazing, woodland, recreation or wildlife food and cover. Of all
the nonfederal rural land in the region, 67 percent is in classes V
through VIII.
Erosion is the dominant soil limitation on 35 percent of the cropland
and 32 percent of all land. Treatment is considered adequate on 42
percent of the 8.9 million acres of cropland in tillage rotation
which has erosion as the dominant limitation. The remaining 58%
(5.2 million acres) needs the following conservation treatment to
control erosion and to prevent soil runoff (and the resultant movement
of fertilizers, pesticides, and other pollutants as they are carried
by sediment):
Percent Acres (1,OOOK)
Residue Management and annual cover 21.0 1.1
Sod in_rotation 24.0 1.2
Contouring only 11.0 .6
Stripcropping, terraces and diversions 33.0 1.7
Change in land use to permanent cover 6.0 .3
Drainage Systems 5.0 .3
100.0 5.2
The question of sediment as a carrier of potential pollutants is covered
more fully in the section of this report which discusses the pollution
problems in the region.
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Pastures and privately owned forest land contribute to erosion and
sediment problems, but the contribution is small in comparison to that from
other agricultural and open lands. Erosion is caused by grazing of
forest land, forest fires, and improper logging practices. These
problems may be attributed to small ownerships, absentee ownerships,
lack of interest and lack of knowledge of technical assistance
available. Private recreation developments with inadequate sanitary
facilities may be contributing to pollution.
National Forests
Current land use practices on the National Forests are not now
contributing to pollution to any great extent. As the intensity of
use increases with more people using the lands, the level of protection
will have to be increased. Nutrient enrichment now so evident on some
lakes in the Superior National Forest will quite possibly be the
most important area of concern on all National Forests of this area.
Because sedimentation is one natural source of nutrients that can be
controlled, soil and mantel management is imperative. The high fertility
level of soils on the Superior National Forest indicates that soils
adjacent to the lakes can make a significant contribution of nutrients.
At present, there are approximately 400 miles of eroding streambank and
lakeshore on National Forest land in the Great Lakes Basin. The total
miles from non-Federal holdings is proportionately much greater.
This type of erosion has resulted in the filling with sediment of
Stronach Reservoir on the Pine River on the Manistee National Forest.
Over a 40-year period, sediment filled the 640-acre feet storage
capacity of Stronach, a rate of 16 acre feet per year from the 290
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square mile watershed. The use of the dam for power was discontinued
in the early 1950's because of sediment, with the sediment now begin-
ning to fill Tippy Dam a few miles downstream. Eroding banks along
the Pine River in Michigan are as high as 150 feet.
Sediments from eroding streambanks are detrimental by 1) affecting
fisheries; 2) loss of valuable land; 3) filling reservoirs; and
4) filling harbors.
The problem of land management for pollution control on the National
Forests is complicated by intermingled ownerships. Farm ponds, stream
impoundments, stream side pastures, and faulty septic systems on private
holdings make watershed improvement and protection difficult. Warm
water, nutrient enrichment of the water, and sedimentation downstream
are problems given to the whole watershed. Cooperative ventures of
all landowners are needed under such programs as Public Law 566.
Surface-Mined Areas'
Accelerated erosion is often particularly acute in areas of strip
mining operations. A number of states have enacted legislation
regulating surface mining operations and establishing requirements
for the restoration of disturbed lands. Such legislation and
resulting programs have been directed only at operations carried
out subsequent to enactment of this legislation and do nothing to
restore past "workings" which have been left as sources of sediment
and other land and water pollutants.
The enforcement of restoration regulations will result in increased
costs of operation which mining operators will pass on to society
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in the way of increased costs for the products mined. For
those areas previously mined where restoration was not required
it can be said that society received the mined products at a
subsidized rate (in the amount of the restoration costs that
would be required) and therefore should contribute to the restora-
tion of such lands. The solution to the problem of reducing
pollution that is and can continue to arise from such sources
include:
(1) Enactment and enforcement of suitable strip mine
restoration laws in or applicable to all States.
(2) programs to assist the restoration of areas that have
undergone surface mine operations prior to enactment of
suitable regulatory legislation. Such programs would need
to provide for technical as well as financial assistance to
units of government and landowners in planning and carrying out
the necessary restoration work.
The restoration of such lands is not feasible from the standpoint
of a return to agricultural productivity. Their restoration must
largely be justified on environmental and aesthetic bases. The
establishment of satisfactory cover on most areas requires two
or more years depending upon the nature of the mine spoils. To
be effective it is essential that efforts to deal with surface
mined land be programmed over a period of time and provide for
long term contracts between the Federal government and State or
local agencies, or private landowners, as appropriate, to assure
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the establishment and maintenance of needed work.
Erosion in Urban Areas
One of the greatest opportunities to reduce the volume of sediment
reaching surface waters lies in the adoption of development practices
and in the planning and installation of soil water conservation
measures that will effectively reduce soil erosion and sediment production
in expanding urban areas. Land denuded of plant cover during long con-
struction periods has rates of erosion as high as 89,000 tons per square
mile annually. Such sediment contributes to the filling of stream
channels, and causes damage and economic loss to the public and
private sector. Much of this can be prevented with timely planning and
action, including the adoption of needed regulatory measures on the
part of local governmental agencies.
The following table summarizes the current estimate of average annual
erosion from urban development activity in the metropolitan complexes of
the Great Lakes Basin. These areas do not cover all of the economic
growth areas of the Basin, so an additional 10 to 20% should be added to
properly reflect all urban development activity in the basin.
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Table 8
ESTIMATED POTENTIAL TOTAL EROSION FROM URBAN DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY
PRESENT THROUGH THE YEAR 2020
Average Annual Tons Per Year (1000*s)
Metropolitan Complex
Duluth-Superior
Green Bay-Oskosh
Milwaukee
Chicago
South Bend-Elkhart
Kalamazoo-Battle Crk.
Grand Rapids
Lansing- Jackson
Bay City-Sag. -Flint
Detroit
Toledo
Fort Wayne
Loraine-Elyria
Cleveland-Akron
Erie
Buffalo
Rochester
Syracuse-Rome
GREAT LAKES BASIN
Present
76.8
68.4
314.0
2642.8
167.4
135.8
147.0
136.0
164.0
1600.0
86.6
102.0
90.0
817.0
79.0
163.5
112.6
161.5
7064.4
1970
74.5
74.6
376.8
3065.6
187.5
165.7
166.1
165.9
190.2
1904.0
91.1
122.4
99.0
898.7
81.4
171.7
129.5
177.7
8147.4
1980
77.6
81.4
439.6
3409.2
204.2
194.2
185.2
194.5
214.8
2192.0
106.5
142.8
108.9
988.6
89.3
188.0
145.2
197.0
9159.0
1990
82.2
91.0
518.1
3805.6
226.0
226.8
207.3
227.1
246.0
2528.0
119.5
168.3
122.4
1102.9
98.0
207.6
163.3
221.3
10361.4
2000
87.6
100.5
590.3
4202.0
246.0
263.4
232.3
263.8
301.8
2800.0
132.5
195.8
135.9
1233.7
106.7
227.3
185.8
247.1
11552.5
2010
93.0
112.9
678.2
4625.0
272.8
302.8
260.2
303.3
342.8
3168.0
148.0
228.5
151.2
1372.6
116.9
248.5
209.4
274.6
12808.7
2020
98.5
127.9
781.9
5179.9
303.0
350.4
295.5
350.9
346.0
3600.0
166.3
267.2
169.2
1536.0
130.4
274.7
236.5
306.9
14521.0
-------
Roadside Erosion
In most cases federal and state highway departments are doing a good
job of applying erosion control measures to highway rights-of-way
over which they have juriodiction. This cannot be said for many of
the county and township highways. Frequently, unprotected highway
roadbanks are major sources of sediment accumulating in streams.
Responsible units of government recognize the problems; however, funds
are usually limited so that funds are used primarily to provide a
transportation facility for vehicles.
National Park Service
All plans for sanitary and water systems are submitted to the
Environmental Protection Agency and state and local authorities for review.
The more stringent set of standards are used for design purposes.
i
In addition, Public Health personnel inspect the parks and we make an
effort to correct as soon as possible any defects or adverse situations
which are uncovered in these inspections.
The only fully developed parks in the Great Lakes Basin are Perry's
Victory in Put-in-Bay, Ohio and Lake Royale National Park in Lake
Superior. The former is small and contributes to pollution.
On the other hand, Isle Royale has contributed to both water and
atmospheric pollution. Thus in the tentative 1972 Fiscal Year
construction program NPS has items for the construction of three
incinerators, two can crusher units, and two boat service dock and
sewage systems. The dock units will enable boat owners to discharge
their waste materials into holding tanks which are inturn connected
to septic tanks and leeching fields.
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V. CURRENT PLANNING, ADVISORY, AND REGULATORY STANDARDS
Water Quality Standards
The Water Quality Act of 1965 provided that the Fifty States would
develop Water Quality Standards for interstate waters and continguous
waters in the United States, subject to the approval of the Federal
Government. The Fifty States, to date, have promulgated these Standards
and have received approval for all except for some special cases.
Pollution problems associated with agricultural are characteristically
non-point source in origin and are more insidious thatn those normally
exemplified by municipal or industrial point discharges. Moreover, the
primary water pollution problems have heretofore been associated almost
entirely with these point sources of waste discharges. As the National
effort to cope with water pollution has increased however, the
technology to control a major portion of these wastes has become
available, and much of the legislation required to implement the use of
the technology has been enacted or promulgated. The principal vehicle
for implementation is the system of water quality standards that have
been enacted by the States. These standards are designed to effect control
of water quality in a manner to protect all beneficial uses of water
including agriculture. However, the standards emphasized bacterial,
chemical, and dissolved oxygen specification and generalized in development
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to have impact on all pollution sources. Yet, some pollution sources
were very partially considered (or not at all) since the criteria
necessary to develop specific standards was not available for all
sources. Among the sources which received little specific attention
was agricultural runoff.
The gradual control of point sources, coupled with the refinement of their
treatment control systems, has necessitated a re-direction of the
National effort to encompass a major program to develop criteria,
standards, and methods to abate, prevent, or control all sources of
agricultural runoff pollution.
The vast diversity which characterizes the agricultural industry dictates
that an extensive research and development effort be undertaken to
develop and demonstrate a complete array of means to control the many
pollution sources. Coincident with the development of the control measures
will be the development of water quality criteria (based upon the
effluent quality required) and water quality standards which relate
specifically to runoff of agricultural chemicals, sediments, salinity
and feedlot wastes.
Impact on Agriculture
The key to relating the impace of water quality standards upon
agricultural operation lies in the recognition of the fact that farming
operations (and operators) just like "heavy" industry and municipalities
are liable to meet existing water quality standards. Since agricultural
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sources were not explicitly considered in the promulgation of the
Water Quality Standards, two problems arise: (1) a farmer must meet
a standard which may have little direct relation to his operation; and
(2) the control measures a farmer now has available are often remedial
and may cause as many problems as they solve. In addition to these
problems, farmers have yet to reap the benefit of an effective, con-
certed education program which fully describes their responsibilities
in water quality control, the current, best types of pollution control
measures, improved operation and management ideas, and other information
requiried for efficient waste management systems.
Water quality standards for agricultural wastes will be designed to
achieve water pollution control in a context which reflects: (1) the
need "to protect public health and welfare," and the need to eliminate
the discharge of matter into interstate waters which reduces the
quality of such waters below (established) water quality standards";
and (2) a defined associative relationship between the standards to be
met and the type of farm production enterprise, the product needs (e.g.
pest controls) of the enterprise, and national food and fiber production
requirements. Therefore, agricultural operations not only will be cap-
able of succeeding in their primary mission, but also capable of effect-
ively implementing their (already existing) responsibility to protect
the Nation's water resources by utilizing any one of an array of treat-
ment, control, or management systems that are now being developed and
refined.
1Federal Water Pollution Control Act, As Amended, Section 10, FWQA
June 1970.
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Design Standards
1. Soil Conservation Service
a) There are minimum conservation treatment standards that must
be met in contributing watershed areas before retarding
structures may be installed with assistance either under
the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention, or Resource
Convervation and Development Programs. The requirements are
that:
(1) The owners of 50 percent of the lands in the drainage
areas must agree to carry out recommended soil conser-
vation measures and proper farm plans, and
(2) Seventy-five percent of the critical sediment source
areas must be treated on undergoing treatment.
b) Conservation planning standards, used in working with land
users in planning for adequate soil and water conservation
programs, are based on the reduction of erosion losses to
acceptable minimums.
c) Guidelines have been issued outlining SCS policy for
minimizing soil erosion and water and air pollution that
may be a result of construction carried out by or with the
assistance of SCS.
d) Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention and Resource
Conservation and Development Project assistance may be
provided for fish and wildlife and recreational develop-
ments, including needed basic facilities. State and local
requirements relating to public health and to the prevention,
control and abatement of water pollution must be complied
with. This also is true for the installation of measures
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designed to control certain agricultural related pollutants,
e.g., wastes from feedlots.
e) The Soil Conservation Service provides assistance in the
installation of about 120 different soil and water conser-
vation practices or measures. Standards and specifications
have been established for each, based on research and
observed results, to assure their installation in a manner
that will be effective in achieving the objectives for their
installation.
f) The Soil Conservation Service has issued an environmental
memorandum stating its policy concerning the use of pesticides
in all its programs.
2. Forest Service
a) Advanced waste treatment methods used to protect water
quality at installations in national forests include:
(1) Lagoons to improve effluent quality such as polishing ponds.
(2) Filter beds to remove suspended solids.
(3) Seepage lagoons to provide subsurface disposal.
(4) Aerated lagoons to increase dissolved oxygen.
(5) Detention ponds or chlorination chambers for disinfection
of fecal effluent.
(6) Agricultural utilization of sewage effluents by spray
irrigation or surface application by use of gravity lines
in forested areas and vegetated fields.
In summary nearly all wastes from sewage treatment facilities
are disposed of by either subsurface or soil renovation
methods. There are only three locations from which there
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is a total discharge of less than 40,000 gallons to surface
water, after treatment, within the Great Lakes Basin.
All waste treatment methods have been approved by the states
and the Environmental Protection Agency.
b) Roads: Pollution Control Practices
Bank stabilization and other soil retention methods are
used to reduce erosion and stream sedimentation.
Ditch checks, diversion channels, riprap, rubble masonry and
other devices are also used extensively to check runoff and
reduce siltation of surface water.
Provisions for stabilization of slopes during road constuc-
tion are included in contracts. Seed, lime, and fertilizer
are applied after a reasonable footage of slipes are completed.
In many cases a good catch of turf has developed after 2-3
months.
The fertilizers are used in limited applications. The total
available nutrients are either used by the plants and grass
or retained in the soil. The total contribution to stream
pollution would be very minor.
Calcium chloride is used in roadbed stabilization but is
essentially retained in the surfacing material. There is
no detectable contribution to pollution as a result of
the limited application.
Sodium chloride is used on only a few forest roads in
limited amounts for road surface stabilization. The
pollution potential is therefore very remote.
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Sodium chloride is also used to some extent on roads within
the forest boundaries for ice removal. This is recognized
as being a potential pollution problem that is created by
state, county, and township road crews.
The use of salt can be minimized by mixing with sand before
application. Some highway departments are using this method
to correct winter driving hazards and also reduce the amount
of salt used.
The use of herbicides for controlling brush and tree growth
within right-of-ways has been reduced to a minimum inside
the forest boundaries in recent years. The selective hand
spray and control methods presently used limits the amount
of herbicides used and thereby the pollution potential.
The Forest Service cooperates with the Environmental Protection
Agency , Bureau of Public Roads, Soil Conservation
Service, state health departments, and state and local highway
departments in all engineering activities.
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APPENDIX
Data On Pesticide Use And Animal Production
In The U.S. Great Lakes Basin
-70-
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Table Al
Quantities of pesticides used by farmers on crops, livestock,
and for other purposes, Great Lakes Basin, United States,
Major use
Crops^
Livestock
Other5
Total
Pounds active
ingredients
1,000 pounds
23,545
3,285
548
27,378
Estimated based on use shown by the ERS Pesticide and General
Farm Survey, 1966.
^Includes sulfur and petroleum
•^Includes all crops, pasture, and rangeland.
^Includes livestock buildings.
-"Includes pesticides for all other noncrop and nonlivestock uses.
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Table A2
Quantities used and acres treated with selected fungicides, all
crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966 .
f\
Type of fungicide product^
Inorganic fungicides :
Copper sulfates
Other coppers
Mercury compounds
Other inorganics
Total inorganics (not includ-
ing sulfur)
Organic fungicides:
Dithiocarbamates :
Maneb
Zineb
Ferbam
Others
Total dithiocarbamates
Phthalimides :
Captan
Others
Total phthalimides
Karathane, Dodine, Quinones
Phenols
Other organics
Total organics
Total fungicides (not includ-
ing sulfur)
Sulfur
Total fungicides
Pounds active
ingredients
1,000 pounds
25.2
126.2
5.8
88.2
245.4
613.2
841.6
153.6
128.4
1,736.8
870.6
47.0
917.6
172.8
15.4
30.4
2,873.0
3,118.4
1,104.8
4,223.2
o
Acres treated
1,000 acres
11.0
35.6
28.8
14.4
88.6
215.4
45.8
22.4
148.0
9.6
82.0
6.0
17.2
65.0
Estimates based on use shown by the ERS Pesticide and General
Farm Survey, 1966.
^May include use for purposes other than as fungicides.
-^Not additive since one or more ingredients or different commer-
cial preparations of a single ingredient may be applied on same acres.
-72-
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Table A3
Quantities used and acres treated with selected herbicides, all
crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966.^
Type of herbicide product^
Inorganic herbicides
Organic herbicides:
Arsenicals
Phenoxy :
2,4-D
2,4,5-T
MCPA
Other phenoxy
Total phenoxy
Phenyl urea:
Diuron
Linuron
Other phenyl urea
Total phenyl urea
Amides:
Propachlor
Propanil
NPA
Total amides
Carbamates:
CIPC and IPC
CDAA
Other carbamates
Total carbamates
Dinitro group
Pounds active
ingredients
1,000 pounds
242.6
3.4
2,649.6
46.6
99.6
4.4
2,800.2
22.6
256.4
11.4
290.4
442.6
149.0
591.6
77.2
953.2
277.6
1,308.0
251.8
o
Acres treated0
1,000 acres
48.4
6.0
4,152.8
•111.2
221.8
23.8
20.8
192.8
12.4
308.6
118.6
80.2
725.4
93.4
87.6
See footnotes at end of table
-73-
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Table A3
Quantities used and acres treated with selected herbicides, all
crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966-^—continued.
Type of herbicide product'
Pounds active
ingredients
1,000 pounds
Acres treated^
1,000 acres
Triazines:
Atrazine
Propazine
Other triazines
Total triazines
Benzoic:
2,3,6-TBA
Amiben
Dicamba
Total benzoics
Other organics:
Trifluralin
Others
Total other organics
Total organic herbicides
(not including petroleum)
Total herbicides (not
including petroleum)
Petroleum
Total herbicides (includ-
ing petroleum)
3,397.8
36.0
3,433.8
549.0
712.8
8.4
1,270.2
237.2
226.4
463.6
10,413.0
10,655.6
1,263.8
11,919.4
2,135.8
20.0
292.0
763.4
27.0
262.2
155.6
61.4
Estimates based on use shown by the ERS Pesticide and General
Farm Survey, 1966.
May include use for purposes other than as herbicides.
^Not additive since one or more ingredients or different commer-
cial preparations of a single ingredient may be applied on same acres.
-74-
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Table A4
Quantities used and acres treated with selected insecticides,
all crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966 .
o
Type of insecticide product
Inorganic insecticides
Botanicals and biologicals
Synthetic organic insecticides:
Organochlorines :
Lindane
Strobane
TDE (DDD)
DDT
Methoxychlor
Endrin
Heptachlor
Dieldrin
Aldrin
Chlordane
Endosulf an
Toxaphene
Others
Total organochlorines
Organophosphorus :
Disulfoton
Bidrin
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Malathion
Diazinon
Trichlorfon
Azinphosmethyl
Ethion
Others
Total Organophosphorus
Pounds active
ingredients
1,000 pounds
790.0
.6
24.2
99.0
305.0
86.8
1.0
292.2
35.8
2,744.0
57.2
30.8
103.6
.8
3,780.4
148.6
15.0
242.4
111.0
507.4
.4
159.8
72.0
66.6
1,323.2
Acres treated-^
1,000 acres
54.6
6.8
82.4
29.2
179.6
90.0
2.4
377.8
51.0
2,552.4
46.6
27.8
64.4
3.8
116.6
2.0
317.2
89.8
533.0
.2
123.6
34.8
68.4
See footnotes at end of table
-75-
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Table A 4
Quantities used and acres treated with selected insecticides,
all crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966"*-—continued.
Type of insecticide product^
Pounds active
ingredients
1.000 pounds
Acres treated-
1,000 acres
Carbamates:
Carbaryl
Others
Total carbamates
Other synthetic organics
Total synthetic organics
Total insecticides (not
including petroleum)
Petroleum
Total insecticides
674.4
35.4
709.8
2.4
5,815.8
6,606.4
390.2
6,996.6
203.4
61.4
18.4
Estimates based on use shown by the ERS Pesticide and General
Farm Survey, 1966.
include use for purposes other than as insecticides.
additive since one or more ingredients or different commer-
cial preparations of a single ingredient may be applied on same acres.
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Table A5
Quantities used and acres treated with selected miscellaneous
pesticides, all crops, Great Lakes Basin, United States, 1966
Type of pesticide product^
Pounds active
ingredients
1.000 pounds
Acres treated-
1,000 acres
Miticides:
Dicofol
Chlorobenzilate
Aramite
Tetradifon
Others
Total miticides
Fumigants:
Nemagon
D-D misture
Sulfur Dioxide
Others
Total fumigants
Defoliants and desiccants:
Arsenic acid
Magnesium chlorate
DEF and Folex
Others
Total defoliants and desiccants
Rodenticides
Plant growth regulators:
Maleic hydrazide
Others
Total plant growth regulators
Repellents
Total miscellaneous pesticides
47.0
2.0
35.0
13.6
97.6
22.0
24.2
95.6
110.0
251.8
16.6
16.6
1.8
32.0
.2
32.2
6.2
406.2
29.4
1.6
30.0
19.0
.2
.2
9.6
66.8
12.0
7.4
4.4
1.2
2.6
•'-Estimates based on use shown by the ERS Pesticide and General
Farm Survey, 1966.
^May include use for purposes other than those indicated.
%ot additive since one or more ingredients or different commer-
cial preparations of a single ingredient may be applied on same acres.
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Ohio
New York
Minnesota
Michigan
ij Pennsylvania
00
Wisconsin
Illinois
Indiana
TABLE A6
NUMBER OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY IN THE GREAT LAKES BASIN - 1970
Cattle
on feed
564,038
1,824,850
63,815
2,035,449
69,587
1,484,636
283,677
436,509
Other
Dairy
155,640
658,377
18,537
536,226
23,379
629,173
58,886
93,914
Milk
Cows
121,808
527^.313
14,300
447,365
17,729
603,486
43,409
65,779
Other
Cattle
377,798
518,544
27,016
927,651
21,582
627,273
133,505
201,235
Hogs
686,889
75,550
2,748
751,855
3,538
381,667
161,588
455,749
Sheep
203,354
73,842
3,838
254,990
1,268
35,575
11,153
68,130
Chickens
4,539,913
4,455,405
89,578
7,696,138
181,831
2,054,427
685,770
3,949,004
Bros.
1,250,634
495,030
733,295
8,526
1,921,464
46,217
4,396,777
6,762,561 2,169,132 1,841,189 2,834,604 2,519,575 652,150 23,652,066 8,851,943
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"Kansas State Law Governing Animal Waste Management"
Chapter 28. State Board of Health Regulations
Article 18. Agricultural and Related Wastes Control
28-18-1. Definitions
For purposes of the regulations in this article, the following
words, terms, and phrases are hereby defined as follows:
(a) The Words "confined feeding" shall mean the confined feeding
of animals for food, fur, or pleasure purposes in lots, pens,
pools or ponds which are not normally used for raising crops
and in which no vegetation, intended for animal food, is grow-
ing. This will not include a wintering operation for cows in
lots or on farming ground unless the operation causes a pollution
problem.
(b) The words "confined feeding operation" shall mean (1) any con-
fined feeding of 300 or more cattle, swine, sheep, or horses at any
one time, or (2) any animal feeding operation of less than 300
head using a lagoon, or (3) any other animal feeding operation
having a water pollution potential or (4) any other animal feeding
operation whose operator elects to come under these regulations.
(c) The term "operator" shall mean an individual, a corporation, a
group of individuals, joint venturers, a partnership, or any
other business entity having charge or control of one or more
confined feeding installations.
(d) "Food animals" shall mean fish, fowl, cattle, swine, and sheep.
(e) "Fur animals" shall mean any animal raised for its pelt.
(f) "Pleasure animals" shall mean dogs and horses.
(g) The words "waste retention lagoon" or "retention ponds" shall
mean excavated or diked structures, or natural depressions
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provided for or used for the purpose of containing or detaining
animal wastes consisting of body excrements, feed losses, litter,
cooling waters, wash waters, whether separately or collectively,
or any other associated materials detrimental to water quality or
to public health, or to beneficial uses of the waters of the state.
A water retention structure shall not be construed to be a treat-
ment facility and discharges of waste water therefrom shall not
be allowed except as authorized by regulations 28-18-3 and
28-18-4.
(h) The words "waste treatment facilities" shall mean structures
and/or devices which stabilize, or otherwise control pollutants
so that after discharge of treated wastes, water pollution does
not occur and the public health and the beneficial uses of the
waters of the state are adequately protected.
(i) The words "water pollution control facilities" shall mean waste
retention lagoons, retention ponds, or waste treatment facilities.
28-18-2. Registration and Water Pollution Control Facilities Permits.
(a) Effective July 1, 1967, the operator of any newly proposed confined
feeding operation as defined in regulation 28-18-1(b) must register
with the Kansas State Department of Health prior to construction and
operation of the lot pen, pool or pond The operator of any existing
confined feeding operation as defined in regulation 28-18-1(b) must
register by January 1, 1968. Application for registration shall be
made on a form supplied by the department .
(b) Applicants shall submit the completed application form to the depart-
ment together with supplemental information regarding general features
of topography, drainage course and identification of ultimate primary
receiving streams. Additional information which may be deemed necessary
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for satisfactory evaluation of the application may be required
by and shall be submitted to the department.
(c) If in the judgment of the department, a proposed or existing
confined feeding operation does not constitute a potential water
pollution problem because of location, topography, or other reasons,
provision of water pollution control facilities will not be
required.
Cd) If in the opinion of the department a confined feeding operation
does constitute a water pollution potential, or if water pollution
occurs as a result of any confined feeding operation, the operator
shall provide water pollution control facilities which shall be
constructed in accordance with plans and specifications approved
by the department.
(e) Water pollution control facilities shall not be placed in use until
a permit has been issued. Permits for water pollution control
facilities will be issued by the executive secretary of the Kansas
State Board of Health upon satisfactory completion of construction
in accordance with plans and specifications approved by the department.
Water pollution control facilities permits shall be revocable for
cause on thirty days' written notice. If a water pollution control
facilities permit is revoked, the owner or operator of the confined
feeding operation involved shall be allowed to finish feeding existing
animals in the lot, pen, pool or pond at the time of revocation
but shall not place or allow to be placed in the lot, pen, pool
or pond any other animals until the minimum requirements for water
pollution control as set forth in regulations 28-18-3 and 28-18-4
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have been met and a new water pollution control facilities permit
has been issued.
28-18-3. Requirements for Facilities
Water pollution control facilities required shall be kept at the
minimum requirements stated in the following paragraphs; provided
that when site topography, operating procedures, and other avail-
able information indicate that adequate water pollution control can be
effected with less than the minimum requirements, the minimum require-
ments may be waived; provided further that if site topography,
operating procedures, experience, and other available information indicate
that more than the minimum requirements will be necessary to effect ade-
quate water pollution control, additional control provisions may
be required.
(a) CATTLE: The minimum water pollution control facilities for
the confined feeding of cattle shall be retention ponds capable
of containing three inches of surface runoff from the feedlot
area, waste storage areas, and all other waste contributing areas.
Diversion of surface drainage prior to contact with the confined
feeding area or manure or sludge storage areas shall be permitted.
Waste retained in detention ponds shall be disposed of as soon as
practicable to insure adequate retention capacity for future needs.
(b) SWINE: Waste retention lagoons for swine feeding operations may be
allowed in lieu of waste treatment facilities. Waste retention
lagoons must be capable of retaining all animal excreta, litter,
feed losses, cooling waters, wash waters, and any other associated
materials and shall additionally be capable of retaining three
inches of rainfall runoff from all contributing drainage areas.
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Diversion of surface drainage prior to contact with the confined
feeding area or manure or sludge storage areas shall be permitted.
Provision must be made for periodic removal of waste material from
retention lagoons.
(c) SHEEP: The minimum water pollution control facilities for the confined
feeding of sheep shall be retention ponds capable of containing three
inches of surface runoff from the confined feeding area, waste storage
areas, and all other waste contributing areas. Diversion of surface
drainage prior to contact with the confined feeding area or manure
or sludge storage areas shall be permitted. Waste retained in
detention ponds shall be disposed of as soon as practicable to insure
adequate retention capacity for future needs.
(d) OTHER ANIMALS: Each confined feeding operation registered involving
other animals shall be evaluated on its own merits with regard to the
water pollution control facilities required, if any. The confined
feeding of other animals shall not cause or lead to the pollution
of the waters of the state by runoff water from confined feeding
areas, release or escape of water from pools or ponds, improper storage
or disposal of waste materials removed from the confined feeding area,
or by any other means.
(e) Waste treatment facilities shall be designed, constructed, and operated
in conformance with the provisions of regulation 28-18-4. If waste
treatment facilities consist only of pond or lagoon type structures,
there shall be a minimum of two such structures for series operation.
(f) Other methods of water pollution control shall be permitted where
in the judgment of the department effective results will be obtained.
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28-18-4. Operation of Facilities.
(a) The water pollution control facilities shall be operated and
maintained so as to prevent water pollution and to protect the
public health and the beneficial uses of the waters of the state.
(b) Waste discharges from retention ponds, lagoons, or waste treat-
ment facilities into any watercourse shall be in conformance with
the water quality requirements of the appropriate river basin
criteria as set forth in chapter 28, article 16 of regulations adopted
by the Kansas State Board of Health and regulation 28-18-3.
(c) Waste materials removed from retention ponds, waste treatment
facilities, and/or confined feeding areas shall be disposed of
or stockpiled in a manner which will not contribute to water
pollution. Wastes may be used for irrigation or spread on land
surface and mixed with the soil in a manner which will prevent runoff
of wastes. Other methods of disposal of wastes from retention ponds,
retention lagoons, waste treatment facilities, and/or confined
feeding areas shall be evaluated and permitted if in the judgment
of the department effective water pollution control will be
accomplished.
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PART B
CANADIAN SECTION
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CHAPTER I: FERTILIZER USE AND POLLUTION
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two ingredients
of fertilizers that are of concern from a water pollution
standpoint.
Nitrogen is of concern for two reasons. First, nitrogen
is essential in water for growth of most algae and other
water plants. A level of 0.3 ppm of inorganic nitrogren is
commonly regarded as sufficient to produce obnoxious algal
blooms. Nitrogen, however, is not now considered to be the
factor which governs excess algal growth. This is partly
because some algae (blue-green) can obtain nitrogen directly
from the air, and partly because the level of nitrogen in
most waters is above the minimum level from natural processes
such as rainfall, and natural decomposition of organic
materials.
The second reason for concern of nitrogen in water
supplies is because of the threat to health of ruminant
animals and infants from high levels of nitrate nitrogen. In
ruminants such as cattle, microorganisms in the ruminant
convert nitrate (NO3) to nitrite (NO2)• Nitrite converts the
hemoglobin in red blood cells to methemoglobin which cannot
transport the needed oxygen from the lungs to body tissues.
-In cattle this will cause abortion or, in more severe cases,
death. In infants under 3 months of age nitrates may also be
converted to nitrites in the stomach causing an affliction
known as "methemoglobinemia" cammonly called "blue-baby"
because of the cyanosis that occurs. Infants suffering from
diarrhea are particularly susceptible to this condition.
Infants beyond the age of 3-6 months are not afflicted because
the nitrates are not converted to nitrites.
The U.S. Public Health Service and the W.H.O. have
established a standard of 10 ppm nitrogen as nitrate (NO3-N)
in drinking water as the safe limit.
Phosphorus is of concern as a pollutant primarily because
of its effect on growth of algae and other water plants.
Phosphorus is reqpiired for all forms of life. Very low levels
in water (O.01 ppm) are sufficient to support an obnoxious
algal bloom in midsummer. Although there are a number of
reports suggesting that organic material, not phosphorus
is the limiting factor in algal growth, it is generally accep-
ted that high levels of phosphorus in waters are a major
contributing factor to excessive algal growth.
A large portion of the nitrogen and phosphorus sold in
North America is sold as fertilizer. It is therefore natural
that fertilizers should be suspect as a source of nitrogen
and phosphorus in our water supplies. This report will deal
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- 2 -
with these nutrients separately, presenting background informa-
tion on their reactions in soil, and the potential for pollution
from their use as fertilizer. Attempts will be made to indicate
the extent of the problem in Ontario and to indicate where our
knowledge is lacking.
Nitrogen
Reactions in Soil
The nitrogen contained in soil humus and biological tissues
constitutes less than 0.5% of the total supply. Rocks contain
97.8% while the atmosphere contains approximately 1.96%. The
nitrogen contained in the soil humus, however, constitutes a
vital link in the life process. This nitrogen which, except
for a very small fraction, is bound in organic compounds is
converted to ammonium forms (NH4+) by microbial action. The
NH4 in turn is converted to nitrate (NOs) by further microbial
action. Plants can absorb nitrogen in either the NH4 or NC>3
forms. However, under aerobic conditions, and temperatures
above 40°F, NH4 is rapidly converted to N03 so little NH4
exists. At lower temperatures the rate of conversion is much
slower although it can occur at temperatures close to 32°F.
The nitrate formed by nitrification will be removed from
the soil by one of the following processes.
1. Absorbed by plants or microorganisms and subsequently
reverted to organic forms to be removed from the field
in the crop or to be returned to the soil as organic
nitrogen. The latter process is termed immobilization.
2. Leached to the groundwater. The nitrate ion, being
negatively charged and hence not absorbed to a signifi-
cant extent by soil colloids, is readily mobile in the
soil water. If large amounts of nitrate nitrogen are
present in the soil during the fall and spring, when
the major portion of the movement of water to the water
table occurs, nitrates will be carried into the ground-
water.
3. Denitrified and released to the atmosphere. Under
anaerobic conditions, nitrate is converted to nitrogen
gas (N2> or gaseous oxides of nitrogen, as microorganisms
use the oxygen in the NO3 molecule in their life pro-
cesses. This process, known as denitrification, releases
nitrogen from the soil to the atmosphere. The extent
of this process and the factors affecting it under field
conditions are not well understood.
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4. Washed off the field by erosional waters.
Nitrogen and Crop Production
Nitrogen is a component of protein and hence essential
to plant growth. On a world-wide basis, more crops are
deficient in nitrogen than any other element. Thus a protein
deficiency occurs in the world with respect to human and
animal nutrition.
Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil either as nitrate
(NO3) or ammonium (NH4) ions. A supply of these ions is
therefore required in the soil during the growing season.
Because the nitrate ion is mobile in the soil solution a
crop can reduce the nitrate content of the soil to a low
level. Optimum yields, however, cannot be obtained unless
there is some excess of nitrate in the soil. Also, because
nitrification can continue at temperatures close to 32°F
whereas crop growth and hence nitrate absorption essentially
ceases at 40°F or higher, nitrate levels in the soil will
increase in the fall after the crop is harvested or after
growth ceases. Thus it is not possible to have productive
soils without having some nitrate present in the fall and
spring. If, however, nitrogen has been added either as
fertilizer, animal waste or through symbiotic fixation in
amounts greater than required to produce optimum yields, the
amounts of nitrate present in the fall will be very much higher.
This has been shown in a fertilizer trial in which various
rates of nitrogen have been applied to the same plots since
1964. In the fall of 1970, the nitrate content of the top
four feet of soil was determined. This data along with the
average yields obtained during the last three years are
reported in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1.— Yield of Corn and NO3-N Content of Top four FeeC
of Soil as Affected by Rate of Nitrogen Addition, a/
Yield of grain NOs-N content
Rate of N (1967-1969) of soil, Fall 1970
Ib./ac./yr. bu./ac. Ib./ac. 4 ft.
0
100
200
78
102
107
52
104
260
—' J.W. Ketcheson, Unpublished data, Department of Soil
Science, University of Guelph.
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- 4 -
Even where no nitrogen has been applied since 1964,
nitrates were present following harvest of the corn crop.
The addition of 100 Ib. N/ac. increased the yield by 24 bu./
ac. It also increased the nitrate content of the soil.
This clearly indicates that it is impossible to have high
yields without increasing the amount of nitrate remaining
after the crop is removed. The addition of 200 Ib. N/ac.
caused only a slight increase in yield (5 bu./ac.) which
would not be profitable. It did, however, cause a much
greater increase in NO3 content of the soil.
Similar results have been shown by Walsh (1970) in
Wisconsin on experiments with rates of nitrogen on several
crop rotations. In only one case did the soil solution
exceed 45 ppm NO3 (considered to be the safe upper limit
for human consumption) at the 75 Ib./ac. rate of nitrogen
fertilization. On the other hand, the concentration exceeded
45 ppm NO3 in 3 rotations at the 150 Ib./ac. and in 5 rota-
tions at the 300 Ib./ac. rate.
Table 1.2—The Effect of Crop Rotation and Nitrogen Fertilizer
on Nitrate in Solution at the 5-6 Foot Depth at the End
of the Four Year Rotation, Lancaster, Wisconsin
(after Walsh, 1970)
ppm NC>3 in solution at 5-6
foot depth
Ib. of N/ac.supplied annually
Rotation 0 75 150 300
Hay, Hay, Hay, Corn
Hay, Hay, Corn, Corn
Hay, Corn, Corn, Corn
Corn, Corn, Corn, Corn
Corn, Corn, Corn, Oats
Corn, Corn, Oats, Hay
Corn, Oats, Hay, Hay
16
19
16
22
17
9
8
19
21
41
62
27
11
12
22
32
47
77
49
18
13
16
46
102
128
120
67
13
These two examples clearly indicate that the greatest
threat of NO3 pollution occurs when nitrogen is added in an
amount greater than that required for most economic produc-
tion.
It is apparent from the foregoing that we could greatly
reduce the threat of pollution from fertilizer application if
we could accurately predict the amount of nitrogen required
for most economic yield. There is, at present, no satisfac-
tory practical soil test for nitrogen. The determination of
nitrate content of the soil just prior to planting would give
a fairly reliable measure of the fertilizer nitrogen required.
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It is,,however, not feasible to test all fields within a
short period prior to planting and allow time for fanners
to apply the required fertilizer. No other measures of n
nitrogen availability have proven reliable. Hence, the
recommendations for nitrogen fertilizer made in the Ontario
Soil Testing Service operated by the Department of Soil
Science, University of Guelph, for the Ontario Department of
Agriculture and Food are based on an understanding <6f the
requirements of the crop and the past management of the field.
A basic fertilizer nitrogen requirement has been established
for each crop based on measured response under Ontario soil
and climatic conditions.
This basic requirement is then adjusted for each field
for past management factors such as manure addition, legume
crops, and stover ploughed down. This adjusted recommenda-
tion is that which according to all available research
information will give the most profitable yield level under
above average management.
Table 1.3 indicates the average recommendation for corn
made by the Ontario Soil Testing Service between July 1, 1969
and June 30, 1970 on the samples submitted from several
counties or districts. This table indicates that almost all
the fields from which samples were submitted required nitrogen
fertilizer. The average recommendation for the counties
ranged from 75 Ib./ac. in Wellington County to 128 Ib./ac.
in Elgin County. This range reflects the differences in past
management such as manure use, legumes and stover ploughed
down. In all of Southern Ontario, 97% of the samples indica-
ted a requirement for nitrogen with the average requirement
being 95 Ib./ac.
The general recommendation for corn established by the
Advisory Fertilizer Board for Ontario is 100 Ib./ac. if no
manure is applied or no legume sod is ploughed down.
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- 6 -
Table 1.3.— Nitrogan Recommendations for Corn by Ontario
Soil Testing Service (July 1, 1969-June 30, 1970)
County^/
or
district
Brant
Elgin
Essex
Haldimand
Huron
Kent
Lambton
Middlesex
Norfolk
No r thumbe r 1 and
Ontario
Oxford
Perth
Peterboro
Simcoe N.
Simcoe S.
Waterloo
Wellington
Wentworth
York
No. of
samples
295
387
179
258
305
597
238
338
488
321
560
651
198
202
217
351
251
438
207
275
% of times
N recommended
98
100
98
95
97
100
99
98
99
95
98
100
94
96
99
98
95
97
98
97
Average
recommendation
Ib. N/ac.
104
128
107
92
96
119
106
104
109
91
100
105
89
81
89
100
87
75
97
92
Southern Ont. 10,345 97 95
—' Only those counties or districts with more than 150
samples included.
Care must be used in interpreting the data in Table 1.3
because of the relatively small proportion of the farmers
represented. It cannot be assumed that these samples are
closely representative of the total number of farm fields.
Of particular significance is the fact that in most of the
counties included in Table 1.3 less than 20% of the samples
submitted indicated the use of manure. The information in
the section on animal waste indicates this percentage should
be considerably higher. It must be concluded that 1) either
the farmers who are using manure have not submitted samples
2) that those who use manure have not indicated this fact
when submitting the sample, or 3) farmers who have manure
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- 7 -
are not applying it to their corn fields. It is not possible
to say the extent to which each of these three alternatives
is responsible for the descrepancy.
Another significant factor in nitrogen application is
timing. Nitrogen should be applied as close as possible to
the time the crop requires it to avoid possible pollution.
Fall application of nitrogen for corn, while widely recommend-
ed in some areas of the U.S. is not recommended in Ontario.
Evidence has clearly shown that a fall application is not as
efficient for corn production as a preplant or sidedress
application.
Nitrogen Balance in Ontario Great Lakes Watershed
Several attempts have been made to develop a nitrogen
balance for a region. The main approach has been to estimate
the addition of nitrogen through natural processes, fertili-
zer and manure addition and to deduct the removal by crops.
The remainder will be that which is immobilized in the soil
through an increase in soil organic matter, leached to the
groundwater, denitrified and returned to the atmosphere or
lost by erosion. Stanford, England and Taylor developed
such a balance sheet for the United States. For 1969 they
estimated that the inputs of nitrogen on harvested cropland
were 14.8 million tons, 6.8 million tons of which were
added as fertilizer. Harvested crops removed 9.5 million tons
leaving 5.3 million tons to be immobilized, leached or deni-
trified.
A similar balance sheet is shown in Table 1.4 for cropped
land in the Ontario sections of the Erie and Great Lakes
Watershed. The boundaries of these watersheds as used for
this purpose are shown in Figure 1.1.
These balance sheets indicate that there is an excess of
nitrogen addition of approximately 30 Ib. of N per acre under
crops. If all of this nitrogen reached ground or surface
water it would be a serious threat to the environment. It is
known however, that a singificant portion of this will be
denitrified and released harmlessly to the atmosphere while
another portion will be immobilized in the soil through an
increase in organic matter content. One of the most serious
gaps in our understanding of the nitrogen cycle is that we
cannot say what proportion is going into each of these pro-
cesses. Until we can estimate this, we will not be able to
estimate the contribution of nitrogen from our crop land
to our water supplies with any degree of assurance.
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Nitrogen and Water Pollution
In spite of the statement at the end of the preceding
section, there are fragmented pieces of information which
give some indication of the relative contribution of crop-
land to nitrogen in our water supplies.
A study of the mean contribution of nitrogen from some
Lake Ontario Watersheds revealed that nitrogen in the urban
watersheds of German Mills Creek and Highland Creek averaged
34,000 Ibs. per square mile per year. On the other hand, the
predominantly rural watersheds of West Humber River, Little
Rouge River, Stouffville Creek, and Altona Creek averaged
3,200 Ibs. nitrogen per square mile per year. Thus, the
nitrogen contribution per square mile from urban watersheds
was ten times greater than that of rural watersheds. In
general this trend will exist in all comparisons of urban
versus rural watersheds. The total area in rural watersheds
is, however, considerably greater than that in urban water-
sheds .
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FIGURE
OUTLINE OF ONTARIO SECTION
ERIE AND GREAT LAKES WATERSHEDS AS
USED IN THIS SECTION OF THE REPORT-B
80°
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- 10 -
Table 1.4.— Nitrogen Balance Sheet for Land Under Crops in
Ontario Section of Erie and Great Lakes Watersheds
ERIE WATERSHED
Nitrogen Additions , Tons
Symbiotic fixation—' ,, 43,950
Non-symbiotic fixation—' 16,560
Rainfall£/, . 11,590
Fertilizer27 , 77,419
Animal waste^ 43,335
TOTAL 192,854
Nitrogen Removal f ,
Harvested crops-7 140,876
ADDITION LESS REMOVAL 51,978
Equivalent to 30 Ib. N/ac. of land under crops.
GREAT LAKES WATERSHED
Nitrogen Additions Tons
Symbiotic fixation 129,302
Non-symbiotic fixation 35,266
Rainfall 24,682
Fertilizer 100,966
Animal waste 102,111
TOTAL 392,347
Nitrogen Removal
Harvested crops 297,752
ADDITION LESS REMOVAL 94,595
Equivalent to 27 Ib. N/ac. of land under crops.
—' Based on fixation of 100 Ib. N/ac. by hay and 60 Ib.
N/ac. by soybeans.
—' Assuming an addition of 10 Ib./ac of land under crops.
Assuming an addition of 7 Ib./ac. of land under crops.
—' See Appendix Table A.I for basis of estimation.
e/
—' Obtained from calculation of animal population as
shown in Table 3.12 in section on animal waste.
—' See Appendix Table A.2 for basis of estimation.
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- 11 -
The question of dividing the rural source into its
various components is more difficult. White-Stevens (1970)
reported that the nitrogen contribution to the Connecticut
environment due to sources from fertilized agricultural areas
was 3.5%. The non-fertilized agricultural contribution was
2.2%. Thus, approximately 1.3% of the nitrogen in the
environment comes from fertilizer assuming that conditions
such as slope, drainage, and farming methods were similar.
Thus, he concludes that 10% of the nitrogen fertilizer
percolates to aquifers, streams and rivers.
The movement of nitrogen fertilizer through tile drains
was studied at Woodslee, Ontario (Table 1.5). Annual applica-
tions of 300 Ib. of 5-20-10 were made on corn and oats in
the rotation of corn, oats, alfalfa, alfalfa, and on the
continuous corn and continuous bluegrass sod plots. In addi-
tion the corn plots received an additional 100 Ib. N per acre.
Table 1.5.-— The Average Annual Losses of Nitrogen Through Tile
Drains on Brookston Clay, 1961-1967
N (Ib./ac./yr.)
No
Crop fertilizer Fertilizer
Corn
Oats —Alfalfa
Alfalfa 1st year
Alfalfa 2nd year
Cont . Corn
Bluegrass sod
5.0
3.8
4.3
4.2
5.9
0.3
13.5
5.1
3.5
7.7
12.5
0.6
AVERAGE 3.9 7.2
The contribution of nitrogen to the drainage water was
increased significantly by fertilization particularly with
the corn crop to which most of the fertilizer nitrogen was
applied. However, only approximately 5% of the added nit-
rogen could be accounted for in the tile drainage water.
The contribution of N to the groundwater when excessive
amounts of fertilizer nitrogen are applied has been further
demonstrated by plots at the University of Guelph as shown
in Figure 1.2. Two hundred pounds of nitrogen as urea (which
is quickly converted to the ammonium and thus the nitrate
forms) were applied to corn on a Guelph loam in the spring of
-------
- 12 -
1965. There was no increase in yield with this increased
nitrogen: thus this represents an excess application of
nitrogen. The nitrate-nitrogen content of the surface soil
was measured periodically on the fertilized and unfertilized
plots. There was a rapid buildup of nitrate in the spring
and early summer with a decrease during the growing season
probably due to crop utilization. In the early fall, however,
the fertilized plot contained a high level of nitrate. This
decreased very rapidly with the onset of fall rains. By
December 1, the level was the same as on the unfertilized
plot. The nitrate-nitrogen content at the 18 to 24 inch
depth in November 1965 was 80 pounds of nitrogen per acre.
The following April, the content was approximately 10 pounds
of nitrogen per acre. The trial was repeated in 1966 with
similar results. In December, 1966, the groundwater contained
66 ppm of nitrogen in the nitrate form. When we compare this
level with the 10 ppm considered to be the upper limit for
human use we must conclude that at that particular time the
groundwater beneath the plot was polluted.
N03-N
270
240
2IO
100
.50
I2°
SURFACE
POOT
OF
SOIL
Ib.N \ 90
. p«r acri/
L /
eo
30
2O0 Ib.N p
AS UREA
NO N
APPLIED
lOUNEl JULY I AUG. I SEPT.} OCT7TNOV.
Figure 1.2. — Nitrate-Nitrogen Content of
Surface Foot of Soil on Fertilized and
Unfertilized Plots
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- 13 -
This again emphasizes the need to ensure that the rate
and timing of nitrogen fertilizer additions are related as
closely as possible to the requirements of the crop. In
Ontario, there will be very little movement of water through
the soil to the groundwater between May 1 and October 1.
Therefore, nitrogen fertilizer applied after May 1 will not
be leached to the groundwater until fall.
The leaching of nitrogen from additions of poultry manure
has been studied at Guelph. Eight natural-core lysimeters of
Guelph loam soil were established in the fall of 1967. Liquid
poultry manure was applied in the spring of 1968 and 1969 at
four rates. Corn was grown each year and the yield and nitro-
gen contents were determined. During the summer of 1969
water was added to provide a minimum of 1.5" of precipitation
per week.
The percolates from the lysimeters were collected con-
tinuously from the spring of 1968 and the nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium contents were determined. Only a small propor-
tion of the added nitrogen was recovered in the percolates
up to October 5, 1969 (Table 1.6). The percentage of the
addition recovered appeared to be the same for each amount
of N added.
Table 1.6.— Nitrogen Balance from Manure-Treated Lysimeters
Guelph Loam Soil
Treatment
A B
(check)
Nitrogen Added (Ib. N/ac.)
1968 + 1969 0 890 1,780 2,670
Nitrogen leached (Ib.N/ac.)
May 1968 to Oct. 5, 1969 67 95 172 194
Oct. 6,1969 to Dec. 1969 80 287 450 589
TOTAL LEACHED 147 382 622 783
Nitrogen removed by corn
(Ib.N/ac.) 1968 + 1969 289 377 388 394
Total nitrogen removed
(Ib. N/ac.) 436 759 1,010 1,177
Total N removed minus check 0 323 574 741
% of added N removed — 36.3 32.3 27.8
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- 14 -
To determine the amount of NOs remaining j.n the lysi-
meter after the 1969 growing season, 10.5 inches of water
were added to each lysimeter in 1-inch increments between
October 6 and November 26. With some 15 inches of percolate
collected, the nitrogen removed still tends to be a constant
percentage of that added (Table 1.6). In total less than
40% of the added nitrogen could be accounted for. Because
most of the nitrates were removed from the soil column with
the leaching treatment, it must be concluded that the remain-
der of the nitrogen was either immobilized in the soil or
denitrified. This indicates that these two processes can
account for very large amounts of nitrogen.
The main concern with nitrogen appears to be movement
down the soil profile. Very few data appear to be available
with respect to nitrogen lost in runoff water. Enfield (1970)
reported that on a 13% slope after 400 Ib. per acre of ammon-
ium nitrate were applied and five inches of rain fell in two
days, the total loss of nitrate was 6.7 Ib. per acre or 1.7%
of that applied. It is probably appropriate to assume that
since nitrogen in the nitrate form is soluble it will be
moved into the soil profile rather than over the soil surface
and that fertilizer nitrogen loss through erosion and runoff
is less than 2%.
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- 15 -
Phosphorus
Reactions in the Soil
The total native phosphorus content of mineral soils in
Ontario averages about 1,000 to 2,000 pounds per acre. Most
of the phosphorus present in soils, as with nitrogen, is
currently unavailable to plants. About half of the phosphorus
occurs in combination with organic matter and is slowly re-
leased to available forms. The remainder occurs in fixed
mineral combination, some of which is available to plants.
Most of the inorganic phosphorus compounds fall into two
groups; one group is in combination with calcium, the second
group is in combination with iron and aluminum.
Plants absorb phosphorus from the soil solution. In order
for the cycle to be complete phosphate must be released from
one of its unavailable forms to the soil solution. The soil
solution invariably contains less than 0.1 ppm (part per
million). For a soil holding 1% inches of water in the plow
layer this amounts to about 0.03 pounds of phosphorus per acre
in solution. The soil solution can, therefore, only be an
adequate source of phosphate if soil phosphate goes from the
solid to the solution phase as quickly as the crop roots can
extract it from the soil solution.
The forms of phosphorus added to the soil in fertilizers
are primarily ammonium phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, and
dicalcium phosphate. These sources of phosphorus are relative-
ly soluble and thus upset the solubility equilibrium in the
soil. The ammonium and monocalcium phosphates quickly react
with calcium to form dicalcium phosphate or with iron or
aluminum to form nearly insoluble iron and aluminum phosphates.
The dicalcium phosphate reacts slowly to form still less
soluble calcium phosphates. The conversion of soluble ferti-
lizer phosphorus to less soluble compounds is called phosphorus
fixation. Generally only 10 to 30% of the fertilizer phosphorus
added to a soil is taken up by the following crop. The remain-
ing phosphorus added is held rather tightly by the soil but
may become a source of available phosphorus for crops in
subsequent years.
Phosphorus and Crop Production
Phosphorus, although just as essential as nitrogen for crop
production, is required by the crop in much smaller quantities.
Because phosphorus is immobile it will move to the root from
only a few millimeters. The plant root system contacts only
-------
- 16 -
a small fraction of the soil volume? thus the amount of
"available" phosphorus required in the soil is many times the
amount absorbed by the crop.
Unlike nitrogen, there is a satisfactory soil test for
phosphorus. This test (Olsen sodium bicarbonate extractable)
has been found to give a good measure of the available
phosphorus in Ontario soils. Through extensive research on
farm fields in Ontario, this test has been calibrated against
yield response to applied phosphate for several crops. This
information has been used to develop fertilizer requirement
tables which indicate the amount of fertilizer phosphorus
required to produce the most profitable yield at any given
soil test level.
The objective in a crop production program should be to
increase the available soil phosphorus to the level that will
produce the most profitable yield and then to add fertilizer
as required to maintain that level. The optimum phosphorus
level varies from crop to crop being much higher for potatoes
and tobacco for example than for corn and alfalfa. Thus the
fertility level should be increased to the optimum level for
the crop in the rotation which has the highest requirement.
The average phosphorus test, the per cent of samples indica-
ting a need for fertilizer phosphorus addition and the average
amount of fertilizer phosphorus required are indicated in
Table 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9 for corn, hay-pasture and potatoes,
respectively. From these tables it can be noted that the
phosphorus level of the samples submitted for corn was H-
or higher for all but one of the counties included in Table
1.7. However, over half of the samples indicated a require-
ment for phosphorus in all but one county. This indicates
that although the average test may be high, there are a large
portion of the fields that still require phosphorus addition.
-------
- 17 -
Table 1.7.— Average Phosphorus Soil Test Values of
Samples From Corn Fields (July 1, 1969 —June 30, 1970)
County or
district*/
Brant
Elgin
Essex
Haldimand
Huron
Kent
Lambton
Middlesex
Norfolk
No r thumbe r 1 and
Ontario
Oxford
Perth
Peterboro
Simcoe N.
Simcoe S.
Waterloo
Wellington
Wentworth
York
Southern Ontario
No. of
samples
295
387
179
258
305
597
238
338
488
321
560
651
198
202
217
351
251
438
207
275
10,345
Ave.
test
20
14
23
15
15
23
18
25
18
23
18
15
13
18
15
15
20
15
16
15
17
Rating
forw
cornH/
H
H-
H+
H-
H-
H+
H
H+
H
H+
H
TT—
H-
H
H-
H-
H+
H-
H
H-
H
%of times
fertilizer
recommended
58
81
52
79
78
51
75
68
73
46
63
79
78
64
75
78
56
73
68
73
70
Ave.
rec.
lb.P205/ac.
27
37
22
38
37
19
37
31
33
23
31
38
39
34
36
36
23
38
31
34
35
—' Only counties or districts with 150 or more samples
included.
—' H+ — very high — above optimum level for crop
H — high — at optimum level for crop
H-, M+, M, M-, etc. —below optimum level for crop.
-------
- 18 -
Table 1.8.—Average Phosphorus Soil Test Values of Samples
From Hay-Pasture of Half or More Legume
(July 1. 19_69 —June 30, 1970)
County or .
district S/
Bruce
Kent
Ontario
Rainy River
Simcoe N.
Victoria
Wellington
No. of
samples
116
50
65
145
65
58
235
Ave.
test
11
12
15
10
12
6
9
Rating—' for
hay-pasture
(^ or more
legume)
M
M+
H-
M
M+
L+
M-
% of times
fertilizer
recommended
87
85
77
94
86
98
95
Ave.
rec.
lb.P00-/ac.
f. D
47
55
38
66
46
80
60
Southern
Ontario
1,606
14
fl-
47
a/
*>/
Only counties with 50 or more samples included.
H+ — very high — above optimum level for crop
H — high — at optimum level for crop
H-, M+, M, M-, etc. —below optimum level for crop.
Table 1.9.—Average Phosphorus Soil Test Values of Samples
From Potato Fields (July 1, 1969 —June 30, 1970)
County or
district a/
Dufferin
Rainy River
Simcoe N.
Simcoe S.
Sudbury
Thunder Bay
Waterloo
Northern
Ontario
Southern
Ontario
No. of Ave. Rating— for
samples test potatoes
39
44
35
91
56
34
65
205
541
98
163
27
43
35
28
50
63
52
H+
H+
M
H-
M+
M+
H
H+
H
% of times Ave.
fertilizer rec.
recommended lb.P2O5/ac.
92
52
100
79
82
94
66
76
76
107
48
106
69
99
111
50
91
79
—' Only those counties or districts with 25 or more samples
included.
—' H+ — very high — above optimum level for crop
H — high — at optimum level for crop
H-, M+, M, M-, etc. —below optimum level for crop.
-------
- 19 -
The average phosphorus level of samples submitted for hay-
pasture is much lower than that for corn (Table 1.8). Only one
of the counties showed a H- rating for hay-pasture although on
the average, Southern Ontario also has a H- rating. Over 75%
of the samples submitted indicated a requirement for addition
of phosphorus.
Although the average phosphorus test of samples from
potato fields is considerably higher than that for corn (Table
1.9),the potato crop has a much higher requirement. Therefore,
the average rating for the various counties tends to be similar
to that for corn with most counties having a H- or higher rating.
Again, however, over 50% of the samples indicated a requirement
for phosphorus.
Similar data are available for other crops. Samples were
tested from 43,390 fields between July 1, 1969 and June 30, 1970.
These samples indicated that 66% of the fields required phosphorus
for the crop to be grown. The average requirement was 47 Ib.
?® per acre.
Phosphorus Balance in Ontario Great Lakes Watershed
A balance sheet has been developed for phosphorus in the
Ontario portion of the Erie and Great Lakes watersheds in a
similar manner as that for nitrogen. This balance sheet
(Table 1.10) is less complex than that for nitrogen because
there are no natural processes adding phosphorus to the soil.
From this table it can be noted that addition of phosphorus
exceeds removal by about 37 Ib. P2°5 per acre under crops in the
Erie watershed, and by about 27 Ib. P20s per acre under crops
in the total Great Lakes watershed.
In the previous section it was noted that 66% of the
samples tested by the Ontario Soil Testing Service indicated a
requirement for additional phosphorus fertilizer for the crop
that was to be grown. Provided the phosphorus that is being
applied in excess of that removed is being applied to those
fields that have a requirement and not to the fields that are
already above the optimum level, the excess addition over
removal is justifiable from a crop production standpoint.
Phosphorus and Water Pollution
It was noted in the section on reactions in soil that
phosphorus is only very slightly soluble in soil and that
fertilizer phosphorus reacts very quickly to form nearly
insoluble compounds. Because of this, there is little down-
ward movement of phosphorus in soils.
-------
- 20 -
This has been demonstrated by many experiments which are
reported in the literature. Four sets of results from Ontario
will illustrate this point.
The data in Table 1.11 show the effect of phosphorus
fertilization on the available phosphorus content of a sandy
soil at various depths.
Table 1.10. — Phosphorus Balance Sheet for Land Under Crops
in Ontario Section of Erie and Great Lakes Watershed
/
—'
ERIE WATERSHED
Phosphorus Additions
Fertilizer^/. .
Animal waste—'
TOTAL
Phosphorus Removal
Harvested crops
ADDITION LESS REMOVAL
Equivalent to 17 Ib. P (40 Ib.
crops.
GREAT LAKES WATERSHED
Phosphorus Additions
Fertilizer £/, ,
Animal waste —'
TOTAL
Phosphorus Removal
Harvested crops
•c/
ADDITION LESS REMOVAL
Equivalent to 11.6 Ib. P (27 Ib.
under crops.
Tons
(as P)
33,269
14.199
47,468
19,269
28,199 tons
per acre of land under
Tons
(as P)
48,153
32,352
80,505
39,594
40,911 tons
.) per acre of land
—' See appendix Table A.I for basis of calculation.
—' Obtained from calculation of animal population as
shown in section on animal waste.
c/
—' See appendix Table A.2 for basis of calculation.
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- 21 -
Table 1.11.— The Effect of Rates of Phosphorus Fertilizer on
Phosphorus Distribution with Depth in a Sandy Soil After
Eleven Years of Phosphorus Fertilization at Harrow, Ontario
Available Soil Phosphorus (Ib./ac.)
Depth
(in.)
0- 6
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
30-36
0 lb.
P205/ac.
85.0
63.0
33.2
28.0
26.6
26.6
40 lb.
P205/ac.
92.8
68.4
34.6
31.4
29.4
28.0
80 lb.
P205/ac.
106.8
79.0
38.0
32.2
30.8
29.8
120 lb.
P205/ac.
119.4
90.0
42.2
34.0
31.0
30.8
The movement of an ion in solution is greatest in light
textured, sandy soils. The downward movement of phosphorus
would, therefore, be greatest under these conditions. After
eleven years of fertilization the phosphorus content at the
36 inch depth only increased by 4.2 Ib./ac. with the annual
application of 120 lb. P205 per acre. The distribution of
fertilizer phosphorus in a loam soil to which 300 pounds of
phosphorus per acre were applied over a seven-year period is
shown in Figure 1.3. There was little increase in the soil
phosphorus test below the 12-inch depth. The soil was cul-
tivated to a depth of 6-8 inches.
UNFERTILIZED
DEPTH 12
IN
SOIL
(INCHES)
18
24
100
200
3OO
4OO
PHOSPHORUS SOIL TEST VALUE
Figure 1.3Distribution of fertilizer phosphorus in a Burford loam to
vhich 300 lb. P/ac. were applied over a seven-year period.
(Prow 1966 Progress Report, Dept. of Soil Science, Univ. of
Guelph).
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- 22 -
The phosphorus content of tile drainage waters has been
measured at Woodslee, Ontario (Table 1.12). There was only a
very slight increase in phosphorus in the tile drainage water
from the addition of fertilizer at the rate of 60 Ib. P->OK/
ac./yr. 2 b
Table 1.12— The Average Annual Loss of Phosphorus Through Tile
Drains on Bookston Clay (1961-1967) at Woodslee, Ontario
P in Drainage Water
Crop No fertilizer Fertilized
(Ib./ac./yr.)
Corn 0.12 0
Oats — alfalfa
Alfalfa — 1st year
Alfalfa — 2nd year
Cont. corn
Bluegrass sod
AVERAGE 0.11 0.17
The amounts of phosphorus leached from natural-core
lysimeters to which varying amounts of poultry manure had been
added are reported in Table 1.13. The poultry manure was added
in two applications/ in the spring of 1968 and 1969. In the
fall of 1969 approximately 10 inches of water was added to
increase the intensity of leaching. There was, however,
essentially no increase in the amount of phosphorus in the
percolate from the phosphorus contained in the poultry manure.
Table 1.13.— Phosphorus in Leachate From Lysimeters at Guelph,
Ontario (May 1968 to Dec.,1969)
Phosphorus added in poultry manure
(Ib. P/ac.)
Phosphorus in leachate
(Ib.P/ac.)
0
0.22
320
0.43
640
0.19
960
0.30
From these and similar data it can be stated that there is
essentially no movement of phosphorus from fertilizer or animal
waste through the soil into the groundwater.
Because there is little vertical movement of phosphorus in
soil, fertilization increases the phosphorus content of the
surface soil. Therefore, soil carried by surface runoff or
-------
- 23 -
erosion from fertilized fields will be higher in phosphorus
than that from unfertilized fields. If fertilizer use is
contributing to buildup of phosphorus in our water supplies,
it will be in this manner.
Certainly there may be considerable loss of soil from
cultivated land by surface runoff. The problem is to determine
how much of this soil reaches our streams. The movement of
soil from the top to the bottom of a slope, while undesirable
from a crop production standpoint, will not contribute to
pollution unless the sediment is carried directly into a
stream, pond or lake. Several studies of the phosphate level
in streams have been conducted. Missingham (1967) found that
the phosphorus content of the Grand River increased by a
factor of 10 when the river passed from a predominantly agri-
cultural watershed into more populated areas. Owen and
Johnson (1966) measured the phosphate level in several streams
flowing into Lake Ontario. The amount of phosphorus from pre-
dominantly agricultural watersheds varied between 97 and 200
pounds of phosphorus per square mile per year. Two predom-
minantly urban watersheds (Highland Creek and German Mills
Creek) yielded 7,000 and 9,700 pounds of phsophorus per square
mile per year. The amount from the Stouffville Creek which
drains a predominantly agricultural watershed but receives
wastes from the village of Stouffville was intermediate. In
the Highland Creek watershed, the yield of phosphorus from
urban land drainage was 5 to 10 times that from agricultural
land drainage. The authors concluded that "although the
yield of phosphorus from rural land drainage is doubtless a
significant contribution it would represent a very small pro-
portion of the amount of fertilizer which is added to the land
in contemporary agriculture. Acutally the yield could be
attributed just as logically to streambank erosion."
The report to the International Joint Commission on the
Pollution of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the International
Section of the St. Lawrence Riveri/ presents estimations of
the source of phosphorus in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. This
data is summarized in Table 1.14.
—' Prepared by the International Lake Erie Water Pollution
Board and the International Lake Ontario — St. Lawrence River
Water Pollution Board, 1969.
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- 24 -
Table 1.14. —Annual Input of Phosphorus to Lake Erie and
Lake Ontario
Tons per % of
Year Total
LAKE ERIE (excluding that from Lake Huron)
Municipal 19,090
Industrial 2,030
Land Drainage 6,740
TOTAL 27,860 100.0
LAKE ONTARIO (excluding that from Lake
Erie)
Municipal 7,410
Industrial 410
Land Drainage 820
TOTAL 8,640 100.0
LAKES ERIE AND ONTARIO COMBINED
Municipal 26,500
Industrial 2,440
Land Drainage 7,560
TOTAL 36,500 100.0
The proportion attributed to land drainage (20.7%) in the
Report of the International Joint Commission includes phosphorus
carried in sediments from erosion of streambanks, road construc-
tion sites and ditches as well as surface erosion from farm
fields. It also includes "contributions from cottages and
homes on septic tanks, small industries located outside municipal
boundaries and small municipalities where no sewage treatment
facilities are provided, "i/
Studies have shown that the suspended sediment load carried
by Buffalo Creek, N.Y. was reduced 40 per cent as a result of
streambank erosion control measures on only 20 per cent of the
streambank within a 145 square mile watershed. Hardin and
Bennett (1969) report that 66-90% of the sediment load in many
streams comes from streambank and streambed erosion in the
western United States. They further report on the sources of
sediment into the Middle Fork Eel River in California. Water-
shed slopes contributed 13.5% of the sediment, landslides
22.5%, streambanks 63.0% and major roads 1.0%. While this
data cannot be directly applied to Ontario it does indicate
that a significant portion of the sediment comes from stream-
bank erosion.
—'Personal communication from Mr. J. Thon, Programme Engineer
Ontario Water Resources Commission to Mr. D.M. Rutherford,
Technical Director, Plant Food Council of Ontario.
-------
- 25 -
A study of land drainage in Metropolitan Detroit by
Thompson (1970) indicated that the erosion from areas under
urban development contributed 69 tons of sediment per acre
per year compared with an overall average erosion rate of about
3.0 tons per acre per year for the metorpolitan area and an over-
all average erosion rate of 2.6 tons per acre per year for south-
east Michigan. Thus road construction and urban development will
account for significant amounts of sediment even though the total
acreage under construction may be relatively low.
From this and similar data it can be conservatively esti-
mated that less than 50 per cent of the sediment in our streams
comes from farm fields.
Unfertilized soils contain an average of about 1,000 pounds
of total phosphorus in the surface six inches. The average rate
of application recommended by the Ontario Soil Testing Service
during 1968-69 was less than 25 pounds of phosphorus per acre.
The average use throughout the province is considerably less than
this. At this rate of application over a 10-year period, the
amount of phosphorus added as fertilizer would be only about
25 per cent of the natural phosphorus content. (This is assuming
no crop removal; in parctice, crops would remove a portion of
this phosphorus). Although it is impossible at this time to
place an accurate figure on the proportion of the phosphorus
reaching the lakes that comes from fertilizer application, it is
fairly safe to say that less than 12.5 per cent of the phosphorus
in land drainage can be traced to fertilizer use (less than 50
per cent of the phosphorus in land drainage comes from farm fields;
less than 25 per cent of the phosphorus from farm fields comes
from fertilizer: 50 x 25 = 12.5). This means that less than 2Jg
per cent of the phosphorus reaching Lake Erie and Lake Ontario
can be attributed to fertilizer use (12.5% of 20% = 2.5%).
Studies have been made on the effects of applied phosphorus
fertilizer on 230 acres in the Lake Sebasticook area in Maine.
An annual application of 16, 700 Ib. of phosphorus was applied.
Assuming an average annual loss of 0.4 Ib. P per acre (250 Ib. P
per square mile) the loss in the Lake Sebasticook area is 100 Ib.
per year. This amounts to 0.6% of the phosphorus applied and
2% of the annual input into the lake. This agrees closely with
the calculation for Ontario in the preceding paragraph.
Because phosphorus is held tightly to soil particles, most
of the phosphorus carried into streams and lakes by erosion
would be in the sediment rather than in the water and thus would
not be directly available for algae growth.
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- 26 -
EROSION
The detachment and transfer of soil is termed soil erosion.
Only erosion effected by water will be considered here since
wind erosion is a very minor problem in isolated areas. Soil
erosion usually occurs when more moisture than can permeate into
the soil falls on a soil under the following conditions: (1)
fallow or sparsely covered land, (2) steep slopes under inten-
sive cultivation, (3) when a thin layer of unfrozen soil receives
an intense rainfall, and (4) during storms with high intensities.
Raindrops are erosive agents. They detach the soil par-
ticles from the surface and make the soil particles available
for transport in water. Hence raindrop impact is the main
force causing erosion on cultivated land.
Plant cover controls splash erosion and holds soil in
place under field conditions. The effectiveness of plant cover
in preventing soil erosion depends on the amount present when
rain falls.
The density of crop cover (to act as a shield) and the
weight or bulk of the cover (to absorb the energy of the rain-
drops) are important in protecting the soil from erosion. The
more open the canopy the less interception of raindrops by the
canopy and the more erosion is likely to occur. Therefore, the
maximum rate of erosion usually occurs during the period of
establishment. This period is characterized by inadequate
cover. At other periods in the life of a crop the danger of
erosion is very small due to the completeness of cover and bulk
of cover during part of the season. Even the most easily
detached soil is not disturbed when there is sufficient canopy
to intercept the energy contained in a falling raindrop. It is
generally recognized that tree crops and grass crops prevent a
serious erosion.
Table 1.15 and Table 1.16 show effect of crops on soil loss
and runoff. The data in Table 1.15 show soil loss under con-
tinuous corn was about half of that under fallow. Other crop-
ping systems which provided more complete cover reduced soil loss
even more, with the continuous bluegrass sod having essentially
no loss. The data for Ontario exhibited in Table 1.16 showed
only trace amounts of soil loss on the first year hay plots in
rotation. The greatest loss was from continuous corn. Thus
cropping practices which include large proportions of row crops
will increase the amount of sediment reaching streams and lakes
from erosion.
-------
- 27 -
Table 1.15.— The Effect of Different Cropping Systems on Runoff
and Erosion (after Stallings, 1953)
Soil loss Runoff
Treatment (tons/ac./yr.) (% of rainfall)
Continuous bluegrass
Rotation of corn, wheat,
clover
Continuous wheat
Continuous corn
Fallow
0.34
2.78
10.09
19.72
41.65
12.0
13.8
23.3
29.4
30.7
Table 1.16.— The Effect of Different Cropping Systems on Runoff
and Erosion in Ontario Over a 10-Year Period
Cropping Soil loss Water loss
practice (Ib./ac./yr.) inches/year
Continuous hay (establishment
period not included) negligible negligible
Continuous corn 16,800 1.23
Four year rotation, with-the-
slope planting
corn
oats
hay 1st year
hay 2nd year
1,100
5,500
trace
trace
0.23
0.55
0.13
0.12
The data show the necessity in establishing crops rapidly.
Increasing the amount and density of a crop also decreases
erosion because it enhances raindrop interception. The addition
of fertilizer accomplishes both these goals. High yields and
erosion control go hand in hand.
Corn, oats, and hay in a rotation lost 47.21 tons of soil
per year when no fertilizer was used. The same rotation using
fertilizer on oats only in the rotation decreased the soil loss
to 13.13 tons per acre per year. On continuous cornland the
annual use of 200 Ibs. of 5-10-5 per acre reduced the soil loss
by 2/5 and water loss by 1/3 during a nine year period over
unfertilized corn land. The unfertilized area lost 9.5% of the
rainfall as runoff and 5,934 pounds of soil per acre per year
while the corresponding figures for the fertilized plot were
6.4% and 3,552 pounds per acre per year respectively. The same
author reported soil loss reductions by 1/2 in wheat with a
yield increase of 91% due to the use of fertilizer (200 Ib./ac.
0-20-10). In oats fertilizer use (200 Ib./ac. 10-20-10) reduced
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- 28 -
soil loss by more than half while increasing yield 77%. These
data are averages for seven years.
It is apparent that the increasing trend to corn and other
row crop production in Ontario is likely to increase the amount
of erosion. It is not possible with the data available to
estimate the amount of sediment from cultivated fields reaching
streams and lakes. Estimates can be made of the movement of soil
on a slope under a given condition. This movement does not
necessarily contribute sediment to waterways. Only when the
erosional water flows directly into a stream will there be a
contribution to the Pediment load.
It is possible from our knowledge of the soils of Ontario
and from the inventory of soils in the province provided through
the Ontario Soil Survey program, to indicate the relative suscep-
tibility of the soils in an area to erosion. This is indicated
by counties in Figure 1.4. This map was prepared by calculating
the acreage of each soil type in a county having a high, medium
or low susceptibility to erosion. Each county was then rated as
to the susceptibility to erosion. This susceptibility rating
does not take present land use into consideration. It is based
only on inherent soil properties. It does show however that
those areas with a high proportion of row crops have a low or
medium susceptibility to erosion.
-------
FIGURE 1.4- SUSCEPTIBILITY OF
SOILS IN SOUTHERN ONTARIO TO
EROSION.
CLASSES
MEDIUM
I I LOW
80°
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- 30 -
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Fertilizer use in agricultural production is a potential
source of nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of ground and
surface waters.
2. The contribution of nitrogen to groundwaters increases
rapidly when fertilizer in excess of that required for
most profitable crop yields is added. It is, therefore,
important that precise methods for estimating the nitrogen
requirement on a specific field be developed.
3. The rate of nitrogen addition to crop land in Ontario from
all sources combined (i.e. fertilizers, animal waste,
fixation and rainfall) exceeds the rate of crop removal by
about 27 Ib. N/ac./yr. The proportion of this that reaches
ground or surface waters and the proportion that is immobil-
ized in the soil or denitrified cannot be estimated with any
degree of confidence. It is, therefore, essential that
increased research effort be directed towards improving our
understanding of nitrogen in the biosphere with particular
emphasis on the fate of nitrogen in a cropping system.
4. Phosphorus addition from fertilizers and animal wastes on
crop land in Ontario exceeds the crop removal by approximately
27 Ib. P205/ac./yr. However, 66% of the samples submitted
to the Ontario Soil Testing Laboratory in 1969-70 had a
phosphorus level below optimum for crop production. Provided
the excess phosphorus addition is applied to the areas that
are below the optimum level, the excess addition is justified
from a crop production standpoint.
5. Phosphorus is held tightly in the soil. There is, therefore,
very little contribution of phosphorus from fertilizer use
to groundwater supplies.
6. Soil eroded from fertilized fields will contain higher levels
of phosphorus than that from unfertilized fields. It is
not possible with our present knowledge to estimate the amount
of soil that is transported from farm fields to surface waters.
Increased effort should be directed to the determination of
the proportion of sediment that comes from farm fields com-
pared to that from streambank erosion, highway development,
etc.
7. The most accurate estimate that can be made at present
indicates that less than 2%% of the phosphorus going into
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario can be attributed to fertilizer
use.
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- 31 -
8. The increasing trend towards row crops, particularly corn,
will tend to increase the amount of sediment and hence
phosphorus from farm fields reaching surface waters. Improv-
ed management practices must be developed to decrease erosion-
al losses. Accelerated effort is required to implement these
practices as rapidly as they can be perfected.
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- 32 -
CHAPTER II: PESTICIDE USE AND POLLUTION
Pesticides include a large number of biologically active
chemicals which have been instrumental in protecting public
health and increasing agricultural production by reducing the
depredations of pests. While there is no question of these
benefits, there has been increasing concern over evidence of
environmental contamination from a few of these compounds in
the Great Lakes Basin.
The term pesticide may be subdivided into more specific
subgroups including insecticides, miticides, nematocides,
herbicides, fungicides, rotenticides and fumigants. A simple
classification system for insecticides alone shows the
diversity of chemical forms:
Inorganic chemicals Lead arsenate, sodium
fluoride, thallium sulphate
Natural botanical products Rotenone, pyrethrum,
strychnine
Natural organic chemicals Kerosene, naphthalene
Synthetic organic Chlorinated hydrocarbons,
chemicals organic phosphorus compounds,
carbamates
Microbial agents Bacillus thuringiensis
The main emphasis in this report will be with those com-
pounds that persist and have entered the Ontario environment.
Only DDT with its metabolites, and dieldrin, have been widely
found in the aquatic environment. Others such as lindane and
heptachlor have been found but confined to local, isolated
areas. Instances of localized pollution of water from indus-
trial sources have been rare.
Episodes of abuse and misuse including the discarding of
excess spray material into water courses and the improper dis-
posal of "empty" pesticide containers have sporadically occurred
in the province from time to time. Some of these spillages
have been accompanied by the loss of fish on a small scale.
The relative contribution of environmental contamination
of the Great Lakes resulting from agricultural use, as opposed
to industrial and domestic use, is difficult to assess. In
general, about 75% of all pesticides used in Ontario are for
agricultural purposes and this serves to draw greater attention
to agriculture as the source of this contamination. That applied
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- 33 -
to rich agricultural soils not prone to erosion has presented
little hazard to the environment compared to that applied to
soils easily eroded by water or wind or where application has
been made to thin soils and rock out-crops. In the latter,
rapid movement into the water environment has given serious
contamination in one area.
2. History
Following the conclusion of World War II, DDT was widely
adopted by the agricultural industry to replace such insec-
ticides as lead arsenate, nicotine sulphate and paris green.
Its wide spectrum of activity and much lower toxicity made its
acceptance rapid. The first Ontario Department of Agriculture
spray calendar recommendation for DDT, appeared in 1947 for
its use on many vegetables. It controlled the major pests of
potatoes, the Colorado potato beetle, tarnished plant bug and
aphids, as well as insects on peas, beans, corn and cole crops.
The following year, it appeared on the spray calendar for
fruit for use in apple orchards to control the codling moth and
apple maggot, the two most serious insect pests. For peaches,
it was recommended for the control of Oriental fruit moth and
other pests. DDT was also found to be effective for the control
of soil pests such as wireworms and cutworms. The livestock
industry found it to be effective for the control of flies
in barns and on animals. In the period 1949-1954, its use
in agriculture was almost universal.
Signs of insect resistance of DDT was detected in the
early 1950's and very soon growers were forced to switch to
alternatives for some pests. Aphids on such crops as potatoes
were one of the first to show this in the field and by 1955,
malathion was used instead. Flies in barns showed resistance
to DDT after only a few seasons of use and it was replaced by
various organophosphates in the 1950's. The greater effective-
ness of the cyclodienes, a sub-group of the organochlorines
which includes aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, for the control
of most soil insects resulted in less use of DDT by the late
1950's. Only the emergence of the darksided cutworm as a major
pest in tobacco, not controlled by cyclodienes, caused an almost
complete return to the use of DDT for this particular crop.
The vegetable processing industry had used DDT widely
for the control of aphids on peas, and cornborer and corn
earv/orm on sweet corn. About 1958 it became evident that if
corn stover or pea vines were treated with DDT and subsequently
fed to livestock, a definite residue problem resulted. The
introduction of an alternative, carbaryl (Sevin) for corn enabled
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- 34 -
growers to discontinue the use of DDT by 1962. The use on peas
was greatly reduced at the same time, but did not cease entirely
until 1964.
The introduction of the organic phosphates in the 1950's
and of the carbamates in the 1960's, along with the development
of resistance, led to a decrease in the number of uses of DDT
in agriculture starting in the late fifties. Only in tobacco
production had there been a need for an increase in use. Never-
theless, the increased use for this problem and for the control
of non-agricultural insect problems, such as biting flies and
protection of shade trees, resulted in a steady increase in the
quantity of DDT being used up to and including 1969. The use
of aldrin reached a peak in 1968 (Table 2.1). The sudden drop
in sales reflects the restrictions on uses described in Section
4.
Table 2.1—Total Sales of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Ontario
Actual toxicant sold (Ibs.)
Material 1968 1969 1970
DDT and ODD 296,274 463,139 85,112
Aldrin 3,263,447 26,857 none
Dieldrin 297 806 none
3. Monitoring the Ontario Environment
The Provincial Pesticide Residue Testing Laboratory,
Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food, was established in
1966. Its function has been to serve all Departments of the
Ontario Government in investigating the pesticide residue
situation in Ontario. Since its inception, approximately
9,000 samples have been analyzed.
Data are included in this section of the report which
reflect the situation for the Great Lakes Drainage Basin of
Ontario.
Water:
Water samples have been collected in the Great Lakes
Basin area, the area of highest population and highest pesti-
cide use in Ontario.
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- 35 -
Samples were collected from rivers and potable water
supplies. The total pesticide load was found to be very low:
averaging 14 parts per trillion. Two types of chlorinated
hydrocarbons were found, DDT with its metabolites and dieldrin
(See Table 2.2). Because the amount of dieldrin used in
Ontario is insignificant compared to aldrin, the dieldrin
appearing in samples is assumed to be the metabolite of aldrin.
River Sediment;
Sediments were taken from rivers and streams where con-
tamination of fish was known to be relatively high. Some
93% of the sediments contained measurable residues — with an
average of .084 ppm. (Table 2.2). These residues occurring
in sediment are the reservoirs that give a measure of danger
to the aquatic organisms.
Soil;
Soil samples were collected from both urban and agricul-
tural areas of the Great Lakes Basin area. Soil residues
were greatest in orchard and vegetable crop soils (Table 2.3).
The area covered by agricultural land in Ontario represents
15% of the total. The area represented by orchard and
vegetable crops amounts to 4% of the agricultural land — in
other words, 0.6% of the province.
The data shows that DDT residues are low on 96% of the
agricultural land of Ontario, indicating widespread but not
concentrated use of the chemical.
Of the DDT present in the soil, the largest portion is
present as DDT (66%) with smaller percentages of ODD (6%) and
DDE (28%) .
Provincial Milk Survey;
A province-wide survey on milk was carried out between
1967 and 1969. During that time, samples were taken so that
each of the 27,000 milk shippers was sampled once.
DDT (with its metabolites) and dieldrin were present in
all milkfats tested; lindane and heptachlor epoxide were found
in 8% and 3% of the samples respectively.
In all, only 20 herds were found with residues in the
butterfat that exceeded the administrative tolerance of 0.1
ppm for dieldrin and heptachlor and 1 ppm for lindane and DDT
(with metabilites). Since the milk supply (butterfat) acts
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- 36 -
as a "sink" for any misuse of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
in agriculture, it can be concluded there is not a significant
problem with misuse of the chemicals in Ontario (Table 2.4).
Fish;
Fish caught in four major areas were compared in 1968-1969.
These areas included the Muskoka Lakes (a non-agricultural area),
Bay of Quinte -Trent River system, Holland Marsh, Lake Simcoe
and the Great Lakes. In the compilation, many species and many
ranges of size were included (Table 2.5). The total DDT residue
in all except one area (Muskoka) fell below 1 ppm in the muscle
tissue. When these results are based on extractable fat, the
levels ranged from 4 to 29 ppm on a fat content varying from
1.75 to 4.25%. There is evidence that the reproduction of
trout in the Muskoka Lakes has been affected. These areas
have been intensively developed for recreation and annually
sprayed for the control of mosquito and black fly for several
years. Additionally, the Muskokas are plagued with periodic
outbreaks of forest tent caterpillar. Because of the geolog-
ical features of the landscape, DDT can be moved readily from
a terrestrial to an aquatic environment. Exposed bedrock is
common, and soils are often thin thus making surface
movement possible.
The data presented represents the most complete survey
of the Great Lakes Basin relative to pesticide levels. It is
apparent that no major problems exist as a result of agricultur-
al use of pesticides.
4. Government Action in Ontario
The Ontario Department of Health took the first official
step to restrict the use of DDT and TDE in the province under
the Public Health Act of 1954.
In 1956, the Ontario Department of Health gave further
recognition to the whole subject of pesticides by transfer-
ring these matters from the Public Health Act into a separate
legislative program —The Pesticides Act. The Act has been
modified in 1964, 1967, 1969 and 1970.
The Ontario Water Resources Commission Act of 1956
provided that: "No person shall add any substance to the
water of any well, lake, river, pond, spring, stream, reservior
or other watercourse for the purpose of killing or affecting
plants, snails, insects, fish or other living matter or thing
therein without a permit issued by the Commission." Since 1966,
the Commission has not issued any permits for the use of DDT
in water.
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- 37 -
In 1957, as a result of finding dieldrin in dairy pro-
ducts in Western Canada, a survey was made throughout Canada
for dieldrin and other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Joint
Federal and Provincial Departments of Agriculture reduced the
uses of DDT and dieldrin on animals and animal feeds.
In 1961, the Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food
Protection Committee recommended that the use of DDT after the second
cover spray for peaches be deleted and by 1963 a considerable
amount of the DDT used in apple production was replaced by
carbaryl (Sevin). In the same year, DDT was deleted from the
controls recommended in the spray calendar against armyworms.
In 1966, the Department of Lands and Forests discontinued
using DDT for control of mosquitoes and black flies, and at the
end of the 1967 season, discontinued the use of DDT entirely
in all of its programs.
In 1967, the Pesticides Act restricted the application of
DDT by aircraft, concentrated air blast machine, and power
duster, to a permit basis, which could be refused if the
application could not be carried out safely. Furthermore, the
DDT had to be applied in liquid or granular form and records of
all such applications had to be kept by the applicator.
In 1967, the O.D.A.F. spray calendar recommendation for
DDT for the control of corn borer on field corn was deleted.
In the following year, the use of DDT was minimized in the
spray calendar and it was not recommended for many agricultur-
al crops. The use on apples after July 20 was deleted, and
DDT had already been replaced by carbaryl (Sevin) and azinphos-
methyl (Guthion) in much of the spraying done before that time
of year. Less: persistent insecticides were recommended as a
substitute for DDT on many vegetables. In the field crops,
there were no recommended uses except for tobacco.
In 1969, the use of DDT was deleted from the O.D.A.F.
spray calendar recommendations for corn borer and corn earworm
on corn, and for all insects generally on beans, cabbage,
cauliflower, brussels sprouts, lettuce, peas, peppers and
tomatoes. In the case of peaches, all uses were deleted
except for plant bugs.
In May 1969, aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor were pro-
hibited for use in agriculture. The small package trade was
given until January 1, 1970, to dispose of existing stock on
hand. Therefore, the only legal use remaining for aldrin,
dieldrin and heptachlor in Ontario is for control of termites
by licensed structural exterminators.
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- 38 -
In September 1969, the uses of DDT were severely restric-
ted in Ontario and the only uses now permitted are for cutworm
control in tobacco, plant bug control in apples and bat control
by structural exterminators. For these uses, a permit is
required. For use on tobacco, which is temporary until an
effective alternative insecticide is found, the rate of DDT
is reduced from 4 Ibs. to 1 Ib. per acre. Application to
tobacco is further restricted to bloom-type sprayers. These
restrictions should have the effect of eliminating potential
contamination in the Great Lakes from sources in Ontario.
The sales of DDT, aldrin, and dieldrin in Ontario for
1968, 1969 and 1970, appears in Table 2.1. In Ontario, all
sales amounts (in any concentration) of 4 Ibs. or more of dusts,
powders or granule and 160 fluid ozs. or more of solutions or
emulsifiable concentrates must be recorded. This requirement
formed the basis for determining the amount sold in Ontario.
Unfortunately, the figures do not include all sales as most
household and garden products would be exempted because of the
amounts in the container which are sold. The figures, however,
serve to indicate a clear picture of the trend of those sales
in Ontario.
From the monitoring done in Ontario in 1969 and 1970, it
would appear that the levels found in Ontario soil and surface
water in the Great Lakes area are relatively low and would not
contribute significantly to direct contamination in the Great
Lakes basin.
-------
Table 2.2.— Pesticide Residues in Water and Sediments —Ontario, 1968-69
Content in water (ppb) and sediment (ppm)
Number
Sample Analyses
Well water
Potable water
Raw river water
Average
River sediment
(dry)
14
11
40
65
84
Other chlorinated Measurable
DDE, ODD, DDT Dieldrin hydrocarbons residue
Trace
.015 .009
.019 .006
.014^ .004
.080*- -004
7
73
45
42
93
Non
Measurable
residue
93
27
55
58
7
1
U)
- The .014 ppb consisted of .007 ppb DDE (50%), .002 ppb ODD (14%) and .005 ppb of DDT
(36%).
- The .080 ppm consisted of .020 ppm DDE (25%), .049 ppm ODD (61%) and .011 ppm of DDT
(14%).
-------
Table 2.3—Pesticide Residues in Soil —Ontario 1968-69
Sample
Orchard soils
Vegetable soils
Field crip soils
Pasture and improved
land
Urban , non-agric .
Number
Analyses
14
13
20
12
7
Content
DDE, ODD, DDT
(ppm)
10.4
4.24
0.057
0.020
0.103
on dry weiqht basis
DDT
63
81
54
55
59
Cyclodienes
(ppm)
0.313
0.845
0.057
0.001
0.091
Dieldrin
100
33
59
100
75
'
o
i
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Table 2.4.— Pesticide Residues in Animal Milk and Meats
Content in whole tissue Content in fat
DDT and DDT and
Number metabolites DDT Cyclodienes Fat— metabilites Cyclodienes Lindane
Sample analyses (ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Bovine — Milk
— Fat
1,651
132
.005
26
30
.001
4.0
100.0
.134
.263
.032
.031
.005
.017
— Based on extractable fat.
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Table 2.5.—Pesticide residues in fish —Ontario, 1968-69
Location
Trent River —
Bay of Quinte
Holland Marsh and
Lake Simcoe
Muskoka Lakes and
Rivers
Great Lakes
Ottawa River
Number
analyses
329
312
519
404
57
In muscle
tissue (ppm)
Fat*
DDT , ODD , DDE Dieldrin %
.507
.682
7.97
.750
.118
.004
.023
.030
.025
.009
1.75
2.77
3.60
4.25
3.22
In
fat— (ppm)
DDT
DDT , ODD , DDE Dieldrin %
29.0
24.6
221.4
17.6
3.66
0.23
0.83
0.83
0.59
0.28
32
27
63
44
36
I
NJ
1
— Based on extractable fat.
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- 43 -
CHAPTER III: WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL OF
FARM ANIMAL AND POULTRY MANURES
Farm animal and poultry manures are of major concern in
the abatement of water pollution. Over 90 million farm animals
and birds produce in excess of 38 million tons of manure
annually in the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes Basin.
About 40 per cent of this is produced in the Lake Erie Water-
shed area alone.
The trend in livestock, milk, poultry and egg production
is towards automation and centralization. The production of
animals has emerged from the small, individual farm opera-
tion into a large-scale industrial enterprise involving
hundreds of animals and frequently very few acres.
Intensive confinement housing of animals and poultry
creates a waste disposal problem. Ordinarily, these wastes
are used as a fertilizer source for field crop production and
if the farmer grows his own feed, there is generally suffi-
cient land available for this method of disposal. However,
many poultry and hog producers do not grow their own feed
and rely on commercially available feedstuffs for their feed
requirements. Thus, they frequently do not have adequate
land of their own for the disposal of the manure produced.
The cash crop farmer, on the other hand, can usually buy and
apply chemical fertilizers more cheaply than he could use free
sources of animal manures.
A. The Characteristics of Animal Manures
There are many criteria which may be used for assessing
the water pollution potential of farm manures. The general
criteria used in sewage treatment are biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), suspended solids (SS) and coliform bacteria. More
recently nutrient relationships have become important espe-
cially those of nitrogen and phosphorus. While these criteria
may also be applied to farm manures it should be stressed
that manure unlike domestic sewage is not normally discharged
to surface water.
In the following tables both sewage treatment criteria
and plant nutrients have been used to characterize farm
animal wastes. These figures represent total production values
and do not represent quantities reaching water. As is pointed
out later proper manure management would prevent all, or a
very large proportion of these potential pollutants from
reaching receiving waters.
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- 44 -
Table 3.1 expresses, in units of pounds per day per
animal, the production quantities of the various manure
components mentioned above. These figures have been used
in calculating the data presented in Tables 3.2 and 3.3
for the Lake Erie Watershed (refer to Figure 1.1, section
on Fertilizer Use and Pollution) and in Tables 3.4 and 3.5
for the Great Lakes Basin.
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- 45 -
Table 3.1.—Production Quantities and Characteristics
of Livestock Manures
Total
Manure BOD
SS
Nitrogen
P2°5
Sodium
- Ib/day /animal -
Bulls
Cows (milk)
Cows (beef)
Steers (beef)
Heifers (milk)
Heifers (beef)
Calves
Pigs (feeder)
Sows
Sheep (ewes)
Sheep ( lambs )
Horses & Ponies
90
50
25
10
14
12
8
55
1.45
1.65
0.36
0.38
0.41
0.32
0.22
1.40
1.95
2.05
0.52
0.34
0.18
0.21
0.11
1.90
0.33
0.16
0.08
0.06
0.062
0.05
0.03
0.26
0.13
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.042
0.03
0.02
0.09
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.006
0.008
0.002
0.001
0.01
Hens (layers)
Chickens (hatchery)
Turkeys (heavy)
Hens (pullets)
Turkeys (broiler)
Chickens (broiler)
Turkeys (hatchery)
0.31 0.025 0.013 0.004
0.16 0.013 0.011 0.0015
0.0028 0.00025
0.0008 0.00018
0.09 0.009 0.008 0.0033 0.0002 0.0001
0.31 0.03 0.02 0.0046 0.00041 0.0004
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Table 3.2. — Components of Animal Manures Produced on Farms in the Lake Erie Watershed
Bulls
Cows (milk)
Cows (beef )
Steers (beef)
Heifers (milk)
Heifers (beef)
Calves
Pigs (feeder)
Sows
Sheep ( ewes )
Sheep (lambs)
Horses and Ponies
Numbers
6,200
248,000
85,000
339,200
230,000
73,300
87 , 300
390,600
178,400
1,588,000
198,500
34,000
31,100
22,200
Manure
Ib/day
30,528,000
19,530,000
4,460,000
15,880,000
2,779,000
408,000
248,800
1,221,000
BOD
Ib/day
491,840
644,490
64,224
603,440
81,385
10,880
6,842
31,080
SS
Ib/day
661,440
976,500
92,768
539,920
35,730
7,140
3,421
42,180
Nitrogen
Ib/day
111,936
62,496
14,272
95,280
12,307
1,700
933
5,772
P2°5
Ib/day
44,096
39,060
5,352
63,520
8,337
1,020
622
1,998
Sodium
Ib/day
10,176
3,906
1,484
9,528
1,588
68
31
222
Total Animals
75,054,800 1,934,181 2,359,099 304,696 164,005 27,003
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Table 3.3. — Components of Poultry Manures Produced on Farms in the Lake Erie Watershed
Hens (layers)
Chickens (hatchery)
Tu rkey s ( he a vy )
Hens (pullets)
Turkeys (broilers )
Chickens (broilers )
Turkeys (hatchery)
Total Poultry
Numbers
3,965,331
656,912
1,819,366
6,441,609
2,960,000
3,464,229
6,424,229
33,016,660
290,259
Manure
Ib/day
1,996,899
1,039,392
2,971,449
83,780
6,091,570
BOD
Ib/day
161,040
111 , 363
297,150
8,108
577,661
SS
Ib/day
83,741
74,242
264,133
5,405
427,521
Nitrogen
Ib/day
27,055
11,136
10,895
1,243
50,521
P2°5
Ib/day
18,036
5,140
6,603
1,108
30,887
Sodium
Ib/day
1,610
1,134
3,302
108
6,154
Total Poultry and Animals -
Ibs/day 81,146,370 2,511,842 2,786,620 355,025 194,892 33,157
tons/year 14,809,212 458,411 508,558 64,792 35,567 6,051
-------
Table 3.4.— Components of Animal Manures Produced on Farms in the Great Lakes Basin
Bulls
Cows (milk)
Cows (beef)
Steers (beef)
Heifers (milk)
Heifers (beef)
Calves
Pigs ( feeders )
Sows
Sheep ( ewes )
Sheep (lambs)
Horses and Ponies
Total Animals
Numbers
24,400
668,700
327,000
1,019,100
609 , 300
189,700
269,900
1,068,900
578,000
3,039,200
379,500
118,600
105,400
53,700
Manure
Ib/day
91,809,000
53,455,000
14,450,000
30,392,000
5,313,000
1,423,200
843,200
2,953,500
200,628,900
BOD
Ib/day
1,479,145
1,763,685
208,080
1,154,896
155,595
37,952
23,188
75,180
4,897,701
SS
Ib/day
1,939,195
2,191,245
300,560
1,033,328
68 , 310
24,906
11,594
102,030
5,721,168
Nitrogen
Ib/day
336,613
171,024
46 , 240
182,352
23,529
5,930
3,162
13,962
783,833
P2°5
Ib/day
132,611
106,890
17 , 340
121,568
15,938
3,558
2,108
4,833
404 , 847
Sodium
Ib/day
30,603
10,689
5,780 ^
00
18,235
3,036
237
105
537
69,222
-------
Table 3.5. —Components of Poultry Manures Produced on Farms in the Great Lakes Basin
Hens (layers)
Chickens (hatchery)
Turkeys (heavy)
Hens (pullets)
Turkeys (broilers)
Chickens (broilers )
Numbers
7,386,556
1,296,755
3,489,897
12,173,208
5,356,000
4,716,199
10,072,199
63,447,476
Turkeys (hatchery) 299,966
Total Poultry
Total Poultry and Animals -
Ibs/day
tons /year
Manure
Ib/day
3,773,694
1,611,552
5,710,273
92,989
11,188,508
211,817,408
38,656,668
BOD
Ib/day
304,330
171,227
571,027
9,000
1,055,584
5,953,285
1,036,474
SS
Ib/day
158,252
101,794
507,580
6,000
773,626
6,494,794
1,185,300
Nitrogen
Ib/day
51,127
13,094
20,938
1,380
86,539
869,372
158,660
P2°5
Ib/day
34,085
8,058
12,689
1,230
56,062
460,909
84,116
Sodium
Ib/day
3,043
1,812
6,344
120
11,319
80 , 541
14,699
-------
- 50 -
(B) SOURCES
Nitrogen may well be the most important of the potential
pollutants in farm animal manures. It is present in extremely
high concentrations and .is readily carried by water. A con-
venient way to present the intensity of nitrogen production by
manures on farms in Ontario is to establish a livestock dis-
tribution pattern for the Great Lakes Basin.
Table 3.6 shows the quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus
excreted by different kinds of livestock and, since there is
considerable variation in the production of manure between
different species and ages of livestock, the concept of the
"animal unit" has been developed. An animal unit will pro-
duce the amount of nitrogen normally sufficient to bring a
one-acre crop to maturity.
Table 3.7 gives the animal unit equivalent of the various
classes of farm animals and poultry.
Tables 3.8 and 3.9 show the animal units in the Great
Lakes Basin broken down by county. The Lake Erie Watershed
(refer to Figure 1.1 in section on Fertilizer Use and Pollu-
tion) because of its special significance, is given as a per-
centage for the total of the Basin in Table 3.9. Commercial
farm acreage in these tables were obtained from the 1969 Farm
Statistics for Ontario. The acreage concentrations of animal
units shown in the final column of each table suggests that
there is ample land available for the effective utilization
of the manure being produced in the Great Lakes Basin.
The maps in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 graphically illustrate
the distribution of the livestock populations and their
concentrations on an animal unit basis. The data for these
figures were taken from Tables 3.8 and 3.9.
-------
- 51 -
Table 3.6.—The Nitrogen and Phosphorus Excreted by
Different Kinds of Livestock
Kind of Livestock
N
Ib.
P
Ib,
1,000 chicken broilers (60 days)
(0 to 4 Ib.)
100 laying hens (365 days)
(5 Ib.)
10 feeder hogs (140 days)
(30 to 200 Ib.)
2 beef steers (365 days)
(400 to 1,100 Ib.)
1 dairy cow (365 days)
(1,200 Ib.)
155
125
115
140
140
31
44
29
29
29
Table 3.7.—Animal Unit Equivalents of Various Classes of Livestock
1 dairy cow
2 heifers (for milk purposes)
4 calves (under one year)
1 beef cow
2 beef steers (400-1,100 Ib.)
2 beef heifers (400-1,000 Ib.)
1 bull
1 horse (includes ponies)
4 sows
10 feeder hogs (30-200 Ib.)
4 sheep (ewes and rams)
6 lambs (to 100 Ib. market weight)
100 hens (layers)
100 hens (breeders)
300 pullets
1,000 chicken broilers (0-4 Ib.)
300 turkeys (broilers)
100 turkeys (heayys)
75 turkeys (breeders)
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
3/4 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
1 animal unit
(365
(365
(365
(365
(365
(365
(365
(365
days)
days)
days)
days)
days)
days)
days)
days)
(365 days)
(140 days)
(365 days)
(365 days)
(365 days)
(160 days)
(60 days)
(85 days)
(160 days)
(365 days)
-------
Table 3.8. —Livestock Populations (Animal Units) by Counties in the Great Lakes Watershed
(not Including Lake Erie Watershed in Ontario)
County
or
District
Bruce
Dufferin
Grey
Halton
Huron
Peel
Perth
Simcoe
Durham
Haliburton
Hastings
Muskoka
No r thumbe r 1 and
Ontario
Parry Sound
Peterborough
Prince Edward
Victoria
York
Frontenac
Leeds
Lennox-Addington
Algoma
Manitoulin
Rainy River
Sudbury
Thunder Bay
Poultry
3,
1,
6,
5,
17,
2,
17,
5,
3,
-
3,
4,
5,
-
1,
1,
1,
8,
3,
2,
-
1,
-
-
—
491
964
391
692
998
233
034
783
940
-
984
300
740
214
-
547
967
734
583
553
192
014
-
608
-
-
—
Pigs
16,850
8,150
17,975
3,675
29,875
2,100
38,500
20,050
4,400
90
5,375
210
5,500
9,925
315
2,050
2,010
4,225
11,900
1,050
1,625
2,225
190
1,125
145
400
435
Dairy
49,400
15,400
48,100
11,950
51,550
17,575
71,750
40,275
13,350
575
30,275
2,525
26,300
27,700
4,825
15,050
16,100
12,400
20,300
21,625
32,300
19,750
5,100
4,075
5,400
4,800
7,250
Beef
89,950
24,100
62,000
5,850
66,500
12,050
31,700
45,000
22,250
1,150
12,400
1,050
15,000
21,300
5,050
15,150
3,750
32,800
12,500
11,200
8,550
8,950
5,600
12,100
10,000
3,150
2,050
Sheep
1,800
1,650
4,658
1,333
1,242
1,033
717
4,467
1,033
30
975
170
703
2,175
333
742
717
2,400
1,450
742
817
592
471
2,258
950
41
83
Horses
1,350
750
1,575
825
1,125
975
1,500
1,800
750
150
975
215
900
1,350
450
825
300
750
3,225
825
1,050
675
300
225
300
225
225
Animal
Units
Total
162,841
52,014
140,699
29,325
168,290
35,966
161 , 201
117,375
45,723
1,995
53,984
4,470
53,158
67,664
10,973
36 , 264
24,844
54,309
57,958
35,995
47,534
34,206
11,607
21,391
16 , 795
8,616
10,043
Commercial Animal Units
Farms (per
(acreage) 100 acres)
616
236
653
116
678
163
470
486
200
4
318
28
274
274
77
181
163
290
226
189
244
200
79
182
103
64
81
,921
,107
,114
,349
,300
,489
,738
,944
,442
,741
,984
,484
,793
,440
,365
,742
,274
,913
,174
,601
,696
,023
,457
,081
,572
,679
,272
26.4
22.0
21.5
25.2
24.8
22.0
34.2
24.1
22.8
42.0
16.9
15.7
19.3
24.6
14.2
20.0
15.2
18.7
25.6
19.0
19.4
17.1
14.6
11.7
16.2
13.3
12.4
Ul
N)
-------
Table 3.9.-— Livestock Populations (Animal Units) by Counties in the Lake Erie Watershed - Ontario
County
Brant
Elgin
Essex
Haldimand
Kent
Lambton
Lincoln
Middlesex
Norfolk
Oxford
Welland
Wentworth
Waterloo
Wellington
Poultry
4,805
5,431
3,967
5,983
5,539
10 , 240
13,854
16,553
6,060
13,763
6,719
8,752
12,708
11,653
Erie Watershed
(animal 126,033
units)
Great Lakes
(animal
units)
Erie as % of
Great Lakes
Basin
225,995
56
Pigs
6,525
10,800
5,575
6,900
17,525
21,550
5,750
22,650
4,925
24,150
2,425
7,075
33,350
39,225
208,425
398,795
52
Dairy
14,225
18,700
11,500
32,250
5,850
22,575
12,050
47,800
10,350
57,750
9,650
17,300
31,100
47,050
329,150
905,750
36
Beef
6,750
21,850
4,300
8,150
24,820
35,150
2,190
51,170
4,950
21,200
1,970
5,900
18,850
43,100
250,350
791,500
32
Sheep
800
1,117
125
1,250
792
2,083
416
2,283
417
775
400
375
875
1,975
13,683
47,216
29
Horses
750
1,350
525
750
675
1,500
525
1,875
1,275
1,125
525
825
2,625
2,325
16,650
40,265
41
Animal
Units
Total
33,856
59 , 248
25,992
46,283
55,201
93,098
34,785
142,336
27,977
118,763
21,689
40,227
99,508
145 , 328
944,291
2,409,521
39
Commercial Animal Units
Farms (per
(acreage) 100 acres)
180
359
319
209
527
501
118
591
296
397
79
133
240
471
4,426
11,735
,999
,922
,384
,260
,041
,907
,136
,420
,809
,201
,483
,653
,446
,165
,826
,521
38
18
16
8
22
10
18
29
24
9
29
27
30
41
30
21
20
.7
.5
.1
.1
.5
.5
.4
.1 1
A (f\
•* w
.9 I
.3
.1
.4
.8
.3
.5
-------
ecr
FIGURE 3.1— ANIMAL UNITS* PER COUNTY
OR DISTRICT IN GREAT LAKES BASIN
Refer to Table 1.7.
LESS THAN 50,000
50,000 TO 90,000
LAKE ERIE
100.000 TO 140,000
150,000 AND OVER
I
in
80*
IS*
-------
80°
LAKE ONTARIO
LIVESTOCK
CONCENTRATES
ACRES OF
COUNTY C
(ANIMAL UNITS PEF
COMMERCIAL FARM) PER
IN GREAT LAKES BASIN
DISTRICT
LESS THAN II
II TO 22
23 TO 34
35 AND OVER
in
ui
-------
56 -
On the basis of the livestock populations in both the
Lake Erie Watershed and the Great Lakes Basin, an estimate of
nitrogen and phosphate production in manure is presented in
the following table.
Table 3.10.—Total Nitrogen and Phosphorus Production
from Manures
Lake Erie Watershed Great Lakes Basin
tons/year tons/year
Nitrogen (N) 64,792 158,660
Phosphate (P2<>5) 35,567 84,116
Phosphorus (P) 15,649 35,911
Since many classes of livestock such as heifers, calves,
beef cows, sheep and horses are on pasture for six months of
each year, a considerable portion of the nitrogen and phos-
phorus produced from their manure would not be available for
crop acres and would, therefore, not replace commercial fertilizer.
It is estimated on the above basis that in the Erie
Watershed and the Great Lakes Basin the following quantities
of nitrogen and phosphorus are excreted annually on pastures
and do not replace fertilizer applications on cropped land.
Table 3.11.— Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Manures Deposited
Directly on Pastures (Estimated)
Lake Erie Watershed Great Lakes Basin
tons/year tons/year
Nitrogen (N) 7,012 22,512
Phosphate (P2°5) 3,295 10,588
Phosphorus (P) 1,450 4,659
The total nitrogen production from manure should be
discounted at least 25% for losses during handling and storage
of manure and again this amount would not replace commercial
-------
- 57 -
nitrogen fertilizers applied to cropped land. It cannot, of
course, be argued that this nitrogen does not affect water
quality since part of it may leach into the soil as nitrate.
Figures in Table 3.12 show the quantities of nitrogen
and phosphorus produced in the Great Lakes Basin discounted
as described above.
Table 3.12—Nitrogen and Phosphorus Production from Manures
as Replacement for Commercial Fertilizer
Lake Erie Watershed Great Lakes Basin
tons/year tons/year
Nitrogen (N) 43,335 102,111
Phosphate (P20s) 32,272 73,528
Phosphorus (P) 14,199 32,352
(C) IMPACT
The massive potential of farm animal and poultry manures
to pollute the waters of the Great Lakes Basin has been estab-
lished in the proceeding sections. Unlike most industrial and
municipal wastes, however, farm manures are not normally dis-
charged to receiving waters. The percentages of pollution
materials which reach watercourses from livestock operations
are dependent upon a great diversity of factors, and hence it
is very difficult to determine with any degree of reliance,
the amount of pollutant materials from manures reaching the
Great Lakes Watershed.
The characteristics of farm animal manures having the
potential for the greatest impact on the pollution of the
Great Lakes Basin are outlined in the following sections.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand, or BOD of a waste is a
measure of the amount of oxygen required to biologically
oxidize the material. Such oxidation processes occur natur-
ally in receiving waters and if the organic pollution is
-------
- 58 -
excessive the natural oxygen content of the receiving stream
may be depleted. Under such conditions aerobic stabilization
is displaced by anaerobic processes with the resultant release
of foul smelling gases and unsightly floating masses of de-
caying solids. Another result of conditions of depleted oxygen is
the death of fish and other aerobic organisms trapped in that
body of water. Both the aesthetic as well as the practical
values of the watershed may thereby be seriously affected.
The BOD of farm manures is extremely high being in excess
of 200 times that of domestic sewage so that uncontrolled
discharge of manures to a watercourse may have devastating
effects.
Suspended Solids
Turbidity of a water body is a measure of the extent to
which suspended matter inhibits the penetration of light because
of particle scattering and absorption. Increases in turbidity
result from suspended materials being carried into lakes and
rivers through soil erosion, land runoff, water turbulence,
plankton growth and the suspended solids content of waste
effluents discharged to the water. Turbidity reduces the
aesthetic quality of the water and endangers spawning beds
where deposition and sedimentation occur.
The suspended solids content of farm manures is extremely
high, reaching concentrations of 50,000 ppm or more, and direct
discharge results in intolerable suspended solids levels in
receiving water.
Nitrogen
The nitrogen component of animal wastes is voided largely
as uric acid (birds) or as urea (mammals). Both these com-
pounds are quickly decomposed by microorganisms in the manure
with the result that ammonium salts accumulate. The ammonium
ion is more or less rapidly converted to nitrate, depending on
availability of oxygen, and the nitrate, being an anion, is
free to move with any water which leaches through the accumul-
ated waste since nitrate is not absorbed to clays and other
reactive sites as is the ammonium ion. Water moving through
manure may then be enriched with nitrogen even if it does not
carry any of the carbonaceous or other components of the manure,
and this nitrogen may find its way to ground water if condi-
tions permit.
-------
- 59 -
If manure is spread relatively thinly over soil, in
quantities not greatly exceeding the requirements of plant
production, most of the nitrate is removed by plants or lost
from the soil by reduction of the nitrate to nitrogen gas.
However, wherever manure is concentrated in direct contact
with soil, the possibility of leaching of nitrate to ground
water must be considered as well as the possibility of direct
surface transport of nitrogen, phosphorous and organic material
to watercourses.
Excessive concentrations of nitrates in groundwater used
for drinking purposes may be biologically converted to nitrates
in the digestive system and can cause methemoglobinemia in
both livestock and humans.
Nutrients
With the present emphasis on eutrophication, the nutrient
contribution of farm manures to surface waters is now recog*
nized. Although nitrogen and phosphorus are the principal
elements involved, other nutrients are also important and farm
animal manures contain virtually all of the macro-nutrients as
well as the trace elements required to promote algal growth.
At low concentrations, these nutrients are essential in
providing aquatic growths as food for fish. In excessive con-
centrations they permit an over-abundance of growth, and algae
blooms frequently develop causing serious aesthetic and economic
considerations. When streams and lakes reach the "pea soup"
stage of algae growth, the odour of decaying plants becomes
extremely offensive, fish are killed because of the reduced
oxygen content of the water and the water is reduced in its
economic and aesthetic importance.
Because of their high concentrations of nitrogen and
phosphorus, farm manures have frequently been blamed for
localized extreme algae blooms in ponds, or small lakes where
significant runoff has been allowed to enter such water bodies.
The nutrient content of farm manures is therefore of great
importance in the assessment of their water pollution potential.
Infectious Agents and Allergens
Agricultural losses caused by infectious agents of live-
stock, poultry, wildlife and man carried by water have been
well documented. Some of the diseases so transmitted are
salmonellsis, leptospirosis, hog cholera, foot-and-mouth
disease, tuberculosis, brucellosis and anthrax. A number of
these may infect humans.
-------
- 60 -
Waters receiving direct discharges of farm manures must
therefore be considered as hazardous to the health of farm
animals and humans if used for drinking purposes: Farm wells
may also become contaminated by the drainage from feed lots.
(D) CURRENT PRACTICE
An ideal system of animal waste management would incor-
porate the following concepts: the waste would be allowed to
accumulate in a water-tight storage to prevent seepage. The
storage would be large enough to hold an amount of waste suf-
ficient to obviate the necessity of spreading it on land during
winter (when ground is frozen and runoff in Spring can occur)
or during wet periods (when leaching might result). The waste
would be spread on land at seasons when crop uptake would be
expected to be maximum and at rates not exceeding those neces-
sary to achieve maximum crops. No animal wastes would be spread
on slopes subject to runoff to watercourses.
While practices approaching the ideal are current on some
farms in the Ontario Great Lakes Basin, animal production units
often fall short in some important aspects. Unfortunately,
statistics are, for the most part, unavailable and, because of
the very dynamic state of animal management concepts, it is
difficult even to generalize. A description of some of the
waste-handling practices in the study area is all that can be
attempted.
I Storage of Manure
1. Housed Animals
(a) Solid wastes: Most of the chicken and turkey broilers in
Southern Ontario; many laying flocks; many breeding swine herds
and many dairy herds are housed with litter or bedding in such
a way as to permit wastes to be handled as a solid. Similarly
most beef cow-calf enterprises and some feeder pig operations
are on solid waste handling. In some of these latter establish-
ments some liquids may be drained away from the solids and
collected in a tank. In all cases, the solids are moved outside
the building periodically and may be stored, often on the bare
ground but sometimes on a concrete slab, for some period before
being spread on land. There are no regulations presently in
Ontario regarding storage of solid animal wastes although such
storage areas must be deemed potential sources of nutrient
enrichment of both surface and ground water.
-------
- 61 -
So far as the authors are aware, few establishments follow
the pratice of storing manure on an impervious slab from which
fluids can be drained for storage in an approved way. Nor are
manure piles covered to prevent the leaching action of rain.
In certain areas where broilers are reared in high density con-
ditions on many small farms, manure has been moved by a contrac-
tor to a storage area and piled on bare ground in very large
quantities for periods of a year or more.
1. (b)Liquid Wastes: There is a growing trend in Ontario, among
egg producers and pig feeders particularly as well as among
dairy producers to manage manure in a liquid or slurry form.
While this system has disadvantages in that odour problems are
likely to be enhanced there is generally considered to be an
economic advantage over solid handling. Early attempts at
liquid handling involved the use of lagoons but these were
so often undersized, subject to overflow and odour problems
that their use has largely been abandoned. Current practice
usually involves storage of the liquid or slurry in concrete
tanks, often below grade. Provided these are of durable
construction they satisfactorily prevent contamination of
groundwater.
No regulations govern the size or construction design
of manure storage tanks in Ontario. However, where new
facilities are being constructed an approval should be
obtained from the Air Management Branch of the Dept. of
Energy and Resources Management. The Code of Practice
followed by the A.M.B. suggests that the storage provide
capacity for 6 months accumulation of manure.
2. Feed Lots; As elsewhere in North America there is a trend in
Ontario to produce beef cattle under confined conditions with
minimum shelter. Typically, cattle are held in a yard on a
concrete floor (or on a partially paved surface) with access
to a partially open shelter. No bedding is used and manure
is removed periodically and is usually spread on land im-
mediately. In some cases a larger feeding area is used and
no floor is provided. The manure solids may accumulate
over long periods. At least one operation in the Ontario
Great Lakes Basin has been constructed on a zero-housing
basis. On this farm, 1,000 steers are confined on a one-acre
un-roofed concrete slab. Manure is removed daily and stored
as a thin slurry in a concrete tank.
In general, feed lots are potential sources of
surface water pollution since there is only rarely any effort
made to collect water which runs off the holding area. Much
of this water may percolate into the soil as does contaminated
water leaching through unpaved feeding areas,and it poses the
same threat to ground water purity as was described above.
The location of the feed lot in relation to water courses as
well as the characteristics of the soil are important
considerations in evaluating the impact on the environment
of these establishments.
So far as we are aware, there are no specific
regulations applying to the location or manure handling
practices of feed lots other than the general regulations
of O.W.R.C. in regard to surface water quality.
-------
- 62 -
II Land Disposal/Utilization of Animal Wastes
All animal manure produced in the Ontario Great Lakes Basin
should be returned to the land. Ideally, as pointed out earlier
in this report, manure would be spread in such a way that the nu-
trients it contains would be utilized in crop production and
no runoff would occuro Because this requires careful timing of
manure applications as well as some knowledge of the nutrient
content of the manure, the ideal is not easily achieved,, In
our opinion the practices which have the greatest potential
adverse impact on water quality are those of winter spreading
of manure? storing or accumulating manure uncovered on the ground?
spreading manure at very high application rates, and permitting
runoff from feeding areas. Each of these practices is common
in the study area and none of them are specifically regulated,,
The Air Management Branch Code of Practice calls for suf=
ficient land to be available for complete utilization of the manure
produced on each farm receiving a permit<> However, the rate
and timing of manure application are not regulated„
In connection with land disposal of animal wastes, one
particular practice may be singled out for special criticism
since, while it is relatively rare, it seems to us to be parti=
cularly inadequate „ We refer to the use of septic tank systems
for disposal of veal calf wastes and milking parlour wastes»
This kind of installation has the effect of concentrating large
quantities of nitrogen in a very small area,, For example, a
veal calf unit of 200 capacity puts out about 6-8 Ibs. of nitrogen
per day or 1=1.5 tons per year which when distributed in a weep-=
ing tile bed covering 4,500 sq. ft. is equivalent to a rate of
nitrogen application of 10-15 tons per acre. Wastes from milk
houses also contain large quantities of manure and urine as
well as milk solids and are often handled in septic tank-weeping
tile systems.
Septic tank installations in the Province are regulated by
local Public Health authorities who may not always be aware of
problems associated with nutrient enrichment of water,,
III Treatment of Manure Prior to Disposal/Utilization
It seems generally to be recognized in Ontario that there is
little possibility for the complete treatment of animal waste
to permit liquid fractions to go directly to receiving waterso
Treatments of manure have therefore been designed to render the
waste less odorous during storage or to improve the efficiency
of handling for ultimate land disposal/utilization.
An exception to this general rule may be the use of lagoons
for the treatment of water containing relatively small quantities
of manure and other waste solids. Some specialized animal pro-
duction facilities (e.g. duck farms) where large quantities of
water are required, may separate solids from the liquid (settling
or mechanical means) and then aerate the liquid by mechanical
devices or in aerobic lagoons to produce acceptable effluents,,
This procedure may have application to wastes from milk houses
but is certainly not yet widely applied.
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Aeration of liquid manure during storage not only helps to
control odour, but has the potential for reducing the quantity
of nitrogen in the stored manure, and therefore reducing the poten-
ial impact of the manure on water quality when the waste is spread
on land. While aerators have not been widely installed there is
a growing interest in them and a number of mechanical devices are
in service on farms in the Great Lakes Basin.
Manure drying, composting and re-cycling by feeding to
other animals are other forms of treatment which so far have not
been widely exploited and which are likely to have a relatively
small role in manure management in the study area over the next
ten years.
Summary of Current Practices,and Ontario Agencies with Advisory ,
Regulating and Research Interests in Animal Wastes
1. There are no processes which will satisfactorily treat manure for
disposal directly to surface water. Manure in the Ontario
Great Lakes Basin is disposed of or utilized by returning it
to the land.
2. The major inadequacies (in terms of water quality) of current
practice are:
a) the potential for runoff or percolation from carelessly
piled solid manure,
b) the practice of spreading manure at rates greatly exceed-
ing the ability of vegetation to remove the nutrients
contained in the manure,
c) the practice of spreading manure at inappropriate times
of the year,
d) the practice of permitting runoff and percolation of
water from feed lots.,
e) the inadequate retention and treatment of largely fluid
wastes (as from milk houses) containing some manure solids.
3. Advisory, regulatory and research organizations with an
in interest in the handling of animal manures in the Ontario
Great Lakes Basin are:
— Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food — advisory
through its extension service, particularly the Agri-
cultural Engineering Service.
— Air Management Branch, Ontario Department of Energy
and Resources Management — chiefly concerned with
odour and other air quality problems arising from
manure management practice. A 'Suggested Code of
Practice1 is in operation which deals with the
establishment of new livestock buildings, renova-
tion or expansion of existing buildings and disposal
of animal wastes.
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— Ontario Water Resources Commission, Ontario Department
of Energy and Resources Management — through its
general responsibility for water quality in the Province
is interested in manure management practice and its
impact on water quality.
— Ontario Department of Public Health — has powers through
the Public Health Act (revised 1967) to regulate waste
disposal and public health nuisances which have not been
widely applied to animal manure management practices.
— Ontario Committee on Utilization of Animal Wastes —
a committee made up of personnel from all agencies
above as well as the Universities of Guelph and Toronto
which helps to co-ordinate research on animal wastes
in the Province.
— Ontario Advisory Committee on Pollution Control —
an inter-departmental committee of senior administrators
to the Ontario Cabinet.
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CHAPTER IV
II PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE ACTIVITIES FOR
NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND (VARIOUS GOVERNMENT LEVELS)
(A) Pesticide, Fertilizer Use in Parks, Highways and Other Lands
The total area of Ontario is 264 million acres, comprising
220 million acres of land and 44 million acres of water. About
25 per cent or 55 million acres of this land area drains into the
four Great Lakes bordering Ontario (the Ottawa River drainage is
excluded). Of the 55 million acres of land, 39 million acres are
forest, which includes almost all of the parkland, and a maximum
of one million acres are devoted to rights-of-way. Therefore
the land management matters under study involve some 40 million
acres. Specifically, the following substances might be regarded
as having a potential to pollute the waters of the Great Lakes.
Each is assessed as to its probable actual contribution to
pollution.
1. PESTICIDES
(a) Insecticides: In protecting the forests within the
Great Lakes drainage, including the parks, the current
average acreage sprayed each year is about 15,000.
This is 0.04% of the forested area. DDT has not been
used since the 1967 field season, and the short-lived
insecticides now being used to control defoliating
insects are chosen carefully for minimum hazard to the
envi ronment,
In addition to the foregoing protection of trees,
there is a small use of approved, safe, quick-breakdown
insecticides to combat biting flies around camp-grounds
in some recreational areas. insecticides are not used in
the management of rights-of-way.
Monitoring and other field studies permit the con-
clusion that current programs using insecticides do not
result in significant detrimental effects on the enviro-
ment, not only in the Great Lakes, but at the point of
application.
(b) Fungicides: There is no field use of fungicides in
forest management in Ontario.
(c) Herbicides: Within the Great Lakes drainage, the
following is the estimated annual use of herbicides by
land management agencies. With the exception of the
herbicide "Tordon", the use of which is increasing in
the maintenance of rights-of-way, the herbicides in
general use (2.4 -D and 2,4,5-T) are relatively short-
lived (usually between 1 and 2 months) and are held by
the organic material in the soil. The possibilities for
contaminating waterways are therefore minimal.
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MAP OF THE
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO
PENNSYLVANIA
OHIO
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Forestry
Parks
Riqhts-of-Way
Roads
Power-Lines
Others
15,000 acres
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On the other hand, clean gravel supplies spawning
beds for trout and other fish. Although a stream-bed
which is partly mud usually has a good fish population,
bank erosion by itself usually provides little nutrients
to the stream.
In general, erosion probably does more harm than good
to the ecology of a water system.
Erosion and resultant sedimentation within the Great
Lakes Basin may be divided generally in two areas (a)
stream, and (b) lake.
(a) Stream Erosion and Sedimentation; Sediment deposi-
ted and carried in a stream may come from two sources
(i) land surface erosion and (ii) stream-bank and bed erosion
(i) Land Surface Erosion; Contributors to this
source of erosion in Ontario are; agricul-
tural lands: developing urban and industrial
lands; municipal works projects including roads,
bridges, sewers, watermains, dams, etc.: and
mining and forestry activities.
(ii) Stream-Bank and Bed Erosion; All streams in
Ontario experience stream erosion to some
degree as a natural pheonomena. In some areas
this natural process of erosion has been
aggravated by such things as: cattle and other
animals grazing on river banks; boating; indis-
criminate dumping of fill and diversion of the
natural stream course; poorly designed bridges
and logging operations; and increased run-off
volumes from urbanization.
(b) Lake Shore Erosion and Sedimentation; Sediments
accumulate in lakes from three sources;
1) stream discharge,
2) bluff erosion, and
3) submarine erosion.
The relative contribution from each of these varies
throughout the entire length of the shoreline of the Great
Lakes and depends on the composition and topography of the
shoreline, lake bottom and adjacent drainage areas; on the
current patterns in each area; and on the hydrology, land
use and stream characteristics of the contributory drainage
basins. Little is known about the effects of the sediment
load in specific areas but, in general, as mentioned pre-
viously, a high sediment load has an undesirable effect on
the ecology of the water body.
The exact extent of the erosion problem in Ontario has
not been determined but one need not search far to observe
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some of the detrimental effects that it has had on stream
life, water use, and land use. The Water Survey of Canada
is attempting to quantify the extent of the erosion problem
by measuring both sediment load in streams and the rate of
deposition in reservoirs. This program is being carried
out with the co-operation and assistance of the Department
of Energy and Resources Management and the local Conserva-
tion Authorities. In the meantime, attempts are being
made through education, grants for erosion control works,
and legislative means to encourage the use of erosion
control works.
Existing Legislation Affecting Erosion Control; Several pieces
of Provincial legislation deal either directly or indirectly
with erosion control on land surfaces, stream-banks and lake
shores. The most powerful Acts, although not necessarily the
most widely used, in this regard are as follows:
(i) The Ontario Water Resources Commission Act: Under Section
27 (1) of this Act (see Appendix Table A3) the OWRC has
virtual control of all land use and land development in the
Province. This power, as regards erosion control, has
seldom, if ever, been used.
(ii) The Planning Act; This Act provides that all proposed
developments, official plans, zoning by-laws, etc., be
approved by the Minister of Municipal Affairs. In order
to implement this Act, the Department of Municipal Affairs
circulates each proposal to the appropriate Provincial and
local agencies for comment and recommendations. Development
conditions are then set by the Minister of Municipal Affairs.
This process is gaining increasing importance as a tool in
erosion control management.
(iii) The Conservation Authorities Act (1968)
Under this Act, local Conservation Authorities may control
the dumping of fill in designated areas and prohibit con-
struction in the floodplain. This control has proved
extremely successful in some areas but it is limited to
those areas which are within a Conservation Authority and
it is also dependent on the willingness and financial
capability of the local Authority to administer these
regulations.
(C) Management Practices; Erosion and sediment control are two
aspects of water resources management that have received
too little attention in Ontario. With increasing urbaniza-
tion and industrialization greater demands are being placed
on the land by public and private interests. In order to
prevent further land and water deterioration a program for
erosion and sediment control is needed.
The key to successful erosion and sediment control is
wise land management. Land cover is the major deterrent to
sediment production. Much technical progress has been made
in recent years so that control techniques are now well-
developed. The major problem that still remains is the
establishment of an administrative framework for regulating
and controlling sediment.
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Some planning authorities in the United States already
are requiring that builders adhere to specific regulations
in developing an area for construction,, For example, some
agencies insist that subdivision planning be based on a
scientific soil approved prior to construction,,
Sediment traps and debris basins are being required and
used by contractors in some areas to reduce the flow of
sediment from land during construction0 Keeping protective
cover on construction sites as long as possible, and restor-
ing cover quickly after construction are also recommended
steps to keep sediment yields to a minimum*
As discussed under Section 11(b) some administrative
control is being exercised under the Planning Act and the
Conservation Authorities Acto
Sediment Control Measures
Techniques of sediment control have been well established
for many years especially in rural areas where such methods as
land treatment (grass waterways, contour ploughing, etc0) and
slope stabilization are used to prevent erosion and sedimentation,,
However, the application of these methods to urban areas where
sediment is becoming an increasing problem requires modifications
and/or new control techniques„
The technical principles of an erosion and sediment control
program that can be universally applied involve (1) reducing
the area and duration of exposure of soils, (2) covering the soils
with vegetation, (3) mechanically retarding the rate of runoff
water, and (4) trapping the sediment in the runoff water„
Stabilization of land undergoing development is often
essential during the construction stage due to the long time
periods, which are sometimes involved between the time when a
tract is levelled and graded prior to construction, and the time
when development is complete„ The costs of sediment control on
lands being developed for subdivision have been estimated by the
Soil Conservation Service in the United States at approximately
one-third of one per cent of each lot' s value for a new satellite
city development of 16,000 acres in Maryland,, If the developer
were made responsible for implementing sediment control measures,
it is obvious that the total cost would be only a very small pro-
portion of his profits.
At present there is little or no control over land developers
who are often finished with a project before the effects of
inadequate sediment control are noticed,, Local municipalities
either do not enforce sediment control or only require that the
developer provide adequate drainage and carry out such tasks as
flushing sewers of sediment accumulated during construction,, Little
attention is given to the potential effects on downstream users of
inadequate sediment control» Of course, it should be recognized
that it is often difficult to pinpoint the source of sediment that
has accumulated downstream, and for this reason the courts have
sometimes refused to consider damage claims„ It is apparent then
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that sediment control in urban areas can best be achieved by co-
operation in the planning stages of all concerned including the
local Conservation Authority, municipality and land developer.
TECHNICAL CONTROL
A. Structural Measures
The major structural elements in a sediment control program
are as follows:
a) reservoirs,
b) channel improvement and stabilization works,
c) debris and sedimentation basins, and
d) other structural measures.
Many of these are, of course, multi-purpose in nature with
the most important use being water control and/or storage. However,
their usefulness as sediment control structures should not be over-
looked at the planning stage.
a) Reservoirs: Reservoirs provide barriers to the trans-
port of sediment that originates in upstream areas. Multi-purpose
reservoirs generally have storage capacity allocated for such things
as floodwater detention, municipal water supply, irrigation water
and recreation. Additional capacity should also be allocated to
sediment storage.
b) Channel Improvement and Stabilization Works; Stream
channel improvement and stabilization projects are constructed to
increase the capacity of the channel and to retard the bank erosion
process. In some areas bank erosion is a major contributor to
downstream sedimentation so that the use of gabion baskets, concrete
lining materials, and other channel stabilization works is a major
factor in sediment reduction. Care should be taken in design to
tailor the components to watershed conditions since increased
velocities associated with channel improvement projects may promote
further degradation and erosion downstream.
c) Debris Basins: A debris basin is a reservoir designed
specifically to trap sediment. These can be used, where site
conditions and topography allow, on large construction sites as
temporary control measures. After the critical, "erosion-prone"
period of development they can be removed or graded and landscaped.
B. Non-Structural Measures
Non-strucrtural measures for sediment control imply some
form of land treatment. In areas where the primary source of
sediment is sheet or land erosion, land treatment measures have
a significant effect on reducing sedimentation damages. Before
any land treatment practices are attempted sediment control measures
should be designed in light of the existing or proposed land use.
The major non-structural elements in a sediment control
program are as follows:
a) vegetative treatment,
b) protection of existing vegetative cover, and
c) mechanical practices.
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a) Vegetative Treatment; The establishment of vegetative
cover on land subject to erosion may include the planting of grass,
sodding and tree planting. Generally, these treatment methods
reduce erosion and sedimentation in the following manner. The plant
materials intercept rainfall and reduce the effect of raindrop impact
Infiltration is increased and the rate of surface runoff reduced.
The plants help to bind the soil into an erosion-resistant mass and
the roughness of the ground surface is increased, reducing the
velocity of overland flow and thereby its capacity to erode and
transport sediment.
b) Protection of Existing Vegetative Cover; The control of
erosion and sediment yeild on forest, brush and grassland can be
achieved by measures to protect the existing cover. Conventional
fire protection techniques as practiced by the Department of Lands
and Forests, and land use controls such as the prevention of grazing
on critical sediment-producing areas are two common methods used
to protect existing land cover.
c) Mechanical Practices; Mechanical practices refer to
such techniques as terracing, grassed waterways, ditches and grade
stabilization structures.
Administrative Control
The key to the implementation of successful sediment control
program is the co-operation and co-ordination of the efforts of all
concerned. This must involve the assistance of any or all of the
following organizations:
Ontario Department of Energy & Resources Management
Conservation Authorities Branch
Local Conservation Authorities
Local Municipalities
Canada Department of Energy, Mines & Resources
Water Survey of Canada, Sediment Survey Section.
In addition, the co-operation of the provincial departments
of the Municipal Affairs, Highways, Agriculture, Lands and Forests
and the Ontario Water Resources Commission may be required depending
on the circumstances of the particular sedimentation problem.
Legislation specifically designed to control erosion and
sedimentation is being considered in the Provincial Government and
it will hopefully provide for a workable administrative framework
for the successful control of management practices.
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CHAPTER V
III CURRENT PLANNING, ADVISORY AND REGULATORY STANDARDS
(a) Water Quality Standards
The guidelines for the control of water quality in the
tributary basins, as well as near-shore waters of the Great
Lakes contained in the Guidelines and Criteria for Water
Quality Management in Ontario (Ontario Water Resources
Commission, 1970), set out the procedure for the establishment
of water quality standards in Ontario waters. The criteria
for water quality are the scientific requirements for the pre-
servation of aquatic life and wildlife and the use of water
for a variety of needs including water supplies for agricul-
tural purposes. The criteria for each use category, if met,
would ensure that the water is suitable for that use.
The OWRC uses these criteria when it establishes water
quality standards for drainage basins or parts thereof, following
consultation with agencies or persons having an interest or
responsibility in the present or future use of the water in the
basin. The set of standards established depends on the existing
and probable future uses of the resources of the basin. The
requirements for waste effluents and land drainage are based
on these standards or criteria where such standards do not
exist.
1. POINT SOURCES vs. NON-POINT SOURCES
Manor types of pollutants — nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus), solids,
pesticides, oxygen demanding
organics.
Livestock enterprises accumulate large quantities of
wastes which are utilized mainly as land fertilizer. Agricul-
tural operations may give rise to non-point sources of pollu-
tion as a result of nutrient losses from eroded lands or lands
fertilized with animal wastes or commercial fertilizers and
pesticide residues.
Nitrogen may leach to groundwater which will usually resur-
face eventually and be carried with the surface drainage. Nitro-
gen, phosphorus and oxygen consuming organic wastes may be carried
in surface drainage, where animal wastes have been washed or
carried with soil eroded from the land surface and particularly
where the animal wastes are applied to frozen soil in advance
of a spring melt. The timing and rate of application of
fertilizers are important factors in considering the polluting
potential of these materials. Odour problems may also be
associated with the application of animal wastes.
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Animal wastes and commercial fertilizers have been cited
as contributing to the nutrient enrichment of the lower Great
Lakes drainage system= It has been estimated by Miller (1970)
that less than 2 0 5 per cent of the phosphorus reaching Lake
Ontario and Lake Erie can be attributed to fertilizer use.
This estimate gives an indication of the average phosphorus
drainage to the lower Great Lakes. The contribution of nutri~
ents from each tributary can be expected to vary significantly
depending upon local land use patterns. Terry and Salbach (19703)
have shown that considerable nutrient enrichment occurred in
rural land drainage from the Duffin Creek (Lake Ontario) and
Catfish Creek (Lake Erie) basins. About 95 percent of the
total nitrogen load and over 75 percent of the total phosphorus
load carried by Catfish Creek was attributed to sources other
than municipal sewage and industrial wastes.
Other sources of phosphorus include municipal sewage,
detergents and industrial wastes, which altoghther, contribute
to the accelerated eutrophication of the lower Great Lakes„
Aside from replacement of phosphorus in detergents and control
of nutrients in effluents from sewage treatment plants, efforts
to reduce the pressure of loadings of nutrients on the Great
Lakes System should include improved animal husbandry and land
management practices.
The use of organic and inorganic compounds as pesticides
has been expanding rapidly. With their use, problems of
contamination of air, water and soil have occurred. Pesticides
are spread either as aerial sprays or by direct land application
with spray tanks or other means. Pollution of water by pesticides
usually can be attributed to careless handling and disposal of
spray tank residues and containers or drifting sprays.
2. IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE
It can be generally said that the installation of facilities
for the treatment of animal wastes designed to produce an effluent
suitable for discharge to a watercourse is not within the econo-
mic realm of an agricultural operation. Treatment methods pre-
sently employed have as a primary objective, the maintenance of
acceptable environmental conditions during the storage period
until the wastes can be spread on land. It is generally
recommended that storage facilities with a retention capacity
of six months be provided. The desirable practice is to promote
the establishment of confined livestock enterprises only if
sufficient land is available to spread these wastes. Field
spreading of manure, properly applied, should provide a satis-
factory solution to the handling and final disposal of animal
wastes, while adding necessary plant nutrients to the soil.
Thus, manure disposal, in many cases, may become the economic
factor limiting the size and/or location of a livestock enter-
prise. The objective for a producer who promotes a new
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enterprise must be disposal of wastes, at least cost, doing
so with the approval of the regulatory agencies concerned with
air, water and soil management.
Most waste treatment methods presently in operation
utilize biological processes, including anaerobic digestion,
lagoon treatment and aerobic systems. The oxidation ditch is
receiving wide-spread attention as a reasonably suitable waste
treatment system. Nevertheless, these treatment methods are
not used for, or are they capable of producing effluents
suitable for discharge to a watercourse. They are effective
in preventing nuisance conditions or health hazards during
storage for eventual disposal to land. Research is being
carried out by the Ontario Department of Agriculture and
Food, University of Guelph and others on improving treatment
methods for the disposal of wastes from farm animals.
CHLORIDE POLLUTION AND IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE
There has been a steady rise in the concentration of
chlorides in the lower Great Lakes (Summary Report to IJC)
since the turn of the century. Long-term monitoring studies
reveal that the chloride content of Lake Ontario & Lake Erie
started to rise noticeably about the year 1900 and has risen
at a fairly uniform rate since 1915. Contributing to this
rise have been industrial wastes, increasing urbanization and
related population concentrations and in recent years, the
increased use of salt for de-icing municipal roads and highways,
The desirable criteria for chloride in water used in
the irrigation of crops is recommended to be less than 70
gm/1 with a special requirement for tobacco of less than 20
mg/1 (OWRC Guidelines and Cirteria for Water Quality
Management in Ontario). The lower Great Lakes are already
approaching concentrations of chlorides that limit the
usefulness of these waters for certain types of irrigation.
The tributary streams exhibit large seasonal flue t uations in
chlorides with higher levels occurring both during the winter
and summer months. In winter, road salting is largely
responsible while during the irrigation period in summer, low
streamflows provide reduced dilution of materials carried in
the streams.
A rough estimate of the amount of road salt used on all
roads within the Great Lakes drainage is 500,000 tons annually.
This is applied in varying amounts to about 30,000 miles of
road. However, probably 80% of this total would be used on
roads immediately adjacent to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie.
Until more is known about the role of chloride in a
fresh water system, prudence would indicate that use of road
salt should be held to the minimum which will ensure adequate
travel safety.
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The Ontario Department of Highways is presently studying
the use of dome structures to cover salt and sand stockpiles as
a means of reducing pollution of ground and surface waters as
well as improving winter operations„ The results available
to date are very promising.
It is doubtful if much can be done about th® input ©f
chlorides from municipal waste sources as technology has not
been developed in this fieldo However, industrial sources
of chlorides probably are more amenable to control0 Present
day efforts in pollution control have been directed to reduce
the discharge of excessive coliform organisms, BOD, suspended
solids, phenols, nutrients, toxic elements, etc<> Increasing
attention should be given to the control of chlorides from
waste effluentSo
(b) Control Measures (Affecting Watershed Management)
Federal or Provincial Legislation -
Standards or Guidelines
The guidelines and legislation which apply to the
control of pollution of the environment from agriculture
include the followings
lo Suggested Code of Practice -
Ontario Department of Energy and Resources Management
& Ontario Department of Agriculture & Foodo
2. The Ontario Water Resources Commission Act =
Ontario Department of Energy and Resources Management0
3. Pesticides Act-
Ontario Department of Health,
With respect to agricultural buildings there is in
existence a "Suggested Code of Practice"» The code was produced
by the Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food and the Ontario
Department of Energy and Resources Management with assistance
from the Ontario Water Resources Commission„ The code deals with
the establishment of new livestock buildings, renovation or
expansion of existing buildings and disposal of animal wastes,
and provides guidelines for the control of pollution from
confined livestock operations. It suggests the acreage required
for disposal of manure, makes recommendations on storage of
lj_quid wastes and provides guidance for practices that minimize
air pollution. The latter is done in co-operation with the Air
Management Branch.
Section 27 (1) of the OWRC Act, prohibits the discharge
of any material to a watercourse that may impair water quality.,
The section could clearly apply to the discharge of wastes
from confined livestock operations, the application of ferti~
lizer and subsequent runoff and the use of pesticides as any
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of these uses may cause water pollution. Section 50 (1) requires
satisfactory enterprises. It is considered that this section
should also apply to intensive livestock operations when impair-
ment of water quality may result.
Under Section 47 (1) (G), the Commission may
prescribe standards of quality for sewage and industrial waste
effluents to receiving streams and watercourses.
Under Section 28 (2), no person shall take more than
10,000 gallons per day of water without a permit issued by
the Commission. The control of water taking minimizes
conflicts of water use through depletion of streamflow.
Through the Pesticides Act, the use of pesticides is
regulated by issuing exterminator licenses. The Ontario
Department of Health provides short courses, and rigid
examinations for licencees and every license is reviewed
each year by the Department.
The Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food also provides
a spray calendar which recommends policies for the application
of pesticides to field crops, fruit and vegetable productions
and for insect and disease control. The recommendations contained
in this calendar are reviewed annually by the Ontario Crop
Production Committee. The recommended chemicals (pesticides)
include only those registered with the Canada Department of
Agriculture under the Pest Control Products Act.
Considerations in Conclusion
Are codes of practice for lanck disposal of animal wastes
and the use of fertilizers on tand sufficient measures for
the control of pollution or are more specific controls
required? While requirements will be developed for the
dis'charges of point sources of municipal and industrial wastes,
at very least there appears to be a need for a clear set of
guidelines or a code of practice in managing land to curb
erosion and to control pollution through losses of nutrients
from the use of agricultural chemicals.
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CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
With the increasing trend towards intensification of
agricultural practices, and the transfer of land from rural
to urban use, agriculture and related land use sources have
been sighted today as having a greater potential for contam-
inating our environment than at earlier times. It was with
this recognition that the Joint Working Group on Great Lakes
Pollution established a Study-Group to deal with pollution
of the Great Lakes from Agriculture, Forestry and Conservation
sources (excluding processing) .
The study-group had as its terms of reference, an examin-
ation of land use sources of pollution of the Great Lakes
System in order to identify the severity of pollution arising
therefrom.
Together with other objectives, it was to assess pollu-
tion problems arising from the release and runoff of nutrients
and other substances, resulting from the application of
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and manure applications
from poultry and livestock operations including feedlots to
the land.
The Study-Group was also to assess the adequacy of current
land use practices with particular reference to soil erosion
and to assess current planning, advisory, and regulatory
standards with reference to Agriculture, Forestry and Conser-
vation.
The following represents a summary of some of the deliber-
ations of the study-group.
Fertilizer
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the two ingredients
of fertilizer that are of most concern from a water pollution
standpoint. Nitrogen is of concern since it is essential in
water for growth of most algae and other water plants and
because of the threat to the health of infants and ruminant
animals from high levels of nitrate nitrogen.
Phosphorus is of concern as a pollutant primarily because
it is generally accepted that high levels of phosphorus in
waters are a major contributing factor to excessive algae
growth.
Agricultural practices do contribute nitrates to the
groundwater but the extent of the contribution is difficult
to measure. It is, however, apparent that the contribution
will increase sharply if nitrogen is applied at rates above
those necessary for most profitable yield levels.
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A nitrogen balance sheet for cropped land in the Ontario
sections of the Erie and Great Lakes watersheds indicates
that the addition from commercial fertilizer, animal wastes
and natural sources exceeds that removed by approximately
30 Ibs. of N per acre under crops.
If all of this nitrogen reached ground or surface water
it would be a serious threat to the environment. It is known,
however, that a significant part of this will be denitrified
and released harmlessly to the atmosphere while another portion
will be immobilized in the soil through an increase in organic
matter content. A serious gap in our understanding of the
nitrogen cycle is that we cannot say what proportion is going
into each of these processes. Until we can estimate this with
some degree of assurance we will not be able to accurately
estimate the contribution of nitrogen from our crop land to
our water supplies.
We also need to increase our ability to determine the
amount of fertilizer nitrogen required on a given field for
most profitable yields. This is necessary to permit continued
efficient food production without causing unnecessary contri-
butions of nitrate to groundwaters.
Phosphorus is used in much smaller quantities although it
is just as essential. A balance sheet developed for phosphorus
in the Ontario portion of the Erie and Great Lakes Watersheds
shows that the addition of phosphorus from commercial fertilizer
and animal wastes exceeds that removed by about 37 Ibs. po°5
acre under crops in the Erie Watershed, and by 27 Ibs. PO^C pe
acre in the total Great Lakes Watershed. The balance sheet is
less complex than that for nitrogen because there are no natural
processes adding phosphorus to the soil.
Although it is impossible at this time to accurately
estimate the proportion of phosphorus reaching the Lakes that
comes from fertilizer applications, it is fairly safe to say
that approximately 12 per cent of phosphorus in land drainage
can be traced to fertilizer use (less than 50% of the phosphorus
in land drainage comes from fields; less than 25% of the phos-
phorus from farm fields comes from fertilizer: 50 X 25 = 12.5%).
Using the IJC estimate that land drainage accounts for about
20 per cent of the phosphorus added to Lake Erie, Lake Ontario
and International Section, of the St. Lawrence River, only
2^ per cent of phosphorus reaching Lake Erie and Lake Ontario
can be attributed to fertilizer use (12.5% of 20% = 2.5%).
The amount of phosphorus applied as fertilizer and animal
waste in the Great Lakes Watershed exceeds that removed in
crops. The excess application of phosphorus is acceptable
from a crop production standpoint provided it is being applied
to those fields with levels of phosphorus below the requirement
for most profitable yield. Adherance to the soil test recom-
mendations available through the soil testing program in Ontario
would preclude such an eventuality.
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-Poultry and Animal Wastes
It is estimated that over 90 million farm animals and
birds produce in excess of 38 million tons of manure annually
in the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes Basin. About 40
per cent of this is produced in the Lake Erie Watershed alone.
An increasing proportion of this livestock and poultry production
is taking place in confinement and consequently there is also
a trend towards the adoption of liquid manure handling systems.
Nitrogen may well represent the most important of the
potential pollutants in farm animal manures since it is present
in extremely high concentrations and is readily carried by
water.
Table 1 presents volumes of nitrogen and phosphorus production
from manures that are available as a replacement for commercial
fertilizer in the Lake Erie and Great Lakes Basin. These levels
were estimated after adjustment was made for the volume of manure
produced on pasture and after allowance was made for nitrogen
losses during handling and storage.
Table 1. —Nitrogen and Phosphorus Production from Manure
as Replacement for Commercial Fertilizer
Lake Erie Watershed Great Lakes Basin
tons/year tons/year
Nitrogen (N) 43,335 102,111
Phosphorus (P) 14,199 32,352
Unlike most industrial and municipal wastes, farm manures-
are not normally discharged to receiving waters and since the
percentages of pollution material from livestock operations
which reach water courses are dependent upon a great diversity
of factors, it is very difficult to determine with any degree
of reliance the amount of pollutant materials from manures that
reach the Great Lakes.
The practices which have the greatest potential impact on
water quality are those of winter spreading of manure, storing or
accumulating uncovered manure on the ground, spreading manure
at very high application rates and permitting runoff from
feeding areas. Each of these is common in the Great Lakes
Basin area and none of them is specifically regulated.
For operations with liquid manure systems, no regulations
govern the size or construction design of manure storage tanks
in Ontario. However, a 'Suggested Code of Practice1 prepared
by the Ontario Department of Energy and Resources Management
and the Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food is in oper-
ation which deals with the establishment of new livestock
buildings, renovation or expansion of existing buildings and
disposal of animal wastes.
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With respect to manure treatment, it seems generally to
be recognized in Ontario that there is little possibility for
the complete treatment of animal waste to permit liquid fractions
to go directly to receiving waters. Treatments of manure have,
therefore, been designed to render the waste less odorous during
storage or to improve the efficiency of handling for ultimate
land disposal utilization. Experimentation with aerators is
taking place and a number of mechanical devices are in service
on farms in the Great Lakes Basin, including at least three
oxidation ditches.
Pesticides
In recent years the contribution of pesticide application
to environmental contamination is receiving closer scrutiny.
While they have been instrumental in protecting public health
and increasing agricultural production, there has been increasing
concern over evidence of environmental contamination from a
few of these compounds in the Great Lakes Basin and elsewhere
in Ontario.
In general it is estimated that about 75 per cent of all
pesticides used in Ontario are for agricultural purposes.
In addition to other Federal and Provincial laboratory
activities a Provincial Pesticide Residue Testing Laboratory
was established in 1966, whose function it is to serve all
Departments of the Ontario Government in investigating amongst
other things, the pesticide, PCB and mercury residue situations
in Ontario.
Water samples have been collected in the Great Lakes Basin
area, which is the area of highest population and highest
pesticide use in Ontario. The total pesticide load was found
to be very low averaging 14 parts per trillion. Two types of
chlorinated hydrocarbons were found; DDT with its metabolites
and dieldrin. Because the amount of dieldrin used in Ontario
is insignificant compared to aldrin, the dieldrin appearing
in samples is assumed to be the metabolite of aldrin.
Soil samples were collected from both urban and agricultural
areas of the Great Lakes Basin area. Soil residues were greatest
in orchard and vegetable crop soils. The orchard and vegetable
crop area represents 4 per cent of the agricultural area in
Ontario while in turn only 15 per cent of the total land area
is represented by agricultural land. Of the DDT present in the
soil, the largest portion is present as DDT (66%), with smaller
percentages of ODD (6%) and DDE (28%).
Again fish caught in a number of major areas were compared
in 1968-69. These areas included the Muskoka Lakes (a non-
agricultural area) and the Great Lakes. The total DDT residue
in all except one area (Muskoka) fell below 1 ppm in the muscle
tissue. The Muskoka area has been intensively developed for
recreation and annually sprayed for the control of mosquito
and black fly for several years. Additionally, the Muskokas
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are plagued with periodic outbreaks of forest tent caterpillars,
the data collected in this research effort represents the most
complete survey of the Great Lakes Basin with respect to pest-
icide levels. It appears that no major problems exist as a
result of agricultural use of pesticides in that area.
The Ontario Department of Health took the first official
step to restrict the use of DDT and DDE in the province under
the Public Health Act of 1954. These matters were transferred
in 1956 to the Pesticides Act which has been modified four
times since then.
Since 1966, the Ontario Water Resources Commission has not
issued any permits for the use of DDT in water. In 1967 the
Department of Lands and Forests discontinued the use of DDT
entirely in all of its programs. In September 1969, the uses
of DDT were severely restricted in Ontario. The only uses now
allowed require a permit. They are for cut worm control in
tobacco, and plant bug control in apples together with bat
control by structural exterminators. Applications on tobacco
have been reduced from 4 Ibs. to 1 Ib. per acre until an
effective alternative is found. Earlier in 1969, aldrin,
dieldrin and heptachlor were prohibited for all uses in Ontario,
except for termite control by licensed exterminators.
These restrictions should have the effect of eliminating
DDT contamination of the Great Lakes from Ontario sources.
From monitoring conducted in 1969-70, it would appear that
levels found in Ontario soils and surface water in the Great
Lakes are relatively low and would not significantly contribute
to direct contamination in the Great Lakes Basin.
Pesticide applications for non-agricultural uses are also
of importance. Of the 55 million acres of Ontario that drains
into the Great Lakes (the Ottawa river drainage is excluded),
some 40 million acres are covered by forest.
In protecting these forest lands within the Great Lakes
Drainage, the current average acreage sprayed each year repre-
sents only 0.04 per cent of the forested area. Short lived
insecticides now being used to control defoliating insects
are chosen carefully for minimum hazard to the environment.
Monitoring and other field studies permit the conclusion that
current programs using insecticides do not result in any
significant detrimental effects on the environment, not only
on the Great Lakes but at the point of application.
There is no field use of fungicides in forest management
in Ontario. The principal herbicides in general use for non-
agricultural purposes within the Great Lakes Drainage System
(2, 4-D; 2, 4, 5-T) are relatively short-lived and are held
by the organic material in the soil and the possibilities
for contaminating waterways are therefore minimal. An
estimate is that some 175,000 acres are treated annually at
about 2 Ibs. of active material per acre. This represents
0.4 per cent of the 40 million acres under forest. The
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relatively small scale of herbicide work in Ontario and the
remote possibility of significant amounts of herbicides reach-
ing the Great Lakes would indicate a very low potential for
affecting water quality.
Erosion
Erosion of agricultural and non-agricultural land has
also been seen as contributing to the contamination of our
environment. Within the Great Lakes Basin, erosion and result-
ing sedimentation may be generally divided into three sources:
(a) stream erosion (b) lake erosion, and (c) surface erosion.
The relative contribution from each source of sediment varies
throughout the entire length of the shoreline of the Great
Lakes and depends on various conditions and practices, but
at present it cannot be accurately determined. Little is
known about the effects of the sediment load in specific areas
but, in general, a high sediment load has an undersirable effect
on the ecology of the water body.
With respect to fertilizer nutrients the main concern with
nitrogen appears to be movement down the soil profile. However,
very little data appears to be available with respect to
nitrogen lost in runoff water. It is probably appropriate to
assume that since nitrogen in the nitrate form is soluble, it
will be moved into the soil profile rather than over the soil
surface and that fertilizer nitrogen loss through erosion is low.
An estimate is that it is less than 2 per cent.
With phosphorus on the other hand, it can be stated that
there is essentially no movement of phosphorus from fertilizer
or animal waste through the soil into the groundwater. Because
there is little vertical movement of phsophorus in soil, ferti-
lization increases the phosphorus content of the surface soil.
Therefore, soil carred by surface runoff or erosion from
fertilizer fields will be higher in phosphorus than that from
unfertilized fields. If fertilizer use is contributing to build-
up of phosphorus in our water supply, it will be in this manner.
It is recognized that there may be considerable loss of soil
from cultivated land by surface runoff. The problem is to
determine how much of this reaches our streams. An estimate
made earlier in the report indicated, however, that less than
2^ per cent of phosphorus reaching the Great Lakes can be at-
tributed to phosphorus applied in commercial fertilizer.
In forested areas, with few exceptions, streams and rivers
are relatively free of suspended particles of soil. Present
improvements in forest practices, especially with the rapid
decline of river driving and the increasing attention to the
development of protection forests, will virtually eliminate
any future potential for erosion.
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The Water Survey of Canada is attempting to quantify the
extent of the erosion problem by measuring both sediment load
in streams and the rate of deposition in reserviors. This
program is being carried out with the co-operation and assis-
tance of the Ontario Department of Energy and Resources
Management and the local Conservation Authorities. In the
meantime, attempts are being made through education, grants
for erosion control works and legislative means to encourage
the use of erosion control works.
Chlorides and Road Salt
Chlorides have shown a steady rise in concentration since
the turn of the century in the lower Great Lakes. Contributing
to this rise have been industrial wastes, increasing urbanization
and in recent years the increased use of salt for de-icing
municipal roads and highways. An estimated 500,000 tons of
road salt are applied annually in Ontario and some 80 per cent
of this is estimated to be applied on roads immediately adjacent
to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie.
Difficulty is encountered in attempting to measure the
effect of road salt use on Great Lake waters and there appears
to be uncertainty regarding the impact that it makes. However,
it might be pointed out that high chloride levels have been
measured in the tributary waters in winter months and it is
believed that they are related to road salt applications, parti-
cularly in urban areas. Prudence would suggest that use of
road salt should be kept at a minimum that will ensure traffic
safety.
Standards and Regulations
The guidelines for the control of water quality in the
tributary basins as well as near-shore waters of the Great
Lakes contained in the Guidelines and Criteria for water quality
are the scientific requirements for the preservation of aquatic
life and wildlife and the use of water for a variety of needs
including water supplies for agricultural purposes.
The set of standards established depends on the existing
and probable future uses of the resources of the basin. The
requirements for waste effluents and land drainage are based
on these standards or criteria where such standards exist.
In Ontario, concurrent federal and provincial jurisdiction
exists to legislate in relation to agriculture, though federal
legislation prevails in the case of conflict. Under the Canada
Water Act, the purpose is to provide for federal water resource
management which is defined as the "conservation, development
and utilization of water resources." Joint water resource
management under a federal-provincial agreement is authorized
for any waters "where there is a significant national interest
in their management."
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Under the British North America Act, the federal government
can legislate for the enforcement of standards of water quality
and control of pollution for certain purposes. The Inland Fish-
eries and the Navigation and Shipping Acts come under this Act.
Specific Ontario guidelines & legislation which apply to
control of pollution of the environment from agriculture include
the following:
1. Suggested Code of Practice -
(Ontario Department of Energy & Resources Management &
Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food.)
2. The Ontario Water Resources Commission Act (Ontario
Department of Energy and Resources Management).
3. Pesticides Act (Ontario Department of Health).
Problems associated with air pollution from livestock
enterprises are being administered through a 'Suggested Code
of Practice' at the present time.
The code, prepared by the Ontario Department of Energy
& Resources Management and the Ontario Department of Agriculture
and Food deals with the establishment of new livestock buildings,
renovation or expansion of existing buildings and disposal of
animal wastes.
Livestock producers are encouraged to apply for a "Certi-
ficate of Approval" from the Air Management Branch of the
Ontario Department of Energy & Resources Management before
commencing construction. The Certificate of Approval is
intended^ to give the farmer a considerable? measure of protection
if, in future, there should be any dispute regarding air pollu-
tion.
The OWRC Act prohibits the discharge of any material to
a watercourse that may impair water quality. The section could
clearly apply to the discharge of wastes' from confined livestock
operations, to application of fertilizer and subsequent runoff
and the use of pesticides as any of these uses may cause water
pollution.
Under the Pesticides Act, the use of pesticides including
restriction and prohibition is regulated. Commercial application
must be licensed. The Ontario Department of Health provides
short courses and examinations for licenses.
With respect to conservation matters and problems of
erosion several pieces of provincial legislation deal either
directly or indirectly with erosion control on land surfaces,
stream banks and lake shores. Included here would be the
following:
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1. The Ontario Water Resources Commission Act,
2. The Planning Act,
3. The Conservation Authorities Act (1968).
Under the OWRC Act (aforementioned), the OWRC has virtual
control of all land use and land development in the province
in so far as it may effect water quality. As regards erosion
control this power has seldom if ever been used.
The Planning Act provides that all proposed developments,
official plans, zoning by-laws, etc. be approved by the Minister
of Municipal Affairs. This process is gaining increasing
importance as a tool in erosion control management. While the
Act demands that approval be sought it does not as yet demand
that the developer produce an erosion control plan and this may
be seen as a weakness at the present time.
Under the Conservation Authorities Act (1968) local Conser-
vation Authorities may control the dumping of fill in designated
areas and prohibit construction in the flood plain.
Techniques of sediment control have been well established
for many years especially in rural areas where such methods
as land treatment (grass waterways, etc.) and slope stabiliza-
tion are used to prevent erosion and sedimentation.
Nevertheless, the key to a successful sediment control
program in Ontario requires the assistance of a large number of
groups including the following:
Ontario Department of 'Energy and Resources Management
Conservation Authorities Branch,
Local conservation Authorities,
The Municipalities,
Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources,
Water Survey of Canada — Sediment Surveys Section.
In addition, the co-operation of the provincial departments
of Municipal Affairs, Highways, Agriculture, Lands and Forests
and the Ontario Water Resources Commission may be required
depending on the circumstances of the particular sedimentation
problems. Legislation specifically designed to control erosion
and sedimentation is being considered in the provincial govern-
ment and will hopefully provide for a workable administrative
framework for the successful control of management practices.
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At all levels of government in Canada and in Ontario, there
has been a growing recognition of environmental problems and
the need for control and abatement of their impact.
In response to this development, the Federal Government is
soon to have a Department of the Environment, the duties and
powers of which will extend to and include all matters over which
the Parliament of Canada has jurisdiction, not by law assigned
to any other department, branch or agency of the Government of
Canada, relating to amongst other things:
a) sea cost and inland fisheries,
b) renewable resources including,
i) the forest resources of Canada,
ii) migratory birds, and
iii) other non-domestic flora and fauna,
c) water,
d) the protection and enhancement of the quality of the
natural environment including water, air and soil quality,
e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by
the IJC, promulgated pursuant to the treaty between
the U.S. and the Crown (1909), relating to boundary
waters and questions arising between the U.S. and
Canada as far as the same relate to pollution control.
In Ontario, the Department of Energy and Resources Management
might be said to have developed as the Department most directly
involved in contamination problems of our environment.
In Ontario, research is underway with respect to pollution
problems caused by the misuse of fertilizers, pesticides and
animal wastes and into related erosional problems in the Great
Lakes region. The University of Guelph, the Provincial Pesticide
Residue Testing Laboratory and a number of departments of the
Ontario government are prominent in this effort.
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APPENDICES
Table Al. Estimation of Fertilizer Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Applied to Crop Land In Erie and Great Lakes
Watersheds.
Erie Watershed Tons
Fertilizer sold (excluding Norfolk2County) 462,781
Nitrogen content (ave. of 16% N) ~ 74,045
Phosphorus content (ave. of 6.5% P) 29,618
Fertilizer sold in Norfolk County 61,357
Nitrogen content^ 3,374
Phosphorus content 3,651
Total nitrogen sold in watershed 77,419
Total phosphorus sold in watershed 33,269
Great Lakes Watershed
Fertilizer sold1 . 776,660
Nitrogen content (ave. of 13% N ) 4 100,966
Phosphorus content (ave. of 6.2% P) 48,153
1. From Fertilizer Trade. July 1, 1967 - June 30, 1968.
Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Pub. No. 46-207.
2. Average N and P content of fertilizer sold in region by
major fertilizer company.
3. Estimating 75% of fertilizer to be for tobacco with average
N content of 2% and average P content of 5.8% (13.4% P2°
and remaining 25% to have average N content of 16% and
average P content of 6.4% (15%P205).
4. Average N and P content of all fertilizer sold in Ontario
as reported in Fertilizer Trade.
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APPENDIX
Table A2.—Estimation of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removed by Harvested
Portion of Crops in Erie and Great Lakes Watershed
ERIE WATERSHED
Average
, Yield
Crop Acres per Acre
Wheat 256,000 40.6 bu.
Oats 273,000 55.9 bu.
Barley 105,000 50.8 bu.
Mixed grain 227,000 60.0 bu.
Soybeans 320,000 23.8 bu.
Grain corn 746,000 74.3 bu.
Silage corn 227,500 12.4 T.
Hay 687,000 2.90 T.
Total 2,841,500
Total acres in crop in watershed -
Total nitrogen contained in crops -
101 im v 3 i 312 < 951 i /in n7r
121, 1J3 X 2,841,500 140,070
Total phosphorus contained in crops
N Content
Ib . /ac . tons
49.5 6,336
34.1 4,655
42.7 2,242
43.2 4,903
91.0 14,560
68.4 25,513
210 23,888
113.7 39,056
121,153
3,312,951.
tons.
- 19,269 tons.
P Content
Ib . /ac .
9.3
6.7
8.6
8.4
8.8
11.9
27.3
12.2
tons
1,190
833
452
953
1,408
4,439
3,105
4,191
16,571
GREAT LAKES WATERSHED
Average
-L Yield
Crop Acres per Acre
Wheat 357.300 39.8 bu.
Oats 634,200 52.8 bu.
Barley 282,700 50.0 bu.
Mixed grain 1,090,000 58.5 bu.
Soybeans 321,720 23.8 bu.
Grain corn 824,200 75.1 bu.
Silage corn 460,600 12.7 T.
Hay 2,393,000 2.70 T.
Total 6,433,720
Total acres in crops in watershed -
Total nitrogen contained in crops -
,.„ 7,052,196 _ _„„
271, jj? x 6;433/720 297,7^2
Total phosphorus contained in crops
N Content
Ib . /ac . tons
48.6 8,682
32.2 10,210
42.0 5,936
42.7 23,271
91.0 14,638
69.1 30,894
214.6 49,422
107.4 128,504
271,557
7,052,196.
tons.
- 39,600 tons
P Content
Ib . /ac .
9.2
5.8
8.5
8.2
8.8
12.0
27.9
11.5
tons
1,643
1,839
1,201
4,469
1,415
5,365
6,425
13,759
36,115
From Agricultural Statistics for Ontario, 1969.
Ontario Department of Agriculture and Food.
Publication 20,
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APPENDIX
Table A3.
Section 27(1)
Ontario Water Resources Commission Act
27. -(1) Every municipality or person that discharges
or deposits or causes or permits the discharge or Discharge
deposit of any material of any kind into or in any of polluting
well, lake, river, pond, spring, stream, reservoir material
or other water or watercourse or on any shore or prohibited.
bank thereof or into or in any place that may impair
the quality of the water or any well, lake, river,
pond, spring, stream, reservoir or other water or
watercourse is guilty of an offence and on summary
conviction is liable to a fine of not more than $1,000
or to imprisonment for a term of not more than one
year, or to both. 1961-62, c.99, s.5.
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APPENDIX
TABLE 4
JOINT RECOMMENDATIONS OF CANADIAN AND U.S. SECTIONS
The following recommendations contained in this sub-section
are directly concerned with pollution from agricultural activities
(including forestry and other related land-use activities). It
is recognized, however, that certain of these recommendations
also relate to other sub-groups, including those in water quality
standards, institutional arrangements, and hazardous materials
pollutants. This interrelationship reflects the diverse
character of agricultural sources of pollution as they affect
organizational and scientific elements.
Recommendations; It is recommended:
A. That the IJC consider the incorporation of a pollution
advisory capability to deal specifically with pollution
from agriculture, forestry and other related land-use
activities. The group would be comprised of technical
and administrative personnel from each National Government
and the various States of the Great Lakes and the Province
of Ontario. Basic responsibilities would include the
determination of joint international research and surveil-
lance activities, advice on criteria for non-point source
pollutants, and activity in the collection and dissemination
of relevant technical and legal information to interested
parties.
B. Each country should develop the following plans in agri-
culture, forestry and other related land-use sources:
1) the establishment of a five-year plan for joint research
and development activities to provide improved means
for controlling pollution from these sources.
Primary emphasis should be given to:
a) the development of improved nutrient, sediment and
pesticide runoff predictive technology using math-
ematical models as tools to provide quantitative
estimates of surface and sub-surface runoff under
various soil, climatic, and management circumstances.
Such tools would particularly enhance development
of possible agricultural-chemical registration re-
quirements by the States and the Province of Ontario
which could translate into prescribed, standardized
laboratory and field tests for use by manufacturers
to define the fate and effect of these chemicals
prior to their approval for use.
b) the development of animal waste management systems
with special consideration of those systems which
incorporate totally enclosed animal production-
waste treatment systems, waste conversion, by-
product recovery and re-cycle systems, or other
"closed^-loop" waste management concepts; and
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tin© development of improved soil
and conservation method® to ineltsadl®
of "buffer sone" cultivation,
and new or improved soil ©dditiv®n ©yj£ srotual concern with a
th© development of state or Ontario
enforcement-monitoring program®0
Stem® of special interest would
to® limited to recommendstiom on0
for sediment runoff or erosion
private lands which would lend
of soil, water, and land conservation
practices? and advise on any interjuri©dli©fei©inisi2,
in legal requirements governing the \asj© ©sadl SauiradE&Bixgj ©2
pesticideso
Co That there be initiated a formal program between the United
States and Canada calling for the mutual exchange of current
information on, and visits to, research and development pro-
jects which involve work on rural runoff, animal feedlots,
pesticide management and other aspects of agricultural pol-
lution of mutual interesto
Do That an intensive, joint UoSo-Canadian surveillance effort be
undertaken to monitor and quantify the sources of pollution
throughout the Great Lakes Basin as soon as possible to define
the extent and distribution of problems0 Particular emphasis
should be placed on defining the effects of current land use
and conservation practices, and development of recommendations
for additional research, and study needs0
Eo That the United States and Canada accelerate the demonstration
and expedite implementation of new and existing technology for
minimizing pesticide and nutrient pollution, sediment trans-
port and pollution from confined animal operations„
Fo That the current U»S» project to develop a mathematical model
to determine the effect of point source pollution on the ul-
timate water quality of Lake Michigan waters be expanded as
a joint UoSo-Canadian endeavour for the entire Great Lakes
Basin to facilitate management of the total basin resource»
Go That consideration be given to a program to re-evaluate State,
Provincial and Federal land classification systems to ensure
optimum land uses which are compatible with factors of environ=
mental quality and water quality standards«
Ho That necessary funding be made available to carry out respon=
sibilities set forth in these recommendations.
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REFERENCES CITED
Aldrich, S.R. 1970. Paper presented at Twelfth Sanitary Engineering
Conference. Univ. of Illinois, Feb.11-12, 1970.
Bolton, E., J.W. Aylesworth and P. R. Hore. 1970. Can. J. Soil Sci.50:
275-279.
Enfield, G.N. 1970. Mid-West Fertilizer Conference, Chicago, Illinois.
Frink, C.R. 1969. Agronomy J. 61: 550-553.
Hardin, O. and T.L. Bennett. 1969. A report to the President. Control
of agriculturally related pollution. U.S.D.A.,
Washington, D.C.
Legge, R.F., and D. Dingeldein. 1970. Can. Res. Develop. 19
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