4870
SEL
Draft
3/27/86
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
SELENIUM(IV)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTR, MINNESOTA
HARRAGANSETT. RHODE ISLAND
-------
ROTZCES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the Rational Technical
Information Service (HTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
ii
-------
TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxic ity of Seleniinn(IV) to Aquatic Animal* 23
2. Chronic Toxicity of Selenium(lV) To Aquatic Animals 29
3. tanked Genua Mean Acute Value* with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 31
A. Toxicity of Selenium(IV) to Aquatic Planta 35
5. Bioaccumulation of Seleniua(IV) by Aquatic Organisms ......... 36
6. Other Data on Effects of Beleniua(IV) on Aquatic Organisms .... 38
-------
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ill
Acknowledgment* iv
Table vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animal* ....' 7
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 9
Toxicity to Aquatic Planta 13
Bioaccumulation 14
Other Data '. 16
Unused Data ......... 18
Binary 19
Rational Criteria 21
References 43
-------
FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217)
requires the Administrator of the Environaental Protection Agency to
publish water quality criteria that accurately reflect the latest
scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of all identifiable affects
on health and welfare that might be expected frosi the presence of pollutants
in any body of water, including ground water. This document is a revision
of proposed criteria based upon a consideration of comments received from
other Federal agencies, State agencies, special interest groups, and
individual scientists. Criteria contained in this document replace
any previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant(s).
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the
Clean Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a
different program impact in etch section. In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects.
Criteria presented in this document are such scientific assessments.
If water quality criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted
by a State as water qual'ity standards under section 303, they become
enforceable maximum acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters
within that State. Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality
standards could have the same numerical values as criteria developed
under section 304. However, in many situations States might want to
adjust water quality criteria developed under section 304 to reflect
local environmental conditions and human exposure patterns before incorporation
into water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as part of
State water quality standards that criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist States in the modification of criteria presented
in this document, in the development of water quality standards, and in
other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by EPA.
James M. Conlon
Acting Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
iii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ronald R. Carton
(freshwater author)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
Jeffrey L. Hyland
Jerry M. Beff
(saltwater authors)
Battelle Hew England Laboratory
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephen
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Rarragansett, Rhode Island
Clerical Support:
Shelley A. Beint*
Terry L. Highland
Diane L. Spehar
Nancy J. Jordan
iv
-------
Introduction*
Selenium ia distributed widely in nature, with an average eruttal
ft
abundance of 9.0 Ml/kg (Cooper at al. 1974; Raptis et al. 1983). The
highest concentrations are found in aulfide deposits of copper, lead,
mercury, silve.fi jufd sine. Selenium alao occurs as the selenide salt
of several heavy metals and in such minerals as chalcopyrite, pendlandite,
and pyrrhotite (Shamberger 1981). A major natural source of environmental
selenium is the westhering of rocks and soils.
Selenium is abundant in fossil fuels, with concentrations in coal
and fuel oil ranging from 470 to 8,100 MI/kg «nd from 2,400 to 7,500 ug/kg,
•
respectively (Eaptis at al. 1983). During combustion of coal, much of the
selenium is converted to selenium dioxide and is emitted in the flue
gases. .However, when sulfur dioxide is present in the flue gas, selenium
dioxide is reduced to elemental selenium (Frost and Ingvoldstad 1975).
Huch of the selenium emitted to the atmosphere during burning of fossil
fuel is sorbed to fly ash, probably in the form of elemental selenium
(Raptis et al. 1983). Although elemental selenium is insoluble and
relatively nonbioavailable, it can be oxidised to selenium(IV) (Sarathchandra
and Watkinson 1981) or reduced to aelenides, including the highly volatile
dimethyl selenide and dimethyl diselenide (Eisler 1985; Vilber 1980) by
soil and aquatic microorganisms.
* An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephen et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, is necessary
in order to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
-------
Selenium reaches freshwater and saltwater systems through wet and
dry deposition from the air: leaching and runoff from land, particularly
from regions with alkaline aeleniferous soils; drainage from coal fly-ash
and bottom-ash ponds: leaching from fly-ash deposits on land; discharges
of industrial and domestic sewage; and remobilication from bottom sediments
in aquatic systems. Concentrations of dissolved selenium in fresh
ground and surface waters usually are between 0.01 and 400 *ig/L -(Fishbein
1984). In the North Atlantic Ocean, selenium concentrations range from
0.03 to O.OS jig/L in the upper 500 • of the water column to 0.115 to
0.135 ,jg/L at a depth of 5000 • (Burton et al. 1980). In the Horth
Pacific Ocean, the concentration of total selenium increases from 0.075
yg/L at 15 • to 0.190 jg/L at 3250 m (Cutter and Bruland 1984). Concen-
trations in coastal and estuarine waters are more variable, ranging from
about 0.06 to 0.375 jg/L (Cutter 1978; Measures and Burton 1978: Wrench
and Measures 1982).
Selenium occurs in aquatic ecosystems in four oxidation states. -2,
0. +4. and +6, which are interconverted readily in the environment through
oxidation and reduction reactions (Callahan et al. 1979; Cutter 1982).
Chemical equilibria are dependent on the pH and re dor state of the medium.
In addition, living organisms are able to synthesize a wide variety of
organoselenium compounds. Because of these interactions, the biogeochemical
cycle of selenium ia very complex, and a combination of oxidation states and
forms exists in most waters (Cutter and Bruland 1984: Measures and Burton
1978; Robberecht and Van Grieken 1982: Takayanagi and Wong 1984a.b; Uchida
•t al. 1980; Wrench and Measures 1982). Selenium(VI) constitutes 14 to
361 of the total selenium in the edible muscle tissue of several species
of freshwater and saltwater fish (Cappon and Smith 1981). About
2
-------
36Z of the selenium present in freshwater plants is selenium(VI) (Eisler
1985).
Seleni.ua is an essential trace nutrient for most, if not all, living
organisms, and selenium deficiency has been found to affect humans (Frost
and Ingvoldstad 1975; Raptis et al. 1983; Wilber 1983), sheep and cattle
(Shamberger 1981), fish (HeLinger and Davson 1983; Hilton et al. 1980;
Poston et al. 1976), and an aquatic invertebrate (Keating and Oagbusan
i }
1984). In addition, selenium apparently protects biota from the toxic
effects of arsenic, cadmium, copper, inorganic and organic mercury, and
the herbicide paraquat in both terrestrial and aquatic environments
(Beijer and Jernelov 1978'; Eisler 1985; Heisinger and Scott 1985; Heisinger
•t al. 1979; Levander 1977; Skerfving 1978; Vilbar 1983; Winner 1984).
Birge at al. (1979) and Huckabee and Griffith (1974), however, reported that
selenium and mercury acted synergistically toward fish embryos. Heisinger
(1981) found that selenium pretreatment protected 128-hr—old, but not
6-yr-old, embryos of Orytiss Istipes. from cadmium and mercury, whereas
prior exposure to aelenium(IV) did not affect the sensitivity of white
auckers to cadmium (Duncan and Klaverkamp 1983).
Because of the variety of forms of selenium(IV) and lack of definitive
information about their relative toxicities, BO available analytical measure-
ment is known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life criteria for selenium(IV),
Previous aquatic life criteria for aelenium(IV) (U.S. EPA 1980) were expressed
in terms of total recoverable selenium(IV), but the total recoverable
measurement (U.S. EPA 1983s) is probably too rigorous in some situations.
Acid-soluble selenium(IV) (operationally defined as the aelenium(IV) that
passes through a 0.45 Mm membrane filter after the sample is acidified to
-------
pH • 1.5 to 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the best measurement at the
present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data
concerning toxicity of selenium(IV) to, and bioaceumulation of
aelenium(IV) by, aquatic organisms. Bo teat results were rejected
just because it was likely that they would have been substantially
different if they had been reported in terms of acid-soluble
aelenium(lV). For example, results reported ia terms of dissolved
aelenium(IV) would not have been used if the concentration of pre-
cipitated aelenium(IV) had been substantial.
2. In saaples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble aalenium(IV)
will probably measure all forms of selenium(IV) that are toxic to
aquatic life or can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural
conditions. In addition, this measurement probably will not measure
several forma, auch as aelenium(IV) that is occluded in minerals,
clays, and sand or is strongly sorbed to particulate matter, that are
not toxic and are not likely to become toxic under natural conditions.
9. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure seleniua(IV) in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble aelenium(IV) probably
will be applicable to affluenta. If desired, dilution of effluent
with receiving water before measurement of acid-soluble aelenium(IV)
might be used to determine whether the receiving water can decrease
the concentration of acid-soluble selenium(IV) because of sorption.
4. The acid-aoluble measurement ia probably useful for most metals, thus
minimising the number of samples and procedures that are necessary.
-------
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration *t the tine
of collection, aa does the dissolved Measurement.
6. For the measurement of total acid-soluble seleniua the only treatment
required at the time of collection is preservation by acidification to pH
• 1.5 to 2.0, similar to that required for the measurement of total
recoverable selenium. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between
acidification and filtration probably will not affect the measurement of
total acid-soluble selenium. However, acidification might not prevent
conversion of selenium(IV) to selenium(VI) or vice versa. Therefore,
measurement of acid-soluble selenium(XV) will probably require separation
or measurement at the time of collection of the sample or special
preservation to prevent conversion of one oxidation state of selenium to
the other.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not affect the result
substantially.
8. The carbonate system has • much higher buffer capacity from pH • 1.5 to
2.0 than it does from pH • 4 to 9 (Weber and Stumm 1963).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not
affect the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble selenium, the analysis can be performed using either furnace
or hydride atomic absorption spectrophotometric or ICP-atomic emission
spectrometric analysis for total acid-soluble selenium (U.S. EPA 1983a).
It might be possible to separately measure acid-soluble selenium(IV)
5
-------
and acid-soluble seleniua(VI) using the methods described by Oppenheimer
et «1. (1984), lobberecht and Van Crieken (1982), and Uchida et al. (1980).
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for selenius(IV) in terms of the
acid-soluble measurement has both toxieological and practical advantages.
On the other hand, because no measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for seleniua(lV) or for measuring selenium(IV) in
ambient water or aqueous effluents, measurement of both acid-soluble
4
"selenium(IV) and total' recoverable selenium in ambient water or effluent
or both might be useful. For example, there might be cause for concern
if total recoverable selenium ia much above an applicable limit for
•
aelenium(IV), even though acid-soluble selenium(IV) is below the limit.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble selenium(IV) concentrations.
All concentrations are expressed as selenium(XY), not as the chemical tested.
The criteria presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life
water quality criteria for eelenium(IV) (U.S. EPA 1976,1980) because these
new criteria were derived using improved procedures and additional information.
Whenever adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a
•ite-specific criterion (U.S. EPA 1983b), which may include not only
site-specific criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific
durations of averaging periods and aite-specific frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985). Comprehensive literature searches for information
for this document were conducted through February, 1985; some newer information
was also used.
-------
Acute Toxieity to Aquatic Animal•
The LC50 for. •eleoium(IV) often decrease* substantially with test
duration. For example, Baiter et •!. (1980) reported LC50a for Daphnia
magna aa 710 pg/L at 2 days, 430 pg/L at 4 days, and 430 pg/L «t 14 days.
(Although Baiter et al. (1980) did not specify the oxidation state used
in their studies, Adams and Johnson (1981) state that the tests were
conducted on sodium selenite.) Comparable values for the amphipod, Byalella
axteca, were 940 pg/L at 2 days, 340 pg/L at 4 days, and 70 pg/L at 14
days. Similarly, Adams (1976) reported that the average LC50 for rainbow
trout vas 4,350 pg/L at 4 days, 500 pg/L at 48 days, and 280 pg/L at 96
days. At 13*C the average LC50 for fathead minnows was 10,900 pg/L at 4
days and 1,100 at 48 days.
Adams (1976) found that the'acute toxicity of selenium(IV) to the
fathead minnow was directly related to water temperature with average
96-hr LCSOs of 10,900 pg/L at 13'C. 6,700 pg/L at 20*C. and 2,800 pg/L at
25*C. Striped bass were more sensitive to seleniua(IV) in soft than in
hard water (Palawski et al. 1985). Lemly (1982) found that neither water
temperature nor hardness had a significant affect on the final concentration
in any tissue of centrarchids exposed to selenium(IV) for 120 days. At
shorter durations, he found that both temperature and hardness influenced
rates of uptake, which might cause the acute toxicity of selenium(IV) to
vary with conditions of exposure.
Invertebrates are both the most sensitive and most resistant species
(Table 1) with acute values ranging from 340 pg/L for Byalella atteca
(Baiter et al. 1980) to 203,000 pg/L for the leech, Hephelopsis obscura
(Brooke 1985). On the other hand, the acute values for fishes only range
-------
from 620 >ig/L for Che fathead minnow (Kimball, Manuscript) to 35,000 ,ig/L
for the cooaon carp (Sato et al. 1980).
Boyum (1984) reported a 48-hr LC50 of 6 ,ig/L for Daphnia puliearia.
Other apeciea in the genus Daphnia were more resistant with LCSOs from
450 ,jg/L (Boyum 1984) to 3,870 jg/L (Reading 1979; Reading and Buikema
.1983), ao the value of 6 jg/L ia surprisingly low. Boyum (Personal
communication, 14 February 1986) stated that the survival of Dap_hnia
puliearia in the lowest concentration teated was only 47 percent. Because of
the high mortality at the loweat concentration, the value of 6 ,ig/L was
not considered acceptable for use in calculating a criterion. However.
the results of thia and similar unreported tests by Boyum (personal
communication. 14 February 1986) indicate that the LC50 for thia apecies
might be less than 100 }Jg/L.
Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as geometric
means of the available acute values, and Genus Mean Acute Values (Table 3)
were then calculated as geometric means of the available freshwater
Spe>ies Mean Acute Values. Of the twentyrtwo genera for .which freshwater
acute values are available, the most sensitive genus. Hyalella. is 597
times more sensitive than the most resistant. Hephelopsis. The three
most sensitive apecies are crustaceans, but the fourth most sensitive
apeciea ia the fathead minnow. The range of aensitivities of the four
most sensitive genera ia a factor of 5. The freshwater Final Acute Value
for selenium(IV) waa calculated to be 370.9 Jg/L using the procedure
.described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute Values in Table 3.
The Final Acute Value ia alightly higher than the acute value for the most
aenaitive genus.
8
-------
Acute toxicity data that can be used to derive a aaltvajter criterion
for selenium(XV) are available for eight apeciee of invertebrates
and eight apeciet of fiah that are resident in Worth America (Table 1).
The range of acute values for saltwater invertebrates extends from 850
Mg/L for adults of the copepod, Acartis tonsa. (Lussier 1986) to greater
than 10,000 yg/L for embryos of the blue missel, Hytilus edulis. (Martin
et al. 1981) and embryos of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. (Clickstein
1978; Martin et al. 1981). The range of acute values for fiah is slightly
broader than that for invertebrates, extending fro* 599 |ig/L for larvae
of the haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus to 17,350 MS/L 'or adulta of the
•
fourspine stickleback, Ap'eltes quadraeus, (Cardin 1986). There vas no
consistent relationship between life atage of invertebratea or fish and
their sensitivity to selenium(XV), and few data are available concerning
the influence of temperature or salinity on the toxicity of seleniim(IV)
to saltwater animals. Acute tests with the copepod, Acartis tonsa, at 5
and 10"C gave similar results (Lussier 1986).
Of the 15 saltwater genera for which Genus Mean Acute Values are
available (Table 3), the most aenaitive genua, Melanograamus, is nearly
29 times more sensitive than the most resistant, Apeltes. The sensitivities
of.the four most sensitive genera only differ by a factor of 2.1, and these
>
four include three invertebrates and one fish, which is the most sensitive of
the four. The saltwater Final Acute Value for aeleniua(IV) is 591.1 pg/L.
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chronic toxicity tests have been conducted on seleaium(IV) with five
freshwater species (Table 2), four of which are acutely sensitive species
(Table 3). The rainbow trout is not only the most acutely resistant of these
-------
five species» but also is the voat chronically sensitive, and thus has
s
• much larger acute-chronic ratio than the other four species. Hodson et
al. (1980) found that 47 Mg/L caused a small reduction in percent hatch of
rainbov trout, which is not considered unacceptable for the purposes of
deriving water quality criteria. Goettl and Davies (1977) exposed rainbow
trout to selenium(IV) for 27 months. They found that survival of fish
exposed to 60 Mg/L vas similar to survival of control fish. Survival of
fish exposed to 130 pg/L was about one-half that of the control and about
16 percent of these survivors were deformed as compared to no deformed
control fish. However, in exposures starting with newly hatched fry,
Hunn et al. (Manuscript) obtained a 60-day LCSO of 51 Mg/L (Table 6).
Division of this LCSO by 2 (Stephen et al. 1985) results in 25.5 Mg/L.
which should not cause an unacceptable level of mortality of rainbow
trout.
The other four freshwater species with which chronic tests have been
conducted on aelenium(IV), including one fish species, are all more
acutely sensitive, and more chronically resistant, than the rainbow trout.
Kimball (Manuscript) conducted an early life-stage test on selenium(lV)
with fathead minnows. Ratchability was not affected at any tested con-
centration. However, posthatch survival of fry exposed to 153 Mg/L was
only 68 percent of the control survival and was statistically significant
(P • 0.05). The mean terminal length, but not weight, of fish exposed to
153 Mt/L was different (P - 0.05) than that of control fish. Survival
and growth of fish exposed to 83 Mg/L were similar to those of control
fish.
Kimball (Manuscript) also studied the effects of selenium(ZV) on
survival and reproduction of Daphnia magna in a 28-day renewal test. The
10
-------
28-day LC50 waa 240 pg/L (Table 6). Survival and reproduction of Paphnia
•agoa expoaed to 70 pg/L were aimilar to thoae of control animala.
Survival at 120- MS/I* «aa 100 percent, but reproduction, expressed aa mean
young per animal, vaa only 73 percent of that of control animala. Thia
reduction was atatiatically aignificant (P » 0.05).
Owaley (1984) atudied the chronic effecta of aeleniua(IV) on Ceriedaphnia
affinia. He found that concentrationa from 18 to 360 pg/L did not affect
aurvival or reproduction during the 20-day teat.
Reading (1979) and leading and Buikema (1983) reported the chronic
effecta of aelenium(IV) on the aurvival, growth, and reproduction of
Daphnia pulex in a 28-day * renewal teat. Statiatical analyses were performed
on 41 measures of growth and reproduction. At • concentration of 600
pg/L the number of live young in the firat two brooda waa aignificantly
(P • 0.05) reduced, and the percentage of dead young in brood 1 waa
aignificantly increaaed. Alao, the adult length of brood 9 and total
number of eabryoa in brood 6 waa aignificantly greater than thoae of
control animala. At the end of the teat, aurvival, total number
of cmbryoa per animal, and mean brood aice at 600 pg/L were equal to or
greater than thoae of the control animals even though occaaional differences
were observed during the teat. At a concentration of 800 pg/L there was
a significant reduction in preadult mean length of molts 2 and 3, in mean
number of live young in brooda 1 and 2, and in the percentage of dead
young in brooda 1, 2, end 3. At the and of the teat the mean total
number of embryos and live young per adult at 800 pg/L waa only about 60Z
that of control animala.
Data on the chronic toxicity of aelenium(IV) are available for two
aaltwater species, the myaid, Mysidepsis bahia, and the aheepahead minnow,
11
-------
Cyprinodon variegatus (Table 2). The life-cycle test with Mysidoptis
bshia, was started with 48-hr post-release juveniles and lasted for 28
days through production of offspring by the parental generation (Ward et
al. 1981). Chronic exposure to mean measured concentrations of 320 pg/L
or greater had a statistically significant effect on survival of the
first generation mysids. Ho offspring were produced by aysids that survived
exposure to 580 pg/L, and the number of offspring produced per female was
significantly lower in 320 pg/L than in the control treatment. All offspring
produced in all treatments survived until the end of the test. The
highest exposure concentration not causing effects significantly different
•
from the controls was 140 '|ig/L. The resulting chronic value for
Mysidopsis bahia is 211.7 pg/L, and the acute-chronic ratio is 7.085.
An early life-stage test was performed with the sheepshead minnow,
Cyprinodon variegatus (Ward et al. 1981). The test was started with
newly-fertilized eggs and extended for two weeks after hatching to
measure survival of the juveniles. Although exposure to seleniua(IV)
concentrations of 6,400 pg/L or greater did not have a statistically
significant effect compared to the controls on hatching success of embryos,
concentrations of 970 pg/L or greater significantly reduced survival of
juveniles. The highest concentration that did not have a statistically
significant effect on survival of aewly hatched fish was 470 pg/L. The
resulting chronic value for Cyprinodon variegatus is 675.2 pg/L and the
acute-chronic ratio is 10.96 (Table 2).
Acute-chronic ratios are available for four of the five acutely most
sensitive freshwater species, and these ratios range from <1.667 to 13.31
(Table 3). Although the lowest ratio is a "less than" value, the actual
value is probably not too much lower. The two acute-chronic ratios that
12
-------
were determined with saltwater species also are within this range. The
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio of 6.361 was calculated as the geometric mean
of these six ratios. Division of the freshwater Final Acute Value bj the
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio results in a freshwater Final Chronic Value of
58.31 pg/L. However, this is higher than the 60-day LC50 of 51 pg/L
,< ' *
calculated froa the data reported by Hunn et al. (Manuscript) for rainbow
trout. Thus the freshwater Final Chronic Value is lowered to 25.5 pg/L
to protect this important species. The saltwater Final Chronic Value
of 92.93 pg/L is quite • bit lower than the two saltwater chronic values,
but neither of the species with which chronic tests have been conducted
is acutely sensitive to seleniua(IV).
Toxicity to Aquatic Flants
Data are available on the toxicity of selenium(IV) to aeven species
of freshwater algae (Table 4). Results ranged from an LC50 of 30,000 pg/L
for the blue-green alga, Anaeystis nidulans (Kumar and Prakash 1971) to
522 pg/L for incipient inhibition of the green alga, Seenedesmus auadrieauda
(Bringmann and Kuhn 1977a;1978a,b;1979;1980b). Hutchin*on and Stokes (1975)
reported retardation of growth of two green algae, Chlorella vulgaris and
Haematoeeus cupensis, by 50 pg/L and Foe and Knight (Manuscript) found that
75 pg/L decreased the dry weight of Selenastrum capricornutum (Table 6).
Thus the sensitivities of freshwater algae to selenium(IV) cover about the
same range as acute and chronic toxicities to aquatic animals. The 96-hr
EC50 for the diatom, Skeletonema costatum. is 7,959 pg/L, based on reduction
in chlorophyll a (Table 4). Growth of Chlorella sp.B Platymonas subcordiformit,
and Fueus spiralis increased at aeleniua(IV) concentrations from 10 to
10,000 MS/I* (Table 6). These data suggest that saltwater plants will not
be adversely affected by concentrations that do not affect saltwater animals.
13
-------
Bioaccumulation
Bioconcentration factor• (BCFs) measured with freshwater species range
from a high of 452 for the bluegill (Lemly 1982) to a low of 2 for the muscle
of rainbow trout (Adams 1976). Adams (1976) studied both uptake and
elimination of seleniua-75 by fathead minnows at average concentrations
of 12, 24 and 50 ug/L. He found that accumulation occurred in a curvilinear
manner in the whole fish and in individual tissues at a rapid rate during
the first eight days and at a slower rate for the next 88 days. -Equilibrium
was approached, but not reached, in 96 days. The highest concentrations
vere found in the viscera, possibly due to uptake of selenium adhering to
•
food. Elimination of selenium also followed a curvilinear plot and became
asymptotic with the time axis after 96 days. Elimination was most rapid
from the viscera, with a half-life of 5.1 days, but the half-life exceeded
50 days for other tissues.
Adams (1976) also conducted uptake studies with rainbow trout exposed
to •elenium(tv) at concentrations ranging from 310 to 950 pg/L. Some of
the trout died, and concentrations were-somewhat higher in dead fish than
in survivors. As with the fathead minnow, the viscera contained more
selenium than did gill or muscle. Based on his tests with the two species,
Adams (1976) concluded that there is an inverse relationship between
BCF and the concentration of selenium(IV) in water.
Hodson at al. (1980) exposed rainbow trout to selenium(IV) from fer-
tilisation until 44 weeks posthatch. At 53 pg/L in the water the BCF
ranged from 8 for whole body to 240 Cor liver. They concluded that selenium
in tissue did not increase in proportion to aelenium(IV) in water.
Barrows at al. (1980) exposed bluegills to selenious acid for 28 days.
They reported a maximum BCF in the whole fish of 20 and a tissue half-life
1A
-------
of between ont and seven days. If bluegills bioconcentrate seleniua the
sane as tba rainbow trout tasted by Adams (1976), the 28-day exposure was
probably not long enough to reach steady-state.
Lemly (1982) exposed bluegills and largemouth bass to 10 ug/L
for 120 days to determine the dynamics of uptake, retention, and elimination
.in waters of different hardness and temperature. For bluegills, the
geometric mean whole-body BCF at 20 and 30*C was 452. For largemouth
bass in similar tests, the BCF was 295. For both apecies, the spleen,
liver, kidney, and heart had higher concentrationa than the whole body.
Neither water temperature nor hardness had a significant affect on concen-
trations in tissue after 90 days, although earlier values were influenced.
After 30 days in clean water, selenium concentrationa remained unchanged in
spleen, liver, kidney, and white muscle, but the half-life in gills and
erythrocytes was less than 15 days.
Ingestion of food organisms that-had been exposed to selenium(IV) can
be an important source of exposure of fish to selenium (Hodson and Hilton
1983; Sandholm at al. 1973; Turner and Swick 1983). Lemly (1985a) reported
bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of 485 to 2,019 for various taxa, although the
organisms might have been exposed to a combination of seleniua(XV) and
aelenium(VI). Addition of selenium(IV) to food reduced survival of
rainbow trout (Goettl and Daviea 1977).
Steady-state BCFs with two saltwater apacies ranged from 2.88 in chela
muscle of adult ahore crab, Carcinus maenas (Bjerregaard 1982) to 200 in
whole adult euphausiids, Meganyetiphanes norvegica (Fowler and Benayoun
1976a). Selenium was accumulated to a higher concentration in gill than
in hepatopanereas or muscle of the ahore crab during exposure to 250
Mg/L. The author suggested that much of the selenium associated with the
-------
gill might be sorbed to the gill surface. For the euphauaiid, the
BAF for selenium(IV) from food plus water was four times higher than the
BCF (uptake from water alone).
Ho U.S. FDA adtion level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue is available, for selenium, and, therefore, no Final Residue Value
can be calculated. '
Other Data
Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a,b;1976;1977a;1979;1980b;1981) and Patrick
•t al. (1975) reported the concentrations of selenium(lV) that caused incipient
inhibition (defined variously, such as the concentration resulting in a 3Z
reduction in growth) for algae, bacteria, and protozoans (Table 6). Although
incipient inhibition might be statistically significant, its ecological
importance is unknown. Selenium(IV) at a concentration of 100 ug/L did
not affect crustacean communities in enclosures in a lake contaminated by
mercury (Salki et al. 1985).
Winner (1984) reported that selenium(IV) reduced the chronic toxicity of
copper to Daphnia pulex. Klaverkamp et al. (1983) found that 1 and 10 ug/L
reduced uptake of mercury by northern pike, Esox lucius, whereas 100 pg/L
had no effect. Hodson et al. (1980) found delayed mortality during a
4-day period following cessation of exposure to selenium(IV). Severe
reproductive and developmental abnormalities have been reported in aquatic
birda nesting in selenium-contaminated irrigation drainwater ponds in the
San Joaquin Valley in California (Ohlendorf et al. Manuscript).
Field studies on bodies of water that are either naturally or arti-
ficially high in selenium have indicated that selenium might be more
toxic to various species of freshwater fish than observed in traditional
16
-------
chronic teats. Several of the atudiea have concerned Belev* Lake in
Horth Carolina (e.g.. Cumbie and Van Horn 1978; Finley 1985; Lemly 1985a,b;
Sorenaen et al. 1984), but ether bodiea of water studied include Martin
Lake in Texas (e.g., Sorenaen and Bauer 1984a,b; Sorenaen et el. 1982),
Twin Buttea and °-^iile in Wyoming (Kaiser et al. 1979), a drainage system
in South Cerolina (Cherry et el. 1976,1979), and the Keaterson Reservoir
in California (Ohlendorf et el. Manuscript). Such studies, however, heve
provided circumstantial, rether then definitive, date on the effects of
selenium on aquatic life for two sisjor reesons:
1. The studies provide little, if any, date on the oxidetion state
of the selenium in the weter. Beceuse there are, as yet, ao dete to
show that sslenium(IV) and selenium(VI) are lexicologically or ecologically
equivalent, it is difficult to interpret the results of field studies
that do not use analytical methods (e.g., Oppenheimer et al. 1984;
lobberecht and Van Crieken 1982; Uchida et al. 1980) that can seperetely
measure selenium(IV) and selenium(YI).
2. Unless the addition of the test material is under the control of the
investigetor, rarely can a field study conclusively pinpoint the
cause of the observed effects, becauee of the possibility that the
observed effects were ceused by a combination of agents or by an
unmeasured agent. However, if circumstantial evidence from a number
of dissimilar situations points in the same direction, the inference
becomes stronger.
In spite of the limitations of the available results of field studies,
they do raise important questions, such as:
a. what are the highest concentrations in water of seleniua(IV),
selenium(VI), and combinations of the two that do not unecceptably
17
-------
reduce reproduction, and survival of the resulting young, of sensitive
warmwater fishesT
b. What are the relative toxicities of selenium(IV) and seleniua(VI) in
. food and in water and are the tvo sources additive?
c. Are seleniua(IV) and seleniua(VI) lexicologically or ecologically
equivalent in aquatic ecosystems?
Such questions are important and can be answered with properly designed
i f
t
field and laboratory studies.
Unused Data
8o*e data on the effects of seleniusi(IV) on aquatic organisms were
not used because the studies were conducted with species that are not
resident in North America (e.g., Asanullah and Falser 1980; Fowler and
Benayoun 1976b,c; Gotsis 1982; liimi and LaHam 1975,1976; Wrench 1978).
Eesults (e.g., Okasako and Siegel 1980) of tests conducted with brine
ahrimp, Artemis sp., were not used because these species are from a
unique saltwater environment. Data were also not used if selenium(IV)
was a component of a mixture, effluent, sludge, or a fly ash (e.g., Burton
et al. 1983; Cherry at al. 1976,1979; Fava at al. 1985; Finley 1985; Jay
and Muncy 1979; Ryther et al. 1979; Sorensen et al. 1982; Thomas et al.
1980b; Wong and Beaver 1981; Wong et al. 1982).
Adams and Johnson (1981), Beijer and Jernelov (1978), Biddinger and
Close (1984), Chapman et al. (1968), Davies (1978), Dorney (1985), Eisler
(1985), Ball and Burton (1982), Hodson and Hilton (1983), Jenkins (1980),
Rational Academy of Sciences (1976), Phillips and lusso (1978), Baptis et
al. (1983), Shamberger (1981), and Thompson et al. (1972) only contained
data that had been published elsewhere. Data were not used if the organisms
18
-------
were exposed to *eleniua(XV) by savage (e.g., Kleinow 1984; Kleinow and
Brooks 1986a,h) or injection (e.g., Sheline and 8chmidt-Hielaon 1977).
Braddon (1982) and Freeman and Sangalong (1977) only expoaed anxymea or
tiaaue extract*, teaulta were not used if the teat procedure** teat Material,
or reaulta were not adequately deacribed (e.g., Bovee 1978; Maaaoa 1980).
Kaiaer (1980) calculated tbe toxicity to Daphnia magna baaed on phyaio-
chemical parametera. The daphnida were probably atreaaed by crowding in
•
the teata reported by Schultc at al. (1980). Siebera and Ehlera (1979)
axpoaed too few teat orgeniim*.
leport* of the concentrationa of aelenium in wild aquatic organiama
(e.g., Fowler et al. 1975; Creig and Jone* 1976; Beit and Klu**k 1985;
Kaiaer at al. 1979; Lowe et al. 1985; Luca* at al. 1970; Lytl* and Lytl*
1982; Mehrle et al. 1982; Okacaki and Panietx 1981; Fakkala et al. 1972;
ludd and Turner 1983a,b; Eudd at al. 1980; Seelye 1982; Sorenaen 1984*.b,c;
Uthe and Bligh 1971) were not uaed to calculate bioaccumulation factora
due to the abaence or inaufficient number of measurementa of aelenium(IV)
in water.
Sumaary
Acute valuea for 23 freahwater *p*cie* in 22 genera range from 340 M8/L
for the amphipod, Hyalella axteea» to 203,000 pg/L for the leech, Hephelopaia
obaeura. Although twelve of the twenty-three *pecie* are fiahea, both the
three moat *en*itire and the four moat reaiatant epecie* are invertebrate*.
Chronic value* are available for two fiihea and three invertebrate*. The
chronic value* for the rainbow trout, fathead minnow, and Daphnia magna
•re between 88 and 113 MS/I*, but thoae for two other cladoceraa* are above
300 tig/L. In a aeparate teat, a 60-day LC50 of 51 MS/I* «•• obtained with
19
-------
rainbow trout. The acute-chronic ratios for the four acutely sensitive
•pacias ara bale* 15.
Toxicity valuee for nina apecias of freshwater algae range fro* 50 to
30,000 pg/L. Uptake of aelenium(IV) by fish takes about 100 days to
reach steady-state and bioconcentration factors as high as 452 have been
reported. Studies of bodies of water that contain high concentrations of
'selenium suggest that consumption of contaminated food contributaa to
decreased survival and reproduction of vartiety of wamwater fiahes.
Acute toxicity valuea are available for 16 apecias of saltwater
animals, including 8 invertebrates and 8 fishes, and range from 599 ug/L for
•
larvae of the haddock, Melanograaanis aeglefinus. to 17,350 MS/I* for adulta
of the fourspina stickleback, Apeltes quadraeus. Pish and invertebrates
have aimilar sensitivities, and the acute values for the seven most sensitive
species only differ by a factor of 3.2. There was no consistent relationship
between life stage of invertebrates or fish and their sensitivity to selenium(IV)
Chronic toxicity data ara available for two aaltwater animals, the
mysid, Mrsidopsis bahia, and the aheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus.
The chronic values and tha acute-chronic ratios are 211.7 \ig/L and 7.274
for the mysid, and 675.2 \tg/L and 10.96 for the sheepshead minnow. At a
concentration of 7,959 Mg/L, aeleaium(XV) caused a 50Z reduction in
chlorophyll a in a teat with the saltwater diatom, Skeletooema costatum,
but growth of three apaciaa of algae was stimulated by concentrations of
10 to 10,000 Mg/L. The steady-state bioconcentration factors for two
aaltwater apecies range from 2.88 in chela muscle of adult ahora crabs,
Careinus maenas, to 200 in whole adult auphausiids, Mcganyctiphanes norvegiea.
20
-------
national Criteria
The procedure* described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Humerical
Ration*! Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organise* and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organises and their us.es should not
be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of acid-soluble
selenium(IV) does not exceed 26 pg/L sjdre than once every three years on
the average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 190
pg/L more than once every three years on the average. If species such as
the channel catfish and various sunfishes are as sensitive as aosie field
data indicate they might be, the four-day average should be less than 10 pg/L.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Bumerical
Rational Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
of acid-soluble sslenium(IV) does not exceed 93 pg/L more than once every
three years on the average and if the one-hour average concentration does
not exceed 300 pg/L more than once every three years on the average. If
selenium(IV) is more toxic to saltwater organisms in the field than in the
laboratory, this criterion will not adequately protect saltwater organisms.
EPA believes that "acid-soluble" is probably the best messurement at
present for expressing criteria for metals and the criteria for aelenium(IV)
were developed on this basis. However, at this time, no EPA approved
method for such a measurement is available to implement criteria for metals
through the regulatory programs of the Agency and the States. The Agency
is considering development and approval of a method for a measurement such
21
-------
as "acid-soluble." Until one is approved, however, EPA recommends applying
criteria for metals using the total recoverable method. This has two impacts:
(1) certain species of some metals cannot be measured because the totsl
recoverable method cannot distinguish between individual oxidation
states, and (2) in some cases these criteria might be overly protective
when based on the total recoverable method.
The allowed average excursion frequency of three years is the Agency's
best scientific judgment of the average amount of time it will take an un-
stressed aqustic ecosystem to recover from a pollution event in which
exposure to selenium(IV) exceeds the criterion. Stressed systems, for
example one in which seveVal outfalls occur in a limited area, would be
expected to require more time for recovery. The resiliencies of ecosystems
and their abilities to recover differ greatly, however, and site-spscific
criteria may be established if adequate justification is provided.
Use of criteria for developing water quality-based permit limits and
for designing waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate
vasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria. Limited data or other considerations might make their
use impractical, in which case one must rely on a steady-state model.
The Agency recommends interim use of 1Q5 and 1Q10 for the Criterion
"•Tianim Concentration (CMC) design flow and 7Q5 and 7Q10 for the Criterion
Continuous Concentration (CCC) design flow in steady-state models for
unstressed and stressed systems, respectively. These matters are discussed
in more detail in the Technical Support Document for Water Quality-Based
Toxics Control (U.S. EPA 1985).
22
-------
Takla I. Mart* Twfelty a* SalaalMflV) KB Aaaatte total*
Saaclaa
•^••fjB^rfa^aV
JlwTllOB^
Chaaleal
two
ar BC50
ti0A)M
Saaclaa Naaa
Aevta Valaa
Rataraaca
FRESHMMER SPECIES
Vi
\M
Hydra (adalt).
Hydra »p.
Laach (adalt).
Maohalopala obacara
Snail (adalt),
Aplana hypnoTM
Snail (adalt).
Aplaxa hypnorM
Snail,
Phy»a «p.
Cladoearan,
Carlodaahnla afflnU
Cladoearan,
Daphnla aagna
Cladoearan,
Cladoearan,
Daphnla •agna
Cladoearan,
Oaphnla aaqna
Cladoearan,
Daphnla •egna
. Cladoearan,
Oaphnla aagna
Cladoearan.
Oaphnla palaK
S. W
S. "
S. *
S, "
s, u
s, u
s, u
s. u
S. M
S. *
S, M
S. M
S. M
SodlM
aalanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
SodllM
•alanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
SalanloM
acld»"«
SodlM
•alanlta
SodlM
•alanlta
Sal an loin
acid
Sal an ton*
acid
SodlM
•alanlta
1,700
203,000
33,000
23,000
24,100
800
2.900
430
1,100
490
1,220
1,220
3,870
1,700
203,000
34,910
24,100
800
961.9
3,870
Brooka 1989
Brooka 1989
Brooka 1989
Brooka 1989
Handing 1979
Outlay 1984
BrlnMawi and Kuhn
I999a
UBIahc 1980
Dimbar at al. 1983
BayM 19M
Klaball, Mmutcrlpt
Klnbal 1, MmiMerlpt
Raadlng 1979; Raadli
and Bulkaaa 1983
-------
T*»l* 1. (OMtlMMtf)
$Mcta*
Oatraeod.
CvclocYprla
tophlpod (adult),
Saaaarut DMudol lm*aua
ftaphlaotf,
Hyalalla *rt*ca
Nldg*.
TanytarMt dl«tl«lll«
Rainbow trout,
Salao galrdnarl
Rainbow trout.
Salao g*lrdn*rl
Rainbow trout,
Salao galrdnarl
RftlftDOV TTOHTg
Salao galrdnarl
R* Inoou trout .
Salao galrdnarl
Salao galrdnarl
Rainbow trout.
Salao flalrdnart
Rainbow trout.
Salao galrdnarl
Rainbow trout.
Salao galrdnarl
Brook trout (adult).
Salvallnua fontlnalla
s, u
5, *
F. N
F, N
s. u
s. u
s, u
s. u
F, M
F, N
F. «
F, N
F, N
CfcMlcal
SodlM
Mian It*
SodlM
Ml an It*
SodlM
Mlanlta
d lax Ida
SodlM
Mian It*
Mlanlta
SodlM
Mian It*
SodlM
Ml an It*
SodlM
Mlanlta
SodlM
Ml an It*
SodlM
Ml an It*
SodlM
Mlanlta
SodlM
Ml an It*
SalanlM
dloNlda
IC90
•r BM
130,000
4.300
340
42.900
4.900
*
4,200
2,700
2,790
1.800
12.900
7.200
8.200
8.800
10.200
^AAClflBl ttMBl
a»*^^^a> vw f^^awBaw
Acut* «•!•*
(••Al
130.000
4.300
340
42.900
-
-
-
•
•
-
8.977
10.200
IWaraae*
Owslay 1984
Brook* 1989
Haltar *t al. 1980
Call at al. 1983
MMS 1976
MM» 1976
Man* 1976
Mam 1976
Hunn at al.
Manuacrlpt
Oo*ni and Davla*
1976
Hodaon at al. 1980
Hodaon at al. 1900
Hodaon at al. 1980
Cardwall *t al.
1976a,b
-------
TatU 1.
X)
Spaclas.
Goldfish,
Carats 1 us aaratas
Common carp,
Cvprlnn carplo
Fathaad •Imov,
PlMphaln prom las
Fathaad •|WKM,
PlBaphalaa proaialaa.
Fatha'aJ ailMiov,
Plmphalm from las
Fathaad •limo*.
Fathaad ajlMwv,
Plmphalm prom In
Fathaad •liwov,
Plmphalm aromlas
Fathaad •limov (SO-tfay
old).
Fathaad •limov (fry),
Plmphalm prom las
Fathaad •limow (1 wan Ha),
Plmphalm promlas
Fathaad a)lnno«,
Plmphalm promlas
Fathaad •limov,
P Impha In proml n
Nattad*
F. N
R. U
8.0
s, u
8. U
8.0
8. U
8.0
8. M
F. N
F. «
F. M
F. «
Cmalcal
SalanlM
SodlM
salanlta
SodlM
salanlta
SodlM
salanlta
SodlM
salanlta
salanlta
SodlM
salanlta
SodlM
salanlta
SalanlM
dloKlda
SalanlM
dloxld*
Sal an lorn
acid
Sal an loos
acid
ICN
ar BOO
26,100
33,000
10,300
11,300
6,000
>,400
3,400
2,200
1,700
2,100
3,200
620
970
AcataValm
(•«A) Mafaraaea
26,100 CardMll at al.
I976a,b
33,000 Sato at al. 1969
Mms 1976
Man 197ft"
Man 1976
Man 1976
Man 1976
Man 1976
Brook* 1903
Osromll at al.
1976a,b
CardMll at al.
1976a,b
KlMball, Nsnuscr
*
1,601 KNball, NMIUSCT
-------
T*U 1. fOMtlWMfl
Wilt* meter.
Milt* wetter,
CatMtOM*
bM»(65-tf«y)
Strip* bm <65-*y),
Horon* watt 1 1«
Chwutol otfltti (jHVM
Ictalumt mi>ct«tu»
Chvm«l cctfltfi,
lct«lum« punct«t«»
L«pcali ••crochlnn
Bltwqlll,
Y«llav perch.
F. «
F. »»
S. U
«.«
$.»
r. «
F, M
s, w
S. M
F. M
F. "
teal
SodllM
Mien It*
Sodlw
MlMlt*
t*l«llt«
Ml«nlt«
Sod I Mi
4 tax 14*
S«l«nl«
tflmld*
Ml«llt*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
4 lac Id*
SodlM
tC9t
•r GCfO
29,000
51,400
1,525
2,400
16,000
15,600
6,500
12,600
12,000
26,500
50,180
1,785
15,600
6,500
12,600
26,500
11,700
1985
Dimem mtd
kMp 1985
«t •!. 1985
P«I«MM
Broeto 1985
!. 1985
fertoll *f •(.
1976* ,b
1976«,b
Mtdlng 1979
/
Brook* 1985
1976«,b
Kl«v*rka*e «t
1985
-------
V)
Tabla I. (Owtlaaad)
ta«el««
_ ^ ^ SalUlty
IC59
•TB90
»»
fjAtf^akt^p* •^•^M
AcataValaa
SAITMATER SPECIES
Blua awsaal (aabryo).
Mytllua adulla
Pacific orttar (aabryo),
Crawoatraa glgaa
Pacific oyatar f aabryo),
Crattoatraa olaas
Copapod (adult).
Acartla claaal
Copapod (adult),
Acartla clavsl
Copapod (adalt).
Acartla tonaa
Hytld (Jovwlla),
Mvtlaopala bah la
Nyald (Javanlla),
Mvaldopala babla
Brown strNp (Jwanlla),
Panaaaa attaeaa
DtfAQQftO'Sa) CPUD
(waaa 1 larva),
Cancar aoalatar
Blua crab (Javanlla),
CallliMCtaa taoldua
*^— J^ffcrttl f I^^Bk*^%
naWoocH i iww 9
Sjaap*.- .Inno.
S. U
S. U
s. u
s. u
8. 0
S, U
S, U
r, «
s. u
s. u
s. u
s. u
s. u
SalanluM
OK Ida
Salaala*
OK Ida
Sodloa
talanlta
Salanlom
•eld
Sal an IONS
acid
Salon ION*
acid
Salanloat
acid
•eld
Sodliai
•alanlta
SalanlM
OH Id*
SodlM
•alan It*
Salanloat
acid
Sat an lorn
aeld
33.79
33.79
33.79
30
30
no*o
30
-
15-20
30
33.79
30
30
MO.OOO
>10.000
HO.OOO
1.JS8
2,100
890
600
1.900
1.200
1.040
4.600
599
6.700
>IO.OOO
-
>10.000
1.910
890
•
1.500
1.200
1,040
4.600
599
Martin at al. 1981
Ollekttaln 1978}
Martin at al. 1981
eilctetaln 1978
Luaslar 1986
Lattlar 1986
Laular 1986
U.S. B»A 1978
Mard at al. 1981
Mard ot al. 1981
eilckstaln 1978
Mard at al. 1981
Card In 1986
Halftmllar 1981
Cvprlnodon varlagataa
-------
Ta»U I. COMtfMfl
Shaapsnaad •!«
(Juvanlla),
Cwlnodoii varlagatttt
Atlantic sllvartlda
(Juvanlla),
Manldla •anlala
Fowtpliw ttlcklaback
(adalt),
Aoaltaa
Strip*) baM,
Moron* aanatllla
PlnfUh
Mlntw f Itwitfw ( larva) ,
Paaudop I auronactaa
a»«rlcanu»
S. 0
3.0
8. U
S. U
flowoar (OTbryo), S, U
flowtdar (larva), S, U
S, U
CMalcal
SalNtty ar GC90 Acat* VaJa*
Salanlout
•eld
S*lanloiM
•eld
talwlta
Sodliw
Sal an Ions
•eld
Sal an lev*
•eld
SalanfoM
acid
Sod I* 30
Mlanlta
50
SO
30.2
SO
7,400
9,725
17,350
1,550
4,400
3,497
14,240
15,070
7,400
9.725
17.350
1,550
4.400
3,497
14,650
• S • static) R • ranaval; P • flov-throvgh; M • •awurad, U •
•• Ra«ult« ara axposad M aalanliM, net as tha cha«leal,
••* Raportad by Barrett at al. (1980) In work parlomaJ In tfia
•••• Calealatad fro* ragrasslen aquation.
Ward at al. 1981
Can) In f98ft
CardIn 1986
Palawkl at al.
1985
Ward at al. 1981
Card In 1986
Card In 1986
Card In 1986
ivrad.
laboratory iindar tna ••<•• contract.
-------
V)
T*»l* t. Chronic Twlelty off tol*nln»4IV) «• Aowtle
Lfcalfra Orate »el**
<••/!)
ClndocorM,
Cnrlodaohnl* afflnlt
Cl*doc*ran.
Dnpnnla •*?<*•
Cladocaran,
Dnphnl* ml«K
R0 InDOtf TPOtfT ^
Snl*o g«lrdn«r£
Rtt InDOtf TTOVT^
Fttttwad •limov,
Nytldopslt belli*
Cvprlnodon vnrl«gntu«
LC
LC
1C
1C
ELS
ELS
LC
ELS
• LC • llf«-cyeUor p«-tl*l Mfn-cycUj
•• R»«ult» *rn bated
•M MMKA M* A «••*•!
FRESHHSTER SPECIES
Sod 1 MI . >560M*
S*lonlou* 70-120
•eld
SodlM 600-800
tnlonlt*
Sodlui 60-150
Ml on It*
Sodlu* >47"«*
tnlonlt*
S*l«nlo560 Ovtlny 1984
91.65 Klmb*llt Mmuterlpt
692.8 Rending 1979; Rnndlng
•nd Bulk«w 1983
88.52 Oonttl and D*vl*t
1977
>47 Hodton *t *l. I960
112.7 KNbnll, Minuter Ipt
211.7 ttard *t al. 1981
675.2 M*rd *t al. 1981
on •MMT*d cone on tr nt low off Mlonlm.
1 *M>aKl«.
-------
T*U t
Mtfc
Cladocorm. 600 >360 <1.667
C«rlod«phnl« iff|»|«
Cladocoran. 1,220 91.63 13.31
DaphnU
Cladocoran. 3,870 692.8 5.386
PU|«K
Ralnbw trout, 12,300 88.32 141.3
S«»«a a*lrdn«rl
RalnbOM tTOMt, 8,039* >47
• OMMtrlc MM of ttr«* val«M IN T«bU I.
•• OMMlrle MMH of tw v«l«»« In TabU 1.
Vti FattwoJ •|MM«, 773.5*' 112.7 6.881
^^ M •^^&_k.Kft«UK -.1 ^^
1,300 211.7 7.083
M»»ldoMU
7,400 673.2 10.96
CvprlBodoB
-------
5.
V«lM ftMt* «•!••
(•«/U
ngSHIHTER SPECIES
203,000 LMCh, 203,000
tNpholoptlt obtcura
21 130,000 0*tr«co4, 130,000
CyclocYprlt «p.
20 42,900 Mldgo, 42,900
19 33,000 COMKMI ewp, . 39,000
Cvprlnu* carpto
16 34,910 SMll, 34,910
Apl«x« hypiiorm
17 30,180 Wilt* SHCk«r, 30,180
16 28,900 BliMglll^ 28,900
i MCf octi I rtt>
19 26,100 9oldfl«H, 26,100
14 24,100 SMll, 24,100
PhYM 99.
13 13,600 OIMII*! c«tflrt, 13,600
puftctytm
12 12,600 Mnqullofflfh, 12,600
•fflHlt
II 11,700 Y.I low p«rch, 11,700
III
10 10,200 Brook tro«t, 10,200
9 8,977 Rtlnbov trout, 8,977 141.9
-------
T*»l*3.
!«£
8
7
6
3
4
3
2
1
19
14
13
12
teat* Vale*
(••A!
6,900
4,300
1,929
1,783
1,700
1,601
600
340
17,390
14,690
>to,ooo
>to,ooo
*
Flagflth,
Jord*n*ll* florid**
topMpod,
Oapnnl* e*qn*
Daphnl* pulm
Striped bait,
Moron* >***tl||»
Hydr*,
Hydr* »p.
F*th**d elnnov.
. Cl*doc*r*n,
Cerlodaphnl* *fflnl*
H»*l*ll***gt*e*
8M.TMMCT SPCCIES
Fmrspfn* •tlekl*e*ck,
Ap*lt** oii*dr*cu*
Winter f lc«nd*r.
Pi*udop l*uroo*ct** caw (centra
BlM* B«M*I.
My tl lira •dull*
Pacific oyster.
Mte Valae
6.900
4.300
961.0
3.870
1,783
1,700
1,601
600
340
17,390
14.699
>l 0,000
>10,000
Acete-Ckreale
-
13.31
9.386
-
•
6.881
<1.667
•
-
-
Cr**»o*tr** ale**
-------
Tabl* 3.
11
to
9
8
7
6
9
4
3
2
t
CCoatla***)
Aorta Vala*
9.729
7,400
4,600
4,400
3,497
1,990
1,900
1,274
1.200
1.040
999
Sa*c1a*
Atlantic •! Ivors Id*.
Manldla aanldla
Sh**p*n*ad ajlnnov,
Cwlnodo* varlagatus
81 a* crab.
Plnflsh,
Swaaar flounder,
Parallchtttvs dantattts
Strlp^ bass.
Moron* sa>catllls
KllioMl. bMl.
Acartla'clausl
Gopepod.
Acartlc tens*
Brovn shrla)p.
Panaaus artaeus
Oungan*ss crab.
Cancer **gl*ter
Haddodi.
Malanograamts **glaflnus
a*
7.089
•»
-
/
•
•
-------
Ta»U3.
• Ranked fro* wtt resistant to «ott aentltlvo based on Genut NMD Acute Value.
Inclusion of "greater thai*1 values doe* not necessarily laely • true ranking, but
does «||OM MM of all gww« tor «hleh data «-• available to that tab Final Acuta
Vain* It not wMiacassarlly lovarad,
•• Fro« Tebla t.
•M Fro* Tabla 2
Final Acute Value • 370.9
Criterion MaxtaM Concentration • (370.9 »oA) /2 • 183.4
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio • 6.361 (see text)
Final Chronic Value • O70.9 »oA) / 6.361 • 38.31 »o/L
Final Chronic Value « 23.3 »oA (lowered to protect rainbow trout; see text)
Silt
Final Acuta Valaa • 391.1
Cr I tor Ion Huhta* Coneantratlon • (391.1 »oA) /2 • 293.3 «oA
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio • 6.361 (aaa text)
Final Chronic Value- (391.1 »oA> / 6.361 • 92.93 »oA
-------
Green alge,
ScenedesM* tflearphm
Green elge,
Scenedesws e.eedr I
Groan alga,
uadrleoede
Blue green alga,
MIcrocYtttt
VM
vwliblllt
Blu*-gr«*n •!§•,
AoacyttU aldulam
lcomirhiB
Olatoi
Teble 4. ToMtelty ef SelealeadV) fa Aeeatkt Plait*
Derejtles) Reaelt
Cneelcel (Dew)
FRESHnHTER SPECIES
MlOTlt*
Sodl«
Mlanlt*
SodluB
selenlte
Sodle*
aalenlte
Sodlw
selenlte
selenlte
selenlte
14
8
8
14
Orowth
retardation
Inelalant
Inhibition
Threshold
toxic Ity
Incipient.
Inhibition
retardation
LCTO
IC30
EC30
SALTMATER SPECIES
4
24,000
322
2,900
9,400
(9,300)
24,000
15.000M
30,000**
2,900
Noede et al. 1980
1977a;1978a,b;1979;
1980b
Brlnosen end Kehn
19»9a
Br IIIQWNI 4MM Ktfltfl
1976;I978a,b
Moede et al. 1980
and Prakash 1971
KMMT end Prekash 1971
Rlchter 1982
EC90 (reduction
In ehloroohyll j)
7.93 U.S. EPA 1978
9 Result* ere expressed es selanlv*, not as the eneakal.
•• EstNated froa graph.
•*• Reported by Barrovs et al. (1980) In «ork perfomed wider the seae contract.
-------
T*»l*9. Blc
il*tto« «f S*l*»l*»M
6
11.6
17.6
20
492
299
200
BOO*
14.40**
2.880**.***
Man 1976
M*»« 1976
Hod»on *t •(. 1989
Mw« 1976
Mm* 1976
ftirrowt *t *l. 1989
LMly 1982
l*»ly 1982
Fovl*r and Bcnayoun
1976*
Fovl*r *nd B*n*youn
1976«
BJ*rr*g**rd 1982
Bjwr*g**rd 1982
Bj*rr«g**rd 1982
-------
Ta»l0 9 tOMtlaoadl
•4 concantratlon of aalanlw.
•• Blocoaeanfratloa factor* (BCFt) Mtf blowewralatlon fectora (BAF«) arc
tlUM*.
ft
ttt
•ad eoneantratlont of aalanlwi In wtar and In
••• Eattaatad Ire* graph.
* Incladaa aptako froa food.
Factor «aa comrartad froa dry Might to «at Might basis*
OMcantratlo* of aalanlaa vas tha aaao In aKpesad and control anlaals.
-------
Table ft. Other Date a* Eftott «f Salealavtm m Aieetle Organ ISM
Saeclee
Green alga,
Sconodosejus oaeor Icejeda
Green alga,
Salenastms) caprlcornutuai
Green alga, _ ^
Green alga,
Salenastruaj caerleornutua)
Green alga,
Chloral la vulgar Is
M*M»VMOCCUB cvponv 1 9
Algae (dlato**).
Mixed population
Bacteria*.
Eschar Ich la coll
Bacteria*.
Pieudoaonus putlda
Entoelphon suleatum
Mlcroreoia h*UrMtfla»
J^SS^r^lu.
Chemical
sal en It*
Sodlua)
wl en It*
Sodliis
aalenlt*
SodliM
selenlt*
selenlt*
Sodlua)
selenlt*
selenlt*
SodluB)
Sod fun
selenlt*
Sodlua)
Duration
FRESHWATER
96 hr
72 hr
72 hr
72 hr
18 days
•
16 hr
72 hr
26 hr
48 hr
Effect
SPECIES
Incipient Inhi-
bition (river
water)
Decreased dry
uelght and
chlorophyll ji
BCF • 120-212
BCF • 11.164
retardation
Growth
retardation
C^MteflAfc
vFovm
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
•eealt
<.eA)«
2,900
79
10-100
190
90
90
11,000
90.000
11.400
(11.200)
1.6
(1.9)
183.000
62
•A£A«^AAA
Reference)
Brlngaenn and Kuhn
1999a.b
Foa and Knight.
Manuscript
Foe and Knight,
Manuscript
Foa and Knight,
Manuscript
Hutch Inaon and Stokes
1973
Hutch Inaon and Stokes
1979
Patrick et al. 1973
Brlngaann and Kuhn
I999a
1976; 1977a; 1979; 1980b
Brlngaann 1978;
Brlngaann and Kuhn
1 979; 1980b; 1981
Br IftQAWHi Mn Kuhn
I999b
Brlngasn at al. I960}
BrlngMMin and Kuhn
-------
Ta»ia8.
jaaelaa
Protoioan,
Uroncaa pardaasl
CladoccrM,
Daphn la aiaoiMi
Cladocaran,
Daphnla Mgna
Cladoearan,
Daphnla «afli»a
Cladoearan,
Daphnla Mgna
Cladocaran,
Oaphnla ngna
Cladocaran,
Daphnla aapna,
Cladocaran,
Daphnla «agna
sissrssn.
Cladocaran,
Daphnla jftaona
taphlpod,
HyaUlla attaca
Coho wlaon ( fry) ,
Oncorhynchua fcltutch
Ralnbov trovt (fry),
Stlvo oiroi^ct
Ralnbo* troat (fry),
Salao oalrdnari
CkaBlcal
SodllH
Mlanlta
MlOTlt*
Ml«n|t«
SodlM
Mlanlta
••(•nit*
SodlM
Mlanlta
•alwlta
Kid
S»lanlo«*
Kid
SalanloM
Kid
SodlM
Mlanlt*
Mlanlta
Sodlwi
Mlanlta
Mlmlta
Oaratlaii
20 hr .
48 hr
24 hr
24 hr
48 hr
98 hr
14 days
48 hr
48 hr .
28 daya
14 day*
43 days
2) days
21 days
IfNet
Inelplant
Inhibition
BW (rlvar
MtW)
ICW
GCW
ICW .
(fad)
ICW
(fad)
ICW
(fad)
ICW
(fad)
lew
(fad)
lew
(fad)
icw
(fad)
icw
lew
todMttlM In
growth
(••At*
118
2,500
18,000
9.9
710
430
4M
1,200 .
1,200
240
70
180
480
290
•afaraaoa
Brlngaann and Kutin
1980a;1981
BP IAQM4VM VM9 KttIM
W* IflQMIQA*) 8MQ KttlM
1977« _
flf- f tfWl*B^MMh aWMfl tf ••!>•>
D* inyvpann 8wP* t\vnn
19776
Haltar at al. 1980
Haltw at al. 1980
Hiltw at al. 1980
KlMball, MtnuMrlpt
Klaball, Mmmerlpt
Klaball, Mtmncrlpt
Haltar at al. 1980
Adaas 1978
Man 1978
MM* 1978
-------
Tafcta6. (OMtlMMtf)
Salao galrdnerl
Rainbow troMt,
Salao galrdnerl
Rainbow treat,
Salao gelrdnerl
Rainbow troet,
Salao galrdnerl
Rainbow treat,
Salao galrdnerl
S*lw> alrdnwl
talNbov
Salao
taon IMC IMS
Ooldflsh,
Goldflsn,
Carasslus auratas
Ooldflsn.
Ceraislus aaratus
OoMfflth,
MtlMi wrvtus
CMalcaj
SadlM
Sod Ins
selenlta
SodlM
SodllH
Sod It*
MlOTlt*
SodlM
Ml Wilt*
salenlt*
SodlM
salenlt*
Sodlua
set en It*
dloKld*
WlMlt*
Sedlw
Ooldflth,
dioxide
dioxide
>Mratloa
48 days
96 days
9 days
9 days
9 days
41 days
90 vk
60 days
76 hrs
14 days
10 days
46 days
7 days
48 hr
Effaet
IC90
IC90
1C90
IC90
UB90
Reduction of
hatch of eyed
Blood Iron
decreased
LC90
LC90
LC90
Hartal Ity
OredMal
anorexia and .
aortal Ity
LC90
Conditional
avoidance
900
280
9,400
9,410
6.900
6,920
7,000
7,020
47
93
91"
11.100
6,300
9,000
2,000
12.000
290
Refereae*
Ma«s 1976
Mans 1976
Hodson at al. 1980
Hodson at al. I960
Hodson at al. I960
Hodson at al. 1980
Hodson at al. I960
Hwm at al.
Manuscript
Klaverkava at al.
1983
Cardwall at al.
1976a.b
Ellis at al. 1937
Ellis at al. 1937
Malr and Hlna 1970
Melr and Hlne 1970
-------
T*bl*6i
X
Fattwad •limov,
Plawplwlm prawla*
PNaphal** proiwlat
Fattwad •limov,
Plaaph*!** proMlat
Fattwad •Innov,
Fattwad •IIMMW,
PlMphaln proaala*
Cram ehMb,
SWK)T 1 IttS 0TI^O*MCII I4TU6
aiwglll,
JiS!l';~rochln«
African elavad frog.
Yellow pareli.
An*arob|c b*ct*rlM,
Chlor*ll* *p.
8r*m*lga,
SodlM
Mlmlt*
dlOKld*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
Salmlom
•eld
d ION Id*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
S»lmlM
d ION Id*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
SodlM
Mlmlt*
SodlM
wlmlt*
SodlM
Mlmlta
SodlM
Mlmlt*
D~*tlm
48 day*
9 days
96 hr
14 dayt
8 dayt
48 hr
48 d*y>
14 dayt
7 dayt
110 hr
14 dayt
14 dayt
gffaet
ICSO
IC90
ICW
(fad)
LC50
(f*d)
LC50
(f*d)
Mortality
IC90
ICSO
IC90
two
SPECIES
StlMlat*d
grovth
5-121 Iw
f-rmm mm ••»
•CwWOT III
growth
231 InermM
ItaMlt
1,100
2,100
1,000
600
400
430
H 2,000
400
12,900
1,920
4,600
79.01
10-10,000
100-10,000
M*f*rme*
MM* 1976
C*rdv*l| *t al.
1976a,b
Haltar *t *l. I960
Haltar *t *l. 1960
Klaiball, Niwitcrlpt
Mm *t *l. 1977
MMt 1976
C*rd**ll at al.
I976a,b
Brovn* and Dimont
1979
Kl*v*rhMp *t al.
1983
vORvf*) VHO 9*9Q flN*vn
1977
NhMlar *t al. 1982
Ww*lar *t al. 1962
-------
TN»t«6.
tffoct
Dl*to*,
Th*ll*Mloslr» *Mtlv*Hi
Brown *l0*-.
'
toltnlw
I OK Id*
Sod Iw
72 hr
60 d*y»
N» *ff*ct ON
cell Morphology
13551 IncroM*
IN growth
of ttalll
78.96
2.605
ThoMt *t •!.
Frl*t 1982
1980*
OT, IMt •• th»
froi th» •Mthort* d«t* Htlng tt» problt Mthod.
-------
REFERENCES
Adams, W.J. 1976. The toxicity mad residue dynamics of selenium in fish
•od aquatic invertebrates. Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI. Available from: University Microfilm, Ann Arbor, MI. Order
Ro. 76-27056.
Adams, V.J. and B.E. Johnson. 1981. Selenium: A hazard assessment and a
water quality criterion calculation. In: Aquatic toxicology and hazard
assessment: Fourth symposium. Branson, D.R. and K.L. Pickson (Eds.). ASTM
STP 737. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp.
124-137.
Ahsanullah, M. and D.H. Palmer. 1980. Acute toxicity of selenium to three
•peciea of marine invertebrates, with note's on a continuous-flow test
system. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 31:795-802.
Barrows, M.E., 8.R. Petrocelli, K.J. Macek and J.J. Carroll. 1980.
Bioconcentration and elimination of aelected water pollutants by bluegill
•unfish (Lepomis maerochirus). In: Dynamics, exposure and hazard assessment
of toxic chemicals. Hague, R. (Ed.). Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann
Arbor, MI. pp. 379-392.
Beijer, K. and A. Jernelov. 1978. Ecological aspects of mercury-selenium
interaction* in the marine environment. Environ. Health Perspect. 25:43-45.
Biddinger, G.R. and 8.P. Gloss. 1984. The importance of trophic transfer in
the bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. Residue
Rev. 91:103-144.
-------
Birge, W.J., J.A. Black, A.C. Weiterman and J.E. Hudson. 1979. The effects
of mercury on reproduction of fish and amphibians. In: The biogeochemistry
of mercury in the environment. Hriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Elsevier, Hew York, HY.
pp. 629-655.
Bjerregaard, P. 1982. Accumulation of cadmium and selenium and their mutual
interaction in the shore crab Carcinus maenas L. Aquat. Toxicol. 2:113-125.
Bovee, E.G. 1978. Effects of heavy metals especially selenium, vanadium and
sirconium on movement, growth and survival of certain aquatic life. PB-
232563/4SL. Rational Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Boyum, K.W. 1984. The toxic affects of selenium on the sooplankton, Daphnia
magna and D. pulicaria in water and the food source (Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii). Ph.D. thesis. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI.
Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order Ho. 85-09248.
Braddon, 8.A. 1982. Investigations into the mechanism of action of Se on Hg
toxicity using a sea bass modal. Pad. Proc. 41: Ho. 5585 (abstract).
Bringmann, G. 1978. Determination of the biological toxicity of waterbound
substances towards protozoa. I. Bacteriovorous flagellates (model organism:
Entosiphon sulcatum Stain). Z. Wasser Abwasser Porsch. 11:210-215.
Bringmann, G. and E. Kuhn. 1959a. The toxic affects of waste water on aquatic
bacteria, algae, and small crustaceans. Gesund.-Ing. 80:115-120.
Bringmann, G. and E. Kuhn. 1959b. Water toxicology studies with protocoans
as tast organisms. Gesund.-Ing. 80:239-242.
-------
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1976. Comparative results of the harmful effects
of water pollutants on bacteria (Pseudomonas putida) and blue algae
(Microeystis aerugineea). Gas-Vasserfach, Vasser-Abwasser 117:410-413.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1977a. Limiting values for the damaging action
of water pollutants to bacteria (Pseudomenas putida) and green algae
(Scenedesmus quadrieauda) in the cell multiplication inhibition test. Z.
Vasaer Abwasser Forsch. 10:87-98.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1977b. Results of the damaging effect of water
pollutants on Daphnia magna. Z. Vasser Abwasser Forsch. 10:161-166.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1978a. Limiting values for the noxious affects
of water pollutant material to blue algae (Microeystis aeruginesa) and
green algae (Seenedesmus quadricauda) in cell propagation inhibition tests.
Vom Vasser 50:45-60.
Bringmann, C. and R. Kuhn. 1978b. Taatiag of aubstances for their toxicity
threshold: Model organisms Micrecystis (Diplecystis) aeruginesa and
Scenedesmus quadricauda. Mitt. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 21:275-284.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1979. Comparison of toxic limiting concentrations
of water contamination toward bacteria, algae and protoaoa in the cell-
growth inhibition test. Raustach. Bauphya. Umwelttech. 100:249-252.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1980a. Determination of the harmful biological
affect of water pollutants on protosoa. II. Bacteriovoroue eiliatea. Z.
Vasaer Abwasser Forach. 13:26-31.
-------
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1980b. Comparison of Che tozicity thresholds of
water pollutant* to bacteria, algae, and protocoa in the cell Multiplication
inhibition teat. Water Res. 14:231-241.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1981. Comparison of the effect! of harmful substances
on flagellates as well as ciliatea and on halocoic bacteriophagous and
aaprocoic protocoa. Gas-Wasserfach, Wasser-Abvaster 122:308-313.
Bringmann, G., R. Kuhn and A. Winter. 1980. Determination of biological
damage from water pollutants to protocoa. III. Saprocoic flagellates. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 13:170-173.
_•
Brooke, L. 1985. University of Wisconsin-Superior, Superior, WI. (Memorandum
to R.R. Carton, U.S. EPA, Duluth, MR. October 3).
Browne, C.L. and J.H. Dumont. 1979. Tozicity of selenium to developing
Icnopus laevis embryos. J. Tozicol. Environ. Health 5:699-710.
Burton, J.D., W.A. Maher, C.I. Measures and P.J. Statham. 1980. Aspects of
the distribution and chemical form of selenium and arsenic in ocean waters
and marine organisms. Thalasaia Jugosl. 16:155-164.
Burton, D.T., L.W. Ball, Jr., R.J. Klauda and S.L. Margrey. 1983. Effects
of treated bleached kraft mill effluent on eggs and prolarvae of striped
bass (Morone sazatilis). Water Reaour. Bull. 19:869-879.
Butler, G.W. and P.J. Peterson. 1967. Uptake and metabolism of inorganic Se-
75 by Spirodela olJKorrhica. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 20:77-86.
Call, D.J., L.T. Brooke, H. Ahmad and J.E. Richter. 1983. Tozicity and
metabolism studies with EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) priority
-------
pollutants and related chemicals in freshwater organisms. EPA-600/3-83-095.
Rational Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Callahan, M.A., M.W. Slimak, R.W. Gabel, I.P. May, C.F. Fowler. J.R. Freed,
P. Jennings, R.L. Durfee, F.C. Whitmore, B. Maestri, W.R. Mabey, B.R. Bolt
and C. Gould. 1979. Water-related environmental fate of 12,9 priority
pollutants. Vol I. EPA-440/4-79-029a. Rational Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. pp. 16-1 to 16-13.
Cappon, C.J. and J.C. Smith. 1981. Mercury and selenium content and chemical
form in fish muscle. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 10:305-319.
t
Cardin, J.A. 1986. U.S. EPA, Rarragansett, RI. (Memorandum to D.J. Bansen,
U.S. EPA, Harragansett, RI.)
Cardwell, R.D., D.G. Foreman, T.R. Payne and D.J. Wilbur. 1976a. Acute
toxicity of selenium dioxide to freshwater fishes. Arch. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 4:129-144.
Cardwell, R.D., D.C. Foreman. T.R. Payne and D.J. Wilbur. 1976b. Acute
toxicity of selected toxicants to six species of fish. PB-252488 or EPA-
600/3-76-008. Rational Technical Information Service. Springfield. VA.
Chapman, W.B., B.L. Fisher and M.W. Pratt. 1968. Concentration factors of
chemical elements ia edible aquatic organisms. UCRL-50564. Rational Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Cherry, D.8., R.K. Cuthrie, J.H. Rodgers. Jr., J. Cairns. Jr. and X..L.
Dickson. 1976. Responses of mosquitofish (Cambusia affinis) to ash effluent
and thermal stress. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 105:686-694.
-------
Cherry, D.S., R.K. Guthrie, P.P. Sherberger and S.R. Larrick. 1979. The
influence of coal ash and thermal discharges upon the distribution and
bioaccumulation of aquatic invertebrates. Bydrobiologia 62:257-267.
Cooper, V.C., K.C. Bennett and P.C. Croxton. 1974. The history, occurrence,
and properties of selenium. In: Selenium. Zingaro, R.A. and W.C. Cooper
(Eds.). Van Mostrand Reinhold Company, Bew York, BT. pp. 1-30.
Cumbie, P.M. and S.L. Van Born. 1978. Selenium accumulation associated with
fish mortality and reproductive failure. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc.
Pish Wildl. Agencies 32:612-624.
Cutter, C.A. 1978. Species determination of selenium in natural waters.
Anal. Chim. Acta 98:59-66.
Cutter, C.A. 1982. Selenium in reducing waters. Science 217:829-831*
Cutter, C.A. and K.W. Bruland. 1984. The marine biogeochemistry of selenium:
A re-evaluation. Limnol. Oceanogr. 29:1179-1192.
Davies, A.G. 1978. Pollution studies with marine plankton. Part II. Heavy
metals. Adv. Mar. Biol. 15:381-508.
Dorney, J.R. 1985. The freshwater chemistry and toxicity of selenium with
an emphasis on its affect in Borth Carolina. Borth Carolina Department of
Batural Resources and Community Development, Division of Environmental
Management, Water Quality Section, Raleigh, BC.
Duncan, D.A. and J.P. Klaverkamp. 1983. Tolerance and resistance to cadmium
in white suckers (Catastomus coamersoni) previously exposed to cadmium,
mercury, sine, or selenium. Can. J. Pish. Aquat. Sci. 40:128-138.
-------
Dunbar, A.M., J.M. Lacorchak and V.T. Waller. 1983. Acute and chronic
toxicity of aodiia aelenate to Daphnia magna Straus. Environ. Toxicol.
Chen. 2:239-244.
Eisler, R. 1985., Selenium hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: A
; • i *
synoptic review. Contaminant Bacard Reviews. Report Ho. 5. Biological Report
85(1.5). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, MD.
Ellis, M.M., et al. 1937. Seleniua poisoning in fishes. Proc. Soc. Ezp.
Biol. Med. 36:519.
Fava, J.A., J.J. Gift. A.F. Maciorowski, W.L. McCulloch and H.J. Reisinger
II. 1985. Comparative toxicity of whole and liquid phase aewage aludges to
urine organisms. In: Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment: Seventh
symposium. Cardveil, R.D., R. Purdy and R.C« Banner (Eds.). ASTM STP 854.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 229-252.
Fialey, K.A. 1985. Observations of bluegills fed selenium-contaminated
Hcxagenia nymphs collected from Belews Lake, North Carolina. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 35:816-825.
Fishbein, L. 1984. Overview of analysis of carcinogenic and/or mutagenic
metals In biological and environmental samples. I. Arsenic, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, and selenium. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 17:113-170.
Foe, C. and A.W. Knight. Manuscript. Selenium bioaccumulation, regulation,
and toxicity in the green alga, Selenastrum capricornutum. and dietary
toxicity of the contaminated alga to Daphnia magna.
Fowler, S.W. and G. Benayoun. 1976a. Selenium kinetics in marine cooplankton.
Mar. Sci. Comnun. 2:43-67.
-------
Fowler, 8.W. and C. Benayoun. 1976b. Influence of environmental factor*
on selenium flux in two marine invertebrates. Mar. biol. (Berlin) 37:59-68.
Powler, 8.W. and C. Benayoun. 1976c. Accumulation and distribution of
selenium in mussels and shrimp tissues. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
16:339-346.
Fowler, B.A., R.C. Fay, R.L. Walter, R.D/ Willis and W.F. Gutknecht. 1975.
Levels of toxic metals in marine organisms collected from southern California
coastal waters. Environ. Health Perapect. 12:71-76.
Freeman, B.C. and G.B. Sangalang. 1977. A atudy of the effects of methyl
mercury, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, and PCB (Aroclor 1254) on adrenal and
testicular steroidogeneses in vitro, by gray aeal Haliehocrus jyrpus. Arch.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5:369-383.
Fries, L. 1982. Selenium stimulates growth of marine macroalgae in axenic
culture. J. Phycol. 18:328-331.
Frost, D.V. and D. Ingvoldstad. 1975. Ecological aspects of selenium and
tellurium ia human and animal health. Chem. Scr. 8A:96-107.
Clickstein, H. 1978. Acute toxicity of mercury and selenium to Cratsostrea
gigas embryos and Cancer magister larvae. Mar. Biol. (Berlin) 49:113-117.
Coettl, J.P., Jr., and P.H. Davies. 1976. Water pollution studies. Job
Progress Report, Federal Aid Project F-33-R-11, Colorado Division of
Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO. pp. 31-34.
-------
Goettl, J.P., Jr., and P.B. Davies. 1977. Water pollution studies. Job
Progress leport, Pederal Aid Project P-33-R-12, Colorado Division of
Wildlife, Port Collins, CO.
Cotsis, 0. 1982. Combined effects of selenium/mercury and selenium/copper
on the cell population of the alia Dunaliella minute. Mar. Biol. (Berlin)
•71:217-222.
Creig, l.A. and J.J. Jones. 1976. nondestructive neutron activation analysis
of marine organisms collected from ocean dump sites of the middle eastern
United States. Arch. Environ. Contam. Tozicol. 4:420-434.
Ball, L.W., Jr. and D.T. Burton. 1982. Effects of power plant coal pile and
coal waste runoff and leachate on aquatic biota: An overview with research
recommendations. Crit. lev. Tozicol. 10:287-301.
Baiter, M.T., W.J. Adams and B.E. Johnson. 1980. Selenium tozicity to
Paphnia magna, Hysileia atteca, and the fathead minnow in hard water. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Tozicol. 24:102-107. -
Beisinger, J.P. 1981. Antagonism of selenium and cadmium pretreatments to
subsequent embryotozic doses of mercury and cadmium in fish embryos. PB82-
256645. National Technical Information Service, Springfield. VA.
Beisinger, J.P. and S.M. Dawson. 1983. Effect of selenium deficiency on
liver and blood glutathione perozidase activity in the black bullhead. J.
Ezp. tool. 225:325-327.
Beisinger, J.P. and I. Scott. 1985. Selenium prevents mercuric chloride
induced acute osmoregulatory failure without glutathione perozidase
-------
involvement in Che black bullhead (letalurus melas). Coup. Biochem. Physiol.
800:295-297.
Heiainger, J.P., C.D. Hansen and J.H. Kin. 1979. Effect of aelaniua dioxide
on the accumulation and acute toxicity of mercuric chloride in goldfish.
Arch. Environ-* Contam. Toxicol. 8:279-283.
Beit, M. and C.S. Klusek. 1985. Trace element concentrations in the dorsal
muscle of white auckers and brown bullheads from two acidic Adirondack
lakea. Vater Air Soil Pollut. 25:87-96.
HeitBuller, P.T., T.A. Hollister and P.I. Parriah. 1981. Acute toxicity of
54 industrial chemicals to aheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon varicgatus).
Bull. Environ. Contaa. Toxicol. 27:596-604.
Hilton, J.W., P.V. Hodson and S.J. Slinger. 1981. The requirement and
toxieity of selenium in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Hutr. 110:2527-
2535.
Podson, P.V. and J.W. Hilton. 1983. The nutritional requirements and toxicity
Co fiah of dietary and waterborne aelenium. Ecol. Bull. 35:335-340.
Hodson, P.V., D.J. Spry and B.E. Blunt. 1980. Effects on rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) of a chronic exposure to waterborne selenium. Can. J.
Fiah. Aquat. Sci. 37:233-240.
Huckabee, J.W. and B.A. Griffith. 1974. Toxicity of mercury and aelenium to
the eggs of carp (Cyprinus carpio). Trans. Am. Pish. Soc. 103:822-825.
Hunn, J.B., S.J. Hamilton and D.E. Buckler. Manuscript. Toxicity of sodium
•alaaite Co rainbow trout fry. Columbia Rational Fisheries Eesearch
Laboratory, Columbia, MO.
-------
Butchinson, T.C. and P.M. Stokes. 1975. Beavy metal toxicity and algal
bioassays. Inr Water quality parameters. Barabas, S. (Ed.). ASTM STP 573.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 320-343.
Jay, F.B. and R.J. Muncy. 1979. Toxicity to channel catfish of wastewater
from an Iowa coal benefication plant. Iowa State J. Res. 54:45-50.
Jenkins, D.W. 1980. Biological monitoring of toxic trace metals. Vol. 2.
Toxic trace metals in plants and animals of the world. Part III. EPA-600/3-
80-092. national Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. pp. 1090-
1129.
t
Jones, J.B. and T.C. Stadtman. 1977. Methanoeoceus vanielii; Culture and
effects of selenium and tungsten on growth. J. Bacteriol. 1977:1404-1406.
Kaiser, 1.1., P.A. Toung and J.D. Johnson. 1979. Chronic exposure of trout
to waters with naturally high selenium levels: Effects on transfer SNA
methylation. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36:689-694.
Kaiser, K.L. 1980. Correlation and prediction of metal toxicity to aquatic
biota. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:211-218.
Keating, K.I. and B.C. Dagbusan. 1984. Effect of selenium deficiency on
cuticle integrity in the Cladocera (Crustacea). Proc. Hatl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
81:3433-3437.
Kim, J.B., E. Birks and J.F. Beisinger. 1977. Protective action of selenium
against mercury in northern creek chubs. Bull. Environ. Contarn. Toxicol.
17:132-136.
-------
Kimball, C. Manuscript. The effect* of lesser known metals and one organic
to fathead siinnovs (Pimephales promelas) and Daphnia magna. (Available
from C.Z. Stephen, U.S. EPA. Duluth, KM.)
Klaverkanp, J.F., D.A. Bodgins and A. Lute. 1983. Selenite toxicity and
mercury-seleniumiinteractions in juvenile fish. Arch. Environ. Contarn.•
Toxicol. 12:405-413.
Kleinov, K.M. 1984. The uptake, disposition, and elimination of selenate,
•elenite and selenomethionine in the fathead minnow (Piaephales nromelas).
Ph.D. thesis. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, VI. Available
•
from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order Ho. 85-09260.
Kleinow, K.M. and A.8. Brooks. 1986a. Selenium compounds in the fathead
minnow (Pimephales pronelas)-!. Uptake, distribution and elimination of
orally administered selenate, selenite and 1-selenomethionine. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 83C:61-69.
Kleinow, K.M. and A.8. Brooks. 1986b. Selenium compounds in the fathead
minnow (Pimephales promelas)-!!. Quantitative approach to gastrointestinal
absorption, routes of elimination and influence of dietary pretreatment.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 83C:71-76.
Kumar, H.D. and 6. Prakash. 1971. Toxicity of selenium to the blue-green
algae, Anacystis nidulans and Ansbcna variabilis. Ann. Bot. (Lend.) 35:
697-705.
LeBlanc, C.A. 19.80. Acute toxicity of priority pollutants to water flea
(Daphnia magna). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 24:684-691.
-------
Lealy* A.D. 1982. Response of juvenile centrarchids to eublethal concentrations
of waterborne selenium. I. Uptake, tissue distribution, and retention.
Aquat. Toxicol. 2:235-252.
Lealy, A.D. 1985a. Toxicology of seleniua in a freshwater reservoir:
Implications for environmental hacard evaluation and aafety. Ecotoxicol.
Environ. Safety 10:314-338.
Lealy, A.D. 1985b. Ecological basis for regulating aquatic eaiasions from
the pover industry: The case with seleniua. Regul. Toxicol. Fharmacol.
5:465-486.
• ( •
Levander, O.A. 1977. Metabolic interrelationships between arsenic and
•eleniua. Environ. Health. Perapect. 19:159-164.
Lowe, T.P., T.V. May, V.C. Brumbaugh and D.A. Kane. 1985. Rational
contaminant bioaonitoring program: Concentrations of aeven eleaenta in
freshwater fish, 1978-1981. Arch. Environ. Contarn. Tozicol. 14:363-388.
Lucas, H.P., Jr., D.W. Edgington and P.J. Colby. 1970. Concentrations of
trace elements in Great Lakes fishes. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:677-684.
Lussier, 8.M. 1986. U.S. EPA, Rarragansett, RI. (Memorandum to D.J.
Hansen, U.S. EPA, Harragansett, RI.)
Lytle, T.P. and J.S. Lytle. 1982. Heavy metals in oystera and claaa of
St. Louis Bay, Mississippi. Bull. Environ. Contaa. Toxicol. 29:50-57.
Martin, M., K.E. Osborn, P. Billig and H. Glickstcin. 1981. Toxicities of
ten aetals to Crassostrea gigas and Mytilus edulis embryos and Cancer
aagister larvae. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 12:305-308.
-------
Measures, C.I. and J.D. Burton. 1978. Behaviour and apeciation of dissolved
selenium in •stuarine waters. Mature 273:293-295.
Mehrle, P.M.. T.A. Balnea, 8. Hamilton, J.L. Ludke, F.L. Mayer and M.A.
lebick. 1982. Relationship between body contaminants and bone development
in East-Coast atriped baas. Trans. Am. Fiah. Soe. 111:231-241.
Moede, A., R.W. Greene and D.F. Spencer. 1980. Effecta of selenium on the
.growth and phosphorus ,uptake of Seenedesmus dimorphus and Anaebena cylindrica.
Environ. Ezp. Bot. 20:207-212.
Hassoa, F.A., J.R. Coats, R.L. Metcalf, D.D. Brown and L.G. Hansen. 1980.
• .
Model ecosystem, toxicity, and uptake evaluation of aelenium-75-aelenita.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 24:752-758.
Rational Academy of Sciences. 1976. Selenium. Committee on Medical and
Biologic Effecta of Environmental Pollutants. National Academy of Sciences,
Vaahington, DC.
Miimi, A.J. and Q.H. LaHam. 1975. Selenium toxic it y on the early life atages
of xebrafiah (Brachydanio rerio). J. Fiah. Res. Board Can. 32:803-806.
Riimi, A.J. and Q.R. LaHam. 1976. Relative toxicity of organic and inorganic
compounds of selenium to newly hatched cebrafiah (Brachydanio rerio). Can.
J. Zool. 54:501-509.
Ohlendorf, H.M., D.J. Hoffman, M.K. Saiki and T.V. Aldrich. Manuscript.
Embryonic mortality and abnormalities of aquatic birds: Apparent impacts
of selenium from irrigation drain water.
-------
Okasako, J. and 8. Siegel. 1980. Mercury antagonise*: Effects of sodium
chloride and sulfur group (Via) conpounds on encystment of the brine
ahrimp Artemia. Water Air Soil Pollut. 14:235-240.
Okacaki, R.K. and M.H. Panietc. 1981. Depuration of twelve trace metals
in tissues of the oysters Crassostrea gigss and £. virginiea. Mar. Biol.
(Berlin) 63:113-120.
Oppenheimer, J.A., A.D. Eaton and P.H. Kreft. 1984. Speciation of selenium
in groundwater. EPA-600/2-84-190 or PB85-125979. Rational Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA.
_•
Owsley, J.A. 1984. Acute and chronic affects of selenite-selenium on
Ceriodaphnia affinis. M.S. thesis, Vanderbilt University, Hashville, TR.
Pakkala, I.S., V.H. Gutenmann, D.J. Lisk, G.E. Burdick and E.J. Harris.'
1972. A survey of the selenium content of fish from 49 Rev York state
waters. Pestic. Monitor J. 6:107-114.
Palawski, D., J.B. Hunn and F.J. Dwyer. 1985. Sensitivity of young striped
bass to organic and inorganic contaminants in fresh and aaline waters.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 114:748-753.
Patrick, ft., T. Bott and ft. Larson. 1975. The role of trace elements in
management of nuisance growths. EPA-660/2-75-008. Rational Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
Phillips, O.K. and K.C. ftusso. 1978. Metal bioaccumulation in fishes and
aquatic invertebrates: A literature review. EPA-600/3-78-103. Rational
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
-------
Poston, H.A., G.G. Combs, Jr. and L. Leibovitc. 1976. Vitamin E and
selenium interrelationa in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo ealar).
Cross histological and biochemical deficiency signs. J. Nutr. 106:892-904.
Raptis, S.E., G. Raiser and C. Tolg. 1983. A survey of selenium in the
environment and a critical review of its determination at trace levels.
Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 316:105-123.
Reading, J.T. 1979. Acute and chronic effects of selenium on Daphnia
pulex. M.S. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, VA.
•
Reading, J.T. and A.L. Buikema, Jr. 1983. Chronic effects of aelenite-
aelenium on Daphnia pulex. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 12:399-404.
Richter, J.E. 1982. Results of algal toxicity tests with priority pollutants,
U.S. EPA, Duluth, MR. (Memorandum to C.E. Stephen, U.S. EPA, Duluth, MN.
June 30.)
Robberecht, B. and R. Van Grieken. 1982. Selenium in environmental waters:
Determination, speciation, and concentration levels. Talanta 29:823-844.
Rudd, J.W.M. and M.A. Turner. 1983a. The English-Wabigoon River system: II.
Suppression of mercury and selenium bioaccumulation by suspended and bottom
sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:2218-2227.
Rudd, J.W.M. and M.A. Turner. 1983b. The English-Wabigoon River system: V.
Mercury and selenium bioaccumulation as a function of aquatic primary
productivity. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:2251-2259.
-------
Rudd, J.V.N., M.A. Turner, B.E. Townsend, A. Swick and A. Furutani. 1980.
Dynamics of selenium in mercury-contaminated experimental fresh water
ecosystems. Can. J. Fiah. Aquat. Sci. 37:848-857.
Ryther, J., T.N. Losordo, A.K. Furr, T.F. Parkinson, V.B. Gutenman, I.S.
Pakkala and D.J. Liak. 1979. Concentration of elements in marine organisms
cultured in seawater flowing through coal-fly ash. Bull. Environ. Contarn.
Toxicol. 23:207-210.
Sandholm, M., B.E. Oksanen and L. Pesonen. 1973. Uptake of selenium by
aquatic organisms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 18:496-499.
Salki, A., M. Turner, K. Patalas, J. Rudd and D. Findlay. 1985. The influence
of fish-aooplankton-phytoplankton interactiona on the results of selenium
toxicity experiments within large enclosure*. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
42:1132-1143.
Sarathchandra, S.U. and J.B. Vatkinson. 1981. Oxidation of elemental selenium
to selenite by Bacillus mcgaterium. Science 211:600-601.
Sato, T., T. Ose and T. Sakai. 1980. Toxicological effect of selenium on
fish. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 21:217-224.
Schultx, T.W., 8.R. Freeman and J.H. Dumont. 1980. Uptake, depuration, and
distribution of selenium in Daphnia and ita effecta on aurvival and
ultrastructure. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 9:23-40.
Seelye, J.C., R.J. Besselberg and M.J. Mac. 1982. Accumulation by fiah of
contaminants released from dredged sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 16:
459-464.
-------
Shamberger, R.J. 1981. Selenium in the eovironaent. Sci. Total Environ.
17:59-74.
Shamberger, t.J., 8.A. Tjtko and C.E. Willis. 1976. Antioxidants and
cancer. Part VI. Selenium and age-adjusted human cancer mortality. Arch.
Environ. Health. 1976:231-235.
Sheline, J. and B. Schmidt-Nielsen. 1977. Methylmercury-selenium: Interaction
in the killifish, Pundulus heteroelitus. In: Physiological responses of
marine biota to pollutants. Vernberg, P.J., A. Calabrese, P.P. Thurberg,
and W.B. Vernberg (Eds.). Academic Press, Hew York, RT. pp. 119-130.
i
Siebers, D. and U. Ehlers. 1979. Heavy metal action in transintegumentary
absorption of glycine in two annelid species. Mar. Biol. (Berlin) 50:175-179.
*
Skerfving, 8. 1978. Interaction between selenium and methylmercury. Environ.
Health Perspect. 25:57-65.
Sorensen, E.M.B. and T.L. Bauer. 1984a. Planimetric analysis of redear
suufish Lepemis microlophus hepatopancraas following selenium exposure.
Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 3:159-166.
Sorensen, E.M.B. and T.L. Bauer. 1984b. Correlation between selenium
accumulation in sunfish and changes in condition factor and organ weight.
Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 34:357-366.
Sorensen, E.M.B., T.L. Bauer, J.8. Ball and C.W. Harlan. 1982. Selenium
accumulation and cytotoxicity in teleosts following chronic, environmental
exposure. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxieol. 29:688-696.
Sorensen, E.M.B., P.M. Cumbie, T.L. Bauer, J.S. Bell and C.W. Harlan. 1984.
Histopathological, hematological, condition-factor, and organ weight changes
-------
associated with selenium accumulation in fish from Belevs Lake, Rorth Carolina.
Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:153-162.
Stephen, C.E., D.I. Mount, D.J. Hans en, J.H. Gentile, C.A. Chapman and W.A.
Brungs. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national vater quality
criteria for the prptection of aquatic organisms and their uses. PB85-
*
227049. Rational Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
TaV.ayanagi, K. and G.T.P. Wong. 1984a. Organic and colloidal selenium in
southern Chesapeake Bay and adjacent vaters. Marine Chem. 14:141-148.
Takayanagi, K. and G.T.P. Wong. 1984b. Total selenium and selenium(IV) in
the James River estuary and southern Chesapeake Bay. Estuarine Coastal
Shelf Sci. 18:113-119.
Thomas, W.H., J.T. Hollibaugh and D.L.R. Siebert. 1980a. Effects of heavy
metals on the morphology of some marine phytoplankton. Phycologia 19:202-209.
Thomas. W.H., J.T. Hollibaugh, D.L.R. Siebert and G.T. Wallace, Jr. 1980b.
Toxicity of a mixture of ten metals to phytoplankton. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 2:213-220.
Thompson, 8.E., C.A. Burton, D.J. Quinn and T.C. Rg. 1972. Concentration
factors of chemical elements in edible aquatic organisms. UCRL-50564. Rev.
1. Rational Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Turner, M.A. and A.L. Svick. 1983. The Engliah-Wabigoon River system:
IV. Interaction between mercury and selenium accumulated from waterbome
and dietary sources by northern pike (Esox lucius). Can. J< Pish. Aquat.
Sci. 40:2241-2250.
-------
U.S. EPA. 1976. Quality criteria for water. RPA-440/9-76-023. Rational
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. BPA. 1978. In-depth studies on health and environmental impacts of
aelected water pollutant*. (Table of data available fro* C.E. Stephen,
U.S. EPA, Duluth. MN.)
U.S. EPA. 1980. Aabient water quality criteria for aelenium. EPA-440/5-80-
070. Rational Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983a. Methoda for chemical analyais of water and waatea. EPA-
600/4-79-020 (Revised Marqh 1983). Rational Technical Information Service,
•
Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983b. Water quality standards regulation. Fed. Regist. 48:51400-
51413. November 8.
U.S. EPA. 1983c. Water quality standards handbook. Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Technical support document for water-quality based toxics
control. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Uchida, B., T. Shimoishi and K. Toei. 1980. Gas chromatographic determination
of selenium (-11,0), -(IV), and -(VI) in natural waters. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 14:541-544.
Uthe, J.P. and E.G. Bligh. 1971. Preliminary survey of heavy metal
contamination of Canadian freshwater fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28:786-
788.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
-------
Ward, G.S., T.A. Hollister, P.T. Heitmuller and P.R. Parrish. 1981. Acute
and chronic toxicity of selenium to estuarine organisms. Hortheast Gulf
Sci. 4:73-76".
Weber, W.J., Jr. and W. Stumm. 1963. Mechanism of hydrogen ion buffering in
natural waters,. Jl Am. Water Works Assoc. 55:1553-1578.
Weir, P.A. and C.H. Bine. 1970. Effects of various metals on behavior of
* i
conditioned goldfish. Arch. Environ. Health 20:45-51.
Wheeler, A.E., R.A. Zingaro, K. Irgolic and H.R. Bottino. 1982. The effect
of selenate, aelenite, and sulfate on the growth of six unicellular marine
algae. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 57:181-194.
Wilber, C.G. 1980. Toxicology of selenium: A review. Clin. Toxicol.
17:171-230.
Wilber, C.G. 1983. Selenium: A potential environmental poison and a
accessary food constituent. Charles C. Thomas Publ., Springfield, IL.
Winner, R.W. 1984. Selenium effects on aatennal integrity and chronic
copper toxicity in Daphnia pulex (deCeer). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
33:605-611.
Wong, P.T.8., T.K Chau and D. Patel. 1982. Physiological and biochemical
responses of several freshwater algae to a mixture of metal*. Chemosphere
11:367-376.
Wrench, J.J. 1978. Selenium metabolism in the marine phytoplankters
Tetraselmis tetrathele and Dunaliella minute. Mar. Biol. (Berlin) 49:231-236.
Wrench, J.J. and C.I. Measures. 1982. Temporal variations in dissolved
selenium in a coastal ecosystem. Nature 299:431-433.
------- |