ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
EPA-33C/9-74-002
NFIODEXVER
^Manual
NATIONAL FIELD INVESTIGATIONS CENTER-DENVER
DENVER.COLORADO
JUNE 1973
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
NFIC-DENVER
SAFETY MANUAL
NATIONAL FIELD INVESTIGATIONS CENTER-DENVER
DENVER, COLORADO
June 1973
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS,
III. OFFICE SAFETY RULES
IV. LABORATORY SAFETY RULES 11
A. GENERAL SAFETY PRACTICES 11
B. PERSONAL SAFETY RULES - LABORATORY 15
C. USE AND HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS .... 17
D. WASTE DISPOSAL 37
E. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 38
F. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 45
V. FIELD SAFETY RULES 49
A. AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY 49
B. BOAT SAFETY 51
C. SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRO-SHOCKING 55
D. SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING AND FLOW
MEASUREMENT OPERATIONS . . . 56
Appendix A "Survive in Winter''
Appendix B Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, & Solids
Appendix C Hazardous Chemicals
Appendix D Additional References Concerning Safety
Appendix E "Desert Survival"
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. GENERAL
This manual is intended to provide the basis for comprehensive
safety programs in each NFIC-Denver activity consistent with the
Occupational Safety and Health Act requirements. Obviously, every
safety hazard cannot be anticipated. Thus, rules cannot be developed
for every contingency that could arise. Consequently, a practical
safety program consists partly of rules and adherence thereto and
partly of common sense, judgment, and experience. All employees
are, therefore, required to enforce and adhere to the published
rules, but, more importantly, are required to maintain a high level
of safety consciousness. The latter involves constant vigilance
for unsafe or potentially hazardous practices and immediate correc-
tive action as necessary to ameliorate the condition.
Branch chiefs are responsible for the execution of any changes
or amendments made to this manual as the need is perceived. Changes
are to be submitted, in writing, to the Safety Officer after review
by an Assistant Director or the Director.
In all considerations related to the safety, two aspects tran-
scend all others:
1. Safety consciousness is paramount to all other consider-
ations in the course of job-related activities at NFIC-Denver. When
in doubt regarding the safety aspects of a particular task or activity
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and when competent advice is not immediately available, it is man-
datory to follow the safe course of action.
2. Our human resources are our most priceless asset. The
prevention of loss of life, injury, or health hazard is the greatest
responsibility that we share.
B, IMPLEMENTATION RESPONSIBILITIES
Responsibilities have been assigned for implementation of the
safety requirements set forth in this manual. A description of each
individual's responsibilities is presented.
Director, NFIC-Denver
The Director is responsible for the overall effectiveness of the
NFIC-Denver Safety Program. Working through Center Safety Officer
and Assistant Directors, he ensures that all NFIC employees are work-
ing in the safest possible environment.
First Line Supervisors
First line supervisors are responsible for ensuring that the
day-to-day work being carried out under their supervision in the
laboratories and in the field is accomplished in accordance with es-
tablished NFIC and OSHA safety rules and policy. Also, they are re-
sponsible for correcting employees who are performing a job in an
unsafe manner and for initiating immediate corrective action as soon
as an unsafe situation or procedure is observed.
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Center Safety Officer
The Center Safety Officer is responsible for the overall coordi-
nation of the MFIC-Denver Safety Program. In cooperation with Division
Chiefs, the Center Laboratory Safety Coordinator, Field Safety Coordi-
nator, and with Branch Chiefs, he maintains a safety program to identify
possible hazards, disseminates information on known hazards, follows up
on corrective action recommended, and coordinates the NFIC safety train-
ing program.
Laboratory Safety Coordinator and Field Safety Coordinator
These people are responsible for identifying possible hazards and
recommending corrective action to be taken by Branch Chief or Branch
Supervisors. He holds periodic safety training sessions for Branch
personnel, disseminates safety information on new safety procedures,
equipment, etc., and follows up to ensure that his recommendations
are implemented.
Division and Branch Chiefs
Division and Branch Chiefs are responsible as line managers for
the safety and security of employees, equipment, and spaces assigned
to them. They administer budget funds to ensure that proper safety
equipment is provided where needed. Working through direct supervision
and through subordinate supervisors, the Branch Chiefs ensure that all
aspects of the NFIC-Center Safety Program is being carried out in their
division or branch.
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NFIC-Denver Safety Committee
The Safety Committee is made up of the Center Safety Officer,
Field Safety Coordinator, Laboratory Safety Coordinator, and Branch
Chiefs concerned. The committee is responsible for reviewing and/or
investigating serious accidents and recommending corrective action to
be taken.
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II. GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
A. All employees are directed to bring to the attention of the most
readily accessible supervisory or management employee, any con-
dition, practice, or circumstance that could result in health
hazard, injury, or death to any employee. When imminent hazards
exist, any Supervisor or any employee on the scene will take steps
to eliminate the hazard. Follow-up consultation with Branch Chiefs
or Management should be carried out at the first opportunity. In
cases where the hazard is not of an imminent nature Branch Chief
or Management will be consulted regarding appropriate corrective
measures. Application of this rule requires the exercise of good
judgment and common sense; both attributes are expected of all
employees.
B. Protective headwear, eyewear, footwear, clothing, and accessories
are available for all foreseeable circumstances; their use, as
appropriate, is mandatory. If in doubt, act on the part of safety.
C. Branch Chiefs are authorized and directed to counsel individual
employees about any work habits and practices that could be a
hazard to the individual employee or fellow employees. Continued
or repetitive failure to heed such counseling will be construed to
be uncooperative conduct and may lead to appropriate administrative
action reprimanding the employee.
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D, Supervisory and Management personnel are required to familiarize
themselves with and implement and abide by the regulations
promulgated pursuant to tha Occupational Safety and Health Act
of 1970, The regulations are set forth in the Federal Register,
Volume 37, Number 202, dated October 18, 1972, copies of which
have been distributed to each Branch.
E. The following practices are expressly forbidden:
- use of explosives (as defined by 49 Chapter I) for any purpose
whatsoever, except with the specific written approval of the
Director, NFIC-Denver.
- ignition of flammable liquids within, on} or through impro-
vised heating devices (barrels) etc., space heaters not having
Undeivriters Laboratories* approval, or non-standard laboratory
equipment;
- entry — in the absence of clear evidence that such entry can
be accomplished safely, into areas or spaces wherein toxic or
explosive concentrations of gases or dust may exist.
F. Visitors to all work areas other fchaa offices shall be escorted.
by an employee. The escorting employee is responsible for the
safety of the visitor until relieved of the responsibility by a
supervisor, Branch-Chi^t, cr Management personnel, or until the
visitor departs the work area. Children less than 12 years of age
may be permitted in the laboratories only with the specific authori-
zation of a management employee.
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G. All employees having duties that could require prolonged ex-
posure to cold weather are directed to become thoroughly
familiar with the contents of the publication "Survive in
Winter," appended to this manual [Appendix Aj.
H. All employees whose duties could cause them to undertake
field work are encouraged to avail themselves of immunization
for typhoid fever, tetanus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
polio, and smallpox.
I. All employees will receive basic first aid training. Such
training will be provided by NFIC at the earliest opportunity.
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III. OFFICE SAFETY RULES
A. The Safety Officer will prepare and post, prominently throughout
the building, an evacuation plan for all of the area in Building
53 occupied by NFIC-Denver. Employees are directed to familiar-
ize themselves with the plan and to be prepared to execute the
plan at any moment. An evacuation drill will be scheduled once
yearly„
B. Floors are slippery when wet. All employees are cautioned to
wipe feet when entering the building and to clean up spilled
liquids promptly. To this end, additional door mats are being
provided and paper towels are being placed next to the coffee
maker.
C. The Xerox machine is both a shock and burn hazard to persons
not trained in the proper maintenance procedures. The practice
of wedging or jamming control buttons is particulary hazardous
and is not permitted. A Key Operator is to be called in the
case of any machine malfunction. In the event of a fire in the
machine an attempt should be made to unplug the machine. The
door of the Xerox room should then be closed and the fire depart-
ment called.
D. Jewelry, long hair, and clothing must be kept clear of the typing
elements on typewriters, MT/ST, and on computer terminals.
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E. All electrical devices, except clocks (and laboratory equipment -
discussed elsewhere herein) are to be turned off when not in use.
Coffee pots must be unplup^ed at the close of business each day.
F. Rules pertaining to gas cylinders, listed under "Laboratory
Safety Rules," pertain equally to cylinders used elsewhere in the
office, (i.e., drafting room, darkroom, etc.),
G. When an electrical circuit breaker is tripped, the cause should
be traced and checked for fire hazard before the overload circuit
is reactivated.
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LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
A. GENERAL SAFETY PRACTICES
1. Bottle carriers should be used when transporting glass
bottles containing hazardous diemicals (acids or other
corrosive liquids), flammable liquids, or any large glass
bottles (distilled water bottles).
2. All containers of chemicals and samples shall be labeled
clearly and correctly. All unlabeled materials must be
discarded under the direction of a supervisor.
3. Chemicals are not to be pipetted by mouth. Aliquots for
microbiological analysis may be pipetted employing estab-
lished microbiological techniques.
4. All gas cylinders must be firmly secured individually by
means of safety clamps and straps or chains.
5. All electrical equipment should be grounded, except for
double-insulated tools and certain electronic test equip-
ment, and electrical cords inspected periodically to en-
sure that they are in good working condition.
6. Damaged glassware should never be used in the laboratory.
Cracks or jagged edges are a serious hazard. All such items
should be set aside to be repaired if they are worth salvaging.
* For purposes of this manual the same procedures will generally apply
to both mobile- and main-laboratory spaces.
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If not, they should be destroyed immediately in such a
way that people working nearby will not be injured by
flying particles. They should never be placed in the
dishwasher for cleaning.
7. Joints, stopcocks, etc., are not leak proof, and pro-
visions should be included for catching any material that
could leak out. This is particularly true when leaving
a reaction overnight.
8. Where possible, heating mantles are preferred over open
flames or hot plates.
9. Warning signs meeting OSHA specifications shall be used as
required. They should be removed when the hazard has been
corrected or no longer exists.
10. Floors and surface working areas (benches, tables, etc.) are
to be kept clean, dry, and free from corrosive chemicals.
Spills of any liquid, powdered or granular material must be
cleaned up Immediately.
11. Instruments, glassware, equipment, reagents, and unused con-
tainers must be stored in designated areas when not in use.
Aisles, hallways, and walkways are to be kept clear and
well-lighted.
12. Initiation of a laboratory analysis or experiment, not fully de-
scribed in Standard Methods, AQC Manual, or other authoritative
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procedural source, must be preceded by a survey of
existing literature. The toxicity and other hazards
connected with the reactants and products should be in-
vestigated thoroughly before starting any laboratory re-
action. The effects of logical impurities on the safety
aspects of the proposed reaction should be considered.
13. The safety of other personnel in the laboratory must be
considered as well as the safety of the person running
the reaction. Before undertaking any non-standard an-
alytical procedures, other personnel must be made cog-
nizant of the nature of the analysis to be carried out.
14. Prior to relinquishing control of a non-standard or
otherwise hazardous analysis, the employee assuming con-
trol must be thoroughly instructed in the potential haz-
ards and methods of counteracting such hazards.
15. Any analysis not completely described in the reference
literature must be run on a small scale before attempting
full-laboratory scale reaction. During this phase of the
experimentation, the analysis should be presumed hazardous
and the pertinent items of individual safety equipment
used until the reaction is demonstrated to be non-hazardous.
16. Equipment for the analysis must be chosen with the chemistry
and physics of the reaction in mind, e.g., fluorination in
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glass equipment Is inherently dangerous as is the use of
flat-bottomed equipment in pressure and vacuum reactions,
17, Glass equipment should be assembled carefully to avoid
strains brought about by increased temperature and vibra-
tions. Ball joints give greater freedom of movement than do
standard tapered joints.
18. Any vacuum, pressure, or high-temperature distillation
should be considered potentially hazardous, and the proper
safety equipment such as safety shields should be used.
19. Sufficient free-board should be allowed when sizing equip-
ment to allow for liquid expansion due to increased tem-
perature. This is particularly true In non-glass equipment
when the volume of the reactants cannot be observed during
all phases of the reaction.
20. It should be remembered that the high-boiling components
tend to concentrate in the still pot, and many substances
which are non-hazardous in a dilute concentration can be
very hazardous in concentrated, forms.
21. With temperature-sensitive material, it should be remembered
that when adding heat to a reaction the temperature of the
surface of the vessel may be considerably higher than the
temperature of the reaecion in which case it may be
advisable to use a controlled temperature bath or a heating
mantle.
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B. PERSONAL SAFETY RULES - LABORATORY
1. Always use rubber gloves and face mask when transferring
large amounts (1 liter or more) of corrosive liquids.
Goggles or face masks must_ be used when transferring
any amount of IN-or—greater concentrated bases.
2, Safety glasses are mandatory for employees and visitors
in all laboratory areas S3 designated.
3. Pace shields, rubber and asbestos gloves, aprons and smocks
are to be worn, as directed by the appropriate Branch Chief
or supervisor.
4. Safety shoes are required for employees who work in areas
where large or heavy equipment and containers are used.
Branch Chiefs will prescribe personnel and areas to which
this rule applies.
5. All employees using illuminated microscopes must be properly
trained in the use of filters for eye protection. Pre-
scribed filters will be used during all microscopic work.
6. Employees using UV disinfection devices shall wear proper
eye protection.
7. All employees required to use equipment producing steam or
hot water (i.e., water still, dishwasher, autoclave, etc.)
will be properly trained. Posted instructions will be
followed at all times.
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8, All employees working in the Biology "wet laboratory"
must wear non-skid shoes.
9. Scott Air Paks and emergency oxygen are available in the
laboratories. The equipment is for emergency use only
and must be available at 100-percent operating efficiency
at all times. They should be used when there is any like-
lihood of a toxic gas or dust being present.
10. Heavy leather-faced gloves or other approved hand pro-
tection shall be used to free stuck stoppers, caps, or
lids from glass containers and when inserting or removing
glass tubing frora rubber stoppers.
11. All personnel shall be instructed, as required, on the lo-
cation and use of first aid kits, fire extinguishers,
safety showers, eye baths, fire blankets, and emergency
oxygen equipment. Operational readiness of all such equip-
ment shall be ascertained by inspection; then equipment
shall be certified, in writing, as operationally ready, by
the NFIC-Denver Safety Officer or his designated assistants,
12. Consumption of food and beverages in laboratories is pro-
hibited. Coffee and lunch breaks will be scheduled by
Branch Chiefs and supervisors. Breaks will be taken in
areas other than laboratories. No smoking will be allowed
in designated areas.
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13. Every employee is to be instructed regarding the following:
a. Location of fire alarms;
b. Telephone numbers of the Denver Federal Center Fire
Department and Ambulance Service, immediate supervisor,
Branch Chief, Assistant Directors, and Director;
c. Notifications to be made in the event of emergencies;
d. Other safety precautions as warranted.
C. USE AND HANDLING OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
1. Compressed Gases
a. Classifications
Compressed gases are classified in four groups. While
"non-toxic" is part of two of these classifications, it
must be remembered that such gases act as simple asphyx-
iants when they reduce the oxygen concentrations below
safe levels.
(1) Group I — Non-Flammable, Non-Toxic Gases
Genetrons except 142B, 151A, 1132A
(flammable)
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
Nitrous Oxide
Inert Gases (Helium, Neon, etc.)
Oxygen - no limit consistent with usage.
Oxygen should be stored away from readily
oxidized materials.
* Brand name of liquified fluorinated hydrocarbons manufactured by
Specialty Chemicals Division, Allied Chemical Corp,
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(2) Groap II — Ncm-Flaramabl^» T^xic Gases
Boron Trichloride
Boron Trifluoride
Chlorine
Fluorine
Hydrogen Chloride
Nitrogen Tetroxide
Phosgene
Sulfur Dioxide
Group-II gases can be expected to cause serious effects
on human beings in relatively small concentrations. While
these gases are not fl.amnat.le, most cylinders are equipped
with fusable plugs operating at 160-165*"?. Exposure to
fire could cause release of gases „ Cylinders should be
stored under sprinkler protection, and cylinder size should
be No. 3 or smaller when used in the laboratories. Cylinders
within laboratories should be kept within hoods with the
exhaust running at all times„ Unless gas has some distinc-
tive warning odor within a safe concentration, suitable
leakage detectors must be employed,
(3) Group III — Flammable, Toxic Gases
Ammonia
Carbon Monoxide
Dimethylamina
Ethylene Oxide
Hydrogen Sulfide
Methyl Chloride
Trimethvlatnine
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In addition to the toxic properties exhibited by the gases
in Group II, these gases are flammable. Precautions as
outlined for the Group-II pases should be followed and, in
addition, Rases inside laboratories should be restricted
to those areas where Class I, Division I, electrical equip-
ment is provided. Open flames and other sources of ig-
nition must be avoided. Electric heating mantles within
hoods may be used provided controls are located outside
the hooded area.
(4) Group IV — Flammable, Non-Toxic Gases
Acetylene
Alkanes, Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane
Alkenes, Ethylene, Propylene, Butylenes, etc.
Butadiene
Ethyl Chloride
Hydrogen
Vinyl Chloride
Cylinder size for Group-IV gases should be No. 2 or smaller.
Cylinders should be stored under sprinkler protection, and
electrical equipment should be suitable for Class I,
Division I, locations. For larger usages, see comments
under Group II and III.
b. Procedures
Regulators designed for the particular gas are required
for most materials. Some cylinders in which liquified
contents have vapor pressures under 15 psig at 688F can
be equipped with needle valves to regulate the flow.
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Cocks, gate, or globe valves must be avoided. For
pressure pases„ two-stage regulators should be used when
delivery pressures below 5 pels are required.
Connecting hose, tubing, etc., must be suitable for use with
the eas involved and are to be protected from impact or me-
chanical d ama g e.,
Since compressed gases vary widely in their physical char-
acteristics, chemical activity, toxicity, flammability, etc.,
the foregoing should be considered a general guide. Each
gas must be evaluated on its own merits., and a safe-handling
procedure followed,, A valuable source of information is the
Matheson Gas_ Data Book available from the Matheson Company, Inc.,
East Rutherford, New Jersey,
Cylinders not ±n active usage should be stored in a well-
ventilated sprinklered location away from all combustibles.
When not in use, valves must be closed and caps replaced.
All cylinders, active or inactive, must be. properly supported
to prefer:;; copplinp or falling.
Insofar as is possible, only one cylinder of either Group II,
III, or IV should be placed in any one hood.
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Oxidizing and flammable gases shall be separated in storage.
Incompatible materials shall not be placed in close proximity
to one another [see Appendix B].
Venting of gas cylinders is prohibited — no exceptions.
All cylinders not in use shall bear a tag or label showing
status (full, partially used, depleted, etc.).
Cylinders may be moved only with the approved cylinder cart.
Tie-down straps or chains must be used to secure the cylinder
to the cart.
Empty and full cylinders shall not be stored together.
Expended cylinders shall be removed from service with positive
pressure remaining.
Cylinders containing flammable gases shall be turned off at
the cylinder valve at the close of each working day. Cylinders
containing non-flammable gases must be turned off at the close
of each day, except when expressly authorized by a branch chief
or supervisor.
Cylinders of compressed gases must be stored valve end up in
racks to prevent falling.
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Cylinders always should be kept away from sources of heat
such as steam lines, radiators, or direct rays of the sun*
Only the cylinders required for immediate use are to remain
In the laboratory work area. All cylinders not in use must
be moved to a. separate storage area promptly following use.
c. Care and handling of Compressed Gas Regulators
In the use of gas regulators there are specific rules that
must be followed because of the potential danger associated
with the high pressures involved. The following section
covers general information and the proper procedures for
using regulators:
(1) There are two common kinds of regulators, single stage and
two stage. The two-stage regulator is recommended for sev-
eral reasons, These regulators deliver a constant pressure
over the whole range of cylinder pressure, and an added
safety feature assures longer diaphragm life because of a
preset safety that prevents overloading of the first stage.
(2) Gas cylinder regulators are manufactured with different limits
on the diaphragms for low-pressure delivery. Delivery pres-
sure is approximately half of the low-pressure gauge maximum.
(5) Regulators are equipped with specific fittings prescribed by
the Cylinder Gas Association, and progress has been made in
recent years to standardize the kind of fitting used for each
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type of gas. Different fittings are still used by different
vendors. Therefore, the operator must be familiar with the
type of CGA fitting being used by the vendor supplying him
with gas. The following CGA fittings are used by our current
vendor for the common gases:
Gas Kind of Fitting
Nitrogen \ CGA-580
Helium )
Air (breathing) CGA-1340
Hydrogen >
P-5 [ CGA-35Q
P-10 )
Oxygen CGA-540
Acetylene CGA-510
Nitrous Oxide CGA-1320
(4) No sort of sealing compound or teflon tape should be used to
stop leaks at the cylinder valve connection. If a leak per-
sists at the valve, the cylinder valve seat is probably at
fault. The cylinder should be returned to the vendor.
(5) The following step-by-step procedure should always be followed
when shutting off a cylinder for any purpose:
a) Close cylinder valve completely.
b) Allow gas to flow through the regulator until both high-
and low-pressure gauges register zero:
c) Turn the regulator-adjusting screw counterclockwise until
the screw is loose; and
d) Close the regulator needle valve. (Most, but not all,
regulators are equipped with needle valves.)
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(6) The following step-by-step procedure should always be followed
when turning on a cylinder:
a) Check to make sure the needle valve is closed,
b) Check the regulator-adjusting screw to make sure it is
turned counter-clockwise until loose;
c) Slowly and carefully open the cylinder valve until the
full pressure is registered on the high pressure gauge;
d) Then open the valve completely;
e) Open the needle valve;
f) Turn the pressure-adjusting screw clockwise slowly until
the desired pressure is registered on the low-pressure gauge.
(7) The pressurized system should always be checked for leaks, par-
ticularly the high-pressure side. This can be done quickly by
turning the regulator adjusting screw counterclockwise and the
cylinder valve off. The pressure should remain constant; a
rapid drop in pressure indicates a substantial leak. An alter-
native method is the use of an inert liquid leak detector, such
as "Snoop," which discovers small leaks and does not require
the interruption of the gas flow.
(8) No oil or lubricant should be used on any regulator especially
one in oxygen service,
(9) All metal lines connected to regulators must be disconnected
before changing cylinders „
(10) No connection from a gas cylinder to the high-pressure side of
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a regulator should ever be made employing metal or flexible
tubing, unless the connecting material is approved for high
pressures.
(11) The cylinder valve seat should always be checked for cleanli-
ness before installing a regulator and, if dirty, should be
wiped with a dry tissue.
(12) Regulators have both left- and right-handed threads for con-
nections, but it is easy to differentiate between them. The
left-handed thread will always have a V-shaped notch in the
metal connecting nut.
(13) Adaptors are readily available to change the usage of a regu-
lator from one gas to another, but this is not recommended.
This practice introduces an additional connection where an-
other failure or leak could occur. Another and more serious
possibility is subjecting a regulator to contact with a
corrosive gas when the regulator is designed only for inert gas.
2. Flammable Liquids
a. Classification
Class I Closed cup flash point below 43°C (110°F)
Class II Closed cup flash point of 43°C (110°F) and higher
b. Procedures
Flammable liquids must never be handled in the vicinity of
* See Appendix B for flash points of some common materials.
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open flames or sparking electrical equipment. Air cur-
rents could blow a stream of vapors co the flame, resulting
in a flashback followed by fire or explosion. Diethyl ether
and carbon disulfide are particularly dangerous in this
respect. The latter is so highly flammable that it may
catch fire upon contact with hot water or a steam radiator.
Ether will ignite in contact with a hot plate. In a distil-
lation always use a water bath for these liquids must never
be distilled over an open flame.
Toluene, acetone, benzene, petroleum ether, alcohols, and
many other flammable, solvents must be handled with caution
and at a safe distance from open flames and open electrical
equipment.
Materials containing flammable solvents must not be dried
in an electrically heated oven except those expressly de-
signed to be explosion-proof.
In dispensing flammable liquids from a drum, a hand pump
is preferred. If dispensing from a rack with the drum on
its side, a self-clc-o/'.^g valve must be provided. Flame-
arresting bung vents and ground wires shall be user! when
dispensing from drums.
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Compressed air should never be used to dispense flammable
liquids.
Analyses or reactions involving more than one liter of
Class-I material at higher than room temperatures must be
done in a laboratory hood.
No more than five liters of Class I materials can be used
in analyses or reactions in hoods.
Use of Class-II materials within 4.4°C (40°F) of the flash
point of the material must be in laboratory hoods if the
quantity of material being handled exceeds one liter.
Transportation of flammable materials in excess of one
liter is to be in safety cans only.
Transfer of flammable liquids must be carried out in well
ventilated areas — a fume hood is preferable.
Grounding straps shall be used to ground metal containers
when transferring flammable liquids from one metal con-
tainer to another. During such transfer, only metal fun-
nels shall be used.
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Flammable liquids in use in open containers shall be kept
in fume hoods wherever possible.
c. Storage (Class I and II materials)
Safety cans up to one-gal, capacity should be stored in
OSHA-approved flammable storage cabinets,
No more than five one-liter containers of Class I and II
material should be stored in glass in the laboratory areas.
Open areas include open reagent shelves and bench tops,
Storage should be distributed throughout the lab with no
more than two one-liter containers on each side of any
lab module.
Bulk storage of flammable liquids is permitted only in the
hazardous storage locker.
Bulk storage is permissible in drums or in safety cans up
to five-gal, capacity.
Drums are to be stored in the upright position except when
equipped with self-closing valves.
All drums for dispensing must be grounded, and con-
tainers also must be grounded to the drum when being
filled.
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3. Mercury
Mercury is not to be left around the laboratory In open con-
tainers nor in sinks nor on bench tops nor on the floor if
and when spilled. While the vapor pressure of mercury is
relatively low at room temperature, its danger to the human
system is because mercury is cumulative and, as such, is an
insidious and dangerous poison. Avoid splashing mercury on
hot surfaces as the resultant higher vapor pressure increases
the hazard.
Mercury spilled in lead-lined sinks and left there will
quickly form a lead amalgam that is acid soluble; a leak will
soon develop.
After cleaning up as much mercury with a vacuum jet or sponge
as possible, one should then dust the residual amounts with
powdered sulfur.
4. Corrosive Materials
Severe burns can easily result from contact of strong acids,
alkalies, and other chemicals with the skin;
Protective clothing, such as aprons, full face shield, rubber
gloves, etc., is to be worn when handling large quantities of
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such items as sodium hydroxide, sulfurlc acid, nitric acid,
perchloric acid, hydrochloric acid, glacial acetic acid, bro-
mine, etc;
Extreme care must be exercised to avoid splattering. Large
quantities of water should always be applied at once to skin
surfaces exposed to such burns;
Transfer of the strong chemicals shall be in or near sinks
where an adequate flow of water is running for rinsing spills
off hands, clothing, and equipment;
When diluting acids, the preferred method is to pour the acid
into water, slowly while stirring — in order to dissipate the
heat. Never dilute acids by pouring water into concentrated
solutions. The heat generated could result in violent splat-
tering. This is especially true when using concentrated sul-
furic acid. In diluting any concentrated acids the mixing
vessel should be in the sink or other confining container —
in order to prevent injury to the employee in the case of
breakage.
Concentrated acids shall not be stored in the cabinet where
concentrated bases are kept.
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Storage of concentrated acids and bases is to be kept to a
minimum. Except when approved by the lab supervisor, two
gallons per cabinet is the maximum which can be kept on hand.
Chromic acid shall not be stored or used in pipet washer .jars
or other plastic containers.
Perchloric acid is to be handled with extreme care because it
inflicts a particularly painful, deep, and slow-healing burn.
Perchloric acid shall be stored and used only in a perchloric
acid hood. The hood shall be washed down after each use. A
dangerous explosion can result from failure to observe estab-
lished practices in handling perchloric acid.
All reagent bottles are to be rinsed thoroughly before being
discarded.
Containers are provided for carrying bottles that contain
strong acid or alkali.
Bottles or carboys of five-gal, capacity must be handled and
stored in properly designed crates or other containers.
Such use will minimize breakage and also afford protection
to personnel.
5. Metallic Sodium and Potassium
Metallic sodium and potassium must be stored under kerosene
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or petrolatum in tin cans. The cans should be inspected
periodically and replaced if evidence of leaks or rusting
is found.
Scrap bits of metallic sodium and potassium should never be
discarded in the sink or thrown into the waste cans: reaction
with moisture will cause a fire, and violent splattering takes
place. These metals should be added carefully, in small
pieces, to cold alcohol. Wait until all pas evolution has
stopped and solution is complete before adding more metal.
This alcoholate can then be discarded safely in the sink if
followed by washing with a generous flow of water.
6, Toxic Organic Compounds
Some organic compounds are highly toxic and dangerous because
of the many routes of incorporation into the body. Routes of
incorporation to guard against include: oral; inhalation;
skin absorption; and eye absorption.
The number of potentially dangerous organic compounds is so
great that the safest rule to follow is to consider all such
materials to be dangerous. Some classes of organic compounds,
however, deserve particular attention:
Esters_ of Phosphoric__Acid_s — this group includes many highly
dangerous insecticides such as TEPF, Perathion, Phosdrin,
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33
Azodrin, and Thimet. Also included in this group is
tricresyl phosphate, a gasoline additive. Most of these
compounds are liquids and are readily absorbed through
unbroken skin. Many also have sufficiently high vapor
pressure to pose a serious danger because inhalation of
vapors at normal temperatures is likely.
Chlorinated alkanes and chlorinated aromatics — this group
also includes many insecticide materials. Simple chlori-
nated alkanes such as dichloromethane and chloroform are
not highly toxic, but prolonged exposure can lead to
liver damage. Carbon tetrachloride is highly dangerous
to the liver, kidneys, and lungs.
Carbamates (urethanes) — most compounds in this group are
insecticides and should be considered highly toxic.
Nitro Compounds — all organic nitro compounds are poten-
tially explosive, and many have severe physiological
effects. Many of the highly toxic nitro compounds (e.g.
nitroanilines) are rapidly absorbed through the intact
skin. They are also highly volatile and present a danger
because of being easily absorbed into the body by inhalation.
Amines — many amines, particularly aromatic amines, form
methemoglobin in the blood and thus reduce the blood's
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ability to carry oxygen. Some amines (e. ;». napthylamine)
are carcinogenic.
Nicriles — these compounds, of which acetonitrite is the
most familiar, have toxicological action similar to, but
less severe than, cyanide gas. When stronply heated these
compounds decompose to gaseous hydrocyanic acid.
Safety precautions required when usinp; organic compounds should
include guarding against all routes of incorporation. Eye pro-
tection should be worn at all times during handling of organic
compounds because absorption through the mucous membranes in the
eye is extremely rapid, and a small quantity is immediately pre-
sented to the brain. Safety glasses should be considered mini-
mum protection when handling hiphly toxic materials.
In order to protect against inpestion, mouth pipettinp of
organic materials is forbidden. Also care should be exercised
to avoid the splashing of concentrated solutions.
The best protection against inhalation of volatile toxic sub-
stances is to perform all operations with those substances in
a fume hood. UeiphinR of pure or concentrated pesticides must
also be performed in a hood,
Skin absorption usually occurs throuph contact with the hands:
therefore, the use of protective ploves is required when handling
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35
toxic compounds as the pure materials or as concentrated
solutions. When gloves have been used they should be imme-
diately washed with soap and water or discarded in waste
receptacles provided. Contaminated gloves shall not be left
unattended. Other protective aids against skin absorption
include full-face shields and protective aprons.
Before operations with unfamiliar compounds are initiated
all available literature should be checked to assess the pos-
sible hazards, and preparation should be made accordingly.
Vessels containing highly toxic substances shall be kept in
beakers or similar containers to preclude the escape of
leaking material.
7. Toxic Inorganic Substances
Inorganic solid materials seldom present a danger by in-
halation unless dusts are formed during operations with the
materials; therefore, these substances need not be handled
in fume hoods. If, however, dusts are formed or the mate-
rials fume upon heating, the operations should be performed
in a hood. Where there is a possibility of breathing dusts,
suitable dust masks shall be worn.
The most common route of ingestion of inorganic toxic chemicals
is through the mouth. The habit of using gloves and washing
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hands with soap and water should preclude any possibility
of transferring materials from the hands to the month.
All spilled materials should be immediately cleaned up.
Inorganic toxic liquids or solutions should be treated the
same as toxic organic liquids or solutions.
Some inorganic poisons are:
Cyanides Mercury, or its salts
Lead salts Silver nitrate
Selenium salts Ammonia
Arsenic compounds Fluorides
Halopens Beryllium, and its salts
Persons working with toxic inorganic compounds should famil-
iarize themselves with the dangers of the material and proper
methods of handling through searching the available literature
and consulting, the laboratory supervisor or laboratory safety
assistant,
Hoods shall be used for any operation which could give off
obnoxious odors or hazardous amounts of poisonous vapors.
This includes ash determinations, wet digestions with nitric
acid, boiling solutions of all volatile acids and ammonia,
and operations in which any of the aforementioned poisonous
gases are used or produced. Hoods will be used for any oper-
ations which give off a hazardous amount of flarrmable vapors.
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D. WASTE DISPOSAL
*
Waste disposal is a part of the job that requires individual
thought, cooperation, and effort to get the task done safely.
Following is a brief discussion of the types of waste and mode
of disposal. If in doubt, ask your supervisor or Branch Chief.
1. Waste paper is disposed of via waste baskets.
2. Broken glass, bottles, and non-toxic/non-flammable solids
are disposed of via the special containers present in each
laboratory area.
3. Water-soluble, non-hazardous materials should be flushed
down the sewers via the drains.
4. Acids or corrosive materials can be flushed to the sewers
via the drains with a 50-to-l dilution with water. Special
precautions must be taken with strong acids such as perchloric
acid.
5. Non-toxic, water miscible liquids such as acetone and ethanol
can be flushed to the sewer via the drains with a 50-to-l
dilution with water. Large quantities of these materials
should be disposed of via the waste-solvent drums described
in the following paragraph.
6. Waste solvent (water-immiscible organic solvents) are disposed
of via the waste-solvent cans and waste-solvent drums. Waste-
solvent cans must be clearly marked safety cans. A waste-solvent
drum is located in the hazardous-materials storage area.
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7. Any employee ha.vi.np; a toxic waste for disposal must con-
sult vith the appropriate supervisee or Branch Chief before
proceeding vith a disposal procedure.
8. Pyrophoric materials or active metals will be handled in
the same manner as toxic wastes.
9, All toxic or obnoxious gases must be exhausted through hoods.
If possible, these should be destroyed,, at the source, by
scrubbing, adsorption, reaction,, or burning.
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Although most emergencies can be avoided by following the proper
measures in carrying out the usual type of work performed in the
laboratory, it is mandatory that laboratory personnel know what
steps and action to take in case an emergency occurs.
The laboratory Safety Assistant ^ill conduct, as required, a
safety refresher for all laboratory personnel. Attendance by
all employees, normally enpa?ed in laboratory work, is mandatory-
It is most important that each laboratory worker know in detail
what one should do in any kind of (emergency that might arise.
If he or she knows these things in advance, he or she is much
less likaly to be injured than if one has to decide what to clo
.?fter an emergency has developed,,
Emergencies most likely to occur in the laboratory and the steps
and actions to be followed in such emergencies are discussed, herein,
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1. Fires
a. What to do in case of fire:
One of the first rules of safety is to know what to do
in case of fire. Every employee must know the location
of the fire extinguishers and fire blankets. Each new
worker la to be given training in the use of all types
of fire extinguishers available in the laboratory. He
or she must be familiar with the fire-alarm system.
The first person to see the fire should sound the alarm
immediately and then attempt, if it can be done safely,
to extinguish the fire with the best means available.
Each employee should also know the location of the
safety shower and fire blanket to be used in the event
his or her clothing catches fire.
The following table classifies types of extinguishers
and the kinds of fires on which they should be used.
Class B Class A Class C Class C
Oils and Rags, VJood, Auto-oxidizing
Solvents and Paper Electrical Combustibles
Carbon Dioxide
Dry powder agents
Foam
Water
Class ABC Dry
Chemical Yes Yes Yes No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
* Such as nitrocellulose.
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In general, dry chemical is preferred for solvent
fires and C0? is preferred for electrical fires.,
Water is preferred for fires in t'hich eorcbuicrien is
supported by the oxygen contained in the material,
such as nitrocellulose. In this CHser r.apid cooling
of the material affords the best means of fir* control.
Foam is effective against liquid petroleum fir^s but
is usually not more effective than C09, and the latter
eliminates the cleaning problem after use.
b. Solvent Fires
Solvent fires can usually be extinguished by the proper
use of dry chemical or carbon dioxide. Foam-type ex-
tinguishing agents are effective on some types of solvent
fires; however, their use is not recommended on high
vapor-pressure, chlorinated, or water-soluble solvents,
In many cases of fire in small containers of solvents,
the fire can be snuffed out by placing the lid on the
container tightly enough to exclude air. If a lid is
not available, a piece of sheet metal, asbestos board,
or other similar non-combustible material will suffice.
c. Gas Fires
The surest and most effective means of extinguishing a
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41
gas fire is by closing a valve in the gas supply line
thereby shutting off the fuel supply. However, gas
fires can be extinguished by the proper use of carbon
dioxide and the dry chemical kind of extinguishers.
Serious consideration should be given to allowing gas
fires to burn until the source of gas can be stopped
to prevent possible explosions.
d. Chemical Fires
Chemical fires can be of many different sorts, and
often special methods of fire fighting must be used.
For example, a sodium fire should be smothered with
sand, never with water. All laboratory workers must
be taught the particular methods of handling these un-
usual kinds of fires. Often, if the fire is small and
does not endanger other combustibles, it is best to
let it bum itself out.
e. Equipment Fires
Small equipment fires can be extinguished with carbon
dioxide, dry powder, foam, or soda extinguishers. In
case of a large fire, the building should be evacuated.
f. Electrical Fires
If possible, first turn off the power to the motor or
other electrical equipment. Use carbon dioxide or dry
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powder on electrical equipment, never water. Electrical
equipment involved in fire should not be placed in op-
eration until inspected and/or repaired.
Special procedures are necessary to accomplish emer-
gency shutdown of the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer.
These procedures are posted on the equipment.
2. Sp_ills_
a. Flammable Liquids
Leave the immediate vicinity as soon as possible.
Analyze the situation before attempting to take further
steps. If possible, shut off all sources of fuel and
remove potential sources of ignition by using outside
valves and switches,, and circuit breakers. Electrical
hot plates and the open type of electric motors should
be turned off. If clothing is wet with flammable ma-
terials, consider the immediate use of a safety shower;
otherwise the clothing should be changed as soon as
possible, and the affected parts of the body washed
with soap and water. Any part of the body or clothing
that has come in contact with the flammable material
should not be allowed to come in the vicinity of elec-
trical equipment or open flames until one Is freed of
the flammable material,.
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b. Strong Acids and Caustics
In the case of acid or caustic spills on the body,
wash the affected portions with a large volume of water.
Immediately thereafter report to the Public Health Ser-
vice Clinic, Building 40, or the nearest physician.
If these materials are spilled on the clothes, remove
the clothing immediately.
If these materials are spilled on a bench top or floor,
dilute them with a large volume of water and then
neutralize.
In case of a chemical burn of the eye, flush it with
clear water at the nearest eye bath or water fountain,
and then report immediately to the Public Health Ser-
vice Clinic, Building 40, or the nearest physician.
c. Other Chemicals
Many hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons give off
toxic vapors. In case any of these materials are
spilled, stay out of the vicinity until the fumes have
cleared away. If it is necessary to enter this vi-
cinity, the proper type of air mask must be worn.
Entry will be initiated only upon approval by the su-
pervisor or the Branch Chief. If toxic materials are
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spilled on the body, wash therm off immediately with
soap and waiar. Each laDor^tory employee should be
familiar with the gases that he or she is likely to
come in contact with and keep out of any area where
they have been released accidentally =
Selected personnel are to be thoroughly trained in
the use of the gas masks and self-contained breathing
equipment and are required to practice its use peri-
odically to maintain prof iciency.
d. Contaminated Clothing
Clothing or shoes that have been contaminated with
corrosive or toxic materials, such as acids or ben-
zene, should not be worn again until properly laun-
dered,, steamed,, or aired.
3 , Rupture of Flammable Solvent _ Containers
In case of rupture of a flammable solvent container
remove the container immediately, if possible, with-
out hazard to a safe location. Evacuate the immediate
area immediately, Extinguish all flames,
A variety of emergency conditions can arise because of
the failure of various service utilities such as steam?
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electricity, compressed air, etc. The Laboratory
Safety Assistant will prepare and periodically update
a detailed list of things to be done in any type of
utility failure. The list will be posted in each lab-
oratory module.
5 . Asphyjciaticm^ and_jnjury
a. Each laboratory employee will render first aid to a fellow
employee who is asphyxiated, shocked, or injured to the
extent possible by the training provided.
b. In the event of asphyxiation or serious injury call the
Denver Federal Center Fire Department ambulance immediately,
F- RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
1. Gene r a 1 Cond 1 t lone
a. Only personnel trained in the safe handling of radioiso-
topes or persons under the direct supervision of such
trained personnel shall be permitted to receive, trans-
fer, handle, or dispose of radioactive materials obtained
through the Atomic Energy Commission license issued to the -
National Field Investigations Center-Denver. Such trained
personnel shall be specifically named in the license.
b. Personnel protection standards shall comply with US AEC
Rules and Regulations, 10CFR20.
c. Part 30 of these rules shall apply concerning exempt quan-
tities, records, inspections, tests, and other provisions,
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46
du Employees working with radioisotopes shall read and
have available to them copies of 10CFR20 and 10CFR30
for reference.
2. Personnel Safety
a. Employees shall wear film badges while working in the
hot lab. Pocket dosimeters shall also be worn when
working with gamma-emitting radionuclides.
b. Disposable gloves shall be worn when transferring or
otherwise manipulating high concentrations of unsealed
radioactive materials. Remote handling devices should
be used when required.
c. Food and beverages shall not be consumed in the hot lab
or other laboratory areas containing unsealed radioactive
materials. Smoking in. these areas shall also be prohibi-
ted. Placing anything in or near the mouth may result in
ingestion of radioactive materials and, therefore, is
discouraged in radiation areas.
d. Mouth pipetting of radioactive materials is prohibited.
e. Radioactive-materials containers shall be appropriately
labelled as to quantities, isotopes, and chemical forms.
3. Isotope-handling procedures
a. Absorbent paper, trays,, and other containers should be
used under unsealed radioactive materials in order to
prevent .r-ontaraination of the laboratory area.
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47
b. High-activity standards and reagents shall be prepared
only in the hot lab.
c. Following manipulative procedures, laboratory surfaces
shall be monitored with a survey meter designed for the
type of radiation concerned.
d. Wipe tests of laboratory surfaces shall be performed on
a routine basis, the frequency of whi'ih shall be determined
by the radiation-safety officer.
4. Disposal of Radioactive wastes
a. Disposal into sanitary drains shall be in accordance with
10CFR20 section 20.303.
b. Contaminated glassware, paper, gloves, and other solid
material shall be disposed of in the plastic-bag-lined
waste barrels provided.
c. Radioactive liquid wastes shall be disposed of in plaatic-
bag-lined waste barrels containing absorbent material
such as vermiculite or "oil-dry" floor sweeping compound.
d. Full, sealed barrels of liquid or solid radioactive
wastes shall be transferred to AEC-licensed government
agencies, waste-disposal contractors, or AEC instal-
lations participating in waste-disposal programs.
e. Waste drums or barrels shall be Department-of-Transportation
approved and shall be labelled as to radioactive contents.
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5. Record Keeping
a. The Radiation-Safety Officer shall establish record-
keeping procedures for receipt, transfer, handling,
and disposal of radioactive materials.
b. Quantities of materials on hand including wastes shall
not exceed quantities listed in the license.
6. Sealed-Source Leak Tests
a. Sealed radioactive sources such as electron-capture,
gas-chroraatograph detectors shall be tested for leaking
of radioactive material at intervals not to exceed six
months. Conditions for testing as given in the AEC
license and established procedures shall be followed.
b. Sealed sources failing to pass leak tests shall be re-
paired, decontaminated, or disposed of.
REFERENCES
1. Matheson Gas Data Book, Matheson Co. Inc., East Rutherford,
N. J.
2, Matheson Gas Products, Catalog 28, Matheson Co., Inc. East
Rutherford, N. J,
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49
V. FIELD SAFETY RULES
A. AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY
1. All employees must hold valid GSA and State driver licenses
to operate GSA or EPA vehicles. Completion of the Defensive
Driver training course, within six months after assignment
to NFIC-Denver, is required for employees whose assignment as
drivers is actual or comtemplated.
2. Continuous on-the-job driving in excess of ten hours, in any
24-hour period, is not permitted except with the approval of
the Branch Chief or supervisor.
3. General automotive safety rules, to be followed by all em-
ployees are:
All vehicles will be operated in a manner consistent with
the prescribed laws of the locality and GSA Motor Pool.
Drivers are responsible for ensuring that assigned motor
vehicles receive the prescribed preventive maintenance,
and that the GSA Motor Pool is informed of any unsafe
condition.
Seat belts and shoulder harnesses, where provided, will be
worn by drivers and passengers when vehicles are in motion.
Drivers are responsible for ensuring that assigned vehicles
will be equipped with fire extinguishers, flares, reflec-
tors, and first-aid kits.
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50
Safety screens are to be installed in the carryall and
van-type of vehicles so as to separate the cargo and
passenger compartments. If safety screens are not avail-
able, cargo will not be stacked higher than the back of
the seat.
According to GSA Motor Regulations, operation of the truck
mobile laboratory requires a special operator's permit.
All vehicles used to tow any kind of trailer must be equip-
ped with westrcoast type mirrors and the necessary con-
nections for trailer signal, tail lights, brakes, and
safety chains.
Any boat transported on a motor vehicle without a trailer
will be secured by an approved carrying device.
Any boat transported In a pickup truck will be carried in
a manner so as not to obstruct the vision of the operator
nor extend over the vehicle cab.
Any employee required to tow a trailer will be instructed
in the proper handling of the equipment involved.
Vehicles used in snow country will be equipped with adequate
snow tires or chains.
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51
When backing a vehicle with a trailer in tow, there is to
be a second party outside the vehicle to properly assist
or direct the driver.
Any employee observing the unsafe driving habits or prac-
tices being practiced by any other employee will call the
unsafe condition to the offender's attention and, if the
practice continues, will promptly report the matter to his
supervisor, Branch Chief, or a Management employee.
B. BOAT SAFETY
1. Government-owned and leased or rented watercraft in use by
NFIC-Denver will be operated only by employees certified as
qualified operators by Branch Chiefs.
2, General boating-safety rules, applicable to all employees, are:
The boat operator is responsible for the safety of all per-
sons on board and for the integrity of all equipment on board.
Boat-safety briefing, by the boat operator or other quali-
fied boat operator, must be provided for all occupants of
the boat prior to leaving the dock, pad, etc.
Government-owned, leased, or rented boats are not to be boarded
by unauthorized (family, dependents, friends) or non-essential
persons. Boats will not be boarded by other than NFIC-Denver
employees for any reason other than official business.
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boat operators must complete advanced emergency first-aid
training.
Boats are to be occupied, during operations, by not less than
one qualified operator plus one additional employee.
During boat operation life jackets are to be worn at all
times by all occupants, No_ exceptions are p_ermitted.
Flare guns, fire extinguishers, and first-aid kits'must be
on board on all boats during operation. At least the mini-
mum safety equipment as prescribed by the U.S., Coast Guard
will be on board at all times ,
Boats with marine radios will monitor distress frequency
except when transmitting.
Boat operators can initiate operations on estuaries, large
lakes 5, and large rivers in which the boat exceeds one mile
(17-ft boats and larger) or ona-half mile (smaller than
17 ft boats) from launch point only after acquiring current
and reliable weather forecast. Operation of boats will not
be initiated during marginal weather,, including raoderate-to-
severe electrical storms. Common sense must prevail — when
in doubt, the safe course of action is required.
Red pennant is to be attached to radio mast when operating
at slow speeds (e«g, sampling, dredging, towing).
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53
Night lights must be installed and operated according to
established practice for night operations.
Auxiliary fuel will be stored in safety cans, secured to
prevent spillage, away from heat and spark sources.
All boats and boat trailers are to receive the prescribed
preventive maintenance at the prescribed intervals.
Boats must be equipped with non-slip floor boards. Employees
must wear non-skid, soft-soled footwear while on board.
Electrical generators operated aboard boats must be equip-
ped with water-tight connections and must be mounted on
non-conductor mounts.
Excess equipment is to be minimized and that which remains
on board will be stowed such that walkways are kept clear
and fire hazards are avoided.
Refresher classes in boat operation, boat safety, and emer-
gency first aid are to be conducted periodically for all
boat operators, as appropriate.
All boats operated in estuaries or open seas will be equipped
with two-way radios adequate to communicate with at least one
shore station and with depth-finding instruments and proper
nagivational aids.
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54
Boats IT. excess of 14 ft aca Co be equipped with an auxiliary
motor at all ti^aa,, Boats of Jt'-ss than 14 ft length must be
equipped ~-jii:h oars5
Maximum load limits and horsepower ratings of boats must be-
properly displayed,
3. Safety Rules for Fueling Boats
Fueling is to be completed prior to the onset of darkness,
except in emergencies or at well-lighted marinas.
Whenever a boat is moored at a fueling dock, do not smoke,
strike matches, or throw switches. All engines., motors,
fans, and devices that can produce sparks must be stopped.
Lights and heating devices must be turned off.
Before initiating fueling operations, boat must be securely
moored, Conaicions of fuel-tank -rents, connections, and
flame screens must be checked. Amount of fuel needed to fill
tanks must be determined in. advauee in order to minimize
chances of overflow epill-3. p,e»
During, fueling, nozzle must be kept in contact with fill
opening to prevent static sparks.
After fueling, fill ope^ir.^s ara to bs. closed Immediately.
Spilled fuel must be cleaned up; all hatches, windows, doors,
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55
and covers are to be opened for five minutes to ensure
adequate ventilation. Operator roust ascertain that no
gasoline odor is present in boat prior to initiating
starting procedures.
Exhaust blower must be operated for at least five minutes
prior to starting the engines.
Exhaust blowers are not substitutes for seaworthy fuel
systems. Leaks in tanks and fuel lines must be corrected
immediately upon discovery.
C. SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRO-SHOCKING
1. When electro-shocking from a boat, the following rules are to
be observed.
No employee will operate electro-fish without being cer-
tified in the handling of such equipment.
The generator must be properly grounded, and all electrical
connections must be water tight and mounted on non-conductor
mounts.
Boom-shocking equipment must include a foot-pedal operated,
dead man's switch to deactivate or activate electrodes.
Railings in the bow of the boat must be secured in place
during boom-shocking operations.
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56
All personnel in the "shocking" boat must gear life jackets.
No unnecessary passengers will be allowed aboard. Data-
recording personnel must, be seated during electro-fishing
operations.
Before leaving the dock, a briefing is to be held for all
boat passengers unfamiliar vith electro-shocking procedures.
2. When electro-shocking without a boat, the following rules apply:
Applicable are the same general safety rules that are in
effect for boat shocking.
All employees involved in stream shocking must wear rein-
forced sole rubber boots and long-sleeve, water-tight
rubber gloves.
All samplers are to remain downstream from the electrical
field and collect fish with dip nets with non-conductive
handles.
One person rnusl" attend the pulsator at all times during
electro-fishing activity.
D. SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING AND FLOW-MEASUREMENT OPERATIONS
1. Survey coordinators will brief all employees regarding safety
rules in force within industrial sites. All employees must
conform to rules promulgated by -the Industry while on-slte.
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57
2. Safety glasses, safety shoes, hard hats, compressed air
respirators, gas masks, and ear-protection devices are to
be worn, as appropriate, in hazardous areas.
3. Fluorescent vests or jackets are to be worn while sampling
from roadways and bridges. During sampling a yellow flasher
is to be posted on approaches to each end of the bridge.
On heavily traveled roads flagmen or warning devices must be
posted at each end of bridges lacking at least 24-in. walkways
Such sampling points should be avoided where possible.
A. Sampling from railroad bridges is not permitted, unless an
adequate walkway is present, or the railroad dispatcher has
been contacted, and it has been positively determined that
no trains will run during sampling period.
5. Vehicles will not be parked on bridges for the purpose of
sample collection.
6. All vehicles used for sampling and associated work will be
equipped with amber rotary caution lights. Such lights are
to be operated during all operations wherein vehicles are
driven slowly on roadways or where parked near roadways.
7. All electrical apparatus employed in field operations must be
properly grounded.
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8. Wet-cell batteries are to be moved or handled only with the
use of a battery strap.
9. Gaging crews, nighi sampling crews, and crews workinp in
hazardous areas will consist of not leas than two persons.
10, Work gloves are Co be provided to all personnel engaged in
sampling and are to be worn when handling sampling equipment.
Disinfectant is to be provided is to be used for cleaning
hands immediately after handling sewage samples and equipment
used for sampling sewage. Rubber gloves must be worn while
handling samples that could contain toxic or corrosive materials,
11. Rules applicable to operations in, and in close proximity to,
manholes are:
Barricades will be erected around manholes where samples are
being collected.
Manholes will not be left uncovered while unattended or
unbarricaded.
Safety lines, handled by not less than two persons outside
of manhole, must be worn when entering manhole. Safety lines
are to be kept taut at all times. The maximum time allowed
in manhole is 15 minutes. A vehicle must be immediately at
hand in case of emerpencv.
-------
59
Manholes are not to be entered until cleared, using a blower
for at least five minutes. Following the five-minute ven-
tilation, a lead acetate swab is to be used to check for R~s.
If H-S is present, a respirator must be worn when entering
manhole. A respirator can be substituted for blower venti-
lation only in cases where explosive gases are present (i.e.,
storm sewer manholes).
Under no circumstances are sewer lines to be entered by any
employee for any reason.
12. Rules applicable to operations in, and in close proximity to,
open channels and streams are:
When sampling fast-moving channels or streams from shore,
walkway, etc., the person sampling must work from behind a
barricade or wear safety line to secure object. The same rule
applies to any open channel when footing is questionable, i.e.,
snow, steep bank, etc.
Lines attached to sampling devices will not be secured bodily
to sampling personnel.
Streams may be waded to knee-depth in swift water, or to
hip-depth in placid water. In all work involving wading in
fast moving water, safety lines secured to shore must be worn,
and a minimum of two persons must be present.
-------
60
13. Rules applicable to sampling and gaging under ice are:
A minimum crew for operations involving ice cover will be
two persons. One person to remain on solid footing until
thickness of ice has been determined.
If ice thickness is found to be less than 4 in., operations
on the ice will cease.
Personnel on ice-covered water will wear life preserver and
safety line secure to an object on shore.
-------
APPENDIX A
"SURVIVE IN WINTER"
-------
The magazine Private Pilot granted NFIC-Denver
(Environmental Protection Agency) permission
to reprint this article on winter survival.
-------
DO THE WORDS "cold weather survival"
mean anything to you? Do they cause
you concern? -«-
They should. Your life may one day
depend upon your cold weather survival
knowledge and preparation.
Despite your most thorough preflight
planning and aircraft inspection,you may
have to make an emergency landing this
winter in some unexpected place. If you
do, you'll be intimately concerned with
survival.
If you have filed a flight plan, radioed
for help, or are equipped with an
emergency locator beacon, your
•encounter with-nature may be,brief u/ith,-
but temporary inconvenience.
However, what if your rescue takes
several hours or even a day or two, and
the temperature drops to ten degrees with
a 20-mph wind9 This temperature and
wind combination is equivalent of -25
degrees on your exposedLskm._You _wi]l
be in danger of frostbite or even death.~'~
• With the proper knowledge.arul-pr.e
ration you have a good chance of surviving,
without injury, winter's fury of bitter-cold
temperatures and knife-sharp winds.
Rather than delineating dos and
don'ts, let's discuss cold weather survival
,ia terms of our body4 -physiological _
activitfes ~n'""kcepmg warm,"~and tlie~~
knowledge necessary to prepare for a
winter emergency. And, let's outline
specific instructions on what to do to
avoid serious injury in a survival situation.
The human body has a remarkable
Dhysiolqgkal mechanism for maintaining
its warmth, or temperature. It1 enables a~~
pfcfjjon^a_juryjveaHlaree.r.jnge of environ-
mental temperatures, but, death will
result if a person's actual body tempera-
ture varies more than just a few degrees.
The body continuously produces heat.
In fact, because the body is only about
-------
A-2
SURVIVAL
25 percent efficient, much of the energy
in what we eat results in the production
of body heat which is
transferred, and lost, to
the environment.
The physiological pro-
cess of maintaining body
temperature may be
compared to an equation
of equilibrium, or a
teeter-totter. One side of
the equation, or teeter-
totter, is concerned with
heat production. The
opposite, balancing side is
concerned with heat con-
servation. Our understand-
ing of this principal of
what we can do to
maintain our body's
thermal-equilibrium will
give us the knowledge
essential to prepare for
and survive winter's cold.
Our body produces
heat by two methods. Oi e
is through the absorption
energy from the sun or
sources. Therefore, if we are the victims
of an emergency landing in the winter, we
should stay within the sun's rays and, if
at all possible, build a fire.
The other and most important method
of producing heat is through the body's
metabolism. Our metabolic rate (rate of
food conversion into heat) can be
increased both by what we eat and by
physical exercise. Therefore, we should
first pay particular attention to our
wintertime diet. Our meals
should consist of highly
nutritional food and be
well-balanced in order to
provide our digestive
systems with a regular
source of energy that will
in turn be used to
maintain our body's heat
supply. Then, we can, for
brief periods, increase our
metabolic rate by eating
something with a large
sugar content, such as
candy. Do not replace a
normal food intake with
candy, however, because
sugar can over-tax the
pancreas. But, used
judiciously, candy can
help us keep warm in an
emergency and should be
added to our aircraft's
survival kit as a wintertime
supplement.
Any type of physical exercise will
increase our metabolic rate. Beyond the
essential activities such as preparing
rescue signals or building fires, we
shouldn't waste our time and valuable
energies by running around in circles or
stamping our feet in order to produce
more body heat. There is a more efficient
way of doing this. Use isometric
exercises; they work one muscle against
M/
40
35
J2 30
O
I 25
Z
D 20
UJ
UJ
Si 15
O
5
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Chart
(OCIMUM EXPOSURE BEFORE FROSTBITE
TEMPERATURE (°FI
20 15 10 5 0 5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
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reproduced by permission of TAG ATTACK, USAF
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Jtion
of radiant the other, and all of the energy we use in seriously red
other heat doing isometric exercises will be ofourclothir
converted to heat, in fact, for short
periods of time, isometric exercises can
increase our metabolism over our normal,
at-rest rate by several hundred percent.
The body loses heat by five major
methods: insensible perspiration, sensible
perspiration, radiation, conduction and
convection.
Insensible perspiration is the continual
body process of passing moisture through
the skin tissue. This moisture does not
WATER IMMERSION SURVIVAL
5
I-
o:
D
12
3-
70
60 50 40
TEMPERATURE (°F)
eproduced by permission of TAG ATTACK
come from the sweat glands and is pro-
duced at a fairly uniform rate regardless
of the environment. The amount of body
heat used to evaporate this insensible
perspiration is s/nall compared to our
total heat loss, but the amount of
moisture lost from our body in this way
is very important to the prevention of
dehydration. Therefore, even in the
winter, our survival kits must contain
water purification tablets.
Use the geographical area
in which you fly to
estimate your rescue time,
and carry enough tablets
to provide each passenger
with a minimum water
supply of two quarts per
day.
Sensible perspiration is
the process of losing
moisture through the
sweat glands. If the
temperature is cold
enough for us to be con-
cerned wit1! keeping warm,
then there shouldn't be
any reasoi. for sweating. ]n
fact, excessive sweating in
cold weather is very
dangerous Our bodies not
only lose the heat in
evaporating the sweat, but
the resulting vapor
es the insulating properties
.
Body heat lost by radiation is signifi-
cant only when we are scantily dressed.
So, this method of heat loss is minimized
by any amount of winter dress. As a
result, radiation losses are almost
insignificant in the winter.
Heat is lost by conduction whenever
any part of the body comes into contact
with something cold. Therefore, our feel
are normally the first parts of our body
to get cold because they usually are in
contact with the ground.
So, if we sit, lie down, or
touch anything cold, our
conductive losses increase
markedly. Normally,
however, the body's con-
ductive loss is minor and
can be minimized by
avoiding direct contact
with cold objects. When
we must sit or lie down,
we should place some kind
of insulating material, such
as a blanket, between our
bodies and the ground.
Convective heat loss
can be quite severe and is
the single most important
survival problem. It
depends not only upon the
temperature, but also
upon the relative move-
ment of air around our
body. For these reasons,
the Army assigned Major
Paul A. Siple to conduct extensive
research into the cooling-power effect of
temperature and wind combinations. His
research dates back to 1939 and resulted
in the origination of the term "wind-chill."
32
PRIVATE PILOT
-------
A-3
For a period of time, wind-chill was
expressed simply as the numerical pro-
duct of temperature and wind speed.
Later, during World War II, Major Siple
conducted further research into the
wind-chill effect and
formulated a more
accurate index. His index,
which is used today, is
expressed by a formula
based upon the freezing
rate of water. Major Siple
developed the formula
empirically from volumi-
nous experimental data
and took into account
such factors as surface
area, time, temperature
and wind speed.
We should always seek
shelter from the wind, but
the most important way of
minimizing our bodies'
convective heat loss is
through the proper use of
clothing. This presents a
pilot and his passengers
with both a unique and a
difficult problem.
If we were going hunt-
ing, we woud dress
properly for the continual
exposure to the outside
weather. When flying,
however, such dress would
be far too warm for an
airplane's heated cabin.
The answer to this prob-
lem is a compromise: dress
moderately warm and
carry additional clothing
in the survival kit.
As far as clothing
materials are concerned,
air is the best insulator.
Thus winter clothing
should consist of several
loose layers which will
entrap air between them
and provide the '-est possi-
ble insulation. Wool is the
next best insulator. Also,
unlike other clothing
materials, wool retains
most ot its insulating
properties when wet.
To take maximum
advantage of both these
ma terials. underwear
should be made of loosely
woven wool (although
cotton will do it wool is
unavailable or you have an
allergy problem). This gJi-
ment can be of the one or
two-piece variety and, like
jll of our winter clothes,
must lit comfortably loose to prevent any
restriction of blood circulation. Very
light cuffing aroiind the wrists, neck and
ankles will maximize heal retention by
preventing cold air from getting inside.
The second layer of clothing should be
made of a medium-weave, medium-weight
material. Wool also would be good here,
but to prevent getting too warm, cotton
or some similar material will do.
F at which an unclothed man could maintain a heat steady state
Graph reproduced by permission of;
GERRY Division of Outdoor Sports Industries,
INSULATION NEEDED FOR VARIOUS
LEVELS OF ACTIVITY
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
Temperature in F at which a heat steady state can be maintained.
Graph reproduced by permission of:
GERRY Division of Outdoor Sports Industries, Inc.
~S
50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60
Temperature in F at which a sleeping man could maintain z heat steady state
| The outer layer of clothing should be
| a one-piece garment, like a flight suit, and
be made from a tight weave, wind
resistaru material such as nylon.
In addition to this clothing, the winter
supplements in our survival kit must
include gloves, hats and warm jackets
with insulated hoods for each person.
All of these garments must bo kept
clean and in good repair because insulat-
ing properties are greatly
reduced if clothing is dirty
or torn.
Notice that none of
these garments is made
from wind or waterproof
material. The reason is
that clothing must be
allowed to breathe. That
is, there must be a small
amount of air circulation
between and through the
clothing layers. Otherwise,
perspiration would be
trapped within the cloth-
ing and greatly reduce its
insulating properties. This
brings up another closely
related problem, getting
wet.
Getting wet presents a
problem similar to that of
excessive sweating, but it
is far more serious.
Because water conducts
heat very quickly, getting
wet virtually destroys all
of clothing's insulating
value. Body neat is then
immediately conducted to
the outside cold air. If one
becomes totally immersed
in cold water, death can
occur within just a few
minutes.
In the 70- to 80-degree
temperature range, our
bodies are in thermal
eruilibrium. That is, heat
production equals heat
loss and the thermal
teeter-totter is in balance.
Below this temperature
range, heat losses exceed
heat production, thermal
equilibrium is lost and we
start feeling uncomfort-
able. Left improperly
clothed, our bodies resort
to one or more of the
following physiological
methods of producing and
conserving more heat:
I. Goose pimples-This
erects body hair which in
turn increases the
thickness of the thin
insulating air blanket
entrapped within our body
hair.
2. Shivering-These
involuntary muscle e.xten-
contractions increase our
to produce additional
sions and
metabolic rate
heat.
3. Reduced skin temperature-This is
accomplished by a slight decrease m the
JANUARY 1973
-------
Remember, winter's cold can be
survived, but survival is
a matter of being forewarmed.
yellow-white spot on the skin, before you
can feel the pain.
The affected area must be warmed
quickly. Frozen parts should be thawed
in water until soft, even though the
treatment is painful. This treatment is
most effective when the water tempera-
ture is exactly 107 degrees, but water
either colder or hotter may be used. If
warm water is not available, wrap the
frozen part in blankets or clothing and
apply improvised heat packs. Body heat
«
DOOLSNG OF WSMD ON EXPOSED FLESf-
Q Q Q ^p
UJ Z LU £
I2,*-
co W
calm
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
ACTUAL THERMOMETER READING (°F)
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
•40
•50
-60
EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE CF)
50
48
40
36
32
30
28
27
26
40
37
28
22
ia
16
13
11
10
30
27
16
9
«
0
-2
-4
-6
20
16
4
-5
-10
-15
•18
-20
-21
LITTLE DANGER
(for properly clothed person)
10
6
-9
-18
-25
-29
•33
-35
-37
0
-5
-21
-36
•39
•44
•48
-49
-53
•10
-15
-33
^55
-53
-59
-63
-67
•69
INCREASING
DANGER
-20
-26
-46
•58
-67
-74
•79
-82
•as
•30
•36
•58
•72
-82
-98
•94
-98
100
-40
-47
-70
-85
-96
-194
-109
113
-116
-50
-57
-83
-99
-HO
-118
-125
-129
-132
-643
-68
-95
-112
-124
-143
-148
•145
-148
GREAT DANGER
DANGER FROM FREEZING OF EXPOSED FLESH
Trenchfoot and immersion foot may occur at any point on this chart
Wind speeds greater than 40 mph have little additional effect.
\
The best drink to carry with you on a
winter flight is hot chocolate. Hot
chocolate is both warm and nutritional-
coffee is only a warm drink and a
temporary stimulant. One important
thing to remember with regard to eating
and drinking, however, is don't eat unless
you have enough water to drink. Eating
increases thirst. Your will to survive is of
paramount importance and with it you
can survive several days without eating as
long as you have water.
An excellent source of information on
building shelters and campfires is U.S. Air
Force manual AFM 64-5, Search and
Rescue Survival (available for SI.00 from
the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Chart reproduced by permission of TAG ATTACK
blood flow to the skin. The result is a
smaller temperature differential between
our skin and the surrounding cold air, so
less heat is lost.
4. Vaso-constriction-This is an
involuntary and sometimes irreversible
body process whereby the blood flow to
our extremities is decreased significantly
or stopped entirely. The one exception is
the blood flow to the head. Because life is
dependent upon the brain's proper func-
tioning, the head's blood supply is never
reduced b\ vaso-constriclion.
These physiological activities also
serve another important function. They
can be used as warning signals of impend-
ing danger. Goo.se pimples and shivering
usual!) are the first and most obvious
signals, they make us feel uncomfortable.
But, reduced skm temperature and vaso-
constnction are much more subtle. They
can begin slowly with a gradual feeling of
numbness. However, total loss of feeling
follows quick!) If these signals are left
unheeded, you can be seriously injured or
even die.
Frostbite is the most common type of
cold injury and. regardless of the wind-
chiH index, can only occur when the
temperature is beluw freezing. You can
see the effects of frostbite, 3 grayish or
also can aid thawing. Hold a bare, warm
palm against frostbitten ears or parts of
the face. Frostbitten hands can be held
against the chest, under the armpits or
between the legs at the groin.
Never rub a frostbitten area. You may
tear frozen tissues and cause further
tissue damage. Never apply snow or ice
because it increases the cold injury. Do
not try to thaw a frozen part by
exercising. Exercising of frozen parts will
only increase tissue damage and is likely
to break the skin.
Hypothermia, lowering of the body's
temperature, results from total water
immersion or exposure to extreme cold.
Symptoms such as shivering, drowsiness,
lack of muscular coordination, disinterest
in food or water, and total loss of the
sense of touch and the sense of pain may
be experienced. If hypothermia
continues, the body's temperature will
drop to 95 degrees with loss of all
thermal control. A coma results and
death finally occurs when the body's
temperature lowers to 79 degrees.
When any of these symptoms are
experienced, the body must be given
additional heat immediately. Warm
liquids, food, additional clothing or
blankets, and a fire will prevent death.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 20402). This manual is the best
single source of survival information and
is a must for your survival kit.
Vaintaining a proper heat balance can
be quite a problem. Obviously, when you
are wearing enough clothing to keep
youneif warm at-rest while awaiting
rescue, you will be too warm when
exercising. Use your head.
That is, use your head as a heat
radiator. Remember, your head's blood
circulation is never reduced by vaso-
constriction. Therefore, when you must
exercise vigorously, remove or vary the
amount of insulation around your head.
Then your circulating blood will transfer
the excess body heat to your head where
it can be radiated in place of creating an
excessive amount of sweat.
[f your hands or feet get too cold, and
you're already wearing a hat, pull your
jacket's insulated hood over your head.
This will cause vaso-dilalion of the
circulatory system to your extremities.
Being unable to radiate heat from your
head, your blood will then transfer the
heat to your hands and feet.
Remember, winter's cold can be
survived, but survival is a matter of being
forewarmed.
PRIVATE PILOT
JANUARY 1973
-------
APPENDIX B
PROPERTIES OF FLAMMABLE
LIQUIDS, GASES, AND SOLIDS
-------
APPENDIX B
Flash Point
°F
Name
Acetalydehyde
Acetic Acid (Glacial)
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acetylene
Acrylic Acid
Acrylonitrile
Aranonia (anhydrous)
n-Amyl Alcohol-
Anryl Chloride
Aniline
Benzene
Benzin
Benzoic Acid
Benzoyl Chloride
Butadiene 1,3
Butyl Alcohol
Chlorobenzene
Cocoanut Oil
p-Cresol
Cyclobutane
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Denatured Alcohol-95%
o-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
Die thano lamine
Difthvlaralne
Diethylene Glycol
Diethyl Ether
Dimethyl Aniline
Dinitro-
Benzene-1,2
Dinitro-
Toluene-2,4
Diphenylamine
Formula
CH.CHO
CH COOH
(CH CO) 0
CH COCH
C2H2
C-H COOH
CH.CHCH
NH3
CH CH CH CH CH OH
CH (CH ) CH CL
C H NH
C6H6
r H
C;H COOH
C^CCOCl
6 5
CH2:CHCH:CH2
CH.,CH CH2CH2OH
C H CI
CH3C6H4OH
C4H8
C6H12
C6H11°H
C6H10°
C6H4C12
cVci,
(HOCH2CH2)2NH
(C P ) VT.
HOCH2CH2OCH2CH2OH
C2HSOC H5
C5H~N(CH3)2
CfiH (NO )2
(NO.) 2C£,H3CH3
(C,H T?NH
Closed
Cup
-36
104
121
0
gas
gas
91
168
12
250
215
May be
84
90
420
187
<50
1
154
147
60
151
150
<0
255
-20
145
302
. . .
307
Open
Cup
110
130
15
32
...
120
55
<0
. . .
gas
110
510
gas
165
165
280
<0
290
170
Explosive Linits
% by Vol. in Air Specific
Lover
4.0
4.0
2.67
2.15
2.5
3.05
16.0
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.1
2.0
1.7
1.80
212°F
1.31
1.10
212°F
, . . .
1.7
....
....
Gravity
(Water =
Upper 1.00)
57.0 0.783
1.05
10.13 1.08
13.0 0.792
80.0
1.062
17.0 0.800
25.0
0.817
0.878
1.022
8.0 0.88
4.8 0.64
1.266
1.212
11.5 0.621
0.806
9.63 1.11
302 °F
.... 0.91
1 . 04
8.35 0.779
0.962
0.947
0.82
1.325
1.4:3
1.097
0.710
1.119
48.0 0.71
0.956
1.59
1.52
1.16
Vapor
Density
(Air =
1.00)
1.52
2.07
3.52
2.00
0.91
1.83
0.587
3.04
3.67
3.22
2.77
4.5
4.21
4.88
1.87
2.55
3.88
3.72
....
2.90
3.45
3.38
1.60
5.07
5.07
3.65
2. ^3
3.66
2.55
4.17
5.79
6.27
5.82
Boiling
Point
°F
70
245
284
134
-119
285
171
-37
280
223
363
176
100-160
482
387
24
243
270
395
55
176
322
313
175
354
345
5.4
134
472
95
379
605
572
575
-------
APPENDIX B CONTINUE!)
PROPERTIES OF FLAMMABLE LIOUIDS. GASES, AM) S
Flash Point Explosive Limits
°F % by Vol. in Air
Nane
Ethanolaraine
Ethyl Alcohol
Cthylamlne - 70%
aqueous solution
Ethylene
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Dlchloride
Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene Oxide
Gas Natural
Glycerine
n~ Hexane
Hexane-iso
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Sulf ide
Hydroxylarriioe
Isobutane
Isoprene
Maleic Anhydride
Methane
Methyl Alcohol
Methyl Cellosolve
Methyl Chloride
Methyl Ethyl Ether
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Salicylate
Monofluorodiehloromethane
Monof luorotrichlorone thane
Haptha, Safety Solvent
p-Nitroaniline
Nitrobenzene
Formula
MH CH,CH?OH
G.jfLofi
""
CjHjNIij
C H .
cfi.cicn mi
CIUCICH-CL
CICOHCH-OH
CII2OCH2
HOCH.CHOIlCHyOH
CH (CH ) CH,
Cft"l4
HCN
H2
H S
SH-OH
(CH ) CHCH
~*
CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2
CHCO.O
CH
CH3OH
CH3OCH2CH2OK
CH3C1
CH.OC-H,-
CH-COC-H,.
HOC6H,CO0CH,
(CHFC12)
CC1,F
(N02) (NH2) C6H4
C,H,ftO-
Closed
Cup
55
fas
56
232
<0
-50
320
-7
<-20
0
gas
Ras
Explodes
at 265
Ras
-65.2
110-165
218
gas
54
107
gas
135
30
214
85
Practically
nonflammable
Nonflammable
100-110
390
190
Open
Cup
200
<0
140
65
240
350
gas
240
....
60
115
....
....
225
110
....
....
Lower
3.28
3.02
6.2
3,2
3.0
4.8
1 3
1.25
1.0
5.6
4.1
4.3
1.8
1.16
5.3
6.0
8.1
2.0
1.81
....
0.77
1.1
1.8(5
200°F
Upper
19.0
34.0
15.9
80.0
13 5
6 0
6.9
7,0
40.0
74.2
45.5
8.4
6.0
13.9
36.5
17.2
10.1
11.5
6.0
....
Specific
Cravl tv
(l.'ater =
1.00)
1.02
0.79
0.778-0.802
1.213
1.258
1.113
0.887
0 75
1.26
0.661
0.669
0.697
1.227
0 600
0.679
^.-j
1.305
0.792
0.966
0.92
0.697
0.805
1.182
0.80
0.03
1.437
1.2
Vapor
Density
(Air =
1.00)
2.10
1.59
0.975
2.78
3.42
2.14
1.52
3-4
3.17
2.97
3.0
0.932
0.069
1.18
2.08
2.35
4.5
3.38
0.554
1.11
2.62
1.78
2.07
2.48
5.2
3.9
4.25
BolHnp
Point
342
173
-155
264
183
387
51
100-400
554
156
130
79
-442
-76
158
10
19 6
93
396
-258
147
255
-11.
50
176
432
300
300-400
<545
4.2
-------
APPENDIX B CONTINUED
PROPERTIES OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS, GASES, AND SOLIDS
Flash Point
°F
Name
Paraformaldehyde
rc-Pentane
Petroleum Ether
Phenol
Phthallc Anhydride
iso-Propyl Alcohol
Propylene
Sodium*
Styrene
Sulfur
Toluene
Trichloroethylene
Turpentine
Vinyl Acetate
Vinyl Chloride
Formula
HO(CH20) H
CH CH.CH^CH CH
C H OH
C6H4(CO)20
CH-CHOHCH,
C3^6
Na "
C,H.CHCH_
sb s L
C II CH
CHCICCI
CH,COOCHOH
CH^CHCl
Closed
Cup
158
<-40
-50
175
305
53
gas
....
90
405
Open
Cup
200
....
185
330
60
....
....
440
40 45
Practically
Explosive Limits
% by Vol. in Air Specific
Lower
1.4
1.4
2,5
2.0
• . * .
1.1
....
1.27
Gravity
(Water =
Upper 1.00)
8.0 0.631
5,9 0.63-0.66
.... 1.07
1.527
.... 0.789
11.1
0.97
6.1 0.907
.... 2.046
7.0 0.866
.... 1.47 •
Vapor
Density
(Air =
1.00)
2.43
2.50
3.24
5.10
2,07
1.49
3.60
....
3,14
4.53
Boiling
Point
°F
97
100-160
358
543
181
-58
1612
295
832
232
189
non-flammable
95
18
gas
30
<0
0.8
4.0
<1
22.0 0.97
4.84
2.15
300
161
7
An asterisk following the name of a metal indicates that hydrogen
will be liberated when the metal is in contact with water. With
the exception of potassium and sodium, hydrogen will be liberated
in hazardous quantities only if the metal is in finely divided form.
-------
APPENDIX C
HAZARDOUS
CHEMICALS
-------
C-l
I. Reactive and Hazardous Chemicals
A. A reactive chemical is a material that will react vigor-
ously with itself by polymerizing or condensing.
Vinyl Compounds
c=c:
polymerize.
Carbonyl compounds form condensation products
0
R«^^
=r 0
Aldehydes R CH Ketones
or react with themselves in
the presence of a trace
amount of some other
substance, such as a
contaminant or catalyst,
or react violently with
water.
Water is always present
It is used in cleaning
equipment, for cooling
and condensing, in
dissolving other chemicals,
in diluting' other solutions,
and in the atmosphere.
Conjugated unsaturates
such as butadiene, acrolein
and styrene
R
To prevent reactions, inhibit
with proper chemicals to
neutralize the effect or
refrigerate.
Many materials react vigorously
with water to give off large
amounts of heat, or generate
high pressures from the large
volumes of gases produced.
Anhydrides react to form the cor-
responding acids and can cause
vigorous boiling of the mixtures
if sufficient cooling is not
applied. Alkali metals react
vigorously with water to form
hydrogen gas and hydroxides;
cause heat-producing boiling
of mixtures. Metals and oxides
react similarly with alcohols,
organic acids, and amines.
Concentrated inorganic acids
and bases produce high heat of
solution. Dilute carefully.
Always add the chemical ^o_ the
water.
-------
C-2
or spontaneously decompose
or react spontaneously
with air
Peroxides, acetylene,
acetylides, ethylene oxide,
and products of similar
properties spontaneously
decompose. Avoid forming
peroxides by the strict
exclusion, of all oxygen.
Acetylides must be handled
under wet conditions at all
times,
Phosphine, phosphorus, metallic
sodium, and potassium, and
products of similar properties
will ignite spontaneously in
the presence of air without
a source of ignition. They
should be handled and stored
with air excluded. For example,
store the alkali metals in
kerosene.
Sodium sorbate, linseed oil,
hexaldehyde, butyraldehyde,
and products of similar prop-
erties will oxidize on contact
with air under proper conditions.
Care should be exercised to avoid
spilling on contact insulation
around steam lines. Do npjt^ use
T&JZJB to_ raop_ jthern up_. On oxida-
tion, these materials release
heat that, in turn, raises the
temperature of the rap, material
to its fire point.
A hazardous chemical is one that does not qualify as a
reactive chemical but which is hazardous from the stand-
point of Health, Fi_re, or Reactivity with other chemicals.
Some chemicals, reactive In the usual sense of the word,
do not fall within the strict definition of a Reactive
chemical. For example, neither ethylene nor chlorine
reacts with itself under usual conditions. Each Is a
hazardous chemical. The two react together vigorously
to form ethylene dichloride, a reaction that could get
out of control.
-------
C-3
C. The following system can be used to Indicate the degree
of Health, Fire, and Reactivity of chemicals:
Health Hazards Rating Fire Hazard Rating
1. No residual injury
expected
0. Non-flanmable
Reactivity Rating
1. Normally stable
2. Minor residual injury 1. Flash point above 2. Reactive with
possible
60°C (140°F)
3. Major residual injury 2. Flash point from
if not treated 38-60eC (100 to
140°F)
4. Major residual injury; 3. Flash point from
prompt treatment 23-38°C
required. (73 to 100°F)
water
3. Self-reactive
with contaminants;
temperature sensitive.
4. Self-reactive with
contaminants; temper-
ature and shock sen-
sitive.
The following table can be used to determine whether a
chemical is reactive or hazardous:
H (Health)
1
2
3 Hazardous chemical
4 unless designated
as reactive in R
column.
F (Flammability)
0
1
2 Hazardous chemical
3 unless designated as
4 reactive in R column.
R (Reactivity)
2 Reactive
3 chemical
4
These classifications are based on physical and chemical
properties and do not include conditions of exposure or
handling such as pressure, weight, velocity, or volume..
Signals should be revised by the user to represent the
hazard under conditions of actual use.
D. [See pages following, in this appendix for a list of chem-
icals that are rated numerically for their Health, Fire,
and Reactivity Hazards, as classified by these tables.
Additional information concerning these areas is included
in Appendix D, Incompatible Chemicals, and Appendix B,
Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Solids.]
E. Because of the wide range of hazards involved it is not
practical to list all the necessary precautions in this
manual. However, it is felt that some discussion of the
hazards and precautions is necessary, at least to the
extent of citing examples.
-------
C-4
Toxicity and Health Hazards — The newer chemicals are toxic
in varying degrees and much in the same manner as the older^
well-known chemicals; by inhalation, ingestion, absorption
and contact.
The toxicity resulting from the inhalation
of the chlorinated hydrocarbons has already
been mentioned. In other chlorinated com-
pounds, absorption through the skin, in
addition to inhalation, can be a problem.
In fact, any heavily chlorinated compound
in liquid or solution form or any used at
elevated temperatures should be handled
cautiously.
The isoeyanates, exemplified by toluene
diisocyanate (TDI) , are among the most
toxic, from repeated contacts, of the
modern industrial organic chemicals.
Isoeyanates, particularly those in liquid
form and those used at elevated temper-
atures 9 should be handled with suitable
precautions„
While it has been known for many years,
epichlorohydrin is an organic chemical
finding increasing use in the rubber and
plastics industry. This compound and some
of its derivatives are toxic in much the
same manner as are the isocyanates and should
be treated similarly. Furthermore, epichloro-
hydrin slowly penetrates rubber so that rubber
clothing that has been in contact with the
liquid should be discarded,
The amines, particularly the liquid ones and
those used in solution form, frequently cause
problems with dermatitis, throat irritations,
conjunctivitis, etc., unless handled with
suitable protective equipment.
Fire and Explosion Hazards — Many modern industrial chemicals
are extremely fire and explosion hazardous. The hazards arise
from many causes, some of which are: Loss of inhibitor, expo-
sure to oxygen (air), shock, sensitivity, friction, thermal
changes, contamination by metals and their salts or oxides, etc.
Some specific examples are given.
-------
C-5
Equipment should be well designed and suitable
for the type of reactions involved with peroxides,
The peroxide to be used should be carefully
selected. Whenever possible, particularly if
there is a choice, the less hazardous one
should be chosen. Dilution with a compatible
material is advisable whenever possible.
Only the quantities immediately needed should
be stored in the laboratory. All storage and
handling should preclude the possibility of
contamination of the peroxide or the contami-
nation of other materials by the peroxide.
It is suggested that the weight of actual
peroxide in storage be limited as follows:
Peroxide
Hazard
Classification
I
II
III
Cutoff Area
Unopened
Containers
20 Ib
100 Ib
500 Ib
Detached Area
Unopened
Containers
1,000 Ib
5,000 Ib
25,000 Ib
Laboratories,
per 5,000 ft'
floor space
2 Ib
10 Ib
50 Ib
Many purified chemicals are susceptible to
oxidation and rapidly form potentially
explosive peroxides after the container
has been opened and the substance exposed
to air. A typical example is purified
tetrohydrofuran (THF). Precautions include:
use of inhibited materials whenever possible;
buying in minimum practical-sized containers
and immediately discarding any unused remainder
in a container:
dating containers with the date received,
followed by a strict rotation of stock: dating
the containers with the date opened and dis-
carding if not used within a prescribed time
limit;
the addition of suitable inhibitors that will
not interfere withe the intended use of the
remainder.
-------
C-6
Hydrazine is a dangerously reactive chemical
that, with some of its derivatives, is
finding increasing use in syntheses in the
chemical and plastics industries. It is a
highly active reducing agent and reacts with
many organic and inorganic chemicals.
Anhydrous hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethyl
hydrazine are such unstable compounds that
they were earlier used as monopropellants and
are considered as explosive substances. Other
derivatives are considered flammable liquids
having very low ignition temperatures and high
chemical reactivity.
Decomposition can be Initiated by heat,
electrical sparks and arcs, by the catalytic
action of oxygen, and by contaminants such
as the oxides of heavy metals.
The usual properties relating to flammable
liquids are not always fully indicative of
the major hazards involved although some of
these properties confirm the unstable nature
of hydrazine. As an example, anhydrous
hydrazine has a reported upper explosive
limit (U.E.L.) of 100 percent vapor, by
volume, which indicates that oxygen (air)
is not necessary to produce an explosive
type reaction. Such explosions can be initia-
ted in closed containers, pipes, etc., by out-
side sources of heat, by internal catalytic
influences, and by reaction with contaminants.
The precautions for these compounds follow
closely those required by the organic peroxides
limitations on quantities, rigid standards on
shelf-life» disposal of residues, protection
from heat, isolation to prevent contamination,
strict control of ignition sources, and others.
-------
II. Key_to Typeof Linkage or Structure Contributing to Reactivity
Type Name
I
A Vinyl C - CH,
B Carbonyl
Conjugated,
unsaturated
C » 0
I
1 I !
C - C—C - R
Self-reactants
;— c' - c - o
o
E Acetylenic and —Cr=:C
peroxide
R—0—0—R
Listing of Reactive Chemicals
Compound
Acetaldehyde
Acetylene
Acrolein
Acrolein Dimer
Hazard
Classification
E F_ R,
443
344
443
Acrylic Acid
Acrylonitrile
Allyl Chloride
Allyl Cyanide
Butadiene
Butyl Acetate
Butyraldehyde
Chlorotrifluoroethylene
Copper Acetylide
Crotonaldehyde
423
423
443
443
431
243
231
443
443
344
443
Type of Type of
Structure Reactivity
B Alkali-catalyzed condensation
E Explosive decomposition
C Vinyl polymerization and
aldol condensation
B Aldol polymerization, acid-
catalyzed polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
B Aldol condensation
A Vinyl polymerization
E Explosive decomposition
C Aldol condensation
-------
C-8
Hazard
Classification
H F R
Croton Oil 443
1,3-Cyclopentadiene 343
Decyl Acrylate 313
Diacetylene 344
Diacetyl Peroxide 424
Diallyl Maleate 323
Dibenzoyl Peroxide 444
Dibutyl Ether Peroxide 444
Diethyl Ether Peroxide 444
Diketene 423
Dl-isopropyl Ether 444
Peroxide
Dialauroyl Peroxide 434
Di-t-Butyl Peroxide 244
Divinyl Sulfone 413
Ethyl Acrylate 343
Ethylene Oxide 444
2-Ethylhexaldehyde 32-
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate 313
Ethyl-1-Propenyl Ether 343
Formaldehyde 443
Glutaraldehyde (25% in 403
water)
Glyoxal (30% in water) 203
2,4-Hexadienal 413
Hexaldehyde 233
Hydrazine 424
Hydrogen Peroxide 404
2-Hydroxyadipaldehyde 101
(25% in water)
Isoctyl Aldehyde 223
Isoprene 343
Isopropenyl Acetate 343
Ketene 443
Methacrolein 443
Methacrylic Acid 4-3
Type of Type of
Structure Re_a_ctiy_ity
B Possible aldol condensation
A Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
E Explosive decomposition
E Explosive decomposition
A,C Vinyl polymerization
E Mild explosive decomposition
E Explosive decomposition
E Detonation
C Violent polymerization,
hydrolysis
E Detonation
E Explosive decomposition
E Explosive decomposition
A Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
D Hydrolysis, polymerization,
isomerization to acetaldehyde
B Spontaneous ignition in air
C Vinyl polymerization
A Ionic-catalyzed vinyl
polymerization
B Condensation and polymerization
B Aldol condensation and
polymerization
B Condensation and polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization, aldol
condensation
B Aldol condensation
Explosive decomposition
E Decomposition
B Aldol condensation
B Aldol condensation
C Vinyl polymerization
A,B Vinyl polymerization
D Polymerization, hydration
C Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
-------
09
Hazard
Classification
5.1 H
l-Methoxy-1,3- 44-
Butadiene
Methylacetylene 344
2-Methylpentaldehyde 243
Nitro compounds - - -
Peracetic Acid 444
Perchloric Acid 403
Plperylerve 3-3
Propadiene (allene) 343
Propionaldehyde 443
Pyruvaldehyde (40% 203
in water)
Silver Acetylide 344
Sodium Perchlorate 3-4
Sodium Sorbate 213
Sorbic Acid 411
Styrene 233
Succinaldehyde 4-3
t-Butylhydroperoxlde 444
Tolylene Dilsocyanate 412
Tributyl Phosphine 44-
Tridecyl Aldehyde 213
n-Valeraldehyde 443
Vinyl Acetate 343
Vinyl Acetylene 344
Vinyl Acrylate 2-3
Vinyl Allyl Ether 443
Vinyl Buty Ether 443
Vinyl Butyrate 333
Vinyl Chloride 343
Vinyl 2-Chloroethyl 433
Ether
Vinyl Crotonate 233
Vinyl 2-Ethylhexoate 313
2-Vinyl-5-Ethyl 413
Pyridine
Vinyl Formate 443
Vinyl Isobutyl Ether 443
Vinyl Propionate 343
White Phosphorus 443
Type of Type of
Structure Reactivity
C Vinyl polymerization, ionic
catalyzed polymerization
E Explosive decomposition
B Condensation
Explosive decomposition
B Explosive decomposition
- Explosive decomposition
C Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
B Aldol condensation
C Polymerization
E Explosive decomposition
Explosive decomposition
C Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
B Aldol condensation
E Explosive decomposition
Spontaneous ignition in air
B Spontaneous ignition in air
B Aldol condensation
A,B Vinyl polymerization
C Vinyl polymerization
explosive decomposition
A,C Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization, ionic-
catalyzed polymerization
A Ionic-catalyzed polymerization
A,B Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
A Ionic-catalyzed polymerization
A,C Ionic-catalyzed polymerization
A,B Vinyl polymerization
A Vinyl polymerization
A,B Vinyl polymerization
A Ionic-catalyzed polymerization
A,B Vinyl polymerization
- Spontaneous ignition in air
-------
010
Compound
Hazard
Classification
H F R
Comjjpunds J^ea
Type of
Reactivity
Acetic Anhydride
Acetyl Chloride
Aluminum Alkyle
Aluminum Chloride
Butyl Magnesium
Chloride
Calcium Carbide
Calcium Oxide
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Diethyl Sulfate
Diisobutyl Aluminum
Chloride
Eplchlorhydrin
Isopropyl Titanate (IV)
Maleic Anhydride
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus Oxychloride
Phosphorus Pentoxide
Phosphorus Tetraoxide
Phosphorus Trichloride
Phosphorus Trioxide
Propylene Oxide
Silicon Tetrachloride
Sodium Metal
Sodium Methylate
Sulfuric Acid
Titanium Tetrachloride
Triisobutyl Aluminum
412
442
4-2
402
3-2
402
402
402
412
442
421
312
413
402
402
302
343
402
442
442
402
402
442
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes explosively
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes exothermically
Hydrolyzes exothermically
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes
Heat of solution
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrates violently
Hydrates violently
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrates violently
Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes
Reacts violently
Hydrolyzes violently
Hydrolyzes violently
-------
APPENDIX D
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
CONCERNING SAFETY
-------
D-L
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES CONCERNING SAFETY
Best's Safety Directory, 1971-1973 Edition. Alfred M. Best Company
New York, N. Y.
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, Fourth Edition. National
Fire Protection Association International. Boston, Mass. (1972).
Handbook of Laboratory Safety, ed, by Norman V. Steere. The Chemical
Rubber Co., Cleveland, Ohio. (1967).
American Industrial Hygiene Association, Hygienic Guide Series. Akron,
Ohio, 44313.
Manufacturing Chemists Association, Chemical Safety Data Sheets.
Washington, D. C. 20009.
Newton I. Sax, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. Third
Ed., Reinhold Publishing Co., New York.,N. Y. (1968).
Norman V. Steere, Safety in Tlie Chemical Laboratory, Vol. 1 (1967);
Vol. 2 (1971), Chemical Education Publishing Co., Easton, Pennsylvania.
Threshold Limits Values, American Conference of Government and Industrial
Hygiene. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
-------
APPENDIX E
IP™ m TP
E R I
ki IX 1
SURVIVAL
INFORMATION FOR
ANYONE TRAVELING IN THE
DESERT SOUTHWEST
MARICOPA COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL DEFENSE AND EMERGENCY SERVICES
2035 NORTH 52ND STREET
PHOENIX, ARIZONA 85008
TELEPHONE 273-1411
-------
This material has been included in the Safety Manual by
permission of the Maricopa County Department of Civil
Defense and Emergency Services, Phoenix, Arizona,
-------
This manual available without charge through the
MARICOPA COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL DEFENSE AND EMERGENCY SERVICES
WILLIAM G. ELDRIDGE, COLONEL, USA, RET., DIRECTOR
(For mail requests: Third class postage for two ounces requested)
TEN SAFETY RULES FOR SURVIVAL IN THE DESERT
1. Never go into the desert without first informing someone as to
your destination, your route and when you will return STICK
TO YOUR PLAN.
2. Carry at least one gallon of water per person per day of your
trip. (Plastic gallon jugs are handy and portable.)
3. Be sure your vehicle is in good condition with good hoses,
spare tire, spare fan belts, necessary tools, and reserve gasoline
and oil.
4. KEEP AN EYE ON THE SKY. Flash floods may occur any
time "thunderheads" are in sight, even though it may not rain
where you are.
5. If your vehicle breaks down, stay near it. Your emergency
supplies are here. Raise hood and trunk lid to denote "Help
Needed."
6. If you are POSITIVE of the route to help, and must leave your
vehicle, leave a note for rescuers as to when you left and the
direction you are taking.
7. If you have water—DRINK IT. Do not ration it.
8. If water is limited—KEEP YOUR MOUTH SHUT. Do not talk,
do not eat, do not smoke, do not drink alcohol, do not take salt.
9. Do not sit or lie DIRECTLY on the ground. It may be 30
degrees or more hotter than the air.
10. A roadway is a sign of civilization. IF YOU FIND A ROAD,
STAY ON IT. (Other people use it, too.)
A WORD OF CAUTION: The desert is beautiful and deadly. Danger is
always present once you leave well-traveled roads. Not only strangers
and Sunday sightseers have found this to be true. Many native-born
Arizonans have been careless and suffered the consequences. The
information in this manual may save your life.
ANOTHER WORD: In case of a nuclear disaster do not attempt to avoid
radioactive fallout by evacuation to the desert unless you have a fallout
shelter at your destination. Radioactive Fallout will be in the form of
ffne sand or dust, and its area of descent cannot be predetermined.
RADIATION cannot be seen, tasted or felt. Its presence can be deter-
mined only by special instruments. Learn about your Community
Shelter Program4 and how to take advantage of your immediate sur-
roundings if a community shelter is not available.
-------
GENERAL
The Desert Southwest is characterized generally by brilliant
sunshine, a wide temperature range, sparse vegetation, a scarcity
of water, a high rate of evaporation and low annual rainfall. Some
areas are flat and sandy, some mountainous and rocky, and others
may be salt marsh or dunes. As opposed to the normally thought
of summer conditions of extreme heat and severely parched char-
acter, the balance of the year affords usually moderate tempera-
tures, and especially in the spring, a surprising amount of life and
color. The desert supports a large variety of animal and plant life,
although for the most part it is diminutive in size or modified due
to its adaptation to the environment.
TEAVEL
Travel in the desert can be an interesting and enjoyable
experience or it can be a fatal or near fatal nightmare. The con-
tents of this small manual can give only a few of the many details
necessary for full enjoyment of our desert out-of-doors. Much
more must be learned of the basic principles of outdoorsmanship
and self-reliance, and there are many sources waiting to be
tapped for their information. The Boy Scouts of America, The Girl
Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, The American Red Cross, The Na-
tional Rifle Association, The National Field Archery Association,
The Arizona Game and Fish Department, The Phoenix Desert
Botanical Gardens, and many more, offer information or services
which will be useful to yuu. Unlimited satisfaction awaits the
person who is willing to take advantage of the desert arid who
prepares himself for this unusual environment.
ALWAYS BEFORE GOING INTO THE INFORM
A RELATIVE OR NEIGHBOR EXACTLY WHERE YOU ARE
GOING AND WHEN YOU WILL RETURN.
Patm'inding: When you plan on going into strange country
obtain a map beforehand and study the terrain features, the road
structure (do the roads run mainly north and south, or east and
west?), the directions to the nearest habitation, location of water,
etc. When you arrive at your campsite, recheck your map, look
for landmarks and orient yourself with the prominent ones. As
you move through the country check your back trail often, mak-
ing mental pictures of the land behind you — this is what you will
be looking for when you return to camp. Take into consideration
the position of the sun and shadows, and where they will be at
the time you expect to return. Stay on established trails, if pos-
sible, or mark your route by blazes or other marks. Make a blaze
by a single downward chop with a hatchet or heavy knife on a
thin-barked tree or by one downward and one upward stroke on
a thick-barked tree to expose the light wood. Make bush marks
by breaking over the top leaving It attached by the bark. Make
-------
other marks by aligning stones to form arrow shapes, or by
slanting sticks into the ground in the direction that you are
going. Travel from one prominent point to the next, making a
direction mark at every stop.
If you think you are lost do not panic. Sit down for awhile,
survey the area and take stock of the situation. Try to remember
how long it has been since you knew where you were. Decide on
a course of action. It may be best to stay right where you are and
let your companions or rescuers look for you. This is especially
true if there is water and fuel nearby, or in winter, if there is
some means of shelter. Once you decide to remain do not move.
Make a fire — a smoky one for daytime and a bright one for the
night. Other signals may be used, but fire is by far the best.
If you feel, after thinking the situation over, that you can re-
trace your course, do so. Mark your spot or leave a note before
moving on. Look for tracks, you may be able to back-track and
find your way to familiar ground. Do not try to take shortcuts
as this may tend to further confuse you. If possible, climb a tree
or a high point and make a sketch of the area before moving.
Always move down stream or down country, but travel the ridges
instead of the washes or valleys. Make marks as you go. Travel
by landmarks or compass and do not try to move too fast.
REMEMBER, MOVE WITH A PURPOSE, NEVER START
OUT AND WANDER AIMLESSLY.
Walking: There are special rules and techniques for walking
in the desert. By walking slowly and resting about 10 minutes
per hour a man in good physical condition can cover at the out-
set about 12-18 miles per day — less after he becomes fatigued
or lacks sufficient water or food. Consider walking at night. It
is cooler and if lack of water is a problem you will dehydrate less.
You can navigate by the stars. The disadvantages are that you
cannot see well and may stumble, or you might overlook water
and food sources and indications of habitation. On the hot desert
it is best to travel early morning or late evening, spending mid-
day in whatever shade may be available. The position of the sun
early and late in the day will give a better sense of direction. In
walking, pick the easiest and safest way. Go around obstacles, not
over them. Instead of going up or down steep slopes, zigzag to
prevent undue exertion. Go around gullies and canyons instead of
through them. Use a steady easy step. When going down hill, bend
the knees considerably. When climbing, place the whole foot on
the ground at one time, not the heel alone. When walking in sand,
lean well forward, keeping the knees bent. On walks of long dura-
tion do not swing the arms, but grasp the shoulder straps of your
pack or the shirt at the shoulder seams to prevent the hands and
lower arms fcorn swelling, and creating undue fatigue. When
-------
walking with companions, adjust the rate to the slowest man.
Keep together but allow about 10 feet between members.
At rest stops, if you can sit down in the shade and prop your
feet up high, remove your shoes and change socks, or straighten
out the ones you are wearing. If the ground is too hot to sit on,
no shade is available, and you cannot raise your feet, do not re-
move your shoes as you may not be able to get them back onto
swollen feet. However, unlace boots, adjust socks and relace.
Automobile Driving: Cross country driving or driving on
little used trail roads is hazardous, but can be done successfully
if a few simple rules are followed. Move slowly. If in doubt of the
terrain, dismount and check it out first on foot. Do not attempt to
negotiate washes without first checking the footing and the clear-
ances. High centers may rupture the oil pan. Overhang may cause
the driving wheels to become suspended above the ground. In
marsh or sand, the wheels may sink in resulting in a high center
and loss of traction. Do not spin wheels in an attempt to gain
motion, but apply power very slowly to prevent wheel spin and
subsequent digging in. When driving in sand or snow, traction
can be increased by partially deflating tires. Drive slowly on
low tires. Do not remove so much air that the tire may slip on
the rim. Start, stop and turn gradually, as sudden motions cause
wheels to dig in. If you plan on driving in the desert, practice
"difficult traction" in a dry wash with another car standing by to
tow you out if you become stuck. Experiment with the various
footings. There are certain tool and equipment requirements if
you intend to drive off the main roads: one or more shovels, a
pick-mattock, a tow chain or cable, at least 50 feet of strong tow
rope, tire pump, axe, water cans, gas cans (both filled), and of
course, your regular spare parts and auto tools. For rope, consider
nylon rather than manila. It costs more, but has twice the
strength, will last much longer, and its elasticity is highly bene-
ficial in extracting stuck vehicles. %" nylon has a working
strength of 2,000 pounds and a breaking strength of about 10,000
pounds. Be sure that your car is in sound condition with a full
gas tank, a filled clean radiator, a filled battery and new (and
extra) fan belts. If you become stuck or your car breaks down,
RAISE THE HOOD and STAY WITH THE CAR.
Aviators: File a flight plan before flying cross-country. When
flying across the desert, be sure that you have a survival kit, and
clothing suitable for ground conditions. If you have difficulty, a
crash landing is preferable to parachuting, as you may have
trouble locating the plane later. Land before you are completely
out of gasoline — dead stick landings in desert terrain are dan-
gerous. Also you will have gasoline with which to start signal
fires. Build fires well away from the plane — remember the gusty
desert winds. It may be best to remain at the plane instead of
trying to walk out. You can survive longer without water in the
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shade of the plane's wing than you can by exhausting yourself
walking. Walk out only if you are sure you can reach help easily,
and are absolutely sure that you have enough water to make it.
If you decide to walk, make a careful plan, and follow the path-
finding instructions.
Direction Finding: Haven't you awakened in a strange area
to find that you are "turned around"? The sun rises in the
east and sets in the west regardless of your first impressions.
Stand with your right hand to the morning sun or your left
hand to the evening sun and you will face North. When first ar-
riving in new country look around, study the land masses, and fix
the directions well in your mind. When moving through new
country continue the practice of fixing direction and of looking
all around you. A slow, careful trip out will assure a rapid and
safe return.
Use of the Compass: A good compass, (one with a protected
face is best) is a must, for traveling in strange country. Check it
out at the same time you are making your mental notes of direc-
tion and prominent land features. To orient the compass, hold it
horizontally so that the needle swings freely. When the needle
:omes to rest, rotate the compass so that the needle on the dial
and North coincide. Remember that this direction is Magnetic
North and may vary from true North by an appreciable degree.
Compare the needle direction with the North Star to learn the
difference, or you can determine this "declination constant" from
a map of the area. This deviation varies with location. Avoid
orienting your compass near any iron or steel as these will cause
swinging of the needle and incorrect readings. To use the compass,
orient it, then determine the reading to a distant land mark in the
direction you want to go. To return, orient the compass, subtract
180° from the outgoing reading, and move in the direction of the
calculated "back sight". This will not necessarily return you to
your exact original location, but if you have made your mental
notes before leaving, have kept some idea of how far and how
fast you have traveled out, you will be on familiar ground in due
course upon returning.
Determining Direction Using a Watch: The watch must tell
nearly correct sun time, not daylight savings time. Hold the watch
horizontally, point the hour hand at the sun. South will be mid-
way in the smallest angle between the hour hand and the sym-
bol 12. On cloudy days a stick held upright on the center of the
watch will cast a faint shadow. Align the shadow over the hour
hand, then North will be hall way through the small angle be-
tween the shadow and the symbol 12.
Determining Direction From the Stars: The only star which
appears stationary is Polaris, the North Star. Learn to recognize
it, and the Pointers and other star arrangements which will guide
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the eye to the North Star. Examine the sky each night for some
time before going into the field. This acquaintance will giv,e one a
sense of confidence for night travel if it becomes necessary. Take
into account that the night sky, at a given hour each night, will
have shifted a little, as well as appearing to rotate during the
night. When traveling use a star close to the horizon as a guide,
but remember that the earth rotates 15 degrees every hour, so
that you must adjust or use a new guide every 10 minutes or so
in order to maintain an intended direction,
Determining Direction from Shadow: Select an object at least
three feet high which casts a shadow with a well defined projec-
tion. Mark the shadow tip — wait 10 to 15 minutes and again mark
the shadow tip. A line drawn from the first mark through the
second mark will point East. Effective from about 9 a.m. to 3 p.m.
Determining Direction From Nature: Trees may have moss
which will be predominantly on the north and northeast sides of
the trunks. Check a number of trees to get a good average direc-
tion reading. The tips of evergreens generally point toward the
rising sun, approximately east. The plane on top of the barrel
cactus slants usually toward the southwest. A noon-day shadow
points north.
Navigational Hazards: The heat and high evaporation rate
of the desert cause a phenomenon known as "mirage". The vary-
ing density distribution of the layers of hot air, usually close
to the earth's surface, causes light rays to reach the observer
along several paths causing distorted, multiple or sometimes in-
verted images. These "heat waves" hamper your vision, making
it difficult to determine distance or objects. It may cause objects
or land marks to change shape, disappear or cause them all to
appear alike. Another type of mirage is the false dawn of the
desert, which seems to make the sun rise in the west. Ground haze
is a layer of warm, dusty air close to the ground which hampers
and distorts vision.
SIGNALS: The best signals are fire — a huge bright one at'
night, a smoky one by day, black smoke if the country is light
colored, white smoke if the country is dark. Maintain a good
supply of fuel to give the appropriate signal. Build your signal
fire on the highest point near to your shade or shelter. If fuel
is plentiful two fires some distance apart are better than one, and
three fires in a triangle denote "HELP!"
The signal mirror is an excellent device for attracting atten-
tion, particularly of aircraft. They can be obtained at military
or camping equipment stores, and the directions are included.
It is a 2-faced metallic mirror with a hole in the center. You can
improvise one from a can lid which is shiny on both sides. To
use, hold the mirror about three inches in front of your face, and
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sight through the hole on the object you are trying to signal.
Move the mirror so that the light spot on your face, which you
can see in reflection, disappears in the hole in the mirror while
still maintaining sight of the plane, etc., through the hole. On a
clear day ground signals may be transmitted for 10 miles, signals
to aircraft an even greater distance.
Aluminum foil is an excellent signaling material. Signs may
be made of piled brush, rocks, tree branches, stomped-down snow,
etc. Make large characters running north and south to cast the
best shadow. Pilots understand these signals:
|—Need Doctor ^—Going This Way
SJ—Need Medicine LL—All Is Well
X—Unable To Proceed N—No
F—Need Food-Water y_Yes
^ -Need Firearms J L.—Not Understood
K—Which Way Q-Need Map - Compass
Signals made by sound are the least effective. Three of what-
ever sound you can make denotes "Distress." A "thunderer" type
whistle is recommended as an easy way to make a lot of noise.
Blowing across the mouth of an empty large-caliber cartridge case
makes a distinctive sound. If you have a firearm, shoot once, wait
10 seconds and fire twice more about 5 seconds apart. The first
will attract attention and the second and third will give direction.
If there is no answer save your ammunition. Sound carries best
during the early evening quiet just before dark.
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Clothing: Clothing requirements will vary considerably with
the season and the environment. For the hot desert, light weight
and light colored clothing which covers the whole body is best.
Long trousers and long sleeves protect from the sun, help to pre-
vent dehydration and protect against insects, abrasions and lacer-
ations by rocks and brush and tend to reduce infections caused
by these injuries. Headgear should provide all around shade as
well as eye shade. Shoes should be light weight but sturdy, and
should protect the ankles. Remember thorns and spines make
walking a problem. Woolen socks are recommended, and spare
socks should always be carried. Gloves are helpful to protect
hands from spines and thorns when handling brush and fire-
wood. Winter clothing requirements for the southwest vary with
the altitudes in which you are operating. Also in winter, keeping
dry is important. The "layer" system is best. Several light gar-
ments are easily carried and are more versatile in varying tem-
peratures than are heavier garments, and will prove at least as
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warm. They should be selected for size, keeping in mind that
other clothing may be placed over or under them. A light weight,
water repellent, wind breaker should be available to wear alone
or over the layers. A coat style is best as it will protect the hips.
Headgear should shade the eyes and some provision should be
made to protect the ears. Earflaps in the headgear are probably
best and are always available. Footgear should be sturdy, protect
the ankles, and be water repellent. Do not grease shoes—it makes
them cold, tends to rot the leather, and does not waterproof them.
Silicone preparations are excellent, easy to apply, and lasting.
Woolen socks are again recommended, and spare socks should
always be carried. In winter it is important to keep the feet dry
to help prevent "trench foot" and frost bite. Damp socks can be
carried inside the shirt front against the body to dry them out.
Equipment: Your method of travel will dictate in large part
the equipment to carry. When traveling by auto you will carry
"pioneer" gear such as shovels, picks, heavy rope, etc. You must
also think about bedding, cooking gear, can opener, eating uten-
sils, flashlight with spare batteries, lantern with fuel, First Aid
kit, towels, soap, toilet paper, tissues, paper napkins, old news-
papers. These are the same items to be included when setting
up the home shelter against disaster. In this section, however,
we are primarily interested in those items to be carried by the
individual on foot, whether engaged in recreational activity or
a survival problem, such as "walking out" from a downed aircraft
or disabled vehicle.
Survival Kit: Kits are outlined in many writings on survival.
The following items are listed, we think, in the order of their
importance. Detailed use is omitted here, but learn to use and
practice with each item BEFORE you need it for survival:
1. Knife—a good small one of the "boy scout" variety is best.
2. Matcfies—12 or more, strike anywhere, waterproofed by
coating with parafin, beeswax, fingernail polish, etc.
3. A small magnetic compass. Learn to use it.
4. A "thunderer" whistle. Carry it on a line around the neck.
5. A small metal signaling mirror.
6. A small magnifying lens—used to start fires, and as aid in
removing small spines or splinters.
7. A large-eyed needle. For first aid and sewing purposes.
Keep from rusting.
8. Cobbler's linen thread. A hundred feet or more, 8 strand.
Used to set snares, build shelter, repair or improvise clothing, etc.
9. Nylon chiffon. A piece about a yard square, bright orange
color, to be used for signaling, for straining dirty water, or as a
face covering during sand or dust storms.
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10. Aluminum foil. About five feet of the 12 inch heavy duty
type, used for signaling, a reflector for fire or candle, to make a
cooking pot or a drinking cup.
11. Water purification tablets. 10 or more. Iodine-type tablets
are probably best. Seal carefully in plastic foodwrap to keep dry.
12. Toy balloons. Three or four of the large, heavy, bright
orange-colored ones. Used for emergency water containers or for
signaling. Wrap in plastic food wrap to preserve.
13. Candle stub—used for light or as an assist in starting fires
— helps to conserve matches.
14. A single-edged razor blade. A handy first aid tool. Leave in
the original package to prevent rusting.
15. Pencil stub. Assist rescue parties by leaving notes.
16. Cigarette papers. A book of these for writing notes, or to
leave as trail markers.
17. Adhesive tape. About 2 feet, 1 inch wide, primarily for first
aid purposes. Bandaids are handy, too. Replace every few months.
18. Fish hooks. Five, assorted sizes. Use a little bait to snare
birds, etc.
19. Box nails. About five, blunted and bent to hook shape, to
be used as snare triggers.
20. Flint and steel fire starter. Make by attaching a lighter flint
to the end of a small sturdy stick. Wrap a length of cobbler's
linen around the stick. To make a fire, fuzz the end of the linen,
position the fuzz at the flint and strike against steel. The fuzz will
catch the spark and can be blown into a flame. Practice with it.
A cigarette lighter will provide sparks. Do not depend on having
fluid in it when you need it, and ordinary lighter wick will not
flame when dry.
All of the above items can be fitted into a tobacco tin, a band-
aid box or a similarly sized plastic box and be ready to go at any
time. Check it from time to time and be sure all items are there
and in good condition.
Other items that should be carried on the individual are: a
sharp belt knife, a good map of the area, thirty or more feet of
nylon parachute shroud line, canteen, a watch, a snake bite kit, a
firearm and ammunition, and such other items which may be
small and useful. Consider carrying your gear in a small rucksack
or pack over your shoulders. Weight carried in this manner is less
tiring than if carried in pockets or hung on the belt. The pack can
be used to sit upon. It also affords a safer method of carrying
those things, such as the belt knife, hatchet, etc., which may lend
to the chances of injury in case of a fall.
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HEALTH HAZABDS
Much thought must be given to protecting your health and
well being, and the prevention of fatigue and injury: first, be-
cause medical assistance will be some time and distance away;
second, because conditions are usually different and distinct from
your everyday living. The desert is a usually healthy environ-
ment due to dryness, the lack of human and animal wastes, and
the sterilizing effect of the hot sun. The higher elevations will
also present an environment conducive to good health, since the
major part of human disease is transmitted through respiratory
action or through contact. Therefore, your immediate bodily
needs will be your first consideration.
If you are walking or active, rest 10 minutes each hour. Drink
plenty of water, especially early in the morning while the tem-
perature is still low.
While on the desert or in snow, wear sun glasses t6 protect
your eyes from glare. Even though the glare does not seem to
bother you, it will impair your distant vision and will retard
your adaptation to night conditions. If 'you have no glasses make
an eyeshade by slitting a piece of paper, cardboard or cloth. Ap-
plying charcoal or soot around the eyes is also beneficial.
Use chapstick or grease on lips and nostrils. Do not "lick" your
lips if they are dry as this will hasten splitting.
Change your socks regularly even though you must change to
used socks, Sunning and aeration of socks and underclothing
have a marked freshening value.
Do not remove your clothing in an attempt to keep cool. This
will only hasten dehydration, as will sitting on the hot ground.
In winter, do not sit down if your clothing is damp or you
have been perspiring unless you have additional clothing or a
fire. If you have neither, walk slowly around a tree or in a circle
where ground is level and footing good until you dry out.
Do not travel in storms. Mark your direction of travel and
find shelter. Dust storms can be seen before their arrival. If on
foot, lie down with your back to the wind. Cover your head with
a cloth to keep dust out of your eyes, nose, mouth and ears. If
driving, stop and get off the road as far as possible to avoid col-
lision. Turn out lights and turn on emergency flashers. Back
vehicle into the wind to prevent sand pitting of windshield.
In a survival situation everything that you do, each motion
that you make, and each step you take must be preceded by the
thought: Am I safe In doing this?
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WATER
WATER REQUIREMENT CHARTS
(from "The Physiology of Man in the Desert"
by Adolph & Associates)
A. Number of Days of Expected Survival in the Desert, No
Walking At All:
Available water per man,
U. S. Quarts
Max.
daily shade temp. F.
120 degrees
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
0
2
3
5
7
9
10
10
10
1
Days
2
4
of expected
2 2
3. 3.5
5.5 6
8 9
10 11
11 12
11 12
11 12
2.5
4
7
10.5
13
14
14
14.5
10
20
survival
3
5
9.5
15
19
20.5
21
21
4.
7
13.
23
29
32
32
32
5
5
B. Number of Days of Expected Survival in the Desert, Walking
at Night Until Exhausted and Resting Thereafter:
Available water per man.
U. S. Quarts
Max.
daily shade
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
temp. F.
degrees
0
1
2
3
5
7
7
8
8
1
Days
2
2
3.
5.
7.
.5 8
8.
8.
of
,5
,5
,5
5
5
2
4
expected
2
2.
3.
5.
8
9
9
9
5
5
5
2.5
3
4.5
6.5
9.5
10.5
11
11
10
20
survival
3
3.5
5.5
8
11.5
13.5
14
14
The importance of temperature reduction to the survivor is
highlighted by the following in Chart A: Temperature 120°, water
available 2 quarts, days of expected survival 2; reduce the
temperature to 100°, and 2 quarts of water will extend your life
expectancy THREE TIMES. This importance to a potential "sur-
vivor" cannot be overemphasized. Night travel, or better, NO
TRAVEL, is stressed.
At equal temperatures, the body requires two to three times
as much water to maintain water balance in the desert as it
requires in the jungle with its high humidity.
Dehydration: An increase in body temperature of 6 to 8
degree^ above normal (98.6) for any extended period causes death.
10
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Body temperature in a healthy person can be raised to the'danger
point either by absorbing heat or by generating it. The body
absorbs heat from the air if the air is above 92 degrees Fahrenheit.
Direct sunlight striking the body, will increase temperature even
if the air is cool. You can also absorb heat reflected from the
ground or absorb it directly from the ground by contact. Any
kind of work or exercise increases body heat.
The body gets rid of excess heat and attempts to keep the
temperature normal by sweating, but when you sweat the body
loses water and dehydration results. It has been proven that
you can do twice as much work or walk twice as far with suffi-
cient water and normal temperatures as you can after you lose
I1/, quarts of water by sweating under 100 degree temperature.
No permanent harm is done to a man who dehydrates up to
10% of his weight. IF, later he drinks enough water to gain it
back. However, 25% dehydration at temperatures in the nineties
or above, will probably be fatal. You can drink cool or warm
water as fast as you want, but ice cold water may cause distress
and cramps.
Symptoms of Dehydration: Only by the ability to recognize
the initial symptoms of dehydration can one logically expect to
take corrective measures to prevent further (and possibly fatal)
dehydration. Learn these symptoms:
Thirst discomfort, slow motion, no appetite, and later nausea,
drowsiness, and high temperature. If dehydration is from 6 to 10
per cent, symptoms will be: dizziness, headache, dry mouth, diffi-
culty in breathing, tingling in arms and legs, bluish color, indis-
tinct speech and finally, inability to walk.
Prevention of Dehydration: Thirst is not an indication of
the amount of water you need. If you drink only enough to satisfy
your thirst, you can still dehydrate. Drink plenty of water, espe-
cially at meal times and during the cooler early morning hours.
A pebble or small coin carried in the mouth will alleviate the
sensation of thirst, but is not a substitute for water and will not
aid in keeping your body temperature normal. Avoid smoking
as it encourages oral breathing exposing large areas of mucous
membrane to drying influences, thereby increasing the rate of
dehydration and need for water. Salt will do you definite harm
unless plenty of water is available. Don't worry about salt but do
try to keep up the water intake.
Ration Sweat, Not Water: In hot deserts you need about a
gallon of water a day. If you walk at night, you may get about
20 miles for that gallon, but if you walk in the daytime heat,
you will get less than 10 miles to the gallon.
Keep your clothing on, including shirt and hat. Clothing helps
ration your sweat by slowing the evaporation rate and prolong-
11
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ing the cooling effect. It also keeps out the hot desert air and
reflects the heat of the sun. Stay in the shade during the day. Sit
on something 12 or more inches off the ground, if possible. DO
NOT LIE ON THE GROUND as it can be 30 degrees hotter than
a foot above the ground. If travel is indicated or necessary, travel
slowly and steadily.
Rationing water at high temperatures is actually inviting
disaster because small amounts will not prevent dehydration. Loss
of efficiency and collapse always follow dehydration. IT IS THE
WATER IN YOUR BODY THAT MAINTAINS YOUR LIFE
NOT THE WATER IN YOUR CANTEEN.
KEEP THE MOUTH SHUT and BREATHE THROUGH THE
NOSE to reduce water loss and drying of mucous membranes.
AVOID CONVERSATION for the same reason. If possible, cover
lips with grease or oil. ALCOHOL IN ANY FORM IS TO BE
AVOIDED as it will accelerate dehydration. Consider alcohol
as food and not as water since additional water is required to
assimilate the alcohol. For the same reason, food intake should
be kept to a minimum if sufficient water is not available.
Carrying Water: When planning to travel give your water
supply extra thought. Carry enough water based on the charted
requirements. Do not carry water in glass containers. These
may break. Metal insulated containers are good, but heavy. Carry
some water in gallon or half-gallon plastic containers similar to
those containing bleach. They are unbreakable, light-weight and
carrying several will assure a water supply if one is damaged.
Finding Water in the Desert: If you are near water it is
best to remain there and prepare signals for your rescuers. If no
water is immediately available look for it, following these leads:
Watch for desert trails—following them may lead to water or
civilization, particularly if several such trails join and "arrow"
downward toward a specific location.
Flocks of birds will circle over water holes. Listen for their
chirping in the morning and evening, and you may be able to
locate their watering spot. Quail fly toward water in the late
afternoon and away in the morning. Doves flock toward watering
spots morning and evening. Also look for the diggings and brows-
ings of wild animals as they tend to feed near water.
Water may be found at the base of rock cliffs for some time
after a rain. It may be found in the waste rock at the base of
cliffs or in the gravel-wash from mountain valleys which get
regular seasonal rains. Limestone and lava have aore and larger
springs than any other type rocks. Springs of cold water are
safest. Limestone caverns often have springs, but remain in sight
of the entrance as you may get lost. Look for springs along walls
of valleys that cross the lava flow. Springs may be found along
12
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valley floors or down along their sloping sides. See if there is
seepage where the dry canyon cuts through a layer of porous
sandstone. Dry stream" beds "may have water just below the sur-
face. Look at'the lowest point on the outside of a bend in the
stream channel. Dig until you hit wet sand. Water will seep out
of the sand into the hole. Damp surface sand marks a place to dig
a shallow well. Dig at the lowest point and go down 3 to 6 feet. If
the sand stays damp, keep digging. Look at hillsides to see where
the grass is lush and green. Dig at the base of the green zone and
wait for water to seep into the hole. Water is more abundant
and easier to find in loose sediment than in rocks. Look for a wet
spot on the surface of a clay bluff or at the foot of the bluff and
try d;gging it out.
Look for the "indicator" plants which grow only where there
is water: cottonwoods, sycamores, willows, hackberry, .salteedar
(tamarisk), cattails and arrow weed. You may have to dig to
find this water. Also keep on the lookout for windmills and water
tanks built by ranchers. If cactus fruits are ripe eat a lot of them
(see section on foods), to help prevent dehydration.
The immature flower stalks of Agave, Yucca and Sotol con-
tain moisture, or if no flower stalks are present the main stalks
may be split open and the pith chewed to prevent dehydration.
The barrel cactus contains a high degree of moisture, but to
press out water is pure myth, as the mucilaginous, acrid juice
thickens rapidly. To remove moisture chew on the pith but do
not swallow it. Carry chunks of the pith with you to suck on to
alleviate thirst. Young plants six to eighteen inches in height,
and with a soft green color will have the higher moisture content.
The root of the night blooming cereus is also high in moisture.
Methods of Purifying Water: Dirty water should be filtered
through several layers of cloth or allowed to settle. This does not
purify the water even though it may look clean. Incidentally,
radioactive fallout is dirt and most can be removed from water
as above. Purification to kill germs must be done by one of the
following methods:
1. Water purification tablets are the easiest to use. Get them
from the drug store and follow the directions on the label. Not
only do you need them in your survival kit and in your car or
plane, but you should keep an emergency supply at home. Gen-
erally, one tablet is sufficient for one quart of clear water or two
tablets for cloudy water. Let stand for thirty minutes,
2. Tincture of Iodine; add three drops per quart of clear water,
double for cloudy water. Let stand for thirty minutes.
3. Household bleach (5.25% sodium hypochlorite): 2 drops per
quart of clear water, 4 drops per quart of cloudy water. Stir, let
stand 30 minutes. Water should have a slight chlorine taste.
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4. Boiling for 3 to 5 minutes will purify most water. Add char-
coal while boiling to remove disagreeable odors from water. Ag-
itate to aerate and restore taste or add a small pinch of salt.
DESERT STILL
An interesting method of acquiring water is through the use
of a solar still constructed generally as shown. The sun's rays heat
the ground inside the hole, causing evaporation of the soil's mois-
ture, which saturates the air space and condenses on the cooler
plastic surface. This method will produce some water in even the
driest areas, but by selecting a site where there are indications of
moisture—greener or more plant life, loam soil, damp sand, etc.
—about two to three pints per day may be obtained. Several such
stills would have to be constructed to provide the amount neces-
sary for continued survival. Cacti and other plants which contain
moisture may be broken up and placed in the hole to provide a
higher water recovery rate. Saguaro, barrel and prickly pear cacti
are best for this purpose. Non-potable water may be poured into
a trench around the inside of the hole and be distilled, and made
safe for drinking by the process. If non-potable water or plant
materials are placed in the hole, be sure that they do not come in
direct contact with the plastic, as the water forming on it would
then be contaminated.
The basic requirement for constructing the still is a six-foot
square or circular sheet of "wettable" plastic. The plastic material
should be a thin (1 mil), tough, rough-surfaced type, of which
duPont's "Tedlar" is an example. Smooth plastics are less "wet-
table", and the droplets forming will not adhere and run down to
the point of the cone before dropping off. If a smooth type must
be used, slight abrading with scouring powder, fine sand or sand-
paper will improve its wettability. Be sure the roughened side
is placed down. A wide-mouth container of some kind is used to
collect the distilled water.
The site must be in full sunshine to be efficient, although an
established still will produce some water during the night. The
hole may be dug with a sharp rock or stick, and soil removed by
hand if a shovel is not available. If the container catching the
water is non-rigid, the bottom of the hole must be shaped to
support the container as it becomes filled.
The still may become a source of food, as lizards, snakes and
small animals will fall into the cone and become entrapped.
14
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7.
6.
3.
LEGEND:
1. Sheet of wetlable plastic, 6-foot diameter
2. Smooth, fist-sized rock for forming cone of plastic.
3. Pail, jar, can, or cone of foil, plastic or canvas to catch water
4. Drinking tube, XA inch plastic, about 5 feet long. Desirable
but not necessary
5. Soil to weight plastic sheet and seal space. A good closure is
important
6. Line hole with broken cacti or other succulents
7. If non-potable water is available, dig a soaking trough
around inside of hole. Carefully fill the trough to prevent
impure water from running down and contaminating the
water-catching container.
FOOD
You must have water to survive, but you can go without food
for some days without harmful effects. In fact, if water is not
available do not eat, as food will only increase your need for
water. The important thing about locating food in a survival
situation is to know what foods are available in the particular
environment and how to go about obtaining them. Hawks soaring
overhead may mean rabbits or other rodents below; birds flock-
ing may mean not only edible berries but will probably mean
water nearby. Game will be found around water holes and in
areas that are prominent because of heavier brush growth.
Food List: When, planning, include those items which have
high energy value, long shelf life and little weight. Generally,
meats have higher energy value than vegetables. The" dehydrated
15
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foods are excellent and keep well. Candies are OK but cause
thirst, so you need a good water supply. The following list, in
quantity, represents food for one person for two weeks or two
persons for one week, etc. Use this list also for family emergency
food stockpile. See USDA Home and Garden Bulletin #77 for
additional food information. (Don't forget the can opener!)
1. Canned meats, fish, poultry—8 Ibs.
2. Prepared canned foods with meat, fish, poultry (chile,
spaghetti, macaroni, beans, etc.)—8 Ibs.
3. Canned soups (condensed, containing meats, fish, poultry)
5 Ibs. (or equivalent in dehydrated soup products).
4. Canned fruits and vegetables—12 Ibs.
5. Canned juices, regular strength—14 - #1 tall cans.
6. Dried fruits—2 Ibs.
7. Crackers and cookies—3 Ibs.
8. Milk: evaporated—7 14V2 oz. cans, or powdered—\V2 Ibs.
9. Cereal, dry, ready to eat—1 Ib.
10. Cereal, quick cooking—1 Ib.
11. Flour—2 Ibs.
12. Flour mixes—1 Ib.
13. Fats and oils—1 Ib. or 1 pt.
14. Jams, jellies and peanut butter—2 Ibs.
15. Sugar and candies—2 Ibs.
16. Relish, catsup, mustard, honey, syrup—as required.
17. Coffee, tea, instant cocoa, instant cream, salt, pepper,
vinegar, baking soda, bouillon cubes, etc.—as required.
Survival Rations:
Here is a survival ration, originally developed by the late Mr.
Lee Kelly, Survival Expert, which is tasty and which will pro-
vide enough food for 2 days in an emergency:
3 cups cereal—Oatmeal or 3 tablespoons Honey
Barley, Corn or Wheat 3 tablespoons Water
Flakes ,, . -..^ -_,, ,
Va package Citrus Flavored
2V2 cups Powdered Milk Gelatin
1 cup White Sugar ¥4 teaspoon Salt
Place all dry ingredients, except gelatin, in mixing bowl. Com-
bine water and honey and bring to a boil. Dissolve the gelatin in
the honey-water mixture, then add to the dry ingredients. Mix
well. Add water a teaspoon at a time until mixture is just
moist enough to mold. Pack into a refrigerator dish or other mold.
This recipe will make 2 bars, 1% x 2 x 5 inches. The bars may
be placed in the oven and dried under very low heat, then
16
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wrapped in foil and stored Indefinitely. Each bar will provide
about 1,000 calories and is sufficient food for one day. It can .be
eaten dry or cooked with about 2/3 of a canteen cup of water.
Edible Wildlife: Almost every animal and reptile, and many
insects are edible, and many are sources of highly esteemed foods.
Learn now to prepare the various things that would be available
to you in a survival situation. Avoid any small mammal which
appears to be sick as it may have tularemia, a disease trans-
mittible to humans. A spotted liver in the animal is also an indi-
cation of this disease. Some animals have scent glands which
must be removed before cooking. Do not allow the hair of these
animals to come in contact with the flesh as it will give the meat
a disagreeable taste.
1. Jack Rabbit: A hare, with long ears and legs, sandy color,
may weigh up to 8 Ibs. Grubs are often found in the hide or flesh
but these do not affect the food value.
2. Cottontail Rabbit: Small, pale gray with white tail. Active
in the early morning and late evening.
3. Pocket Gopher, Kangaroo Eat, Wood Eat, Pocket Mouse,
Grasshopper Mouse: Active at night.
4. Ground Squirrel, Tree Squirrel, Chipmunk: Out during
the day.
5. Porcupine: Singe the quills, then skin and roast or boil.
6. Muskrat, Beaver: Beaver tail is especially delicious, broil
it on a stick then remove the skin.
7. Skunk: Skin carefully, the meat is excellent. Active at
night.
8. Badger.
9. Racoon, Ring-tail Cat, Coati-Mundi.
10. Opossum.
11. Fox, Coyote, Bear,
12. Bobcat, Wildcat, Mountain Lion,
13. Mexican Free-Tail Bat,
14. Javelina (Collared Peccary): Dark gray-black, about three
feet long, weighing 30-50 pounds with sharp, strong tusks. Has
scent glands on the back, over the hind legs. May be dangerous
if cornered or wounded.
15. White Tall Deer, Mule Deer, Elk: Keep hair off meat.
16. Prong Horn Antelope: 60 to 120 pounds. Keep hair off
the meat.
17. Desert Bighorn Sheep: May weigh over 200 pounds.
18. Mourning Dove: Year-round resident, usually found near
habitation and water. Sometimes nests in cholla cactus.
19. White Wing Dove: Resident, April to October, nests in
mesquite and palo verde trees. Usually near water.
17
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20. Gambel's Quail, Scaled Quail, Mearn's Quail, Dusky
Grouse, Pheasant: The Gambel's is of primary importance in
desert and semi-arid areas.
21. Wild or Merriam's Turkey: About 8 to 20 pounds. Found
in pine and oak areas.
22. Ducks, Coot and other Water Fowl.
23. Owls, Hawks, Craws, Road Runners, Cactus Wrens, and
various other small birds.
24. Woodpeckers: Inhabit the Saguaro Cactus areas.
25. Vultures and Eagles.
26. Birds Eggs: All are edible.
27. Fish.
28. Bullfrogs: Skin before cooking.
29. Snakes: Most snakes are edible. Rattlesnake is especially
good. Remove the head and bury it as a safety precaution. How-
ever, leaving the head on is not detrimental to the eating qualities.
30. Lizards: Many species, all believed edible, including the
poisonous Gila Monster.
31. Desert Tortoise.
32. Lubber Grasshopper: 2% inches long. Should be cooked.
33. Grubs: Found under bark, in rotten wood or in the ground.
Boil or fry.
34. Hairless Caterpillars: Hairy ones may be poisonous.
Preserving Surplus Meat: It is surprisingly easy to preserve
surplus meats in the desert southwest because of the bright sun
and dry heat. You can make Charqui (Jerky) from fat free meat
of large animals, by slicing it into strips about 1 inch thick by
several inches wide, and hanging it in the sun for two or three
days until it is completely dry. May be eaten dry or soaked and
cooked. Will keep indefinitely. Sand dried meat is similarly
stripped, then wiped dry, and buried, unsalted in dry sand about
6 inches deep. If kept dry will keep for several years. Eat dry or
soak and cook. Smoke drying is also simple. Build a lattice about
3 feet above a slow burning fire, lay Vt inch thick strips of meat
on the lattice. Smoke until the meat becomes brittle. Do not let
the fire become so hot that the meat cooks or draws juices—the
smoke does the trick. Do not use pitchy or oily woods as they
will flavor the meat.
Snares, Traps, Deadfalls: Learn to design and use these from
books on Woodcraft. Most are simple devices which require only
ingenuity, a pocket knife, a bent nail and a piece of string. You
will have these things in your survival kit—or you may have to
improvise. Snares should be placed after camp is set up but before
dark. A twitch-up snare jerks the animal into the air, kills
promptly and protects it against other animals. A noose of string
18
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laid around a hole or burrow can be jerked by hand as the animal
puts its head out of the hole. Conceal yourself some distance
away so that the animal in the hole cannot see you. Deadfalls are
traps which allow a heavy object, log or rock to drop on the
animal when a trigger is released. Any sized animal may be killed
by this method if the trap is large enough. Slings or slingshots
may be used to kill birds or small animals. A handful of pea-sized
rocks flung by hand may get a bird as a last resort.
Set snares in game trails or frequently used runways which
can be recognized by fresh tracks and droppings. The spot used
for butchering will attract other animals and will be a good place
to watch for a day or so. Use entrails for bait. Place the snare in
the narrowest part of the trail, or arrange obstacles to force the
animal to pass through the snare. Disturb natural surroundings
as little as possible. Be sure the noose is large enough so that the
head but not the body of the animal will pass through.
Edible Plants: A visit to the Phoenix Botanical Gardens in
Papago Park or similar arboretum will afford you much interest-
ing information regarding desert plants.
The main desert edibles are the fruits of cacti and legumes.
All cactus fruits are safe to eat. In the summer the fleshy and
thin-walled ripe fruits can be singed over fire to remove spines.
Then they can be peeled and eaten. Old cactus fruits contain seeds
which can be pounded between two stones into a powder and
eaten, or mixed with water into a gruel called pinole. New, young
pads of the prickly pear can be singed, peeled and boiled.
The legumes are the bean bearing plants. The main ones are
the honey and screwbean rnesquites, the palo verde, the tesota
(ironwood) and the catclaw acacia. All are small trees with fern-
like leaves. The palo verde is recognized by its open growth,
greenish bark and feathery leaves. Ironwood has rough, dense
growth, and will grow into a large tree under favorable condi-
tions. Catclaw is a small, grayish tree with numerous short
curved thorns. All have bean pods which when green and tender
can be boiled and eaten. Dry, mature beans, like cactus seeds, are
too hard to chew and must be cracked to be digested.
The night blooming cereus looks like a cluster of weather
beaten sticks and is found close to trees and bushes; has a large^
edible, beet-like root. Slice the root and fry. This root has a very
high moisture content, and may be used as a water source.
Other edibles are the fruits of: the tomatillo or squawberry, a
stiff thorny bush with small berries which are rather citric-tasting
and much liked by birds: the hackberry, a small tree with tiny
thick-growing roundish leaves and small red berries; Jojoba (the
goatnut or wild hazel) is a smallish shrub, with thick-growing
acorn-like nuts which were once a staple food of the Indians. In
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less arid areas burdock, cattails, dandelions, dock, lambs-quarters,
miner's lettuce, nettles (young), water cress are a few of the
more desirable edible plants. Acorns (may be dangerous if eaten
in large quantities) pinion nuts, pine kernels, red berries, and the
young bark of aspen, cottonwood, pine and spruce are all edible.
Poisonous Plants: The identification of all poisonous plants in
Arizona (there are more than 700 in the United States and Can-
ada) is beyond the scope of this small manual. The reader is en-
couraged to study the matter further based on his degree of in-
terest. There is no pattern of geography, habitat, relationship,
seasonal appearance or plant part than can be used successfully
to separate poisonous plants from the harmless ones. The poison
principals contained are many, and effects (and treatment)
varied. A few of those common and important in our Desert
Southwest, regardless of their particular environment, are listed:
Cultivated Poisonous Plants Common to Inhabited Areas:
1. Castor Plant: A large plant with broad leaves, reddish,
burr-like seed pods and vari-colored beans. All parts are toxic
(but the oil of the beans is not).
2. Oleander: A common large woody hedge shrub with red,
pink or white flowers. A single leaf can be lethal to a child. Meat
skewered on Oleander branches can kill.
3. Poinsettia: The common Christmas plant with red leaves.
Contains an acrid, burning, milky juice that may cause severe
intestinal injury.
4. Dumbcane, Caladium and Philodendron: Decorative plants
often seen in lobbies, offices, etc. Contain small needlelike crys-
tals. Biting imbeds the crystals in the tissues of tongue and
mouth resulting in intense burning and irritation which is not
dangerous in itself. Swelling of tissue at the base of the tongue
may cause death through suffocation.
5. Lantana: A common decorative shrub v/ith small clusters
of red and orange, yellow or lavender flowers and a minty odor.
Much planted around shopping centers and commercial buildings.
All parts are poisonous.
6. Privet: A common hedge plant. The berries, especially,
are poisonous.
7. Larkspur, Monkshood, Delphinium: Cultivated or wild
plants with spikes of attractive blue flowers and milky juice.
8. Rhubarb: A common vegetable, the leaf stalk of which is
used as food. The leaf blade, however, contains a poisonous acid.
9. Potatoes: A close relative to the deadly nightshade. Heal-
thy tubers are harmless, but there is some danger in sprouts, in
rotting potatoes, in the green sunburned areas of potatoes grown
at the surface of the ground, and in the vines.
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Wild Poisonous Plants:
10. Nightshade (Ground Cherry, Wild Potato, Horsenettle):
A low shrub resembling the potato plant. Has grayish leaves,
purple flowers and yellow fruit which turn purple as they ripen.
One species is yellow-flowered and fruit and plant are covered
with spines giving it the name "Buffalo Bur".
11. Sacred Datura (Jimson Weed or Thornapple): Nightshade
family. A coarse ground vine with smelly gray-green foliage and
large trumpet-shaped -white flowers. All parts are poisonous.
Children have been poisoned by sucking the nectar from the
flowers.
12. Water Hemlock (Cow Bane): Found in marshy areas and
along stream banks. The base of the stem is swollen and several
tuberous roots are attached to it. The fleshy roots have a pleas-
ant taste but are extremely dangerous.
13. Locowood or Milk Vetch: Attractive low member of the
pea family with colorful purple-white flowers and a disagreeable
odor.
14. Lupine or Bluebonnet: Also a member of the pea family
with blue-purple flowers.
15, Milkweed: A rush-like plant up to five feet in height
with green-white flowers. Leaves are short-lived. In some species
the milky sap contains much rubber. Grows on rocky slopes from
sea level to 2,500 foot elevation.
16. Coral Bean: Medium-sized shrub recognized in early sum-
mer by its leafless branches and bright red flowers; in mid-sum-
mer by its small triangular leaves and in late summer and fall
by the thick pods (6-10 inches long) with the bright red seeds.
Usually found at elevations around 3,000 to 5,000 feet.
17. Jatropha or Limber Bush: A low shrub with heart-shaped
leaf blades and flexible branches, found on rocky slopes at ele-
vations of 2,000 3,000 feet. Sometimes called "Sangre de drago"
because of the reddish sap in the roots. The seeds are laxative.
18. Mushrooms: Most are edible, but eat only those you can
positively identify. Do not eat those which have these charac-
teristics; a veil or fringe around the upper part of the stem; a
bag or cup at the base of the stem; a white or green spore deposit
which drops out of the gills; scales on the cap.
In a survival situation where use of strange plants for food is
indicated, follow these rules: AVOID plants'with milky sap.
AVOID all red beans. If possible, boi! plants which are question-
able. Test a cooked plant by holding a small quantity in the
mouth for a few moments. If the taste is disagreeable (very bit-
ter, nauseating, burning) do Dot eat II
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FIRES AND COOKING
Clear an area about 15 feet across, dig a pit or arrange rocks to
contain the fire. Make a starting fire of dry grass, small twigs,
shavings, under-bark of cottonwoods, etc. Place larger twigs—
about pencil size—on top. Have heavier material ready to add,
using the smaller pieces first. Place them on the fire in a "tepee"
fashion to prevent smothering your starting fire and aid in the
formation of an up-draft. After the fire is burning well, continue
to use the tepee method for boiling but criss-cross fuel for form-
ing coals for frying or broiling.
Start your fire with a lighter, matches, or a hand lens. If you
have time practice the art.of making a fire using flint and steel.
Remember, do not use up your water-proofed matches unless your
return from the field is a guaranteed fact. Here are some hints
for expeditious fire building:
Drying Matches: Damp wooden matches can be dried by strok-
ing 20 to 30 times through the dry hair at the side of the head. Be
careful to not knock off the chemical head of very wet matches
at the start of the procedure.
Tinder: (all these must be dry) Under-bark of the cotton-
wood, cedar bark, dead golden rod tops, cattail floss, charred
cloth, bird nests, mouse nests, or any readily flammable material
shredded into fine fibers. Fine steel wool makes excellent tinder.
Fuzz-stick: Cut slivers into soft wood sticks so that they
adhere to the stick. Arrange them tepee fashion, with the sepa-
rated ends downward.
Quick, hot fires: Cottonwood, cactus skeletons, creosote-bush,
aspen, tamarisk, cedar, pine, spruce, dried animal dung.
Long lasting fires: Mesquite, ironwood, black jack, sage, oak.
Flint and Steel: A practicable method if you practice. Strike
steel against flint or agate, so that the sparks hit the tinder. Hold
flint against tinder to catch spark, then carefully blow into flame.
Friction Methods: The Navajo hand drill and fire plough
methods should be learned, but require proper materials and
much practice. Material for Friction Method of Starting Fires:
Yucca, cottonwood, tamarisk, cedar, willow, elm, fir.
Gun Powder: Remove bullets from two cartridges. Prepare a
hole in the ground about 8 inches deep and 4 inches across. Place
tinder in the hole and empty one cartridge case of powder into
the tinder. Load the other case into rifle, being careful not to
dump the powder out, hold the muzzle about 4 inches from the
and fire the gun. The flame will ignite the powder in the
22
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hole and the tinder. Have all your fuel ready to add. Do not use
this method if your cartridges are limited, or you may have fire
but go hungry. "Do not attempt to start the fire without a suitable
hole and tinder as the blast will blow away the material. ,
REMEMBER YOU WANT FLAME FOR HEAT, EMBERS
FOR COOKING AND FOR SIGNALS YOU NEED SMOKE
IN THE DAYTIME AND BRIGHT FIRE AT NIGHT. BE SURE
TO EXTINGUISH YOUR FIRE BEFORE LEAVING IT.
Cooking: The methods of cooking over an open fire are many,
the main limitations being available equipment, the available
food, and the ability of the cook. All methods of cooking, boiling,
frying, broiling, roasting and baking may be employed. The tech-
niques are too lengthy to describe here. The many books on
camping are full of suggestions, as are some of the pamphlets on
use of aluminum foil. Foil affords as easy way of cooking. Wrap
the prepared food inside, double fold the edges leaving some air
space inside and place on coals. Meats, vegetables, fish, sandwich-
es, and other dishes may be cooked or heated in this manner. You
can boil water or make soup in a cardboard, bark or other contain-
er of flammable material, provided you use a low fire and keep
liquid inside of the container. The part of the container above the
water line may burn if not kept moist.
POISONOUS CBEATUBES
There is probably more said and less truth about poisonous
creatures than any other subject. These animals and insects are
for the most part shy, or due to their nature not often seen. There-
fore, any person who has the fortune or misfortune to become
acquainted with them becomes an expert, and in due course, the
stories told become,distorted. Like gossip, the final tale seldom
resembles the original fact. Learn the facts about these creatures
and you will see that they are not to be feared but only respected.
Visit the museums which have displays, dead or alive, of the crea-
tures—avoid the roadside zoos with their sensational imports if
you are looking for facts.
Snakes: There are many types of snakes in the southwest but
only rattlesnakes and coral snakes are poisonous. (Side-winders
are small rattlesnakes which get their name from the peculiar
side-looping method used in moving over sandy areas.) Snakes
hibernate during the colder months, but will start appearing with
the warming trend, sometimes in early February. During the
spring and fall months they may be found out in the daytime, but
during the summer months they will generally be found out dur-
ing the night, due to the fact that they cannot stand excessive
heat.
Rattlesnakes: These ere easily identified by the sandy color,
the broad arrow-shaped head, blunt tipped-up nose, and rattles
on the tail. Look for ihem mostlyK where food, water, and pro-
-------
tection are available—around abandoned structures, irrigation
ditches, water holes, brush and rock piles. They do not always
give warning by rattling, nor do they always strike if one is
close. Usually they are not aggressive and will not "chase"
people. They may attempt to escape from noise and commotion or
they may remain quiet and hidden". Rattlesnakes strike by rapid-
ly extending the neck and upper body loops for a distance of one-
third to one-half the total length. The poison is injected through
two curved hollow fangs which are hinged forward by the wide
opening of the mouth. The strike results in immediate pain ac-
companied by swelling. The venom primarily causes local and in-
ternal destruction and nerve damage. Severe infection is a pos-
sibilty. About 99% of snake bites are in lower parts of the limbs.
If traveling in areas where rattlers are, wear protective footgear
and watch where you put your hands and feet. Improvised put-
tees of corrugated cardboard or thick newspapers underneath
trousers provide effective leg protection.
Arizona Coral Snake: A small snake, rarely over 20 inches
long with small blunt, black head and tapering tail. Wide red and
black bands are separated by narrower yellow bands and all com-
pletely encircle the body. They are nocturnal and live under
objects, in burrows, and are shy and timid. Corals bite and chew
rather than strike, but due to the very small mouth and short
(about 0.2 to 0.3 mm) fixed fangs, they are unable to bite any
but the smallest extremities. Arizona Coral snakes will bite only
under severe provocation. The venom affects the nervous sys-
tem causing failure of the heart and respiratory muscles.
Treatment of Poisonous Snakebite: If bitten, try to capture
the snake as identification will aid in specific medical treatment.
GET A DOCTOR! Antivenin kits (Wyeth Corporation) are avail-
able. Keep a kit available for administration by your Doctor. In
acute emergency Antivenin may be self-administered. If ice is
available, use the Stahnke Ligature-Cryotherapy method as fol-
lows:
1. KEEP THE VICTIM QUIET! Immediately apply a ligature
(constricting band) of strong string, shoe lace, or similar between
the bite and the body, just above the punctures. Tighten only
until first pain is felt. Place a piece of ice on the site. Instead
of ice, Frigiderm or other spray refrigerant may be used. Do not
spray directly on the skin. Cover the site with a thin wet cloth
pad and spray with refrigerant to form ice. Re-spray as required
to maintain an effective ice pack.
2. Prepare a suitable vessel of crushed ice and. water, and
submerge the entire limb to well above the site. USE NO SALT.
3. After about ten minutes remove the ligature. Keep the
limb in ice water for at least two hours. Then,
4. Transfer the limb to a vessel of crushed ice (USE NO
SALT) for a minimum of 24 hours. Several days treatment may
be required for bites of larger snakes. Ice must not be permitted
24
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to melt away from the body surfaces. If the bite is on the torso or
at a point of attachment of limb to body, the entire limb and b9ody
area well above the point of attachment must be packed in ice.
5. Keep the patient comfortably warm during the first 24
hours. Then, until treatment _is_ discontinued, keep the patient
warm to the point of "mild perspiration. This is important to
prevent tissue deterioration. It is also very important that the
patient's fluid intake be greatly increased during treatment.
6. Hypothermia, as this ice treatment is called, must be dis-
continued gradually. This is best done by again placing the mem-
ber in ice water from which the ice has been removed, and per-
mitting both to return gradually to room temperature.
Cut and Suck Method: Recent studies of the "cut and suck"
method are showing that the technique is of doubtful value. Of
about 6,000 persons bitten by poisonous snakes in the U.S. each
year only about 12 die and many of the survivors had no first aid
treatment whatsoever. So, if ice is not available, follow these
simple instructions: Keep the Victim Quiet! Immediately apply
a ligature as in Step 1 above. Bring the doctor to the patient.
If the ''cut and suck" method is deemed necessary, follow the
instructions with the snake bite kit or Red Cross Manual. In any
event, Step 1 above, is very important. To prevent excessive dam-
age to tissues, nerves, and blood vessels, make the longer, deeper
cuts in the direction of the body tissue and the shorter cross
incision at right angles. Depth of cuts will depend on the size
of the snake and the area bitten. Do not hesitate to suck by
mouth. Venom is not a stomach poison, and the amount one
would absorb through sores in the mouth would be insignificant.
To be effective, the incisions must be made immediately after
the bite, and suction applied for an hour or more. C-S employed
one-half hour after the bite has little if any value.
Gila Monster: Our only poisonous lizard; due "to the small
numbers it is protecte-'. by law. Seldom over 20 inches long, with
a beaded black and coral colored skin. They move sluggishly
but can swap ends and snap rapidly. The bite is poisonous (but
the breath is not). The neurotoxic venom is carried from glands
in the lower jaw by grooved teeth. The poison seems to be
an anticoagulant and the wounds bleed freely accompanied by
swelling. Death (extremely rars) results from heart and respira-
tory failure. If bitten, grab the Gila behind the head and yank off.
The teeth are not set in sockets and come out readily. Use L-C
treatment and call a doctor.
Poisonous Insects and Spiders: The potentially lethal species
in this area -are the small Rock or Bark Scorpion, the Black
Widow Spider and the Honey Bee. The Recluse Spider bite re-
sults in serious ulceration. Bites or stings of other species may
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be painful, but /generally are not dangerous except that GREAT
HAZARD OF INFECTION EXISTS IN ALL CASES.
Rock or Bark Scorpion: Small, very slim, light straw colored.
The stinger in the tip of the "tail" injects a minute amount of
powerful venom. Dangerous to small children, the elderly, and
those with high blood pressure, heart or respiratory ailments.
There will be pain at the site, numbness, restlessness, fever,
fast pulse, and breathing difficulty. Healthy adults usually have
little serious reaction.
Black Widow Spider: Shiny black with red hour glass marking
on the abdomen. Found in the dark corners of sheds and out-
buildings, under logs, and in rock piles. Will bite if provoked.
Bite can be dangerous to all ages, but is seldom fatal. Pain spreads
throughout the body, accompanied by headache, dizziness and
nausea. Extremities become cramped, the abdomen becomes rigid,
pupils dilate, and spasms may occur after several hours.
Honey Bees: Honey bee "stingers" are barbed at the tip and
remain in the victim. The venom sacs are torn from the bee's
body and remain attached to the stinger. Pinching the sac will
inject additional venom. Therefore, do not try to pull out stingers
but scrape them out with a knife or other thin edge. There are
more deaths annually from honey bee stings than from all other
poisonous creatures combined. Hypersensitive persons or those
sensitized by previous stings (anaphylaxis) may have fatal re-
actions unless promptly treated medically. The application of
ice to the site within minutes can prevent serious results. Inform
your doctor of your honey bee sting history.
Recluse or Brown Spider: Rare in the desert. Light brown
colored, about Vz inch in length, active at night, Easily identified
by the violin-shaped marking on the "head" and back. The bite
causes local reddening and swelling, and results in an ulcerous
wound extremely difficult to heal.
Tarantula, Giant Hairy Scorpion, Desert Centipede: Not dan-
gerous but may inflict a painful bite or sting. Tarantula may pro-
duce anaphylaxis. Ants, Velvet Ants, Wasps, Hornets: May cause
a painful sting, usually not serious. Application of strong house-
hold ammonia, Mrs. Stewart's liquid household bluing, or ice is
helpful in reducing pain. Conenose Bugs: Bloodsuckers may in-
ject disease-producing organisms.
Vinegaroon, Solpugid, Jerusalem Cricket: Not only harmless
but beneficial to man.
Prevention and Treatment: In places where venomous species
are expected, carefully inspect all clothing and bedding before
use, especially items that have been on or near the ground during
the night. Dampness seems to attract these creatures. During
summer evenings scorpions travel over the desert floor and up
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the branches of trees and bushes looking for food. Bedding on
the ground will provide them with a hiding place toward morn-
ing. If bitten (stung) apply a ligature and ice. DO NOT cut and
suck, Remove the ligature after five minutes. Get to a doctor,
especially if the victim is a child, is elderly, has a bad heart, or
has been'bitten several times or on the main part of the body.
QUICKSAND
Quicksand is a deposit of fine sand in combination with water.
It may have the appearance of smooth dry sand, but the water
underneath lubricates the grains and allows them to flow easily.
There is nothing mysterious about quicksand—it acts as any thick
liquid would, and if we react sensibly we can escape it. Man is
lighter and will float in water, and therefore, quicksand. It has
no power to suck down bodies, but. frantic struggling to free the
feet creates forceful downward movement which causes the sand
first to move away, then quickly return to pack around the legs.
The result is a firmer and deeper hold on the body. Further strug-
gling repeats the process until the body is engulfed completely.
If caught throw yourself flat on your back. You will float. Get
rid of extra weight. Throw your gun and pack off quickly. Don't
hold up your arms—let them rest spread out on the surface. Roll
slowly to firm ground, or turn onto your stomach and do a slow
breaststroke. Move slowly and carefully, and you will "swim" to
safety. Avoid getting caught—look for quicksand in river beds,
washes and run-off areas of recent flash floods.
RABIES (Hydrophobia)
Rabies is a disease of warm-blooded animals. Domestic dogs
and cats, and many desert animals (coyotes, foxes, skunks, go-
phers, rats, bats) can transmit the disease to man by biting. If
a person is bitten by any strange animal, it is'important to cap-
ture and isolate it, if possible. The suspected animal must be
kept in isolation for fourteen days unless death intervenes, in
which case the undamaged head should be sent to the State Lab-
oratory for examination. The victim should get to a doctor as soon
as possible although start of treatment may be delayed for sev-
eral days without danger. Untreated rabies infection is always
fatal. A special warning in regard to bats: Do not pick up or
handle bats as they are believed to be the most common,carriers
and transmitters of the disease.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We are grateful for the assistance
given by the following and others over the years in producing this
manual: Herbert L. Stahnke, Ph.D., former Director, Poisonous
Animals Research Laboratory, and Professor of Zoology, Arizona
State Jniversity; Gordon L. Bender, Ph.D.; Chester L."Leathers,
Ph.D.; Maurice Bradford, Horticulturist; and W H. Earle, Di-
rector, Phoenix Desert Botanical Gardens.
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