Demonstration of Acceptable Systems for
Land Disposal of Sewage Sludge
Ohio Far® Bureau Development Corp., Columbus
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
PE85-208874
May 85
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EPA/600/2-85/062
May 1985
DEMONSTRATION OF ACCEPTABLE SYSTEMS FOR
LAND DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
By
Ohio Farm Bureau Development Corporation
Columbus, Ohio 43216
and
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
Cooperative Agreement No. CS 805189
Project Officer
G. K. Dotson
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This study was conducted in cooperation with the
Toxicology and Microbiology Division,
Health Effects Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
WATER ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA/600/2-85/062
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
PBS 5 2088747AS
». TITLE AND SUBTITLE
DEMONSTRATION OF ACCEPTABLE SYSTEMS FOR LAND
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
5. REPORT DATE
Mav 1985
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Ohio Farm Bureau, Development Corporation
Ohio State University
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Ohio Farm Bur. Dev. Corp. Ohio State University
35 East Chestnut Street 1659 N. High Street
Columbus, Ohio 43216 Columbus, Ohio 43210
1O. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
P.E. CAZB1B D.U.B-113
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO. ,
CS805189
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Water Engineering Research Laboratory--Cin., OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: G. K. Dotson
(513) 684-7661
16. ABSTRACT
The objective was to demonstrate sludge application systems for farmland that
would minimize any adverse effects on the environment and public health, achieve
both urban and rural acceptance, and be generally beneficial for producer and
receptor of the sludge. A comprehensive health effects study of the families
living on sludge-receiving farms was conducted. Health status of residents of 47
sludge-using farms were compared with 46 control farms. Neither incidence of
disease, nor evidence of viral infections differed significantly between sludge-
using and control farms. Neither was the health of livestock found to be
different between the two groups of farms. The sludge was effective in increasing
crop yielc', over yields without sludge or fertilizer.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report I
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
512
JO. SECURITY CLASS (This page/
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION it OBSOLETE
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DISCLAIMER
Although the information described in this document has been funded
wholly or in part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency
through assistance agreement number OS805185 to the Ohio Farm Bureau
Development Corporation, it has not been subjected to the Agency's required
peer and administrative review and therefore does not necessarily reflect
the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred.
11
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ATTENTION
AS NOTED IN THE NTIS ANNOUNCEMENT/ PORTIONS
OF THIS REPORT ARE NOT LEGIBLE, HOWEVER, IT
IS THE BEST REPRODUCTION AVAILABLE FROM THE
COPY SENT TO NTIS,
I/OL,
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with
protecting the Nation's land, air, and water systems. Under a mandate of
national environmental laws, the agency strives to formulate and implement
actions leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the
ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. The Clean Water
Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Toxics Substances Control Act
are three of the major congressional laws that provide the framework for re-
storing and maintaining the integrity of our Nation's water, for preserving
and enhancing the water we drink, and for protecting the environment from
toxic substances. These laws direct the EPA to perform research to
define our environmental problems, measure the impacts, and search for
solutions.
The Water Engineering Research Laboratory is that component of EPA's
Research and Development program concerned with preventing, treating, and
managing municipal and industrial wastewater discharges; establishing prac-
tices to control and remove contaminants from drinking water and to prevent
its deterioration during storage and distribution; and assessing the nature
and controllability of releases of toxic substances to the air, water, and
land from manufacturing processes and subsequent product uses. This publica-
tion is one of the products of that research and provides a vital communica-
tion link between the researcher and the user community.
Potential soil contaminants such c:s wastewater sludge may become bene-
ficial soil amendments when they are properly treated and applied to land.
This project demonstrates systems for managing sewage sludge application to
fann lands and investigates sludge-related health risks to rural residents
and their livestock. The study addresses the concerns of the rural
community and demonstrates that large municipalities can work cooperatively
with large numbers of farmers in a mutually beneficial program.
Francis T. Mayo
Director
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
ill
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PREFACE
Sewage Sludge — a valuable resource that has been mishandled,
misunderstood and mismanaged. The application of sludge on farmland has
been practiced for years in the U.S. Growing concern from farmers and the
public about the sociological, environmental, soil and health risks
associated with land application caused the Ohio Farm Bureau Development
Corporation to initiate research studies that would define the risks and
recommend management, solutions where practical.
Portions of this study were subcontracted to the Ohio State University
Research Foundation and the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center.
Jack K. Rill
Vice President of Operations
Ohio Farm Bureau Development Corporation
iv
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ABSTRACT
This project demonstrates management systems for land application of
sewage sludge that minimize adverse Impacts on the rural community In Ohio.
Also, sludge related health risks to rural residents and their livestock
are Investigated.
The study demonstrated that large municipalities can work with large
numbers of farmers on a cooperative basis In a mutually beneficial program.
A model contract was developed for use by farmers and sludge generators.
The sludge-receiving farms were distributed over a large area so that no
rural residents would be forced to live in the vicinity of a permanent
disposal site. Annual application rates ranged from 4 to 10 dry metric
tons per hectare to permit efficient use of the plant nutrients without
danger of runoff or ground water pollution. Applications were made through-
out the year on privately owned lands used in the production of corn, soy-
beans, hay and wheat. The project was successful in all areas except
Plckaway County, where the board of health issued an injunction against
sludge application.
In support of the management effort, studies were conducted regarding
soil compaction, nitrogen mineralization and volatilization, PCB-amended
sludges, economics of sludge applications, and sludge quality.
The general health of residents from 47 sludge-receiving farms were
compared with residents of 46 control farms. Questionnaires were completed
on human and livestock health. Blood and fecal samples were collected for
microbiological testing. Tuberculin testing was completed. Intensive
observations were made of beef cattle herds on sludge and control farms.
Health risks were not significant when sludge was applied at the low
application' rates of this study using the management systems described here.
The risks of respiratory illness, digestive illness, Infection with
Salmonella, Shigf '.la sp., and Campylobacter sp., and general symptoms of
Illness were not significantly different between sludge and control groups.
Similarly, no significant differences occurred in the health of domestic
animals on sludge and control farms. Fecal Cd levels in humans were not
significantly affected by sludge.
Significantly higher fecal Cd concentrations were detected in cattle,
and significantly higher Cd and Pb accumulations were observed In kidney
tissues of calves grazing on sludge-amended pastures. The potential use of
dietary zinc to reduce the cadmium body burden of food animals was demon-
strated.
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Procedures were developed for viral Isolation from sludge. Serum
neutralization tests were completed for viral Infections. Viral infections
among household members were observed. There was no significant difference
in frequency of viral infections between sludge and control groups.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Cooperative Agreement No.
CS 805189 by^the Ohio Farm Bureau Development Corporatioon under the sponsor-
ship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the
period October 1977 to June 1983, and work was completed as of April 1985.
vi
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CONTENTS
Disclaimer 11
Foreword ill
Preface Iv
Abstract v
Figures vlil
Tables xlll
Acknowledgments 4 xxxlll
Introduction. . . . . 1
Conclusions 2
1. General Description of the Study Areas 6
2. Sludge Application to Cropland Demonstration Sites. ... 19
3. Sociological Effects of Land Application of Sludge. ... 82
4. Soil Compaction with Sludge Application 93
5. Nitrogen Mineralization From Soils Amended
With Sewage Sludges 98
6. Factors Affecting Ammonia Volatilization From
Sevage Sludge Applied to Soil in a Laboratory Study . . 120
7. Soil Degradation and Plant Absorption of PCB from
PCB-Araended Sewage Sludge 145
8. Sewage Sludge Landspreadlng in Ohio Communities:
1980 Perspective 177
9. Economic Considerations in Landspreading Sewage Sludge. . 191
10. Effect of Soil pH on the Extractability of Cadmium
Applied to Different Soils with Different Sludges . . . 210
11. Health Effects of Municipal Sewage Sludge Application
on Ohio Farms 230
12. Epidemiology of Metal Residues and Infections in
Sludge-Exposed Livestock 318
13. Estimation of Cadmium Intake Using Fecal Cadmium
Concentrations 347
14. Ova and Larvae on Pasture Forage After Municipal
Sewage Sludge Application 368
15. Sludge Disposal on Farm Land: An Epidemiologic
Evaluation of the Risk of Infection 376
vll
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FICDBES
NTMBER TITLE PAGE
1-1 Counties in Ohio which were ivolved with the
land application project 7
2-1 Solids content of the six sludges studied 23
2-2 Acidity (pE) of the six sludges studied 24
2-3 Ammonia content of the six sludges studied 25
2-4 Total KJeldahl H content of the six sladgcs studied 26
2-5 Phosphorus content of the six sludges studied 27
2-6 Potassium content of the six sludges studied 28
2-7 Cadmium content of the-" six sludges rtudied 29
2-8 Copper content of the six sludges studied 30
2-9 Nickel content of the six sludges studied 31
2-10 Lead content of the six sludges studied 32
2-11 Zinc content of the six sludges studied 33
2-1.2 Chrondusj content of the six sludges studied 34
2-13 Top view of haul truck for Columbus cake sludge 40
2*14 Haul truck unloading Columbus cake sludge
at application site 40
i
2-15 Front-end loader used to transfer Columbus cake
sludge to applicator vehicle 41
2-16 • Ag-Chea Terragator with custom box used to
•pread Columbus cake sludge 41
2-17 Liquid sludge tank truck used to apply
Medina County sludge 43
2-18 Liquid ssanure spreader and tractor used to
apply Defiance liquid sludge 44
2-19 Liquid sludge tank truck used to apply
Defiance liquid sludge . 44
viii
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NUMBER TIT1JE PAGE
2-20 Tandem axle liquid sludge tank truck used to
supply Springfield liquid sludge 46
2-21 *' Data input form for sludge analysis computer program 67
2-22 Output of sludge analysis computer program 68
®
2-23 Side-thro*? manure spreader used to spread
Columbus cake sludge at OSU Farm Science
Review Research Plots 70
5-1 Cumulative inorganic H mineralized at 25C.
Mahbning soil and Columbus sludge 105
5-2 Cumulative inorganic H mineralized at 25C.
Brookston- soil and Medina 100 sludge 106
5-3 Cumulative inorganic R mineralized at 15C.
Brookston soil and Defiance sludge and
Hoytville soil and Defiance sludge 107
5-4 Cumulative inorganic H mineralized at 25C.
Muekingum soil and low Cd Zanesville sludge and
Muskingum soil and high Cd Zanesville sludge 109
5-5 Cumulative inorganic H mineralized at 25C.
Hoytville soil and Medina 300 sludge and
Muskingum soil and Medina 100 sludge 110
5-6 Cumulative inorganic H mineralised at 15C.
Mahoning soil and Medina 300 sludge end
Crosby soil and Medina 100 sludge 111
6-1 Side view of the volatilisation apparatus 122
6-2 NH3-H volatilised versus sampling period for
sewage sludge applied to soils at 0, 0.01, and
1.5 MPa, end air-dry initial moisture levels 129
6-3 RH3-R volatilized versus sampling period for sludge
incorporated 0.25, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours after
application 132
6-4 NH3~N volatilized versus sampling period for an
Ashland primary lice-stabilized sludge, a Columbus
• anaerobically digested sludge, a composted Columbus
primary sludge, end Medina aerobically digested
sludge, and a dewatered Columbus anaerobically
digested sludge applied to soil • • 135
ix
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NUMBER TITLE PAGE
6-5 HH3-K Volatilized versus sampling period for
sewage sludge containing large sludge particles
applied to a straw-covered soil, a eod, or
bare soil 1*0
7-1 Soil incubation vessel 130
7-2 Radioactive polychlorinated biphenyl and
CC>2 trapping eye teat 151
7-3 1*(X>2 evolution from 1^C-PCB sewage sludge
amended Brooketon soil 157
7-4 1*002 evolution froa l^C-PCB sewage sludge
snded Celine soil 158
7-5 1*C02 evolution from l^C-PCB sewage sludge
ended Brooketon soil 159'
7-6 14C02 evolution from 14C-PCB emended Celina soil 160
7-7 Cumulative C02~C evolved from PCB sewage sludge
esended Brooks ton soil 161
7-8 Cumulative C£>2-C evolved from PCB sevage sludge
amended Celina soil 162
7-9 Volatilization of l^C-PCB and its degradation
products other than ^CO^ froa l^C-PCB sswege
sludge amended Brooks ton soil 164
7-10 Volatilisation of 1^C-PCB and its degradation
products other than ^*Ct>2 from l^C-PCB sewage
sludge amended Celina soil 165
7-11 Volatilisation of C-PCB oud its degradation
products other than 1^CC>2 from l^C-PCB end its
degradation products other than 1*C02 from
amended Brooks ton soil 166
7-12 Volatilisation of !*C-PCB and its degradation
products other than ^CC>2 from l^C-PCB saended
Celina soil 167
7-13 Uptake of -PCB by Kentucky 31 fescue froa
sewage sludge amended Brooks ton soil 170
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HUMBER TITLE PAGE
7-14 v Uptake of ^C-PCB by Kentucky 31 fescue from
14C-PCB sewage sludge amended Celina soil 171
9*1 Computed costs of hauling and spreading sludge
for eotsEonities producing 200-1000 dry tons/year 203
9-2 Computed costs of hauling and spreading sludge
for coffl&onities producing 1000-3000 dry tons/year 204
9-3 Computed costs of hauling and spreading sludge
for communities producing 3000-600w dry tons/year 205
9-4 Computed costs of hauling and spreading sludge
for cosEsmraities producing 6000-10,000 dry
tons/year 206
9-5 Computed costs of hauling and spreading sludge
for coarannities producing 10,000-20,CFOO dry
tons/year 207
10-1 Effects of five sewage sludges applied at a
rate of 11.2 ffit/ha on the pa of a Betmiogton
silt loess soil incubated for 85 days at 24 + 2C 216
10-2 Effects of pE and time on .01 M CaCl2 «xtraetable
Cd of sladge-aasuded unlimed acid soils, Itesd
acid soils and soils with background pS
approximately 6.5 222
10-3 Linear regressioa of .01M CaCl2 estxactable
Cd versus soil pi for all combinations of B
different sludges and 5 different soils 226
11-1 Location of counties with participating
sewage treatment facilities and fanas 251
11-2 Duration of participation of each
sludge receiving fara 252
11-3 Duration of participation of each control fara 253
11-4 Age and sex-specific rate, for all ill1 i®s®s
aaong persons on sludge and control fa m 254
11-5 Age and sex-specific respiratory illness
rates for persons on sludge and control fares 254
v»
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KUMBER TITL2 PAGE
11-6 Age and sex-specific digestive illness rates
for persons on sludge and control faros 255
12-1 Chronology of sludge application and saople
collection during annual herd testing and at
slaughter of cattle front sludge and control
farms activated in the fall 1978 or spring 1979 336
15-1 Flow chart detailing procedure for icolation
of enteric pathogens 413
15-2 Isolation of viruses from sludge 414
15-3 Percentages of human sera vith neutralizing
antibody to 23 enteroviruses. N • 262 sera
tested at a 1(5 dilution 415
15-4 Percentages of human sera with neutralizing
antibody to 6 coxsackie B viruses
according to age • 416
15-5 Percentages of human sera vith neutralizing
antibody to 5 coxsackie A viruses
according to age 417
15-6 Percentages of human eera with neutralizing
anitbody to 12 echoviruses according to age 418
15-7 Incidence of hepatitis A antibody in a faro
population according to age (H • 261) 419
xii
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TABLES
TABLES TITLE PAGE
1-1 Characteristics of the nunicipalities and sewage
treatment plant in the study _ 8
1-2 Characteristics of the sludge ash in the studies 9
1-3 Characteristics of the landspreading studies for
the entire project period 13
1-4 Rates and acres of sludge application on Franklin
and Piekavay County farms 14
1-5 Kates and acres of sludge application on Hedina
County fsras 17
1-6 Bates and acres of sludge application on Clark
County farms Iff
2-1 Ranges and mans of paraaeters for sludges analysed
monthly during 1978-1982 35
2-2 The average available nutrients and their value in
the six sludges studied 37
2-3 Annual cadmiua loadings and allowable sludge
loadings.based on metal accumulations 38
2-4 The ranges and ssans of soil.teat results for farm
fields receiving sludge in the study 49
2-5 Sludge demonstration plots in the Coluabus study
(Franklin, Piekavay and Madison counties) 50
2-6 Sludge deaonstration plots in Medina County 52
2-7 Sludge demonstration plots in Defiance County 53
2-8 Sludge demonstration plots in Clark County 54
2-9 Plant tissue composition of crops grown with
sewage sludge (Coluobus) 55
xiii
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TABLES TITLE PAGE
2-10 Plant tissue composition of crops grown with
sewage eludge (Medina) 57
2-11 V Plant tissue costposition of crops grown with
sewage sludge (Defiance) 60
2-12 Pleat tissue composition of crops grown vita
sewage sludge (Springfield) 61
2-13 Average rates of application of cadmium and zinc
applied with sludge in the demonstration plots
and their effects on Cd and Zn uptake by com
and soybeans 62
2-14 Bray Pi and total metal contents of faro fields
before and after sludge application (Columbus) 63
2-15 Bray PI and total metal contents of farm fields
before and after sludge* application (Medina) 64
2-16 Bray Pi and total metal contents of farm fields
before and after sludge application (Defiance &
Sprinfield) 65
f
2-17 Analysis of the Columbus Jackson Pike anaerobically
digested sewage sludge used in the study 72
2-18 Annual rates of application of H, P,-K and Cd and
cumulative applications of Cd, Co, Hi, Ib and Zn 73
2-19 Crop yields on the sludge plots 75
2-20 Leaf and grain contents of nutrients end heavy
taetal in corn grown with Coluabus sewage eludge
at Fara Science Review 76
2-21 Leaf and grain contents of nutrients and h«evy
netals in wheat and soybeans grown with Coleabus
sewage sludge at Farm Scienoe Review • 78
2-22 Soil pB and nutrient and raetal contents of soil by
year after traetiaent with Coluabos sewage sludge
at Farm Science Review 79
4-1 Factors related to soil compaction on three
• fares studied 94
5-1 Properties of the soils used in the
mineralization study ' * 99
xiv
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TABLES TITLE PAGE
5-2 Properties of sludges used in the 25 C
incubation study 100
5-3 Properties of sludges used in the 15 C
incubation pH and Cd studies 101
5-4 Hitrogen mineralisation rate and emulative
(8 week) H mineralisation incubated At 25 C 103
5-5 Hitrogen mineralisation averages of duplicate
treatments incubated eight weeks at 15 C 104
5-6 Average H mineralization rates for sludges
iucubatstd at 25 and 15 C 112
5-7 Average cumulative N mineralisation for
sludges incubated at 25 and 15 C 112
5-8 Percent sludge organic N mineralized in 8 weeks 113
5-9 Average N mineralisation rates for soils based
on sludges where N mineralization rate exceeded
control H mineralization rate 115
5-10 Average cumulative H mineralization for soils
based on sludges where H mineralisation exceeded
control 115
5-11 Effect of soil pH and sludge cadmium
concentration on S mineralization . 117
6-1 Sludge treeteant and RHj-B and eolids content of
the sewage sludges studied in experissant 4 125
6-2 A stsmary of the 183.$ volatilization experiment* 127
6-3 HH3-N volatilised as percent of HH^-K applied aad
tests of significance for sewage sludge applied
to soils at 0, 0.01, and 1.5 MPA end 3.1 MPA
(air-dry) initial ooisture levels 130
6-4 HH3~R volatilised as percent of KH3~H applied and
tests of significance for savage sludge incorporated
in soil at .25, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours after
application 133
6-5 KH3-H volatilized as percent of HHj-H applied and
tests of significance for sewage sludge applied to
soil pHs of 5.1, 6.7, and 7.5 133
xv
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TABLES TITLE PAGE
6-6 HH3-N volatilized as percent HE3-N applied end
tests of significance for a Columbus anaerobically
digested sludge, a dewatered Columbus aaaerobically
digested sludge, a Medina anaerobically digested
sludge, a composted Colutstbus primary sludge 136
6-7 HH3~B volatilised as percent of HH3-H applied and
tests of significance for sewage sludge applied
to soils at tesperatures of 12.8, 18.3 end 26.7 138
6-8 HH3-H volatilized as percent HH3-N applied and
tests of significance for sewage sludge applied to
soils wit* vegetative cover (wheat straw or sod)
and a bare soil 141
7-1 Selected physical and chemical properties of
experimental soils 146
7-2 Chemical analysis of Columbus Jackson Pike
sewage sludge 147
7-3 Blodegradation of ^C-PCB in Celina and Brooke ton
soils when added with and without sewage sludge
during 16 week period 168
7-4 . Cumulative uptake of ^C-PCB by Kentucky 31 fescue
froa ^C-PCB sewage sludge ecsended Celina and
Brookston soil 172
7-5 Leaf absorption of C-2CZ by Kentucky 31 fescue
froa foliar application of ^C-PCB sewage sludge 173
8-1 Sludge treatment plant characteristics for 56
Ohio landspreading eomasunitieo , 1980 180
8-2 Sludge characteristics for 56 Ohio landspreading
1980 180
8-3 Annual sludge application rates i nutrient and
heavy netal loadings for 56 Ohio landspreading
coaasunities, 1980 181
8-4 Regression analysis results for Ohio coraounity
owned and contract hauler systems, 1980 184
8-5 Landepreading cost estimates by assmmt of
annual sludge production, Ohio 1980 185
xvi
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TABLES TITLE PACE
8-6 Sludge analysis programs conducted by Ohio
coamanities, 1980 187
V
8-7 Soil testing at landspreading eite and monitoring
of landspresding site, Ohio landepreading
coaaunities, 1980 188
w
8-3 Ownership of landspreading sites 188
9-1 Costs of sludge processing end disposal, by
disposal aetbod and treatment plant size 194
9-2 Comparative costs for various sludge disposal
processes (1976 dollars) 196
9-3 Potential value of nutrients in one dry ton
of sewage sludge 198
9-4 Cost assumptions for tire' alternative technologies" 201
9-5 Tiae requirements for alternative
landspreading technologies 202
10-1 Selected characteristics of surface plow layer
(0-15 OB) of sis Ohio soils 211
10-2 Characteristics of sewage sludges froa five
Ohio sewage treatment plants • 213
10-3 Magnitude of pi change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 35 days using « Beonington Silt Loam
soil (unlisted) and five sewage sludges 218
10-4 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Kokomp Silty CJ*ay
Loaa soil and five sewage sludges • 218
10-5 Magnitude of pH change of five Boil/sludg* mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Hoytville Clay Loea
soil end five sewage sludges 219
10-6 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Mahoning Silt Loaa
•oil end five eewege sludges 219
-i
10-7 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Misaiea silt loam soil
and five sewage sludges 220
xvii
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TABLES TITLE PACE
10-8 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Spinks fine sand soil
and five sewage elodges 220
10-9 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days using a Bennington silt loam
soil (lisrad) and five sewage sludges 221
10-10 Magnitude of pH change of five soil/sludge mixtures
incubated for 85 days ueing a Mahoning silt loam
diced) and five sewage sludges 221
10-11 Effect of various sludge/soil mixtures on average
extractable cadmium during an 85 day incubation
period 223
10-12 Effect of incubation time on cadmium availability
for sewage sludge amended, limed acid soils,
unlix&ed acid soils, and soils with a background
pH of approximately 6.5 225
10-13 Relationship between average cadmium added to
eight soils in five different sewage sludges and
extractable cadmium after an 85 day incubation
period at room temperature 225
11-1 Kuraber of fanas and participants in sludge and
control groups by years of participation and
all counties 256
11-2 Busbar of fersss and participants in sludge and
control groups by years of participation,
Medina County 256
11-3 . Nussber of farms and participants in sludge and
control groups by years of participation, Franklin
and Picksway counties 257
11-4 "Number of faros and participants in sludge and
control groups by years of participation, Clark
County 257
11-5 Distribution of population in sludge and control
groups by age and sex, all counties . 258
11-6 Distribution of population in sludge and control
groups by age and sex, Medina County 259
xviii
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261
TABLES TITLE PACE
11-7 Distribution of population in sludge and
control groups by age and sex, Franklin and
Pickavay counties 260
11-8 Distribution of population in sludge and
control groups by age and sex, Clark County
11-9 Distribution of total rural farm population
by age and ses (1970 census) all counties 262
11-10 Distribution of total rural farm population
by age and eez (1970 census) Medina County 263
11-11 Distribution of total rural faro population
by age and eex (1970 census) Franklin end
Picketray counties 264
11-12 Distribution of total rural farm population
by age and sex (1970 census) Clark county 265
11-13 Number of persons oil «acb farm or in each
family of the sludge receiving and control
groups, all comities 266
11-14 Nosber of persons on each farm or in each
family of the sludge receiving and control
groups, Medina County 266
11-15 Huaber of persons on each fara or in each
fenily of the sludge receiving and control
groups, Pranklia and Pickowey counties 267
11-16 Htmber of persons on each farm or in «ach
family of the sludge receiving and control
groups, Clark County 267
11-17 Distribution of study populations by sex end
cigarette seoking status at the tiise of final
interview, all counties 268
11-18 Disease and iEs&mication history of persons in
sludge and control groups at the tise of
initial interview, all counties 269
11-19 Disease and iaonnieation history of persons in
sludge and control groups at the tima of
initial interview, Medina County 270
xlx
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TABLES TITLE PACE
11-20 Disease and iaaaunization history of persons in
sludge and control groups at the tirae of initial
interview, Franklin and Pickavay counties 271
V
11-21 Disease and immunization history of persona in
sludge and control groups at the time of initial
interview, Clark County 272
11-22 Seasonal on-and-off-fara work profiles of
control and sludge populations in all counties 273
11-23 Seasonal on-and-off-farm work profiles of
control and sludge populations in Medina County 274
11-24 Seasonal on-and-off-fara work profiles of control
and sludge populations in Franklin & Pickavay 275
11-25 Seasonal on-and-off-farra work profiles of control
and sludge populations in Clark County 276
11-26 Comparison of aaount of hone produced food
consumed by sludge and control populations
in all counties by season 277
11-27 Comparison of amount of horns produced food
consumed by sludge and control populations
in Medina County by season 277
11-28 Comparison of amount of horns produced food
consumed by aludge and control populations
in Franklin-Piekavay counties by season 278
11-29 Comparison of ffiaauat of hoasa produced food
consumed by sludge and control populations
in Clark County by aeason 278.,
11-30 Suaaary of tuberculin tests for sludge end
control groups by sludge application period,
all counties 279
11-31 Suanary fo tuberculin tests for sludge and '
control groups by sludge application period,
Medina County 280
11-32 Suanary of tuberculin tests for sludge and
; control groups by sludge application period,
Franklin and Pickavay counties 281
xx
-------
TABLES . TITLB PAGE
11*33 Stannary of tuberculin tests for sludge and
control groups by sludge application period,
Clark County 282
11-34 Human illness rates on sludge and control
fame, by county 283
11-35 Human illness rates for selected symptom*
in sludge and control farms, all counties 284
11-36 Human illness rates for eelected symptoms
in sludge and control farms, Median County 285
11-37 Human illnees rates for selected symptoms
in sludge and control fares, Franklin and
Pickavay counties 286
11-38 Human illness rates for selected symptoms
in sludge and control farm, Clark County 287
11-39 Hatched pair linear logistic regression analysis
of single and combined symptoms between sludge
and control farms, first sludge application 288
11-40 Hatched pair linear logistic regression analysis
of single and combined symptoms between sludge
and control farms, second sludge application 289
11-41 Comparison of the frequency of reported new
ilnaeeses and selected symptoms for persons
in sludge sad control groups for 7 week
pre-sludge application and 7 week post-sludge
application periods following «ech sludge
application, all counties 2.90
11-42 Comparison of the frequency of reported new
illnesses and selected symptoms for persons
in sludge and control groups for 7 week
pre-sludge application and 7 week post-sludge
application periods following each sludge
application, Medina County 291
11-43 Comparison of the frequency of reported new
illnesses and selected symptoms for persona
in eludge and control groups for 7 week
pre-sludge application and 7 week peat-sludge
application periods following -ach sludge
application, Franklin and Pickavay counties 292
xxi ,.
-------
TABLES TITLE PAGE
11-44 Comparison of the frequency of reported new
Illnesses and selected symptoms for pers-ras
in sludge and control groups for 7 week
pire-sludge application and 7 week post-sludge
application periods following each sludge
application, Clark County 293
11-45 Human illness rates and number of hours of
sludge exposure per week 294
11-46 Seroconverslons to cozsackie A(CA), coxsackie
B (CB) and echo (EC) virus antigens, associated
symptom end physician visits among sludge and
control ferra residents 295
11-47 Severity of coxsackie A (CA) and coxsackie B
(CB) and echo (EC) virus infections among sludge
and control farm residents during the sludge
application period 295
11-48 Comparison of the number of animals and aniieal
units and their risk periods between sludge and
control farms by species and type of operations,
all counties 296
11-49 Comparison of the number of animals and animal
units and their risk periods between sludge and
control farms by species and type of operation,
Medina County 297
11-50 Comparison of the number of animals end animal
units end their risk periods between sludge and
control farms by species and type of operation,
Franklin and Pickawsy counties 298;
11-51 CoMBparison of the number of sniiaals and enioal
units and their risk periods between sludge and
control farms by species and type of operation,
Clark County 299
11-52 Comparison of duration of tisse spent on field,
du-ation of sludge exposure, and consumption of
hose grown feed in animals living on sludge and
control farms, all couatiea 300
xxii
-------
TABLES TITLE PAGE
11-53 Comparison of duration of time spent on field,
duration of sludge exposure, and consumption of
V bone grown feed in animals living on sludge and
control farms, Mediua County 301
11-54 Comparison of duration of time spent on field,
duration of sludge exposure, and consumption of
hone grown feed in animals living on sludge and
control farms, Franklin and Pickovay counties 302
11-55 Comparison of duration of time spent on field,
duration of sludge exposure, and consueption of
house grown feed in animals living on sludge and
control farms, Clark County 303
11-56 Comparison of illness rates for selected signs
of illness in sludge and control groups in all
counties for all bovine 304
11-57 Comparison of aninal illness rates and incidence
races for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Medina County for all
bovine 304
11-58 Comparison of animal Illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Franklin and Piekasmty
counties for all bovine 305
11-59 Comparison of animal illoess rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Clark County for All
bovine 305
11-60 Comparison of illness rates for selected signs
of illness in sludge and control groups in all
counties for all procine 306
11-61 Comparison of eniaal illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Medina County for all
porcine 306
•v-
11-62 Comparison of animal illness rates and incidence
i rates for selected signs of illness in sludge and
control groups in Franklin end Pickavay counties
for all porcine 307
xxiii
-------
TABLES TITLE PAGE
11*63 Cooparison of aninal illness rates sad
incidence rates for selected signs of illness
in e lodge and control group* in Clark County for
porcine 307
11-64 Cearperisen of illness rates for selected signs
of illness in sludge sad control groups £a all
counties for All ovine 303
11-65 Comparison of animal illness rates and lncidoa.ee
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups la Kadiaa County for all
ovine 303
11-66 Comparison of animal illness rates aad incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups In Pranklin-Pickasrey counties
for all ovina- 309
11-67 Conparisoa of anisal illssss rates -and incidences
rates for selected signs of ilinees In sludge
and control groups in Clark County for all
ovine 309
11-68 Comparison of illness rates for selected signs
of Illness ia sludge and control groups in. all
counties for all «quioe 310
11-69 Co9Bparis~tt of animal illness rates &nd lacidssas®
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Medina County for all
equine 310
11-70 Comparison of anisal illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs «f illness in sludge
and control groups in Fra&klin-Pickcvsy counties
for all eqniae 311
11-71 Coaparlsem of eniaal xllness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups In Clark County for All
«qnlne 311
11-72 Comparison of illness rates for selected sigaa
of illness in sludge anad control groups in all
counties for all avian 312
xxiv
-------
TABU TITUS
11-73 Comparison of anisal illness rates and incidence
V rates for selected sigrs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Medina County of all
aviaa 312
©
11-74 Co&parisen of sniscl illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in elodge
and control groups in Franklin and Pickesray
cmmti*8 for all cvi&n 313
11-75 Coaparleon of aaissal illness rates -and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in alodge
and control groups in Clark County for all
avian 313
11-76 Co@pari.son of illness rates for selected signs
of illness in sludge and control groups in all
counties for dog® 31A
11-77 Comparison of animal illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Medina County for all
dogs 314
11-78 Comparison of animal illness rates end incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in alodge
and control groups in Pranklin-Pickavay
counties for all dogs 315
11-79 CeBpari&on of animal illness ret®a and incidence
rates fcr selected signs of illa®s8 in slsdge
a&d eeatrol groups in Clark County for all dogs 315
11-80 SaeBpartaaa of illness rates for selected sigaa
of illastss in slttdge and control groups in all
counties for cats 316
11-81 Comparison of anisal illness ratee msd iceidence
rate* for selected signs of illness in aludge
and control groups in Msdiaa County for all
cats 316
11-82 Comparison of snimal illness rates and incidence
7 rates for selected signs of iilmas in sledge
and eon&rol groups in Franklin end Piefce&sy
counties for all cats 317
XXV
-------
TABLES TITLE
11-83 Coaparison of anisal illness rates and incidence
rates for selected signs of illness in sludge
and control groups in Clark County for all eats 317
12-1 Annual caudal fold tuberculin testing of cattle
and calves on sludge and control farm 337
12-2 Cervical test response to boviaa tuberculin
in calves froa sludge and control fares 337
12-3 Salmonella isolations in fecee frost animals of
sludge and control farms before sludge (ES)
and after sludge (AS) application 337
12-4 fialaoaella sp- isolations froa tnsssan and anissal
fecal sasples on sludge and control £«ra& end
their relationship with the chronology of
Salmonella sp isolations froa aews&a sludge. 333
12-5 Comparison of nsssbere of selected parasite ova
in fecel «araples of cattle from sludge and
Batching control farm at the indicated
intervals, all farm 338
12-6 Detection limits of various heavy ssstels ia
s«nz^>l
-------
TABLES TXTIZ PAGE
12-13 Heavy metal concentrations in calf kidneys
from sludge And control farms 342
12-14 Heavy ostal concentration* ia cow kidneys
fro® a lodge and control farse . 342
12-15 Heavy aetal concentrations in calf eoscle
froza elodge and control foras 343
•12-16 Heavy setal concentrations in cov muscle
frost 8 lodge ead control fares 343
12-17 Heavy octal concentrations in calf bone
from s lodge end control farsss 344
1-218 Heavy seta! concentrations in coir bone
froa slodge and control farms 344
12-19 Heavy ratal concentration* in calf hair
froa slodge and control farms by period
in respect to slodge exposure 345
12-20 Heavy setal concentrations in cow hair
frosa e lodge and control f&rm 345
12-21 Heavy stetal eonceaeratio&s in calf blood
from slodge and control ferns 346
12-22 Heavy aetal concentrations in cov blood
frea sludge and control fares 346
13-1 Estimation of ssa*a total eadeitia intake in
control and «lodge receiving farsn participants
by age-Bex groups in all eetsnties 358
13-2 Bstiffiation of raeaa total cadasiofa intake in
control and elodge receiving farm participants
by age-sex groups in Medina County 359
13-3 Estimation of SKIEB total cadmioa intake in
control and slodge receiving fara participants
by age-ses groups ic Fra&klin-Pickevay eooaties 360
13-4 Estimation of v&ssn total eadaioa intake ia
control end slodge receiving fara participants
by age-sez groups ia Clark County 361
13-5 Daily fecal ^sights and cadsd.ua intake ia
specific age-sex groups ia slodge-esposad
and control participants, all counties 362
xrvii
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TABLE TITLE PASS
13-6 v Daily fecal weight* end cadaiua intake in *
specific age-sex groups in elndge-espoaed
and control participants, Hedina Coonty 362
C!
13-7 Daily £ec«l weights and eadaiua intake in
specific ege-e&x groups in sludge-exposed and
control participants, Franklin-;' ickssrsy comities 363
13-8 Daily fecal wsights and eadssiua int&ke in
specific age-sex groups in sludge-exposed
and control participants* Clark Cmrnty 363
13-9 Fecal eadmisaa concentration, fecal weight end
daily eadsstaa intake for eaoker and ams-eaakare
on sludge and control fares, all counties 364
13-10 Fecal esdaiua concentration, fecal weight
daily cadsiraa intake for smokers and non-essoliera
on sludge and control farms, Medina County 365
13-11 Fecal eadsd.ua concentration, fecal weight end
daily eadaitm intake for sssokers and non-s&s&kers
on sludge and control faros, Franklin &nd
Plckavay cmmtiee 366
13-12 Fecal ca&Bias concentration, fecal weight and
daily e«dsitm intake for ®s©kcrs snd no
on eladge end control fanss, Clark County 366
13-13 fielationehip between slndge-esposnre and
CAdmioa intak in participants froa
•lodge-receiving fares, all eoeatiee 367
13-14 EatiaEffitlon of
grazing slndge-aaended pastures 367
14-1 fiesnlts of parasitologic esaaination of forag«
•eoples collected froa sladge treated and
control pastures, Fara Mo. 4018 374
14-2 Resulta of pmrfisitologic «ssaslnation of
forage saasplcs collected froa sludge tre«t@d
, and control pastures, Para Ho. 4017 374
14-3 Besults of pcrasitologie «S£%isation of
forage ssasplee collected frsia sludge treated
and control pastures, Frss Ho. 3005 375
xxviii
-------
TAB12S
14-4
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
15-6
15-7
15-8
15-9
15-10
15-11
15-12
15-13
15-14
15-15
Tins
Emeber of parasitic end f re*- living lerv&e
exs®in®d in sliejuota of forage samples
collected £roa sludge treated sad control
pastures during all sampling period*.
SalsfflEellc® recovery - seeded alutfge frcas
Colu@bus plant
Salmonella recovery - seeded sludge from
Colussbias plant
tialffiosell®® recovery - seeded sludge from
Madiaa 500 plant
Salmons ll&e recovery - seeded sludge frera
Springfield plant
Media which yielded the recover? of Sfilssmsllse
sp. frea sludge and human specimens
Ces^yl&Wcter recover - seeded sludge fros
Medina 300 plent
Cos^ylobaeter recovery - eeeded sludge fresa
Badina 5GO plaat
*
Caispylobaeter recovery - seeded sludge froa
Columims plant
Caapylefeaetsis: recovery - seeded sludge fr@at
Springfield plant
8stesa®il®s isolatiosss £rea sludge by «uar£®r
«&d yfesr for the Madia* 300, 500 sad
Springfield plant
S*l®c?s3«lles isolations by quarter and year
for thts ColasjSwts pleat
Suaasry of salsoaellee isolations by site
SalssOBsllae esrotypes isolated froa all sitos
Salsoaellee isolation by quarters
SalaKmellae isolations from Colesbus
?ACS
375
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
sludge by quarters 434
xxix
-------
TABLES
15-16
15-17
15-18
15-19
15-20
15-21
TZT1&
Distribution of HICs for Salssonallae isolated
froa sludge
Multiple resistance to antibiotics itr
SalsKm&Ilae isolated froa sludge
Isolation of Sal@onellae froa buaean stool
speciaeaa 1973-82
Subjects with agglutinating antibodies to
Sal&oaella eerotypes
Conversion &ad rises .
Esszsplee of family patterns of antibodies
PAGS
435
437
436
439
to Salssoaellfi 0 antigens 440
15-22 Stool saapl&e eseaiced for ov* aad parasites
according to year of study, loeatios' ^aau
study status 441
15-23 Ova and parasites found in sludge according
to year and source . 442
15-24 Viruses end cell cultures ttjed. in seraa
niero-neutraiisaticm test® 442
15-25 Identities of ©nteric viroses and freqwmey
of isolstion froa sludge sssspTL&» 444
15-26 Multiple viral isolates froa 30 1000 sludge sffisplas 445
15-27 Zdcstities of «nterie vircees and fraqsssacy of
isolation frea sludge eaoples - ££sdiaa
treatssst pleat
15-28 Multiple viral isolates frea 15 £500 sludge gg&ples 447
15-29 Identities of anterie viruses snd freqa«acy of
isolation £ros sludge cables - Colasab«s treatm&t
plent 443
15-30 Multiple viral isolates froa 28 Cclurabus sludge
449
15-31 Identities of enteric viruses and frequency of
isolation froa sludge aa&ples - Springfield plest 450
xxx
-------
TABLES TITLE PAGE
15-32 Multiple viral isolate* from 8 Springfield
y » lodge sasples
15-33 Frequency of single, double aad triple viral
isolations froa all sludge samples (n • 307) 452
15-34 SusBBsry of viral isolations froa all
sludge staples 453
15-35 Frequency of viral isolations from all sludge
tested (a « 307) according to cell culture 454
15-36 Susssry of all viruses isolated frca sludge
according to cell culture systeoKe) 455
15-37 Seasonal effects on viral isolation rates frees
sludge Medina 500 plant (no positive/no, tested) 456
15-38 Seasos&l effects of viral isolation rate's froa
sludge Coltrabus plant (no. positive/no, tested) 457
15-39 Seasonal effects on viral isolation rates from
sludge Srpiogfietld plant (no. positive/po. tested) 458
15-40 Frequency end identifications of viral Isolates
fro® stool sasalas (n « 1*743) according to
study status end source of eludge 459
15-41 Observed frequency table of any virus isolated
fren a subject at anytime during study 460
15-42 Corporative analysis of the auaber of susceptible
subjects la «ludge and control groups 461
15-43 Serua neutralising antibody rises detected in all
subjects during the course of the study 462
15-44 Frequency distribution of 124 neutralising
antibody rises e&ong 67 subjects - 467
15-45 Distribution of 124 neutralizing antibody rises in
67 subjects according to vires 468
15-46 Matched pair logistic regression analysis of
fourfold increases in antibody titsr to any of
23 viral antigens within 6 months of first
sludge application 469
xxx i
-------
TABLES TITLE PAGE
/
15-47 Hatched pair logistic regression Analysis of
fourfold increases la antibody titer to any of
23 viral antigens within 6 aontha of second
Cludge application- 470
15-48 Hatched pair logistic regression analysis of
fourfold increases in antibody titer to asy ef
23 viral antigens at any ttea batwen first
•lodge application and end of project 471
15-49 Antibody rises in Hatched fara pair*
following the first application of eltadge 472
15-50 Percent of 262 individuals with oautrallsiag
antibody to 23 eatercviru&ets by age 473
15-51 Spread of virus in house holds with
susceptible individuals 474
xxxii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr. Rupert Herd and Dr. Charles Cortney,
Department of Pathobiology, Ohio State University, for their assistance in
identifying the ova sad larvae. The participating farm faailies from
Medina, Franklin, Piekewsy and Clark counties for their cooperstion during
these studies. The enthusiastic support of r&e various county Cooperative
Extension Service persona*! and the Ohio Jr.su. Bureau Federation are also
acknowledged. We also wish to thank Mrs. Veronica Dickey for tistely
collection of fecal samples from participants.
xxxiii
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INTRODUCTION
The'application of sewage sludge to fare lands ia cosaaonly practiced
throughout the United States. The Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 and the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 has
placed considerable emphasis upon this naathod of sludge disposal. The
potential to convert this waste material into a useful fertiliser has appeal
to all vho are interested in conservation of our natural resource®.
The management of the application of sewage sludge on farm lands in Ohio
has most generally been conducted in a satisfactory manner. However, over
the years there have been incidents which have had negative isspsete upon the
rural cooaamity. In the n«ne of emergencies at the sewage plant very
odorous sludges have been applied to land in an unsatiefactory manner. At
least one Ohio farmer had unknowingly received sludge which contained
excessive levels of heavy tsatalc. Sosse sludge haulers etill do not
appreciate the need for care that sludge is not spilled from trucks along
the highway. Soiae sludge generators would still prefer to acquire land
through emir cat domain for the establishment of a dedicated sludge disposal
farm. Fortunately these are rare exceptions in Ohio's experience regarding
land application of sludge. t
The concern over these potential problem and health risks associated
with the application of sludge to land are etill real issues for many Ohio
farmers. As recipients of the aladge on their land or in their
neighborhoods Ohio farmers are deeply involved. The Ohio Farm Bureau
Federation which ia a membership organisation representing 98,000 Ohio farm
families has been involved in the resolution of aozae conflicts between
•ludge generators and farmers. The membership of the Ohio Farm* Bureau
Federation hava also repeatedly voted to sponsor or seek support for a
project which would dessonstrtre management systems which give due
consideration to the conesras of the rural coraramity and which would sore
clearly define the health risks to the rural consstnity sod their livestock.
The Ohio Farm Bureau Federation would like to express its appreciation
to the United States Environmental Protection Agency for its support of this
project which is so important to Ohio farmers and favasre throughout the
United States.
-------
CONCLUSIONS
A major objective was to define and demonstrate management systems for
application of sludge to fare lands, which would minimise the adverse
impacts on the rural eorasamity. The key factors in management of land
application of sewage sludge on privately owned farm land are &s followst
A. The involvement of a large nuaber of fathers and application sites
so that the general public will not identify a particular farm or
neighborhood as the sludge disposal site.
B. Public meetings, consultation with corasunlty leaders, field days,
etc., to make the public fully aware of the ec^pe, objectives, and safety of
the program. The residents of Ohio were generally supportive of the concept
of applying sludge to farm land as long as there was a considered management
approach which minimised odor problems, avoided nuisance situations in the
transport and handling of the sludge, and maintained the metal content of
the sludge at reasonable levels.
C. Low application rates which provide sufficient sludge for either the
nitrogen or phosphorus requirement* of crops. This concept is readily
accepted by the public. It provides for efficient utilization of the plant
nutrients of the sludge. It also minimizes the potential for surface runoff
and ground water pollution since the level of nutrients applied are
comparable to fertilizer applications on non-sludge treated land. It
minimizes the possibility of damages resulting from the application of
unwanted raetala or organice to land resulting frca the unlikely failure of
the program for monitoring the quality of the sludge.
D. The development of & rapport between the people involved in
spreading the sludge and the farmers who receive the sludge. A management
program requires sosBaoae versed in agronosiy to serve as a liaison between
farmers and the sludge generator. This individual would discuss with the
farmer the outrieat value of the specific loads of sludge to be received.
Be would also present end discuss monitoring data oc the heavy metal content
of the sludge. He trould present a contract to farmers which would define
the working relationship betwfen the farmer and sludge generator. In
general he would try to trouble shoot and maintain a good relationship
between farmers and sludge generators.
E. Careful monitoring of the quality of the sludge and care to produce
a well stabilized, odor free sludge. Odorous sludges do arise when sewage
plants Are not functioning properly. The disposal of such sludges on the
land must not be considered to be A necessary emergency procedure, which the
public scust simply Accept. A plan for eneh situations should be worked out
ahead of tlxts. At a minimus odorous sludges should be incorporated into the
soil as they «r« applied to the land.
-------
As long as these practices were followed carefully we were able to
maintain a good relationship between farmers and cities of a few thousand
people to major metropolitan areas such as Columbus, Ohio. Large volumes of
sludge were applied to the lend at low application rates with very few
complaints about the operation froa the public.
Problems were encountered when the City of Columbus applied a very
odorous sludge to farms in Pickaway County. This was considered to be an
emergency effort by Columbus officials and was not conducted as a portion of
our project. Unfortunately there was a breakwvwn in cosmeunications between
the project staff and the city regarding this application. The end result
was an injunction by the ?ickaway County Board of Health against all land
application of Columbus sludge within Pickaway County. The only conclusion
to be drawn froa this experience is that application of odorous sludges to
the land requires very careful planning. The only acceptable approach is to
incorporate the sludge as it is applied to. the land.
The second major objective was to evaluate health risks to rural
residents and their livestock resulting from the application of sludge to
crop land. We all encounter exposure to germs and viruses as we associate
with other people during our daily lives. The objective of this study was
to determine if the presence of sludge on land in the rural community would
increase the risk of disease above the risks associated with our daily
living. Literature reviews of the risk of disease associated with sewage
sludges are presented in sections 11 and 15.
It was concluded that health risks were not significant when sludge is
applied at the low application rates of this study and using the raanaga^ent
systems of this study. The risks of respiratory illness, digestive illness,
Salraonellae, exposure to ShAgellae sp. and Carapylobaeter sp. or general
symptoms were not significantly different between sludge and control
groups. Similarly there were no significant differences in the health of
domestic animals on sludge and control fanes. Viral infections among
household members were observed. There was no significant difference in
frequency of viral infections between sludge and control groups. Fecal Cd
levels in humans were not significantly affected by the exposure of rural
residents to sewage sludges.
Agronomic studies were conducted to support and evaluate the land
application program. Field plots were maintained to demonstrate that crop
yield response to sludge, stetal accumulation in soils and metal accuioulation
in plant tissue under Ohio conditions were typical of results reported in
the literature. This information was used in educational programs for the
public and also for sanitary engineers, public health officials and other
interested professionals.
-------
The metal content of six sludges were aonitored o\ : a period of three
to four yeara. Sludge samples vere collected on a daily basis and analysis
was performed on a monthly composite. These Analyses vere considered
sufficient for monitoring the quantities of aetals vhich slight be applied to
soils. Compositions were reasonably steady throughout this t±s& period.
Abrupt changes were only observed when sewage plant modifications were
started up or when industrial pretreatment programs were initiated.
Soil compaction studies were conducted in the Medina project to evaluate
the possible damage to soil structure resuiting from the travel of
application vehicles through fields. This issue require* further study
since it was only feasible for us to observe compaction effects resulting
from one type of application vehicle on one soil type. Also the application
rates in the Medina area were held fairly low, requiring only one or two
passes of the application vehicle to provide the total annual application.
As an overall conclusion it appeared that soil compaction due to the sludge
application equipment was not of great concern under the conditions of the
Medina project.
Laboratory studies of nitrogen mineralisation and asimanla volatilization
losses from soils amended with sewage were conducted with & number of Ohio
sludges. It was concluded that nitrogen mineralization of sludge in soils
was extremely variable depending upon the sludge and field conditions. The
mineralisation rate of Z'J percent when sludge was first applied to the land
was used in our agronomic recossaendations.
A number of parameters which influence ths volatilization of arasonia
from sludge aaendad soils was investigated. The most important observation
relating to our management approach was that essacraia is quickly lost when
sludges are applied to soil surfaces. In this project sludges were applied.
to the surface of soils and often remained on the surface for a week to a
couple of months prior to incorporation into the soil. It was generally
assumed that ssoet of the ammonia nitrogen was lost. Such losses cannot be
avoided when applications are toed® to hay and pasture lands and on fields
which support application equipment but are not in a suitable condition for
tillage at the time of the application.
A laboratory investigation of the factors affecting aoll degradation and
plant absorption of FOB from PC8 amended sewage sludge was conducted. The
sludges used in this demons tret ion were not contaminated with PCB. Yet
there is always concern regarding the possibility that PCB would reach the
land as a result of the application of sewage sludge. It wan observed that
PCB was resistant to biodegradation in soils. Volatilisation from soils was
decreased by the organic component of soils. Uptake of PCB by Kentucky 31
fescue was very limited. The possibility of PCB and other toxic organics
reaching crop land la an issue of concern to farmers who receive sludge.
More research la needed regarding the hazards associated with the presence
of these materials in the soil. Less expensive and sore reliable isethods
for monitoring the presence of toxic organics in sludge is also needed.
-------
A survey of the state of the -art of lead application of sledge In Ohio
va» completed. A total of 56 lacdapreadlng conramities were identified la
Ohio. The qoality of load spreading progress in Ohio has been improved
substantially over the past five years. Coaammities are sore avar* of the
contents of their sludges and bpre&d it in A aore judicious
An economic eoe lysis of land spreading of sludge wae completed. The
analysis was prepared in a cosputer format 00 that the specific conditions
of a gives coaasmity COB Id be quickly evaluated. Landepreading of sludge is
an econossic ssathod of disposal for moat Ohio cosssoaitiea.
The effect of soil p3 on the extractability of Cd vas observed for
several Ohio soils end slndges in laboratory studies. The aaoveaasnt of Cd
froa sludge treated soils into the food chain is a concern. The
extractebility of Cd in 8 lodge aseasded soils increased dramatically &a the
pE of the systea dropped below 6.0.
-------
SECTION 1
GEKER&L DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY
Terry J. Logan, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
C. Richard Tk>rn, D.V.M., M.P.S.
Chada S. Reddy, B.V.Sc., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
SELECTION OF STUDY SITES AKD TREATMENT PLANT CHARACTERISTICS
When this project was first envisioned, the objective was to
demonstrate and study optimum land application sethods with systems that
•varied with regard to: type of sewage treatment, size of cosmmity,
soils end cropping practices. These factors were used to screen
potential candidates ®nd a number were further investigated as to their
willingness to participate. ' The original sites selected were City of
Columbus, Medina County, City of Defiance sod City of Zanesville.
Zanesville was dropped from the project after one year because its
sludge contained cedmiusa at concentrations between .200-400 Ug/g, too
high to be considered for a successful land application program, and
because the specific source or sources of the tset&l could not be
identified. The City of Springfield was then chosen as an alternative.
The locations are given in Figure I.I.
Table 1.1 shows that the four study sites vary considerably in
population served and sludge produced . They also offer eo®e differences
in type of sewage treatment, and they differ considerably in their
nutrient and isetal contents (Table 1.2). Colusims uses Anaerobic
digestion followed by centrifugation jto 17-22. percent solids.
Springfield and Defiance both hove anaerobic digestion and both pussp
directly froa the digester to the sludge truck. Springfield also puraps
liquid digested sludge to lagoons end soras of the lagooned sludge has
been lend applied. Medina has a county-wide system which employed three
•sail aerobic digestion plants (100, 300, 500) during the project. The
City of Medina was not served by either of these plants during the
study, but was brought on line in September 1980. The i&pact this had
on Metal concentrations in the sludge is discussed later in the report.
7 The four study sites also varied considerably in type of transport
and sludgespresding equipment, and degree of previous experience with
land application. Prior to the initiation of this project in 1978,
Columbus has had no systematic land application program ..... BO at of the
sludge has been lagooned or Laadfilled. In . designing the land
-------
Figure 1.1. Counties (batched lines) in Ohio which were involved with
Che land application project.
-------
1.1. CBABAcmurfo er UK KansspAims* 4s» raucs TOUSOBT rusrea u ra «mt
ftaaleiptlity
Twetsaat FepatatioB
H«*t Ban
siodg«
(dry as trie
Treateent
lludga Traaspart aad
Land £?9licatio»
City of Collator
City of tefitoca
County
City ot
Jtsktoa fiSst
Iteilaa, loo,
3&d, soft
17,000
49,000
12,609 Aoaareile dieaatiea
Cantrlfttga
$00
(00 Aaroblc
•ptleefieU tO,009 l,8(S) 4«Mr»aie
Tractor trailer
trech fer
OtM
apratdar. flotation
tirea. Boa spreader.
Para tractor pallad
liquid natsara epr«s4«r.
Ales 6C90 liter taeA
truck apreaijgr «itb
flotation tirac. Bo
transact vehicles tie«d.
Rttraa tsa& tnsck for
healing. Blavan thooaaad
litar tank track apreoder
vlth fiotatioa tlra*.
Owe! wb«*l tciak tructte
(B0®9 liter) for
end efteeJiag. Bo
flotation tirea.
-------
t&stt i.t. CBOtAcnftisTtcs c? TO GU^SSS osso w TBS sroutn UTOMG> K» 1978-1902)
trestireot
PUnt
Jockeoa Plb*
&.£U««
Medltw 100
K«4ln« 300
texili* 500
SpelnjflaW
Sollft
t
3.9(18.1)*
3.)
1.6
3.3
J.i
7.)
pa
7.7
7.4
6.9
6.8
6.9
7.4
HB3-ji
11,838
tO,6*0
4,198
1,409
2,244
9,748
TCT
40,066
SI, $20
41,483
29,429
33,020
31,308
t
24,121
26,990
24,934
41,920
^,548
18,550
K
3,8(9
5,908
10,400
3.IS03
9,677
4,697
Ca
733
340
709
461
345
746
Cd
77.8
7.6
9.4
4.7
17.3
42.4
»
557
386
257
111
133
61$
Rt
373
143
34
26
30
544
la
5223
1038
970
754
797
6899
Cr
109
102
151
175
153
73
* tokld* cMteat at i(i« faraU;s
-------
application program, Columbus decided to dewater sludge to reduce
transportation coats. Moat of the land application sites are located in
southern Franklin and northern Picksway Counties within 25 km of the
treatment pleat. Because of the special needs of the health study, eow&
sites were located further away than would normally be considered. The
sludge was transported to the field in open-top hopper tractor trailers
and the sludge was stockpiled at the spreading site. A front-end loader
waa used to load the cake sludge into the spreader, a five-wheel Ag-Chea
Terragator with flotation tires and a hopper box. Landspreading in
Columbus was done by a contractor, 8 and L Fertilizer Ccepany, and this
operation is discussed in sore detail elsewhere.
The Defiance program was on-going when they became part of the
project. liquid sludge is spread on city-owned land at the treatment
plant with & farm tr&etor and a liquid manure w&gon. Corn end hey are
grown in rotation. Since the'r equipment WAS not suitable for
ewer— She-road operations, they purchased an 8000 liter liquid sludge
truck with flotation tires. Defiance was not part of the health study,
and only three private farms were used during the project.
Medina County 'bed just ..purchased -a liquid --sludge truck with high
flotation tires end was just starting its land application progress when
it joined the project in 1973. It uses liquid sludge tank trucks to
haul to the laodspreading site.
The City of Springfield had been land applying part of its liquid
digested sludge for at least 10 years prior to joining the project.
They use dual wheel trucks for hauling and spreading. As discussed
later, the lack of flotation tire equipment has hampered their
landspreading activities in wet weather.
AGRiCOLTOBlL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEE STUDY ASEA
The Jackson Pike sludge was spread in southern Franklin, aad
northern Pickseray Counties (Figure 1.1). The treatment plant is located
ia «outbern Fr«&klia County, and ttlthougb «h« -city i« rapidly growing
into this area, there is still consider able acreage of farmland
available for laodspreadicg. Ho&ever, there are tsore restrictions on
potential landspresdiag sites in Franklin. County than in Picksway County
because of the greater density of hoses in Franklin County.
Landopreading of Coluabus sludge was terrains ted in Pickeway County by
the county health departssat because of bad publicity generated by the
esergency application of raw primary sludge froa Colussbus* other
treatment plant on several fares in Pick&way County in 1980.
The agriculture in Franklin and Pickseay Counties is general grain
farming with corn, soybeans and winter wheat the dominant crops. There
is also eoss bay and pasture land for dairy and beef operations. Thare
is also a aassll amount of hog production and, in southern Fraoklin
County, soae nursery crop production. The soils are derived priaarily
10
-------
froa glacial till and outwash deposits of recent origin (<18,000 years)
and ar« primarily Alfiaols and Mollisols. Their major limitation to
land application of sewage sludge ie seasonal wetness.
Defiance
The sewage treatment plant is located in the southeastern part of
the County on the eastern edge of the city (Figure 1.1). There is land
available for spreading within 2-4 km of the treatment plant.
Agriculture in the area is almost exclusively grain farming with
soybeans, corn and winter wheat the major crops. There ie very little
livestock in the area. The soils are derived from recent glacial till
and glacial lacustrine sediments. They are Inceptisols and Mollisols
with clay to clcy loam textures. Very poor drainage is the major
limitation to landspreading.
Medina
This program involved landspreading sludge froa three plants on
sites throughout the County (Figure 1.1). The urban population density
is not high, with City of Medina the only major town. However, there
are smaller towns aad villages and suburban strip housing throughout the
County. The agriculture in the area is a aix of grain and dairy farming
with some beef cattle. The raujor crops are corn and hay and/or pasture.
There are BO®& small grains grown, primarily winter wheat and spring
oats, and there is an increasing acreage of soybeans. The soils in the
area are derived froa low lime glacial till and are mostly Alfisols,
Mollisols and Ineeptieols. Slope and erosion and, to a lesser extent,
drainage are the factors most limiting sludge application.
Springfield
Sludge from the city of Springfield has been spread1 on farms
throughout Clark County (Figure 1.1). There is considerable
Agricultural land within 10-15 km of the city limit* that is suitable
for landspraading. The agriculture in the County is general grain
farming with corn, soybeans and wheat the major crops. There is SOHJB
•dairy and 'hog £asmog, and a .few -ima.il .beef-cattle operations, and a
limited acreage of hay and pasture crops. The soils are derived from
high lime glacial till and are Alfisols and Hollisols. Poor drainage is
the factor most limiting to land application of sewage sludge.
GENERAL ASPECTS 0? THE HEALTH STUDY
The general objective of the health study was to determine the risk
to fare families of exposure to low rates of digested sewage sludge
applied to their land. The overall approach was to monitor the presence
of bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens in sludge and in stool and
blood specimens of raesbsrs of the farm families receiving sludge. A
control group of farm families was similarly tested. Candidate families
were selected in each study area from a pool of local families who had
indicated a willingness to participate. The -sludge-receiving and
11
-------
control families were assigned at random from the pool. TabIs 1.3 gives
the number of farms and participants in the sludge-receiving and control
groups for each area, and the acreage and rate of sludge application for
each farm is given in Tables 1.4-1.6. Defiance was not included in the
health - fctudy, and the largest number of participants were in the
Columbus .group. The effects of sludge exposure on livestock health were
also studied at & limited number of farms in the three study areas.
Details of the (health studies will be published elsewhere.
AGRICULTURAL DEMONSTRATION PLOTS
In each of the four study areas, demonstration plots were
established on fartssrs' lend to compare sludge to comeercial fertiliser.
In eotae cases, sludge alone was compared with fertiliser, but in most
uaseo, sludge was used as a supplement to fertilizer. In addition to
the farm plots, a five-year replicated study with Jackson Pike sludge
was conducted at the Ohio State University Farta Science Review in
Columbus to compare the effects of two rates of sludge versus fertilizer
and a control on yield and p>etal uptake by corn, soybeans and wheat.
There -wer« -a total -of 27 demonstrations in £he four Areas involving
18 faros and six crops (corn, soybean, wheat, oats, alfalfa hay and
legume/grass hay). The average rate of application varied from
2-10 ffiatric tons/hectare (Table 1.3) and the average size of fields
which received sludge was 47 hectares for Columbus, 15 hectares for
Medina and Springfield and 5 hectares for Defiance. Bates of sludge
application and nutrients and metals added in sludge were monitored as
was yield and cet&l content of diagnostic leaves. In addition, total
and DT?A-extractable oetals were determined on a random sample of all
sludge-receiving fama and from all demonstration plots before sludge
application anA et the termination of the study.
SPECIAL STUDIES
A number of special studies were conducted in support of the
general objectives of this project. They are reported and follow as
individual sections and appendices.
12
-------
rout I.). CRASAcraimcft cr TBS uu&sm&&i8Q WTOIM rot na nmra HKJJECT rztiw (1978-02)
total Bactomn fetal I»ry
Central Sleds* Raeaivlea Goealvtas Kalris ttfaa
Location t»r*e Per£lcip&att Pares
City of Coltakot U 76 2S
(Prw&lin, Plekoaay,
K&dieoa Comity)
City of Dafleac«* — ~ 3
(Bofltact Coosty)
Kedla* Conety 10 24 11
City of Springfield 13 3S U
(Clart Ccxioty)
Arsti:
Bate (<
eetrii
r*rtielptt*ta 6la£s* Slsdgs Allied teasA
101 1,176 ll.«77
'
— IS 93
Jl 167 333
32 167 7SJ
.
9.9
6.1
2.d
«.J
* Rot Involved U tb« b&tth fttndy. ttoat of th*
ii
ce eity-evaed l«nd «t tha
pleat.
-------
TABU M. Bans ABB ACBSS or sunxs AmicAtioa OR mania ASD PUXASAY cosaw rasas*
»«ro Cote
3002
3003
3004
•
3305
3006
3007
Dees of
Application
-------
TABU 1.4. CORtMEB
Fan Cod*
3809
4091
4002
4003
4094
4006
4007
4008
4009
BaU of
Application
3/12/79
9/30/30
1/11/82
6/17/80
11/20/79
8/28/80
8/31/81
1/29/80
10/9/78
3/27/79
6/27/79
4/22/80
2/20/80
11/28/79
2/29/80
12/17/79
7/29/80
Bry Hatcie
Ton* kfr 11*4
21.8
37.9
52.3
53.7
162.4
596.0
2«5.6
147.3
45.3
111.7
34.6
170.0
388.0
142.7
158.1
89.2
165.0
*C«C..
4.0
4.8
4.8
6.3
27.1
32.3
24.2
12.9
7.0
6.3
7.9
17.0
36.8
14.1
18.2
9.7
16.2
(Dry Metric
Too* /Hoc tar*)
5.3
12.1
10.9
8.6
10.0
11.4
11.0
11.4
6.5
17.2
4.4
10.0
10.5
10.1
8.7
9.0
10.1
-------
y
TABU i.4. coariHuta
Fan Cod*
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4016
4017
4016
4019
4020
Cats ol
Application
f
2/6/80
2/11 /SO
10/9/79
5/12/60
ii/ism
3/12/30
2/14/80
2/23/GO
6/26/80
10/18/78
5/30/79
6/23/80
7/16/79
6/9/80
6/9/W
3/11/80
Cry Metric
Teeo Applied
137. 1
74.2
376. «
393.8
89.2
3.9
SS.6
58. S
333.9
66.)
42.4
12.1
47.6
154.5
39.3
133.4
f
B«ctar««
15.4
18.2
64.2
24.6
14.1
0.4
10.1
4.9
52. 9
10.2
9.5
2.8
10.1
16.2
6.1
13.7
(Pry t&tric
tons/Ret tare)
10.3
4.0
5.8
16.1
6.3
9.6
5.4
8.5
6.3
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.7
9.6
6.J
9.6
* Application rctti «ar« fesstJ upoa t!s« eell phoejihortae ro^ulrnsat.
-------
TiMJE 1.5. U2ES ABD ACJZS Of SUTOCE AFPIICAIIOH 09 MEDIBA COOHTT FABHS*
T*rm Cod*
IOOit
1002t
1003
I004t
iOOJt
1006
1008
1009
1010
lOllt
1012*
Dcte ef
Application
7/7/78
10/25/78
6/JR/79
9/5/78
4/24/79
11/5/79
«/17/80
5/3/79
6/4/80
7/17/78
9/26/79
6/26/78
8/21/78
5/21/79
7/16/79
8/15/80
5/23/78
5/10/79
8/31/79
5/6/80
B/9/7S
7/19/79
5/19/80
S/3/5
7/i/eo
9/12/80
Dry ttotric
Ton* Applied
7.3
8.6
4.5
31.7
15.2
15.8
10.0
12.3
10.5
10.0
4.5
S.7
6.3
4.5
6.3
19.0
7.3
19.0
5.6
31.7
26.?
12.7
22.1
5.1
8.2
13.6
9.1
B*ct*r..
6.S
2.0
2.0
6.2
5.7
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.1
8.1
6.1
4.8
2.8
2.8
1.6
5.3
10.1
10.7
6.1
20.4
13.3
13.3
9.3
3.2
3.2
3.7
6.1
(Pry ttocric
TofU/laetara
1.1
4.3
2.2
5.2
2.7
6.5
4.0
4.7
4.9
1.3
0.7
1.1
2.2
1.6
4.0
3.6
0.7
1.8
0.9
1.6
2.0
0.9
2.5
1.6
2.5
2.5
1.6
* Application rate* ve;s bausd opoo tb« *eil phoaphom* rcqaireatnt.
t THTOO withdraw frm p*rticip«tion during tit* eear*a of tb« project.
t F«TB> ver* etert«d let* in tb* project.
17
-------
TABUS 1.6. 8ATBS AKD AC3ZS W SUTOSE AmiCATIOH 09 CUBE COOBTT FASHS*
Bate of Dry Metric (Dry He trie
Vtra Cod* Application Ion* Applied tt ,tara* Toax/Bcctar«)
5001
5002
5003
3004
3005
SOW
5007
5008
5009
5010
5012
11/19/79
3/31/91
1/28/82
10/23/79.
4/1/81
11/8/79
4/X5/81
5/8/80
4/22/81
12/17/79
9/19/60
6/4/81
2/11/82
2/7/80
8/20/80
7/13/81
2/8/82
4/21/SO
10/20/81
3/2/81
8/20/81
11/12/81
3/37/81
8/13/81
12/30/81
26.1
12.2
15.2
23.9
12.0
11.0
16.3
7.1
19.0
35.6
70.2
93.6
13.8
17.4
70.2
43.2
7.3
31.3
21.8
58.0
27.8
32.4
19.-6
53.5
14.5
7.3
3.6
3.2
6.7
4.4
4.1
3.6
1.2
4.0
»!4
19.0
3.2
4.8
13.7
11.3
•1.6
6.1
4.8
6.5
3.6
6.9
4.8
11.9
3.2
3.6
3.4
4.7
3.6
2.7
2.2
4.5
5.8
4.7
3.2
3.1
4.9
4.3
3.6
i'.t
4.3
5.2
4.5
9.0
7.6
4.7
4.0
4.5
4.5
* Application ratal wr« based tipoo eh* soil pho»ph
-------
SECTIGB 2
SLUDGE APPLXCATIOH TO CBOFLMD UEMOHSTSATIOH SITES
Terry J. Logan, B.S., H.S.f Ph.D.
Robert H. Miller, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
Richard K. White, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
D. Lynn Foreter, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Colussbus, Ohio 43210
IHTRODDCTIOa
The philosophy of land application of sewage sludge in Ohio is that
there is, in szost cases, sufficient Agricultural land close to the
treatment plant to allow -application of the sludge at low annual rates
(<11 ict/ha). At these rates, there is sexismm utilization of the
nutrients in sludge and minisasm environmental hazard. Thie flection
describes the field demonstration studies which were conducted to
evaluate the effectiveness of low sppli tticra rates.
METHODS OF SLOTC35 AKALTSIS
Deteraised directly in liquid sludges. C«ke sludge is wade into a
slurry with distilled water before st&asuressent.
Total gjel&ahl Witrogen
The raierokjaldahl procedure of Breaner (1965) was used. A 5 ml
aliquot ol liquid -olu4s« *7as pipe ted directly inta *the JLjeldahl flaek.
The procedure then followed Bressaer (1965). H was dete rained by eteaa
distillation.
Total Matals and Potaseiua
The liquid sludges were freeze-dried prior to analysis of metals,
phosphorus and potaasimi. A 0.5 g saszple was placed in a pyres test
tube (calibrated to 50 si voloae) on a vtachiaed aligaimma block «hich was
heated by m. Linberg Heavy-Duty hot plate. Five So 10 al of concentrated
EH03 was added and SBmll glass funnels ^ere placed in the souths of the
tubes for re fluxing. The mixture was slowly brought to 200 C and the
voluoe reduced to about 5 tal. Three si of concentrated perchloric acid
was then added and the mixture digested for 75 nitrates. The samples
were cooled and the tubes raade to voluae with double distilled deionized
-------
vater. They were thoroughly shaken and allowed to ataad for 24 hours.
For total aetals, the supernatant was used directly for analysis by
atomic absorption spectroscopy using a Varian Kodel 375 with background
correction and on EP9815A calculator for curve fitting. Metals analyzed
icclude Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, Hi and Zn. For potassium, four el of the
diluted digest was further diluted-to 50 ml and pot&ssius determined by
flame emission on the AA.
a
Phosphorus
A l-s&l aliquot of the diluted digest used for potassium analysis
was transferred to a 100-ml volusstric flask. Two drops of 252
2,4-dinitro phenol were added and then 0.5H SaOE until the color just
turned to pale yellow. Ten ral of Murpby&iley solution, &s described by
Knudaen (1980), containing 1.5 g L-sscorbic acid/100 ml was added to
the volumetric flask and the mixture was diluted to volraee with
distilled vater. After 30 minutest the absorbance was read on a Seckman
Model 24 DV-visible spectrophotomster at 730 nm.
Solids
A saaple of sludge containing 50-75 g wet solids was transferred to
a beaker, weighed on an analytical balance, oven-dried at 80 C for
48 hours and reweighed.
METHODS OF SOIL AMLTSIS
3>H 1:1 in water.
Bray IHL Available P
Enudsen (1980). Absorbance raaaeured at 730 son. Detection limit
1.0 yg F/g soil.
Total Kjeldahl Hitragen
Breaner (1965). Digestion with concentrated 12804 end catalyst
(JC2£04/GaS04/Se) -an I^bcotsco osicrokJeMahl -digestion apparatus.
Neutralized with 10H KaOH and distilled into boric acid. Titrated with
O.Olfl EC1. Detection liait 100 US H/g soil.
Total Petals
A 2 g easple of soil was placed in a 100-ml pyres glass tube in a
nacbined aluainua block on a hot plate in a perchloric acid hoed. Five
•1 of concentrated perchloric acid was added, the tube covered with A
•aall glass fuoael for refltacing, end the sample digested for 75 mraite*
at 200 C. After cooling, the sssspla was filtered with Ho. 1 filter
paper, brought to 50 si is a preealibrated test £ub«, mixed, and isetals
analyzed by at&mc absorption spectroseopy* The sis raatals (Cd, Cu, Cr,
Hi, Pb, Zc) were all analysed on & ?ariaa Model 375 spectrophoto^ster
with an air-acetyleoa flss* and background correction. Detection lisita
20
-------
for the «stal8 were: Cd-0.25j Hi-1.25; Pb-4.0? Cu-2.0j Cr-2.0j
Zn-3.0 yg/g soil.
Total Phosphorus
An aliquot of the filtered perchloric acid digest for total tsetalo
which was diluted to 50 ml wes further diluted 50-100 fold as seeded sod
P was analysed as ascorbic ecid reduced phoephcizolybdste at 730 ssa.
Detection luait 25 Vg P/g soil.
Total Potassium
An aliquot of the filtered perchloric acid digest for total metals
which was diluted to 50 ml was further diluted 25 fold end K w&s
determined by f lease emission on the Varian Model 375 epectrophotOEseter.
Detection limit 200 yg K/g soil.
DTPA Eatractable Metals
Soils were extracted with 0.005M DTPA (diethylen*
trieminepenteeeetic acid), 0.1M triethanolssiine and 0.01M CeCl2 at
pH 7.3 according to Lindsay and Horvell (1978). The extracted mstfils
were analyzed as for total rastals. Detection limits ware: Cd-0.02;
Hi-0.10; Pb-0.32; Cu-0.16; Cr-0.16; 2n-0.24 yg/g soil.
s
METHODS 0? PLAIT ANALYSIS
Total Kjeldaabl Eitrogen
A 0.2 g ©aspic of ground plant material was digested and analyzed
as wae described for si
Total Mgfeals
t
Five grass of • ground plant materials was weighed into 250 sal
Erleaseyer flasks. Treaty to thirty «sl of concentrated HIK>3 eratur@ in & fuse hood for
at least one hour. •Sassples were bested to ju«t -svsporste the nitric
acid over a ttro-hour period. The seaples were kept at low fceaperafeure
for 8*24 hours until they were letraon colored end then they were cooled
and filtered into 20 sal volutse calibrated t«»e£ tubes. Metals were
determined directly on the digests by flsae AA.
Phosphorus and
A Oo3 g sae^le wss digested es described for total @etal« ssd the
digest was thsa diluted to 100 al. Further dilutions w@-.°e sasle as
necessary to get the concentration into the desired range. Phosphorus
was determined by ascorbic ec id-reduced phosphosiolybdate as dascribad
for sludge anslysiis. Potassiua «&s enalysed by flame e&iegion on the
AA.
21
-------
QUALITY ASSUMUCB
Quality assurance was maintained ia several ways:
1. High purity analytical reagents and eossBsrcial standard* were used.
.Double distilled &eiefti£«d wefcer was. used for .ail se£al on&lysee.
2. All analyses were performed in duplicate together with bleaks and a
aid-range standard.
3. KBS, USE?A and our asm reference satrapies for sludge, soil end plant
analysis were routinely determined.
4. So@e essple splitting and analysis was don® with other
laboratories. We participated in two round-robin sethodology
cheeks ©n sludge end plant analysis vitb other Laboratories in the
W-124 Regional S« search Committee on Sludge Utilisation on
Agricultural Laad.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All statistical analyses were run with the SAS statistical package
at the Ohio State University Computer Center.
SEWAGE TEEATMgHT ?LMT CE&E&CT3EISTXCS
As ehosm previously (Table 1.1), Colussfeus, Ba£iance and Springfield
all use aaserobie digeetioa for sludge stabilization, sfcile the three
Medina Comity plants all hua® aerobic digestion. A survey of §*£]?' s ia
CKiio in 1930 shewed that 55% of the sludge tms treated by ssscrobic
digestion ead 38% by aerobic digestion. Th© Columbus Jackson Pike plsat
debaters sludge to 17-23% solids 'lj centrifugation prior to haalisg and
cpreading.
Sludge Qaaljty
Digested sludge ^as aaspled daily at all plants sod etorsd by
refrigeration. A composite of the daily eassples was analysed rasathly cs
described in the Methods section. Routine parsrset®rs ^^aeured inelud&S:
solids, pS, total kjeldahl nitrogen, IIE^H, F, K, Cd, Cu, £!i, Fb, Zn end
Cr. The results are given in Figures 2.1-2.12 asd in Table 2.1.
ire 2.1 shews that Coluabus dswatered ite sludge (by
centrifugation) and the ©olid* content rocs to over 20%. Other £ban
solide, Esase parssetsrs resssiasd quite steady du?ie§ the study period.
Colus&us had the highest Cd content (79.6 yg/g) of the sis plants
studied.
The DafisEse sludga (Figures 2.7-2.12) showed & Barked dsereesa in
several of the ssstals &s a rssult of their industrial pretreatssent
*
22
-------
c-
&•
s...
JACKSON PIKE
c
now ID
MONTH
s
i,.
«fOI«S3
KuNTH
MEOIKBS
*
S-
t-
S-
S-.
S..
' W ""M"' "tA
Figure""2.\. Solids content of th« six sludge* studied (1978-1982).
23
-------
JftCKSW PIKE
DEFIflNCE
HE01NA3
HONfr*
HEOINAS
itn
IMI
SPRINCFIElO
.iW
I8W !«d
MONTH
Figure 2.2. Acidity (j)W) of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
24
-------
I
OEPISNCE
l«» ll't 1953 I9«l
I
SI
I«H
MONTH
J8'» I9>» I9CC 19)1
MONTH
SMINCFItLO
I9K itai nu
MONTH
Figure 2.3. Ananonia content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982).
25
-------
""
JBCK50K PIKE
""
OEF1BNCE
MONTH
MEDINP3
•/, I!
A
itn i»eo
U19 HBO
MHNTh
5P«I%F|ELD
Figure 2.4. Total Kjeldahl content of the six sludges studied (1978-
1982).
26
-------
/'i f\/J, i
^
•>"• i if I
(To provide the reader with
complete Information, this
computer printout 1s Included 1n
the report. This is the best
copy available; w<> regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
IM!
mi mo KOI i9«i
. MONTH
Figure 2.5. Phosphorus content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
27
-------
JftCHSONPftt
'
1-
r '
A
' I
4 i-,.
"\." v-l
(To provide the reader with
complete Information, this
computer printout 1s Included 1n
the report. This 1s the best
copy available; we regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
i§':i " " n*'V " ' "IMC"
Figure 2.6. Potassit-.m content of the six sludges studied (1978-1932).
28
-------
2
B '
V v
81
T:-
OEriBricr
V--
'•ECIN03
5 »
g «J
01
V
(To provide the reader with
complete Information, this
computer printout Is included In
the report. This 1s the best
copy available; we regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
H'° "'3 ^ '_ UK HI;
tT L-N rt
8-
l\
**\
I.
HO'iTM
lie.
_
l.-"«'f J '"';' ' ' ' '"'"
Figure 2.7. Cadmium content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
29
-------
«-,
MA i
»r - IK.
l?Y 1J*/
M J
fe 2J
"•1
i
il
H'-« ' o-i ' n'r m:
' \,*} • '
.
u'e ifi \t'.\j
"CTf
8.
3ZA
I
i»
"
s"
...... Kfl,
'
(To provide the reader with
complete information, this
computer printout 1s Included 1n
the report. This 1s the best
copy available; we regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
!»•<> _ in; \m
Figure 2.8. Copper content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
30
-------
-, r
CJ
'!
s-;
A
/., J
-wj SJ '<
s- :
i;l'« ^
VY
R-
B 8-
J
(To provide the reader with
complete Information, this
computer printout 1s Included In
the report. This 1s the best
copy available; we regret that
portlor., sre undecipherable.)
§•
§•
5
»I-
I(T9 I1'» IS90 1911
MONTH
"'» UK"
Figure 2.9. Nickel content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
31
-------
DEMflNCE
3 S-
" '1
1
ll't li'i ..'oj i>«>
p..
o J
= I
t.
*i«V
A A
/i/
• i /
v
J]
j
U
S4 V \
* f
.'
(To provide the reader with
complete Information, this
computer printout is included In
the report. This 1s the best
copy available; we regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
I-,
5PR1NCFIE.C
MCNI-.
Figure 2.10. Lea^ content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982)
32
-------
tj
"i
S-!
iii
*J I;
2 fi, k i
..
su
•?.
•k
5-'
v \
1-
|
r
§1
,
A
(To provide the reader uttft
cooplete inforBrtion, this
computer printout is included in
the report. This is the best
copy available; tee regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
I -
li
V-X A. • '«•
/ -
i!
SiJ
-
Figure 2.11. Zinc content of the six sludges studied (197S-1982),
33
-------
Win-".'*
0£r;afj.-t
?-
y
*»•
*
"t ,'
r\ \; i
: :\ \ i }•
-*<
Pi
Zi
(To provide tee reader tdttt
complete information, this
computer printout 1s Included In
the report. This Is the best
copy available; «e regret that
portions are undecipherable.)
•»£c:i8j
««£D:tio;
-r Ii
i :
Ij
f
V
»\
Ilrfi.
£.
;j
i
!»?C
1-N1-
fij ifA.|| Vi
Figure 2.12. Chromium content of the six sludges studied (1978-1982),
-------
U)
TABU 2.1. »*mw AHD HUNS 0? MUttOTIM FOR SUTDCKS ABALTZED HOBTCtt KJIIHC 1*71-1*8}
ItitUlU pM totUa
Nutlnm
Hlnlnm
Mann
C.V.«
NoKlira
Nlnl«Mi
He an
C.V.
Mallow
Mlnlaana
Re an
C.V.
Haitian
Minima
Mean
C.V.
Mat lauai
MlrioBM.
H»«B
C.V.
Maiiiut
Minim*
Kuan
C.V.
.2 24.01
.0 2.6*
12.1
--t
*.4
1 .7
).)
41.4
3»1
0.6
1.6
4).0
5.6
1.2
).7
26.2
4.1
0.6
2.1
38.9
15.4
j.)
7.4
16.6
TM
Jl*
1 .4*
4.01
14.1
10.)*
1,0*
5.11
l).t
1.6*
1.12
4.22
16.1
5.41
1.64
2.86
21.1
4.74
1.58
1.J1
••1.7
4.*2
I.t4
).2*
20.4
W»l-ll
l.t)
0.15
I.I*
59.2
S.OO
O.M
1.07
1.5)
0.06
0.»
O.M
0.01
0.14
12. 1
0.57
0.01
0,2)
6).7
1.55
0.14
0.99
19.5
*
2.90
l.tt
2.4)
9.1
1.4*
2i?0
14.0
).I7
1.71
2.54
17.0
5.14
2.J4
4.26
18.7
5.85
2.2)
2.94
13.3
!.))
1.2)
1.84
14.1
K
0.56
0.16
O.)l
18.7
ML-S
O.lt
0.5*
35.9
BHtna 100
1.70
0.74
1.04
25.1
KvdtnaXjO
O.ST"
0.31
0.5*
24.8
Medina 500
1.J8
0.64
0.97
JO. 5
^'iffir**
o!i)
0.47
It.*
Co
891
51)
741
11.8
120
I9t
WO
22.0
V2)
(n
722
I.I
120
354
462
29.1
622
24*
Kt
2)*.*
I26t
47)
71*
26.7
Ci
141.4
51.7
7*.6
11.6
18. »
1.8
7.6
50.*
D.I
6.7
9.)
14.)
10.*
1.2
4.6
4*. 2
15*
1.)
29.4
174
6).l
14.6
41.)
21.6
J
n
1159
1)4
572
J5.4
601
244
586
11.6
665
14*
154
26.7
M9
44
no
74.4
294
55
118
47.)
1773
98
556
80.4
NI
766
15)
)75
3».)
1111
6
14)
144
4)
1)
)]
15.1
46
15
15
33. 1
)9
It
2*
19.)
104)
271
47)
)6.)
la
7)16
)6)9
5181
17.)
- Ill)
711
I05S
31.4
11*1
810
969
11.7
14)0
111
745
41.1
)644
4»
1048
92.1
1)117
549)
8395
21.*
Cc
IV)
)
10*
64.1
115
5
102
84.$
2)6
B7
151
19.)
267
40
175
49.)
22)
.9*
15)
)).*
1!)
1
75
74.1
* Coefficient of *«rUtlon.
t Inctuitat llqald (ml ctntrlfugerl
-------
program. Nickel, in particular, was greatly reduced. The present metal
levels make this a fairly "clean" sludge.
The Springfield sludge is high in solids for a liquid sludge (7.4%)
and had the highest Zn content (8595 yg/g) of the six plants.
The Medina sludges vere all low in solids and, as is characteristic
of aerobic digestion, they were low in NH3-N compared to the anaerobic
sludges. These treatment plants serve primarily rural and suburban
residential areas, and the metals are therefore quite low. However, the
City of Medina was connected to the Media* 500 treatment plant in 1980,
and Figure 2.7 shews that the Cd content increased dramatically.
In addition to the low NH3~R, the aerobic sludges had slightly
!ower pH's than the anaerobic sludges.
The variations in sludge parameters shown in Figures 2.1-2.12
indicate that sotae sludge constituents do not change rapidly (e.g.
phosphate) 'while others like NH3-N and TKN are quite variable.
Repeated, systematic sludge analysis is necessary to document variations
and trends in sludge quality. The daily composited, monthly analyzed
sample is probably adequate for smaller treatment plants with limited
industrial discharges, while more frequent analysis of key parameters
(e.g. NH3-H, Cd) aay be needed for larger plants with a wide variety of
discharges.
The main agricultural benefit of digested sewage sludge in
agricultural production is its content of available nutrients. these
are given in Table 2.2 for the six treatment plants in the study. All
of the aoraonia-N is as Bussed to be available and 30% of the organic-H is
assumed to be available in the year it is applied. We also assumed that
there would be no residual availability of organic-H after the first
year. All of the phosphorus and potassium were assumed to be available.
It can be seen that phosphorus contributes ooet of the total nutrient
value of sludge, but this may not be entirely correct, since all of the
phosphorus is probably not available and part of it is irreversibly tied
up by the soil. Potassium contributes very little to the total nutrient
value of sludge. The calculated value of sludge does not include the
aicronutrients or the organic matter.
USEFA regulates the annual and cumulative applications of cadmium
in sewage sludge (EPA, 1979) and Ohio regulates the cumulative
application* of Ni, Cu, Pb and Zn (Ohio Sludge Guide, 1982). Table 2.3
indicates the annual Cd loading at a sludge application rate of
11.5 mt/ha (a typical rate for supplying nitrogen to corn), the maximum
cumulative sludge application and the limiting metal. Only Columbus
would violate federal regulations on annual Cd loads, and only after
1987. Zinc in the Springfield and Columbus sludges would limit sludge
applications to 58 and 97 metric tons/hectare, respectively, which would
give a useful spreading lifetime of a particular site of 5 and 8 years
for those sludges, at an annual application rate of 11.5 mt/ha. The
36
-------
TABLE 2.2. THE AVERAGE AVAILABLE SOTSIEH7S AID THEIi VAL8B ES THZ SIX SLOPES STUDIED
KieroRen* Pbo»»bon»«* Potaatiua*
Sludge
Coluabu*
Defiance
Medina 100
Hadiua 300
Medina 500
SpriogfieU
kg/Bt
20.4
30.0
15.4
9.6
11.6
16.8
$/Btt
11.22
16.50
8.47
5.28
6.38
9.24
kg/Dt
24.3
27.0
25.4
42.6
29.4
18.4
f/rtt
30.62
34.02
32.00
53.68
37.04
23.18
kg/at
3.8
5.9
10.4
5.9
9.7
4.7
$/«tt
1.01
1.57
2.77
1.57
2.58
1.25
Total Value
5/Bt
42.83
52.09
43.24
60.53
46.00
33.67
* A*«na*« all of eb« BH3-B and SOX of the organic • tKS-(BH3-H) la «vailabl«. Aceussa all of th«
P and K er« available.
t nitrogen - W.SS/kg; ? - $1.26/k«; K - 50.27/kg.
37
-------
TABU 2.3. ARSOAL CABM1TO LOADIKC8 iXO AIUJHAH2 SUJDSZ LOADINGS BASED OH HZTAL
Sludf*
Coluobu*
tefimc*
ItedUu 100
M*Jia* 300
Itedia* 500
S"U"UU
Cd LoftdLnx^
(ludga &pp licit ion
of 11.5 B£/bs
0.92
0.09
0.11
0.05
0.38
0.47
Cuaulatiyy M<|
Metal
Za
Zn
Cu
Cu
Cd
Zo
rtl taxiing Licic«tioot
ttsKJema Sludg*
TLftB'J j piff CBCOS&B )
97
473
346
541
340
58
* Allevobl* flomutl Cd loading i« 2.0 hg/ha/yr (pr«e«t>t eo Jon* 30, 1984)) 1.25 ke/h*/yr (July 1, 1984
— B«c. 31, 1966); 0.5 ts/b*/yr (a£tec Jos. 1. 1937). (EPA, 1979).
t Acmont »oil ectioti asctusjis* ojuwiey o£ 5-15 ncq/lOOs, end Basisaai rueuUtiva oaul*
-------
other four sludges could be safely applied for much longer periods of
time.
Landspreading Methods
Columbus—•
The land application program for the City of Columbus' Jackson Pike
sewage treatment plant was concentrated in southern Franklin and
northern Pickeway Counties, with smaller amounts of sludge spread in
Madison County (Figure 1.1). Hoet of the sites were within 25 ka for
the demonstrations, and Columbus has planned to keep future
landspreading within this radius. In designing the program, Columbus
decided that it would be cost-effective to dewater the sludge prior to
transporting it to the application site to reduce hauling costs. The
liquid sludge is removed from the anaerobic digestor and dewatered by
centrifugation to 17-20% solids. Sludge is dewatered just prior to its
transport to the field.
S and L Fertilizer Cocrpany of White House, Ohio was the contractor
to Columbuc for the hauling and spreading. The City provided a
full-time agronomist to identify sites, secure owner or operator
approval, obtain necessary permits from Ohio EPA and to monitor the
program. Sludge was hauled from the treatment plant to the application
site in open-top, tractor-trailer trucks each with & capacity of 25 wet
metric tons (Figure 2.13). The trailers were specially designed with
wide lips on the tops and baffles to prevent the load from sliding and
with water-tight seals on the tail gate. The load ie dumped on the
field (Figure 2.14) at the spreading site on a pad prepared by laying
gravel. This is to protect the area from compaction and rutting during
the hauling and spreading operations. The stockpiled sludge is loaied
into the spreader with a front-end loader (Figure 2.15) equipped with
flotation tires and a non-skid rear end to minimize compaction and
rutting. Thirty loads of sludge per week are normally hauled to the
site and stockpiled. This is then spread in one day. The spreader
(Figure 2.16) is a specially designed box on an Ag-Ch«m Terragator
five-wheel truck with flotation tires. The box has a capacity of 13 wet
metric tons and can spread 4.5 to 15 dry metric tons/hectare with a
single pass. The box is fitted with chains to move the sludge to the
rear, and the gear-driven beaters have several speeds to aid in
controlling the spreading pattern. The box is also heated to allow
winter application.
The Colussbus operation was designed for year-round spreading,
including winter spreading. However, periods of snowoelt or rain were
avoided to prevent surface runoff.
Medina—
The land application program in Medina County had just been
initiated when it because part of this study. Medina has a county-wide
system of small treatment plants and package plants which serve the
urban and suburban communities in the County. Until August of 1980, the
City of Medina had its own treatment plant, but this was shut down and
39
-------
Figure 2.13. Top view of haul truck for Columbus cake sludge,
(THK « THf B5ST COPY AVAIiASlE;
WE BSGKST WAT PORJtQNS~ME
Figure 2.14. Haul truck unloading Columbus cake sludge at application
site.
-------
Figure 2.15. Front-end loader used to transfer Columbus cake sludge to
applicator vehicle.
(THIS IS THf BEST COPr AVAILA&LS;
We BEGBET THAT PORTIONS ABB
(JNDECIPHEtABlf.)
W4fc.
• ™ '*•»*!.- -^**+ t . — - .•».
•mroBBfc —-J***~ ^i
Figure 2.16. Ag-Chem Terragator- with custom box uaed to spread Columbus
catce
-------
Che City connected to the County system. Sludges from three of the
County treatment plants were used in this system: Medina 100, 300 and
500.
Liquid digested sludge was hauled to the application site in two
22,800 liter tankers. Sludge was pumped directly into the spreader;
therefore, sludge was hauled only during spreading periods.
Sludge was spread with a locally custom-built tank truck
(Figure 2.1?}. It has a capacity of 7600 liters and is vacuum fillsd
and pressure discharged. It is equipped with flotation tires to
minimize compaction. Because of the low solids contents of the Medina
sludges (Table 7 1), single pass applications are low (<2mt/ha).
However, low apt' ation rates were generally used in the Medina program
because of the high availability of land compared to the volume of
sludge produced.
The County provided a full-time employee to handle site selections
and approvals, schedule sludge applications, acquire necessary permits,
monitor the sites and keep records. As in the Columbus project, a
full-time employee to coordinate the land application program is a
critical component of any successful program.
i
Defiance—
This City has been land spreading sludge for many years on its own
property adjacent to the treatment plant. High application rates have
been used to handle the sludge produced on the available City land.
This has resulted in accumulations of heavy metals that are approaching
the maximum allowable in Ohio. In particular, Cd levels in the soil are
near the maximum allowable according to Federal regulations (EPA, 1979),
and this area will have to be managed as a dedicated site in the future.
Some sludge is dried on sand beds end given away.
Until 1979, the City used a liquid manure spreader (11,400 liters)
and a farm tractor to spread liquid digested sludge on their own land
(Figure 2.18). This equipment., however, is inadequate for off-site
hauling and spreading. In 1979, Defiance purchased a 7,600 liter
commercial tank truck with flotation tires (Figure 2.19). This vehicle
is used to haul and spread sludge on farmland within 5 km of the plant.
Fortunately, there is a large amount of agricultural land within this
radius. Because of wet soils in the area, spreading on farmland is
limited to the period June-February (excluding periods of winter rain or
snowmelt). Because of the limited amount of sludge spread off-site, the
land application program is managed by the treatment plant. Also, a
local fanner has a contract to farm the City's land. The City should
increase the amount of sludge spread off-site, and reserve its own land
as a back-up. However, the treatment plant is unwilling to do so until
the City can purchase a nurse truck to haul sludge to the field. There
is considereble tire wear to the spreader when it is used to haul sludge
to sites away from the plant, and there is little incentive to the City
to expand off-site land application unless it would be forced to manage
its own property as a dedicated site. '
42
-------
(THIS IS THE 8£ST COPY AVAILABLE;
WE RS6RET THAI PORTIONS AftE
UNOFC/WEHASifJ
Figure 2.17. Liquid sludge tank truck used to apply Medina County
sludge.
-------
Figure 2.18. Liquid manure spreader and tractor used to apply Defiance
liquid sludge.
(1HIS IS THE BEST COPV AVAUABIE;
WE SEGSET THAT POfiT/OWS ABf
UNOECtPHESABU.;
Figure 2.19. Liquid sludge tank truck used to apply Defiance liquid
sludge.
V
-------
Springfield—
Springfield has had a limited land application program in
Clark County for several years prior to this project. The City uses two
tank trucks (11,400 liters) to haul and spread sludge (Figure 2.20),
These are gravity flow and have tandem axles. Because they are not
equipped with flotation tires, soil compaction and rutting are problems,
and these vehicles are easily stuck in wet fields. In addition, the
lack of separate nurse trucks for sludge hauling greatly limit the
potential for land application of Springfield's sludge.
The land application program is run by the sewage treatment plant
with agronomic assistance provided by the local county agent. The
future success of land application for Springfield will require the
purchase of a modern sludge spreader and one or more nurse trucks.
SOILS AND CROPS
Columbus
Columbus sludge is primarily spread in southern Franklin and
northern Pickaway Counties with smaller quantities in Madison County.
This general area is on the southern edge of the glaciated region of
Ohio. The soils are developed in Wisconsin age (15-18 thousand years)
glacial till and loess with some soils formed in glacial outwash. These
soils are flat to gently sloping and their major limitations for
agricultural use are wetness and erosion. Medium textures are common,
permeabilities are moderate to slow and seasonal high water tables are
common. The soils are naturally fertile, have medium to high organic
matter contents and are slightly acid. Specific chemical properties
will be gi*ren in a later section. The major limitations to sludge
application are seasonal wetness and localized steep slopes.
The till plain region of Ohio is primarily used for mixed grain
farming with corn and soybeans the major crops. There are smaller
acreages of wheat, other small grains, hay fields and pastures. During
the demonstration project, sludge was applied to all major crops, and
the major limitation to sludge application to specific crops is timing.
The following indicates he periods or "windows" that are available for
sludge spreading in the North Central region of Ohio (the lines are the
periods when the crop is growing):
Corn }-
Soybeans
Wheat |
Small grains |——
Hay I
MAMJJASON
t
45
-------
(THIS IS THE BfSJ COPY AVAtlABlf;
Wf B5G8ET THAT «>BTfONS AUt
Figure 2.20. Tandem axle liquid sludge tank truck used to apply
Springfield liquid sludge.
-------
In the case of hay or pasture crops, the Ohio Sludge Guide (1982)
recommends that sludge only be applied just after the hay has been cut
or grazed. This is to prevent direct ingestion by livestock of sludge
adhering to the vegetation.
Medina
Medina County sludge is spread entirely within the County. This
area is in the eastern lobe of the Wisconsin till plain. The soils tend
to be more acid, have lover base saturation, be sosewhat steeper and
somewhat less fertile than the soils previously described in the
Columbus area. The greatest limitations to sludge application are
seasonal wetness and steep slopes.
This area of Ohio is mixed grain farming (corn, soybeans, wheat and
other small grains) and dairy farming (hay and pasture land). There is
a greater opportunity to use sludge on hay and pasture land in
Medina County than in the other three project areas.
Defiance
of the sludge from the City of Defiance is spread within
Defiance County. This area is located in the Lake Plain region of
Horthwestern Ohio (Figure 1.1) and the soils are derived from recent
GS* 8,000 years) lacustrine calcareous sediments. The soils are level,
poorly drained, fine-textured, with high pH's, high base saturations and
high CEC's. The major limitation to sludge spreading is prolonged
seasonal wetness.
The Lake Plain region is intensely farmed with corn, soybeans and
wheat the major crops. There are only small acreages of other small
grains and forage crops.
Springfield
The City of Springfield spreads all of its sludge in Clark County
(Figure 1.1) in west-central Ohio. The soils are derived from Wisconsin
age glacial till, loess and outwash gravel. The soils are flat to
steeply sloping and have properties that are similar to those in the
Columbus project area. Seasonal wetness and steep slopes are the major
limitations to sludge landspreading. The crops in the area are
primarily -corn, soybeans and wheat with soaa hay and pasture land and
ill amounts of other small grains.
THE BEMONSTRATIOH SITES
Methods
In each study area, several plots were established on farmer fields
to determine yield and met£l uptake from sludge applications. These
were designed sore as demonstrations rather than experiments and were
not replicated. The standard design was to apply sludge at an agronomic
67
-------
rate or rates for a particular crop and coapare crop yield sod metal
uptake with a. control plot in the s&se field. The control was usually a
recommended rate of fertilizer for that crop, or a zero fertilizer
"check"; in a few instances there were both fertilizer and check plots.
Plot sizes varied from as small as 0.01 ha to several hectares. Soil
samples were taken before sludge application and analyzed for pH, liae
test index, exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, Bray ?i
available P and total ssetals (Cd, Cu, Hi, Pb, Zn and Cr). At the end of
the study, a r&ndoea selection of the sitee were sampled and the eoils
reanalyzed for total eatals. Sludge loading rates were estimated from
volume applied and solids content. Plant leaf tissue was sampled at
tasseling (corn), flowering (soybeans), heading (wheat and oats) or
prior to cutting (hay) and analyzed for H, P, E and metals. At harvest,
yields were measured by band by campling 10-30 meters of row and
weighing. Grain was also saatpled at harvest for N, P, K and metal
analysis.
Background Soil Fertility
Table 2.4 suaraarizes the pH, Bray PI available P, exchangeable
potassium and ration exchange capacity data for the demonstration sites
in each project area. The results show that there were very few
differences between the. four project areas compared to differences among
soils in each project area. Soil pH's tend to be slightly acid and
available phosphorus and potassium are both at optimum levels. The
Defiance area soils have somewhat higher CEC's because of their finer
textures.
Crop Yields
Table 2.5 gives crop yields by farm, crop and year for the Colussbua
demonstration plots. These results cannot be analyzed statistically
because they werr not replicated, but some general observations can be
made- In the corn studies, there were no differences between the
fertilizer and sludge treatments. Since P and K levels were high in
most of these soils (Table 2.4), the crop is probably responding to the
sludge nitrogen. At the sludge application rates of 8.5 to 17.3 mt/ha
used in the Colunims demonstrations, 173-353 kg available H/ha would
have been applied, assuming the Columbus sludge contained 20.4 kg K/mt
(Table 2.2). These levels are adequate for maximum corn growth at the
yield levels obtained. On the 1981 corn study on the Shipley farm
(Table 2.5), sludge was compared to a zero fertilizer check and there
appears to have been a yield response to the sludge. The soybean
studies showed no response to sludge compared to the zero fertilizer
check. Since soybean is a legume, it does not respond to applied
nitrogen, and the phosphorus and potassium levels in the soils were high
enough to prevent any yield response to sludge applied P or K. The only
exception was the Thomas study in 1981 (Table 2.5) where there appeared
to be a yield increase with sludge. The available P level on this soil
was 28 kg P/ha, slightly below the sufficiency level for soybeans.
48
-------
TABU 2.4. THE R«SC£S AHD HUES OF SOU. TEST RESULTS FO* FASH FIELDS EECIITIHC SLOWS IB TEE STBOT
Area
C«U«*~
D.fUae.
IMU.
Spriasficld
He.
126
17
91
25
Keaa
6.3
6.7
6.4
6.3
Bang*
4.0-7.5
5.8-7.3
4.7-7.3
5.6-7.5
Br«y Fl ,
(*«
Keen
57
58
41
83
A»ail«bU F
B«««
11-310
14-119
6-200
34-165
Zxehtt
(k£
Heca
254
280
210
265
tgubl* K
Kaoga
121-776
109-403
84-428
140-390
Cation
Been
16
20
11
13
S^IStf
BJTOJ*
7-40
7-22
4-18
9-21
-------
TA&X 2.5. SLBCOi 12JSO«STSA3nOS FtOTS M TEE COLBM30S SWOT (FIAS5CUH, PICSAKAY AHB KAB1SOS C005JTU3)
ruu
Far* Crop Traacnaat (k£/ha)
Haatingc Cora
Lucfaecvoad Cora
ttelride Cora
MerrU Cora
Keck Soybuaa
l-an^^j SovbeA&a
Theaa* ^ Soybeana
"— "'*"•
«apu, .orb—
Sblj>l«y Cora
Fertilizer (580 kg/lu 5-15-40)
Blade* (17.3 BC/bf)
F^ilU«*
Slei»« (10.5 ot/ha)
Slsdc* (9^4 BC/bc)
Fertilizer
Sladfe (8.5 «£/b«)
Qwxk
Slatfg* (12.3 M/lK)
Cheek
Sladga (9.9 ac/hu)
Slwdgo (8.3 Bt/ha)
duck
SU4«« (7.0 at/lw)
Cteek
Cteek
tlwl(* (10.S «/h«)
6870
7760
10940
11B40
13590
13350
6270
7570
1150
1360
1740
2220
770
1JSO
2020
I960
2060
1740
6990
9210
• The recOBBtade* <«rtilicar f^plicacum Cor Ckac crop vaj applied iwUia* otisarwioe indicaCftd.
50
-------
The Medina corn data indicate that there nay have been a specific
response to sludge over and above the response to fertilizer
(Table 2.6). However, the amounts of available nitrogen provided by the
Medina sludges are low at the rates of sludge applied, no more than
75 kg N/ha, so it does not appear that the crop is responding to crop H.
Likewise, at the P soil test levels found, it is not cossBon to observe
corn yield increases of the magnitude found here. In addition, as will
be seen later, there were no major differences in leaf or grain nitrogen
or phosphorus that would indicate responses to either of these elements.
As in the Columbus study, there was no response of soybeans to sludge.
Likewise, wheat did not respond to either fertiliser or sludge
additions. In contrast, both hay studies showed a response to sludge
applications compared to either fertilizer or the check.
Two of the corn studies in Defiance (Table 2.7) seemed to indicate
yield responses to sludge versus fertilizer applications, while a third
showed little difference, and a fourth (Janicek in 1981) indicated lower
yield with sludge. Oats showed little or no response to sludge versus
fertilizer while sludge seemed to increase alfalfa yield compared to
fertilizer or cheek.
The corn studies with Springfield sludge showed no effect or
slightly lower yields with sludge compared to fertilizer (Table 2.8).
At the lower rates of sludge application, however, only about 80 kg N/ha
of available N was supplied, much less than the 150-250 kg N/ha required
for optimum corn yields. The soybean study shoved little effect of
sludge compared to the check.
Plant Tissue Composition
Table 2,9 gives the nutrient and ratal compositions of leaf and
grain tissue for the Columbus sludge demonstration plots. Since these
plots were not replicated, only general trends can be observed.
Nitrogen was only measured in one study and the data indicate no
differences between fertilizer and sludge. In all comparisons between
fertilizer end sludge or check and sludge, there appeared to be very few
differences in P, K or tsetal composition. Based on published literature
values, the eetal concentrations are all near normal background levels.
There was some evidence for a consistent small increase in Cd
concentrations in leaves but not in grain. Copper and cadmium
concentrations were lower in grain than in -the leaves, while there were
few concentration differences between grain and leaves with the other
metals.
Table 2.10 gives similar data for Medina. Many of these studies
included check and fertilizer treatments and the data showed that metal
uptake was as high from the fertilizer as for the sludge treatments. As
in the Coluobus studies, all metal concentrations were close to normal
background levels. Data from the wheat crop on the Fees farm in 1979
•bowed somewhat higher Cd levels in the grain than in the leaf, which is
opposite to what is found for corn and soybeans. Wheat is known to
51
-------
TABLE 2.6. 9UJDCE DI3KJH3TKAT10S PLOTS IB tSDUU COBKT
Fen Crop
Kaock "" L«giaH/STM*
«wy
Hefner Cam
Kaock Leguoe/fre«*
bay
Feei Vbeet
Hefner -*rn
Hefner . foTbeao*
60*-
Tr..C»«t
Cheek
Fertilizer*
Sledge (3.8 Bt/he)
Fertilizer
Cl«dge (2.2 Bt/ha)
1979
Check
Fertilizer
Stodge (2.9 Bt/he)
Cheek
Fertiliser
Sludge (4.5 tet/he)
Check
Fertilizer
•lodge (5.0 at/he)
Fertilizer
Fertiliser * (ledge (1.9 et/he)
1980
Check
Fertilizer
Shtdg* (1.9 Bt/na)
tlcU (kg)
6500
6400
7*00
5360
•000
9720
6050
4700
7170
2940
2990
2800
49SO
7MO
6070
1560
1700
1410
2450
1890
* The racaaaaaM fertilizer cpplicctioa for Out er»p w applUiJ unlaii otbentiv* ind letted.
52
-------
TABU 2.7. SUJBSB PZKCamATIOB FLOTS JX DBFIABCE COOTITT
Fan
Boeboek
Leahert
Hoebock
Jenicek
Jatdeek
f
Jaaieek
Crop Treatwot
1979
Con r*reilU*r*
*lt>dg« (6.0 nt/UT
Alf>l<« . Check
r«rtllicer
Sludge (3.0 «/h*)
I9t0
Cl • r«rtllUcr (250 k»/h« 6-24-24)
Eluigs (11.6 Bt/ba)
Con Fcrtilicer (200 kg/ha 8-32-16;
160 kg B/ba)
Sludge (6.1 sc/tM)
Sladge (11.5 ot/h«)
Con Fertiliser
Stodge (6.1 B£/h*>
Slvdee (11.5 ot/ba)
1*81
Con Fertilizer
Stodge (6.5 ae/tu>
Tie Id
(kg/lu)
11,340
10,960
6,170
6,000
7,980
3,040
3,720
13,520
15,670
15,330
10,660
12,360
il,770
13,790
10,690
* The recoaeanded fertiliser esplieatioa for thet crop «•• applied uol«s» otbaiwiae indicated.
53
-------
TABLE 2.8. SLOWS BC«raSTR&TI03 PLOTS IB CLARK CCOBTT
Fan
Croucvacar
Kern*
Grai*er
TboBpeon
Crop
Soybean*
Con
Con
Con
Trea^e
i»8l
Check
Sludge (3.9 Bt/ha)
Fertiliser*
Sludge (4.9 OS/ha)
Fertilizer
Fertilizer plua tludge (9.0 nst/ha)
Fertilizer
Sludce (4.7 ot/ba)
Tie Id
1,440
1,570
7,470
6,660
10,780
10,840
• ,690
7,830
* Th« r«ea«Mad«d £«rtiliecr «ppliseeioa for that crop B«» applied ualest otbervice iodicated.
-------
TABU 2.9. ru«T Tism CWPOSITIOH or raon cwaw wiw SCUACS IUJECI
'•™ Crop Tiaan*
kaativfe Corn L*af
CraU
U( Horrle Corn Uaf
U1
Craln
Uatbensot Cora Uaf
Grain
McBrto* Corn Uat
Craln
DruncmTt Soybeana Uaf
Grain
Traatvat
Fertlllier
hrtiUter
•art II liar
fartlllaar
Stooge
•ertlliiar
1 1 wig*
F*rtili**r
fertiliser
Ilwiga
Fertiliser
Oieek
aim)3*
Check
Sliidgt
H P
l?79
2.11
2.18
1.10
1980
" S:
— 0.
— — Q,
"- I:
~~ 0.
— 0.
— 0.
~"~ 0»
0.
— 0.
0.
0.
0.
1^^
—
£
11
M
»
38
27
12
30
29
27
59
17
41
r.
2
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
2
1
0
0
2
2
2
„
-
.2
.0
.14
.12
.0
.1
.11
.27
.2
.8
.29
.26
.4
.4
.1
.9
Ca
23
26
1
1
7
1
8
10
I
1
7
0
0
7
9
9
.9
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.7
.0
.5
.4
.9
.9
.i
.«
.4
01
0.21
0.24
0.02
0.01
0.11
0.22
O.OJ
O.OS
0 77
0.47
O.C4
0.06
0.09
0.11
n.ot
O.JI
o.ia
0.08
0.10
Hi
0.8
1.1
0.9
0.2
BDL
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
2.5
2.7
1.*
2.1
P»
2.9
1.4
- BBL*
BDL
1.0
0.9
BEX.
sot
1.8
1.)
DM.
BDL
1.8
1.0
BtH.
BDL
1.6
2.1
BDi.
BTH.
tn
15.2
41.6
11.1
ll.S
11.4
44 .6
2O.O
21.9
10.4
18.1
10.6
21.1
18.1
22.0
It. 4
14.2
27.9
11.0
10.1
60.6
-------
TABU 1.9.
Farei Crop
Haetlne.it Soyheeni
8teckt Soybean!
,j, Shipley Corn
er>
Shipley Soybean*
Lander Soybean.
Thoeta* Soybean*
Keck Soybean*
T,.W
U*(
U.f
Leaf
Grain
Uaf
Uaf
Crtln
Oriln
Tre.tBtot
Ch«ek
Check
Sludge
Check
Bind**
Check
Sludge
Check
Check
Sludge
Check
Check
Blade*
•
1 980
0
0
0
0
0
—
— 0
— o
0
— 0
0
— 0
0
•
!l9
.44
.41
.15
.10
—
.19
.48
.45
.51
.51
.50
.52
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
!
.4
.4
.1
.«
—
.4
.5
.1
,5
.*
.7
.9
Cm
t.9
7.2
7.0
7.7
1.4
1.1
8.0
(.6
».4
7.0
7.7
7.9
7.t
7.9
Cd
O.W
0.22
0.01
0.08
0.58
0.16
0.11
0.14
0.07
0.09
0.17
0.25
O.OS
0.10
0.10
0.10
•i
._r.
1.1
4.0
1.9
2.2
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
1.9
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.0
2.5
s!i
-
2.5
1.1
1.9
2.2
8.7
II. 1
0.9
1.0
17.0
8.0
10.
15.
2.
1.
1.
-
41.0
42.2
28.0
11.2
14.8
28. e
15.8
18.5
19.8
14.0
78.9
11.9
27.9
JO.*
15.7
19.*
* Balm detection H.lt.
t Tie l vere not t«hen on the*e •tote.
-------
T*»U 1.10. run Tissue cowasmo* or ctors GROW ut« SBWAOS SUTOCT (MEDIM)
Ui
Firm
Knock
Uegner
Knock
Fee.
c'°» Tleew Tre««.t
•
Uguw/greee hey Mbole pleat Check
Fertllitei
Sludge
Corn test Check
Fertiliser
Sludge
Creln Check
Fert Utter
Sludge
Utgwee/gnn hey Whole plent Check
Fert i liter
8 lodge
»e«l Uef Check
Fertiliser
SltnJge
Ore In Check
Firtiliier
S lodge
Strew Check •
Fertiliser
Stodge
.
1978
1.1
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.4
2,5
1.1
1.5
1.6
1979
1.8
1.7
1.4
2.S
2.4
2.5
2.1
1.9
1.8
0.17
0.11
0.27
F
0.28
0.27
0.27
0.20
0.20
_ 0.19
0.26
0.21
0.12
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.15
0.26
0.32
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.04
0.04
0.04
K
0.18
0.17
0.19
o.i7
0.40
0.41
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.71
0.76
0.88
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.06
O.C5
0.05
C4
0.21
0.56
0.16
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.04
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.09
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.19
0.72
0.11
Co
II. 0
II. 0
10.0
11.0
14.0
12.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
8.0
8.0
7.0
—
25.0
8.5
10.1
9.0
9.0
5.0
~
•1
Ue/e —
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.1
0.1
0.1
a.
0.
0.
,.
2.
1.
0.
0.
0.4
0.04
0.30
0.20
Fb
f
.
'
.
.
.0
0.2
O.t
0.4
1.7
1.7
1.1
2.9
5.6
4.0
0.8
0.8
0.9
2.1
2.2
1.8
I.
10
29
29
21
20
20
20
19
22
17
19
17
15
41
76
42
47
17
20
11
10
-------
TAILB 2.10. OMTUWKP
'••» Crop Tlaine Trea taint
Vainer Cor* . t«af Check
Ferttllctc
Grain deck
rertillier
Sladge
Ul
CD Wagner Soybean* Uef rertillter
Fertiliser plti* altidge
' Craln Fertiliser
Fertiliser »lut • lodge
Wagner Soybean* Craln Check
Fertiliser
"a.,.
II
1.9
2.2
t.O
1.0
1.2
4.7
S.I
6.8
7.2
1980
6.«
7^2
6.9
r R
X
_. «
—
„
„
— •
— —
— —
—
O.il 1.96
O.M 1.91
0.62 1.87
Co-
O-lS
O.IS
O.M
O.M
O.M
0.14
0.17
0.11
O.OS
0.07
O.M
0.09
Co
..
11.0
15. 0
1.2
0.9
1.1
11. 0
11.0
12.0
II. 0
9.0
10.0
10.0
III
f
mi^
1.0
0.9
0.5
0.)
0.4
1.1
1.7
2.2
2.7
1.2
1.2
l.S
r»
„_
2.1
2.S
1DL*
O.I
DDL
I.S
i.a
em.
•DL
BN.
MIL
BDt.
In
__
14
18
14
1)
IS
10
27
V,
17
2ft
26
28
* B«lov detection liaiit.
-------
concentrate cadmium somewhat in the grain, but the grain concentrations
found here are atill very low.
The Defiance data (Table 2.11) gives results similar to those
reported for the other areas except for the two studies on the Janicek
farm in 1980 and 1981 which indicated high leaf cadmium concentrations
and one high Zn concentration. The grain levels, however, were low.
This finding could have been due to the particular corn hybrid used
since there are significant differences among corn hybrids (CAST, 1980)
in metal uptake, or to contamination of the leaf tissue by dutt:
containing sludge. Even these higher values, however, are much^ lower
than those found on soils receiving large quantities of sludges h{.gh in
metals (CAST, 1980).
The Springfield data (TaUIe 2.12) shows results for corn and
soybeans that are very similar to those found for the other areas.
Table 2.13 summarizes the corn ai*d soybean studies for which both
leaf and grain data were available for cadmium and zinc. 'The data show
small increases in leaf CU only, with no increases in leaf Zn or grain
Cd and Zn. These results clearly demonstrate the low potential for
metal accumulation! at low annual rates of sludge application with
sludges containing as high as 80 and 8600 Ug/g sludge of Cd and Zn,
respectively (Table 2.1). This is particularly true of corn and soybean
grain where concentrations are lower than in the leaf.
Soil Analysis Before and After Sludge Application
All soils receiving sludge in the project were sampled prior to
sludge application and analyzed for total metals in addition to the
routine soil fertility tests previously discussed. At the -end of the
study, as many of these sites as possible were resampled; the original
samples and the post-application samples were analyzed together (to
eliminate operational errors) for Bray PI phosphate and Cu, Cd, Ni, Fb,
Zn and Cr. The results are given in Tables 2.14-2.16 by County. The
most consistent changes were in Bray PI and cadmium. Changes in the
other metals were very low and sampling errors in many cases made it
impossible to detect differences. There was a substantial increase in
Bray PI in most cases, reflecting the large amounts of P added with
sludges even at agronomic rates of application. There was also a
consistent increase in Cd in soil with sludge application evert though Cd
levels are low compared to other metals. This is primarily because the
Cd concentrations in the sludges used in the study were higher compared
to background soil Cd levels than similar relationships for the other
metals. The variability in soil sampling and the small increases in
metal levels above background concentrations when agronomic rates of
sludge are applied make it difficult to use soil analysis as a means of
monitoring metal additions to soil with sludge. It is more accurate to
monitor m£tal additions by calculation from sludge application rates and
sludge analyses. Periodic metal analysis is only warranted when sludge
is applied to the same site for many years.
59
-------
TABLE 2.11. PLANT TISSUE COMPOSITI08 OF CROPS CROWH WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE (DE7U/JCE)
Fan Crop Tiiiu*
Bollock Corn Grain
Lenhart Alfalfa Whole plant
Hoiho'X Oati Grain
Janicek Corn Leavef
Cr».ln
Janieek Corn Leaf
Grain
Treaceant N
1979
Fertilizer f7F~
Sludge 1.3
Cieck —
Fertilizer —
Sludge —
1980
Fertilizer —
Sludge —
Fertilizer —
Sludge -—
(6.1 at/be)
Sludge —
(11.5 «st/ha) —
Fertilizer —
Sludge —
(6.1 at/ha)
Sludge —
(11.5 Bt/ha)
1981
Fertiliser ~^~
Sludge —
Fertilizer —
Sludge —
P
—
—
_
—
—
0.43
0.42
0.40
0.37
0.40
J.36
0.24
0.37
0.33
0.30
_
K
—
~
_
—
~
0.37
0.41
1.7
1.6
2.2
0.32
0.24
0.33
1.7
1.7
_
~
Cd
0.09
0.10
0.24
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.06
0.75
0.98
1.44
0.11
0.11
0.08
0.42
0.84
0.09
0.08
Cu
2.1
2.1
9.8
15.8
9.4
3.,
3.5
9.9
9.0
8.6
• 1.6
1.9
1.9
8.3
11.3
1.5
1.3
Hi
f
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.0
1.0
SOL
BCL
TDL
o,:
0.2
BDL
0.9
0.9
0.3
0.4
Fb
BDL*
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
8.5
6.5
12.1
BDL
BDL
BDL
12.8
19.6
BDL
0.6
Zn
17.0
18.2
20.0
24.1
20.4
26.0
22.4
23.7
19.9
74.9
25.9
19.:
19.4
25.6
?-.;
14.4
13.*
* Belov detection liait.
60
-------
TABLE 2.12. PLAHT TISSUE COMPOSITION OF CROPS Ci'.OSH WITH SEWAGE SLUDGE (SPR.IRCFTELD)
Farn Crop
Croutvater Soybean*
Kern* Corn
Greiaer Corn
ThoBpaon Corn
Tiatue Treatoent
Leaf Cheek
Sludge
Grain Check
Sludge
Leaf Fertiliser
Sludge
Grain Fertilizer
Sludge
Leaf Fertiliser
Fertiliser plu*
aludge
Grain Fertiliser
Fertilizer plua
alndge
Leaf Fertiliser
Sludge
Grain Fertiliser
Sludge
H
1981
—
6.4
6.2
—
1.6
1.7
™~
1.4
1.3
—
1.6
1.6
P
0.29
0.37
0.61
0.66
C.30
0.36
—
0.33
0.26
—
0.30
0.30
—
C
1.6
2.2
1.9
2.0
1.8
1.8
—
2.3
2.1
~~
2.5
1.8
—
Cd
.0.18
0.32
0.08
0.06
0.11
0.19
0.03
0.04
0.11
0.09
0.03
0.02
0.64
0.40
0.04
0.08
Cu
6.6
7.8
7.5
6.9
9.7
9.9
1.4
1.0
23.0
15.0
0.9
1.1
12.0
11.6
1.0
1.0
Hi
- U8/I
1.0
1.7
2.0
2.2
1.3
0.9
0.4
0.4
1.1
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.9
0.8
0.4
0.5
Pb
5.7
3.9
1.7
1.9
9.8
6.0
1.0
1.0
4.0
4.0
0.9
0.8
8.1
15.1
0.6
BDL *
Zn
24.1
26.8
27.1
31.5
25.1
33.9
13.4
11.8
23.0
27.0
10.3
12.5
36.4
13.3
13.1
13.3
* Below detection limit.
61
-------
TABLE 2.13. AVERAGE KATES OF APPLICATION OF CADMIUM AND ZINC APPLIED WITH SLUDGE IH THE DEMONSTRATION
PLOTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CD AND ZN UPTAKE BT CORD AND SOYBEANS
Crop
Corn
Soybeans
Sludge
Nuober of Bate
Observation* «t/h*
12 8.2
3 2.6
Metal Added
Cd Zn
0.43 37.3 Control*
S lodge
0.17 12.4 Control*
Sludge
Cd
0.29
0.41
0.16
0.25
Le«f
Zn
25.0
30.5
27.1
26.9
Cd
\iv /ff ^_
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.08
Grain
Zn
16.8
16.9
29.0
32.2
* Either • zero fertilizer check or * fertilizer control.
62
-------
TABU 2.14. BRAT Ft AW TOTAL HTTAt COnTMTS Of rAHH MELDS KfORE AMD Ami SLUDCI AmlCATIOH (COUWBOS)
LJ
lit*
Ho. B*
1 32.
2 35.
3 67.
421.
37.
32.
49.
21.
10.
10 54.
II 20.
12 39.
13 19.
14 33.
13 43.
16 II.
17 16.
18 188.
19 18.
20 8.
21 32.
22 25. 6
23 30. C
24 6.1
23 IOT.8
Keen 52.1
C.V.Ct) 158.]
lr«f ri
A*
109.'
68.
23.
343.
115.
83.
300.
56.
24.
102.
47.
139.
19.
121.
57.
74.
28.
• 39.
38.
24.
66. C
81.4
30. C
16. (
145. C
88.4
89.0
Cu
B A
\ 10.0 13.
17.4 21.
13.7 13.
15.0 31.
10.3 14.
10.3 14.
14.2 It.
16.5 20.
12.2 16.
14.7 II.
15.0 10.
14.0 13.
13.1 II.
14.0 It.
12.3 12. (
18.0 18.;
18.3 10. (
14.3 13. (
13.4 II .(
13.1 20.!
1 17.9 15.3
15.5 17.3
15.6 12. e
13.4 11.3
13.5 It.;
14.2 13.4
17.2 29.1
W Ml
B A « A B
BDL • 0.24 9.8 14.0 9.3
0.19 0.36 19.3 20.7 14.3
0.19 0.17 14.3 15.1 10.
0.33 2.27 9.4 23.2 23.
BDL 0.52 8.8 13.4 11.
0.25 0.45 It. 9 12.2 11.
0.14 0.51 16.8 11.7 16.
0.14 0.25 17.4 16.9 11.
0.12 0.30 13.4 13.2 12.
0.22 0.28 14.0 12.9 11.
0.14 0.20 13.6 9.0 14.
0.15 0.44 IT. 2 11.3 13.
0.11 O.I? 15.7 11.9 13.
0.21 0.37 12.8 14.7 11.
1 0.13 0.20 16.2 12. I 13.
' 0.20 0.34 16.4 14.0 13.
) 0.18 0.21 16.9 8.7 14.
) 0.28 0.23 14.1 16.5 15.
> 0.22 0.2.> 16.6 11.2 14.
I 0.16 0.34 14.8 18.1 13.
1 0.21 0.32 29.7 13.7 13.
0.13 0.38 14.7 14.9 14.
0.14 0.16 It.O 9.6 13.
1 BDL 0.11 13.5 10.1 11.
0.14 0.54 13. 6 13.4 13.
0.18 0.41 15.0 14.9 13.
31.4 99.4 27.1 23.4 19.
P»
A
13.
19.
11.
43.
19.
10.
17.
13.
16.
12.
9.
12.
8.
13.
II.
13.
9.
8.
10.
16.
14.
18.
14.
11.
18.
14.
46.
j
i
43.3
68.4
55.
141.
47.
54.
55.
62.
44.
56.
57.
62.
52.
50.
56.
65.
63.
65.
57.
56.
69.
57.
78.
45.
57.
59.1
31. 1
In
A B
1 69.8 3.(
, 84.2 10.'
53.7 6.
378.6 9.
93.1 B.
61.5 6.
83.4 _• 7.
76.2 " II.
59.2 7.
56.5 t.
40.4 8.
39.7 10.
53.6 10.
68.2 9.
56.2 8.
33.3 10.
38.5 10.
63.2 7.
34.6 7.
69.1 10.
71.4 10.
75.8 9.
52.2 8.
42.4 7.
143.3 9.
1 78.2 8.
) 81.4 22.'
Cr
A
I 9.8
( 11.8
1.0
23.6
11.2
7.9
12.2
11.0
.8
.0
.5
.8
.8
1 .7
.2
.7
.2
.3
.2
11.3
14.1
12.8
9.0
7.3
ii. a
f 9.8
V 40.6
* B • Before iludge •pplieetton) A • After sludge application.
-------
TABLE 2.1). BRAT PI AND TOTAL METAL CONTEXTS OF FARM FIELDS BEFORE AND AFTER SLUDGE APPLICATION (KEDINA)
Site
No.
,
2
3
4
5
6
Mean
CV(I)
Bray PI
B*
31.4
8.8
12.9
14.?
41.5
8.8
19.6
69.4
A*
37.2
52.6
223.4
24.5
201.7
50.3 '
98.3
90.9
Co
B
24.1
10.5
10.0
10.4
10.1
10.1
12.5
45.2
A
14.1
11.9
11.4
8.2
10.3
11.5
11.2
17.3
Cd
B
0.24
0.18
0.09
0.18
0.22
0.19
0.18
28.2
A
0.25
0.16
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.23
0.19.
23.4
Hi
B
12.8
11.6
10.8
9.8
9.7
10.7
10.9
10.7
Fb
A
14.2
12.3
11.2
9.2
8.7
11.3
11. 1
11.8
B
12.3
10.5
10.5
12.0
9.0
11.5
11. 0
11.2
A
11.5
10.6
II. 8
10.6
9.0
12.8
11.2
11.8
Zn
B
48.1
44.1
40.8
52.0
41.6
47.8
45.7
9.4
A
55.3
46.2
44.5
49.0
37.6
56.6
48.2
14.7
Cr
B
6.5
5.9
6.0
6.4
5.3
6.4
6.0
9.3
A
8.9
6.2
5.9
5.9
5.3
7,0
6.6
19.5
* B'" Before sludge application! A • After sludge ippllcction.
-------
TABLE 2.16. (RAT PI AMD TOTAL METAL COHTEBT9 OT FARM FIEU>9 BEFORE AND AFTER SLUDGE APPLICATION (DEFIANCE AHD
SPRINGFIELD)
81t« Br«y P|
Ho. B* A*
Cu
Cd
Hi
Pb
u»
Ug/8
Defiance
1 57.2
2 35.1
3 42.9
Mean 45.1
CV(X) 24.9
16.2
62.8
201.7
73.4
120.6
16.7
9.9
14.2
15.2
8.9
18.5
16.7
15.1
13.2
33.3
0.27
0.22
0.28
0.28
2.1
0.29 17.8
0.27 10.5
0.33 14.6
0.26 14.2
23.3 26.4
19.8
17.8
9.8
12.6
38.0
11.5
6.1
8.9
9.3
21.8
11.1
11.5
10.7
9.2
24.6
52.5
31.9
47.8
43.3
27.9
62.8
52.5
41.6
44.5
29.3
13.7
8.7
11.4
11.2
23.3
16.5
13.7
9.7
11.0
33.3
Springfield
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mean
CV(X)
46.2
29.8
26.8
76.6
'0.8
73.8
33.7
46.5
44.3
82.6
42.0
116.1
95.5
53.5
223.1
87.0
100.0
59.8
6.1
7.3
13.3
9.8
10.3
12.0
11.2
10.0
25.5
5.7
7.8
12.6
9.4
11.2
12.5
13.5
10.4
27.6
0.10
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.10
0.13
O.12
0.14
24.1
0.11
0.17
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.32
0.17
0.18
35.9
5.3
6.2
13.4
9.7
11.6
13.2
11.6
10.1
32.0
5.5
6.5
11.9
7.7
11.9
11.7
12.1
9.6
30.4
5.8
7.2
12.6 .
11.4
7.9
10.1
8.6
9.1
26.5
6.0
7.1
12.9
11.6
9.8
15.0
12.2
10.7
30.2
26.1
41.2
47.0
41.3
35.9
45.6
39.0
39.4
17.7
27.1
36.'
53.
41.
43.
69.
55.
47.
29.
I 6.7
r 7.1
9.8
10.9
8.7
9.8
9.5
t 8.9
1 17.2
7.1
6.7
11.7
10.2
9.5
15.4
11.0
10.2
28.9
* B - Before aludge application; A - After slodge application.
-------
A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SLUDGE APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURAL LAND
As an aid in determining nutrient and metal additions to cropland
and supplemental nutrient requirements, a computer program was written
for use on a microcomputer. The inputs to the program (Figure 2.21)
include soil analysis, sludge analysis and specification of previous and
next crop and yield goal. The program uses current fertilizer
recommendations of the Ohio State University Cooperative Extension
Service (Agronomy Guide, 1983) for corn, soybeans, wheat, small grains
(oats rye, barley) and hay (grasses or legumes) to determine nutrient
requirements, and current fertilizer prices to calculate value of sludge
nutrients. The following steps are followed in the program:
1. The crop to be grown and the farmer's yield goal is determined and
the previous crop is identified.
2. A standard fertility soil test is run. This includes: pH; lime
requirement (to pH 6.5); Bray PI available P; exchangeable K, Mg,
Ca; cation exchange capacity.
3. Items 1 and 2 are then used to determine the nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium requirements of the crop.
4. The sludge is analyzed for: pH, solids, NH3~N, organic-N, P, K,
Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn.
5. The sludge analysis data is used to determine the N, P and K
nutrients and the five metals supplied per ton of sludge.
6. It is assumed that all of the P and K in sludge is equivalent to
fertilizer and all of the NH3~N is available. It is also assumed
that 30Z of the organic-N is available in the year it is applied.
In addition, the program assumes that none of the remaining
organic-N (702) is available in subsequent years. Finally, the
program assumes that P and R not utilized by the crop is as
available as fertilizer P and K in subsequent years. These
assumptions are not entirely valid and can be improved with further
research. For example, research indicates that 5-30% of the Nt^-N
can volatilize if the sludge is not immediately incorporated.
Also, sludge phosphorus is probably not completely available
(Pastene and Corey, 1978), although data on sludge P availability
is limited.
7. The program calculates and prints out (Figure 2.22) the N, P and K
supplied by 1-6 tons/acre (2.2-13.2 mt/ha) of sludge and compares
these values with the NPK requirements of the crop. The farmer can
then choose to apply enough sludge to apply one or more of these
three elements, and he can determine supplemental N, P and K he may
need.
8. The program then calculates the dollar value of 1-6 tons/acre
sludge based on the crop utilization of available nutrients. It
66
-------
(This it the best cej»r ovaifob'o;
w« r*0r«f that pcrfams or*
nOBCC ATTLICATinv t*Tt MAUTIIS
CUr.
*- Mi
». CattM
I. ftw'et Ut»r^iit«i
*, MHMt^ ItlMfW (IhB/UA)]
>. fwaMtM U Ite/tM):
C. li*c (LWtM)i
/.a-
0.6t
TkU r**r'
Figure 2.21. Data input form for sludge analysis cotsputer progrsz-
67
-------
: **LlC*I10" «*rt MAcfSIS ._. . .
(This rs
:l*"""- •»• w* regr*r fhof
uftd*cfpherabUj
. uir- *»
> U»f. ;j; t;«C TEST J«UB> *7
: MiiftouM" 5*
'n.i^»-jo« ->«ici
i ***•»*•»•*•••
in* i i j 4 s «
;\«*. «*•» »».» 2*. »».» «.* */«.-J
Ctft£A I.ft 1.1 *•* *.J ^.T <.J
HICM*. >• t.i i •* ^'.i •<': !••
CAtMlun .1 -J .4 .« . ? .»
'UK M.UWI S4»* n:.i i»f.r rcs>* roi 330.4
s:.i sr.s 32.5 5^.1 sr.s ss.s
•.• 17.7 2*.fc T5.1 44.* 51.:
• INK fCM |«.r tl.« •*« * 6.4 3.7
-j rUH t^Tfft ff 4,4 1.1 2.4 ?
•J rCMM UITOI *3 jl» 3^7 2* \',7
~* TIMES UtTCfc ,1 .7 3.9 i.V t.%
-% TEAM LAU* ,( .1 :.* |.7 1.4 .5
tot* ova » TCM r».; j7.» n.i i*.* ti.3 11.;
I *Siw*i com*
Figure 2,22* Output of sludge analysis computer program.
68
-------
does not place any value on nitrogen not utilized by the crop in
the year applied, but it does place a value on P and K carried over
for a period of five years after the year of application. Current
fertilizer costs are used to calculate sludge value.
9. The metals applied with sludge at rates between 1 and 6 tons/acre
(2.2 and 13.2 mt/ha) are calculated and displayed (Figure 2.22).
This data is also used to calculate the maximum cumulative amount
of that sludge that can be applied to that soil based on Ohio's
guidelines for cumulative metal additions (Ohio Sludge Guide,
1982).
This computer program was extremely useful in the project for
several reasons: (1) it was an effective tool in demonstrating to
farmers the contents and economic value of sludge nutrients, as well as
the contents and sludge-loading limitations of heavy metals in sewage
sludge; (2) it was an effective means of documenting the land
application process.
This computer program has since been modified and adopted by the
REAL laboratory of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center, Wooster, Ohio, and is used to give recommendations on sludge use
for crops in Ohio based on submitted soil and sludge samples.
FARM SCIENCE REVIEW FIELD DEMONSTRATION
Introduction
In 1978, a replicated field research study was initiated at the
Ohio State University Farm Science Review at Don Scott Airport,
Columbus. The objective of the study was to collect more detailed data
than could be obtained from the farmer demonstrations on the use of
sewage sludge at agronomic rates of application. Also, because of its
location at the Farm Science Review, site of the annual state-wide farm
show, this experiment was effectively used as a demonstration tool for
the state-wide farmer audience. Signs detailing the experimental
treatments were posted each year, and the annual yield results were
published in the Agronomy Department bulletin prepared for each Review.
In addition, members of the project staff were available at the plots
during the Review to answer questions.
Methods
Centrifuged Columbus Jackson Pike anaerobically digested sewage
sludge was used for the study. The required quantity was hauled to the
site and stockpiled no more than two days prior to spreading. A small
front-end loader was used to transfer sludge to a commercial side-throw
flail manure sprsader (Figure 2.23). The rate of application was
measured by running the spreader at a designated speed and rpm and then
collecting and weighing sludge on sheets of paper 45 cm x 45 cm. This
gave a rate of 6.5 mt/ha dry sludge in 1978, 1979, 1981 and 1982 and
5.5 mt/ha in 1980. A double rate was also applied (11 and 13 mt/ha)
69
-------
(THIS IS TMC «fST COfr AVAHABU,
nt WGff£T THAT PORTIONS AM
UND6CIPHE RASlf J
Figure 2.23. Side-throw manure spreader used to spread Columbus cake
sludge st OSU Farm Science Review Research plots.
70
-------
each year by spreading on the same plot twice. The sludge was
incorporated by moldboard plowing and disking within 24 hours of
spreading and the crop was planted within two days after disking. In
the fall of 1978, sludge was applied at the half rate prior to. planting
wheat but no sludge was applied to the full rate plots for wheat. The
sludge treatments were repeated on the plots and agricultural lime was
added in the fall of 1978, after the first crop, to raise soil pH to 6.5
Because of variability in soil pH among the plots and the small
difference between unlimed and limed pH (s 6.0 vs 6.5), this treatment
gave no differences between any of the dependent variables studied.
These additional sludge plots were, therefore, treated as replicates of
the sludge treatments. All treatments were replicated twice, with one
replicate cropped with corn each year and the other in a
corn-wheat-corn-soybean-corn rotation. In addition, all treatment
combinations were replicated in three blocks, with treatments randomized
within each block. Each plot was 9.1 m wide and 30.5 m long except the
fertilizer and control plots, each of which was 9.1m wide and 15.25 m
long and placed next to each other to give the same dimensions as the
other plots. A 10.7 m buffer area was left between each block as a turn
path for the spreader.
The fertilizer treatment for corn was 220 kg N/ha as NlfyNOS and
40 kg P/ha as monocalcium phosphate, applied by hand just before
plowing. A blanket application of 65-200 kg K/ha was applied to the
entire experiment each spring depending on the potassium soil test so as
to eliminate potassium as a variable in the study. About 40 kg P/ha was
applied in the spring to the fertilizer plots prior to planting soybeans
but no nitrogen was added. About 50 kg N/ha and 50 kg P/ha were added
to the fertilizer plots just prior to planting wheat.
Soil samples were taken from each plot in the spring of 1978 before
the start of the experiment and, thereafter, in the fall after crop
harvest. The soils were analyzed for: pH; Bray PI available P; DTPA
ex tract able and total Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Plant leaves were sampled
at tasseling (corn), flower initiation (soybeans) or heading (wheat) and
analyzed for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Crop yields were measured by hand
harvesting 15 m of row. Grain was analyzed for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn.
Analytical procedures are those which were previously discussed.
Results
Sludge Analysis-—
The analyses of Columbus sludge used each year are given in
Table 2.17- These were used to calculate the annual additions of N, P,
K and Cd, and the cumulative addition of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn
(Table 2.18). The nitrogen supplied by the half rate of sludge was
probably low for corn, as was the full rate in 1979. However, this soil
(Crosby silt loam with some Kokomo loam) has a fairly high organic
matter content (3-5%) and N mineralization from the soil is probably
substantial. Phosphorus supplied by sludge was high at all rates, but
potassium supply was only half of what a corn crop would normally
require on this soil. However, potash was applied, uniformly to the
71
-------
TABLE 2.17. ANALYSIS OF THE COLUMBUS JACKSON FIKE ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED SEWAGE SLUDGE USED IN THE STUDY
(1978-1982)
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
Sol Ida
pH Z
7.3 — t
7.3 ~t
T.S 19.7
8.1 16.8
^.6 19.5
nii3-N
6.ot
6.0
6.4
7.9
4.4
Organic
N
29-2
19.3
32.9
42.8
29.8
Avail.
N*
14.8
11.8
15.6
20.0
12.9
t
27.5
26. b
25.2
25.1
25.5
K.
kg/at
4.9
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.4
Cd
dry all
0.059
0.143
0.061
0.095
0.061
Cu
0.71
0.80
0.73
0.72
0.69
Hi
0.33
0.29
0.51
0.33
0.23
Fb
0.63
0.30
0.87
0.61
0.48
Zn Cr
5.10
5.66 0.63
5.63 0.99
4.62 0.59
3.27 0.51
* Aaauoea 30Z of the Oig«nic-N ii available and that 10Z of the KHj-t» it lost by volatilization.
t The solids on the centriEuged sludge vt» not analyzed in thii period.
t Eitinated frooi the oean of annthly analyaea for 1978-1982.
-------
TABU 2.18. AJOTOAL KATES OF APPLICATIOH OF », t, K AMD CD, AND CDMOLATTVE AFFLICATIOHS OF CD, CO, KX,
PB AND ZS (1978-1982)
Tear
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
Sludge
Rate
(mt/b.)
6.5
13.0
6.5
13.0
5.5
11.0
6.5
13.0
6.5
13.0
Annual Loadio* (kx/Tia/yr)
Avail. K*
96
192
77
154
86
172
130
260
84
164
P
179
358
174
348
139
278
163
326
166
332
K
32
64
27
54
23
46
27
54
29
58
Ud
0.38
0.76
0.93
1.86
0.34
0.68
0.62
1.24
0.40
0.80
Cd
0.38
0.76
1.31
2.62
1.65
3.30
2.27
4.54
2.67
5.34
Cuwilative Loading (kg/ha)
Cu
4.6
9.2
9.8
19.6
13.8
27.6
18.5
37.0
23.0
46.0
Hi
2.1
4.2
4.0
8.0
4.8
13.6
B.9
17.8
10.4
20.8
/fa
4.1
8.2
6.1
12.2
10.9
21.8
14.9
29.8
36io
Zn
33.2
66.4
70.0
140.0
101.0
202.0
131.0
162.0
152.3
3O4.6
* ACROM) 30Z of th« crj«nic-H is ovvilablc maA that 101 of the H^-H i» lost by roiatilitatioo.
73
-------
experiment area tach year, «o potassium supply would not be J uniting.
Annual Cd application rate was below the 2.0 kg/ha/yr allowed by EPA
(EPA, 1979) in all years, although the 1.86 kg/ha applied in 1979
approached this value. Cumulative amounts of the five metals studied
were well within the levels allowed by Ohio EPA (Ohio Sludge Guide,
1982) for a soil with a CEC between 5 and 15 meq/100 g.
Yields-
Crop yields are given in Table 2.19. There was a response of corn
to fertilizer or sludge in all years except the first. The area used
for this experiment bad been used for corn previously, and there may
have been carry over of residual nitrogen which affected corn response
to sludge or fertilizer H in 1978. This is suggested by the high check
plot yield (9,030 kg/ha) in that year compared to 3500-7000 kg/ha in
following years. There were no differences between the fertilizer and
full-rate sludge treatments, while the half rate of sludge tended to be
lower than the full rate or the fertilizer treatments except in 1978.
There was a significant response of wheat to both rates of sludge
addition. This was a nicrogen response, and the fertjlizer treatment
did not give higher yields because the wheat on this treatment matured
more rapidly and lodged before it could be harvested. There was also
some shattering of seed heads before and during harvesting which
contributed to yield loss. There was slower maturity and no lodging on
the sludge plots.
There were no yield differences on the soybean plots. This was
expected since soybeans fix their own nitrogen and phosphorus soil tests
were high enough to preclude a response to P.
Leaf and Grain Analysis—
The nutrient (NFK) and oetal contents of corn leaves and grain are
given in Table 2.20. Different hybrids were used each year, so
comparisons should not be made from one year's results to another.
However, the effect of repeated sludge applications can be made by
comparing the change in the elemental composition of corn tissue from
the sludge-treated plots with concentrations from the control and
fertilizer plots.
Nitrogen in the leaf vas only evaluated in 1978, and results show
that the half-rate of sludge had significantly lower N concentration
than the fertilizer treatment, while the full rate was the same as the
fertilizer treatment. Table 2.18 indicates that the half rate in 1978
only supplied 96 kg N/ha, about half the normal N needs of corn. There
were no treatment differences in grain N in 1978 and 1979, but grain N
was significantly lower on the sludge treatments than the fertilizer
treatment in 1981.
\
There were no differences in leaf P in any year except 1982 where
leaf P on the control plots were lower than the fertilizer or sludge
treatments. Grain P generally showed few consistent differences among
treatments. The lack of response of tissue P to the treatments is not
74
-------
74BLE 1.19. CKOP THUS OH THE S1OTGE PLOTS (1978-1982)
Treatwmt
Coatrol
Fertiliser*
Foil Ratet
Half Kate
1978
9,030 b*
10,040 ah
9,720 «b
10,410 •
!979
4,700 b
7,840 a. .
7.S40 «
7,650 •
Com
1980
7,090 e
9,720 «
9,910 a
8,470 b
•
1981
3,510 e
6,840 a
6,520 •
5,580 b
1982
6,020 b
8,090 «
6,960 ob
5,710 b
Hheart
1979
1950 b
2020 b
3900 *
3230 a
Soybean*
1981
2820 «
2820 «
2690 .
2690 •
* H*«nt within the MOM vertical colons followed by the me letter are not: different fro* each
other (p • 0.05).
t H>e*t »•• rotated «fter corn and ealy the half race ««• applied before plmnting wheat.
f Soil te»t recoantaded race. Ho nitrogen VAC applied to aoybeasa or oheat.
! Full rate w«. 13 st/ha in 1978, 1979, 1981, and 1982, and 11 at/ha in 1980. Foeeeeun at
recoHBended rate applied to all (lodge plot*.
75
-------
TABLE 1.20. LEAF AMD CRAM COKTEHTS OF HUTMENTS AM) HEAVY METALS IK COM CROWN WITH COLUMBUS SEWAGE SLUDGE AT FAM1 SCIBKCE REVIEW
Trutmnt N
Control 26800k*
Fartlllier 31900*
Sludje-ll.lf R.tet 29400b
Sludgn-Full B.tet 30400.b
Control
FertUU.r
Slu **eh oth.r (f • 0.0$).
-------
unexpected since the Bray PI soil test levels were above the sufficiency
level of 15-20 yg P/g on all plots (Table 2.22). There were also no
differences in leaf K and no consistent differences in grain K.
Potassium was applied uniformly to all plots and there were no
differences in exchangeable K in any year (Table 2.22).
Of the metals, there were consistent increases in leaf Za and Cd
with sludge application compared to the control and fertilizer plots,
with the greatest Cd effects in 1978 where the corn hybrid used had much
higher Cd uptake than hybrids used in subsequent years. Hinsely et al.
(1982) have shown large differences in Cd uptake among genetic corn
lines. Grain Cd and Zn from sludge-treated plots were also higher in
1978 than grain from the control or fertilizer plots. There was a. trend
in all years for leaf Cu from the fertilizer plots to be higher than the
sludge-treated or control plots. The only possible explanation for ^.'..is
is that Cu may have been added with fertilizer and increased leat Cu
while Cu added with sludge may have been less bioavailable because of
its strong binding with sludge organic matter.
Levels of all metals in corn leaves or grain were low for all
treatments compared to concentrations that are found for corn grown in
highly metal-contaminated soils.
Leaf and grain N concentrations were low in wheat grown on
sludge-treated plots compared to the fertilizer treatment, and were not
significantly different from those from the control plots (Table 2.21).
The half-rate sludge treatment provided 77 kg N/ha of available K, while
the full-rate treatment only provided residual N from sludge supplied to
the previous corn crop (Table 2.18). However, wheat yields were higher
from the sludge plots than from the control or fertilizer plots
(Table 2.19). As previously explained, wheat yields from the fertilizer
plots would probably have been higher, but this treatment caused
considerable lodging and seed head shattering because of earlier
maturity. Therefore, it is possible that wheat on the sludge plots was
N-limited.
There were no differences in wheat leaf or grain metal contents
except grain Cu which was lower with the sludge treatments than the
control or fertilizer treatments.
There were no consistent effects of sludge application on natrient
or metal concentrations of soybean leaves or grain (Table 2.21).
Soil Analysis—
Soil pH; exchangeable K; Bray PI available Pj total N, P and K; and
total and DTPA-extractable metals in soil each year are given in
Table 2.22 for the control, fertilizer and sludge treatments.
There was a trend for higher soil pH on the sludge-treated plots.
This was due to the addition of lime to half of the sludge plots in
1978. Even though liming did not significantly increase pH, and these
plots were treated the same statistically, they did raise the mean pH
77
-------
TABU i.ii. LUT MID CUM CMrn»T» or mmiani urn IKAVT WTAU in WKAT AMD *OYUAM CMNM inn coumaut etwax suroct AT r«m seines mum
00
Trc.tBent H
r
Uif
K CJ
Co
ni
n
(*
N
r
*
Cr.U
Cd
Co
Pi
Pb to
tihe.t (1979)
Control 24600b*
Fcrtlllter 32000*
Sludge-Half R*tet 2440Ob
Sludge-Full lUtet 27000«b
Control —
rertili»r —
SliK)(«-H.lf t*t* ' --
2470.
2)70*
2960.
3020*
3860*
4050*i
6240A
4210*
O.J5*
0.11*
— 0.37*
0.3J*
28000* 0.19*
27000* 0.21*
27000* 0.8}*
•7COO. 1.43*
32. 2*
27. 3* .
31.9*
9.Ub
S.ltb
«.9*
6.0*
3.3.
2.8*
Soj
3.7.
5.0.
3.4.
3.3*
5.7*
7.2*
1.2.
6.3*
rbe«n»
-------
TAILS 2.22. SOIL pll AND NOTKlniT AMD WTAt COMTOrrS Of SOU IT TEM Am* TMATHENT WITH COLUMBUS 8EHAUX SLODCI AT rAIH ICIDKC KTIW
Kzeh*ne,«*bl«
Tr**t**at pfl It Ire? f\
Control 3,7**
Fertlliier 3.2b
8ludge-H«tf t.tet 3.3«b
Sludge-Full R*tet 3.3«b
Control t.O.
Fertlllter 3.9*
Sludge-Half l.te 3.8.
Sludge-Full Rot* 6.0*
Control
FertllUer
Sludge-H.lf E*te
Sludge-Full l*t*
Control,
Fertilizer
Sludge-H.lf t«t*
Sliirfge-Full *.t*
Control
Feitt liter
Sludge-Hell t*te
Sludge-Full lUte
.3*b
.9b
.3*
.5*
.2*
.2*
.3*
.3*
.1*
.8b
.3*
.4.
--
—
~_
--
133)
167*
133*
132*
173*
187*
179*
176*
174*
168*
173.
171*
>*0«
140*
223*
«7.
33.8c
39.0be
30.6«b
33.9*
36. 7b
28. 4b
4l.7efc
34.0*
26. 2c
30. Be
36. 9b
79.1*
27. 9b
33. 8b
89.01.
83.3*
3l.»e
34. 2c
34. 3b
89.9k
Total
H
I709b
1220*
17IBb
I66lb
1788*
1978*
1703*
1637*
..
..
--
—
«
—
—
— •
„
»
—
"
t
638*
764*
663*
703*
t)2*
692*
640*
660*
_-
..
—
—
--
—
— .
-•
„
_.
«
"
t
5800*
6377*
3481*
3293*
371 Jab
6109*
5 04 Ob
3037b
_.
..
—
—
--
—
~
'-
„
_
—
Cu
1978
17.3*
20.9*
18.0*
17.6*
J97J
20.3*
20.4*
20.6.
20.3.
1980
__
..
—
—
198J.
--
«
— •
t*»j
U.f*
13.2*
16.7*
17.2*
C4
0.40b
0.5«*
0.44b
0.44b
0.27.
0.23*
0.38*
0.41*
«
--
—
—
—
—
—
— •
O.BSbe
O.BIe
l.02*k
1.13*
fb
32.2*
33.0*
34.6*
32.9*
16.1.
16.4*
17.3*
17.5*
«
--
«
—
—
—
—
•-
I.I.
2.8.
3.0*
3.3*
• 1
24.1*
22.3*
22.t*
20.8*
20.3*
21.4*
19.3*
18.6*
_-
—
--
—
—
--
«
••
U.I.
16.4*
16.0*
13.6*
I*
82.2*
93.4*
89.7*
St. 7*
91.0*
86.0*
92.8*
92.8*
*.
—
—
™
«
..
—
~
«t.3k
6J.lb
80.4*
86.8.
C»
2.5b
3.6.
2.7b
2.7k
1.1*
2.3*
2.3*
2.4*
2.9*
3.3*
4.3*
4.3*
2.9b
3.5ab
4.3*
4,6.
2.»b
2.8k
3.2k
3.9*
BTP4 Si
0.16k
0.23*
O.IBak
O.I9«k
0.16*
0.16*
0.21*
0.22*
0.21k
0.22k
0.33k
0.43*
0.25b
0.26k
0.48*
O.)4i
O.l7b
0.24k
0.39b
0.33*
H..UI
rb
3.lb
3.6*
3.2b
3.4.k
1.8*
1.9*
2.1*
2.0*
2.7k
3.0b
3.l*b
3.3*
2.7b
>.7k
l.lak
).)*
l.tk
l.Sb
3.0»b
3.4*
le
III
l.3b
2.6*
I.Jb
1.3k
2.2*
2.3*
1.9*
1.8*
1.9*
2.2*
1.8*
2.3*
1.7*
1.7*
I.*'
!.)«
1.9*
2.3*
1.6*
1.8*
Z*
.2c
. 3b«
.Oeb
.4*
.3.k
.9fc
.8*
.1*
5.4c
6.1c
I0.4b
13.7*
4.4k
4.1k
14.2*
D.ll
S.Ske
3.4c
9.6b
14.4*
* tfe.ni within th« inn* rcrtte.l colmn* Miami by th« »tmt Utter *r* not aiffer.nt frwt etch othtr (p » 0.03).
t Half lute - 6.3 ot/h. (3.3 Bt/h* In I9BO)| foil Kit* - 13 >t/h* (II nt/h* in 1980).
-------
for the sludge plots compared to the control and fertilizer treatments.
Also, digested sewage sludges have a tendency to raise pH's of acid
soils.
There was a consistent significant increase in Bray PI phosphorus
with sludge and fertilizer treatments. By 1980, sludge additions had
raised available P levels above that for the fertilizer treatment, and
the full rate of sludge had higher levels than the half rate in 1980 and
1982.
Total nutrients (N, P, K) in soil (measured only in 1978 and 1979)
were generally unaffected by fertilizer or sludge additions. This is
not unexpected since this fertile till soil has high background levels
of these three elements. Increases in total metals in soil with sludge
treatment were not noted until 1982 and only with Cd and Zn. This
points out the difficulty in using soil analysis to monitor metal
accumulations when low rates of sludge-borne metals are applied.
DTPA-extractable metals except Hi increased with the full rate of sludge
application after 1980, although there was a consistent increase in
DTPA-Zn from the first year of sludge application. DTPA did not appear
to be sensitive to Ni additions.
REFERENCES
Agronomy Guide. 1982-83. Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, The Ohio
State University. Bulletin 472.
Bremner, J. M. 1965. Total nitrogen. In C. A. Black et al. (eds).
Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Agronomy 9:1149-1178. Amer.
Soc. Agron.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1980. Effects or
sewage sludge on the cadmium and zinc content of crops. Report
No. 83.
Hinesly, T. D., D. E. Alexander, K. E. Redborg and E. L. Zeigler. 1982.
Differential accumulations of cadmium and zinc by corn hybrids
grown on soil amended with sewage sludge. Agron. J. 74:469-474.
Knudsen, D. 1980. Recommended phosphorus tests. In Recommended
Chemical Soil Test Procedures For The North Central Region. N.C.
Reg. Pub. No 221 (Revised).
Lindsay, W. L. and W. A. Norvell. 1978. Development of a DTPA soil
test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J.
42:421-428.
Ohio Guide for Land Application of Sewage Sudge. 1982. Ohio
Cooperative Extension Service, The Ohio State University.
Bull. 598 (Revised).
80
-------
Fastens, A. J. and R. B. Corey. 1980. Forms and availability of
phosphorus in a sewage sludge-amended soil. pp 63-74. In 3rd
Annual Madison Conf. on Applied Res. and Practice on Munic. and
. Ind. Waste. Madison, WI.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Criteria for
classification of solid waste disposal facilities and practices.
Federal Register. 44:53,438-453, 468.
81
-------
© SECTION 3
SOCIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF LAND
APPLICATION OF SLUDGE
Robert E. Brown, M.S., P.E.
Ohio Fana Bureau Development Corporation
Columbus, Ohio 43216
Albert R. Pugh, M.S.
Cooperative Extension Service
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
The sociological aspect of the sewage sludge project was one of the
important keys to the success of the total project. Attitudes of Ohio
residents regarding land disposal of municipal sewage sludge were suveyed by
Musselman et al., 1980. They found that educational meetings were effective
in changing residents attitudes and increasing acceptance of land
application. However, general interest in the issue and attendance of
• public meetings on the issue is low unless a land application program is
imminent. The issues of concern were potential odor problems, impacts on
property values, and health and environmental risks.
The demonstration aspect of this project was to present the practicality
of management systems which would overcome concerns of the rural community
and still provide municipalities with reliable disposal sites for sludge.
Sites were selected which would include the four major soil regions of Ohio
and which would permit the involvement of both large cities and smaller
water treatment systems. The demonstration areas included Franklin and
Pickaway counties which received sludge from the city of Columbus; Clark
county which received sludge from the city of Springfield; Defiance county
which received sludge from the city of Defiance; and Medina county which
received sludge from a county waste water treatment system. It was our
desire to show that sludge management systems could address in an
appropriate nanner the concerns of rural residents under conditions which
were typical of most of the state of Ohio.
i
.•
The first step in initiation of the project was to present its scope to
as many people in each community as possible. Detailed discussions were held
between project staff and elected officials. Public meetings, radio,
television, newspaper articles, field demonstrations and personal contects
82
-------
vere used to present the project to the general public. Almost every farmer
in each community was contacted and invited to become involved in the
project.
Organizations and officials which were involved included the Ohio
Municiapal League, The Ohio County Commissioners Association, The Ohio
Environmental Protection Agency, the Ohio Department of Health, County
Boards of Health, Mayors, County Commissioners, City Managers, and County
Farm Bureau Boards.
Legal Considerations Regarding Land Application of Sludge
A model contract to be used by farmers who receive sludge and the
municipalities which generate sludge was drafted by the Ohio Farm Bureau
Federation and the four project communities, (See Attachment). The contract
is an attempt to carefully define the rights and responsibilities of the
sludge generators and the farmers, and included the following priciples:
1. The Ohio State University Cooperative Extension Bulletin 59£ '-B the
authoritative document regarding appropriate management practices tor
land application of sludge.
2. Sludge is to be delivered and spread on farms by the communities
generating the sludge without charge to the farmers.
3. The fanner and the community will mutually agree on the specific site
where the sludge will be applied.
4. The fanner may terminate application activities if he believes that
weather and field conditions are not suitable or that the application
will result in damage to the field or crops.
5. The generating community will be responsible for monitoring the quality
of the sludge and will supply the farmer with data on the cozrooiition of
the sludge.
6. Application rates are to be mutually agreed upon by fanners and
generators of the sludge.
7. The sludge must be well stabilized and free of offensive odors.
It was not possible to obtain a clause with our cooperating committees
which would recognize the sludge generators as responsible for any
liabilitites resulting from the application of sludge to the land. Rather
it was agreed that this liability question would have to be decided on a
case by case basis if and when problems arose.
Other clauses that may be included in a contract which are desirable for
the protection of landowners include the tollowings
83
-------
1. Indemnification. An agreement should provide that the city vill
indemnify a landowner for any expenses incurred by the landowner, such
as attorney fees and damage awards, as a result of participation in a
sewage sludge disposal project. The disposal of sewage sludge upon land
may lead to litigation based upon such things as nuisance, water
pollution and negligence. Unfortunately a landowner could be named a
defendant in such litigation and held liable for damages. An
indemnification clause will place the ultimate responsibility for
payment of such damages upon the city.
2. Damage, Insurance and Performance Bonds. An agreement should provide
that the city will compensate the landowner for any damages resulting
from sludge disposal and it may provide that the city will keep
insurance and a performance bond in force that covers liabilities
arising under the agreement as well as other liabilitites associated
with the disposal of sludge. The insurance and bond are a source of
funds with which to pay the landowner and/or other persons damaged by
sludge disposal activities. This is especially important when it
appears that a city may not have the funds available to cover sucb
damages.
3. Arbitration. An arbitration clause can help settle many disputes and
avoid litigation and should be included in a sludge disposal agreement.
Under arbitration, arbitrators chosen by the landowner and the city,
would settle disputes arising under the agreement. This would
frequently result in faster and cheaper resolutions of conflicts. In
addition, it helps put the landowner in an equal bargaining position
with the city because it avoids placing the landowner in a situation
where he must hire an attorney to represent him.
Securing Cooperating Farmers
The recruitnent of farmers for the project was initiated with letters
froa the County Extension Office inviting people out to a meeting regarding
the project. Post cards were enclosed in the letters and were to be
returned by the farmers to indicate if they planned to attend the meeting. A
telephone campaign was then conducted to urge return of the post cards and
attendence of the meeting. This generally resulted in an attendance of 50
to 100 people of which about one half were willing to become involved in the
study. Recruitment of additional people varied with the community and
included all modes of advertisement plus considerable one on one
conversations between farmers and County Extension staff.
Those volunteering for the project were invited to a second meeting in
the County Extension office for additional information. This provided all
participants an opportunity to meet the researchers involved in the project
asd another time for questions and answers prior to the initiation of the
project.
-------
1. Indemnification. An agreement should provide that the city will
indemnify a landowner for any expenses incurred by the landowner, such
as attorney fees and damage awards, as a result of participation in a
sewage sludge disposal project. The disposal of sewage sludge upon land
may lead to litigation based upon such things as nuisance, water
pollution and negligence. Unfortunately a landowner could be named a
defendant in such litigation and held liable for damages. An
indemnification clause will place the ultimate responsibility for
payment of such damages upon the city.
2. Damage, Insurance and Performance Bonds. An agreement should provide
that the city will compensate the landowner for any damages resulting
from sludge disposal and it may provide that the city will keep
insurance and a performance bond in force that covers liabilities
arising under the agreement as well as other liabilitites associated
with the disposal of sludge. The insurance and bond are a source of
funds with which to pay the landowner and/or other persons damaged by
sludge disposal activities. This is especially important when it
appears that a city may not. have the funds available to cover such
damages.
3. Arbitration. An arbitration clause can help settle many disputes and
avoid litigation and should be included in a sludge disposal agreement.
Under arbitration, arbitrators chosen by the landowner and the city,
would settle disputes arising under the agreement. This would
frequently result in faster and cheaper resolutions of conflicts. In
addition, it helps put the landowner in an equal bargaining position
with the city because it avoids placing the landowner in a situation
where he must hire an attorney to represent him.
Securing Cooperatins Farmers
The recruitment of farmers for the project was initiated with letters
from the County Extension Office inviting people out to a meeting regarding
the project. Post cards were enclosed in the letters and were to be
returned by the farmers to indicate if they planned to attend the meeting. A
telephone campaign was then conducted to urge return of the post cards and
attendence of the meeting. This generally reoulted in an attendance of 50
to 100 people of which about one half were willing to become involved in the
study. Recruitment of additional people varied with the community and
included all modes of advertisement plus considerable one on one
conversations between farmers and County Extension staff.
Those volunteering for the project were invited to a second meeting in
the County Extension office for additional information. This provided all
participants an opportunity to meet the researchers involved in the project
ar»d another time for questions and answers prior to the initiation of the
project.
-------
The educational phase of the project was conducted as objectively as
possible. No attempt was made to " over sell" the concept of recycling of
eevage sludge because this would only lead to mistrust of the participants.
All of its facets were presented in an unbiased and professional manner.
Management of Land Application of Sludge
®
The demonstration method was used to present what leaders of the rural
community would consider to be a veil managed sludge disposal system. The
objective was to minimize negative impacts on the rural community and still
provide practical reliable conditions for municipalities involved in
disposal of sewage sludges.
An odor problem was recognized as the most likely factor producing a
negative impact. It was the position of the project directors that
unstabilized, foul smelling sludge would not be applied to the land of
cooperating farmers. If unstabilized sludges were to be applied to the land
in an emergency, the sludge was to be injected into the soil.
A prime consideration was that no farm would be labeled as "the sludge
disposal farm" with all the implied negative connotations. Instead as many
farms as possible were to be involved in the project, each receiving a
limited quantity of cludge on a small acreage. This practice would limit
the sludge spreading activity in a given area to at most two weeks and no
rural residents would be faced with the prospect of living next door to a
sludge disposal site on a year round basis. This practice would also insure
that any nuisances would be of short duration in a given neighborhood.
The project was concerned about environmental problems such ast runoff,
water pollution, and metal accumulations. Control measures were carefully
planned and implemented. Since sludge application was based upon the
fertility needs of the crop, the amount of sludge applied was low. As a
result the likelihood of sludge having an impact upon surface water or
ground water was also reduced. The application rate varied from 4 to 10 dry
metric tons per hectare. At these rates, sludge could be applied to a giver.
field for twenty years or more without approaching the recommended limits
for accumulation of metals.
Finding disposal sites during inclement weather was the most difficult
management factor. During summer applications were made v\pon hay and
pasture fields and wheat stubble. Fall, winter and spring applications were
made upon corn and soybean fields. In all areas the relatively level
topography permitted applications In the winter on frozen grounds.
Applications were generally not possible when the ground thawed during the
winter and during peroida of heavy rainfall in the spring. A capacity of up
to two months storage of sludge at the sewage plant is essential in coping
with periods of unfavorable field conditions.
Dairy farms were excluded from the project as recommended by the Ohio
fv
Department of Health. Applications were made on a sod farm in Franklin
county.
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educational activities
The interest of fanner participants in the project v/as maintained by a
nuober of methods. A newsletter was employed to inform participants of
activities and accomplishments. Public meetings, field days, and tours were
provided. The Cooperative Extension Service maintained close contacts with
participants and also those sanitary officals involved in the spreading of
the sludge. . B
Educational meetings were also sponsored for the benifit of sanitary
engineers, municipal officials, and public health officals . Workshops were
held Annually since 1980 for the following people;
County and municipal engineers and sewage treatment plant operators
Consulting engineers
Local government officials ard health department personnel
Agency personnel. Cooperative Extension Service, Ohio Environmental
Protection Agency, USDA Soil Conservation Service, Ohio Department of
Natural Resources Division of Soil and Water Conservation Districts, etc.
The workshop program was designed to cover equipment and syster
selection, soil properties and potential problems, health concerns, economic
aspects, educational and public relation programs, and regulations. Other
topics covered were contract hauling/spreading and composting of sewage
sludge. Each workshop has included problem eats where the participants
analyzed case situations and presented their conclusions before the
workshop. Between 80 and 100 individuals have attended each year.
PROJECT DETAILS BY COUNTY
CLARK COUNTY
Clark County was the last county to be added to the research project.
Clark County is located in West Central Ohio which has a population of
150,236 and the City of Springfield with 71,000 people. Springfield is a
manufacturing city. Extensive efforts in pretreatment of waste by local
industry has resulted in a suitable sludge. The city has been spreading
sludge on farm land for several years and had good rapport with the area
fanners.
John W. Kame, Clark County Extension Service office was selected to work
with the project. He made the contacts with the farmers and worked at all
the meetings and with the Springfield Waste Treatment Plant. Mr. Kame knew
most of the farm families which aidi-l in securing cooperators. The farms
were in constant contact by phone or personal visit from Mr. Kame to keep
them informed and to resolve any problems.
Farms in Clark County average 211 acres which is about average for the
state. Clark County is No. 1 in beef cattle, but grain crops such as corn,
soybeans, wheat, and oats are produced along with forage crops.
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With the smaller farm near h02*23, special care was taken to-keep the
odor problem under control. During the whole project, there vas not one
complaint front a neighbor or citizen about the spreading of sludge.
The same educational program was conducted as outlined in the
introduction. Additional meetings such as sludge farm tours each year and
newspaper articles were used to keep the public informed.
Michael E. Haubner, County Extension agent, Agriculture and Community
and Natural Resource Development, reported the following conclusions about
the project in Clark County:
1. Everyone who participated in the project wants to continue or begin to
receive sludge for their farms. All felt it was beneficial, saved them
dollars and improved the tilth of their soil.
2. There were no complaints from anyone in Clark County about the spreading
of sludge.
3. Everyone in the county vas very pooitive about sludge being applied to
farmland.
4. There were tvo main factors responsible for this positive, smooth
running project.
a. Mr. Jack Kame spent many hours working with cooperators and waste
treatement plant officials to solve any immediate or foreseeable
problems.
b. The professional waste treatment plant officials ran an efficient,
responsible operation.
5. Everything concerning this project was positive and land application of
sewage sludge vh-.n carefully monitored can be very beneficial to local
governments and farmers.
COLUMBUS PROJECT
The Columbus project Was initiated as described above. Farms in the
area are involved in the production of corn, soybeans, wheat ^nd hay crops.
A number of livestock farms are located in Pickaway County.
The Columbus project has been successful in Franklin County where
Columbus is located. Sludge has been applied to Franklin County farms for
over three years without any complaints from neighbors to the sludge
receiving farms. It is important to note that strip bousing was in the
vicinity of the .sludge spreading operations but not as close as in the
Hedina project.
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The Pickaway County pot«-iwu of the project was also operated
successfully fot over one and a half years. However,problems were
encountered when » poorly stabilized sludge was applied to Pickaway County
farms which were not involved in this project. As an emerengcy measure,
Columbus obtained agreements with farmers who were not ic tha OFBDC project
to receive a lime stabilized sludge cake. The sludge was placed in
stocklpiles on fieHs in anticipation )f beiug spread within tvo weeks.
However, the weather changed making -he spreading of sludge stockpiles
impossible for a period of six weeks or longer. In some situations the
odors became unbearable.
This incident resulted in the *-* of our Pickaway County project. Many
non farm residents who live in strip housing developments in Pickawsy County
were suddenly stirred and opposed to further spreading of Columbus sludge
within the county. Public meetings were conducted by the project staff to
try to distinguish between this emergency of Columbus and the project
sponsored by the OEFDC. It was found Uo be simply impossible to communicate
with those opposed to sludge applications. Petitions were passed against
the project and finally the local Board of Health placed an injunction
against all spreading of sludge from Columbus within Pickaway County.
This situation reminded the residents of Pickaway County of the many
conflicts of interest between the City of Columbus and the people in
Pickavay County. Host of the fanners who had been involved in our project
were willing to continue with I he project. However, they were unable to
prevail over the will of the non faro residents of the county.
It is important to note that no complaints were received from Franklin
County residents even though the same lime treated sludge was applied in
Franklin County.
It was the hope of the project staff that problems of this kind could be
resolved through negotiation if they vere encountered. In this particular
incident the project was not ret,pensible for the application of the odorous
sludge, and we obtained assurances from the City of Columbus that the
situation would not be repeated. These factors were presented to the local
Board of Health and we received assurances that the situation could be
resolved if we would work with then ic reassuring the public of the
credibility of the OFBDC project. As a result of their initial spirit of
good will, we chose not tc appeal the injunction in the courts. After a
year of effort, the Board of Health did not lift the injunction. Our legal
position was considerably weakened since the right to appeal vac given up in
initial telks. Further legal action was considered, but there was not
sufficient time left in the project to make a court action meaningful. In
the end the project in Pickaway County had to be abandoned because of the
pressure of the local resident on the local Board of Health.
••i
George Damrick, County Extension Agent, Agriculture, Pickaway County,
reported there were aany farmers in the county who felt strongly aboui and
would support the program, but the majority »,f the homeowners were against
it. There appeared to be no one interested in taking the leadership locally
for the continuation of the project.
88
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Thomas J. McNutt, County Chairperson, reported that the sludge project
tended to get general acceptance of the Franklin County people Neighbor
complaints were minimal and vere handled by personal contact. Other
problems encountered in Franklin County were minimal. Field storage
accessibility due to veather and fall plowing seemed to be the biggest
problem.
MEDINA CODETY
Medina County located in the Northern Ohio suburban area south of
Cleveland vas the first county to participate in the project.
County-wide problems were not encountered due to an open and forthright
relationship vith the local news media.
The Extension agent reported that educational programs, good management,
and the close working relationship with the Sanitary Engineers vere major
reasons for the success of the land application of sludge program. They
laid the groundwork for a good land spreading program.
Those involved with the program felt good management went beyond
delivering and applying sludge satisfactorily. Establishing a good rapport
vith each farmer, working with him, and earning his trust and respect, makes
the difference between a mediocre or greatly successful program.
REFERENCES
Musselman, Bed M., Lawrence G. Welling, Sandy C. Newman, and David A. Sharp.
19*0. Information Programs Affect Attitudes Toward Sewage Sludge Use in
Agriculture. Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio
45268. EPA-600/2-80-1C3, July.
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CONTRACT
THIS CONTRACT, made this day of _ . 19 , by and
between . hereinafter referred to as Owner,
and fL_» hereinafter referred to as City, witnessetb that,
WHEREAS, Owner is the owner of a parcel of agricultural real property
located in , » , Ohio,
(Parcel No.) (Township) (County)
which can be reached as follows:
and
WHEREAS, City operates a waste treatment disposal plant which after
processing produces a product known as sewage sludge, and
WHEREAS, Activities contemplated under this Contract are to be
undertaken as a part of a project coordinated by the Ohio Farm Bureau
Developnsnt Corporation under a grant entitled "Demonstration Program to
show Ohio Landowners and Municipalities acceptable systems for applying
Sludge on Land" frov the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
WHEREAS, Owner will allow sewage sludge from City to be placed on the
above mentioned real property only on the terms set out below,
NOW THEREFORE, Owner and City mutually agree as follows:
1. The "Ohio Guide for Land Application of Sewage Sludge", Bulletin 598
of the Cooperative Extension Service of the Ohio State University, as
revised in M/.7, 1976, shall be used as a guideline for responsible
management practices. Hereinafter Bulletin 598 will be referred to as "The
1976 Guide."
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2. The City will deliver sewage sludge to the above mentioned property
of Owner and will properly spread or otherwise deposit said sewage sludge on
•aid property without charge to the Owner. City shall be responsible for
equipment used to deliver and spread such sewage sludge.
3. The Owner and the City will mutually agree on the specific portion of
said property which is to receive sludge. In the absence of unusual
factors, they will abide by the site selection criteria of The 1976 Guide.
4. The Owner or his representative may decline to receive sludge on said
property when, in Owner's or his representative's judgement, the sludge
application equipment would damage the soil structure because of excessive
soil moisture at the disposal site. When possible, the Owner will give the
City notice of poor field conditions 24 hours prior to the appointed
application time. However, the City does realize that this is not always
possible and that there will be some days when untimely excessive rainfall
will require termination of spreading activities at a moment's notice on a
given field.
5. The Owner will uotify City in writing of the dates between which City
nay deliver and spread sewage sludge. The City may deliver said sewage
sludge only during the period thus described. The Owner will make himself
or his representative available to City or its employees during such period
to etsure said sewage sludge is deposited on the proper location on said
property.
6. Owner shall specify the access to be used by the City when sewage
sludge is applied to a specific portion of said property. The Owner shall
provide and maintain an access for use by the City without charge to the
City, and the City shall not be liable for any damages thereto, except
damage caused by City's negligence.
7. The Owner and the City will ssutually agree on the rate or in what
amounts per acre said sewage sludge is to be applied in a given year. They
will also use the criteria of The 1976 Guide to determine the maximum total
amount of sewage sludge per acre that can be applied to a given field.
8. The City shall properly analyze its sewage sludge on a monthly basis
for the total nitrogen, ammonia and nitrate nitrogen, phosphate, potassium,
lead, zinc, nickel, copper, and cadmium content. The results of such
analysis will be provided to the Owner or his representative upon request
without charge before sludge is applied to said property.
9. City shall keep end maintain records of the following items, and
•hall make such records available to Owner or bis representative upon
request:
(a) All analyses of the composition of sewage sludge produced by the
City.
(b) All reports concerning the operation or production of sewage sludge
by the City.
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(c) All applications to agricultural land of sewage sludge produced by
City including dates of application, amounts applied, specified
rates of application, specific parcels of land upon which sewage
sludge has been applied.
(d) All required governmental permits or approvals for the application
of sewage sludge on agricultural land.
10. City will deliver and apply sludge which is well stabilized and
which does not present c severe odor nuisance to Owner or other rural
residents who live in the vicinity of the sludge disposal site. The Owner
may refuse to accept any sludge which is exceptionally odorous.
11. This Contract shall continue in effect for a period of one year
following the date first above written. The Parties hereto may renew this
written notice to the other party of the intention to- do so. Cancellation
will be effective five days after receipt of such notice. Such notices
shall be delivered personally or by certified mail to the address(es) listed
at the end of this Contract.
OWNER: CITY»
By-
Address i Title
By
Title
Address t
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SECTION 4
SOIL COMPACTION WITH SLUDGE APPLICATION
Richard K. White
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
This phase of the study of the effects of land application of sludge was
undertaken because of concerns expressed by some individuals that heavy
loads of sludge carried by large, heavy spreading equipment would cause
serious soil compaction problems that would exist for long periods of time.
Soil scientists have shown that in seriously compacted soils the movement of
water and dissolved nutrients is decreased; the soil porosity (air space) is
decreased, restricting oxygen availability to roots and hindering plant
growth and development; end the increased soil bulk density increases draft
and energy requirements for tillage operations. While numerous samples
(»v*r 1,300) from five farms were analyzed for bulk density and moisture,
and threu times that number were measured for penetration resistance, most
of the detailed study was performed using soil samples from the three farms
with* compaction-related factors described in Table 4.1 (See Table 4.1).
Ideally, for a detailed research study the various types of application
equipment would have been compared using compaction data taken from common
fields (soil types) where they all operated &t the same time. As thie was
not feasible in this project only compaction effects of a particular sludge
spreading machine on a particular soil type could be examined. Sludge
application rates (tons/acre) in any given field were held to fairly low
levels also since the overall project was designed to test the feasibility
of sludge application on normally productive farm lands.
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TABLE 4.1 FACTORS RELATED TO SOIL COMPACTION ON THBEE FARM STUDIED
Sludge Application
Equipment
Approx. Gross We. Lbs.
Soil Type
Send %
Silt I
Clay %
Knoch Farm
Medina
Bovie
20,500
Wadsvorth
Silt Loam
21.41
63.2%
15. 4%
Average Moisture 7. 7.77.
Retention at 15 a to (0-12 in.)
Plaetic Limit, Avg. 7,
(0-12 in.)
Liquid Limit, Avg. %
Shrinkage Limit, %
(0-12 in.)
Volumetric Shrinkage %
Crops Grown
18.8
29.1
19.4
28.3
Cora
Bosbock Farm
Defiance
1HC 1056 Tractor
Badger Tank Wagon
42,000 (both)
Koytville
Silty Clay
16. 57,
43.61
39.91
17.6%
23.2
51.8
15.4
81.3
Hay, Corn
Eastings Farm
Pickaway County
Columbus
Terragator Model
2505
24,000
Miami
Silty Clay Loam
7.3%
59.2%
33.5%
14.3%
22.6
45.2
17.8
56.4
Pasture
Objectives of the Compaction Study t
The soil compaction phase of this study had as its objectives:
1. To determine if sludge spreading equipment caused any significant soil
compaction effects when used as it was in this study.
2. To determine the effects of subsequent plant growth, natural settlement,
and/or viner freezing and thawing in ameliorating aty machinery
compaction actions experienced.
3. To compare compaction effects at different depths below the soil surface
to determine the region where most damage can occur.
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4. To relate soil bulk density to soil moisture content so as to identify
moisture zones wherein maximum soil compaction is likely to occur.
5. Penetrometer readings end/or soil moisture values to predict soil bulk
density.
Procedurer
For the areas being tested there were soil types varying from cley to
silt loams end an assortment of application equipment ranging from a tractor
pulling a tank wagon at Defiance to heavy equipment with large
flotation-type tires near Columbus. The sludge applied ranged from liquid
to semi-solid in nature, and application to fields occurred at any time
during the year. It is well known that compaction effects are minimal when
soil is frozen or when it is dry, so the critical application times were
during the spring, summer, or fall when the soil was at a critical moisture
level and in a plastic state.
At each farm area, maps were sketched showing the exact locations of .
control areas (no sludge applied) and of "transects" across the vehicle
tracks, where readings and samples were taken. A transect required that
soil core samples be taken as follows: one sample was taken outside each of
the two tire tracks; two samples were taken between the two tire tracks; and
three samples were taken in each of the two tire tracks. Thus, ten core
samples were taken for each transect. Penetrometer readings were taken eo
that three penetrations were made near every core sample location. For each
sludge application, four separate transects were taken for statistical
replication. Therefore, a total of 40 core samples and 120 penetrotneter
readings were taken each time at each site. In addition, 10 sets of
readings were taken from the control area during the same test period. In
the laboratory the 24-inch soil cores were analyzed to determine moisture
content and bulk density at 3, V, 15, and 21-inch depths.
In the analysis of data, contour plots of soil profiles under the
transects were made to examine soil moisture and density distributions to
determine any compaction effects at various depths. Statistical comparisons
of readings from transects and those from the control areas were made to see
if significant differences were found between treated and untreated areas.
Graphs of bulk density vs. soil moisture were plotted to determine the
critical moisture levels in the soil when operation of heavy sludge
spreading equipment would be most detrimental. This is known as the Proctor
density test in the laboratory as used by highway and construction engineers.
Conclusionst
1. At the Knoch farm the differences in bulk density between readings taken
under wheel tracks and those taken in undisturbed soil were significant
at the 12-18 inch level after the second and third applications of
sludge. No significant differences were noted in the 0-6 and 6-12 inch
layers. This could indicate that compaction effects of heavy equipment
In the upper 10-12 inches of soil can be obliterated by subsequent
95
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tillage operations, but soil at lover depths retains the compaction
effects. Winter freezing and thawing effects vere negligible in soil
under wheel tracks as in soil out of wheel tracks.
y
2. At the Boshock farm, soil compaction under wheel tracks was
significantly greater than on soil out of wheel tracks ir. the 6-12 inch
soil layer. Average dry bulk densities were 1.78 gia/cc. in-track versus
1.72 go/cc. out-of-track. It is not known whether this amount of bulk
density increase would significantly affect crop growth. Penetrorceter
readings (cone indices) verified that penetration resistance under
tracks was significantly greater than readings taken out-of-tracke.
3. At the Hastings farm the overwintering had a negative effect in some
soil layers. Bulk density was significantly greater about 11 months
after sludge application in the 12-18 inch layer under the tracks and in
the 6-12 inch layer out-of-tracks. The explanation appears to be that
cows were pastured in the area and their hooves created zones of
compacted soil below the surface.
4. Laboratory tests of soils from the three farms indicated the critical
moisture contents (percent dry weight basis) wherein maximum soil
compaction occurred were as follows:
Layer Knoch Hoshock Hastings
(inches) '
0-6 221 db 29% db 29% db 29% db
6-12 19% db 27% db 27% db
12-18 18% db 24% db 24% db
18-24 in db 23% db 23% db
5. Pentrometer readings generally did rot correlate well with dry bulk
density values of samples taken from the various soil layers. However,
when pecetrometer readings and moisture contents were used jointly as
variables to predict bulk density the highest correlation values were
obtained. An equation of the form below resulted:
BD + A + BM + CP + MDP wherei
BD « Bulk Density, M • Moisture Content (db),
P • Fenetrometer readings (cone index), and
A, B, C, D are constants
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6. As an overall conclusion it appeared Chat soil compaction due to the
sludge application equipment was not of great concern when applied in
the quantities and frequencies of-this study. If serious compaction
ever does result, it will probably occur in the 12-18 inch layers.
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SECTION 5
NITROGEN MINERALIZATION FROM SOILS AMENDED
WITH SEWAGE SLUDGES
Terry J. Logan, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
Robert H. Miller, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
Patricia Lentz, B.S.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
Sludge application to land must be regulated to avoid harmful
environmental effects, such as an accumulation of heavy metals and the
leaching of excess nitrate into ground and surface waters. The nitrogen
content of sludge is extremely variable and information on the broad
range of variables is lacking. In order to avoid adverse effects on the
surrounding environment as well as to determine reasonable supplemental
nitrogen fertilization requirements for sludge-applied farmland, it is
critical to know rates of N mineralization, percent sludge organic
N mineralized, and how environmental, soil and sludge factors affect
mineralization and nitrification.
Materials and Methods
The surface samples of five soils listed in Table 5.1 were mixed
with acid-washed quartz sand (1:1 ratio dry weight basis). Liquid
sludges from five treatment plants (Tables 5.2 and 5.3) were applied to
each soil at a rate equivalent to 22.4 dry metric tons/ha. Each sludge
(0.15 g dry weight) was thoroughly mixed with each soil-sand sample
(30 g dry weight) to create all possible combinations of treatments,
then packed into leaching tubes and wetted to field capacity. Glass
wool was used beneath and above soil column to retain it and avoid
disperson. Two replicates of each treatment plus controls were
incubated at 25 C. Each tube was leached with a 100 ml aliquot of
0.01 M CaCl2 at dav °» then weekly for an eight week period. Steam
distillation (standard micro Kjeldahl) (Bremner, 1965) was used to
determine extracted total inorganic N and NH4~N in the leachate. Tubes
were sealed with Parafilm between leachings.
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TABLE 5.1. PEOPERTIES OP THE SOILS USED IH THE KIHERALIZATIOH STTO?
Property
Tex tare
pR
CEC (atq/100 g)
B*M Sttur*tion (Z)
Br«y Fl (Ug/g)
Exch K (us/S>
Exch C* (UB/g)
Exch Hg (ug/g)
820 Afttr Sludge Applied
B20 ct 1/3 «to. (Z)
Tottl C (Z)
(UrboMtt C (Z)
TXR (ug/g)
Organic H (ug/g)
CiH Ratio
Brookicon
Silt
Lou
4.8
21
54.2
30
177
1780
251
(Z) 17.0
29.5
2.25
0.00
2187
2123
10.6
Crosby
Silt
Loa
4.7*
15
37.7
28
159
620
145
15.lt
28.6
1.50
0.00
1545
1485
10.1
Soil
Hoytville
Silty City
•~ou
7.2
29
99.7
23
191
4815
479
11.6
38.2
2.37
0.28
2506
2484
9.5
Mahoning
Lora
7.1
10
99.7
20
66
1405
341
18.2
23.0
1.20
0.24
1357
1334
9.0
Huskingun
Silt
Lou
5.8
12
69.0
12
277
1285
129
21.1
32.8
2.56
0.00
2684
2612
9.8
• The liaed toil h«d a pR of 6.6.
"t The liaed »oil hid 21.OZ HjO efter tludge addition.
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TABLE 5.2. PROPERTIES OF SLUDGES USED IN THE 25 C INCUBATION STUDY
Digtition
Percent tolida a*
applied to aoil
pH
Total carbon (Z)
Carbooate-C (Z)
Orgacic-C (Z)
C:M ratio
TCM (ug/g)
HH^-N (ug/g)
Organic-N (ug/g)
Total P (ue/g)
K (ug/g)
Cd (Ug/g)
Cu (ug/g)
Pb (ug/g)
Ni (ug/g)
Zb (Ug/g)
Zanetville
anaerobic
5.8
7.1
17.9
17:1
14,264
3,738
10,546
10,223
6,497
225
552
3,132
54
2,622
Jackson Pike
anaerobic
5.3
7.3
30.2
11:1
49,721
21,645
28,076
21,973
4,142
56
677
403
291
4,153
Medina 100
aerobic
6.5
6.7
28.8
8:1
38,310
3,675
34,635
19,975
8,337
8.8
615
432
42
903
Medine 300
aerobic
7.6
7.0
23.4
6:1
31,590
2,531
29,059
27,025
8,688
8.3
736
389
45
1,340
Defiance
anaerobic
9.7
7.6
24.7
16:1
24,952
9,649
15,303
33,253
6,407
28.9
387
601
1,212
2,047
100
-------
TABU S.I. nOFRTXZS CF SLDDCCS USED IS THE IS C UtCtTBATIOW, PH ARB CD STUDIES
Mgeetion
Percent Ml id* a«
applied to aoil
pi
Total earboa (Z)
Carb«nate-C (Z)
Organie-C (Z)
CtH ratio
TO (u«/g>
"»*-• (ug/g)
Organic • (ug/g)
Total P (wg/»)
Kug/g>
Cd (ug/g)
Co («t/g)
Fb (IK g)
Hi (ttg/g)
Za (ug/g)
(aogoat)
anaerobic
11.1
7.4
32.2
2H1
14,412
3,977
15,435
10,15?
4,464
188
636
3,361
54
2,514
Jacfcaon Pike
.aerobic
5.0
7.0
31.3
12:1
44,505
17,324
27,181
23,876
4,338
83.7
753
558
298
4.976
Hediaa 100
aerobic
5.3
7.1
28.9
11:1
36,525
9.202
27.323
17,108
7,565
9.1
715
243
40
1.051
Medina 300
aerobic
5.6
7.1
17.7
8:1
23.713
484
23,229
32,712
6,430
6.0
635
146
40
1,129
DefUnce
anaerobic
6.5
7.1
28.8
9:1
44,969
14,263
30,706
24,252
4,777
9.5
359
415
548
1,595
Zanesville
(February)
anaerobic
_
7.3
20.3
1781
20.873
8,677
12.196
13.625
1,691
544
774
4,506
S3
4,034
101
-------
The preceding procedure was repeated at a 15 C incubation
temperature, and basically for two other experiments with the follow ing
exceptions:
The Crosby soil was lizsed with CaC(>3 .ind freeze-dried Jackson Pike
sludge was applied to both limed and unlimed soil samples. Freeze dried
samples of high and low cadmium Zanesville sludges were added to the
Muskingum soil. Three replicates of these additional treatments plus
controls were incubated at 25 C.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mineralization
'—i
Cumulative: net N mineralization, when plotted against the square
root of time, in most cases yields a straight line (Stanford and Smith,
1972).
Data were plotted, a best fit curve drawn and the slope or
mineralization rate of each treatment was estimated manually.
The data from replicates were averaged in most cases. However, in
14 of the 67 different treatments, only one replicate was used in*
calculating the data. The other replicate proved to be unrepresentative
due to very low levels of net N mineralized. This can be attributed to
imperfect packing and/or settling of the soil in the tubes so that one
of two situations could occur. Either the leachate channeled through
the tube too rapidly causing incomplete contact of CaCl? with the soil,
leaving much of the HH^* and $03"; or anaerobic conditions prevailed in
the tube bringing about substantial denitrification of mineralised and
nitrified N. The fact that the sludge was added and mixed with the soil
on an individual treatment basis also accounts for irregularities
between replicates. Although the sludge was quantitatively added, the
consistency of each sludge varied greatly. A uniform solids content of
the liquid sludges could not be guaranteed for such minute amounts. The
sludges which were least homogeneous were the Medina sludges. These
situations could have occurred to a lesser extent in other tubes,
although the similarity between replicates is reason to doubt their
significance.
The data is given in Tables 5.4 and 5.5 and examples of N
mineralization versus t 1/2 plots are given in Figures 5.1-5.3.
Sludge Effects
Pew generalizations can be made concerning the relative
mineralization rates of the soil-sludge tre&t&ants. In nearly all cases
the rates were higher than the corresponding control. This is to be
expected with the addition of an organic N source having a low
C:N ratio. Toe treatments in which the mineralization rate was below
102
-------
• XXRCBAUZATIQ8
racoBAiED AT 25 c
Treatment
Brookaton control
Broohcton * Zeoecville*
Irookaton » Jackson Pike*
Brook* con * Medina 100
Brook.ton * Medina 300*
Irookaton * Defiance111
Crosby control
Crocby + Zaneaville
Crosby * Jackcon Pike
Crooby * Hediae 100*
Croeby * Hedina 300*
Crosby * Defiance
8oytvi.ll* control
Hoytrille * Zanenille
Hoytville » Jaekaoo Pik*
ueytville * Kedina 100
Hoytville * Kediaa 300
Bojrtrille + Cefiaoce
Hahnaing centre?
MalM»i<«t * Zaacaville
Hahoning * Jaduon Pike
Maboaias * Medina ICO
Naboains « Hadiaa 300
Mahonim * Defiance
tfaakiaron control
Muakingca * Zanccville
IkukiasQB » Jackaon Pi^j
MoakiacoB * Hedina ICO*
Moikinpa * Itedina 300*
Ifaaki&caB * Defiance*
(tffi&BS OF KSTLICATL
• Miner aliut ion
Sate
(U» H/c eeil/«k)
M.2
47.0
60.1
56.3
6S.8
31 .a
16.6
27.1
38.9
49.2
44.4
30.2
8.0
18.7
46.3
64.0
89.6
8.2
23.
SO.
74.
93.
79.
15.0
28.9
4.4
6S.2
39.3
77.2
52.0
TEEA2KEOTS)
CoBalatin
• HiB*rali««d
(p« K/g noil/8
52.7
103.1
132.9*
125.0
149.3
73.7
32.1
52.2
90.3
120.6
107.4
79.8
22.1
53.3
144.1
126.6
102.5
24.0
43.0
94.0
182.0
168.3
157.4
35.8
59.2
17.1
149.7
52.7
130.1
94.0
Percent of
S lodge Organic H
Bimralixed
Vka)
— _
46.0
28.2
20.4
32.8
13.5
—
18.7
20.6
24.7
25.6
31.1
_
29.4
42.8
29.1
27.1
6.2
__
47.1
48.5
35.6
38.5
—
•. .
__
32.1
—
23.3
22.0
Calculation baaed on one replicate.
103
-------
TABLE 5.3.
HTIXOCEH MDJZHALIZATIOa
EIGHT KECKS AT 15 C
AVtJUCEl OF DDPtlCASE TEEAIMEKTS IHOJBASED
Tre*
II Mineralization
Rat*
R Min*r*liced
Percent of
Slodga Organic H
Mineralized
(US H/( «oil/vk) (u» «/« coil/8 vke)
Brookaton covcrol
Broob*ton * Zaoerville*
BrookJton » . «ck.eOB Pike*
Irookicoo * Hs<3in« 100
Brook*coo » Media* 300*
>rook*con * Defiance*
Crotby control
Crocby * Zinccvillc
Croiby » J«ck«oo Vike
Crosby » Medina ICO*
Croeby * Media* 300*
Cro«&7 * Dcfiotee
Hoytrillt control
Hojrtville * Z«M«ville
Hoyfrtill* * J*ck*oa Pike
Hoytrill. » Eadiaa 100
HoytrilU " Hwiina 300
Hoytrille » Dafiooc*
control
4 Jadum Pike
lUbooias * Sadism 100
Hihotuag <• Hediaa 300
eoacrel
* Z«a*oville
Jaekaon Pike
Mukiagn + Uedioa 100*
Hediaa 300*
Define**
22.2
19.9
41.8
64.3
59.9
43.0
21.5
21.4
39.8
64.8
34.8
41.5
15.0
6.5
57.9
62.6
31.4
50.7
27.1
9.9
73.6
79.81
38.6
60.6
23.8
11.2
53.8
58.7
59.1
57.8
29.2
16.3
95.9
113.6
66.4
77.1
22.8
23.1
72.3
92.7
46.6
78.1
19.7
13.7
111.1
108.3
49.3
105.9
27.4
17.9
127.
135.1
46.5
92.4
29.4
14.4
88.7
104.4
56.8
84.0
24.5
30.6
16.0
1S.4
18.2
25.3
10.2
17.5
33.2
32.4
12.6
27.8
36.6
39.1
8.2
21.0
21.8
27.6
11.5
17.3
* Calculation b*a*d oa oo* replicate.
104
-------
160
J, 120
t
I
2 go
40
1 2 34567
t* (weeks)
Figure 5.1. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 25C. Mahoning soil
and Columbus sludge.
105
-------
120
8
80
40
j i
1 234567
t* (weeks)
Figure 5.2. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 25C. Brookston soil
£ Medina 100 sludge.
106
-------
©
80
40
8
•D
I
Brookston soil
2 345678
t* (weeks)
Figure 5.3. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 15C. Brookston soil
and Defiance sludge (above); Hoytville soil and Defiance
sludge (below).
107
-------
that of the control are: 1) Zanesville for all soils iacubated at IS C;
2) Defiance sludge and Mahoning soil at 25 C; and 3) June, February and
August Zanesville sludges and Muskingum soil at 25 C.
The generally lower rates for the Zanesville sludge treatments at
15 C ecu Id reflect a variety of circumstances. Relatively large
quantities of cadmium and lead compared to the other sludges, the added
stress of the lover temperature and a higher C:K ratio (21:1) of any of
the sludges used, could have created & synergistic effect on inhibiting
the ammonifying microorganisms. By far the most important factor in
reducing net mineralization is the C:N ratio, which is sufficiently high
to produce greater immobilisation.
Low mineralization rates for Defiance sludge and Mshoning soil at
25 C reflect the relatively high C:N ratio of the sludge (16:1) coupled
with a relatively low level of natural soil organic matter and organic
nitrogen.
Mineralization rates for the high and low Cd Zanesville sludges and
Muskingum soil at 25 C are quite interesting. As can be seen in
Figure 5.4 in both cases, two of the replicates had low mineralization
while the third was much higher. Lack of homogeniety of the mixed
samples appears to be the cause of this inconsistency.
Figures 5.5 and 5.6 are examples of non-linear character. There
are two possible explanations for this 1) The point where the rate
drops off signifies that the readily mineralizable sources of N in the
sludge were rapidly degraded by the microbiel population. A peak was
reached before the end of the incubation period; 2) at the lower
temperature mineralized ft differed very little in the first two to three
weeks. Since this pattern was recurring the lower temperature seemed to
induce a "lag" period before H mineralization progressed. These
horizontal points were not used in determination of the slope of the
lines because they were considered unrepresentative of the actual rate.
The data in Tables 5.6 and 5.7 reveal an inverse relationship
between mineralization rates st 25 C and the C:N ratio of each sludge;
i.e. the higher the mineralization rate, the lover the C:H ratio. At
15 C the same is true for all but Medina 300 which had the lowest
C:N ratio (8:1), but also a rather low mineralization rate. From
Tables 5.6 and 5.7, it is clear that the" three sludges with the lowest
C:N ratios mineralized the greatest anount of N with the exception of
the Medina 300 (15 C). Less » was mineralized from Zanesville
(C:N 21:1) than the control.
It can be seen from Table 5.8 that, for those treatments in which
mineralization occurred, the average percent N mineralized vari«4
between sludges at 25 C. Lower figures for the Medina sludges in
comparison to Zanesville and Jackson Pike are accounted for by two
108
-------
80
40
8
Low codmium
z
2
30
40
High codmium
1 2 345678
t* (weeks)
Figure 5.4. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 25C. Muskingum soil
and low Cd Zanesville sludge (above); Muskingum soil and
high Cd Zanesville sludge (below). Open circles represent
one replicate, and open triangles are the other two
replicates.
109
-------
80
§ 40
I
60|-
40
20
0
• • 9
Hoytviile soil
Muskingum soil
1 2 345678
1* (weeks)
Figure 5.5. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 25C. Hoytviile soil
and Medina 300 sludge (above); Muskingum soil and
Medina 100 sludge (below).
110
-------
60
40
20
r= 0
8
•D
I
g 80
40
Mohoning soil
Crosby soil
I I i
i 1
1 2 345678
t" (weeks)
Figure 5.6. Cumulative inorganic N mineralized at 15C. Mahoning soil
and Medina 300 sludge (above); Crosby soil and Medina 100
sludge (below).
Ill
-------
TABU 5.6. AVERAGE B MUttRALIZATIOH RATES
-------
TABLE 5.8. mem suroce ORCAHIC n HWEKALIZED n s WEEKS
loil.
Irookieoa
Crotby
Hoytvillc
Hahoaint
Hulking™
Mean
IroekfCon
Croib?
Hoytville
Maboninf
Muikinfw
Heen
Zenetville Jackson Pik*
46.0* 28.2*
18.7 20.6
29.4 42.8
47.1 48. J
32,1
39.3 34.4
24. S
: — 18.2
33.2
36.6
21.8
— 26.9
Medina 100
25 C
20.4
24.7*
29.1
35.6
27.5
15 C
30.6
25.3
32.4
39.1
27.6
31.0
Medina 300
32.8*
25.6*
27.1
38.5
23.3*
29.5
16.0*
10.2*
12.6
8.2
11.5*
11.7
Dt fiance
13.5*
31.1
—
—
22.0*
22.2
15.4
17.5*
27.8
21.0
17.3*
19.8
Mean
28.2
24.1
32.1
42.4
25.8
30.2
21.6
17.8
26.5
26.2
19.6
22.4
• Calculations baaed on one replicate.
113
-------
facts: 1) Averaging did not include soils where net mineralization was
below the control. 2) Although Medina sludges had a greater
mineralization rate, an early peak was reached and points thereafter
were not considered in the rate calculation. Lowest average percent N
mineralized was for Defiance, again indicative of its high C:N ratio.
At 15 C with August sludges identical trends can be seen. Where
C:N ratios are high (Zanesville), there was no percent N mineralized
above the control.
Plots of Medina 300 show the longest, most pronounced lag period,
hence the lowest percent organic N mineralized. The percent N
mineralized in the remaining sludges corresponds to C:N ratios,
mineralization rates and amount of N mineralized.
'->
Soil Effect
Tables 5.9 and 5.10 summarize the general effects of surface soil
properties on N mineralization. Mahoning loam gave the highest rates.
Major contributing factors are an optimum pH (7.1), better aeration
because of a coarser texture and a very low C:N ratio.
Muskingum rates are second highest, also due to a combination of
factors. The soil texture was second highest in percent sand fcr better
aeration, and it was highest in organic matter content which resulted in
the highest control mineralization rate. The pH was slightly less than
optimal for most ammonifying organisms, but not as low as the finer
textured Brookston (pH 4.8), also high in organic matter but with a
slightly wider C:N ratio.
Even though the Hoytville pH was optimum (7.2) for mineralization,
poorer aeration due to the finer texture accounts for the lower
mineralization rates. Percent organic carbon of the Hoytville is not
representative of the organic matter content as significant organic
matter not fully decomposed to humus was present.
The Crosby mineralization rates were the lowest, reflecting not
only the sub-optimal pH, but also the low soil organic matter present.
The soils highest in organic matter mineralized the most N in the
controls with exception of Hoytville. The average N mineralized did not
vary substantially in the treated soils'for the saute temperature.
As expected from the mineralization rate data, Mahoning mineralized
the greatest atwmnt of N and had the highest percent N mineralized at
both temperaturesf Crosby had the least.
Lower than predicted percent N mineralized occurred in the
Muskingum soil. Plots of data reveal a more pronounced lag period for
this soil at the lower temperature and an early mineralization peak
114
-------
5.7. ATCBACX B KXISUUZATICM BATES FOX SOUS RASED 091 SUJBZS
II KHSE2AJLXZATI08 BATT f^nman CCHTSOL I
Soil
Brook* ton
Crocby
BoytTill*
lUhoaiac
«**i-T-
TABLE 5.10. K^RUS.
SUJDGES
Boil
Brook* coo
Crooby
•ojrcvillc
lUbouas
IfeokiezaB "
25 C
Uf
52.4
3S.O
45.4
74.7
58.*
15 C
B/g coil/Hfe
52.3
45.2
50.7
63.2
57.4
ofiSLtnvE • jmaERALiitTiea FOX
mg^r • {OBESAIIZAXtOH grfyp?»n cfflSl
25 C
US
116.8
M.I
M.I
127.5
88.7
15 C
B/g M»il/8 '
73.9
62.6
77.7
83.9
69.7
Control
1/2
24.2
19.1
11.5
25.3
26.4
SOIiS EASED OB
rsjoi.
Ceotrol
•wek*
41.0
27.5
20.9
35.2
44.3
115
-------
reached at the higher temperatures. Probable cause for these early
peak* may be due to the low soil Mg and/or P content. Because no
nutrient solution was used, these may have become limiting factors for
mineralization, especially if sludge P was unavailable or immobilized.
Temperature Effect
Differences in temperature (Tables 5.6-5.10) did not contribute
significantly to average soil-sludge" mineralization rates as they were
determined. Comparing the temperature differences of average
mineralization rates of the sludges, one finds the rates are similar for
both temperatures if the C:N ratio of the sludge was similar
(Jackson Pike, Medina 100). The lower Zanesville rate at the lower
temperature reflects the higher C:K ratio instead of a temperature
effect. Likewise, the higher Defiance rate at 15 C demonstrates the
lower C:H ratio. The low Medina 300 rate at 15 C, as stated before, is
probably a result of more complex types of organic constituents in the
sludge. That mineralization rate* were not affected by the 10 C
difference in temperature is also evident when one considers the average
mineralization rates of the controls.
Tables 5.7. 5.8 and 5.10 show an obvious reduction of the average
curmilat- /e H and percent N mineralized at the lower temperature. This
is due to a lag period or the extra amount of time initially needed for
the more cold tolerant organisms to become established before steady
mineralization occurred. These figures at the lowar temperature would
event ially have equalled those at the higher temperature had the
incubation tiate been extended for the 15 C treatments, due to the
similar rates for both temperatures.
pH Effect
Soil pB effect on H mineralization has been mentioned. This
discussion will be concerned with the special limed and unlisted Crosby
soil and Jackson Pike sludge treatments specifically set up to make a
more controlled comparison. This data (Table 5.11) clearly show the
nineralization rate, total E above control and percent H mineralized of
the limed Crosby (pH 6.6) soil and Jackson Pike sludge is nearly double
that of the unlimed treatment (pH 4.7). These results demonstrate a.
dramatic effect of soil pH when sludge is added. However, this effect
is not seen on the untreated soil.
Cadmium Effect
The results of this comparison of Muskicgum soil with a high and
low cadmium Zanesville sludge vary depending on which data are used
(Table 5.11). There is no high/low cadmium effect if one considers the
higher set of mineralization figures. As stated before, however, the
lower set of figures appears to be the most representative. In this
case the mineralization rate of the low Cd sludge is higher than that of
the high Cd sludge. This could represent a misplacement of the curve
for the low Cd sludge, since total H mineralized is the same for both
116
-------
1ABU5.il. EFFECT OF SOIL FB UtO SLUDGE CAOOra CCSCSmUZIOB 03 •
.
| • t&eeraluation
Treatmat Kate
(UC •/( soil/vk)
tfafhingw * Sigh Cd Zeneffrillv* 42.4
Kukingva * High Cd Zanenillet 11.1
Hu«kin£U3i » Low Cd Zoaaa^ille* 36.2
Hu&iotvm * Low Cd ZaDeevillet 20.5
Dali>«d Crosby 15.5
Dnluwd Cre«by * Jackaoa Pike 36.1
LiMd Cro«by 11.3
Liaed Croeby * Jackaon rike 63.5
Percent of
CoKtlative Sludge Organic •
• KiacraliMd Uiner»lis«t
(UC B/g aoil/B wki)
03.9
32.0
M.6
30.0
32.7
92.3
30.9
145.5
31.0
28.0
21.9
42.0
* Calculation* baaed oa eta replicate.
t ix» - 188 uj/es High <• 5*4
117
-------
treatments. In any case, both the rate and amount of mineralization are
below those of the control. The relatively high C:N ratio of the
Zanesville sludges and thus, increased immobilization is responsible for
decreased .mineralization. These data suggest the levels of cadmium did
not seem to have an effect on M mineralization although sub-optimal
experimental controls render inconclusive evidence of this factor.
Nitrification ®
The percentage of nitrate increased over time while the amount of
HH4* leveled off. This shews that proper environmental conditions
existed for nitrification in most treatments. Since the microbial
population responsible for nitrification in coils (primarily
Nitrosoaonas and Hitrobacter) represents a ouch smaller, less diverse
group of organisms, they are asuch more sensitive to less-than-optimum or
undesirable conditions then those organisms responsible for
mineralization. An acid pB is one of these unfavorable conditions.
There was a relatively greater accumulation of NH^ for the Defiance
sludge, especially in combination with the Crosby and Brooks ton low pU
soils. That NH4* accumulation for the acid soils was more pronounced
with the Defiance sludge illustrates a sludge component contributed to
nitrification inhibition.
Nitrification was inhibited in the Zaneeville and Muskingum
treatments as well. This influence must be solely due to the sludges,
since no other Muskingum treatments displayed this dramatic effect.
Both the low and high cadmium sludges affected nitrification equally,
which eliminates cadmium as the inhibitor.
Substantial KH^ accumulated through the eighth week at 15 C while
significant &%* accumulation ceased after the second week at 25 C.
These results demonstrate 25 C is tsore optimal than 15 C for nitrifying
bacteria.
SUMMARY AND CORCLUSIOHS
Nitrogen mineralization of sludge in soils is extremely variable as
a result of differing soil, sludge end environmental factors. The wider
the sludge C:H ratio, the lower the rate, cumulative, and percent N
mineralized. Degree of sludge treatment influences mineralization in
.the following manner. The aerobically digested sludges (Medina) have
been more thoroughly degraded and are therefore more stable as evidenced
by their narrow C:N ratio. This is reflected. in a generally high
mineralization rate but an early mineralization peak resulting in less
cumulative N and percent N mineralized. The latter indicates relative
resistance of the remaining organic material to further decomposition.
The more select group of organisms required to degrade these more
complex sludge constituents appeared to be more effected by the cooler
temperature, displayed in a longer lag period.
118
-------
Three major soil factors influencing net H mineralization are pH,
texture or internal degree of aeration and C:N ratio. When near optimal
levels of each are present, as in the Mahoning soil, the consequence is
synergistically increased mineralization. With only one component
•uboptinal, as in the heavier textured Hoytville, the average percent H
•ineralization vas quite high while the rate and total H mineralized was
relatively low. Set H mineralization in this treated soil above the
control is exceptionally high, perhaps due to a sludge stimulation. The
extreme soil pH effect on H mineralization is rather surprising when one
considers the great numbers and diversity of organisms responsible for
amonification.
That the 10 C temperature difference had little effect on
mineralization rat* is unexpected. More than likely the manner in which
the rate was determined here, with lag points and points past the
mineralization peak disregarded, is responsible for this. There is no
question total H and percent H mineralized were greater at the higher
temperature. Average figures for the latter are 22.4 percent at 15 C
and 30.2 percent at 25 C. This consistence with reported values is
gratifying.
Cadmium effect on N mineralization cannot be determined by the data
presented here. With wide sludge C:N ratios, little net H
mineralization occurred as a result of increased immobilization.
In most of the treatments nitrification occurred. As one would
suspect, a pH less than 5.0 slowed nitrification. AsBonium continued to
accumulate the seventh and eighth week at the cooler temperature, while
at 25 C quantities ceased to increase significantly after the second or
third week. Defiance and Zanesville sludges showed evi'dence that a
nitrification inhibitor was present.
RTFEEEHCES
Breiraer, J. M. 1965. Inorganic forms of nitrogen. In C. A. Black
(ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Agronomy 9:1179-1232.
Stanford, G. and S. J. Smith. 1972. Nitrogen mineralization potentials
of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 36:465-472.
119
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SECTION 6
FACTORS AFFECTING AMMONIA VOLATILIZATION FROM SEWAGE SLDDCE
APPLIED TO SOIL 13 A LABORATORY STUDY
William C. Donovan, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
Terry J. Logan, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
INTRODUCTION
There has been an increasing use of municipal sewage sludge on
agricultural land in the U.S. in the last decade. States like Ohio
(Miller et al., 1979) recommend application rates that will supply part
or all of the nitrogen and/or phoiphorus needs of the crop. About 50%
of the total nitrogen in digested sewage sludge is organic-N and the
remaining 50% is smumia (Soransrs, 1977). Digested sludges contain only
trace amounts of NO^-N. The nitrogen available to a crop will include
the oineralizable fraction of organie-N and all of the ammonia.
However, some of the asaaonia fraction will be susceptible to
volatilization losses; and the extent of this loss must be determined if
the farmer is to have an accurate estimate of the nitrogen supplied to
his crop by sludge. Reliable estimates of plant-available nutrients in
sludges is particularly insportant vhen the sludge is being sold for its
nutrient value.
Although there have been few direct measurements of volatilisation
losses of NH3 from sevage sludges (Beauchamp et al., 1978), the
literature is replete with studies on losses from ammonia fertilizers
(Ernst and Massey, 1960; Gaseer, 1964; Martin and Chapman, 1951; Volk,
1961) and livestock wastes (Hoff et al., 1981). These studies show
that, among other factors, ammonia volatilization is affected by: wind
speed, tune of incorporation, pH, temperature, soil moisture, soil
cation exchange capacity and base saturation, and vegetative cover.
*
The objective of this study was to determine the relative effects
of several of these factors and the effects of sludge type on NB3
volatilization from sewage sludges applied to soil in a laboratory
study.
120
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METHODS AND MATERIALS
Collection System
The ammonia collection system used for this study was based upon
equipment designed by Kissel et al. (1977) as modified by Hoff et al.
(1981). The system (Figure 6.1) consisted of four parts: (1) an acid
scrubber to remove ambient ammonia in the incoming air; (2) a
volatilization cylinder enclosing the sludge-treated soil to sample the
tir above the soil surface; (3) an acid trap to retain the ammonia
volatilized from the sludge; and (4) a vacuum pump to pull air through
the system. The system also contained two manifolds to conduct air from
the scrubber through the volatilization cylinder and into the acid trap.
The scrubber consisted of a 500-ml narrow-mouth polyethylene bottle
containing 300 ml of 0.51$ ^804. A dispersion tube bubbled air through
the scrubber before it was drawn into the volatilization cylinder.
The volatilization chamber consisted of a 30-cm diameter PVC
cylinder cut to a length of 25 cm. The cylinder was inserted to a depth
of 21 cm in the soil so that the upper 4 cm of the cylinder was above
the soil surface. Five 5 -cm (internal diameter) air inlet tubes were
evenly spaced around one-half of the circumference of the cylinder with
one outlet directly across from the inlets to pull air across the soil
surface during sampling. The inlets and outlets were 2 cm above the
soil surface.
The cylinder was placed inside a polyethelene bin measuring 47 cm
by 35 cm on the sides by 18 cm deep. The volatilisation cylinder was
closed during sampling with a pyrex glass lid sealed around the edges
with vacuum grease.
The HH3 trap consisted' of two 2.5-liter glass bottles connected in
series. Each bottle contained 800 ml of 22 boric acid. The second
bottle was present to slow the air flow and to provide additional
capacity to trap
A vacuum pump with a free air displacement of 760 litera/minutet
polled air through the system. The manifold system enabled three
volatilization cylinders to be sampled at one time with an air exchange
of 18 voluaes per minute per cylinder.
The an&onia collection system was calibrated by mixing solutions of
known ammonium chloride concentration with 0.5N NaOH. Acid was added
later to stop the generation of NH3. The efficiency of the system was
determined by using semi-micro Kjeldahl analysis to determine both NHj
remaining in the solution and NHj trapped in the boric acid. HH3-N
recovery was determined for different amounts of ammonia generated and
•t different air flow rates. Recoveries ranged from 80-120% with the
121
-------
ro
outlet
manifold
I
AJ
vacuum
pump
two chemical
«
traps
volatilization
chamber
chemical
scrubber
Figure 6.1 Side view of the volatilization apparatus (not dravn to
scale).
-------
highest NH3-N recovered at the lowest air flow and for the lowest NH3-N
generated. The lowest air flow rate (18 air exchanges /minute) was used
for all experiments, and NHj-N recovered in the experiments did not
exceed the lowest NH3~N generated during calibration. It was,
therefore, assumed that recovery during the experiments was
approximately 90-100% and the data were not corrected to 100% recovery.
The air flow rate (18 air exchanges/minute) during sampling
corresponded to a wind speed of 0.22 km/hr. and was greater than rates
that were found by Kissel et al. (1977) and Fenn and Kissel (1973) to
produce maximum volatilization. During nrc-aampling periods, wind speed
in the laboratory was calculated to be 0.11 km/hr., which is still close
to the air speed for maximum volatilization found by Kicsel et al.
(1977) and Fenn and Kissel (1973). The objective of this research,
however, was to determine relative effects on NH3 volatilization and not
absolute NH3 losses.
Preparation of Soil and Sludge Satapj.es
The Crosby silt loam (fine, mixed, mesic Aerie Ochraqualf) used in
this study was taken from experimental field plots. Soil for all
experiments except pH was collected from a plot with a pH of 6.7. Soil
v*s collected from two other plots with a pH of 5.1 and 7.5,
respectively, for the pH experiment. The soils were air-dried and
screened (<2 mm) prior to use.
The soil was moistened to the desired water content prior to being
placed in the bin containing the PVC cylinder. The soil was then placed
both inside and outside the cylinder and firmed. Additional soil was
added and firmed until the soil surface was 4 cm below the rim of the
volatilization cylinder. The bin, cylinder, and soil were then
immediately covered with plastic to prevent moisture loss until the
experiment began.
The soil in each bin was totally replaced between each experiment,
and the top 11 cm of soil in each bin and volatilization cylinder was
replaced between each run.
Samples of dewatered, anaerobically digested, sludge were collected
at the Jackson Pike sewage treatment plant in Columbus, Ohio. This
material was used for all of the experiments. In addition, for the
experiment with different sludges, samples were collected at treatment
plants in Medina and Ashland, Ohio, stored in plastic containers, and
sent to Columbus. The compost sample was collected from the composting
facility at the Columbus, Ohio Southerly treatment plant. All sludge
samples were stored at 1.1 C until used.
123
-------
For all of the experiments except sludge type, the dewatered
Columbus sludge (17-28% solids) was diluted to 10% solids end applied at
a rate of 5 Mg ha~l (dry weight).
Forv the experiment with different sludge types, the application
rate was 2.5 Mg/ha (dry weight). The solids content was 52 for the
Columbus anaerobically digested liquid sludge, 1.57% for the Medina
aerobically digested sludge, 1.96Z for the Ashland lime-stabilized
primary sludge, 61.2% for the composted Columbus primary sludge, and
17.3Z for the dewatered Columbus sludge. The ammonia content, NH3~N
applied per cylinder and sludge volume applied per cylinder are given in
Table 6.1 for the experiment with different sludges.
Half of the sludge was applied to the soil surface outside the PVC
cylinder and half inside, as the area inside the cylinder was 50% of the
total surface area of the bin. The sludge was sampled for KH^ analysis
just prior to its application to the soil.
The sludge was prepared within 15 minutes of the start of the
experiment. The plastic covering the soil was removed, and the sludge
applied. The individual cylinders were closed with pyrex glass lids and
the pump turned on. The sampling period was 20 minutes and began when
the trap started bubbling. Samples were taken at 0, 1, 3, 6, 12, and
24 hours after application of the sludge. The cylinders were uncovered
between sampling periods.
Ammonia Analysis
Ammonia recovered in boric acid was determined by titration with
dilute acid. Samples were titrated within 1 hour after their
collection. The lower detection limit was 120 Ug NHj-N. 1IH3-N in the
liquid sludges was determined by steam distillation with HgO. KH3~N in
the compost was determined by extraction with 2N KC1 (10:1 ratio by
weight) and subsequent steam distillation.
Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) package at The Ohio State
University Instruction and Research Computer Center was used for data
analysis. The best fit line of NH3-N volatilized versus time was
determined by regression analysis, and the integrated form of the
best-fit line was used to calculate NH3 volatilised for any period up to
24 hours. Distinctness or separateness of volatilization curves of
individual treatments was determined at the 0.05 level according to
Neter and Wasserman (1974). The calculated values of NH3-N volatilized
in the 24 hr. sampling period were expressed as percent of total NH3~N
applied. Analysis of variance and Duncan1 s Multiple Range Test was used
to determine differences between treatment means.
124
-------
TABU 6.1. SUnCC TSEAXHEHT AHD HHj-S AHD SOLIDS COHTEHT OF THE SCU&CE SLOTCES STUDIED IB
4
Sludt*
Anauot Applied Per Cylinder
103-8 Concent Solid* tor e 2.5 Mg ha-i Applieatiom
(U«/J Content KH3-N Voluas
dry eolidt) Z (BE) (•!)
AihUad
Hedine
Colidibui
Oevatered
Colmbut
Coluabu*
Coapoit
Lie«-»t«bilii«d liquid
priocry »ludg«, pH 12
Aerobieelly digettcd
liquid aludge
An*«robic«lly digested
liquid »ludg«
An*«robicelly digeited,
ilud(e
Coape«e«d prime ry
sludge
II 400
7 400
8 100
6 300
900
2.0
1.6
S.O
17.3
61.2
20S
133
142
147
17
900
1 120
330
102
30
125
-------
Experimental Design
A series of experiments were run in which all treatment variables
were kept constant except the variable being studied. Experiments
included: soil moisture, time of incorporation, soil pR, sludge type,
temperature and vegetative cover. The treatments are summarized in
Table 6.2.
The experimental treatments were replicated from 3-18 times,
depending on the number of treatments in an individual experiment.
Since a total of six cylinders could be run at one time, the number of
runs which were required to give the necessary replications varied with
each experiment. In each experiment, however, all of the treatments
were included in each run and were randomized as to their positions on
the experimental apparatus.
The soil was incorporated to a depth of 3.5 cm for Experiment 2
(Time of Incorporation).
Experiment 5 (Temperature) was run in a growth chamber.
Temperature was recorded throughout the experimental period and the
range and means for the three runs were: 12-14.5, 12.8 C; 17.8-18.9,
18.3 Cj 24.5-28.9, 26.7 C.
For Experiment 6 (Vegetative Cover), the soil inside and outside
the cylinders that were to contain straw and sod was removed until the
soil level was 6 cm below the rim of the FVC cylinders. The grass sod
or straw placed inside the cylinders raised the level to 4 cm from the
rim of the cylinders, the standard condition in the other experiments. -
The experiment was divided into two parts: one with sludge
containing large sludge particles (^ 1 ran or greater) and another with
well-homogenized sludge (without large sludge particles).
A second batch of Columbus sludge had to be collected since the
original supply (at 17.3Z solids) had been depleted in previous
experiments. This newly collected sludge had a solids content of 27.7%
and was mixed with distilled water to give a solids content of 10%.
A total of four runs were made with two replications per treatment
in each run for a total of eight replicatious per treatment. It was
observed during these runs that the second batch of sludge contained
large sludge particles which were retained by the sod and straw. To
evaluate this effect, the sludge was carefully homogenized after
dilution to 10% solids and a new series of three runs were made with two
replications of each treatment per run for a total of six replications
per treatment.
126
-------
TAIL! 6.2, A SOMMAIY OF THE HHj VOUIIIIZAHOH EXPERIMEHTS
\.
2.
3.
4.
Experiment
Soil Hoieturet
Tia* of Incorporation
Soil pB
Sludge Type
Reference Condition!*
0.01 MPa
Unincorporated?
6.7
Coluabu* anaerobically
Variable Coalition*
0, 1.5 MPi
Air-dry (3.1 Kit)
0.25, 1, 3, 6, 12 hour* after
application
J.I, 7.5
Aahland lia«-*£abiliz*d> pritury
Eapliea
6
12
5
6
3
3. Ta«p«ratur«
digotad, liquid
76.7 CJ
Medina aarobically dig«itad
Coluzbna an*
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment It Soil Moisture
MU-N volatilized per cylinder is shown graphically in Figure 6.2.
The greatest ammonia loss occurred from sludge applied to the soil at
0 MPa tension (saturation; 32% moisture). Peak ammonia loss occurred at
one hour and decreased gradually throughout the experimental period. \t
all times, ammonia losses were higher than at other moisture contents.
The 1.5 MPa treatment was second in terms of ammonia loss throughput the
experimental period, followed closely by the 0.01 MPa treatment. The
air-dry soil gave the lowest NH3 loss at each sampling period.
The pattern of volatilization for the air-dry treatm nt was
statistically significant from the other three treatments, but the
pattern of volatilization for the 0, 0.01 and 1.5 MPa treatments were
not different ,from each other (Table 6.3). Four to five times less NH3
loss occurred in the 24-hour sampling period from the air-dry soil than
• from soil at higher moisture contents (Table 6.3).
The additional water added to the soil with the sludge (10% solids;
90% H20) increased soil moisture: for the air-dried soil (3.1 MPa), soil
moisture increased from 6 to 8.5%; for the 1.5 MPa soil, from 10 to
12.8%; for the soil at 0.01 KPa, soil moisture increased from 22 to
24.2%; and for the saturated soil, soil moisture increased from 32 to
34.5%, assuming that tht sludge liquid interacted with the entire volume
of soil in the bin. This lowered the moisture tensions for the 0.01,
1.5 and 3.1 MPa treatments to 0.007, 1.05 and 1.89 MPa, respectively.
The 0 add 0.01 MPa treatments wer-j essentially the same after sludge was
applied, but the increased 1^0 content a-ter sludge application does not
explain why the 1.5 MPa treatment had the same NH3 loss as the mo<:e
water-saturated soils. The literature has shewn that there are several
competing mechanisms which determine the effects of soil moisture on NH3
volatilization. In the case of the 0 and 0.01 MPa treatments, there was
a free liquid surface (ponding) during most of the 24 hour sampling
period, and Wahhab et al. (1957) and others have shown that evaporation
of water is important in NH3 volatilization. With these two treatments,
also, there was a .linimum of contact between the sludge liquid
containing the dis»oj sd NH3 and the soil. This redu- ed the ability of
the soil to absorb ana hold ammonia.
In the case of the 1.5 MPa and air-dry treatments, moisture
tensions were high enough «fter addition of the sludge to absorb the
sludge liquid. The only difference noted between these two treatments
was the observation that the air-dry soil (3.1 MPa) absorbed the liquid
sludge aore rapiJly and to a greater depth than the 1.5 MPa aoil.
Absorption of the sludge liquid to a shallow depth would have resulted
in a much hJ.gher moisture content and lower moisture retention than was
calculated for the entire volume of soil in t'.e pan. Alco, movement of
128
-------
Sod moisture In MPa
*
Kl
VD
2000
1600
1000
500
. 0
........... O01
/\ ••««.«•»«•• 1.6
/••, X o * /«lr Hrvi
•'*\*X
"^"^^
0136 12
m
-.ip
24
time in hours
Figure 6.2 NHi-H volatilised versus sampling period for sewage sludge
applied to soils at 0, 0.01, and 1.5 MPa, and air-dry
Initial moisture levels. Horizontal bars Indicate the
20 minute sampling period.
-------
TABLE 6.3. Sfflj-S TOLlTttlZZB AS FZBCEBT CV E3-B APPLIED /SB TESTS
•-, & SiramCAKZ K» EEHAGE SUBK3 A7PUXB TO SOILS AT 0,
0.01 ASD 1.5 HTA, 43D 3.1 IS>A (AIl-EK) UttTUL
LEVELS
BSj-Ht VolacUixad Dacca '
la 24 bar* T**t of
«* P*rc«at of e&y-t Liaa
Applied
0 31.« a a
0.01 25.9 a a
1.5 26.8 a a
3.1
-------
the sludge liquid containing NH3 to a greater depth in the air-dry soil
increased the depth of soil through which NH3 gas would have to diffuse
to the surface.
A statistically significant increase in the 24-hour cumulative
HBj'H volatilisation per cylinder with increasing initial eoil moisture
vas given by regression equations in linear, quadratic, and cubic forms,
respectively?
r2 p
ZHH3-H - 6.64 + 0.86w 0.37 0.0003
Z3H3-H - -4.86 + 2.75w - O.OSw2 0.42 0.0006
ZHH3-H - - 58.99 * 15.41w - O.OSw2 + 0.01w3 0.55 0.0001
where w " percent soil moisture
Experiment 2: Sludge Incorporation
HH3-H volatilization decreased when sludge was incorporated
(Figure 6.3). The greatest reductions occurred when sludge was
incorporated iseaediately. Table 6.4 indicates that the pattern of
volatilization for the sludge incorporated immediately was distinct fro®
those of the other periods of incorporation. Percent N^-H
volatilization for the sludges incorporated 0.25-12 hours after
application were statistically lower than the BH3 loss from sludge
incorporated at 24 hours (Table 6.4). The four to eight fold reduction
in volatilization when sludge was incorporated within three hours after
application (Table 6.5) versus the 24-hour incorporation indicates that
significant nitrogen conservation csn be achieved through timely
incorporation of the sludge after its application.
There was a linear increase (p » 0.0001), r2 » 0.43, in
volatilization with time before incorporation:
Z HH3-H volatilized/cylinder • 3.62 + 0.87 (tisse of incorporation,
hours)
For incorporation at 1, 6, and 24 hours, the calculated values for
percent HH3-N volatilized are 4.5, 8.8, and 24.51, respectively. This
compares to actual value* of 4.0, 8.8, end 25.8Z, respectively.
Experiment 3: Soil pH
Increasing soil pH increased aoaaonia volatilization (Table 6.5).
The general shcp^s of the curves (not shown) however, were quite
sioilar, and were not distinct (Table 6.5). The volatilization loss at
pH 7.5 was significantly higher than the losses at the lower pH's.
131
-------
Ui
K>
I
3600
3000
» 2000
Z .2
»n 3
X £
2 e
go 1000
0 1
6
Time of Incorporation (hours)
0
••••«••«• JJ
—...—. 6
12
| indicates incorporation
12
time in hours
Figure 6.3. NH3-H volatilized versus sampling period for sludge
incorporated 0.25, I, 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours after
application.
-------
TASK «.4. EHj-« TOUCTtlZED AS PEKCZVT Of EJ3-B AFft-ITB AHO TZSTS
or siamcAsai roR SEEKS swocz na»SKSAHn> in sou. AT
0.29. 1, 3. 6, 12, USD 24 BOC23 ATEZB AfWJCAKC*
••3
Period* of O»«r 24 Bonn T«»t of
acorparccum M S of Total Una Mttlci- 1«
(beorc) Btj-S Applied E
-------
There was a statistically significant increase in the 24-hour
cumulative NH3 loss per cylinder with increasing soil pH:
r2 P
XNH3-H - 2.65 + 2.12 pH 0.30 0.028
IHH3-M - 90.94 - 26.68 pH + 2.30 (pH)2 0.45 0.022
The linear equation gave a better fit between predicted and observed
data (not shown).
r2 p
XHH3-H - 2.65 + 2.12 pH 0.30 0.028
ZNH3-H • 90.94 - 26.68 pH + 2.30 (pH)2 0.45 0.022
The linear equation gave a better fit between predicted and observed
data (not shown).
Previous work (Ivanov, 1964) has ahown that the greatest effect of
soil pH on ammonia volatilization occurs at high pH's, and particularly
when the soil is calcareous. The pH 7.5 Crosby soil used in this study
did not have free carbonates. One other factor may have reduced the
effect of soil pH on NH3 loss. The soil in this experiment had an
initial moisture content of 0.01 MPa, whifrh has been previously shwts to
reduce the contact between the sludge liquid and the soil. This would
reduce the ability of the soil to change the solution pH which was 7.2
for the sludge itself.
Experiment 4t Sludge Type
There were large differences in the ammonia volatilized from the
different sludges (Figure 6.4 and Table 6.6), but some of these
differences are becauee different amounts of NB^-M were applied for the
different sludges (Table 6.1). Approximately 1.5 times as much NH3-N
was applied with the Ashland lime-stabilized liquid primary sludge as
for the .Medina aerobically digested sludge, Columbus, and dewatered
Columbus anaerobically digested sludges. Only 0.12 times as much WK^-N
was applied with Che Coluabus compost as with the Medina, and Columbus
and dewatered Columbus sludges.
The Ashland sluJge (Figure 6.4) had very high NB^-N losses
throughout the 24 hour period. The ammonia values dropped off rapidly
for the six hour sampling and fhen more gradually over the remainder of
the sampling period. The pH of the Ashland sludge, a lime-stabilized
sludge, is 12, and this was responsible for the rapid loss of ananonia.
Table 6.6 shows that 15.82 of the ammonia was volatilized in 24 hours.
The percentage N^-N losses in this experiment should not be compared to
the results from the other experiments as the sludges were applied at
2.5 Kg ha'1 compared to 5 Mg ha~l for the other e -perinvents.
The pattern of ammonia volatilization for the different sludges
fell into three groups: Ashland; the two Colunbus sludges; and the
134
-------
Sludge type
Columbus o
Dewatered CoSutnbus
Medina Compost
(no NH3-N volatilized)
Ashland
Ol
0 1
time in hours
Figure 6.4. NHi-N volatilized versus sampling period for an Ashland
primary line-stabilized sludge, a Columbus anaerobically
digested sludge, a composted Columbus priraary sludge, a
Medina aerobically digested sludge, and a dewatered
Columbus anaerobically digested sludge applied to soil.
-------
nut 6.6. «H3-H TOLHrozzsD AS rascare or «H3-« Amr» AHD TESTS or siormaacs PCS A COUBSBOT
AIAEBOBICAU.Y DIS4TZB SUWS, A DSHATEBED COUBSUS AO4EEC3ICAUT OICZSTO) SUICCS, A
MEaiBA &ESOSICAU.Y DICESTED SLUDGE, A COMPOSTED COUBS03 tUHUX 8UJOGR, ASD AB ASEUfiD
LOa-£tA>IL£££0 FBIKAStY SLOIXS
90t3 Volatilized
Over 24 Hour* Test of Dunun'e
Type of a* t of Total Line Multiple
Stodge* Sludge HBj-N Applied Equality* Range late*
Celiobua •oeerobl««lly • 8.3 • a
dife«t«9
DtMaured Coluabue •aa*robicelly 7.8 a a
0.4 a a
CoUabiw Coufott friaatj nooc a a
detected
Atblaod . a«r~i>ieallT 15.8 b b
lise-
etablltsad
*Meeu follo»t< by tbe MS* leecer ore aoe eignifioitljr it if (area t at the 0.05 level.
136
-------
Media* sludge and Columbus compost. However, only the Ashland sludge
gave a pattern of volatilisation that was statistically significant from
the others (Table 6.6). The Ashland sludge had significantly more NH3
loss in the 24 hour sampling period than did the other sludges. The
lack of statistical significance in NH3 loss among the other sludges was
due, in part, to "he lower number of replications prr treatment (three)
in this experiment and to the very high volatilization of the Ashland
sludge compared to the others. The number of replications for this
experiment was limited by the number of treatments and the amounts of
the different sludges available.
Of the different sludges studied, the lime-stabilized material is
the least common for land application in Ohio and other areas. Although
it is a good source of phosphorus and nitrogen, these results indicate
that much of the HH3 (which usually accounts for 60-70% of the available
N in municipal sewage sludges) can be lost if not immediately
incorporated. Other problems with lime-stabilized sludge such as
potential odor and physical handling reduce the suitability of this
material for application to cropland.
Experiment 5; Temperature
The pattern of volatilization for the 18.3 and 26.7 C temperatures
(not shown) were similar, with the ammonia VAlatilization values greater
for .the 26.7 C temperature compared to the 18.3 C temperature. The
principal effect seeras to be at the first sampling, where volatilization
tt 18.3 C was approximately 2/3 that at 26.7 C. At the one-hour
sampling, the respective values were closer, with the 18.3 C temperature
value being 802 of the $%-!! volatilization at 26.7 C. The patterns of
volatilization were distinct from each other (Table 6.7) and from the
12.8 C treatment. The percent of applied NH3-H volatilized in 24 hours
from the 26.7 C temperature was 13.62 compared to 9.8% from the 18.3 C
temperature (Table 6.7), but these differences were not statistically
significant.
The pattern of volatilization for the 12.8 C temperature showed
much lower volatilisation and declined much more gradually than at the
two higher temperatures. For the 24 hour period, 2.3Z of the applied
anoonia was volatilized (Table 6.7), which was significantly lower than
the other two temperatures.
Regression analysis showed that volatilization increased with
increasing temperature according to the equation (p • 0.0009;
r2 • 0.63):
I HH3-N volatilized/cylinder - -28.88 + 3.31 (C) - 0.07 (C)2
137
-------
TABU 6.7. MH3-B VOLATTLIZED AS mCSfft 07 HHj-R AFPIIZB AH) TESTS
or sicHiricAScr rot SEWAGE SLDBGZ AP?UH> TO SOILS AI
nairaumnas or 12.8, ie.3, AKD 26.7 c
perctur*
(C)
12.8
18.3
26.7
•83 Volatility
Over 24 Hours
•• t of Total
HBj-S Applied
2.3
9.8
13.6
T««t of
Lice
fcjuelity*
a
b
c
Duocea'i
Multiple
R*Bg« Tt«t*
a
b
b
*tttta» followed by th« t«m Utt«r an DOC •i(nifie
-------
For temperatures of 12.8, 18.3, and 26.7 C, the predicted percent HH3-N
volatilized was 2.9, 9.9, and 13.1%, respectively. The actual values
were 2.3, 9.8, and 13.6Z, respectively.
It is common to spread sludge year-round since taany sewage
treatment plants do not have sufficient storage capacity to avoid
•preading for more than a month or so. Sludge spread during the winter
is not incorporated because of frozen soil, but these data would
indicate that NH3 volatilization losses would be quite low during these
periods. On the other hand, much sludge is spread in the summer months,
particularly on fields from which wheat has been harvested and on hay
and pasture lands. Surface temperatures during this period can greatly
exceed the maximum temperature of 26.7 C studied here, and
volatilization losses would be expected to be much greater than the
13.62 obtained for that temperature.
Experiment 6t Vegetative Cover (Large Sludge Particles)
A new batch of the Columbus dewatered sludge with a solids content
of 27.7Z was collected just prior to this experiment and proved
difficult to thor<~-.ghly mix with distilled water. Small chunks of
iludge remained even after thorough mixing. The cover had two forms:
wheat straw and a Kentucky blue grass sod cut to a height of 3.5 cm.
The peak of HB3 loss for both the straw and sod was greater and of
longer duration than for the bare soil (Fig-ire 6.5). The straw and sod
seemed to reach a plateau in atamonia volatilization from the one hour to
the three hour reading, and then declined over time, while the bare soil
had a peak reading at one hour and then declined over time. The
volatilization pattern for the two vegetative cover treatments were
statistically distinct (Table 6.8) from that of the bare soil but not
from each other. Volatilization from the bare soil was statistically
significant (6.4% of the H^-N applied) compared to volatilization from
the soil with the wheat straw cover (14.3%), but the sod treatment was
not statistically different from the other two (Table 6.8).
When sewage sludge was surface applied to the straw-covered soil,
the straw retained some of the sewage sludge chunks preventing them from
making contact with the soil. The straw acted as a physical barrier.
Meyer et al. (1961) found that, when a urea-ammonium nitrate fertilizer
solution was sprayed on a straw residue covering an acid soil, NH3 loss
was similar to that from an alkaline or neutral soil because the straw
physically intercepted the solution and volatilization occurred from the
spray on the straw surface and not from the soil surface. Something
similar appears to have occurred here. The straw had the largest
percent ammonia volatilization loss and the grass was next. An
additional factor besides the interception of part of the sewage slr.4ge
w*s that the grass sod was very thick, and possibly the air circulation
through and around the grass sod was not as efficient as through the
139
-------
Vegetative cover
E
sod
straw
0
12
time in hours
Figure 6.5. HH3~N volatilized versus sampling period for sewage sludge
containing large sludge particles applied to a
straw-covered soil, a sod, or bare soil.
-------
TABLE 6.8. 083-1) VOLATILIZED AS PERCENT OF KH3-N APPLIED AMD TESTS
OP siGBincAHCE pot SEKACB SLUDGE APPLIED TO SOILS WITH
VECETATm COVCK (WHEAT STRAW OR SOD) AGO A BAKE SOIL
V«j«tativ«
Cover
HH3HJ VoUtiliswi
Ov«r 24 BOUT*
ai Z of Total
KBj-B Applied
T»»t of
Lin*
Equ»licy*
Dunc*o'»
Multipl*
Kins* T«»t*
Hh«at Straw
Sod
B«rt Soil
Leoio 31udg« P«rtiel«i
14.3
11.3
6.4
SIudg«
«b
b
Uhut Strcv
Sod
Ben Soil
9.1
0.1
6.<>
4
•
•
m
•
•
*H»on» followed by th«
the O.OS l«v«l.
Utter «r« aot •ijnificaotly dl££«r«nt at
-------
straw, allowing more volatilization to occur from the straw. The grass
was growing in a vertical direction, while the straw was more
horizontal, Allowing more of the sludge and water mixture to be
physically intercepted by the straw compared to the grass, thus
presenting a larger volatilization surface from the straw. The sod was
clipped just before th3 experiment began, and it is possible that the
grass took up seme of the sludge ammonia, but active growth WPS noc
observed until after the experiment wa•; terminated.
Ammonia loss was least from the bare soil, and evidently the
contact of the sewage sludge mixture with the soil prevented part of the
loss.
Experiment 6t Surface Cover (Liquid Sludge)
The experiment was repeated as described for the first pert of
Experiment ,6. The sludge was mixed with distilled water, allowed to
stand for five minutes, then again mixed. The repeated m:'xing process
was sufficient to eliminate the large sludge particles.'
Volatilization patterns for the three treatments (not shown) were
not distinct (Table 6.8) nor were there any statistically significant
differences in the amounts of NR3 volatilized in the 24-hour
experimental period.
The wheat and sod delayed the peak periods of U:T3 volatilization
compared to the bare soil as they did iu the firrf part o? the
experiment with sludge containing sludge particles. The main
difference, however, was greater ' overall volatilization with the
vegetation treatments in the first part of tl.e e: periment (large sludge
particles) but little or m effect of these treatments with the more
homogenized sludge. Because of its high water solubility, almost all of
the ajanonia in liquid sludge is associated with the liquid fraction and
little is on the sludge solids. If sludge solids were trapped on the
surface of the straw and sod, volatilization of NH3 from the particles
themselves would probably not be enough to account for the differences
observed. Another possible explanation, however, is that the solids may
have prevented the sludge liquid from rapidly moving through the
vegetative cover to the soil surface by plugging the spaces between the
straw particles or blades of grass. In addition, the sludge solids are
organic And would have retained a high percentage of moisture even >--er
most of the sludge liquid had moved through the vegetative layer and
into the soil. Ammonia could have volatilized from the absorbed weter.
Although the effects of vegetative cover on NH3 volatilization from
sewage sludges were found to be small, and affected by the physical
characteristics of the sludge itself, these effects could be important
in the field. Many sludges are land-applied as filter ^ake or
centrifugal sludge which contain around 10-25£ solids, and the sludge
142
-------
particle effects noted in this research could be sore significant with
sludges of this ty^e. Also, application of sludges to Land with
vegetative cover (wheat stubble, corn stalk residues, hay or pasture
land) is a reconraended practice wherever feasible to reduce soil
compaction and rutting by the applicator truck, and to minimize runoff.
REFERENCES ©
Beauchamp, E. G., G. E. Kidd, and G. Thurtell. 1978. Ammonia
volatilization from sewage sludge applied in the field. J.
Environ. Qual. 7:141-146.
Ernst, J. W. and H. F. Hassey. 1960. The effects of several factors on
volatilization of assaonia fonsed froo urea in the soil. Soil Sci.
Soc. Araer. Proc. 24:87-90.
Fenn, L. B. and D. E. Kissel. 1973. Aszsonia volatilization from
surface applications of ammonium compounds on calcareous soils:
I. General theory. Soil Sci. Soc. Aster. Proc. 37:855-859.
Gasser, J.K.R. 1964. Some factors affecting losses of aaraouia from
urea and ammonium sulfate applied to soils. J. Soil Sci.
15:258-272.
Hoff, J. D., D. V. Kelson, and A. L. Sutton. 1981. Ammonia
volatilization from liquid swine manure applied to cropland. J.
Environ. Qnal. lC:90-94.
Ivanov, t. 1964. Possible loss of nitrogen as a result of evaporation
of ammonia when applying aoraoniacal fertilizers to- some soils.
Coamoravealth Bureau of Soil Science, Soils and Fertilizers 27:323.
Kissel, D. E., H. L. Brewer, and G. F. Arkin. 1977. Design and test of
a field sampler for ammonia volatilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
J. 41:1133-1138.
Martin, J. P. and H. D. Chapman. 1951. Volatilization of ammonia from
surface-fertilized soils. Soil Sci. 71:25-34.
Meyer, R. D., R. A. Olson, and H. F. Rhoades. 1961. Asraonia losses
from fertilized Sebra«ka soils. Agron. J. 53:241-244.
Miller, R. H., R. K. White, T. J. Logan, D. L. Forstej;, and
J. H. Stitzlein. 1979. Ohio guide for land application of sewage
sludge. Cooperative Ext. Service. Bull. Bo. 598.
T
Xeter, J. and W. Uasserman. 1974. Applied linear statistical models,
regression, analyses of variance, and experimental designs.
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Rosewood, 111.
143
-------
rs, L. E. 1977. Cbeaical composition of sewage sludges and
analysis of their potential use as fertilizers. J. Environ. Qual.
6:225-232.
Volkf G. M. 1961. Gaseous loss of aaraonia froa surface-applied
nitrogenous fertilizers. Agric. Food Chem. 4:280-233.
O
Baobab, A., M. S. Randhava, S. Q. Alam. 1957. Loss of aeraonia from
anoniua sulphate under different conditions when applied to soils.
Soil Sci. 84:248-255.
144
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SECTION 7
SOIL DEGSAMTIOH AKD PLAHT ABSOapTIOH OF
PCB FRCM PCS AMENDED SEWAGE SLUDGE
Iraida Hobledo, B.S., M.S.
Robert H. Miller, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
METHODS ABD MATERIALS
Soils Used
Celina silt loam and Brookston silt loam soils vere used in all
experiments. These soils vere chosen because they differed in their
organic matter contents. Selected chemical and physical properties of
the two soils are given in Table 7.1. Brooks ton soil was collected from
the Ohio State University farm and the Celina soil was collected from
the Western Branch, OARDC, South Charleston, Chic, in the fall of 1979.
Both soils vere brought to the Laboratory and passed through a 2 aan
sieve. The soils were stored at field moisture in plastic bags at 4 C
until used.
Sewage Sludge Used
A liquid anaerobically digested sevage sludge (Jackson Pike
treatment plant, Columbus) was used in all the experiments. Three
monthly coo^osited samples were used in the experiments.
Characteristics of the sludge for each month are shown in Table 7.2.
The sludge contained 3. 98 tag /kg of PHJ.
Sjodegradation of 14c>pci From Sewage Sludge Amended Celina and
Broolcston Soils
Preparation of ^C-labeled PCB Solutions —
Two micro liters of PCB (Aroclor 1254, obtained from Ana labs, Inc.,
Lot. Ho. J147A) was added into a screw-capped silanized Teflon-lined
1.8 ml vial (Supelcc, Inc.) containing 500 yl hexane to achieve a final
concentration of 6 yg PC3/^i. The density of PCB is 1.505 g/ctP at
15 C. To three screw-capped silanized Teflon^-lined 1.8 ml vials were
added 93.3, 18.3, and 3.3 yl of the PCB solution prepared above. A
solution of poly chlorinated (U-cl*) biphenyl (14C-Aroclor 1254, specific
145
-------
TULC 7.1. SELECTED msicAL ana cssttou. nonxtta or exFCEDSKtAL sous
lTOOfc*t
P«relcl» Size AaaJrtU
15.7 57.7 26.6
12.9 M.4 20.7
Ei
£
fdl ••••••
7.0 312
7.2 19»
ceh«0f««bt« CatiMM OrfCBie
• ••« • W« ftl* •• • II II^^Ml^^H /T^
6126 1029 75 2.5
3167 96* 39 041
0.33
AGO,
H«t«r
Caneeac
(Z by »t.)
25.9
23.6
146
-------
TABU 7.1. CTOMiaU. MULTSI8 OT COUROUI JMXSM PIU SEWftCS 8UTOCS
tot* ot
July, 1980
8«pt«ob«r, ItaO
rtbruary, 1980
Solid*
(2)
J.5
S.I
1.1
1*
• .I
7.S
I.X
Tottl Total
HHj"*W ' jOlv£nl"*rl FnOA*
1,0)1 19,995 J»,7iJ
S,«ll 29,491 H.86J
l,7«l 41,704 14,846
fc
4,671
1,577
1,763
O»
— «S/k|
J70
S9S
729
Cd
S1.71
S7.«l
9J.50
n,
761
1,13»
J4S
m
M6
SM
170
tn
S.4B4
7,111
S.I4J
Ct
S16
1,491
776
-------
activity " 37 uCi/raraol, formula weight - 326, obtained from Amershan
Corporation, CFA.586) was prepared by diluting an original batch of
25 uCi PCS in 250 ul of hexane: toluene (9:1 v/v) solution into a
silanized liquid scintillation vial (Kimble) with 4.75 ml of hexane to
achieve a final concentration of 0.005 UCi 14c/ul. 'tvUocaemical purity
of l^C-PCB was determined by the manufacturer. To each of the three
vials mentioned above was added 450 ul of the radioactive PCS solution.
Hexane was added to each vial to reach a final volume of 550 yl. The
vials contained three 14C-labeled solutions of 2.25 pCi/560.1 \i$ PCS,
2.25 uCi/130.1 US ?C3» and 2.25 uCi/40.1 Ug PCS.
All samplings and transfers of PCS were made vith Gilson Pipetsan
digital microliter pipettes (Raisin Instrument Co. Inc.). The vials
containing the PCS solutions were covered with aluminum foil to prevent
photolysis and kept at -20 C to prevent volatilization of the PCB' s.
Sylon-CT (Supelco, Inc.) was used to silanize glassware used in the
preparation of FC3 solutions. The radioactivity of all the ^C-labeled
PCB solutions were verified by counting 1 or 2 ul of the radioactive
solution in a 15-ml liquid scintillation cocktail.
Preparation of l^C-labeled PCB Amended Sewage Sludge —
Four sub-samples of sludge equivalent to 0.9 g dry sludge (26.1 g
wet sludge) (July, 1980 samples) were weighed out into vox paper
containers (474 ml cup). The labeled PCB solutions prepared above were
added to three of the sub-sample* and thoroughly mixed using a plastic
spoon. This gave a final concentration of 0, 44.5, 144.5, end 644.5 Ug
PCB/g dry sludge with a ^C-PCB concentration equivalent to 2.5 UCi
l^C/g dry sludge. (A calculation error led to the addition of Toore
nonlabeled PCB than the planned concentration of 25, 125, and 625 Ug
PCB/g dry sludge).
Aaendment of Soils With Sewage Sludge Containing l^C-labeled PCB—
Eighty grata (dry weight) quantities of the two soils (Celina and
Brooks ton) were weighed out on each of eight pieces of wrapping paper of
known weight (approx. 16 g each). PCB-sludge mixtures (prepared above)
equivalent to 0.4 g dry sludge were transferred to the surface of each
soil sample on the paper sheets. This gave a final sludge concentration
equivalent to 11.2 metric tons/ha. The sludge was allowed to air dry on
the soil and then mixed thoroughly with the soil using a spatula.
Sub sample s of the soil-sludge mixtures equivalent to 20.1 g (dry weight)
were added to each incubation flask and adjusted to field capacity by
weighing the container and adding the required amount of distilled
water. All treatments were replicated three times. The flasks wete
sealed and incubated in a Sher'.r Environmental Control Room at 30 C foi
16 weeks. Evolved *^C02 was collected by flushing on a weekly basis as
described -elow.
148
-------
Incubation and Trapping Syste
An incubation and trapping system designed and described by
Marinucci and Bertha (1979) was uoed to prevent expected volatility of
PCB from the soil-sludge mixtures or ooil-PCB mixtures. A detailed
description of the system follows: Samples were incubated in a closed
flask with glass, stainless steel, and Teflon components only. The
incubation flask shown in Figure 7.1 consisted of a 125-ml
micro-ferobach flask (Bellco, Vine land, N.J.) closed with a Teflon-lined
screw cap. Holes were drilled in the screw cap and two 16-gauge syringe
needles were inserted through the Teflon lining. The syringe needles
were secured to the screw cap with epoxy cement and, when not in use for
flushing were closed with 0-size polyvinylchloride stoppers (Caplugs
Protective Closures Ice., Buffalo, N.Y.). Every week, each incubation
flask was evacuated and flushed with air for 5 min. using a water
aspirator. Each flushing r??l«<*cd approximately 99 percent of the
original atmosphere, assuming complete nixing (Marinucci and Bertha,
1979). The headspace gaa during evacuation and flushing contained
radio-labeled PCB vapors aad **C02 which were collected in the trapping
unit illustrated in Figure 7.2. The connection between the incubation
flask and trapping unit was made with Teflon spaghetti tubing. The
volatile PCB and its degradation products other than C<>2 were trapped in
units Al and A2, containing toluen* based universal scintillation
cocktail prepared in the laboratory as described later. Only the
contents of Al were routinely counted, A2 serving only as a backup trap.
1^C(>2 was then trapped in units 01 and 02 containing phenethylamine
(CarboSorb, Packard Inst., Co. Inc.). Both 1^C02 trapping units were
routinely counted. Units Tl and T2 were kept empty as insurance against
loss or mixing of trap contents by back pressure.
The tripping unit was constructed of 24 mm diameter glass
scintillation vieIs. Vial caps and stainless steel tubing connections
were all permanently mounted on a coeraon bracket by epoxy cement.
Counting vials filled with th« appropriate counting fluid were attached
or detached by screwing theai into tbr cap threads. This dual trapping
system separated volatile 14C-PCB from *4co2. Backflow problems were
eliminated by connecting the system starting at the source of vacuum
(trap 02) and proceeding upstream to the incubation flask.
Disconnection proceed in reverse order, starting in the incubation flask
and proceeding through to the vacuum source. This system was
successfully used for 16 week incubation periods while studying the fate
of ^C-Aroclor 1254 in sewage sludge amended and unamended soils.
Biodegradation of ^C-PCB From Celina and Brookaton Soils
This experiment was done to determine the rate of decomposition of
Aroelor 1254 in soils without sewage sludge. The same procedures were
followed as in the previous experiment except tK^t this time the correct
amount of PCB (2.25 uCi/562.5 ug PCB, 2.25 MCi/U2.5 ug PC3. and
2.25 yCi/22.5 yg PCB) were added to the three screw capped silanis»d
149
-------
•Teflon lined
screw cap
.Air outflow
Air inflow
(16-gauge needle)
125 ml micro-
fembach flask
Scil (20 g dry
weight)
Figure 7.1. Soil incubation vessel.
150
-------
V
-------
1.8 ml vials and diluted to a final volume of 1100 pi of hexane. Half
of this solution (550 yl) was added in the center of the soil surface of
80 g (dry weight) each of Celina and Brookston soil contained on
wrapping paper of approximately 9 g weight. This small amount of soil
was then thoroughly mixed with the remainder of the soil using a
spatula. Subaamples of soil equivalent to 20 g (dry weight) were added
to each incubation flask and adjusted to field capacity by weighing the
container and adding the required amount of distilled water. All
treatments were replicated three times. Incubation and flushing were
done as in the previous experiment.
Sewage Sludge Decomposition in the Presence of Different Rates of
Nonlabeled PCS in Celina and Brookaton Soils
Preparation of PCB Solutions-
Six microliters of PCB (1.505 g/cm3 at 15 C) was added to a
screw-capped silanized Teflon-lined 1.8 ml vial containing 500 ul of
hexane to achieve a. final concentration of 18 yg PCB/vl. To three screw
capped Teflon lined 1.8 ml vials was added 233.6, 46.7 and 9.3 ul of the
above solution. Bexane was added to each vial to reach a final volatile
of 550 yl. The vials then contained 168.8 yg PC3/316.4 yl hsxane,
843.8 yg PCB/503.3 yl hex-ins and 4218.8 yg PCB/540.7 yl hexane.
t
Preparation of PCB Amended Sewage Sludge—
Four sub-samples of sludge equivalent to 6.75 g dry sludge (195.4 g
wet sludge) (July, 1980 samples) were weighed out' into wax paper
containers (474 ml cup). Three subsamples of sludge were thoroughly
mixed with the PCB solutions prepared above using a plastic spoon. This
gave a final concentration of 0, 25, 125, and 625 yg PCB/g dry sludge.
. ^
Amendment of Soils With Sewage Sludge Containing PCB—
Six hundred gram quantities (dry weight) of two soils (Celina and
Brookston) were weighed out on each of eight pieces of wrapping paper of
approximately 15 g each. The PCB-sludge mixture prepared above
equivalent to 3.0 g dry sludge were weighed out on the soil surface
contained on each paper. The sludge was allowed to air dry on the soil
and then mixed thoroughly with the soil using a spatula. The final
concentration of sludge was equivalent to 11.2 metric ton/ha.
Sub-samples of the amended soils equivalent to 150.75 g (dry weight)
were added to screw-capped wide mouth (10.5 cm high x 8.0 en diameter)
jars and adjusted to field capacity by weighing the container and adding
the required amount of distilled water when needed. A 25 ml beaker
containing 25 ml of 0.5 N sodium hydroxide was placed on the soil
surface in the center of each jar. Three replications per rate were
used. The soils were incubated st room temperature for 30 days.
Evolved C02 was determined at regular intervals by titration of the
unreacted NaOH. For titration, the NaOH solution was transferred to a
100 ml beaker, the carbonate precipitated as BaC03 with 5.0 ml of a
saturated solution of barium chloride, and finally titrated with 0.5 N
152
-------
hydrochloric acid using phenolphthalien as an indicator. The results
were expressed as mg CC^-C produced per 100 g dry soil.
Dptake of l^C-PCB by Kentucky 31 Fescue From Sewage Sludge Amended
Celina and Brookston Soil
Preparation of l^C-labeled PCB Solutions—
A l^C-PCB solution was prepared by diluting an original batch of
25 yCi/250 yl "".ex.* 12: toluene (9:1 v/v) solution with 7.75 ml hexane in a
liquid scintillation vial containing a previously diluted radioactive
solution of 1.85 ml of 0.005 yCi 14C/yl. Tnit mixture was calculated to
give a final concentration of 0.004 Ci ^C/ 1. (Verification of the
radioactivity of this PCB solution gave a concentration of 0.007 yCi
l^C/yl. This concentration was used for all calculations). To each of
three silanized liquid scintillation vials were added 3.3 ml of the
radioactive solution prepared above an<* 1.3, 6.8, and 34.2 yl of
nonlabeled PCB to achieve a final concentration of 23.0 yCi/2165 y£ PC1.},
23.0 yCi/10415 us PCB, and 23 yCi/51665 yg PCB.
Preparation of l^C-labeled PCB Amended Sewage Sludge—
Four sub-samples of sludge equivalent to 82.5 yg of dry sludge
(1617.7 g wet sludge) (September, 1980 samples) were weighed out in
polyethylene cone-shaped plastic containers (15.0 cm high x 12.5 cm
diameter). Three subsamples of sludge were thoroughly mixed with the
labeled PCB solutions prepared using a plastic spoon. This gave a final
concentration of 26.3, 126.3, and 626.3 yg PCB/g; dry sludge with a
14c-pCB concentration equivalent to 0.278 yCi l^C/g dry sludge.
Amendment of Soils With Sewage Sludge Containing l^C-labeled PCB—
Fifteen hundred gram quantities (dry weight) of two soils (Celina
and Brookston) were weighed out in cone-shaped polyethylene plastic
containers (16.5 cm high x 14.5 cm diameter) lined with polyethylene
plastic bags. The l^C-PCB-sludge mixture prepared above, equivalent to
7.5 g of dry sludge, were weighed out on the soil surface within each
container. This gave a final sludge concentration of 11.2 metric
ton/ha. Five replicates per treatment were used for each soil. The
sewage sludge was allowed to infiltrate into the soil and air dry. The
soil surface was then manipulated by mixing the top 4 cm of the soil
surface with a spatula to simulate tillage incorporation of the sludge
into the soil. All pots were sown with 0.65 g seeds/pot of fescue
(Festuca arundinacea Schrib. "Kentucky 31"). The pots were placed in a
growth chamber (16 hr day, 37 C day, 20 C night, 70-80 percent humidity,
and 3900-7990 foot candles at a height of 80 cm). All pots were watered
on alternate days with distilled water until the soil was saturated at
the surface.
Determination of Plant Uptake of PCB—
Kentucky 31 fescue was allowed to grow until about 10-15 cm in
height. At this time the fescue was cut to about a 2.5-cn height using
153
-------
a single edged razor blade. The harvested material was transferred to
paper bags and dried at 70 C overnight and weighed. The dried plant
material was ground using a Wiley Mill, Intermediate Model, 3383-L40.
Sub-samples of the ground plant material (two/pot) were weighed
(0.05-0.25 g) in a Combus to-Cone (Packard Instr. Co. Inc.) containing
small amounts of cellulose powder. Samples were oxidized with a Packard
Sample Oxidizer1, Model 306. The resulting gases were collected and
adsorbed in a scintillation cocktail (Oxiprep-2 and Oxisorb-C(>2 (11:7),
obtained from New England Nuclear). Uptake of ^C-PCB by fescue was
followed pn approximately monthly intervals following the procedure
outlined above.
Leaf Absorption Studies of
Preparation of l^C-labeled PCB Solution —
To a screw-capped silanized Teflon-lined 1.8 ml vial were added
8.8 yl of nonlabeled PCB and 135 ul of l^C-PCB from a previously diluted
radioactive solution of 0.005 uCi l^C/ul. Ilexa:i« was added to re»ch a
final volume of 1100 yl. The vial then contained 0.675 yCi/13252 yg
?C3.
Preparation of l^C-labeled PCB Amended Sewage Sludge —
Two sub sample s of sludge equivalent to 21.2 g dry sludge (684 g wet
sludge) (February, 1981 samples) were weighed out in polyethylene
cone-shaped plastic containers (16.5 cm high x 14.5 cm diameter). One
sub sample was thoroughly mixed with the labeled PCB solution prepared
above using a plastic spoon. This gave a final concentration of 0 and
625 Ug PCB/3 dry sludge with a ^C-PCB concentration equivalent to
0.03 uCi 14C/g dry sludge.
•
Amendment of Leaf With Sewage Sludge Containing l^C-labeled PCB —
Application of sewage sludge by spray irrigation to plant leaf
surfaces was simulated by "painting" liquid sewage sludge prepared as
described above on fescue leaf surfaces with a nylon brush. This
amended liquid sewage sludge was added in small amounts in several
applications allowing it to dry between applications to avoid excess
dropping of the sludge rroa the leaf surface. The sludge application
rate was equivalent to 2.25 metric ton/ha. The fescue used was that
growing in sU;d»« n%en4cd Brooks ton silt loam and had been used
previously for she plant uptake studies of 14C-PCB. Both 14C-PCB
labeled sludge a®d non-labeled sludge were used and each treatment was
replicated f •«« times.
Three 4«ya after sludge application to leaf surfaces, the plant
material* w« harvested by cutting with a single edged razor blade.
Half of che plant samples were washed with an aqueous solution
(C.I percent) of dodecyl sodium sulfate detergent to remove adhering
sludge. The harvested aaterial w«s ground with an agate mortar and
154
-------
pestle. This was done to prevent volatilization of PCB's fron the
sludge during oven drying.
Sub sample* of the ground plant material (two/pot) were weighed
(0.15-0.37 g) in a Combusto-Cone containing small amounts of cellulose
powder. Samples were oxidized as described in the previous plant uptake
exper intent.
®
Scintillation Counting
Carbon activity was determined using a BecVunan Liquid Scintillation
Counter, Model 100 C. Counting times were 20 minutes, at a 2.0 percent
standard error, using the internal standard method for quench
correction. The internal standard used was a toluene 1*C standard (5.27
x 105 ± 3.2 percent DPM/g) obtained from Packard Inst. Co. Inc. (Cat.
Mo. 6004062). Two hundred microLiters of this standard, equivalent to
9.4 x lO^ (disintegrations per minute) DPM were added to randomly
selected vials to check counting efficiency of the instrument and to
calculate quenching using an internal standard procedure.
In the biodegradation studies, solutions of l^C-Aroclor 1254 were
counted in a 15 ml cocktail prepared in the laboratory by adding toluene
to 0.150 g/1 POPOP (l,4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)- Benzene, Scintillation
Grade) and 4 g/1 POP (2,5-Diphenylozazole, Scintillation Grade) obtained
from Packard Inot. Co. Inc. 1^C02 was counted in a 2:1 solution of the
liquid scintillation fluor prepared above (10 ml) and 5 ml of
pheiiethylamine based Carbo-Sorb carbon dioxide absorber (Packard In»;.
Co. Inc.). Counting efficiency range* from 88 to 97 percent for the
15 ml cocktail toluene-based scintillation fluor prepared as described
above and 69-86 percent for the 2:1 solution. In the plant uptake end
leaf absorption studies the 1^C(>2 was trapped in Oxiprep-2 liquid
scintillation fluor (11 ml) and Oxisorb-C02 (7 ml), obtained from
New England Nuclear.
Analysis of the Data
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data from
all the experiments. If a significant difference was found, the Least
Significant Difference (LSD) procedure was used to show differences in
the treatment means. Additionally, in the plant uptake experiment the
two way analysis of variance was carried out to evaluate any difference
between the two soil types used (Celina and Brooksfcon) related to the
concentration of PCS used. Results of the statistical analyses are
shown in the Appendix Tables. The statistical analysis was done on a
Texas Instrument electronic calculator TI programmable 58/59.
155
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biodegradation of ^C-PCB in Celine and Brookston Soils When
Incorporated With and Without Sewage Sludge
The quantity of ^C02 evolved when l^C-PCB was addeJ to the Celina
soil with and without sewage sludge were very similar (Figures 7.4 and
7.6). However, with Brookston' soil, ^CC^ evolution froa i4C-PCB was
around 10 times higher when applied without sewage sludge (Figures 7.3
and 7.5). No effective explanation of these anoaolou-s data is readily
apparent. However, it is possible that it is related to the organic
matter content of the Brookston soil and to the protection of PCS by the
sewage sludge.
An inverse relationship w«s found between the concentration of
l^C-PCB added to both the Brookston end Celina {toils and the quantity of
evolved l^CC^. This relationship was true regardless of whether the
14c-FCB are added with the sewage sludge or without the sewage slud'. 2
(Figures 7.3-7.6). This relationship was particularly evident for the
lowest rate of l^C-PCB and was not as evident at the two highest
concentrations. These results suggeat a stimulation-inhibition effect
of the PCB'e on the soil microbial population-
To test the possibility of a conceutration effect of PCS en
stimulation or inhibition of the soil micro flora, an additional study
was done in which the degradation of sewage sluJge carbon in the
presence of different rates of nonlabeled PCS were examined in both
experimental soils. The data showed no effect of PCB concentration on
the degradation rate of. sewage sludge on both Celina and Brookston soils
(Figures 7.7 and 7.8). It seems, therefore, that the concentrator of
applied PCB's only affected specific soil microorganism capable of
degrading PCB's but not components of the general soil microbial
population. No attempt was made to differentiate thic PCB-sensitive
microflora on both experimental soils. Pal et al. (1979) reported that
the growth of certain microorganisms may be stimulated by low levels of
PCB1 a (i.e., 0.1 Ug/g of soil weight) without apparent influence on soil
respiration while at concentrations greater than 1 percent of soil
weight, the soil biological activity is inhibited. The nature of this
experiment does not allov us to predict with assurance whether
stimulation by low concentration of..FCB or inhibition by high
concentrations was responsible for the results obtained. However, it
seems that an inhibition of. specific soil microorganisms capable of
degrading PCB by the higher concentration of PCB was more probable than
a stimulation effect.
Volatilization of 14C-PCB in Celina and Brookston Soil-
It has been found by several investigators (Haque et al., 1974;
Iwata et al., 1973; Gresshoff et al. , 1977; Hiralzum et al., 1979) that
the affinity of PCB's for adsorption increases with the organic matter
156
-------
wg PCB/g soil
1.5
I! 1-°
~
^
6
~ 0.5
a:
5
0
- « 0.22 •
«
a 0.72 «
» 3.23 •
• B
• 0
• _ *
• a * *
9 B ^ *
• & * ^ *
BffiL
^9
• ^ * *
§1
15 10
Incubation tine (weeks)
15
Figure 7.3. 1^C02 evolution from ^-C-PCB sewage sludge amended
Brookston soil.
157
-------
7.0 .
6.0
5.0
A.O
3.0
2.0
1.0
ug PCB/g dry soil
0.22
0.72
3.23
• * *
I I I i ; I i 1 f I I II '
15 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.4. 14C02 evolution from l^C-PCB sewage sludge amended Celina
soil.
158
-------
c
X
14.0
13.0
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
•2.0
1.0
0
ug PC3/g dry soil
• 0.13
O 0.63
» 3.13
o 9
I t
I t i i t i i t i I i t
5 10 15
5 10
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.5. 14C02 evolution from 14C-PCB amended Brookston soil,
159
-------
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
£
C
3.0
2.0 h
1.0
ug PCB/g dry soil
• 0.13
• 0.63
» 3.13
a
a
1 ! I t II II I II Lit
1 5 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.6. 1^C02 evolution from 14C-PCB amended Celina soil.
160
-------
o
en
it'
M>
o
o
u
00
6
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
rCB/j; dry sludge
0.0
12 20
Tnciihnt Ion Him- (days)
10
Figure 7.7. Cumulative C02~C evolved from PCB sewage sludge amended
Brookston soil.
-------
N>
50
45
40
S 35
30
25
20
6 15
10
5
o
o
u
60
Mi* I'CB/g dry
0.0
25.0
125.0
625.0
I
]2 20
Incubation time (d;iys)
30
Figure 7.8. Cumulative C02~C evolved from PCD sewage sludge amended
Celina soil.
-------
and clay contents of the soil and also as the number of chlorine atoms
on the isomer increases. It can be assumed that these factors may
decrease PCB volatilization by reducing the activity of PCB's in the
soil (Pal et al., 1980). The fact that Brookston soil contains higher
amount of organic matter than the Celina soil (Table 7.1) may explain
why volatilization of Aroclor 1254 is lower for the Brookston soil than
from the Celina soil when incorporated both with and without sewage
sludge (Figures 7.9-7.12). The effect of sewage sludge in reducing PCB
volatilization by adsorption of the PCB's is clearly shown on the Celina
soil (Figure 10 and 12) in which more volatilization occurred on the
treatment without sewage sludge than the one with sewage sludge. The
Brookston soil showed slightly slower volatilization of PCB from the
treatment without sewage sludge. This could be because the
concentration of PCB applied was less than on the treatment with sewage
sludge and to the presence of organic compounds in the sludge that
adsorb the PCB1s.
Studies on the degradation rate of PCB's by microorganisms have
conclusively established that the less chlorinated biphenyls are
metabolized more readily and completely than the highly chlorinated
species. Similarly, studies on the volatilization of PCB's have shown
that the low-molecular weight PCB's tend to volatilize much more readily
than the high-molecular weight species. Since Aroclor 1254 possesses a
higher percentage of highly chlorinated species, the low pecentage of
PCB decomposed or volatilized on both Celina and Brookston soil
(Table 7.3) were probably the less chlorinated biphenyls present in the
formulation of Aroclor 1254. Pal et al. (1980) state that the lack of
dehalogenation capacity of most microorganisms is responsible for the
lower degradation rate observed as the level of chlorination of biphenyl
increases. The fact that approximately 99.0 percent of the applied
PCB's remained in both experimental soils at the end of the incubation
period clearly shows the extreme persistence of Aroclor 1254 in soils.
This is in agreement with a study done by Iwata et al. (1973) in which
they found Aroclor 1254 to be extremely persistent in six California
soils over a period of one year with the lesser halogens ted biphenyls
disappearing faster than the higher ones. This suggest a long-term
buildup of higher chlorinated mixtures of PCB's in soils.
The decomposition studies of PCB showed a large variation between
replicate flasks. This problem was not as evident in the volatilization
data. This problem could be due to improper mixing of the
PCB-sludge-soil system. PCB's are extremely lipophilic which would make
uniform mixing of soil and sludges which are in an aqueous environment
very difficult. An alternative explanation could be that the select
group of microorganisms responsible for the PCB degradation were not
present at the same level in the small soil samples used.
163
-------
ug PCB/g dry soil
• 0.22
5 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.9. Volatilization of l^C-PCB and its degradation products
other than l^CQi from l^OPCB sewage sludge amended
Brookston soil.
164
-------
260
240 t~
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
b
ug PCB/g dry soil
0.22 "
i i i i i i
t I
i i i
5 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.10. Volatilization of 14C-PCB and its degradation products
other than ^O^ from l^C-PCB sewage sludge amended Celina
soil.
165
-------
100
90
80
70
•60
.*
x
I 50
e 40
30 h
20
10
0
v-g PCB/g dry soil
0.13
< f I I I 1 I I I
5 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
figure 7.11. Volatilization of 14C-PCB and its degradation products
other than l^cc^ from l^C-PCB and its degradation products
other than 1^C0 from l^C-PCB amended Brookston soil.
166
-------
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
•_g PC3/g drv soil
t t
5 10 15
Incubation time (weeks)
Figure 7.12. Volatilisation of ^C-PCB and its degradation products
other than 1^C(> from l^C-PCB amended Celina soil.
167
-------
00
TABLE 7.3. BIODEGRADATION OF I*C-PCB IN CELINA AND BROOKSTON SOILS uflEN ADDED WITH AND WITHOUT SEWAGE SLUDGE DURING
16 WEEKS PERIOD ' '
Treat-
Bent*
With
Sewage
Sludge
Without
Sewage
Sludge
With
Sewage
Sludge
Without
Sewage
Sludge
i
Total rCB
Added
(pg/flaak)
4.45
14.45
64.45
2.5
12.5
62.5
4.45
14.45
64.41
2.1
12.5
62.5
»*C02
Evolved
(DPH/flaik)
1518. 5
973.6
677.3
13742.3
5996.9
1590.5
4954.1
1693.1
1465.0
4944.4
1395.8
738.5
»*C02
Evolved
«)*
0.3
0.2
0.1
2.5
1.1
0.3
0.9
0.3
0.3
0.9
0.3
0.1
PCS
Evolved ai
»4C02
(pg/flask)
Brook 5 ton
0.01
0.03
0.08
0.06
0.14
0.18
Celina
0.04
0.04
0.17
0.04
0.03
0.08
I*C-FCB
Volatilized
-------
Uptake of **C-PCB by Kentucky 31 Fescue From l^C-PCB Sewage Sludge
Amended Celina and Brookston Soil
Fescue plants grown on Celina soils showed slightly higher uptake
of PCS at the higher concentration of PCS applied than the fescue plants
grown on the Brookston soil (Figure 7.13 and 7.14), hcvever, no
significant differences between the two soil types were shown by two way
analysis of variance test. The trend in the results are not surprising
since Brookston, soil contains higher organic matter than the Celina soil
which by adsorbing the PCB's make them less available. Also,
degradation of l^C-PCB was higher on the Celina soil than on the
Brookston soil (Figures 7.3 and 7.4) which may contribute more l^CC^
which was fixed by the fescue leaves through photosynthesis. This last
observation is supported by the fact that the control fescue plants show
some l^C activity which probably comes from fixation of ^^C02 as a
result of the degradation of l^C-PCB from the Celina and Brookston
soils. Data obtained from the biodegradation of PCS on both
experimental soils seems to support this last observation since amount
of 1^C02 evolved is high enough to compensate for this l^C-activity
showed on the fescue harvest plant.
The overall uptake of PCB by fescue plants was approximately
0.01 percent (Table 7.4) from all the concentration of PCB applied.
This amount of PCB taken up by plants on both experimental soils is
still insignificant even when assuming that, in the worst case, all the
activity of l^C-measured on the harvest plant came exclusively from
1*C-PCB uptake and not from 1^C02 evolution from soils and subsequent
fixation. Remember, however, that the concentration of PCB added to the
sewage sludge in this experiment was higher than the concentration of
PCB usually found in municipal sewage system where it ranges from 0 to
23 yg/g (Furr et al., 1976). However, this small amount of uptake of
PCB by plants could still be potentially serious due to biomagnification
of PCB's on the food chain. This small uptake of PCB in this study is
similar to that shown by Weber et al. (1979). In this study Kentucky 31
fescue absorbed up to 0.17 percent of applied Aroclor 1254 iu 50 days
from Lakeland sand.
Leaf Absorption o? ^C-PCE by Kentucky 31 Fescue From Foliar Application
of 14C-PCB Sewage Sludge
Table 7.5 shows the results obtained from foliar application of
l*C-Aroclor 1254 labeled sewage sludge to Kentucky 31 fescue plants.
About 41.5 percent of the applied PCB was present on the fescue leaf
surface with the sewage sludge 3 days after applying the sludge. Only
6.2 percent of the applied PCB's was accounted for on the fescue leaves
washed with a detergent to remove the sewage sludge particles. It is
presumed that this remaining PCB was absorbed on the cuticle and other
lipophilic parts on the fescue leaf surfaces. Assuming 100 percent
efficiency of the detergent in removing only the sewage sludge particles
169
-------
1000
900
800
700
600
r 500
~ AGO
sc
I 300
200
100
ug PCB/g dry sludge
-O— 0.0
-O— 26.3
.0- 126.3
-•>- 626.3
69 1A
Time of harvest (weeks)
Figure 7.13. Uptake of l^C-PCB by Kentucky 31 fescue from l^C-PCB sewage
sludge amended Brookston soil.
170
-------
Jig PCB/g dry sludge
6 9
Tine of harvest (weeks)
Figure 7.14. Uptake of l^C-PCB by Kentucky 31 fescue from l^C-PCB sewage
sludge amended Celina soil.
171
-------
TABLE 7.4. CUMULATIVE UPTAKE OT I4C-PCB BY KENTUCKY 31 FR3CUB FROM I*C-PCB SEWAGE SUIDCB AMENDED CELINA AND
BROOR5TOH SOIL
Treatment*
Soil (tig PCB/g dry iludge)
_. 26'3
»J •
to Brook it on • 126.3
626.3
26.3
Cellna 126.3
626.3
Total PCB
Added
(pg/pot)
197.25
947.25
4697.25
197.25
947.25
4697.25
Cumulative Mean Wt.
of Harvested Plant
Material
(end of 14 weeks)
(g/pot)
3.96
3.95
4.14
2.21
1.90
2.43
emulative Mean PCB
Taken up by Planta
(end of 14 weeks)
(tig/pot)
0.03
0.09
0.51
0.02
0.09
0.80
Total PCB
Remaining in
Soil (end
of 14 weeks)
(Z)
99.99
99.99
99.99
99.99
99.99
99.98
-------
TABLE 7.}. LEAF ABSORPTION OP '*C-PCB 11 KENTUCKY 31 FESCUE FROM FOLIAR APPLICATION OF '*C-PCB SEWAGE SLUDGE
•atBentt
ig PCB/g
• aludge)
0.0
625.0
0.0
62}.0
Mean Ht. of
Harvestad Plant
Material
(t/pot)
8.7
8.0
8.7
8.0
Haan DPH of
Harvested Plant
Material
(DPH)
371.}
15B90.8
743.0
104584.0
. Het DPH of
Harvested Plant Total PCB
Material Added
(DPH) (pg/pot)
Washed
15609.3 2208.8
Hot Washed
103841.0 2208.8
Total I
14c-PCB PCB Unaccoun
Absorbed Absorbed for
(X)* (Mg/pot) (Z)
6.2 • 137.9 93.8
41.5 917.} 58.5
* Total activity of '4C-PCB/pot - 2.S x 10s DPH
-------
from the fescue leaf surface, 35.3 percent of the applied PCB remained
in the sewage sludge particles on the fescue leaf surfaces rather than
being absorbed by the leaves.
The PCB unaccounted for (58.5 percent of applied) was presunably
contained in the sludge that dripped off the leaves on to the soil at
the time of application. Alternatively, some could have been lost by
volatilization from the fescue leaf surface. In previous work (Moza
et al., 1976 and Weber et al., 1979) on foliar application of
radioactive PCB directly to the experimental plant, it was found that
about 90.0 percent of the applied radioactivity was unaccounted for and
was attributed to volatilization. This suggests that adsorption of PCB
by sewage sludge particles may actually prevent PCB volatilization from
the leaf surface.
Although the levels of l^C-PCB actually absorbed on the fescue leaf
surface were still low in comparison to that applied, the results do
show that PCB containing sewage sludge did contaminate the fecue plants
when applied directly to the growing plant.
The results of these experiments support the current recommendation
of the Federal Drug Administration (as reported by Jelineck et al.,
1978) that sludge should not be applied directly to growing or mature
crops where sludge particles may remain in or 01 the food. This is
especially true when considering management of pasture land because of
the potential for contaminated milk and meat that might result from
animals eating such feed. It seems then, that a better method of sludge
application to pasture or forage plants is after grazing and cutting and
before regrowth since it provides an additional safeguard by preventing
direct ingestion of sludge particles (Miller et al., 1979).
Although conservative, the current requirement of the Environmental
Protection Agency to incorporate into the soil any sludge containing
10 mg/kg PCB or more when applied to land used for producing animal and
human food, provides a good control for preventing PCB contamination
from the application of sludge to land.
CONCLUSIONS
1) The degradation of Aroclor 1254 in both the Celina and Brookston
coils in 16 weeks ranged from 0.1 to 2.0 percent. Long-term build
up of PCS's in soils can be expected.
2) Volatilization of Aroclor 1254 was higher from the Celina than the
Brook)ton soil which may be related to differences in soil organic
matter. Sewage sludge also reduced the volatilization of
Aroclor 1254 from both experimental soils.
174
-------
3) Higher concentrations of Aroclor (12.5 to 64.5 Vg/20 g dry soil) may
have inhibited the respiration rate of specific soil microorganisms
capable of degrading PCB's in both experimental soils.
4) A maximum of 0.01 percent of applied Aroclor 1254 was taken up by
Kentucky 31 fescue plants from sewage sludge amended Celina and
Brookston soil. Even this small uptake of PCB by plants could be
potentially serious due to biomagnif icacion of PCB in the food
chain.
5) After simulation of spray irrigation of l^C-Aroclor 1254 amended
sewage sludge to fescue leaf surface, about 6.2 percent of the PCB
applied was actually absorbed by the leaf while 41.5 percent of that
applied was present on the sewage sludge remained on the leaf
surface. This concentration of PCB is many times greater than PCB
taken up from soil and translocated to the plant tops.
REFERENCES
Furr, A. K., A. W. Lawrence, S.S.C. Tong, M. C. Grandolfo, R. A.
Hofstader, C. A. Bache, W. H. Gutenmann, and D. J. Lisk. 1976.
Multielement and chlorinated hydrocarbon analysis of municipal
sewage sludges of American cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10, 683.
Gresshoff, P. M., H. K. Mahanti, and E. Gartner. 1977. Fate of PCB
(Aroclor 1242) in an experimental study and its significance to
natural environment. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 17, 686.
Haque, R., D. Schmedding, and V. H. Freed. 1974. Aqueous solubility,
adsorption and vapor behavior of PCB (Aroclor 1254) Environ. Sci.
Technol. 8, 139.
Hiralzum, Y., H. Nishimur, and M. Takahash. 1979. Adsorption of PCB
onto sea bed sediment, marine plankton and other adsorbing agents.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 13, 580.
Iwata, Y., W. E. Westlake, and F. A. Gunther. 1973. Varying
persistence of polychlorinated biphenyls in six California soils
under laboratory conditions. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 9,
204.
Marinucci, A. C. and R. Bartha. 1979. Apparatus for monitoring the
mineralization of volat-.le ^^C-ldbelled compounds. Applied
Environ. Microbiol. 38, 1020.
Miller, R. H., T. J. Logan, R. K. White, D. L. Forster, and J. N.
Stitzlein. 1979. Ohio guide for land application of sewage
sludge. Bulletin 598 (revised) Cooperative Extension Service, The
Ohio State University.
175
-------
Moza, P., I. Weisgerber. and W. Klein. 1976b. Fate of
2»2'-dichlorobiphenyl- i^C in carrots, sugarbeets, and soil outdoor
conditions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 24, 881.
Pal, D., J. B. Weber, and M. R. Overcash. 1980. Fate of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) in soil-plant-systems. Residues
Reviews. 74, 4S.
Weber, J. B., D. Pal, and M. R. Overcash. 1979. Plarit uptake and
biomagnification of polychlorinated biphenyls. Agron. Abstr. 71st
Ann. Meeting ASA, SSSA, and CSSA.
176
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SECTION 8
SEWAGE SLUDGE LANDSPREADING IN
OHIO COMMUNITIES: 1980 PERSPECTIVE
D. Lynn Forster, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 432TO
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this report is to describe the extent of
current practices in Ohio municipal sewage sludge landspreading as of
1980. The extent of landspreading and the characteristics of the sludge
are summarized; sludge application rates and the resulting loadings of
nutrients and metals to the soil are estimated; the crop acreage
receiving sludge is projected, as well as the nutrient value to these
crops; landspreading systems are described, and monetary costs of these
systems are estimated. Finally, the relationships between landowners
receiving the sludge and landspreading municipalities are described.
Where possible, comparisons are made to landspreading practices that
existed 5 years earlier. Ohio communities were surveyed in 1975 and
1980, and the survey results are the data base used for this analysis.
BACKGROUND
Landspreading in Ohio has a history as long as municipal waste
treatment. But in the past decade interest in landspreading increased
dramatically. First, there was more sludge for cities to dispose.
Federal legislation and subsequent financial assistance caused
communities to upgrade their wastewater treatment facilities, to remove
more solids fron effluents, and to produce more sludge. Second, cities
faced a limited number of sludge disposal options, and for most cities,
landspreading was the lowest cost alternative. Third, sludge contained
plant nutrients which could be used on cropland as substitutes for
nutrients from increasingly costly commercial fertilizer. With these
incentives, landspreading sludge received increased support from
community officials and farmers. However, some warned of potential
problems with landspreading sewage sludge.
Concern was expressed that surface water quality might deteriorate
due to runoff from landspreading fields, groundwater 'might receive
excessive levels of chemicals from leaching, soils might be permanently
damaged due to the accumulation of toxic materials, plants might take up
and accumulate heavy metals which could be dangerous to plant growth and
human health, viruses or other pathogens might create potential health
177
-------
problems, and nuisance odors might result. Extensive research
throughout the United States has demonstrated that sludge may be a
valuable product for agriculture and landspreading may be a practical
disposal option, but also that improper management of sludge may produce
pollutants injurious to soil, plants and human health (CAST, 1976;
Information Transfer, 1978; Page, 1974).
In 1975, a survey -of Ohio landspreading communities was conducted
to identify the extent of landspreading and the current methods and
practices used. Results indicated that numerous communities
landspreading sludge were following less than satisfactory management
programs. Sludge was being disposed, not judiciously landspread.
Application rates were largely unknown, more than half the communities
had no knowledge of the heavy metals content of their sludge, many did
not know the nutrient content of the sludge, and most lacked information
about the nutrient requirements of the cropland receiving the sludge.
In short, landspreading was being conducted on a widespread basis, but
the majority of communities were not using management practices which
would £=sure practical, yet environmentally safe programs.
In 1977, the present project was initiated in Ohio to demonstrate
landspreading practices which provided communities an economical method
of sludge disposal, provided crop nutrients to farmers, and minimized
health and environmental risks.
This section summarizes current (1980) Ohio landspreading
practices. A survey of Ohio landspreading communities was used to
gather this information. Where possible, comparisons are made to 1975
practices found in a similar survey. Changes in practices have
occurred, of course. Many of these changes may be due tg the
educational program. However, not all changes can be attributed to this
.program. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidelines and
regulations Lave had an effect on these practices. Also, economic
conditions have encouraged the expansion of landspreading and have
shaped practices being used.
SURVEY PROCEDURE
District offices of the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
provided the locations of treatment plants which were thought to be
conducting landspreading programs. Eighty communities were identified,
and a questionnaire was mailed to each of these communities. The
questionnaire was to be returned to OFB offices. Another questionnaire
was mailed to those communities not responding to the first one. From
these two mailings, 63 communities (79%) returned completed
questionnaires. A few of these communities reported that landspreading
vs.s not being used and incineration or landfilling was the principal
method of disposal. Fifty-six communities completing the questionnaire
were identified as landspreading and were used in this analysis.
178
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CHARACTERISTICS OF TREATMENT PLANTS AND SLUDGES
The characteristics of treatment plants using landspreading are
shown in Table 8.1, and the characteristics of the sludges from those
plants are shown in Table 8.2. It is estimated that the total amount of
sewage treated in Ohio is 1,373 million gallons per day (MGD) (Logan and
Miller, 1980). Table 8.1 indicated the mean flow of the 56 treatment
plants to be 6.14 million gallons per day. Thus, landspreading is the
sludge disposal method used for at least 344 MGD (25%) of the total flow
from all Ohio sewage treatment plants. Undoubtedly, other landspreading
communities are not included in these survey results and thus
landspreading in Ohio probably accounts for more than 30% of sludge
disposal.
The mean amount of sludge produced from each of these landspreading
communities is 1,243 dry metric tons per year. However, a few very
large treatment plants skew this distribution. The median sludge
production, 689 dry metric tons per year, provides a better
representation of the amount of sludge from the typical plant. Most of
this sludge is treated by anaerobic or aerobic digestion.
The characteristics of the sludges (Table 8.2) are similar to those
found in other studies (Sommers, 1977; Tabatabai and Frankenberger,
1979). The total nitrogen can be divided into organic and ammonia
forms. However, too few cities reported this division to provide
meaningful results. Metal concentrations are within the range usually
seen in the United States. One community in the sample has unusually
high metal concentrations which increased the mean substantially.
Again, the median concentration is a better reflection than the mean of
typical concentrations in Ohio communities.
NUTRIENT AND METAL LOADINGS
For those communities reporting both a) nutrient and metal
concentrations and b) sludge application rates, nutrient and metal
loading rates were computed. The results are shown in Table 8.3.
Again, a few communities with high sludge application rates produce a
relatively high mean annual application rate of 17.0 dry metric tons per
hectare. The median annual rate is 8.5 metric tons per hectare. Also,
the mean nutrient and metal loadings are much higher than the median
loadings due to a few high rates of sludge application.
Most communities are well within existing regulations and
guidelines for metal loadings (Miller et al., 1979; EPA, 1979). The
community with the most extreme metal loadings exceeds the maximum
allowed annual cadmium loading. However, all other communities' metal
loadings are low enough to prevent any plant toxicity or damage to
animal or human health. It appears that Ohio communities are generally
spreading sludge in an environmentally safe manner.
Nutrients are being applied at relatively high rates. Both the
mean and median phosphorus rates (212 and 157 kg P/ha) supply more
179
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TABLE 8.1. SLUDGE TXEA1HEHT PLANT CHARACTERISTICS
1 LANDSPREADIBC COMMUNITIES, 1980
FOR 56 OHIO
Characteristic
Treated Flow (million gallone per day)
Sludge Production
Dry a* trie tons per day
Dry metric cona per year
Sludge Treatment Method (Z)
Anaerobic
Aerobic
Liae
Heat
Other
Mean
6,16
3.7
1,348
55.0
38.3
4.0
1.7
1.0
Number
Median Reporting
3.0 56
'
2.1 56
760 56
Source: Survey retulta.
TABLE 8.2. SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS FOR 56 OHIO LANDSPRZADINC COMMUNITIES,
1980
Characteristic
Solid! (Z)
Plant Nutrient! (Z)
Nitrogen-— TKN
Pbofphorua
Potaieinn
Matale (Ug/g)
Cadmium
Zinc
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Mean
6.1
3.1
1.9
0.4
49
1,889
796
304
697
Median
4,5
2.7
1.9
0.3
12
1,392
540
95
250
Nunb.r
Reporting
55
23
24
18
33
39
39
38
30
Source: Survev reaulta.
180
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TABLE 8.3
ANVJAL SLUDGE APPLICATION RA'.-S: NUTRIENT AND HEAVY METAL
LOADINGS FOR 56 OHIO LAKDSPREADINC COMMUNITIES, 1980
Annual Sludge
Application Kate
Nutrient Loadings
Nitrogen — TKK
Phoapborut
Potaaaium
Metal Load ing a
Cadmiun
Zinc
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Mean
17.0
361
215
46
0.7
19.5
7.8
2.2
7.8
Median
.... wit- /»»• .-
8.5
213
157
22
IrO /h* --
0.2
11.1
3.8
1.1
3.0
Maxima
101
1,816
535
282
6.8
63.6
54.5
11.4
60.3
Number
Reporting
35
16
16
14
22
25
26
24
**
Source: Survey resulta.
181
-------
phosphorus than is typically required by a crop in one growing season in
Ohio. Thus, some phosphorus from sludge is carried over to later
growing seasons. Available nitrogen supplied by the mean and median
annual loading rates is generally lower than the requirements of corn,
but it approximates the requirements of small grains, hay, and pasture.
Potassium loading rates are lower than the potassium requirement? of
most crops. In most cases, supplemental applications of potassium from
other sources are required.
(i
BENEFITS OF SLUDGE TO CROPLAND
Acreage receiving sludge very greatly between communities. In some
communities, substantial row crop acres are landspread with low
(4.5 rat/ha or less) application rates. In other communities, the
receiving land remains idle during landspreading, and high application
rates are used over a small number of acres. The crop acreage affected
by landspreading in these 56 communities are:
Hectares Percent
Corn 4,550 44.8
Soybeans 1,480
Pasture and Hay 1,430
1 Idle 1,230
Small Grains 940
Other 530
10,160
Thus, nearly 88% of the land receiving sludge is in crops during
the year of sludge application. These crops utilize the nutrients in
the sludge, and the nutrients substitute for commercial fertilizer.
The potential gross fertilizer value of sludge from these
56 communities is $2.3 million annually.* To realize all these
benefits, communities must spread sludge at rates which supply nutrients
in amounts which do not exceed crop requirements. With present
application rates, phosphorus is supplied in excess of crop needs, and
some benefits are lost in most communities.
LANDSPREADING SYSTEMS
About two-thirds of the surveyed communities own sludge application
equipment and spread their own sludge. The other one-third contract
landspreading services from commercial haulers. While contract haulers
are used by communities of all sizes, they tend to be used by the larger
landspreading communities.. Communities using contract haulers produce
^•Each community spreaHa on average of 1,244 dry metric tons per
year, or 69,644 dry metric tons are spread by all communities. The
nutrient value of sludge is approximately $30 per dry metric ton.
182
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an average of nearly 2,800 dry mt per year, while communities using
their own equipment average only 829 dry mt per year. Contract haulers
spread 65% of the sludge landspread in Ohio while community owned
systems spread only 35%.
From estimates provided by surveyed communities, landspreading cost
functions were estimated. Each community provided the total operating
costs (e.g., labor, fuel, maintenance, and contract hauler fees), was
well as the capital investment in sludge disposal equipment. This
capital investment is converted to annual fixed costs (i.e.,
depreciation and interest).2 Total annual costs of landspreading
(operating costs plus fixed costs) are divided by the amount of sludge
landspread to arrive at the cost, per dry ton. For communities
contracting hauling services, annual costs are the fees paid by the
community to the hauler.
Costs are related to the size of the community by the following:
Cost per dry metric ton • an * ai » —?—3 r—:—~ 1
r J u i Annual dry metric tons
Coefficients ag and aj are estimated using regression -analyses for both
community owned systems and contract hauler systems.3 Results are shown
in Table £.4. Generally, the statistical estimates of Equation 1 are
better for corasomity owned systems than for contract hauler systems.
The R2 for the estimated relationship for community owned systems was
much higher than that for contact hauler systems. Also, the regression
coefficient relating cost per ton to community size (aj) was more
statistically significant for community owned systems. For most
community sizes, landspreading costs for contract hauler systems are
about three times higher than the costs for community owned systems
(Table 8.5).
Using these estimates, eludge landspreading ccjts these Ohio
communities nearly $7.8 million or an average of $111 per dry metric
ton. As previously stated, about $33 per dry metric ton may be
recovered as benefits from nutrients in the sludge. Of c-Tirse, these
benefits tend to be captured by farmers receiving sludge rather than the
community producing the sludge.
^Annual fixed costs are assumed to be equal to 40Z of the capital
investment (1980 dollars). Equipment life is assumed to be 3 years, and
the interest is assumed to be 142 of the mid-life value.
•> ^Several regression models were' estimated. Generally, these models
hypothesized that economies of size were present. Also, distance to
landspreading site was incorporated in soae of the models but was not
found to be statistically significant.
183
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TABLE 8.4. EEGHESSIOK AHALTSIS BCSULTS FOB OHIO COKKUHITY OWED ABO
CO3TK&CT HADLEH SYSTEMS, 1980
Cooraunity
Owned
(B-24)
Contract
Hauler*
(H-12)
I.
Kegre*»ion Equation*
a. Regreccion coefficient*
«0
Intercept
33.79
99.13
Annual dry ton*
b. R2
II. Annual Slodge Production
Mean (drr metric ton*)
Median (dry metric ton*)
III. Cost per Dry Metric Ton at
H*aa amatal production
Hedian cnnual production
17,664*
(8.20)t
0.75
670
327
$64
892
65,307*
(1.66)
0.22
2,237
1,110
$139
$168
* Statistically significant ac <-01 level.
t Kcmber* in p«r»nth«««» ere the t-value>
coefficient*.
T Statistically eifnificant at <-12 Icwtl.
for toe
regret* XOD
184
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TABLE 8.5. L4HDSFREADIHG COST ESTIMATES BY AMOUHT OF AHHUAL
SLEDGE PRODUCTION, OHIO, 1980
Animal
Sludge Cowunity Contract
Production Owned Hauler*
etrie tout $/drr attric too
454 76 254
908 56 181
1,362 47 158
1,816 45 146
185
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TESTING AND MONITORING
Most communities have adequate knowledge of the contents of their
sludge (Table 8.6). The survey results indicate that 932 of the
communities surveyed know the metals content of their sludge, and most
of these communities also know the nutrient content. The remaining 72
of the' communities have a minimal analysis which provided solids
content, pH, and a few other characteristics.
These results contrast sharply with the situation 5 years earlier
(Forster et al., 1976). Then only 422 had thorough knowledge of their
sludge, and 212 of the communities had no sludge analysis. Generally,
landspreading communities are also more knowledgeable of the soils
receiving sludge than they were 5 years earlier. About half of the
communities conduct soil testing programs prior to sludge application
(Table 8.7). Five years earlier, very few had soils tested prior to
application. About half of the communities also monitor the soils after
sludge application, which is up sharply from 5 years earlier.
Monitoring of plant tissue and water quality at the landspreading site
ie done by one-third of the communities, which is about the same as
5 years ago.4
EQUIPMENT
Most communities use tank trucks to spread sludge with * solids
content of less than 102. Of the 45 communities providing information
about equipment, 41 were spreading liquid sludge and only 4 are
spreading a devatered sludge. Of the 45 communities, 19 have spreading
vehicles with flotation tires. Flotation tires lengthen the period of
time when vehicles have access to fields, and they reduce soil
compaction. Another trend in equipment usage is the operation of
separate "nurse" trucks to haul the sludge from the treatment plant to
the disposal site. Of the 45 communities supplying equipment
information, 15 are using nurse trucks.
LAND OWNERSHIP AND CONTRACTED ARRANGEMENTS
Most communities spread sludge on privately owned land (Table 8.8).
A few pay the landowner a rental fee, a few receive payment for the
sludge, but most communities use the landspreading site with no payments
made by either party. A small proportion of the communities (112) only
use lend owned by a governmental unit.
Most communities using privately owned land have an implicit
understanding or oral agreement rather than a written contract. Written
^Estimates of testing and monitoring programs tend to understate
the extent of these programs. For example, communities hiring contract
haulers may have no soil testing program; however, the hauler may be
testing the soils.
186
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TABU 8.6. SLUDGE ANALYSIS PROGRAMS COHDCCTED BY OHIO COMMUNITIES, I960
Type of Analysis
1975 Survey
MuBber Percent
of
Coounities
Conmnitias responding
43
100
1980 Survey
HuBber Percent
of
CooBunities
Ho analysis of sludge
Minimal analysis of sludge*
(e.g., solids content, pH)
Thorough analysis of sludgnt
nutrient content
•seals content
9
16
18
(H.A.)
{B.A.)
21
37
62
0
4
51 .
(36)+
(51)
0
7
93
55
100
* "Minimal" includes analyses for total solids content and volatile solids
in th* sludge.
t "Thorough" includes analyses for solids content, volatile solids, sorac
prinary nutrients (Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and cone bccvy
Betels (cadmium, xinc, copper, nickel, boron, chrooiua, cobalt,
manganese, nercury, raolybdcmra, lead).
T Five of tbe conaunities not analyzing the nutrient content used contract
hauler*. It io likely that sone of these haulers analyzed the sludge
for nutrient content.
187
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TABLE 6.7. SOIL TESTING AT LATOSPXEADIHC SITE AHD MOSITORIHG OF
LANDS?B£AIHNG SITE, OHIO LAHBSPREADIHC COMMUNITIES, 1980
1975 Survey 1980 Survey
Runber Percent Bunber Percent
of of
Type of Telting end Monitoring Cuiaunitiet CoiBunitiei
Teating coil prior to application
Monitoring toil* after application
Monitoring veter quality near
laodipreading eite after application
Monitoring plant tiecue on land*
apreading cite after application
Coonunitie* reaponding
4
8
14
18
43
9
19
33
42
100
27
24
18
16
55
49
44
33
33
100
TABLE 8.8. OWNESSR1P OF LAHDSFREADIHG SITES
Owner
Municipality or other govaratental unit
Private
SOM govemnenc ovnera and aoae private owner*
Total
Headier of
Conunitiee
6
38
11
55
Percent
11
20
100
188
-------
contracts are used by only 39Z of the responding communities. Those
that use written contracts typically include a clause specifying the
application rate. Other commonly used clauses include:
a) specification of the type and frequency of sludge analysis,
b) specification of acceptable sludge quality, and c) restrictions on
tine of application.
CONCLUSIONS
®
The quality of landspreading programs in Ohio has improved
substantially over the past 5 years. Communities are better aware of
the contents of their sludge and spread it in a more judicious manner.
Ohio communities appear to be landspreading sludge in a manner which
provides a low cost disposal option, provides crop nutrients to farmers,
and minimizes health and environmental risks.
The contents of Ohio sludges are typical of those seen throughout
the United States. Application rates are moderate. Loadings of metals
are general?y well within EPA guidelines and regulations. These metal
loading rates are low enough to prevent damage to soils, plant toxicity,
or impairment of human or animal health. Phosphorus in the sludge is
being applied at rates which exceed crop requirements and thus some
carryover of phosphorus is occurring. However, phosphorus application
rates are not high enough to affect surface or ground water.
Communities are conducting testing programs which provide adequate
information on the contents of their sludges.
A representative landspreading community has the following program.
Anaerobically or aerobically digested liquid sludge (4.5% solids) is
landspread by a tank truck on privately owned land within a few
kilometers of the treatment plant. A verbal agreement is reached
between the landowner and the community about application rates, time of
application, and fields to receive the sludge. Payments are made by
neither the landowner nor the community. About 690 dry metric tons are
applied each year by the community at 8.5 dry metric tons per hectare.
Land receiving the sludge is primarily cropland, with corn, soybeans,
pasture, and hay being the predominant crops. The community is bearing
costs of about $63 per dry metric ton if it does its own landspreading.
If it contracts the spreading to a contract hauler, costs are
subtantially higher. The community tests the sludge and has knowledge
of its nutrient and metal content. Soil testing is performed in order
to project crop nutrient requirements. Some monitoring of the
landspreading site is done after landspreading.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R. Rent. 1977. Cost of Landspreading and Hauling Sludge from
i Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA/530/SW-619.
CAST. 1976. Application of Sewage Sludge to Cropland: Appraisal of
Potential Hazards of the Heavy Metals to Plants and Animals.
189
-------
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. CAST Report
No. 64.
Colacicco, Daniel, E. Epstein, G. B. Willson, J. F. Parr, and L. S.
Christensen. 1979. Costs of sludge composting. U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture. ARS-NE-79.
Forster, D. L., T. J. Logan, R. H. Miller, and R. K. White. 1976.
State of the art in municipal sewage sludge landspreading. In Land
as a Waste Management Alternative, R. C. Loehr (ed.), Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc.
Knezek, B. D. and R. H. Miller (eds.). 1976. Application of sludges
and waste waters on agricultural land: A planning and educational
guide. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. North
Central Regional Research Publication 235 and Res. Bull. 1090.
Logan, T. J. and R. H. Miller. 1980. Ohio's program for application of
municipal sewage sludge on farmland. Proc., Nat. Conf. Munic. Ind.
Sludge Utilization and Disposal. Infor. Transfer, Inc.,
Washington, D.C.
Miller, R. H., R. K. White, T. J. Logan, D. L. Forster, and J. N.
Stitzlein. 1979. Ohio guide for land application of sewage
sludge. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center. Res.
Bull. 1079.
*
Page, A. L. 1974. Fate and effects of trace elements in sewage sludge
when applied to agricultural lands. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development. EPA-670/2-74-009.
Proceedings of Fifth National Conference on Acceptable Slfdge Disposal.
Technical, Cost, Benefit, Risk, Health, and Public Acceptance.
1978. Information Transfer, Inc., Rockville, Md.
Shea, T. G. and J. D. Stockton. 1975. Wastewater sludge utilization
and disposal costs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA-430-9-79-015.
Sonmers, L. E. 1977. Chemical composition of sewage sludges and
analysis of their potential use as fertilizers. J. Environ. Qual.
6:225-232.
Tabatabai, M. A. and W. T. Frankenberger, Jr. 1979. Chemical
con osition of sewage sludges in Iowa. Iowa State Univ., Res.
Ball. 586
«
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Criteria for
classification of solid waste disposal facilities and practices.
Federal Register, 44:53,438-53,468.
190
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SECTION 9
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN
LANDSPREADING SEWAGE SLUDGE
D. Lynn Forster, B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
the Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
In the past decade, the nation has increased its awareness of the
finiteness of our natural resources and their ability to assimilate the
by-products of our industrial society. Many of .these by-products were
discharged in the effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants.
Pollutants in effluents have been sharply curtailed over the past decade
as a result of implementing provisions of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500, 18 Oct. 1972). As
treatment plants have improved the quality of effluents, a new problem
has been created: how to dispose of the increased quantity of treated
solids (i.e. sludge) removed from the effluent. In 1970, 3.6 million
metric tons of sludge were produced, and it is projected that over
7.3 million metric tons will be produced in 1985 (CAST, 1976).
The objectives of this section are to (a) summarize previous
research comparing the costs of various sludge disposal methods,
(b) outline alternative systems for one promising disposal method,
landspreading, and (c) make economic comparisons of alternative
landspreading systems.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS
Sludge is far from & uniform product. Its characteristics vary
from community to community. These characteristics are determined, in
part, by the wastewater treatment processes. Sludge can be stabilized
by lime stabilization, anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, or
thermal conditioning. It can be further treated by thickening
processes or uewatering methods to increase the proportion of solids in
the final product. Finally, it can be disposed of by either burning
(incineration), composting, landfilling, or landspreading.
Sludge treatment and disposal options are described in detail in
numerous publications (e.g. EPA, 1975, 1978; REA, 1978). These options
are only briefly described here.
Sewage sludge incineration has been practiced for several decades.
Cheap energy and minimal or nonexistent air pollution control encouraged
its adoption as a practical and inexpensive method of reducing sludge
191
-------
volume. Incineration typically is preceded by processes to reduce the
water content of the sludge. For example, sludges might be thickened,
digested, and dewatered, or they might be stabilized chemically and
dewatered before entering the incineration process. Although the heat
value of a dry ton of sludge is high, the water content of most sludges
requires an auxiliary fuel source to maintain combustion. Of course,
rising fuel costs are the major drawback to this system.
Due to rising fuel costs, partial pyrolysis has been demonstrated
to be a means of combusting sludge without large amounts of supplemental
fuel. The principle is to reduce the amount of air heated to combustion
temperature which prevents wasting energy to heat excess air in the
furnace. Pilot operations have shown advantages of slightly lower
operating costs and reduced air emissions compared to traditional
incineration processes.
Cocombustion is another method to reduce the fossil fuel
requirements of incineration. Sewage eludge is combined with any number
of materials and then burned. A potential advantage is that a waste
material, such as municipal solid waste, can be disposed while providing
an autogenous sludge feed (EPA, 1978). Besides handling both solid
waste and sludge in an environmentally acceptable manner, the process
produces heat, may provide benefits as an energy source, and may
slightly reduce operating costs.
Composting is another sludge disposal option. Usually dewatered
sludge is mixed with a bulking agent (e.g. wood chips) to reduce
moisture content. Piles of the mixture are constructed and aerated for
21 to 30 days. Piles are dismantled and allowed to cure for another
30 days. The compost is then screened to recover the bulking agent and
the stabilized sludge is landspread or landfilled. Composting may be a
viable alternative for many locations, but the basic processes are still
in the development and demonstration phase.
Lagooning involves dumping sludge into a large open pit. The
liquid is decanted off, and the sludge is allowed to dry. When the
lagoon is full, it is covered by a layer of earth, and another lagoon is
started. Two potential problems are present. First, the lagoon floor
may be permeable and permit leaching, and second, odors may produce
adverse public reaction. But more importantly, lagooning must be viewed
as only a temporary disposal method due to the land constraints facing
most communities.
With landfilling, dewatered sludges are buried in a trench or area
landfill. The sludge is periodically covered with a layer of soil to
control odor. Sludges placed in area landfills may be mixed with soil
in order to support equipment working on top of the landfill. Sludge
may also be mixed with solid waste and codisposed in landfills. Sites
must be selected which prevent pollution of surface or ground waters.
In addition, odors must be controlled.
192
-------
Landspreading, the focus of this report, utilizes sludge treated by
aerobic or anaerobic digestion. Before landspreading, stabilized sludge
may undergo dewatering to reduce its volume. Methods of handling and
application are quite diverse. Tank trucks or tank wagons generally are
used to haul liquid sludges with 1 to 7 percent solids. Truck spreaders
are used for dewatered sludges with solids content of 15 to 50 percent.
Irrigation of liquid sludge is possible. Also, rail, barge, or pipeline
transportation systems could be used.
Another treatment method is land treatment of both effluents and
sludges. It is based on the use of soil and its biological systems as a
treatment process. Primary or secondary treatment processes may be
followed by land treatment. The result is that up to 100 percent of
BOD, suspended solids, nitrogen, and phosphorus can be removed from the
wastewaters before final discharge into water bodies.
ECONOMIC COMPARISONS FOR SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS
A number of researchers have investigated the costs of alternative
sludge disposal methods. Burd (1968) reviewed data available in the
late 1960s and drew some generalizations about relative costs of
alternative sludge disposal methods. Estimates were that capital and
operat ing •• costs were $17 pei dry metric ton for landspreading liquid
sludge and $28 per dry metric ton for landspreading dewatered sludge.
Land fill ing dewatered sludge was estimated at $28 per dry metric ton,
and incineration at $33 to $46 per dry metric ton. Due to a lack of
data, Burd was unable to relate these costs to volume of sludge produced
by the plant. A weakness of Burd's analysis was that no economic
benefits were attributed to the plant nutrient value of landspread
sludge.
Swing and Dick (1970) compared the relative costs of -he principal
disposal methods. Their estimates showed landspreading liquid sludge
costing $17 per dry metric ton, landspreading dewatered sludge $28 per
dry metric ton, lagooning $20 per dry metric ton, and incineration $55
per dry ton. Again, no benefits were attributed to landspreading.
However, landspreading and incineration costs were compared for a range
of community sizes, and landspreading costs were ipproximately $44 per
dry metric ton less than incineration costs over a wide range of
community size.
More recent estimates by Shea and Stockton (1975) again found
landspreading as the least expensive method of sludge disposal. Their
estimates included the costs of thickening and disgestion as well as
costs for ultimate disposal (i.e. landfilling, landspreading, and
incineration). Table 9.1 shows the relative advantage of landspreading
over a range of treatment plant ^i
Shea and Stockton's landepreading costs were based on the
assumption that land was purchased for spreading sites. This assumption
biased landspreading costs upward since most landspreading communities
spread sludge on land owned by individuals. They pay no rent for the
193
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TABLE 9.1. COSTS OF SLUDGE PROCESSIBC AMD DISPOSAL, BY DISPOSAL METHOD AND TREATMENT PLANT SIZE
HOT
flow
2
3
5
10
15
Plant Size
Sludge (dry
••trie t/yr)
490
735
1224
2449
3673
Vacuun Filter
Incinerate, Truck
Landfill
411
323
257
191
162
Diipoial and Processing Method
Digestion,
Truck,
Laodapread
•
"-""" v per dry metric too -*— «• -
230
213
194
162
147
Digestion,
Truck,
Landfill
383
294
235
176
147
Source: Adapted froa Shea and Stockton (1975).
194
-------
land nor do they pay any land ownership costs as Shea and Stockton's
analysis assumed. Also, their analysis attributed no benefits to the
plant nutrients provided by landspreading.
Colacicco et al. (1979) provided estimates of sludge disposal costs
and a summary is shown in Table 9.2. Again, landspreading was shown to
be an economically advantageous method of sludge disposal.
Land treatment of wastewater appears to be a promising treatment
technology for "small communities, for areas where water is in short
supply, or for those communities where removal of nearly all pollutants
from the effluent is required. Capital and operating costs may be lower
than with conventional treatment and sludge disposal systems. Young and
Carlson (1974) found that land treatment reduced costs compared to
conventional treatment and sludge disposal systems. They projected
savings of $0.11 per 1000 liters of wastewater for the 0.5 MGD plant and
$0.04 per 1000 liters for the 10 MGD plant. Williams et al. (1977)
compared land treatment and conventional treatment systems in a number
of small Michigan communities. Land treatment systems had lower initial
capital outlays and annual operating costs than did the conventional
treatment systems. However, it is concluded in Young and Epp (1978)
that acreage requirements for wastewater treatment suggest that land
application is most applicable to small communities or for treatment of
only part of the total wastewater from a large community.
BENEFITS OF LANDSPREADING SLUDGE
The primary benefit of sludge is its nutrient value. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium concentrations average about 3.3, 2.4, and
0.3 percent, respectively, of dry sludge. These nutrients are required
by most plants, and applications of 'commercial fertilizers are used with
growing crops to supply sufficient quantities of these nutrients.
Sludge can provide at least part of these nutrient3. At the recommended
sludge application rates (4.5 to 7 dry metric tons per hectare), sludge
supplies at least part of the nitrogen and frequently all of the
phosphorus needed for growing crops.
There may be some benefits for sludge as a soil conditioner on
cropland. Organic matter in the soil enhances soil texture, promotes
aeration and increases moisture-holding capacity. All of these
characteristics may lead to increased crop production. If soils have
been "run down" to the point where organic matter content is low, then
application of sludge could have a significant effect. If, on the other
hand, the soil has been well-managed prior to sludge application, little
effect may. occur. Similarly, in years with good rainfall, the moisture
retention effect may not be significant while in dry years it may be
important. With this uncertainty relating to the value of sludge as a
soil conditioner, one may either assume no difference or make some
arbitrary adjustment to represent the effect over a period of years.
Typically, sludge at recommended application rates provides such small
benefits as a soil conditioner for cropland that it can be ignored.
195
-------
TABLE 9.2. COMPARATIVE COSTS FOR VARIOUS SLUDGE DISPOSAL PROCESSES (1976
DOLLARS)*
Range of Cost*
(Dollars Per
Iten Dry Metric Ton)
Digested sludges:
Ocean outfall 11 to 39
' Liquid landcpreading 22 Co 60
Digested and d-vatered sludges:
Ocean barging 34 to 49
Laodfilling 25 to 58
Landvpreading 29 to 106
Devatered sludge*r
Trenchingt ^ 128 to 148
Incineration!' 63 to 103
Heat dryingt 68 to 127
Conpostingt f 39 to 55
* Source: Colacicco et al. (1977).
t Costs exclude transportation of sludge to site.
T Coats exclude cost of removal of residues «-^ benefits from resource
recovery.
196
-------
Most sludges have many of the micronutrients that are needed by
crops. However, some of the micronutrients in large quantities can be
detrimental to the crop. The metal content of some sludges makes them
unfit for use on land. Another problem with many sludges, especially
dewatered sludges, is that they may have a high salt content. These
salts *re easily leachable, but can create problems when applied in
large quantities in arid regions.
There is a9large non-farm demand for good quality topsoil and soil
conditioners that sludge products have helped fill. Sludge has been
successfully used in reclaiming surface mines. Sludge has been used to
renovate urban park land and has saved hundreds of thousands of dollars
in topsoil costs. Sludge and sludge products have been found to compare
successfully with potting mixes for nursery applications. Likewise,
sludge-derived products have been sold to homeowners as soil
conditioners.
The benefits depend on the use of the sludge, the soil
characteristics, the nutrient content of the sludge, the application
rate, and the price of other nutrient sources which sludge is replacing.
For use on cropland, the potential value of sludge may total about $30
per dry metric ton ".s shown in Table 9.3.
To realize all the potential value of sludge, the recipient must
restrict sludge application to relatively low rates. Application rates
in excess of 4.5-7 metric tons per hectare annually result in much of
sludge nutrients being unused by the crop. These unused nutrients are
either lost for crop growth, or their use by crops is delayed until
later growing seasons. The appropriate sludge application rate for a
particular site is governed largely by the type of crop being grown, the
yield goal for that crop, the existing nutrient level of the soils at
the spreading site, and the nutrient content of the sludge. Local
agricultural experts need to be consulted to determine the nutrient
needs of the crop. Treatment plant officials then should determine the
amount of nutrients available in its sludge. Information about crop
nutrient needs should be compared to the supply of nutrients in the
sludge to determine the proper application rate. Supplemental
application of commercial fertilizer likely would be required to meet
any nutrient deficiencies.
OOTLIHE OF ALTERKATIVE SLUDGE LANDSPREADIHG TECHNOLOGIES
Before landspreading, the stabilized sludge may undergo further
dewatering treatment to reduce its volume. Sludge can be dewatered by
chemicals, mechanical processes, heating, drying, or some combination of
these four processes. Solids content before dewatering typically ranges
from 1 to 7 percent, but after dewatering solids range between 15 and
50 percent.
Methods of handling and applying sludge during land application are
quite diverse. The most typical method is the use of tank trucks or
tank wagons to haul and spread sludge having 1 to 7 percent solids.
197
-------
TA9LE 9.3. tOTESTLM. VAIJJE OF EUT1IESTS IB OSE MY TOT OF SEJteGE
ELUDCE*
Percent of Value
Dry Sludge (*/mcric to«0
Bitrogent 3.3 S 9.6«
Pho*ph*te (P205) S.3 25.71
Pota.h (120) 0.4 0.88
Total $36.23
* Ratricnt price acmaptioiu: Bitrcgca, $0.55 fvt k;:
$0.48 per kg; KjO, $0.22 per fc«.
t Ritrogen is •cecaed Co be caepo«d of 6? percent organic
nitrogen end 33 percent e»oni« nitrogen. Thi« coepoaitina
verie* jr««t!.y becveen waste treataent plascs. All esmcmit
nitrogen i* available to the crop while only •bout 30 percent
of the organic nitrogen it
198
-------
These tank trucks or wagons may have high flotation tires for traversing
soft ground and to minimize soil compaction problems. Attachments allow
the liquid to be: (a) spread on the surface by gravity discharge;
(b) spread on the surface to the side of the vehicle by pumped
discharge; or (c) injected into the soil.
Truck spreaders may be used when dewatered sludge is spread. This
semi-solid sludge may be hauled and spread by a conventional box
spreader which is ordinarily used to field spread animal wastes. Truck
spreaders also are available which allow surface spreading. Direct
incorporation into the soil may be accomplished by using a plow, disc,
or injection equipment.
Sprinkler irrigation or overland flow irrigation are other possible
sludge disposal techniques. These systems for sludge disposal also may
be used for tertiary treatment of effluent. With the sprinkler
irrigation system, the liquid is sprayed on the land by either a
solid-set system or a self-propelled system. Aerosol drift may present
problems as more human contact with pathogens is possible. The overland
flow system allows sludge to be discharged at the top of a slope and
flow to the remaining acreage. A variation of this method, ridge and
furrow irrigation, can be used with row crops.
Storage may be part of a landspreading system. It allows more
timely applications for sludge to crops but, more importantly, provides
an "escape valve" for sludge during the periods when adverse weather
prevents landspreading. A lagoon for liquid sludge or a semi-solid
storage installation may be located either at the treatment plant or at
the landspreading site.
Transportation to the spreading site may be by the spreading
vehicle or by separate transportation methods. For example, a large
truck could be used to haul dewatered sludge to a spreading site where
the sludge would be stockpiled for later application, or a large tank
truck could be used to haul liquid sludge to a disposal site where the
sludge could be pumped into a spreading vehicle or into temporary
storage for later spreading.
LANDSPREADING COSTS
There are three main determinants of sludge landspreading costs:
type of sludge disposal technology, the distance between the treatment
plant and the landspreading site, and the volume of sludge. The
following analysis compares costs of sludge disposal by volume of sludge
and by disposal technology. Dietacce to landspreading site is included
as an endogenous variable in the analysis. That is, it is assumed that
5 percent of the land in the community is available for landspreading,
and each available parcel of land received 4.5 dry metric tons per
hectare. Thus, the analysis assumes that the amount of sludge
determines the distance to spreading sites.
199
-------
Sludge landspreading costs have been made for five alternative
technologies:
a) tank wagon hauling and spreading liquid sludge (5% solids),
b) tank truck hauling and spreading liquid sludge (52 solids),
c) truck spreader hauling and spreading devatered sludge (25% solids),
d) a Separate hauling unit transporting liquid sludge to the spreading
site where it is spread by a tank truck (5% solids), and
e) a separate hauling unit transporting dewatered sludge to the
spreading site where it is spread by a truck spreader (252 solids).
Assumptions about the values of cost paramsterc are shown in
Table 9.4. Variable costs are estimated by multiplying the hourly
variable cost charges by the time requirement shown in Table 9.5. Time
requirements are a function of hauling and spreading technology. Those
technologies sprerj*n^ liquid sludge are causing substantial volumes of
water to be han& ... Therefore, those technologies using dewatered
sludge have ouch smaller time, requirements per dry ton than the
technologies using liquid sludge.
Dewatering costs are included in the cost estimates for those
technologies spreading sludge having 25 percent solids content. Vacuum
filtration is assumed to be the method used to dewater the sludge.
Vacuum filtration requires a high capital outlay and large annual fixed
costs. Recent EPA cost data was used in estimating dewatering costs.
These costs are assumed to be a function of treatment plant size.
Dewatering costs range from $82 per dry metric ton for the very small
treatment plant to $27 per dry metric ton for the treatment plant with
volumes over 5000 dry tons per year (Anderson, 1977).
Using the preceding cost estimation assumptions, the following
analysis compares costs per dry ton for the five landspreading
technologies over a range of sludge volumes. Figures 9.1 through 9.5
plot the costs per dry ton as a function of the amount of sludge spread
each year. In Figure 9.1, costs for relatively small wastewater
treatment plants (180 to 900 dry metric tons per year) are analyzed.
For these treatment plants, the tank wagon and tank truck technologies
are clearly preferable. Large per unit fixed costs for technologies
using separate hauling units or dewatering make these technologies high
cost options.
As sludge volumes become larger (900 to 2700 dry metric tons per
year), the tank truck technology spreading liquid sludge remains the low
cost option (Figure 9.2). With volumes of 2700 to 4500 dry metric tons
per year (Figure 9.3), spreading liquid sludge (5 percent solids)
remains lower cost than spreading dewatered sludge, but using a separate
hauling unit is a low cost option. Between 5400 and 9000 dry metric
tons per year (Figure 9.4), costs are nearly the same for two
technologies—the truck spreader using dewatered sludge and the tank
spreader using liquid sludge transported by a separate hauling unit.
For large sludge volumes (Figure 9.5), spreading dewatered sludge and
using a separate haul vehicle is the low cost technique.
200
-------
TABLE 9.4. COST ASSUMPTIONS FOB THE ALTERHAim TECHKOLOCIES
Technology*
«) Tank wegoa
b) Tank truck
e) Truck apreader
d) Hauling unit
t tank truck
•) Hauling unit
& took crock
I loader, etc.
PurctMM Price
(*>
42,000
56,000
56,000
75,000
56,000
75,000
56,000
37,500
Anoual Fixed
Cottt
($/T«ar)
16,800
22,400
22,400
30,000
22,400
30,000
22,400
15,000
Variable
Coctt
($/Boar)
16.49
15.47
15.47
18.88
15.47
18.88
15.47
16.49
* Capacity c/ the teak vagon i» 7,600 liter* ami it it palled by a 100+
horsepower tractor; capacity of the tank track i* 6080 liters; capacity
of the track spreader i* 6.3 metric con*; capacity of Che hauling tmit*
•re 22,300 licer* of liquid (lodge and 21.8 setric tea* of deuacered
aludge.
t Fixed co*t« are 40 percent of the purchase price. They include
depreciation, interest, iacuraoce, and •linccuance.
t Variable cost* include labor ($6.90 per hour) and fuel ($0.22 per
liter).
201
-------
TABLE 9.5. TIKE REQ0IHMEBTS FOB ALTERKAT1VE UTOSPBEADISC TECKBOLOCIES
Technology
a. Tank wagon
b. Teak truck
c. Truck vpreader
d. Hauling unit
t tank truck
*. H*uliug unit
i truck »pr«ad«r
4 loader, etc.
Transport
(bouri/aecric
ton/to)
0.183
0.078
0.017
0.017
0.004
Function
Load 4 .
Unload
(bour»/aecrie
T.«B>
1.10
0.92
0.19
0.08
0.92
0.03
0.19
0.06
202
-------
f PER TOM
381.82 5
V
343.64
303.45
2*7.27
229.09
190.91
152.72
"114.54
76.36
38. IS
w« r«gr«« »fcol portion* cr«
3 S
3 5
5 3 S
5 5
3 4
2
1 2
2
I I
433
433
4 3353
4 333333
44 333
* «
444
22 444
12 4444
1122.
112222
1 1 2 2 Z 2
222222222
290
360
320
840
!
1000
6*0
D*Y TONS PER
ANNUAL COST PER DRY TON AS A FUNCTION OF THE AMOUNT QF SCUDGE SPREAD EACH YEAR
THE NUMBERS IN THE FIGURE REPRESENT THfe FOLLOUINO SYSTEMS:
I-TANK UACON; 2»TANK TRUCK* J-TRUCK SPREADER i
4-HAULINO UNIT + TANK TRUCK* 5-HAULING UNIT + LOADER + TKUCH SPREADER
I
Figure 9.1. Coaputed costs of hauling «nd epre«ding eludge for
conBunieie* producing 200-1000 dry tons per year.
203
-------
• PER TON
143.42 t S
•
I
129.29
114.8*
100.33
B6.17
71.SI
(Jtili /• Mi* b«tf copy ovoilobl*;
w» r»gr«f ffcof portioni or*
undecipherable.)
S 3-
3 3
S S
3 3
3 3
3 3
5 S
S 5
3 3
333
3 3
3 3
333
57.44 4 4
14 44
1 44 1144 111
11 44 11444 11
2214 1444
43.08 2211 22444
! 222 22244
i 2222
! 2 2 222
i 2 2
28.72 :
I
14.3*
•
*
i
lii • •
1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3f )0
DRY TONS PER YEAR
ANNUAL COST PER DRY TON AS A FUNCTION OF THE -AMOUNT OF SLUDGE SPREAD EACH YEAR
THE NUMBERS IN THE FIGURE REPRESENT THE FOLLOWING SYSTEMS:
I'TAMK
-------
• PER TON
78.44
70.60
62.75
54.71
47.06
39.22
31.37
23.53
15.68
7.84
(Tbif
thof
3 5
3 S
3 5
3 5 1 111
3 11 1111
311 5 111
11 3 1115
1113 5
1 35
1 35.
3 555
3 5 5 5 5 5 5
44 3 44
244 322 2444
4 244 322233733
244 444 3 442
222 4443333
444
I I I I I I
3000 3400 4200 4800 5400 6000
DRY TONS PER YEflR
ANNUAL COST PER DRY TON A9 A FUNCTION OF THE AMOUNT OF SLUDGE SPREAD EACH YEAR
TltE NUMBERS IN THE FT8URE REPRESENT THE FOLLOWING SYSTEMS:
1-TANK UAGOMt 2«TAHK TRUCKt 3-TWJCK SPREADER*
4-HAULINO UNIT * TANK TRUCK* 5-HAUtINO UNIT •«• LCACER •*• TRUCK SPREADER
Figure 9.3. Computed costa of hauling end spreading sludge for
COBsainitias producing 3000*6000 dry tons per year.
205
-------
• PER TO*
47.08 1
60.37
53.64
46.96
40,25
33.34
26.63
29.12
13.41
6.70
1
1 )
y 1 1 % 1
11111
1.11 11
1 111'
111
1 @
2
2 222
35335 222 3353 22
2SSSS33322 555553
42 444 555
34443333444 4 44
4 334443334^4458
44 4 •*
(Jtilt it rtio bftl tow aoailablt;
w» regrvf that portions ar»
wnd»ciph»reb!«J
\
i i ; i i :
6000 6600 7600 ' 8400 9200 10000
DRY TONS PER YEAR
ANNUAL COST PER DRY "ON AS A FUNCTION OF THE AMOUNT OF SLUDGE SPREAD EACH YEAR
THE NUMBERS IN THE FIGURE REPRESENT THE FOLLOWI,NO SYSTEMS:
1-TANK UAOONi 2"TAWK TRUCK* 3»TRUCK SPREADtR*
4-MAIH.IM8 tWIT + TANK TRUCK! S'HAULJNG UNIT + LCADt-R + TRUCK SPREADER
Figure 9.4. Computed costs of heuling and spreading sludge
coontmities producing 6000-10000 dry Cons per year.
for
206
-------
« PER TOM
32.09
73.88
45.67
57.44
49.25
41.04
32.83
24.62
16.41
8.20
1 1
1 1
1 i
1111
t 1 1
t 1 ]•
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
222222
22
2 222.
222 1 '
2222
9 S
3433SS55344 S 4 4 3 Z 4
434434433333335 33353355.53
444 4
(Thit it th» b»tl copy moiloblt;
wt r»gr»t that portions or*
vnd«cjpfterabf«J
20000
I I • I »
10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
DRY TONS PER YEAft
ANNUAL COST PER DRY TON A8 A FUNCTION OF THE AMOUNT OF SLUDGE SPREAD EACH YEAR
THE NUMBERS IN THE FIOUftE REPRESENT THE FOLLOWING SYSTEMS:
1-TANK WAGON! 2-TANK TRUCK I 3-TRUCK SPREADER*
4-HAULINO UNIT + TANK TRUCK) S-HAULIN3 UNIT + LOAQER + TRUCK SPREADER
Figur* 9.5. CoEpuCed coato of hauling «nd spreading sludge for
coEisajaiti«» producing 10000-20000 dry tons per year.
207
-------
CONCLUSIONS
Landspreading is an economical method of sludge disposal for most
communities. Generally, coats of landspreading are lower than costs of
other disposal options such as incineration or landfilling.
Landowners may receive substantial benefits from landspreading.
Sludge may provide many of the essential nutrients for plant growth. On
cropland, benefits of sludge may total $67 per hectare if it is applied
at low application rates. At the same time, there are some intangible
costs to the landowner. The risks associated with pathogens and heavy
metals are nearly nonexistent under a well managed landspreading system;
nevertheless, these risks are present to some degree for all recipients
of sludge. Similarly, recipients of sludge often incur some costs in
answering neighbors' concerns and/or promoting landspreading in the
community. Finally, in our society there is always the risk of legal
action being brought against the recipient and the municipality by a
third party.
The low cost landspreading technology is largely a function of
sludge volume and distance to spreading site. In communities with large
amounts of sludge and distant landspreading sites, dewatering sludge to
20 to 30 percent solids results in the lowest cost alternative. For
most small and moderate size communities with nearby landspreading
sites, spreading liquid sludge is preferred. Temporary storage is
suggested for those periods when landspreading is not possible.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R. K. 1977. Cost of landspreading and hauling sludge from
municipal wastewater treatment plants. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA/530/SW-619.
Burd, R, S. 1968. A study of sludge handling and disposal. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, Publication WP-20-4.
Colacicco, 0., E. Epstein, G. B. Willson, J. F. Parr snd L. A.
Christensen. 1979. Costs of sludge composting. U.S. Department
of Agriculture. ARS-NE-79. Beltsville, Maryland.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1976. Application of
sewage sludge to cropland: appraisal of potential hazards of the
heavy tuetals to plants and animals. Report No. 64.
Ewing, B. B. and R. I. Dick. 1970. Disposal of sludge on land, water
quality improvement by physical and chemical processes. University
of Texas Press.
Ott, S. L. and D. L. Forster. 1978. Landspreading: an alternative for
sludge disposal. American J. of Agric. Econ. 60:555-558.
208
-------
Research and Education Association. 1978. Modern Pollution Control
Technology. Volume II, New York, NY.
Shea, T. G. and J. D. Stockton. 1975. Wastewater sludge utilization
and disposal costs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA-430/9-79-015.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. Process Design Manual for
Sludge Treatment and Disposal. EPA 625/1-74-006, Technology
Transfer.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978. Sludge treatment and
disposal. Volume 1 and 2. EPA-625/4-78-012. Environmental
Research Information Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Williams, J. R., L. J. Connor, and L. W. Libby. 1977. Case studies and
comparative cost analyses of land and conventional treatment of
wastewater by small municipalities in Michigan. Department of
Agricultural Economics. Report No. 329. Michigan State
University.
Young, C. E. and G. A. Carlson. 1974. Economic analysis of land
treatment of municipal wastewatera. Water Resources Research
Institute. Report No. 98. University of North Carolina.
Young, C. Edwin and D. J. Epp (editors). 1978. Wastewater Management
in Rural Communities: A Socio-economic Perspective. Institute for
Research on Land and Water Resources. Report 103. Pennsylvania
State University.
209
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SECTION 10
EFFECT OF SOIL PH ON THE EXTRACTABILITY OF CADMIUM
APPLIED TO DIFFERENT SOILS WITH DIFFERENT SLUDGES
Randall E.'James, B.S., M.S.
Robert H. Miller, B.S., M.S.. Ph.D.
Terry J. Logan,' B.S., M.S., Ph.D.
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43410
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of soil pH
on the electrolyte extractability of cadmium when applied to soil with
different types of sludges. Soil pH was adjusted by liming, and final
pH was a function of limed and unliwed pH as modified by *he pH buffer
capacity of the different sludges.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Soils
Six different soils were used in this study. The individual soil
samples were collected from various locations within the State of Ohio.
the soils include: a Bennington silt loam obtained from
Fairfield County, a Kokomo (Brookston) silty clay loam from
Franklin County, a Hoytville clay loam from Sandusky County, a Mahoning
silt loam from Trumbull County, a Miamian silt loam froir. Franklin
County, and a Spinks fine sand from Sandusky County. These coils were
chosen because they were fairly representative of the major soil
associations in the state.
Bulk soil (0-15 cm) samples were collected at field moisture levels
and passed through a 2 mm sieve. All of the bulk samples were then
allowed to partially air dry and stored at room temperature prior to
beginning the experiments.
Additional information on each of the soils used in this study are
presented in Table 10.1.
Sewage Sludges
Sewage sludges from five different waste water treatment plants in
Ohio were utilized in this study.
210
-------
TABLE 10.1. SELECTO) CHAEACTEEISTICS OF SOTTACE PUW L4TEI (0-15 OO 07
SIX OHIO SOILS
Soil* Classification
Bermingtea Aerie Oehraao«lfs
silt loam
Eofcoan silty Typic Argiaquolls
clay IOSB
Kaytville Millie Oehraqualfs
clay loaa
(tabooing silt Aerie Ochraqoalfs
lesa
Kiaarian silt Typic Haplodalfs
loaa
Spioks fine PsaoBeatic Baplodalfs
pB
5.3
6.1
6.5
5.6
6.3
6.
Sand*
10.5
9.7
22.7
23.3
21.4
92.0
Silt*
76.»
53.6
41.7
64.3
56.5
4.5
Clay-
12.6
36.7
35.6
12.4
22.1
3.5
* Appraisal* values e&cauted from the Soil Characterization
Laboratory, The Ohio State University. Colmbns, Ohio.
211
-------
These sewage sludges were chosen to represent a vide variety of
chenical and physical properties. Each sludge also represents a
different sewage treatment process. It was felt that the different
sewage treatment processes may have a bearing on how the sludges would
react in soil systems.
The treatment processor used and the physical form of each sludge
used in this study are:
* A lime stabilized liquid sludge from the City of Ashland.
* An anaerobically digested sludge cake from the Jackson Pike
Treatment Plant in the City of Columbus.
* An aerobically digested (extended aeration process) liquid
sludge from a Medina County Treatment Plant.
* An anaerobically digested sludge from the City of Springfield.
* An anaerobicilly digested lime treated sludge cake from Toledo,
Ohio.
It is important to note that in the Toledo sludge lime is used as
an aid to sludge thickening; while in the Ashland sludge it is used to
kill pathogens, or stabilize the sludge. Therefore, more lime is needed
to treat the Ashland sludge than is needed to treat the Toledo sludge.
The results of laboratory analysis of each sludge is presented in
Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 shows that the pH of the lime stabilized Ashland sludge
is higher than the pH of the other four sewage sludges. The cadmium
concentration of the Columbus sludge is two times that of any other
sludge, and over ten times the concentration of the Hedina sludge.
Liming Procedures
A sub sample from the Bennington silt loam soil and a subsample from
the Hahoning silt loam soil were each amended with 0.67g Ca(OH>2 per kg
soil and 0.87g Ca(OH>2 per kg soil respectively, to raise the soil pH to
approximately 6.5. The approximate Ca(0a>2 application rates were
determined using the Shoemaker, McLean, Pratt buffer procedure and the
lime test index (Trierweiler, 1972). The limed samples were then
leached twice with distilled water to remove any unreacted lime from the
soils. After leaching was completed, the pH of these soils was again
evaluated to insure that the soil pH had remained at approximately 6.5.
The original six soils plus the two lime amended soils constituted a
total of eight soil samples that were used for all of the experiments of
this study.
Treatments
Subsamples (2270 g) of each of the eight soil samples were amended
with the equivalent of 5 g dry sludge/kg soil or 11 dry metric
tons/hectare of each sludge, plus a control soil sample to which no
sludge was added. This made a total of 48 samples.
212
-------
TABLE 10.2. CTAlUfTERISTICS OF SEUACZ SLUDGES FBOH FIVE OHIO SZUU2 TSEASHEHT FLABIS
pH
Solid* (Z)
Cd <^/k»>
Toul P (ag/kg)
TD (•f/ki)
t (.(/kg)
Zn (a»/kt)
Ki (n«/kj)
Cu (at/kg)
Fb (at/kg)
AchLuut
Lias
Stabilized
12.3
4.9
24.6
11051
28470
3541
41306
22.6
/
216
1171
Coluobu*
8.2
17.6
57
23265
38312
3385
5083
454
523
685
Media*
Anobieally
DifaJCed
6.7
1.8
3.6
31255
47396
10314
455
30.6
272
88
Springfield Toledo
Atuarcfcicflly Aaacrobically
7.4
7.2
38
14100
29486
4561
5493
291
655
1161
7.8
15.4
11.8
18800
13070
2S78
2063
235
340
392
213
-------
An attempt was then made to adjust each sample to approximately
1/3 bar moisture content with distilled water. However, due to an
oversight, it was found that in some, but not all cases, the amount of
liquid added with the sludges with low solids content raised the soils
to a level above 1/3 bar moisture content.
Each of the 48 samples were then subdivided into six replicate
sub samples equal to 250 ml i^V-:./^*; •*•?!«* samples aad transferred to
Erlenmeyer flasks, with 50 g of sludge/soil mixture in each flask. This
made a total of 288 subsamples. The subsamples were incubated at room
temperature (approximately 25 C). Each flask was opened and exposed to
the air weekly to maintain aerobic conditions. Since the moisture
content of the sludge/ soil mixtures were not uniform due to the
above-mentioned oversight, no attempt was made to maintain a uniform
moisture content during the incubation period.
Incubation Period
After 0, 6, 12, 18, 27, and 85 days incubation, pH was measured on
the individual subsamples of each sludge/soil mixture.
v
After 0, 6, 27, and 85 days, the sludge/soil mixtures were analyzed
for O.Q1 H CaCl2 extractable Cd. Thus, 48 flasks were analyzed at the
end of each incubation period. The 85 day incubation period was chosen
because it represents the major part of one growing season. The
incubation period began (Day 0) immediately after the soils were amended
with sewage sludge.
Determination of Soil pH
At the end of each incubation period, four subsemples were removed
from each flask after thorough mixing. Two of the samples were used to
measure pH using a 1:1 soiliwater ratio. The pH was determined in the
remaining two samples using a 2:1 ratio of 0.01 M CaCl2 to the
soil/sludge mixture. All mixtures were stirred intermittently for
approximately oae hour and then read on a pH meter, using a glass
electrode.
The pB determinations that used CaCl2 were consistently lower than
the water pH determinations. This could be predicted since the CaCl2
would replace H* ions on the soil exchange sites and increase the
hydrogen ion concentration of the soil water, and thus produce a lower
pH reading.
All of the pH data reported is the mean of two water pH
determinations unless otherwise specified.
Extractable Cadmium Determinations
At the end of the 0, 6, 27, and 85 day incubation periods,
duplicate 2g samples of each soil/sludge mixture were -extracted with
10 ml of 0.01M CaCl2 on an end-over-end shaker for approximately
214
-------
24 hours. At the end of the extraction period, each sample was
ceotrifuged. The clarified extract was placed in small plastic bottles
and acidified with 2-3 drops of IN HC1 as a preservative. The extracts
were stored at room temperature.
At the end of the study period, the cadmium concentrations of the
stored samples were determined using a Varian atomic absorption
spectrophotoraeter Model 375. A deuterium lamp was used to determine
background correction. Standards of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 Ug/ml
cadmium were used to calibrate the spectrophototaeter.
Statistical Analyses
Two-way analysis of variance was performed on the analytical data
to determine differences in extractable cadmium across both soils and
sludges. Three a priori contrasts of extractable cadmium based on the
"t" statistic were performed. The a_ priori contrasts were: 1) unlimed
acid soils vs. limed acid soils; 2) unlimed acid soils vs. soils with
background pH of approximately 6.5; and, 3) limed acid soils vs. soils
with background pH of approximately 6.5. All data were analyzed using
SAS (Nie. et al., 1975).
In addition, the data in Tables 10.11 and 10.12 were subjected to
analysis for least significant difference and Duncan's Multiple Range
Test, using a 5 percent confidence level. A regression analysis of
cadmium availability as affected by pH was also performed (Hie et al.,
1975).
RESULTS
Effects of Sludge and Soils on pH of Sludge/Soil Mixtures
Both the sludge and soil had an effect of the pR of the resulting
sludge/soil mixtures. The general effects of each are presented next.
The effects of each sludge on Bennington silt loam soil is shown in
Figure 10.1.
The addition of sewage sludge increased soil pH in most cases. As
expected, the soils that were amended with lime-stabilized Ashland
sludge (pH 12.3) tended to have the highest pB at the beginning of the
incubation period, while the unamended soils had the lowest pH.
In all but one instance, the addition of sewage sludge to soils
resulted in a downward trend in the pH of the soil/sludge mixture during
the 85-day incubation period. It should be noted, however, that in many
cases, the final pH of the sludge/soil mixtures after the 85-day
incubation period had not fallen below the pH of soil prior to the
addition of sewage sludge. Thus, the net effect of sewage sludge on
soil pH was often an increase in pH. There were also many short-time
fluctuations in which the pH of the soil/sludge mixtures increased for
short periods (Figures 10.1).
215
-------
8
o Control
x Ashland
9 Columbus
O Medina
A Springfield
A, Toledo
0 6 12 19 27
Time (days)
85
Figure 10.1 Effects of five sewage sludges applied at a rate of
11.2 at/ha on the pH of a Bennington silt loam soil
iucubated for 85 days at 24 ± ?C.
216
-------
The one notable exception to the overall downward trend in pH
occurred with the lime-amended Bennington silt loam soil, amended with
the lime-stabilized Ashland sludge. In this treatment, the initial pH
of the sludge/soil raixture was 7.2. The pH remained at 7.2 after 6 and
12 days incubation. After 19 days incubation, the pH of this mixture
had risen sharply to 7.7. It then dropped to pH 6.9 by day 27, and rose
co pH 7.3 after an 85-day incubation period. This was the only
sludge/soil mixture in which a slight net increase in pH was observed
over the 85-day incubation period. It should be mentioned that the
soils which were not amended with sludge also experienced a drop in pH
over the 85-day incubation period, but, as a rule, the magnitude of this
pH change was not as great as those that were amended with sludge
(Tables 10.3-10.10).
Magnitude of pH Change
Tables 10.3 through 10.10 show that the magnitude of the pH change
of a sludge/soil mixture is strongly influenced by the soil. An example
of this effect is demonstrated by the fact that the Toledo sludge/Kokomo
soil combination experienced a pH change of only 0.4 (Table 10.4), while
the Toledo sludge/Miamian soil combination experienced a pH change of
1.0 units (Table 10.5).
*
Cadmium Availability
The average pH of all of the treatments of the unlimed acid soils
(Bennington and Maboning) dropped from 6.2 .at Day 0 to 5.4 on Day 85.
The average extractable cadmium for these same soil/sludge mixtures rose
from 0.01 to 0.049 yg/g during the same time period (Figure 10.2). This
change in extractable cadmium was found to be significant.
These same two soils (Bennington and Hahoning), when limed to a pE
value of approximately 6.5 prior to starting the study, had an average
pH drop of only 6.8 at Day 0 to 6.1 at Day 85 (Figure 10.2). The
average extractable cadmium for theee limed soils was 0.010 Ug/g at
Day 0 and 0.011 yg/g at Day 85 (Figure 10.2). This change in
extractable cadmium was not significant.
The average pH of all of the treatments of the soils with a
background pH of approximately 6.5 (Kolcomo, Hoytville, Mia* tan, Spinks)
dropped from pH 6.8 at D&y 0 to pH 6.2 at D^.y 85. The average
extractable cadmium for all of the soil/sludge mixtures rose from
0.005 Ug/g dry weight to 0.019 yg/g dry weight from Day 0 to 85
(Figure 10.2). The change in extractable cedmium was significant at the
5 percent level.
Extractable cadmium for each soil was averaged across all
treatments and all incubation periods (Table 10.11). The total
extractable cadmium for the unlimed Bennington silt loam soil averaged
across all treatments and incubation periods were 0.025 Ug/g. The
average extractable cadmium for the limed Bennington silt loam soil was
217
-------
TABLE 10.3. KACSITDBE OF PB CHANCE OF FIVE SOtt/BLODCE MIXTURES*
ISCOTATED FOB 85 DAYS USIKC A BEBHIBCTOS BILT LOAM
SOIL (tlHLIMZD) AHD FIVE SEWAGE SLUDGES
Sludge
Hay 85
ApB
Toledo
ColuBbuc
Aahlaod
Springfield
Medina
Coatxol
.6
.1
.8
.5
.1
.3
S.S
5.1
6.0
5.9
5.5 •
5.1
1.1
1.0
O.S
0.6
0.6
0.2
Sludge »•» applied ct « r«tt equlvslsnc Co 11 trj cetrie tons
•ludj«/beetare.
TABLE 10.4. HAC3HTUDZ OF FH CHAHGE OF FIVE SOIL/SUIOCI HIXTDBES*
IHCUMTED tGi 85 DATS D3IBC A KQSQtfO SILTT CLAT LOAM
SOIL Affi) FIVE 8EHACE SLUDGES
Sludge
Day 0
B*y 65
Afbland
Medium
Colunbac
Toledo
Sprinsfi«ld
Control
.9
.6
.3
.5
.5
.1
6.3
6.1
5.8
6.1
6.3
5.9
0.6
C.5
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.2
Sludge «•• applied at a rate equivalent to 11 dry mtri: too*
•lodge/beet*re.
218
-------
TABLE 10.5. MAGHITTOE OF PH CHANCE OF FTVE SOIL/SLUBCE MIXTUBES*
IBCUBATZD FOR 85 DATS USIBC A HOYTVILLE CLAY LOAM SOIL
AKD FIVE SEUACE SLUDGES
Sludge D*7 0 Dey 85 ipH
Coluabua
Toledo
A*hUnd
Medine
Springfield ,
Control
* Sludge vce epplii
• ludge/£iect«re.
6.6
6.8
7.2
6.8
6.9
6.5
td et e rete
6.1
6.3
6.6
6.5
6.6
6.2
equivelent to 11 dry
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
accric tone
TABLE 10.6. MACKITOTZ OF PH CHAKCC OF FIVE SOIL/SLITOCT KUTOEES*.
IKCUBATEO FOR 85 DATS USI6C » MAHONIHC SILT LOAM SOIL
Aim FIVE SEH&CE 8UJCCES
pH
Sludge D«y 0 Dor 85
Aehlend
Co Imbue
Springfield
Control
Mediae
Toledo
6.4
6.1
6.A
5.6
6.1
•ot Determined
5.3
5.0
5.5
6.9
5.6
5.3
1.1
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
e««e>
* Sludge vee eppliod et e rete equivalent to 11 dry aetrie tone
elodge/nee tare.
219
-------
TABLE 10.7. BAC8ITUDE OF P8 CRAKGE OF FIVE SOIL/SLUDGE
INCUBATED FfM 8$ DATS US1BG A HIAM1AH SILT LOAM SOIL
ABD FIVE SEtttCt SLUDGES
Sludge Dey 0 Day 85
Toledo
Coluobtu
Aih land
Medina
Springfield
Control
6.8
6.6
6.9
6.8
6.8
6.3
5.8
5.8
6.3
6.4
t/.5
6.0
1.0
0.8
, 0.6
0.4
0.3
0.3
* Sludga v*i cpplicd at • r«te «quiv«l»nt to 11 dry n*trie ton*
•lodge/hectare.
TABLE IO.B. MACTITOTE OF m ctu&ct, OF FIVE SOIL/SLTOCE MIXTOIES*
IHCD2ATED FOS 65 DATS OSIBC A SPIBKS HBE EAHD SOIL AMD
FIVE SEKACC SLODCES
Sludge Day 0 D«y 85 6pH
Art lend
Springfield
HediM
Toledo
Colooba*
Control
7.6
7.Z
7.0
7.0
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.0
6.0
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.5
* Slodge vet epplied «t • rat* equivalent to 11 dry Metric tons
•lodge/hectare.
220
-------
TABLE 10.9. MACWITODE OF PH CHAHCE OF FIVE SOIL/SLODGE K1XTUHZS*
IRCUBATED FOR 65 DAYS USIKC A BEHNINCTON SILT LOAM SOIL
(LIKED) AND FIVE SEHACZ SLUDGES
Sludge Day 0 Day 85 ApH
Toledo
Colusbuf
Medina
Springfield
Control
Aahland
7.2
6.7
6.9
6.9
6.5
V2
6.3
5.9
6.4
6.5
6.1
7.3
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.1
* Sludgt vac applied «t a rat* equivalent to 11 dry as trie toni
•Ittdge/hoctare.
TABLE 10.10. MAGKITUE2 OF PH CKAHCE OF FIVE SOtL/SLUSCZ MITTTOES*
IKCTOATEC FOR 85 DAYS USIBC A t-lAHOHItSS SILT LOAM
(LIKED) &HD FIVE gEUASE SLUSSES
Sludge Day 0 Day 85 ApB
Colnaboa
Acblaod
Springfield
Medina
Control
Toledo
6.6
7.1
6.8
6.7
6.1
Sot Detenined
5.8
6.4
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.2
™™
* Sludge vaa applied at a rate equivalent to 11 dry metric ton*
•ludge/beetare.
221
-------
o pH unlimed acid soils
a pH lim«d odd soils
A pH soils with background pH approx. 6.5
• unlimed acid soils • available Cd
B limed acid soils - available Cd
A soils with background pH cpprox. 6.5 • available Cd
-,0.1
0 6 12 19 27
Time (days)
85
Figure 10.2. Effects of pH and time on 0.01 M CaCl2 extracCable Cd of
kludge-amended unlimed acid soils, limed acid soils and
soils with background pH approximately 6.5.
222
-------
TABLE 10.11.
ETTBCr 0? VARIOUS SLTOCE/SOn. MIXTURES* OH AVERAGE EXTRACTABLE CADMIOM DURISC
AH 8S DAY IWCUBATION PJXIOD
Soil
Bennintcon
Kokoco
Hoytville
Mahoninf
Miaaian
Spinki
4eimiii(con
and line
Hihoning
•ad limt
A»ar«j*
Control
0.016
0.015
0.007
0.019
0.007
0.009
o.caj
0.000
0.009
Aihlind
0.015
0.009
0.024
0.022
0.01
0.01
0.009
0.015
0.014
Coluabui
0.061
0.024
0.024
0.037
0.014
0.02
0.032
0.022
0.029
Sludg«f
Medina
0.024
0.014
0.012
0.015
0.02
0.003
0.003
0.02
0.014
Springfield
0.012
0.004
0.0:2
0.022
0.014
0.010
0.000
0.000
0.011
Tol«do
0.024
0.009
0.019
0.032
0.009
0.009
0.01
0.014
. 0.016
Averts*
Cd
0.025
0.013
0.018
0.025
0.012
0.010
0.010
0.012
* Sladf* w«» applied «t • rete equivalent to 11 dry oetric ten* iludge/hectare.
223
-------
0.010 yg/g. The average extractable cadmium for the unlimed Mahoning
silt loam soil was 0.025 ug/g; while the average extractable cadmium for
the limed Mahoning silt loam was 0.012 Wg/g-
Thus, liming these soils did lower the average extractalle cadmium
concentration in each soil. This change in extractable cadmium
concentration between the limed and unlimed soils was significant at the
5 percent level.
When the data presented in Table 10.11 was subjacted to a two-way
analysis of variance, it was found that there were significant soil and
sludge effects on cadmium availability. However, there were no
statistically significant interaction effects.
The average extractable cadmium across all soils and sludges
(Table 10.11) was subjected to an analysis of least significant
difference and a Duncan's Multiple Range Test using a 5 percent
confidence level. The cadmium availability of the unlimed Bennington
and Mahoning soils was found to be significantly different from all
other soils except Hoytville. There were no significant differences
between the Kokomo, Miamian, Spinks, Bennington <• lime, Mahoning + lime
or Hoytville soils.
No significant differences in extractable cadmium were found for
the soils averaged across Ashland, Medina, Springfield, Toledo sludges
and the control (unamended) soil. The extractable cadmium in the
Columbus sludge/soil mixtures was significantly different from all other
sludges (Table 10.11). For the unlimed acid soils, there was no
significant difference in the amount of ex tractable cadmium for Day 0,
6, and 27 (Table 10.12). However, the extractable cadmium for Day 85
was significantly different from all of the other days.
For the soils with a background pH of approximately 6.5, Day 0 was
significantly different from all other days. There were no significant
differences in extractable cadmium between any incubation periods of the
limed acid soils.
Table 10.13 and Figure 10.3 points out that there was no direct
linear relationship between the amount of cadmium added to soils in
sewage sludges, and the anunt of cadmium that became available for
plant growth, after an 85-day incubation period.
DISCUSSION
This study point* out the. the effects of soil pH on sludge cadmium
availability are not fully understood, particularly where acidic soils
are involved. In general, all of the sludges tended to initially raise
the pH of the soil. This was not surprising considering that the pH of
the sludges varied from pH 6.7 in the Medina sludge to pH 12.3 in the
Ashland sludge. With very few exceptions, the sludges were more
alkaline than the sells so they tended to raise the initial oH.
224
-------
10.12. ETFECT V tBC01ATia» TOO. OB CUamW AMHABttriT FOB
watat suroez ttrnxsEV, UZSB ACTS SOILS, CELESB ACID
SOUS. ABB SOUS HTEH A BAEKlSSXaSD 78 CT
Soil
(Uvtd) Acid Soil*
(feliasd) Acid Soil*
Soil* Uitb Background
pll of Appro*. 6.5
tey 0
0.010
0.010
0.005
tztnctakl
B»y 6
0.011
0.022
0.016
• Cd
8«y 27
0.006
0.018
0.012
Day 65
0.011
0.049
0.019
* Sludge M» applied at • rut* «qi>iv*l*nt Co 11 dry aatric too*
•Iwdge/beetare.
ttne 10.13. EEiAncBEsaip ETTSEEH AVCTACE cyssirai ASSES TO near
SOILS la FT8S dFT£SEKT SSXASS. SU33CE3 «S
ATMS AS es-o&r iscs&inom ssszos AX
THffiTSKATCEE (AJ?P1SS. 2SC)
Extractc&U Cd Pczeoat A44ed
Added Cd Kisa* E*etjjTOBi»a Cd iaesveced e>
(us Cd/g) Cfi* (fee Cd/e) &BCcaeed>lc Cd
A*l«*
Colu&oa
Ibdiu
Springfield
ToUdo
123
285
18
190
59
o.eas
0.020
0.095
0.032
0.007
0.004
0.007
0.028
0.091
0.012
Baekgnoad Cd coaccacncioa *•> 0.009 BB Cd/g coil.
225
-------
—Total of all sludge/soil mixtures
o Bennington and Mahoning soils
A Kokamo, Koytvilie. Miamian, and Spinks soils
Q Benntngton + linrte and Mahoning + lime
.10
.08
•* .06
s
__•
I .M
x
tu
.02
.00
r * —
5.0
5.4
5.8
SoilpH
6.6
Figure 10.3. Linear regression of 0.01M CaCl2 extractable Cd versus soil
pH for all cot^>inations of 8 different sludges and 5
different soils.
226
-------
Results of this study show that, under the prescribed conditions,
the availability of sludge-borne cadmium increased as pH decreased.
However, the average cadmium availability did not increase significantly
until the pH of the sludge/soil mixture dropped below approximately 6.0.
The only group of soils that experienced an average pH drop to
under 6.0 were the unlisted acid soils (Bennington and Hahoning). There
was also a greater increase in ex tractable cadmium in these soils than
in either the soils with a background pH approximately 6.5 or the limed
acid soils.
From this study, it appears that the only direct influence of
increased incubation time is a lowered pH which in turn affects cadmium
availability. If time in itself had a significant effect, one would
expect that, as incubation time increased, cadmium availability would
increase regardless of the soil/sludge mixtures used. This is not the
case (Table 10.12 aud Figure 10.2).
Over the long run (85 days), the pH of the soil/sludge mixture
decreased. There exists an unproven possibility that the pH could
continue to decrease with additional time, and eventually increase
cadmium availability in the other two soil groups.
As mentioned earlier, the moisture content of the sludge/soil
mixtures was not controlled. The moisture content was above 1/3 bar
(field moisture content) for those sludges that have a low percent
solids content, such as the Medina sludge. In addition, the sludge/soil
mixtures tended to partially dry out during the course of the
experiment. Ho radical moisture effects were observed during the study.
Since the same sludges were used on all of the soils and differences
were found in the cadmium availability of the mixtures, it can be stated
that soil moisture content was not a major factor. If there were some
slight effects, they were overshadowed by the pH effect.
An additional complication to the evaluation of the effects of soil
pH on sludge-borne cadmium is the fact that each sewage sludge has
unique chemical, physical, and microbiological characteristics.
Therefore, the reactions that take place when a sludge is added to a
soil are dependent on the characteristics of both the soil sad the
sludge. There are reports in the literature (CAST, 1980) which indicate
that the effect of the chemical form of the cadmium in the sludge may
have significant effects on cadmium availability. Other sludge-related
factors, such as degree of decomposition, sludge pH, percent solids,
other elements present, etc., also have a confounding effect on any
study which is designed to determine the reasons for variable cadmium
availability.
The results of this etudy show that there may be soise merit in the
EPA requirement that the pH of the sludge/soil mixture be controlled.
However, the requirement that the rH of the sludge/soil mixture be
raised to 6.5 may be too stringent. The study revealed trends that show
that cadmium did become more available as pH decreased in the unlimed
227
-------
acid soils, and very slightly mere available in the soils with a
background pH approximately 6.5, while the cadmium did not become more
available in the limed acid soils. Extractablr cadmium increased moat
sharply only after the pH of the sludge/soil mixture had fallen to soee
point under 6.0.
V-
The Ohio State University "Agronomy Guide" (1980-81) points out
that some highly buffered soils may require over 6.7 rat/ha in order to
raise soil pEL, front 6.0 to 6.5. The cost of lime is now often as high as
$20 per metric ton; thus, it could cost 134/ha to bring a highly
buffered soil from pH 6.0 to 6.5 to meet EPA requirements.
In recent years, there has been an effort to persuade
municipalities to apply sewage sludge at very low rates (< 11 dry metric
tons sludge /hectare) and thus reduce the potential risk of runoff or
groundwater contamination. Many municipalities, .have been willing to use
the low rates because there has been an ample number of private
landowners near the treatment plants who were willing to accept sewage
sludge. There has also often been no required site preparations before
sludge has been applied. therefore, the municipality had no money
invested in an application site, and as long as other sites were
available in the area, there was no incentive to overload any site with
a high sludge application rate. If municipalities are forced to amend
soil pH prior to applying sewage sludge, they will be forced to invest
money for lime in each disposal site that they use. Cost of sludge
disposal will be strongly influenced by the amount of land that is limed
for disposal. Consequently, there will be an economic incentive for
municipalities to overload those sites that they have limed and reduce
the number of hectares that need to be limed each year.
SUMMARY
The results of this study demonstrated that:
* Initially, the addition of sewage sludge to aoils tended to
raise soil pH.
* Over an 85-day incubation period, the pH of the sludge/soil
mixtures decreased. However, the pH of the mixtures did not
always drop below the pH of the unamended soils alone.
* Extractable cadmium of the limed acid soils was not increased
as pH of the sludge/soil mixtures decreased, over an 85-day
incubation period.
* Ext rac table cadmium of the soils with a background pH of
approximately 6.5 experienced a very minor increase in cadmium
availability as the pH of the soil/sludge mixtures decreased
over an 85-day incubation period.
* Extractable cadmium of the unlised acid soils (background pH
under 6.0) was significantly increased as pH of the sludge/soil
' mixtures decreased over the 85-day incubation period. The most
dramatic increase in cadmium availability in these sludge/soil
mixtures occurred after the pH of the mixtures had dropped to
somewhere under 6.0.
228
-------
* Statistical analysis of the data showed that cadmium
availability of the sludge/soil mixtures was significantly
affected by the sludge and the soil. However, there were no
significant interaction effects.
REFERENCES
Agronomy Guide. 1980-81. Cooperative Extention Service, The Ohio State
University. Bulletin 472.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1980. Effects of
sewage sludge on the cadmium and zinc content of crops. Report
No. 83.
King, L. D. and H. D. Morris. 1972. Land disposal of liquid sewage
sludge: 11. The effect on soil pH manganese, zinc, and growth and
chemical composition of rye (Secale Cereale L.). J. Environ. Qual.
1:425-429.
Hie, H. H., C. H. Hull, J. G. Jenkins, K. Staeinbrenner, D. H. Bent.
1975. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 2nd ed.
McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hew York.
Trierweiler, J. F. 1972. Soil testing methods. Cooperative Extension
Service. The Ohio State University. (Unpublished).
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SECTION 11
HEALTH EFFECTS OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE APPLICATION ON OHIO FARMS
C. Richard Dorn, D.V.M., M.P.H.*
Chada S. Reddy, B.V.Sc., M.S., Ph.D.*
David S. Lamphere, D.V.M., Ph.D.*
John V. Gaeuaan, M.D.#
Richard Lanese, Ph.D.;/
*Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine
^Department of Preventive Medicine
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
SUMMARY
A 3 year prospective epidemiologic study was conducted on 47 farms
receiving annual sludge applications and 46 control farms in 3 geographic
areas of Ohio. All the sludge was from municipal sewage treatment facilities
and had been treated either anaerobically (Franklin-Plckaway Counties and
Clark County) or acrobically (Medina County). The sludge was spread by
applicator equipment at the race of 2-10 dry metric tons ->er hectare. One
hundred sixty four persons (73 families) on sludge faros and 130 persons (53
families) on control farms participated by cooperating with monthly
questionnaires concerning their health and their animals' health, annual
tuberculin testing, and quarterly blood and fecal sampling for microbiological
testing. The risks of respiratory illness, digestive illness, or general
symptoms were not significantly different between sludge farm and control farm
residents. Similarly, there were no observed differences in disease
occurrence among domestic animals on sludge and control farms. There were no
persons who converted from tine test negative to tine test positive after
sludge had been applied to their farm. The frequency of serological
conversions of a 4 fold or greater rise in antibody to a series of viral
antigens and the frequency of associated illnesses were similar among persons
on sludge and control farms. The absence of observed human or animal health
effects resulting from sludge application in this study of Ohio farms was
based upon low sludge application rates which were in accordance with Ohio and
USEPA guidelines. Caution should be exercised in using these data to predict
health risks associated with sludges containing high levels of hazardous
disease agents and with higher sludge application rates and larger acreages
treated per farm than used in this study.
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INTRODUCTION
The amount of sewage sludge for disposal has increased greatly since the
U.S. Government required that all publicly owned sewage treatment plants
include secondary treatment. Furthermore, the Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 required that an assessment of alternative treatment
technologies, including sludge recycling to the land, be considered before
construction grants could be awarded. The Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act of 1972 curtailed the routine practice of dumping sludge into
the ocean (Galen, 1980). The alternative of incinerating sludge requires
large aaounts of energy and it must be done in compliance with the Air Quality
Act of 1967. Therefore land application and landfills have been used more in
recent years. Suitable landfill sites are, however, being exhausted. Thus
sludge application on farmland has advantages for the municipalities, in
addition to the economic advantages to the farm owner and operator of using
the sludge as a fertilizer and as a soil conditioner.
Municipal sewage eludg •. has been applied to farmland for many years;
however, there remain questions about the human health and animal health
consequences of this practice. Potentially harmful microbiological agents and
chemical substances in sewage sludge have been described in several reviews
(Burge and Marsh, 1978; Epstein and Chancy, 1973; Pahren et_ al^., 1979; Jones,
1980; Kowal and Pahren, 1980; WHO, 1981). Sewage treatment employees who were
occupationally exposed to sludge, in addition to raw sewage, were the subject
of several investigations; however, many of these studies can not be
adequately evaluated due to lack of controls (Clark. £t_ jsl_., 1976). A study of
Paris sewage plant workers found that they had a higher risk of amaebiasis and
giardiasis as compared to the general population (Doby ££,£!.>, 1980).
Hepatitis A infection in Copenhagen workers has also been correlated to sewage
exposure (Shrink c£ JL!., 1981). The health of sewer workers, sewage treatment
workers and their families was monitored in several U.S. cities and no evident
adverse health effects of occupational exposure were observed (Clark et al.,
1980). A seroepidemiologic study of sewage treatment workers failed to show
any evidence of increased risk of Infection as measured by an increase in
antibody titers (Clark ££al., 1978).
Epidemiologic studies of persons living near sewage treatment facilities
have also been conducted. In a study of acute illness among population groups
at varying distances from the Tecumseh Uastewater Treatment Plant in Michgan,
the higher illness rates were related more to socioeconomic status of the
families than to proximity to the wastewater treatment plant (Fannin et al.,
19SO). A study of persons living near a new activated sludge plant in
Illinois found a higher incidence of skin disease and severe gastrointestinal
symptoms after the plant became operational (Johnson et al., 1980). However,
antibody tests for 31 human enteric viral antigens and attempted isolations of
tuany pathogenic bacteria, parasites and viruses yielded virtually no clinical
evidence of infectious disease effects associated with the sewage treatment
aerosol. In Oregon, school attendance records of children living near a
wastewater treatment facility were studied (Caniann et_ al., 1980). The
sewage treatment aerosol had no adverse effect on communicable disease
incidence as discerned from total school absenteeism. The health effects of
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aerosols emlttci from an activated sludge plant in Skokie, Illinois were
studied over an 6 month period (Jorthrup ejt al., 1980). No correlations were
reported between the exposure indices and rate of self-reported illnesses or
of bacterial or viral infection rates determined by laboratory analysis. Of
the 246 families studied only a few were exposed to the highest pollution
levels.
Several epidemiologic reports provide accounts of enteric infectious
resulting from the use of untreated uastewater in the cultivation of crops
that are subsequently eaten raw (Geldreich and Bordner, 1971; Eoadley and
Goyal, 1976; Sepp, 1971). A large retrospective study of kibbutzim in Israel
exposed to slow-rate lend treatment with nondislnfected oxidation pond
effluent was reported in 1976 (Katzeaelson e_£ all.) and in 1980 (Shuval and
Fattal). The 1983 final report of this study did not confirm the 1980
findings of increased incidence of typhoid fever, salmonellosis, shigellosis
and infectious hepatitis in the exposed kibbutzim, although a small
significant excess risk of total enteric disease was found during the effluent
Irrigation period (Shuval «£ aJL., 1983). There have been no previously
reported studies of the human health effect of land application of sewage
sludge.
The health of livestock on farms where sludge is applied is also a
concern. The major pathogenic agent of concern is Salmonella acquired by
animals grazing on sludge applied land. Calves grazing pastures to which
slurry containing 10& Salmonella dublin organisms/ml had been applied became
infected (Taylor and Burrows, 1971); however, a later study using 10^ S.
dublin/ml failed to infect calves when allowed to graze 7 days after spreading
(Taylor, 1973). Goats raised on corn silage grown on sludge-amended land did
not become infected with Salmonella even though Salmonella was present in the
sludge (Aysnwale ££_£!_., 1980). Studies of carrier rates and serotypes of
Salmonella in cattle grazing on sludge treated pastures in Switzerland has
indicated a positive association and a cycle of infection from man to sludge
to animals to man (WHO, 1981). Similar evidence was reported from the
Netherlands, but not from the United Kingdom where compulsory reporting of
saloonellosis is required.
Cattle serve as the intermediate host for Taenia saginata of man. The
Taenia ova can survive from several days to 7 months (Habayeva, 1966). Taenia
saginata cystlcercosis in cattle due to ingestion of T^ saginata ova has been
associated with exposure to human sewage in Australia (Rickard and Adolph,
1977), in the United Kingdom (Macpherson et_ ail.., 1978) and to sewage sludge in
Virginia (Hammerberg j£ al., 1978). Thirty seven cysticercosis cases were
found among calves exposed to raw sewage flooding pastures on a farm on which
sewage sludge had also been applied (Fertig, 1982). Seven cysticercosis cases
occurred 2 years later on the saiae farm when only sewage sludge was the likely
source of infection (Dom, 1983).
Livestock are also exposed to chemicals in sludge by direct ingestion of
sludge adherent to vegetation or by Ingestion of feeds grown on agricultural
lands where sludge was applied. Animal food products consequently serve as an
avenue for the translocation of chemical compounds, such as heavy metals, to
human beings. One study reported significantly higher (P< 0.05) levels of
* • * • f
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cadmium in the liver and kidneys of cows exposed to a puSl'cly owned sludge
recycling site as compared with controls (Kienholz £t_ al., t977). Fitzgerald
(1980) reported that the average kidney cadmium level in 39 cows grazing on
sludge treated pastures was 40.7 Ug/g. Several studies have examined tissue
residue levels in cattle (Kienholz £t al., 1979; Bertrand eit al., 1930; Boyer
et al., 1981), swine (Hammell et al., 1977; Hansen and Hinesly, 1979;
Teaudouin ££ al^., 1980) and sheep (Smith ££ al., 1977) fed sewage sludge or
sludge fertilized feed as part of their ration.
Mycobacterium is another pathogen which is isolated from sewage sludge
(Jones et jd.,"l9~Sl). Mammalian as well as atypical Mycobacterium strains in
sludge could infect or sensitize exposed human beings and livestock species.
Even though sensitized individuals may not become ill, they would react to the
tuberculin test resulting in diagnostic and possibly economic problems for
livestock, owners.
Since no systematic investigation of human and livestock health effects
of sewage sludge application on privately owned farms has been conducted, the
study described in this report was initiated. The study was a cooperative
undertaking between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Lhe Ohio
Farm Bureau Federation, the Ohio Department of Health, and the Ohio State
University. The objectives of the research described in this Section were
to: (1) monitor the health status of human beings and animals living on
sludge receiving and control farms, (2) determine if sludge application is
associated with higher illness rates, and (3) determine if sludge application
on farms is associated with conversion of tuberculin reactions fro.n negative
to significant.
1-ETHODS
Selection of Participating Farms;
Three locations in various areas of Ohio were selected for the health
study. These locations were selected because they represented different
geographic areas of the state; treatment facilities officials were interested
in disposing of their sludge via farmland application; and each produced
enough sludge to accomodate large numbers of participating farms. Tne three
locations were Medina County, Columbus area (Franklin and Pickaway Counties),
and Clark County (Figure 11-1). Ilore detailed information about each of these
sites is presented in Section 1.
The Ohio State University Cooperative Extension staff in each involved
county compiled a listing of all farms over 20 acres (8.1 ha) in size that
might participate in the project. The recruitment of farms began in the
Spring of 1978. The farm owners and operators were contacted and Invited to
.attend an educational meeting conducted by the project staff. At that
meeting, those persons interested in having their farms considered for sludge
application completed a detailed questionnaire about their farming operation
and livestock. From these respondents, a list of eligible farms was developed
after eliminating certain farms because of their distance from the sewage
treatment facility, proximity to a stream, or other environmental
considerations. All dairy farms were excluded in accordance with an Ohio
t
233
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Department of Health recommendation based on their "interpretation of
regulations which prohibit human fecal waste from being applied on farms
producing Grade A milk.
For each location, the farms in the eligible pool were assigned, using a
table of random numbers, to either receive sludge or serve as a control farm.
Because of the process of sludge hauling and activation of participating •
farms, 2 to 10 farms in a group were assigned at a time to either receive
sludge or to serve, as a control. Thus for each sludge farm, except one in
Medina County, there was a control farm from the same county further matched
in the sense that their pre-sludge and post-sludge periods of observation
corresponded (Figures 11-2, 11-3). Sludge applications were repeated
approximately once r year. Since the farms which were chosen to receive
sludge benefitted or tmically from the fertilizer and soil conditioning
properties of the sluge, the control farms received incentive payments of
$150, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the study.
The farms designated to receive sludge were visited by an agronomy team
which conducted an agronomic survey of the farm, collected soil samples,
reviewed present and planned crop rotations, and made recommendations
concerning time, location, and amount of sludge application. The site of
sludge application was inspected by Ohio EPA and approved to receive sludge
prior to sludge application. The sludges used in Franklin-Pickaway Counties
and Clark County were anaeroblcally treated and in Medina county the sludge
was 8»robically treated. The sludge was spread by applicator equipment at the
rate of 2-10 dry metric tons per hectare. Only selected fields or parts of
fields received sludge. The average acreage of the farms was 47 for Franklin-
Pickaway and 15 for Medina and Clark.
The farm owners and operators were visited prior to sludge application by
a health team consisting of an epidemiologist and a nurse. The health studies
were then explained in greater detail, informed consent forms were signed, an
initial baseline health questionnaire was completed for each farm resident.
The questionnaire consisted of the following:
1. Farm information form: contained information on the location of the farm,
listing of people living and/or working on the farm on a regular basis,
and farm environment.
2. Human exposure form: contained individual participant's work schedule
both on and off the farm, nature and source of food, contact with animals
and previous medical history including illnesses and vaccinations.
Additional information on immunization history, smoking history, and
chronic illnesses was collected on an annual basis.
3. Human illness form: recorded symptomology and course of a participant's
illness.
4. Animal exposure form: described the environment, source of food, time
•pent on the sludge field and illnesses for each livestock unit.
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5. Animal Illness form: showed the nature and duration of illness in each
livestock unit.
Followup questionnaires on animal and human health were completed by
telephone at approximately one month Intervals, beginning with the initial
interview.
Tuberculin testing;
Each participant was given a tuberculin tine test (Tuberculin, Old, Tine
Test, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N.Y.) by the project nurse. The test
was read by the test subject at 72 hr post-infection. The mail-back postcard
provided with the tuberculin tine test kit was used for recording and
reporting the results.
A tine test significant reaction was defined as any induration of 5mm or
more. Prior to September 1979 those reporting a reaction to the tine test
were referred to their family physician for further evaluation. After
September 1979 individuals who report-vi a significant reaction to the tine
test were given a Mantoux test using human strain Purified Protein Derivative
(PPD) produced by Connaught Laboratories Ltd., Willowdale, Ontario, Canada.
In subsequent testing only the Mantoux test was given to these individuals.
The Mantoux test significant reaction was defined as an induration of 10 mm or
more. Those positive to the Mantoux test were examined by thoracic
radiography for confirmation. The tuberculin testing was performed on all
participants at yearly intervals to evaluate possible conversions from
negative to positive (significant). Sludge application on these farms was
coordinated so that the first (baseline) tuberculin testing was done within
one week before the date of first sludge application.
Microbiology Sampling;
Samples of blood and feces were collected, when the first tine test was
administered, to obtain baseline microbiological information. Thereafter,
samples were obtained at 4 month intervals. The procedures for transporting,
processing, and Identifying the paired baseline and followup serum samples for
the first and second sludge applications are described in Section 15. For
associating Illnesses with specific seroconversions a series of 21 viral
antigens were used. Only those seroconversions that occurred within a period
of 6 months after sludge application were considered to be possibly due to
sludge exposure. A seroconverslon was a 4-fold increase in antibody titer to
a specific viral antigen between 2 consecutive serum samples.
Data Analysis;
Data from human and animal questionnaire responses were coded and entered
into an Amdahl 470 computer for fucure retrieval and analysis. The
questionnaire data and comparable demographic data obtained from the 1970
Census of Agriculture were displayed descriptively. Because human beings,
animal units and the numbers of animals existed on the farms varying lengths
of time, person-years at risk, unit-years at risk and animal-years at risk
235
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were coaputed. Person-years at risk values were calculated by adding
participation periods for all individuals at risk. The period of observation
started on the date of the first interview following sludge application and
ended at the termination of the study on that farm. This descriptive
examination of the data used the longest possible observation period in order
to include illnesses due both to infectious agents and chemical agents which
accumulate with additional sludge applications and remain in the environment
for long periods of time. Subsequent data analyses focused on the infectious
disease transmission hypothesis and were limited to the period immediately
following sludge applications, e.g. 7 weeks or up to 3 months.
For controls, participation started on the date of interview following
the rlate of sludge application on its corresponding sludge farm. The number
of unit-years at risk was calculated by adding the number of weeks of data
contribution by each unit for each interview and dividing by 52. The number
of animal-years at risk was calculated by adding the total number of weeks of
data contribution by all animals within each unit at the time of each
interview and dividing, by 52. An animal unit was defined as a group of
animals of the same species and type of operation under the management of a
single family. These values were then used as denominators in calculations of
illness ratjs. The following equations were used:
Human illness rate per 100
i person-years at risk
Animal illness rate per 100
unit-years at risk
Animal illness rate per 100
animal-years at risk
No. of new Illnesses
No. of person-years at risk
No. of units affected
No. of unit-years at risk
No. of animals ill
No. of animal-years at risk
X 100
X 100
X 100
Two panels of persons having no knowledge of the actual data being
collected were asked to group the illness symptoms and signs measured in the
human and the animal questionnaires, respectively, into clinical entities
suitable for data analysis. The panel for the human data consisted of 2
infectious disease specialists, a toxicologist and an epidemiologist. The
huoan symptoms were combined into the following groups: (1.) General: fever,
headache or generalized muscular aches and pains, (2.) Digestive: nausea or
diarrhea, (3.) Upper respiratory: runny nose, sore throat, nasal congestion or
hoarseness, and (4.) Lower respiratory: chest congestion or cough. The panel
for the animal illness data consisted of a veterinary clinician and an
epidemiologist. Selected animal signs were combined into the following
groups: (1.) Digestive: constipation, diarrhea, or blood in feces and (2.)
Respiratory: cough, nasal discharge, or difficult breathing.
The human illness data were subjected to statistical analysis using the
multiple logistic regression method (Breslow and Day, 1980; Kleinbauin, I960)
using both the individual and the above combined symptom categories. The
multiple logistic regression model has been one of the approaches to
investigate the effects of independent variables on the risk of developing
disease symptoms. Most of the time, in these studies, the dependent variable
is binary in nature (d»l for the presence of the response variable (illness or
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symptom) and d«0 for the absence of the response variable). The independent
variables can be defined as x^, X2» ... XR, then
Pr (d • l|x,, x,
V
1 + exp
R
-a-
j-1
|J represents the regression parameters and a is the intercept. Pairwise
Hatching was used in this study to investigate the effects of certain
independent variables on the risk of developing a symptom. The sludge farms
irere matched with control farms on the basis of entry-date into the study.
There were 46 matches for this analysis; one farm in Medina County was
eliminated because there was no match.
The fallowing table shows the notational scheme of the matched pair
study in which R risk variables are under evaluation. The x's refer to the
risk variables for the cases, while the y's are those for controls. The
first subscript indexes the pair while the second subscript denotes the
risk variable.
Notation for matcu«»i pair case-control study,
where the 114 discordant pairs preceed the n-n^ concordant pairs.
Pair
Case
Control
1
2
,... x2R
>••• X2R)
For matched pair case-controJ data, the conditional likelihood is determined
by compuuing the product of n^ conditional probabilities i.e. one conditional
probability for each discordant pair. The product of these n^ probabilities,
in the conditional likelihood. Since in this study only one control farm is
matched to each sludge farm, the conditional likelihood can be written as
follows:
1 + exp
E
(E Vij-
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Holford e£ ai» (197_ 60. The response variable was one or
more reported illnesses in the farm family during the period of observation.
The statistical analysis of the animal illness data was limited by small
nuabers of some types of animal units and the absence of livestock, pets or
both on some farms. Therefore it was not possible to perfonn a matched-pair
analysis. Using the animal unit as the basis of measurement, the X2 test was
used to screen the data for possible associations between illness signs
(single or combined) and use of sludge on the farm. For this calculation,
illnesses experienced during the first 3 months after the first sludge
application and after the second sludge application were analyzed separately.
A program Tor testing of followup data with animal unit-time denominators was
also applied to illness rates per 100 unit-years at risk to determine if any
rates were significantly different on sludge farms compared no those on
control farms (Rothman and Boice, 1979).
Comparisons were also made between sludge farms and control farms to
explore other independent variables which ra-'ght have resulted in significant
confounding effects on human and animal illness. For these comparisons the X-
test was used for categorical variables and the F test (analysis of variance)
was used for continuous variables. The 5% level of significance was used for
all statistical tests.
RESULTS /UD DISCUSSION
For the combined 3 locations, a total of 47 farms received sludge and 46
fans served as controls (Table 11-1). As more than one family was often
associated with a single study farm, the sludge farms had 78 families with 200
eligible persons and the control farms had 53 families with 174 eligible
persons. A person eligible to participate was one who resided on or regularly
visited a designated project farm. For the sludge farm group, eligible
persons had to reside on or visic regularly the site where the sludge was
applied.
Of the eligible persons, 164 persons on sludge farms and 130 persons on
control faros initially participated (Table 11-1). Thirty six individuals
that refused to participate were from sludge-receiving farms; 18 were males
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18 were females. Forty four individuals that refused to participate were
froa control faras; 26 were male and 18 were female. Factors including delays
ia sludge applications and withdrawal froa participation due to personal
reasons changed the duration of participation aaong farms. Considering the
date of first sludge application as the beginning of the project (the same
date for the tiae-aatched control), all faras and participants completed at
least one year of participation. Thirty six sludge faras completed 2 years
and 13 completed 3 years. Thirty seven control farms coop le ted 2 years and 13
coapleted 3 years. e, The small number of participating fanas and persons
coopleting 2 and 3 years is due prioarily to late start up times and voluntary
withdrawal froa the study (Figures 11-2 - 11-3). The faras in Medina County
started first, followed by Franfclin-Pickaway Counties' faras and then by Clark
County fanas. The largest numbers of participants were in Franklin— Pickaway
Counties; both Medina County and Clark. County had approximately the same
nuaber of participants (Tables 11-2 - 11-4). None of the Clark County faras
participated the third year due to late
3 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
Sex
*
There were more males than females in both the sludge and control groups,
1.37:1 and 1.28:1 respectively (Table 11-5). This pattern was found for
Franklin-Pickaway Counties and Clark County but not for Medina County which
had approximately the saae numbers of males and females (Tables 11-6 - 11-8).
The general population sex ratio in each of the 3 localities and In the
composite population slightly favored the sales (Tables 11-9 - 11-12).
Most of the people on both sludge and control faras ware in the 50-59
year age groups (Table 11-5). la the 0-19 year age interval there was
proportionally fewer persons on both sludge faras and control fanas than
eouoerated in the 1970 census (Table 11-9). Conversely, there was
proportionally more persons in the 50-69 year age group than enumerated in the
1970 census. This pattern was consistent for all three locations (Tables 11-6
- 11-8; 11-9 - 11-12).
Nuaber of persons on faras and in families
As shown in Table 11-1, there were 47 sludge receiving faras and 46
control faras; however there were 78 families in the sludge group as compared
with 53 in the control group. It therefore becomes important to consider the
distribution of persons in each fan and in each family unit. There were far
Bore single person families in the sludge group as compared to the control
group, 31 jrs_. 12 respectively (Table 11-13). This disparity was contributed
to by Franklin-Pickaway Counties and Clark County but not Medina County
(Tables 11-14 - 11-16).
In Franklin-Pickaway Counties this abundance of single person family
units was due In part to a plant nursery farm which regularly employed 7 sale
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laborers. Three of these .persons, but not their family members, were exposed
to the sludge. Therefore they were considered to be single person faaily
units for the purpose of the study. In Clark county, one faro had three
families with only one adult oale participating in each family. The
frequencies of families with 2,3, etc. persons were similar for sludge and
control groups in the 3 study locations (Table 11-13).
Race
All of the participants were white Americans.
Status
because of the association of smoking with several different disease
conditions and because of its effect on cadmlua intake, the smoking history of
each participant was determined. A saoker was defined, for the purposes of
this study, as romeone who had smoked cigarettes at any tiae before the fiaal
interview. Smokers »*ho quit smoking or participants who started smoking
during the post-sludge project period were all considered smokers. A
non-saokar was someone who had never smoked cigarettes before the final
interview. These definitions were used because they would represent extremes
and thus increase the likelihood of observing differences between saokers and
non saokers if they existed. Where the subcategory size was larger than one
or 2, there was very close agreement between sludge and control groups in the
proportions of smokers and non smokers in male and feoale groups and in
various counties (Table 11-17). There were higher proportions of soakers
aaong men than among worsen,
Immunization History
Polio —
One person on a sludge fan in Medina County had poliomyelitis (polio)
prior to the start of the study on their farm (Table 11-18). Mo other sludge
fan or control fara participant had a history of polio. Approximately 90% of
both combined sludge and control groups had been immunized. Clark County had
the highest level of polio vaccination followed by Franklin-Pickaway Counties
and Medina County (Tables 11-19 - 11-21) . Uo cases of polio were reported
during the study.
Measles —
Approximately one-fourth of the combined sludge and control groups had
been immunized for coaaon measles (rubeola). The aeasles immunization level
was higher for Franklin-Pickaway Counties than for the other counties (Tables
H-IS - 11-21). llo cases of aeasles were reported during the study.
Rubella —
Among the combined sludge group and the combined control group, 58.32 and
59.21, respectively, had previously had rubella (Table 11-18). The
iomunization level for rubella was approximately the same as for aeasles. ^o
cases of rubella were reported during the study.
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Distribution of Tiee Spent On-fpra and Off-Para
Each participant was asked about the amount of time they spent in field
work, in livestock work and in off-fans activities during each saosthly
interview. Their soathiy responses vere averaged for each three raonth season
over the three year period. On the sludge faras the esotrat of the field work
that was on sludge applied land was also determined. Approximately 13% of
their field work vas perforated on sludge applied laud over all Beacons (Table
11-22). Proportionally less tiae was spent on sludge land in Clark County
than in the other counties (Tables 11-23 - 11-25).
Host of the field vork vas performed in Spring, Suasaer ard Autumn on both
• lodge and control faras (Table 11-22). The asaounts of tise spent in field
vork on sludge and control fanas vere slailar, 9.1 and 10.9 hours per week
respectively.
The anount of tise spent in livestock vork vas approximately one-half the
Mount of tirae spent in field vork (Table 11-22). Unlike the field vork, the
livestock work vas distributed fairly evenly throughout the year in all
counties (Tables 11-23 - 11-25). The anount of livestock vork for the
conbined 3 locations vas sinilar in the sludge and control groups (Table
11-22).
The control farn participants spent raore hours off-fara than did the
sludge fana participants, 47.3 vp. 39.5 respectively. This difference vas
consistent in Medina and Franklin-Pickavay counties, but not in Clark County
(Tables 11-23 - 11-25). The large difference observed in Franklin-Pickavay
counties is largely due to the large number of field laborers at the plant
nursery.
Hoae Produced Food Consuaed ,
A higher peicent of seat consumed by the sludge fara residents vas bone
raised than for the control fana residents (Table 11-26). This difference vas
contributed by participants taainly from Franklin-Pickavay counties (Tables
11-27 - 11-29); however, it vas not statistically significant using the
analysis of variance.
For fruit and vegetable consumption, the percent that vas hose grown was
siailar in sludge and control groups (Tables 11-26 - 11-29). The percent of
fruits and vegetables that vas house grown vas highest for Medina County,
followed by Franklin-Pickavay County and then Clark County.
By analysis of variance there vas a significant season effect on the
percent of hoae produced seat and fruits-vegetables consumed (P < 0.05). The
differences between counties described above vere not statistically
significant.
TDBERCDLIH TESTIBG
A total if 153 and 119 tuberculin tine tests vere administered, prior to
application of sludge, in the sludge and control groups, respectively (Table
11-30). In the sludge group, seven persons had significant reactions of 5 ma
or greater induration at the site of inocul-tion in the pre-slndge application
241
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baseline test. Six of these -were followed with a Mantoux lacraderatal skla
test. Of these, 2 persons had significant reactions. Both of these persons
then received a chest X-ray and both were negative radiographlcally (Tables
11-31 - 11-33).
In the .control group, 5 of 119 persons tested before sludge application
had significant tine test reactions (Table 11-30). Two of these were followed
with a Mantoux test and none of these were significant.
In Medina County, one person was positive on the tine test administered
after the first sludge application (Table 11-31). This person was also
positive on the pre-sludge tine test and did not receive the second and third
annual test.
In Franklin-Pickaway Counties, 2 previously negative persons in the
sludge group had significant tine tests in the second post sludge application
year (Table 11-32). One of the individuals was not given the Mantoux test at
Che request of the family physician. The other person received a Mantoux test
which was negative.
HU.H^N ILLSESSES
Illness Sates
The number of persons 111, number of new acute illness and overall
Illness rates for each county are presented in Table 11-34. Chronic
Illnesses, reported in pre-sludge interviews, were not included. Individuals
reporting an illness with similar symptoms in 2 consecutive interviews were
further questioned about the time lapse between the two illnesses. An
asymptomatic period of at least one week between the Illnesses was required to
consider thea separate episodes. The illness rates were higher on the control
farms than on the sludge faras in Medina County and Franklin-Pickaway
Counties, but not in Clark County where the sludge faras had higher rates.
Illness rates per 100 person-years at risk for specific symptoms were
calculated for all 3 study locations (Tables 11-33 - 11-33). For each syaptom
category in Medina County and in Franklin-Pickaway Counties the rates were
higher on the control faras than on the sludge faras. The opposite
relationship existed in Clark County where the sludge farm rates were higher.
Illness rates were also calculated for specific age and sex groups. The
overall rates for all illnesses are shown in Figure 11—4. Toe rates for both
sludge and control faras are highest in the younger ages ( 13 years). They
then drop in the 13-19 year age group followed by a rise in the 20-59 years.
The male- and female-specific rates are similar in the sludge and control
groups except for an abnormally high feaale rate in the 20-29 year age group
for control respondents.
The respiratory illness rates are shown in Figure 11-5. Again the rates
for sludge and control respondents were very similar except for the higher
female rate in the 20-29 year age group for controls. The digestive illoess
242
-------
rate* (Figure 11-S) were very similar la the sludge and control groups and did
not reveal the higher rate la females on control farms observed for
respiratory Illnesses.
Statistical Ar-alysis
Following descriptive examination of the data, the matched pair logistic
regression analysis was perforated. The health history information was
statistically examined separately for the 3 month time period following the
first sludge application and for the corresponding tiaie period following the
second sludge application.. There were only a few fans that received & third
sludge application, too few for statistical analysis. The corresponding odds
ratios and P values for each symptom and for combined symptoms reported on
sludge and control farms are shown in Tables 11-39 - 11-40, respectively.
There were no statistically significant associations between sludge use and
the occurrence aaong farm residents of any single symptoa or any of the 4
coabtnations of symptoms.
Consistency of Reporting
If sludge applications were responsible for human Illnesses then the
nuabers of illnesses in the post-sludge period should be greater than the
number in the ore-sludge period. On the other hand, if the respondents became
conditioned by the telephone interviews every month, then they might tend to
increasingly underreport as the study progressed. In Tables 11-41 - 11-44,
the nuabers of reported illness in the pre-sludge period and after each sludge
application are presented. There was no pattern of increasing or decreasing
reporting over time for any of the symptoms. On the average, the percentage
of persons reporting any illnesses in the post-sludge period was similar to
the percentage reporting illness in the pre-sludge period. There were too few
reported illness due to specific symptoms in some counties to allow meaningful
analysis and interpretation.
Amount of Sludge Exposure
By determining the number of hours of sludge exposure per week and the
illness rates for various levels of exposure, an examination for a dose
response relationship was possible (Table 11-45). Contrary to the hypothesis
of more illness with greater sludge exposure (dose), the illness rate was
highest (314.5) for persons with no sludge exposure. The rate for the highest
weekly sludge exposure, 1 1/2 hours, was 230.2. A multiple regression
analysis was conducted of the proportion of persons with any sysptom in sludge
fara families as a function of exposure dose (number of tons per acre
multiplied by number of hours spent in sludge applied fields per week),
. proportion of school zge children per family, number of interviews and number
of people per family. As apparent from the descriptive data in Table 11-45,
the multiple regression analysis confirmed a negative relationship between
exposure dose and illness; however, this was not significant at the 5% level.
The proportion of school age children and number of people per family were
also nonsignificant independent variables. As one would expect, the more
interviews conducted, the larger the proportion ill in a family. This
relationship approached significance, P - 0.07. The tendency of lower risk of
illness in those farm members who work in the fields as compared to the
243
-------
illness risk in persons not working on the fields, such as the housewives and
children, was not observed on the control faras.
Relationship Between Illness and Seroconversion
The results of the viral and serological findings are reported in Section
15. The seroconversions that could have been due to sludge exposure were
identified for the sludge and control farms as explained in the Methods.
There were 15 seroconversions on sludge farms and 14 seroconversions on
control farms (Table 11-46). The distributions of Coxsackie A, Coxsackie 3
and Schovirus infections on the sludge and control farms were similar.
The distributions of respiratory symptoms and digestive symptoms
associated with the seroconversions on sludge and control farms were similar
(Table 11-46). The seroconversions on the sludge farms were associated with 5
visits to the physician while on the control farms none of the persons with
seroconversions visited the physician. However, the worst illness status
experienced by the ill persons were similar in the 2 groups (Table 11-47).
'tost of the infections resulted in person feeling ill and cither continuing to
work or staying at hotae. Fewer persons responded that they were confined to a
bed or to the hospital. A relatively large nutaber of seroconversions did not
result in self-perceived illness and none were associated with death.
ANIMAL POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
Species and Type of Operation
The numbers of anla. " units of various species and types of operations on
sludge and control farms ~re shown in Tables 11-48 - 11-51. Cattle raising
was the taost cotsaon type of livestock enterprise followed by swine, equine,
avian and porcine production. Within study locations, there were differences
between sludge and control f«rms in terms of the numbers of units of certain
species or types of operation (Tables 11-49 - 11-51). However when these data
were combined, the sludge and control groups were relatively well balanced
(Table 11-48). The frequency distribution of unit-years at risk and
animal-years at risk for various species were also similar in the sludge and
control groups.
Distribution of Hours on Fields and Sludge Exposure
Among the livestock species, horses and sheep spent the most hours on
fields on both sludge and control.farms followed by cattle, avian species, and
swine (Tables 11-52 - 11-55). Cats spent more time on the fields than did the
dogs. On the sludge faras, the cattle and sheep in Franklin-Pickaway Counties
had the most exposure to sludge treated fields. The only species exposed to
sludge treated fields in Medina County were cats, dogs, horses and avian
species (Table 11-53). In Clark County, cattle, swine, dogs, cats and avian
species were exposed (Table 11-55).
244
-------
ConsuBOtion of Home Grown Feed
Except for dogs and cats, the farm animals' ration was primarily
cooprised of home raised feedstuffs (Table 11-52). This pattern vas similar
In both sludge and control groups and in all 3 study locations (Tables 11-53 -
11-55).
AXIMAL ILLNESSES
©
Bovine
The numbers of bovine production units and cattle that became ill with
specific signs and their respective illness rates for sludge and control
groups are presented in Tables 11-56 - 11-59. Both the unit based and animal
based illness rates were descriptively higher in the control than in the
sludge groups. The most common signs in the sludge and control groups were:
off feed, weakness, and nasal discharge. The signs were statistically
analyzed separately and in respiratory (cough, nasal discharge and difficult
breathing) and digestive (constipation, diarrhea and fecal blood) groupings.
:iooe of the observed differences between sludge and control farms with numbers
sufficient for testing were statistically significant.
Porcine
The numbers of porcine production units and individual animals that
became ill with specific signs and their respective illness rates for sludge
and control groups are presented in Tables 11-60 - 11-63. As for the bovine
species, both the unit and animal illness rates were descriptively higher in
the control than in the sludge groups. The most common conditions in the
sludge and control groups were: weakness, diarrhea, off feed, difficult
breathing, cough, and sudden death. None of the observed differences between
sludge and control farms for specific signs and for respiratory and digestive
groupings were statistically significant.
Ovine
The numbers of ovine production units and sheep that became ill with
specific signs and their respective illness rates for sludge and control
groups are presenced in Tables 11-64 - 11-67. Both the unit and animal
illness rates were again higher on the control farms than on the sludge
farms. The asost common conditions in the sludge and control groups were:
weakness, off feed, difficult breathing, fever and sudden death. Mooe of the
observed differences between sludge and control farms for specific signs and
for the respiratory and digestive groupings were statistically significant.
The numbers of equine production units and equines that became ill with
specific signs and their respective illness rates on sludge and control farms
are presented in Tables 11-68 - 11-71. Both the unit and animal illness rates
were higher in the control than in tha sludge groups. There were very small
numbers of illnesses; therefore, no tests of significance were performed.
245
-------
Avian
The numbers of avtan production unics and Individual birds Chat became
ill with specific signs and their respective illness rates for sludge and
control farms are presented in Table 11-72 - 11-75. Both the unit and animal
Illness rates were higher in the control than in the sludge groups. The aost
coamon conditions in the sludge and control groups were sudden death and
weakness. None of the observed differences between sludge and control groups
were statistically significant.
Canine
The nunhers of canine units and individual dogs that became ill with
specific illness and their respective illness rates for sludge and control
groups are presented in Tables 11-76 - 11-79. Again the pattern of higher
unit and animal illness rates in the control group than in the sludge group.
The aost common symptoms were off feed, fever and weakness. None of the
observed differences were statistically significant.
Feline
The numbers of feline units and individual cats that became ill with
specific symptoms and their respective illness rates for sludge and control
groups are presented in Table 11-80 - 11-83. The overall unit illness rate
was higher in the control group but the overall animal illness rate was higher
in the sludge group. The aost coo/son symptoms were weakness, fever, and
difficult breathing. None of the observed differences were statistically
significant.
246
-------
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t
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250
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:::x;:;:#S^
Ohio River
COUNTIES: Clark s C
Franklin s F
Medina
« P
Figure 11-1. Location of counties with paiticipating sewage treatment
facilities and farms.
251
-------
DURATION OF PARTICIPATION OF EACH SLUDGE RECEIVING FARM
(A*Sluds» Application)
•-*-
4567 8 9 10II IZ I 234567 6 9IQII IZ I 2 3 45 6 76 9 10II12 1234567 691011 12 125456
1978 ' 1979 ""* ' * '
I960
YEAR AND MONTH BY NUMBER
1981
1982
Figure 11-2. Duration of participation of each sludge receiving farm, by countv
and date of sludge application; ® - dates of first interview;
A- dates of sludge application; 0 » dates of final interview.
252
-------
DURATION OF PARTICIPATION OF EACH CONTROL FARM
4
Z
5
u
<
<
1C
o
X
z
<
a.
at
IT
<
S 67 6 910II12 I 2 3 45 6 7 8 9 10II12 I 2 3 4 S 6 7 6 910 II 12 I 2345678 91011 12 I 23456
1978 1979 I960
YEAR AND MONTH BY NUMBER
1961
1962
Figure 11-3. Duration of participation of each control farm by county;
«« dates of first interview; O = dates of final interview.
253
-------
JC
in
7]
6-1
ALL ILLNESS
v
\
\
O, \
•—•Male, sludge farms
. A—A Female, sludge farms
O--O Male, control forms
&—A Female, control
O
4'
0-4 5-12 13-19 20-29 30-59 GOond up
AGE GROUP (years)
Tigure 11-4. Age and sex-specific rates, for all illnesses among persons
onsludge and control farms, Q-+ males, sludge farms:
A~A females, sludee farms: C-C males, control farms:
Zr-Afemales, control farms.
RESPIRATORY ILLNESS
5} ^ •—• Mole, sludge farms
j \ A—A Female, sludge farms
Q—Q Mole, control farms
w . , i\—& Female, control
E :
v>
LJ
< ;
en
i3:
-j >
UJ
o
<
tr
UJ
en
tr
UJ M
0-4 5-12 13-19 20-29 30-5960andup
Age group (years)
Figure 11-5. Aze and sex-specific respiratory Illness rates for persons on
sludge and control farms; ©—9 males , sludge farxs : A—A females ,
sludge farms;O-O males, control farms ; &•—£*. females , control
farms.
254
-------
l.6n
*
"£ I.*
!< '-2-
S£ ,0
z < '-u
-I UJ
d > 0.8
to 0.6
Q- 0.4
DIGESTIVE ILLNESS
@—@ Male, sludge farms
A—A Female, sludge farms
O—O Male, control farms
A—A Female, control
CM 5-12 13-19 20-29 30-59 SOand up
AGE GROUP (years)
Figure 11-6. Age and sex-specific digestive illness rates for persons on
sludge and control farms; ©—© males, sludge farms; A-A females,
sludge farms;O—O males, control farms; £r£vfemales, control
farms.
255
-------
TABLE 11-1. NUMBER OF FARMS AMD PARTICIPANTS IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL GROUPS BY YEARS OF PARTICIPATION. ALL COUNTIES
Unit
Farms
Families
Study Croup
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Number
Started
47
46
78
53
Number
1
47
46
77
53
of Participating Year(s)a
2 3
36 13
37 13
56 21
40 13
Eligible
Persons0
Participants
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
200
174
165
130
200
174
165
130
153
124
126
109
59
44
53
37
Participation calculated from tha date of first sl-jdge application for
each sludge farm; for each control farm participation was calculated
from the date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application
on the corresponding sludge faro.
A person eligible to participate was one who resided on or regularly
visited (in the case of sludge receiving farms, residence or visits must
not be on a site remote from sludge) a designated project farm.
TABLE 11-2. NUMBER OF FARMS AND PARTICIPANTS IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL CROUPS BY YEARS OF PARTICIPATION, MEDINA COUNTY
Unit
Faras
Families
•Study Croup
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Number
Started
11
10
12
10
Number of
1
ii
10
12
10
Participating Year(s)a
2 3
7 6
7 6
7 6
7 6
Eligible
Persons0
Participants
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
37
33
31
26
37
33
31
26
23
23
20
21
19
21
18
19
Participation calculated from the date of first sludge application for
each sludge faro; for each control faro participation was calculated
from the date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application
on the corresponding sludge faro.
A person eligible to participate was one who resided on or regularly
visited (in the case of sludge receiving farms, residence or visits must
not be on ft sit* remote from sludge) a designated project farm.
256
-------
TABLE 11-3. SUHBER OF FARMS AND PARTICIPANTS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL
CROUPS Blf YEARS OF PARTICIPATION, FRANKLIN AND PZCKAHAY COUNTIES
Unit
Farm*
Families
Study Group
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Number
Started
25
25
47
28
Number of
1
25
25
46
28
Partic
2
22
24
39
27
ipating Year(i
3
7
7
15
7
0"
Eligible
Persons1" Sludge 116 116 105 40
Control 87 67 83 23
Participants Sludge 101 99 86 35
Control 76 76 72 18
Participation calculated froa the date of firec sludge application for
each sludge farm; for each control farm participation was calculated
froa the date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application
on the corresponding sludge farm.
A person eligible to participate was one who resided on or regularly
visited (in the case of sludge receiving farms, residence or visits must
not be on a site remote froa sludge) a designated project farm.
TABLE 11-4. NUMBER OF FARMS AND PARTICIPANTS IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL CROUPS BY YEARS OF PARTICIPATION, CLARK COUNTY
Unit
Farm*
Families
Study Group
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Number
Started
11
11
19
15
Number
1
11
11
19
15
of Participating Year(s)a
2 3
7 —e
Q —
10 —
6 ~™
Eligible
Person^ Sludge 47 47 25 —
Control 54 54 18 —
Participant* Sludge 32 35 20 —
Control 28 28 16 —
• Participation calculated froa the date of first sludge app'.ication for
each sludge farm; for each control farm participation was calculated
fro* the date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application
on the corresponding sludge farm.
° A person eligible Co participate was one who resided on or regularly
visited (in the case of sludge receiving farms, residence or visits must
not be on a site remote froa sludge) a designated project fans.
c Blank indicates that none of the participants were in the project for the
third year because of lata recruitment.
257
-------
TABLS 11-5. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL GROUPS BY AGE AND SEX, ALL COUNTIES
Age (yr) and
Sex (M&F)
All ages
M
F
0 - 9
M
F
10-19
M
F
20-29
M
F
30-39
M
F '
40-49
M
F
50-59
M
F
60-69
M
F
70 and over
M
F
Total
165
17
22
24
24
24
28
16
10
Sludge
No. of
Each Sex "Percent
100. Oa
97
68
10.3
7
10
13.3
14
8
14.5
15
?
14.5
14
10
14.5
13
11
17.0
19
9
9.7
9
7
6.1
6
4
Control
No. of
Total Each Sex Percent
130 100.0
73
57
13 10.0
7
6
19 14.6
12
7
12 9.2
8
4
24 18.5
14
10
10 7.7
6
4
27 20.8
12
15
23 17.7
13
10
2 1.5
1
1
Column does not add to 100.0% due to rounding.
258
-------
TABLE 11-6. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL GROUPS BY AGE AND SEX, MEDINA COUNTY
,ge (yr) and
Sex (M&F)
ill ages
M
F
0-9
M
F
10-19
M
F
20-29
M
F
30-39
M
F
40-49
M
F
50-59
M
F
60-69
M
F
70 and over
M
F
Sludge
No. of
Total Each Sex Percent
31 100. Oa
15
16
4 12.9
1
3
4 12.9
4
0
1 .3.2
1
0
4 12.9
2
2
4 12.9
2
2
9 29.0
4
5
5 16.1
2
3
0 0
0
0
Total
26
5
3
1
5
2
7
3
0
Control
No. of
Each Sex
13
13
3
2
o
1
1
0
2
3
1
1
3
4
1
2
0
0
,
Percent
100. Oa
19.2
11. 5
3.8
19.2
7.7
26.9
11.5
0
a Coluan does not add to 100.0% due to rounding.
259
-------
TABLE 11-7. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL GROUPS BY AGE AND SEX, FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
tge (yr) and
Sex (H&F) Total
111 ages 101
M
F
0-9 10
M
F
10-19 15
M
F
20-29 12
M
F
30-39 16
11
F
40-49 1.8
M
F
50-59 11
M
F
60-69 10
M
F
70 and over 9
M
F
T - .
Sludge
o *o. of
Each Sex Percent
100.0
59
42
9.9
4
6
14.9
9
6
11.9
7
5
15.8
9
7
17.8
10
8
10.9
9
2
9.9
5
• 5
8.9
6
3
Control
No. of
Total Each Sex
76
41
35
8
4
4
13
7
6
8
4
4
12
7
5
8
5
3
13
5
3
12
8
4
2
1
1
Percent
100. Oa
10.5
17.1
10.5
15.8
10.5
17.1
15.8
2.6
260
-------
TABLE 11-8. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN SLUDGE AND
CONTROL GROUPS 3Y AGE AND SEX, CLARK COUNT?
Age (yr) and
Sex (M&F) Total
All ages 36
M
F
•~^
0-9 4
M
F
10-19 3
M
F
20-29 11
M
F
30-39 5
M
F
40-49 2
M
F
50-59 8
M
F
60-69 2
M
F
70 and over 1
M
F
3 — r-s
Sludge
Mo. of
Each Sex Percent
100. Oa
23
13
11.1
2
2
8.3
1
2
30.6
7
4
13.9
4
1
5.6
1
1
22.2
6
2
5.6
2
0
2.8
0
1
Control
No. of
Total Each Sex
28
19
9
0
0
0
3
3
0
3
3
0
7
5
2
0
0
b
7
4
3
8
4
4
0
0
0
Percent
100.0
0.0
10.7
10.7
25.0
0.0
25.0
28.6
0.0
Column does not add to 100.0% due to rounding.
261
-------
TABLE 11-9. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL RURAL FARM POPULATION
BY AGE AND SEX (1970 CENSUS), ALL COUNTIES
Age (yr) and
Sex (MiF) Total
All ages 23,877
M
F
0 - 9 3,884
M
F
10-19 4,976
M
F
20-29 2,137
M
F
30-39 2,499
M
F
40-49 2,982
M
F
50-59 3,300
M
F
60-69 2,186
M
F
70 and over 1,913
M
F
Nunber of
Each Sex Percent
100.0
12,040
11,837
16.3
2,003
1,881
20.8
2,602
2,374
9.0
1,052
1,085
10.5
1,237
1,262
12.5
1,430
1,552
13.8
1,668
1,632
9.1
1,184
1,002
8.0
864
1,049
262
-------
TABLE 11-10. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL RURAL FARM POPULATION
BY AGE AND SEX (1970 CENSUS), MEDINA COUNTY
Age (yr) and
Sex (M&F)
All ages
M
F
0 - 9
M
F
10-19
M
F
20-29
M
F
30-39
M
F
40-49
M
F
50-59
M
F
60-69
M
F
70 and over
M
F
local
7,109
1,238
1,585
663
753
883
877
631
479
Number of
Each Sex
3,653
3,456
591
647
913
672
324
339
366
387
442
441
443
434
330
.301
244
235
Percent
100. Oa
17.4
22.3
9.3
10.6
12.4
12.3
8.9
6.7
263
-------
TABLE 11-11. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL RURAL FARM POPULATION
BY AGE AND SEX (1970 CENSUS), FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Age (yr) and
Sex (MiF)
All ages
M
F
0 - 9
M
F
10-19
M
F
20-29
M
F
30-39
M
F '
40-49
M
F
50-59
M
F
60-69
M
F
70 and over
M
F
Total
10,247
1,581
~i
2,205
888
i
1,057
1,287
1,407
946
876
.
Number of
Each Sex
5,089
5,158
862
719
1,114
1,091
409
479
517
540
*
635
652
660
747
534
4.1 ?
358
518
Percent
100. Qa
15.4
21.5
8.6
10.3
12.6
13.7
9.2
8.5
a Column does not add to 100% due to rounding.
264
-------
TABLE U-12. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL RURAL FARM POPULATION
BY AGE AND SEX (1970 CENSUS), CLARK COUNTY
Age (yr) and
Sex (MiF)
All ages
M
F
0 - 9
:i
F
10-19
M
F
20-29
M
F
30-39
M
F
40-49
M
F
50-59
M
F
60-69
M
F
70 and over
M
F 7
&
Total
6,521
1,065
1,186
586
689
812
1,016
609
558
Number of
Each Sex
3,298
3,223
550
515
575
611
319
267
354
335
353
459
565
451
320
289
262
296
Percent
100.0
16.3
18.2
9.0
10.6
12.4
15.6
9.3
8.6
265
-------
TABLE 11-13. NUMBER OF PERSONS ON EACH FARM OR IS EACH FAMILY
OF THE SLUDGE RECEIVING AND CONTROL GROUPS, ALL COUNTIES
Site o£
(No. of
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Family
Persons) Ferns
46
4
16
7
5
3
7
3
0
1
Sludge
Families
78
31
28
4
9
4
2
0
0
0
TABLE 11-14. HUMBER OF PERSONS ON EACH FARM
OF THE SLUDGE RECEIVING AND CONTROL GROUPS
Sire of
(No. of
Toc«l
1
2
3
4
5
6
Family
Persons) Farms
11
2
5
1
1
0
\
2
Sludge
Families
12
2
6
1
2
0
1
Fams
46
7
22
3
6
4
3
0
1
0
Control
Families
S3
12
24
6
5
4
2
0
0
0
OR IN EACH FAMILY
, MEDIHA COUNTY
Farms
10
2
5
0
1
2
0
Control
Faatiies
10
2
5
0
1
2
0
266
-------
TABLE 11-15. NUMBER OF PERSONS OH EACH FARM OR IN EACH FAMILY
OF THE SLUDGE RECEIVING AND CONTROL GROUPS, FRANKLIN AND PICKAHAI COUNTIES
Sire of
(No. of
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Family
Persons) Farms
24
1
7
4
2
3
4
2
0
1
Sludge
Families
47
18
18
2
5
3
1
0
0
0
Farina
25
4
10
2
4
2
2
0
1
0
Control
Families
28
4
11
6
4
2
1
0
0
0
TABLE 11-16. NUMBER OF PERSONS ON EACH FARM OR IN EACH FAMILY
Of THE SLUDGE RECEIVING AND CONTROL GROUPS, CLARK COOHTY
Size of
(Ho. of
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Family
Persons) Farms
11
1
4
2
2
0
. 1
1
Sludge
Families
19
11
4
1
2
1
0
0
Farms
11
1
7
1
1
9
i
0
Concrol
Families
1
15
6
8
0
0
0
1
0
267
-------
TABLE 11-17. .DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY POPULATIONS BY SEX AND
CIGARETTE SMOKING STATUS AT THE TIME OF FINAL INTERVIEW, ALL COUNTIES
County
Sex and
Smoking Status
Sludge Percent
Control Percent
All Counties
Medina
•
Franklin -
Pickaway
Clark
i
All smokers3
All non Smokers0
Male
Smokers
Non Smokers
Female
Smokers
Non Smokers
Male
Smokers
Non Smokers
Female
Smokers
Non Smokers
Male
Smokers
Non Smokers
Female
Smokers
Non Smokers
Male
Smokers
Non Smokers
Female
Smokers
Non Smokers
168
47
121
97
32
65
71
15
56
15
3
12
16
5
11
59
24
35
42
9
33
23
5
18
13
1
12
100.0
28.0
72.0
100.0
33.0
67.0
100.0
21.1
78.9
100.0
20.0
80.0
100.0
31.3
68.7
100.0
40.7
59.3
100.0
21.4
78.6
100.0
21.7
78.3
100.0
7.7
92.3
130
35
95
73
23
50
57
12
45
13
3
10
13
1
12
41
15
26
35
9
26
19
5
14
9
2
7
100.0
26.9
73.1
100.0
31.5
68.5
100.0
21.1
78.9
100.0
23.1
76.9
100.0
7.7
92.3
100.0
36.6
63.4
100.0
25.7
74.3
100.0
'26.3
73.7
100.0
22.2
77.8
a Individuals who smoked cigarettes at any time before the final Interview.
Individuals who never smoked cigarettes before the final interview.
268
-------
TABLE 11-18. DISEASE AND IMMUNIZATION HISTORY OF PERSONS IN SLUDGE
AND CONTROL GROUPS AT THE TIME OF INITIAL INTERVIEW, ALL COUNTIES
Disease Response
Polio All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not: Immunized
Unknown Status
Measles All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
Rubella All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
\
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
Sludge
dumber
168
1
150
17
0
168
90
47
16
15
168
98
49
8
13
Percent
100.0
0.6
89.3
10.1
0.0
100. 0
53.6
28.0
9.5
3.9
100.0
58.3
29.2
4.8
7.7
Control
Number
130
0
120
9
1
130
74
33
16
7
130
77
30
9
14
Percent
100.0
0.0
92.3
6.9
0.8
100.0
56.9
25.4
12.3
5,4
100.0
59.2
23.1
6.9
10.8
269
-------
TABLE 11-19. DISEASE AND IMMUNIZATION HISTORY OF PERSONS IN SLUDGE
AND CONTROL GROUPS AT THE TIME OF INITIAL INTERVIEW, MEDINA COUNTY
Disease Response
Polio All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
Measles All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
»
Rubella All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
Sludge
Number
31
1
23
7
0
31
11
7
8
5
31
18
11
0
2
Percent
100.0
3.2
74.2
22.6
100.0
35.5
22.6
25.8
16.1
100.0
53,0
35.5.
0.0
6.5
Control
Number
26
0
21
5
0
26
13
7
4
2
26
16
6
1
2
Percent
100.0
0.0
80.8
19.2
100.0
50.0
26.9
15.4
7.7
100.0
61.5
23.1
3.9
11.5
270
-------
TABLE 11-20. DISEASE AND IMMUNIZATION HISTORY OF PERSONS
S SLUDGE AMD CONTROL GROUPS AT THE TIME OF INITIAL INTERVIEW,
FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Di
Response
Sludge
Number
Percent
Control
dumber
Percent
Polio
All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
101
0
91
10
100.0
0.0
90.1
9.9
0.0
76
71
100.0
0.0
93.4
5.3
1.3
Measles All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
101
57
30
100.0
56.5
29.7
6.9
6.9
76
39
21
12
100.0
51.3
27.6
15.8
5.3
Rubella All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
101
57
30
100.0
56.5
29.7
6,9
6.9
76
42
19
100.0
55.3
25.0
7.9
11.8
271
-------
TABLE 11-21. DISEASE AND IMMUNIZATION HISTORY OF PERSONS IN SLUDGE
\ND CONTROL GROUPS AT THE TIME OF INITIAL INTERVIEW, CLARK. COUNTY
Disease
Polio
Measles
1
Rubella
Response n
All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
All Responses
Previously Had Disease
Did Not Have Disease
Immunized
Not Immunized
Unknown Status
Sludge
Number
36
0
36
0
0
36
22
10
1
3
36
23
8
1
4
Percent
100.0
0.0
100.0
100.0
61.1
27.8
2.8
8.3
100.0
63.9
22.2
2.8
11.1
Control
Numbe r
28
0
28
0
0
28
22
5
0
1
.28
19
5
2
2
Percent
100.0
0.0
100.0
100.0
78.6
-
17.8
0.0
3.6
100.0
67.9
17.9
7.1
7.1
272
-------
TABLE 11-22. SEASONAL OS-AIJD OFF-FARM WORK* (AVERAGE tlO. OF HOURS PER WEEK)
PROFILES OF CONTROL AND SLUDGE POPULATIONS IN" ALL COUNTIES
Type of
Time
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Land
Livestock Work
Off-Faro Time
School
Job
Other
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Landb
Livestock Work
Off-Fara Tine
School
Job
Other
All
Seasons
168.0
9.1
1.2
4.6
39.5
4.9
10.4
24.2
168.0
10.9
4.8
47.3
4.6
9.5
33.2
Winter
158.0
2.1
0.4
4.8
41.2
5.6
10.1
25.5
168.0
3.2
5.7
48.1
5.2
9.8
33.1
Sludge
Spring
168.0
11.3
1.5
4.7
37.1
5.5
10.4
21.2
Control
168.0
12.5
4.8
47.5
5.2
9.4
32.9
Summer
168.0
10.8
1.5
•5.0
39.8
1.7
10.1
28.0
168.0 -
11.7
4-5
46.8
1.8
8.9
36.1
Autumn
168.0
12.4
1.5
^.9
40.2
6.9
11.1
22.2
168.0
16.0
4.4
46.5
6.2
9.8
30.5
Number of hours per week was calculated by averaging the monthly responses
for each season over the three year period, beginning the first monthly
interview following the initial sludge application and the corresponding
monthly interview for controls. Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring »
April, May, June; Summer - July, Aug., Sept.; Autunn - Oct., Nov., Dec.
Does not apply to control farms.
273
-------
* 11-23. SEASONAL ON-AIID OFF-FARM WORK* (AVERAG£ NO. OF HOURS PER WEEK)
PROFILES OF CONTROL AND SLUDGE POPULATION'S IN MEDINA COUOTY
Type of
Tiae
_ - — - —— ^-^
^^
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Landb
Livestock Work
Off-Farm Time
School
Job
Other
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Landb
Livestock Work
Off-Fara Time
School
Job
Other
All
Seasons
••••I^MMM^HMWBWI
0
168.0
5.2
0.3
3.3
43.0
6.3
13.3
22.9
168.0
10.2
5.7
55.6
5.2
11.1
39.3
Winter
^••^•^•^•^••••^M^^VH^aHH
168.0
1.7
0.2
3.5
44.7
7.9
13.2
23.6
168.0
2.6
6.5
60.8
5.5
12.0
43.3
Sludge
Spring
^..m^MMBH^B^MMBBBMan
138.0
6.0
1.4
3.1
40.1
7.8
13.5
18.8
Control
158.0
9.7
5.8
54.3
6.7
10.$
37.0
Summer
•^••••••^^•^•WMH^^V^PI^^^^aHIBHiH
168.0
9.2
1.1
3.2
43.1
2.3
12.3
28.0
168.0
14.8
5.2
54.7
2.4
9.0
43.3
Autumn
^••nHMIBI^BB^HiaKM.VWMBIi^^
168.0
4.7
0.5
3.5
44.0
8.7
14.3
21.0
163.0
13.4
-^
5.1
52.2
6.2
12.6
33.4
Number of hours per week was calculated by averaging the monthly responses'
for each season over the three year period, beginning the first monthly
interview following the initial sludge application and the corresponding
aonthly interview for controls. Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring «
April, May, June; Summer - July, Aug., Sept.; Autunn - Oct., Nov., Dec.
Does not apply to control farms.
274
-------
TABLE 11-24. SEASONAL OS-AM OFF-FARM WORKa (AVERAGE NO. OF HOURS P2R WEEK)
PROFILES OF CONTROL AND SLUDGE POPULATIONS IN FRA.ttCLIN-PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Type of
Time
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Land0
Livestock Work
Off-Farm Tine
School
Job
Other
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Landb
Livestock Work
Off-Farm Time
School
Job
Other
All
Seasons
168.0
10.3
1.6
3.9
38.5
5.0
9.7
23.8
168.0
9.6
4.2
47.6
5.5
10.6
31.5
Winter
i \
168.0
2.4
0.6
3.8
41.2
5.8
9.6
25.8
168.0
3.2
4.9
47.1
6.4
10.9
29.8
Sludge
Spring
168.0
12.1
1.8
3.8
37.0
5.6
10.0
21.4
Control
168.0
11.3
4.0
48.9
6.1
10.4
32.4
Summer
168.0
12.2
1.9
4.6
39.0
1.8
9.7
27.5
158.0
9.8
4.2
47.2
2.0
10.4
34.3
Autumn
168.0
14.6
2.0
3.4.
37.2
7.0
9.6
20.6
163.0
13.8
3.6
47.0
7.5
10.6
28.9
Number of hours per week was calculated by averaging the monthly responses
for each season over the three year period, beginning the first monthly
Interview following the initial sludge application and the corresponding
monthly interview for controls. Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring =•
April, May, June; Summer - July. Aug., Sept.; Autumn • Oct., Nov., Dec.
Does not apply to control farms.
275
-------
TABLE 11-25. SEASONAL OH-A;U> OFF-FARM WORK3 (AVERAGE NO. OF HOURS P£R WEEK)
PROFILES OF CONTROL AND SLUDGE POPULATlOriS IN CLARK COUNTS
Type of
Tinie
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Landb
Livestock Work
Off-Farm Time
School
Job
Other
Total Hours
per Week
Field Work
On Sludge Ldnd
Livestock Work
Off-Farm Time
School
Job
Other
All
Seasons
168.0
9.3
0.6
7.9
39.1
2.9
9.8
26.4
•
168.0
15.2
5.8
38.5
1.6
5.0
31.9
Winter
168.0
2.5
0.2
8.6
38.5
3.1
9.1
26.3
168.0
4.0
6.9
39.2
2.0
5.0
32.2
Sludge
Spring
168.0
13.8
0.6
8.7
34.5
3.3
8.8
22.4
Control
168.0
18.2
6.0
37.6
1.3
5.5
30.8
Summer
168.0
17.9
0.7
8.2
39.4
0.6
9.5
29.3
168.0
14.2
4.5
37.0
0.5
4.5
33.0
Autumn
168.0
13.3
0.9
5.9
44.9
4.7'
12.0
28.2
168.0
24.7
5.. 8
39.1
2.4
4.9
31.8
a Number of hours per week was calculated by averaging the monthly responses
for each season over che three year period, beginning the first monthly
Interview following the initial sludge applicati.on and the corresponding
monthly interview for controls. Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring »
April, May, June; Summer • July, Aug., Sept.; Autumn • Oct., Nov., Dec.
Does not apply to control farms.
276
-------
TABLE 11-26. COMPARISON OF AMOUNT OF HOME PRODUCED FOOD CONSUMED
BY SLUDGE AND CONTROL POPULATIONS IN ALL COUNTIES BY SEASON3
Food Item
Meat
Fruits or
Vegetables
Group ®
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Percentage
All
Season?
35.6
27.9
34.9
33.3
of Total
Winter
37.6
27.8
34.8
32.6
Consumption
Spring
32.9
28.4
*
29.5
29.7
That Was
Summer
35.1
26.4
36.3
35.2
Home Raised
Autumn
37.0
28.8
39.1
35.5
a Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring - April, May, June; Summer - July, Aug.,
Sept.; Autumn • Oct., Nov., Dec.
TABLE 11-27. COMPARISON OF AMOUNT OF'HOME PRODUCED FOOD CONSUMED
BY SLUDGE AND CONTROL POPULATIONS IN MEDINA COUNTY BY SEASON3
Food Item
Heat
Fruits or
Vegetables
i
Group
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Percentage
All
Seasons
31.7
29.6
43.5
42.9
of Total
Winter
32.8
26.5
42.6
42.5
Consumption
Spring
32.3
30.0
38.8
36.0
That Was
Summer
35.8
30.3
43.6
42.5
Home Raised
Autumn
29.9
31.4
49.1
50.3
Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring - April, May, June; Summer - July. Aug.,
Sept.; Autumn • Oct., Nov., Dec.
277
-------
TABLE 11-28. COMPARISON OF AMOUNT 0? HOME PRODUCED FOOD CONSUMED BY
SLUDGE AND CONTROL POPULATIONS IN FRAifiXO-PICKAWAY COUNTIES BY SEASON*
Food I ten
Meat
Fruits or
Vegetables
Group
Sludge
Control
-j
Sludge
Control
Percentage
All
Seasons
38.2
23.4
36.4
32.2
of Total
Winter
39.6
24.9
37.7
31.8
Consunotion
Spring
35.4
23.3
31.6
30.5
That Was
Summer
38.3
21.2
36.1
32.9
Hone Raised
Autumn
39.6
24.3
40.4
33.4
a Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring - April, May, June; Summer » July, Aug.,
Sept.; Autumn = Oct., Nov., Dec.
TABLE 11-29. COMPARISON OF AMOUNT OF EOUE PRODUCED FOOD CONSUMED BY
SLUDGE AND CONTROL POPULATIONS IK CLARK COUtfTY BY SEASON3
Food Item
Meat
fruits or
Vegetables
Group
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Percentage
All
Seasons
31.9
38.4 '
23.0
27.3
of Total
Winter
36.5
36.5
'20.6
25.5
Consumption
Spring
26.6
40.9
15.9
22.1
That Was
Summer
28.5
3-7.3
30.0
34.7
Home Raised
Autumn
35.9
38.9
26.0
27.2
Winter - Jan., Feb., March; Spring • April, May, June; Summer « July, Aug.,
Sept.; Autumn - Oct., Nov., Dec.
278
-------
TABLE 11-30. SUMMARY OF TUBERCULIN TESTS FOR SLUDGE AND CONTROL
v GROUPS BY SLUDGE APPLICATION PERIOD, ALL COUNTIES
0 Pre-Sludge
Group Baseline
Sludgy
No. Tine Tests
:io. Tine Significant Reactions0
No. Mantoux Test
No. 'lantoux Significant Reactions0
Control
No. Tine Tests
No. Tire Significant Reactions
No. Mantoux Test
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
153
7
6
2
119
5d
2
0
Years Post Sludgea
1
148
1
3
0
114
0
2
0
2 3
131 SO
2 0
4d i
0 0
97 57
0 0
2 i&
0 0
a Post sludge period for controls represents the period beginning with the
date of interview closest to the date of first slrdge application for the
corresponding sludge farm.
b Tine test significant reaction is defined as any response of induration 5
am or more. Prior to September 1979 those reporting a reaction to tine
test were referred to their family physician for further evaluation. After
September 1979 individuals who reported a significant reaction tc tine test
were given a Mantoux test. In subsequent years, only Mantoux left was
given to these Individuals.
c Mantoux significant reaction is an induration of 10 mm or aiore at the site
of intermediate strength PPD injection.
Of the five tine significant reactions, 3 were befoie 9/79 which were not
Mantoux tested nor tine tested subsequently. The other two were only
Mantoux tested in subsequent years.
e Only one participant who was Mantoux tested, was in the project for 3 yerrs
post-sludge.
279
-------
TABLE 11-31. SUMMARY f TUBERCULIN TESTS FOR SLUDGE AND CONTROL
GROUPS BY SLUuGE APPLICATION PEBIOD, MEDINA COUNTY
Pre-Sludge
Group Baseline
Sludge
No. Tine Tests
No. Tine Significant Reactions*1
No. Mantoux Test
tlo. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
Control
No. Tine Tests
No. Significant Reactions
No. Mantoux Tests
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
29
2
1
id
24
0
NA
NA
Y-jars Post Sludge3
1
28
!•
0
0
25
0
NA
NA
2
17
0
NAf
NA
17
0
NA
NA
3
15
0
NA
NA
19
0
NA
NA
* Post sludge period for controls represents the period beginning with the
date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application for the
corresponding sludge farm.
b Tine test significant reaction is defined as any response of induration 5
mo or more. Prior to September 1979 those reporting a reaction to tine
test were referred to their family physician for further evaluation. After
September 1979 individuals who reported a significant reaction to tine test
were given a Mantoux test.
c Maotoux significant reaction is an induration of 10 ism ox more at the site
.of intermediate strength PPD injection.
d One participant had a significant Mantoux test reaction. This individual
was negative on chest X ray and excluded from subsequent testing. The
other individual was referred to his physician (before Sept. 1979) and
subsequently dropped out of the project-
e This person was also positive on the pre-sludge tine test.
f NA means "Not Applicable".
280
-------
TABLE 11-32. SUMMARY OF TUBERCULIN TESTS FOR SLUDGE AND CONTROL
GROUPS BY SLUDGE APPLICATION PERIOD, FRAUKLIM AND PICKAHAY
Pre-Sludge
roup Baseline
ludge
No. Tina Tests
No. Tine Significant Reactions0
No. Mantoux Test
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
94
2
2
0
Years Post Sludgea
1
89
0
2
0
2
96
2d
2d
0
3
48
0
NA«
KA
lontrol
No. Tine Tests
No. Tine Significant Reactions
No. Mantoux Test
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
69
3*
2
0
66
0
2
0
68
0
2
0
27
0
18
0
1 Post sludge period for controls represents the period beginning with the
date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application for the
corresponding sludge FTH.
9 Tine test significant reaction is defined as any response of induration 5
nm or more. Prior to September 1979 those reporting a reaction to tine
test were referred to their feasily physician for further evaluation. After
September 1979 individuals who reported a significant reaction to tine test
were given a Mantoux test. In subsequent years, only Mantoux test was
given to these individuals.
e Mantcux significant reaction is an induration of 10 ma or more at the site
of intermediate strength FPD injection.
Represents one individual who had been Mantoux tested in the previous year
and one of the two individuals reporting new tine significant reaction
during the second year. One of the individuals Mantoux tested in the
previous year expired. One of the individuals with new tine significant
reaction was not given the Mantoux test at the request of the physician.
« NA means "Not applicable".
Of the 5 tine significant reactions, 3 were before 9/79 which were not
Hantoux tested nor tine tested subsequently. The other two were not tine
tested in subsequent years.
* Only one participant who was Mantoux tested, was in the project'for 3 years
post-sludge.
281
-------
TABLE 11-33. SUMMARY OF TUBERCULIN TESTS FOR SLUDGE AND CONTROL
GSDUPS BY SLUDGE APPLICATION PERIOD, CLARK COUNTY
Pre-Sludge
Group Baseline
Sludge
No. Tine T*sts
No. Significant Reactions0
No. Mantouz Test
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions6
Control
No. Tine Tests
No. Tine Significant Reactions
No. Mantouz Test
No. Mantoux Significant Reactions0
30
3
3d
1
26
0
HAe
HA
Years
1
31
0
1
0
23
0
HA
NA
Post Sludge3
2
18
0
2
0
12
0
NA
NA
3
17
0
1
0
11
0
NA
HA
a Post sludge period for controls represents the period beginning with the
date of interview closest to the date of first sludge application for the
corresponding sludge farm.
b Tine test significant reaction is defined as any response of induration 5
mm or more. Priov to September 1979 those reporting a reaction to tine
test were ref-erred :•» their £ sally physician for further -evaluation. After
September 1979 individuals who reported a significant reaction to tine test
were given a Hantoux test.
c Mantoux significant reaction is an induration of 10 ma or more at the site
of intermediate strength PPD injection.
Out of three Hantoux tests done one vas significant and excluded from
subsequent testing. A chest X ray was done on the person with the
significant Mtntoux reaction and reported negative. One participant was
not tested it this time but tested the following year.
e NA means 'Hot applicable"
282
-------
TABLE 11-34. HUMAN ILLNESS RATES ON
SLUDGE AND CONTROL FAJ&MS, BY COUNTY
County
All Counties
Sludge
Control
Medina
Sludge
Control
Franklin and
Pickaway
Sludge
Control
Clark
Sludge
Control
No. of
Persons
at Risk
1S8
130
-
31
26
101
76
36
28
No. of
Persons
111
161
126
30
25
•98
76
•
33
25
Ho. vf
Reported
Illnesses
874
831
135
228
525
481
214
122
Illness
100 Persons
at Risk
520
639
435
877
520
633
594
436
Rate Per
100 Person-
Years at Risk3
261
325
207
378
246
319
384
274
• Person-years at risk values srere calculated by addlr& participation periods
for all individuals at risk during the post sludge period. For controls,
participation started on the date of interview following the date of sludge
application on its corresponding sludge fern.
283
-------
TABLE 11-35. HUMAN ILLNESS RATES FOR SELECTED SYMPTOMS
IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, ALL COUNTIES
Symptoms
Number of
Reported
Episodes
Rate per
100 Person
Years at
Risk
Persons
Affected
Percentage of
Population with
Symptoms
All Reported Illnesses
Sludge
Control
Fever
Sludge
Control
Headache
Sludge
Control
GMAPa
Sludge
Control
Nausea
Sludge
Control
Diarrhea
Sludge
Control
Runny Nose
Sludge
Control
Cough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Nasal Congestion
Sludge
Control
Chest Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
874
831
208
169
203
184
162
134
160
136
122
137
339
336
293
299
257
249
314
314
136
125
87
86
274
267
261.4
325.1
62.2
66.1
60.7
72.0
48.4
52.4
47.8
53.2
36.5
53.6
101.4
131.5
87.6
117.0
76.9
97.4
93.9
122.8
40.7
48.9
.
26.0
33.6
81.9
104.5
161
126
95
75
100
76
93
63
84
65
72
69
136
103
-
127
102
113
83
137
103
87
69
62
53
113
95
96
97
57
58
60
58
55
46
'
50
50
43
53
81
82
76
78
1
67
64
82
79
52
53
37
41
67
73
CHAP stands for generalized muscular aches and pains.
284
-------
TABLE 11-36. HUMAN ILLNESS RATES FOR SELECTED
SYMPTOMS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, MEDINA COUNTY
Symptoms
Number of
Reported
Episodes
&ste per
100 Person
Years at
Risk
Persons
Affected
Percentage of
Population with
Symptoms
All Reported Illnesses
Sludge
Control
Fever
Sludge
' Control
Headache
Sludge
Control
GMAP*
S lodge
Control
Nausea
Sludge
Control
Diarrhea
Sludge
Control
Runny Nose
Sludge
Control
Cough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Nasal Congestion
Sludge
Control
Chest Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
135
228
42
65
37
69
25
52
27
50
22
38
54
91
51
106
32
58
50
••02
26
41
21
25
38
49
206.7
377.5
64.3
107.6
56.7
114.2
38.3
86.1
41.3
82.8
33.7
62.9
82.7
150.7
78.1
175.5
49.0
145.7
76.6
168.9
39.8
67.9
32.2
41.4
58.2
81.1
30
25
18
16
21
19
18
17
17
14
14
14
25
18
23
20
20
18
24
22
18
16
15
12
21
15
97
96
58
62
68
73
58
65
55
54
45
54
81
69
74
77
65
69
77
85
58
62
48
46
68
58
•
* GMAP stands for generalized -muscular aches and pains.
285
-------
TABLE 11-37. HUMAN ILLNESS RATES FOR SELECTED SYMPTOMS
IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Number of
Reported
ynptoms Episodes
Rate per
100 Person
Years at
Risk
P-ersons
Affected
Percentage of
Population with
Sjnaptoos
11 Repotted Illnesses
Sludge
Control
ever
Sludge
Control
.etdtche
Sludge
Control
MAP*
Sludge
Control
lausea
Sludge
Control
liarrbea
Sludge
Control
tunny Nose
Sludge
Control
tough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
fesal Congestion
Sludge
Control
Cheat Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
525
481
)
112
79
108
93
88
63
92
71
64
79
205
198
177
155
150
137
190
169
76
73
42
49
174
171
246.0
319.4
52.5
52.5
50.6
61.8
41.2
41.8
43.1
47.1
30.0
52.5
96.1
131.5
82.9
102.9
70.3
91.0
89.0
112.2
35.6
48.5
19.7
32.5
81.5
113.5
98
76
56
44
55
46
53
35
45
38
40 ,
42
81
66
77
62
65
52
84
62.-
50
44
32
30
71
63
97
100
55
58
54
61
52
46
45
50
40
55
80
87
76
82
64
68
83
82
50
58
32
39
70
83
stands for generalized muscular aches and pains.
286
-------
TABLE 11-38. HUMAN ILLNESS RATES FOR SELECTED
SYMPTOMS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, CLARK COUNTY
rap tons
number of Hate per
Reported 100 Person
Episodes Years at
Risk
Persons Percentage of
Affected Population with
Symptoms
LI Reported Illnesses
Sludge
Control
•ver
Sludge
Control
tadache
Sludge
Control
MAP*
.Sludge
Control
ausea
Sludge
Control
iarrhea
Sludge
Control
tunny Nose
Sludge
Control
lough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Hasal Congestion
Sludge
Control
Chest Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
214
122
54
25
58
22
49
19
41
15
36
20
80
47
66
38
•
75
24
74
43
34
11
24
12
62
47
384.2
273.5
96.9
56.1
104.1
49.3
S8.0
42.6
73.6
33.6
64.6
44,8
143.6
105.4
118.5
85.2
134.6
53.8
132.9
96.4
.
61.0
24.7
43.1
26.9
111.3
105.4
33
25
21
15
•
24
11
22
11
22
13
18
13
30
19
27
20
28
13
29
19
19
9
15
11
21
17
92
89
58
54
67
39
61
39
61
46
50
46
83
68
75
71
78
-46
81
68
53
32
42
39
58
61
CHAP stands for generalised muscular aches and pains.
287
-------
TABLE 11-39. MATCHED PAIR LINEAR LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF SINGLE AND
COMBINED SYMPTOMS BETWEEN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, FIRST SLUDGE APPLICATION
V
Symptoms ©
Single:
Fever
Headache
GMAPC
Nausea
Diarrhea
Runny Nose
Sore Throat
Nasal Congestion
Hoarseness
Chest Congestion
Cough
Any of Above
Combined:
General
Digestive
Upper Respiratory
Lower Respiratory
Matched
Odds Ratio
1.00
0.76
0.86
0.92
0.91
1.20
1.11
1.00
0.75
1.39
1.05
1.16
1.09
0.76
1.3,2
1.10
Pair8
P Value
0.99
0.46
0.70
0.84
0.83
0.55
0.75
0.99
0.51
0.29
0.88
0.53
0.76
0.47
C.33
0.76
Hatched Pair4
for Additional
Odds Ratio
0.85
1.50
0.34
1.12
0.26
0.90
0.83
2.00
0.45
1.35
0.96
1.05
0.82
0.38
,1J>5
0,99
Adjusting
Confoundersk
P Value
0.83
0.50
0.15
0.88
0.10
0.79
0.66
0.46
0.34
0.52
0.92
0.88
0.64
0,09
0.90
0.99
* Matched for county and period of observation.
° Age (5 categories) and «eeks of observation.
c Generalized muscular ache* and pains.
288
-------
TABLE 11-40. MATCHED PAIR LINEAR LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF SINGLE AND
COMBINED SYMPTOMS BETWEEN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, SECOND SLUDGE APPLICATION
Matched Pffir*
ymptoms
ingle:
Fever
Headache
GMAPC
Nausea
Diarrhea
Runny Nose
Sore Throat
Nasal Congestion
Hoarseness
Chest Congestion
Cough
Any of Above
toobined:
General
Digestive
Upper Respiratory
Lower Respiratory
Odds Ratio
1.50
1.80
2.00
2.25
2.00
1.10
1.00
1.60
0.83
2.14
1.08
1.37
1.75
1.80
0.81
1.42
„ t Value
0.53
0.29
0.33
0.18
0.33
0.83
1.00
0.41
0.76
0.10
0.84
0.33
0.21
0.29
0.59
0.36
Matched Pair » Adjusting
for Additional Confounders^5
Odds Ratio
1.39
1.37
d
6.04
4.42
0.69
1.05
12.11
0.98
1.98
0.23
1.13
1.55
2.69
UU
0.72
P Value
0.66
0.71
0.83
0.16
0.43
0.62
0.26
O.S4
0.89
0.75
0.28
0.80
0.56
0.41
0,72
0.60
' Hatched for county and period of observation.
Age (5 categories) and weeks of observation.
c Generalised muscular aches and pains.
Value not reported due to high standard error.
289
-------
TABLE 11-41. COMPARISON OF THE FREQUENCY OF REPORTED HEW ILLNESSES
AND SELECTED SYMPTOMS FOR PERSONS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL GROUPS
FOR 7 WEEK PRE-SLUDGE (PRE-S) APPLICATION AND 7 WEEK POST-SLUDGE (POST-S)
APPLICATION PERIODS FOLLOWING EACH SLUDGE APPLICATION, ALL COUNTIES
Symptom and
Study Group
All Illnesses
Sludge
Control
Fever
Sludge
Control
Headache
Sludge
Control
GMA?b
Sludge
Control
Nausea
Sludge
Control
Diarrhea
Sludge
Control
Runny Nose
Sludge
Control
Cough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Applications3
Pre-S
30
38
7
9
15
8
13
2
6
9
5
4
9
20
15
22
11
16
(19)
(31)
(4)
(7)
(10)
(7)
(8)
(2)
(4)
(7)
(3)
(3)
(6)
(16)
(10)
X18)
(7)
(13)
1st
Post-S
45
56
11
11
10
13
15
15
11
9
9
13
17
26
17
2V
13
19
(19)
(29)
(5)
(6)
(4)
(7)
(6)
(8)
(5)
(5)
(4)
(7)
(7)
(13)
(7)
(14)
(6)
(10)
2nd
Post-S
36
29
8
5
7
3
4
1
2
3
7
2
14
8
12
9
12
12
(21)
(22)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(4) -
(2)
(8)
(6)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(9)
3rd
Post-S
17
19
1
2
2
4
0
2
1
3
0
1
2
7
3
9
1
7
(18)
(28)
(1)
(3)
(2)
(6)
(0)
(3)
(1)
(4)
(0)
(1)
(2)
(10)
(3)
(13)
(1)
(10)
4th
Post-S
7 (13)
11 (25)
2 (4)
4 (9)
0 (0)
3. (7)
1 (2)
1 (2)
0 (0)
4 (9)
0 (0)
2 (5)
2 (4)
2 (5)
1 (4)
2 (5)
2 (4)
2 (5)
5th
Post-S
4 (25)
5 (42)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (8)
2 (12)
0 (0)
2 (12)
1 (8)
2 (12)
0 (0)
6th
Post-S
2 (20)
1 (25)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (20)
0 (0)
0 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
Nasal congestion
Sludge
Control
12
19
(8)
(15)
20
29
(8)
(15)
13
5
(8)
(4)
5
10
-(5)
(15)
2 (4)
2 (5)
1 (6)
0 (0)
1 (10)
1 (25)
Chest congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
5
10
4
8
14
12
(3)
(8)
(3)
(7)
(9)
(10)
5
18
5
14
14
17
(2)
(9)
(2)
(7)
(6)
(9)
3
3
3
4
16
13
(2)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(9)
(10)
0
5
0
3
13
9
(0)
(7)
(0)
(4)
(14)
(13)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (4)
4 (9)
1 (6)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (12)
3 (25)
1 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
• Number reported (percentage of responses with illness).
CMAP stands for generalized muscular aches and pains.
290
-------
TABLE 11-42. COMPARISON OF THE FREQUENCY OF REPORTED NEW ILLNESSES
AND SELECTED SYMPTOtS FOR PERSONS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL GROUPS
FOR 7 WEEK PRE-SLUDGE (PRE-S) APPLICATION AND 7 WEEK POST-SLUDGE (POST-S)
t M*%* ^ *% A *V4T ^\fcY 1^1^^^ T ^\f^ rt m ^^V v *%.r v^P k.v«% »•* A «H* v rt^ rw* ^ f^ A v^ V^v ^ « A *^ 4P> 4k t • m «• ^. » *^ A ^K .&.-•_ - — _ —
Symptom and k
Study Group
All Illnesses
Sludge
Control
Fever
Sludge
Control
Headache
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Nausea
Sludge
Control
Diarrhea
Sludge
Control
Runny Nose
Sludge
Control
Cough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Nasal Congestion
Sludge
Control
Chest Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
Applications3
Pre-S
8 (17)
14 (31)
1 (2)
4 (9)
2 (4)
2 (4)
3 (6)
2 (4)
2 (4)
5 (11)
1 (2)
4 (9)
3 (6)
7 (16)
3 (6)
11 (24)
3 (6)
6 (13)
3 C6)
9 (20)
0 (0)
6 (13)
1 (2)
4 (9)
4 (9)
2 (4)
1st
Post-S
12 (19)
15 (29)
1 (2)
5 (10)
3 (5)
5 (10)
3 (5)
6 (12)
2 (3)
4 (8)
3 (5)
6 (12)
3 (5)
10 (19)
4 (6)
9 (17)
5 (8)
6 (12)
A r(6)
13 (25)
1 (2)
7 (13)
3 (5)
7 (13)
3 (5)
2 (4)
2nd
Poert-S
6 (12)
12 (27)
2 (4)
4 (9)
1 (2)
0 (0)
1 (2)
1 (2)
1 (2)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (2)
1 (2)
4 (9)
2 (4)
5 (11)
1 (2)
5 (11)
1 (2)
2 (4)
2 (4)
1 (2)
2 (4)
1 (2)
1 (2)
3 (7)
3rd
Post-S
0 (0)
10 (39)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 (0)
4 (15)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 (0)
4 (15)
0 (0)
6 (23)
0 (0)
4 (15)
0 (0)
6 (23)
0 (0)
4 (15)
0 (0)
3 (12)
0 (0)
3 (12)
4th
Post-S
3 (12)
9 (28)
1 (4)
4 (14)
0 (0)
3 (11)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 (0)
4 (14)
0 (0)
2 (7)
•
2 (8)
2 (7)
1 (4)
2 (7)
1 (4)
2 (7)
2 (8)
2 (7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (7)
5th
Post-S
1 (17)
3 (38)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (17)
3 (38)
4 Number Reported (percentage of responses with illness)
»
CMAP stand* for generalized muscular aches and pains.
291
-------
TABLE 11-43. COMPARISON OF THE FREQUENCY OF REPORTED NEW ILLNESSES AND
SELECTED SYMPTOMS FOR PERSONS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL GROUPS FOR 7 WEEK
P8E-SLUDCE (PRE-S) APPLICATION AND 7 WEEK POST-SLUDGE (POST-S) APPLICATION
PERIODS FOLLOWING EACH SLUDGE APPLICATION. FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
" Applications4
pop ton and
tudy Group
11 Illnesses
Sludge
Control
ever
Sludge
Control
eadache
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
atisea
Sludge
Control
iarrhea
Sludge
Control
unny Nose
Sludge
Control
ough
Sludge
Control
ore Throat
Sludge
Control
Pre-S
19 (19)
19 (28)
5 (5)
5 (7)
• ^
11 (ID
5 (7)
8 (8)
0 (0)
3 (3)
4 (6)
3 (3}
0 (0)
6 (6)
10 (14)
10 (10)
9 (13)
8 (8)
9 (13)
1st
Post-S
31 (19)
38 (30)
10 (6)
6 (5)
6 (4)
8 (6)
11 (7)
9 (7)
9 (6)
5 (4)
5 (3)
5 (4)
14 (9)
16 (12)
12 (8)
17 (13)
8 (5)
13 (10)
2nd
Post-S
n
27 (25)
16 (21)
6 (6)
I (1)
4 (4)
3 (4)
2 (2)
0 (0)
0 (0)
3 (4)
5 (5)
1 (1)
11 (10)
4 (5)
8 (7)
4 (5)
8 (7)
6 (8)
3rd
Post-S
15 (25)
7 (19)
1 (2)
1 (3)
2 (3)
0 CO)
0 (0)
2 (6)
1 (2)
"I (3)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (3)
2 (6)
2 (3)
2 (6)
1 (2)
2 (6)
4th
Tost-S
3 (11)
1 (10)
•
1 (4)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 <0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (4)
0 (0)
5th
Post-S
3 (30)
2 (50)
1 (10)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
i (25)
2 (20)
0 (0)^
2 (20)
1 (25)
2 (20)
0 (0)
6th
Post-S
-
2 (20)
1 (25)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (20)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
lasal Congestion
.Sludge
Control
9 (3)
7 (10)
J.6 CIO)
16 (12)
11 .{10)
3 (4)
S<8)
3 (8)
J3 (0)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
1 (25)
!he«t Congestion
Sludge
Control
loirseoess
Sludge
Control
)ther
Sludge
Control
3 (3)
4 (6)
3 (3)
4 (6)
9 (9)
7 (10)
3 (2)
10 (8)
1 (1)
6 (5)
9 (6)
15 (12)
1 (1)
2 (3)
1 (1)
3 (4)
14 (13)
10 (13)
0 (0)
1 (3)
0 (0)
0 (0)
11 (18)
4 (11)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (4)
1 (10)
1 (10)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
, 1 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
1 (10)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
'Number reported (percentage of responses with illness).
b
GMAP stands for generalized muscular ac' and pains. •
292
-------
TABLE 11-44. COMPARISON OF THE FREQUENCY OF REPORTED NEW ILLNESSES
AND SELECTED SYMPTOMS FOR PERSONS IN SLUDGE AND CONTROL GROUPS
FOR 7 WEEK PRE-SLUDGE (PEE-S) APPLICATION AND 7 WEEK POST-SLUDGE (POST-S)
APPLICATION PERIODS FOLLOWING EACH SLUDGE APPLICATION. CLARK COUNTY
Symptoa and
Study Group
All Illnesses
Sludge
Control
Fever
Sludge
Control
Headache
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Nausea
Sludge
Control
Diarrhea
Sludge
Control
Bunny Nose
Sludge
Control
Cough
Sludge
Control
Sore Throat
Sludge
Control
Nasal Corgestion
Sludge
Comtrol
Chest Congestion
Sludge
Control
Hoarseness
Sludge
Control
Other
Sludge
Control
Applications3
Pre-S
©
3 (27)
5 (56)
1 (9)
0 (0)
2 (18)
1 (U)
2 (18)
0 (0)
1 $9)
0 (0)
1 (9)
0 (0)
V
0 (C'l
3 (33)
2 (18)
2 (22)
0 (0)
1 (ID
0 (0)
3 (33)
2 (18)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (9)
3 (33)
1st
POBt-S
2 (14)
3 (21)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (7)
0 (0)
1 (7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (7)
2 (14)
0 (0)
0 (0)
•
1 (7)
1 (7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 <0)
1 (7)
1 (')
1 (7)
1 (7)
2 (14)
0 (0)
2nd
Post-S
3 (25)
1 ( 7)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2 (17)
0 (0)
1 (12)
0 (0)
1 (12)
0 (0)
2 (25)
0 (0)
2 (25)
0 (0)
2 (25)
0 (0)
3 (38)
1 (7)
1 (12)
0 CO)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (12)
0 (0)
3rd
Post-S
2 (50)
2 (33)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (17)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (17)
1 (25)
1 (17)
0 (0)
1 (17)
0 (0)
1 (17)
0 (0)
0 (0)
o (o;
0 (0)
2 (50)
2 (33)
4th
Post-S
1 (50)
1 (50)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
'
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
•0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (50)
1 (50)
5th
Post-S
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
* Number reported (percentage of responses with illness).
stands for generalized muscular aches and pains
293
-------
TABLE 11-45. HUMAN ILLNESS HATES AND NUMBER OF HOURS
OF SLUDGE EXPOSURE PER WEEK
Mean So. Hrs.
of Sludge Exposure
per Wit.
TOTAL
0
>0 - 10 ain.
>10 nln. - A5 tola.
>45 mln. - 1 1/2 hr.
>1 1/2 hr.
Number of
Participants
168
30
34
36
32
36
Number of
Illnesses
874
172
170
176
166
190
Illness Rate
p«r 100 Person-years
at Risk
261.4
314.5
247.3
275.8
257.1
230.2
294
-------
TAB* n-4*. aotocagoatnoes* TO eomoriE A ( («> ASS teas J tissntKws Ksauss IBE stoeas
rara--Eeal^aa£!i_tfLe»a» 8Mgu» Control Para BasiAente IHatM Seataa
*t ~™lii. ""iii. UIT" B«t rii. in, in.
Ill daeted Ac Raw S^ til «textei Ac B««B ted
All * 3 5 1 33-33
CA3 2 1
07 X 'I
02 a
03 11
04 1
K3 1
K« 1
B7 1
•C» 1 1
BU 1
B» 1 1
B21 1 1
•C23 131 1 2^
K2» 1
I*f«etlm a»n ptreaM vleh fntfoU rim in aatifeorfy eltar
•arlMi •mricy BM 4*f tcei u «wr»t lllwoa M«c»> neontoi
-------
TABLE 11-48. COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OP ANIMALS AND ANIMAL UNITS
AND THFIR BISK PERIODS BETWEEN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS
BY SPECIES AND TYPE OF OPERATIONS, ALL COUNTIES
V
Species and Ho. -of
Type of Units*
Operation
ALL BOVINE
Beef Breeding
Calve*
Yearling*
Feedlot Cattle
Dairy Cattle
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
Fattening Pigs
ALL OVINE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Sheep
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horses
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
ALL AVIAN
Chickens, Layers
Chickens, Broiler
Poultry, Misc.
Dogs (Canine}
Cats (Feline)
72
17
22
13
17
3
36
9
11
16
17
9
8
26
3
4
2
17
22
10
4
8
45
29
Sludge
No. of llo. of
Unit Years Aniaal
at Riskb Years at
Riskc
89.83
26.65
31.77
15.79
13.69
1.92
43.27
13.27
9.85
20.15
19.50
10.50
9.00
25.50
2.48
2.38
1.73
18.90
37.96
22.33
3.40
12.23
78.27
47.77
1492.85
51 :.27
412.33
185.08
379.25
1.92
3397.10
377.56
836.90
2182.63
411.71
229.27
182.44
88.62
U.C8
3.44
5.37
68.73
947.33
725.75
99.17
122.40
163/81
138.42
No. of
Uaitsa
79
20
23
20
15
1
42
13
12
17
11
6
5
20
0
4
J.
15
22
10
4
8
40
32
Control
no. of
Unit Years
at Riskb
108.77
36.04
36.96
20.92
13.98
0.37
59.88
22.42
16.06
21.40
18.46
10.87
7.60
27.53
0.00
2.19
0.60
24.79
25.13
14.13
2.54
8.46
67.37
52.23
Ho. of
Animal
Yeare at
Mskc
1772.98
640.12
492.31
246.31
418.38
0.87
3266.31
481.52
1001.10
1783.69
S30.12
409.98
220.13
57.79
0,00
2.90
1.19
53.69
643.81
443.17
70,19
130.44
127.00
270.46
* Unit vas defined as a group of animals of the saae epecies and type of
operation under the management of a single individual.
T
• Number of unit years at risk was calculated by adding of the number of
vceks of data contribution by each unit for each interview end dividing by
52.
0 Nuaber of animal years at risk was calculated by adding the total number of
weeks of data contribution by all animals within each unit at the tie® of
each interview and dividing by 52.
296
-------
11-49. COMPARISON OP THE EUKBER OF ANIMALS AND ANIMAL UNITS
AND THEIR RISK PERIODS BETWEEN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS
BY SPECIES AND TYPE OF OPERATIONS, KEDIOA COUNTY
M«od No. of
I of Units*
itlon
WINE
Breeding
it
lings
lot Cattle
r Cattle
IBCINE
Hog Pigs
Pigs
ming Pigs
ISE
ling Sheep
ning Sheep
[DINE
ling Horses
l
ingi
«r< Horses
IAK
mi, Layers
«ni, Broiler
sjt Misc.
Canine)
Win*)
15
3
5
4
3
0
3
0
0
3
6
3
3
9
1
1
0
«»
*
6
2
1
3
8
9
Sludge
No. of
Unit Years
at Risk>
13.90
2.42
4.98
4.52
1.98
0.00
2.63<
0.00
0.00
2.63
5.87
3.35
2.52
5.62
1.00
,08
0.00
4.54
8.58
3.96
0.08
4.54
10.73
12.83
Ho. of
Animal
Yearn at
Riskc
105.27
43.23
26.44
21.81
13.79
0.00
20.96
0.00
0.00
20.96
42.25
34.12
10.13
7.40
1.15
0.03
0.00
6.17
217.17
137.79
1.85
77.54
28.33
51.98
Control
No. of No. of
Units* Unit Years
at Risk0
15
3
5
3
3
1
10
3
3
4
2
1
1
4
0
1
0
3
5
3
0
2
8
4
20.31
5.87
6.58
5.04
1.96
0.87
16.91
6.33
5.29
5.29
4.52
2.54
1.98
2.61
O.OC
0.23
0.00
2.3d
7. 1C
4.56
0.00
2.54
14.65
7.90
No. of
Aniaal
Years at
Riskc
128.19
43.60
41.96
27.44
14.33
0.87
438.09
87.96
236.13
114.00
386.10
248.60
137.92
4.23
0.00
0.23
0.00
4.00
278.13
203.31
0.00
74.83
29.12
55.31
t *•• defined as a. group of animals of the same species and type of
ration under the management of * single individual.
bit of unit years *t risk was calculated by adding of the number of
U of data contribution by each unit for each interview and dividing by
tor of animal years «t risk was calculated by adding the total numb*- of
tl of data contribution by' all animals within each, unit at the time of
l interview and dividing by 52.
297
-------
TABLE 11-50. A COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF ANIMALS AND ANIMAL UNITS
AND THEIR RISK PERIODS BETWEEN SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS
BY SPECIES AND TYPE OF OPERATIONS, FRANKLIN AND PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Species and No. of
Type of Units8
Operation
ALL BOVIEE
Beef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Feedlot Cattle
Dairy Cattle .
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
Fattening Pig*
ALL OVINE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Sheep
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horses
Foal*
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
ALL AVIAN
Chickens, Layers
Chickens, Broiler
Poultry, Misc.
Dogs (Canine)
Cats (Feline)
46
10
14
7
11
3
20
5
7
B
9
5
4
11
1
2
1
7
11
6
2
3
27
15
Sludge
No. of No. of
Unit Tears Animal
at Risk0 Years at
RiekG
62.15
20.37
22.77
8.60
8.50
1.92
26.08
8.06
6.06
11.96
11.90
6.17
5.73
13.21
0.50
1.40
0.92.
10.38
20.46
13.52
2.50
4.44
50.35
28.15
1071.71
406.94
319.50
122.40
220.94
1.92
1965.36
127.02
306.02
1532.33
2S7.37
149.77
137.60
57.79
1.50
1.40
1.52
52.37
654.62
537.94
86.31
30.37
105.38
133.02
No. of
Units*
41
12
12
11
6
0
20
6
5
^
5
3
2
16
0
3
1
12
11
5
2
4
23
17
Control
Mo. of
Unit Years
at Riskb
64.33
22.62
22.00
12.58
7.13
0.00
31.12
11.50
7.27
12.35
8.19
5.23
2.96
24.96
0.00
1.96
0.60
22.40
10.40
5.71
1.06
3.63
42.50
30.15
-
No. o£
ABl7"fll
Years at
Riskc
1261.79
455.21
314.40
169.46
322.71
0.00
1988.71
260.42
481.62
1246.73
103.42
77.08
26.35
53.56
0.00
2.67
1.19
49.69
273.15
176.88
61.31
34.96
79.25
127.71
* Unit was defined as a group of animals of the sane species and type of
operation under the management of a single individual.
Number of unit years at risk was calculated by adding of the number of
weeks of data contribution by each unit for e&ct interview and dividing by
52.
Number of animal years at risk was calculated by adding the totsl number of
vceka of data contribution by all aaiaals within each unit at the tlas of
each interview and dividing by 52.
298
-------
TABLE 11-51. A COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF ANIMALS AND ANIMAL UNITS
AND THEIR RISK PERIODS BETWEEN SLUDGE AFD CONTROL FARMS
BY SPECIES AMD TYPE OF OPERATIONS, CLARK COUNTY
j
Species *°d Wo« o£
Type of Unite?
Operation
ALL BOVINE
Beef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Feedlot Cattle
Dairy Cattle
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
7attening Pigs
ALL OVIHE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Sheep
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horses
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
ALL AVIAN
Chickens , Layers
• Chickens, Broiler
Poultry, Misc.
Dogs (Canine)
Cats (Feline)
11
3
3
2
3
0
13
4
4
5
2
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
5
2
1
2
10
5
Sludge
No. of No. -of
Unit Years Animal
at Risk9 Years at
Riskc
13.77
3.87
4.02
2.67
3.21
0.00
14.56
5.21
3.79
5.56
1.73
0.98
0.75
6.67
0.98
- 0.90
0.81
3.98
8.92
4.85
0.83
3.25
17.19
€.79
315.87
64.10
66.38
40.87
144.52
0.00
1410.77
250.54
530.88
629.35
80.09
45.38
34.71
23.42
8.42
1.96
2.85
10.19
75.54
50.02
11.02
14,50
31.71
53.42
No. of
Units*
23
5
6
ft
6
0
12
4
4
4
4
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
6
2
2
2
9
11
Control
No. df
Unit Years
at Risk0
24.13
7.56
8.38
3.31
4.88
0.00
11.87
4.60
3.50
3.77
5.75
3.10
2.65
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.63
3.87
1.48
2.29
10.21
14.17
No. of
Animal
Years at
Riskc
408.00
141.31
135.94
49.40
81.35
0.00
839.44
133.13
283.35
422.96
140.17
84.31
55.87
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
92.52
62.98
8.88
20.65
18.63
87.44
* Doit was defined as a group of animals of the same species and type of
operation under the management of a single individual.
" Number of unit years at risk was calculated by adding of the number of
weeks of data contribution by each unit for each interview and dividing by
52.
c Number of animal years at risk was calculated by adding the total number of
weeks of data contribution by all animals within each, unit at the ties of
each interview and dividing by 52.
299
-------
TABLE 11-52. COMPARISON Of DURATION OP TIME SPEHT OS FIELD,
DURATION OF SLUDGE EXPOSURE, AND CONSUMPTION OF HOME GROWN FEED
IN ANIMALS LIVING ON SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, ALL COUNTIES
No.
of
of Hours
Exposure
to Sludge
Treated Fields
Specie* /Week
ALL BOVINE
Beef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Teedlot Cattle
HI tff 1 1 p"Qf>" a
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
Fattening Pigs
ALL OVINE
Breeding Sheep
fattening Sheep
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horses
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
fll 4VX&H
Chickens, layers
Chickens, broiler
Miscellaneous
Dogs (Canine)
C*ts (Feline)
40.2
68.0
56.6
8.9
0.1
16.9
0.3
2.6
0.0
0.0
32.3
31.6
33.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
1.6
1.7
0.1
2.1
3.3
14.2
Sludge
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
106.3
142.3
125.7
79.9
49.3
137 .£
11.5
28.4
12.7
8.1
131.3
136.5
124.8
118.2
86.9
111.2
116.5
123.7
32.1
23.0
12.5
102.4
92.1
140.1
Control
Percent
of Feed
Home
Raised
92.4
96.1
93.3
88.4
88.4
9S.-6
58.7
48.1
53.4
62.6
S0.6
90.3
91.1
75,1
87.7
84.1
68.0
73.2
59 .*
65.1
19.0
61.4
15.3
28.4
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
112.0
134.1
118.3
97.5
78.9
155.1
45.1
65.?
.20.3
53.6
125.6
144.2
90.3
145.9
0.0*
-127.9
168.0
146.4
51.3
34.7
9.9
130.0
106.9
152.7
Perceat
of Feed
HCIE«
Raised
90.1
95.0
89.6
88.8
84.3
10.7
52.9
63,1
63.3
44.2
80.3
84.0
73.5
73.3
0.0»
48.9
82.2
74.4
42.0
41.2
0.9
66.5
8.9
30.0
* There were no breeding horses OA control farms.
300
-------
TABLE 11-53. COMPARISON OF DURATION OF TIME SPENT OS FIELD,
DURATION OF SLUDGE EXPOSURE, AND CONSUMPTION OF HOME GROWN FEED
IN ANIMALS LIVING OH SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, MEDINA COUNTY
No
of
. of Hours
Exposure
to Sludge
Treated Fields
ipecies
ILL BOVINE
Beef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Feedlot Cattle
Miscellaneous
iLL POHCINE
Breeding Pigs
3*by Pigs
Fattening Pigs
a OVIHE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Sheep
IL EQOIHE
Breeding Horses
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
11 AVIAN
Chickens, layers
Chickens, broiler
Miscellaneous
togs (Canine)
to (Feline)
/Week
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0*
0.0
0.0*
0.0*
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0*
0.1
1.0
0.3
0.0
2.3
3.4
17.9
Sludge
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
91.9
104.5
93.9
104.6
31.4
0.0*
0.0
0.0*
0.0*
0.0
132.0
124.6
155.6
113.0
168.0
98.0
0.0*
104.0
41.5
0.3
168.6
111.6
92.9
125.2 '
Control
Percent
of Feed
Horns
Raised
92.1
98.3
87.«
97.4
73.6
0.0*
44.0
0.0*
0.0*
44.0
97.5
97.3
98.4
84.3
99.0
0.0
0.0*
81.4
70.8
72.4
50.0 :
68.6
3.8
12.6
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
99.0
125.5
95.8
76.3
67.9
155.1
16.3
30.8
16.9
3.9
125.6
145.1
90.4
145.8
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
154.2
81.7
50.5
0.0*
166.7
65.9
134.7
Percent
of Feed
Hose
Raised
80.5
95.0
70.2
89.4
53.7
10.7
38.1
43.4
33.7
39.1
75.5
75.3
70.4
92.3
0.0*
0.0*
X).0*
97.6
73.3
67.7
0.0*
88.6
13.3
28.8
were no animals in these categories.
301
-------
TABLE 11-54. COMPARISON OF DURATION OF TIME SPEOT OS FIELD, DURATION
OF SLUDGE EXPOSURE, AND CONSUMPTION OF HOME CROWH FEED IN ANIMALS
LIVING 03:3 SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, FRANKLIH-PICKAWAY COUNTIES
Ko
of
4t
. of Hours
Exposure
to Sludgs
Treated Fields
Species /
•«
Al BOVINE
jeef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Feedlot Cattle
jliscellsnecwis
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
Fatteaing Pigs
ALL OVTHE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Siiaap
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horses
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
ALL AVIAN
Chickens, layers
Chickens , br o I le r
Miscellaneous
Dogs (Canine)
Cats (Feline)
Hfesk
H9WVM«i*GW*V4mBBIV^XW>WW
54.4
84.1
70.1
13.2
0.1
15.9
0.1
1.6
0.0
0.0
46.0
47.9
43.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2,0
2.3
0.0
2.5
4.1
18.2
Sludge
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
[•[••••••••millB^lUll^MJI^ •••
117.5
145.3
124.5
70.6
81.8
137.0
18.4
62.8
34.5
11.5
147.4
147.0
147.7
124.5
84.0
107.0
122.5
126.3
23.4
25.6
0.0
50.4
78.7
139.8
Control
Percent
of Feed
Eorze
Raised
••MVMMMHBMMnKUBIBI
93.8
96.5
93.9
88.9
91.2
98.6
78.6
59.7
73.6
81.1
90.9
86.5
95.8
75.1
48.0
63.4
39.3
77.9
57,<9
65^.7
16.8
37.6
20.0
34.8
Wo. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
••^^••••••••••••••••^•.••••^•n
126.4
145.5
140.2
104.3
97.4
0.0*
67.1
93.3
33.2
74.9
122.0
148.6
44.3
145.9
0.0a
139.0
168.0
145.7
11.7
8.6
8.4
33.5
121.3
158.3
Percent
of Feed
Hoiaa
Raised
Mw«M«nMnMmM9»
93.1
95.3
93.9
94.2
88.5
O.Oa
63.8
64.5
89.2
53.7
89.4
98.0
64.3
71.8
0.0a
53.1
82.2
72.5
7.9
7.7
0.0
23.3
8.5
32.0
a were no
in thsse categories
302
-------
TABLE 11-55. COMPARISON OF DURATION OF TIME SPENT ON FIELD,
DURATION OF SLUDGE EXPOSURE, AND CONSUMPTION OF HOME GROWN FEED
IN ANIMALS LIVING ON SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, CLARK COUNTY
No
of
. of Hours
Exposure
to Sludge
Treated Fields
Species /Week
ALL BOVINE
Beef Breeding
Calves
Yearlings
Feedlot Cattle
Miscellaneous
ALL PORCINE
Breeding Pigs
Baby Pigs
Fattening Pigs
ALL OVINE
Breeding Sheep
Fattening Sheep
ALL EQUINE
Breeding Horces
Foals
Yearlings
Pleasure Horses
ALL AVIAN
Chickens, layers
Chickens, broiler
Miscellaneous
Dogs (Canine)
Cats (Feline)
4.9
9.7
13.7
0.5
0.0
0.0*
0.5
3.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
D.3
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.6
Sludge
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
73.0
147.0
144.0
94.9
1.3
0.0a
1.9
10.8
0.0
00.0
. 73.3
110.3
24.9
104.1
76.3
118.6
111.2
122.2
80.9
56.7
84.0
162.2
136.1
155.2
Control
Percent
of Feed
Hose
Raiead
87.8
91.6
92.7
82.0
85.6
O.X)«
30,9
42.1
41.7
17.1
85.9
97.7
70.4
72.3
93.2
98.5
93.4
44.2
44 j6
39.4
30.7
73.1
9.9
27.4
No. of Hours
Spent on
Fields and
Pasture/
Week
70.4
99.1
74.0
86.2
3.6
0.0s
5.4
31.9
0.0
0.9
128.2
137.3
114.4
0.0a
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7$.0
56.5
20.2
159.4
110. 1
156.2
Percent
of Feed
Horns
Raised
84.0
93.7
85.9
69.0
72.4
0.0*
33.6
70.9
42.8
15.9
92.5
97.0
85.8
0.0*
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
47.8
49.6
7.5
59.4
4.2
27.7
There were no animals in these categories.
303
-------
p."
TAIUt 11-5*. COWAMSOa 0? ILL8S8I RATE! FOB SELECTS) SIGHS
W XLLBSS8 IH SLUBSE ASP COOTBOL GBOUM It) ALL COUmZS FOB ALL KJVIJ3J
Me. ef Ho. ef
Unit* Bpleode*
Ilja* Affected Eeperted
ILURttU*
off r**d
r*m
Confk
Hu*l DUcharte
Difficult
Vukaee*
AkeonMl
lahaner
CoMtlpatiaa
Mirth**
Uee4 U Fece*
Suit** Death
Abortion
30
15
7
4
7
4
12
2
1
9
1
3
2
• Eulodaf 10 lllne**
TAJLE
62
16
7
4
8
5
13
3
1
10
1
3
3
reperte that
Bat* p*r
100 Dolt
-tear*
et Rick
69.0
17.8
7.8
4.3
8.9
5.6
14.5
3.3
1.1
11.1
l.'l
3.3
3.3
vera not
Me. ef
Affected
207
88
59
51
81
46
53
4
1
30
1
3
3
related ee
Kate
Per 100
Aniael-
Yeara
at &l
-------
tAJ&C U-38. COHTARISOM OF MrtWU. IUJtt3» UTCS &KD ISCIDBKCt
Of lUflUI IN SU100E AND COnTBOL GJOUf*. IH
HATES ?0* SZUCTCO SIGHS
COMITIES fOa AU, COVIMS
I*, of
Doit*
IfjU Affocud
IWKUU* »
off r**4 *
fmr 4
Coufb 2
itMl Di«cb*rf* 5
Dltticalt
IrMtalag 2
**».. 7
MM ml
Gmtipitioa 0
Dl»r»u 3
Uood IB r*e«* 1
laddu DMtb 2
Abortion 2
Sluda*
Ho. of Rat* por
Episode* 100 Unit
Bovortcd -Yo«r*
at Ri*k
3» 62.7
9 14.5
4 6.4
2 3.2
5 3.0
2 3.2
8 12.9
2 2.2
0 0.0
5 8.0
1 1.6
2 3.2
3 4.8
Ho. of P*r 100 Ho. of Mo. of
Anlml- Anlaal- Unit* Eplvod**
Eplaed** T**r* Affected fctportod
«t Rick
114
47
18
33
43
9
13
2
0
32
1
2
3
• tscludu S illcowu oa raport that u»r* not rolatod to
10.6 20 54
4.4 5 11
1.7 3 6
3.1 1 1
4.0 5 3
0.8 6 9
1.4 7 12
0.2 1 2
0.0 0 0
3.0 3 3
0.1 0 •£
0.2 3 3
0.3 0 0
100 Unit
-Ittrt
83.*
17.1
9.3
i.t
7.8
14.0
18.7
3.1
0.0
4.7
0.0
4.7
0.0
Mo. of
Anln*l-
Cplvodo*
127
20
66
3
7
62
65
2
0
3
0
6
0
fiat*
Per 100
Anlul-
Y**r*
10.1
1.6
3.2
0.2
0.6
4.9
5.2
0.2
0.0
0.4
0.0
O.S
0.0
•lodf* (diM to «ecid*nt *nd chronic llloo****).
TASU 11-59. COMPA3JSOM Ot UHtlAi. U.UTE8S KATES ARD IKC1BSBCE RATES FOR
Or 1LUK2SS III SLUDC2 AtiD CO2TE01, GtOUPS III CLASS COUHTY FOB ALL
SELECTED S1GS8
K«K5
Slu4s9 Costroi
to. of
>. Bait*
Situ Affoeud
lUifflgm* 7
oft r**d s
'•m 3
A** 2
ItMl Dtichux* 1
Difficult
VukMM 4
Ataonil
l*bi*lor 0
CoHtlpuiM 0
OUrrk** 2
1
llMd u foca 0
MdnDMtb 1
•hmtoi o
Ko. of Bat* p«r
Ealaodet 100 Unit
Kseoctcd -7o»c*
«E Risk
16 U6.2
3 36.3
3 21.8
2 44.3
2 14.5
3 21.8
4 29.1
0 0.0
0 0.0
3 21.6
0 0.0
1 7.3
0 0.0
Bo. of
Aoisal-
Cyicads*
83
3*
41
.18
36
37
37
0
0
36
0
1
0
R»t»
POT 100 Ho. of Do. of
AciMl- Doit* Epl«od»*
Year* Af tee ted Gaooread
ec Ki*k
2*. 9 11 24
1Z.O 4 1
13.0 3 4
3.7 4 5
11.4 4 6
11.7 7 7
11.7 5 5
0.0 1 1
0.0 . 0 0
11.4 2 2
0.0 0 0
0.3 0 0
0.0 1 1
Cat* »or
100 Unit
-teas*
at &Uk
99.4
29.0
16.6
20.7
24.9
2*.0
20.7
4.1
0.0
8.3
0.0
0.0
4.1
Mo. of
AniMl-
Eeicodo*
22*
118
36
90
140
67
62
2
0
38
0
0
1
fete*
Por 100
Aiutaal-
t**r*
•t Blstt
56.1
28.9
8.8
22.1
34.3
21.3 ,
15.2
0.5
0.0
9.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
' Ucluot* 1 UlMi* on report ttut »*• ctoc rclaud to «l«t8* (dm to «e«idaat end cbcoalc Ula*«n).
305
-------
TABU U-60. COMPAKSQH Of ILUWSi BATES FOR SELECTED SI CSS
or outEsa ra SLUUOE AND cowmen. GROUFS IN wo. COUSTIES rot AU. wtcita
SifM
%SF
Off reed
rmr
Coa|b
Mo. of
Ualta
Affected
21
»
4
5
laial Dltcharfe 2
Difficult
Iceathiot
VMkaaei
Atearaal
••barter
Coaatlpatioa
Diarrhea
5
14
2
2
12
Hood in Facet 1
loddm Death
Abortion
* bclBdea 8
7
0
•o. of
Epi*ade»
Reported
73
11
5
S
2
•_,
*
23
2
2
1*
1
10
0
lllaetf reporta tliac
oludsa
Rate per
100 Unit
-Toara
at Risk
168.7
23.4
li.6
U.*
4.6
13.9
S3. 2
4.6
4.6
Al.«
2.3
23.1
0.0
Control
So. of
Anlull
Affected
967
180
127
281
2
117
339
2
20
445
1
14
0
Rate
Far ICO
AaiMl-
Year*
at Rlek.
28.$
3.3
3.7
8.3
0.1
3.4
10.6
0.1
0.6
13.1
0.0
0.4
0.0
«*r* not related to aludge (due
Ho. of
Unite
Af fee tad
33
16
6
8
4
8
18
1
1
14
2
7
3
No. of
Epiaodea
Reported
138
28
6
12
4 .
14
35
1
1
32
2
10
4
Rate per
100 Unit
-Year*
at Rlak
230.4
46.8
10.0
20.0
6.7
23.4
58.4
1.7
1.7
33.4
3.3
16.7
6.7
No. of
Anlaola
Affected
1832
710
44
306
418
496
431
3
J
«58
4
U
32
Race
For 100
Yeare
at Risk
36.1
21.7
1.3
13.3
12.8
IS. 2
13.2
.1
0.0
29.3
0.1
0.9
1.0
to accidence and ehroalc Ulomaao).
TABLE 11-61. raSPAMSOl OF AOtUU. IU9ESS RAXES ABB ISCIBeWS
oruusm
HI SkUflffB AMD C00TROL
CROUF8 IK
RATES FOB
tSDIHA COUHTt FOR AU.
SELECTED CtCBS
fORCIKZ
•
Sladsa Coaeral
SUM
ALL REPOMfED
ILUESIES*
OH reed
lew
Ca*|h
•o. of
Unit*
Affected
0
0
0
0
tual Ditchers* 0
Difficult
truth!**
Vaikaeta
ibaonal
Khtirior
Coutipatloa
DUrrkaa
0
0
0
0
0
Hwd U Face* 0
I»UM Death
Atortia*
0
0
Ho. of
Episode
Repot cad
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
* 0
0
0
•Ate par
100 Unit
-Veara
at »4.ak
1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Ho. of
AflJ.ftfll*
Bffifclfrd'ftel
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
Rate
For 100
Aolaal-
Yeara
at Risk
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
«0. of
Onlte
Affected
7
9
1
2
1
2
4
1
1
3
1
0
1
Mo. Of
Eplaodaa
Reported
36
14
1
2
1
3
12
1
1
16
1
0
2
Rate pur
100 Dolt
-Yaere
at Risk
213.0
82.8
S.9
11.8
5.9
17.7
71.0
S.9
3.9
»4.7
S.9
0.0
11.8
Mo. of
fenlaai-
Epieodee
798
208
1
2
1
3
336
3
1
769
3
0
4
la to
Far 100
AnlBAl-
Yrara
at Rlek
182.2
47.3
0.2
O.S
0.2
0.7
58.4
C.I
0.2
175.5
0.7
0.0
0.9
' Ucladti 4 lllMiaaa OB rapott that t*ra cot ralatsd to aludfa (duo to accident rod chronic lllataaaa).
306
-------
taut ii-*l. «s6>*st8os o» ABIOU. tujEgs eetss wro tieteswcs
or ouess la suites MS coena. ctoort i*
rat SSLSCTES sicas
FOI A
fcaztttrol
te. •*
Celt*
o. et
Bid* par Be. of
100 Unit
-**»T*
ct tiljfc
»«r 100 Be. of Be. at tail per Bo. »f
AalMl- Bait* BftLoate* ICO Pelt Aaisml-
Yo*n A£f«ee«4 Be?*Ro4 -fc«n Episode*
at tiafc «t_Ol»k
r*r ICO
AmicaJL-
at Rfcajt
ILUCSStS* 10
Off hoJ 2
F.«r 2
e«t* »
BMaM.ck.CVi 0
MHlnle
«-*-" *
£ES£ o
*«Ct»«l« 0
DUTTW. 4
««"*»*— °
i
33
3
3
3
0
3
10
0
0
a
e
4
0
126.5
11.5
11.9
11.3
Or*
11.5
M.3
0.0
0.0
30.7
0.0
13.3
0.0
3SO
52
8
157
e
.
79
0
0
144
3
O
19.3
2.4
0.4
8.0
0.0
0.4
4.0
0.0
0.0
8.3
0.0
OJ
0,0
13
S
3
3
1
4
»
0
0
9
0
S
2
74
11
3
9
1
7
17
0
O
•
o
e
2
237 .B
33.4
9.4
14.1
3.2
22.5
94.4
0.0
0.0
25.7
O.O
25.7
430
99
37
35
14
47
US
«
0
47
0
24
za
21.4
5.0
1.9
LJ
0.9
2.4
4.4
0.0
0.0
3.4
0.0
1.4
e* wpen elect «*m tiec calatad to «lai%a (An Co aecldooc «ad cbtatklc
TABJt 11-43.
or
ILL5SSS
at assae «ra ctMma. Btajs>s ia cuut ecjssHt
PC*
Sls-isa
Coacral
Ka. •(
Halts
Atfcetat
* Bate
8as» fwr B*. of fmt 130
199 Bait AEleai-
•**Ya$srtt fffrlftffrfrCT
«g Kiefc at fclak
B*. at
CalM
AftoeMd
•». ft
Beta psr
ICO Bait
-fear*
et
fits ISO
MKtcalt
3
9
2
2
1
3
0
3
13
2
2
10
1
*
0
20.4
89.3
13.7
13.7
41.7
41.2
0.0
230
2
20
231
.1
9
0
7.7
19.8
OJ.
1.4
0.1
0.4
0.0
2
3
1
2
0
4
4
O
O
1
2
O
33.7
50.6
0.0
0.0
«7.4
8.4
14.9
0.0
444
47
0
0
122
1
4
0
53.1
5.4
0.0
0.0
14.3
oa
0.3
0.0
307
-------
ti-64. easuasof or meets RAXU re* isascrro exora
or W£33> u *un«z AID caaisat esficr* la AU. ccssnias rga ALL cms
lint ATfsct*
**1P^^
AU uraio
lUBSSCS*
Off F«o4
Frwr
CMfk
laol DUctars*
Difficult
Itakt.
UwtMl
teturtpr
DUrrfcM
Uo*4 laFocu
S^teBMtk
AtonlM
• f^i-w. XO t
,
SUn 4
UUKISSS*
Off FM
F«t
CM*
imiDUcten.
Difficult
ta*M.
Akamai
ba*U»mtloa
Mm***
UorfUtac*
MtaOoath
Akmu.
* Jir1«aM 1 U
12
3
3
0
1
2
S
0
1
r
i
i
UMM
ZABLC
oO» VC
32
•
3
O
1
2"
9
0
0
1
0
1
1
raperta* tbet i
U-65. CQBPA1
OF rm°mf
«L
••.of B«. ef
Ovlto Brigades
2
0
0
0
I 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
HMO
3
O
•
•
•
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
«• r«yort ctej
SBM par
100 Celt
at Rick
164.1
30.8
15.4
0.0
5.1
1CJ
**J
O.O
0.0
5.1
•C.O
5U
sa
Bem BEC c
H KM O? Al
iJUzSsa
Bua per
100 Bait
et eick
51.1
O.O
O.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
I Btt OK
Ke. of r«r 100 Ba. «f Be. of Eat* per Bo. «*
Atrtaal* Aalaal- Ooit» C|>Uad«a 1&> Halt *«<««»i.
Ai£*ct«l T««n Affected Ooporud -lura Af£eecati
at tl*k «t E.tek
53 '
«
3
0
1
2
12
0
0
1
«
2
1
alatfld to «1
12.9
1^
0.7
0.0
OJ
0.5
2.9
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.5
0.2
9
4
4
0
1
3
«
3
0
0
•»
3
1
S3 287.1 93
8 43.3 9
4 21.7 S
0 0.0 0
2 10.8 2
6 32.5 20
17 92.1 50
3 U.3 4
0 0.0 O
0 0.0 0
« 0.0 0
8 43,3 9
2 10.8 4
Baio
P«r 100
14.8
1.*
0.8
0.0
0.3
3.2
7.9
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.4
,*. «~ to ,^i^,. ^ c^ic iU^^,).
ami, n.MECT BKTBS ASD
ABD COSIBOS. CESWS Ifl 1
•o. of
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e
r*J*t»i to'i
8*ta
Tar 100
\«te» /
•t Bisk
«.8
0.0
0.0
OJ>
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 .
0.0
0.0
lUd«« (4M
308
llt£CUIi£tSu£ fi^XEC f^ft &££ikU2%)iU) SX£3CS
SaSifiA ciesrt ?ca AU. wxa
Ha. of
LffAaUd
2
2
2
0
1
2
2
2
0
O
0
2
1
tO
-------
u-«6. ces&u&sea cr uniaa. IUMSS SAIM ABO iEda,*ac£ RAWS res msem eisss
or rujasa u asses ASD ca«ws. caoers u Ttuasua-eiau^n cojsn&s ra tu.
Bo. «f Ho. «f tcco per Bo. of For 100 Bo. of
Volt* gpioodoa 1OO Unit Aeiael- Ani*tl- Deiu
I|M0 Af EactoA ffffljHyfyiprt *Yocri Cplfradoo YftBTO &£fo£Co4
ec Mai. at &i«k
ItuzCSE* 8 33
Off r«4 2 3
row 2 2
C*«ck 0 O
luil Uiclwrto 1 1
Difficult
Irattkfaw 1 1
"•*— 3 *
lttevl*f 0 0
CoMtl^tlM 0 0
DURta. 1 1
iii»< i* r^>V9A
\ RATSj 8jprtsi tf.ff^ffjcyiflTO *sf i
rre rea AU, ones
*». of F»r 100
A*Lia»i- fcsiotl-
lfi»aAs» ¥sar«
or. aiak
12 11.6
3 2.9
3 2.*
0 0.0
0 0.0
1 1.0
3 4.8
2 1.9
0 0.0
« 0.0
0 0.0
1 1.0
0 0.0
«»).
ess
Sleds* Cs«BSK9l
Ho. of Oe>.
Doles Eptc<
I1(M Affocced ttopei
ILUBSK9* 2 «
Off r«4 1 3
r««i i i
CM* 00
laul BUckug* 0 0
Mftleelt
if»oft1«t 1 1
•"*-" J *
taknioc 0 0
CtBttifaCiOM 0 O
MankM 0 O
UM< to tow 0 0
••MttButh 0 0
tfcmlmi o 0
at Cat* pc? 80. e<
si»» 18® Bolt &afe»sil-
reod -Sen« EytnailOT
cc Eljslt
346.7 •
173.3 3
57.8 1
0.0 0
0.0 0
S7.8 1
231.1 *
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 « -
0.0 0
0.0 0
Par 100 Jte. rf
lOttffB &£t£)CCttd
at Els*
10.0 3
3.7 0
1.2 0
0.0 «
0.0 O
1.2 0
7.i 1
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
Bo. ®f Cam fee
3 87.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
2 34.8
0 0.0
0 0»^
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
liaeo
Bo. ef Par ICO
Aalacl- Aaiaal-
£C R&ilfc
11 7.8
0 0.0
O 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
6 S.7
O 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
in report chas win OM
Co clodgo (eo« to eccidant oed
309
Ilium*).
-------
TABLZ il-«. CO&AU9C* Of UUKU SOU rOt BaSCTSD 8I6B9
or iu*s»s u aeass ASH cotrraot ctsan is ALL cousru* exniiLi,
•o. of
Slfii Affected
ALL flXrOXKIU)
amass*
ou ro»d
rner
Ce*h
•enl Mactaers*
Difficult
anaUUf
HMkMM
Ataoreal
Matter
Coaeclpatlo*
DUrtfeee
Hoot la feeec
Moea Death
afcmlea
5
2
1
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
•o. of
Export**
3
2
1
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
£lad£3
10O Belt Aaloala
-¥eua Affected
fit f&l&k
1».4
7.1
3.t
0.0
0.0
7-*
7.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3
2
1
O
0
2
2
0
0
0
'0
0
0
fteca •
P«r 100
tear*
AC 8is&
3.4
2J
1.1
0.0
0.0
2J
ZJ
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.O
0.0
0.0
80. of
Celt* E
Affected 8
>
" 0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
c
Be. of
pleoAM
•ported
«
0
A
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
Kate per Bo. «f
100 Ualt ^flHiralt
-fssra Affaete*
az Mail.
21.9
0.0
0.0
J.4
Srf
0.0
0.0
0.0
9J6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6
O
0
1
I
0
0
0
o
0
o
a
o
&BK*
Per 100
Aaiazl-
-« SAok
10.4
0.0
0.0
1.7
X.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
oo
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
DUrtfeoo
Hoot la fecee
l«MuOa«eh
itortie*
• uaate* 1 t
Sfe»
^ft- ftu^juju)
1LUSSSSS
Off fort
/««
teek
••eel Blotter;
Olfftnli
dUkMO.
AtOMMl
lekevior
CeeetlpetlM
Menkee
Ueol laPoeM
»•*»•« Seeth
Uortiom
0
0
0
0
liases report
TASU 11-69.
or z
0
0
0
0
tl»t •
COEttts
Lusas
Bo. of Bo. of
Dtite Bpioodea
Aftsceod Boported
1
0
0
0
» 0
r
0
0
0
0
i 0
0
0
1
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
'0
0
0
ca set coleecd to elm
yM $U£i$S& £&SQ CO&T30S*
siarfsa
Eats per
ISO Bait
-Zeass
W.»
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
8s. of
Aalnal-
1
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0
O.O
0.0
0.0
i$o (doe to
Beta
Per 100
«t f.lsi
U-i
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
o
«
0
o
0
ffifiisu assBSK raa&j.
So. of
Bait*
Affected
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
£
Co. of
EFte**-e
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
o
0
0
0
0
o •
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
iUaaM).
ffi^flnSfffZS!) ^Jj
laairei' :
Sat* per
ico eoit
-tears
st %4n&
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
o
a
0
ifH
Bo. of
Aaissal*
0
0
O
0
o
«
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Per 100
Aa-teal-
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.O
0.0
310
-------
TAILS u-70. CJH*«iisafl or uasu, uuss&» UTRS ABB ISCIBZSKS BATS* tot SELECTES times
Or UUKS8 XS 3U1BS3 ABD GOSfiffl. CSOOM U nuUKUA-flCttftU COStsm* fOK 4L& HJBiSS
•o. ef Ke. ef fc»C» p*r Bo. »f far 100. Bo. ef He. ef Eat« per Be. ef
OclC* Cpieoea* 108 Ualt Aola*l- Anloel- Units Bploeeae 1OO Unit Aalael-
||{M Affected Ke»ert*4 -lean Bal*«<«« ?«•» Affected Report** -««*ra Epiee*e»
at Siglt et Risk et ttsk
IIIMff*
off ft*
ftwr
C««b
luilBUcteCf
Difficult
y«k~,
Atonal
teknter
CtMtl^tlea
BUrtte.
(lael 1« f ee*f
taMaeBMth
Atottlea
3 J 22.7 J
11 7.6 1 "
11 7.6 1
00 0.0 0
• 0 0 0.0 0
' 1 1 7.« 1
1 4 7.« 1
00 0.0 O
00 0.0 0
00 0.0 0
I 0 0 -0.0 -O
00 0.0 0
00 0.0 O
J.2 > «
1.7 0 0
1.7 0 0
0.0 1 1
0.0 1 1
1.7 0 0
1.7 0 O
0.0 0 0
0.0 0 0
0.0 0 0
O.O -0 «
0.0 O 0
0.0 0 0
TABLE 11-71. CeMfAElSOa Of ASWSU. ILL6IS3 EATS* AS8 UffiUSEHCE PJSm fOS S
o? vjasss i» ewsoes &ss» cesrcsaL cssers ia OAM osassst rex AW. «
. «n»
JULw Bftf Ti^t'fcft
Off r«rf
tna
«««h
•MalBleeta
•Ifftalt
**—
Ittavtor
C-«Umlen
•Uflta.
UMi>rM
*^**»WU
UwtlM
Slfii-r,*
•a. of Bo. «f S«ee par SEo. ef
Oslu E^tfto&w 100 Cole &ai«Bl-
At fectfltf Ges^fftttd — 'Va&cs 8^^&j4fi9
et Biek
1 1 15.0 1
1 1 15.0 1
0 « 0.0 0
0 O 0.0 0
IB* o 9 o.o o
1 1 15.0 1
1 1 15.0 1
00 0.0 0
00 0.0 0
00 0.0 0
t* 0 0 0.0 0
0 0 0.0 0
0 O 0.0 0
POT 100 lie. of Be. «f
tstus&i~ Bntts gjtifiotoo
at Risk
4J 0 0
4.3 « «
0.0 0 0
0.0 O 0
^•£ O O
4J 0 0
•4.3 O 0 .
0.0 O 0
0.0 O «
0.0 0 «
0.0 0 «
0.0 0 0
O.O O 0
24.0 •
0.0 0
o.o a
4.0 1
4.0 1
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 O
0.0 0
0.0 0
•o.o o
O.O «
0.0 0
atscrso Hisses
333IS3
fsneoi
Sei&t far So. ef
109 9fi&K Afl^JBcl'—
*"3£G&f8 ffptftfl*^flm
at Eist
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
«.o o
0.0 O
0.0 0
0.0 •
•0.0 O
O.O 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
0.0 0
O.O 0
r*r 100
et Kick
11.2
0.0
0.0
l.t
!.«
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Kate
Per ICC
taismi-
ttsre
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1 !!!••*• ca r«^«rt ttat m* eat Eel«Md to •lads* (da* to «£c&teat «ad ekroaie lllesea}.
311
-------
1>72. CQKTAH609 Of IlLBBSI SATES K» KUCT8D SIGg*
or lueses IB surast AOO camel, cssoro ia AU. commas poa ALL
11*.
11UEWEZB*
off r**4
r*~r
CM*
l*wl 01*eh*rt«
Olffle.lt
iMKfclf*
Huh..
i*E£
COMUUIM
Ptente*
•fUff^ iB^tfOM
MfeXtoMh
Ateru.
41 CJBCJjptftfl X3
sifiBt
ALL l£fOflQfSO
ILUCSX£S°
off r«d
fmtr
CM*
•*Ml91*ck*rs
MffleaU
•n*tU«|
ItakXM
iMrail
Mknlor
CMKiml*.
OUnte,
«-*tar«e«
MMmButh
Atortte.
to. of
P*lt»
Iffoce**
10
1
0
0
0
1
3
1
0
2
-O
4
0
s
So. of
30
1
0
O
0
2
4
2
0
2
-0
3
0
it Irtfflun rgSM>rt> c%Bt — --— ,—-
Itsdffifi
date per Be. of
100 Ooit tolcal*
-foaro A2fT'
% 499 &££&
tt ete. «f
31. CS9UPS IB i
far 100
2JdO 0B^t Asi^ssit* AA&BA£*"
Ba#«a'£ed -%**n BjiJaxsios Yes?* J
t
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
«e Rid
18.4
*.3
0.0
».3
0.0
4.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
•.3
>J
0.0
0.0
t
2
1
o
1
0
*
o
o
o
1
1
0
0
et tUst
7.1
3.3
0.0
•3.3
0.0
3.3
0.0
0.0
4.0
3.3
3.3
0.0
0.0
•m
IBBIfi* GCtWXK TOg M& AVZAB
Bo. of
BmlEi
Ufeetsd
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
6». of
'Eplaade*
&BpOtt»t
3
1
a
0
o
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
*
&NE.CK01
Rate -gier
108 Uait
-fusto
et Riffk
M.1
6J
0.0
JL.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.8
4.8
6.8
0.0'
to. of
Auizrnl-
Spisada*
S
1
0
«
o
p
0
0
o
1
1
1
0
P«r 100
AafcMl-
Taera
&£ Qjjcfli
17.2
3.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.4
3-*
3.4
0.0
1 lilac** «• n*«rt
«« ralcc** to
to «ect
-------
TABU u-74. cmmrai or Ktusu. uum BATU ASS UKIBESCS MEM rea ezLsetro
or uojss* in SUEBSC 4*0 cottaoi. casura u rB*KUB-?iCK&4i« csomas E«a AU,
T^p"5Ef&yn3t^Rt
ALL-4(£rv«u£G
ILUBSU1*
octree*
rewr
Ce«k
Be. e(
cut*
AJf £•£(64
^••WMeMIMeMBIM
|
|
i
1
0
0
laeal Mcekacge 0
DUtiolt
mount
UtafcBM*
Akonial
lokev-ter
Coernrtrl
DUnkea
tlirrf l«T
ft^^U^M DAA
Akertlm
• tel.*.
0
2
0
M 0
1
MM 0
U 3
0
» lUaeesee
Bo. ef
&C&OVt£d
•^•Mn^MMM*
18
%
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
4
0
ea resort
Bate per la. ef
£00 Oolt AeiJial-
-Tear* Cplao4aa
at Rielt
e».o
4.t
0.0*
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.0
0.0
0.0
4.*
0.0
u.t
0.0
tb*t mre eot
35
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
5
0
felMl
tot ICO
Aalaol-
at Riek
5.3
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.8
0.0
CA ff Iflrfjflt
Ha. 02
Belt*
At ffrctft^
MMM^HVOiBIV^BMlBn
7
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
4
0
c<
•e. of
Kpleoae*
Reverted
MMMMMMMM^
1*
0
0
0
o
0
3
O
0
0
0
7
O
Bate per
100 Unit
-Icon
at K.teh
•maMHmnvnVHH
173.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
28.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
•7.3
0.0
Bo. ef
WMMBVIWMfcM
37
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
•o
13
0
Per 100
Tears
»t E-lak
20.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
*.§
0.0
(£*e to teeUout »wd cbromic illaessas).
TAJU U-75. COMMSIKB (9 AMEAL ttLIKSS B&TES AJ3> I8SIB2JSCZ
(IfW
AU. EPOCI!!
Off feet
rewr
CMC*
laaalMac
Difficult
HMtaoca
£.££
Cewtlcati
Mantea
Uaotlel
taMeiOe.
"-*"
He. ef
UUetat
D
3
0
0
0
totfe 0
0
0
0
tm 0
0
aeee 6
CB 1
0
Be. ef
S?i®s*a
tafoatai
*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
ul>Jf».ii
i 100 Ce&t
1 -?»ae» t
-------
TACU u-76. cuatuaea a xmsss BATS* n» ezuetra neai
or iuas£3 u SUJOGS ABB carrm, ceo»8 in AU. conmec rot ooss
Coa
£eta Rates
Be. ef Me. of Base t*t Bo. of f*r 100. no. of «o. of Bate per Bo. of Far 100
0>lte KatoTdfti 100 Unit AnliniiB A&IABI^ tlolta Cplaodfle 100 Bolt A&£fflAls JlrtM l~
llpo Affected SoBoraed -Xe*re Afteeted T«a» Afiocted Oaoortad -Yooa Affected Team
m^pXRKBfff^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ™I'™^^^""I^~™^™"I»"1"1*'"I^^"^"^^""-^^— "^^— ^^^^"^^— •" 1 IM^H^^B^MMMB •• II
ALL KrOSJlV
IUISMU* 11 14 17.9
Off teed 2 2 2.4
't*ar 0 0 0.0
Coach 2 2 2.4
dial Olacterge 1 1 1.3
Difficult
IceatUat 1 * "1.3
UcakABM 1 1 1.3
Atensal
tekMlw 0 0 0.0
CeutlaMlo* 1 1 1.3
Vlarrhaa 1 1 4.3
llaed 1> reee> 1 ' 1 1.3
teUn Duck 1 1 1.3
AtertlM 0 0 -0.0
17
2
«
2
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
• ltfl»dm 11 UlottM ceoaru tbat «m«* sot ralcced «e al
tAELS 11-77. COSPAJffiSeS 0? ABI&S4I. £LUSi
or ausess us susses &»a eca-nwi
10.3 U 30
1.2 • 9
0.0 S J
1.2 1 1
0.4 0 0
0.4 3 3
0.4 3 S
0.0 2 2
0.4 0 0
•CA 1 3
0.4 3 3
0.4 1 1
0.0 O 0
todge I.emBf93S KAXSS PCS t
. estow la Egaia* CKE«TJ roa AU.
«.»
13.*
7.4
1.3
0.0
4.3
7.4
J 0
0.0
4.5
4.9
1.3
0.0
le til-teow
SLSOTSO S
60SS
32 25.2
9 7.1
3 3.9
1 0.8
0 0.0
3 2.4
9 3.9
2 1.4
0 00
3 2.4
3 2.4
1 0.8
.0 0.0
»•/ *
uses
SlciA^a G«?igr»&
Be. of 6*, ef Kata foe
Oaltn E^ice&is 100 Dale
ftiCM Affttetsd ft^titflr&od *V€ATB
et Fitsi
IUBU3IS* 1 4 44.4
Oft reed 0 O O.O
row oo o.o
CM|b 0 0 0.0
•uel Olactane 0 • 0.0
Dlffteklt
lnathl«c 1 2 23 J
•••HMI 1 2 23.3
*«»»ie» 1 2 83.3
CeMUfotlo* 0 0 0.0
Mentoe 1 l u.7
•tool la reeeo 0 0 0.0
(eelM Ouch 0 0 0.0
AWrtlea 00. 0.0
So. et
72
0
O
0
0
44
44
44
0
1
0
0
0
Pec ISO Bo. ef Ko. of
Zeaca AfJI«sG«d Sapocted
St llok
33.2 4 7
4.0 2 1
0.0 « 0
O.O D 0
0.0 O 0
21.2 « «
21.2 1 1
21.2 0 0
0.0 a -o
0.9 A 0
0.0 1 2
0.0 1 1
0.0 0 0
100 Bttit
AC &&&&
«a.4
14.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.1
0.0
0.0
4.0
SB .2
14.1
0.0
tlata
Be. at for ISO
AaisiAl'* A&AfiAl—
leiMidM Iteara
at Eiisk
42 22.3
1 0.4
0 6.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
0 0.0
1 0.4
O 0.0
0 0.0
e o.o
•50 16.0
1 0.4
0 0.0
bdadef 3 m»e>eei ee
report that tasa aet related to elvdne (doe ee eeeideM ead chrealc
314
-------
tuu u-78. comax&M or MSIKAI, UUKSS BATCS AS» laiasacs EATSS m msc?® stcss
or I mm u suffice ABO ecores, CROBJS u raM8Jiuiw«2MAX coasras PC* ALL
llu&e*
beta
•a. at Da. of taea g*r Ba. ef For 100
Unit* Kpiaotfaa 100 Dole Aoiaol- Aaiul-
flfai Affacw< Ee^eccod -Zaoa Balaedee loan
et Kick »t EioSt
All ktir6kl3U>
IUJBMM*
oft ro*t
tnar
Cao*
dial Dttchasva
OUftolt
UMkiMea
AkOMMl
MuTlar
Cautlaatloa
DUR*«a
t\ttt la taeaa
Min Death
Abmlaa
* btlvaaa 11 t
9 12
1
0
1
I
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
lloftaasaeai
TABU 11-79.
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
ren
C
U
23 .»
2.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
act tbet vets
SisS?68!KHI ft?
jjsm IB SUE
13 14.2
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
ace related eo
£9£m 1U,S3$2
0.9
0.0
0.9
0.9
0.0
0.9
0.0
0.9
-0.0
0.0
0.9
0.0
Ho. ef
Oalta
12
4
4
1
0
2
3
2
0
1
1
0
•o
Ra. of
20
7
4
1
0
2
3
2
0
1
1
O
0
altxSga (toe Co xerMsnt sst
BATE* t
dsscrol
Kcca car
109 0«U
-Sean
B£ ttiSll
47.1
14.5
9.4
2.4
0.0
4.7
7.1
4.7
0.0
2.4
2.4
O.C
0.0
Go. ef
Asiesl-
gyiwsias
22
7
4
1
0
2
3
2
0
1
1
0
0
tor 100
tccra
at £Uek
17.3
8.9
5.0
1.3
0.0
2.3
3.8
. 2.9
0.0
1.3
1.3
0.0
0.0
ebces&c Ulooaaos).
UJo) t32£B3Ei£CE 9EATSS ffOQ ffiSuJ^C^i^B ffUQii^S
m su^ss. csyian t %6d — Stf&ca Splfso^aa Yaaffs
0.0
e.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
•0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
00. »f
Ottta
Af{«ce«4
3
1
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
So. of
Bspeeeed
3
1
1
O
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
^&CA aaff
ICO Dbit
sc Eistt
49.0
9.«
9.B
0.0
0.0
».
J9.6
0.0
0.0
9.9
9.8
0.0
0.0
te. ef
Syiaedaa
3
1
1
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
' 0
Seta
Ps IT ISO
Aalasl-
et Risk
U.*
3.*
3.4
0.0
0.0
J.*
10.7
0.0
0.0
3.4
3-*
0.0
0.0
iHloeii 3 lllaaacaa M noert that tssre
act calatod ta aluag* (tea
315
-------
TABLE 11-eO. COKTARISO* Of IU.HCM BATES FM KLCCTEO 8ISS3
ILUtBIS U SLUDGE AND CO«SOL GROUPS IN ALL COUBTISS TOS C&XS
Siwisa Csastol
lit**
ALL REPORTS
ILLUMES*
Oft read
»*»er
Cat*
,«o. of
Oaltu
Affecto*
13
3
0
4
lanl Dlaclwrga 4
Difficult
treathlnc
Baakaaaa
tkeerael
eakarlor
Coutlpatim
Dlarrkea
Uaad le'tecai
Sadden Death
Akortloa
• belada* 23
4
4
0
0
2
I 4
1
0
Ulaaae
•o. of
Celeeda*
Oaported
J*
3
0
5
4
5
«
0
0
2
1
1
0
report* that
Beta par
100 Unit
-Tasn
at £i»fc
30.2
6.3
0.0
10.5
•.4
10.5
12.6
0.0
0.0
4.2
2.1
2.1
0.0
sera not
So. ef
Aaloal*
Affected
76
4
0
21
36
M
23
0
0
14
1
3
0
ralfttcd to
Rate '
far 100
Anloal-
Year*
-At EULsfe
31.9
1.7
0.0
6.8
15.1
15.9
10.5
0.0
0.0
5.9
0.4
2.1
0.0
sludge I Ana
80. of
Unite
Affeetad
22
7
1
3
1
3
3
2
0
4
O
•
0
Ko. of
Cyiaeoa*
l&pectad
43
•
1
3
1
4
7
2
0
4
O
»
0
SJtte per
100 Colt
-Ye«T*
atJUUfc
C2.3
15.3
1.9
3.7
l.t
7.7
13.4
3.8
0.0
7.7
0.0
17.2
0.0
to asGidaaea wed ehroalc Ulaac
TABU U-81. CGWASISOa 07 AH1HU, ILLKZfS BATES AKS ItfcZB&BtX
« ILLSS6S8
U 8UJSSS
ASSO aers»
I CSOtlrt IN
8ATKS 70S !
is&iSA caysn paa ALL
8c. of
Aaiaol*
e«
12
2
4
1
7
12
2
0
•
0
U
0
•as).
Knee
fer 100
Aolaal-
At Rlffik
25.1
4.4
0.7
1.5
0.4
2.6
4.4
0.7
0 0
2.2
0.0
4.1
0.0
jasctS) sioas
coxs
SltKSaa &BE4C91
Sl|«
lU'jMsas"
P-f read
rewr
<**>
He. of
Baits
Affected
1
0
0
0
Mail Dlseftarta 0
Hffloalt
IcattUa*
imimeai
Uaanal
lekmor
C«*U.atle.
aiarrhaa
Uaad uraeai
MdamOaatk
«mt-
0
0
0
0
0
i 0
0
0
He. ef
B^HiKH&flJS
EjfcjwffteaS
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
fata par
100 Gslt
-Setss
at E*,e!c
7.C
0.0
0.0
0>0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Oe. of
Aaloal-
Batoadaa
1
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
«
0
0
Rsta
far 190
Aalanl-
faara
at Ri«fc
1.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Bo. ef
Oalt*
A£foeted '
3
1
0
2
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
Be. ef
BalaoAM
&DS«fGod
7
*
0 •
-2
1
2
3
I
«
1
0
1
0
Bate ear
100 Oalt
-Ts*j*
(BE EJnk
M.6
25.3
0.0
JS.3
12.7
2yj-
M.O
12.7
a.o
12.7
0.0
12.7
0.0
Bo. of
Aaiail-
Spteaaa*
U
a
«
9
1
2
4
I
0
1
0
1
0
£a£a:
f «r 100
&aloal~
Yeetra
at atefe
19.«
3.4
0.0
S.4
1.6
3.4
7.2
1.6
0.0
i.e
0.0
l.f
0.0
oa report that «*• aoc calated to tloase (OM te accident and ureele lUnca).
316
-------
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317
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-------
SECTION 12
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF METAL RESIDUES AOT INFECTIONS
IN SLUDGE-EXPOSED LIVESTOCK
Chada S. Reddy, B.V.Sc., M.S., Ph.D.*
C. Richard Dora, D.V.M., H.P.H.*
David N. Lamphere, D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D.*
Jean D. Powers, Ph.D.a1
*Departm@nt of Veterinary Preventive Medicine
^Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharaacology
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
SUMMABY
Transmission of infectious agents and translocation of toxic heavy metals
(cadaium, Cd; copper, Cu; lead, Pb; and zinc, Zn) from an&erobieally digested
sludge to farm animals grazing on sludge amended pastures and their tissues
was studied. The rates of annual sludge application on the 3 study farms
ranged from 2-10 dry metric tons per hectare and were determined to supply all
the phosphorus requirements of the soil-plant system on these farms.
Annual sample collection and routine testing of livetoek on these farms
revealed no significant health risk associated with the possible presence of
bacteria: Mycob&etsrium bovis, Salmonella spp., and coessoa animal parasites
including Hemagod^irug J£E* » S^ron^ylus .§££• , .Stron^yloideg. J£g« , Tricburis
spp. , Eimerla epp. , ' Agc&gig_ sjpj>« , and Ancyloatomum spp. in sludge. Annual
tuberculin tests of calves that were slaughtered following 3 to 8 months of
grazing on slud&e applied pastures *&xe
Significantly higher fecal cadmium concentrations were detected in
samples collected from cattle soon after being placed on sludge applied
pastures as compared to pre-sludge values in the same animals. Ko increases
were seen in samples from the control cattle or sludge exposed cattle late
during the grazing period. Tissue analysis for toxic metals indicated
significant Cd and Pb accumulations in kidneys of calves grazing sludge
applied pastures compared to control calves. Muscle tissue showed no
tccuoulation of any of the metals studied. Although older cows grazing sludge
•pplied pastures had significantly higher blood Pb levels, no metal
accumulation was seen in tissues. The results of this study showed no
significant risk of animal infections associated with gracing of pastures
•mended with these low sludge application rates. Statistically significant
accumulations of Cd and Pb in the kidney of calves grazing these pastures for
318
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a relatively short period of time suggests that caution must be exercised to
avoid prolonged exposures on pastures vith high sludge application rates,
especially for sludges with high concentrations of heavy metals.
INTRODUCTION v
Land application of treated municipal sewage sludge is becoming
increasingly popular as a method of sludge disposal because of both economic
as cell as resource reclamation considerations (Pahren, 1980; Young and
Carlson, 1975). Hyde (1976) presented evidence for increased crop yield
following moderate sludge applications. A Cooperative Extension Service-Ohio
State University Bulletin (1982) contains data indicating tne value of
nunicipal sludges in replacing the commercial fertilizers to increase crop
yields. Edds and Davidson (1981) showed that 19.8 tons/hectare of urban
sludge would produce plant growth equivalent to that produced by recommended
levels of commercial fertilizers. Sludges, however, contain microorganisms of
communicable or zoonotic nature (e.g. bacteria, viruses, and parasites), toxic
heavy metals and trace organics. If sludge application on farm land is not
managed properly, these disease agents may affect animal and human health
(Pahren e£ al., 1979).
A report by the UHO working group (WHO, 1981), following an extensive
review and discussion of health risks associated with sludge-borne microbes,
concluded that only two pathogens, the salmonellae and the eggs of Taenia
aaginata, need to be considered in a sludge application program on farm
lands. Jelinek and Braude (1977) however, suggested that health ritks from
Mycobacteriua tuberculosis, eggs of Ascarids and other parasites,, and
sludge-borne viruses are unknown and need to be evaluated. Sagik c£ _a:L.,
(1980) reviewed data demonstrating the isolation of sairaonellae from sludge as
well as from animals fed sterile sludge spiked with known numbers of
Salmonella organisaa. Neither Sagik «£ £l., (1980), nor Oliver (1980) were
able to find reports demonstrating association between sludge-borne
salmonellae and Salnooglla. infections in animals and/or man. Re illy et al.,
(1981), however, recently reported 26 incidents of human and animal
saloonellosis in Scotland in which the infection originated from sewage and/or
effluents either contaminating waterways or being applied on farmlands. In
one of the three episodes associated with land application of sewage sludge,
200 people were affected after consuming raw milk from a dairy farm on which
sludge was applied. During the same period, there were 5 known outbreaks of
cysticercosis in Scotland attributed to the use of sludge on farmland
(Macpherson e£ al., 1978;.Reilly e£ al., 1981). Incidence of cysticercosis in
cattle following sludge application on farmlands has also been reported from
Australia (Rickard and Adolph, 1977) and the U.S. (Hammerberg, ££ al., 1978).
It is likely that most or all of these episodes are a result of exposure to
untreated sewage sludge.
Chancy (1980) pointed out that although sewage sludge has considerable
quantities of trace elements, sludges containing industrial wastes with higher
concentrations of toxic elements are of more concern. Consistent increases in
•oil concentrations of Zn, Cu and nickel (Ni) are known to occur as a result
of land application of sludge (Page, 1974). Otte and LaConde (1977) observed
increases in soil and plant concentrations of Cd, Zn, Cu'and Ni in more than
319
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half of Che 9 sites studied in the U.S., practicing land application jf
sludge. Phytotoxic concentrations of Zn in cheatgrass and dangerously fcigh
concentrations of Cd in wheat grain were observed at one site each. Uiuesly
et al. i (1976) reported similar increases of Cd and Zn in soil and plant
Hssues but never in phytotoxic concentrations. Phosphorus levels in sludges
appeared to be limiting the sludge loading rates and thus prevent excessive Cd
and Zn accumulation. Although higher sludge (Cd) loading rates increased corn
grain cadmium to levels higher than those reported as normal (Binesly, £2.£l.*»
1977), annual sludge application at rates just enough to provide supplemental
nitrogen for corn resulted in Cd and Zn accumulations of no significant health
risk. Furr je£ al., (1976a) concluded that Hi, Cd and mercury (Hg) are among
the elements which significantly accumulated in certain garden cropc -jrown on
sludge amended soil. Hyde (1976) claimed good public acceptance of land
application of sludge and no food chain hazards resulting from modera: t (3-32
metric tons/ha) sludge applications, despite increased levels of Cd and Zn in
soil and plant samples tested.
Although accumulation of Cd in animal muscle tissue is insignificant
under conditions of normal soil Cd concentrations and plant uptake,
significant elevation in kidney Cd of pheasants (Helsted et_ £l., 1977), guinea
pigs (Furr et_-al., 1976b), rats (Miller and Boswell, 1961) -and «wine (-Haosen
and Uinesly, 19T9) fed grain or leaves from plants grown on soils amended with
very high levels of sludge have been found. The possible Cd entry i,nto
poultry and egg products is suggested by the report of Leach £t_ £l. (1979).
Significant accumulations of Cd £cd Zn in liver and kidney and Cu and lead
(Pb) in the liver were reported in cows and calves that greyed on pastures
irrigated with liquid sludge (FitzgeraW, 1980). The exposure io the case of
calves was for less than a year (Fitzgerald, 1980) and for this reason, the
magnitude or accumulation of toxic metals was lower compared to that of cows.
Decker et al., (1980) noted poor performance, and iron accumulation in liver,
spleen and intestines of steers grazing on pastures that were sprayed with
high iron sludge. Long term ffeuding of sludge as « part of animal diets
resulted in accumulation of Cd in liver and kidney of cattle and swine &a well
as suppression of growth and reproductive performance in swine (F.dds, et al.,
1980). Liver and kidney from tbtse animals, when fed to mice as 52 of their
diet, caused trenslocation of Cd and Pb into mouse tissues and alsc caused
reproductive impairment (Edda «£ al., 1*80). Boyer £t al., (1981) also
trepoated incceasaa la $b & .d Cd in kidney, aod €>b, •Cd~miH'i;u In the liver of
»fsere fed Denver sewage udge at 12% level in their diet. Corn (1979)
reviewed the available evidence and pointed out the possible contribution of
sewage sludge to already high ually huaai cadmium intake by war of its
translocation via sludge-soil-plant-unimal human chain arid also a direct
plant-human ,,hain. Following a careful review of available literature, the
Council for Agricultural Science «tnd Technology (CAST, 1976) recognized Cd,
Cu, Pb and Ni as the elements of major environmental concern. Rubens (1980)
added Zn ari molybdenum (Mo) to this list.
No comprehensive study of animals on farms receiving relatively low level
municipal savage sludge application has been condrjted. Therefore the
research reported h&re was undertaken to study the potential animal and human
health affectr resulting from land application of treated sewage sludge
applied at rates pre-determined to be beneficial to soil end agricultural
320
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production on Ohio f arras. This report: summarizes measurements of the a ambers
of selected fecal parasite ova and of the frequency of Salaonalla isolations
in feces of farm animals and pets on a sample of 8 farms. The study also
evaluates the ex teat of exposure of cattle to Myeobacteriua spp and the extent
of heavy metal translocation from sludge into cattle tissues.
METHODS °
Eight farms %*ere selected based on the presence of cattle (a breeding
herd of at*least 10 cows) that must be pastured a substantial part of the
year, suitability of the pasture for sludge application, farmer willingness to
supply four calves each year for slaughter, and a willingness by the farmer to
cooperate during testing and sampling of animal herds. There ware 18 eligible
cattle fanas In Pickaway County and 3 eligible cattle farms in Franklin
County. Therefore the 8 cattle farms selected comprised a 38 percent sample
of the eligible faros.
Chronology of hard testing^ sludge application and sampling._ Four faros
were recruited in the fall of 1978 (Fall farms) and fou-r more in the spring of
1979 (Spring farms). Each farm was randomly assigned into either the
.sludge-receiving group -or the control group. All cattle on the four «ludge
receiving farms «ere tested for tuberculosis (caudal fold test) within two
weeks before sludge application. At this time, individual fecal and heir
samples were collected from all cattle. Four calves (1-2 months of age) <*ere
identified by ear tags and 300 ml of blood was collected from the Jugular vein
into bepariuized polyethylene bottles. These calves were allowed to graze for
3-8 months on sludge applied pasture before they ware slaughtered. Composite
fecal samples froai all or fear food producing animals on the farm, and
individual fecal ssssples of horses and pets «%re also collected for Salaooella
isolation and paraeitological examination. Up to five individual cattle fecal
samples were composited for Salmonella isolation and parasitological
examination. Individual cattle fecal samples were dried, percentage dry
matter calculated, ground to a fine powder with a porcelain mortar and pestle
and stored In acid-Hashed polyethylene bottles for heavy raetal analysis. Hair
samples were c* --ssified into 9 color coded color categories ranging f roa
blonde to bla- trashed twice with a commercial detergent (Snoop, 12, Nupro
Co., Willougbbr,, OH), rinsed thoroughly in double distilled deionized water,
air driex. and stored in plastic bags (Whirlpack, Fioaeer Container Corp.,
Cederburg, HI) until analyzed for heavy setals. Fecal samples from study
calves were analyzed for Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn whereas those froa other cattle
were analyzed for Cd only.
Within 2 to 3 weeks following the initial herd testing, sludge was
applied on the farms at rates of 2-10 dry m. tons/hectare (Cooperative
Extension Service-The Ohio State University guide, 197S). Average
concentrations of Cd, Cu, Fb and Zn in the sludge applied on these f&ras for
the period 1978-1982 were 77.8, 733, 557 and 5223 eg/kg respectively.
Following a 30 days witholding period, cattle were allowed to graze on the
pastures for a period ranging from 5 to 8 months. Within two weeks froa the
beginning of grazing, fresh facal samples (pasture pick ups) from the grazing
cattle were collected directly froa the pastures for Salmonella Isolation,
parasitologic examination and heavy metal analysis.
321
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At Che end of 3-8 month grazing period, four calves (Identified at Che
initial testing) from each fans were tuberculin tested, using comparative
cervical test, and then slaughtered. Feces, blood, hair, liver, kidoey,
•uscle (triceps) and bone (12th rib) samples from these animals were subjected
for heavy octal analysis. Fecal samples were examined for Salaioaglla^ and
parasites. Gross exazainaton of glfr c areas sea for abnormalities .was routinely
conducted.
Similar herd testing and calf slaughter was conducted annually for two
additional years. Control farms were also tested and sampled on an annual
basis using the azote procedures used on the sludge-receiving farms. The
chronology of herd testing-saispling and calf slaughter are shown in Figure
12-1. As indicated in Figure 12-1, the number of sludge applications on these
fans ranged from 2 to 6 and were dependent upon weather, soil type, and the
accessibility of the fields to hauling equipment. In addition, a ban on
•ludge hauling was instituted in the susmer of 1980 in Pickat£%y county by the
local health department due to negative reaction from a uuaber of individuals
resulting f roa inadvertent hauling of untreated, odorous sewage sludge by a
sludge hauler. Therefore, 3 of the 4 sludge group farms received no
additional slud-- after the sussaar of 1980 (figure JL2-1).
In addition, wfesn older cows froa the study farms destined for slaughter
were available, staples were collected for Salmonella isolation, parasitology
and heavy metal analysis. Ten cows from sludge farms and two cows from
control farms were available for this testing.
Tuberculosis testing
Caudal fold test; All cattle participating in the project snare
Identified by mecal ear tags aod tested according to USDA Uaifora Methods imd
Rules for tuberculin teatiog USDA (1982). The test consisted of intradera&l
injection of 0.1 ml of tuberculin (Tuberculin Purified Proteia derivative
[FPD] Bovis latraderaic, produced for Animal end Plant Health Inspection
Service, United States Department of Agriculture) in the caudal fold at the
base of the tall. Seventy tso hours later, the site of injection was examined
visually as well as by palpation for diffuse or circumscribed swelling. A
diffuse reaction of increased akin thickness twice or caore of that -of •normal
skin or a circumscribed enlargement of 5 am or more was considered to be a
positive response.
Cervical test: All of cbe calves earapled and slaughtered froa each of
the 8 cattle study faros were tuberculin tested using human (Connaught
Laboratories Ltd., Hillowdale, Ontario, Canada), bovine (USDA) and avian
(DSDA) at three different sites on the neck. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) procedures for cervical testing were followed (USDA,
1973). Testing was performed over a 3 year period yielding a total of 40
tests on calves f roa sludge farsss and 40 tests on calves fro® control farms.
The cervical testing was initiated starting with the second group of calves;
therefore, the first 8 calves froa sludge farms and first 8 calves froa
control farms were tested by the caudal fold method instead of the cervical
net hod. The standardized tuberculins (0.1 ml) were injected into separate 4
322
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•quire inch clipped cites in the upper cervical area of cattle. The normal
•kin thickness --as measured with calipers. At 72 hr following injection, che
response was recorded as the increase (ma) in post-injection skin thickness as
coRpared to pre-injection thickness. Increase in thickness was plotted oa the
USDA report fora VS-Form 6-22D. According to the USDA procedures, increases
of 2.75 to 4.74 ma and greater than 4.75 ma of akin thickness at the bovine
sitt tcith no con&urceat JceacrXon .at the .avlan .site are required for 'suspect'
and 'reactor' classifications, respectively.
Salaooella Isolation and Identification
Cooposite fecal samples from cattle and other production eniaal units,
and individual samples from equines and pets were cultured for Salmonella.
Isolation of salmooelLae was attempted by lightly swabbing feces directly onto
differential and selective taedia (MacConkey, KLD, Hektoen enteric, and bismuth
sulfite agars). To enhance the chances of recovering salmonellae present in
low numbers in comparison with colifoms and other enteric bacteria, 10 ml of
selenlte enrichment broth was inoculated with approximately 1 gran of fcees
and incubated for 1 to 2 days at 37°C. Then a loopful of selenite broth
culture was streaked onto each of the media described above.
Plates were incubated for 18 to 24 hours at 37°C and then examined for
the presence of suspicious Salsotsella colonies. Suspect colonies were picked
to inoculate triple sugar iron agar (IS!) slants and urea agar slants and
incubated for 24 hours. Antiserum for Salaqnalla somatic 0 antigen groups A
through I was used to perform a slide agglutination test on each isolate
giving an alkaline slant and an acid butt on TSI, regardless of &2S
production, and a negative reaction on urea agar. Isolates shoeing
agglutination were subjected to & battery of differential biochemical tests
(API 20E strips, Analjtab Products, Plainvi@», M?) to determine whether their
characteristics were consistent «*ith those recognised for z&mbers of the genus
Salmonella. All positive isolates were confirmed aod serotyped by the Ohio
Departaent of Health Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Paraattologic examination
Individual samples from horses, pets and calves identified for slaughter,
and conposite fiamples from che -rest td Ch« c&t£le herds aod otter production
units were subjected to parasitologlcal examination by the Hcliaster's
technique (Ceorgl, 1974). The technique involves weighing 2 g of eet feces,
suspending tUea in 28 ml of saturated sodiua nitrate, taking up the suspension
into a sieve pipette (Mhitlock and Co., New South Wales, Australia), filling
oce of the three chambers of the HcHaster's slide (0.3 ml/chamber) and
examining under low power of a microscope. Quantitative, evaluation of the ova
of Hematodirus. Stroagyle, Strongyloides,. Trichuris and Eiiaeria j£p_ were done
on all Individual cattle staples. In addition, the canine samples were
specifically exaalned for ova of Asearis sp. in swine, and Ajicylostorauia sp.
(hookworm). All equine, pet anlaal and composite cattle fecal samples were
evaluated by floatation technique (Georgi, 1974).
Post oortesi examination for Taenla saglnata cysticercosis, Che
intermediate stage of the huaan tapeworm, Taeoia saginata was performed on
323
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each of the 48 calves from sludge farms and 48 calvss troa control farms that
were slaughtered, la addition, 12 cull cows were similarity examined. This
examination consisted of examination of the aasseter, diaphram, triceps and
cardiac ewncles for presence of dead or live cysts.
Heavy metal analysis
©
Analyses were done on a doubla beam atomic absorption spectrophotoaeter
(Model AA-775, Varian Techtron Pty. Ltd., Springvale, Australia) equipped with
* deuterium lamp for simultaneous background correction for nonatomic
absorption. Filter-purified water of 18 wsjsaohra conductivity (Hilli-Q Model
UQ2, Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA) was used throughout the experisent for
final glassware rinsing, ssasple processing and reagent preparation.
Laboratory glassware was washed 3 tisss with a caustic laboratory detergent
(2vent, Economics Laboratory, Inc., St. Paul, Ml.") and ringed with distilled
water in a mechanical dishwasher. Washed glassware and new sample containers
were rinsed 3 times in filter-purified water, soaked overnight in 102 reagent
grade nitric acid and given 3 final rinses with filter-purified water before
being oven dried (glassware) or air dried (plastic-Hare).
Concentrated redistilled nitric acid (G. F. Smith Chemical Co., Columbus,
OH) was -added to duplicate samples in 30 ml Kjeldaiil flasks. The samples were
placed in aluminum heating blocks, located in a fume hood, and brought to a
gentle boil (12O130°C). Varying amounts (0.5 to 2.0 ml depending oa the type
of tissue) of 30% hydrogen peroxide (&2°2* Hallinkrodt) were added to each
sample, approximately 24 hr. before acid evaporation. Samples were cooled
prior to H2&2 addition,, to prevent sample spillage from potentially explosive
evolution of ©2 fross the acid-peroxide mixture. Heating for an additional 24
hr. was necessary for d-scolorisation and complete sample digestion. The acid
vas then evaporated to asss: dryasss at 180 to 200°C. The residue was
dissolved in a constant voluae of deionized water or 5% WQ$ and the digested
saaples were stored in sealed 1 os. polyethylene bottles (Salge Co., Division
of Sybron Corp., Rochester, HY) until analysed.
Analytical results were calculated and recorded as Ug/100 ml for blood
and as Vg/g either on a wet basis for liver, kidney cortex and muscle or ou
"as is" basis for hair, and dry weight basis for fecss.
The method of standard additions was used to calibrate atomic absorption
readings for each sample type. Duplicate spikes of 0%, 50%, 100% and 150% of
Che samples*s expected content of each analyte element were prepared for a
standard additions series. These saaples were digested, diluted and analyzed
along with the other samples of the same tissue.
Detection limits were defined as sample analyte element concentrations
equal to twice the standard deviation for replicate absorbance readings of a
lov concentration sample. Standard deviations for detection limit
determinations were calculated from series of 10 repeated absorbance readings
of relatively low concentration samples taken against the samples' blanks..
Peceg;
Duplicate 200 Eg samples of dried cattle feces in 30 ml Kjeldahl flasks
324
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wre Added with iU ml of concentrated HH03. After 24 hr of digestion, 0.5 ml
of H2<>2 was added to each sample and they are reheated for aa additional 24 hr
period. Acid was evaporated to near drynesa and the residue dissolved la 25
nl of deionized water. Copper and Zn were analyzed using air-acetyleos f laae
seoaizat&oo (FA), and Cd and Pb were analyzed using carbon furnace (rod)
atoaization (CSA).
Liver and Kidney;
Duplicate 0.5 ag samples were digested in 10 ol of concentrated HN03 for
48 hr. At 24 hr, 2 al and 0.5 ml of &2°2 ^re added to liver and kidney
staples, respectively. After evaporation to near dryness, the samples aere
diluted to a final volume of 25 ml with deioaized water.
•
Copper and Zn were analyzed using FA, and Cd and Pb were analysed using
CRA oethods. An absorbance expansion factor (AEF) of 2 was used for copper in
both tissues and Pb in kidney Cadmium in kidney required a 502 dilution
(with 52 BN03) and an absorbance attenuation of 0.333.
Muscle:
Duplicate 1.5 g samples of triceps were digested to 15 ml of cone. 61103
for 96 hr. At 72 hr, 1 ml of E.2°2 was added. Final dilution volume was 10 ml
with deionized water.
Copper and Zn were analyzed using FA, and Cd and Pb were analyzed using
CRA. An AEF of 2 was used for copper. Lead levels were below detection limit
in all samples.
Bone;
Approximately 1 g duplicate samples of the 12th rib were digested in 10
al of concentrated HN03, as described for muscle. Analysis of Zn was
performed using FA, end Cd, Cu ai ' Pb was done using 50Z dilution (with 32
HH03) of the digestate and CEA.
Hair:
Duplicate t>.5 g samples were digested in 15 ml of concentrated HK03 for
72 hr. At 48 hr, 2 ml of H2°2 v&s added. The sasples were taken to a final
volone of 10 ml with 5% EK03.
Copper and Zn were analyzed using FA, and Cd and Pb were analyzed using
CRA. An AEF of 2 for Cu, and absorbance attenuation of 0.5 for Cd were used.
Final dilution of the digestate with 5% HN03 was necessary for repeatability
in Pb analysis.
Blood;
Duplicate 5 ml camples of blood were each added to 10 ml of concentrated
»nd left at rooa temperature, overnight, in a fume hood. They were then
gradually heated in the aluminum blocks, cooling the flasks when excessive
*
325
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fosaing occurred. Biisn there »as oo further foaaing, samples raecivsd an
additional 5 ol of concentrated HH03 and ware allowed to digest for 24 hr.
After cooling to rooa temperature, 2 ml of peroxide was added to each sample
and heating continued for 24 hr. The sasples were evaporated to approximately
1 ml. »nd adjusted to a final voluaa of 10 ml.
Copper znd Zn were analyzed using TA, and Cd and Pfa ware analysed using
CRA. An AEF of 2 as* used for Pb analysis. Host saaples had Cd levels below
detection limit.
Data Analysis
The period of observation and testing before first sludg* application is
referred to as pr®-sludge period. The period following the first sludge
application ending eith the last day of data collection is referred to as the
post-sludge period. The frequency distributions of the observed
concentrations of each elessnt in each type of sample t»ere plotted sod then
coaparad with siailar plots after log transformation of the data. The log
transformed data usually more clo&ely approximated the norsal distribution
Chan the noa-transfonaed data aad was therefore used in the analysis of
variance procedures. Heavy petal concentrations were compared between
pre-sludge and post-«iudge £ecdl, fcalr aoH blood samples within the two
treatment group (sludge receiving faros and control farms) and between
treatment groups within each period (pre- and post-sludge). Post-sludge
period on control farms repre@ents grazing period comparable to thut on the
afttched sludge-applied farms. The Statistical Analysis System (SA.S) general
linear models procedure wg@ executed through The Ohio State University -
Instructional &ad Ee&garch Conputer Center. The ©san square for farms nested
within trestseet v&® used e@ an «rror terra to evaluate the treatraest effects,
and sean square for farms' interaction «rf.th period (pre- or post-sludge)
nested within treatment was used as an error tera to evaluate the period
effect.
Cooparieons of heavy sets! concentrations in other tissues between the
treataent groups wag also dose by avralysia of variance using the sean square
for faros nested within treatment as an error tera. For s heavy metal value
that was below tne detection limit for that element, a value of half the
•detection lioit *s&s used In statistical -asialy^is.
RESULTS
Sunbar of cattle' contributing each type of saisple and testing are
indicated in the discussion of each sample type. Breeds represented by these
cattle vere: Hereford, Charol&is, Siraaental, Angus, Holstein and Santa
Gertrudis.
Tuberculosis testing
Caudal fold test; A total of 452 sludge exposed animals and 241 control
animals tested for tuberculosis one or sore tiz&ss. No positive redactions were
noted in either group. The numbers of animals tested and the numbers of tests
performed are summarized in Table 12-1.
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Comparative cervical test; None of the react ions at the human PPD
Injection Bite was greater than 2.75 era. Three sludge exposed animals and one
control anissal showed greater than 2.75 sat at the avien tuberculin injection
•ite. Hone of these reactions, however, vere greater than 4.75 ma (data not
show). Sone of the 40 calves in the sludge group demonstrated a reaction
greater than 2 oa to the bovine PPD (Table 12-2). One aniaal in the control
group with a 3 '«sa response to bovine PPD also had a 4 -asm response to avian
PPD.
Salmonella isolation
A total of 146 fecal samples froa sludge exposed aniaals and 138 samples
from control anisals vere screened for the presence of Sals naella organisms.
The animal species present on the farma and the number of samples screened
representing each species are listed in Table 12-3. A total of two samples
from anioal populations on sludge-receiving farms and 4 froa control farms,
vere found to be positive (Table 12-4). All isolates from control farms vere
S. monte video. These isolations involved two cattle, one horse and one
•vlie. One of the two isolates froa the sludge exposed cattle was S^
montevideo and the second isolate was the serotype S^ mugnchan. £._ muanchen
was also isolated from a child living on the IATB one year .prior to £._
muehchen isolation from cattle. Weekly analysis of samples of sludge that was
applied on these farms revealed S. St. Paul in a sample collected 4 months
prior to the isolation of S._ guenchen fro® cattle. All other sludge sacaples,
representing the weeks of sludge application on all eKperiaental farms, »ere
negative for salmoaallse.
Parasitologic
A conparison of the nwste&r of cattle fecal sasples processed in each of
the study groups aad the s&e&n counts and ranges of parasite ova representing
both pre-sludge &od post-sludge periods, are presented in Table 12-5.
Deacriptive evaluation of the data in Table 12-5 revealed no apparent pattern
in post-sludge iacre&9>@is ita the load of fecal parasite ova in cattla on sludge
receiving farss cohered to sssples froa &nioals on control farms during a
comparable period. The increases in the numbers of «troagyle ova during the
2-3 years post-sludge period and strongyloides ova during the 1-2 years
post-* lodge period, «$e?«
-------
(Table 12-7) indicates a significant decrease Zn concentrations In post-sludge
fecal staples from control calves compared to pre-sludgs samples from toe same
animals. Cedaiua, Cu end Fb concent rations also showed a siailar tendency.
Ho differences were noted in sludge-exposed calves. However, there uss a
tendtncy for higher fecal Cd concentrations following sludge exposure.
No apparent differences were noted between the calves representing the
two study groups before grs-iing (pr«- sludge period) for all elements.
Following grazing , calves and cows on sludge applied pastures tended to have
higher fecal Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations compared to calves and cows on
control pastures (Tabled 12-7, 12-3), but these differences ware not
statistically significant.
Fifty eight cows from sludge-receiving farms and 35 cows from control
faros remained on these farms for the entire project period. Chronological
analysis of fecal cachaium concentrations indicated a trend similar to that
teen in calves (Table 12-9). A tendsnev for a consistent rise in fecal Cd
concentrations was seen in sludge-exposed cows each year following sludge
application wharees the levels tended to drop in control cow samples with each
successive year (Table 12-9).
'Since the annual fecal saaple collection during herd testing, as veil as
the fecal sampling at slaughter w&s preceded by withdrawal of the animals from
pastures for varying lengths of tirae, it was decided to look at the heavy
aetal concentrations in fee@s collected while the animals were grazing the
experimental pastures (pasture pick-up sssples). This phase of the project
was limited to the sampling following first sludge application. Cattle on one
of the A sludge-receiving farms were away from the sludge applied pasture at
the tioe of sampling. For this reason only the pasture pick-up samples from 3
remaining farms aod eheir etching control faros were used in this comparison.
These results were coep&red with those of fecal sastplea obtained during the
initial herd testing, to evaluate the effect of sludge.
The results praseatsd in Table 12-10 indicate that within the sludge
exposed cattle, fecal Cd concentrations following grazing on sludge applied
pastures were significantly higher compared to those in feces before sludge
application (F < 0.01). In cattle grazieg on control pastures, however, a
•ignificant •decrease in -Gd cone@atrs£ien «&a observed (Table 12-10) In samples
collected in the post-sludge period compared to those collected during the
pte-sludge period. Although fecal cadaiua concentrations in cattle grazing
•ludge applied pastures were 2.5 times higher than those in feces from control
cows, the differences were not statistically significant at the 5% level.
Copper concentrations in pasture pick up samples from sludge-exposed cattle
also tended to be higher than the concentrations in samples from control
cattle.
Liver. The mean liver concentration (wet weight) of Cd in calves grazing
•ludge applied pasture were alaoet twice as high as those of calves f roa
control pastures (Table 12-11). Copper, on the other hand, was twice as high
in the control calf livers as was found in calves grazing sludge applied
pastures. These differences, however, ware not statistically significant. So
•Pparenc differences were found, in the Fb and Zn levels,- between the 2 groups
«f calves.
328
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Cd levels in livers frosa culled cows on sludge and control farms were 2
cod 4 tlmas AS high as those ia calves, respectively, too significant
differences were noted between the sludge and control group cove for any of
the heavy metals concentrations in liver (Table 12-12). Liver copper levels,
ag»in, were twice as high in control animals as were found in cows exposed to
sludge.
Kidneys. Significantly higher concentrations of Cd and Pb ware sesn in
kidney cortex from sludge exposed calves compared to those in controls. No
apparent differences war® found either in Cu and Zn levels in calf kidneys or
any of the elements in the kidneys of culled cows, between the two groups
(Tables 12-13, 12-14).
Muscle (Triceps). Lead concentrations in all samples were bslow
detection limit (0.032 Ug/g). Nona of the other elements, (Cd, Zn, Cu)B
showed any significant accumulations in this tissue of either the calves or
the culled cows (Tables 12-15, 12-16).
Bone. Although there was a tendency for higher bone Pb concentrations in
sludge-exposed calves (Table 12-17) and a tendency for higher bone Cu
•concentrations la control culled «&KS (Table 12-18) compared to those in
control calves and sludgs-esposed cows, respectively, no significant
differences were noted in concentrations of any elements in bone of either
calves or cows between the two groups.
:
Hair. Pre-sludg® hair samples froa calves on sludge and control farms
contained similar concentrations of all 4 elements. Among post-sludge
•asples, a tendency for higher levels of Zn end lo^sr levels of Cu in the hair
of sludge-exposed calves compared to those of control calves, was found (Table
12-19). Within each study group, this post-sludge concentrations of Cd aed Cu
Here lower (P < 0.05) compared to the pre-sludge samples. Ziac concentration
significantly (P < 0.05) iaereaeod following grazing on sludge applied
pastures as eoapared to control pastures. Ho significsne differences were
found in the heavy isstal concentrations of post-sludge hair staples from older
cows (Table 12-20). Analysis of heavy metal concentrations by differences ia.
the hair color failed to indicate any consistent trend. -
Blood. Most Cd concentrations were below -the detection limit of 0.022
Ug/106 nl for these aasples, no differences were noted in blood Cd levels of
calves either between treatments within each period (pre- and post-sludge) or
between periods within each study group (Tables 12-21, 12-22). In cows, blood
Pb concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in sludge-exposed group
thau in control group (Table 12-22). No differences were apparent in blood
levels of other elements In cows.
DISCUSSIOH
The results of this investigation did not demonstrate risk of Increased
animal infections after they were grazed on pastures where 2 to 10 dry metric
tons/per hectare of sewage sludge had been applied.
t
The study also indicated that quantitative evaluation of the magnitude of
329
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exposure to (wavy netals using fecal concentrations la grazing animal* should
b« undertaken eooa after the initial 30-day withholding period and ons week of
grazing on sludge applied pasture. As demonstrated in this study, 3 to 8
•oaths following grasing, fecal Cd levels returned to pre-sludge values. This
My be due to washing away of sludge adherent to forage, depletion of
•ludge-contaainated forage late in grazing, reduced upper soil cadmium
concentrations resulting from leaehirjg into the soil bed, uptake by plants and
grazing animals, and surface drainage. Uptake, by plants, of heavy metals
present in sludge applied to cropland has been demonstrated by several
investigators (Edds and Davidson, 1981; Giordano and Hays, 1977; Binesly _et_
•1., 1976, 1977; Miller and Boswell, 1981). Bertrand et «1., (1981) allowed
beef steers to graze bshiegrass pastures applied with liquid digested sludge,
equivalent to 16-32 tons per hectare dry sludge, for 168 days. Several heavy
octal concentrations were increased in feees collected at 28 day intervals
during grazing. Differences between this study and our results from fecal
•topic9 collected at annual herd testing and slaughter can be explained by
repeated and higher rates of sludge application, and lack of withholding
period before grazing by Bertread ££ ajl. (1981) compared to a single low level
Application and a 30 day withholding period for grazing in our studies. The
cattle were allowed to graze on the pastures starting 30 days after sludge
application. These results support Che recommended 30-days withholding time
period in the Criteria for Classification of Solid taaate Disposal •Facilities
and Practices USEPA (i'^79)".' An additionarcontHbuTing factor could be the
time lapse between the last grazing and sample collection.
No changes in the blood levels of the elements studied were observed in
calves. However, sludge-exposed cows .had significantly higher Pb levels
compared to control cows. Although this was associated with & tendency for
higher Pb levels in faces, liver, and kidneys of cows as well as liver and
blood of calves, and also significantly higher Pb levels in calf kidneys, the
results should be evaluated cautiously in view of the ©mall sample size: only
two cows representing a single farm from the control group (vs. 8 animals from
3 farms from the sludge group).
The levels of the elements in various tissues reported here in cattle
agree well with those already published (Dorn et ajL., 1972; Kreuscr, e£ al.,
1976). Among the various tissues studied, kidneys appear to be the most
sensitive indicators of long-term low level £xpo@uffe to heavy ssetal
contaminants. Significant accumulations of Cd and Pb in kidney of calves in
this study were associated with a consistent tedency of accumulations of Cd
and Pb not only in sludge-exposed calf liver but also in liver and kidneys of
older cows on sludge applied farms. A tendency for lower levels of Cu in the
liver of both cows and calves in sludge applied farms compared to controls
reflects a possible Cd or. Pb interaction with Cu. No such interaction was
seen in kidney. Similar results were obtained by Lamphere «t_ al. (1984) in
calves fed normal Cu but elevated (50 ppm) dietary Cd levels. Dorn et al.
(1973) also reported a very low liver copper level in A cow exposed to Pb
contamination from a ssaslter. Bertrand «-t_ jd• (1981) obtained similar results
with beef steers grazing sludge-applied pastures. Cadmium and Zn can directly
inhibit Cu uptake by intestinal cells as well as cause Cu entrapment in
Intestinal cells by intestinal cell metallothionein induction (Mills, 1980).
Cadmium can inhibit Cu transport from intestinal cells to the liver by
330
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decreeing levels of s«rua eerruloplesmin (Campbell and Hills (1974). Known
reduction* in liver Cu concentrations with age (MAS, 1980) are also
deaonstrated in our study in both sludge-exposed as well ae control cattle.
Boa* and muscle of either the calves or the cows gave no evidence of
accumulation of the elements studied. Hair, on the other hand, exhibited
post-sludge J-nccease «&ly in Zn concentration -that vas -also significantly
higher than hair Zn concentrations of either pre- or post-sludge control
samples. These hair levels, in the absence of such increases in blood and
other tissues may suggest direct exposure of hair to sludge-borne Zn and
inability of our hsir v&shiog procedures to remove &d@ozbed Zn. The Zn levels
in the Columbus sludge (Franklin and Picks way Counties) was far higher than
those levels for the other sewage treatment plants in the health study
(Section 1). This hypothesis of an exogeneous source of the Zn ia supported
by « recent study by Lssphare (1981) in which no demonstrable increase in hair
Zn concentration was seen in calves fed Zn levels AS high as 600/ug/g of feed
for 60 days, in the absence of external contamination. At these levels of
feeding, high levels of Zn in blood, liver and kidney ware found (Lamphar« e£
al., 1984) in association with higher levels of Zn in fecas.
The results of our study indicated that land application of sewage-sludge
at rates sufficient to eapply phosphorous requirements of the soil-crop system
(2-10 dry metric ton? per hectare) would probably not be associated with
increased risk of animal infections with common bacterial and parasitic *
agents. Evidence of increased exposure to heavy metals obtained during the
early grazing period by way of fecal Cd concentrations, disappeared within 4
to 9 months after sludge application and grazing. Heavy metals, especially Cd
and Pb, accumulated significantly iu calf kidneys following grazing of
sludge-applied pastures for a period of 3-8 months beginning one month after
•ludge application. It is possible that the increases in Cd due to recent
sludge-exposure were not significant, due to the Inherently (age related)
higher levels of Cd in cow kidneys.
The biological significance of Cd and Pb accumulations in calves,
demonstrated in this study, is miniraieed by the low magnitude of -accumulations
as well as lack of acesssulstloa in euscle, the predominant edible tissue from
beef animals. However, the results aleo suggest that care must be exercised
to prevent higher application rates of sludge with high h&asfy octal
concentrations, especially for longer grazing periods than those utilized in
this investigation.
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9 J01H2 12 3456789 JO II t2 j 2345678 9 EO I i J2 I 234 S678 9O«lg I 234 56789
19TO 1979 O8O 1861 1982
YEAR AMD MO?fTH BY NUMBER
rifts* 12-1. CkTOsuoLEgy o£ elmdga epflletci^ LA), eaii wnpl* eeXlaetloa iorlcg
iarssa
la £te Fall 1$7S er Sjtil&s 1S75
336
-------
\
TAS2 12-1. A8S0AI. CASUAL POLS T0BSSCOUJ8 TSOTIBC 0? CASTLE
A2SO CALVES OS SL8S3GE ABB COgms. ?A£t3
Total
OB*
Two
ThTM
Fear
_ Sla&$t
452
334
46
71
1
Control
241
172
29
37
3
0
0
0
0
0
Ko. Pealtlva
O
o
0
0
0
TAfi&B 12-2. CSmCAL TEST BSSKSSSS TO BOTOSJ
1H C4WBS FROa SUJBCS AS9 COtfTBSt FAEfcS
SJ.t,i?.* ranis
Tear
All
1
2
3
Bo.
Teated
40
8*
16
16
'So. 01 rsspos
2.75 raa or
£ tester
0
0
0
0
Central Fa
Caa
s*cs Ho. of 8T6
CC^TBSS. F&^S SEK5EE SLCBK (ES) AJEO AHTSS 5!U!0eE (AS) APFLICAXXQ3
Anlaal Type
ALL
Boriat
SMLac
Koalm
CdptlM
CMiM
Fella.
PoMltry
R3
Eo. ^osltlvt
0/36
0/26
0/5
O/O
0/1
0/4
0/P
0/0
SXadea
i*-S
u" Bo. i'esiilwt/
80. Teecad
3/110
3/74
0/17
0/0
0/5
0/9
0/1
0/4
&
iiS
80. PoaiElva/
Ho. Tested
0/34
0/22
0/2
0/4
C/0
0/6
0/0
0/0
»&trol
•tlS
Po. Poa'iti*«7
Eo. tcsr.ad
6/109
3/74
2/7
1/13
0/0
0/11
0/0
0/0 ,
337
-------
f .
(cacti*; &72S/BO)
8. St.
4017
JUV13/81)
8.
(cacti*i
GWTKH.
Hadtia Ceeatr
3503
4)1*
" art3«lt«c
S.
fu».
cm • S&ra fair all
ftseea$aa7lie^ cits
tint ma applie* ea ete
12-S. CCSS-AUI^W Off KSISSESS 0*
eassxaca. FASSI &i EJE
Ebs tica psrtei sf
prasedicg «ctb baaaa or eaiimal itnUtion «a
iaciaeiea Le tfea <4ot« «€ <5oU«ctJ«o e£ titt eex^l
tfe» leelstiaas
SWA M PSSM,
Ittmaat
lateral
foszvsltm
«I
ffasplea 8*affi's«S&ic
Tcictrart*
tssafim
sumcE
fra-alaeca 103
0-1
taai
1-2
130
73
2-3 taeca
ra»t Slaa«a 40
39
39
0-1 Taar
faat
l-21aara
2-3 Taara
3 (0-32) 23 (0-26*) U (0-140) 3 (0-104) U£2 (O-13200)* 0
1 (0-30) 83 (9-400) 17 (0-488) 1 (9-M) 137 (9-C4M) 3 (9-90)
0 130 (0-1719) 113 (0-1MO) 9 (0-300) 10* (4-1309) 0
O 2(7 (0-UOQ) 2 (0-400) U (0-400) 230 (0-2330) * (0-150)
2 (0-24) 2C (0-174) t (0-192) 3 (0-3t) Ml (0-1732S)C O
1 (0-«) 1* (0-in) 3 (0-30) 2 (0-M) 13 (0-100)' O
1 (0-M) 87 (0-439) 43 (0-699) 4 (O-130) 2*6 (0-3430) 2 (0-150)
0 32 (0-200) «• (0-300) U (0-130) 382 (0-2SSO) 4 (0-50)
Fanaita «M csnot
ladicata tang* for to*
ef
of tot £•
».e.*
49, 44 mot 20 aoaalaa ra*paetl«alr. Tk* tvaaUiat aaaflat la «aek £coe» ntra «w
larlaJa< far Lack ef «ocucUx*.rin tvaalta.
338
-------
XASLE 12-6. cassettes UHITS OF v&£icys BEAST* ESI/LS in PACS
TWS BStssc ASQMIC AasoBmoi
SeapJj* Typa
Cactla Paces
Uwr
Kidaay
Trieajw
lib
Hair
•lead
* All eypsa
C4*
0.07 jig/5
0.003 yg/g
0.01 |jg/g
0.0002 pg/g
O.OC42 )&/8
0.01 jjg/g
0.022 ye/ 100 sJ
of ceaplea wera
ja.
Bat!
Cu4'
0.7 yg/g
0.2 yS/g
0.05 |ig/g
0.06 ijS/a
0.07 yg/g
0.29 yft/8
L 2 J Wg/i00 al
aaalyacd for cadal
ils
Pb* 2n5ge Csetrcl'*
Claaasc fs^I&Jgs Peot-Sltitigg Pri~!Slv«:.'Ij',a li-s^'ft-'Kleiise
rnhrlnt 0.373
Ce^rar 22.798
Laad 13.262
Zlac 131.338
0.458
22.926
11.10*
134.574
0.411
20.720
10.044
U9.424C
0.320 v
16.S60
5.649
91.995=
* Each valoa !• * ti^aa for 46 sad 44 iodlvldaal calves rape««*stlas *
and 4 control Jsass r*«pcetiw«ly over a psriod of 3 ya«ra. Tea ra?llc«C8>
of «0eh sarnjl* e«r« asalysad in doplic«t«. tfca daratioa of grasiog ea
asd control pcactt£«a sagged fraa 3 Co S eswtSs* bofoee eal««c
AkCely aqoal p«rl«dc of
Control pr*-8lodg« and poet-elwdga algolf?
aa eoesparod Co eita slojfsa espoaora f*»a«.
iM vlchla Cite asse twstassBt group with tbt a
0.01).
saa *oper»crlp£ ore
339
-------
TABUS 12-8. man MSTAL coecsBTBAStoas (ue/s>
FECSS Of CGLLKa COS3 FKS1 SUIBCE A£Q> CQSTBSL
Elaaettt . Sltitd»
Fecal Coacaft£rati.oa_(p£/B)ir
Cadatsa 0.316 0.116
Copper 30.956 1S.OOO
LM< 12 600 S.87S
Ztae 104.^31 72.600
E*eb «alsMt !• £ msaa of «ittwr 10 eowe or 2
control £ar«n. resjsjaeti^ely; cows wsre on tbasa fsrea ApprotOswitsly 2B
; th« eludjte fare* c*c«i««(S et l«a«c 2 «aaa«l
12-9. FECM. QSBMIUM COKCEBTRfiTIffil 1KTHSBJ
ASD COKrfiOl. C&TOS SA£§?1^0 tEAKl.! BU21SS IS
~~
Pw-Sl«S8»
1 yr. Po»t-»lsri®»
2 yr. Po.t-,1^
(s-58)
0.303
0.359
*
0.364
im_CoBeeae£|Cion (.VgTg^, —
0.406
0.357
0.27S
12-1,0. g£477 ^?s.S, CeKSOT«31'S33 (Us/s) IS
resa F^TBSSS CTBUB os-s essrra ASTES suisiss
IB PKS-EKSSS fECO. SA^feES FHfia CAJIig C® SL3BG2 ASIO
bfeli.
Copper
LMd
Zlac
Sle
iFifsi-slia&ia
0.301 (146)
22.C27 (61)
12.190 (61)
114.076 (61)
3^9
fesc-fflltsas*
0.900 (30)t>
28.369 (SO)
4.950 (30)
135.38* (30)
*a I'ysfTs)
Csffii
fffe-slwdgw
0.451 (93)
21.131 (60)
9.714 (S3)
102.541 (55)
£rol
iso*e--Blfflto«
O.S64 (2ii)=
22/357 (26)
7.608 (2S)
91.462 (26)
Honbtn in parciUlseslc lodlcjita th« mtsber of 3«s»5>l«» asAlystsd. ?or
eadatl i sn»iy«ia prs-olodga a4ES?)las l&clttd« All £®eal e«s«?Isa eollse&3d
froa ^accla et eb« vwry first bard eeaclw",. For otbav «l®Bee£e tttsss
•oaten res>rw»ttal: cb* eaffl&tr of Aeaple* rtadoalj oaiaets^ Cor cespartsoa
Mich postuz* plefe-op
Sitaifleajtely «Sif fenwrt (P < 0.01) coapared to g>E«-alia£jsa vnlsoa wlthia
tbs «caa treacsaog gtmzp.
(P < 0.03) eo*par»d co pr«-«lt»i«* volaaa vichia
tb* Mae treoSMiit groe.p.
340
-------
TABLE 12-11. HBAVY METAL COKCEKXRATIOHS (yg/g)
v IN CALF LIVERS FROM SLUDGE AND COOTROL FASMS
Element
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
©
Sludge
0.107
10.183
0.517
43.369
Liver Concentration (Ug/g)a
Control
0.056
21.117
0.397
46.924
a Each value is a esesn for 36 individual calves representing 4 faros over a
period of 3 years. Two replicates of each sample were analyzed in
duplicate. The duration of grazing on sludge and control pastures ranged
from 3 to 8 months before calves were slaughtered.
TABLE 12-12. HEAVY EST&L COICEMTEATIOMS
13 COW LIVER *SOM ^LUDGS AND CONTROL FABHS
Element
Cad^u,
Copper
Lead
Zinc ?
Sludge
0.234
4.405
0.526
45.480
Liver Concentration (yg/g)a
Coatrol
0.264
8.925
0.364
55.800
a Each value is a mean of either 10 cows or 2 cows from sludge-receiving and
ccetrol fartss, respectively; ccws vsre on these farras approximately 28
months; the sludge farms received at least 2 annual sludge applications.
341
-------
TABLE 12-13. HEAVY METAL COHCEKTRATIOMS (lig/g)
IH CALF KIDNEYS FROM SLUDGE AND COHTROL FARMS
Element
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Sludge
0.288&
3.612
0.718&
22.507
Kidney Concent rat lots (yg/g)a
Control
0.174&
3.959
. \
0.415b
23.011
• Each value is a sean for 36 individual calves representing 4 farms over a
period of 3 years. Two replicates of each sample were analysed in
duplicate. The duration of grazing on sludge and control pastures ranged
from 3 to 8 months before calves were claughtered.
*> Values in the sane row with the same superscript &re significantly
different (F < 0.05) only t^faen the analysis of variance was performed using
individual Log-transformed values.
TABLE 12-14. HEAVY *£TAL COSCEHTE4T10SS (Wg/g)
v IN COW iOlDHEY FROM SLUDGE MD COMTEOL FAEMS
Eleaent
CadoiuB
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Sludge
1.275
3.719
0.549
22.295
Kidney Concentration (Ug/g)s
Control
1.209
3.410
0.429
19.500
* Each value ia a mean of either 10 cows or 2 cows from sludge receiving and
control farms, respectively; cows were on these farms approximately 28
nonths; the sludge farms received at least 2 annual sludge applications.
342
-------
TABLE 12-15. HEAVY METAL COHCEHT8AT10NS (Vg/g)
Ifi CALF JSJSCLE FEOM SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS
Eleneat
Cadmiua
Copper
Lead
Zinc
S'Tudge
0.002
0.913
BDLb
39.938
Muscle Concentration (Ug/g)s
Control
0.002
0.986
BDLb
38.533
* Each value Is a mean for 36 individual calves representing 4 farms over a
period of 3 years. Two replicates of each sample were analyzed in
duplicate. The duration of grazing on sludge and control pastures ranged
from 3 to 8 months before calves were slaughtered.
b Below detection limit (detection limit 0.032 US/S)
TABLE 12-16. HEAVY MITAL CONCENTRATIONS (Ug/g)
IK COW MUSCLE FEOM SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS
Ileoent
CadaitiB
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Sludge
0.001
0.818
BDLb
55.855
Muscle Concentration ^yg/^a
Control
0.002
1.117
BDLb
50.625
* Each value is a msan of either 10 cows or 2 cows f rom sludge-receiving and
control farms, respectively; cows were on these faros approximately 28
months; the sludse farms received at least 2 aoaual sludge applications.
b Below detection liait (Detection limit 0.032ug/g)
343
-------
TABLE 12-17. HEAVY METAL COKCENTBATIONS (yg/g)
IS CALF BONE FEOM SLODGS AND CONTROL FARBS
Element
Ctdffli""1
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Concentration (Ug/g)a
*» ^I'lwige
0.038
0.234
1.402
53.724
Control
0.032
0.277
1.050
59.417
• Zach value is a mean for 36 individual calves representing 4 farms over a
period of 3 years. Tao replicates of «ach eaeple were analyzed in
duplicate. Toe duration of grazing on sludge and control pastures ranged
from 3 to 8 months before calves \ ire slaughtered.
TABLE 12-18. HEAVY METAL CONCENT1ATIONS
IN COW BOHE FEOM SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARM"
Element
Cadmiua
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Sludge
0.060
0.219
2.776
63.no
Concentration (Ul/j)a
Control
0.043
0.520
3.179
64.550
* Each value is a siean of either 10 cows or 2 cows from sludge-receiving and
control farms respectively; cows were on these farms approximately 28
oonths; the sludge faros received at least 2 annual sludge applications.
344
-------
TABLE 12-19. HEAVY METAL COHCENTBATIONS (Ug/g)
IS CALF HAIR FROM SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS BY
PERIOD IN RESPECT TO SLUDGE EXPOSURE"
Hair Concentration (ug/g)a
Sludge
Element
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Pra-sludge
0.129C
6.183d
1.116
122.705d
Post Sludge
0.094C
4.483d
0.959
145.136d
Control*
Pre-sludge
0.098C
6.716C
1.222
121.879
Post Sludge
0.089C
5.781C
0.912
126.854
* Each value is a taean for 48 individual calves representing 4 farms over a
period of 3 years. Two replicates of each sample -eere analysed in
duplicate. The duration of grazing on sludge and control pastures ranged
froa 3 to 8 months before calves were slaughtered.
b Control pre-sludge and post sludge signify approximately equal periods of
time as compared, to the sludge exposure farms.
c Means within the same treatment group for the same element with same
superscripts are different (F< 0.05). '
4 Means within the s-ssas treatment group for the same element with same
superscripts are different (?< 0.01).
TAILS 12-20. HEAVY METAL C08CEHTRATIONS (Pg/g)
IS COW HAIR FROM SLUDGE MD CONTEOL FAEMS
E].gmotir
CadmiuD
Copper*
Lead
Zinc
Sliwlge
0.112
3.260
1.360
134.950
Hair Concentration (Wg/g)a
Oont^ol
0.174
5.198
2.450
113.000
* Each value is a seen of either 10 cows or 2 cows from sludge receiving and
control farms, respectively; cows were on these farms approximately 28
months.
345
-------
TABLE 12-21. HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS (yg/100 ml)
• IN CALF BLOOD FROM SLUDGE AND CONTROL FABMS
Concentration (ug/100 ral)«
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Pre-Sludge
0.013
74.302
9.731
305.167
Sludas
Post-Sludse
0.014
75.844
10.956
292.144
Control43
Pre-Sludge
0.013
87.574
11.108
302.702
Post-Sludgs
0.013
83.149
9.376
297.968
* Each value is a taean for 48 and 47 individual calves representing 4 sludge
and 4 control farms respectively over a period of 3 years. Two replicates
of each naisple were emalysed in duplicate. The duration of grazing on
sludge and control pastures ranged from 3 to 8 months before calves were
slaughtered. *
* Control pre-sludge and post-sludge signify approximately equal periods of
time as compared to the sludge exposure farms.
TABLE 12-22. KEAVt KETAL CONCENTRATIONS (yg/100 si)
IN COW BLOOD FEOM SLUDGE AHD CONTROL FASHS
Element '
•Cadoiua
Copper
Ltad
Zinc
flswi^ft
0.015
61.167
12.103*
299.444
Concentration ( Ug/100 isi)®
. (ioatrol
0.011
69.500
4.322b
284.750
• Each valu« is a »san of either 9 cosre or 2 cows fro® & sludge-receiving and
control farm*, respectively; cows ware on thesfe farms approximately 28
oooths; the sludge ferae received at least 2 annual sludge applications.
b V«iu«8 with the same superscript are significantly different £P < 0.05) by
the analysis of variance of log transformed data.
346
-------
SECTION 13
@
ESTIMATION OF CADMIUM INTAKE USI3G FECAL CADMIUM CONCEOTRATIONS
Chada S. Reddy, B.V.Sc., M.S., Ph.D.
C. Richard Dora, D.V.M., M.P.H.
Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine
The Ohio State University
Columbua, Ohio 43210
ABSTRACT
Increasing use of sludge on private farmlands calls for investigations
into the possible translocation of toxic heavy aet&ls such as cadmium (Cd)
Into the human food chain. Although the use of fecal Cd excretion to estimate
daily Cd intake has been suggested and attempted, reliable data on the actual
24 hr. fecal weights are not available. This study was designed to collect 24
hr. fecal samples at 4 month intervals from two groups of farm residents in
Ohio. One group cf residents lived oa farms in which the croplands and/or
pastures were amended with 2-10 dry ta. tons/hectare of snserobically digested
sewage sludge. The other group served as controls. The fecal samples were
analyzed for Cd using atomic absorption spectrophotemeter equipped with carbon
rod atomizer. The data obtained from this study was used to calculate the
daily Cd intakes following correction for absorption (4.62) in the
gastrointestinal tract. Cattle grazing1 on sludge-amended pastures were also
slot, .rly treated escape that published 24 hr. fecal weights and a 2%
absorption factor w&s used. .The results of this study indicated that the
actual 24 hr. fecal weights in different age and sex groups were similar to
the extrapolated values based on the National Research Council (NBC)
recommended daily caloric requirements. Fecal weights, and thus the daily Cd
intakes calculated from these data, although showing no specific age pattern,
'•»ere significantly-higher in males than in females with a female/male ratio of
0.77:1. Daily Cd intakes calculated from these data ranged froa 8.87 to
18.52 ug/day for sales and 5.37 to 13.31 Ug/day for females. Although daily
Cd intake for smokers was 1 Ug/day higher than notf--stackers, the difference
w&s not statistically significant. No significant increase in daily Cd
intakes resulted from exposure to sludge on the farmlands. Animals grazing on
sludge-amended pastures consumed up to 3 times the amount of Cd consumed by
cattle on non-sludge-amended pastures. It was concluded that application of
•ewage sludge on farmlands at rates of 2-10 dry m. tons/hectare failed to
contribute to the'daily Cd intake in humans; however, cattle on such farms can
increase their Cd consumption significantly.
347
-------
INTRODUCTION
Among several Important toxic heavy metals, cadmium (Cd) is the most
widespread contaminant ia foods (Mahaffey zt_ ad., 1975). Food is by far the
major source of Cd to animals and most non-smoking humans (Underwood, 1979).
An early estimate of daily average dietary intake of Cd in huaans in the U.S.
was 50 yg with a range from 4 Ug to 92 1'g (Friberg @t _&!., 1974). Other
studies, however, suggest lover Cd intakes: 30-47 ygTdsy (Tipton et al.,
1969), 26-61 Vg/day (Food and Drug Administration, 1977) and 13-16 ygTday
(Koval ejc al., 1979). SOBS of these estimates are close to the tolerable
dietary level of 57-71 Ug/day established by an FAO/WHO expert committee on
food additives (1973). Naylor and Loehr (1981) arrived at a maximum safe
dietary level of 75 Ug/day of Cd after correcting for smoking and allowing for
a margin of safety. These data suggest that additional Cd intakes must be
avoided in order to prevent the U.S. population from exceeding this daily
intake level.
Passage of Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and the Clean
Water Act of 1977 (prohibiting ocean dumping of sewage sludge) has led to a
search for alternate methods of disposal of increasing quantities of sewage
sludge being produced at the present time. The goals of current sludge
managemeat, safe disposal of sewage sludge and effective utilization or
available resources,, can be achieved by a. program involving carefully
monitored sludge application on private farm lards (Pahr&a, 1980).
Sludges, however, especially those derived from waste water contaminated
with industrial wastes, can be a significant source of Cd (Chancy, 19&wj.
Uptake of Cd by gardes crops grown on sludge-amended soils, increased fecal Cd
coneentratioas in cattle gra&ing on sludge-applied pastures (Bercrand et_
-------
The total diet collection method, Involving collection of a dally sample of
each Ingredient consumed followed by Cd analysis of the combined homogenate of
these samples, has generally yielded lower values than the market basket
surveys but these values were closer to the Indirect fecal analysis method
(Kjellstroa, 1979). Estimation of dally Cd Intake has been attempted by the
analysis of Cd concentration In fecal samples, multiplication by the amount of
dally fecal outputs, and adjustment for the absorption in the gastrointestinal
tract. Such a study was initiated by Tipton €££!•» (1969) which resulted in
daily Cd intake of 30-47 Ug. Recent estimates of daily Cd intake by this
method in the U.S. male teenagers are 18 yg in Dallas (Kjellstrom, 1979) and
21 Vg in Chicagc (Kowal e_£ al., 1979). The direct methods suffer from several
disadvantages. Food samples in the market basket survey are generally near
the limit of detection (Mahaffey &t_ al., 1975). Samples collected in the
total diet collection method may fail to represent pockets of contamination.
Finally, they involve elaborate sample and/or data collection and analysis.
Cadmium concentration in feces is reportedly much higher than that in food,
which enables more accurate analysis using smaller samples (Iwao et al.,
1981). Fecal method involves analysis of a tingle sample material. The fact
that only about 4.6 + 4Z of the ingested Cd is absorbed (McLellan et al.,
1978) will facilitate the correction of total fecal cadmium content by this
factor to arrive at total cadmium intake via the alimentary canal. Similarly,
it is generally agreed that the fraction of ingested Cd absorbed in animals is.
about 2% (Friberg e_t &L., 1974), thus making it feasible to calculate cadmium
intakes for cattle population. Although, the contribution of the biliary
excretion and intestinal epithelial secretion and debris to the total fecal Cd
is unknown, it will most likely be directly correlated to the total Cd body
burden and Cd intake in the days immediately preceding the day of sample
collection.
Cigarette smoking can be a significant contributing factor to Cd
exposure, especially in heavy smokers (Friberg et_ al^. 1974). Dp to 2 yg of Cd
can be present in each U.S. made cigarette (Menden j£ al., 1972). For each 20
cigarettes smoked 2 to 5 yg of Cd would be inhaled resulting in absorption and
retention of as much as 1.2 to 3 yg of Cd (Friberg j|£.al.., 1974). Although
the fraction of Cd in cigarettes that could be excreted in feces has not been
estimated, Kjellstrom e_t al. (1978) reported significantly higher fecal Cd
excretion rates in a group of smokers vs. non-smokers in Stockholm, Sweden.
KOWA! et.aL. (1979), failed to confirm .this effect of smoking on fecal Cd
excretions in individuals living in Dallas and Chicago, although the Cd
concentrations In urine, blood and tissue samples from smokers among these
individuals were significantly higher than those of non-smokers. Also, no
consistent trend was observed by Kjellstrom e£ al. (1979). Smokers in Chicago
tended to excrete scalier amounts of Cd than non-smokers, whereas the smokers
in Dallas tended to excrete higher amounts of Cd than non-smokers. This may
be due to the variability in the type of diet consumed and the number of
cigarettes smoked. Kowal ejt al. (1979) recognized that their use of estimated
fecal weights, based upon extrapolation using the recommended daily caloric
intake rather than the actual 24-hr fecal weights, may introduce an error. To
date, no comprehensive data on the daily fecal amounts in populations of
different age groups is available.
This study presents data on the actual 24-hr fecal weights in individ-tals
349'
-------
of different age groups from Ohio farms. Using Cd concentrations in fecal
samples from residents on control and sludge-receiving farms in three
different Ohio locations, Cd intakes were calculated for these populations.
The possible effect of sludge exposure and smoking in increasing daily Cd
intakes in these populations was evaluated. Finally, Cd intakes and the
relative contribution of sludge to the daily intake in cattle grazing on
sludge-amended pastures was calculated using .a 2Z corre:tion factor for
absorption.
METHODS
The recruitment of farms, their allocation to either the sludge-receiving
group or control group, collection data questionnaire, baseline testing and
sample collection are described in Section 11 of this report. The criteria
for the selection of the eight cattle farms, their random assignment to either
the sludge-receiving group or control group and baseline animal data
collection are summarized in Section 12. The summary of sludge application
rates on each of the farms assigned to receive sludge is presented in Section
1.
Before the first sludge application, residents on each sludge-receiving
farm and its matched control farm -were asked the following questions to
determine their smoking status.
i
Have you ever smoked: Yes No
Do you now smoke? Yes No_
If yes:
Cigars? Yes No
If yes: Average number per week
Cigarettes? Yes Ho
If yes:. Average number per day
Filtered? Yes No
Other? Yes No Specify:
If you stopped smoking cigarettes, how long ago did you stop?_
Because of the higher levels of Cd in some garden crops such as lettuce
(Frioerg jet_ __1., 1974), the participants on sludge-receiving farms were
instructed not to apply sludge to their gardens. However, deposition of Cd
laden dust and uptake of Cd from ground •water draining sludge-amended soil can
be expected to increase Cd content of garden crops. Edible tissues of cattle
grazing sludge-treated pastures would be expected to have higher Cd levels
(Kienholz c_t __1., 1976). Therefore, it was decided to look at the extent of
consumption of home raised meats and garden crops and their relationship to
daily Cd intakes in individuals from sludge-receiving and control farms. The
following questionnaire was designed to quantitate such exposures.
What percentage of the seat products in your diet over the past ______
weeks were home-produced? %.
What percentage of the garden crops in your diet over the past
weeks were home-produced? %.
350
-------
Smoking status and the percentage of diet represented by home-produced
meats and garden crops were monitored throughout the period following sludge
application by a monthly telephone interview of each participant.
Following sludge application, fecal samples were collected from the
participants at 4 month intervals for a period ranging from 6 months to 3
years. Each participant vas given a paper bag containing a disposable acid
rinsed plastic collection cup (3984, Tupperware, Inc., Hemingway, SC). The
participants were asked to collect the total amount of each defecation
directly into the cup while sitting normally on the toilet. The collection
cup and contents were then placed in another container for transport to the
laboratory. Since most westerners normally only have one stool per day
(Kjellstrom jst_ SL!. , 1978), these samples were considered to represent a 24 hr.
sample. Fecal samples from all the cattle on sach of the eight farms chosen
to participate in this study were collected into a plastic sleeve and glove
(Vet-R-Sem, Loveland, CO) from the rectum before sludge application on
sludge-receiving farms. Following application of 2-10 m. tons/hectare of
anaerobically digested sewage sludge on the pasture lands, the cattle were
kept from grazing for a period of 30 days. At the end of this withholding
period, cattle were allowed to graze sludge applied or control pastures.
Within one to two weeks froc the beginning of .grazing, .fecal -samples
representing the herd were picked up from these pastures and placed in paper
cups (Dixie, 5 oz., No. 315, Greenwich, CN). Only large piles of fresh
individual fecal masses (likely representing excreta from grazing cows as
opposed to calves) were sampled.
Fecal Cd analysis. Soon after their arrival into the laboratory, the
entire fecal samples were weighed and representative aliquots was transfered
to pre-welghed aluminum boats for drying at 80°C to a constant weight. The
dry matter was calculated as a percentage of wet weight. The samples were
then ground to a. uniform powder in a saortar and pestle and stored in 10%
nitric acid (ENC^) washed polyethylene bottles until analyzed for Cd.
Duplicate 0.2 g samples of powdered feces were weighed into clean acid
washed 50 ml Kjeldahl flasks. They were digested in 5 ml of cone. HN03 (G.
Frederick Smith, redistilled, Columbus, Ohio) at a block temperature of 120°C
for at least 24 hr. after which 2 X 0.5 ml of 302 hydrogen peroxide
(Mallinkrodt, Paris* Kentucky) Has slowly -added while the -flasks were
cooling. After the samples stopped bubbling, the flasks were reheated
overnight. The acid was then evaporated (to almost complete dryness) taking
care to prevent sample combustion. Sample digestates from the Kjeldahl flasks
were recovered by the addition of several small volumes of deionized double
distilled water along the sides of the neck, thorough swirling of the flask,
collecting the washings into a 50 ml volumetric flask and finally making up
the volume and storing in polyethylene bottles for analysis. A series of
fecal samples with 0, 50, 100 and 150 percent of expected cadmium added
(Standard addition series) were also similarly processed for each batch of
processed fecal samples. Cada4.ua analysis was performed using a Varian AA775
series atomic absorption spectrophotometer with background corrector equipped
with CRA90 carbon rod atomizer (CRA), ASD53 automatic sample dispenser and
DP38 digital printer. Parameters used were: resonance line, 228.8 mm; slit
width, 0.5 mm; sample size, 5 ul; dry temp., 90°C; ash temp., 400°C; and
351
-------
atomize temp., 1900°C. All samples with a. standard deviation of more than 10%
of the average value as well as those with absorbance values higher than the
highest standard were appropriately repeated. Detection limit for cadmium by
this method was 0.111 yg/g of dry feces. Instrument performance and accuracy
of the analyses was confirmed by analyzing a standard set of EPA supplied
water samples and comparing the results to those obtained by EPA.
Duplicate 0.2 | samples of dried cattle feces in 30 ml Kjeldahl flasks
-were added with 10 ml of concentrated HN03. After 24 hr of digestion, 0.5 ml
of H202 was added to each sample and they are reheated for an additional 24 hr
period. Acid was evaporated to near dryness and the residue dissolved in 25
ml of deionized water. Cadmium was analyzed using CRA as described above.
The detection limit was 0.07 yg/g of dry feces.
All reusable glassware and plastlcware used in sample analysis were
washed thoroughly with a detergent (Event, Economics Laboratory, Inc., St.
Paul, Minnesota) in tap water. Cleaned glass or plasticware were rinsed in
deionized water and soaked in HN03 (1:1) overnight or 4-6 hrs. respectively.
The items were then thoroughly rinsed with distilled deionized water and
glassware were dried in an oven. The acid rinsings (0.1N HN03) from selected
items, including sample collection containers, was periodically -tested for Cd
contamination.
Estimation of Ingested Cd. The procedures of Friberg e_£ al., 1974 and
Kjellstrom e£ ad., 1978 were followed. To estimate the daily Cd intake for
each age-sex class of participants. The inividual dry fecal weights were
multiplied by individual fecal Cd concentrtions and divided by a factor of
0.954 to correct for 4.6% absorption of Cd in the gut.
The formula for daily Cd intake is:
mean fecal Cd concentration (yg/g) x mean dry fecal weight (g/day)
absorption correction factor, 0.954
To calculate Cd intakes for cows grazing on sludge-amended pastures,
total daily fecal excretion (7.3 Ib/day) for adult cows (Cooperative Extension
Service-Ohio State University guide, 1980) oae multiplied -by Individual fecal
concentrations and divided by 0.98 to correct for absorption (Friberg et al.,
1974). The formula
mean fecal Cd concentration (Vg/g) x 3314.2 g/day
absorption correction factor, 0.98
vas used.
Statistical Analysis. The cadmium concentrations were analyzed using
arithmetic means. Log transformation of the data resulted in distributions
note resembling a normal distribution than the non-transformed data due to the
presence of some skewness due to occasional extreme values. After correcting
for the error due to sex, smoking status, age group and various interactions,
the means for sludge and control groups were tested for differences using
heirarchal design of the analysis of variance technique where the error term
352
-------
was based upon farms nested within group differences at the 5% (P < 0.05)
level. Data for other parameters including fecal weights (wet and dry) and
daily Cd intakes were similarly analyzed.
RESULTS
Humans. A total -of 122 participants in the sludge group and 103
participants in the control group contributed fecal samples during the project
period. Varying lengths of participation by different farm families in the
project, as described in Section 11, resulted in individuals contributing 2 to
12 samples. The wet fecal weights ranged from 10.5 g to 235.95 g.
A comparison of average daily dry fecal weights for participants
belonging to different age groups (10 year age groups) with those of estimated
dry weights (data from Kowal e_t_ Q., 1979, based upon daily caloric
requirements recoooended by NRG, multiplied by dry matter content of fec.es for
different age groups from our data) is presented in Tables 13-1 - 13-4. In
general, observed fecal dry weights tended to be lower than those estimated as
above, especially at the lower-age bracket of 0-9 years. At higher age
brackets, the observed values more nearly agreed with estimated values.
Dry fecal weights for all age groups tended to be lower for participants
from sludge receiving farms compared to those from control farms. A similar
trend was reflected in the total mean daily Cd intake (Table 13-1) for
participants from all counties as well as individual counties (13-2 - 13-4).
Mean daily Cd intakes estimated as described in Methods for various age groups
ranged from 8.87 to 18.52yg/day in males and 5.37 to 13.31 Ug/day in
females. The range of individual cadmium intakes (not shown) were 3.01 to
36.04, and 1.99 to 34.74yg/day, for participants from sludge-receiving farms
and control farms,.respectively. In general, females tended to have lower dry
fecal weights and thus lower daily cadmium intakes.
Statistical analysis of wet and dry fecal weights and daily Cd intake
using broader age classifications (under 12, 13-21, 22-59 and 60 and over)
among both sludge and control groups indicated no age-related differences in
the full general linear model ANOVA (Table 13-5). Also, a comparison between
sludge and control group participants (treatment effect) revealed no
significant differences. .Sex-related differences, however, .were noted.
Although, all of the parameters analyzed tended to be lower in females
compared to males in every age group, significant differences were noted for
22-59 yr. age group as well as for all age groups .combined (P < 0.05). Daily
Cd intakes in females were 3 to 5 ug lower than in males. Participants in
Medina and Plckaway and Franklin counties exhibited this trend and contributed
to the overall significance. Clark county population, however, failed to show
such differences (Tables 13-6 - 13-8).
Mean and peak fecal Cd concentrations, wet and dry fecal weights and
daily Cd intake for smokers and non-smokers among individuals from
sludge-receiving and control farms are presented in Tables 13-9 - 13-12, for
all counties combined and for individual counties. To increase the chances of
detecting differences, only individuals that were smoking cigarettes at the
beginning of the project and continued to smoke through the sample collection
•
353
-------
were considered smokers. Non-smokers were defined as those who never smoked
cigarettes or any tobacco product and those that were not chewing tobacco
during their participation. F«sak fecal Cd concentration in smokers from
sludge-receiving farns in Medina county was significantly higher (P 0.05)
conpared to the smokers on control 'farms. The full-model ANOVA, however,
failed to show significant smoking effect in any of the parameters studied.
There was a consistent trend for higher fecal Cd concentrations in
sludge-exposed participants in each of the counties among both smokers and
non-smokers. In all counties combined, wet and dry fecal weights as well as
daily Cd intakes tended to be lower in participants from sludge-receiving
farms compared to those from the control farms. All of these parameters
tended to be higher for smokers compared to non-smokers (Tables 13-9 -
13-12). In both sludge and control groups, apparent increase in daily Cd
intake due to smoking was about 1 l&.
To evaluate the role of off-farm work in contributing to lower fecal
weights in the sludge-exposed group, the data was analyzed by the general
linear models AHOVA excluding all participants reporting off-farm work at any
time during the project. Although it seemed to have reduced the magnitude of
differences between the two groups (data not shown), the participants in the
sludge group continued to have a tendency for lower fecal weights. A second
possibility was that the participants in the sludge-exposed group could have
conscientiously given samples on occasions that they would have postponed, if
they were controls. Analysis of the data .indicated that there are
disproportionately larger numbers of small size samples (Mean - 1 S.D.) in the
sludge group compared tb control participants (P < 0.05). There were 28
people contributing one or more small size samples in the sludge group
compared to 21 in the control group. Among these, 8 participants from the
sludge sroup contributed greater than 50% of their samples in small size
category compared to 1 from the control group. Removal of these small size
samples did result in the fecal weights being more similar in the two groups
(data not shown), but it had no effect on the statistical interpretation of
the data.
To evaluate the impact of sludge fully, fecal Cd concentrations, and Cd
intakes of participants within the sludge group were examined for a
relationship with the magnitude of their exposure to sludge. Particpants were
categorized into groups with average weekly duration of sludge exposure
(working in sludge fields) of 0, 0-10, 11-45, 46-90, and greater than 90
minutes. Data in Table 13-13 indicates a trend for increasing fecal Cd
concentrations as well as increased Cd intake with increasing exposure to
sludge. Analysis of variance failed to show significant differences among
various categories.
Regression analysis of the relationship between consumption of
home-produced meats and garden crops, and daily Cd intakes were not
statistically significant.
Animals. Data presented in Table 13-14 indicate that cattle grazing
•ludge-applied pastures have almost 3 times higher fecal Cd concentration than
those in samples from the same animals before grazing on sludge-amended soils
(P < 0.01). Estimation of Cd intake based upon available data on the amount
354
-------
of feces excreted by adult cattle (cow) and correction for absorption (0.98)
yield values of 1.02 and 3.04 mg of Cd/day for cattle before and after
exposure to 2-10 dry tons/hectare of sludge, respectively. Animals grazing
control pastures, on the other hand, had a slightly lower exposure to Cd
during the period corresponding to the post-sludge period compared to
pte-sludge period.
DISCUSSION
©
The results -of the study indicated no significant contribution by sludge
exposure, at rates ranging between 2-10 dry m. tons/hectare, to the daily Cd
intake in humans. To the contrary, the Cd intake tended to be lower in
sludge-exposed participants, apparently due to the lower wet and dry fecal
weights. Further analysis indicated the possibility of a participant bias
leading to greater number of small size samples in the sludge group compared
to the control group. Although the possibility of sludge being a source of
human dietary cadmium exists, the present study did not demonstrate an
increase in Cd intake at the sludge application rates used in this
investigation.
Age-related patterns in daily Cd intake have been studied by Kowal, et
al., (1979), usi-ng extrapolation -of the NRC recommended daily caloric
requirements to arrive at fecal weights for various age groups. Kjellstrom et
al., (1973) actually measured the fecal weights on 3 consecutive days in
volunteers ranging from 5 to 69 in age. No specific trend in daily Cd intakes
or daily fecal Cd amount was observed in either study. Although Kjellstrom jit:
al., (1978) recommended the use of estimated fecal weights, Kowal e£ al.,
(1979) point out the possibility of error in using the estimated fecal weights
to calculate daily Cd intake. Our data suggests that this may be true,
especially in the case of children aged under 10. The fecal weight
measurements for other sex and age groups in our study are in a reasonably
good agreement with estimated fecal weights.
Sex differences, demonstrated in this study, confirm similar earlier
reported differences. Kjellstrom &t_ al., (1978) found a female/male fecal Cd
ratio of 0.80:1, whereas Kowal _et_ al., (1979) found a ratio of 0.72:1 and
0.82:1. When combined (both sludge and control groups), the female/male ratio
in our study is 0.77:1, lending .support to earlLer studies.
Although smoking tended to consistently increase fecal Cd concentrations,
the daily Cd intake in smokers was approximately 1 Ug/day higher than in
non-smokers, in our study. This difference was not statistically
significant. Kowal et al.» (1979) obtained similar results. Kjellstrom et
al., (1978), hoover, reported a significantly higher (3yg/day) fecal Cd
amount in smokers compared to non-smokers. In addition to the Increased food
intake, demonstrated in the Swedish study (Kjellstrom &t_ al., 1978), the
differences in the Cd content of cigarettes between Sweden and U.S., could
explain these differences.
Studies reviewed earlier, using various methods to estimate daily Cd
intake, suggest a wide range of intakes. The results of our study generally
agree with the U.S. data presented by Kjellstrom £t al., (1979). The average
355
-------
Cd intake in selected Ohio farm families appears to be between 8.87 and 18.52
l£/day for males and 5.37 and 13.31 us/day for females.
Finally, Klenholz £t. aJL, (1976) quoted Chaney's data, estimating that 6%
of the dry matter consumed by cattle grazing on sludge-applied pastures, may
be sludge adhering to the grass even after a number of rainfalls. The results
of our study point to the possibility of tisi-ng fecal Cd amounts in cattle as
an index of Cd dose consumed by cattle from sources of contamination such'as
sludge, as well as the use of farm animals for environmental monitoring to
predict possible human hazards such as cadmium.
References
-> ••••••••^•IB^B^iHBMBMB
Bertrand, J.E., Lutrick, M.C., Edds, G.T. and West, R.L., 1981. Metal
residues in tissues, animal performance and carcass quality with beef
steers grazing Pensacola Bahiagrass pastures treated vir.h liquid digested
sludge. J. Anira. Sci. 53, 146-53.
CES^OSU, 1980. Ohio Livestock Waste lianagement Guide, Cooperative Extension
Service, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, Bulletin No. 604, p.
14.
Chaney, R.L., 1980. Agents of health significance: Toxic metals. In
"Sludge; Healthrisks of land application". (G. Britton, B.L. Damron,
G.T. Edds and J.M. Davidson, Eds.) p. 59-84, Ann Arbor Science, Ann
Arbor, MI.
FAO/WHO, 1973. Expert Committee on Food Additives. Evaluation of certain
food additives and the contaminants, mercury, lead, and cadmium, WHO
Tech. Rep. No. 505.
FDA, 1977. Compliance Evaluation Program, FY 74 Total Diet Studies
(7320.08). Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Foods, Food and Drug
Administration.
Fitzgerald, P.R., 1980. An evaluation of the health of livestock exposed to
ana»"-obically digested sludge from a large community. In "National
Conference on municipal and industrial sludge utilization and disposal".
Library of Congress catalog No. 80-83238, p. 32-6, Silver Spring, MD.
Friberg, L., Piscator, M., Nordberg, G.F. and Kjellstrom, T., 1974. Cadmium
in the Environment, CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, p. 14-20, p. 27.
Iwao, S., Sugita, M. and Tsuchiya, K. 1981. Some metabolic interrelationships
among cadmium, lead, copper and zinc: Results from a field survey in
Cd-polluted areas in Japan. Part II. Fecal excretion of the heavy
metals, Keio. J. Med., 30:71-82.
356
-------
Kienholz, E., Ward, G.M., Johnson, D.E. and Baxter, J.C., 1976. Health
Considerations Relating to Ingestion of Sludge by Farm Animals, In,
Proceedings, Third National Conference on Sludge Management Disposal and
Utilization, Miami Beach, FL, Dec. 14-16. Information Transfer Inc.,
Rockville, MD, p. 128-134.
Kjellstrora, T., 1979. Exposure and accumulation of cadmium in populations
from Japan, the United States, and Sweden. Environ. Health. Perspect.,
28:169-197.
Kjellstrom, T., Borg, J. and Lind, B., 1978. Cadmium in feces as an estimator
of daily cadaiura intake in Sweden, Environ. Res., 15:242-251.
Kowal, N.E., Johnson, D.E., Kraemer, D.F- and Pahren, H.R., 1979. Normal
levels of cadmium in the diet, urine, blood and tissues of the
inhabitants of the United States, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 5:995-1014.
Mahaffey, K,R., Corneliussen, P.E., Jelinek, C.F. and Fiorino, J.A., 1975.
Heavy metal exposure from foods, Environ. Health Perspect., 12:63-69.
McLellan, J.S., Flanagan, P.R., Chamberlain, M.J. and Volberg, L.S*, 1978.
Measurement of dietary cadmium absorption in humans, J. Toxicol. Environ.
Health, 4:131-138.
Menden, E.E., Elia, V.J., Michael, L.W. and Petering, H.G., 1972.
Distribution of cadmium and nickel of tobacco during cigarette smoking,
Environ. Sci. Techno1., 6:830.
Nayler, L.M. and Loehr, R.C., 1981. Increase in Dietary Cadmium as a Result
of Application of Sewage Sludge to Agricultural Land, Envircu. Sci.
Technol., 15:881-85.
Pahren, H.R., 1980. Overview of sludge problem. In "Sludge: health risks of
land appliation" (G. Britton, B.L. Damron, G.T. Edds and J.M. Davidson,
Eds.) p. 1-5, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI.
Ryan, J.A., Pahren, H.R. atid Lucas, J.B., 1962. Controlling cadmium in the
human food chain: A review and rationale based on health effects,
Environ. Res., 28:251-302.
SAS, 1982. Analysis of variance. In "SAS user's guide: Statistics". (A.A.
Ray, Ed.) p. 113-38, 201-4, SAS Institute Inc., Gary, NC.
Tipton, I.H., Stewart, P.L. and Dickson, J., 1969. Patterns of elemental
excretion in long-term balance studies, Health Phys., 16:455-462.
Underwood, E.J., 1979. Environmental sources of heavy metals and their
toxicity to man and animals, Prog. Water Tech., 11:33.
357
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TABLE 13-1. ESTIMATION OF MEAN TOTAL CADMIUM INTAKE IN CONTROL AND
SLUDGE RECEIVING FARM PARTICIPANTS BY AGE-SEX GROUPS IN ALL COUNTIES*
Dry Weight of Feces Excreted, g/Day
Mean Total Daily Cadmium
Intake, ug/Day
Age Group
and Sex Expected15
0 -
10 -
20 -
30 -
40 -
50 -
60 -
70 -
80 &
9M
F
19M
F
29M
F
39M
•F
49M
F
59M
F
69M
. F
79M
F
22.1
22.1
34.4
28.0
33.5
25.3
32.5
24.9
32.5
24.9
29.2
23.0
28.8
22.4
_ _
- -
Over M
F
• M
Observed
Sludge (N)C
13.0
9.2
19.9
17.0
20.6
16.1
19.7
17 .'8
27.1
19.4
23.1
19.0
26.2
21.9
26.4
17.6
32.8
37.8
(4)
(3)
(4)
(6)
(10)
(7)
(12)
'(11)
(10)
(8)
(18)
(6)
(8)
(6)
(3)
(3)
(2)
(1)
Control (N)c
_ _
10.5
23.5
24.1
25.6
23.0
26.8
23.4
24.5
20.7
30.8
22.7
25.7
25.7
28.9
16.0
- -
* * ^
*»
(4)
(6)
(3)
(4)
(6)
(11)
(10)
(6)
(3)
(13)
(14)
(13)
(8)
(1)
(1)
-
^
All
Participants Sludge
8
5
14
12
13
11
14
10
14
11
15
11
14
13
18
8
17
12
.87
.37
.83
.94
.92
.50
.59
.99
.76
.,84
.09
.68
.35
.31
.52
.17
.35
.45
8
4
16
12
12
8
12
9
14
10
15
10
15
12
19
7
17
.87
.66
.35
.16
.84
.63
.64
.14
.44
.82
.04
.39
.16
.85
.22
.41
.35
Control
«» ~ *~
5.90
13.32
14.52
16.62
14.84
16.73
13.03
15.29
14.55
15.14
12.23
13.85
13.65
16.39
10.44
_ _ _
12.45
8 Mean total daily cadmium intake represents mean of individual total cadmium
intake calculated as:
mean fecal cadmium concentration (yg/g) x mean dry fecal weight, (g/day)
absorption correction factor, 0.954~~
b Expected daily dry fecal weights are extrapolations based on the caloric
requirements (NAS-NRC, 1974) for various age and sex categories, using the
total daily fecal amount for age groups 20-40 (Pimparkar je£ al., 1961).
c Number in parentheses indicates the number of participants representing
each group's mean.
358
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TABLE 13-2. ESTIMATION OF MEAN TOTAL CADMIUM INTAKE IN CONTROL AND
SLUDGE RECEIVING FARM PARTICIPANTS BY AGE-SEX GROUVS IN MEDINA COUNTY*
Dry Weight of Feces Excreted, g/Day
Mean Total Daily Cadmium
Intake, Mg/Day
Age Group
and Sex Expected"
0 -
10 -
20 -
30 -
40 -
50 -
60 -
70 -
9M
F
19M
F
29M
F
39M
?
49M
F
59M
F
69M
• F
79M
•M
22.1
22.1
34.4
28.0 _,
33.5
25.3
32.5
24 .-9
32.5
24.9
29.2
23.0
28.8
22.4
Observed
Sludge (N)c
16.1 (1)
11.1 (1)
_ — _
20.8 (1)
_ _ _
10.1 (1)
11.9 (2)
24.5 (3)
26.3 (2)
24.5 (2)
19.5 (5)
22.6 (3)
23.6 (3)
22.6 (2)
Control (N)c
_ _ _
3.1 (1)
_ _ _
28.3 (1)
_ _ _
17.5 (1)
29.1 (3)
16.9 (2)
20.8 (1)
4.3 (1)
29.6 (4)
20.4 (3)
28.1 (2)
17.4 (1)
All
Participants Sludge
10.53
4.62
— _ —
13.99
_ - _
9.01
15.30
14.61
12.56
11.87
12.00
12.14
15.12
8.50
*•> <•» «•>
10.53
6.12
11.11
8.17
9.48
17.48
13.65
16.65
13.08
12.40
15.67
9.35
Control
-» • M
3.12
16.86
*
9.85
19.19
10.29
10.38
2.31
10.66
11.88
14.31
6.81
80 &
over M — — — — —
p — — _ _ _ — — — «. .» _
a Mean total daily cadmium intake represents mean of individual total cadmium
intake calculated as:
mean fecal cadmium concentration (Ug/g) X mean dry fecal weight, (g/day)
absorption correction factor, 0.954
^ Expected daily dry fecal weights are extrapolations based on the caloric
requirements (NAS-NRC, 1974) for various age and sex categories, using the
total daily fecal amount for age groups 20-40 (Pimparkar jet_ al., 1961).
c Number in parentheses indicates the number of participants representing
each group's mean.
359
-------
TABLE 13-3. ESTIMATION OF MEAN TOTAL CADMIUM INTAKE IN CONTROL AND SLUDGE
RECEIVING FARM PARTICIPANTS BY AGE-S2X GROUPS IN FRANKLIN-PICKAWAY COUNTS
Dry Weight of Feces Excreted. g/Day
Mean Total Daily Cadmium
Intake, Ug/Day
Age Group
and Sex Expected1*
0 -
10 -
20 -
30 -
40 -
50 -
60 -
70 -
80 &
9M
F
19M
F
29M
F
39M
F
49M
F
59M
F
69M
F
79M
F
22.1
22.1
34.4
2o.O
I
33.5
24.3
32.5
24.9
32.5
24.9
29.2
23.0
28.3
22.4
_ _
Over M
F
«• ••
Observed
Sludge (N)c
12.0
8.3
19.9
15.8
20.5
15.1
20.6
16.1
27.3
18.4
26.5
19.0
26.3
21.5
26.5
21.6
32.8
37.9
(3)
(2)
(4)
(3)
(6)
(4)
(7)
(7)
(8>
(5)
(8)
(2)
(4)
(4)
(3)
(2)
(2)
(1)
Control (N)c
«•» •
12.9
24.3
22.1
25.3
26.7
28.8
22.5
25.2
28.8
26.8
22,2
24.4
26.5
28.9
16.0
^ *»
—
(3)
(A)
(2)
(3)
(*)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(2)
(4)
(8)
(8)
(A)
(1)
(1)
-
"
All
Participants Sludge Control
8
5
14
12
13
11
15
.31
.67
.75
.82
;32
.84
.83
8.05
15
12
16
10
14
13
18
9
17
12
.27
.40
.04
.65
.03
.87
.52
.77
.35
.45
8.31
3.93
16.35
12.47
11.46
6.13
13.68
6.32
14.64
9.09
17.33
10.16
15.69
14.60
19.22
9.44
17.35
12.45
—
6
13
13
17
17
18
.. 1°
16
20
- 13
10
V
13
13
16
10
-
•» «•»
.83
.15
.35
.04
.56
.84
.48
.27
.67
.47
.78
.20
.14
.39
.44
a Mean total daily cadmium intake represents mean of individual total cadmium
intake calculated as:
mean fecal cadmium concentration ( Wg/g) X mean dry fecal weight, (g/day)
~-————absorption correction factor, 0.954 '•
b Expected dally dry fecal weights are extrapolations based on the caloric
requirements (NAS-NRC, 1974) for various age and sex categories, using the
• total daily fecal amount for age groups 20-40 (Pimparkar ec al., 1961).
c Number in parentheses indicates th^ number of participants representing
each group's mean.
360
-------
TABLE 13-4. ESTIMATION OF MEAN TOTAL CADMIUM INTAKE IN CONTROL AND SLUDGE
RECEIVING FAEM PARTICIPANTS BY AGE-SEX GROUPS IN CLARK CO'JNTY*
Dry Weight of Feces Excreted, g/Day
4ge Group
and Sex Expected**
0_
10 -
20 -
30 -
40 -
50 -
60 -
"7A
/o —
QM
yn
19M
F
29M
F
39M
F
49M
F
59M
F
69M
F
TO**
79M
F
22 1
fc* . X
22 1
££ . X
34.4 "*
28.0
33.5
25.3
32.5
24.9
32.5
24.9
29.2
23.0
28.8
22.4
Obse-ved
Sludge (N)c
— ^
16.9
20.9
21.1
23.1
9.7
_ _
14.7
21.4
8.2
33.5
""
9.5
.
(2)
(4)
(2)
(3)
(1)
_
(1)
(5)
(1)
(1)
"
CD
Control (N)c
22.0
— —
26.7
13.5
21.1
29.3
_ _
— —
35.0
26.2
27.4
27.5
_ _
(2)
—
(1)
(1)
(3)
Mean Total Daily Cadmium
Intake, Ug/Day
All
Participants Sludge
15
12
14
12
11
.16
.21
.99
.23
.53
<3) T5.28
_
—
(5)
(3)
<3)
(3)
_
_
7
7
13
14
16
3
_ _
.81
.81
.53
.32
.60
.34
12
14
13
12
3
_
7
7
4
11
3
..
.21
.90
.86
.31
.82
— —
.81
.81
.82
.49
.34
Control
15.16
_ _ _
15.33
9.97
10.74
19.19
— _ _
— — —
— — —
16.44
15.26
16.60
_ _ _
30 &
Over M — •* — — — — *" ' — — — — —
a Mean total daily cadmium intake represents mean of individual total cadmium
intake calculated as:
mean fecal cadmium concentration (yg/g) X mean dry fecal weight, (g/day)
~""~~~~~ absorption correction factor, 0.954
b Expected daily dry fecal weights are extrapolations based on the caloric
requirements (NAS-NRC, 1974) for various age and eex categories, using the
total daily fecal amount for age groups 20-40 (Pimparkar et al-, 1961).
c Number in parentheses indicates the number of participants representing
each group's mean.
361
-------
TABLE 13-5. DAILY FECAL HEIGHTS AND CABHIUH IHTAKE IH SPECIFIC AGS-SSX
CROUPS IH SLUDGE-EXPOSED AHD COOTECL PARriCIPAHIS, ALL COUSTIES
Dally Fecal Height* (a)
Age Group
and 'Sex,
Under 12M
F
13 - 21M
F
21 - 59Hb
Fb
60 up H
F
All Agea H
F
Hat"
Sludge (H)
59.0
50.3
89.4
35.0
97.4
76.8
117.7
104.3
97.1
75.6
(7)
(8)
(2)
(3)
(49)
(30)
(13)
(10)
(71)b
(51)b
Coatrol (H)
86.7
49.6
83.4
78.9
123.8
87.9
111.2
86.5
116.2
84.2
(3)
(6)
(3)
(3)
(31) b
(14)
(9)
(54)b
(49)b
Dry
Sludge
16.1
14.3
23.5
11.6
22.5b
18. 6b
27.3
22.2
22.8°
18. 2b
Control
25
15
22
22
27
22
25
24
26
22
.1
.2
.0
.1
!sb
.9
.6
.*b
.2°
Cd intake
US/ day
Sludge
12.55
9.48
12
7
13
9
- 16
11
14
9
.95
.77
.93b
.92b
.43
.18
.22b
.97b
Control
13
8
14
17
15
12
14
13
15
12
.26
.84
.38
.56
,85b
.76b
.03
.29
.16b
.67*>
• (R) represents the nusber of people contributing one or more f«c*l s»a:pl£8
under «ach oge-aes group and «pplle« to all other p«r«u*er.arD for tita
respective craabsaat and age—B«I group.
b Significantly different between Males -and feoalea sflthin each £roup
(P < 0.05).
TABLE 13-6. DAILT FECAL WBT6HTS AHD CAKJIOM INTAKE IH SPECIFIC AGE-SEX
GROUPS IB SLtlDSB-EXFOSED ASD C03TROL PAEJICIPAHTS, HE0USA COURT!
Dally Fecal Height e (g)
Age
Group
Sax
under 12H
F
13
22
60
All
- 21H
F
- 59S
F
up M
F
Agea H
F
Cd iffitS&B
Heta Dry Vg/day
Sleds* W
48.3 (1)
59.6 (2)
31.2 (1)
80.8 (9)
88.2 (8)
102.5 (3)
115.0 (2)
83.3 (13)
83.5 (13)
Control (M)
46.1 (2)
127.8 (8)
64.3 (7)
108.6 (2)
69.4 (1)
123.9 (10)b
61.2 (10) b
Sledge
16.1
16.0
10.1
19.3
23.8
23.8
22.6
20.1
21.3
Control
i
15.7
28.3
16.7
28.1
17.4
28.3
16.6
Sludge
10.53
8.62
8.18
12.41
15.37
•5.67
>.35
i3.01
12.85
Control
9.99
13.82
9.77
14.31
6.61
13.92
9.52
* (R) repreMdta toe Busbar of people contributing one or aore fecal sassple*
under each age-oax group and applies to all other paraaatara for the
reapactive CraatmenC and age-acx
b Significantly different betosan nalea and fcnalea within aach group
(f < 0.05).
362
-------
TABLE 13-7. DAILY FECAL WEIGHTS AND CADMIUM INTAKE IN SPECIFIC AGE-SEX CROUPS
IN SLUDGE-EXPOSED AMD COHTROL PARTICIPANTS, FBAHKLIN-PICKAHAt COUNTIES
V
Age Croup
.and Sex
Under 12M
13
22
60
F
- 21M
F
- 59M
F
up H
F
All Aees M
F
Daily Fecal Heights (R)
Veta
Sludge (H)
©
60.7 (6)
43.1 (4)
89.4 (2)
36.9 (2)
108.3 (28)
77.7 (17)
123.4 (9)
110.4 (7)
104.2 (45)b
78.0 (30)b
Control (N)
86.7 (3)
51.4 (4)
88.5 (1)
78.9 (3)
116.4 (17)
91.9 (17)
106.1 (9)
96.0 (5)
109.4 (30)b
85.7 (29)b
Dry
Sludge
16.1
12.1
23.5
12.4
23.9
17.3
27.8
23.9
23. 6b
17. 8b
Control
25.1
15.0
22 0
22.1
26.6
24.2 ..
24.9
24.4
25. 8b
22.7b
Cd Intake
yg/ day
Sludge
12.83
8.54
12.95
7.57
14.55
7.68
17.24
12.82
14.79b
8.99b
Control
13.26
8.26
12.81
17.56
16.50
12.45
13.56
12.60
15.17b
12.42b
• (H) represents the auaber of people contributing one or nore fecal maples
under each age-sex group and applies to all other paraaeters for the
respective treatsent and age-oex group.
b Significantly differant between noles and females within each group
(P< 0.05).
TAStS 13-8. D&ILT FECAL HEIGHTS ARD CADMIUM I8TAKB IH SPECIFIC AGE-SSX
GUDOPS IH ELOBCS-EIPOSEO AHD CONTROL PABIICIPASTS, CLARK COUNTt
Daily Fecal Heights CE)
Age Croup
and Sox
Under 12M
t
13 - 21M
F
22- 59M
r
60 up K
F
All ACM M
) F
Wet*
Sladge (•)
55.6 (2)
84.4 (12)
55.5 (5)
112.8 (1)
40.0 (1)
86.6 (13)
53.6 (8)
Control (H)
80.9 (1)
134.3 (9)
101.7 (7)
128.2 (3)
106.4 (3)
125.4 (13)
103.1 (10)
Dry
Sludge
16.8
21.6
15.0
33.4
9.5
22.6
14.8
Control
22.0
29.4
25.7
27.3
27.5
27.9
26.2
Cd intake
US/day
Sludge
12.21
13.61
8.83
11.49
3.34
13.45
8.99
Control
15.16
16.44
16.51
15.26
16.60
16.60
16.54
* (K) represents the number of people contributing one of nore fecal aaeplas
under each age-sex group and applies to all other paraaeters for the
respective-treatment and age-sex group.
363
-------
TABLE 13-9. FECAL CADMIUM CONCENTRATION, FECAL WEICtti
AMD DAILY CADMIUM INTAKE FOE SMOKERS* AND
HON-SMOKEaSb ON SLUDGE AKD CONTROL FAEHS, ALL COUNTIES
Mean Concentration (Vg/g)
Category
Sludge
All Person*
Smokers
Non-saok«rs
Control
All Persons
Booker*
Non-saokars
Ho.
128
27
101
83
13
70
He*nc
0.574
0.607
0.565
0.541
0.550
0.540
Peak*
0.865
0.870
O.B64
0.783
0.816
0.777
Fecal Height (g)
Het
84.6
91.5
82.7
96.3
103.6
94.9
Dry
20.6
21.0
20.5
24.2
23.3
24.4
Cd Intake
g/day
12.20
12.99
11.99
13.67
14.49
13.52
• P«r«on< who saofced cigarettes during the entire project period.
° Person* who caver sacked any tobacco product throughout their life.
Persons woo chened tobacco were not included in the analysis.
c Hean of all persona* average fecal Cd value during the post-sludge
application period.
4 Hean of all persons' peak fecal Cd value during the post-sludge
application period.
364
-------
TABLE 13-10. FECAL CADMIUM C03CEHTRATIOH, FECAL HEIGHT
AND DAILY CADMIUM INTAKE FOR SHOKEBS* AHD
!JOS-SHOKERSb Oil SLUDGE AHD CONTROL FARMS, HEDIHA COGHTI
Mean Concentration (We/g) Fecal Height (g)
Category Ho. Seen0" Peak" Met Dry Cd Intake
Sludge
All Persons
Saokara
Hon-saokers
20
2
18
0.609
0.690
0.600
0.884
1.019«
0.669
60.3
51.0
S3. 6
20.7
13.9
21.4
12.88
10.52
13.14
Control
*n Persons
SBotars
Hon-8uok«r»
18
2
16
0.521
0.456
0.529
0.719
0.627«
0.731
77.8
62.8
79.7
20.2
15.5
20.8
11.12
8.56
11.44
• Persons who sacked cigarettes during the entire project 'period.
0 Persona who never enok*d any tobacco product throughout their life.
Persons who chewed tobacco were not included in the analytic.
c Mean of all persons' average fecal Cd value during the poct-eludge
application period.
& ttaan of all persons' peak, fecal Cd value during the pose-elodge
application period.
• Significantly higher for caobers on sludge receiving farms than on control
farms (P < 0.05) by the hierarchical design of the AHOVA technique where
the error tens wee bated »poa differences aaong faros within eouaty eed
treataent groups.
365
-------
TABLE 13-11. FECAL CADMIUM CONCENTRATION, FECAL WZIGET
AMD DAILY CADMIUM IHTAK2 /OR SKOKERS* AHD
HOH-SMOKEKS» ON SLUDGE AND CONTROL FARMS, FRANKLIH AMD PICXAKAY CCUHTIES
\ -
X
Category
&
Sludge
All Persons
Saok«rs
Hon-eRokers
Control
All Person*
SBOkttTS
Hon-gsiakera
Hean
Ho.
79
21
58
47
8
39
Concentration
Ha«
0.567
0.621
0.547
0.555
0.594
0.547
(US/a)
Peak
0.867
0.664
0.669
0.821
0.919
0.801
Uet
88.6
91.3
87.6
93.0
109.7
89.6
Focal Weight
Dry
21.0
20.6
21.1
23.7
24.1
23.7
(8)
ud Intake
12.29
13.27
11.93
13.71
16.41
13.16
• Persona who eaokad cigarette* during the entire project period.
D Persons vho never g&ofccd any tobacco product throughout their life.
Persons who chawed tobacco were not included in the analyst*.
e Mean of all persons* average fecal Cd value during the poat-*ludge
application parted.
d Mean of all persona' peak fecal Cd value during the post-elodge
application period.
TABLE 13-12. FECAL CADKHJM COHCEOTHATIQ8, PECAL HEIGHT
MO DAILY CADMIUM INTAKE POB SHȣSSSa AND
soa-siE)KEasb oa SLOOSE AHD ccmt&OL FAKMS, CLAHK coirarr
Kean Concentration (Vg/g)
Category
Sludse
*n Persons
•Saokars
Hon-»aokars
Control
All Persons
Snlwr*
tie j-*»ok*rs
No.
29
4
25
18
3
15
Haati£
0.569
0.491
0.582
0.526
0.494
0.533
?«afca
0.647
0.829
0.850
0.748
0.669
0.764
Fecal Weight (g)
ttet
76.5
112.*
70.7
123.3
114.6
125.1
- Dry
19.6
26.1
18.6
29.5
26.3
30.1
Cd Intake
Kg/day
11.50
12.80
11.29
16.12
13.33
16.68
• Persons vho asoked cigarettes during the entire project period.
0 Persons who never sacked coy tobacco product throughout their life.
Pursons who chewed tobacco vere not included in ths analysis.
e Mean of ell persons' avarmge fecal Cd value during the post-sludge
application period.
* Hean of all persons' peak fecal Cd value during the post-sludge
application period.
366
-------
TABLE 13-13. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SLUDGE-EXPOSURE AND CADMIUM INTAKE
18 PARTICIPANTS FBOM SLUDGE-RECEIVING FARMS, ALL COUHTIES*
Duration of
Sludge Expoeure
(mln/wk)
0
0-10
11-45
46-90
91 op
No.
11
7
8
10
14
Dry Fecal
Height
(g/d«y>
24.4
17.9
22.0
30.7
27.3
Cadmita
Concentration
(UK/g)
0.490
0.473
0.576
0.538
0.572
CadaioB
Intake
(VB/day)
11.82
8.77
12.40
16.55
15.51
Only those Individual* with no off-fans work are included. S«sspl«»
weighing below oca standard deviation of Che overall oaan are excluded froa
this data.
TABLE 13-14. ESTIMATION Of CADMIUM INTAKE IN CATTLE
GEAZIBG SLUDGE-AIEHDSD PASTUSES8
Fan Croup
and
Period
Sludge
Pre-
Poet-
Control
Pre-
POBC-
Fecal Cd
Concentration
"Vs
0.301<>
0.900*
0.431
0.364
Fecal Wtight:
Solid*
{ kg/day )•>
3.314
3.314
3.314
3.314
Cd Iacakac
(US/day)
1017.9«»
3043.5*
*
1525.1
1230.9
• Poat-*liidge saaple* collected froa fre«h large fecal oa*8e* froai panturea
being graced by cattle, preauaed to be froc older com.
b Fre* "Ohio Llve»tock Waste Hanageeent Caide", Cooperative Recession
Service, Taa Ohio State Onlveralty, BaU«cia Ho. 604, 1990, p. 14.
e Katlsated by eoltiplying Cd concentration with fecal weight and then
dividing by correction factor 0.96.
' Significantly different fro* each other within the ease treetsent group
(F < 0.01).
367
-------
SECTION 14
OVA AND LARVAE OS PASTURE FORAGE
AFTER MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE APPLICATION
David •». Lamphere, D.V.M., Ph.D.
William J. Zingalie, D.V.M.
C. Richard Dorn, D.V.M., M.P.H.
Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
SUMMARY
Soil and forage samples were collected before sludge application and 7.
14 and 28 days after application in sludge treated and non-treated (control)
pasture areas on 3 farms in Pickaway County, Ohio. A standardized sampling
pattern was used for both soil and forage samples. Only one parasitic ascarid
(Ascaris or Toxocara) ovum was found. It was in a forage sample from a sludge
treated area collected on day 14 after sludge application. There were no
consistent differences in the concentration of larvae in either soil or forage
samples from sludge treated and control areas. There were more free-living
larvae identified than parasitic larvae in both treated and control area
forage samples. The predominant free-living larvae observed were of the
family Rhabditidae. There appeared to be an increase in the numbers of these
larvae during a period of increased rainfall and temperature. The risk of
transmission of pathogenic parasites via sludge application at a rate of 2-10
dry metric tons per hectare on cattle pasture appears to be minimal.
INTRODUCTION
Various parasitic organisms have been shown to be present in raw sewage
and sludges from municipal treatment plants. Of these, Ascaris, Toxascaris,
Toxocara. Ancylostoaa, Necator, Capillaria, Trichuris^, and Taenia species
appear to be the most common, and able to withstand sludge treatment process
(Hayes, 1977; Little, 1980). Although these organisms appear to exist in
treated sludge in small cumbers, potential hazards involving parasitism should
be evaluated carefully so that persons choosing to apply sludge on farmland
will be fully informed. This study was designed to answer the following
questions: Is there an increased concentration of ova and larvae on the
368
-------
forage grown on fields where sludge has been applied? Are there differences
In the presence of ova and larvae on vegetation following sludge application?
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Procedures for Recovery of Larvae and Ova from Pasture Forage Samples
Three cattle farms with pastures in Piclcaway County, Ohio were chosen for
this study. Each pasture was divided into a sludge applied (treated) area and
a control (not treated) area. Anaerobically digested sludge from the Columbus
Sewage Treatment Facility was applied to the treated area at a rate of 2-4 dry
metric tons per hectare. Approximately one-half to one acre of the treated
area and one-half to one acre of a control area of the pasture were selected
for sampling. Beginning in one corner of the sample area, the sampler walked
the area in a pattern resembling the letter W according to the method of
Taylor (1939). Every five to ten paces, the sampler stopped and collected
three samples; one in front, one to the right and one to the left. The sample
was collected by grasping a sample of forage as close to the ground as
possible, and then breaking it off to avoid pulling up the roots. Manure
piles were avoided when collecting the sample.
Once the sample area had been walked in one direction, the pattern was
repeated again in the opposite direction. This yielded about one to five
pounds of forage per sample.
The forage sample was examined within 24 hours of sampling to avoid
deterioration of any existing larvae or ova. The sample, was stored in the
refrigerator until processing began.
The extraction process was a modification of the method described by
Heath and Major (1968). Approximately 450 grams of the forage sample was
weighed and placed in a 12 liter bucket. The weighing was accomplished on a
triple beam balance and the weight was recorded. The sample was washed
manually with a high pressure spray of tap water sufficient to cover the
sample in the bucket. After washing, a few grass of commercial laundry
detergent was added to the sample and mixed with the water. The sample was
then allowed to stand overnight.
The next day, the volume was reduced to about 800 ml by siphoning away
the supernatant water. The remaining sediment was collected and divided into
four large (230 ml) plastic bottles. The samples were then centrifuged for 15
minutes at 2,000 rpm.
Each bottle was decanted until only 25 ml of sediment was left in the
bottle. Each 25 ml of sediment was added to a 50 ml centrifuge tube with 25
ol of saturated sodium nitrate solution (sp. gr. 1.40). Each tube was mixed
thoroughly by Inversion. The four centrifuge tubes contained a total of 200
al with all the larvae and ova recovered from the processed pasture sample.
The samples were centrifuged for 15 minutes at 1,200 rpm. Approximately 50 ml
of supernatant fluid from each of the four tubes was decanted into a graduated
cylinder.
•
369
-------
For identification of parasitic and free-living larvae, a sample was
withdrawn from the collected supernatant fluid (after agitation) using a
McHaster straining pipette and one counting chamber (0,3 ml) of a McMaster
slide was filled (Dunn, 1978). The slide was examined under a microscope at
low magnification for the presence of parasitic ova and larvae. The total
volume was then counted in a 20 ml counting chamber.
The supernate (approximately 200 ml) was allowed to stand for 15
ainutes. The top 2 ml was then removed with a Pasteur pipette and placed into
13 ml of 10% formalin for storage at 4°C until counting was performed.
The recovered larvae and ova were classified into one of two categories;
parasitic or free-living. Differentation of parasitic larvae from free-living
larvae was based primarily on the presence of a sheath around the parasitic
form. This sheath gave a halo effect and also gave the impression of a
sharply tapering tall. In contrast, the free-living nematodes were unsheathed
and the ts.il was more bluntly tapered and rounded.
Further classification of parasite and free-living forms into species was
accomplished by a more detailed examination of the mouth parts and the
intestinal tracts. The ova were classified into parasitic and free-living
forms primarily on structure and morphology.
Procedure for Recoveryof Larvae and Ovafrom Pasture Soil Samples
Top soil samples were collected from a sampling area using a small metal
spatula and walking the same "W" pattern previously described for that of
forage collection. Approximately 65 to 80 grams of top soil were obtained and
thoroughly mixed. Four grams of mixed top soil were weighed out on a triple
beam balance and placed on a four ounce paper cup.
The contents of the cup were mixed vigorously with 56 ml of saturated
sodium nitrate solution (ap. gr. 1.40). The McMaster straining pipette was
used to draw out a quantity of the solution as quickly as possible after
mixing. The McMaster counting chamber was filled and the slide was examined
under the microscope at 100 X magnification after it had been allowed to stand
for three to five minutes. The same basis of classification into parasite and
free-lkving forms was .used to record the numbers ,of ova and larvae in soil
samples.
Collection of Weather Data
*
A Taylor graduated, tapered-cylinder type raingauge was placed on each of
the 3 farms. The farmers recorded the rainfall in inches. The investigators
periodically confirmed the recordings, and calculated the number of inches of
rainfall on each farm for each week of the study.
RESULTS
Microscopic examination of samples revealed only ascarid and
Strongyle-type parasitic species, in addition to many free-living species.
Before sludge application, there were similar concentrations of total larvae
370
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on forage collected fron both the area designated for sludge application and
for control on all three of the farms (Tables 14-1 - 14-3). After sludge
application, the samples from the sludge application and the control areas on
a given farm continued to have generally similar concentrations. There was no
regular pattern consistent with a sludge effect. In fact, on Farm No. 4017
(Table 14-2) the control samples had higher concentrations of larvae than did
the sludge applied samples. On Farm No. 3005 (Table 14-.3) the 7 day and the
14 day control samples were higher than the samples from the sludge applied
areas but the reverse was observed for the 28 day samples. The numbers of
larvae observed per sample ranged from 5 to 129.
The largest increase in larvae concentration was in the 2nd and 3rd weeks
in July. This was also the same period when daily temperatures reached the
low 90's. The rainfall data also showed that this period had more inches of
rain per week than the last part of the month.
The increase in rainfall during the 2nd and 3rd weeks of July was
associated with an increase in larvae concentration. Increased rainfall
during hot summer months is favorable to bacterial growth, which is the chief
food for these nematodes and could account for the increase 4n larvae
concentrations during this time period. Rainfall also coulJ facilitate the
escape t>f larvae from dried, encrusted sludge accumulations (Dunn, 1978).
The results of the larval identification revealed more free-living larvae
than parasitic larvae with a ratio of free-living to parasitic larvae of 4.67
to 1 £or all samplings combined (Table 14-4). The small numbers of larvae
identified in each sample precluded a comparison by length of time after
sludge application. Of the free-living nematodes which were recovered, the
predominant form was of the family Rhabditidae (Herd ££ jl., 1980).
Only one parasitic ovum was recovered and identified from the processed
forage samples. The positive sample was from a sludge treated pasture (Farm
No. 4017). The ovum was'identified as an ascarid (Ascaris or Toxocara)
species.
DISCUSSION
Although .free-living neuatodes are normally .considered ..harmless, past
work performed by Chang «sit al. (1960) and Chang (1961) indicated that these
organisms found in water treatment plants, can ingest pathogens which are then
protected from lethal effects of the water disinfection process. The same
reasoning can also be applied to those nematodes found on the sludge
pastures. There exists the possibility of these nematodes ingesting any
pathogens which might be found in the applied sludge, and therefore protecting
them from exposure to heat and UV radiation. With an increase in the number
of free-living nematodes on the pasture, there may be a concurrent increase in
the chance of disease transmission to the grazing cattle.
It is interesting to note that the one parasitic ovum which was recovered
"as an ascarid ovum. Ascarid ova are more resistant to sewage treatment
processes than other parasites (Wright, e£ aU, 1942). This raises the
possibility of transmission of these eggs found in sludge to animals having
371
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access to the pastures. While it is reasonable to assume that the ascarid egg
nay have been presented to the pasture via the sludge, one must not overlook
the possibility that this egg could have been passed by the owner's dog that
often accompanied the owner out to the pasture. Although it has been
documented that ova of Ascaris, Toxascaris, Toxocara, Trichuris, Hymenolepsis,
and Taenia species can withstand the treatment of raw sewage and therefore be
found in sludges in minimal numbers (Hayes, 1977), it is reasonable to assume
that these parasites may be missed in sampling when the sludge is spread over
a pasture and therefore diluted out.
Of the three farms participating in the study, all of the pastures
sampled were composed of a combination of orchard grass, timothy and clover.
Two of the pastures had a fairly good growth while the pasture on Farm No.
3005 had been grazed down prior to the application of sludge.
The cattle herds from Farms Ho. 4017 and No. 4018, were left on the
pastures for the period of sample collecting. The herd from Farm No. 4018
seemed to favor the sludge-spread side of the field and spent the majority of
its time grazing that half, although it would avoid any large stockpiles of
sludge if present.
During the one month of this study, the herd from Farm Ttfo. 4017 was never
seen on the sludge-spread half of the pasture and there was little evidence it
was grazing that half. The herd spent the majority of its time along the
banks of the creek which ran across the far end of the field. Although it ran
across the pasture, the immediate area around the creek received no sludge due
to the difficulty in hauling sludge to the area.
Farm Ho. 30C5 kept the r.attle herd off the sludge-spread pasture the
entire month of collection primarily to allow the grasses to grow up again.
The cattle were not observed after they were returned to the pasture.
The results of this study indicate that the use of sludge application as
a means of farm land fertilization appears to cause no increase in the number
of parasitic ova and larvae when compared to control pasture areas. Also, the
number of free-living ova and larvae greatly outnumbered the parasitic forms
observed on all farms. This is consistent with expectations because care
taken JLn avoiding manure piles during collection decreased the chance of
recovery of cattle intestinal parasite eggs normally passed in the feces.
Although this study does not eliminate the possibility that parasitic
Infections (e.g. cysticercosis) might occur in cattle following grazing on
sludge treated pastures, the current practice of preventing cattle from
grazing sludge treated pastures for four weeks after sludge application is a
safeguard against unusual parasite exposures that might occur.
372
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REFERENCES
Chang, S.L., Berg, G., Clarke, N.A. and Kabler, P. (1960). Survival and
protection against chlorination of human enteric pathogens in free-living
nematodes isolated from water supplies. Am. J_. Trop. Med. Hyg. 9:136-142.
Chang, S.L. (1961), Viruses, amebas and nematodes and public water supplies.
J_. Am. Water Works Assoc. 53:288-296.
Cram, E.B. (1943). The effects of various treatment processes on the survival
of helminth ova and protozoan cysts ir -awage. Sewage Works Journal,
15:1119-1138. "
Dunn, A.M. (1978). Veterinary Helminthology. William Heinemann, London.
Hayes, B.D. (1977). Potential for parasitic disease transmission with land
application of sewage plant effluents and sludges. Water Research,
11:583-595.
Herd, "R.P., Riedel, R.M., and Heider, L.E.-(1980). Identification and
epidemiologic significance of nematodes in a dairy barn. i-A.V^tl.A..
1976:1370-1372.
Heath, D.D. and Major, G.W.A. (1968). Technique for the recovery of strongyle
larvae from masticated herbage. J_. Hel., 42:299-304.
Little, M.D. (1980). Agents of health significance: Parasites. In: Britton,
G., Damron, B.L., Edds, G.T. and Davidson, J.M.: Sludge-health Risks in
Land Application. Ann Arbor Science Pub., Michigan, pp. 47-58.
Taylor, E.L. (1939). Technique for the estimation of pasture infestation by
strongyloid larvae. Parasit. 31:473-478.
Wright, W.H., Cram, E.B. and Nolan, M.O. (1942). Preliminary observations on
the effect of sewage treatment processes on the ova and cysts of
intestinal parasites. Sewage Works Journal. 14:127A-1£80.
373
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TABLE 14-1, RESULTS OF PARASITOLOCIC EXAKINATION 0? FORAGE SAMPLES
COLLECTED FBOH SLUDGE TREATED AND CONTROL PASTURES, FARM NO. 4018.
Ti*e
(day.)
0
(pre-aludge)
0
(pre-eludge)
7
7
14
14
28
it
Treatment
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Rair'all
(inches/vie)
nr*
nr*
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.05
1.05
Ho. of larvae
counted
18
12
55
56
6
10
107
129
Ho. per kg.
of dry forage
130
80
450
400
44
80
1,180
710
* nr - not recorded; no data collected.
TABLE 14-2
COLLECTED
Tlae
(daya)
0
(pre-aludge)
0
7
7
14
14
28
28
. RESULTS OF
FROM SLUDGE
Treatise at
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Slodge
Control
Sludge
Control
PAHASITOLOGIC EXAMIKATIOM OF FORAGE SAMPLES
TREATED AND CONTROL PASTURES, FARM NO. 4017.
Rainfall
(Inches/wk)
nr*
nr*
nr*
nr*
1.60
1.60
1.20
1.20
Ho, of larvae
counted
8
5
nr*
nr*
89
129
19
38
Ho. per kg.
of dry forage
60
30
nr*
ar*
700
1,300
120
210
nr - not recorded; no data collected.
37-
-------
TABLE 14-3. BBSOMCS OF PAEASITOLOCIC EZAM1HATIC3 0? F03ACE SAHF1J5S
COLLECTED FEDM SUJDGE TK2AX2D AHD COTTKOL PASTUEES, FASM BO. 3005.
Tlae
(days)
0
(pre-Bludga)
0
(pr*— sludge)
7
7
14
14
28
28
TreatBSnt
Slad*.
Control
Slods*
Control
Sludge
Control
Sludge
Control
Rainfall
*r*
nr*
1.10
1.10
1.80
1.80
1.00
. 1.00
Ho. of larvae
counted
11
7
11
21
13
19
41
19
Ho, par fcg.
of dry fot*s«
00
60
110
200
130
300
270
ISO
tuc — not recorded; DO data col Ire tad.
TkKLE 1*-*. HUMBE& O? FAJE&StTIC tSIS FSEE-LI71IW
EX&MIBEC £9 &LXQ8CTTS Of FORAGE SAMPLES COLLSCTED FBDH
SLOBGS 7ESATEE ASS COSTEOL PAST02ES OOB1SO ALL S&H?UJ!G PEBICOS.
Ho.
Fara Bo.
Parasitic
4018
4017
3005
5
5
S
32
17
21
375
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SECTION 15
SLUDGE DISPOSAL ON FARM LAND: AN EPIDEMIOLOGIC
EVALUATION OF THE RISK OF INFECTION
Vincent V. Haraparian-, John H. Hughes*, Abramo C. Ottolengb.il
Frank A. Kapral*-, Malvin L. Moeschberger^, and Richard
Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology!
Preventive Medicine^
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
ABSTRACT
During the period of this study, 30? sludge samples collected from
4 sewage treatment plants in 3 different geographic areas were tested
for the presence of viruses. One or more viruses were isolated from 211
(69?) of the 307 samples. Of these, 130 yielded one virus, 2 viruses were
isolated from 76 samples and 5 samples yielded 3 viruses. Excluding the
polioviruses, 22 different enterovirus serotypes were isolated. Salmoaellae
were isolated from 50-311 sludges (16%) with rates varying by year and site.
Of 297 viruses isolated from-sludge, 179 (60%) were recovered in B»
cells, 45 (15%) in BGM and 77 (26Z) in HeLa M cell cultures. These
results emphasize the importance of using more than one type of cell cul-
ture when attempting to isolate viruses. Twenty-one different serotypes
of Salmonella were isolated from sludge. Salmonella infantis was isolated
most frequently.*
Eighty two sludge samples were examined for parasite ova. Toxocara
ova were the only animal parasite ova seen. They were detected in 5
samples.
Using sera from serial blood samples and 23 enteroviruses in neutrali-
zation tests, 124 rises (4-fold or greater) were detected in 67 people.
Of these, 69 rises (infections) occurred in 34 subjects residing on sludge-
receiving farms and 55 occurred in control subjects. The rises were
rather evenly distributed between the coxsackieviruses (51%) and the echo-
viruses (481). Few rises (8) in antibodies to Salmonellse were seen in the
subject population during the course of the study. Here also the rises
were evenly distributed between control and sludge exposed individuals.
To determine whether exposure to sludge under the conditions of this
study caused a higher frequency of enteroviral illness, matched pair
376
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logistic regression analysis was done of 4-fold increases in antibody titer
to any of 23 viral antigens. These analyses were done on paired farms after
the first and second applications of sludge and after the entire 3 year
period of the study. The results indicate that exposure to sludge is not
related to differential increases in antibody titer. The findings are con-
sistent and in favor of the null hypothesis. Furthermore, McNemar's Test
was used to look at the health effects of sludge exposure, taking into ac-
count the total experience of each cohort between the initial sludge appli-
cation and the end of the project. The results of these analyses also are
consistent with those obtained by multiple logistic regression analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Under the auspices of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, a five
year study invo?ving the controlled application of sewage sludge to Ohio
farmlands has been completed (Sludge Demonstration Project, Ohio Farm Bureau
Federation, Inc.). Since no comprehensive, prospective, epidemiologic in-
vestigations have been done to directly evaluate the human health risks from
sludge used in this manner, the Ohio .Farm Bureeu's Demonstration Project has
provided a unique opportunity to carry out this kind of investigation. Con-
trol farms and farms receiving sludge located in Medina, Franklin, Pickaway
and Clark counties were included in the study. Some subjects were followed
less than the planned three years because they were recruited into the study
to replace individuals that had dropped out. In addition, Clark County was
incorporated late into the study to replace Pickaway County when that
County's Health Department stopped the disposal of sludge on farmlands. The
human health portion of this project was approved by the appropriate Institu-
tional Human Subject Review Comittee of -The Ohio State University -and
informed consent was obtained from all subjects prior to their inclusion
in the study.
Since it is well established that sewage sludge can contain a variety
of human pathogens including various viruses, salmonella and parasite ova
(Kowal, 1982), the aims of this part of the study have been to monitor
individuals on both control and sludge-receiving farms for the occurrence
of viral, -bacterial, and parasitic enteric infectious. The study -was
designed in a manner that would provide primary emphasis on the detection
by serologic means of enterovirus infections in farm families. The ration-
ale for this emphasis is based upon the fact that humans can be infected
when exposed to small essounts of enterovirus. It has been reported that
as little as one infectious unit of poliovirus in cell culture medium is
sufficient to infect a human (Katz and Plotkin, 1967). In addition, two
plaque forming units (pfu) of poliovirus vaccine virus were capable of
infecting 672 of vaccinated infants, while 20 pfu of virus infected 100%
of vaccinees (Koprowski, 1956). Furthen&ore, it has been demonstrated that
humans could be infected with 18 TCI>50 of coxsackievirus A21 when adminis-
tered in an aerosol (Gerone _e£ jrU, 1966). Westwood and Satter (1976)
have suscaarized most of the evidence indicating that 01.2 virion is capable
of establishing an infection in a mammalian host. There is therefore
reasonable evidence indicating that a very small dose 01 an enterovirus
can cause infections in humans.
377
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The advantages and limitations of using serologic methods as an epi-
detaiologic tool to detect £nf>ctieu0 have been reviewed elsewhere (Miday,
1980). As opposed to questionnaires, aerology supplies an objective measure
of infection including subclinical infections. It also provides information
on the past experience of individuals with microbial antigens and on their
susceptibility to infection. The most important limitations of serology in-
clude the need to test for infections with the correct agent at the correct
time and to test for infections by enough different agents to be able to
assess risk. These problems were obviated in this study by 1) testing for
infection with 23 different enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus; 2) by
obtaining serum samples prior to sludge application and then three times per
year and 3) monitoring the sludge applied to land for the presence of entero-
viruses to assure that we were testing for infections using viruses costsnonly
present in sludge applied to land.
Excluding the polioviruses, there are approximately 60 enteroviruses
that can be propagated in cell culture systems and are therefore available to
monitor human infections using serum neutralization tests performed in cell
cultures. Thus, about 35% of the recognized enterovirus serotypes were used
in our surveillance system for the -detection of -en&eroviTuses. Eoterovirus
infections were detected by searching for significant serum neutralizing
antibody increases to 23 enteroviruses tsaong serial serum samples taken
before and after the application of sludge to farmlands.
Control and sludge subjects were bled every four months for as long as
they were in the study. In addition, study subjects wera monitored for hepa-
titis A virus infections by testing the serial senna samples for the develop-
ment of specific antibody (conversion from negative antibody status to posi-
tive). Since most enterovirus and hepatitis A virus infections do not result
in frank disease, serology is a sensitive and relatively practical method of
detecting these infections. To assure thct &t least a proportion of the
viruses used in our neutralization tests were present in sludge applied to
farmlands, we also esoaitored sludge frosa all study sites on a biweekly basis
for the presence of enterovirusea. When necessary and if appropriate,
viruses frequently fotmd to be present in sludge snples were added to our
neutralization test system, since such viruses could be excellent indicators
xjf tae spread of viruses from -sludge to hue&ns. Eehovirue 7 i* an example
of a virus we added to our test system because of its presence in many
samples of sludge. All sera were tested against the newly added entero-
viruses. Viral isolation attempts also were done on three stool specimens
collected annually from each subject with one sample always collected
during the sua&aer.
To detect enteric bacterial infections, the stool specimens obtained
three times a year from all subjects were tested for enteric bacterial
pathogens. In addition, the most recent sera from all subjects were tested
for the presence of agglutinins to salmonella types B,C,D and E. If posi-
tive, the original base line sera were tested to determine if a eerologic
conversion had occurred or if the agglutinins were present at the beginning
of the study. The sludge samples described above also were tested for
enteric bacterial pathogens by techniques capable of detecting a minimum
of 11 -salmonellae par ml of sludge. This information allowed us to compare
378
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the organisms present in sludge with those isolated from the stools of sub-
jects. In addition, stool acd sludge samples were tested for the presence
of parasite ova. All tests involving the health portion of this study have
been completed and the data collected comprise the subject of this part of
the report.
COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS
Sludges. Sludge samples were collected biweekly from the M300 and M500
plants in Medina County, Ohio, the Jackson Pike Plant of Columbus, Ohio and
the sewage treatment plant of the city of Springfield, Ohio. Samples of 1.5
to 2.0 liters were collected in sterile plastic bottles at the plant site
from which trucks were loaded. The bottles were tightly sealed, labelled
and stored at 4"C. The next aaorning, the samples from Medina and Springfield
were placed in insulated boxes on wet ice and shipped to the laboratory via
a commercial carrier. The Columbus samples were picked up by laboratory
personnel on the same day of collection. Attempts to isolate bacteria and
processing of sludge for the isolation of viruses were done on the day of
arrival of the samples iu the laboratory. Eluates from sludge samples for
virus isolations were stored at -20 C until .used,
Stool Samples. These were obtained three times per year from both con-
trols and sludge subjects. The samples were obtained approximately at four
month intervals with at least one sample being obtained during the Sunsaer or
early Fall. The samples were collected in plastic containers which were
sealed and either placed in a cooler with wet ice and delivered to the
laboratory the same day or refrigerated overnight and delivered the nesct day.
The sampl@0 were tested for bacterial pathogens and processed for viral
isolation on the day of arrival. The processed stools were stored at -20*C
until used for isolation. A portion of each unprocessed stool saaple was
placed in neutral formalin and stored at 4*C until examined for the presence
of parasite ova.
Human Sara. A baseline serum sample prior to land application of sludge
was obtained Irca each subject. Subsequently, three serum samples per year
were obtained frcea «ach individual throughout the course of the study. When
blood samples were •obtained frost subjects outside of the Coltsobuis area, they
were centrifuged on the sssie day by a local commercial laboratory, the sera
were transferred aseptically to sterile vials and transported on wet ice.
A. Bacteriological Studies
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of Salaonellae and Shigellae from Sludge (Fig. 1). Unlesi.
otherwise noted, all aedia were obtained as dehydrated bases from Difco,
Detroit, Michigan.
Sludge was inoculated directly onto plates of Eektoen Enteric agar
(HEX), MacConkey Agar OMAC) end 'Xylose-lysine deoxycholate agar (ZLD) by
379
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means of svabs. The plates were then streaked for isolation. Impregnated
swabs were also added to tubes containing 10 ml of Seleni-te or GN (BBL,
Cockeyeville, H&ryland) broths. In early samplings, Tetrathionate broth
(BBL Cockeysville, Maryland) tubes were also inoculated. This procedure
was later abandoned because recovery was no better than with the other two
enrichment media. Plates and enrichment broths ver« incubated at 37*C,
the plates for 24 hrs; the broths for 24 and 48 hrs.
©
Day 2
H2S producing colonies were picked from HER and XLD agars and tested
on biochemical media. Lactose negative colonies were tested for oxidase
activity and the negative ones were tested on biochemical media. The en-
richment media cultures were streaked on EEK, XLD and MAC agars and incu-
bated for 18-24 hours at 37"C.
The biochemical media used for screening were Triple Sugar Iron figar
(TSI), Lysine-indole agar (LIA) and urea agar. Colonies were also suspended
in 0.3 ml of saline to which a disk of ortho-nitrophenyl galactoside (ONPG)
was added. All tubes were incubated .for 18-24 hrs at 37*C.
All plates streaked from the enrichment broths were examined as indi-
cated above and suspected colonies ware inoculated into biochemical test
media as described above. All tubes of biochemical reactions were examined
and where the reactions indicated the possible presence of salmonellae,
API strips were inoculated according to manufacturer's directions. The
enrichment cultures were again streaked on HER, XLD and MAC plates.
F"atea streaked for isolation on day 3 were examined as described above.
Biochemical tests and API inoculations were performed on all suspected
colonies as indicated above. Any sample which was identified as a Salmonella
was transferred to 3 TSA slants to be used for serological identification and
for submission for confirmation. All salssonell.se isolated were tested for
group antigens using group specific sera (Difco) in agglutination reactions
and then submitted to the Ohio Health Department Laboratory for speciation.
Antibiotic sensitivity testing and biochemical confirmation were per-
formed in the Clinical Bacteriology Laboratories of The Ohio State Univer-
sity Hospitals. All confirmed salmonellae were repurified end freeze dried
in skimmed milk for deposit in the collection.
Isolation of Salffionellae and Shigellae from Stool Specimens. A 10%
•uspension of the stool specimen (under 24 hrs. old) was cultured and bandied
as described above for. sludge*.' A total of 1,821 stool samples were tested.
Recovery of Salmonelljgand Shigellae from Seeded Sludge Saaples. Th ree
different strains of~SaTnuneTIa""were used. For the early experiments, a
*tock of S. typhiaurium from our laboratory collection was used. For later
380
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experiments, a strain of £. typhimuriua and a strain of S_. paul bot^ isolated
from sludge were used. The shigella strain used was one from our departmen-
tal collection. Two methods were used to test the effectiveness of our
recovery system.
Seeding of Samples at Plant. Two 1,200 ml samples of sludge from the
Medina 300 plant ware seeded with 2 x 10' shigella and 1 x IO7 salmonella to
give a final concentration of 1.6 x 10^ /ml shigella and 8 x lO^/ml
salmonellae.
Seeding of Samples io the Laboratory. The salmonella strain to be used
was inoculated into 3, 9 ml samples of freshly received sludge to give final
concentrations of ca. 2 x 10-3, 2 x IO2 and 20 CFU/ml and then processed
together with the routine samples. Experiments were conducted with sludge
from each site in the health part of the study.
Isolation of Campylobseter sp. from Sludge. For all recovery experi-
ments and for control purposes, we used a patient isolate of Caapylobacter
foetus JBSJ>. jej ani obtained from the bacteriology laboratories of The Ohio
State University Hospital. Sludge was fwab-inoculat-ed on triplicate Campy
Blood Agar Medium (CEP) plates (Remel Corporation) and streaked for isola-
tion. Plates were incubated at 25aC, 37"C, and 42° C in stainless steel
jars in an atmosphere consisting of 5% 02, 102 CC>2 and 85Z nitrogen. Control
plates of G_. jatuja _ssj>. jejuni were included in each jar. The cultures
were exsrminsd at 24 hrs and 48 hrs and colonies were picked and tested for
catalase and oxidase activity. Positive colonies were further tested for
aotility, ^S production, and resistance to nalidixic acid and cephalothin.
Recovery of Cmpylobacter from Seeded Sludge. Canpylobaeter fetus s.s.
jejuni was grown for 48 hrs on CEP- The organisms were suspended in 3 ml of
freshly boiled thiogly col late broth. Ten fold dilutions were made and cali-
brated loop counts ware performed on the suspension by inoculation in tri-
plicate with a 0.001 ml -calibrated loop. Preliminary counts indicated that
1 ml of the undiluted suspension contained ca. 2 x IO7 CFU/ral so appropriate
volumes were inoculated in duplicate into 9 or 9.9 ml of sludge suspension
to obtain suspensions ranging from ca. 2 x IO6 to 2 x IO2 CFU/ml. Mixing of
the -suspensions was accomplished by bubbling the mixture with the gas used
for incubation described above. The seeded sludge suspensions were tested
as described above for the isolation of eampylobaeter. To test for survival
of the organises in sludge, the suspensions were stored at 4"C for 1 hr,
24 hrs, 4 days end 7 days prior to plating and incubated as described above.
Because of the relative thickness of the sludge obtained from the Columbus
Jackson Pike Plant, this sludge was diluted 1:4 with sterile isotonic
saline before addition of the bacteria.
Isolation of Salmonell&e from Stools. Stool suspensions (10%) were
processed According to the protocol described for sludge specimens. When
a patient specisien was positive, repeat cultures were taken every 3 weeks
until two negative cultures were obtained.
•
Detection of Antibodies to Salmonellae Antigens. . The last available
serum frota each individual was tested for antibodies to Salmonella groups B,
381
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C, D, and E by the rapid slide test using Bacto-Widal Salmonella 0 antigens
(Difco, Detroit, Michigan). 0.04 ml of serum was used for the determination
(equivalent to a 1:20 correlated dilution). Results were scored from nega-
tive to 4* depending on the degree of clumping that was observed. If the
most recently obtained serum of an individual was .positive at a level of 1+
or more, the baseline and subsequent sera were tested until a positive serum
was found. If the baseline serum of an individual was also positive for the
given group(s) antigen, no additional sera were tested.
RESULTS
Recovery of Shigellae, Salmonellae and Caapylobacter froa Seeded Sludge.
Both samples of sludge seeded at the Medina 300 plant yielded salmonella.
Tables 15-1 - 15-4 show the results of the experiments designed to test the
effectiveness of recovery of organisms from sludge seeded in the laboratory.
Results were similar for both Medina plants.. Salmonellae were detected
following incubation in enrichment broth for up to 7 days even when as few
as 11 CFU/ml were present, while direct plating resulted in recovery on HEK
agar only at 10 times higher levels and then only when the organisms had
been in the sludge for only .24 hrs. In addition, in one instance when using
Springfield sludge which contained group C Salmonellae for seeding experi-
ments, both the seeded group B Salmonella and the group C Salmonella were
recovered. Table 15-5 shews the frequency of isolation of Salmonellae
following direct plating or enrichment of the sludge. Twenty-two recoveries
from sludge samples and from 3 stools were analyzed to determine on which
media the salmonellse colonies were detected. In only 5 cases were the
organisms recognized on prisary isolation pistes. Two were human isolates
and the others were one each from the two Medina plants and the Coluaabus
plant.
No shigellae were recovered in our seeding experiments even when
organisms were added tc a final concentration of 1.6 s 10* CFU/ml. Csapylo-
bacter was recovered when ca. 150 CFU/ml were present (Tables 15-6 - 15-9) •
Recovery was successful even when the organisms had been held in sludge for
7 days *t 4"C.
Attaaapts to Isolate Shigellae from Sludge .and Stool Ssaspl-ea. Ho
Shigellae ep. were isolated from any of the sludge or stool specis&ene tested.
Isolation of Campylobaeter ap. froa Sludge. No Cmpylobacter ȣ. were
isolated from 99 samples of sludge tested during the period September 1980 -
June 1981. Forty-one of the samples were from the Columbus plant, 18 frost
each of th" Medina plants and 22 from the Springfield plant.
Isolation of SalBonellae from Sludge. A total of 50 isolations of
Salmonellae sp. were made froa the 311 samples of sludge (16%) tested from
all sources during the period of study. The frequency of isolation varied
by year and by site. See Tables 15-10 and 15-11. Isolation was most fre-
quent from sludge samples obtained from the Columbus treatment plant (25%)
and least frequent from the Springfield plant (7%). See Table 15-12.
382
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Twenty-one different serotypes and 5 nontypable strains were isolated
(Table 15-13). The most frequently encountered organism was Salmonella
infant is isolated on 8 occasions; Salmonella St. paul, _S. tvphimurium and
S. agona were the next most frequently isolated serotypes (4 times each).
*"* V
The distribution of isolations from a given plant did not follow any
particular pattern except that there appeared to be an increased isolation
rate during the first quarter of each year (Table 15-14). An overall Chi-
square test of the data showed a borderline P value (0.1 > P > 0.05) so the
data was subjected to an analysis of residuals (Everit, 1977) which indicated
that a significant deviation existed in the number of isolations made during
the first quarter (2.43 S.D.). A 2 x 2 Chi-square analysis of the isolations
during the 1st quarter vs. all other quarters combined yielded a P » <0.02
indicating that substantially more isolations of salmonellae were made during
the first quarter than would have been expected.
From inspection of the data in Table 15-14, it appeared that the in-
crease was primarily due to the isolations from the Columbus plant. To test
this hypothesis, the 1st quarter data from Columbus was tested in a 2 x 4
Chi-square test -against 1st quarter data from the other sites. The overall
test gave a P - <0.05. When Columbus' first quarter data was compared in a
2x2 Chi square test with the combined data from the other 3 quarters in
Columbus (Table 15-15), a significant difference was also noted (P * <0.05).
An-ibiotic Sensitivity Patterns of the Salmonellae Isolated from Sludge.
Table 15-16 presents the distribution of the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) of given antibiotics for most of the strains isolated from sludge. A
few strains were lost before the antibiotic sensitivity could be tested. In
general, most strains showed low MICa for most antibiotics. Table 15-17
lists the 5 strains which showed high MICa to one or more antibiotics.
Isolation of Salmonsllae from Individuals. Table 15-18 indicates the
isolations which were made from individuals. One individual was positive
following repeated cultures.
Antibodies to Saliaonellae in the Farm Population. The eerologic status
of the subject population at the end of the study i* shown in Table 15-19.
Individuals with no antibodies at the end of the study were for our purposes
assumed to have been negative at the start of the study.
A statistical analysis by the Chi-square test of the data in Table 15-
19 indicates a significant deviation of the data for the incidence of anti-
bodies against Group C salmonellae from a normal distribution (P » <0.001).
DISCUSSION
Enteric Bacteria in Sludge. The procedure used by us for the isolation
of salmonellae from sludge is similar to that described by Dudley et al.,
1980, in that we too used seliinite broth as one of our enrichment media and
incubated the enrichment at 37*C rather than et 42*C as suggested by Spino,
1966; Harvey and Price, 1968; Cheng £t_ aK, 1971, and .Yoshpe-Purer _et_ jaK,
1971. Edgar and -Soar 1979, reported in a atudy comparing methods for the
383
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isolation of saltaonellae that several cathode described in the literature
produced different results not only because some of the media used were
inhibitory for the organisms, but also because in some instances, certain
of the media coupled with higher temperatures of incubation were inhibitory.
These authors reported that Brilliant Green Agar was the best .plating
medium in their hands.
Although we did not use brilliant green as the plating medium, we
obtained good growth and differentiation with HER and XLD plating media, the
former giving us the better results. The sensitivity of our isolation system
was aufficient for our purposes in that we were able to detect 11 CPU seeded
in a 1 ml ample of sludge (1.9 - 6.0% solids). Dudley _et_ al_. , 1980, report-
ed a detection lirait of >2<24 CFD/g total solids. In studies directed to the
determination of the Most Probable Number (KPN) of salmonellae in sludges
from different sources, Jones £t_ al_., 1980, were able to find organisms in
sludges containing as little &s 0.3 salmonellae CFU/100 ml. The methodology
used by Jones and his colleagues was much more extensive than ours in that
multiple enrichment systems were used. This question will be discussed below
in conjunction with a discussion of minimal infective doses.
As reported by Dudley et_ £l., 1980, we also were unable to detect
Shigella sp. in the sludge samples. Our recovery experiments suggest that
shigellae do not survive well in sludge, which would decrease the probabil-
ity of this organism being present in the sludge applied to land. However,
we can not exclude the possibility that the methodology used by us and other
workers is not sufficiently sensitive to permit the isolation of shigellae.
Because of this lack of isolation of Shigellae_ j9£., organisms from any
of the sludges and the relatively high numbers required for recovery in our
seeded experiments, we are unable to reach &ny conclusion as to the presence
or absence of this pathogen or as to the relative risks involved.
• Our inability to recover Campylobecter «p. from samples of sludge
despite recovery of the organism from our seeded experiments even after 7
days of contact at 4*C indicates that the organism if present in sludge, is
in such low concentrations as to be undetectable by our methodology. The
high sensitivity that this organism displays to oxygen -adght make its pre-
sence unlikely in aerobically digested sludges.
The different rates of isolation of salmonellae from the different sites
as shown in Table 15-1? is not surprising. Similar results have been obtain-
ed by Danielsson, 1977, Dudley et al., 1980, and Jones _e£ ajL^. ,1980. The rate
of isolation depends on the initTal number of salmonellae present in the raw
sewage and the effects of the particular treatment. Our lowest frequency of
isolation, 7Z froa the sludge from Springfield was similar to the rate of 8%
reported by Danielsson (1977) in her studies in Sweden.
We are unable to relate the higher number of isolations from the
Columbus plant during the first quarter of each year to any specific condi-
tion at the plant. Carrington e£ jftJU, 1982, showed that the inactivation of
•almonellae in anaerobic sludge was affected by temperature during digestion
so we subjected the frequency of isolation data to statistical analysis rea-
584
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soning that in the first quarter of the year, temperatures would tend to be
lover and thus the organisms might be protected. Examination of the data
however, indicated that organisms were isolated in no discernible pattern.
The temperature of the digesters varied between 30-35*C during the course
of the study.
Based on our recovery experiments from seeded sludge samples, the
relatively low rate of salmonellae isolation and the fact that most of our
samples required enrichment for isolation, it is likely that the number of
organisms in the sludges used in this study was usually leaa than 11-40
CFO/ml. When present in higher concentration, there probably were not more
than 280 CFU/ml since in only a few cases were we able to recover organisms
directly from plated material without previous enrichment. This concen-
tration of organisms coupled with the low rate of sludge application to
land (4-10 metric tons of aolids/hect) would make it most unlikely that an
individual would assimilate an infective doee.
There is also the concern that the lack of isolation of salmonellae
from sludge might not be a sufficient criterion for the assessment of risk
since there i-3 always £he potential for Depopulation of the sludge on
standing before it is delivered to the fields. In this context, Euss and
Yanko, 1981, reported that in composted sludges (not exactly our case),
the pathogen repopulated readily if the moisture content was at least 20%,
if the temperature was in the mesophilic range and if the carbon-nitrogen
ratio was in excess of 15:1. The two first conditions exist in this pre-
sent study but the carbon/nitrogen ratio is well below this as has been
seen in an earlier section of this report.
The concept of infective dose under natural conditions is difficult to
establish, although Oliver, 1980, reported that salmonella gastroenteritis
occurred in adults and children eating chocolate contaminated with <1 to 100
£.• easEbourna organisms per 100 g. In another case, Lang e_t_ &1_, 1967, re-
ported that 15,000 cells of S. cubana were required for illness in patients
ingesting contaminated carmine dye. Another study of a naturally occurring
infection, that of infection with S. typhimurium contaminated drinking water
in Riverside, California in 1965 (Boring ££ &l_., 1971) indicated that the
•water contained 17 CFU/1. "The authors ^ewever, advise caution in interpret-
ing these data for the determination of infective dose because of souse of
the procedures ueed in sampling the water.
Ayanwale £t ^1., 1980, report feeding goats for 17 months on corn silage
grown on land fertilized with sludge from which £. newport €2 had been iso-
lated. No rises in antibodies to the organism were seen. Under controlled
experimental conditions, infective doses for Salmonella £p_. other than j>_.
typhosa have been reported to vary between 10^ - 10^, although in some
experiments, lO1' did not cause either disease or infection (summarized by
Koval, 1982). Because of these considerations, we believe that the effort
and expense involved in determining the KPN of salmonellae in a given sludge
•ample routinely i» not justified since our results indicated that large
•mounts of the sludge would have to be consumed before infection with this
organism could be expected to occur. More refined and definitive quantita-
tive results would not significantly alter the assessment of risk.
385
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Serologic Examination for Antibodies to Salmonellae. Because aggluti-
nating reactions to salmonellae antigens may be a reflection of cross-react-
ivity with antigens from other Enterobacteriaeeae, we did not conduct as
rigorous a survey of agglutinating antibodies as we did for the neutraliz-
ing antibodies against the enteroviruses. Our methodology was not designed
to detect rises anu falls in the antibodies to the different groups of
salmonellae but rather on an all or none basis with a titer of 1:20 as our
baseline. Using these criteria, it can be seen that there is a significant
difference in the antibody patterns detected in different locations and
in different families. We did not have enough data for a valid statistical
analysis of relationship between the occurrence of antibodies to salmonell&e
and the presence of a significant number of animals on a farm. Similarly,
because of the relatively low number of individuals with antibodies, it
is not possible to determine whether there was a significant difference at
the end of the trial between the individuals on farms where sludge was
placed and individuals on control farms.
On an episodic basis, there appear to be some families with a higher
prevalence of antibodies to salmonellae. See Table 15-21. The small
number of apparent conversions also precludes a -valid -statistical analysis.
What is of interest however, is that when the most recent positive sera
from given individuals were matched with baseline sera (usually collected 3
years earlier), the seme pattern of reactivity was observed in most cases.
The low number of actual conversions and some apparent anamnestic responses
do indeed strengthen the possibility that there is a low incidence of human
salraonellosis in the population studied. In conclusion, we did not detect
a sufficient nuaber of infections with salmonellae during the study to be
able to analyze the data statistically.
CONCLUSIONS
1. SalsEonallue do not pose a significant risk to the health of farm
families exposed to sewage sludge applied to farm land under the conditions
used during this trial.
2. The number of salaonallae present in the sludge samples used does
not appear to «be .sufficient to cause infection as measured by -the rapid
agglutination test.
3. Shigellae sp. and Casapylobacter ap. were not found in sludge under
our conditions.
B. Farasitology
Examination of Stools for Parasites and Ova. The procedure used for
examination of stools for the presence of ova and parasites was the direct
examination method (Kelvin and Brooke, 1974). Fecal material was added to
20 ml of digtilled water in a 40 uil conical centrifuge tube and vortexed
and shaken until a smooth suspension was formed. The mixture was centri-
fuged ui 8900 x g for 2 minutes at 4sC in a swinging bucket rotor. Enough
stool was used to provide about 15 ml of sedimented stool material. The
386
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supernate was discarded and for direct examination, a drop of the washed
fecal material was mixed with a drop of distilled water on a microscope slide
and examined under a microscope.
To determine the sensitivity of our methods, aliquots of a known nega-
tive stool sample were seeded with various amounts of ascaris ova from a
suspension containing a known number of ova. Individual samples were seeded
with amounts calculated to give final numbers of 700, 350, 175, 88, and 44
ova/ml. A negative control also was included. The stools were then process-
ed with and without concentration procedures which included the zinc sulfate
and the formalin-ether concentration procedure (Kelvin and Brook, 1974) for
comparative purposes. By the direct method, with 88 ova/ml in feces, ascaris
ova were detectable in 50% of the preparations acd with 175 ova/ml in all of
the preparations. Similar results were obtained with the formalin-ether
concentration technique. No ascaris ova could be detected at the highest
concentration used (700 ova/ml) with the zinc sulfate concentration proce-
dure. Even though the zinc sulfate procedure was not an efficient means of
detecting aacaris ova, it is useful for other ova and this method and the
direct method were used to test 407 stool samples obtained from the different
test sites for ova and parasites.
Examination of Sludge for Ova and Parasites. The method used for these
tests essentially is that described by Meyer e_t al., 1978. One hundred ml
of 2.6Z hypochlorite solution were added to 75 gTwet weight) of sludge in
a 250 ml centrifuge bottle and mixed vigorously. After the foam had sub-
sided, additional hypochlorite solution was added to give a final volume of
225 ml and the mixture was kept at room temperature for 1 hour. Subsequent-
ly, the suspension was centrifuged at 800 x g for 2 minutes at 4°C, the
supernate* was decanted and 2 ml of an anionic detergent (7X, Linbro Sci.
Inc., Remden, Conn.) was mixed into the pellet. Distilled water was added
to a final volume of 225 ral and the mixture was centrifuged as described
above. The pellet was resuspended in distilled water again and recentri-
fuged. This procedure was repeated and the resulting sediment was resus-
pended in sine sulfate solution (specific gravity 1.225) and centrifuged at
800 x g for 2 minutes at 4*C. After standing for a few minutes, the surface
of the supernate was aspirated and examined as described above for feces.
Tests for sensitivity for the detection of ova were repeated as des-
cribed above for stool staples. To detect ova on & regular basis in a
30 g (wet weight) sample of Medina Sludge, 3000 ova were required.
RESULTS
Parasitology - Stools. See Table 15-22 for the stool samples tested
according to year collected, geographic source and study status. Twenty-six
percent of the 1,556 stools collected were tested and found to be negative.
Most of the stools tested were from the last 2 years of the study on the
rationale that if ova from sludge were capable of infecting humans, these
stools would be most likely to contain ova and parasites.
Parasitology - Sludge. Eighty-two samples from 4 plants were examined.
The majority of ova present were mite ova of the genus Orbatiol. In addition
387
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to the ova, some hatching and apparently free-living mit^a also were seen.
Some sludge samples from Columbus contained Toxocara ova. No ova or para-
sites were detected in the small number of sludge samples examined from the
Springfield Plant. See Table 15-23 for these result*.
DISCUSSION
Under the conditions of this study, the monitoring of stool samples for
ova and parasites was of no value for evaluating the health effects of sewage
sludge applied to farmlands. Over 400 stool samples from sludge exposed
(234) and control subjects (173) collected primarily during the last two
years of the study, were negative for parasites and ova (Table 15-22). This
is not a surprising finding because the frequency of Ascaris lun-brieoides
infections of humans in this country appears to be very low. In 1976, about
2Z of over 400,000 stools submitted to state health laboratories were posi-
tive for A. lumbricoides ova (Cross, 1982). It is therefore likely that the
prevalence of such infections in a normal population of farmers in Ohio would
be even lower unless of course, exposure to sewage sludge containing enteric
parasites was an efficient means of spread to humans. Although it has been
reported that ova from enteric parasites are present in sludge in this
country and can remain viable during digestion (Black et al. , 1982), the
only ova we were able to identify in sludge were Toxocara ova which were
detected in 5 of 27 sludge samples from the Columbus plant (Table 15-23).
It is possible that the methods we used were not adequate to detect
ascaris ova in sludge. To detect such ova on a regular basis in seeded
sludge, required the presence of 3000 ova in 20 g (wet weight) of sludge.
In stool samples however, we could detect ova when present at a concentra-
tion of only 88 ova/ml.
C. Virus Studies
Material* and Methods
Cell Cultures. Primary cynomolgous and green monkey kidney tub: cul-
tures and cell suspensions were -obtained from a commercial source. HeLa M
cells (Hamparian, 1979) were from the cell bank of this laboratory. The BGM
line of African green monkey cells (Barren ££ aL_., 1970) originally %ras
obtained from Dr. A.L. Earron. The ED line of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells
(McAllister ct_ aK , 1969) was supplied by Dr. Nathalie J. Schmidt. All cell
cultures were propagated according to standard procedures (Schmidt- 1979).
The residual trypsin (0.25%) method was used to disperse cells for serial
cultivation. Growth medium for all cultures consisted of Eagle minimum
essential medium (EKEM) in Earle balanced salt solution (BBSS) containing
« final concentration of 10* fetal bovine serum, 50 meg of gentamycin per
ml and 12 ml of 7.5% KaHCOs per liter. Prior to inoculation and with the
exception of the RD cells, all cultures were placed on maintenance medium
consisting of the above except that the fetal bovine serum was reduced to
2Z and the NaHCOs was increased to 30 ml per liter. For reasonable mainten-
ance (5-7 days) of RD cells on Eagle MEM in Earle salt solution, the amount
of 7.5% RaHCC>3 in the maintenance medium had to be kept at 12 ml per liter.
388
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Cell lines were preserved by suspension in Eagle MEM with & final concentra-
tion of 10% fetal bovine serum and 10% dimethylsulfoxide and storage in
liquid nitrogen. The details of the methods for preservation end storage
of cells have been described (Schmidt, 1979).
Viral Isolations from Sludge. The method used to isolate entero-
viruses from sewage sludge included an elution procedure and a disinfection
step. Ho concentration procedure was used because a) the amount of elu«nt
used for each 6 g of sludge solids was only 5 sal and b) 30 ml of each
eluate (at least 30% of the sample) was inoculated into cell cultures.
A technique utilizing beef extract was employed to elute viruses from
sludge participates. Beef extract is a commonly used and relatively effi-
cient eluent for this purpose (Brashear and Ward, 1982; Farrah «st a_l., 1981;
Glass, et^ aj^., 1978; Landry ^t ad., 1978; Hielsen and Lydholsa, 1980; Sattar
and ftestwood, 1976; Wellings ££ aj.-, 1976). Sludge samples thst were mostly
liquid (3-5% solids) were centrifuged for 30 minutes at IS00 x g at room
temperature. The supernatant fluids were discarded. The voluse of sliidge
centrifuged usually yielded about 100 g (wet weight) of sludge solids.
Sludge samples from «,hc -Columbus plant which are dewat«red by centrifug&tion,
contain about 18% solids and had the consistency of soft putty. For such
samples, 100 g of the .sludge were weighed out. Five ml (sterile) of 3%
beef extract .n distilled water and containing 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate
was added for each 6 g of solids. The pH of the eluent was 7.5. The mix-
ture was stirred with a magnetic stirrer for one hour at room temperature
to elute viruses. The siixture was then clarified by centrifugation at A*C
for 30 sinutes &t GOO x g. The supernatant fluids ware drawn off and dis-
infected by adding 1 ral of chloroform for each 20 ml of eluate and incubating
the mixture at roesa temperature for 30 minutes with intermittent shaking.
The chlorofona-eloate mixture was separated by centrifugation at rooa
temperature for 30 minutes at 800 x g. The supernatant fluid was stored
at -20"C until inoculated into cell cultures. Figure 2 suamarizes the
isolation procedure.
Initially ID, HeLa, BGK and primary cynct&olgous monkey kidney cultures
(CKK) were used; however, after viral isolation attempts were done on 34
sludge samples from the Medina 300 plant, 33 fro* Medina 500, 18 from
Columbus and 5 from the Springfield sewage treatrasnt plant, it became clear
that the primary sonkey kidney cultures were not of value for isolating
enteroviruses. The occasional isolates obtained in CMK cultures ©ere either
reoviruses or enteroviruses also isolated in RD or BS€ cell cultures. Thus,
because of the high cost and poor viral yield of primary CMK cultures, they
were dropped in late 1979-early 1980 from the spectrum of cells used for
isolation of viruses from sledge. Two 16 OK. flasks of each cell culture
were inoculated with 5 ml each of a sludge eluata. Because of the toxicity
of most sludge eluates, all cell cultures were inoculated in the presence
of growth saedixsa. Attempts to inoculate cultures containing less than 10%
fetal bovine serua in the medium or with no taediua, usually resulted in
rapid destruction of cell sheets. The inoculated cultures ware incubated
for one hour at 36*C to allow for viral adsorption, the supernatant fluids
were discarded and the cultures were refed with 35 ml of maintenance isedium.
This procedure virtually eliminated problems with the toxicity of sludge
389
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eluates. Uninoculated control cultures were included with each isolation
attempt. The cultures were observed for cytopathic effects (CPE) for ten
days and all positive cultures (752 or more involvement of the call sheet)
were stored at -20*C until identified.
Viral Isolations from Stool Samples. A 10% suspension (wt/vol) of stool
sample vas prepared in PBS and centrifuged at 1000 x g for 20 minutes. Three
nl of the supernatant was raised with 1.0 ml of an antibiotic solution con-
taining 3,000 units of penicillin and streptomycin, 1,600 meg of chlortetra-
cycline and 353 sacg of smphotericin P. The mixture was incubated at room
temperature for one hour with occasional shaking and centrifuged at 4*C for
one hour at 1000 x g. The supernatant fluid was stored &t -20*C until inocu-
lated into cell cultures. Primary green monkey kidney, SD and BCS1 tube
cultures were placed on maintenance medium and two tubes of each kind of
cell culture were inoculated with 0.2 sal of a stool sample. Cultures were
incubated at 36*C on a roller drum and were observed for CPE for 10 days.
Positive cultures were frozen at -20°C until typed.
Identification of Viral Isolates. To reduce the possibility that
isolates were mixtures of viruses and would therefore be impossible to type,
a single limiting dilution passage was made with each virus.
Tea-fold dilutions of virus ranging fro® 10*3 to 10~® were prepared in
maintenance medium and 0.2 ml amounts of each dilution were inoculated into
each of two cell cultures of the kind in which the virus originally was
isolated. The cultures were incubated at 36*C on a roller drisa for five days
and one tube from the highest dilution showing CPE was used to inoculate six
additional tube cultures. When the CPE in these cultures was 75-100Z com-
plete, they were frotea and thawed, clarified by low epead ceatrifugaticn,
distributed into 1 ml sssoiints sad stored at —20"C. To reduce the costs find
labor of typing the viruses isolated from sludge, 96-well, flat bottom
tissue culture plates (Liiabro) were used to titrate and type all isolates.
To determine the infectivity titers of the isolates, ten-fold dilutions
of each virus were prepared in maintenance medium. Using a mieropipette,
0.025 ml of each dilution was delivered into each of too asells of a. micro-
titer plate. To each well,40,000 of the appropriate cells in 0.15 ml of
growth seedivst were added. The plates were sealed with pressure sensitive
plastic sheets, gently agitated to mix the virus-cell suspensions and
incubated at 36*C for sis days. Subsequently, the fluids were withdrawn
by. suction and one drop of formalin—crystal violet (7.5%) stain was added
to each well. After 5 minutes, the staining solution was reasoved by gently
washing in tap water and the plates were allowed to air dry before being
read. The CPE was visualized by unstained veils where the cells had been
destroyed by virus. The titera were determined by the method of Rsed and
Muench (1938). A calculated teat virus dose (TVD) containing 1000 TCD$Q/
0.025 ml was used for attests to type isolates.
Lira Benyesh-Melnick (LBM) serum pools A-H and J-P obtained from the
Research Resources Branch of the Rational Institute of Allergy and Infec-
tious Diseases (NIAID) were used for typing enteroviral isolates. The
procedures used essentially were those recoasssnded by the NIAID in its
390
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instructions of April, 1972 that were supplied with the pools. Where
necessary, type specific sera also supplied by the NIAID were used to do
special test* and to confirm results obtained with the pools. The LBM
pools were rehydrated in sterile distilled water, pools A-S were diluted
1:10 and pools J-P were used undiluted. The serua pools were inactivated
at 56* C for 30 minutes prior to use.
& c
To a pair of wells on a aicrotiter plate, 0.025 of a serum pool was
added. To each serua pool, 0.025 ml of virus containing 1000 TCD5Q was
added. After gentle raizing, the plates were covered with plastic sheets and
incubated for two hours at rooa temperature. To determine the actual e&ount
of T7D used in the tests, ten- fold dilutions (10""1 - 10~4) of each TtfD were
made at the end of the incubation period and 0.025 ml of each dilution was
placed into each of four wells. Subsequently, 40,000 cells in O.lSsal of
growth medium were added to each veil. Following gentle shaking, the plates
were sealed and incubated for six days at 36° C. The plates were stained and
read as described above and the viruses were identified with the identifica-
tion tables provided with the LBM pools.
The reoviruses were presumptively identified on the basis of the kind of
CPE produced and by growth only in primary monkey kidney cultures. These
isolates were identified as Jteoviridae by electrotfiaicroscopy. Briefly, pools
prepared from each isolate were partially purified by extraction with fluoro-
carbon and then centrifuged at 50,000 x g for 60 sainutes. The pellets ob-
tained were resuspended in one drop of sterile, pyrogen-free water, one drop
of 3% phosphotungstic acid (pH 7.0) was added to the suspension and a drop
of the mixture was placed on a 300-meBh, ForHvar-carbon-coated copper grid.
Excess fluid was removed with filter paper within 10-30 seconds and the grid
was allowed to air dry. Grids were examined in a Hitachi HU-12 electron
aticroscopa and pictures were taken at stagnifiestrons of 70,000 - 100,000.
The viruses t*«re identified as Reoviridae by their typical morphology.
Viruses that were not typed because of an inappropriate TvD, were re-
tested with a readjusted TVD. Those 'isolates that could not be typed, were
pat through another limiting dilution step to separate possible mixtures of
viruses, this ti:sa using six tubes per dilution and retested. Thirteen
viruses which could not be identified in our hands -were finally identified
through the courtesy of Ms. Jill Baxa at the Ohio Department of Health
Laboratories.
Serum Neutralization Tests. The 23 enteroviruses and the cell culture
systems used for serua neutralisation tests (SHT's) with huw&n sera are
listed in Table 15-24. The viruses were prototype strains obtained from the
Research Resources Branch of the HIAXD. Although seme attempt was made to
pick a broad speetrca of serotypes for use in the tests, on a practical basis
•any of the selections ware based on the ability of the viruses to replicate
in either RD or BGH cell cultures. It would hsv* been impractical to do
large number of SSI's if three or four different kinds of cell cultures and
infant mice had to be used for the tests. The viruses ware passaged until
the infectivity titers obtained in siicroplates were high enough to, allow
then to be used in the tests. Care was taken to reduce the possibility of
cross contamination of the seed virus pools. Only one virus was handled at
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a time, the work area was cleaned and exposed to ultra violet irradiation
between viruses and lab workers washed their hands and changed outer garment*
before^handling a new virus. The final seed pool of each virue was frosen
•t -70*C in sraail aliquots, assayed for infectivity, tested for sterility
and typed with reference antisera using at least a viral TVD of 1000.
For neutralisation tests, three to four serial sera frora one individual
were tested simultaneously. The initial dilution for the baseline serosa in
each test was 1:5. A 1:10 dilution was used for other sera. Thus, baseline
sera ware tested at dilutions of 1:5-160 and the others at 1:10 - 1:320.
Usually three separate tests were needed to test 20-40 sera against all 23
enterovirusee. Sera were heat inactivated at 56"C for 30 minutes, bulk two-
fold dilutions were prepared in tubes and a sdcropipette was used to deliver
0.025 ml amounts to duplicate wells in microtiter plates. A test virus dose
for each virus calculated to contain 100 TCBso in 0.025 ml of maintenance
medium diluent - :-J added to the appropriate eerusa dilutions. The plates were
agitated gently, wered with plastic sheets end incubated for one hour at
room temperature. A 1:2 dilution of each TVD was made and incubated along
with the serusa-virus mixtures. Approximately 15 minutes before the end of
the incubation period, the TVD's were diluted 10""1 - 10"^ and each dilution
was -distributed in 0.025 ml amounts into four wells. Kicropipette tips were
changed between the tasking and delivery of each tea-fold dilution of the
TTO's. Depending on the virus, either 40,000 RJ) or BQ4 cells contained in
0.15 ml of growth aedivsm was sdded to each veil. The plates were agitated
gently, sealed and incubated at 36*C for six days. The procedures for
staining and reeding £he plates were similar to those described above under
Identification j$£ Viral Isolates. The serraa titer was the highest dilution
of serusn that completely inhibited CPE by the TVD in both tires 1 la. A four-fold
or greater iacreaei© in titer between two serial sera tested simultaneously
was considered significant. Every significant rise in sertsa titer was
confirmed by at lease one repeat test.
Detection of Antibgdy_ te_Hgjjgtitis A Virus. A radioizmuno&ssay kit,
trademark HAVAB, froia the Abbott Laboratories' Diagnostic Division was used.
Baseline sera obtained frca bissan subjects prior to the application of sludge
were tested initially. Those that were definite positives were considered
already to have had Hepatitis A viral infections and -were not tested again.
Individuals who lacked detectable antibody were tested throughout the course
of the study to follow them for conversion to positive. The procedures used
were those described in the Abbott kit and «
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samples yielded three viruses. These combinations were echovirus 7, polio-
virus 2 and reovirus; coxsackievirus S3, echovirua 11 ©nd poiiovirue 2 and
coxsackieviruees B2, B3 and echovirus 11. The aost frequent viruses isolated
were echovirus 7 (28/91, 312), coxsackievirus B3 (15/91, 16%) aad poliovirus
2 (17/91, 19%). Of the 12 .different types of viruses isolated, not counting
the polioviruses, 4 of the echoviruses and all 3 of the coxssckie viruses
were included in the serum neutralization tests used to raonitor our subjects
for occurrence of enteroviral infections (Table 15-25).
The Medina 500 Plant. The isolation rate from sludge camples from this
plant was soseewhat lower than that from the 300 plant. See Tables 15-27 and
15-28 for these results. Forty-three of 63 samples (68%) were positive. An
average of 1T37 viruses were isolated per positive sample. Fifteen of 63
samples (24%) yielded two or more viruses. Again, echovirus 7 was most
frequently found among multiple viral isolates (7/15, 47%). Coxsackievirus
B3 was found in 6 of 15 (40%) and polioviruses ware "associated with 5 (33%)
of the 15 Bffiisples. One sample yielded three viruses coxsackieviruses B3, B4
and poliovirus type 3. The saost frequent viral isolates obtained were
similar to those frca the M300 plant. These were echovirus 7 (22/59, 372),
coKsackieviru® B3 (10/59, 17%) and the polioviro«eB (12/59, 20%). Of th«
viruses isolated from the M5)0 plant, 4 echoviruses and 2 coxsackieviruses
were used in the serum neutralization testa to monitor hisnan infections.
The Columbus Plant. Of 123 sludge samples tested, 81 (66%) were posi-
tive for 1 or more viruses. Tables 15-29 sad 15-30 summarise these results.
An average of 1.35 viruses were isolated per sample. Twenty-eight of 123
samples tested (23%) yielded two viruses. Coxssckievirus B3 and echovirus
24 were the taast cossson multiple isolates with eleven of the 28 positive
samples (39%) yielding one of these viruses. Five of these 28 samples (13%)
yielded poliendxussa. • Coxssekieviras B3 and echovirus 24 ware isolated
together frora S ©£ these (29%) samples. Of the 109 viruses isolated frosa
the 123 samples tested, the -most frequent viruses isolated were eoxssekie—
virus B3 (15/109, 14%) poliovirus 2 (15/109, 142) eehoviru® 7 (13/109, 122)
and echovirus 24 (13/109, 12%). Of the 109 viruses isolated, 9 echoviruses
and 5 coxsackieviruses wer« included in the serua neutralisation tests with
human sera.
The SprJBgfi@ld Plant. Twenty-nine of 58 sludge Esaiples tested (50%)
were positive for 1 or taore viruses, the lowest isolation rate froa any of
plants in the study. Thirty-eight viruses were isolated from 29 positive
•topics (1.31 viruses/sassple). See Tables 15-31 and 15-32 for these results.
Two or laore viruses were isolated from 8 (28%) of the 29 positive sasaples.
Coxsackievirus 33 and poliovirus 2 ware the tsost coaaaoa isolates. Echovirus
7, a cosmon isolate from the other sewage plants, rams only isolated twice
during the first year of Che Springfield study. Coxsackievirus B3 was iscst
conoonly found (4 of 8 samples) esoag the nultiple isolates. Ten of the
viral serotypes isolated vere used in the serum neutralization teat to
detect enteroviral infections in our human subjects.
Summary of Viral Isolations froa all Sludge Staples. Table 15-33
•umnarizes the frequency of single and Eultiple viral.isolations from all
•ludge samples. One or more viruses were isolated from 211 (69%) of 307
393
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samples. Of these, 130 yielded one virus, 2 viruses were recovered froa 76
samples and 5 samples yielded 3 viruses. Thus, 33% of the positive sludge
samples -and 26% of all emples tested contained either 2 or 3 viruses that
were capable of being isolated by the methods employed. The viruses isolated
from all sludge samples are presented in Table 15-34 according to serotype
and location. Of the 297 viruses isolated, the most cession viruses encount-
ered were echovirus type 7 viruses (65/297, 222), 47 (16%) were coitssekie B3
viruses, 45 or 1,5% were poliovirus 2 viruses and IS (6%) «®re echovirus type
24 viruses. The number of ssenples from which viruses were recovered was
lowest for the Springfield plant (50%) (see Table 15-31) where the ntsaber of
viruses isolated per sample tested was only 38 out of 58 or 0.66 viruses per
sample. The highest number of viruses isolated per sample W&G obtained from
the Medina 300 plant where 91 viruses were recovered from 63 samples for an
average of 1.44 viruses frca all samples. Most of the echovirus 7 isolates
came from the Medina and Columbus plants. Echovirus type 24 was isolated
most often frota Coltaabun sludge whereas coxsackievirus B3 virus was a cossaca
isolate from the sludge of all 4 plants. Ho coxsackievirus Bl or B6 viruses
were isolated. Excluding the polioviruses, 22 different enterovirus sero-
types were isolated from the sludge of the four sewage plants. Fourteen of
these serotype* were included in serom neutralisation tests included in the
panel used to detect enterovirus infections in our hisaan subjects.
Viral Spectrum of Cell Cultures Used for Isolation from Sludge Ssaplas.
Table 15-35 shows all the viruses obtained frca sludge according to type and
kind of cell culture in which they were isolated. Of 297 viruses isolated,
179 (60%) were recovered in KD cells, 45 (15%) in BGM and 77 (26%) in HeLa
cell cultures. For those viruses that were isolated on at least 5 occasions,
7 echoviruses (types 3,6,7,11,20,24 and 30) trere recovered almost exclusively
in RD cells. Six echovirus eerotypes (types 13,15,17, 22,25 and 27) and 2
coxsackievirus A viruses, (A9 and A16), although isolated fewer than 5 tistes,
also were recovered oaly in ID cell 'cultures. HeLa cells were useful parti-
cularly for isolation of Coxsackievirua B3 and B5 viruses whereas BGM cells
were the only ones in which coxsackievirus B2 viruses could be isolated. Ten
different sludge sassples yielded the same virus in 2 different cell culture
systems, poliovirue type 2 twice from each of 8 samples, poliovirue type 3,
twice from one and coxsackievirus B3 twice from one sample. Tsble 15-36
summarizes the cell-culture «r •combination of-cell cultures in which these
viruses were isolated.
Effects of Season on Viral Isolation Rates froa Sludga Saaplea. Viral
isolation rates frea sewage sludge obtained from the 4 treacaent plants in
our study were examined for seasonal effects. Isolation rates for the months
of July through October and January through April were compared. For all
plants, at least 2 years of data were available for these "cold" and "warm"
months. Results froa the Medina 300 plant could not be evaluated because
the viral isolation rates were consistently high throughout the coursa of the
study. Table 15-37 gives the results of such a comparison from the Medina
500 plant. With one exception, all sludge samples (94%) collected during
the months of July through October yielded viruses. On the other hand, only
44% of samples collected during the months of January through April yielded
viruses. The viral isolation rate during wars months was significantly
greater, X2 » 9.90, P • <0.005. A similar analysis of results with Colussbus
394
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sludge (Table 15-38) did act show a significant difference in viral isolation
rates (X2 • 1.17, P - <0.3) between warm and cold month*. Table 15-39 shows
the viral isolation rates from sludge collected at the Springfield sevage
treatment plant during warm and cold months. The isolation rates were signi-
ficantly different with & Chi square value of 13.05 (P * <0.0005). Thus, in
2 of 3 treatment plants where a statistical evaluation could b® done, viral
isolation rates were higher from sludge collected during warm months.
Extending or shifting the months compared by one month in either direction,
did not affect the results.
Viruses froa Stool Samples. The viruses isolated from stool staples can
be seen in Table 15-40. The results are presented according to study status
(sludge subjects or controls) and geographic location (source of sludge).
The subjects from whom viruses were isolated are identified by their study
number. The first 4 nuaersls of each study number identifies the fara.
Thus, subjects where the first 4 numbers of the study number are identical,
were either aseabers of the sessa household, the moat eorssscn situation or
resided on the same farm. Sixteen viruses were isolated from the stools of
15 people residing on sludge-receiving farms. Echovirus type 7 was isolated
from 2 different people residing on £azra 3007 and from 2 on farm 4004. Uine
viruses were isolated from the stools of 9 individuals living on control
farms. Echovirus type 26 was isolated from 2 family members residing on
farm 35G8. Using a matched pair X2 test (McNemsra) (Siegel, 1956A) and
paired sludge-receiving and control farms., the results show that there is
no significant difference (X2 * 1, P « <0.32) in the frequency of any virus
being isolated from subjects residing on sludge-receiving and control farms.
See Table 15-41.
Serum Hajitrglj.sgtj.on Te0t Results: Comparison. of_toe grevalsnce of
Ajatifrody^.to i23nnEaj.eroviirusesiiiB@fcweea_Base_li.Be Sera frost ^adividusl^ mm Sludge
and ControlL Fargg. Although all farms in this study W&T& randomised into
sludge andcontrol groups, for additional assurance Chat both groups ware
equally susceptible to the viruses used for surveillance, the proportion of
susceptible individuals in each group was compared. Baseline (before sludge
application) -sera were tested at a 1:5 dilution in neutralisation tests
against th« 23 enteroviruses. For our purposes, individuals with serum
neutralists^ antibody titers of lest than 5 for a .particular virus were
considered to be susceptible to infection with that virus. For each family,
the proportion of suseeptibles was calculated for each virus. Because of
distribution problem, the number of people on each fara varied, the nonpara-
metric Wilcosea Sign Rank Test was employed to compare the number of euseep-
tibles in each group at the beginning of the study. Table 15-42 shows the
results of this analysis. The only significant difference between the
number of eusceptibles in the two groups was for 'coxsackievirus Bl where P
was <0.05. This finding would be'expected by chance alone.
Serum Neutralizing Antibody Rises. All enteroviral infections as de-
tected by 4 fold or greater rises in titer between 2 aerially collected sera
are presented in Table 15-43. The subject mashers are grouped by family
where appropriate, end the serum neutralizing titers given are for the virus
indicated. A total of 124 rises (infections) were detected in 67 people.
Of these, 69 ri»«s occurred its 34 sludge subjects and 55 in 33 control .
395
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subjects. Individuals with more than one titer increase during the same time
interval and some with several antibody increases over the study period were
not uncommon. For example, subject number 100402 had 4-fold or greater rises
in neutralizing antibody to 6 different enteroviruses during the period
8-8-78 and 12-5-78. Two 4-fold or greater antibody increases occurred during
the period 12-5-78 - 3-13-79 and one occurred between 3-13-79 and 8-7-79. If
we ignore the possibility of heterologous antibody responses, during a one
year period this subject may have experienced as many as 9 different entero-
virus infections. The distribution of 124 antibody rises observed in 67 indi-
viduals is shown in Table 15-41. Two or more rises occurred in 24 subjects
during the relatively short period of tha study. The possibility can not be
excluded that some of these multiple rises, particularly those occurring dur-
ing the same tiiae interval, may have been due to heterologous antibody
responses. Table 15-45 shows the neutralizing antibody rises in 67 subjects
according to virus. The rises were rather evenly distributed between the
coxsackieviruses (51%) and the echoviruses (48%). The viruses for which
antibody increases occurred most often were coxsackieviruses B3, B5, A3, A7
and echovirus 25. Coxsackiev'.rus A15 was the only virus of the 23 used in
our neutralization tests for vnich no rises ware detected over the course
of the study.
Analysis of Neutralizing Antibody Data from Sludge and Control Subjects;
Statistical Considerations, Methodology, Results and Discussion. To deter-
mine whether individuals on sludge receiving farms experienced a higher rate
of antibody rises than individuals on control farms (and because of the tim-
ing of blood sample collections) it was necessary to match farms by county
and by a 6 month time period following each application of sludge. While it
may have been more realistic to limit the period of surveillance after sludge
application to 3 months as was done in the analysis of human illness data
earlier in this report, it would not have allowed in all cases enough time
following sludge application for an infection and a rise in antibody titer to
occur. Practical considerations required that blood samples be limited to 3
times a year. Ninety of the 92 farms included in the statistical analysis
which follows provided 2 blood samples over the 6 month intervals following
applications of sludge. Only one blood sample was obtained from the indivi-
duals on 2 farms over the 6 month interval following sludge application, and
consequently, the observation period had to be slightly lengthened. In any
case, the extension of the period of surveillance to as long as 6 months
after the laying of sludge may very well include changes in antibody titer
that are not sludge related. However, this bias should be distributed
equally in both groups of farms and thus have no effect on any estimate of
risk. For all 92 farms, then, any fourfold or greater increase in antibody
titer between two successive blood samples was considered as evidence of
an infection occurring in the reference period.
The almost 300 individuals living and/or working on the farms in this
study did not serve as the units of analysis below. Farms were considered
the units of analysis because they may be assumed to be mote like each
other than were the average individuals in the study. In short, individuals
may not be independent. Therefore, special statistical techniques or
conceptual considerations are needed for analyzing these data.
396
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In the analysis which follows, the dependent variable or response vari-
able in the statistical sense will be categorical, specifically dichotoraous:
a fourfold rise in antibody titer by at least one family member or the
absence thereof. One straightforward statistical test for the dichotomous
response variable often useful in studies of matched pairs is the 2x2
contingency table arranged as inMcNemar's Test (Siegel, 1956A). However,
in the present study, this method appears to have only limited value, as will
become apparent. As it was not feasible to match farms on family size or
number of weeks between blood samples, these variables would be potential
confounders and would have to be treated accordingly. In the matched pair
multiple logistic regression used here (and described previously in Section
11) (Tandon et at., 1983; Koch, 1970), these two explanatory variables were
included in the model along with the major variable of interest, sludge/
control.
Each of the first two sludge applications were analyzed separately,
yielding 46 pairs and 29 pairs of farms, respectively. The baseline serum
for the first sludge application was taken before sludge was applied. For
the analysis of the effect of the second sludge application, the baseline
serum was a serum taken before or no more than 15 days after the second
application of sludge. It was considered that any antibody rise occurring
within that 15 day period probably would not have been due to sludge expos-
ure. (There were too few farms and, therefore, pairs available for analysis
from the third sludge oeriod). Finally, an analysis was conducted on all 46
pairs of farms for the entire 3 year study period where the response variable
was any rise in antibody titer between two successive blood samples at any
time. Although the overall health effects of sewage sludge applied to farm
land is the subject of the health portion of this report, this section of the
report deals only with relative differences in the number of rises in anti-
body titer in individuals exposed and unexposed to sludge.
Tables 15-46, 15-47, and 15-48 summarize the results of modeling the
health effects of sludge for 46 matched pairs of farms at the time of the
first sludge application, 29 pairs at the second application, and finally,
for 46 pairs over the entire period between the first laying of sludge (for
each pair) and the end of the project. (It should be noted that farm pairs
were entered in the study anew throughout the period 1978 to 1981). Each
table shows simple and partial regression coefficient and their standard
errors for sludge exposure and for the potential confounders.
Tables 15-46 and 15-47 indicate that sludge exposure is not related to
differential increases in antibody titer. Logistic coefficients range
between .057 and .093 in the 4 analyses summarized in the two tables, asso-
ciated with odds ratios ranging from 1.06 to 1.10, none even close to signi-
ficance. Surprisingly, neither of the two confounding variables were
apparently capable of biasing the outcome of this study; neither proved to
be associated with a fourfold or greater increase in antibody titer. As
these two tables correspond to two reference periods separated by approxi-
mately one year, the consistent findings are in favor of the null hypothesis
and are not easily dismissed.
397
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Since the variables "time between two successive blood samples" and
"number of persons in the family", were noc associated with rises, it would
be useful to look at antibody rises in the matched farm pairs for the first
sludge period. Subsequent to the first application of sludge, 33 of the 46
sludge/control pairs responded similarly with respect to changes in antibody
titer. In 15 pairs, both fanas showed a rise; in 18 pairs, neither showed
a rise. Of the remaining discordant 13 pairs of farms, 7 pairs showed a rise
in the sludge farm family and no rise in the control farm, while 6 pairs of
farms showed a rise in the unexposed farm and no rise in the exposed farm.
Arranged as in McNeraar's Test, Table 15-49 reflects this experience. Table
15-48 takes a broader look at the health effects of sludge exposure, taking
into account the total experience of each cohort between the initial sludge
application and the end of the project. The results of these analyses are
entirely consistent with the previous tables, supporting the hypothesis of
no effect (of sludge).
A study by Northrup and his coworkers (Northrup et al., 1980) that has
some relevance to our study investigated the health effects of aerosols
formed at an activated sludge plant. This investigation involved the test-
ing of throat and stool samples from 161 people for viruses and bacteria.
Excluding the polioviruses, only 14 enteroviruses were isolated from 541
stool samples (3%), a number too small for analysis under the conditions of
their study. In addition, 318 subjects provided blood samples at the
beginning and at the end of the project, a period of about 8 months (May-
December). The study group was composed of 246 middle class families for
which exposure indices were derived based on the average concentrations of
viable particles and coliform particles at appropriate sampling sites.
These workers also used serum neutralization tests to monitor for infections
but this was done with only 12 enteroviruses. These were polioviruses 1-3,
coxsackieviruses B1-B5 and echoviruses 3,6,9 and 12. Unfortunately, no
attempt was made to demonstrate the presence of viruses in the aerosols
emitted from the sewage plant. The frequency of viral infections based on
serologic rises was analyzed according to the mean total viable particle
exposure indices associated with the serological group. These authors
concluded that the risk of infection was not affected by increased exposure
to total viable particles emitted from an activated sludge plant.
Frequency of Neutralizing Antibody to 23 Enteroviruses in Human Sera.
The percentages of human sera Tall ages) with neutralizing antibody to the
23 enteroviruses were tabulated according to virus and are presented in
Figure 15-3. A tJtal of 262 sera were tested at a 1:5 dilution. The most
prevalent neutralizing antibodies were to Coxsackieviruses (C) A3 and B4 and
echoviruses (E) 9 and 25. Almost all individuals tested had antibody for
E9. The same kind of information is presented for the coxsackie A, coxsac-
kie B and the echoviruses according to age in Figures 15-4, 5 and 6 respec-
tively. Table 15-50 is a composite of the data from Figures 15-4, 5 and 6.
Antibody for E9 appears to be acquired at an early age. All subjects in the
5-12 and 13-21 year age groups had neutralizing antibody for this virus
(Figure 15-6). In general, and as one might expect, the number of subjects
with antibody increases with age. However, there are some exceptions to
this expectation. As can be seen from Figure 15-4, the incidence of antibody
for CB1, B2 and B5 was relatively uniform for all 5 age groups. The mean
398
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percentage of antibody for the 6 coxsackie B viruses ranged from a low of
22% for the 5-12 year age group to about 30% for the three oldest age groups.
The results for the coxsackie A viruses (Figure 15-5) followed a similar
pattern with the mean percentages going from 11-32%. The frequency of anti-
body for coxsackieviruses B6, All, and A15 was essentially zero. The inci-
dence of antibody for E3 and E6 was relatively -uniform for 4 of the 5 age
groups but with about a 2 fold lower incidence in the 13-21 age group. The
frequency of antibody for Ell, 12, 19 and 20 appears to be comparatively low
in the 13-21 year age group with the incidence for E20 remaining constant at
the higher age groups. Antibody frequency for E7 was at 7% and 11% in the
13-21 and 22-40 age groups, respectively. Overall, the frequency of antibody
for 6 of the echoviruses was relatively high in the 5-12 year group, then
dipped to low levels in the 13-21 year age group and increased again in the
older groups.
Surveillance for Serologic Conversion to Hepatitis A Virus. Since this
virus causes an enteric infection, is spread primarily by the fecal-oral
route and is a relatively stable virus, it would be expected, like the
enteroviruses, to be present in sewage and to survive sewage treatment. In
addition, a sensitive, radioiramunoassay was available for detecting antibody
to hepatitis A virus. For these reasons, all the subjects in the study were
followed for serologic conversion to determine if any hepatitis A infections
had occurred during the course of the study. No serologic conversions were
observed. None of the individuals negative for hepatitis A antibody at the
beginning of the study became positive. Figure 15-4 presents the frequency
of hepatitis A antibody according to age. As can be seen from the figure,
almost no individuals in the 6-15 year age group had antibody. About 19%
of those in the 16-25 year group had ancibody. The numbers in these 2 age
groups unfortunately are small but when considered with the results in the
26-40 year group (10% positive), together they indicate that antibody for
hepatitis A virus is acquired relatively late in this population group.
Less than half of the 41-59 year olds had antibody whereas 85% of individuals
over 60 years of age were positive.
Spread of Virus in Households With One or More Susceptible Individuals.
There were 24 households in which one or more antibody rises were detected
and which contained at least one susceptible person (based on no serum anti-
body at a 1:5 dilution). Please see Table 15-51. The antibody titers and
serologic rises shown were detected in the same or the next immediate blood
sampling period. The mean number of household members was 3.2 with a low
of 2 and a high of 6 individuals per household. The patterns of enteroviral
infections detected included households in which every susceptible individual
apparently was infected (household 4) with coxsackievirus B3 and echovirus
24 to households 7,12,17,19,21 and 23 where none of the susceptible indivi-
duals (excluding the index cases) was infected after introduction of a
variety of other enteroviruses. In some cases, preexisting serum neutraliz-
ing antibody apparently was not protective, such as CBS in households 2, 4
and 6, CB4 in household 3, and CB1, CB2, Ell, E12 and E24 in household 6.
Excluding index cases, there were 77 susceptible people in the 24 households.
Of these, 15 (19%) were infected. Of 46 subjects susceptible to coxsackie-
virus infections, 8 (17%) were infected; of 31 susceptible to echovirus
infection, 7 or 23% were infected.
i
399
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DISCUSSION
Viral Isolations from Sludpe. A total of 297 enteroviruses were iso-
lated from 307 sludge samples from all sources. Of these samples, 211 (69%)
were positive for one or more viruses. The highest frequency of viral iso-
lations 'including multiple isolates from single samples was obtained from
the Medina 300 plant. Of 63 samples tested, 58 (92%) were positive (Table
15-25) and 30 of the 58 (52%) yielded 2 or more viruses. See Table 15-26.
There is no ready explanation for the results from this plant. The materials
and methods used for the isolation of viruses from sludge remained constant
throughout the course of the study. Both Medina plants are aerobic; the
Columbus and Springfield plants use anaerobic methods. The Columbus sludge
is dewatered whereas the other treatment plants produce liquid sludge. Rela-
tively little is known about the comparative ability of aerobic and anaerobic
treatment for the inactivation of viruses. It has been suggested that
aerobic treatment is not as efficient as anaerobic for this purpose (Bitton,
1980). The M300 plant served a rural area with a population equivalent
(calculated from biological oxygen demand [BOD] of 5,971 and no industry
while the M500 plant served a rural area with a population equivalent of
26,801 and some industry (2 small industrial parks). Two years after ini-
tiation of the study (1980), the city of Medina (15,268 people) was tied
into the M500 plant bringing the total population served to about 40,900
with some additional industry (to 6.7% industrial). The BOD population
equivalent then rose to 66,180. There were no striking differences between
the viruses isolated during the first and third year of the study before and
after Medina was tied into the M500 plant. See Table 15-27.
Chapter 1 of this report describes the characteristics of the sludges
produced by the various treatment plants. With the possible exception of
the average solids content, 3.7% for the M300 plant and 2.1% for the M500,
there were no apparent differences between the two plants during the first
2 years of the study. It is well established that viruses in sludge are
associated primarily with the solids (Clark et al., 1961; Kelly et al.,
1961; Moore et al., 1975; Schaub and Sagik, 1975 and Balluz et al., 1977).
However, there is no quantitative information available on the possible
relationship between the amount of solids in sludge and the presence of
viruses. There is therefore no ready explanation for the large difference
in viral isolation rates between the two Medina plants.
There are many methods that have been described for isolating viruses
from sludge. These range from simply shaking, clarifying and filtering a
sample prior to inoculation into cell cultures (Irving and Smith, 1981) to
various means of viral elution, extraction and concentration prior to ino-
culation (Sattar and Westwood, 1976; Landry et al. 1978; Farrah et al.,
1981; Berman et al., 1981; Brashear and Ward, 1982; Farrah, 1982), There
are no standardized methods available for the isolation of viruses from
wastewaters. No longitudinal, comprehensive studies have been done comparing
methods of isolation using sludge or sewage samples of varying physicochemi-
cal composition, from different geographic areas, and from different popula-
tions and types of treatment plants. Comparative studies have been done only
with seeded sludges using a few enteroviruses. Others have been done with
only one kind of cell culture or with only one sludge sample. It is clear
400
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therefore that comparisons of the efficacy of different viral isolation
methods from wastewaters are not presently possible.
Some of the comparative or longitudinal studies that have been done
indicate that important factors involved in the successful isolation of
viruses from wastewaters include the types of cell cultures used, the volume
of sample inoculated into cell cultures, concentration methods iind whether
cell cultures are maintained under fluid medium or an agar overlay. Schmidt
et al., (1978), used 101 secondary effluent samples from a single treatment
plant to determine the sensitivity of 5 different cell culture systems for
the isolation of viruses from wastewaters. Most of the samples had been
concentrated either by various filter adsorption-elution procedures or by
flocculation. The cell systems used were primary rhesus kidney, a fetal
rhesus monkey kidney line, BGM cells, a human fetal diploid kidney line and
the RD line of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells. In addition, 3 overlay media
were used and plaquing was done both in airtight bottles and in plates incu-
bated in a C02 incubator. Using 5 different cell culture systems and par-
tially concentrated samples, Schmidt and her coworkers isolated 1 or more
viruses from 61 of the 101 samples (60%). Multiple isolates were common
with 27 of the 61 positive samples (44%) yielding 2 or more viruses with
some yielding as many as 6 or 7 different viruses. Plaquing was not found
to be an efficient means of isolating enteric viruses especially for echo-
viruses and reoviruses.
The results of Schmidt's study also emphasize the importance of using
a variety of cell cultures and inoculating at least duplicate cell cultures
with each sample. The BGM line of continuous African green monkey kidney
cells was not useful for recovering echoviruses or reoviruses but was sensi-
tive for isolating polioviruses and coxsackie B viruses. The RD cell line
was useful for isolating a relatively wide variety of enteroviruses, includ-
ing some types that previously had not been recovered in continuous cell
lines. Primary rhesus kidney cells were necessary for recovery of reo-
viruses and certain echoviruses, especially types 1,7, 8 and 14.
Under the conditions of our study, 301 viruses were isolated from 307
sludge samples in the three cell lines (RD, BGM and HeLa) used throughout
the study. Of these, the RD lir.e was by far the most useful especially for
the isolation of the 16 echoviruses from sludge samples. Essentially all
the echoviruses were isolated in RD cells. Echoviruses 3, 6, 13, 15, 17,
20, 22, 30 and coxsackieviruses A9 and A16 were recovered only in RD cells.
The RD line also appeared to be useful for the recovery of polioviruses.
See tables 15-35 and 15-36, Moreover, 64 of 65 echovirus 7 and 10 of 11
echovirus 11 viruses were isolated in RD cells. Our findings with echovirus
types 7 and 11 contrast with those of Schmidt and her coworkers who reported
that these viruses were not isolated in RD cells (Schmidt et al., 1978).
These results may have been due to differences in the sources and processing
of sludge samples. In addition, our RD cells were maintained on a medium
consisting of Eagle's minimal essential medium in Earle's salt solution
containing only 12 ml of 7.5% NaHC03 per liter as opposed to Liebovitz
medium no. 15 used by Schmidt and her colleagues (Schmidt et al., 1975).
401
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In another study (Irving and Smith, 1981) involving a one-year survey
of enteroviruses, adenoviruses and reoviruses iii effluent from an activated-
sludge treatment plant, no special methods for elucion and concentration of
viruses were used. Samples were shaken for 30 min at 4C and filtered to
remove bacteria and fungi prior to inoculation into 20 tubes of each of 4
cell types. Thus an unusually high number (80) of cultures was inoculated
with a total of 68 ml of each sample. In addition, HEPES buffer was used in
the maintenance medium; the cultures were incubated on a roller drum and re-
fed with fresh maintenance media every 3 to 4 days. The large number of
cultures inoculated with each sample and the repeated refeeding of cultures
were done because these workers were trying to estimate virus concentration
by a most probable-number method. Normally, these methods would be consider-
ed heroic if used just for t~he isolation of viruses from field samples. The
cell cultures used were primary cynomolgous monkey r^idney, BGM, lieLa-R
(similar to our HeLa-M) and Barrie, another continuous human epithelial cell
line. These authors state that 750 adenoviruses, 1,237 enteroviruses and
1,258 reoviruses were isolated from about 200 samples of primary and secon-
dary effluent and raw sewage samples.
It can not be discerned from the results what constituted a virus isola-
tion. From the large number of isolates reported, it Appears as though every
tube culture positive for CPE was considered an isolation. At any rate,
adenoviruses and enteroviruses were isolated most frequently from HeLa cells,
35% and 42% of all isolates, respectively. Of the reoviruses -''% of the
isolates were obtained in cynomolgous monkey kidney cells AK -ugh 80% of
the enterovirus isolates were typed, only 7 different echj^-rjses w -e iso-
lated and no coxsackie A viruses were recovered. However, since this was
just a one year study, the relatively small variety of serotypes recovered,
may have been a reflection of the viruses present in their community of aoout
1,000,000 people. Unfortunately, the information on the sensitivity of
different cells for primary isolation did not include viral serotypes. To
tha best of our knowledge, Irving and Smith's report is the only one in which
such large numbers of adenoviruses were isolated from effluent samples. This
high isolation rate probably was due to the 20 HeLa cell cultures inoculated
with each specimen, refeeding the cultures at frequent intervals (every 3 to
4 days) and the 3 to 4 week observation period for the appearance of adeno-
virus CPE. These workers did not describe what precautions were used to re-
duce viral cross contamination of cultures during the extensive and frequent
refeeding procedures that must have been required by their methodology.
In temperate climes, it is well established that enteroviral infections
peak during the summer and fall seasons of the year. -It is therefore not
surprising that the highest frequency of isolation and levels of enteric
viruses in raw and treated sewage have been detected during this time
(Melnick et al., 1950; Bloom et al., 1959; Horstmanr et al., 1973; Irving
and Smith, 1981; Sellwood et al., 1981; Goddart et al., 1981). In our study,
the seasonal effects on viral isolation rates could not be evaluated for the
Medina 300 plant since almost all the samples yielded one or more viruses
regardless of the season. For the Springfield and Medina 500 plants, the
isolation rates were significantly higher during the months of July through
October. This was not true for the Columbus plant. See Tables 15-37, 15-38
and 15-39. The Columbus plant serves a much larger population than the
/
402
-------
others and perhaps enteroviruses are being shed into sewage throughout the
year. Further, sludge produced in the Colisabus plant is dewatered by
centrifugation and the high solids content may have increased our ability
to recover viruses even if initially present in small numbers in sewage
entering the plant. Quantitation of infectious virus in sludge samples
obtained throughout the year might have helped answer this question.
The results of this p-rt of our study re emphasize the importance of
using wore than one kind of cell culture for the isolation of viruses (Lee
et al., 1965; Schmidt et al., 1978; Melnick, 1979; Irving and Smith, 1981).
For best results, cell cultures known to be sensitive to the widest possi-
ule spectrum of enteric viruses should be used. The number of each kind
of cell culture inoculated also appears to be important especially if
viruses are present in snail amounts. The isolation of adenoviruses and
reoviruses appears to be related to the length of observation, with cell
cultures ofteu developing cytopathic effects 10 to 25 days post inoculation.
It is not unusual to recover more than one virus from a single waste-
water sample. Schmidt and her colleagues using 4 different cell cultures
for virus isolations, reported the isolation of 2 or more viruses from 27
of 61 (44%) positive influent samples with one sample yielding as many as 7
different viruses (Schmidt et al., 1978). In a study by Sellwood and her
coworkers, where 5 different cell cultures were used, 75% of inlet and 36%
of effluent samples yielded 2 or more different enteric viruses (Sellwood
et al., 1981).
In the present study, 81 of 307 sludge samples tested (262) or 38% of
the 211 positive samples yielded 2 or more enteroviruses when 3 different
cell cultures were used. Clearly, the results of any study of the utility
of.cell cultures for the recovery of viruses from wastewaters are influenced
by many factors. These include the kind of treatment, if any, to elute and
concentrate viruses, the stability of viruses under various environmental
conditions, the length of the replication cycle of the viruses, and on the
epidemiology of enteric viruses iu the coamunity(s) that forms the wastewater
being tested.
Viral Isolations from StooJLs. Monitoring human stool samples for viruses
was not helpful in trying to determine if exposure to sludge increased the
risk of enterovirus infections. The frequency of virus isolations was too
low and the results were confounded by multiple isolations among family
members (see Table 15-4-0). We obtained stool samples only 3 times each year
and although this may have been adequate for detection of parasitic infec-
tions, it probably was not adequate sampling especially for detecting echo-
viruses which laight be shed in feces for less than 2 weeks following infec-
tion (Kogan et al., 1969). In addition, Kogan and colleagues have shown
that failure to test respiratory secretions along with fecal samples for
enteroviruses would have caused them to miss about 23% of coxsackievirus
and 32% of echovirus infections. These investigators also reported that 8
Coxsackievirus infections missed by viral isolation methodology were detected
by serua neutralization tests with appropriately spaced serum samples. More
closely spaced sanpling of stool and respiratory samples probably would have
been another accurate method of monitoring for enterovirus infections.
403
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However, the conditions of our study with its many facets, limited resources
and the logistics of obtaining and testing saiaples every 2 weeks from a
scattered population of rural subjects, would have made it extremely diffi-
cult to monitor infections using stool samples and respiratory secretions.
Serum Keutralization Tests: Detection of Enterovirus Infections. The
serum neutralization test is sensitive, accurate and for our purposes has
been a practical means for detecting enterovirus infections in humans. For
detecting antibody to enteroviruses, the neutralization test is recognized
as accurate and virus specific (Melnick, 1982). However, with the exception
of the polioviruses, little information is available about heterotypic
neutralizing antibody increases in humans following enterovirus infections.
The recognized serologic cross reactions among coxsackieviruses and.echo-
viruses as determined with hyperinnsune animal sera have been summarized by
Melnick (Melnick, 1979). Cross reactions have been detected between coxsac-
kieviruses A3 and AS, All and A15, and A13 and A18. Serologic relationships
also have been found between echoviruses 1 and 8, 12. and 29, and 6 and 30.
Of these viruses, coxsackieviruses A3, All and A15 and echoviruses 6 and 12
were included in our neutralization tests. Coxtackievirus A8 which crosses
with Al was not included and although 2 rises wer.e detected for the All
virus, no rises were observed with A15 which is related to All according to
tests with hyperinwnune animal sera. The results with animal sera, however,
may not be relevant to the human situation where considerable prior experi-
ence with a variety of enteroviruses may be the rule, increasing the possi-
bility of heterologous antibody rises following an enterovirus infection.
We monitored for infections with 23 of about 70 enteroviruses by serum
neutralization tests. Although this was an adequate saspling, we undoubtedly
missed some infections caused by other enteroviruses. We did detect a total
of 124 neutralizing antibody rises in 67 subjects, 69 rises in 34 sludge
subjects and 55 in 33 control subjects. See Tables 15-44 and 15-45.
Incidence of Neutralizing Antibody in Human Sera to 23 Enteroviruses.
With the exception of coxsackieviruses Bl and B5, the frequency of antibody
to the 23 enteroviruses generally increases with age. See Table 15-50 and
Figures 15-4, 5 and 6. The absence of antibody in our cohort for the B6,
CA11, CA15 viruses and the low frequency of antibody for E26 is noteworthy.
These results suggest that these viruses have not been active recently in
this population. On the other hand, almost all individuals had antibody
for E9 virus and the frequency of antibody for the CB4, CA3, Ell and E25
viruses was relatively high. If we ignore the possibility of heterologous
antibody responses to related viruses as an explanation for the high inci-
dence of antibody to echovirus 9, we then must conclude either that this
virus is constantly endemic in our cohort or that infections occur very
early in life and that antibody persists into old age (Figure 15-6). The
apparent decrease in the frequency of antibody in the 13-21 year age group
for soffie of the echoviruses e.g., E3, 6, 11, 12, 19 and 20 (Table 15-50,
Figure 15-6) taay not be real and could be due to the small numbers in the
5-12 and 13-21 year age groups.
In another study where sera from 308 individuals ranging in age from
6 to over 60 years, were tested for antibody against echovirus 9 (Northrop
404
-------
et al., 1980), only 29% contained antibody. We have no ready explanation
for these differences. Perhaps demographic differences might have played
a role. Our population consisted of farmers and people who live on farms,
whereas the population studied by Horthrop and his colleagues «cs in the
vicinity of a sewage plant in the suburbs of Chicago (Skokie). In addition,
no methods were described for the serodiagnosis of enteroviral infections.
Incidence of Hepatitis A Antibody According to Age. It is now well
recognized that the prevalence of antibody to hepatitis A virus increases
with age (Kashiwagi et al., 1983; Briem et al., 1982; Szmuness et al., 1976;
Frosner et al., 1979; Szrauness et al., 1977; Hewkes et al., 1981; Burke et
al., 1981; Moritsugu et al., 1978). There also is evidence that lower socio-
economic groups especially where poor hygienic standards exist, acquire anti-
body to hepatitis A virus earlier in life (Cherubin et al., 1978; Dienstag
et al., 1978). Dienstag and his coworkers hypothesized that where sanitation
and hygienic practices have improved, there has been a decline in hepatitis
infections in the younger age groups and that the higher frequency of anti-
body in older individuals is a reflection of the higher infection rates that
were prevalent when they were young. The data on hepatitis A antibody in
our cohort appears to support that concept. See Figure 15-7. Of 125
individuals less than 41 years of age, only,10% were positive for hepatitis
A antibody. On the other hand, 42% of people 41-59 years of age and 85% of
individuals over 60 years of age were positive. If the two oldest, age groups
are combined, 59% of individuals over 41 years of age have experienced
infection with hepatitis A virus.
Viral Infections Among Household Members. The report of Kogan and his
colleagues (Kogan et al.,1969) presents their data and discusses the obser-
vations of others about the spread of enteroviruses aaong family members.
The results of almost all of these studies are based primarily on viral
excretion in feces and not on serologic surveillance uhich would be important
to determine the iastsune status of household members. Because of the large
number of recognized enteroviruses (over 70), the differences in infectivity
of different serotypes and even strains of the same serotype, their different
host cell spectra for isolation from clinical materials, and the variable
duration and rates of excretion in infected individuals, it is difficult to
obtain precise data on the spread of enteroviruses within households. Rngan
and his coworkers (1969) were able to follow 60 households in which coxsac-
kieviruses caused infections and 28 in which echoviruses were introduced.
Since sera were available to follow the appearance of antibody, these inves-
tigators were able to follow intrafamilial spread by monitoring viral excre-
tion and the appearance of neutralizing antibody. Their results indicate
that the coxsackieviruses infected about 75i and the echoviruses about 40%
of all susceptibles.
In our study, there were 24 households containing one or nsore suscepti-
ble members into which an enterovirus was introduced. Since ther>> are many
factors that might be involved in the spread of enteroviruses within a
household, it is difficult to draw accurate conclusions from our serologic
data. Some of these factors include the possibility of heterologous antibody
increases, infectivity of the virus, the amount of virus ingested, personal
405
-------
hygiene, intimacy of contact aoong members of the household, and the possi-
bility that the additional infections observed were acquired from an extra
household source. If we ignore the possibility of heterologous rises and
assume that the index case was the source of infection within each household,
25Z of susceptible individuals acquired infections in the household environ-
ment (Table 15-51). Eight of 46 susceptibles (17%) acquired infections with
coxsackieviruses and 7 of 31 susceptibles (23%) were infected with echo-
viruses. Household 4 is noteworthy in that all the susceptible members were
infected with coxsackievirus B3 and echovirus 24. Perhaps these viruses are
highly infectious. However, we can not exclude the possibility that hygienic
practices, degree of intimacy or the presence of young children might have
played a role. In contrast, none of 12 susceptibles acquired infections with
coxsackievirus B5. In this case, most of the rises occurred in the presence
of preexisting antibody which might have influenced the amount and duration
of viral excretion. Again, some of these rises might have been heterologous
in nature.
Excluding the polioviruses, there is little or no information available
in humans about heterologous antibody responses following an enteroviral
infection. Schmidt and her coworkers did study antibody responses in monkeys
sequentially infected with coxsackieviruses A9, Bl and B3-B6. Hetenlogous
neutralizing antibodies were detected following infections, but only to
serotypes with which the animals had experienced a previous infection
(Schmidf et al. , 1965). In general, the heterologous responses were low
and often transient.
Finally, it must be reiterated that our results are based solely on
serologic surveillance and therefore may not be comparable to observations
which include excretion of virus. Clearly, the most accurate means of
obtaining information on enteroviral infections within households would be
to monitor infections by following both viral excretioa and antibody status
at appropriately spaced intervals.
406
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Egga froa glvdge. J. P-acasitology, :64:380-383, 1978.
50. Miday, R. K. Epidemiologic Approach to Disease Assesemsnc. In: Waste-
water Aerosols and Diseaee. EPA-600/9-80-028., 1980.
51. Moore, B.E., B. P. Sagik, and J. F. Malina. Viral Association with
Suspended Solids. Water Res., 9:197-203, 1975.
*
52. Moritsugu, Y., T. Tanaka, and T. Shikata. A Preliminary Serologic Study
of Hepatitis A Virus Infection in Japan. Jpn. J. Med. Biol., 31: 325-
328, 1978.
53. Nielsen, A, L., and B. Lydholro. Methods for the Isolation of Virus
from Raw end Digested Wastewater Sludge. Water Res., 14:175-178, 1980.
410
-------
54. Sorthrup, R., B. Carnow, R. Wadden, S. Rosenberg, A. Neal, L. Sheaff,
J. Holden, S. Meyer, and P. Schcff. Health Effects of Aerosols Emitted
from an Activated Sludge Plant, tn: Wastewater Aerosols and Disease,
H. Pahren and W. Jakubowski, eds., EPA-600/9-80-028 December, 1980,
Office of Research and Development, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268., 1930.
55. Reed, L. J., sod H. Muench. A Simple Method of Estimating Fifty Percent
Endpoints. Am. J. Hyg., 27:493-497, 1938.
56. Russ, C. F. and W. A. Yanko. Factors Affecting Salmonella® Repopulation
in Composted Sludges. App. Environ. Microbiol., 41:597-602, 1981.
57. Sattar, S. A., and J. C. N. Westwood. Comparison of Four Eluents in the
Recovery of Indigenous Viruses from Raw Sludge. Can. J. Microbiol.,
22:1586-1589, 1976.
58. Schaub, S. A., and B. P. Sagik. Association of Enteroviruses with Nat-
ural and Artificially Introduced Colloidal Solids in Water and Infectiv-
ity of Solids-associated Virions. Appl. Microbiol., 30:212-222, 1975.
59. Schmidt, N. J. Cell Culture Techniques. In: Diagnostic Procedures for
Viral, Rickettsial and Chlaraydial Infections, 5th edition, E. H.
Lennette, and N. J. Schmidt, eds., Am. Pub1. Hlth. Assoc., Inc., Wash.
D.C., 1979.
60. Schmidt, N. J., J. Dennis, E. H. Lennette, B. H. Ho, and T. T.
Shinomoto. Antibody Responses of Hhesus (Hacaca Mulatta) Monkeys Ex-
perimentally Infected with Coxsackieviruses of Group 8 and Group A,
Type 9. I. Antibody Responses Within the Coxsackievirus Group, J.
Inasunol., 55:54-69, 1965.
61. Schmidt, H. J., H. H. Bo, and E. H. Lennette. Propagation snd Isolation
of Group A Coxsackieviruses in ED Cells. J. Clin. Microbiol., 2:183-
185. 1975.
62. Schmidt, JJ. J., -H. H. Ho, J. It. Ri&go, and E. H. ^ennette. Comparative
sensitivity of various cell culture syeteras for isolation of viruses
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1978.
63. Sellwood, J., J. V. Dsdswell, and J. S. Slade. Viruses in Sewage as an
Indicator of Their Presence in the Community. J. Hyg., C«mb., 86:217-
225, 1981.
64. Siegel, S. Nonparaaetric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences.
McGraw Hill, K.Y., p. 66-67, 1956 A.
65. Spino, D. F. Elevated Temperature Technique for the Isolation of
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411
-------
66. Szmuness, W., J. L. Dienstag, R. H. Purcell, E. J. Harley, C. E.
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Antigen in Urban Adult Populations. H. Eng. J. Ked., 295:755-759,
1976.
67. Ssmuness, W., J. L. Dienetag, R. H. Purcell, C. E. Stevens, D. C. Wong,
H. Ikram, S. Bsr-Shany, R. P. Beaeley, J. Deemyter, and J. A. Gaon.
The Prevalence of Antibody to Hepatitis A Antigen in Various Parts of
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- f+~'''
68. Tendon, P. K., and M. L. Koeschberger. SA5 MACROS for Nonparasetric
Analysis of Repeated Measures Designs. SAS Users Group International,
8:808-817, 1983.
69. We 11 ings, F. H., A. L. Levis, and C. W. Mountain. Demonstration
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70. West wood, J. C. N.. and S. A. Sattar. The Minimal Infective Dose.
In: Viruses in Water, G. Berg, H. L. Bodily, E. H. Lennette, J. L.
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Wash., D.C., 1976.
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the Isolation of Salsspnellae from Sewage and Contaminated Sea Water.
Water Res., 5:113-120, 1971.
412.
-------
Figure 1
Flow chart detailing procedure for isolation of enteric pathogens
Fecal or Sludge Suspension
I
.EK
ID
AC
A
CN
Broth ^
\ /
and
24-48
HER
XLD
MAC
1
1
Suspicious colonies
from each plate
4
_^.Gzid£8e Neg.
Jt^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^*
TSI ^^EA
L1A OHPG
^^API 20 strips^^
Serology
\
Selenite
Broth
/
\
HEK
XLD
MAC
I
413
-------
FIGURE 15-2
Isolation of Viruses From Sludge
Sludge Solids
3%*Beef Extract
with 0.1% SDS
(pH 7.5)
Room Temp 1 hr.
Centrifuge 800 x g 30 min.,
Discard Pellet
Supernal
Inoculate
RD+, EeLa
CMK*. BGMt
Adsorb 1 hr in
presence of growth
medium
Discard inoculum
Re feed with minten&nce
mediuas. Observe for
14 days
i
bupernate
30 min chloroform
room temp 10% v/v
Centrifuge 800 x g,
30 min. .
>T
Discard Pellet
One limiting dilution passage of isolates
4
Identification of isolates
* RD • rhebdooyosarcoma cell line
* Primary CISC cultures were used co teat only 90/307 sludge samples
t BGM * cell line derived from green monkey kidney cells.
414
-------
IS
t-t
In
Figure 15-3
Percentages of Bumcsn Sera with
100
70-
'£ 50-
«^
a. 40-
30-
20-
C«
mng Antibody
3 1=5
? 9 it m B
-------
Figur© S5-4
100-
Os •«-
-------
Figuri 15-5
5-12 ft®20
IB-2!
? . 9
I!
-------
09 •«•«•
of Hym@n urfth Neutralizing Antibody to
Eeti®viry$©i According to
-------
Figyr® l§-7
-------
TABLE 15-1
Salmonella Recoveries - Seeded Sludge from Columbus Plant
Or genista Added 24 hra 7 days
Tube f Final CPU/ml HS* MAC XLD HEb HACb XL3b HE MAC XLD HBb HACb XL
-' - - -/- -/- -/ /- -/- -/-
2
3
4
5
i.i x 10 +d - +/+
-I
- - - */*
1.1 x 102 - */-
-.-*/*
*/- -/+ - - -
*/- */* . - -
*/- */* ...
*/- -/* -
f/* */-
*/+ */' -,
*/+ */-
*/+ */-
*/*
-/-
-/-
*/-
Appropriate Dumber* of orgardens were addsd to 10 ml of sludge (in duplicate), incubated
Cor 24 houra and 7 days at 4*C «nd Isolations were done According to the protocol.
A HS-Hektoen Agar; MAC-HacConk@y'0 Agar; SLD-syloea-lysine-deosytholata egar
k From enrichment broth 8elenLte/GM broth
c « No saltsonallffle recoverable
d •> Recoverable satmonellae
-------
TABLE 15-2
Salmonella Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Columbus Plant
Orgnni&a Added
Tube # Final CPU/ml
In
U
2 2.8 x 10
3
4 2.8 x 102
5
6 2.8 x 103 '
7
24 hrs
HB« HAG XLD HEb MAC*5 XLDb
_c - _ •/_ -/_ -/-
-V _ -^_ -f- -j-
+/+d ../«. +/-
- - - */* -/- */-
+ */+ -/+ +/+
* */+ */- t/-
+ +/+ -/- -f/+
+ +/+ -/- +/+
7 days
RE MAC XLD KSb KACb
- - - */- -/-
•- *•/*• <•/-
- - - */+ +/-
- +/+ */-
- - - */+ +/+
XL
*/-
*/-
*/-
*/-
Appropriate numbers of organises were added to 10 ml of sludge (in duplicate), incubated
for 24 hours and 7 days at 4*C and isolations were done according to the protocol.
*ME-H«ktosn Agar: MAC-MacConkey'a Agfir: XLD-Kyloae-lysine-deoxycholate agar
b Prow enrichment broth Sclenite/GN broth
c • No saliBonellae recoverable
° * Recoverable ealraonellae
-------
.TABLK 15-3
Salmonella Recovery - Seeded Sludge Frota Medina 500 Plant
Organism Added
Tube 1 Final CFU/nl
1 0
2 2.7 x 10
3
4 2.7 x 102
5
6 2.7 x 103
7
24 hrs
HE* MAC XLD HSb MACb
*
- +/+d -/*
---+/+ KD
- +/- HD
+--*/+ HD
+ --*/* HD
+--+/+ HD
7 daya
XLDb HE MAC XLD HEb MACb XLD
.,. - - - .,- -,- .,.
*/- - - - */» -/- */-
+/+ - - - */+ -/- */-
i
+/+ - +/+ +/- -/-
-/*• - f/* +/- *•/-
*/* - */* */*• */+
Appropriate numbers of organisms warw added to 10 ml of sludge (in duplicate), incubated
for 24 hours and 7 days at 4*0 and isolations ware done according to the protocol.
a HS-Hektoen Agar: MAC-MacConfeey ' a Agar: XUHwlose-lysine-deoxycholate agar
b Frcm enrichment broth 3el«nite/GH broth
c * Ho ealraopfillae recoverable
d « Recoverable salmonellae
-------
TABLE 15-4
Salnonellft Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Springfield Plant
Organism Added 24 hrs 7 ,
Tube * Final CFU/ffll HBa MAC XLI) BIb MAC6 XLDb HE MAC XLD Hlb MACb XL
I
2
3
4
5
0 -c - _ -/- -/- -/- - -/-
1. 1 it 10 +^ - +/«• */- *•/*• - */-
1.1 x 102 - •«•/+ */- */- - */+
-/- -/-
*'- -'-
+/- *•/-
Appropriate numbers of organises ware added to 10 isl of sludge (in duplicate), incubated
for 24 hours end 7 days at 4*C and isolations were done according to the protocol.
a HE-Hektoen Agar: MAC-MacConkey*s Agar: XLD-syloee-lyaine-daosycholate agar
b Frost enrichment broth Selenite/GH broth
c * Ho saltsonallae recoverable
* « Recoverable salmonslisa
-------
TABLE 15-5
Media which yielded the recovery of Salmonella sp. from
sludge and human specimens
Sample Enrichoent
Source Species Prieary* CN Seleaite Tetrethionate
Eoaau — nuenchen - - •*• -
Hunan — J
. SOO-^ St. Paul
Med. 530 ••" iafeatiLB - - +
Zan. —
Cola. — derby — - *
Med. 300 — San_
Eoman ~
. 300 — oreaieaburg
•*
*
- - «•
Cols. — eat@gitidl8 - - +
Med. 300 — J|£i_-££H! " *
Ited. 500 — 8t.
Spfld. — infaasi.8
• Primary isolation is siarked + if recovery was made on EEK, KLD or MAC
plates. If recovery &as eeen following enrichment in GH, seleaite or
tetrathionste broths, the*corresponding column is Barked.
b Med. 300 » Medina 300 plant; Med. 500 - Medina 500 plant; Cols. - Colwaibus;
Spfld •" Springfield; Zsn " Zanesville.
424
-------
TABLE 15-6
Campylobacter Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Medina 300 Plant
Contact8 Ho. org.
Time added
1 far. -*
24 hr.
24 hr.b
7 days
* Cempylobacter foetus •«]
15,000 15,000
CPU /ml CPU /sal
+* + + + + +
* •»• - + * +
+ +• —++•*•
». jejuni was inoculated in sludge
150
CFU/al
•*• +
- +
to the
final concentration indicated sad held for a specified tisne «t 4*C
before plating. .
b Subcultured in Campy Thioglycollate broth
c No Caapylob^eter colonies recognized
* Caapylobacter confirmed
425
-------
TABLE 15-7
Campylobacter Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Medina 500 Plant
Contact8 "Bo. org. 75,000 75,00 750
Time added CFU/ml CPU/ml CFU/ol
ti
1 hr. -b *c + + + * +
24 hr. - * + + * •«• *
7 day* - +* +* - +
• Campylobacter foetus asp, jejuni was inoculated in sludge to the
final concentration indicated &nd held for a specified time at 4*C
before plating.
k No Campylobac£gr colonies recognized
c Cfa^ipylobacter confirmed
426
-------
TABLE 15-8
Caopylobacter Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Columbus Plant
ORIGINAL FIKAL CONCENTRATION
Contact* No. org. 10,000 1,000 100
Tiae added CFU/ml CFU/ml CFU/ml
1 hr. -* +c + + + .
24 hr. N.A.d
4 days - + + + + - -
7 days - + + + -
* Campylobacteg foetus a«p. jejuni vas inoculated in sludge to the
final concentration indicated and held for a specified time at 4*C
before plating.
k HO Cempylobaeter colonies recognized
C Cantpylobaeter confirmed
d N.A. Hot available.
. 427
-------
TABLE 15-9
Campylobacter Recovery - Seeded Sludge from Springfield Plant
ORIGINAL FINAL CONCENTRATION
Contact* Bo. org. 10,000 1,000 100
Time added CPU/ml CFU/ml CFU/ml
1 hr. -c +d + + + +
24 hr. - + + + •*• + *
24 hr.b - + + - -
7 days - - - - - •
* Campylobacter foetus sap, jejunl was inoculated in sludge to the
final concentration indicated and held for a specified time at 4*C
before plating. v
^ cubcultured in Campy Thioglycollate broth
c No Caapylobacter colonies recognized
^ Campylobacter confirmed
428
-------
TABLE 15-10
Salmonsllae Isolations from Sludge by quarter and year for
the Medina 300, 500 and Springfield plant
Quarter Serotyp*
0 Medina 300
1 — 1979 at. paul
2 ~ 1979 nevington
3 — 19V9 san diego
4 — 1979 at. paul
1 — 1980 enter it id ia
2 — 1980 typhimuriuia
1 — 1981 untypable
1 — 1981 tenesaee
2 — 1981
2 — 1981 typhimuriua
10 isolates from 64 sludges tested
Medina 500
2 — 1979 infantis
3 ~ 1979 oraniensburg8
1 — 1980 st. paul
2 — 1980 untypable
1 — 1981 oraniensburg8
5 isolates from 64 sludges tested
Springfield
I — iggo infant ie
2 — 1980 reading
3 — 1981 infantis
3 — 1981 agona
4 isolates from 58 sludge samples
There are difference* in the antibiogram of the two strains of j[. oranien-
burg isolated in 1979 and 1981. The 1931 strain showed marked resistance
to tetracycline (>128) «nd to chloraphenicol (>16)
429
-------
TABLE 15-11
Salmonella* isolations by quarter and year
for the Columbus Plant
Quarter Serotype
Columbus Jackson Pike
2 — 1979 derby
3 — 1979
4 — 1979
4 — 1979
4 — 1979
4 — 1979
4 — 1979
untypable
untypable
aaona
1 -
1 -
1
1 -
1 -
3
3
r 1980
- 1980
1-980
- 1980
- 1980
— 1980
— 1980
— 1980
4 — 1980
1 -
1
1 -
1
1
1
- 1981
1981
- 1981
1981
1981
1981
Columbus Jackson Pike
2 —
2 —
2 —
4 —
4 —
4 —
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1981
1 — 1982
1 — 1982
1 — 1982
jLnfantis
anatum
thotapBon
ohxo
enteritidia
st. paul
nontypafale
typhimuritca
aontevideo
_iafanti»
adelai.de
ohio
t hemp son
manhattan
infant is""
havana
binsa
tnontevideo
.reading
oranienburg
typhitaunum
infantis
31 isolates from 125 sludges tested
430
-------
TABLE 15-12
Staa&ary of Salmmellae Isolations by Site
Positive/tested Z positive
Medina 300 10/64 15.6
Medina 500 5/64 7.3
GoltsBkus 31/125 25
>
Spritsgfield 4/58 7
Totals 50/311 16Z
431
-------
TABLE 15-13
Salsionellae Serotypes Isolated frora All Sites
Serotype
adelaide
agcma
aaatcsi
binsa
derby
enteritidis
hav&na
infstitis
Java
manhettan
raonfetrideo
newington
Ohio
pansys -
rcMii^
at. patsl
®ffin d i@f^o
teaesss*
typfeifflariiSB
thoffl|MK>a
nott-typable
Frequency
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
8
1
1
3
1
*
3
*
1
2
4
1
1
4
2
5
Percent
2
8
2
2
2
4
2
16
2
2
6
2
4
6
2
4
8
2
2
8
4
10
432
-------
TABLE 15-14
Salmmellae Isolation by Quarters
Quarter
Positive/tested 1234
22/92 11/69 7/62 10/88
Salmonellae Isolation by Quarter and by Site
Quarter
Site 1 234
Hedina 300 5/19 3/15 1/13 1/17
Medina 500 2/18 2/14 1/13 0/18
Coltsabus 14/37 * 5/28 3/25 9/36
Spriagfield 1/18 1/12 2/11 0/17
433
-------
TABLE 15-15
Salramellae Isolations froa Colirabus Sludge by Quarters
Quarter
2 3
# Positive per quarter
Total * Colurabus Positives 14/31* 5/31 3/31 9/31
* Significantly different (p « <0.05) when coapared by
a 2 x 2 chi square vs. all other quarters together.
434
-------
TABLE 15-16
Distribution of HICs for SalmonsII«e Isolated from Sludge
*•
w
Vn
Antibiotic <-O.S
AsnplellUn 2
CarbenlcilUnb
Ticarclllln
Cephalothin
Cefamandole 25
CeCoxltin
Generate In 67
Tobreraycin 37
Aaaikacln
Tetracycllne
Chlorasaphenlcol
MIC C of isolates)^
0.5 <-l I <-2 2 4 8 16 >32 >64 >128
40 46
10
28
2 ' 16 44
63 ? S
9 16 28
26 2
44 12
»
35 42
12 70
5 2 2
60 10
58 9 5
30 7
42 5
5
7
14 9
9 7
23 19 5 2
*
..* ,
n • 43 Isolates tested for antibiotic sensitivity
* rounded out to nearest X
b n " 21
-------
TABLS 15-17
t t
Multiple Reaistahce to Antibiotics in Salaonallae Isolated fron Sludge
Mid ug/tal
SOURCE
Med. 500
Colil.
Cols.
Cola.
Epfld.
A
SgROTYPB H
P
t
C
orfini@ffiburg 2
in£&ntis >32
typhi^uriuA >32
ffiontavidao 8
a^ 2
C
A
H
S
S
4
>128
m
m
to
T
I
C
A
R
<«2
>12B
>128
8
e
c
E
P
A
t
<-2
8
8
8
4
C
S
P
A
M
<-.5
2
2
i
. .5
C
E
F
0
X
4
8
2
4
4
C
E
H
T
A
4
<«.5
1
<-.S
<-.5
T
0
B
It
A
4
1
2
1
I
A
M
I
K
A
8
2
4
<<*!
2
T
B
M „
R
A
>1?.8
>128
>128
4
4
C
H
L
0
R
>16
8
4
16
16
RO « not done
-------
TABLE 15-13
Isolation of Sal&onellae froa Human Stool Specisena
1978-82
Subject
100901
150602
400406
401704
401704
Source of
Sludge
Medina
Medina
Columbus
Columbus
Coltmbue
Date'
12/5/78
12/11/78
7/24/79
11/18/81
12/3/81
t
Specie*
muencfeea
Java
oraaienburg
enter ftidis
enter it idis
437
-------
TABLE 15-19
Subjects with agglutinating antibodies to Sslaonellae serotypes
Saloons llae
Serologie
Group
B
C
D
E
Medina
8/50
25/50
8/50
8/50
Franklin
0/39
8/39
0/39
1/39
ODTO1Y
P icksvay
11/111
14/111
18/111
9/111
Clark
1/62
18/62
7/62
5/62
Total
20/262
65/262
33/262
23/262
Number of subjects with antibodies to saloonellae serotypes over nusaber
of subjects in a given county.
438
-------
TABLE 15-20
Conversions* end
Salaonellae
Serologie °
Croup
Medina
Franklin
Fickaway Clark
B 0
C 2 conversions
D 0
E 0
0
0
0
0
1 rise
2 conversions
0
1 rise
2 conversions
0
0
0
0
* Conversions - Serological conversion from negative to positive
in paired oessplea v
b Rise - Increase by 2 grades of reactivity in paired samples
439
-------
TABLE 15-21
Examples of Temily Patterns of Antibodies to Salaonellse 0 Antigens
Subject Group
* B C D E
100401 *« + + -b
100402 +
401701 -
401702 -
401703 -
401704° rise - - rise
401705 - . -
100831 +
100802 + + +
100S04 - conversion * +
100805 * + •»•
100806 * + - *
a + agglutination seen (1* to 4+) at a serum dilation of
1:20.
** no agglutination seen
c rises -followed infection with Salmonella enteritidis.
(2 isolations from stools). Ho serial dilutions
done 00 the negative result with group D antigen sight
be the result of prosone effect.
440
-------
TABLE 15-22
Stool Sasaplee Examined8 for Ova and Parasites According Co
Year of Study, Location and Study Status
No. of Stools Examined
Columbus
Year
1978
1979
1980
1981
Totals
Sludge
0
0
89
63
152
Controls
0
0
64
43
107
Medina
Sludge
20
0
22
3
45
Controls
13
0
21
5
39
Springfield
Sludge
0
0
23
14
37
Controls
0
0
17
10
27
Totals
33
0
236
138
407
26% of 1,556 apples were examined
441
-------
TABLE 15-23
Ova and Parasites Pound in Sludge/According to Year and Source
Location
Columbus
Springfield
Medina 300
Medina 500
No. of
1980®
11
4
14
15
Sludge
1981
14
4
11
7
Samples
19S2
2
0
0
0
Tested
Totals
27
8
25
22
•ft
Mites
2 (7.4S)
0
8 (32Z)
12 (54.5Z)
». Positive
Mite ova
6 (22. 2Z)
0
3 (122)
2 (9.1%)
for
Other ova
5 toxocara
(18. 5%)
0
1 Unidenti-
fied (4Z)
1 Unidenti-
fied (4.5Z)
442
-------
TABLE 15-24
Viruses and Cell Cultures Used la
Serum Microneutralizstion Testa
Virus Cell Line
coxs&ckievirus A3,7,9,11,15 ED*
echovirua 7,21,24 RD
coxeackievirus Bl-6 BGMb
echovirus 3,6,9,11,12,19,20,25,26 BGM
a Human rhebdoiayoa-rcoma
b Buffalo green monkey kidney
443
-------
TABLE 15-25
Identities o* Enteric Viruses and Frequency of Isolation
from Sludge Samples"
Medina 300 Treatment Plant
Viru»
Echo 5
Echo 6C
Echo 7C
I
Echo llc
Echo 19
Echo 24C
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsaokie B2C
Coxsackie B3C
Coxsackig B4C
Reevirus
PolioviruB 1
Poliovirus 2
Poliovirus 3
Year 1
0
0
19
1
1
0
I
1
I
1
0
3
0
3
2
Year 2
0
1
9
1
0
1
t)
0
2
9
1
0
2
7
2
Year 3b
3
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
5
2
0
0
7
0
Totals
3
1
28
7
1
1
1
1
4
15
3
3
2
17
4
Totals
33
35
23
91
* n - 63, 58 (92%) of the samples yielded one or more viruses,
nean of 1.57 virusee per positive sample
b Year 3 was only 8 taonths long.
c These viruses were included in serum neutralization tests with
human sera.
444
-------
TABLE 15-26
Multiple Viral Isolates from 30 M300 Sludge Samples
"Viral Combinations
Isolated3 „
CBS, CB4
CB2, E7
CBS, E7
CBS, Ell
CB3, PI
CB4, Ell
E5, P2
-E7. Ell
E7, P2
E7, reovirus
E19, E27
PI, P2
P2, P3
P3, reovirus
E7, P2, reovirus
CS2, CBS, Ell
CBS, Ell, P2
Frequency of
Occurrence
1
3
6
2
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
CB — coats ackiievirus B
E - echovirus
P - poliovirus
445
-------
TABLE 15-27
Identities of Enteric Viruses and Frequency of Isolation
From Sludge Samplesa
Medina 500 Treatment Plant
Virus
i
Echo 5
Echo 6C
Echo 7C
Echo llc
Echo 13
Echo 24 c
Echo 25C
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsackie B3C
Coxsackie B4C
Reovirus
Poliovirus 1
Poliovirus 2
Poliovirus 3
Year 1
1
0
11
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
Year 2
0
1
9
2
0
1
0
1
0
4
1
-
2
3
1
Year 3
0
0
2
I.
0
0
0
0
1
€
2
-
0
1
3
Totals
1
1
22
3
1
1
1
1
1
10
3
2
2
6
4
Totals 18 25 16 59
a n • 63 tested. 43 positive for 1 or more viruses (68Z). a
yield of 1.37 viruses per positive sample.
b Year 3 was only 6 months long.
c These viruses included in serum neutralization tests with
human sera.
446
-------
TABLE 15-28
Multiple Viral Isolates from 15 H500 Sludge Samples
Viral Combinations
Isolated*
©
CB3, CB4
CB3, E7
CB3, Ell
CB4, E7
E5, E7
E7, P3
E25, reovirus
*1, P2
P2, P3
P2, reovirus
CB3, CB4, P3
Frequency of
Occurrence
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
a CB - coxsackievirus B
E - echovirus
P - poliovirus
447
-------
TABLE 15-29
Identities of Enteric Viruses and Frequency of Isolation
from Sludge Samples
Columbus Treatment Plant
Virus1
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Totals
Echo 3C
Echo 5
Echo 6C
Echo 7C
Echo llc
Echo 15
Echo 17
Echo 19C
Echo 20C
Echo 21C
Echo 22
Echo 24C
Echo 25C
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsackie A9C
Coxsackie A16
Coxsackie B2C
Ccxssckie E3C
Coxsackie B4C
Coxsackie B5C
Polio 1
Polio 2
Polio 3
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
1
5
2
0
3
2
3
1
1
1
0
1
2
0
12
0
2
1
1
0
0
14
1
1
1
2
JO
4
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
4
1
1
1
1
0
3
2
0
2
1
1
1
1
8
3
4
3
3
13
1
1
1
1
5
4
1
13
1
2
4
3
1
4
15
2
4
3
15
5
Totals
23
49
37
109
a n " 123 tested, 81 (66%) positive for 1 or more viruses, taean
of 1.35 viruses per positive sample.
b No reoviruses are listed probably because primary monkey kidney
cells were not used to test these samples.
c These viruses included in serum neutralization tests with human
sera.
448
-------
TABLE 15-30
Multiple Viral Isolates from 28 Columbus Sludge Samples
Viral Combinations
Isolated
CB2, E7
CB2, E24
CBS, E5
CB3, E7
CB3, E24
CB4, E3
CBS, E6
CBS, 120
CBS, E24
CBS, P3
CA9, P2
CA16, PI
E20, E24
E20, E27 >
E25, PI
E25, P2
E30, PI
P2, P3
Frequency of
Occurrence
2
1
2
1
8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
CB - coxsackievirus B
CA - coxsackievirus A
E - echovirus
P - poliovirus
449
-------
TABLE 15-31
Identities of Enteric Viruses and Frequency of Isolation
from Sludge Samples2
Springfield Plant
®
Virus
Echo 3C
Echo 6C
Echo 7C
Echo 13
Echo 21 c
Echo 24C
Echo 25C
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsackie A16
Coxsackie B2C
Coxsackie B3C
Coxsackie B4C
Coxsackie B5C
Polio 1
Polio 2
Polio 3
Totals
Year 1
MWBHV^MIHHI^V^^B^M^^^^^^H^VVBvai
0
2
2
3
0
2
0
1
0
i
9
1
7
0
0
1
3
0
22
Year 2
•^^•••••^•^••••aBMK^M
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
t)
0
1
3
0
, 4
1
16
Totals
•^•^•^•••••••^••^••••^M*
2
2
2
3
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
3
1
7
1
38
* n * 58 tested, 29 (502) positive for 1 or more viruses,
mean of 1.31 viruses per positive sample.
b No reoviruses were isolated listed probably because primary
monkey kidney cells were not used to test these samples.
e These viruses included in serum neutralization with
human sera.
450
-------
TABLE 15-32
Multiple Viral Isolates from 8 Springfield Sludge Samples
Viral Combinations
Isolated3
CB3, E13
CB3, E24
CBS, P2
•-, E13, E27
E13, P2
E24, P2
CB2, CB3, PI
Frequency of
Occurrence
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
a CB - coxsackievirus B
E - echovirus
P - poliovirus
451
-------
TABLE 15-33
Frequency of Single, Double and Triple Viral Isolations
from All Sludge Samples (n * 307)
Total No.
Number of Samples Yielding No. of Samples of viruses
1 virus 2 viruses 3 viruses Positive isolated
130 (42%) 76 (25%) 5 (2%) 211 297
452
-------
TABLE 15-34
Summary of Viral Isolations3 from all Sludge Samples
(n - 307)b According to Serotype and Location
Virus
Echo 3
Echo 5
Echo 6
Echo 7
Echo 11
Echo 13
Echo 15
Echo 17
Echo 19
Echo 20
Echo 21
Echo 22
Echo 24
Echo 25
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsackie A9
Coxsackie A16
Coxsackie B2
Coxsackie B3
Coxsackie B4
Coxsackie B5
Reovirus
Polio 1
Polio 2
Polio 3
Totals
Medina
300
(n-63)
0
3
1
28
7
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
4
15
3
0
(3)
2
17
4
91
Medina
500 Columbus
(n-63) (n-123)
0
1
1
22
3
1
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
10
3
0
(2)
2
6
4.
59
4
3
3
13
1
0
1
1
1
5
4
1
13
1
2
4
3
1
4
15
2
4
-
3
15
5
109
Springfield
(n-58)
2
0
2
2
0
3
0
0
fl
0
1
0
3
1
1
1
0
1
1
7
1
3
-
1
7
1
38
Totals
6
7
7
65
11
4
1
1
2
5
5
1
18
3
5
7
3
2
9
47
9
7
(5)c
8
45
14
297
* This number includes multiple viral isolates
° 211 samples were positive (69%) for one or sore viruses
c This number is low probably because primary monkey kidney cultures
were not used throughout.
453
-------
TABLE 15-35
Frequency of Viral Isolations from all Sludge Samples
Tested (n - 307) According to Cell Culture*
Virus
Reovirus
Polio 1
Polio 2
RD
BGM
HeLa
CMKb
Total No. Isolated0
Echo 3
Echo 5
Echo 6
Echo 7
Echo 11
Echo 13
Echo 15
Echo 17
Echo 19
Echo 20
Echo 21
Echo 22
Echo 24
Echo 25
Echo 27
Echo 30
Coxsackie A9
Coxsackie A16
Coxsackie B2
Coxsackie B3
Coxsackie B4
Coxsackie 55
6
5
7
64
10
- 4
1
1
1
5
2
1
16
2
3
7
3
2
0
1
5
0
0
2
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
8
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
1
2
0
0
0
o.
39
2
7
6
7
7
65
11
4
1
1
2
5
5
1
18
3
5
7
3
2
9
48
9
7
(5)
2
25
1
11
5
17
8
53
Polio 3
Totals
6
179
7
45
1
77
(1)
(6)
15
307
* RD « stable cell line derived from a human rhabdomyosarcoraa.
BGM - stable cell line derived from green monkey kidneys.
CMK * primary cynomolgous monkey kidney
b these cells were used to test only 90/307 sludge samples.
c Numbers include results from samples (n • 10) in which the same virus
was isolated from the same sample in more than on«s cell culture system.
454
-------
TABLE 15-36
Summary of All Viruses Isolated from Sludge
According to Cell Culture System(s)
Cell Culture(s)a Viruses Isolated**
RD only A9, A16, E3, E6, E13, E15, E17, E20, E22.E30
BGM only CB2
PCMKC only Reovirus
HeLa only CBS
RD and BGM E5, .E7, Ell, E19
RD and HeLa E24, E24, E27
RD, BGM and HeLa CB3, CB4; E21, PI, P2, P3
a RD - rhabdomyosarcoosa,
BGM - Buffalo green monkey kidney
PCMK - primary cynomolgous monkey kidney
" CA - coxsackievirus A
CB - coxsackievirus B
E - echovirus
P - poliovirus
c Only 90 of 307 sludge samples inoculated onto these cells.
A55
-------
TABLE 15-37
Seasonal Effects on Viral Isolation Rates from Sludge
Medina 500 Plant (no. positive/no, tested)
V
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
July
©
3/3
1/2
Jan.
1/3
0/1
Aug.
2/2
2/2
Feb.
1/1
2/2
Sept.
2/2
2/2
March
0/3
2/2
Oct.
2/2
2/2
April
0/2
1/2
Totals3
16/17 (94X)
Totals
7/16 (44%)
a X2 - 9.90, P - <0.005, difference is significant
456
-------
TABLE 15-38
Seasonal Effects on Viral Isolation Rates froa SluJge
Columbus Plant (no. positive/no, tested)
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Yea" 3
July
4/4
1/4
Jan.
1/2
3/4
4/5
Aug.
3/3
2/5
Feb.
2/4
4/4
3/4
Sept.
4/4
3/4
March
3/6
2/5
1/1
Oct.
4/4
4/4
April
4/4
1/3
Totals3
25/32 (78Z)
Totals
28/42 (66.71)
*• 1.17, P • < 0.3, difference not significant
457
-------
TABLE 15-39
•
Seasonal Effects on Viral Isolation Rates from Sludge
Springfield Plant (no. positive/no, tested)
©
Year I
Year 2
Year I
Year 2
Year 3
July
1/1
2/2
Jan.
0/2
0/2
0/2
Aug.
2/2
2/2
Feb.
0/2
1/2
0/2
Sept.
2/2
0/2
March
1/2
2/2
1/2
Oct.
2/2
2/2
April
0/2
0/2
Totals*
13/15 (871)
Totals
5/20 (25?)
a X2 - 13.05, P « <0.0005^ difference is significant
458
-------
TABLE 15-40
Frequency and Identifications of Viral Isolates from Stool
Samples (n « 1,743) According to Study Status and Source of Sludge
Stools from Sludge Recipients
Study No. Virus
Stools from Controls
Study No. Virus
100603
100603
101001
300401
300503
300504
300601
300701
300706
300707
300903
.400303
400401
400403
401705
401B02
Medina
Coxsackievirus B5
Echovirus 27
Echovirus 27
150501
150502
150504
150201
Columbus
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 27
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 7
Unidentified
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 25
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 7
Coxsackievirus A9
Echovirus 27
350801
350802
451303
451503
451808
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 27
Unidentified
Echovirus 7
Echovirus 26
Echovirus 26
Coxsackievirus A16
Coxsackievirus A9
Echovirus 22
Springfield
550701
Echovirus 26
459
-------
TABLE 15-41
Observed Frequency Tablea of Any Virus Isolated**
from a Subject at Anytime During Study
Positive Negative Totals
Positive
Kegat ive
Totals
5
3
8
6
32
38
11
35
46
a Each observation in cells is for paired farms,
numbers in margins are for individual sludge
and control farms. X2 - 1, P * <0.32.
^ Repeat isolations in a family were not considered.
A positive farm is one from which 1 or more
viruses was isolated at anytime during the course
of the study.
460
-------
TABLE 15-42
Comparative Analysis8 of the Number of Susceptible
Virusb
«
CB1
CB2
CB3
CB4
CBS
CB6
CA3
CA7
CA9
CA11
CA15
E3
E6
E7
E9
Ell
E12
E19
E20
E21
E25
E26
E24
Sludge Mean
j
.66
.57
.63
.38
.71
.99
.28
.49
.74
1.00
.97
.64
.72
.80
0.00
.52
.66
.65
.65
.63
.30
.57
.84
Control Mean
.83
.48
.72
.38
.77
.99
.26
.53
.78
1.00
.96
.65 ,
.60
.80
0.00
.53
.69
.59
.63
.71
,39
.51
.85
p value
.02
.19
.26
.81
.39
1.00
.60
.58
.64
-
1.00
.84
.07
.99
-
.83
.60
.54
.62
.20
,23
.41
.95
* Wilcoxen Sign-Rank test
b C • coxsaekievirua, E« echovirus
461
-------
TABLE 15-43
Serum Neutralizing Antibody Rises Detected in All Subjects
During the Course of the Study
Person*
Dates sera were collected
Antibody titersc
Virus** of paired sera
Medina County
100401
100401
100401
100401
100401
100402
100402
100402
100402
100402
100402
100402
100402
100402
100201
100201
100202
100202
100202
100202
100301
100601
100602
100603
100603
101001
101002
101002
101002
150301
150302
150303
150304
8/9/78 - 12/5/78
8/9/78 - 12/5/78
3/13/79 - 8/7/79
3/13/79 - 8/7/79
3/13/79 - 8/7/79
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
12/5/78 - 3/13/79
12/5/78 - 3/13/79
3/13/79 - 8/7/79
8/2/79 - 12/7/79
8/2/79 - 12/7/79
4/27/78 - 8/8/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
4/1/80 - 8/5/80
8/5/80 - 12/4/80
4/1/80 - 9/18/80
7/31/79 - 12/7/79
3/13/80 - 8/2/80
4/12/78 - 8/8/78
7/31/79 - 12/7/79
8/9/78 - 12/5/78
4/7H8 - 8/9/78
12/5/78 - 3/13/79
8/7/79 - 12/7/79
S/8/78 - 12/5/78
4/11/78 - 8/8/78
12/7/79 - 3/12/79
8/2/79 - 12/7/79
EC9
EC25
CB3
EC24
CB1
CBS
CB6
CA9
EC3
ECU
EC12
EC7
CB2
EC19
EC3
EC20
EC9
CA3
EC21
CB3
EC25
EC25
EC25
CBS
EC25
EC25
EC20
EC25
ECU
ECU
CBS
CA3
CB3
0 -
<2.5 -
0 -
20 -
5 -
10 -
0 -
<2.5 -
<2.5 -
10 -
10 -
10 -
10 -
0 -
40 -
40 -
20 -
80 -
<2.5 -
0 -
<2.5 -
40 -
40 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
80 -
10 -
40 -
0 -
40 -
0 -
0 -
80
10
160
320
80
80
20
10
10
40
160
40
40
40
160
160
80
320
10
40
10
160
160
20
40
320
320
40
320
160
160
20
160
462
-------
TABLE 15-43, Con't.
Person
Dates sera were collected
Antibody titers
Virus of paired sera
150501
150501
150502
150502
150502
150502
150502
150502
150502
150601
150701
150801
150801
150801
150802
300201
300201
300202
300203
300203
300204
3C0204
300204
300303
300304
300401
300501
300602
300902
300902
300902
7/31/79 - 12/7/79
8/8/79 - 12/5/78
4/13/78 - 8/9/78
4/13/78 - 8/9/78
4/13/78 - 8/9/78
8/9/78 - 12/5/79
8/9/78 - 12/5/79
12/5/78 - 3/19/79
12/7/79 - 4/2/80
12/7/79 - 4/15/80
4/7/78 - 8/8/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/78
8/8/78 - 12/5/8
7/31/70 - 12/7/79
12/5/78 - 3/16/79
Franklin Co.
6/3/80 - 10/29/80
6/13/79 - 10/22/79
6/3/80 - 10/29/80
6/13/79 - 10/22/79
6/3/80 - 10/29/80
6/13/79 - 10/22/79
6/13/79 - 10/22/79
6/3/80 - 10/29/80
6/3/80 - 10/30/80
6/3/80 - 10/30/80
11/6/79 - 3/17/80
6/23/81 - 12/2/81
11/4/80 -• 3/13/81
7/21/81 - 11/19/81
7/21/81 - 11/19/81
7/21/81 - 11/19/81
EC7
EC25
ECS
ECS
EC20
EC21
EC25
EC25
EC7
EC9
£A7
EC25
ECU
EC9
CBS
EC24
EB3
EC24
CB3
EC24
CBS
CB3
EC24
CB3
CB3
CA7
CA3
CB4
ECS
EC12
EC26
10 -
0 -
<2.5 -
<2.5 -
<2.5 -
20 -
0 -
20 -
<2.5 -
10 -
20 -
0 T
0 -
40 -
0 -
•
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
20 -
0 -
0 -
<2.5 -
0 -
<2.S -
10 -
5 -
<2.5 -
<2.5 -
<2.5 -
40
20
10
10
10
320
20
80
10
60
80
80
80
160
40
40
80
80
20
320
80
160
320
10
320
10
40
20
10
10
10
350101
8/18/81 - 12/17/81
EC25
0-40
463
-------
TABLE 15-43, Con't.
Person
V
350201
350301
350801
350802
351001
351001
351002
400201
400201
400201
400201
400202
400202
400202
400404
401205
401403
401701
401804
401904
450401
450401
450502
451202
451206
451302
451303
451303
451303
451304
Dates sera were collected
8/1/80 - 12/15/80
©
6/3/81 - 9/28/81
6/3/81 - 9/28/81
6/3/81 - 9/28/81
7/27/81 - 11/23/81
7/27/81 - 11/23/81
7/27/81 - 11/23/81
Pickaway Co. - Columbus
11/14/79 - 4/7/80
11/14/79 - 4/7/80
11/14/79 - 4/7/80
11/14/79 - 4/7/80
11/10/80 - 4/15/81
11/10/80 - 4/15/81
4/15/81 - 8/11/81
11/19/79 - 3/20/80
2/12/80 - 6/16/80
6/23/80 - 10/14/80
3/27/79 - 7/16/79
10/31/79 - 2/25/80
2/25/80 - 4/10/80
7/10/79 - 11/1/79
7/10/79 - 11/1/79
3/16/81 - 7/20/81
5/28/80 - 9/22/80
9/22/80 - 1/12/81
4/14/80 - 8/13/80
4/14/80 - 12/15/80
4/14/80 - 12/15/80
4/14/80 - 12/15/80
4/14/80 - 8/13/80
Virus
CB2
CB4
CBS
CA7
CB2
EC21
ECU
Sludge
ECU
CB1
CB3
EC25
.CA3
CB4
CB2
CBS
EC25
CA3
CA7
EC21
CA7
EC19
EC20
CA3
F.C21
EC25
CB3
CB3
CB4
CB1 '
CB3
Antibody titers
of paired sera
10 - 40
0 - 160
10 - 320
0-10
10 - 40
5-20
<2.5 - 10
0-40
0-40
0-40
0-80
0-40
0-20
5-20
0-80
5-20
<2.5 - 10
<2.5 - 10
5-20
10 - 160
0-20
0-20
40 - 320
5-20
40 - 160
<2.5 - 10
<2.5 - 10
10 - 40
<2.5 - 10
0-40
464
-------
TABLE 15-43, Con't.
Person
451601
451701
451503
451503
451503
451503
500305
500601
500701
500701
500701
500701
500702
500702
500702
500801
500803
550101
350204
550205
550205
550602
550701
550702
551204
551204
Dates sera were collected
7/14/81 - 11/18/81
66/24/81 - 10/14/81
7/11/79 - 11/29/79
7/11/79 - 11/29/79
7/11/79 - 11/29/79
7/11/79 - 11/29/79
Clark Co. - Springfield
7/19/81 - 12/8/81
12/29/81 - 4/19/82
7/22/81 - 11/20/81
7/22/81 - 11/20/81
11/20/81 - 4/13/82
11/20/81 - 4/13/82
7/22/81 - 11/20/81
7/22/81 - 11/20/81
11/20/81 - 4/13/82
3/2/81 - 6/24/81
2/27/81 - 6/24/81
11/18/81 - 3/17/82
8/13/80 - 12/18/80
8/13/80 - 12/18/80
8/13/80 - 12/18/80
11/19/80 - 3/17/81
7/16/80 - 11/6/80
7/16/80 - 11/6/80
8/25/81 - 12/15/81
8/25/81 - 12/15/81
Virus
CB4
EC20
fBl
CBS
EC6
EC12
Sludge '
EC6
EC12
CBS
ECU
CB2
CA3
CB2
CA3
EC9
CB4
CA3
CA3
CA7
CB1
EC21
EC26.
CA7
CA7
CB1
CBS
Antibody titers
of paired aera
0-20
0-40
0-40
0-20
0-80
<2.5 - 10
0-80
<2.5 - 10
0-20
<2.5 - 5
<2.5 - 10
5 - 160
0-20
10 - 160
<2.5 - 10
40 - 320
0 - 320
<2.5 - 10
0-40
0-40
0-40
80 - 320
5 - SO
<2.5 - 10
0 - 20
5-40
Con't.
465
-------
TABLE 15-43, Con't.
• The first numeral indicates the study area. The second numeral indicates
a sludge (0) or control (5) farm. The .fourth numeral indicates the faro
number.
k C • coxsackievirus, EC « echovirus
c 0 - less than 1:10
466
-------
TABLE 15-44
Frequency Distribution of 124 Neutralizing Antibody
Rises* Among 67 Subjects
v-
No. of rises
©
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
No. of individuals
46'
10
8
2
2
-
1
"
1
69 rises occurred in 34 sludge subjects.
55 rices occurred in 33 control subjects.
467
-------
TABLE 15-45
Distribution of 124 Neutralizing Antibody Rises in
67 Subjects3 According to Virus
Virus8 No. of Rises
CB1
2
3
4
5
6
CAS
7
9
11
15
E3
6
7
9
11
12
19
20
21
24
25
26
6
6
12
6
10
1
10
10
1
2
0
4
3
3
5
6
4
2
5
6
5
15
2
* CB " ^oxsackievirus fi, (CA » coxeacki«viru8
E « echovirus
468
-------
o>
TABLE 15-46
Hatched Pair* Logistic Regression Analysis of Fourfold Increases
in Antibody Titer to Any of 23 Viral Antigens Within
6 Months of First Sludge Application
Multiple
Logistic Model
Variable
Presence of Sludge
Number of
Weeks
Between Blood Samples
Number of
on Fam"
Persons
Logistic
Coeffocient
.093
.123
.080
Standard
Error
.488
.112
.165
P
Value
.90
• 30
.80
Simple
Logistic Models
Logistic
Coefficient
.073
.173
.020
Standard
Error
.415
.216
.131
P
Value
.86
.31
.86
a n « 46 pairs
Only one family selected from multiple family farms for this analysis
-------
TABLE 15-47
Matched Pair8 logistic Regression Analysis of Fourfold Increases
in Antibody Titer to Any of 23 Viral Antigens Within
6 Months of Second Sludge Application
Multiple
! Logistic Model
Variable
Presence of Sludge
Number of
Weeks
between Blood Samples
Number of
on Farm*1
Persona
Logistic
Coefficient
.077
.169
-.0001
Standard
Error
.391
.231
.065
P
Value
.88
.35
.97
Simple
Logistic Models fl
Logistic
Coefficient
.057
.151
.008
Standard
Error
.313
.203
.082
P
Value
.89
.37
.98
a n * 29 pairs
b Only one family selected frort multiple family farms for this an
-------
TABLE 15-48
Matched Pair* Ldgistic Regression Analysis of Fmlrfold Increases
in Antibody fiter to Any of 23 Viral Antigens at Any Time
Between First Sludge Application &nd End tiff Project
Multiple !
Logistic KoJel Logisl
Variable
Presence of Sludge
Number of Blood Samples
Number of Persona on Fana"
».ogletie
Coefficient
.083
.257
.077
Standard
Error
.344
.220
.157
P
Value
.80
.24
.62
Logistic
Coefficient
.046
.194
.017
Utaplo
:ic Models
Standard
Error
.305
.195
.129
P
Value
.87
.32
.89
a n » 46 pairs
b Only one family selected £ro& multiple fanlly farms for this analysis
-------
JABLE 15-49
Antibody Rises in >:atched Farm Pairs Following
the First Application of Sludge
,<-udge
Farm
Cortrol Fan"
Rise No Rise
1
1
Rise |
1
1
I
No Rise I
1
15
Pairs
6
Pairs
7
Pairs
18
Pairs
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
21
Pairs
25
'Pairs
1 22
1 Pair-
24
Pairs
H - 46 Pairs
472
-------
TABLE 15-50
Percent of 262 Individuals With Neutralizing Antibody
to 23 Enteroviruses by Age
Virus
Bl
2
3
4
5
6
Meen Z
CA3
7
9
11
15
Mean Z
E3
6
7
9
11
12
19
20
21
':4
25
26
Mean Z
TOTAL MEAN Z
n-20
5-12
20
40
15
30
- 25
0
22
30
20
5
0
0
11
35
30
20
10&
55
20
25
45
20
5
30
20
34
26
n»27
13-21
26
33
15
44
26
0
24
37
44
15
0
0
19
19
15
7
100
22
7
15
22
22
4
44
41
27
24
n«80
22-40
21
50
30
60
26
3
32
64
28
28
0
3
25
29
30
11
99
43
29
25
34
16
7
60
38
35
32
n-82
41-49
27
40
27
60
20
0
29
78
48
28
0
7
32
32
32
22
96
43
31
35
34
31
12
67
-42
40
35
n-53
60+
21
47
38
62
25
0
32
81
64
17
0
0
32
34
37
38
96
60
36
60
. 32
47
25
77
57
50
42
n-262
All Ages
23
42
25
51
25
0.6
28
58
41
19
0
2
24
30
29
20
98
45
25
32
33
27
11
56
40
37
32
473
-------
TABLE 15-51
Spread of Virus* in Households with Susceptible Individuals
550201
550202
550204
550205
2 • 551202
551203
551204
3 451301
451302
451303
451304
4 300201
300202
300203
300204
5 300301
300302
300303
300304
CB1
6 100401 $-80
100402 20
E7
100401 <5
100402 <10-40
CB1
<5
40
<5
<10-40
CB1
<5
<5
<10-20
CB1
5
40
<2.5-10
10
CB3
<10-80
80
<5-20
<10-160
CBS
20
<5
<2.5-10
<10-320
CB2 CB3
<5 <5-l6o
10-40 <5
E9 Ell
<5-80 80
5
CA7
80
<5
<10-40
<5
CBS
<5
<5
5-40
•CB3
<5
<2.5-10
<2.5-10
<10-40
CBS
160
80
160
20-80
CBS
20
10-80
E12
5
E21
<5
40
<5
<10-40
CB4
<5
160
10-8t)
80
E24
<10-40
<10-80
<10-320
<10-320
CB6 CA9 E3
<5 <5 20
<10-20 <5-10 <2.5-10
E19 124
<5 20-320
Con't.
474
-------
TABLE 15-51, con't.
House-
hold £
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
i
14
Subject #
V
150301
150302
150303 ®
150304
150305
100601
100602
100603
350801
350802
401402
401403
401404
500701
500702
400401
400402
400403
400404
450401
450402
401701
401702
Antibody rises and titers ^
CB3 CBS CA3 Ell
^> <5 40 <5-160
10 40-160 160 20
<5 <5 <5-20 <5
<10-16Q <5 <5 <5
<5 <5 <5 <5
E25 CBS
40-160 <5
40 <5
<5-40 <10-40
CB4 B5 CA7
<10-160 10-32-0
-------
TABLE 15-51, Con't.
Rous
.hold t Subject
15 150501
150502
16 101001
101002
'
17 300901
300902
300903
18 350801
350802
19 400401
400402
400403
400404
400405
20 401801
401802
401803
401804
21 451201
451202
451203
451204
451205
451206
E3
<5
<5-10
Ell
40
40-320
E3
-------
TABLE 15-51 cont'd
House—
hold * Subject
22
23
24
i r "%
451502
451503
560801
500302
500803
550701
550702
E12
<$
<5-10
CB4 CAS
40-320 10
<5 <5
<5 <10-320
CA7
5-80
<5-10
a Excluding index cases, the total number of individuals susceptible to
any virus was 82, the number infected after introduction of a virus
into a household was 20 (25%).
c • coxaackievirus, £ « echovirus
477
-------
Page Intentionally Blank
------- |