Air And Radiation EPA402-K-93-002
(6601J) June 1993
Office Of Radiation
And Indoor Air
Program Description
ORIA
£& Printed on Recycled Paper
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402-K-93402
OFFICE OF RADIATION
AND
INDOOR AIR
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
JUNE 1953
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
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This document was prepared by Irma McKnight and Carmen Romero of the Office of Radiation and Indoor
Air Program Management Office based on extensive input from each organizational unit. More specific
information on any Office program may be obtained by writing to the following address or by contacting any
of the persons listed in the Organizational Chart on page 27 of this document:
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (6601J)
401 M Street S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
The ORIA Publications List may be obtained from the same address.
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CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Major Program Areas 1
Radiation 1
Radiological Emergency Preparedness and Response 1
Radiological Emergency Preparedness 1
Radiological Emergency Response 3
Radioactive Waste Disposal 4
Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel, Transuranic and
High-Level Radioactive Wastes 4
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 5
Land Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste 5
Naturally Occurring and Accelerator-Produced
Radioactive Materials 6
Disposal of Radioactive Materials at Active
Uranium and Thorium Processing Sites 6
Groundwater Protection at Inactive
Uranium Mill Tailings Sites 6
RadioactiYely Contaminated Sites 7
Superfund Support 7
Cleanup Standards 7
Mixed Waste 8
Technical Assistance 8
Radiation Worker and Safety Health Program 8
International Programs 8
Industrial Sources 9
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPS); Standards for Radionuclides 9
Guidance for Occupational Exposure 9
Diagnostic X Rays 10
Communicating Information on Radiation Issues 10
Federal Guidance 11
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Indoor Air/Radon/EMF 12
Indoor Air 12
Indoor Air Pollution and Health 12
Indoor Air Pollution Costs 12
EPA's Strategy for Dealing with Indoor Air Pollution 12
Reducing Pollutant Levels Indoors 13
Increasing Access to Indoor Air Information 14
Training Key Indoor Air Audiences 14
Working with Other Federal Agencies 14
Indoor Radon 14
Assessing Radon Health Risks and Distribution 15
Mitigating and Preventing Radon Problems 16
Transferring Information to States, Industry and the Public 17
Communicating Information on Radon 18
International Activities 18
Electromagnetic Fields 19
Authorities for EPA's Radiation and Indoor Air Programs 20
Office Organization and Functions 22
Headquarters Office 22
Laboratories 23
Organizational Chart 26
Regional Offices 27
EPA Regional Radiation and Indoor Air Contacts 28
VI
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INTRODUCTION
The goal of the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Office of Radiation and Indoor Air is to protect
the public and the environment from exposures to radiation and indoor air pollutants. The Office develops
protection criteria, standards, and policies and works with other programs within EPA and other agencies to
control radiation and indoor air pollution exposures; provides technical assistance to states through EPA's
regional offices and other agencies having radiation and indoor air protection programs; directs an
environmental radiation monitoring program; responds to radiological emergencies; and evaluates and assesses
the overall risk and impact of radiation and indoor air pollution. The Office is EPA's lead office for intra-
and interagency activities coordinated through the Committee for Indoor Air Quality. It coordinates with and
assists the Office of Enforcement in enforcement activities where EPA has jurisdiction. The Office
disseminates information and works with state and local governments, industry and professional groups, and
citizens to promote actions to reduce exposures to harmful levels of radiation and indoor air pollutants.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Radiological Emergency
Preparedness and Response
RADIATION
Ionizing radiation can be emitted from natural or
man made sources. Natural background radiation
includes cosmic rays; naturally occurring
radioactive elements in the earth's crust, primarily
those associated with uranium, thorium, and
potassium; and radioactive decay products such as
radon and its decay products.
Sources of man-made ionizing radiation include
medical facilities such as hospitals, pharmaceutical
factories, and research and teaching institutions;
nuclear reactors and their supporting facilities such
as fuel preparation plants; and federal facilities
that are involved in nuclear weapons production.
The primary health effects of exposures to ionizing
radiation are increases in the risk of cancer and
deleterious genetic changes such as growth
impairment and mental retardation.
The Office's radiation programs can be classified
into four major areas: Radiological Emergency
Preparedness and Response, Radioactive Waste
Disposal, Radioactively Contaminated Sites, and
Industrial Radiation Sources. (Indoor air, radon,
and electromagnetic fields are addressed in a
separate section.)
V
Emergency Response
EPA plays a major role in responding to
radiological emergencies. The Agency is
responsible for monitoring and assessing the effects
of radiation exposures to the general population
and the environment from accidents that involve
radioactive materials, for providing guidance to
appropriate officials concerning the radiation levels
at which protective actions are warranted, and for
advising those officials of which protective actions
should be taken.
Radiological Ifrncryency Preparedness
EPA performs several essential functions to assist
the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) in coordinating Federal efforts to aid
state and local governments in preparing for
radiological emergencies. These functions include
developing, reviewing, and testing their radiological
emergency response plans; training emergency
response personnel; and participating in emergency
drills and exercises.
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The Agency has participated in many tabletop
drills, full-field exercises and precautionary team
deployments. For example, EPA participated in
Federal Field Exercises I & II held in Zion,
Illinois, in 1987 and Crystal River, Florida, in 1982.
These exercises tested the integrated federal
response to a major nuclear power reactor
accident In 1992, the Agency participated in the
Diamond Flame Exercise. This four-part exercise
tested the federal response to a major nuclear
weapons accident. Finally, EPA participated in the
Plutonium Valley Exercise at Area 11 of the
Nevada Test Site in November 1992. This exercise
was also a simulated weapons accident. However,
the area in which the participants demonstrated
their capabilities contained actual plutonium
contamination as a result of weapons tests that
were conducted several decades earlier.
Participation in these activities has greatly
increased the capability of the Agency to respond
to a radiological emergency. Agency personnel
from headquarters, the labs, and the regional
offices have all participated in these types of
activities.
In addition to assisting FEMA, the Office is
responsible for ensuring that the Agency's ability
to respond to radiological emergencies is
maintained at a high level of readiness. To
accomplish this goal, the Office established the
Emergency Response Section under the Policy and
Emergency Response Branch when it reorganized
in 1991. The Emergency Response Section is
responsible for performing day-to-day radiological
emergency preparedness activities. These activities
include developing and maintaining procedures
which implement the EPA Radiological Emergency
Response Plan, coordinating physicals for
Radiological Emergency Response Team (RERT)
members, developing and conducting radiological
emergency response training, designating the bi-
monthly RERT, developing Federal guidance on
protective actions, and assisting in the review of
state and local emergency response plans.
Members of the Office's staff play active roles in
several national and international organizations
which address radiological emergency preparedness
and response. These include, but are not limited
to, the Federal Radiological Protection
Coordination Committee, the Conference of
Radiation Control Program Directors' Emergency
Response Planning Committee, the International
Atomic Energy Agency, and the World Health
Organization.
Protective Action Guides
Under regulations governing radiological
emergency planning and preparedness issued by
FEMA, the Agency's responsibilities include (1)
establishing Protective Action Guides (PAGs)
(specification of projected radiation doses); (2)
preparing guidance on implementing PAGs,
including recommendations on protective actions;
(3) developing and promulgating guidance to state
and local governments on the preparation of
emergency response plans; and (4) developing,
implementing, and presenting training programs
for state and local officials on PAGs and protective
actions, radiation dose assessment, and decision
making.
The Office originally issued PAGs and
Implementation Guidance for use by state, local,
and tribal governments relating to exposure of the
whole body and the thyroid gland to airborne
radioactivity from accidents at nuclear power
plants. This guidance on the use of sheltering and
evacuation was revised in 1991 to make it
applicable to a wider range of radiological
accidents and to incorporate lessons learned from
the Chernobyl accident. These revised PAGs have
been incorporated into the "Manual of Protective
Action Guides and Protective Actions for Nuclear
Incidents" which is used by federal, state, and local
officials to establish emergency response plans and
to make decisions during a radiological incident.
The guidance contained in this manual may be
used to respond to any type of radiological
incident except for nuclear war.
To effectively implement the revised PAGs, the
Office developed and conducted a series of training
courses which provided instruction on the basis of
the PAGs and how they should be used in the
decision making process to determine which
protective actions to institute. These courses were
conducted in several locations around the country
and have been incorporated into the curriculum at
FEMA's Emergency Management Institute in
Emmitsburg, Maryland. Members of the
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Emergency Response Section assist in conducting
these courses.
In addition to providing guidance on the use of
sheltering and evacuation, the Office is working
with the Food and Drug Administration to revise
PAGs for contaminated food and water.
Radiological
Resnonse
The EPA Radiological Emergency Response Plan
(RERP) establishes the framework for timely,
coordinated EPA action to protect public health
and safety and the environment in response to a
peacetime radiological incident. The RERP
identifies the authorities, responsibilities,
capabilities, and procedures for implementing
effective radiological emergency response actions
by EPA offices. It also presents the EPA
organizational structure and concept of operations
for responding to radiological incidents as a
participant in a multi-federal agency response
using the Federal Radiological Emergency
Response Plan and the Federal Response Plan and
independently using the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan.
The RERP covers EPA responses, both as a lead
and supporting agency, to all peacetime
radiological incidents and emergencies within the
United States, its territories, possessions, or
territorial waters. Emergencies occurring at fixed
nuclear facilities, domestic or foreign; emergencies
involving foreign satellites that malfunction; or
emergencies arising during the transportation of
radioactive materials, including nuclear weapons,
fall within the scope of the RERP, regardless of
whether the facility or radioactive materials are
publicly or privately owned, federally regulated, or
regulated by an agreement state. EPA is the lead
agency for emergencies involving radioactive
material not licensed, owned, or operated by a
federal agency or agreement state and emergencies
with an environmental impact from foreign sources
(e.g. Chernobyl).
The Office, with staff from its Washington
headquarters and two field laboratories, the
National Air and Radiation Environmental
Laboratory (NAREL) in Montgomery, Alabama,
and the Las Vegas Facility (LVF) in Nevada, fields
a Radiological Emergency Response Team capable
of responding to any type of radiological
emergency. The Agency's response as the lead
agency includes notification, response, protective
action recommendation, and information control
and coordination.
Environmental Radiation Ambient
Monitoring System
In addition to the emergency response actions
discussed above, the Environmental Radiation
Ambient Monitoring System (ERAMS) can be put
on an emergency sampling schedule when needed.
ERAMS is the nation's single major means of
acquiring and analyzing environmental radiation
data. It has 268 nationwide sampling stations that
collect air, precipitation, surface and drinking
water, and milk samples from which environmental
radiation levels are derived. Many stations are
located in the near-environment of major potential
environmental release points. The stations were
selected to effectively measure the wide-scale
impact from global events and to provide optimal
population coverage while monitoring fallout from
any atmospheric testing of nuclear devices and
other possible forms of environmental radioactive
contamination.
ERAMS, which is operated with the cooperation
of state radiation program personnel, collects 65
composite pasteurized milk samples, which
represent a significant fraction of the U.S. milk
consumption. Air filter and precipitation samples
are obtained twice weekly from locations in all 50
states, drinking water samples quarterly from 78
locations, and river water samples quarterly from
58 locations. These samples are then analyzed to
determine their level of radioactivity. In all, the
sampling stations submit a monthly total of about
2,000 samples for 6,000 analyses. Results of this
monitoring are published in Environmental
Radiation Data, a quarterly journal distributed to
state agencies and interested private organizations.
Though there have been ne atmospheric tests since
the Chinese test of October 1980, "ERAMS
continues to assess levels of long-lived
radionuclides in the environment. The system is
also employed in certain emergency situations.
For example, the network's sampling frequency was
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increased in early 1983 as part of the federal
emergency preparedness activity related to reentry
of the nuclear-powered Russian satellite, Cosmos
1402. In 1986, following the Chernobyl accident,
ERAMS' air sampling frequency was increased to
provide daily measurements. The milk network
sampling frequency was increased to two per week.
In 1992 ERAMS became part of the World Health
Organization's Global Environment Radiation
Monitoring Program, a component of the United
Nations Environmental Programs, Global
Environmental Monitoring System. The ERAMS
data will be combined with that from 40 other
nations to provide a single comprehensive global
network for radiation data.
Radioactive Waste Disposal
One of the basic authorities for EPA under the
Atomic Energy Act (AEA) is to establish
"generally applicable environmental standards for
the protection of the general environment from
radioactive material." Since its inception, EPA has
participated in many efforts to resolve radioactive
waste management and disposal problems under
legislative responsibilities to protect public health
and the environment.
Typically any activity making use of radioactive
material inevitably generates radioactive waste as
a by-product of its operations. This waste contains
varying levels or intensities of radioactivity and is
produced both in the commercial sector and by
federal government defense programs. Radioactive
waste is usually classified into several categories
including: (1) spent fuel and high-level radioactive
waste from nuclear reactor operations; (2)
transuranic waste (man-made) from the defense
programs; (3) low-level radioactive waste from
various activities; (4) waste from mining and
milling of uranium and thorium ores; (5) and
natural and accelerator-produced waste.
Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel,
Transoranic and High-Level Radioactive
Wastes
High-level radioactive waste (HLW) is liquid or
solid waste from reprocessed spent nuclear reactor
fuel. Some commercial HLW is now stored at
West Valley, NY. Defense HLW is stored at
special sites in Richland, WA; Aiken, SC; and
Idaho Falls, ID. It is estimated that by the year
2000, commercial and defense sources will have
generated 330,000 cubic meters of high-level liquid
and solidified waste.
Spent nuclear fuel is fuel that has been withdrawn
from a nuclear reactor following fissioning; the
various constituent elements have not been
separated by reprocessing. Commercial spent
nuclear fuel is being stored temporarily in pools of
water at individual power reactor sites. Some
Defense spent fuel is at three specifically
designated sites in the United States. In 1987,
there were about 16,000 metric tons of commercial
spent nuclear fuel. The total is expected to reach
about 41,000 metric tons by the year 2000. The
Department of Energy (DOE) is in the
characterization phase of a candidate site in
Nevada for spent nuclear fuel and solidified
high-level radioactive waste.
Transuranic (TRU) waste is long-lived radioactive
waste generated as by-products from nuclear
weapons production. TRU waste is generated by
DOE in its defense programs, and is currently
either buried or stored at several DOE sites. In
1987 some 3,000 cubic meters of transuranic waste
were stored awaiting disposal in a geologic
repository. DOE is evaluating a geologic
repository in New Mexico for the disposal of TRU
waste.
On August 15, 1985, the Office issued
environmental standards for the management and
disposal of spent nuclear fuel, high-level, and
transuranic radioactive wastes. Shortly after the
rule was promulgated, several states and
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environmental groups challenged it. In 1987, the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit agreed
with the plaintiffs' objections to two sections of the
standards and remanded Subpart B of 40 CFR Part
191 to EPA for further action.
EPA had been working on a repromulgation of the
rule when the 102nd Congress directed a
significant redirection in EPA's development of
standards for high-level and transuranic wastes.
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Land
Withdrawal Act (PL 102-579) reinstated the major
part of EPA's 40 CFR 191 radiation standard as it
was promulgated in 1985. However, it limits its
applicability to sites not developed under the
Nuclear Waste Policy Act. It further requires that
EPA promulgate a final standard in 6 months and
gives EPA a major role in oversight of the New
Mexico site's testing, design, and operation.
The Energy Policy Act (PL 102-486) prescribes a
procedure for EPA to follow in setting radiation
standards specifically for the Yucca Mountain,
Nevada, site. This process requires contracting
with the National Academy of Sciences and
developing standards consistent with their findings
and recommendations.
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
On October 30, 1992, the Waste Isolation Pilot
Plant Land Withdrawal Act became law. The Act
requires EPA to oversee the Department of
Energy's activities at the WIPP, a potential
disposal facility for transuranic radioactive waste
under development by DOE in southeastern New
Mexico. The Act provides an extensive role for
EPA in reviewing and approving many of DOE's
activities at the plant and in ensuring compliance
with all Federal environmental laws and
regulations.
Because of uncertainties related to the long-term
performance of the WIPP repository, DOE is
proposing to conduct a series of underground
storage tests with limited amounts of radioactive
waste. According to DOE, data derived from these
tests will be used to help determine whether the
plant complies with EPA radioactive and
hazardous waste disposal standards.
Under the Act, the test phase cannot begin until
EPA: publishes final radioactive waste disposal
standards, determines that DOE complies with the
hazardous waste no-migration determination,
reviews DOE's plans for test phase activities, and
approves the plan, in whole or in part, by August
1993. DOE's waste retrieval plan must also be
approved by August 1993. This plan guarantees
that the waste will be retrievable if WIPP cannot
comply with EPA's radioactive waste disposal
standards. The test phase should not last longer
than 10 years.
The actual disposal phase of the WIPP project
cannot begin until (1) the tests are completed; (2)
EPA determines that the WIPP meets the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act's
requirements; and (3) EPA makes a determination
that WIPP will comply with the radioactive waste
disposal standards. DOE must submit an
application for certification of compliance with the
disposal standards within 7 years of the date of the
first receipt of radioactive waste for tests at the
WIPP. EPA then has 1 year to certify that the
WIPP facility complies with the disposal standards.
EPA will issue final criteria for determining
compliance by October 1994. DOE must verify
and EPA must recertify compliance every 5 years.
The Agency must make bi-annual determinations
of the WIPP's compliance with applicable
environmental laws and regulations.
Land Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive
Waste
Typically, low-level radioactive waste (LLW) is
ordinary industrial or research waste such as paper,
rags, plastic bags, protective clothes, cardboard,
packing materials, organic fluids, or water
treatment residues which are contaminated with
radioactive materials. This waste is a by-product
from a variety of both government and commercial
activities: research, fuel-cycle activities for electric
power generation (refining, enrichment, fabrication
and reactor operations), diagnostic and therapy
medicine manufacturing (Pharmaceuticals, tools,
and instruments), and defense programs
(submarines, ships, and research).
It is estimated that for the 1990-2010 timeframe,
there will be about 326,000 cubic meters of LLW
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generated by commercial activities (about 16,000
cubic meters per year) and 1.8 million cubic meters
generated by DOE activities (about 92,000 cubic
meters per year).
In 1974 the Agency, with the U.S. Geological
Survey, published hydrogeologicand hydrochemical
criteria to help evaluate suitability of LLW
disposal sites. The Office is discussing with the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) whether
the present NRC regulations are adequate to meet
all EPA objectives. This evaluation, along with an
assessment of low-level waste at DOE facilities,
will provide a basis for deciding if EPA standards
are required.
There are currently two operational commercial
sites: Barawell, SC, and Richland, WA.
Commercial sites for disposing of low-level waste
have been closed at Maxey Flats, KY; West Valley,
NY; Beatty, NV; and Sheffield, IL. There are 16
federal government disposal sites widely distributed
around the country.
Under the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy
Act of 1980 and the Amendments of 1985, each
state would be responsible for providing disposal
capacity for all commercial low-level radioactive
waste generated within its borders. Regional
cooperation through compacts was encouraged by
this law, and is presently the method by which
many states are carrying out their responsibility.
As a result, 8 to 10 new disposal sites may be
operating by the year 2000.
Naturally Occurring and Accelerator-
Prodaccd Radioactive Materials
Two broad categories of radionuclides not covered
under the Atomic Energy Act are naturally
occurring radionuclides and accelerator-produced
radionuclides. Materials containing these nuclides
are commonly referred to as naturally occurring
and accelerator-produced radioactive materials
(NARM).
Naturalry occurring radioactive materials consist
principally of uranium, thorium, and radium.
There are two very different types of this waste:
discrete sources or waste streams of higher
radioactive concentration, such as radium needles
used in medical practice or radium-contaminated
drinking water cleanup resins, and lower activity
diffuse sources such as residuals from mining and
extraction industries.
Most accelerator-produced radionuclides are used
in medicine or for research and have very short
half-lives. A few are longer lived. Because
accelerator-produced NARM radionuclides are
indistinguishable from those that are produced at
AEA-licensed facilities, they are usually disposed
of with Atomic Energy Act Low-Level Waste.
EPA has been conducting several studies to make
a preliminary risk assessment of various NARM
waste. This includes a cooperative study with the
State of Louisiana on waste from oil and gas
production. These studies will serve as a basis for
evaluating whether any further guidance or
regulatory activities should be initiated.
Disposal of Radioactive Materials at
Active Uranium and Thorium Processing
Sites
On September 30, 1983, the Agency issued final
standards for the control of effluents and emissions
from uranium and thorium mill tailings during
milling operations and for the final disposal of
tailings. (Mill tailings are radioactive, sand-like
materials that remain after uranium has been
extracted from ore.)
The standards require stabilization of tailings so
that health hazards will be controlled and limited
for at least 1,000 years. NRC or states having
regulatory agreements with the Commission are
directly responsible for implementing and
enforcing these standards. There are 27 active
(licensed) milling sites distributed among the
States of Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah,
Wyoming, South Dakota, and Washington.
Gronndvmter Protection at Inactive
Uranium Mill Tailings Sites
On January 5, 1983, the Agency issued final
standards for the cleanup and disposal of uranium
mill tailings at 24 inactive mill sites that qualify for
remedial action under Uranium Mill Tailings
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Radiation Control Act of 1978. The sites are
located in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico,
North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah,
and Wyoming. The standards include qualitative
standards for groundwater protection which
allowed DOE and NRC to determine what actions
were needed on a site-by-site basis for the cleanup
and disposal of uranium mill tailings at the
inactive sites. However, as a result of a Court
order, quantitative standards are now being
developed.
Radioactively Contaminated Sites
The Office of Radiation and Indoor Air is EPA's
primary source of radiation expertise needed to
facilitate identifying, characterizing, and cleaning
up the many sites around the country that have
been contaminated through handling and
processing radioactive materials. Such
contamination is found at abandoned and active
government-owned and commercial facilities. Most
of these sites are addressed under the Superfund
program or Solid Waste program. Within the
Agency, the Office works closely with the
Superfund and RCRA programs, the Office of
Federal Facilities Enforcement, the Office of
Research and Development, and EPA Regional
Offices to identify, characterize, and clean up these
sites. The Office also works closely with other
federal agencies, in particular, the Department of
Energy, Department of Defense, and the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission.
Sopcrfand Support
At present, there are an estimated 80 radioactivery
contaminated sites on the Superfund National
Priorities List, 55 of which are federal facilities. In
support of Superfund, Office staff provides
remediation/mitigation technology reviews and
evaluations, technical and policy guidance and
advice, project development strategies, and
seminars and training programs. The Office also
provides site-specific support in developing and
designing site monitoring programs, reviewing risk
assessment methodologies, evaluating, testing, and
demonstrating remedial technologies, analyzing
laboratory samples and interpreting data, planning
and participating in emergency removal actions and
producing guidance for worker safety and health
programs. The Office provides significant
technical and compliance training support to DOE
to assist that agency in complying with Superfund
requirements in its major environmental cleanup
program.
The total number of sites contaminated with
radionuclides in the United States may be in the
thousands. Contamination extends to all
environmental media and includes all types of
radioactive materials. It also includes mixed waste,
which is waste containing both radioactive and
hazardous components.
To date, progress in cleaning up these sites has, in
general, been slow, largely due to unknowns
associated with the contamination and the absence
of specific cleanup regulations. To address this
problem, the Office is developing standards that
will establish cleanup levels for sites contaminated
with radionuclides. Further, the Office is
developing standards that will address the
management of radioactive waste generated during
site remediation and will explore the feasibility of
recycling or reusing site structures, equipment, and
metals after cleanup.
As part of its standard setting program, the Office
participated in NRC rulemaking workshops
conducted to aid the NRC in developing its
regulations for decommissioning nuclear facilities.
The Office also chairs a high-level Interagency
Steering Committee, comprising NRC and the
Departments of Defense and Energy, concerned
with effective federal coordination in cleaning up
radioactivley contaminated sites. When issued, the
cleanup standards will apply to all types of sites
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with radioactive contamination, including
Superfund sites, federal facilities, and sites
operating under NRC licenses.
Mixed Waste
In addition to strictly radioactive contamination,
many sites may be contaminated with hazardous,
nonradioactive but toxic materials that may be
commingled with radioactive materials; i.e., mixed
waste. The Office evaluates methods to
characterize mixed waste and reviews waste
acceptance criteria for facilities that store, treat,
and dispose of such waste. It also assesses and
develops technologies for handling and treating
mixed waste and develops specialized
radiochemical analytical protocols.
Technical Assistance
The Office provides technical assistance upon
request to other parts of the Agency, to other
federal agencies, and to state and local
governments. Such assistance is provided mainly
by radiation personnel in each of the 10 EPA
Regions and the Montgomery and Las Vegas
Laboratories.
This assistance includes radiochemical analyses of
environmental samples for selected radionuclides;
site surveys of areas with known or suspected
unusual conditions; and making measurement
equipment available to other organizations. The
Montgomery and Las Vegas Laboratories also
advise other laboratories on conducting analyses
and provide training in radiation monitoring and
laboratory procedures.
Radiation Worker Safety and Health
Program
The Office, in cooperation with the EPA Office of
Administration, developed a comprehensive,
nationwide Agency program to protect the health
of EPA employees who work around radioactive
materials, whether in laboratories or at
radioactively contaminated sites. Elements of the
program include: radiation safety training, uniform
monitoring and dosimetry practices, medical
surveillance and health consultations, and a
centralized computer-based management
information system.
International Programs
Internationally, the Office provides technical
support for the United States' participation in
meetings of the Contracting Parties to the London
Dumping Convention and in activities of other
organizations that guide the conduct of ocean
dumping, such as the International Atomic Energy
Agency and the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development's Nuclear Energy
Agency.
The Office has established cooperative programs
with the Ministry of Ukraine for Protection of the
Population from the Consequences of Chernobyl
(Minchernobyl) and with the Ukrainian Academy
of Sciences to conduct radiological monitoring in
response to the Chernobyl nuclear accident.
Under these programs, the Agency has carried out
two radiological assessments in the Black Sea. The
Office is also preparing to conduct radiological
monitoring in the Kiev reservoir and is reviewing
proposals from Czechoslovakia and Romania for a
cooperative effort to perform a Chernobyl-related
regional ecological impact assessment.
Additionally, the Office signed an agreement with
the government of Belarus to cooperate on
cleaning up radioactive contamination from the
Chernobyl accident. The Office also works with
United Nations Organizations to develop programs
to monitor and remediate radiation contamination.
Under the U.S.-Russian bilateral agreement, the
Office is participating in radiological assessments
being conducted in the Kara/Barents Seas. In
cooperation with other federal agencies (DOD,
DOS, DOE), the International Atomic Energy
Agency, and the governments of Russia and
Norway, the Office is participating in monitoring,
analyzing, and assessing the marine environment as
well as the condition of radioactive waste packages
and naval nuclear reactor compartments disposed
of by the former Soviet Union over a 30-year
period.
Under the auspices of the U.S-Polish Scientific and
Technical Cooperative Agreement, the Office, the
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Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the
Warsaw Medical School are exploring the use of
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) for
radiation dosimetry in an aquatic environment.
While EPR is routinely used to determine the
physical properties of solids, this study will
examine its suitability for use in measuring
exposure to ionizing radiation.
The Office has also been working with
Czechoslovakian scientists on a non-Chernobyl
radon project. EPA has provided a 3-year grant to
the International Atomic Energy Agency to
support an epidemiological study of residential
radon exposures and lung cancer mortality in the
Petrovice Region of Czechoslovakia, south of
Prague. The radon exposure in this region is due
primarily to natural granitic rock formations.
The Office has had an ongoing cooperative
program with the Japan Atomic Energy Research
Institute (JAERI) for several years. Important
aspects of this collaboration include an extensive
study of occupational radiation exposure in the
United States and the joint sponsorship of a
workshop on Residual Radioactivity and Recycling
Criteria.
Industrial Sources
National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS);
Standards for Radionnclides
EPA has listed radionuclides as hazardous air
pollutants under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act.
This listing was based on a finding that
radionuclides are carcinogens and are emitted in
significant amounts into the air from thousands of
sources across the nation.
On December 15, 1989, EPA published final
standards controlling radionuclide emissions from
industrial sources. The rule covers the following
source categories: NRC-licensed facilities and
non-DOE federal facilities, DOE facilities,
uranium mill tailings piles, phosphogypsum piles,
elemental phosphorous plants and underground
uranium mines. At the time of promulgation,
EPA stayed Subpart I of the regulation which
regulates NRC-licensed facilities, due to allegations
that the rule would cause negative impacts to the
nuclear medical community. EPA agreed to
reconsider Subpart I, and over the course of the
reconsideration issued several continuations of the
stay.
Several other petitions for reconsideration of other
subparts of the rule were received by EPA As a
result of these reconsiderations, modifications were
made to the rule concerning phosphogypsum piles
and elemental phosphorus plants.
In 1990 Congress enacted amendments to the
Clean Air Act which contains a new provision,
Section 112(d)(9), that now allows EPA to decline
to regulate NRC-licensed facilities after a finding
that the NRC program protects the public health
with an ample margin of safety. EPA is currently
in the process of rescinding its rule for NRC-
licensees pursuant to Section 112(d)(9). Also
under that authority, EPA is revising its standards
for the disposal of uranium mill tailings piles.
Guidance for Occupational Exposure
The types of employment and associated activities
that involve worker exposure to radiation vary
greatly. EPA estimates that approximately 1.3
million workers were employed in occupations in
which they were potentially exposed to radiation in
1980, the latest year for which there are
comprehensive assessments. Most of these workers
receive very low exposures and the average worker
is believed to incur a relatively small risk of harm.
On January 27, 1987, President Reagan issued
revised guidance to Federal agencies significantly
reducing the level of radiation to which workers
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may be exposed occupationally. The guidance,
developed by EPA, updates that issued by
President Eisenhower in 1960.
Because there is no definitive evidence that
radiation exhibits any "threshold" level, below
which no health effects occur, EPA's occupational
guidance is predicated on the tenet of achieving
exposures "as low as reasonably achievable." It
contains new provisions to protect the unborn.
The new guidance applies to radiation workers
employed by the federal government and by
institutions or companies subject to federal
regulation.
Diagnostic X Ravs
In 1976, based on recommendations developed by
the Office in cooperation with other federal
agencies, including the then Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, then President Ford
issued federal guidance for radiation protection in
the use of diagnostic x rays. The guidance is
designed to eliminate unnecessary use of x rays and
to ensure that x-ray personnel, equipment, and
techniques are of the highest quality, resulting in
lower radiation doses. Among its more significant
provisions, the guidance recommends that mass
screening by using x-ray examinations be
eliminated unless specifically justified; that use of
medical diagnostic x rays be limited only to
obtaining diagnostic information; that certain
numerical guides for common x-ray examinations
not be exceeded; and that routine dental x-ray
examinations not be performed.
Communicating Information on
Radiation Issues
The Office carries on an existing effort to inform
the public, interest groups, and other governmental
organizations and to increase their understanding
of radiation issues. A public outreach effort seeks
to educate these groups on radiation issues,
radioactive waste disposal, radionuclide air
emissions, and radiological emergency response;
and on how people are protected from and can
protect themselves from exposure to radiation.
The Office has developed a booklet entitled "EPA:
Ready to Respond" which outlines EPA's role in
response to a radiological emergency. Another
series of publications: "Radiation: Risks &
Realities," "Radioactive Waste: An Environmental
Perspective," and "Industrial Sources of Radiation"
are soon to be published and will describe EPA's
roles in regards to other radiation issues. The
Office has developed graphics displays and an
interactive display for use at conferences and
workshops to inform groups about the Agency's
role in radiation protection.
In addition to providing the public with
information on radiation, the Office has begun
efforts to inform the public of EPA's new
responsibility for overseeing development and
operation of DOE's Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
(WIPP). The WIPP is a potential disposal facility
for transuranic radioactive waste under
development by the Department of Energy in New
Mexico. The Office is undertaking an extensive
communications and outreach effort to ensure that
the public is adequately informed of EPA's actions
on the WIPP and involved in the decisionmaking
process.
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Federal Guidance
To protect the public and the environment from
radiation exposure, the Office develops
environmental standards and recommendations for
federal guidance, a unique authority that applies
only to activities of federal agencies. In setting
standards and developing federal guidance, the
Agency considers technological, social, and, in
some cases, economic factors in seeking to reduce
exposure risks to acceptable levels.
The Office develops radiation standards in
response to several pieces of legislation and set
limits on human radiation exposure levels or on
quantities or concentrations of radioactive
materials that may be released to the environment
Once issued, EPA standards apply directly to all
commercial or governmental organizations
involved in the regulated activity. For instance,
the Nuclear Regulatory Commission must
incorporate the EPA environmental standards into
its regulations governing their licensees.
Under federal guidance authority, the Agency may
make recommendations to the President on
guidance to Federal agencies for radiation
protection. If the President issues the EPA
recommendations as federal guidance, affected
agencies must take them into account in carrying
out their responsibilities. The basic philosophy
behind EPA standards and guidance on radiation
is that any exposure to radiation carries some risk
with the risk increasing as the exposure increases.
Following are lists of the radiation standards and
recommendations for federal guidance developed
and being developed by the Office of Radiation
and Indoor Air.
1. Nuclear Power Operations
• Promulgated 1977
2. Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel, Transuranic
and High-Level Radioactive Waste
• Issued 1985
• Partially Reinstated 1992
• Part to be Reproposed
4. Disposal of Radioactive Materials at Active
Uranium and Thorium Processing Sites
• Issued 1983
5. Remedial Actions at Inactive Uranium
Processing Sites
• Issued 1983
Groundwater Processing
• Reproposed 1987
6. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants: Radionuclides
• Issued 1985
• Reissued 1989
Federal Radiation Projection Guidance
1. Exposure of Underground Uranium Miners
• Final 1971
2. Diagnostic X Rays
• Final 1976
3. Occupational Exposure
• Final 1987
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INDOOR AIR/RADON/EMF
In recent years, comparative risk studies performed
by EPA and its Science Advisory Board have
consistently ranked indoor air pollution, including
radon, among the top four environmental risks to
public health. EPA, in close cooperation with
other Federal agencies and the private sector, has
begun a concerted effort to better understand
indoor air pollution and to reduce peoples'
exposure to air pollutants in offices, homes,
schools and other indoor environments where
people live, work and play.
Indoor Air
EPA studies of human exposure to air pollutants
indicate that indoor levels of many pollutants may
be 2-5 times, and occasionally more than 100
times, higher than outdoor levels. These levels of
indoor air pollutants are of particular concern
because it is estimated that most people spend as
much as 90 percent of their time indoors.
Over the past several decades, our exposure to
indoor air pollutants is believed to have increased
due to a variety of factors such as the construction
of more tightly sealed buildings, reduced
ventilation rates to save energy, the use of
synthetic building materials and furnishings, and
the use of chemically formulated personal care
products, pesticides and household cleaners.
Indoor Air Pollution and Health
The study of indoor air pollution is relatively new,
and in many ways we are pushing the frontiers of
environmental science forward in an attempt to
understand the implications of being exposed to
relatively low levels of many pollutants for long
periods of time. What has been learned so far
indicates that there may be significant long- and
short-term health effects of concern.
Indoor Air Pollution Costs
Initial efforts by EPA to assess the costs of indoor
air pollution (see Report to Congress on Indoor Air
Quality, August, 1989) concluded that it was
reasonable to estimate that the costs of indoor air
pollution were in the tens of billions of dollars per
year.
EPA's Strategy for Dealing with Indoor
Air Pollution
Because of the potentially serious impacts on the
health of individuals who may experience indoor
air quality problems-as well as the dollar costs to
society if indoor air pollution is not addressed-
EPA has developed a comprehensive strategy to
better understand the indoor air pollution problem
and to take decisive steps to reduce people's
exposures to indoor air contaminants of all types.
• Even in the absence of complete scientific
understanding of indoor air pollution, prudent
public policy dictates that intensive efforts be
undertaken to reduce people's exposure to
potentially harmful levels of Indoor air
pollutants, using the authorities available to
the Federal government under current laws.
• Pollution prevention-and efficient resolution
of indoor air quality problems of all types-
must become a routine aspect of the design,
construction, maintenance, and operation of
public and commercial buildings, homes, health
and day care facilities, educational institutions,
and other special-use buildings.
• An effective research and development
program must be conducted to achieve a more
complete understanding of the factors affecting
indoor air quality, exposure patterns, health
effects, and control techniques for improving
indoor air quality.
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EPA is implementing this strategy using
nonregulatory as well as regulatory tools available
under a number of federal laws to provide
information and incentives for action to product
manufacturers, architects, engineers, builders,
building owners and managers, and building
occupants.
The primary objectives of the Office's program are
to:
• establish effective partnerships with
organizations representing the range of target
audiences for indoor air quality information to
communicate specific guidance and information
and promote timely action on indoor air quality
issues;
• forge constructive alliances with other federal
agencies to leverage resources and ensure that
existing statutory authorities are used most
effectively;
• develop practical guidance on indoor air quality
issues utilizing a broad-based consensus
approach which includes representatives from
industry and public interest groups to ensure
that information provided is accurate and
practical;
• design market-based incentives for industries to
lower chemical emissions from their products
and provide consumers and other decision-
makers with information needed to make
informed purchasing decisions;
• identify and fill research gaps in order to
provide information to address outstanding
indoor air quality policy issues;
• select appropriate environmental indicators to
measure progress in reducing population
exposure to indoor air quality problems as the
program matures;
• enhance scientific understanding and public
awareness of the complex factors that affect
indoor air quality; and
• bring about substantial reductions in human
exposure to the entire range of indoor air
pollutants.
Reducing Pollutant Levels Indoors
The BuiUmg System Approach
EPA has set a high priority on improving the way
buildings are designed and operated, having
concluded that people's exposure to indoor air
pollutants can be reduced significantly by
implementing current knowledge about sound
building operation and maintenance practices.
Some of the major actions to date include:
• issuance, in cooperation with the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
of comprehensive guidance, entitled Building
Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and
Facility Managers, on how to prevent and
resolve the full range of indoor air quality
problems in public and commercial buildings;
and
• publication of The Inside Story: A Guide to
Indoor Air Quality, to help people identify and
correct potential indoor air quality problems in
their own homes.
In addition, the Office is developing guidance for
school facility managers, new home builders, and
architects and design engineers to acquaint them
with the most current information on how to
prevent indoor air quality problems from occurring
or resolve them quickly if they do occur.
The PoOutmt-Specjfic Approach
This emphasis on a "buildings approach" holds the
most promise for addressing all of the factors-
including those related to the ventilation system as
well as sources of individual pollutants-that affect
indoor air quality. However, the Agency also
strongly believes that it must aggressively utilize its
combined statutory authorities to identify specific
pollutants that present direct health risks in the
indoor environment, and to use a variety of means
to reduce their levels indoors. The indoor air
pollutants that are currently receiving significant
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Agency attention include: radon, environmental
tobacco smoke, asbestos, toxic substances,
pesticides, and lead.
Increasing Access to Indoor Air
Information
Information Dissemination
In addition to publishing a wide range of
information materials on indoor air quality, the
Office is also developing additional strategies for
disseminating information to key audiences. To
ensure that a full range of information about
indoor air quality problems and solutions is readily
available to both the technical and nontechnical
public, a National Indoor Air Quality Information
Clearinghouse opened in 1992.
Training Key Indoor Air Audiences
Because concern about indoor air problems is a
relatively recent phenomenon, many of the people
who are in the best position to prevent problems
or resolve them when they do occur are not
sufficiently informed about the issue. Many indoor
air quality problems can be avoided through sound
building operation practices, or resolved by
knowledgeable building personnel without the need
for potentially costly outside assistance.
The Office has developed a training course for
building owners to acquaint them with the
guidance contained in Building Air Quality: A
Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers
(December 1991). Because many indoor air quality
problems are best resolved by responsible
government agencies at the state and local level,
the Office has developed both a live instructional
course on indoor air quality issues, entitled
Orientation to Indoor Air Quality, and a self-paced
learning module entitled Introduction to Indoor Air
Quality (April 1991) for these audiences.
More than 20 different federal agencies have
responsibilities associated with indoor air quality,
either through their own statutory responsibilities
or because they are major property managers. The
activities of these agencies are coordinated through
a variety of mechanisms, including an interagency
Committee on Indoor Air Quality (CIAQ) which
meets on a quarterly basis to exchange information
on indoor air issues. Five federal agencies-EPA,
the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the
Department of Energy, the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, and the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration-
are CIAQ co-chair agencies. In addition, EPA
works closely with other agencies on regulatory
and information development efforts and jointly
sponsors many of its guidance and public
information documents with these other agencies
to help ensure that federal actions are well-
coordinated.
Indoor Radon
Indoor radon is one of the most serious
environmental health problems in the United
States. Next to smoking, it is the second leading
cause of lung cancer, resulting in approximately
7,000-30,000 deaths each year. The combination of
tobacco smoke and radon exposure is especially
serious. Millions of homes and other buildings
across the country have elevated levels of indoor
radon.
Unlike most other environmental pollutants, radon
gas is naturally occurring, resulting from the
radioactive decay of uranium-238 that commonly
exists in trace quantities in ordinary rock and soil.
The primary health risks associated with exposure
to radon do not result from contact with the gas
itself, but rather from two of its decay products,
polonium-218 and polonium-214. If inhaled, these
radioactive particles can become deposited in the
respiratory tract, where they undergo further
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radioactive decay by emitting alpha radiation. It is
the alpha radiation that causes damage to
surrounding tissue, which can lead to lung cancer.
Although smokers face a greater risk of radon-
induced lung cancer, the health risks for
nonsmokers is also serious. Radon in water drawn
from wells can also pose a risk when it is released
to the air through household use. Ingestion may
also pose some small risk. However, radon in
water will in most cases be a much smaller source
of risk than radon entering in homes from soil and
rocks.
Elevated radon levels occur in homes, schools, and
workplaces. EPA and the states have initiated
activities to assess the extent of the problem in
homes and schools, and to reduce radon risks.
Because the radon problem involves large numbers
of private homes and is highly variable from house
to house, EPA recognized that the problem is best
addressed by states and localities. In 1985 the
Agency developed a nonregulatory, technical
assistance and public information program relying
on a strong partnership between federal, state, and
local governments, as well as private industry and
local civic and professional organizations. To help
citizens make informed decisions regarding radon,
the program responds to radon in five key areas:
• assessing the distribution of indoor radon levels
and the magnitude of associated health risks;
• developing cost-effective technologies that can
be used to mitigate and prevent high levels of
indoor radon;
• developing the infrastructure and capabilities
needed for effective state and local government
programs and technically adequate services
from the private sector;
• setting quantitative program goals for
environmental results in the areas of awareness,
testing, mitigation, real estate, and new
construction; and
• communicating information on radon to the
public and institutionalizing radon programs
within key organizations.
In 1992, EPA's Office of Policy, Planning and
Evaluation (OPPE) conducted a Radon Program
Review to provide recommendations on
approaches to increase radon risk reduction. The
OPPE report recommends continuation of EPA's
national public information program; targeting
high risk areas and populations; promoting radon
risk reduction as part of real estate transfers and in
new construction; and developing a coordinated
research plan. The Office is implementing these
recommended actions and has revised its program
strategies to reflect these priorities.
Assessing Radon Health Risks and
Distribution and Targeting High Risk
Areas
Through its own research and by incorporating the
latest research produced by the scientific
community, EPA develops and refines the best
models to project the risk of exposure to indoor
radon to individuals and the general population.
Based on the extensive body of data on the lung
cancer mortality of underground miners, the
lifetime lung cancer risks to miners can be
estimated using mathematical equations or models
that reflect the relationship of key risk-influencing
factors. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
conducted an extensive study on risk assessment
methods and issued a report in 1991 which
concluded that residential risk is 20-30 percent
lower than the risk to miners for the same
exposure. EPA has incorporated these findings in
its risk assessment.
The Agency will continue to refine its risk
estimates in cooperation with leading scientific
organizations such as NAS, which is currently
undertaking an updated review of related health
data. In addition, the Agency reviews and uses the
findings of epidemiological studies to advance the
understanding of health effects of indoor radon
exposure.
Residential Exposure Assessment
In 1989 and 1990, the Agency conducted long-term
nationwide measurements through the National
Residential Radon Survey (NRRS). This survey
provided a frequency distribution of annual average
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radon concentrations in all residences across the
country. The NRRS found that about 6 percent of
residences have average annual radon levels above
4 pCi/L, the level above which EPA recommends
that action be taken to reduce indoor radon
concentrations.
To ensure a uniform approach to these and other
radon measurement programs, EPA developed
measurement protocols to provide cost-effective,
standardized approaches for measuring radon.
From 1987 through 1992 EPA assisted states and
Indian tribes in conducting a survey program using
short-term, screening measurements to identify
potential radon problem areas. As of the end of
1992, 42 states and Indian Lands in 9 states had
participated in this survey. Six states (New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Florida, New Hampshire,
and Utah) conducted their own surveys. Their
findings are similar to those in EPA surveys.
The survey results show that one in five homes in
the surveyed jurisdictions has a screening level
above 4 pCi/L. (Note that these surveys have
identified 20 percent of single family homes as
having screening levels above 4 pCi/L, as opposed
to the 6 percent of all residences, including
housing, identified by the National Residential
Radon Survey as having annual average levels
above 4 pCi/L. As previously mentioned, these
state screening surveys are intended to identify
potential radon problem areas and the relative
magnitude of problems between states, not for
estimating actual exposures or risk.)
Ryposun in Schools
EPA has undertaken a program to identify the
magnitude of radon exposure in schools and to
develop programs to support radon risk reduction
in schools. In 1989, EPA published guidance for
radon testing in schools. Updated guidance will be
published in 1993. In late 1992, the Agency
completed the National School Radon Survey.
This survey had four goals:
• to characterize the frequency distribution Of
radon measurements in schools nationwide as
well as in high risk areas;
• to determine the relationship between short-
term and long-term measurements in schools;
• to determine the correlation between ground-
floor and upper-floor radon measurements; and
• to allow EPA to investigate specific construction
and ventilation characteristics associated with
different radon levels in schools.
The survey results show that nearly one in five of
the nation's school's have at least one ground
contact room with screening levels over 4 pCi/L.
Radon Exposure in Large Buildings
Legislation now requires federal agencies to test
buildings that they own. These buildings vary
according to type and age and are typical of most
American workplaces. Results of testing in
Federal buildings and other limited work EPA has
done in large buildings indicate that elevated levels
of radon do occur hi large buildings, although EPA
has not undertaken a survey of radon in large
buildings or workplaces.
Developing a Radon Potential Map
In cooperation with the United States Geological
Survey and the Association of American State
Geologist, EPA is developing a Radon Potential
Map. This map will be issued in 1993 and will
show the relative differences in radon levels
throughout the country and will provide a tool for
the Agency and states to direct further program
activities toward areas expected to have the worst
problems. The map will also help national, state,
and local building officials to assess the need to
implement model new construction standards
(discussed below).
Mitigating and Preventing Radon
Problems
To prevent elevated radon levels in new homes and
to transfer these techniques to builders, the Agency
developed the New Construction Demonstration
Program and Model New Construction Standards
that can be used to develop and implement state
and local building codes. For the New
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Construction Demonstration Program, the Agency
worked with a number of builders in seven states
to employ radon-resistant construction techniques
in houses being built. Subsequent evaluations
confirmed that it is generally less expensive to
incorporate such techniques into building new
homes than to retrofit existing houses with
elevated radon levels. These techniques are also
cost effective and result in increased energy
efficiency.
To assess the effectiveness of the proposed model
construction standards, the Agency developed the
New House Evaluation Program. This program is
coordinated with the National Association of
Home Builders, National Research Center, and is
currently evaluating radon resistant construction
techniques in nine states.
Mitigating Radon Problems in Schools
Through EPA and state-sponsored surveys,
elevated radon levels have been found in many
schools. Because schools are designed, built, and
used differently than residences, the Agency
initiated the School Evaluation Program, which
demonstrates and evaluates techniques for
diagnosing and mitigating elevated levels of radon
in school buildings. In 1989, EPA issued interim
technical guidance on techniques to reduce radon
in schools. This guidance emphasized application
of residential mitigation technologies where
suitable. Current research demonstrations are
focusing on reducing radon levels through an
integrated approach that considers ventilation as
another control strategy. Revised school
mitigation guidance will be issued later in 1993.
EPA meets periodically with school organization
representatives to understand and consider their
concerns. Other indoor air pollutants are also
being monitored.
Ensuring Industry Proficiency and Consumer
Protection
Anticipating that increased public awareness of the
health risks of indoor radon would create a
demand for companies qualified to make indoor
measurements of radon and its decay products, the
Agency established the Radon Measurement
Proficiency Program (RMP). The RMP is a
voluntary program to test the proficiency of
companies that perform measurements of indoor
radon levels and to provide the public with
information on listed measurement companies.
EPA recommends that consumers acquire
measurement services from listed providers.
Because of the dramatic growth in the RMP, the
Agency restructured the program to meet the
increased demand. For example, EPA now
provides for continuous testing. EPA also added
a stricter performance test and continuous
updating of participant lists, applications and
proficiency testing, restrictions on acceptable
phrases in advertising, and mandatory quality
assurance plans. A required individual
measurement exam component has been added.
There is also a need to establish a means to ensure
the availability of contractors qualified to mitigate
elevated radon levels. To meet that need, EPA
conducts the Radon Contractor Proficiency (RCP)
Program. Through the RCP, the Agency evaluates
radon mitigation contractors and provides a list of
proficient contractors to the public. The
centerpiece of this program is the hands-on
training requirement and proficiency exam,
designed to set a national baseline measure for
evaluating a contractor's knowledge of radon and
radon reduction methods. Nearly 1,000 contractors
nationwide have met the RCP requirements, carry
RCP identification cards, and are listed. Some
states have developed similar proficiency or
certification programs of their own.
All EPA activities are targeted to "high risk areas"
identified in the Radon Potential Map. Early
environmental results indicator data show that
radon awareness and testing rates are higher in
high risk areas.
lYansferring Information to States,
Industry, and the Public
Four Regional Radon Training Centers make
training in radon measurement, mitigation, and
prevention techniques available to contractors,
state personnel, and the general public throughout
the country. The Regional Training Centers are
responsible for developing curriculum, providing
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radon training courses, and administering the
proficiency exams.
Promoting State Radon Programs
The Agency's efforts have enhanced the
development of state radon programs over the past
several years. This facet of the EPA program was
augmented by the establishment of the State
Indoor Radon Grant Program in 1990. Through
the grant program the Agency provides funding to
all states. In a February 1991 survey conducted by
the Conference of Radiation Control Program
Directors, 82 percent of the states responding
reported that the grants were either instrumental
in starting a radon program or in accelerating
expansion of an existing program. EPA
encourages states to use grant funds to target high-
risk areas and to set targets to achieve higher
levels of awareness, testing, and mitigation.
Communicating Information OB Radon
The Agency provides the states and the public with
a wide variety of public information materials
regarding the risks associated with radon exposure
and the methods for reducing that exposure. EPA
has produced over a dozen public information
documents on radon. The centerpiece of the
public information program has been "A Citizen's
Guide to Radon." This pamphlet was revised in
1992 to reflect the latest scientific information on
radon. The Agency also published the "Consumers
Guide to Radon Reduction," which assists
consumers with the process of reducing radon in
their homes; and the "Homebuyers and Sellers
Guide to Radon," which provides consumers with
guidance on how to address radon in connection
with real estate transfers.
EPA is working with over a dozen national
organizations, including the American Lung
Association, National Association of Counties, and
the American Public Health Association, to
promote radon action. These groups have
developed strong programs through their
community-based affiliates.
In addition to providing the public with
information on radon, the Agency developed an
aggressive program urging individuals to test their
homes for radon and to take measures to reduce
elevated radon levels. The foundation of this
program has been a national radon media
campaign developed in cooperation with the
Advertising Council. Since October 1989, four
waves of TV, radio, and print public service
announcements have been released nationwide.
Evaluations show that EPA's public information
program media campaign has been very effective at
increasing public awareness and action. About 6-8
million U.S. homes have been tested, a result that
compares favorably with results achieved during
the early years of other nonregulatory, federal
public health programs such as the Anti-Smoking
and Seat Belt campaigns.
Grass roots awareness and support have produced
results in many areas. Five states have enacted
real estate radon disclosure laws, and the real
estate industry have voluntarily adopted disclosure
policies in many other areas of the country. Also,
some home builders are voluntarily constructing
homes with radon-resistant features. In 1990,
approximately 12 percent of new homes were built
with such features. The relocation industry
regularly requires a radon test and remediation, if
necessary, as a condition of property transfer.
About one-fifth of U.S. schools also have been
tested for radon.
International Activities
The Agency sponsors an International Symposium
on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology,
which is held approximately every other year. We
have assisted the International Atomic Energy
Agency by co-funding several of their radon
projects including the production of a video on the
world aspects of the radon problem and a small
residential case-control study in a very high radon
area of Czechoslovakia. The Agency has been a
participant in both the first and second
International Workshops on Residential Radon
which were co-sponsored by DOE and the
Commission of European Communities (1989 and
1991).
Earlier this year, EPA played a major role in the
World Health Organization's (WHO) Working
Group on Indoor Air Quality: A Risk-Based
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Approach to Health Criteria for Radon Indoors,
held in Eilat Israel. Agency representatives were
instrumental in helping to forge an international
consensus that will serve as the basis for the
revision of the chapter on radon in the revised and
enlarged version of WHO'S book on Air Quality
Guidelines for Europe, slated for publication in
1994/95. EPA also makes presentations at
appropriate international symposia and maintains
close ties to numerous international scientists who
are involved in ongoing epidemiologic case-control
studies on residential radon health risk.
Electromagnetic Fields
Electric and magnetic fields or electromagnetic
fields (EMFs) may occur alone or in a combination
and are a form of nonionizing radiation. Electric
fields are produced by the presence of electrical
charges and magnetic fields are produced by the
movement of those charges. Electricity flowing in
a wire or being used in an appliance creates
electric and magnetic fields. All power lines and
electrical appliances that draw current have electric
and magnetic fields around them.
Essentially everyone in the United States is
exposed continuously to radiation from
electromagnetic fields. The principal sources of
radiofrequency (RF) radiation, another source of
exposure, are AM and FM radio transmitters and
UHF and VHP television broadcast systems.
Other RF sources include radars, microwaves, and
satellite earth terminals. Although neither
radiation from EMFs nor radiofrequency, another
source of exposure, change the structure of atoms,
enough evidence exists to suggest that, despite
scientific uncertainty as to health effects, more
research is needed.
The Office maintains a small program to keep
abreast of new developments in the EMF area.
This program focuses on assessing risks, exposure
capability, and disseminating information.
Additionally, the Office responds to numerous
requests for assistance from EPA Regional offices,
state and local officials, industries and broadcasters
and Federal agencies to make EMF measurements
around broadcast towers. A Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking for radiofrequency radiation was
published in 1986. The Office is now investigating
the benefits of completing the regulatory process
and is sponsoring an RF conference toward that
end.
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AUTHORITIES FOR
's RADIATION AND INDOOR AIR PROGRAMS
AUTHORITY
1. Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, 42
USC 2011 et seq. (1970), and Reorganization
Plan #3 of 1970
2. Public Health Service Act 42 USC 201 et seq
(1970)
3. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
33 USC 4321 et seq (1970)
4. Toxic Substances Control Act, 15 USC 2601 et
seq (1970)
5. Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972, 42 USC 1401 et seq (1972)
6. Federal Water Pollution Control Act as
amended, 33 USC 1251 (1973)
and
7. Safe Drinking Water Act, 42 USC 300f et seq
(1974)
8. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 42
USC 6901 et seq (1976)
9. Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act
of 1978 (an amendment to the Atomic Energy
Act), 42 USC 7901 et seq (1978)
10. Comprehensive Emergency Response,
Compensation and Liability Act of 1980;
and
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act of 1986, 42 USC 9601 et seq
11. Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 P.L. 97-425
12. Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988, 15 USC
2661-2671
13. Clean Air Act as amended, 42 USC 7401
et seq (1990)
14. Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Land Withdrawal
Act of 1992, Public Law 102-579
15. Energy Policy Act of 1992, Public Law 102-486
SUBJECT
All Federal radiation guidance functions and
generally applicable environmental and
radiation standards
Radiation monitoring, research, training, and
technical assistance to States
*Evaluation of Federal actions involving
radiation
'Commodities containing carcinogenic (e.g.,
naturally occurring radionuclides) materials
Ocean disposal of radioactive waste
Radionuclides in drinking and surface water
'Naturally occurring radionuclides in wastes of
all types
Uranium Mill Tailings
Radioactive waste cleanup, radon surveys and
demonstration projects, indoor air quality
program
Generally applicable environmental standards
for high-level radioactive waste
Radon surveys, mitigation proficiency
programs, training centers, assistance to States,
public information
Airborne emissions of radionuclides
Oversight of DOE's activities at the Waste
Isolation Pilot Plant
Radiation standards specifically for the Yucca
Mountain, NV, site
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16. Administrative Procedures Act, 5 USC 551-559,
701-706
17. Executive Order 10831, "Federal Compliance
with Pollution Control Standards" (1959)
18. Executive Order 12088, "Federal Compliance
with Pollution Control Standards" (1978)
19. Executive Order 12148, "Federal Emergency
Preparedness Management" (1979)
Rulemaking procedures
Federal guidance on radiation
Extension of EPA standards to Federal
activities
Radiological emergencies
*The Office of Radiation and Indoor Air is
not the lead office in these areas.
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OFFICE ORGANIZATION
AN0 FUNCTIONS
The Office of Radiation and Indoor Air is
responsible to the Assistant Administrator for Air
and Radiation. The Office develops protection
criteria, standards, and policies; works with other
regulatory programs within EPA and other
agencies to control exposures to radiation and
indoor air pollutants; provides technical assistance
to states through EPA's regional offices and other
agencies having radiation and indoor air protection
programs; establishes and directs an environmental
radiation monitoring program; evaluates and
assesses the overall risk and impact of radiation
and indoor air pollutants on the general public and
the environment; and maintains liaison with other
public and private organizations involved in
environmental radiation and indoor air pollution
protection activities. The Office also coordinates
with and assists the Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Monitoring in enforcement activities
where EPA has jurisdiction.
To carry out its activities, the Office relies on a
staff with diverse backgrounds including radio-
biology, radiochemistry, epidemiology, health
physics, physical sciences, oceanography,
engineering, economics, law, and business
administration. Staff are located in the Office's
headquarters in Washington, DC, and in two field
laboratories. In addition, each of EPA's 10
Regional offices has active radiation and indoor
programs that work in concert with the Office of
Radiation and Indoor Air.
Headquarters Office
The Office of Radiation and Indoor Air's
Washington, DC, office is composed of the
Director's office and four divisions: Criteria and
Standards; Radiation Studies; Radon; and Indoor
Air.
rector
The Office of the Director provides policy
direction and management oversight to all
components of the Office. In addition, it is
responsible for the integration of headquarters,
laboratory, and regional radiation and indoor air
activities, relations with the Agency's Science
Advisory Board and other scientific organizations,
establishment and execution of the Office-wide
Quality Assurance program, and maintenance of an
effective working dialogue with the Conference of
Radiation Control Program Directors, the national
group representing state radiation control
programs. The Program Management Office
(PMO) is responsible for Office-wide strategy
development, program planning and reporting,
budget development and execution, and most facets
of the Office's human resources programs. PMO
also provides a full range of administrative and
support services to the Office.
Criteria and Standards Division
The Criteria and Standards Division (CSD)
formulates and recommends policies, criteria, and
standards for protecting the environment and the
public from ionizing radiation. Specific activities
carried out by CSD include:
o developing guidance to protect people who are
occupationally exposed to ionizing radiation;
o identifying and evaluating new radiation
sources to determine the public health
significance of sources of radiation exposures;
and
o developing standards and guidance to protect
the public and the environment from radiation
exposure.
Radiation Studies Division
The Radiation Studies Division (RSD) is
responsible for several aspects of the Agency's
ionizing and nonionizing radiation programs.
Responsibilities regarding ionizing radiation
include:
o developing standards, guidance and criteria for
cleaning up radioactively contaminated sites;
and
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o providing technical assistance and support to
EPA's Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response and other Federal agencies in their
efforts to clean up radioactively contaminated
sites. RSD's involvement with site cleanup
may include: coordination, facilitation,
development/identification of remediation
technology, development of assessment tools,
and other forms of technical assistance.
Technical functions regarding nonionizing
radiation include:
o assessing health risks;
o assessing exposures;
o developing measurement protocols and
measurement devices; and
o assessing mitigation techniques.
Nontechnical functions regarding nonionizing
radiation include:
o collecting and disseminating data;
o communicating with the public;
o coordinating and facilitating between the
government, industry, and the public, and
o evaluating societal impacts.
Radon Division
The Radon Division has been designated as the
lead organization in developing, coordinating, and
implementing the Agency's Radon Action
Program. Under this program, the "Agency
addresses national and regional problems of indoor
radon through an integrated effort to mitigate
elevated radon levels in structures and to inform
the public about radon. Radon Division activities
include:
o identifying areas with high levels of radon in
homes, schools, and workplaces; and
determining the national distribution of radon
levels and associated risks;
o developing mitigation and prevention
technologies to reduce radon concentrations
significantly in existing and new buildings;
o stimulating the development of state and
private sector capabilities to assess radon
problems in homes, and helping people to
mitigate such problems; and
o working with states and the private sector to
provide information to the public on radon, its
risks, and what can be done to reduce those
risks. The public can also get information on
radon by calling the National Radon Hotline,
1-800-SOS-RADON.
Indoor Air Division
The Indoor Air Division coordinates research and
develops and implements policies regarding the
impact of indoor air pollutants on the general
public. The main objectives of the Division are to:
o establish EPA policy by carrying out risk
management studies of available data on
exposure and health risks associated with
indoor air pollution;
o implement a plan that reduces present levels of
exposure;
o work with other regulatory programs within
EPA and with other agencies to minimize risks
associated with exposure to indoor
contaminants; and
o educate the public about indoor air pollution
and its associated health risks.
The Division is also the lead for interagency
activities coordinated through the Committee for
Indoor Air Quality (CIAQ), which has 21 Federal
agencies on its roster.
Laboratories
The Office operates two laboratories, the National
Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory in
Montgomery, Alabama, and the Las Vegas Facility
in Nevada. These laboratories can conduct a wide
variety of technical radiation activities, including
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radiochemical analyses, radiation-contaminated site
assessments, oversight of Superfund removal
actions, radon/radon decay product measurements,
emergency response, and electromagnetic field
analyses.
National Air and Radiation
Environmental Laboratory
The National Air and Radiation and
Environmental Laboratory (NAREL), located in
Montgomery, AL, conducts activities to support
the Office's Headquarters components. NAREL
provides technical support to headquarters;
technical assistance to states, EPA Regional
Offices, and other EPA Programs in their
radiation-related activities; and special laboratory
support to other government agencies as required.
The Laboratory provides the following services:
o Measurement and calibration for the Radon
Action Program. NAREL operates three
radon calibration chambers to evaluate
instruments and methods for radon
measurements, to assist states in preparing for
their radon programs, and to provide known
exposures for the Office's radon quality
assurance program. NAREL also analyzes
charcoal canister monitors for the Office's state
survey program.
o Field and laboratory measurements to help the
Office set appropriate environmental
radioactivity standards and provide a basis for
evaluating environmental radiation sources.
o Assessment of ambient radiation levels and
levels resulting from nuclear accidents by
operating the Environmental Radiation
Ambient Monitoring System.
o Field measurements in emergency situations
involving releases of radioactivity to the general
environment. NAREL maintains two
well-equipped vehicles, a mobile analytical
laboratory and a communications unit, in a
state of readiness to respond to accidental
releases of radioactivity that pose potential
danger to the population and the environment.
NAREL's role in a typical response is to help
states assess the environmental impact of an
accident and to ensure public health.
o Evaluation and assessment of environmental
radiation sources and their movement in
environmental pathways through the
development and validation of computer dose
models.
o Special studies and programs in support of
Superfund. NAREL has provided radio-
analytical analyses for two Superfund sites and
has been involved in evaluating innovative
technologies for site remediation. In response
to the growing problem of Superfund sites
contaminated with radioactivity and mixed-
waste, the NAREL has been designated a
Superfund Technical Support Center (TSC).
As a TSC, the laboratory provides specialized
radiation-related assistance to Regional
Superfund programs. This includes radiological
monitoring and assessment of technologies for
remediating radioactively contaminated sites.
The laboratory also provides radiological and
mixed-waste analytical support, health physics
consultations, radiological site surveys and risk
assessments, and radon measurements and
associated quality assurance.
o Laboratory and field measurements of
radiofrequency, power lines, and extremely low
frequency radiation sources. Assess and make
recommendations for exposure reduction.
The Las Vegas Facility (LVF) provides technical
support for numerous radiation protection and
control activities. The Facility conducts site
investigations, radon assessments and evaluations,
health assessment modeling, and indoor air studies.
LVF also maintain an emergency response
capability for radiation accidents and provide
technical assistance to other EPA offices, states,
and the private sector. LVF staff provides the
following services:
o Evaluation and development of protocols for
all types of existing and experimental radon
24
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detection instruments. LVF operates three
environmental radon chambers to support the
Radon Action Program.
Staff and mobile laboratory assistance to EPA's
Superfund, Federal Facilities & RCRA
programs. Conduct studies in radiation-
contaminated areas and perform site-specific
computer modeling and dose assessments.
Management, staff, and health physics expertise
and field monitoring for all aspects of a
radiological emergency response.
Development of compliance software programs
to support the Clean Air Act and Nuclear
waste rulemaking. LVF also conducts dose and
risk assessments and audits.
Radiological technical assistance to EPA
regions, state, and local governments including
site assessments, environmental monitoring and
restoration, and management of radioactive
waste.
Onsite studies of the quality of indoor air; and
field evaluations and demonstrations focusing
on innovative technology and mechanisms for
improving indoor air quality and personal
comfort.
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OFFICE OF RAD/A TION AND INDOOR AIR
Criteria 4 Standards
Division
233-9290
Deputy Director for
Federal Guidance
233-9290
Waste Standards *
Risk Assessment
215-9310
Policy t Emergency
Response
233-9360
Air Standards
£ Economics
233-9300
Director
Deputy Director
233-9320
Program Management
Office
233-9330
Radiation Studies
Division
233-9340
Radiation Studies
Branch
233-9340
Radiation Assessment
Branch
233-9350
Science Advisor
233-9320
Assistant Director for
Program Integration
233-9320
Radon Division
233-9370
Mitigation Prevention t
Quality Assessment Branch
233-9390
Policy I Public
Information Branch
233-9400
Problem Assessment
Branch
233-9380
Indoor Air
Division
233-9315
Implementation
Branch
233-9316
Analysis
Branch
233-9317
NAREL Facility
(205) 270-3400
Monitoring & Analytical
Services Branch
(205) 270-3450
Environmental Studies
Branch
(205) 270-3404
Technical Support
Branch
(205) 270-3416
Envir. Engr. & Radlg.
Assessment Branch
(205) 270-3434
Las Vegas Facility
(702) 798-2476
Field Studies
Branch
(702) 798-2461
Evaluation
Branch
(702) 798-2447
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Regional Offices
The Office also supports a regional complement,
with staff located in each of the Agency's 10
regional offices. The regional staff bear principal
responsibility for outreach activities with state and
local programs in their respective areas,
particularly for such subjects as radon and other
indoor air problems, where there is strong public
interest. In addition, the regional offices have a
major role in the implementation program for the
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants for radionuclides.
Radiation Program Managers and/or Radiation
Representatives frequently serve on the Regional
Advisory Committee (RAC) for radiation
accidents, and are directly involved in the review
and testing of nuclear response plans developed for
nuclear facilities. The regional staff also
participates in headquarters work groups, and
serves as the advisor to the Agency's regional
managers on radiation matters which are of
interest or concern within the regions.
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EPA Regional Radiation and Indoor Air Contacts
Tom D'Avanzo
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 1
Room 2311
Boston, MA 02203-2211
(617) 565-4502
Paul A Giardina
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 2
26 Federal Plaza
Room 1137L
New York, NY 10278
(212) 264-4110
Lewis Felleisen (Radiation)
and
James J. Burke (Indoor Air)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 3
Special Program Section (3AM12)
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215) 597-8326 (Felleisen)
(215) 597-9886 (Burke)
Chuck Wakamo (Radiation)
and
Douglas Neeley (Indoor Air)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 4
345 Courtland Street, N.E.
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404) 347-3907 (Wakamo)
(404) 347-2864 (Neeley)
Jack Barnette
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5 (5AR26)
77 West Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, EL 60604-3507
(312) 886-5026
Donna M. Ascenzi
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 6
Air Enforcement Branch (6T-E)
Air, Pesticides and Toxics Division
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
(214) 655-7224
Robert Dye
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 7
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
(913) 551-7605
Milton W. Lammering
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 8 (8HWM-RP)
Suite 500
999 18th Street
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(303) 293-1440
Michael S. Bandrowski
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 9 (Al-1)
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 744-1048
Jerry Leitch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 10 (AT-082)
1200 Sixth Avenue, Mail Stop 533
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 553-7660
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