United SIMM
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Criteria and Standards Division
Wellington. DC 20460
EPA 440/5-84-027
January 1985
Water
Ambient
Water Quality
Criteria
for
Lead -1984
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AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
LEAD
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
AVAILABILITY NOTICE
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
KTTvS
11
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Wacer Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217) requires
the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to publish criteria
for water quality accurately reflecting the latest scientific knowledge on
the kind and extent of all identifiable effects on health and welfare which
may be expected from the presence of pollutants in any body of water,
including ground water. This document is a revision of proposed criteria
based upon a consideration of comments received from other Federal agencies,
State agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists. The
criteria contained in this document replace any previously published EPA
aquatic life criteria.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a different
program impact in each section. In section 304, the terra represents a
non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects. The criteria
presented in this publication are such scientific assessments. Such water
quality criteria associated with specific stream uses when adopted as State
water quality standards under section 303 become enforceable maximum
acceptable levels of a pollutant in ambient waters. The water quality
criteria adopted in the State water quality standards could have the same
numerical limits as che criteria developed under section 304. However, in
many situations States may want to adjust water quality criteria developed
under seccion 304 co reflect local environmental conditions and human
exposure oatcerns before incorporation into water quality standards. It is
not until their adoption as part of the State water quality standards that
the criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist the States in the modification of criteria
presented in this document, in the development of water quality standards,
and in other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by
EPA.
Edwin L. Johnson
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Duane A. Benoic
(freshwacer author)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
John H. Gentile
(saltwater author)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Statistical Supoort: John W. Rogers
Clerical Support: Terry L. Highland
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword iii
Acknowledgments iv
Tables vi
Introduce ion 1
Acuce Toxicicy co Aquacic Animals 4
Chronic Toxicicy co Aquacic Animals 7
Toxicicy co Aquacic Planes 9
Bioaccumulacion 10
Ocher Daca 10
Unused Daca 11
Summary 15
National Criteria 16
References 41
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TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicicy of Lead co Aquacic Animals 19
2. Chronic Toxicicy of Lead co Aquacic Animals 23
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acuce Values wich Species Mean Acuce-Chronic
Racios 25
4. Toxicicy of Lead co Aquacic Planes 28
5. Bioaccumulacion of Lead by Aquacic Organisms 30
6. Ocher Daca on Effeccs of Lead on Aquacic Organisms 32
VI
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Introduction*
Because of the variety of forms of lead (Boggess and Wixson, 1977;
Callahan, et al. 1979) and lack of definitive information about their
relative toxicities, no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal
for expressing aquatic life criteria for lead. Previous aquatic life
criteria for lead (U.S. EPA, 1980) were expressed in terms of total
recoverable lead (U.S. V.PA, 1983a), but this measurement is probably too
rigorous in some situations. Acidsoluble lead (operationally defined as the
lead that passes through a 0.45 urn membrane filter after the sample is
acidified to pH = 1.5 to 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the best
measurement at the present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of lead to, and bioaccumulation of lead by, aquatic organisms.
Very few test results were rejected just because it was likely that they
would have been substantially different if they had been reported in
terms of acid-soluble lead. For example, results reported in terms of
dissolved lead were not used if the concentration of precipitated lead
was substantial.
2. On samples o: ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble lead should
measure all f..irms of leao that are toxic to aquati'c -life or can be
readily convened to toxic forms under natural condicions. In addition,
this measurement should not measure several forms, such as lead that is
occluded in minerals, clays, and sa'nd or is stron'gly sorbed to
*An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan, et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, is necessary
in order to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
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particulace matter, that are not toxic and are not likely to become toxic
under natural conditions. Although this measurement (and many others)
will measure soluble, complexed forms of lead, such as the EDTA complex of
lead, that probably have low toxicities to aquatic life, concentrations of
these forms probably are negligible in most ambient water.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure lead in aqueous
effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble lead should be applicable to
effluents because it will measure precipitates, such as carbonate and
hydroxide precipitates of lead, that might exist in an effluent and
dissolve when the effluent is diluted with receiving water. If desired,
dilution of effluent with receiving water before measurement of
acid-soluble lead mi^ht be used to determine whether the receiving water
can decrease the concentration of acid-soluble lead because of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement should be useful for most metals, thus
minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration at the time of
collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. The only treatment required at the time of collection is preservation by
acidification to pH = 1.5 to 2.0, similar to that required for the total
recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
probably will not affect the result substantially.
8. The carbonate system has a much higher buffer capacity from pH = 1.5 to
2.0 than it does from pH = 4 to 9 (Weber and Stumm, 1963).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not affect
the result substantially.
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10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion seep, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble lead, the analysis can be performed using either atomic
absorption spectroscopy or ICP-atomic emission spectroscopy (U.S. EPA,
1983a), as with the total recoverable measurement.
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for lead in terms of the acid-soluble
measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. On the other
hand, because no measurement is known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life
criteria for lead or for measuring lead in ambient water or aqueous
effluents, measurement of both acid-soluble lead and total recoverable lead
in ambient water or effluent or both might be useful. For example, there
might be cause for concern if total recoverable lead is much above an
applicable limit, even though acid-soluble lead is below the limit.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble lead concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as lead, not as the chemical tested. The
criteria presented herein supersede previous aquatic life water quality
criteria for lead (U.S. EPA, 1976, 1980) because these new criteria were
derived using improved procedures and additional information. Whenever
adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a site-specific
criterion (U.S. EPA, 1983b), which may include not only site-specific
criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA, 1983c), but also site-specific durations
of averaging periods and site-specific frequencies of allowed exceedences
(U.S. EPA, 1985). The latest literature search for information for this
document was conducted in May, 1984; some newer information was also used.
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Acute Toxicicy to Aquacic Animals
Acuce tests were conducted at three different levels of water hardness
with Daphnia magna (Chapman, et al. Manuscript), demonstrating that daphnids
were three times more sensitive to lead in soft than in hard water (Table 1).
The value in soft water agrees closely with the value in Table 6 for the same
species in soft water (Biesinger and Christensen, 1972). Data in Table 1 also
indicate that lead was more toxic to the rainbow trout, fathead minnow, and
bluegill in soft than in hard water. The results of the acute tests conducted
by Davies, et al. (1976) wich rainbow crout in hard water are reported as
unmeasured values in Table 1, because total lead concentrations were not
measured, even chough the dissolved concentrations were. Hale (1977)
conducted an acute exposure of rainbow trout to lead and obtained an LC50 of
8,000 ,Jg/L. This value is almost seven times greater than the LC50 obtained
for rainbow trout in soft water by Davies, et al. (1976). Hale did not report
water hardness; however, alkalinity and pH were reported to be 105 mg/L and
7.3, respectively, which suggests that this water was probably harder than the
soft water used by Davies, et al. (1976).
Amphipods were reported by Spehar, et al. (1978) and Call, et al. (1983)
to be more sensitive to lead than any other freshwater animal species thus far
tested. Also, in exposures lasting up to 28 days the amphipod was far more
sensitive to lead than a snail, cladoceran, chironornid, mayfly, stonefly, and
caddisfly (Table 6) (Anderson, et al. 1980; Biesinger and Christensen, 1972;
Nehring, 1976; Spehar, et al. 1978). Although results of tests on lead
acetate were placed in Table 6 because of the possible effect of acetate on
the toxicity of lead, Pickering and Henderson (1966) found that lead chloride
(Table 1) and lead acetate (Table 6) were about equally toxic to the fathead
minnow in static tests in soft water. Wallen, et al. (1957) reported that
4
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lead oxide (Table 6) is much less acutely toxic chan lead nitrate (Table 1) to
the raosquitofish in water containing a high concentration of suspended clay
particles.
Different species exhibit different sensitivities to lead, and many other
factors might affect the results of tests of the toxicity of lead to aquatic
organisms. Criteria can quantitatively take into account such a factor,
however, only if enough data are available to show that the factor similarly
affects the results of tests with a variety of species. Hardness is often
thought of as having a major effect on the toxicity of lead, although the
observed effect is probably due to one or more of a number of usually
interrelated ions, such as hydroxide, carbonate, calcium, and magnesium.
Hardness is used here as a surrogate for the ions which affect the results of
toxicicy tests on lead. An analysis of covariance (Dixon and Brown, 1979;
Necer and Wasserman, 1974) was performed using the natural logarithm of the
acute value as the dependent variable, species as the treatment or grouping
variable, and che natural logarithm of hardness as the covariate or
indeoendent variable. This analysis of covariance model was fit to the data
in Table 1 for the four species for which acute values are available over a
range of hardness such that the highest hardness is at least three times the
lowest and the highest is also at least 100 mg/L higher than the lowest. An
F-test showed that, under the assumption of equality of slopes, the probabil-
ity of obtaining four slopes as dissimilar as.these is P=0.03. This was
interpreted as indicating that it is unreasonable to assume that the slopes
for these four species are the same. The slopes for Daphnia magna, fathead
minnow, and bluegill (see end of Table 1) were close to the slope of 1.0 that
is expected on the basis that lead, calcium, magnesium, and carbonate all have
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a charge of two. The slope for rainbow trout was 2.475 and therefore was not
used. A test of equality of slopes showed that P=0.16, indicating that it is
not unreasonable to assume that the slopes for the three species are the same.
The pooled slope of 1.273 was used with the data in Table 1 co calculate
Species Mean Acute Values at a hardness of 50 mg/L (Table 1). Genus Mean
Acute Values (Table 3) were then calculated as geometric means of the
available freshwater Species Mean Acute Values. Even though values *-e
available for only four invertebrate species, of the '..^.u genera for which
acute values are available, the most sensitive genus, Gammarus, was 1,650
times more sensitive than the most resistant, Tanytarsus. The freshwater
Final Acute Value of 67.54
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conducted with a variecy of species and life scages. The salcwacer Final
Acute Value was calculated to be 287.4 ;jg/L.
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chapman, et al. (Manuscript) studied the chronic toxicity of lead to
Daphnia magna at three different hardnesses (Table 2). The daphnids were
nearly 11 times more sensitive to lead in soft water than in hard water. The
value in soft wacer was about one-fourth that obtained by Biesinger and
Christensen (1972) with the same species in a different soft water in a test
in which the concentrations of lead were not measured (Table 6). The chronic
values of Chapman, et al. were regressed against hardness; the slope was
2.328, but the 95% confidence limits were -8.274 and 12.931.
A life-cycle test on lead in hard water was conducted by Borgmann, et al.
(1978) with a snail. These authors used biomass as their endpoint and
reported that lead concentrations as low as 19 ug/L significantly decreased
survival, but noc growth or reproduction. It is not clear, however, how these
investigators arrived at such a low effect concentration. This publication
did, however, contain suitable information for determining a chronic value.
Chronic limits were taken directly from the cumulative percent survival figure
which showed no observed effect on survival at 12 Mg/L and almost complete
mortality at 54 ^g/L. The chronic value (geometric mean of the lower and
upper limits) for snails was therefore established at 25.46 jjg/L (Table 2).
Davies, et al. (1976) published results of an early life-stage test with
rainbow trout in soft water (Table 2). Even though this test was started with
embryos and continued for 19 months after hatch, it could not be considered a
life-cycle test because no reproduction occurred. Davies, et al. (1976)
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selecced chronic limits based on a very low incidence of black-colored tails
and spinal deformities (4.7 and 0.7 percent, respectively). For the purposes
of deriving water quality criteria, such low percentages of such effects were
not considered unacceptable. The concentration of 27 ug/L was selected as the
upper limit because it caused spinal curvature in 32.2 percent of the fish,
whereas 13.2 Jg/L only caused curvature in 3.6 percent of the fish. The
occurrence of black tails was not considered to be an unacceptable effect.
Spinal deformities were also caused by lead in a life-cycle test with
brook trout (Holcombe, et al. 1976) and in an early life-stage test with
rainbow crout (Sauter, et al. 1976). Results of tests by Sauter, et al.
(1976) with the northern pike, walleye, lake trout, channel catfish, white
sucker, and bluegill were not included in Tables 2 or 6 because of excessive
mortality in the controls. Even though the hardnesses were similar, the
chronic value obtained for rainbow trout by Sauter, et al. (1976) is higher
than the chronic value derived from Davies, et al. (1976), possibly because
Sauter, et al. exposed the fish for 2 months, whereas Davies, et al. exposed
the fish for 19 months.
Davies, et al. (1976) described the long-term effects on rainbow trout
fry and fingerlings exposed to various concentrations of lead for 19 months
in hard and sofc wacer (Table 6). Although chese cescs were neither life-
cycle (no natural reproduction) nor early life-stage (no embryos exposed),
they do provide information concerning the relationship between water hardness
and the chronic toxicity of lead to fish. In the test in hard water, only 0
and 10 percent of the trout developed spinal deformities at measured lead
concentrations of 190 and 380 Jg/L, respectively. In soft water 44 and 97
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percent of the crouc developed spinal deformities ac measured lead concentra-
tions of 31 and 62 iJg/L, respectively. These results strongly demonstrate
that lead is more chronically toxic in soft water than in hard water.
The mysid, Mysidopsis bahia, is the only saltwater species with which a
chronic test has been conducted on lead (Table 2). The most sensitive
observed adverse effect was reduced spawning and the resulting chronic value
was 25.08 jg/L. The 96-hr LC50 for this same species in the same study was
3,130 ;Jg/L, producing an acute-chronic ratio of 124.8.
The range of the available acute-chronic ratios (Table 3) is small
enough that all four can be used to calculate the geometric mean ratio of
51.29. When chis ratio is used with the freshwater Final Acute Value and the
pooled slope (Table 3), the resulting freshwater Final Chronic Value (in
.jg/L) = e(1-273^n(hardness^-4-705). Similarly, the saltwater Final
Chronic Value is 5.603 ug/L (Table 3).
Toxicitv to Plants
The effects of lead on various species of algae have been studied in
tests which lasted from 4 to 10 days (Table 4). All authors except Rachlin,
et al. (1982, 1983) used nominal concentrations. The adverse effect
concentrations from these tests ranged from 500 to 63,800 ^g/L. It would
appear therefore that adverse effects of lead on freshwater plants are
unlikely at concentrations protective of chronic effects on freshwater
animals.
The saltwater alga, Champia parvula, is quite sensitive to lead and a
diatom is only slightly less sensitive (Table 4). The saltwater alga,
Dunaliella tertioleita, is 10 times more sensitive to tetraethyl lead than to
tetramechyl lead (Table 6).
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Bioaccumulation
Four freshwater invercebrace species have been exposed to lead
(Borgraann, ec al. 1978; Spehar, ec al. 1978) and the bioconcencracion factors
(BCFs) ranged from 499 to 1,700 (Table 5). BCFs obtained with brook trout
and bluegills were 42 and 45, respectively, (Acchison, et al. 1977; Holcombe,
et al. 1976).
BCFs reported for lead from tests with saltwater bivalve molluscs and
diatoms range from 17.5 from a 56-day exposure of the quahog clam to 2,570
from a 130-day exposure of the blue mussel (Table 5). The difference in BCFs
might be a difference between species or might be due to the difference in
the duration of che tests.
Neither a freshwater nor a saltwater Final Residue Value can be
calculated because no maximum permissible tissue concentration is available
for lead.
Other Data
Many of the values in Table 6 have already been discussed. Spehar, et
al. (1978) found no adverse effects on a freshwater snail, stonefly, and
caddisfly in 28 days at 565 yg/L. Anderson, et al. (1980) obtained a 10-day
LC50 of 258 yg/L for che midge, Tanycarsus dissimilis (Table 6), which is
much lower chan the 48-hr acute value of 224,000 >Jg/L obtained by Call, et
al. (1983) with the same species. The 10-day exposure includes most of its
life cycle and several of the presumably sensitive molts, and so should
probably be considered as useful as the early life-stage test with fish.
Merlini and Pozzi (1977a) conducted a pH acclimation and lead bioconcentra-
tion study with bluegills collected from a lake contaminated with lead.
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A variecy of effeccs on salcwacer organisms have been observed. Gray
and Ventilla (1973) observed a reduction in growch race in a ciliate
protozoan after 12-hr exposures to lead concentrations of 150 and 300 ^Jg/L.
Woolery and Lewin (1976) observed a reduction in photosynthesis and
respiration in the diatom, Pheodactylum tricornutum, at concentrations of
lead ranging from 100 to 10,000 ug/L. However, Hannan and Patouillet (1972)
obtained no inhibition of growth of the same species at a concentration of
1,000 Jg/L after 72 hours. Rivkin (1979), using growth rate to determine
toxicity co che diatom, Skeletonema costatum, reported a 12-day EC50 of 5.1
;jg/L. Hessler (1974) observed delayed cell division in the phytoplankton,
Platymonas subcordiformus , during exposure to 2,500 ;jg/L for 72 hours. At
60,000 jg/L, however, Hessler (1974) reported not only growth retardation but
also death. Benijts-Claus and Benijts (1975) observed delayed larval
development in the mud crab, Rhithropanopeus harrisii, during exposure co 50
jg/L. Weis and Weis (1977) observed depressed axis formation in developing
embryos of Fundulus heteroclicus ac lead concencracions of 100 jJg/L. Reish
and Carr (1978) found chac 1,000 yg/L suppressed reproduction of two
polychaece species, Ctenodriluis serratus and Ophryocrocha diadema, in a
21-day cesc.
Unused Data
Some data on the effeccs of lead on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species chat are not residenc in
North America. Jennecc, ec al. (1981) did not identify their test animals
beyond common names such as "algae, crayfish, and minnows". Nehring, ec al.
(1979) did not idencify cheir organisms co species, so it is not known if
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these animals, which were collected in Iran, are also found in North America.
Brown and Ahsanullah (1971) conducted tests with brine shrimp, which species
is too atypical to be used in deriving national criteria.
Data were not used if lead was a component of a mixture (Hedtke and
Puglisi, 1980; Heisey and Damman, 1982; Jana and Ghoudhuri, 1984; Wong, et
al. 1982). Reviews by Chapman, et al. (1968), Demayo, et al. (1980, 1982),
Eisler (1981), Eisler, et al. (1979), North, et al. (1972), Phillips and
Russo (1978), and Thompson, et al. (1972) only contain data that have been
published elsewhere.
Many articles dealing with toxicity or physiological effects could not
be used because the authors did not report clearly defined endpoints (i.e.,
LC50, EC50, statistically significant adve- > effects): Apostol (1973),
Baker, et al. (1983), Behan, et al. (1979), aiding (1927), Carpenter (1925),
Crandall and Goodnight (1962), Dawson (1935), Billing, et al. (1926), Billing
and Healy (1927), Ellis (1937), Ferguson and Bubela (1974), Fujiya (1961),
Jackim (1973), Jackim, et al. (1970), Johnson and Eaton (1980), Jones (1935,
1947a,b), Laube, et al. (1980), Lloyd (1961), Lu, et al. (1975), Manalis and
Cooper (1973), Manalis, ec al. (1984), Merlini and Pozzi (1977b), Metayer, ec
al. (1982), Narbome, et al. (1973), O'Neill (1981), Overnell (1975),
Phillips and Gregory k!980), Rac and Subramanian (1982), Rathore and Swarup
(1978), Rice, et al. (1973), Ruthven and Cairns (1973), Ryck and Whitley
(1974), Schulze and Brand (1978), Stratford, et al. (1984), Thomas, et al.
(1980), Tucker and Matte (1980), Van der Werff and Pruyt (1982), Varansai and
Gmur (1978), Varansai, et al. (1975), Watling (1981), Westfall (1945), and
Wiener and Giesy (1979).
Some results were not used because the test was either improperly
designed for deriving criteria or important details were omitted from the
12
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reporc: Ferard, ec al. (1982), Foscer K1982a,b), Gencile, ec al. (1982),
Marion and Denizeau (1983), Passino and Cocanc (1979), Say and Whiccon
(1983), Vighi (1981), Wehr and Whiccon (1983a,b), and Whiccon, ec al. (1982).
v
Dorfman and Whicworch (1969) exposed brook crouc co lead only on week days
and che concencracions were noc measured during cescs lascing up co 38 days.
These auchors and Carpencer (1927), Rushcon (1922), and Tarzwell and
Henderson (1960) conducced cescs wich only one or cwo fish ac a cime.
Rainbow crouc cesced by Hodson, ec al. (197Sb) were noc acclimaced co abrupc
changes in oH before scressing chera wich lead. Experimencs reporced by
Hodson, ec al. (1982) were designed co measure lead upcake in opercular bone
and formation of black cails correlaced co differenc growch races of rainbow
crouc; however, chese fish were only exposed co one sublechal concencracion
of lead. No daca are available on che concencracions of lead in wacer during
che scudies reporced by Hodson, ec al . (1983a). Sicko-Goad (1982),
Sicko-Goad and Lazinsky (1981, 1982), and Sicko-Goad and Scoermer (1979)
exposed algae co only one sublechal concencracion of lead. The 96-hr values
reoorced by Buikema, ec al. (1974a,b) were subjecc co error because of
possible reproduccive inceraccions (Buikema, ec al. 1977). Clarke and Clarke
(1974) reoorced chac cheir cesc wacer was concaminaced wich lead leached from
plascic exposure canks. Exposure citnes were noc reporced by Brown (1976) and
Haider (1964). Kariya, ec al. (1969) and Turnbul1 (1954) failed co reporc
che number of fish cesced. High concrol morcalicies occurred in all excepc
one cesc reporced by Saucer, ec al. (1976). Concrol morcalicy exceeded 10
oercenc in cwo cescs by Mounc and Norberg (1984).
English, ec al. (1963) published resulcs based on volume dilucions
inscead of nominal or measured concencracions. Brown (1968), Garavini and
13
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Marcelli (1979), Pawlaczyk-SzpiIowa and Slowik (1981), Rao and Saxena (1980),
and Rolfe, ec al. (1977) exposed algae, invercebraces, and fish co lead buc
failed co adequately describe cheir cesc methods. Carpenter (1926, 1930),
Carter and Cameron (1973), Ellgaard and Rudner (1982), Ellis (1940), Grande
and Andersen (1983), Jones (1938, 1939), Nyraan (1981), Ozoh (1979), Rathore,
et al. (1979), Shaw and Grushkin (1957), Shaw and Lowrance (1956),
Vijaymadhavan and Iwai (1975), Wang (1959), and Weir and Mine (1970)
conducted tests in distilled, deionized, chlorinated, or "cap" water.
Biegert and Valkovic (1980) expressed their acute data in hours co death
and concentrations were a factor of ten apart. The concentrations of lead
overlapped in the tests by Sparks, et al. (1983). Tests on the toxicity of
lead to algae were not used if the medium contained too much of a complexing
agent such as EDTA (Davis, 1978).
Results of laboratory bioconcentration tests were not used if the test
was not flow-through (Montgomery, et al. 1978; Watling, 1983), if the test
did not last long enough (Wong, et al. 1981), if no soft cissues were
analyzed (Sturesson, 1978), if the concentration in water was not known (Ray,
et al. 1981) or was not measured often enough (Freeman, 1978, 1980), or if
control mortalities were high (Valiela, et al. 1974). Studies such as those
by Ancellin, ec al. (1973), Auberc, ec al. (1974), and Nash, ec al. (1981),
which used radioactive isotopes of lead, were not used because of the
possibility of isocope discriminacion. Newman and Mclncosh (1983b) conducted
a depuration study, but not an uptake study.
A large number of reports on lead toxicity and residues in wild aquatic
organisms could not be used for the calculation of bioaccuraulacion factors or
toxicity due to an insufficient number of measurements of the concentration
14
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of lead in the water: Anderson (1977), Badsha and Goldspink (1982), Brezina
and Arnold (1977), Brezina, et al. (1974), Brown and Chow (1977), Eide and
Myklescad (1980), Enk and Machis (1977), Evans and Lasenby (1983), Gale, ec
al. (1973a,b, 1982), Gordon, ec al. (1980), Holm (1980), Kharkar, ec al.
(1976), Knowlcon, ec al. (1983), Leland and McNurney (1974), Lucus and
Edgingcon (1970), Marcin and Mudre (1982), Martin, ec al. (1984), Machis and
Curamings (1973), Machis and Kevern (1975), May and McKinney (1981), Mehrle,
ec al. (1982), Newman and Mclncosh (1983a), Pagenkopf and Newman (1974),
Pakkala, ec al. (1972), Penningcon, ec al. (1982), Popham and D'Auria (1981),
Price and Knighc (1978), Randall, ec al. (1981), Ray (1978), Sidwell, ec al.
(1978), Simpson (1979), Smich, ec al. (1981), Tong, ec al. (1974), Trollope
and Evans (1976), Tsui and McCarc (1981), Uche and Bligh (1971), Vinikour, ec
al. (1980), Wachs (1982), Walsh, ec al. (1977), Welsh and Denny (1980),
Wixson and Bolcer (1972), and Wren, ec al. (1983).
Summary
The acuce coxicicy of lead co several species of freshwacer animals has
been shown co decrease as che hardness of wacer increases. Ac a hardness of
50 mg/L che acuce sensitivities of ten species range from 142.5 Jg/L for an
amphipod co 235,900 yg/L for a midge. Daca on che chronic effects of lead on
freshwacer animals are available for cwo fish and cwo invercebrace species.
The chronic coxicicy of lead also decreases as" hardness increases
and che lowest and highest available chronic values (12.26 and 128.1 :Jg/L)
are both for a cladoceran, but in soft and hard wacer, respectively.
Acuce-chronic racios are available for chree species and range from 18 co 62.
Freshwacer algae are affected by concentrations' of lead above 500 ;Jg/L, based
15
-------
on data for four species. Bioconcencracion factors are available for four
invertebrate and two fish species and range from 42 to 1,700.
Acute values are available for 13 saltwater animal species and range
from 315 Mg/L for the mumtnichog to 27,000 }Jg/L for the soft-shell clam. A
chronic toxicity test was conducted with a tnysid; unacceptable effects were
observed at 37 ug/L but not at 17 ug/L and the acute-chronic ratio for this
species is 124.8. A species of macroalgae was affected at 20 Mg/L.
Available bioconcentration factors range from 17.5 to 2,570.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
•r
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration (in Mg/L) of lead
does not exceed the numerical value given by e'*•^' -H In(hardness)J-4.705)
more than once every three years on the average and if the one-hour average
concentration (in ug/L) does not exceed the numerical value given by
e(1.273[ln(hardness)]-1.460) more chan once every chree years on the
average. For example, ac hardnesses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/L as CaC03 the
four-day average concentrations of lead are 1.3, 3.2, and 7.7 ;Jg/L, respec-
tively, and the one-hour average concentrations are 34, 82, and 200 ug/L.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of lead does not
16
-------
exceed 5.6 yg/L more chan once every three years on the average and if che
one-hour average concencracion does not exceed 140 .Jg/L more chan once every
chree years on che average.
EPA believes chac a measureraenc such as "acid-soluble" would provide a
more sciencifically correcc basis upon which co escablish criceria for
mecals. The criceria were developed on chis basis. However, ac chis cime,
no EPA approved mechods for such a measurement are available co implement che
criceria chrough che regulacory programs of che Agency and che Scaces. The
Agency is considering developmenc and approval of mechods for a measureraenc
such as "acid-soluble". Until available, however, EPA recommends applying
che criceria using che cocal recoverable raechod. This has cwo impaccs: (1)
cercain species of some mecals cannoc be analyzed direccly because che cocal
recoverable mechod does noc discinguish becween individual oxidacion scaces,
and (2) chese criceria may be overly proceccive when based on che cocal
recoverable mechod.
The recommended exceedence frequency of chree years is che Agency's best
sciencific judgraenc of che average amounc of cime ic will cake an unstressed
system co recover from a pollucion evenc in which exposure co lead exceeds
che cricerion. Scressed syscems, for example, one in which several oucfalls
occur in a limiced area, would be expecced co require more cime for recovery.
The resilience of ecosyscems and cheir abilicy co recover differ greacly,
however, and sice-specific criceria may be escablished if adequace
juscificacion is provided.
The use of criceria in designing waste treatment facilities requires the
selection of an appropriate wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are
preferred for che application of chese criceria. Limiced daca or ocher
17
-------
faccors may make cheir use itnpraccical, in which case one should rely on a
sceady-scace model. The Agency recommends che interim use of 1Q5 or 1Q10 for
Cricerion Maximum Concentration (CMC) design flow and 7Q5 or 7Q10 for the
Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) design flow in steady-state models
for unstressed and stressed systems respectively. These matters are
discussed in more detail in the Technical Support Document for Water Quality-
Based Toxics Control (U.S. EPA, 1985).
18
-------
Table 1. Acute Toxlclty of Lead to Aquatic Animals
Species
Method*
Chemical
Hardness LC50 Species Mean
(mg/L as or EC50 Acute Value
CaCOx)
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species Method*
Rainbow trout, S, U
Salmo gal rdnerl
Rainbow trout, S, U
Salmo qal rdnerl
Rainbow trout, FT, U
Salmo gal rdnerl
Brook trout (18 mos), FT, M
Salvellnus fontinalls
Goldfish, S, U
Carasslus auratus
Fathead minnow, S, U
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Plmephales promelas
Hosqultoflsh (adult), S, U
Gambusla af f Inl s
Guppy (6 mos), S, U
Poecllla retlculata
Bluegl II, S, U
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueql II, S, U
Chemical
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Hardness LC50 Species Mean
(mg/L as or EC50 Acute Value
CaCO^) (ug/L)"» (Mq/L)"" Reference
290 542,000 - Goettl, et al. 1972;
Davles i Everhart,
1973; Davles, et al .
1976
353 471,000 - Goettl, et al. 1972;
Davles & Everhart,
1973; Davles, et al .
1976
28 1,170 2,448f Goettl, et al .
1972; Davles &
Everhart, 1973;
Davles, et al. 1976
44 4,100 4,820 Holcombe, et al. 1976
20 31,500 101,100 Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
20 5,580 - Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
20 7,330 - Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
360 482,000 25,440 Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
240,000tf - Wallen, et al .
1957
20 20,600 66,140 Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
20 23,800 - Pickering &
Henderson, 1966
360 442,000 52,310 Pickering &
Lepomls macrochlrus
Henderson, 1966
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Method"
Chemical
Hardness LC50
(mg/L as or EC50
CaCOO 3,140
315
>3,140
>10,000
476
758
2,450
780
27,000
668
3,130
547
575
>3,I40
315
>3,I40
>10,000
Martin, et al . 1981
Martin, et al . 1981
Calabrese, et al .
1973
Calabrese & Nelson,
1974
Elsler, 1977
Gentile, 1982
Lussler, et al .
Manuscript
Scott, et al .
Manuscript
Martin, et al . 1981
Cardln, 1981
Dorfman, 1977
Cardln, 1981
Berry, 1981
Men Id I a men Id i a
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
* S = static. R = renewal, FT = flow-through, M = measured, U = unmeasured.
"* Results are expressed as lead, not as the chemical.
*** Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values are calculated at a hardness of 50 mg/L using the pooled slope.
«»»» tn r|ver water.
»««»» No.f. use(j |n calculations because the values In Mount and Norberg (1984) are much higher than values for other species
In the same genus and family.
Calculated from acute value of 1,170 pg/L using pooled slope (see text).
tt
High turbidity.
Results of Covarlance Analysis of Freshwater Acute Toxlcity versus Hardness
Species
Daphnla maqna
Rainbow trout
Fathead minnow
Blueglll
All of above
All of above
except rainbow
trout
n
3
3
3
2
11
8
Slope
1.021
2.475
1.495
1.011
1.608*
1.273»*
95| Confidence Limits Degrees of Freedom
-3.592,
-0.357,
0.458,
(cannot be
1.014,
0.909,
5.634
5.308
2.533
calculated)
2.202
1.637
1
1
1
0
6
4
* F*=0.03 for equality of slopes.
** P=0.16 for equality of slopes.
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxlclty of Lead to Aquatic Animals
Species Test*
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as Limits Chronic Value
CaOM (ug/L)»* "
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Snail, LC
Lymnaea palustris
Cladoceran, LC
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran, LC
Daphn la maqna
Cladoceran, LC
Daphn 1 a magna
Rainbow trout, ELS
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout, ELS
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Brook trout, LC
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Mysid, LC
Mysldopsls bah la
Lead nitrate 139 12-54 25.46
Lead nitrate 52 9-16.7 12.26
Lead nitrate 102 78-181 118.8
Lead nitrate 151 85-193 128.1
Lead nitrate 28 13.2-27 18.88
Lead nitrate 35 71-146 101.8
Lead nitrate 44 58-119 83.08
SALTWATER SPECIES
Lead nitrate
* LC = life cycle or partial life cycle, ELS = early life
•"Results are expressed as lead, not as the chemical.
Results of Regression Analysis of
Species.
n S 1 ope
17-37 25.08
stage.
Freshwater Chronic Toxlclty versus Hardness
95$ Confidence Limits Degrees of Freedom
Borgmann, et al . 1978
Chapman, et al .
Manuscript
Chapman, et al .
Manuscr 1 pt
Chapman, et al .
Manuscript
Goettl, et al . 1972;
Davles 4 Everhart,
1973; Davies, et al .
1976
Sauter, et al . 1976
Hoi combe, et al . 1976
Lussler, et al .
Manuscript
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Rainbow trout.
Sal mo galr drier 1
Brook trout.
Salve) Inus fontinalis
Mysld,
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
52-54
102-110
151-152
28
44
Acute Value
(wg/L)
612
952
1,910
1,170
4,100
3,130
Chronic Value
( lig/L )
12.26
118.8
128.1
18.88
83.08
25.08
Ratio
49.92
8.013
14.91
61.97
49.35
124.8
Mysldopsls bah la
NJ
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios
tank*
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(Hg/L)"
235,900
101.100
66,140
52,310
25,440
4,820
2,448
1.040
447.8
142.6
Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute-Chronic
Species (pg/L)"« Ratio
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Mldqe,
Tanytarsus dlssimllis
Goldfish,
Carassius auratus
Guppy,
Poec Ilia ret 1 cu 1 ata
Bluegl 1 1 .
Lepotnls macrochirus
Fathead minnow,
Plmepha les promelas
Brook trout,
Salvelinus fontl nails
Rainbow trout,
Salmo gairdnerl
Snail,
Aplexa hypnorum
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Amphi pod,
Gammarus pseudo 1 1 mnaeus
SALTWATER SPECIES
235,900
101,100
66.140
52,310
25,440
4,820 49.35
2,448 61.97
1 .040
447.8 18.13"«
142.6
11
27,000 Soft-shell clam,
Mya arenarla
27,000
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rank*
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(iig/L)"
>5,604
>3,140
3,130
1,363
780
668
575
547
476
315
Species
1 nland si 1 verside.
Men Id la beryl 1 Ina
Atlantic si Iverside,
Men id la men Id la
Sheepshead minnow,
Cyprlnodon varleqatus
Mysld,
Mysldopsis bah I a
Pacl f Ic oyster,
Crassostrea glgas
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Quahoq clam,
Mercenarla mercenarla
Copepod ,
Acartla clausl
Oungeness crab.
Cancer maglster
Amphlpod,
Ampel Isca abdlta
Blue mussel ,
Mytl (us edulls
Mummlchoq,
Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute-Chronic
(ng/L)"* Ratio
>3,I40
>10,000
>3,140
3,130 124.8
758
2,450
780
668
575
547
476
315
Fundulus heteroclltus
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
* Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.
** Freshwater Genus Mean Acute Values and Species Mean Acute Values are at a hardness of 50 tng/L.
"""Geometric mean of three values In Table 2.
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 67.54 Mg/L (at a hardness of 50 mq/L)
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (67.54 uq/L) / 2 = 33.77 gg/L (at a hardness of 50 mg/L)
Pooled Slope = 1.273 (see Table 1)
ln(Crlterlon Maximum Intercept) = ln(33.77) - I slope x ln(50)l
= 3.520 - (1.273 x 3.912) = -1.460
Criterion Maximum Concentration = e< 1.2731 In(hardness) 1-1 .460)
fo
•^ Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 51.29 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (67.54 ug/L) / 51.29 = 1.317 pg/L (at a hardness of 50 mg/L)
In(Flna) Chronic Intercept) = ln( 1.317) - I slope x ln(50)l
= 0.2754 - (1.273 x 3.912) = -4.705
Final Chronic Value = e(' -2731 Inwardness) 1-4 .705)
Salt water
Final Acute Value = 287.4 Mq/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (287.4 ug/L) / 2 = 143.7 pg/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 51.29 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (287.4 Mg/L) / 51.29 = 5.603 Mg/L
-------
Table 4. ToxicIty of Lead to Aquatic Plants
co
Species
Alga,
Anklstrodesmus sp.
Alga,
Anklstrodesmus falcatus
Alga,
Chlorel la sp.
Alga,
Chlorel la saccharophl la
Alga,
Chlorococcum sp.
Alga,
Scenedesmus sp.
Alga,
Scenedesmus obi Iquus
Alga,
Selenastrum sp.
Diatom,
Navlcuta Incerta
Eurasian watermllfol 1,
Myr lophyl lum splcatum
Alga,
Champ la parvula
Alga,
Champ la parvula
Chen leal
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
u«»ao nitrate
Hardness
(ng/L as
CaCO,) Effect
FRESHWATER SPECIES
24* growth Inhi-
bition
40* reduction In
growth
53* growth Inhi-
bition
EC50
29* reduction In
growth
35* growth Inhi-
bition
28* reduction In
growth
52* growth Inhi-
bition
EC50
32-day EC50
(root growth)
SALTWATER SPECIES
Stopped sexual
reproduction
Reduced female
growth
Result
<»g/L)*
1,000
2, SCO
500
63,800
2,500
500
2,500
500
10,960
363,000
20.3
20.3
Reference
Monahan, 1976
Devi Prasad & Devi Prasad,
1932
Monahan, 1976
Rachlln, at al . 1982
Devi Prasad & Devi Prasad,
1982
Monahan, 1976
Devi Prasad & Devi Prasad,
1982
Monahan, 1976
Rachlln, et al. 1983
Stanley, 1974
Steel e & Thursby,
1983
Steele & Thursby,
1983
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Species
Alqa,
Champ la parvula
Alqa,
Champ la parvula
Alqa,
Duna 1 iel la sal Ina
D latom,
Oltylum brlghtwel II
Diatom,
Asterlonella japonlca
Hardness
(mg/L as
Chemical CaCOjL Effect
Lead nitrate - Reduced tetra-
sporanqla
production
Lead nitrate - Reduced tetra-
sporophyte
growth
Lead nitrate - 65? qrowth
reduct ion
Lead chloride - EC50
Lead nitrate - EC50
Resu 1 t
dig/L)»
23.3
23.3
900
40
207
Reference
Steele & Thursby
1983
Steele & Thursby
1983
,
9
Pace, et al . 1977
Canter ford &
Canterford, 1980
Fisher & Jones,
1981
* Results are expressed as lead, not as the chemical. All results are based on unmeasured concentrations.
\o
-------
OJ
o
Species
SnalI,
Lymnaea palustrls
Snail,
Physa Integra
Stonefly,
Pteronarcys dorsata
Caddlsfly.
Brachycentrus sp.
Table 5. Bloaccumulatlon of Lead by Aquatic Organisms
Tissue Chemical
Duration Bloconcentratlon
(days) Factor* Reference
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Whole body
Brook trout (embryo-3 mos), Whole body
Salvellnus fontlnalls
BIueq 11 I,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Diatom,
Dltytum brlqhtwelIII
Blue mussel,
Mytllus edulfs
Blue musse),
MytlI us edulls
Blue mussel,
Mytllus edulls
Blue mussel,
Mytllus edulls
Blue mussel,
MytlI us edulls
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Whole body
Cel Is
Soft parts
Soft parts
Soft parts
Soft parts
Soft parts
Soft parts
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
SALTWATER SPECIES
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
120
28
28
28
140
_***
14
40
37
130
130
130
140
1,700** Borgmann, et al. 1978
738** Spehar, et al . 1978
1,120** Spehar, et al . 1978
499** Spehar, et al. 1978
42** Holcombe, et al . 1976
45«* Atchlson, et al. 1977
725** Canterford, et al.
1978
650** Schulz-Baldes, 1974
200** Talbot, et al, |976
2,570** Schulz-Baldes, 1972
2,080** Schulz-Baldes, 1972
796** Schulz-Baldes, 1972
536 Zarooglan, et al .
1979
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Species
Tissue
Chemical
Duration file-concentration
(days) Factor* Reference
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Qua hog clam,
Mercenarla mercenarla
Soft
Soft
Soft
parts Lead nitrate 49
parts Lead nitrate 70
parts Lead nitrate 56
68»» Pr Ingle,
1,400 Shuster
1969
17.5*» Prlngle,
et al. 1968
& Prlngle,
et al . 1968
* Results are based on lead, not the chemical.
** Bloconcentratlon factor was converted from dry weight to wet weight basis.
•••This field study was conducted with a natural population of bluegills living in a small lake which was extensively
analyzed for lead, zinc, and cadmium.
-------
Table 6. Other Data on Effects of Lead on Aquatic Organ I SMS
Hardness
Species
Green alqa,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Blue alqa,
Mlcrocystls aeruglnosa
Green alqa,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Alqa,
Anabaena sp.
Alga,
Chlamydomonas sp.
Anqlosperm,
Potamogeton pectinatus
Anqiosperm,
VailIsnerla spiral Is
Desmld,
CosmarI urn sp.
Diatom,
Navleu I a sp.
Bacter I urn,
Escherlchla col I
BacterI urn,
Pseudomonas put I da
Protozoan,
Entoslphon sulcatum
Chemical
Lead nitrate
Lead acetate
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead acetate
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead acetate
Lead acetate
(mg/L as
CaC03)
Duration
Effect
Result
»
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
-
~"
-
—
™
-
-
~
—
-
-
-
96 hrs
8 days
8 days
24 hrs
24 hrs
3 days
3 days
24 hrs
24 hrs
-
16 hrs
72 hrs
Incipient
inhlbi tlon
Inclpi ent
inhibition
Incipient
inhi bit ion
50f .reduction
of 14C02
f ixat Ion
50f reduction
of 14C02
f Ixat ion
Reduced
respiration
Reduced
respl ration
501 reduction
of "»C02
fixation
50$ reduction
of |4C02
f Ixatlon
Incipient
inhibition
Incipient
inhibition
Incl pi ent
Inhibition
2,500"
450
3,700
15,000
26,000
15,000
17,000
17,000
325,200
3,252,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
17,000
28,000
17,000
1,300
1.800
20
Brinqmann & Kuhn,
1959a,b
Brinqmann, 1975;
Brlngmann & Kuhn,
1976, 1978a,b
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1977a
1978a,b, 1979, 19806
Malanchuk & Gruendllng,
1973
Malanchuk & Gruendllnq,
1973
Jana & Choudhuri, 1982
Jana & Choudhuri , 1982
Malanchuk & Gruendllng,
1973
Malanchuk & Gruendllng,
1973
Brlngmann & Kuhn, I959a
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1976,
1977a, 1979, 1980b
Brlngmann, 1978;
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1979,
19805, 1981
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Protozoan,
Mlcroreqma heterostoma
Protozoan,
Chi lomonas parameclum
Protozoan,
Uronema parduezi
Tubl field worm.
Tubl f ex tubl f ex
Tubl field worm.
Tubl fax sp.
Tubl field worm.
Tubl tax sp.
Snal 1,
Gonlobasls llvescens
Snal 1,
Lymnaea emarqlnata
Snail,
Physa Integra
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Natural copepod
assemblages
Amph 1 pod ,
Gammarus pseudol Imnaeus
Crayf 1 sh.
Chemical
Lead ni trate
Lead acetate
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead acetate
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead acetate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO.) Duration
28 hrs
48 hrs
20 hrs
224 48 hrs
24 hrs
24 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
46 28 days
45 48 hrs
45 21 days
24 hrs
7 days
46 28 days
40 days
Effect
Incl pient
Inhibition
Inci pient
inhlbi tion
Inci pient
Inhibl tion
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
No effect on
survival
EC50 (fed)
(immobl llzation)
Reproductive
impal rment
LC50
Reduced growth
rate
LC50
Increase in
Result
(.ug/U*
1,250
220
70
450,000
49 ,000
27,500
71 ,000
14,000
565
450
30
2,500
2,320
28.4
500
Reference
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1959b
Brlngmann, et al . 1980,
1981
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1980a,
1981
Qureshl , et al. 1980
Whitley, 1968
Whitley, 1968
Cairns, et al. 1976
Cairns, et al . 1976
Spehar, et al. 1978
Bieslnger &
Chrlstensen, 1972
Bieslnger &
Chrlstensen, 1972
Brlngmann & Kuhn, 1977b
Borgmann, 1980
Spehar, et al. 1978
Anderson, 1978
Orconectes vlrills
vent Ilatlon rate
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Mayfly,
Ephemeral la grand Is
Mayf ly (nymph) ,
E phemere 1 1 a grand I s
Mayfly,
Ephemerella subvarla
Stonef ly,
Pteronarcys callfornlca
Stonef ly,
Pteronarcys dorsata
Caddlsfly,
Hydropsyche bettenl
Caddisf ly,
Brachycentrus sp.
u> Mldqe,
*~ (embryo- 3rd instar),
Tanytarsus dlssimllls
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (12 mos) ,
Salmo gairdneri
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Chemical
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
nl trate
ni trate
sul fate
nl trate
nitrate
sul fate
nitrate
nitrate
nl trate
nitrate
nl trate
ni trate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC05)
50
50
44
50
46
44
46
47
155
135
135
135
135
Duration
14 days
14 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
7 days
28 days
10 days
28 days
14 days
21 days
32 wks
32 wks
Resu I t
Effect
LC50
BCF = 2,366
LC50
BCF = 86
No effect on
survIval
LC50
No effect on
survival
LC50
Inhibition of
ALA-D activity
Inhibition of
ALA-0 activity
LC50
Reference
3,500 Nehrlnq, 1976
Nehrlng, 1976
16,000 Warnick & Bell, 1969
Nehrlng, 1976
565 Spehar, et al . 1978
32,000 Warnick & Bell, 1969
565 Spehar, et al. 1978
258 Anderson, et al. 1980
13 Hodson, 1976
10 Hodson, et al. 1977
2,400 Hodson, et al. 1978a
Black-tails In
3 of 10
remaining fish
Affected R8C,
Iron content, and
ALA-D in blood
120 Hodson, et al . 1978a;
Slppel, et al. 1983
13 Hodson. et al. I978a
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species Chemical
Rainbow trout,
Salmo gal rdner 1
Rainbow trout. Lead nitrate
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout. Lead nitrate
Salmo gal rdner 1
Rainbow trout (embryo, larva), Lead chloride
Salmo gal rdner 1
Rainbow trout (embryo, larva). Lead chloride
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout ( f 1 nger 1 1 ng) , Lead nitrate
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (sac fry). Lead nitrate
Salmo qal rdner 1
Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (12 mos). Lead nitrate
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout Lead chloride
(embryo - 21 day) ,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (12 mos). Lead chloride
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Goldfish (embryo, larva). Lead chloride
Carasslus auratus
GoldHsh (<12 mos), Lead nitrate
Carasslus auratus
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
135
135
155
101
101
353
28
135
44
44
195
135
Duration
29 wks
30 wks
20 days
28 days
28 days
19 mos
19 mos
21 days
14 days
38 days
56 days
7 days
14 days
Result
Effect (pg/D*
AM fish had
black tal Is and
decrease In ALA-D
In blood
642 inhibition
of ALA-D activity
and black tails In
882 of fish
452 Inhibition
of ALA-D activity
EC50 (death and
deforml ty)
EC1 (death and
deform! ty)
Lordoscol losls
Lordoscol losls
Stamina
Inhibition of
ALA-0 activity
Elevation of ALP
and ACH activity
Decrease of
hemoglobin and
Inhibition of
GOT activity
EC50 (death and 1
deform! ty)
Inhibition of
ALA-D activity
87
65
25
220
10.3
850
31
14
90
525
58
,660
470
Reference
Hodson, et al . 1979a, 1980
Hodson, et al . 1979b
Hodson, et al. 1983b
Birge, et al . 1980
Blrge, et al . 1980, 1981
Goettl, et al . 1972;
Davles, et al . 1976
Goettl, et al . 1972;
Davles, et al . 1976
Adams, 1975
Hodson, et al . 1977
Chrlstensen, 1975
Chrlstensen, et al .
1977
Blrge, 1978
Hodson, et al . 1977
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
u>
O>
Species
Common carp (embryo),
Cyprlnus carplo
Red shiner,
Notropls lutrensls
Fathead minnow,
Plitiephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Channel catfish (1.6 g) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Mosqultoflsh (adult),
Gambusla afflnls
Pumpklnseed (>12 mos) ,
Lepomls glbbosus
Largemouth bass
(embryo, larva),
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Largemouth bass,
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Leopard frog (adult),
Rana plplens
Narrow-mouthed toad
(embryo, larva)
Gastrophryne caro linen Is
Hardness
(ng/l ••
ChMlcal CaCOO
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
acetate 360
nitrate
acetate 20
acetate 44
fluoroborate 44
ursenate 45
oxide
nitrate 135
chloride 99
nitrate -
chloride 195
Duration
48 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
14 days
8 days
24 hrs
30 days
7 days
Result
Effect (iiq/L)*
EC50 (hatch) 7,293
LC50 (high 630
turbidity)
LC50 7
LC50 27
LC50 12
LC50 >IOO
LC50 (high >56,000
turbidity)
Inhibition of
ALA-0 activity
EC50 (death and
deformity)
Affected oper- 1
cular rhythm
Death
EC50 (death and
deformity)
,000
,480
,800
,000
,000
,000
90
240
,050
100
40
Reference
Kapur & Yadav, 1982
Wallen, et al . 1957
Pickering & Henderson,
1966
Curtis & Nard, 1981
Curtis & Nard, 1981
Johnson & Flnley, 1980
Mai Ian, et al . 1957
Hodson, et al. 1977
Blrge, et al . 1978
Morgan, 1979
Kaplan, et al . 1967
Blrge, 1978
Marbled salamander
(embryo, larva),
Ambystoma opaeum
Lead chloride
99
8 days
EC50 (death and 1,460 Blrge, et al. 1978
deformity)
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO<) Duration
Effect
ResuIt
(tig/I)* Reference
Alqa,
Lamlnarla dlgltata
Diatom,- Lead chloride
Phaeodactylutn tricornutum
Olatcxn, Lead chloride
Phaeodactylutn tricornutum
Diatom,
Phaeodacty lum tricornutum
Diatom, Lead chloride
Phaeodacty lum tricornutum
Diatom, Lead nitrate
Skeletonema costatum
to
•-J Diatom, Lead nitrate
Skeletonema costatum
Phytoplankton, Lead chloride
Platymonas subcordl formls
Phytoplankton, Lead chloride
Platymonas subcordl formls
Phytoplankton, Lead chloride
Platymonas subcordl formls
Phytoplankton, Lead chloride
Platymonas subcordl formls
Phytoplankton, Lead chloride
SALTWATER SPECIES
30-31 days 50-60$ reduc-
tion in qrowth
24 hrs Completely
Inhibited
photosynthesl s
48-72 hrs Reduced photo-
synthesis and
respiration by
25-50$
72 hrs No qrowth
inhibition
1 hr BCF = 1 ,050
12 days EC50 (growth
rate)
12 days EC50 (qrowth
rate)
72 hrs Retarded popu-
lation qrowth
by delaying eel 1
division
1 hr BCF = 933
72 hrs Death and
Inhibition of
growth
2 days 48$ of eel Is
In culture died
6 days 98$ of eel Is
1,000
10,000
100
1 ,000
5.1
3.7
2,500
60,000
2,500
60,000
Bryan, 1976
Woolery & Lewln, 1976
Woolery & Lewln, 1976
Hannan & Patoulllet,
1972
Schulz-Baldes & Lewln,
1976
f
Rlvkln, 1979
Rivkln, 1979
Messier, 1974
Schulz-Baldes & Lewln,
1976
Messier, 1974
Messier, 1974
Messier, 1975
Platymonas subcordlformls
in culture died
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Alqa,
Dunallella tertiolecta
Alqa,
Ounaliella tertiolecta
Alqa,
Chlorella stlgmatophora
Natural phytoplankton
populations
Natural phytoplankton
populations
Macroalqa,
Fucus serratus
Gil late protozoa,
Crlstlqera sp.
Clllate protozoa,
Crlstlqera sp.
Polychaete worm,
Ophryotrocha diadema
Polychaete worm..
Ophryotrocha djadema
Polychaete worm,
Ophryotrocha diadema
Polychaete worm,
Ctenodrllus serratus
Polychaete worm.
Chemical
Tetramethyl lead
Tetraethyl lead
Lead acetate
Lead chloride
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
Lead
chloride
acetate
nitrate
nitrate
acetate
acetate
chloride
acetate
acetate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOjL Duration Effect
96 hrs EC50
96 hrs EC50
21 days 50$ qrowth
Inhibition
5 days Reduced
chlorophyl 1 a
4 days Reduced
blomass
45$ growth
Inhibition
12 hrs Reduced growth
rate by 8.5$
12 hrs Reduced qrowth
rate by 11.7$
96 hrs LC50
21 days Suppressed
reproduction
48 hrs LC50
21 days Suppressed
reproduction
96 hrs LC50
Result
"
1,650
150
700
207
21
810
150
300
14,100
1,000
100,000
1,000
1,200
Reference
Marchetti, 1978
Marchettl, 1978
Chr Istensen, et al .
1979
Hoi 1 Ibauqh, et al .
1980
Hoi 1 Ibauqh, et al .
1980
Stromgren, 1980
Gray & Ventil la, 1973
Gray & Ventil la, 1973
Relsh, et al . 1976
Relsh 4 Carr, 1978
Parker, 1984
Relsh & Carr, 1978
Relsh, et al . 1976
Capltella capltata
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Red aba lone,
Hal lotls rufescens
81 ue mussel ,
Mytl lus edul Is
Bl ue mussel ,
Mytl lus edul Is
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Oyster,
Unspecl f led
Sof t-shel 1 clam,
Mya arenarla
American lobster,
Homarus amerlcanus
Mud crab,
Rhlthropanopeus harrlsll
Fiddler crab,
Uca puql lator
Sea urchin,
Arbacla punctulata
Mummlchog (embryo),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mummlchoq (embryo) ,
Fundulus heteroclltus
Chemical
Lead chloride
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Field study
Lead acetate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Lead nitrate
Hardness
(mg/L as Result
CaCO^ Duration Effect (ug/L)"
6 mos Accumulated 21 -
wg/g wet wt
whl le being ted
a brown alga
(Egregla laevl-
gata) which was
pretreated with
1 mg/L
40 days LC50 30,000
150 days LT50 500
1 yr BCF = 326
14 days BCF = 1044
168 hrs LC50 8,800
30 days Reduced enzyme 50
activity
Delayed larval 50
development
2 wks BCF = 20
Few gastrula 14
developed
Depressed axis 100
formation
Retarded 10,000
hatching
Reference
Stewart &
Schulz-Baldes, 1976
Talbot, et al. 1976
Schulz-Baldes, 1972
Kopfler 4 Mayer, 1973
Stone, et al . 1981
Elsler, 1977
Gould 4 Grelg, 1983
Ben Ijts-Claus 4
Benljts, 1975
Wels, 1976
Waterman, 1937
Wels 4 Wels, 1977
Wels 4 Wels, 1982
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Spec Ies
Shiner perch,
Cymatogaster aqgreqata
Chemical
Lead nitrate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO)
Duration
Effect
21% inhibition
of brain
cholInesterase
Result
(ug/L)"
7.8
Reference
Abou-Donla & Menzel,
1967
* Results are expressed as lead, not as the chemical.
** In river water.
-------
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