Eastern Environmental
             Radiation Facility
             P.O. Box 3009
             Montgomery, AL 36109
EPA 520/5-83-024
September 1983
Radiation
Analytical Capability of the
Environmental Radiation
Ambient Monitoring System

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ANALYTICAL CAPABILITY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL
    RADIATION  AMBIENT  MONITORING SYSTEM
                    by
              J. A. Broadway
                 M. Mardis
 Eastern Environmental Radiation Facility
   U. S. Environmental  Protection Agency
              P. 0. Box 3009
        Montgomery, Alabama  36193
                April 1983

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                            TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword	iv



List of Figures	v



List of Tables	vii








1.0    BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE  	   1







2.0    MAJOR SAMPLING COMPONENTS OF ERAMS  	   7



       2.1    Milk Program	7



       2.2    Air Program	7



       2.3    Drinking Water Program 	  10



       2.4    Surface Water Program  	  10








3.0    DOSIMETRY AND RISK ANALYSIS FROM THE ERAMS DATA BASE	14



       3.1    Structure and Function of ERAMS Data Base	14



       3.2    ERAMSDOSE and Computer Program 	  14



       3.3    Dose and Health Risk Assessment Obtained from a



              Single Measurement 	  15



       3.3.1  Surface Water Sample:  Rulo,  Nebraska  	  16



       3.4    Chinese Nuclear Test:  September 1976  	  20



       3.5.   Chinese Nuclear Test:  September 1977  	  21



       3.5.1  Dose Estimates for Individuals	21



       3.5.2  Collective Dose Calculations  	  38



       3.6    Collective Dose from Ambient  Radionuclide Concentrations  .  45

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4.0    OBSERVATION OF SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL
       RADIOACTIVITY TRENDS  	  47


       4.1    Short-Term Trends in Environmental  Radioactivity  	  47

       4.2    Long-Term Trends in Environmental  Radioactivity	50



5.0    SUMMARY	61



References	62
                                   m

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                                 FOREWORD



    This document provides  an  introduction  to  the information  available

from the Environmental  Radiation  Ambient Monitoring  System  (ERAMS)  data

base.  The types of information which may be derived from these  data

include documentation of ambient  environmental  radiation  levels  with  their

trends, and estimates of dose  and health effects  due to these  ambient

levels.

    We hope the technical  community concerned  with radiation  hazards,  as

well as the general public, may  gain an understanding of  the  past,

present, and future levels of  ambient radiation from information produced

in  this and subsequent reports.

    Readers are encouraged to  send comments regarding the material

presented herein to:

                        Technical Publications Office
                        Eastern  Environmental  Radiation Facility
                        P.  0.  Box 3009
                        Montgomery, AL  36193
                                  Charles R. Porter, Director
                                  Eastern Environmental  Radiation Facility
                                    IV

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                             LIST OF FIGURES
2.1-1      Pasteurized Milk  Sampling  Sites   ............



2.2-1      Air and Precipitation Sampling Sites  	



2.2-2      Krypton-85 Sampling  Sites   	



2.3-1      Drinking Water Sampling  Sites  	 •   •



2.3-2      Surface Water Sampling Sites  	   •



3.3-1      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  September 23, 1977



3.3-2      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  September 25, 1977



3.3-3      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  September 27, 1977



3.3-4      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  September 29, 1977



3.3-5      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  October 1, 1977   .



3.3-6      Gross Beta in Airborne Particulates:  October 14, 1977  .



3.3-7      1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  September 25-October 1, 1977



3.3-8      1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  October 2-October 8, 1977   .



3.3-9      1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  October 9-October 15, 1977  .



3.3-10     1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  October 15-October 22,  1977



3.3-11     1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  October 23-October 29,  1977



3.3-12     1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  October 30-November 5,  1977



3.3-13     1-131 in Pasteurized Milk:  November 6-November 30, 1977
    8




    9



.   11




.   12



.   13




.   22



.   23




.   24



.   25




.   26



.   27




.   28



.   29




.   30



.   31



.   32



.   33




.   34

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3.3-14     1-131  in Pasteurized  Milk:   December 12-December 31, 1977. .  35



3.3-15     Net 1-131 Concentration  in  milk  - Anchorage, AK	39



4.1-1      U-234 and U-238 in Airborne Participates,  Lynchburg, VA   . .  48



4.1-2      U-235 and U-238 in Airborne Participates,  Lynchburg, VA   . .  49



4.1-3      1-131 and Cs-137 in Pasteurized  Milk - Network Averages   . .  51



4.1-4      1-131 in Pasteurized  Milk - Hartford, CT	52



4.1-5      1-131 in Pasteurized  Milk - Baltimore, MD	53



4.1-6      Krypton-85 in Air Samples	54



4.1-7      H-3 in Surface Water	55



4.1-8      H-3 in Drinking Water	56



4.2-1      H-3 in Surface Water at Doswell, VA	58



4.2-2      Sr-90 in Pasteurized Milk	59



4.2-3      Cs-137  in Pasteurized Milk	60

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                              LIST OF  TABLES

1          ERAMS Sampling Stations  	    2

2          ERAMS Sample Radiochemical  Analyses   	    3

3          Co-60 70 Year Dose Equivalent Rates  Due  to  a  Lifetime
            Ingestion at a Rate of 1.0 Picocurie Per Year	17

4          Committed Dose Equivalent in Target  Organs  Due  to
            Ingestion of 8000 Picocurie of Co-60 and Organ Dose
            Equivalent Weighting Factors Used to Calculate the
            Weighted Mean Committed Dose Equivalent 	   18

5          Health Effects Estimates for the U.S. Population
            for the Chinese Nuclear Test of September  17,  1977   ....   44

6          Collective and Individual Doses from Milk Ingestion,
            Air Inhalation and External Exposure Pathways  	   46
                                    VI 1

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                        1.0  BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE



    Continuing surveillance of radioactivity  levels  in  the United States

is maintained through EPA's Environmental  Radiation  Ambient Monitoring

System (ERAMS).  This system was formed in July  1973 from the

consolidation and redirection of separate  monitoring networks  formerly

operated by the U.S. Public Health Service prior to  EPA's formation.

These previous monitoring networks had been oriented primarily to

measurements of fallout.  They were modified  by  changing collection and

analysis frequencies and sampling locations and  by  increasing  the analyses

for some specific radionuclides.  The emphasis of the current  system  is

toward identifying trends in the accumulation of long-lived  radionuclides

in the environment.  However, ERAMS, by design,  is  flexible and can

provide short-term assessments of large scale contaminating events such  as

industrial  releases or fallout.

    ERAMS normally involves several thousand  individual  analyses per  year

on samples  of air particulates, precipitation, milk, and  surface and

drinking water.  Samples are collected at  about  280  locations  in the

United States and its territories, mainly  by  State  and  local  health

agencies (See Table 1).  These samples are forwarded to ORP's  Eastern

Environmental Radiation Facility (EERF) in Montgomery,  Alabama for

analyses.   ERAMS data are tabulated quarterly and issued  to  the groups

involved in the program.*
*   ERAMS data are published quarterly in the EPA publication
    Environmental Radiation Data.  A summary analysis of ERAMS data will
    be presented in each year's publication of EPA's Radiological  Quality
    of the Environment in the United States.  This publication is	
    available from the Office of Radiation Programs, U.S.  EPA, 401 M
    Street S.W., Washington, D.C.  20460.  Previously,  ERAMS data  were
    published monthly in Radiation Data and Reports.  This publication was
    terminated in December 1974.

                                     1

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                                                TABLE 1

                                        ERAMS Sampling Stations

NUMBER
OF
ERAMS COMPONENT STATIONS TYPE OF SAMPLE

SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
 Airborne Participates
    and Precipitation

              Participates


              Precipitation
67
       Filters from positive
       displacement air samplers

       Precipitation
Filters are changed
twice weekly

Collected as precipitation
occurs.  Composited into
into single monthly sample
Pasteurized Milk
65     Composite samples representing
       > than 80 percent of milk
       consumed in major population  centers
                                                                             Monthly
Drinking Water
78     Grab samples from major
       population centers or selected
       nuclear facility environs
                                                                             Quarterly
Surface Water
58     Grab samples downstream from
       nuclear facilities or from
       background sites
                                                                             Quarterly

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                                                 TABLE 2
                                   ERAMS Sample Radiochemical  Analysis
        ERAMS COMPONENT
Airborne Particulates
    and Precipitation
                          Particulates
        ANALYSIS
(1)  5  and 29 hour  G.
    field estimates
(2)  Gross beta
(3)  Gamma scans
(4
                                               238D   239D   234..
                                                  Pu,    Pu,     U,
                                                     238
                                                        U
                                           ANALYTICAL
                                           FREQUENCY
                                                                                                            3
                               (I) Each of twice weekly samples.
                               (2) Each of twice weekly samples.
                               (3) All samples showing > 1 pCi/rn
                                  gross  beta
                               (4) Quarterly on composite samples
                          Precipitation
Krypton-85
Pasteurized Milk
(1)  Tritium
(2)  Gross beta
(3)  Gamma scans
(4;  238Pu,  23
    235U, 238U
                                                             234
(1)  85Kr
1)
                                                     141
                                               137Cs, 40K
             Ba,
                                           (2) 8ySr, 90Sr, Ca
                                           (3) 89Sr, 90Sr
                                           (4) Tritium
                                           (5) 14C
                                                                U,
                               (1)  Monthly  on composite sample
                               (2)  Monthly  on composite sample
                               (3)  Monthly  on composite samples
                                   showing  > 10 pCi/1 gross beta
                               (4)  Annually on Spring quarter
                                    composites
                               !1)  Annually
(1)  Monthly

(2)  Annually  on  July  samples
(3)  January,  April,  and  October-
    intraregional  composites
    each of  EPA's  10  regions
(4)  Annually  on  April  samples
(5)  Annually  on  9  selected samples

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                                                 TABLE  2-Continued
                                        ERAMS Sample Radiochemical Analysis
        ERAMS COMPONENT
        ANALYSIS
             ANALYTICAL
             FREQUENCY
Drinking Water
(1) Tritium
(2) Gamma scans
(3) Gross alpha and beta
(4) 226Ra
(5) 228Ra
(6) 90Sr,  89Sr
(7) 238Pu, 239Pu,
235U, 238U
(8)
                                                             234
                                                                U,
(1)  Quarterly
(2)  Annually  on  composite samples
(3)  Annually  on  composite samples
(4)  Annually  on  composite samples
(5)  Annually  on  composite samples
    with 225Ra between 2-5 pCi/1
(6)  Annually  on  composite samples
(7)  Annually  on  composite samples
    with gross alpha >_ 2 pCi/1
(8)  Annually  on  one individual
    sample
Surface Water
(1) Tritium
(2) Gamma scans
(1)  Quarterly
(2)  Annually on Spring samples

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    ERAMS  is designed to  achieve  several  objectives:
    1.   provide data on  levels  of radioactive  pollutants for
        standard-setting,  for verification  that  standards are met, for
        evaluation of the effectiveness  of  controls,  and for determining
        environmental  trends;
    2.   provide input to  an assessment of the  population intake of
        radioactive pollutants;
    3.   provide data for developing dose computational models for national
        dose and health  risk;
    4.   monitor pathways  for significant population exposure from major
        sources of population exposures,  such  as fallout from atmospheric
        nuclear weapons  tests;
    5.   provide data that will  be used in the  event of an accidental
        release of radioactivity  to the  environment.  Such data could
        indicate additional sampling needs  and other  actions required to
        evaluate public  health  and environmental  quality.
    Since its initiation, the ERAMS have provided data on baseline
radiation levels in the  environment.  These data have (1) revealed
long-term trends in environmental  radiation levels; (2) detected
radioactive releases from fuel-cycle facilities;  (3)  provided
preoperational  environmental  radiation levels  prior to nuclear facility
installations;  (4) allowed the  detection and monitoring of fallout from
atmospheric nuclear weapons testing by other countries, and (5) provided
information to  assuage public concerns and give  an assessment of public
health  hazards  during periods of  fallout or accidental  releases of
radioactivity.   Data that have  been obtained from ERAMS during fallout
episodes have been consistent with the data obtained  from other Federal,

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State,  and private sampling programs.   The ERAMS has provided a  continual

radiation "picture"  of a large portion of the United States.   The present

data base contains historical  information which may be used to predict

trends for future environmental  radioactivity.

    The ERAMS stations are widely dispersed throughout the United States,

covering each geographical region,  most individual  states, and all  major

population centers.   Many stations  are located in the near-environment of

major potential environmental  release points.  The present set of stations

in order to effectively measure the wide-scale impact from global events.

    Furthermore, the ERAMS structure satisfies all  three major objectives

of an environmental  monitoring program, as were set forth by the Health

Physics Society's, Ad Hoc Committee on Upgrading the Quality of

Environmental Data (Wa80) (EPA-520/1-80-012):



        1.  to aid in dose assessment;

        2.  to determine any trends of radiation dose rates and
            radioactivity concentrations; and

        3.  to reassure members of  the public and governmental
            organizations.

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                 2.0  MAJOR SAMPLING COMPONENTS OF ERAMS








2.1  Milk Program



    The ERAMS  Milk  Program  is  a  cooperative  effort  between ORP of EPA, and



the Dairy and  Lipid Products Branch,  FDA.  It  consists of 65 sampling U.S.



Census locations (See Fig.  2.1-1)  submitting monthly  samples of milk



composited by  the volume of milk consumed  each at each sampling location.



Using these data we have calculated that  the combined sampling covers more



than 80 percent of the milk consumed  in major  U.S.  population centers.



Furthermore, the pasteurized milk sampling program  reflects the



radionucl ides in milk received by at  least 40  percent of the U.S.



population.



    A primary function of the  milk program is  to obtain  current



radionuclide concentrations in milk and determine  long-term trends.



Monthly samples are analyzed  for 1-131, Ba-140, Cs-137,  and potassium.  On



a  less frequent schedule but  at least annually, Sr-89, Sr-90, H-3,  1-129,



stable 1-127, C-14, plutonium, and uranium are determined.








2.2  Air Program



    The ERAMS Air Program consists of 67  sampling  locations  (see  Fig.



2.2-1).  Each location submits to EERF particulate filters  obtained from



continuous  sampling  in which filters are  changed  twice  a week,  and  samples



of precipitation as  it occurs.  We estimate that the air sampling program



reflects the  air particulates and precipitation exposure received by 30



percent of  the  U.S.  population.



    A  gross beta analysis  is performed on each air filter and  on  a  aliquot



of each composited monthly precipitation  sample.   A gamma scan  is



performed  on  air filters if the gross beta in air exceeds 1 pCi  per cubic

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Figure 2.1-1.   Pasteurized milk sampling sites

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Figure 2.2-1.   Air and precipitation sampling  sites

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meter and on precipitation samples if the gross  beta  in water exceeds 10
pCi per liter.  Precipitation samples are also analyzed for tritium, and a
composite of the March through May samples is  analyzed for plutonium and
uranium each year.  Quarterly composites of the  air particulate  filters
are analyzed for plutonium and uranium.   On a  semiannual  basis,  dry
compressed air samples are purchased at  12 locations  from commercial air
suppliers and shipped to EERF and analyzed for Kr-85  (see Fig.  2.2-2).

2.3  Drinking Water Program
    Quarterly grab samples are taken at  78 sites that represent  the
drinking water of major population centers (see Fig.  2.3-1).  These
samples  are analyzed quarterly for tritium and annually  for  gamma,  gross
alpha, gross  beta, radium, strontium, plutonium, uranium, and iodine.

2.4  Surface  Water Program
    Surface water grab samples are collected quarterly  at 58  locations
(see Fig. 2.3-2).  These  samples are obtained from surface water sources
located  near  the  first point of public use downstream of major nuclear
facilities  that are present or potential sources of drinking  water to
large  populations.  These samples are analyzed quarterly for tritium and
gamma  scanned annually in the spring to measure radionuclide washout from
the  atmosphere.
                                    10

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Figure 2.2-2.   Krypton-85 sampling  sites
                      11

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Figure 2.3-1.   Drinking water sampling sites
                      12

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Figure 2.3-2.   Surface water sampling  sites
                         13

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         3.0  DOSIMETRY AND RISK ANALYSIS FROM THE ERAMS DATA BASE








3.1  Structure and Function of the ERAMS  Data  Base



    ERAMS is structured to aid in  assessing  individual  and  collective  dose



and risk to populations.   The ERAMS data  base  provides  EPA  the  ability to



assess the hazards technologically enhanced  radiation  levels  (such as



industrial operations that elevate environmental  radiation  levels)  and



short-term regional  or global  impact (such as  waterborne  unplanned  release



events and atmospheric fallout episodes).  Concentrations are measured



through human receptor pathways and,  ultimately,  dose and health  impact



are calculated.   This capability is a distinctive feature of the  ERAMS



network and its  associated technical  support.







3.2  ERAMSDOSE and Computer Program



    The methodology for analyzing  ERAMS data may  be applied to  assess



short-term events or persistently  elevated environmental concentrations of



radionuclides.   The steps  in  performing a dose assessment are as  follows:



    1.  The assessment location(s),  time  interval, and  sample media are



        defined.



    2.  Concentrations for each sample type and location are generated.



        This may be done either on a  gross activity basis or by employing



        a background subtraction procedure to  remove ambient



        concentrations from the gross  values.  At this  point the  analysis,



        plots or colors graphical  displays may be produced to show the



        time dependency of the  measured levels.   These  data are passed to



        the next  step  for  calculation  of  dose  and risk  values.
                                   14

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    3.   Next,  media  concentrations  integrated  over  time  are calculated



        from  the  concentration  profiles.  These  are used  to estimate



        inhalation or ingestion of  radionuclides  by people.



    4.   Data  on the  time-integrated activity for each  exposure  pathway  are



        then  used with an  environmental  pathways  model to calculate the



        movement  of  the radionuclides  to human receptors.



    5.   Dose  equivalent and risk factors are then applied in  these ERAMS



        assessments.  Dose equivalent  factors  are based  on



        state-of-the-art dosimetry, and  risk factors are  obtained from



        current version of the  RADRISK (Du80)  computer code.








3.3  Dose and Health Risk Assessment Obtained  from  a Single Measurement



    Instances of  samples with atypically high  concentrations  as measured



by ERAMS generally  fall into one of two  categories.  Sampling may be



raised above  ambient levels for an  extended period  such  as following  an



atmospheric fallout  event or a  single  sample may be atypically  high,  as



that obtained from  a quarterly  river sample.   This  section presents an



example of how an assessment may be made of a  single atypically high



measurement using the ERAMS dosimetry  and health risk methodology.



    Past examples of such assessments  include  estimation of  health  impacts



of the radionuclides from volcanic  ash,  response to specific  State  Health



Department requests  for sample  analysis, and calculation of  dose and



health risk from uranium, thorium and radium in drinking water.  The



specific example presented below is for a water sample collected at Rulo,



Nebraska in 1980  by  the surface water network  of ERAMS.
                                    15

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3.3.1  Surface Water Sample:   Rulo,  Nebraska



    The quarterly surface water grab sample had a measured  Co-60



concentration of 22 pen/liter.   We assumed that the measured  Co-60



concentration persisted for 6 months.   (3  months previous to  and  3 months



subsequent to the collection).   ICRP Publication 23 (ICRP75)  gives  a  daily



fluid intake of 1.95 liters (2 liters  was  used for this  calculation)  with



almost all the fluid intake being  from tap water and water  based  drinks.



Therefore, an individual  is assumed  to ingest  8000 picocuries of  Co-60  in



6 months (22 pci/1  ' 2 I/day  '  182.5 days).  The calculation  is



conservative because all  Co-60 is  assumed  to be in the soluble form and



all the fluid intake for six  months  is assumed to contain Co-60 at a



concentration of 22 pCi/1.



    Dose equivalent and risk  factors for Co-60 (see Table 3)  were obtained



using the RADRISK computer code (Du80).  Committed dose  equivalents in



target organs due to the ingestion of  8000 pCi  of Co-60  were  used to



calculate the weighted mean committed  dose equivalent.   We  calculated



"weighted mean" dose equivalents by  using  organ dose  equivalent weighting



factors developed by EPA and  summing the results (See Table 4).
                                    16

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                            Table  3

Co-60 70 Year Dose  Equivalent  Rates Due to a Lifetime Ingestion
 at  a Rate of 1.0 Picocurie Per Year (f]_  =  5.0E-02  =  fraction
               from GI  tract that  goes to blood)

Target
Organ
Red Marrow
Endosteal
Pulmonary
Breast
L i ve r
Stomach Wall
Pancreas
LLI Wall
Kidneys
Bladder Wall
ULI Wall
SI Wall
Ovaries
Testes
Spleen
Uterus
T hymu s
Throid
Total (Somatic)
70-year Dose
Equivalent Rate
(mrem/yr)
5.37E-06
3.92E-06
2.75E-06
4.20E-06
8.53E-06
5.34E-06
6.03E-06
4.02E-05
5.74E-06
6.15E-06
2.03E-05
1.21E-05
1.24E-05
3.73E-06
5.00E-06
1.05E-05
5.61E-06
3.01E-06

                              17

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                            Table 4

Committed Dose Equivalent  in Target Organs Due to the Ingestion of
8000 Picocuries of  Co-60 and Organ Dose Equivalent Weighting Factors
Used to Calculate  the  Weighted  Mean Committed Dose Equivalent

Target
Organ
Red Marrow
Endosteal Cells
Pulmonary
Breast
L i ve r
Stomach Wall
Pancreas
LLI Wall
Kidneys
Bladder Wall
ULI Wall
SI Wall
Ovaries
Testes
Spleen
Uterus
Thymus
Thyroid
Weighted mean
Committed Dose Equivalent
(mrem)
4.3E-02
3.1E-02
2.2E-02
3.4E-02
6.8E-02
4.3E-02
4.8E-02
3.2E-01
4.6E-02
4.9E-02
1.6E-01
9.7E-02
l.OE-01
3.0E-02
4.0E-02
8.4E-02
4.5E-02
2.4E-02
4.8E-02
Weighting Factor
0.15590
0.01470
0 . 29080
0.19080
0.07460
0.04150
0.05810
0.03320
0.01660
0.01660
0.01660
0.00830
0.00830
0.00830
0.00830
0.00830
0.00830
0.04050

                                18

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The weighting factors for each  target  organ  represent the proportion of

the fatal  cancer risk resulting from low LET  irradiation of the target


organ to the total  fatal  cancer risk when  the whole body is irradiated


uniformly.  The method of summing  weighted organ dose equivalents is


similar to the approach introduced by  the  ICRP  in publication 26 (ICRP77)


and subsequently designated the effective  dose  equivalent in publication


28 (ICRP78).  The EPA weighting factors were  developed for a general


public exposure situation, whereas the ICRP weighting factors are for an


occupational exposure situation.


    The Co-60 fatal cancer risk coefficients  shown in Table 3 are based on


an ingestion intake existing for the cohort  lifetime  (71 years average


lifetime expectancy).  Therefore,  calculated  individual risk will be


approximate since the intake only  exists for  6  months and not a lifetime.


The actual risk will  also depend on the age  of  individual when the Co-60


was ingested.  With these limitations  in mind,  we calculated an additional

lifetime fatal cancer risk of 1.4E-08  to an  individual in the population


who ingests 8000 picocuries of  Co-60.



                           1.24E-05 fatal  cancers
      risk = 8000 pCi •   	5	 - 1.4E-08
       yr                 10 persons  • pd'/yr  • 71



For perspective, this calculated fatal cancer risk is 9.3E-06 percent of


the American Cancer Society estimated  risk of cancer death from all causes


of 0.15 (Ba79).  Therefore,  we  concluded that the observed level of Co-60


in the Rulo, Nebraska water sample does not consitute a significant health


risk.   Subsequent radiochemical analysis on  the water sample indicated
                                    19

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that essentially all  the Co-60 activity was contained in the sediment and
not in the soluble fraction.   Therefore, even the very low calculated
individual  fatal cancer risk  of 1.4E-08 is probably somewhat high.   The
capability to analyze such releases serves to avoid unwarranted public
concern and also maintains the technological  ability to evaluate larger
and more serious releases.  In addition to the analyses of regional  events
as described above,  the ERAMS data base has also been used to evaluate
large scale short-term releases to the environment.

3.4  Chinese Nuclear Test, September 1976
    Following atmospheric weapon tests in September and November of  1976,
EERF personnel examined the ERAMS data that had been collected and
analyzed the U.S. population  doses received from    I via the milk
pathway.  This nuclide and pathway were shown in this and earlier studies
to be critical in terms of dose received.  The results of this analysis
were summarized and published in Science (Sm78).   The analysis performed
for this event was based on hand calculations of summaries of radionuclide
concentrations obtained from  the computer data base.   At that time,  there
was no comprehensive methodology for calculating doses and health risk
from all relevant environmental  pathways.  This limitation demonstrated
the need to develop a more complete computer-based calculational  method.
Personnel  at the EERF developed this needed methodology during 1977  and
1978 and first applied it to  the data obtained from the Chinese
atmospheric test of September 1977.
                                    20

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3.5  Chinese Nuclear Test,  September 1977

    This Chinese nuclear weapons test also resulted  in  increased

environmental  radionucl ide concentrations  in the United States.   The  ERAMS

network again  recorded increased radioactivity  in airborne  particulates

and in the pasteurized milk network.  The  buildup and  depletion  of

activity in daily measurements of airborne particulates are shown in  Figs.

3.3-1 through  3.3-6 for the dates 9/23/77  through 10/14/77.  The

corresponding  buildup and depletion of    I in  pasteurized  milk  are

shown in Figs. 3.3-7 through 3.3-14 for the dates 9/25/77 through

12/31/77.  The ERAMSDOSE computer program  that  had been developed

previously was used to calculate dose and  health risk  resulting  from  this

nuclear test.   The application of this methodology is  outlined in the

following sections.



3.5.1  Dose Estimates for Individuals
           *
    Maximum  committed dose equivalent to  individuals  for eight  organs

was calculated for each state.

    Equations.  The equation used for the  individual dose calculations is
                r2
ID
  sao
          n=l
24 (C3sn)  (DCF3nao:
                     (Eq.  1)
where

          a = summation index for age group  (4 age groups)

          n = summation index for nuclide (9 nuclides)
 *Since the pasteurized milk samples are composited  from  several  milk
supplies in a state, it is possible that higher doses  could  have  been
calculated for an individual  who drinks  milk from  a  single dairy  or who
drinks unprocessed milk from a single farm.   Also,  it  is  possible that  air
concentrations of radionucl ides could be higher at  a location  other than
the sampling location(s)  within a state.
                                    21

-------

Airborne Concentration
        pCi/m3
                    0 to 0.29
                                 Fig. 3.3-1.  Gross beta in airborne participates:  September 23. 1977

-------
-
     Airborne Concentration
             pCi/m3
                          0 to 0.29
                                       Fig. 3.3-2.  Gross beta in airborne participates:  September 25, 1977

-------

Airborne Concentration
        pCi/m3
                     0 to 0.29
                     0.3 to 0.99
                     1.0 to 2.99
                     3.0 to 9.99
                     10.0 to 30.0
                                   Fig. 3.3-3.  Gross beta in airborne particulates:  September 27, 1977

-------
I
       Airborne Concentration
               pCi/m3
                             0 to 0.29
                                          rig. 3.3-4.   Gross beta in airborne particulates:   September 29. 1977

-------

Airborne Concentration
        pCi/m3
                     0 to 0.29
                     0.3 to 0.99
                      1.0 to 2.99
                     3.0 to 9.99
                      10.0 to 30.0
                                     Fig. 3.3-5.  Gross beta in airborne particulates:  October 1, 1977

-------
•
     Airborne Concentration
             pCi/m3
                           0 to 0.29
                           0.3 to 0.99
                           1.0 to 2.99
                           3.0 to 9.99
                            10.0 to 30.0
                                           Fig. 33-6.   Gross beta in airborne particulates:  October 14, 1977

-------
;
•
          Concentration pCi/1



                          Oto 0.49
                                       Fig. 3.3-7.  1-131 in pasteurized milk:  September 15 - October 1, 1977

-------

Concentration pCi/1




               0 to 0.49





               0.5 to 3.49
                             Fig. 3.3-8.   1-131 in pasteurized milk:  October 2 - October 8,  1977

-------
Concentration pCi/1




                0 to 0.49
                0.5 to 3.49






                3.5 to 9.99






                10.0 to 29.9






                30.0 to 1000
                               Fig. 3.3-9.  1-131 in pasteurized milk:  October 9 - October 15. 1977

-------
Concentration pCi/1




                 0 to 0.49
                 0.5 to 3.49
                 3.5 to 9.99
                  10.0 to 29.9
                 30.0 to 1000
                             Fig. 3.3-10.   1-131 in pasteurized milk:  October 15 - October 22, 1977

-------
Concentration pCi/1



                 0 to 0.49
                 0.5 to 3.49






                 3.5 to 9.99






                 10.0 to 29.9






                 30.0 to 1000
                            Fig. 3.3-11.  1-131 in pasteurized milk:  October 23 - October 29, 1977

-------

3.5 to 9.99






10.0 to 29.9






30.0 to 1000
              Fig. 3.3-12.  1-131 in pasteurized milk:  October 30 - November 5, 1977

-------

Concentration pCi/1



                0 to 0.49





                0.5 to 3.49
                            Fig. 3.3-13.  1-131 in pasteurized milk:   November 6 - November 30. 1977

-------
Fig. 3.3-14.  1-131 in pasteurized milk.   December 12 - December 31. 1977

-------
          o =  summation index for organ

          p =  summation index for pathway (1 for milk,

              2  for air inhalation, 3 for air submersion)

          s -  summation index for state (51 states, including all states

              and the District of Columbia)

      ID    =  individual dose for integration period to organ o, for age
        sao
              group a in state s (mrem)*

       C    =  integrated radionuclide concentration for pathway p,

                state s, and nuclide n corrected to sample collection

                date  (pCi-d/1 for milk or pCi-d/m  for air)**

       IR  =  intake  rate  for pathway p and age group a (1/d for milk;
         pa
                m  /day for air)

    DCF _ =  dose commitment factor*** for pathway p, nuclide n, age
       pnao

                group a, and organ o (for milk and air inhalation mrem/

                pCi intake; for c

         24 =    hours in one day
pCi  intake;  for air submersion  mrem/hr per pCi/m
    Milk pathway.   The  milk consumption  rates for the individual dose

calculations are the  maximum  listed  in Table 125 of ICRP-23 (ICRP75) for

that age group.   After  examining  the data on radionuclide levels in

pasteurized milk,  it  was  obvious  that  radionuclide concentrations in milk
  *1,000 mrem equals  1  rem.   The  rem  is  the product of the absorbed dose
(rads), an assigned quality  factor, and  other  necessary modifying factors
specific for the radiation considered.
 **The curie (Ci)  is  a  measure  of  radionuclide transformation rate.  One Ci
equals 3.7 x 1010  transformations  per second.  There are 10^ piocuries
(pCi)  per Ci.
***Dose commitment is the dose  which  will be delivered during the 50-year
period following radionuclide intake.
                                    36

-------
started increasing in late September and were approaching  background  again

by November 10.  Thus an integration period of September  17   December  1,

1977 (75 days) was chosen for the milk samples.

    Inhalation pathway.   The air inhalation rates  for  each age  group  are

based on averaging* data given in ICRP-23 for that age group.   There  are

large variations in breathing rates  depending on age and amount of

physical activity.  The  numbers used are based on  16 hours per  day of

light activity and 8 hours per day of rest,  except for the infant.  The

infant breathing rate is based on 10 hours per day of  light  activity  and

14 hours per day of rest.

    A review of the radionuclide levels  in air showed  that the  highest

particulate concentrations occurred  between September  17 and October  14.

However, the precise integration periods for airborne  radionuclides varied

from station to station  since the integrations were stopped  five days

after the radionuclide concentration in  air had returned to  near

background levels.

    Dose commitment factors.  The dose commitment  factors  used  for the

internal dose calculations are an expression for the internal dose that

will be delivered for a  unit quantity of radionuclide  ingested  or

inhaled.  The dose factors used for external dose  calculations  are an
    *For the milk pathway, the maximum intake used in the calculations
always occurs for the youngest age within the age group except for the
infant for whom maximum milk consumption occurs at 6 months.   The  maximum
breathing rate occurs for the oldest age within each age group.  Since  the
largest contribution to individual doses from all  pathways should  result
from i^li in milk, it was decided to use the maximum milk consumption
and the average air consumption to represent the critical  receptor in each
age group.  This approach should be slightly conservative.
                                    O/

-------
expression of the external  dose  rate per  unit concentration of

radionuclide in air.   The dose factors for submersion are from the FESALAP

report (AEC73)  since  they are not given in Regulatory Guide 1.109.

    Integrated  radionuclide concentrations in milk and air.  The

integrated milk and air concentrations* used in Eq. 1 were obtained by

fitting a  cubic-spline (Re67) to the radionuclide concentrations measured

in ERAMS samples and  numerically integrating the resulting curve, which

expresses  radionuclide concentrations vs.  time.  A representative curve

for    I concentrations in  milk at Anchorage, Alaska is shown in

Fig.  3.3-15.  A state average value was obtained by an arithmetic average

of the data for each  location in each state.

    Discussion  of calculated doses.  The state average integrated

concentrations  are used with equation 1 to compute the individual doses

discussed  in this report.   The maximum bone dose and lung doses are each

approximately 25 percent of the maximum thyroid dose, and the maximum

liver dose and  kidney dose  are each approximately 5 percent of the maximum

thyroid dose.   Thus the thyroid dose is dominant, but doses to bone and

lung  are within an order of magnitude of the thyroid dose.



3.5.2  Collective Dose Calculations

    Collective  dose is computed by summing the individual doses for all

members of a population.  It has units of persons times dose (person-rem).
                       for m11k'  Gross concentrations were used for air
available           concentratlons of sP*cific radionuclides are not
                                   38

-------
Fig.  3.3-15.   Net 131-1  concentration in milk - Anchorage,  AK

-------
    Equation  for collective  dose.  The  equation  used to calculate state
collective dose for each organ is
2 4
L. T^
T~r~~
PD = \ \
so \ \
f-L\
n=l a=l
^
(1000) (C. ) (MC ) (f, ) (DCF. )
Isn s la Inao
(n) (p)

+ (.001) (C2sn) (Ps ) (f2a) [(IR2a)

                                                         d=l



                                                                 +  (24)  (



                                                                  (Eq. 2)
where:
      PD      =  state  collective  dose  to organ during the period



                September 17  - December 1,  1977  (man-rems)



    1000      =  conversion factor (Ibs. -  rem/Mlbs.-mrem)



    .001      =  conversion factor (rem/mrem)



       d      =  summation index  for food group (2 food groups)



      MC      =  total  fluid milk  and fluid  milk  products consumed in



                state  during  integration period



                (Mlbs.  consumed  or committed for consumption)



       f .     =  fraction  of milk  used  for  food group d (dimensionless)



       f      =  for milk, fraction of  total milk consumption used by age
        pa


                group  a;  for  air,  fraction  of total state population in age



                group  a (dimensionless)



     DCF      =  dose commitment  factor for  pathway p, nuclide n, age



                group  a,  and  organ o (for milk,  man-mrem/pCi ingested;



                for air inhalation,  mrem/pCi inhaled; for air submersion,

                                 •3

                mrem/hr per pCi/m )



       x      =  radioactive decay constant  for nuclide n (d"1)



       td     =  time between  sample collection and consumption  (d)



        D     =  days in period of integration for milk pathway
                                    40

-------
        P    = milk density (lbs/1)
       P     = population in state  s (people)
    £„,-„, IR~,, 24 and the indexes  a,  n,  o,  p,  and  s  have  the  same
     psn    pa
definition as for the individual  dose  calculations,   The first  line of
equation 2 is for collective dose from milk  ingestion and  the  second line
is for collective dose from air inhalation and  submersion.
    State milk and air concentrations.  The  pasteurized milk portion of
the ERAMS network includes 65 sampling locations  within the United
States.  Radionuclide concentrations in milk were measured for  at least
one sampling location in each state  following the test.
    The integrated milk and air concentrations  of each nuclide  at each
location were obtained using a cubic spline  and numerical  integration
techniques as discussed earlier.  For  states with only one sampling
location, the integrated milk and air  concentrations  for that location
were used for the entire state.   For the  states where there were no air
sampling locations, air concentrations from  a nearby  location were used as
an estimate of air concentrations in the  state.   For  states with more than
one sampling location, an arithmetic average of the data for the locations
in the state was used.  There is  a  limit  to  the accuracy of these
calculations since it was assumed that one,  or  in a few cases two, three,
or four, sampling locations represent  an  entire state.
                                    41

-------
    The use of a single sampling  location  to  represent milk consumed  in



each state is supported by the following:



              (1)  The milk samples are a  weighted composite  of  milk  from



                   each major milk processor  supplying an  area.  The



                   samples represent locally  consumed milk whether the



                   processor obtained it from local  or  remote suppliers.



              (2)  Many processors supply  the smaller cities  and towns  in



                   a state as well  as the  metropolitan areas  where these



                   milk samples are taken.



    The use of a single sampling  location  to  represent air concentrations



 in  each state is supported by considering  the variability  in  the observed



 concentrations between stations.   Even in  instances of localized rainout,



 which  lend to yield the sharpest contrast  in  measurements, within  state



 variation is generally within the uncertainty of other parameters  used  in



 the calculation.  Typically, fallout plumes are widely dispersed after



 travelling the great distance from the point  of formation  in  China to the



 United States.  Thus, the plume of media debris may cover  several  states



 when it enters the U.S., and large variations in radionuclide



 concentrations within a single state would not normally  be expected.



    Other data.  The population for each state was estimated  as  of July  1,



 1976,  according to the 1978 edition of the Information Please Almanac



 (IPA77).



    Calculated dose.  Using the methods, equation, and  data  discussed,  the



 population doses were calculated for each state.  The lung,  thyroid,  and



 bone doses were the highest of the organ doses calculated.  In general,



 lung doses were  highest in populations west of the Mississippi River and



 in  the Southeast.  Thyroid doses were highest in the eastern  section of



 the Midwest, in  the northern portion of the Southeast,  and in the





                                    42

-------
Northeast.  The doses to the bone were highest in populations  of  eight



states located primarily in the Northern United States.



    The highest collective dose to the lung was 18,400 man-rem in



California, while the highest collective dose to the  thyroid was  14,000



man-rem in Illinois.   The highest collective dose to  the  bone  was 16,300



man-rem in Illinois.   For the total  U.S.  population,  the  highest  doses



were 150,200 man-rem to the lung, 127,700 man-rem to  the  thyroid,  and



107,600 man-rem to the bone.  Doses  to the other organs considered in



these calculations were from one-fourth to one-tenth  of these  highest



doses.



    Projected health effects.  Health effects were estimated for  the



thyroid,  lung, and the total body (exclusive of lung  and  thyroid).  It was



estimated that about 17 cancers (10  fatal) might occur over the next 45



years as a result of this test (see  Table 5).  A comparison of these



projected deaths with the deaths due to natural occurrence  of  cancers from



all causes lends perspective to these calculations.   In 1975,  365,700



persons in the U.S. died from all types of cancers (MVSR77).   Assuming a



constant death rate, a natural occurrence of 16,456,200 deaths from all



types of cancer would be expected over a 45-year period.  Thus, the excess



death rate is about one extra death  for every 1,600,000 deaths occurring



from all  types of cancer.  It is also estimated that  there  might  be 3



additional serious genetic effects to all succeeding  generations  of the




U.S.



population as a result of this nuclear test.  Considering the  current



incidence rate of serious genetic effects of 10.7 percent (NAS80), it  is



estimated that there might be about  23,000,000 serious genetic effects



from all  causes in the U.S. during the next 50 years.
                                   43

-------
                                                  TABLE  5

    Health Effects Estimates for the U.S. Population for the Chinese Nuclear Test of September 17, 1977
 Organ
Somatic health effects  per
      million man-rem
      (EPA73, EPA77c)
 Population dose
estimate (man-rem)
Estimated somatic  health effects
during the next 45 years due to
this test
                     Cancer
                    Death
                      Cancer
                      Death
Thyroid (1-131)
Thyroi
than I
Lung
Total



d (other
-131

body**



11*

106
50
350



1.1

10.6
50
139



1.

1.
1.
1.
Total
health
event
11

70
50
72
X

X
X
X
105

Au
105
104
1.2

1.8
7.5***
6.0***
.12

.18



7.5***
2.4***
estimated somatic
effects for this



16.5

10.

2

*    This thyroid cancer estimate is approximately six  times  lower  than the number used in EPA's previous
     analysis of health effects from nuclear weapons tests  (EPA77a).  The change is the result of two
     factors:
     an increase in the plateau length,  as a function of  time,  for  expression of excess thyroid cancers for
     the 0-2 years old age group; and a  factor of ten decrease  in the cancer  risk per person rad for 1-131
     since beta particles for 1-131 were considered less  carcinogenic than photon radiation.

**   Exclusive of lung and thyroid health effects.

***  The time required for these effects to occur is the  lifetime of the exposed population.  However, the
     majority of these effects should be within the next  45 years.

-------
3.6  Collective Dose from Ambient Radionuclide  Concentrations



    The basic structure of radiation dosimetry  provides  for  calculation of



doses to target organs from the summation of radioactive emissions from



all  nuclides considered.   Futhermore,  since  each  target  organ  has its own



risk value,  it is difficult to use collective organ  dose as  a  measure of



combined hazard from the  radionucl ides.   In  spite  of these limitations,



the authors felt that tabulation of some concise  dosimetric  information



was appropriate.   For this reason,  collective organ  doses from milk, air



inhalation,  and external  exposure pathways were calculated and presented



for the three year intervals 1973-1976 and 1976-1979 and the two year



interval 1979-1981 (see Table 6).
                                    45

-------
                                   TABLE 6

          Collective and Indiviudual  Doses from Milk Ingestion,  Air
                  Inhalation and External  Exposure Pathways
                  Collective doses over intervals specified
   Date Interval
Minimum Dose
  (man-rem)
Maximum Dose
 (man-rem)
   Organ
 Receiving
Maximum Dose
July 1973-June 1976
July 1976-June 1979
July 1979-December 1981
4.8 x 103
(Wyoming)
3.3 x 103
(Nevada)
8.9 x 101
(Alaska)
7.3x 105
(New York)
5.3 x 105
(New York)
4.2 x 105
(New York)
Bone
Bone
Bone
             Maximum individual  dose over the intervals specified


   Date Interval                            (mrem)
                                          Organ
                                        Receiving
                                          Dose
July 1973-June 1976

July 1976-June 1979

July 1979-December 1981
            159 (Arkansas)

            159 (Arkansas)

             93 (Massachusetts)
                       Bone

                       Bone

                       Bone
                                   46

-------
               4.0  OBSERVATIONS OF SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM

                    ENVIRONMENTAL  RADIOACTIVITY  TRENDS




4.1  Short-Term Trends in Environmental  Radioactivity


    Examination of  the data  collected  by the  ERAMS program  has  shown

short-term increases  in radioactivity  in several  instances.  One example
             OOA      OO C
is shown for    U and    U data for Lynchburg, Virginia  (Figs.  4.1-1
                          OOQ
and 4.1-2), compared  with    U values  for the same location.  These data

exhibit increases in  atmospheric concentrations  and  also an increase in

the ratios 234U/238U  and 235u/238u,  which is  characteristic of


enriched uranium releases.

    The monitoring  site under consideration was  near the Babcock and


Wilcox fuel fabrication plant in Lynchburg.   During  1973-1975,  the


monitoring station  was on company  property and was subsequently moved in

1975 to a point more representative of the airborne  exposure to a typical

individual within the population.   Although the  magnitude of the


concentration at the receptor point was observed to  decrease markedly when

the sampler was moved, the characteric pattern typical of enriched uranium


releases is still evident in the data  from more  recent years.


    Another example of short-term increases in  radioactivity was observed


following atmospheric fallout events in 1976  and 1977.   Network monthly

average values for    I in pasteurized milk were clearly elevated


following both these events (see Fig.  4.1-3). In contrast  to the behavior

of    I, the network  averages for    Cs in pasteurized milk did not

-------
    73 '  1974  IB
      JflK      JfiK
JflN
   1977' 1978   1979'  I960' 1981
JRN     JRK     JRN      JRN     JflM
Fig. 4.1-1.  U-234 and U-238 in airborne participates--Lynchburg,  VA
                                48

-------
«1



8

P-



g
ff-


8
  73 ' 197'4  1975 '  1976   1977 '  1978 ' 1979 ' 1980 ' 1981
    Jfltl     JflH    JflN     JflN     JflH     JfiM     JflH     JflH
'73' 197'4   1975   1976   1977   1978  197S  1980' 1981
   JRK     JfiS'     JflM     JftN     JflN     -fiH     JflH    JPM
        Fig. 4.1-2.  U-235 and l'-238  in airborne  particulates--

                   Lynchburg, VA
                                  49

-------
show the abrupt increases.   Specific  site  meteorological conditions


greatly affect washout from  the  contaminated  atmosphere and, ultimately,


the concentration observed  in milk and surface  atmosphere.  This behavior


is clearly observed following the Setpember 1976  episode when heavy


rainfall over the Eastern United States resulted  in  sharply increased


concentrations of 1-131 in  air and milk.   The increased concentrations  of


1-131 in milk are shown in  Fig.  4.1-5 for  Hartford,  Connecticut  and  4.1-6


for Baltimore, Maryland.




4.2  Long-Term Trends in Environmental Radioactivity


    Several types of data files contained  within  the ERAMS  data  base have


 recorded  long-term trends in environmental levels.   The expected increase


 in   Kr concentrations in the atmosphere due to nuclear fuel  cycle


 operations  (UNSCEAR77) has been observed (see Fig.  4.1-9).   In  addition,

                    3
 increased  levels of  H have been observed  in the  waters of  the  Savannah


 River  and  the Tennessee River (Fig. 4.1-10),  and  in several  drinking water


 supplies  (Fig. 4.1-11). Nationwide average concentrations  in  surface


 streams are also shown in these figures to highlight the  local  variations.


    When  nuclear stations begin operating  near an existing  surface water


 station,  the  discharges of H-3 are recorded in the subsequent water


 samples.  This effect  is demonstrated clearly at the Doswell,  Virginia


 site when  the North Ana station began operation 5.5 miles  upstream in


 1978.   The  continual upward trend is clearly visible in Fig.  4.2-1.


    The ERAMS data base also has  recorded significant decreases in some


 environmental radioactivity.  Since the period of numerous worldwide
                                     50

-------
731  -974  1975
  JflN "     JRN
           197S   1977   1978   1979   198Q   1981
Fig. 4.1-3.  1-131  and Cs-137 (pCi/Liter)


  in pasteurized milk--network averages
                 51

-------
                      JRN
                              JON
                                      JflN
                                              JBN
                                                      JRN
Fig.  4.1-4.   1-131 (pCi/Liter)  in pasteurized milk--Hartford,  CT
                              52

-------
JS-
3 ' 1974: ' 19
 Jflh'     JfW
                  S   1978   1977   19/8   1979   1980   1981
                   JflU     JBH     JRN     JftH     JRN     JfllJ
             Fig.  4.1-5.   1-131 in pasteurized milk—Baltimore, MD
                                     53

-------
s
g
         eU.. aa

                                                                         I.DO
                  Fig. 4.1-6.   Krypton 85 in air samples
                                    54

-------
73' 1974:  1975 '  1976 '  1977 ' 1978 '  1979   1980  1981
  JflN     JflN    JflN     JRN     JflN     JflN    JRN     JflN
  a.  Kingston, TN
              in Surf*oe H«t«r
731 197'4  1975 '  1976 '  1977  1978  1979   1980   1981
  JflN     JflN    JflN     JRtf     JflN     JflN    JflN     JflN
  b.   Savannah River

        Fig. 4.1-7.   H-3 in  surface uater
                                   55

-------
73   1974   197S   1976   19/7   la/9   1979    1980   1981
  JflH     JflN      Jfli-i      JBN      JHN     JflN     JflN      J«N
   a.  Kingston, TN

b.
       Savannah River


               Fig. 4.1-8   H-3 in drinking water



                                       56

-------
atmospheric weapon tests in  the  1950's  and  1960's, the environmental



concentration  of several  important  fission  products has decreased


                                                           90
sharply.  One example is a decrease  in  the  concentration of   Sr in milk



as shown in Fig.  4.2-2.   Also, concentrations  of the prominent fission


         137
product,    Cs,  in pasteurized milk  have  dramatically decreased since



the cessation of  atmospheric weapons test (see Fig. 4.2-3).  Such sharp



decreases are quite significant  when realizing the corresponding decrease



in collective dose to populations.
                                   57

-------
73M97H ' 1975 ' 19'
  JflN     JflN
is'
?7  19"
  JflN
'8 '  1979   1980 '  1981
 JflH     OR!-'     J«N
           Fig.  4.2-1.  H-3  in surface water at Doswell,  VA
                               58

-------
SR-80 pCi/Liter [H PflSTEURIZED MILK
  1963 1966 1969  19/2  1975  1978  1981  1964
 Fig. 4.2-2.  Sr-90 in pasteurized milk
                      59

-------
 LD
 CM_
rtCr>_
<_r
a
 CD

 a"
     Ce-137 pCi/Liter  CH  PflSTEURIZED  MILK
       1963  1966  1969
    Fig. 4.2-3.  Cs-137  in pasteurized milk
                               60

-------
                               5.0  SUMMARY








    The ERAMS program is composed of a network  of  sampling  stations



throughout the United States plus an associated radioanalytical  and



assessment support group.   These components provide  a  capability to



evaluate environmental  consequences from both normal  ambient



concentrations of radiation and time dependent  changes as measured by  the



samples.  The program is structured to measure  concentrations  of



radionucTides in air, milk, surface water,  and  drinking water  and to



estimate dose and health impact.  Several  examples of  short-term and



long-term assessments of dose and health effect calculations from the



ERAMS data base have been presented in this report.



    In order to give the reader some perspective for ambient doses



received by the U.S. population, Table 6 was prepared to show  doses to



organs receiving the highest organ doses from milk,  inhalation,  and



external exposure.  These displays produced for two-year intervals show



slowly decreasing organ doses for the later years.  Contributions from



  K are shown to be a signifcant contribution to the total  dose



received.  Based on these assessments, we may state that the U.S.



population has not been subjected to significant doses from the



radionuclides introduced by mankind into the receptor pathways measured by



ERAMS.  Furthermore, measurements of a variety of other pathways in



previous studies have shown that no pathways of significance were omitted.

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                                REFERENCES
AEC73   U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,  Final  Environmental Statement
        Concerning Proposed Rule Making Action:   Numerical Guides  for
        Design Objectives and Limiting  Conditions for Operation  to Meet
        the Criteria:   As Low As Practicable  for Radioactive Materials in
        Light Water Cooled Nuclear Power Reactor Effluents. Vol. 2,
        Analytical Models and Calculations  WASH-1258,  Directorate  of
        Regulator Standards (July 1973).

Ba79    Battist, L., Buchanan,  J.,  Congel,  F., Nelson,  C., Nelson, M.,
        Peterson, H.,  and Rosenstein, M.,  1979,  Ad Hoc Population  Dose
        Assessment Report, "Population  Dose and  Health Impact  of the
        Accident at the Three Mile  Island  Nuclear Station," a  preliminary
        assessment for the period March 28  through April  7, 1979
        (Superintendent of Documents, U.S.  Government Printing Office,
        Washington, D.C.).

Du80    Dunning, D.E., Jr., Leggett, R.N.,  and Yalcintas, M.G., A  Combined
        Methodology for Estimating  Dose Rates and Health  Effects for
        Exposure to Radioactive Pollutants, ORNL/TM-7105  (1980).

EERF73  Eastern Environmental  Radiation Facility,  The Environmental
        Radiation Ambient Monitoring System,  Montgomery,  Alabama,
        unpublished report, 1973.

EPA76   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Radiological Quality of the
        Environment, EPA-520/1-76-010,  Chapter 2,  Washington,  DC,  (1976).

EPA77   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Radiological Quality of the
        Environment in the United States-1977, EPA 520/1-77-009 Chapter 2,
        Washington, DC,,  (1977).

ICRP75  Report of the Task Group on Reference Manual,  ICRP-23
        International  Commission on Radiological  Protection, Pergamon
        Press (1975).

ICRP77  International  Commission on Radiological  Protection, 1977,
        "Recommendations of the International Commission  on Radiological
        Protection," ICRP Publication 26  (Pergamon Press, NY).

ICRP78  International  Commission on Radiological  Protection, 1978,
        "Statement from the 1978 Stockholm  Meeting of  the ICRP, The
        Principles and General  Procedures  for Handling Emergency and
        Accidental Exposures of Workers,"  ICRP Publication 28  (Pergamon
        Press, NY).
                                    62

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                          REFERENCES (continued)
 IRC81    International Reference Center for Radioactivity, Data on
         Environmental Radioactivity, quarterly reports, BPn °35,  78110
         LeVesinet, France (1981).

 Ki72     Kirk, W.P., Krypton 85:  A Review of the Literature and Analysis
         of Radioation Hazards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
         Office of Research and Monitoring, Washington, D.C., 1972.

 Kl72     Klement, A.W., Jr., Miller, C.P., Minx, R.P., and Shleien,  B.,
         Estimates of Ionizing Radiation Doses in the United States:
         1960-2000.  ORP/CSD 72-1, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
         1972.

 MVSR77  Advanced Report on Final  Mortality Statistics for 1975, Monthly
         Vital Statistics Report,  Vol. 25. No. 11 (Supplement), (February
         1977).

 NAS72   National Academy of Sciences, The Effects on Populations  of
        Exposure to Low Levels of lonezing Radiation, Report of the
        Advisory Committee on the Biological  Effects of Ionizing
        Radiation, National  Research Council, Washington, DC (November
         1972).

 NAS80   National Academy of Sciences, The Effect on Populations Exposure
        to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation:  1980,  Committee on Biological
        Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Washington, DC, 1980.

 NCR75   National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements,
        Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere-Accumulation,  Biological
        Significance, and Control Technology, NCRP  Report No.  44,  1975.

 Re67    Reinsch, C.H., Smoothing  by Spline Functions, Numerische
        Mathematik 10, 177-183 (1967).

 Sm78    Smith, J.M.,  Broadway, J.A., and Strong,  A.B.,  United  States
        Population Dose Estimates for Iodine-131 in the Thyroid After  the
        Chinese Atmospheric  Nuclear Weapons Tests,  Science,  200,  44-46
        (1978).

 St77    Strong,  A.B.,  Smith,  J.M.  and Johnson,  R.H., Jr., EPA  Assessment
        of Fallout in the United  States from Atmospheric Nuclear Testing
        on September 26 and  November 17,, 1976  by the People's Republic  of
        China, EPA 520/5-77-002 (1977).

Un77    United Nations Scientific Committee on  the  Effects of  Atomic
        Radiation, 1977 Report to the General Assembly, p. 203, United
        Nations, New York,  (1977).
                                    63

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                            GENERAL  REFERENCES
Wa80    Watson,  J.E.,  Upgrading  Environmental  Radiation Data,  Health
        Physics  Society Committee Report HPSR-1  (1980), EPA-520/1-80-012
        (1980).

B179    Blanchard,  R.8.,  Strong  A.B.,  Lieberman,  R.,  and  Porter,  C.R., The
        Eastern  Environmental  Radiation Facility's  Participation  in
        Interlaboratory Comparision of Environmental  Sample Analyses,
        ORP/EERF-79-1, 1979.

Fo80    Fowler,  T.W.  and  Nelson,  C.B., Health  Impact  Assessment of
        Carbon-14 Emissions from Normal  Operations  of Uranium  Fuel Cycle
        Facilities,  EPA-520/5-80-004,(1981).

Os73    Oscarson, E.E., Effects  of Control Technology on  the Projected
        Krypton-85  Environmental  Inventory,  Noble Gas Symposium,  Las
        Vegas, Nevada, September 24-28,  1973.

Sm82    Smith, J.M.,  Norwood,  D.L.,  Strong,  A.B.  and  Broadway. J.A., EPA
        Assessment  of Fallout  in  the United  States  from Atmospheric
        Nuclear  Testing on  September 17,  1977  by  the  People's  Republic of
        China, EPA  520/5-82-008.
                                   64

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