e:
Closing Open Dumps
* -V
. \*f
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THE NATIONAL PROBLEM OF DUMPING
The National Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices,
underway in the States and territories since 1966, spotlights
the magnitude of the national problem of solid waste dumping."
Conducted with the aid of the Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-
ment, the Survey had identified more than 13,600 solid waste
land disposal sites--and less than 5 percent of them can be
considered to meet the minimum standards for sanitary land-
fills. Over 95 percent exhibit one or more of the following
characteristics of a dump: unsightly appearance, blowing
paper, dust, burning wastes, pollution of surface or
groundwater, and infestation by rodents and insects.
*Black, R. J., A. J. Munich, A. J. Klee, H. L. Hickman, Jr.,
and R. D. Vaughan. The national solid wastes survey; an interim
report. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
[1968]. 53 p.
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CLOSING OPEN DUMPS
This report (SW-61ts) was written by
Dirk R. Brunner, S. Jackson Hubbard, Daniel J. Keller,
and James L. Newton
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Solid Waste Management Office
1971
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Reprinted, 1976
with a minor correction
on page 2
Single copies of this publication will be distributed as supplies
permit. Address requests to Solid Waste Information, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 26 W. St. Clair Street, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
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FOREWORD
The predominant means of solid waste disposal over the Nation
today is open dumping, where a community has a piece of land, and
collection trucks and individuals dump solid wastes indiscriminately.
The wastes are not covered, and generally the community exercises
no control over the site. The dump is a source of pollution and
environmental degradation, and frequently the situation has been
deteriorating over a period of years.
Communities and their States are now beginning, however, to
take a close look at this unacceptable disposal practice. Many people
realize that open dumping must end, and some State legislatures and
city and county authorities have already outlawed the practice.
These developments have created a need for providing guidance
on how to close a dump and how to dispose of solid wastes on land
in an acceptable manner. This publication tells why dumps should
be closed and describes the closing process.
--RICHARD D. VAUGHAN
Assistant Surgeon General
Acting Commissioner
Solid Waste Management Office
i i i
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CLOSING OPEN DUMPS
An Open Dump--What It Is, Why It Should Be Closed
A dump is a land disposal site where solid wastes are deposited
with little or no regard for pollution controls or aesthetics. Dumps
create health hazards, scenic blight, economic loss—and all in all,
a spectacular demonstration of what is wrong with solid waste management
in the United States. A dump may be referred to as "open," because
the wastes are left uncovered, and often neither the existence nor the
use of the dump are authorized and there is no supervision.
Every type of solid waste has been deposited in dumps—abandoned
tires and automobiles, old furniture and kitchen appliances, industrial
and commercial wastes, agricultural byproducts, trees, vegetation, demo-
lition and construction wastes, as well as mixed household refuse. Every
type of topography—ranging from flat, completely exposed areas, to
steep ravines, to stream banks—has been used for this open dumping
(Figure 1).
Frequently, an open dump is also a burning dump. The fire may
be spontaneous. It may result from the deposit of smoldering wastes.
More often, however, the fire is purposely set in an attempt to reduce
volume at the dump or on the erroneous assumption that burning will
destroy the food that attracts rodents and insects.
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Health hazards are created by dumps through the presence of
biological and chemical contaminants, which air, water, birds, insects,
and rodents can carry to man and his domestic animals. A burning
dump pollutes the air, most commonly in the form of highly visible
clouds of particles and incompletely burned gases, or the nauseating
stench of smoldering garbage (Figure 2). These air pollutants can
cause human respiratory disease. They also soil buildings, clothing,
and furnishings, and are a fire hazard to buildings, fields, and
woodlands.
A dump can pollute both surface and groundwater. The wastes
themselves, when dumped on banks of streams or lakes or in swampy
areas, can pollute the water directly. A less obvious form of water
pollution occurs when rain or surface water percolates down through
uncovered or improperly managed dumps and carries portions of the
wastes into the underlying groundwater.
A dump provides food and shelter for vermin. Extermination
efforts by themselves last only a short time—and even then are not
100 percent effective. Burning the wastes may reduce food sources
in a limited way, but often only the paper and plast.ic packaging
burns, thus making the food more readily available to vermin.
There are other health threats to humans created by the existence
of dumps, since typically the dumps are open to uncontrolled scavenging.
Sharp fragments of glass and metal and other hazardous objects* plus
pathogenic organisms, toxic chemicals, and open fires present a real
danger to those roaming the dumps. The scavengers often interfere
with the operation of the dump.
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FIGURE 1.
economic loss.
Open dumps create health hazards, scenic blight, and
FIGURE 2. An open burning dump pollutes air, water, and land,
and demonstrates spectacularly what is wrong with solid waste manage-
ment throughout the Nation.
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Dumps disfigure the landscape, fn the words of the Congress of
the United States they ". . . have an adverse effect on land values,
create public nuisances [and] otherwise interfere with community life
and development."1
The aesthetic degradation produced by open dumps is difficult to
assess in any but abstract terms; it is, nevertheless, very real. No
accurate appraisal has been made of the impact a dump has on the value
of neighboring property, but one thing is cleai—nobody wants one near
his home. The National Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices indi-
cates that over 60 percent of such sites are in agricultural or rural
areas. Despite such typical locations, the existence of "garbage dumps"
is well known. As a matter of fact, when most people think of solid
waste disposal they have a dump in mind. They do so with reason, because
up to 90 percent of community wastes are now deposited in dumps. This
association of wastes and dumps is so well established that it is the
major stumbling block to the location, construction, and operation of
sanitary landfills. People have to be shown that sanitary landfills
are entirely different from dumps before they will accept their use.
The economic costs of an open dump are never fully appreciated.
In the long term, a dump will probably prove more expensive to a com-
munity's inhabitants than a sanitary landfill. Even without putting
a price on the aesthetic blight produced by a dump, a community will
pay more for maintenance, laundry, cleaning, and painting due to smoke.
There is no doubt that the value of real estate nearby to dumps is
ously reduced, which reduces the community's tax base. Moreover, this
sen -
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drain on the public continues until the dump is effectively and properly
closed. In contrast, a sanitary landfill is more acceptable while being
operated, and completed sections provide land that can be used for recre-
ation or other purposes.
Industry is becoming increasingly aware that solid wastes must
be disposed of properly. The selection of a new plant location may
depend on the ability of the disposal system to accept industrial wastes
without degrading the environment. Many companies would not consider
open dumping acceptable because these firms know they will be the target
of adverse publicity if pollution problems arise.
State legislatures are responding to the public's growing awareness
of the shortcomings of open dumping and burning. Many States have al-
ready begun to outlaw these practices. The alternative to open dumping
is the sanitary landfill. Present technology offers incineration and
composting as methods of reducing the volume of waste that must be ul-
timately disposed of on the land (Appendix A).
How To Close A Dump
Governmental agencies, industry, citizens, and environmental effects
should all be considered in developing a plan to eliminate a dump and
to establish an acceptable substitute. The plan should provide for
informing everyone about the need for closing the dump and the procedures
that will be followed. The plan should also outline the funding arrange-
ments necessary to carry out the operation and the anticipated use of
the closed site. If the present dump location is suitable, it is often
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more feasible to convert the dump into a sanitary landfill than to es-
tablish a new site.
Information Dissemination. It is imperative that the public, indus-
try, and municipal agencies be kept informed of activities pertaining
to the dump closing. They are the source of the necessary funds and
their cooperation is critical to a satisfactory solid waste disposal
program. They should, therefore, be told:
• Why the dump is being closed
• How the job wi11 be done
• What method of acceptable waste disposal will replace
the dump
• What the costs are
A vigorous program is essential to success, and all the various
techniques of information dissemination can be used to help win a favor-
able press.2 Keeping the public informed should begin when the planning
starts and continue with progress reports until the dump is closed and
the new disposal method is operating successfully.
Disposal During and After Closure. A dump cannot be closed in one
day. The rat extermination program alone normally requires up to 2 weeks,
and extinguishing fires may take another week. Compacting and covering
may take over 2 months, depending upon the size of the dump.
Open dumping must stop before rat extermination starts, and only
authorized personnel should be allowed on the site during the closing
operation. An-approved site, with fixed and posted hours of operation,
must be established for the wastes formerly disposed of at the dump.
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Complete information about the new facility should be displayed at the
entrance to the closed dump and advertised in news media.
The cooperation of those delivering wastes to the dump is needed
to ensure success. The managements of private and municipal collectors
should be told in advance of changes in disposal procedures. This infor-
mation should also be available to collection crews. If individual
citizens also use the dump, an intensive public information campaign
should be undertaken.
Rat Extermination. Rat extermination must be given special attention
when closing an active dump.3 At an old open dump where the food source
has been exhausted, rats and insects are unlikely to be present. Where
there is a nearby food source, the old dump may still be used by rats
for harborage. It is necessary, therefore, to positively establish the
absence of rats. If rats are present, an extermination program must
be conducted. If the dump closing operation is improperly conducted,
the rat problem may be compounded.
Rats are potential carriers of numerous diseases, and if they are
not killed when a dump is closed, they may pose even more of a problem
than when they are at the dump. They may migrate in numbers to populated
areas in search of food and harborage. At a minimum, this would cause
unfavorable reaction to the dump closing and the situation would worsen
if there was a rise in the incidence of rat bites.
Only trained personnel should be allowed to conduct the operation
since the improper use of poisons is dangerous and may lead to lawsuits.
The work is best done by a pest control specialist or by a government
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rodent control expert. Assistance may be obtained from State and local
health officials, pest control services, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice, the Bureau of Community Environmental Management, or the Bureau
of Solid Waste Management, U.S. Public Health Service. More detailed
information is readily available elsewhere.4'7
Extinguishing Fires. Fires at dumps may be difficult and expensive
to extinguish. In some cases the burning solid waste may have to be
exposed and spread out, requiring the use of heavy earthmoving equipment.
The operator must work very carefully to prevent injuring himself or
damaging his equipment. Spreading the waste generally allows the fire
to partially burn itself out, and water can then be applied to the
smoldering remains. The fire can usually be extinguished while the rat
poisoning program is underway.
Covering the Dump. Immediately following the rat poisoning and
fire extinguishing, the dump surface should be graded, compacted, and
covered with at least 2 feet of soil- In closing large dumps, the rat
extermination program should be maintained while successive sections of
the dump are covered. To grade, compact, and cover most dumps, large
crawler dozers will usually be necessary. Either the trench or the area
method is generally used in closing the dump.
In the trench method, wastes are spread in thin layers in an excava-
tion, compacted, and then covered with the excavated soil (Figure 3).
This achieves maximum density and minimum settlement. The cover material
should be compacted to keep flies in and rats out, and it should be graded
to keep surface water from ponding. The bottom of the trench should
be kept above the level of high groundwater.
4
8
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DUMPED SOLID WASTE
CONSOLIDATED
SOLID WASTE
FORMER GRADE
rSOIL
EXCAVATED TRENCH
TRANSFERRED AND COMPACTED
SOLID WASTE
STOCKPILED
SOIL FROM TRENC^
COMPACTED COVER MATERIAL
FIGURE 3- In the trench method of covering a dump, the wastes
are spread in thin layers in an excavation, compacted, and then
covered with the excavated soil, compacted, and graded.
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The area method also involves spreading the wastes in thin layers,
compacting it, and then covering it with a minimum of 2 feet of compacted
soil (Figure 4). If the solid waste is spread over a large area, it
must be consolidated and compacted to reduce the amount of settlement
and cover material required. The cover material must be graded to avoid
ponding of surface water. A modification of this method is used to close
bank-type dumps (Figure 5)•
Protection of Water Quality. If the dump is in a marshland or an
area where the groundwater or surface waters have been contaminated,
remedial action should be taken by removing the solid waste from the
water or treating the water. The latter step is normally not feasible
because of the difficulty in collecting and. treating contaminated water.
The solid waste and water can be separated by diverting the flow of water
or by removing the solid waste from the watercourse. If necessary, sur-
face streams may be relocated and the groundwater level lowered, but
it is often more economical to remove the solid waste from the stream
using draglines. Removal of old solid waste usually produces very un-
pleasant odors, so workmen may have to wear gas masks.
The solid waste removed from the water should not be allowed to
create new problems. Since most marshes are underlaid by a blanket or
a layer of relatively impervious silt, it is often feasible to construct
an impervious berm around the perimeter of the new site. The berm should
be keyed to the underlying impervious silt layer and constructed higher
than the outside water level. Another device is to build a mat to serve
as an operating platform for a dragline as well as the foundation for
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DUMPED SOLID WASTE
CONSOLIDATED AND COMPACTED
SOLID WASTE
COMPACTED COVER MATERIAL
.—
«o
FORMED Jf_RADE_
TL BORROW
AREA
FIGURE k. In the area method of
spread in thin layers, compacted, and
feet of compacted soil.
covering a dump, wastes are
covered with a minimum of 2
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COMPACTED COVER MATERIAL-
FORMER _GRAD.t_
gOIL BORROW
AREA
is used to close bank.(ype
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the excavated solid waste that will finally be covered with soil (Figure
6). Relatively inert materials such as rocks, soil, broken concrete,
or demolition debris may be used for this purpose.
Cover Material. Cover material should be selected according to
its ability to perform the following functions: (1) limit the access
of vermin to the solid waste; (2) control moisture entering the fill;
(3) control the movement of gas from the decomposing waste; (A) provide
a pleasing appearance and control blowing paper; (5) support vegetation.
Not all soil types perform these functions equally well (Table 1).
While the soil is usually selected from the types available nearby, con-
sideration needs to be given to its suitability before using it as cover
material.
The depth of the cover material depends on the use planned for the
closed dump, as well as the soil type. Usually 2 feet of earth is suffi-
cient, and it should be compacted and graded. Proper grading is important
since it prevents excessive soil erosion and ponding. Ponding tends
to infiltrate and saturate the fill, resulting in water pollution.
To further reduce erosion, the area should be seeded with grass
or other vegetation. Two feet of soil is usually sufficient for grass,
but more is necessary for shrubs and trees. If the dump is along a lake
front or the edge of a stream, riprap is often required to prevent water
from eroding the edge of the cover material.
Ultimate Use of Closed Dump. A closed dump need not remain an un-
used parcel of wasteland. The site may have been changed from a ravine
or gully to a relatively flat area. It is no longer unsightly since
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WETLAND DUMP
-Mr
INERT FILL
EXCAVATED
SOLID WASTE
EXCAVATED AND COMKCTED
SOLID WASTE
INERT FILL
WETLAND
__ ^
COMPACTED_COVER MATERIAL
deposit above the general water evel
wate: quality
elevate ^ waste
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TABLE 1
COVER MATERIAL SUITABILITY OF GENERAL SOIL TYPES
Funct ion
General soil type
Clean Clayey-siIty Clean
gravel gravel sand
Clayey-s i Ity
sand
Silt
Clay
Prevent rodents from burrowing
or tunnel ing
Keep flies from emerging
Minimize moisture entering
fill
Minimize landfill gas venting
through cover
Provide pleasing appearance
G
P
F-G
F
F-G
F-G
G
P
E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
'^Except when cracks extend through the entire cover.
"t"0nly if well drained.
P
G
G-E
G-E
P
G
G-E
G-E
P
E*
E*
and control blowing paper
Support vegetation
Be permeable for venting
decomposition gas^
E
P
E
E
G
P
E
P-F
G
E
E
P
E
G-E
P
E
F-G
P
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it is covered with soil and with grass and other vegetation. It is al-
most inevitable that a high amount of uneven settlement wil.1 occur and
recognition of this fact should influence the ultimate use of the site.
In general, it is not advisable to construct buildings over a closed
dump because it makes a poor foundation. Furthermore, gas from the decom-
posing waste may accumulate in explosive cbncentrations in or beneath
buildings constructed on or adjacent to the fill. Playgrounds, golf
courses, and similar recreational facilities do not normally have to
support appreciable concentrated loads, and converted dumps are often
used for these purposes, but they still require careful planning. Main-
tenance costs may be greater for recreational areas constructed on dumps
than on natural ground because of excessive and irregular settling and
possible cracking of the cover material.
The main objective of solid waste management should be the safe
and economic disposal of solid wastes, and the use of a completed site
should not conflict with this objective.
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REFERENCES
1. The Solid Waste Disposal Act; Title II of Public Law 89-272, 89th
Cong., S.306, October 20, 1965. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1966. 5 p.
2. National Association of Counties Research Foundation. Citizen
support for solid waste management. [Cincinnati], U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, [1970]. 20 p. (Also
published as chap. 8 of Public Health Service Publication
No. 2084. In press.)
3. Sherman, E. J., and J. E. Brooks. Roof rat elimination from a
refuse disposal site before closure. California Vector Views,
13(2):14-15, Feb. 1966.
k. Johnson, W. H., and B. F- Bjornson. Rodent eradication and poisoning
programs. Atlanta, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1964. 84 p.
5. Mall is, A. Handbook of pest control. 3d ed. New York, Mac Nair-
Dorland Company, I960. p. 46.
6. 1970 National Communicable Disease Center report on public health
pesticides. Pest Control, 38(3):15 ... 54, Mar. 1970.
7. Bjornson, B. F-, H. D. Pratt, and K. S. Littig. Control of domestic
rats & mice. Training Guide—Rodent Control Series. Public
Health Service Publication No. 563- Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1969- 41 p.
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APPENDIX A
AVAILABLE METHODS OF DISPOSAL
A sanitary landfill can be designed and operated so that solid
wastes can be disposed on land under conditions that control odor,
rodents, insects, and air and water pollution.1 In a sanitary land-
fill, solid waste is spread in thin layers, compacted to the smallest
practical volume, and covered with earth every day of operation in a
manner that safeguards against environmental pollution. No burning is
permitted. When the site is completed, it can become a community asset--
a green area or a recreation facility, for example. Proper planning
before filling actually begins can mean maximum use of the completed
si te.
Communities with limited space for sanitary landfilling should con-
sider processing to achieve volume reduction. Incineration is a controlled
combustion process used to reduce the volume of solid waste.2 When
properly designed, constructed, and operated, an incinerator can substan-
tially reduce the volume and weight of a community's solid,wastes without
damaging the environment. Certain wastes are not processed through a
conventional incinerator because they are too large, would not burn suffi-
ciently in the normal process time, or might damage or interfere with
the incinerator mechanism. These wastes, plus the residue from conventional
incineration, still require disposal on land in a sanitary manner.
Composting is another alternative and involves processing of wastes
for reuse as a soil conditioner-3 Although the economics of this process
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in the United States have not been favorable, composting combined with
separation for recycling of certain noncompostable components of solid
waste may provide a useful waste treatment method. The net cost to the
community depends on the availability of markets for the compost and
for the separated paper, metals, glass, and other salvaged materials.
Nonsalable residues of the process must still be disposed of in a sanitary
manner.
REFERENCES
1. Sorg, T. J., and H. L. Hickman, Jr. Sanitary landfill facts.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1792. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1970. 30 p.
2. DeMarco, J., D. J. Keller, J. Leckman, and J. L. Newton. In-
cinerator guidelines--1969. Public Health Service Publication
No. 2012. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969-
98 p.
3. American Public Works Association. Municipal refuse disposal.
2d ed. chap. 9. Chicago, Public Administration Service, 1966.
p. 279-315-
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