INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY-RTF
ANNUAL REPORT
1975
         '"**•••/
 OFFICE OF ENERGY, MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
 OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL  RESEARCH
LABORATORY (RESEARCH TRIANGLE  PARK]

     ANNUAL REPORT
     1975
                Office of Research and Development
               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
            Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
     Established on December 2, 1970,
     by Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970,
     the Environmental Protection Agency
     is the Federal Government's lead agency
     for pollution control and abatement.
     EPA is concerned with the environment
     as a single interrelated system
     and is directing a coordinated research,
     monitoring, standard-setting, and
     enforcement effort to restore and
     protect the quality of the environment.

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      This  report  has  been reviewed by the Environmental
 Protection Agency and approved for publication.  Mention
 of trade names, firms, or commercial products does not
 constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
     Additional copies of this report are available from:

          Technical Information Service
          Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
          Environmental Protection Agency
          Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  27711

     The Laboratory also publishes reports which give
details of the specific projects and programs.   A list of

available reports is available from the Laboratory's Technical

Information Service.  The reports are available to the general
public from:

          The National  Technical  Information Service
          U.S. Department of Commerce
          5285 Port Royal Road
          Springfield,  Virginia  22151
                         1i

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                               FOREWORD

     This annual report presents the highlights of the  programs and
accomplishments of EPA's Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory--
Research Triangle Park, between January 1 and December  31,  1975.   Its
approach is an intentional attempt to provide both the  non-technical
overview desired by the layman and sufficient technical  details for  the
professional.
     Although this is the first such report identified  with the abbreviated
title, IERL-RTP, it is not a new one.  Rather it is a continuation of  a
series of such reports describing the activities of people  who have  existed
as an organizational entity since 1965.  The three-letter abbreviation RTP,
following our name, is significant only because of the  existence  of  a
sister laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio, following a parallel, but  not
duplicative, course.
     Our former identity, Control Systems Laboratory, disappeared on
July 1, 1975, following the implementation of a major reorganization of
the program and management structures of EPA's Office of Research and
Development.  Among the benefits resulting from this reorganization  were
the delegation to us of greater resource management and program implemen-
tation responsibility, and a clarification and focussing of our mission
as part of the newly created Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry.
     Basically, IERL-RTP manages programs to develop and demonstrate
cost effective technologies to prevent, control, or abate pollution  from
operations with multimedia environmental impacts associated with  the
extraction, processing, conversion, and utilization of  energy and mineral
resources, as well  as with industrial processing and manufacturing.  The
Laboratory also supports the identification and evaluation  of environmental
control alternatives of those operations as well as the assessment of
associated environmental impacts.  Our program, consisting  of inhouse
activities, contracts, grants, and interagency agreements,  contributes
significantly to the protection of National health and  welfare through the
research and development of timely and cost-effective pollution control
technologies.
                                  iii

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      Although EPA is  primarily a  regulatory agency, the vital supportive
 role of research and  development  activities within the overall EPA mission
 must not be overlooked.   Adequate pollution control technology, for
 example, must be available  before effective standards for the protection
 of public health and  welfare  can  be set and successfully enforced; the
 development of ever more  efficient and economical environmental control
 technology benefits not only  the  affected industry, but ultimately every-
 one.   This is particularly  true considering the present energy situation;
 in the long run,  the  protection of our environment and the conservation
 of our natural  resources  are  integral parts of meeting our energy
 requirements  in  a viable  manner.
      This  report  indicates  EPA's  concrete support of, and dedication to,
 the practical  realization of  our  Nation's energy goals, as well as those
 of a  purely environmental nature.
January 1, 1976                    Dr. John K. Burchard
                                   Director
                                   Industrial Environmental
                                     Research Laboratory, RTP
                                  IV

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword                                                           i i i

Illustrations                                                       xi

INTRODUCTION                                                        1

     ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL                                5
          Sulfur Oxides (SO )                                       5
                           A
          Nitrogen Oxides (NO )                                     8
          Particulates       x                                     10
          Other Pollutants                                         10
     PROGRAM METHODOLOGY                                           12
     IERL-RTP PROGRAM AREAS                                        13
          Utility and Industrial Power                             13
               Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology                 13
               Waste and Water Pollution Control                   15
               Flue Gas Treatment for NO  Control                  16
               Thermal Pollution Control                           16
               Particulate Control Technology                      17
          Energy Assessment and Control                            18
               Nitrogen Oxides Control                             18
               Fluidized-Bed Combustion                            23
               Coal Cleaning                                       24
               Synthetic Fuels                                     27
               Advanced Oil Processing                             29
               Other Support                                       30
          Industrial Processes                                     32
               Chemical Processes                                  32
               Metallurgical Processes                             33
               Transient Operation                                 33
               Process Measurements                                34
          Program Operations                                       34
               Special Studies                                     34

ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL                                      37

     COMBUSTION RESEARCH                                           37
          Fundamental Research                                     39
               Combustion Chemistry                                40
               Combustion Aerodynamics                             42
          Fuels Research and Development                           44
          Process Research and Development                         48
          Field Testing and Assessment                             52

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                     Table  of Contents  (con.)
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL  (con.)

      FUEL  PROCESSES                                              58
           Fossil Fuels—Coal                                     59
               Coal Contaminant Characterization                 59
               Coal Cleaning                                     61
                    Technology Development                       63
                          Physical/Mechanical Coal Cleaning       63
                          Chemical Coal Cleaning                  65
               Synthetic  Fuels                                   67
                    Environmental Assessment                     68
                          High-Btu Gasification                   68
                          Low-Btu Gasification                    68
                          Liquefaction                            69
                    Control Technology Development               70
           Fossil Fuels—Oil                                      72
               Oil Composition                                   72
               Oil Treatment/Processing                          72
                    Demetallization                              72
                    Desulfurization                              72
                    Denitrification                              73
                    Effluent Controls                            73
           Fossil Fuels—Gas                                      73
           Fossil Fuels—Other                                    74
          Waste as a Fuel                                        74
     ADVANCED PROCESSES                                          77
           Fluidized-Bed Combustion                               77
               Fluidized-Bed Combustion of Coal                  77
               Fluidized-Bed Gasification/Desulfurization
                 of Residual Fuel Oil                            82
          Advanced Low-Emission/Energy-Conserving Systems/
            Strategies                                           82
               EPA-Van                                           83
               Heat and Emission Loss Prevention System
                 (HELPS)                                         83
               Electrical Energy and Waste Heat                  85
               Fuel  Distribution Pattern Flexibility             85

UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER                                   87

     PROCESS TECHNOLOGY                                          87
          Flue Gas Desulfurization—Regenerable Processes        87
               Magnesium Oxide (Chemico Mag-Ox) Scrubbing        87
               Sodium Sulfite/Bisulfite Scrubbing with
                 Thermal Regeneration                            89
               Catalytic Oxidation (Monsanto Cat-Ox)             92
               Citrate Process                                   95
               Sodium Hydroxide Scrubbing with Electrolytic
                 Regeneration                                    95

                                vi

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                      Table of Contents  (con.)

                                                                    Page

UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER (con.)

               Ammonia Scrubbing with  Bisulfate  Regeneration          99
               Activated Carbon                                     101
               Reductant Gases                                      103
               Non-Utility Combustion  Source  Control                 103
               Marketing Abatement Sulfur/Sulfuric Acid              105
               Engineering Applications/Information Transfer         106
          Flue Gas Treatment/NO  Removal                             107
                               J\
               Catalytic Reduction of  NO   with Ammonia               107
                                       xv
               Catalysts for Controlling  NO   Emissions               108
                                          A
               Advanced Concepts for NO   Control                     109
                                      J\
               NO  Control Strategy Assessment                       109
                 /{
               NO  Flue Gas Treatment  Pilot and  Prototype  Projects   110
     EMISSIONS/EFFLUENT TECHNOLOGY                                  111
          Flue Gas Desulfurization—Non-regenerable Processes        111
               Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing                          111
                    TVA's Shawnee Power Plant                       112
                    lERL-RTP's Pilot Plant                          114
                    City of Key West                                116
                    Bahco Process                                   117
               Double-Alkali                                         117
                    Technology Development                          118
                    General Motors Industrial Demonstration          118
                    Full-Scale Utility Demonstration                 119
               Survey of FGD Systems                                119
          Flue Gas Desulfurization—Waste and Water Pollution
            Control                                                  119
               FGC Waste Disposal Methods                           121
                    FGC Waste Characterization,  Disposal Evaluation,
                      and Transfer of  FGC Waste  Disposal Technology 121
                    Shawnee FGD Waste  Disposal Field  Evaluation      121
                    Louisville Gas and Electric  Evaluation of  FGD
                      Waste Disposal Options                         121
                    Lime/Limestone Scrubbing  Waste Characterization 123
                    Characterization of Effluents from  Coal-Fired
                      Power Plants                                  123
                    Ash Characterization  and  Disposal                123
                    Alternative Methods for Lime/Limestone
                      Scrubbing Waste  Disposal                       124
                    Alternative FGC Waste Disposal Sites             124
               FGC Wastes Utilization         ._                      124
                                VI1

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                       Table  of  Contents  (con.)
 UTILITIES  AND INDUSTRIAL  POWER  (con.)

                    Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Conversion
                       Pilot Studies                                 124
                    Gypsum By-product Marketing                     125
                    Fertilizer  Production Using Lime/Limestone
                       Scrubbing Wastes                              125
               Power Plant Water Reuse                              125
           Thermal Pollution Control                                 126
               Cooling Technology                                   126
               Waste Heat Utilization                               128
      PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY                                         129
           lERL-RTP's Parti oil ate Program                            130
               Measurement                                          130
               Characterization and Improvement of Conventional
                 Control Equipment and Assessment of the
                 Collectability of Dusts                            130
               New Particulate Control Technology Development       131
               New Idea Evaluation and Identification               131
               High-Temperature and High-Pressure Particulate
                 Control                                            131
               Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations                     131
          Current Program Status                                    131
               Measurement                                          131
               Characterization and Improvement of Conventional
                 Control Equipment                                  132
                    Electrostatic Precipitators                     132
                    Scrubbers                                       133
                    Fabric Filters                                  137
               Assessment of the Collectability of Dusts            139
               New Particulate Control Technology Development       139
               New Idea Evaluation and Identification               141
               High-Temperature/High-Pressure Particulate Control    142
               Accelerated Pilot Demonstrations                     143

INDUSTRIAL  PROCESSES                                                145

     CHEMICAL PROCESSES                                             145
          Fabricated Metal  Products                                  148
          Petrochemicals                                            149
               Ethylene Dichloride (EDC)  Processes                  149
               Vinyl  Chloride  (VC)                                   150
               Polychlorinated Biphenyls  (PCBs)                     150
          Inorganic  Chemicals                                        151

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                     Table  of Contents  (con.)
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES (con.)

          Agricultural  Chemicals                                    152
               Fertilizer                                          152
               Pesticides                                          154
               Herbicides                                          156
          Food Products                                            157
          Combustion                                               157
               Mechanical Cooling  Devices                           158
               Hazardous  and Toxic Emissions  from  Industrial
                 and Utility Boilers                                159
          Refineries                                               159
               Sulfur Oxides Control                                160
               Automobile Filling  Station  Control                   161
          Construction                                             161
          Textiles                                                 161
          Miscellaneous Industries                                 165
               Asphalt Roofing                                      165
               Glass Manufacture                                    166
               Asbestos Materials  Fabrication                      166
               Flare Systems                                       167
               Vegetative Stabilization of Mineral  Waste  Heaps      167
     GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL  ASSESSMENT  OF  ENERGY  SYSTEMS      168
     METALLURGICAL PROCESSES                                       169
          Ferrous Metallurgical Processes                           169
               Mining,  Beneficiation,  and  Pelletizing               170
               Steelmaking                                         172
                    Coke  Oven Emission Control                      172
                         Smokeless Coke Charging                   172
                         Enclosed  Coke Pushing and Quenching        178
                         Smokeless Coke Pushing                     180
                         Guidelines for Coke  Oven  Pollution
                           Control Applicability                   182
                         Characterization  of  Coke  Oven  Door
                           Emissions                                183
                         Improved  Coke Oven Door Seals              184
                    Blast Furnace  Cast House  Emission Control       185
                    Sinter Plant Windbox Emission  Control          185
                    Basic Oxygen Process Charging  Emission
                      Control                                      188
                    Iron  Foundry Processes                         190
                    Characterization  and Control of Ferroalloy
                      Furnace Emissions                            192
                    Fugitive Emissions                             196
               Control  of Effluent Discharges                      198
               U.S./USSR Task Force on Abatement-of Air
                  Pollution from the  Iron  and Steel Industry        201
                                 IX

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                       Table of  Contents  (con.)
 INDUSTRIAL  PROCESSES  (con.)

          Non-ferrous Metallurgical Processes                       201
                Control of Lean S02 Streams                          201

                    Application of Flue Gas Desulfurization
                      Technology                                    202
                    Application of Gas Stream Blending Technology   202
                    Application to Specific Smelters                203
                Control of Fugitive Emissions                        203
                Environmental Evaluation of New Metal-winning
                 Processes                                          204
                Development of Emission and Control Data Base        204
          Emission Characterization and Control—Transient
            Operation                                               205
     .PROCESS MEASUREMENTS                                           207
          Control Equipment Evaluation                              207
                Particle Measurement                                 207
                Chemical Analysis and Sampling                       208
          Environmental Assessment Testing Strategies               210

APPENDIX A.   The Industrial  Environmental Research Laboratory,
  Research Triangle Park                                            A-l

APPENDIX B.   Metric Conversion Factors                              B-l

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                           ILLUSTRATIONS



Figure No.                      Title                            Page

   1          Total U.S.  energy requirement                        3

   2          Value of Eastern and Central  coals meeting  new
               source performance standards  as  a function
               of efficiency of flue gas cleaning processes       4

   3          Control  of NOX emissions from coal-fired
               utility boilers                                    9

   4          Environmental assessment/control  technology
               development diagram                               19

             Total NOX emitted in the U.S. from stationary
               sources (1972)                                    38

             Experimental system for combustion modification
               and future fuel studies                           45

             225-KW gas turbine used for IERL-RTP in-house
               studies                                           49

             Precombustion chamber diesel  (300 HP) for
               stationary engine controls development            50

             Scotch marine boiler (60 HP)  for emission control
               equipment evaluation                              57

             Hypothetical simplified gasification flow
               diagram                                           62

             TRW Meyers process for coal desulfurization         66

             Controlling hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline
               bulk storage/loading terminal                     75

             The City of St. Louis municipal incinerator
               demonstrates recycling of household solid
               waste                                             76

             630-KW Exxon mini pi ant for pressurized
               (10 atm) fluidized-bed combustion of coal         80

             Artist's conception of EPA-Van    -  -               84

             EPA/Boston Edison demonstrate Mag-Ox process        88
                                  XI

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                          Illustrations (con.)
Figure No.                     Title                                Page
       Wellman-Lord  process  to be  demonstrated                       91
       EPA/Illinois  Power demonstrate Cat-Ox process                 93
       The  Citrate process                                          96
       WEPCO's  Valley  plant  pilots  Stone & Webster/Ionics
         process                                                    98
       Ammonia  scrubbing  with  bisulfite regeneration                100
       Activated carbon process                                     102
       Versatile lime/limestone wet scrubbing demonstration
         at  Shawnee plant                                         113
       IERL-RTP lime/limestone scrubber pilot plant                 115
       Three  20-MW prototype FGD systems at Gulf Power's
         Scholz plant                                              120
       Test pond for disposal  of Shawnee's chemically
         treated scrubber waste                                    122
       Capital cost of ESP's vs. computed performance               134
       Scrubber operating  cost vs.  aerodynamic cut
         diameter                                                  136
       Mining, beneficiation,  and pelletizing operation             171
       Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet
         1 of 2)                                                   173
       Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet
         2 of 2)                                                   174
       Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet
         1 of 2)                                                   175
       Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet
         2 of 2)                                                   176
       EPA/AISI coke charging  system                                177
       EPA/National  Steel   coke pushing and quenching system         179

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                       Illustrations (con.)
Figure No.                      Title                             Page

            Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission
              abatement system                                    181

            Weirton Steel Division sinter plant gas
              recirculation system                                187

            Basic oxygen process 1-ton capacity pilot
              vessel                                              189

            Iron foundry process emission sources                 191

            Ferroalloy production process                         193

            Open-hooded ferroalloy furnace                        195

            Enclosed ferroalloy furnace with fixed seals          195

            Particle sizing instruments evaluated in
              lERL-RTP's aerodynamic test facility study          209

            Source assessment sampling system (SASS)              212

  A-l       Organization of the Industrial Environmental
              Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park         A-5

  A-2       The basis for IERL-RTP programs                       A-6

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                             INTRODUCTION

     Since 1967 the Federal Government, in cooperation with industry,
has made a determined effort to develop technology to control  environ-
mental pollution produced by both stationary and mobile sources.
     An organization which is now the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park (IERL-RTP), North Carolina, was
designated to carry out the major part of the Government's share of the
effort relating particularly to stationary sources of air pollutants.
Since ORD's June 30, 1975, reorganization, however, lERL-RTP's pollu-
tion control efforts have been more encompassing.  Since that date,
and with the cooperation and assistance of EPA sister laboratories pre-
viously charged with appropriate pollution control responsibilities,
IERL-RTP has effectively accomplished a major redirection of effort to
provide a multimedia approach to pollution control problems.  The new
multimedia program concerns itself with air, water, solid waste, thermal
discharge, pesticides, and energy-conserving aspects of environmental
pollution.
     Congressional direction for this effort is provided principally
by the Air Quality Acts of 1967 and 1970, and the Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Acts and its Amendments.
     The latter cites two national policies specifically applicable
to IERL-RTP:  the prohibition of "discharge of toxic pollutants in
toxic amounts," and a major research and demonstration effort to "de-
velop technology necessary to eliminate the discharge of pollutants  in-
to the navigable waters, waters of the contiguous zone, and the oceans."
Sec. 105 of the Act authorizes "research and demonstration projects
for prevention of pollution of any waters by industry including, but
not limited to, the prevention, reduction, and elimination of the dis-
charge of pollutants."
     Among the purposes cited in Section 101 of  the Air Quality Acts
are:  "to protect and enhance the quality of the  Nation's air resources
so as to promote the public health and welfare-and the productive
capacity of its population; (and) to initiate and accelerate  a national

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 research and  development  program  to achieve the prevention and control
 of air pollution	"
      Two other  sections of  the Air Quality Acts are also significant,
 indicating  Congressional  support  of specific activities of IERL-RTP:
 Section 103 (Research, Investigation, Training, and Other Activities)
 and Section 104 (Research Relating to Fuels and Vehicles).
      In Section 103, EPA's  Administrator is authorized to establish a
 national  research and development program for the prevention and con-
 trol  of air pollution and,  as part of that program, to conduct and pro-
 mote the coordination and acceleration of research, investigations,
 experiments,  training, demonstrations, surveys, and studies relating
 to  the  causes,  effects, extent, prevention, and control of air pollu-
 tion.   Section  104  specifically emphasizes research into and develop-
 ment of new and improved  methods, with industry-wide application, of
 preventing  and  controlling  air pollution resulting from fuels combustion.
      Figure 1 displays the  energy requirements* that relate the problem
 of  air  pollution to the single largest source of air pollution—fuel
 combustion.
     The main cause of air  pollution is combustion, accounting for over
 80  percent  of the mass of recognized air pollutants, with both mobile
 and  stationary  sources contributing in a substantial manner.  If
 metallurgical processes and oil refining are added to combustion, the
 total will  be about 90 percent of the total mass.
      In  line with the U.S.  energy policy to increase the Nation's self-
 sufficiency in energy resources,  a closer look has been taken at our
 coal reserves which are relatively abundant in contrast to our limited
 oil  and gas reserves.  Only about 7 percent of our coal resources, how-
 ever, are usable under the  New Source Performance Standards.  Figure 2
 shows the need  to develop techniques to permit the use of Eastern and
 Western coals.
     *Although EPA policy is to use metric units, this report contains
certain nonmetric units for the convenience of the reader.  Use the
factors in Appendix B to convert to metric equivalents.

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                    U.S. RESERVES-
                       COAL (CURRENTLY RECOVERABLE):  3.6 x 10*8 Btu
                       COAL (USGS TOTAL ESTIMATED):     77   x 10*8 Btu
                       URANIUM (LIGHT WATER REACTOR):   0.84 x 10*8 Btul
                       URANIUM (BREEDER REACTOR):      18.5 x 10*8 Btu
               OIL
                                                                 1985 -116 X 1015 Btu
                                                100-
               COAL
         SSSi&d NUCLEAR AND OTHER
                1972 -  72 X 1015 Btu
100-
    90—


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                                                 90—
                                                 80 —
                                                 70-
                                                 60—
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                                                         '
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              25        50       75

                  IMPORTS, percent
                                              100
	I	I	1"
   25        50        75
       IMPORTS, percent
100
                          Figure 1.  Total U.S.  energy requirement.

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     9375
    7500
     5625
Ul
o
cc
3
O
t/j
                                 ESSENTIALLY ALL KNOWN RESERVES MADE
                                 AVAILABLE BY 95% EFFICIENT FLUE GAS
                                 CLEANING PROCESSES (EXAMPLE: WELLMAN-
                                 LORO PROCESS)
o
CJ
o
LU
3750
    1875
                             ADDITIONAL RESERVES (TO 2.5% S) MEETING
                             NSPS MADE AVAILABLE BY 75% EFFICIENT
                             FLUE GAS SCRUBBING PROCESSES NOW
                             BECOMING COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
                             (EXAMPLE: WET LIMESTONE SCRUBBING)
                                 NATURALLY OCCURRING LOW-SULFUR
                                 COAL (<0.7% S) WHICH MEETS NSPS
              Figure 2.  Value of Eastern and Central coals meeting new source performance
              standards as a function of efficiency of flue gas cleaning processes.

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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL
     The development and demonstration of environmental pollution con-
trol technology is one of EPA's largest tasks.  Approximately $58
million were devoted to this effort in FY 75.  These funds supported
both lERL-RTP's on-going studies to demonstrate control methods for
sulfur and nitrogen oxides, particulates, and other pollutants, and
its expanded programs addressing the environmental aspects of accel-
erated energy resource development in the United States.
     lERL-RTP's goal in stationary source air pollution control de-
velopment is fourfold:
     0  To describe at least one method for control of each major
        source of pollution.
     0  To provide a technical base for the Agency's enforcement
        activities.
     0  To establish technical and economic data to support New
        Source Performance Standards (NSPS).
     0  To provide information required to make environmentally
        sound decisions on energy development policy.
Sulfur Oxides (SO..)
                 X
     Consistent with Congressional guidelines and the energy/pollution
relationships, lERL-RTP's major concern has been with the control of
sulfur oxides from fuel combustion.  About 80 percent of the Laboratory's
total expenditures to date have been in this area and have been concen-
trated on flue gas cleaning.
     This emphasis has been dictated by its economic feasibility, and
by its availability for near-term application as compared to other  SO
                                                                     X
control options.  IERL-RTP has funded, either totally or partially, a
number of major projects over the past several years, including those
tabulated below.
     The major demonstration projects are supported and supplemented
by other full scale testing, numerous engineering studies, and smaller
scale hardware projects.  The commercial economics of FGD byproduct
marketing and disposal options, and the evaluation of new processes
and process improvements are the subjects of continuing engineering
efforts.  A major effort underway in technology transfer will  promote

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 PRESENT AND  PROJECTED FLUE GAS CLEANING DEMONSTRATIONS


                                            Removal
 Process (application)	Startup	efficiency. %

       Large-Scale Electric Utility Application

 Wet limestone scrubbing
  {Shawnee-TVA:  30 MW,
  coal)                       4/72           75-90

 MgO scrubbing
  (Chemico:   155 MW, oil)     5/72           85-90

 MgO scrubbing
  (Chemico:   100 MW, coal)    7/74           85-90

 Cat-Ox
  (Monsanto:  100 MW,
  coal)                     12/74           85-90

 Wellman-Lord
  (115 MW, coal)             12/75           90-95
    Smaller Scale Industrial/Commercial Application

Double alkali
 (General Motors:  30 MW,
 coal)                       3/74           85-95

Wet limestone scrubbing
 (Key West:  40 MW, oil)     1/74           60-80

     aSystem has operated only for very short test
periods.

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use of the best and most reliable techniques and equipment for future
FGD installations.
     A second method of reducing SO  emissions is to remove sulfur and
                                   J\
other contaminants from the fuel prior to combustion.  This pretreat-
ment method of control is appropriate to SO  sources smaller than
                                           X
electric utility size; e.g., boilers and fuel-burning equipment.  IERL-
RTP is supporting programs for research, development, and environmental
assessment of several approaches for removing pollutants from fuels.
One technique—coal cleaning—involves methods of physically and/or
chemically cleaning coal of moderate sulfur content so that it can be
burned in conformance with clean air standards.  lERL-RTP's objectives
in this area are to develop commercially available processes for remov-
ing inorganic sulfur and ash from medium sulfur coal and, at the same
time, rendering the coal-cleaning wastes suitable for reclamation or
disposal in an environmentally acceptable manner.  Another IERL-RTP
program area involves clean synthetic fuels (high- and low-Btu gasified
coal and liquefied coal).  The major objectives are to determine the
potential environmental impacts of synthetic fuel processing, and to
develop control technology to minimize the negative effects of these
environmental impacts.
     A third method for controlling SO  involves modification of the
                                      A
combustion process.  Fluidized-bed combustion  (FBC) is the primary
approach under consideration.  As part of the National Fluidized-Bed
Combustion Program coordinated by ERDA, EPA is conducting R&D to de-
termine potential environmental problems arising from alternative de-
signs and use of fluidized-bed combustors.  IERL-RTP's participation
in the interagency program consists of conducting environmental assess-
ments of FBC systems; optimization for control of S02> NO  , fine
                                                         .A
particulates, and other pollutants; and by continued testing of IERL-
RTP's small (0.63 MW) FBC pilot miniplant.
     In addition to combustion sources, industrial processes make a
significant contribution to the ambient SO  problem.  An effort is
                                          X
underway to evaluate and demonstrate SO  controT" by a commercial mo-
                                       A
lecular sieve process (PuraSiv S) on tail gases from sulfuric acid
production.  The evaluation shows that the molecular sieve process  is

-------
 capable of limiting the SO  concentration to 100 ppm in tail  gases for
                           A
 most sulfuric acid plants.  Work has also been initiated to identify
 alternate technologies for reducing petroleum refinery SO  emissions
 to 80-90 percent below 1974 levels.
 Nitrogen Oxides (NO )
                    A
      Combustion modification is the primary existing control  technique
 for preventing or minimizing NO  emissions from fossil-fuel burning.
                                X
 Efforts supported and directed by IERL-RTP have shown that recircula-
 ting flue gas is a most effective technique for controlling NO  emis-
                                                               X
 sions originating from thermal fixation of atmospheric nitrogen during
 the combustion of clean fuels (natural  gas and distillate oils).
 Staged combustion (often combined with  low excess air) is an  effective
 method for controlling NO  emissions derived both from the thermal
                          X
 fixation of nitrogen emissions in the combustion air and from the con-
 version of nitrogen atoms chemically bound in the fuel  (heavy oils and
 coal).   Additional  IERL-RTP R&D efforts are aimed at:  burner/combustor
 system redesign;  investigating novel  combustion modification  approaches
 (such as catalytic  combustion, advanced power cycles, and alternate
 fuels)  for emission reduction; and providing a basic understanding of
 the  physical  and  chemical  factors influencing the formation and degra-
 dation  of pollutants through fundamental  combustion  research.
      NO  flue gas  treatment (FGT) is  a  relatively new control  technique
        X
 under  investigation for its potential in  accomplishing high efficiency
 control  of large  stationary sources.  A program, eventually leading to
 a demonstration of  the technique on large coal-fired sources,  is in
 direct  response to  increasing evidence  that high level  control  may be
 required  to meet  future NO  standards.   Since NO  FGT processes are now
                           X                     X
 being applied  commercially in Japan on  gas- and oil-fired sources, the
 IERL-RTP  program approach will  be to  import the best Japanese  processes
and adapt  these systems for coal-fired  sources.
     Figure 3  is a  graphic  representation of IERL-RTP's efforts to
achieve  effective and  economic  control  of NO  in coal  combustion, a
                                             A
most difficult area.

-------
1200
innn

^~
2? ann
o ouu
CVI
o
as
CO
^
0.
a.
2 600

FIELD TESTING
i
	
L
I.
71
/- PROJECTED
/ r ACTUAL
K
\ ^-.
(700 ppm) *. . . _
^. FIELD TEST *\
Vv. RESULTS. \
^°< \
RESULTS FROM FIELD x s ' v NSPS (W ^ * W$ OKI GNED
ADDI ir>ATinM nc ICT V -«w ^ '' ' uuiuctij utaiuiicu
APPLICATION OF 1ST ^v X ., WITH LOW NOX
GENERATION RETROFIT — 	 ^^^ X. /' CAPABILITY
TECHNOLOGY — ' *>CX> ^ • *^/
"•^-o^-^.
ENGINEERING R, D & D (300 ppm) ' ' — *^
\ \
•
\ _
FUNDAMENTAL COMBUSTION RESEARCH (150 ppm) ' ' x^
\
72 73 74 75 76 77
CALENDAR YEAR
FigureS.  Control of NOX emissions from coal-fired utility boilers.

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      Finally, in the industrial  area,  IERL-RTP  is  currently  supporting
 a project to evaluate and demonstrate  NO  control  by a  commercial mo-
                                         J\
 lecular sieve process (PuraSiv N)  on tail gases from nitric  acid
 plants.  The evaluation demonstrates that the molecular sieve  process
 is capable of economically limiting NO  concentrations  to  at least  100
                                       /\
 ppm and quite possibly to 50 ppm on tail gases  from absorbers  in  nitric
 acid production.
 Particulates
      Control technology for large  particulates  has  been fairly well
 established.  lERL-RTP's efforts are now mainly concerned  with develop-
 ing techniques to control  fine particulates  (defined as that fraction
 of the  particulate emission smaller than 3 microns).  These  small
 particles  remain suspended in the  atmosphere and are easily  respirable
 and absorbable by the body.   Fine  particulates  may  contain toxic  trace
 metals  and sulfates,  both  of which have  considerable impact  on health.
 One current program seeks  to better define the  physical  and  chemical
 character  of fine particulates.  Control  technology for fine particu-
 lates is still  seriously deficient.  lERL-RTP's  present efforts center
 on  developing  adequate  detection and measurement methods and on develop-
 ing and field  testing control  methods.   Additionally, IERL-RTP is work-
 ing to  improve  and  demonstrate existing  collection  capability  for fine
 particulate  control and  to  identify  and  ultimately  to demonstrate novel
 techniques which  will offer  both economic and performance  advantages
 over current methods.
 Other Pollutants
     IERL-RTP control technology research  efforts are underway for  a
 number of  noncriteria pollutants,  for which no emissions standards
 have been  established, and for the three  noncriteria pollutants
 (asbestos, mercury, and beryllium) for which National Emissions Stan-
 dards for  Hazardous Pollutants now exist.  These potentially harmful
 materials  ("other"  pollutants) include:   trace metals,  polycyclic organic
 matter  (POM), miscellaneous hydrocarbons,  fluorides, and odors.
     To assess the emission of these pollutants, several tasks are  being
 funded by  IERL-RTP for the field testing of coal-fired  utility and  in-
dustrial boilers, and for limited source characterization for  gas-  and

                                10

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oil-fired units.  A field testing program is also planned for residen-
tial and commercial heating units.
     Source assessment has also been started for certain chemical proc-
essing industries.  Objectives of this IERL-RTP program are to assess
the environmental impact of sources of toxic and potentially hazardous
air emissions in the organic materials, inorganic materials, combustion,
and open source categories, and to determine the need for control tech-
nology development for given source types.  Sources being assessed in-
clude petroleum refining, acrylonitrile, asphalt paving, solvent evapor-
ation operations, rubber and plastic processing, phthalic anhydride,
polyvinyl chloride, glass manufacturing, barium chemicals, fertilizer
mixing plants, brick kilns, lead storage batteries, and ammonium nitrate.
     Control technology for the ferrous metallurgical industries is
under extensive development by IERL-RTP.  Included in this area are
emissions from coke-making, sintering, iron-making in the blast furnace,
and steel-making in the basic oxygen furnace.  Additional programs are
underway to assess and characterize fugitive emissions from integrated
iron and steel plants and from the mining, beneficiation, and pelletizing
of iron ores.
     IERL-RTP efforts are underway to establish control techniques both
for open sources and for selected closed sources of asbestos.  The key
sources include mining, milling, and manufacturing sites.  Manufacturing
sites tend to be located predominantly in urban areas and, thus, sub-
stantially increase human exposure to asbestos.  The objectives  here
are to develop and demonstrate control technology for handling,  unload-
ing, and disposal operations, and to demonstrate a specific methodology
for controlling closed sources of asbestos in manufacturing operations.
Completed programs include a study to identify  the sources of asbestos
in the mining industry and a project to identify the optimum operating
mode for maximum efficiency of baghouses for control of asbestos fibers.
This work is undertaken to supplement control via National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants, since their effectiveness  is
still unknown.
                                  11

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     Lastly, IERL-RTP is continuing development at the pilot plant
level for the following sources:  glass manufacturing plants, refinery
crackers, asphalt roofing plants, ethylene dichloride plants, coating
operations for metal cans, hydrocarbon control for gasoline distribu-
tion systems, and odor control for the rendering industry.
PROGRAM METHODOLOGY
     Over the past 7 years, the Federal Government has gained perspec-
tive and experience concerning its most effective involvement in pol-
lution control  activities.  The following considerations support a
federally coordinated environmental pollution control research and
development effort:
     0  In order to achieve cost-effective environmental pollution con-
        trol  to protect health and welfare, it seems clear that regula-
        tions should be based on a solid information foundation.  This
        may include such detailed knowledge about the pollutants as
        health  and welfare effects, sources and amounts, ambient concen-
        trations, available control technology, and opportunities for
        research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) of new control
        technology.
     0  Few economic incentives exist for private industry to develop
        new technology to control environmental pollution, because the
        people  benefitting from the control are not the ones directly
        paying  for it.   Traditional forces of the market place tend to
        preclude industrial  expenditures unrelated to profits.
     0  Legal regulatory pressure, coupled with RD&D programs funded
        jointly by Government and industry, appears to provide an ef-
        fective mechanism to ensure the availability of the necessary
        advanced environmental pollution control technology.  Users will
        not generally apply control technology unless required to do so
        by law.   Conversely,  it would appear impractical to shut down
        large segments  of industry if technically and economically
        feasible control  devices are not available.  Thus joint industry/
        Government technology development is desirable so that a common
        understanding of the  availability of technology is shared by
        industry and Government.

                                 12

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IERL-RTP PROGRAM AREAS
     Programs being pursued by IERL-RTP's Divisions and Branches have
been realigned to reflect the multimedia and energy-related innovations
resulting from EPA's recent Office of Research and Development re-
organization.
     The newly aligned functions fall into three natural  categories:
utilities and industrial power, energy assessment and control, and
industrial processes.  A fourth function, related but not identified
with any other single current program, is supportive of all IERL-RTP
components.  This fourth function falls in the category of special
studies, relating to program operations.
Utility and Industrial Power
     The lERL-RTP's Utilities and Industrial Power program was formu-
lated to ensure that adequate controls are available to prevent and
abate pollution from utility and industrial power sources.  To achieve
this objective, the program involves multimedia research, development,
demonstration, and environmental assessment.  Major elements of this
program include:  flue gas desulfurization technology, waste and water
utilization control, flue gas treatment for NO  removal, thermal pol-
                                              A
lution control, and particulate control technology.
     FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION TECHNOLOGY
     Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology is the only near-term
technological approach to utilizing plentiful high-sulfur coal supplies
without excessive deleterious SO  emissions.  FGD technology develop-
                                J\
ment and assessment, therefore, are afforded a high priority.  Studies
indicate that FGD will be competitive in cost with advanced control
methods (e.g., chemical coal cleaning, fluidized-bed combustion);
therefore, FGD may play an important role in controlling emissions
even in the post-1980 time period.
     FGD technology has progressed rapidly over the past 3 years.
Several commercial FGD installations are achieving high SO  removal
                                                          .A
efficiency with good reliability.  EPA believes that lime and limestone
FGD processes can now be considered demonstrated technology, capable  of
being confidently applied to full-scale utility boilers.   However,  more
                                 13

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 work remains to be done in  the FGD  technology area, including the de-
 velopment of cost-effective environmentally acceptable disposal tech-
 nology for the large  quantities of  sludge produced from lime and lime-
 stone systems; the development and  demonstration of improved lime and
 limestone process  variations which  will minimize cost and energy usage
 and improve sludge properties;  and  the development and demonstration of
 economically viable regenerable FGD systems producing sulfur and sulfuric
 acid instead of sludge.
      For the last  7 years,  IERL-RTP has been conducting a comprehensive
 FGD development and technology  transfer program, which has been instru-
 mental  in accelerating  the  commercial viability of FGD technology.
 This  program has aimed  at demonstrating reliable and cost-effective
 FGD processes,  yielding  both nonregenerable (throwaway) products and
 regenerable (or saleable) sulfur products.
      lERL-RTP's  major program  in the nonregenerable area is the lime/
 limestone prototype test program operating in cooperation with the
 Tennessee Valley Authority  at  the letter's Shawnee Steam Plant.  This
 program  has  been instrumental  in identifying reliable, cost-effective
 process  variations  for  both  lime and limestone scrubbing systems.  Work
 continues  on  developing  improved process variations offering cost and
 operational  advantages over  present commercial processes.  Also in the
 nonregenerable  FGD  area, IERL-RTP has initiated a comprehensive program
 aimed at  identifying environmental  problems associated with scrubber
 sludge disposal, along with  development and evaluation of appropriate
 control  practices.  In order to provide a nonregenerable alternative to
 lime/limestone systems, IERL-RTP is now undertaking the demonstration
 of the double alkali scrubbing process on a full-scale coal-fired
 boiler; this process offers the promise of significant reliability and
 cost advantages.
     In the regenerable FGD area,  IERL-RTP has pursued an aggressive
 RD&D program aimed at identifying  cost-effective processes with wide
 applicability producing saleable sulfur products.   EPA is working with
 the Department of the Interior in  developing sodium citrate scrubbing,
a promising regenerable system.  EPA and TVA are working together to

-------
develop another advanced process known as amnonium scrubbing—ammonium
bisulfate regeneration.  Other regenerate processes which have proven
to be promising at pilot- or prototype-scale are being,  or will be,
evaluated on full-scale coal-fired utility boilers as part of the
IERL-RTP FGD demonstration program:  Wellman Lord (producing sulfur),
magnesium oxide (producing sulfuric acid), and a second  generation
process (producing sulfur) to be selected.
     WASTE AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
     A comprehensive research and development program is being conducted
by IERL-RTP to evaluate, develop, demonstrate, and recommend environ-
mentally acceptable, cost-effective techniques for disposal and utiliza-
tion of wastes from flue gas cleaning systems, with emphasis on FGD
sludge.  Efforts are also being conducted to evaluate and demonstrate
systems for maximizing power plant water recycle/reuse.   This program
is a continuation and expansion of modest efforts initiated in the late
1960's in support of limestone scrubbing projects.
     Projects under the program include laboratory and pilot field
studies of disposal techniques for untreated and chemically treated FGD
sludges (e.g., lined and unlined ponding and landfill, coal mine dis-
posal, and ocean disposal); bench- and pilot-scale testing of FGD
sludge utilization schemes (e.g., sludge conversion to sulfur [with
regeneration of calcium carbonate]); and pilot/prototype testing of
water treatment schemes for maximizing overall power plant water recycle/
reuse.  Engineering cost studies of each process/technique being de-
veloped are also being conducted under this program.  In addition,
several related projects are being conducted at TVA under  IERL-RTP
sponsorship (e.g., fly ash characterization, disposal, and utilization
studies; FGD sludge solids characterization studies; bench/pilot
studies of FGD sludge use in fertilizer; FGD gypsum marketing  studies;
and studies of coal pile drainage, ash pond effluents, and other power
plant water discharges).
     Results from the program are being published in an annual summary
report, the first of which will be issued in early 1976.   Plans are to
continue current efforts to expand efforts in FGD waste utilization.
                                  15

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      FLUE GAS TREATMENT FOR NOV CONTROL
                               A
      Another important part of lERL-RTP's environmental  program relat-
 ing to coal combustion is the NO  flue gas treatment (FGT)  program.
                                 X
 This program is designed to produce a detailed state-of-the-art tech-
 nology assessment as well as an assessment of the extent to which  FGT
 could be used in an optimized control strategy for stationary  sources.
 Based on these assessments, the program is designed to  provide for the
 development and demonstration of FGT technology and to  produce infor-
 mation concerning the economic, energy, and environmental aspects  of
 commercial  application.
      The FGT program has four major elements:
      0  Ongoing bench- and pilot-scale efforts directed  toward NO
                                                                 A
         removal  in the presence of low SO  concentrations.
                                          A
      0   Development of control  technologies to remove both  SO   and
         NOX.
      0   Evaluation of both U.S.  and foreign technologies  to identify
         the most promising for U.S.  application.
      0   Larger scale prototype testing and demonstration.
      THERMAL  POLLUTION CONTROL
      Power  plants  reject enormous  amounts of heat energy which  is  no
 longer  able to perform useful  work in the power production  cycle.  Cur-
 rent  projections  indicate that  waste  heat rejection  from central power
 stations in  the year 2000 will  nearly equal  the total U.S.  energy
 consumption  in  1970.   Under  the  provisions  of  the  Federal Water Pollu-
 tion  Control  Act Amendments  of  1972,  EPA  is  required to regulate thermal
 effluents.   lERL-RTP's research  and development program in  the  thermal
 control area  is supportive of the  Agency's  statutory requirements  and
 falls primarily into  two  broad areas:   combustion  source cooling
 technology, and waste  heat utilization.   Programs  underway  in the  former
 area include  analysis  of  1st generation cooling  system performance
 and economics, assessment of advanced  heat  rejection techniques, and
 development of control technology  for  treatment and reuse/recycle of
 cooling system effluent streams.  Waste heat utilization studies pres-
ently underway involve primarily agricultural applications.   Aquaculture
                                16

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uses may merit future consideration.
     PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
     lERL-RTP's program for particulate control  is designed to establish
engineering design techniques and performance models, and to improve the
collection capability and economics of control devices for particulate
matter.
     Attainment of the present Primary Standard for particulates in some
cases will be difficult and expensive with existing technology; attain-
ment of the Secondary Standard (or a more stringent Primary Standard)
appears impossible without improved technology.   There are two basic
causes for this:  (1) particulate control technology has limited control
capability, in many cases even for coarse particulate; and (2) technical
and economic factors often prevent control technology from being feasible
in specific industrial applications.
     IERL-RTP is placing increased emphasis on the control of fine par-
ticulates which persist in the atmosphere, comprise a variety of known
toxic substances, and are major contributors to atmospheric haze and
visibility problems.  The objective is the development and demonstra-
tion of control technologies capable of effectively removing large frac-
tions of the under-3 \im size particles from effluents.  The technical
approach is to identify capabilities of existing equipment (electro-
static precipitators [ESPs], filters, scrubbers, and proprietary de-
vices), to determine deficiencies in present design and operating pro-
cedures, and to pursue remedies for the deficiencies through research
and development.  New concepts will be applied as discovered, and
successful advancements in removal technology will be demonstrated.
Results will be applicable to improvements in high temperature, high
pressure, particulate removal devices.
     Actual source tests have shown that both ESPs and baghouses should
be capable of controlling fine particulate from a limited number of
sources emitting fly ash.  It is quite possible that the applicability
of ESPs to fine particulate control over a broad range of sources can
be extended by developing dust conditioning techn-iques and by modifying
the design of charging sections and collecting electrodes.  During  1975,
                                 17

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 a mathematical model for the design of ESPs was completed; this will
 allow cost-effective design for specific participate control tech-
 nology applications.  Also completed was the total characterization of
 seven ESPs operating on a number of sources ranging from power plants
 to aluminum plants; results show that ESPs can collect particles of
 all sizes with high efficiency when dust resistivity is not a problem.
      Field tests on eight scrubbers show that scrubbers are not good
 collectors of fine particulate at a reasonable energy consumption.
 lERL-RTP's program to improve scrubbers is directed toward using con-
 densation to reduce these energy requirements.
 Energy Assessment and Control
      lERL-RTP's activities relating to energy assessment and control
 are focused on two primary objectives:  utility and industrial power; •
 and energy control technology (fuel processing).  Within these objec-
 tives are several  energy technology areas:
      0  Nitrogen oxides control.
      0  Fluidized-bed combustion.
      0  Coal  cleaning.
      0  Synthetic  fuels.
      0  Advanced oil  processing.
      0  Other  support (wastes-as-fuel, conservation,  advanced energy
         systems).
      The major activities  of  these  programs,  environmental  assessment
and control  technology  development, can best  be described in  terms of
the components and  their relationships as  depicted in the upper (En-
vironmental  Engineering) portion  of Figure  4.   EPA has been given  re-
sponsibilities for  environmental  assessment and control  technology
development  in  the  energy area to ensure an independent  and timely
environmental consideration of this national  priority.
     NITROGEN OXIDES  CONTROL
      IERL-RTP activities relating to NO and  other combustion pollutant
                                        .A
control  include the following subobjectives:
     0   NO.. Environmental Assessment/Applications  Testing—Determination
         """"A
of the environmental  emissions of NO   and other combustion-related
                                    X
pollutants from stationary combustion  sources.   Evaluation  of the

                                  18

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ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ACQUISITION
  Existing Data
  Identify Sampling and Analytical
   Techniques
  Ttjl Program Dev.
  Comprehensive Wisti Stream
   Characterization
  Input-Output Materials Characterization
CURRENT ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
        BACKGROUND
  Process Info
  Schedules
  Status
  Priorities
                                     CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
                                        Engineering Analysis
                                        Basic and Applied Processes Oev.
                                        Specific Process Dev. and Eval.
   CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL
        BACKGROUND
     Potential Pollutants and Impacts
      in all Media
     Doie/Responsi Data
     Fed./State Stds. Criteria
     Transport Models
     ENVIRONMENTAL ENGRG

     ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
    ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
     TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
                                    CONTROL TECH. ASSESSMENT
                                       Control System and Disposal Option
                                        Info and Design Princ.
                                       Control Process Pollution and Impacts
                                       Process Engrg. Pollutant/Cost
                                        Sensitivity Studies
                                       Accidental Helejj», Malfunction,
                                        Transient Operation Studies
                                       Field Testing
                                       Define Best Control Tech. for Each Goa
                                       Control Tech. R&O Recommen.
                                                                    ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIVES
                                                                          DEVELOPMENT
                                                                      Est. Permissible Media Cone, for
                                                                       Control Dev. Guidance (Goal III)
                                                                      Define Emission Goals
                                                                      Prioritize Sources Problems
                                                                      Prioritize Pollutants
                                                                      Control R&D Goals
                                                                      Nonpollutant Impact Goals
                                          ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES R&D
                                           Health/Ecological Effects Research
                                           Transport/Transformation Research
                                                                                                                              ENVIRONMENTAL ENCRO
                                                                                                                              TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
                                                                                                                                                             MEDIA DEGRADATION AND
                                                                                                                                                              HEALTH/ECOLOGICAL
                                                                                                                                                                IMPACTS ANALYSIS
                                                                                                                                                               Air.Water&Land
                                                                                                                                                                  Quality
                                                                                                                                                               Increiied Sickness
                                                                                                                                                                  & Death
                                                                                                                                                               Ecology Related
                                                                                                                                                                  Effects
                                                                                                                                                               Material Related
                                                                                                                                                                  Effects
                                                                                                                                                          Quantified
                                                                                                                                                           Effects
                                                                                                                                                          Alternatives
        Figure 4.   Environmental  assessment/control technology development diagram.

-------
 environmental  effectiveness and impact (as compared to the uncontrolled
 state) of combustion control  modifications including alternative  operat-
 ing conditions, retrofit control, maximum stationary source technology
 (MSST) for existing units—extensive  retrofit,  and  MSST for new units-
 optimized design or alternate processes.
      0  Develop Combustion  Modification  Technology  for NO  —Development
                                                         A
 and demonstration of practical  combustion modification technology for
 controlling NO  and related combustion generated  pollutants from
               A
 utility boilers, commercial boilers,  industrial boilers, residential
 heating systems, industrial process furnaces, stationary engines, and
 advanced processes.
      In order  to carry  out  this  program  a major contractor will be used
 to  perform a detailed environmental assessment and  systems analysis of
 the effect of  application of  NO  combustion modification technology to
                               A
 major stationary combustion sources.   The effect  on equipment and system
 performance and economics will  be evaluated in addition to the effect
 on  emission of NO  and  a wide range of other combustion-related pollu-
                  A
 tants.   Analyses will be performed to  assess the  impact of the control
 technologies as applied to  various sources on the environmental quality
 of  various regions  or areas,  and to investigate various NO  strategy
                                                           A
 options.
      A  series  of field  testing and characterization studies are being
 performed  for  various source  categories  or equipment  types to determine
 the  level  of emissions  without controls  (baseline),  as  well  as the
 levels  achievable with  optimized operating conditions,  with state-of-
 the-art control  technology, and  with extensive retrofit of technology
 to  existing  sources.  Generalized engineering and analytical support
 studies  are  being undertaken  as  required  to accomplish  objectives.
      Since  over 98 percent  of the NO   from stationary sources are
                                    X
formed  during  the combustion  of  fuels, the logical  approach to control
is the modification of  the  conditions  under which fuel  combustion
takes place.   The techniques  which can be  used are  well documented and
offer potential  for substantial  control of NOV (50-  to  90-plus percent),
                                             A
depending on a  variety  of factors.  In addition, these  techniques can
                                  20

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be optimized to reduce or eliminate emissions of other pollutants
(such as CO, unburned hydrocarbon, and carbon particulate)  and to in-
crease system efficiency by optimizing system design and operating
characteristics.
     The approach builds on a solid technology base for conventional
fossil fuels and generates new technology for both conventional  and
alternate fuels.  The emphasis is on source-specific field  application
of control techniques to a variety of stationary sources, including
utility, industrial, and commercial boilers; residential furnaces;
industrial process furnaces; stationary engines; and advanced processes.
The applications range from minor hardware changes on existing sources
for establishing short-term control technology to complete  system
redesign for optimizing all energy and emission aspects of  specific
equipment classes.  The field application studies are supported and
guided by activities in:  generalized burner and system development,
advanced system development based on novel concepts, combustion evalua-
tion of alternate fuels, and fundamental and analytical research.
     Field application of techniques for many optimized conventional
fossil fuel combustion systems will be completed by June 1980, and
design criteria for alternate fuels and advanced systems will be de-
veloped and partially demonstrated by that time.  Due to lags between
development and application of technology attributable to normal
scheduling and logistic considerations, it can be expected that field
application of concepts in the latter class will be accomplished be-
tween 1980 and 1985.  In carrying out this program, a combination of
numerous contract, research grant, interagency, and in-house  projects
are being undertaken.
     Significant accomplishments of lERL-RTP's combustion control pro-
gram include:
     0  Identification and characterization of stationary NO  source
                                                            A
        categories.
     0  Collection of field test data and established  state-of-the-art
        combustion control for domestic and commercial  heating  systems.
     0  Determination that flue gas recirculation  is  the most effective
                                  21

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         combustion technique for controlling NO  emissions originating
                                                -A
         from thermal  fixation of atmospheric nitrogen during the com-
         bustion of clean fuels (natural gas and distillate oils) and
         that staged combustion (often combined with low excess air)
         is a very effective method for controlling NO  emissions derived
                                                      J\
         both from the thermal fixation of nitrogen in the combustion
         air and from  the conversion of nitrogen atoms chemically bound
         in the fuel (heavy oils and coal).
      0  Completion of the analysis of combustion control  data for gas-
         and oil-fired utility boilers.  The application of combustion
         modification  has controlled NO  emissions for these sources
                                       .A
         to a level  of 100 to 200 ppra.
      0  Extension of  the application of combustion modification to
         coal-fired utility boilers and reduced NO  emissions by up to
                                                  J\
         50 percent for this source category.
      0  Initiation of mini-demonstration test programs for use of
         Western coal  in  intermediate sized  boilers.
      0  Demonstration of staged combustion  on a retrofitted 125 MW
         tangential  coal-fired utility boiler.
      0  Determination of the effect of combustion variables on pollu-
         tant  emissions and  equipment performance for  47 industrial
         boilers.
      0  Performance of pilot-scale research which showed  that optimized
         burner  and  furnace  design  can  further reduce  NO  emission levels
                                                        J\
         and should  be  applicable to a  wide  range of combustion sources.
      Future R&D  efforts  are  planned to demonstrate the beneficial  re-
sults  of this research on existing  and new  combustion  sources in all
size  categories.  A potential  problem  in  the  application  of combustion
modification to  practical combustion systems  is  increased  tubewall
corrosion.  This problem  is  a  subject  of  studies in the combustion  mod-
ification program which will  quantify  the degree of corrosion and rec-
ommend practical solutions.
     Long-term NO  goals for  oil- and  gas-fired  utility boilers are
                 A
50 to  90 ppm and, for  coal-fired units,  100 ppm.   Continued R&D efforts
                                 22

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 in combustion modification are directed at approaching these levels du-
 ring the next 10 years.  The 1985 goals could possibly entail the redesign
 of some equipment types or require the use of novel combustion and/or
 flue gas treatment schemes.
     FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION
     Subobjectives comprising lERL-RTP's fluidized-bed combustion (FBC)
 program are:
     0  FBC  (Environmental Assessment)--Characterization of air, water,
 solid waste, and other environmental problems associated with atmos-
 pheric and pressurized FBC processes; development of environmental
 objectives;  publication of a best-available-technology manual, and pro-
 vision of an overall preliminary environmental impact analysis.
     0  FBC  (Control Technology Development)—Development of laboratory
 and bench scale multimedia control technology for SO , NO , total particu-
                                                    A    A
 lates, hydrocarbons, CO, and hazardous and other pollutants from FBC.
 Development of treatment and final disposal techniques for spent
 sorbent and  ash.  Demonstration of techniques at available pilot
 facilities.
     A major contractor will be utilized to conduct environmental assess-
 ments of FBC systems and will also provide needed systems analysis and
 program support for the FBC program.  Comprehensive characterization
 studies will be done on all available atmospheric and pressurized
 systems.  Supporting technical  tasks will  provide near-term preliminary
environmental assessment information, identify the effects of scale on
 emissions from fluid bed units, provide sampling and analytical manuals,
 consider the problem of special liquid and solid wastes, and evaluate
 the applicability and problems associated with industrial-scale fluid
 bed boilers.
     Bench and pilot scale fluid bed studies will be continued to
 characterize and develop existing and new control technology associated
with FBC applications.  A large number of factors will be studied in-
cluding pretreatment of input streams (e.g., sorbent precalcination),
modification of design conditions, modification oT operating conditions,
and add-on control devices for gaseous, liquid, and solid streams.
                                23

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 Air pollutant emissions and disposition of ash and spent sorbents  will
 be given special consideration.  Engineering and small  scale experi-
 mental support will focus on optimization of SO  control  using a
                                                A
 calcium-based sorbent, alternate sorbents and means for SO   control,
                                                          X
 NO  formation and control (especially for atmospheric systems),  specific
   /\
 particulate control requirements, trace pollutants control, and  means
 for disposal and utilization of ash and spent sorbent.
      lERL-RTP's program to evaluate FBC has  produced the  following
 accomplishments:
      0  Development of the environmental  potential  of atmospheric  and
         pressurized FBC (Westinghouse,  Exxon, Argonne,  National  Coal
         Board,  PER).
      0  Development of plans for a  complete  FBC environmental  assess-
         ment activity, and initiation of procurement action to obtain
         an  environmental  assessment contractor.
      0  Development of plans for comprehensive analysis of  emissions
         from all  existing and planned FBC units.   (Combustion  Power
         Co.,  BCURA,  Battelle,  Exxon).
      0  Continued bench-scale investigation  of air  and  solid emissions
         control  from FBC  units,  including sorbent  regeneration (Argonne,
         Exxon).
      0   Completion  of  shakedown  of  the  combustor of the 0.63 MW  FBC
         (coal)  Miniplant,  including  100-  and  240-hour runs  reaching
         98  percent  S02  removal  and NO   levels  less  than 25  percent of
                                     /\
         the New Source  Performance Standard  (NSPS)  (Exxon).
      0   Provision of substantial environmental  support  to ERDA's FBC
        program.
     COAL CLEANING
     IERL-RTP subobjectives  relating to coal cleaning are:
     0  Physical/Chemical Coal Cleaning (Environmental Assessment)--Com-
plete characterization of the environmental problems from existing coal-
cleaning plants and coal-handling methods; definition of environmental
goals for coal-cleaning plants as a function of time; assessment of
control technology in relation to these goals; publication of  a manual
                                24

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of  recommended practice for near-term goals; and modeling of the appli-
cability of coal cleaning on a national and regional basis.
      0  Physical/Chemical Coal Cleaning (Control Technology Development)
      A.  Cleaning and Handling Facilities--Development and demonstra-
tion, where needed, of the best available technology for multimedia
pollution control from coal-cleaning plants, coal storage, and coal
transportation systems in coordination with the standards-setting
timetables.
      B.  New Coal-Cleaning Technology—Development and demonstration
of  advanced technologies for cleaning coal of sulfur, nitrogen, ash,
and potentially hazardous trace pollutants.  Promotion of the commer-
cialization of promising processes.
      A major environmental assessment contractor will be responsible
for collecting information and conducting sampling and analysis programs,
This  activity will provide the necessary multimedia data on coal trans-
portation and storage required to identify environmental problems and
efficiency of existing control techniques and to develop an overall
environmental assessment.  Specific process assessments will be con-
ducted on the specific technologies that either have significant en-
vironmental problems or are the result of unsolicited or proprietary
proposals received during the year.  Supporting tasks will consist of
task orders or contracts that will aid in technology transfer and pro-
vide quick and flexible technical and systems support to the program.
     A major technology development contractor will investigate unit
operations, and processes for physical and chemical coal cleaning and
for pollution control from these processes will be evaluated.  On-site
testing and evaluation of commercially used or developed equipment will
be made.  Technology assessment studies will be performed and rec-
ommendations will be made on the development of new equipment and unit
operations.  Emphasis will be placed on development of control tech-
nology and technology needed for EPA/DOI/ERDA funded demonstration
projects.   Specific control system or disposal technique evaluation of
development will be undertaken on specific technologies which are
shown to have the potential for improved control or are the results of
                                25

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unsolicited or proprietary process proposals received during the course
of the year.  Technological development of physical coal cleaning will
support development of new cleaning techniques and the demonstration of
a deep coal-cleaning plant with multiproduct stream capabilities.
Technological development of chemical coal cleaning will be conducted
through a series of contracts to identify new chemical approaches for
removal of sulfur, nitrogen, and other pollutants from coal; evalua-
tion of existing concepts or technology;  and of operating bench-scale
testing programs and a versatile chemical  cleaning technology facility.
Supporting technical studies will include contracts and task orders
to characterize coal residues, report on  contaminants in coals, and
provide the necessary program and technical  support required.
     The physical/chemical coal-cleaning  segment of lERL-RTP's fuels
program has produced:
     0  Computerized data base for the characteristics of some 450
        different U.S.  coals.
     0  Demonstration  that existing technology used for removal of
        inert matter from coal  can also be used for removal  of pyritic
        sulfur.
     0  Cost benefits  for recovery of sulfur and energy values from
        reject material  from coal-cleaning processes.
     0  Preliminary designs of plants for removing pyritic sulfur from
        coal  and  for recovering sulfur and energy from the reject
        material.
     0  Bench-scale demonstration of  effectiveness of  pyrite leaching
        as  a  means  of  removing  pyritic sulfur from a  variety of coals,
                            *
        including  those  not amenable  to physical  desulfurization.
     0  Identification of specific  U.S. coals amenable to desulfuri-
        zation by  pyrite  leaching.
     0   Preliminary design of a facility  to  demonstrate pyrite leach-
        ing at the  pilot  plant  scale.
     0   Independent review (currently being  initiated) of pilot plant
        designs to  identify alternative concepts  and equipment and
        evaluate  their technical  merit.
     0   Economic and engineering  design analyses  of commercial scale
       chemical processes for  extraction  of pyritic  sulfur  from coal.
                                26

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     SYNTHETIC FUELS
     lERL-RTP's program on synthetic fuels includes the following  sub-
objectives:
     0  Synthetic Fuels from Coal (Environmental  Assessment)— Characten'za-
tion of multimedia pollution and other environmental  problems from
processes for conversion of coal to synthetic fuels.   Development  of
environmental goals, assessment of control technology in relation  to
these goals, publication of standards of practice manuals, and  provi-
sion of an overall preliminary environmental  impact analysis.
     0  Synthetic Fuels from Coal (Control Technology Development)--De-
velopment, evaluation, and demonstration of environmentally sound  control
technology for multimedia pollution and other environmental problems
from synthetic fuel processes in coordination with the goals defined
in the environmental assessment studies.
     Major environmental assessment contractors will  be utilized for
each synthetic fuel technology area:  low-Btu gasification, high-Btu
gasification, and liquefaction.  Each will be responsible in its own
area for providing the information and bases  for assessing sources,
levels and fates of pollutants, and applicability of existing controls.
Environmental assessment of specific control  processes will be  conducted
on one or two selected proprietary processes, working with the  developer.
Key pollutants system studies will be conducted on specific pollutants
that constitute major emissions or environmental  effects.  Technical
support tasks include work on input material  characterization  (which
is necessary input to the environmental assessment of any conversion
process) and test work on various conversion  processes as products.
     Major control technology contractors will be utilized in  three
areas (pretreatment and waste management, converter output streams,
and product and byproducts) to evaluate, develop, and demonstrate  en-
vironmental controls for synthetic fuels.  The contractors will uti-
lize other organizations as necessary, but the major contractors will
be the focal points for accomplishing the required work of assessing
control  applicability, determining effectiveness, developing controls,
integrating controls in processes, and other required activities.
                                27

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Basic and applied process evaluation and development will  be obtained
via in-house facilities to fill information gaps, to verify informa-
tion generated by others, and to assess control  potentials of systems.
The information may be used internally or to support major contractors,
depending on need.  Specific control process development and evaluation
will be performed in areas of gas treatment, liquids treatment,  solids
treatment, final  disposal, and fugitive emissions.   Supporting technical
studies are required for quick turnaround studies in areas which sud-
denly become important in program or Agency activities.
     The synthetic fuels program has produced substantive  results:
     0  Analysis  of over 100 coal  samples from Eastern and Midwestern
        coal sources (over 1,500 individual  trace element  analyses).
     0  Identification of potential  pollutant releases by  several  con-
        version processes:  Koppers-Totzek gasification, Synthane  gas-
        ification, Lurgi gasification,  C02 acceptor  gasification,  BI-GAS
        gasification,  COED liquefaction,  and SRC liquefaction.
     0   Development and bench-scale  demonstration of highly effective
        desulfurization process for  high-temperature gas stream.
     0   Completion of  an analysis  of high- versus low-temperature
        cleanup of gas streams, with emphasis  on application of  combined
        cycles.   (High-temperature cleanup was about 5 percent more
        efficient.)
     0   Completion of  an analysis  of problems  and opportunities  in
        retrofitting industrial  processes  to utilize low-Btu gas.  (In-
        dustrial  processes,  representing  a significant portion of  ener-
        gy use  in industry,  can be adapted to  low-Btu gas  use.)
     0   Examination  of commercial-scale gasification plants  in five
        foreign countries,  and  contracting for operational  data  and
        pollutant-emission measurement on  Lurgi  units in several coun-
        tries.
    0   Sponsorship  of a  1974 symposium that produced a  comprehensive
        report on  the  state-of-knowledge on  environmental  effects on
        fuel conversion  processes.
                               28

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      0  Publication of a survey of potentially hazardous emissions from
        the extraction and processing of coal and oil.
      0  Initiation of a comprehensive, multimedia environmental  assess-
        ment program on shale oil recovery technology.
      ADVANCED OIL PROCESSING
      Advanced oil processing activities in which IERL-RTP is involved
include the following subobjectives:
      0  Advanced Oil Processing (CAFB Development)—Demonstration at small
to moderate commercial scale of the chemically active fluid bed (CAFB)
process for converting heavy high-sulfur, high-metals-content residual
oils  to clean, high-temperature gaseous fuel.
      0  Advanced Oil Processing (Environmental Assessment)--Characteriza-
tion  of waste streams from oil-processing methods and evaluation of
the applicability of alternate advanced oil-processing methods for
utilization of petroleum residuals; evaluation of the application of
available control technology; and publication of a manual of best
available technology in coordination with the standards setting time-
tables.
      0  Advanced Oil Processing (Control Technology Development)—Development
and demonstration, where needed, of technologies for the removal of
sulfur, nitrogen, and potentially hazardous trace materials from petro-
leum, petroleum derivatives, and other liquid fuels.  Development and
evaluation of the best practical control technologies for commercial
or near-commercial processes.
     A major contractor will be used to provide comprehensive environ-
mental assessment of the various methods of utilizing petroleum residuals,
including the CAFB process.  Supporting studies will provide for pre-
liminary environmental assessment of the CAFB process, environmental
assessment of solid and liquid waste problems, and residual oil dispo-
sition information.
     A prime contractor will be utilized to design, construct, and
operate a small prototype unit (~20 MW) at a utility boiler site.
Supporting pilot and engineering projects will be'conducted to provide
needed background quick-response problem solving.  This includes
                                29

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 operation of batch and semicontinuous pilot systems,  and  engineering
 work in such areas as sulfur removal  systems,  stone disposal  and mar-
 ket alternatives, advanced concepts such as pressurized CAFB,  and  other
 control technology evaluation and  development.
      Other areas of advanced oil-processing work consist  of:   (1)  basic
 research on the thermodynamics,  kinetics, and mechanisms  involved  in
 sulfur and nitrogen release by catalyzed hydrogen attack  and  review of
 the other applicable technology; and  (2) development  of existing de-
 metallization catalytic  hydrotreatment  technology to  maximize  sulfur
 and nitrogen removal  and evaluation of  USSR catalyst  (cooperative  U.S./
 USSR effort).
      lERL-RTP's program  to evaluate advanced oil  processing has pro-
 duced:
      0   Success in  the pilot plant  program with  design work begun  on
         demonstration of CAFB process on utility boiler as an  environ-
         mentally sound fuel  switching technique.
      0   An  inventory  of  potential pollutants in  crude oils from specific
         locations  (domestic  and foreign).
      0   Determination of the fundamental  characteristics  of the reac-
         tions involved in  simultaneous  hydrodesulfurization and denitri-
         fication.
      0   Identification of  specific  catalysts that tend to optimize de-
        metallization of  oils, and  preliminary estimates  of catalytic
        deinstallization and  desulfurization  of specific Venezuelan,
        Soviet,  and Iranian  oils.
     OTHER SUPPORT
      lERL-RTP's  work in  support of  other  subobjectives (wastes-as-fuel,
conservation, advanced energy conversion  systems)  includes the following:
     0  Wastes-as-Fuel
          - St. Louis/Union  Electric Refuse  Firing  Demonstration and
            Evaluation
          - Fine Shredding Study
          - Oil-Fired Boiler Study
          - Utilization of Waste as Fossil Fuel  Energy Substitutes
                                30

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     - Wood Derived Fuel Program
     - Environmental Assessment of Wastes-as-Fuel Processes
     - Control Technology Development
0  Advanced Low-Emission/Energy Conserving Systems and Strategies
     - EPA Van
     - Heat and Emission Loss Prevention System (HELPS)
     - Electrical Energy as a Substitute for Clean Fuels
     - Fuel Distribution Pattern Flexibility
     - Indoor Air Quality
0  Advanced Energy Conversion Technologies (Environmental Assess-
   ment)
lERL-RTP's program in these support areas has produced:
Wastes-as-Fuel
0  Demonstration of technology for combined-firing of refuse in
   coal-fired power plants and near-completion of environmental
   evaluation.  Initiation of studies to extend technology to
   residual oil firing and use in stoker boilers.
0  Near-initiation of projects for detailed technology assessment
   and environmental assessment of waste-to-fuel processes.
0  Control development/application for existing technologies.
0  Completion of evaluation of potential for waste-wood-derived
   fuels.
Advanced Low-Emission/Energy Conserving Systems and Strategies
0  Completion of the construction of an advanced domestic energy
   utilization system demonstration involving solar panels, heat
   pump, fuel cells, and catalytic burner.  Identification of a
   need to explore impact of air quality degradation on
   solar energy cost effectiveness.
0  Completion of a paper feasibility study indicating potential
   for Heat and Emission Loss Prevention System  (HELPS)  employing
   direct contact water heat exchanger to scrub fuel gas from
   residential/commercial furnaces and bring furnace efficiency
   from 80 to almost 97 percent.
                           31

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      0  Definition of the potential  for  low environmental  impact use of
         electrical energy as  a  substitute  for  clean fuels  which can go
         a long way toward helping  the  United States meet the goals of
         Project Independence.
      0  Near-completion  of a  preliminary study on  the extent to which
         clean  and  dirty  fuels can  be switched  to oil in reduction of
         pollution.
      0  Near-startup  of  a comprehensive  program to evaluate indoor air
         quality and its  relationship to  energy conservation.
      Advanced  Energy  Conversion Technologies
      0  Final  negotiation of  competitive contract  system study to pro-
         vide preliminary environmental assessment  of advanced energy
         conversion technologies such as  magnetohydrodynamics (MHD).
 Industrial  Processes
      The Industrial Processes program  seeks  to identify, develop, and
 demonstrate cost-effective  technologies  for  the abatement  of multimedia
 pollution associated  with industrial processing and manufacturing.
 The program involves  the identification, characterization, and quantifi-
 cation of polluting sources;  the experimental  modification of process
 equipment,  operations, raw  materials,  and  products; and the application
 of control  processes, devices, or  systems.
      CHEMICAL  PROCESSES
      lERL-RTP's  program  toward controlling pollution from  chemical
 processes continues to receive emphasis.   Previous work has been aimed
 at developing  particulate and odor removal technology for  pulp and
 paper  mills, odor  reduction technology for rendering plants, and con-
 trols  for asbestos emissions.
     Chemical   processes  problem definition projects are on-going for
 the following  industries:   fabricated metal  products, petrochemicals,
 inorganic chemicals, agricultural  chemicals, asphalt roofing, glass
manufacture, asbestos materials fabrication, food  products, combustion,
petroleum refineries and  storage,  construction, resources  extraction,
and textiles.
      Details of  Chemical  Processes projects  appear later in this report.
                                32

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     METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
     Metallurgical industries, those that convert naturally occurring
or recycled metals into useful products, involve processing of ores or
scrap into pure metals or alloys, and the finishing of the metals into
consumer products.  They include large integrated operations (such as
the iron and steel industry) as well as small one-owner operations (such
as iron foundries).
     Because of the different nature of each metal industry and dif-
ferent technical and economic constraints confronting them, programs
to develop pollution control technology must be tailored to each in-
dustry segment.  lERL-RTP's efforts in the metals industry began in
1969 with engineering studies of the major metal processes to define
both the extent of the problems and the effort required to develop
feasible control technology.  Based on these engineering studies, a
program of research and development was undertaken directed at the
highest priority sources in the metallurgical industries.
     This program, details of which appear later in this report, en-
compasses further definition and engineering studies, development of
new technology on laboratory and pilot scale, and full scale demonstra-
tions of control systems.  Major emphasis has continued to be, for the
ferrous metals industries, on control of emissions from coke ovens,
from blast furnace cast houses, from sinter plant windboxes, from
basic oxygen process (BOP) charging, from iron foundry cupolas, and
from ferroalloy furnaces.  Projects address the problems of control of
all effluent discharges, as well as fugitive emissions.  In the nonfer-
rous metallurgy industries emphasis continues to be directed towards
the control of lean S02 streams from smelters, the control of fugitive
emissions, and an environmental evaluation of new metal-winning processes.
     TRANSIENT OPERATION
     IERL-RTP continues its efforts to achieve better control of emis-
sions during transient operations (process startups, shutdowns, up-
sets, or changes).  IERL-RTP's program, described in detail later in
this report, involves the characterization of the- various industrial
emissions and measurement of the performance of the best current
                                33

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 emissions control equipment during transient conditions.   Reports  from
 IERL-RTF-monitored studies will help regulatory agencies  decide
 whether or not waivers from New Source Performance Standards should be
 allowed for specific sources during periods of unsteady state process
 operation.  IERL-RTP studies will  also identify any additional require-
 ments for emissions control research and development.
      PROCESS MEASUREMENTS
      The major new thrust of Process Measurements work  during 1975  was
 in support of lERL-RTP's environmental  assessment program,  with  the
 objective of developing a conceptual approach to a coherent sampling
 and analytic program suitable for  application to the wide variety  of
 environmental  assessment aspects of IERL-RTP's program.   Concurrently,
 work continued in the area of quality assurance:  a specific quality
 assurance  program is  now being developed for the Shawnee  limestone
 scrubber facility.   Techniques, methodology, and instrumentation con-
 tinued  to  be improved and expanded,  with emphasis in the  fields  of  fine
 particulates  and  fugitive emissions.
      Details  of the  Process Measurements program applicable to the
 overall  IERL-RTP  program are described  in a later section of this
 report.
 Program  Operations
     A majority of this  report deals  with details of programs relating
 to  the three  IERL-RTP  Divisions.  The fourth IERL-RTP organizational
 group, the Program Operations  Office, serves as  the technical support
 staff and program administration support staff to the Office of  the
 Director, IERL-RTP, providing  a vital function encompassing  program
 and  project analysis,  review,  planning,  and  quality assurance.
     SPECIAL STUDIES
     Within the Program Operations Office, special  studies  are con-
 ducted to provide a technical  analysis and evaluation support function
 to the Office of the Director.  This  function  includes broad technical
 assistance in program planning, guidance, and  review; recommendations
 to the Laboratory Director  for program direction;  and technical
evaluation of projects or programs  as may be requested by the Labora-
tory Director or other Laboratory components.  In addition,  special
                                34

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studies provide other Laboratory components with statistical  support
and consultation, computer application consultation,  and management
of engineering services contracts.
     During the past year, special studies have covered a wide range
of activities.  Early in the year, reviews of three generic program
areas were prepared at the request of the. Laboratory Director.  The
program areas reviewed included particulate technology, hazardous
pollutants, and NO  and combustion research.  The reviews provided
                  J\
management with a summary overview of program activities and addressed
possible enhancements to the programs.  Special studies also included
detailed technical analyses of specific projects.  These include chemi-
cal coal cleaning (TRW-Meyers Process), high-temperature gas clean-up
(CONSOL Process), and the catalytic oxidation (Cat-Ox) flue gas
desulfurization process.  Relating to current Laboratory programs,
special studies have included the examination of subjects closely re-
lated to specific program areas but which are not directly a part of
those program areas.  Such studies include a comparability analysis
of the economics and technical applicability of FGD processes, the im-
pact of clean fuels combustion on primary particulate emissions, and
maintaining a state-of-the-art knowledge of hazardous pollutants and
associated health effects.  In order to provide IERL-RTP with an
awareness of programs and activities in other Laboratories, special
studies include maintaining liaison with such Laboratories involving
health effects, ambient air quality studies, and standards development
which may have significant impact upon control technology development.
     The term "special studies" implies that certain investigations
will be made into areas of special interest or of special relevance to
the Laboratory's objectives.  During the past year, special studies
have included several major projects in support of special Laboratory
interests.  These include the development of an Environmental Assess-
ment Guideline Document, the creation of a computerized information
system on fine particle emissions from stationary sources, the de-
velopment of an Environmental Catalog of Industrial Processes (ECIP),
                                 35

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 and a feasibility study of developing  a computerized  information  sys-
 tem for data generated by IERL-RTP  environmental  assessment  projects.
      The Environmental  Assessment Guideline  Document  is being  produced
 by a task force composed of Special  Studies  Staff personnel  and one
 representative from the Process  Measurements Branch.  This document
 is intended  to help establish  conceptual  guidelines for lERL-RTP's
 environmental  assessment projects.   Related  to these  projects, the
 feasibility  of developing a computerized  data system  to centrally
 store and manipulate the anticipated large volume of  environmental
 assessment data is  being investigated.
      The computerized  Fine  Particle  Emissions Information System  (FPEIS)
 is  being developed  to  replace  the Fine  Particle Inventory produced
 by Midwest Research Institute  in 1971.  The  FPEIS  will contain data
 from emissions  testing  of various stationary sources.  Data  to be
 stored  include  particle  size distributions;  physical, chemical, and
 biological analysis  results; applied control technology design and
 operating  parameters; and the  sampling  and analytical techniques used
 in collecting the data.
     The  ECIP presents a detailed description of  selected industrial
processes  identifying process  inputs, the end products, the  quantity
and  type of waste streams to be expected, and the  quantity and types
of utilities (water, energy, etc.)  required  by each process.   To date,
24 chemical and metallurgical process industries have been incorporated
into the first edition of the catalog.
                                36

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                     ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL

     lERL-RTP's work in the area of energy assessment and  control  can  be
subdivided into three distinct functional groupings:  combustion  research,
fuel processes, and advanced processes.  The following subsections of
this report discuss these groupings separately.
COMBUSTION RESEARCH
     The combustion research activities of IERL-RTP are directed  to the
characterization, assessment, and control of the environmental impact  of
energy conversion technologies.  Programs are underway to study the multi-
media pollution problems associated with combustion processes (i.e., re-
lated to residential, commercial, industrial, and utility burners; fur-
naces and boilers; and stationary gas turbine and reciprocating 1C
engines) utilizing conventional fossil and alternate new fuels.
     The major goals of these efforts are the development and demonstra-
tion of combustion modifications and control techniques or devices to
prevent or minimize pollution problems for these processes in a cost-
effective, energy-conserving, process-efficient, and environmentally
acceptable manner.  Although the major emphasis of the program is on
investigation of technology for NO  control, efforts are also underway
                                  X
to reduce or eliminate other pollutants  (such as unburned hydrocarbon,
carbon particulate, smoke, carbon monoxide, and various potentially
hazardous species) while simultaneously maximizing system efficiency by
optimizing system design and operating characteristics.
     Combustion sources contribute about 98 percent of the total NO
                                                                   J\
(nitrogen oxides) emissions from stationary sources.  Some NO  is formed
                                                             J\
in all fossil fuel combustion processes.  Recent estimates of NO  emissions
                                                                X
from major source categories in 1972 are shown  in the following figure.
Control technology development studies to date  indicate that combustion
modification is the primary near-term method of controlling NO  emissions
                                                              A
from the combustion of fossil fuels.
     IERL-RTP supported and directed efforts have shown that promising
combustion modification techniques include combustion with low excess
                                   37

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             INCINERATION 0.4%
           NON-COMBUSTION 1.3%
             GAS TURBINES 2.5%
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEATING 3.3%
 COMMERCIAL & RESIDENTIAL
             SPACE HEATING 7.1%
                                INDUSTRIAL
                                  BOILERS
                                   18.0%
                                    RECIPROCATING
                                     I.C. ENGINES
                                        18.8%

SOURCE
UTILITY BOILERS
RECIPROCATING I.C. ENGINES
INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
COMMERCIAL & RESIDENTIAL SPACE HEATING
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEATING
GAS TURBINES
NON-COMBUSTION
INCINERATION
TOTAL
ESTIMATED NOx EMISSIONS
TONS/year
5,670,000
2,189,000
2,108,000
826,800
390,200
291,000
149,000
41,000
11,665,000
% OF TOTAL
48.6
18.8
18.0
7.1
3.3
2.5
1.3
0.4
100.0
           Total NOX emitted in the U.S. from stationary sources (1972).
                                      38

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air, recirculation of flue gas in the fuel/air mixture,  staged combustion,
and burner/combustor system redesign.
     The application of combustion modifications has controlled NO  emis-
                                                                  J\
sions from gas- and oil-fired utility boilers to a level  of 150-250 ppm,
and reduced NO  emissions from commercial coal-fired utility boilers by
              A
up to 50 percent.  Recent research has shown that changes in burner and
furnace design variables cause widely varying NO  emission levels  in all
                                                X
boiler categories.  Future R&D efforts are planned to demonstrate  the
results of this research on existing and new combustion  sources in all
size categories.
     The results of this program, in the form of reports and design and
guideline manuals, provide information which will aid manufacturers and
users in producing and operating combustion equipment in a manner  that
will be acceptable from an environmental and energy conservation point
of view.  The information is also of benefit to environmental planners
and Federal, State, and local regulatory groups since it provides  data
on the performance of equipment and the levels of control of the pollu-
tants under consideration when optimum combustion control methods  are
applied.
     For the purposes of this report, lERL-RTP's combustion modification
R&D program is classified under the headings:  fundamental research,
fuels R&D, process R&D, and field testing and assessment.
Fundamental Research
     lERL-RTP's fundamental research studies are providing an understand-
ing of the important phenomena in the formation and destruction of pollu-
tants during combustion.  This understanding can then be used to optimize
existing combustion control techniques and to suggest other techniques
with even greater promise for control of pollutants.  For purposes of
planning and discussion, the fundamental studies have been broadly grouped
into two categories:  chemistry of pollutant formation and destruction,
and physical processes.  Each category includes complementary experimental
and mathematical efforts.
                                 39

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      COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY
      Combustion chemistry is a complex process involving both fuel  decom-
 position reactions and reactions of other flame species resulting in
 formation and destruction of pollutant species.  The pollutant species
 of interest are oxides of nitrogen (NO ), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned
                                       X
 hydrocarbons (UHC), polycyclic organic matter (POM), carbon particulate,
 fuel ash, and oxides of sulfur (SO ).  The emphasis in this program is
                                   A
 on NO , with primary concern on nitric oxide (NO),  the principal  oxide
      A
 formed in combustion.
      The combustion chemistry area can further be subdivided into two
 areas:   pollutant formation related to combustion conditions, and
 pollutant formation related to fuel composition.   These areas are reflect-
 ed by the characterization of NO  formed by fixation of atmospheric
                                 A
 nitrogen at high temperature in the combustion process as thermal  NO ,
                                                                     X
 and that formed from oxidation of nitrogen chemically bound in solid and
 liquid  fossil  fuels  as fuel  NO .   For most fuels  the total  NO  is
                               X                              X
 composite formed by both  mechanisms.
      The thermal  NO  is  thought to be formed by the Zeldovitch mechanism
                    A
 and is  dependent on  both  the temperature of the reaction and available
 oxygen  concentration.   In the combustion reactions  atomic oxygen  is
 formed  in significant  quantities  which may exceed the equilibrium level
 for a particular temperature by an order of magnitude or more.  This
 atomic  oxygen  combines with  molecular nitrogen to form NO and atomic
 nitrogen  in  a  reaction which has  a high activation  energy,  thereby
 making  the  reaction  rate  highly temperature dependent.   The atomic  nitro-
 gen produced can  subsequently react with  molecular  oxygen to form NO.
      To more completely define  the important  reactions  and  their  rate
 constants, a contract to  study  the reaction chemistry of pollutant  forma-
 tion  has  been underway with  Exxon  Research  and Engineering  for  several
years.  A complete survey of all  possible  fundamental  chemical  reactions
 related to NO  formation  in  combustion  systems  has  been  completed.   Recom-
             A
mendations of the best rate  data,  for  those reactions which are mentioned
in the combustion literature, have  been compiled  and  are  now available.
                                  40

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     The remaining reactions, those not mentioned in the literature, have
been reviewed for potential importance in the NO  formation and destruc-
                                                A
tion process.  These reactions were then turned over to Stanford Research
Institute, under grant to develop techniques for predicting rate data of
reactions not experimentally measured.  Through the above prescribed
process, a complete library of rate data, either measured or estimated,
has been compiled for important NOV formation and destruction reactions,
                                  A
and is now available as an EPA report.
     Under an Exxon Research and Engineering contract, an experimental
study has been recently completed, utilizing a combustion apparatus in
which all conditions (including wall temperature) can be controlled pre-
cisely, to confirm the combustion chemistry and/or identify areas of
important uncertainty.  The results are currently being evaluated.
     Ultrasystems, Inc., has developed a rapid computerized technique to
allow evaluation of combustion kinetics of numerous simultaneous reac-
tions and to screen the reaction set to determine the important reactions.
At the present time the model incorporates only simplified flow fields:
the streamtube and the well-stirred reactor.  By means of both an Ultra-
systems contract and in-house efforts, the chemistry of NO  is being
                                                          A
investigated, and experimental results explained.  These efforts have
uncovered the unexpected result that a large percentage of thermal NO
                                                                     J\
appears to be formed by non-Zeldovitch reactions of the type:
                            CH + N2 -> HCN + N
In addition to Ultrasystems1 computer code, a computer program is current-
ly being developed at Aerotherm to analyze premixed flat flames, including
diffusional effects.  Primary efforts have been directed at code develop-
ment.   Plans call for using the code to explain combustion chemistry and
to interpret experimental data.
     IERL-RTP in-house studies, and studies by others, have established
that the nitrogen chemically bound in most solid and liquid fossil  fuels
can be converted to NO  in the combustion process.  It has been shown
                      A
that only about 50 percent of the bound nitrogen.is converted to NO; the
balance goes to other product(s), probably molecular nitrogen.  The degree
                                 41

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 of conversion decreases as the available oxygen  is  decreased  and can  be
 substantially reduced by a fuel-rich  primary  combustion  zone.  To optimize
 control  techniques (e.g., staged combustion),  it is  necessary to better
 understand the chemistry of fuel nitrogen conversion and to establish
 what conditions can reduce or eliminate  NO formation.
                                           /\
      Rockwell  International's Rocketdyne Division is working,  under an
 IERL-RTP contract, to establish  the mechanism  and chemistry of fuel nitro-
 gen conversion to NO  and other  products.  An  experimental and analytical
                     ,A
 study was carried out to investigate  the chemical mechanisms  involved
 in the conversion of fuel  nitrogen to NO  in combustion.  The  pyrolysis
                                         J\
 of fossil  fuels and model  fuel nitrogen  compounds was investigated as
 a  function  of  temperature:   it was observed that HCN was  the major
 nitrogen-containing pyrolysis  product, and that  the  amount formed in-
 creased  with  temperature.   NH., was a  minor product,  and  little if any Np
 was  formed.  To investigate the  combustion reactions of  the pyrolysis
 intermediates,  premixed  flat-flame burner  experiments were conducted  to
 study in  detail  the conversion of HCN and  NH,  to NO   in  low-pressure
                                            %5      X
 CH.-Op-Ar flames.   Based  on the  results  of these studies, a mechanism
 was  proposed in  which  fuel  NO  forms via  the reaction:
                            0 + NCO +  NO  +  CO
      This study  is  being  continued to examine  the decomposition of other
 solid  and liquid  fuels, with emphasis on high-nitrogen synthetic fuels.
 The  flame studies  are  directed to further  examination of the NCO mechanism
 and  to study of  thermal and fuel  NO reactions  in CH.-Np-O^ flames.
      COMBUSTION AERODYNAMICS
     Although combustion  chemistry is responsible for the formation and
 destruction of  pollutants,  the actual conditions that exist in the flame
 zone  are a strong  function  of  the physical processes  of  combustion.   Most
 practical combustors operate with diffusion flames where  the fuel and
 air are introduced  separately  and mixing depends on  the manner of intro-
 duction.   Therefore, the flame zone is not a homogeneous  composition,
and it is necessary to understand the role of  combustion  aerodynamics in
pollutant formation.
                                 42

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      United Technologies Research Center (UTRC), formerly United Aircraft
 Research Laboratory, is under IERL-RTP contract to investigate the inter-
 action of aerodynamics and combustion chemistry (in an idealized single-
 burner combustor) as a function of fuel type and various inlet parameters.
 The contract calls for detailed mapping of the local chemical composition,
 temperature, velocity, and turbulence profiles.  Preliminary testing on
 gaseous fuels and liquid propane has been completed.  Current testing is
 employing a laser-doppler-velocimeter (LDV) which provides a measure of
 the turbulence level as well as the mean velocity.  The LDV results have
 revealed that the ratio of the fluctuating component to the mean compo-
 nent  of velocity is on the order of 2.0; a value on the order of 0.1
 was expected.  This result has a major effect on the ability to measure
 flow  with in-situ probes, such as the impact static probe.  The LDV shows
 significantly more structure to the flow field than the impact static
 probe.  Preliminary results with an LDV in the newly constructed IERL-RTP
 in-house aerodynamic test facility confirm the values measured at UTRC.
 Further, tests are underway or planned for liquid propane, iso-octane,
 and No. 2 fuel oil.
      Because the chemical and physical effects of actual combustion are
 closely related, it is necessary to have a method of tying these efforts
 together and generalizing the results for a variety of systems.  The tool
 to be used is mathematical simulation of combustion by modeling.  UTRC
 has been working to improve a computer code for rigorous solution of the
Navier-Stokes flow equations.  Major effort has been on improving the
 turbulence model and comparison of model predictions with cold- and hot-
 flow  furnace data.  Simple chemical kinetics have been used.  Ultimately,
 the kinetics and fluid-flow programs must be applied together to give  a
 realistic description of any practical system; however, more development
 is needed before this synthesis can be accomplished.
     The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has entered into an interagency
agreement with IERL-RTP to establish the role of flame interactions in
multiple-burner systems.   Although single-burner design criteria are
being determined in the fuels R&D work, the effects- of the interaction
                                 43

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 of adjacent flames in multiburner systems on  the emission  properties  of
 the system have not been defined previously.   JPL has  utilized  a  small-
 scale versatile experimental  apparatus to examine the  interactions  of
 flow fields and associated thermal  characteristics of  the  system  for  a
 ring-type gas burner, a spud-type burner, and firing natural  gas, liquid,
 and solid fuels.  Results of the study have shown the  potential for
 combustion zone interactions  which  significantly affect  MO emission
                                                           /\
 characteristics and will be valuable  input to larger scale multiple-
 burner research.
      Another report published during  1975 was a  NO control technique/
                                                   A
 cost summary study by Aerotherm.
 Fuels Research  and Development
      These studies are conducted on versatile experimental combustion
 systems.   The studies are designed  to  develop generalized  combustion
 control technology which is applicable to the control  of NO   and other
                                                           A
 pollutant  emissions from the  combustion of conventional  fuels,  waste
 fuels,  and new  fuels  to be used  in  the future.   Studies  conducted to  date
 have  been  designed to develop combustion  control  technology for a specific
 fuel  through  single-burner design criteria or combustion modification
 techniques.
      Contract studies (IGT) on natural  gas fuel  have been  directed  toward
 establishing  the relationship between  combustion  aerodynamics and air
 pollutant  emission characteristics of  industrial  gas burners.  Three
 types of burners were studied:   a scaled-down  utility  power boiler  burner,
 a kiln burner,  and a  baffle burner for steel  reheat furnaces.  A final
 report has been  issued.   On-going work is  assessing combustion and  emis-
 sion characteristics  of  low-Btu  gases.
     Contract studies  (Rocketdyne) on  distillate  oil fuel  have developed
 single-burner designs  for minimum emissions and maximum  fuel  use effi-
 ciency.  These optimum burner designs  produce  up  to 50 percent  less NO
 than the conventional design  burners tested.   Based on the results  of
this study, a follow-on contract was negotiated to design and test  an inte-
grated residential  furnace system utilizing the optimum  burner concepts
                                  44

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t-.
I) I
                                          Experimental system for combustion modification and future fuel studies.

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 to obtain both low emissions and high efficiency.   The  initial  experi-
 mental phase has identified criteria for matching  combustion  chamber  heat
 removal and size to the optimum burner for both water-  and  air-cooled
 furnaces.  The resultant system will operate with  no increase of CO or
 UHC and a 75-percent reduction of NO  relative  to  residential  oil  furnaces.
                                     A
 A prototype furnace system has been constructed, and its  performance  is
 being evaluated.  In addition, techniques for mass production of the
 optimum head have been evaluated, and several stamped steel designs are
 being tested.
      Contract  studies (Babcock and Wilcox)  on coal  fuel have  been  com-
 pleted determining  the effectiveness of NO   control  methods on  coal-fired
                                           A
 utility boilers. The final  report has been issued.   The  most effective
 means of controlling NO emissions from a single-burner  operational stand-
 point is to control  excess air, air preheat, and load simultaneously:
 they  are heavily interdependent.   If load cannot be  varied, control of
 the combination  of  lower preheat  and excess air is  no more  effective  than
 control  of  excess air alone.   The results indicate  that the concept of
 staged combustion or delayed  fuel/air mixing is the  most  effective com-
 bustion  modification technique for NO  reduction.  Acceptance  of staged
                                      A
 combustion  now requires  field  demonstration to  establish  the  long-term
 effect of operation  with this  modification.  This  is  being  pursued in
 projects  in  the  process  R&D area.
      Contract studies  (International  Flame  Research  Foundation)  on funda-
 mentals  of  burner design  for coal,  oil,  and gas  fuel  combustion  have
 identified  concepts  for  combining  low emission  and acceptable  flame shape
 with  the  same burner configuration.   Exploration of  triple  concentric
 burner concepts  has  shown  the  potential  for achieving NO  emissions of
                                                        X
 200-300  ppm  from  a coal  flame  while  maintaining  a  flame shape quite
 similar  to current practice.   The  study  also included an examination  of
 residual  oil and  indicated that low  levels  of NO (about 100 ppm) can  be
 achieved.
     As a result  of  the  IFRF study findings, a  contract was negotiated
with Ultrasystems, Inc., to define criteria  for  scale-up from the
                                 46

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5 million Btu/hr size to practical size burners (125 million Btu/hr)
and to  define  the burner interactions which occur on a large scale.  The
emphasis is on coal burners, although residual oil and combined coal/low-
Btu gas are also to be studied.  The facility has been designed to allow
evaluation of  the performance of single burners of capacity up to 125
million Btu/hr and multiple burners totaling 60 million Btu/hr in com-
bustion chambers simulating commercial practice as closely as possible.
The site has been selected, all local clearances received, and construc-
tion should be completed in mid-1976.
     Another new study is expected to generate low emission burner con-
cepts for residual oil combustion in package boilers.  The study consists
of an experimental phase (for the development of burner design concepts
applicable to  package boiler geometry) and an application phase (for
testing a prototype burner in a field operating boiler).  The results of
this study have shown important effects of oil type and atomizer con-
figuration.  Although the goal of 100 ppm NO for residual oil has not
been reached,  there is good reason to believe that it can be achieved
early in 1976.  Concepts for improved application of staged combustion
and flue gas recirculation have also been identified.
     A  recently initiated pilot plant study is underway with Aerotherm.
The program is being conducted on a versatile 3 million Btu/hr experi-
mental furnace.  The study will evaluate novel combustion concepts for
fossil and waste fuels.  The program duration is 30 months.
     A novel combustion concept being explored in this area is catalytic
combustion.  A contract was let (Aerotherm) to establish catalyst charac-
teristics and system concepts for very low emission combustion of clean
conventional and alternate fuels.  The effort also includes development
of scale-up criteria to allow application to a wide size range of future
practical  equipment.  Initial catalyst screening and design work is  in
progress.
     Past in-house work has led to significant understanding of the  forma-
tion and control  of fuel NO produced from chemically bound nitrogen.
The study has examined burner design, staged combustion, flue gas recir-
culation,  and other techniques for control of both thermal and fuel  NO
                                 47

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 from natural gas, propane, distillate and residual  oils, and coal.   The
 current thrust of this program is to define combustion and emission
 characteristics of alternate fuels, with emphasis now being placed  on
 high-nitrogen coal-derived fuels.  The program makes use of a versatile
 300,000-Btu/hr experimental  furnace with provision  for precise control
 of combustion parameters such as fuel  type and injection method,  air
 rate and introduction method, air preheat, firebox  residence time,  and
 firebox and convective section heat removal  rate.  In addition, combus-
 tion modification techniques can be studied in a variety of applications.
 The initial  fuel  class evaluated was alcohol  fuels,  which may be  pro-
 duced from coal  gasification.  They appear to have  low emissions  of NO
 and favorable combustion characteristics relative to conventional clean
 fossil  fuels.   The next class of fuels  to be  studied will  be low-Btu
 gas.   A fuel  gas  generator has been designed  and built by JPL under an
 interagency  agreement and will  be delivered early in 1976.   The key
 variables  will  be CO/Hp/Np,  fuel  gas temperature, and NH3 content.
 Process  Research  and  Development
      lERL-RTP's process research  and development work involves  the  applica-
 tion  of  optimum NO control  technology  to existing and new  combustion
                   A
 systems.   The  results  of these studies  provide  the basis  for the  demon-
 stration of combustion  control  technology.  During the past year, interest
 in  projects in this area has  continued  to develop.
     A study,  completed under contract  to IERL-RTP by Combustion  Engi-
 neering, developed detailed  cost  information  for applying various com-
 bustion modification  techniques  to  new  and existing  tangentially  coal-
 fired utility  boilers.   The  study substantiated  the  relatively  low  cost
 of providing NO   control  through combustion modification.   The  second
               J\
 phase of this  study, just  completed, modified a  125-MW tangentially  coal-
 fired utility  boiler with  overfire  air  ports  and  evaluated  and  optimized
 this control technique.  Special emphasis was on  the  effects  that this
 technique had on  unit performance and fireside corrosion.   A  final  report
on this study has been written, and  additional work with CE  is  evaluating
this technique with sub-bituminous coal  in a  separate  program.
                                 48

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225-KW gas turbine used for IERL-RTP in-house studies.

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C71
O
                                Precombustion chamber diesel (300 HP) for stationary engine controls development.

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     Under an  interagency  agreement with  IERL-RTP, TVA is evaluating
 biased  firing  and will  possibly  investigate overfire air injection on a
 125-MW  wall-coal-fired  utility boiler.  This study also evaluated the
 long term effects that  these  techniques have on unit performance and
 fireside corrosion.  The study is nearly  complete.
     A  research  grant  (Aerospace Corp.) evaluated the applicability of
 automotive-developed technology  for control of NO  and related emissions
                                                 /\
 to stationary  gas turbines and internal combustion engines.  Additional-
 ly, a research and development plan has been proposed for emission con-
 trol studies based on the  potential applicability of automotive-oriented
 technology.
     Aerospace is also  compiling and correlating field test data collect-
 ed by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power during the past 3
years from some of their gas- and oil-fired utility boilers.  (This is
 also funded by an IERL-RTP grant.)  In addition to correlating emission
 data with combustion modification techniques, Aerospace will perform a
 stability analysis to determine  how a boiler can be redesigned to allow
more latitude when using combustion modification.  They are also updat-
 ing an emissions inventory for IERL-RTP.
     A contract has recently  been signed with Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
directed toward development of low NO  gas turbine combustor technology.
                                     J\
This study will focus primarily on dry control  techniques because of
fuel economy and operational  considerations and will specifically ad-
dress utility  size (25 MW and larger) gas turbine units.   Since future
gas turbines may be required  to  burn heavier fuel oils or low-Btu gas
containing significant  levels of ammonia, the contract will also address
control  of NOX from fuel nitrogen.
     IERL-RTP  has initiated an in-house investigation of stationary
engine emissions control.  Two engines have been installed at the RTP
laboratory:  a gas turbine and a precombustion chamber diesel.  Initial
studies indicate that CO,  UHC, and fine particulate emissions are serious
problems in the gas turbine.  An emulsion of fuel oil and water could
reduce NO  significantly,  but at the price of increased CO  emissions.
         /\
                                   51

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 No energy savings resulted from the use of the emulsion fuel.  Studies
 on the characteristics of the diesel engine are continuing.
      A contract survey was initiated at the end of FY 74 to develop
 information for an R&D program in industrial  process combustion.  This
 survey will identify the most energy-intensive, nonsteam-raising indus-
 trial combustion sources and determine the potential emissions and
 energy benefit of an R&D program in this area.
      Contracted studies (Ultrasystems, Inc.)  related to combustion
 modifications for package boilers are underway.  These studies, concen-
 trating on heavy-oil firing, have evaluated various burner parameters
 considered significant in NO  formation.  They have emphasized staged
                             J\
 combustion and flue gas recirculation.  In the  laboratory, NO  reduc-
                                                              A
 tions of about 40 percent have been achieved  with staging, and flue gas
 recirculation tests indicate that 30 to 40 percent reductions are possi-
 ble.   Initial  application to field units is complete.   In this applica-
 tion  phase,  two package boilers  were modified for flue gas recirculation
 and staged combustion.   The  field results generally equaled or exceeded
 the laboratory results.   This study is complete and will  be followed by
 a  second  generation application  to optimize the techniques.
      Studies  by KVB Engineering,  Inc.,  are assessing the  environmental
 impact  of converting industrial  size boilers  from bituminous to low-
 sulfur  sub-bituminous coal during  a  30-month  program.
      Two  other reports  were  published  in 1975:   one on a  study by Mon-
 santo Research Corporation of Western  coal  utilization and combustion
 experience; the other on  a study  by M.  W.  Kellogg Co.  on  mixed and
 waste fuel usage.
 Field Testing  and Assessment
     Field testing  and  surveys include studies  designed to determine
 what can  be done today  to control  NO  emissions.   This work is conduct-
                                     J\
 ed on commercial equipment and is  performed generally  by  R&D organiza-
 tions familiar  with  the specific combustion systems being studied, and
with the financial and technical assistance of  manufacturers,  users, and
 trade associations.   In addition to  developing  trends  and providing
                                   52

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directional recommendations for industry to use to minimize emissions
with today's technology, the work also defines where the R&D efforts
should be concentrated by developing emission factors as a function of
equipment type and size, and fuel consumed.  The field testing and survey
studies are the initial efforts in the development of control technology
and are designed to provide the state-of-the-art in control of NO  and
                                                                 /\
combustible emissions from today's commercial combustion systems.
     In November 1969, Exxon Research and Engineering completed the
"Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for Stationary Sources"
for EPA, then known as the National Air Pollution Control  Administration.
As a result of this study EPA's NO  combustion control program was in-
                                  /\
itiated in June 1970 when Exxon R&E began field-testing utility boilers.
As a result, it was found that NO  emissions from gas- and oil-fired
                                 /\
boilers could be reduced by 50 to 60 percent by using combustion modifi-
cation techniques such as low excess air firing, staged combustion, flue
gas recirculation, load reduction, air preheat reduction,  change in
burner tilt, and change in primary to secondary air ratio.  Of these,
the first two were found to be most applicable and cost effective.
     Combustion modification with coal-fired boilers was more difficult
because of operating problems and less success with NO  reduction.
                                                      J\
Since the Exxon systems study identified coal-fired utility boilers as
the top ranking source of NO  emissions from stationary sources, it was
                            A
decided to concentrate the efforts on this source.  As a result, Exxon
was awarded a 2-year field test program which was completed in December
1973.  These tests were very successful and showed that combustion modi-
fications have a good potential for reducing NO  emissions from coal-
                                               X
fired utility boilers without undesirable side effects.  Reducing the
excess air level  and staging combustion, as with gas- and oil-fired boil-
ers, resulted in significant NO  reductions, averaging about 40 to 50
                               /\
percent for the boilers tested.  The degree of reduction, as well as base-
line NO  emission levels, varied with the design and size of coal-fired
       J\
boilers tested, and with coal type.
     No extreme differences in flue gas particulate .loadings and in the
carbon content of the fly ash were found during the boiler tests.  Also,
                                   53

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 by use of specially designed corrosion probes, comparison of accelerated
 corrosion rates measured under "low NO  operation" and those measured
                                       X
 under normal  firing conditions did not reveal  major differences.   How-
 ever, to confirm these results, longer term (1-month) corrosion  tests
 are being conducted with staged combustion and low excess air level
 while firing  high-sulfur,  Eastern bituminous  coal  in a 125-MW utility
 boiler.
      The preliminary results of these  tests demonstrate the  need  for
 a  more thorough investigation; new long-term  (6-  to 12-month) tests are
 planned.
      Future work with utility boilers  will  continue to concentrate on
 coal-fired units, but will  also consider firing of mixed  fossil fuels
 (e.g., coal and oil,  or  gas and oil) fired  simultaneously, coal-derived
 fuels  (e.g.,  low-Btu  gas and solvent refined coal), and waste fuels.
 Tests  are also  underway  with other power generation equipment such as
 gas turbines  and large internal  combustion  engines.
      In June  1973,  a  major  field  test  program  with industrial  boilers
 was initiated.   KVB Engineering was awarded a  contract to test approxi-
 mately 50 gas-,  oil-,  and coal-fired boilers,  ranging  in  size from
 10,000 to 500,000 pounds of steam  per  hour, during  the first  year.
 Measurements  included  efficiency and emissions of  NO  ,  SO ,  HC, CO,
                                                     A     X
 smoke, and particulate mass.   The  tests  were short-term and  concentrated
 on operating  variables such  as  excess air,  load, swirl adjustment, and
 primary, secondary, and  tertiary air adjustment.   During  the  second year,
 18 boilers were  tested in more  detail with  more extensive modifications,
 such as overfire  air,  flue gas  recirculation, and  variable air preheat
 temperature.   Also, particle size distribution and  (on approximately
five oil- and coal-fired boilers) toxic  element emissions were meas-
ured.   In addition  to  the final report,  a manual will  be  published giv-
ing operating guidelines for these boilers.
     On the basis of field measurements  on  industrial  boilers, it  appears
to  be  possible to reduce total NO^ emissions by 10  to  30  percent without
impairing boiler efficiency by reducing  excess air, by staged  combustion,
                                    54

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and  by  flue  gas  recirculation.  The excess air reduction is most attrac-
tive because,  if properly applied, particulate emissions do not increase
as with other  NOX reduction methods; combustion efficiency can also be
improved.
      The residential and commercial boiler field tests were performed
by BatteHe-Columbus Laboratories under the joint sponsorship of the
American Petroleum Institute and IERL-RTP.  The tests, with oil- and some
gas-fired equipment, were performed on boilers ranging from 80,000 to
about 20 million  Btu/hr.  The major conclusion was that combustible
emissions from residential equipment can be greatly reduced by proper
equipment servicing.  By replacing old worn-out units, CO emissions were
reduced by more  than 65 percent, HC emissions by 87 percent, filterable
particulate  by 17  percent, and total particulate (filterable and condens-
able) by 33  percent.  Tuning the burner by proper service methods
further reduced  CO emissions for a total reduction of more than 81
percent.  The  Bacharach smoke number was reduced by 59 percent.  This
strongly indicates that emissions from residential  sources could be
reduced to an  insignificant level by proper maintenance which would
identify units in  need of replacement and by tuning the remainder.  Sig-
nificant NO  reductions should result from burner redesign programs
           A
described elsewhere in this report.
     The major results with commercial boilers were that emissions are
mainly affected  by boiler and/or burner design and by fuel type.  Also,
it was found that,  for commercial boilers operating at steady state
conditions,  Bacharach smoke numbers showed consistent trends in relation-
ship to filterable particulate when firing different oil in the same
boiler.  Manuals giving operational guidelines for this equipment are
now available for  servicemen and residential furnace manufacturers.
The manuals give  instructions for the ways of reducing emissions, either
in servicing or  in design of new equipment.
     A contract  has been negotiated with KVB for a field test study of
industrial  process equipment (e.g., furnaces, kilns, ovens, and driers),
                                    55

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 stationary gas turbines, and stationary internal  combustion engines.
 Some of these types of equipment are significant  sources of NO  emis-
                                                               /\
 sions and have the potential for emission reduction via combustion
 modification.
      In-house studies closely related to the field testing are being
 conducted in emission characterization and design evaluation for com-
 mercial  combustion systems.  The objective of this work is to investi-
 gate, under controlled laboratory conditions, the emission performance
 of existing/prototype commercial combustion systems and components  and
 to evaluate effects of new burner/combustor designs and modifications
 on the emission and energy efficiency performance.  Two different
 equipment systems have been baselined; that is, the best conditions
 for minimum emissions with unaltered equipment have been established.
 These systems include two major types of firetube packaged boilers:
 Scotch marine and firebox.
      The Scotch marine firetube boiler has been utilized for the study
 of two fuel-oil/water emulsion  devices:   the Total  emulsifier and the
 Cottell  ultrasonic emulsifier.   The  Total  device  provided significant
 reductions  in particulate when  firing distillate  oil/water emulsions,
 but smoke  increased because the particle size distribution shifted  to
 a  smaller  size.   The  Gotten  device  provided significant reductions
 in smoke number and particulate emissions.   Neither emulsifier reduced
 NO  emissions significantly when firing  residual  oil  (which has a
   X
 high fuel  nitrogen content);  however,  a  significant NO   reduction was
                                                      J\
 observed when distillate  oil  was fired.   Some emulsion  devices may
 have a small  potential  for energy conservation by permitting boiler
 operation at  lower excess  air levels,  but  this may require trading
 back  the emission  improvements.
      In addition  to the basic emission characteristics, a number of
 design and equipment changes  have been studied.   A burner redesign
 program was successful  in  reducing CO, HC,  and smoke emissions from
 the  firebox/firetube package  boiler without  increasing  NO  emissions.
                                                          A
A fuel injection equipment  program has been  carried out to determine
                                   56

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Scotch marine boiler (60 HP) for emission control equipment evaluation.

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 emission characteristics from air, high pressure, and sonic atomiza-
 tion of No. 6 residual oil.
      In addition to the field testing activities, a major contract
 effort is being developed for a multimedia environmental  assessment
 and systems analysis of NO  combustion modification control  techniques.
                           J\
 This effort is to determine the technical  soundness and  environmental
 acceptability of these control  methods, and to ensure that any defici-
 encies or potential  problems are identified and corrected in a timely
 fashion,  before the technologies are adopted commercially.   A contract
 is expected to be awarded early in 1976.
      A project has been initiated for the  design and construction  of a
 fluidized-bed combustion (FBC)  sampling and analytical test  rig.   This
 small  pilot-scale equipment will  be installed and operated  in lERL-RTP's
 in-house  combustion  research laboratory.   This project is to provide
 for:   comprehensive  analyses of emissions  from FBC;  testing  of alterna-
 tive  sampling and analytical  procedures for FBC; and investigation of
 alternative add-on environmental  control devices for FBC.
 FUEL  PROCESSES
      The  fuel  processes program of IERL-RTP is primarily  concerned
 with  three  major  aspects  of environmental  control:
      0  Assessment of,  and  development  of  control  technology for,
        all  environmental discharges  associated  with processes for the
        cleaning  of  fossil  fuels.
     0  Analysis  of  the emerging  coal-based synthetic fuel  industry in
        the  United States,  assessment of its  environmental problems, and
        development  of  appropriate  control  technology.
     0  Direct development  of technology for  the selective chemical  and
        physical  cleaning of fossil fuels  for  environmental  control.
     IERL-RTP  is  concerned  with the availability of  fossil fuels used
for combustion purposes—coal,  oil, and gas.   All  aspects of synthetic
fuels are being considered  including  high-Btu  gasification,  low-Btu
gasification, and  liquefaction.   In addition,  IERL-RTP is continuing to
carry out a successful  program  in the utilization  of refuse  as fuel.
                                    58

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 Fossil  Fuels—Coal
     COAL  CONTAMINANT  CHARACTERIZATION
     The use  of coal depends on several factors.  Environmentally, the
 effects of its use  on  the  total environment  (air, water, solid effluents,
 land use)  are major factors.  As a first step in determining these effects,
 the coal constituents  must be clearly and accurately defined.  A multi-
 faceted effort toward  this goal is currently underway at IERL-RTP.
     A  report issued as a  result of an extensive literature survey pre-
 sents and  analyzes  data on the sulfur, nitrogen, and other potential  pol-
 lutants (e.g., lead, cadmium, beryllium, mercury) found in coals consumed
 in the  United States.  Data are characterized according to the location of
 the raw coal  and are analyzed for geographic effects on composition.
     Recognizing that  existing data are inadequate for many constit-
 uents,  both from the quantity available and from their accuracy,
 lERL-RTP's  interest is both in developing analytical techniques for
 trace elements and  in  the analyses themselves.  Techniques being
 utilized include neutron activation, X-ray fluorescence., atomic absorp-
 tion, ion  specific  electrode, direct reading optical emissions, and
 photographic  optical emission.  Analyses have been completed for coal
 samples and 23 trace elements with results published in a report.
Additional  analyses are continuing.  Since the form in which a con-
 stituent is present in coal may affect its pollution potential, an
effort  is also underway to define the nature and composition of
coal's mineral matter.  Areas being investigated include the mineral-
ogical  affinities of trace elements in coal, mineral distribution in
coal, and effects of high and low temperature on coal's mineral matter.
Additional  studies  have been initiated to determine the potential
pollutants in coal  that are organically combined, the chemistry of
coal  pollutants and removal technology, and the pollutants/byproduct
recovery of coal refuse.  These studies are providing information which
will  be helpful in  determining the quantity and fate of potential pol-
lutants in coal utilization, processing, or conversion to clean coal.
     Since coal is  utilized not only in raw form, but'is also processed
or converted  into more conveniently useful or environmentally sound
                                    59

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 forms, it is necessary to know more  about  coals  than their natural com-
 position.
      An effort has been initiated  to determine the  fate of potential
 pollutants in coal processing and  conversion  (to  liquid and gas) sys-
 tems.  At present, the major effort  is  aimed  at  collecting and analy-
 zing all  pertinent information on  the effluent and  process streams
 from coal treatment and/or conversion processes  that exist or are
 being developed by either the Government or private industry.  Sev-
 eral  reports issued on various processes provide  preliminary environ-
 mental  evaluation.  Additionally,  a  major  symposium, the second of its
 type, v/as sponsored by IERL-RTP and  held in Hollywood, Fla., in
 December  1975.   This symposium, "Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conver-
 sion  Technology, II,"  provided an  overview of the state-of-the-art
 and  was attended by a  broad  spectrum of attendees from industry,
 Government,  and research  organizations.
      Previous  and  current efforts  to define raw coal composition pro-
 vide  an initial  list of potential  pollutants.  Each operation to which
 the  coal  is  subjected  must then be evaluated to determine the fate of
 these potential  pollutants;  also,  the process must be evaluated to
 determine if any new potential  pollutants  have been generated as a
 result of the  process.
      In addition to the trace  elements  that are potential pollutants in
 air,  water,  and  solid  waste, many others must be considered.  For air,
 these include SO ,  NO  , total  suspended particulates, fine particulates,
                 X    X
 CO, HC, toxic pollutants,  odor,  and  thermal pollutants.  For water they
 include dissolved  oxygen,  biological and chemical oxygen demand, total
 organic carbon,  total  dissolved  salts,  oils, mercaptans, phenols, pH,
 color, and thermal  pollutants.   For  solid waste, composition and quan-
 tity are  the concerns.  Other environmental considerations include
 temporary or permanent land use, occupational  safety and health, com-
munity noise, historical and cultural considerations, and the endangering
of animal  species and ecosystems.
                                  60

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     Since currently available information is inadequate for most coal
constituents, an effort has been initiated to sample and analyze coal
processing effluent streams to determine the fate of the potential
pollutants.  The primary concern is that the treatment and/or conver-
sion process that generates the clean fuel does not itself become a
major pollution source, as reflected in the following hypothetical
simplified gasification flow diagram.  Having quantified the potential
problems, an evaluation will be made to determine the potential  prob-
lems that require controls.  Existing techniques for controls will
then be evaluated and utilized where applicable and new controls will
be developed and demonstrated as necessary to permit the coal  treat-
ment and/or process for producing a clean fuel  to be commercialized
with minimum delay.
     COAL CLEANING
     One solution to the problem of reducing the pollutants produced
by combustion is to burn a clean, low-polluting fuel.  For example, SO
                                                                      X
emissions can be reduced by burning low sulfur content fuels.  Unfortu-
nately, abundant domestic supplies of low sulfur fuels are limited in
the coal regions of the Eastern United States which supply most of the
combustion coals.  The largest low sulfur coal  reserves are in the
Western United States, far from major utilization points, and relative-
ly undeveloped.
     An alternative to a ready supply of clean fuel is the burning of
fuels that have been cleaned sufficiently to meet established pollution
criteria.  Coal cleaning could provide relief in areas of severe SO
                                                                   J\
pollution where other control techniques, such as flue gas cleaning,
are impractical.
     lERL-RTP's coal cleaning program includes two approaches—physical
and chemical cleaning of coal.  Previous  IERL-RTP activities under the
program have included washability and coal availability studies,  opti-
mization of physical coal cleaning techniques that have the potential
                                   61

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ro
I COAl
1 MINE
*
Icoo
•
TARS AND .
OILS "*""

\~*\ PREPARATION |~^| STORAGE |~*"| PRETREATMENT |"**| GASIFICATION |
1 |
1
UTILIZATION •«— ^"JJ10 --*•
•
i. |

DISPOSAL

II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r~ j PIPELINED
-*M SHIM 1 >| COOLING 1— >| HURIHCAIION 1 >| MblHANAIlUN 1 M COMPRESSION |~ CNQ ' *"
! ' ! i
1 ! Ill
CATALYST -' SEPARATOR -, CATALYST
• i
\ i 1
1 T 1
1 1 ji
ccoflRflrnn ^ CONTAMINATED jL WATER [ «• SOLUTION .^
SEPARATOR -•»• WAT£R -**• TREATMENT L*. REGENERATOR ^^ F
i i i
1 1 !
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SLUDGE WATER SLUDGE
NOTE: NOT ALL STREAMS ARE SHOWN.

SULFUR _^ TAILGAS
ECOVERY "*" TREATMENT

                                                Hypothetical simplified gasification flow diagram.

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for significantly reducing the sulfur levels in coal, and the develop-
ment of a two-stage froth flotation process for removing pyritic
sulfur from fine sized coal.
     The program currently includes the development and demonstration
of chemical processes for the removal of sulfur and other pollutants
from both coal and residual oils, and the review of processes being
developed by others to ensure that they are environmentally sound.
     Technology Development
     Physical/Mechanical Coal Cleaning—Removing ash from coal mechani-
cally (by physical separation) is not new to the coal industry:  it is
used both to maintain Btu levels of coal used for combustion and to pre-
pare metallurgical grade coal.
     lERL-RTP's program of optimizing coal desulfurization recognizes
that deep-cleaning methods (used to maximize pyrite separation) involve
a significant increase in the cost of coal.  However, since a very
significant portion of the cost increase is due to the loss of coal in
the deep-coal cleaning rejects, subsequent recovery of Btu, sulfur, and
metal oxide values from rejects would tend to reduce or eliminate this
economic barrier to deep-coal cleaning.
     The Laboratory's extramural coal-cleaning program includes specific
investigations to fill in existing information gaps.  The program is
aimed toward the eventual demonstration of a prototype coal-cleaning
plant.
     Pyritic sulfur and ash washability studies consist of separating
material based on specific gravity differences between coal and its
various impurities.  These evaluations were performed by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines (USBM), Commercial Testing and Engineering Co.  (CTE), and  the
Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS). The USBM and ISGS are  still
actively engaged in these evaluations.  The ISGS completely evaluated
all physical and chemical characteristics of Illinois coals.  This
effort, by far the most broadbased cleaning study that has been performed
on available coals, will probably be continued until all available  mines
have been evaluated.  Additional effort is  being made" to identify  trace
element levels and their fate during coal cleaning.
                                   63

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      Other ongoing major projects being conducted by USBM  (with  IERL-
 RTP funding and direction) concern:   (1) control  of cleaning  plant
 black water, (2) study of surface phenomena and  coal  dewatering,  (3)
 absorption/desorption reactions in coal  pyrite flotation,  (4)  coal
 preparation with stack gas scrubbing,  (5) specifications for  pyrite
 flotation circuits, (6) coal  preparation pilot plant facility, (7)
 magnet type/small  media magnetic recovery circuits, (8) instrumentation
 of coal  preparation plants, (9) magnetic separation of pyrite  from coal,
 and (10) computer  simulation.
      The USBM has  investigated  the operating characteristics  and  per-
 formance of various other types of coal-cleaning  methods such  as  froth
 flotation,  hydrocyclones, dense media  cyclones,  electrokinetics,  and
 agglomoseparation.   Major results have been the  development of the
 two-stage froth flotation concept and  the construction of  a demonstration
 unit  for obtaining  pyrite separation from fine sized coal  (the lack of a
 technique to desulfurize fine coal  has been a major gap in the area of
 physical  coal  cleaning).
      Based  on  prior studies of  operating parameters and performance of
 various  coal-cleaning  techniques, coal  characterization, and  pilot plant
 design,  the USBM is now developing a computer model  to predict coal-
 cleaning  plant  configuration and performance.  To date, major  segments of
 the model have  been completed and are  operational.   Current studies will
 provide  additionally required model components such as crushing,  sizing/
 screening,  and  froth flotation.
     An assessment  has  been completed  of the  use  of a  high sulfur com-
 bustor, capable  of  burning  coal-cleaning plant refuse  and  gob  pile re-
 jects which are  characterized by high  ash  and high  sulfur  content.  This
 study also  assessed  ignifluid boiler technology,  pulverized coal  boiler
 technology, and  the  flue  gas cleaning  process in  comparison to the high
 sulfur combustion preliminary design.
     Studies are currently  underway for  the environmental   assessment of
 coal-cleaning techniques  and evaluation  of methods  and commercial equip-
ment for physical coal cleaning.  The  scope of these efforts includes
                                  64

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physical coal-cleaning techniques for pyrite removal  from fine coal,
coal sulfur reduction potential, coal-cleaning equipment performance,
and evaluation of overall final data.  Further equipment and plant
system data will be generated through field testing.   There will also
be evaluations of dewatering and coal handling techniques, and of
coal preparation requirements for synthetic fuel  processes.  The use
of coal-cleaning plant products will be studied,  and  engineering trade-
off studies are planned for coal preparation equipment processes.
     A Process Design Manual for physical  coal cleaning is near com-
pletion.
     Chemical Coal Cleaning—lERL-RTP's active efforts in chemical
coal cleaning began with the development of a processing technique
initially shown to be feasible by the Systems Group of TRW, Inc.  This
technique, the Meyers' process, involves chemically extracting pyritic
sulfur from coal.  It is illustrated by the chemical  desulfurization
flow scheme below.  Industrial applications of this particular process
include processing coal into clean combustible fuel and processing
waste coal from sludge ponds.  lERL-RTP's objectives  for this process
have included the realization of a cost equal to  or less than the
cost of flue gas desulfurization (or other clean  fuel) processes, and
the reduction of pollutant emissions as follows:
     0  Meeting or exceeding New Source Performance Standards (or 95
        percent removal) for pyritic sulfur.
     0  Simultaneous removal of trace metals.
     0  Minimal environmental impact of water and solid waste.
     In the past year, a pilot plant construction plan has been modified
to provide a 250-pound-per-hour reactor test unit and to evaluate the
feasibility of testing other coal-cleaning processes.
     A survey of the applicability of chemical desulfurization  of coal
technology to 35 different U.S. coals has been completed and results
published.  This initial survey confirmed the general applicability of
the technology.
                                   65

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en
cr>
                                                                                                                                     02 TO RECYCLE
            JLFURIZED
            COAL
                                                                                  f_i  -I	SOlLVENT
                                                           SULFUR/     STEAM •»
                                                           SOLVENT
                                                                                         SULFATES/ m  DECANTER
                                                                                           WATER
                 DRYER-COOLER
*jy!->ATER
            uxtt
                                                                                                                                                   PULP
                                                                                                                                                  VESSEL
                   COAL/
                   WATER
if   COAL/RESIDUAL
"     SOLVENT
                                                                                                                       COAL/
                                                                                                                      WATER
                                                               TRW Meyers process for coal desulfurization.

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     IERL-RTP has initiated a program with Battelle to conduct an
environmental analysis of their hydrothermal  coal  process,  and an
evaluation of the combustion characteristics  of the product coal.
Also, some supporting analytical measurements studies have  been started
to characterize the spent leachant from the process.  The objectives
of these studies are to determine the environmental effects and dis-
charges produced by the process and to determine the environmental
impact of the combustion of the process product.
     The Laboratory is also supporting work to develop a method for
the chemical hydrotreatment (flash desulfurization) of coal to produce
a clean fuel; this work involves feasibility testing and optimizing
concepts as identified by the Institute of Gas Technology.
     IERL-RTP is in the process of evaluating new chemical  coal-cleaning
processes to be considered for possible future support.  Emphasis  is
being placed on examination of those processes that promise to remove
both pyritic and organic sulfur from coal.
     SYNTHETIC FUELS
     The Laboratory is very much involved in the emerging industry of
coal conversion or synthetic fuels.  There is a great need  for ongoing
environmental research and development in this area.  The synthetic fuel
industry will consist of very large and complex plants and  will involve
great discharge quantities, large consumptions of water, air, and fuel,
and massive effects on extraction of resources in relatively small areas.
It thus presents a number of perplexing questions concerning the environ-
mental impact of commercial technology still  in its early stages.
     Types, compositions, and quantities of discharge streams have not
yet been completely identified; therefore, attendant pollutants that
might result in significant health effects or other environmental  effects
are still unknown.  Full control needs still await a reasonable technol-
ogy and pollution determination.  The degree of control of discharges
from existing control techniques has not been quantified.  IERL-RTP's
programs for environmental assessment and control  technology  development
are currently addressing these problems.
                                  67

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      Environmental  Assessment
      The goal  of defining a  synthetic  fuel  industry that is environmentally
 sound is being approached through:
      °  The use of  existing  multimedia environmental source assessments.
      0  Identification  of information  gaps  and needs, by conducting
         in-house studies, updating  environmental source assessments,
         and exchanging  information  with those involved in health effects
         and control  technology development.
      0  The integration of all data into a  total environmental assessment.
      High-Btu  Gasification—Individual reports and a summary report have
 been  prepared  on all  synthetic fuels technology reviewed to date.  Also
 available are  reports on  possible or probable trace elements from gasifi-
 cation processes and  specific listings of probable pollutants from
 processes such  as the Hygas  process.   Two more trace element reports are
 in  preparation.   Individual  reports have included the high-Btu processes:
 Lurgi, Synthane, Bi-Gas,  Hygas, and C02 Acceptor.
      Extensive  work will  begin soon on an in-depth assessment of specific
 coal  processes  for environmental impacts associated with high-Btu conver-
 sion  processes.  This will include  a complete environmental assessment of
 emissions and effects.  An in-house gas cleaning test rig is planned, and
 new data acquisition capability is  being developed.
      Low-Btu Gasification—The Laboratory continues to place emphasis on
 the various aspects of  low-Btu fuel, including its near-term use in
 various  industrial commercial and utility applications.  Although some
 commercial  gasification processes exist to  produce low-Btu fuel from coal,
 several questions need  to be asked  concerning their application:   Do low-
 Btu gas characteristics apply to this  situation?  Are space requirements
met?   What  is its reliability?  What is its load-varying capability?  Is
 it economical?  What are the environmental   considerations?  What are the
offsite requirements?   Is sufficient water  available?  In general, is it
a viable alternative?
     These are some  of the questions for which quantified answers are being
sought in determining the near-term impact that existing processes could
                                   68

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have on the energy supply and in evaluating  the  potential problems that
must be solved to accomplish their environmentally  sound use in existing
complexes.
     For new installations, a study of combined-cycle  plants utilizing
coal gasification is in progress.  It is  evaluating the total environmental
impact of coal gasification (low-Btu) with combined-cycle electrical
power generation process.  Major considerations  will be the evaluation of
the alternatives of high- vs low-temperature cleanup of raw fuel  gas and
NO  control.
  A
     Two fuel  gas generator types are being  considered:  one represents
a high-temperature gas with little or no  condensibles  in the gas; the
other, a moderate-temperature gas with condensible  constituents.   The
study will then evaluate the most efficient  and  economical means  of
utilizing each gas in a combined-cycle operation considering such factors
as capital cost, energy usage efficiency, generated electricity cost,
environmental  impact, and impact on energy supplies for given time periods.
     Low-Btu gasification has been the subject of various  reports:  the
Koppers-Totzek, Winkler, and U-Gas concepts; and one concerning industrial
utilization of low-Btu gasification.  Planned programs for the  very  near
future include an extensive data acquisition and evaluation program, and
an environmental source assessment of overseas commercial  installations
possibly including gasification plants in South  Africa, Poland, and
Yugoslavia.
     An in-house gasification and gas cleanup test  rig will enable IERL-
RTP to conduct basic studies to identify  pollutants, the  applicability
of generic types of controls, and thermal discharge problems.
     An earlier figure diagrams a hypothetical simplified  gasification
system.
     Liquefaction—The conversion of coal to a clean combustible oil prod-
uct is another viable option being closely studied  by IERL-RTP.
     A recently completed study provides  a complete analysis  of the sulfur
and nitrogen balances in the Solvent Refined Coal  (SRC)  process.  Ongoing
projects involved with this process include:
                                   69

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      0  An examination of the design possibilities for producing clean
         gas and other clean liquids from the SRC process.
      0  Preparation of an environmental test plan for the  SRC pilot plant.
      Reports have been issued on individual  liquefaction processes such as
 SRC, COED, and H-Coal.  New programs will  be initiated concerning data
 acquisition and environmental assessment of specific control  processes.
      An in-house coal hydrogenation test rig will be forthcoming to pro-
 vide much needed data on this phase of liquefaction.  Also,  a program  of
 synthetic liquid denitrification has been  initiated.
      Control  Technology Development
      The objectives for the development of synthetic fuel  control tech-
 nology include evaluation of the applicability of existing methods and
 the development of new methods for abating both synthetic  fuel  process
 environmental  problems and also problems resulting from the  utilization
 of products and byproducts from synthetic  fuel  processes.  Field testing
 and in-house  experimental facilities will  provide evaluation  of existing
 and new technology.
      Activity and  current work areas have  already produced some results
 which are  most helpful  in developing planned extensive new programs and
 control  technology development.   A design  of an in-house laboratory scale
 and environmental  assessment control  testing unit for coal-derived liquids
 (previously referred  to as a coal  hydrogenation facility)  is  near com-
 pletion.   This facility will  test systems  which produce liquids from
 coals,  such as solvent  extraction and  hydro-liquefaction.
      Another  facility to  implement a  gas cleaning test program  has been
 designed.   This  gasifier  will  help IERL-RTP  define the applicability and
 performance of fuel gas cleaning  and  other coal  processes, and  to determine
 the fate of pollutants  generated  by the gasifier or  cleanup process.
      The Consolidation  Coal  Company has produced  a  report  for  IERL-RTP on a
 fluidized-dolomite-bed, a  fuel  gas  cleanup system which comes under the
category of new/novel control method development.  MIT is  preparing a
report on  liquid fuel,  simultaneous  hydrodesulfurization/hydrodenitrifica-
tion describing experimental  studies which they have  been  carrying out for
                                   70

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IERL-RTP.  Other reports, dealing with existing  control  technology evalua-
tion, discuss hydrocarbon emission control  methods,  refinery  control
methods, and environmental problem definition.   Another  report,  con-
cerned with control technology associated with  the Solvent  Refined Coal
clean fuel process, is also being prepared.
     A broad program of future activities in control  technology  develop-
ment in the synthetic fuel area is planned.  It  includes:
     0  Control Technology Evaluation—
          Simultaneous hydrodesulfurization/hydrodenitrification of
            synthetic liquids.
          Hydrodenitrification of synthetic liquids.
          General program support for systems analyses and  reviews.
          Technical/economic studies of control  methods  and applications.
          New control process evaluation.
          Test criteria specification for control  process examination.
     0  New/Novel Control Method Development--
          Pilot plant studies of dolomite cleanup  system.
          New gas treatment process development.
          New liquid treatment process development.
          New solid waste treatment process development.
          Final disposal  technique development.
          Fugitive emission control technique development.
          Prime contractors' control development areas.
     0  Existing Control  Method Field Testing--
          Control technology evaluation in foreign conversion facilities.
          Interagency cooperation with ERDA on  field testing of existing
            control systems.
          Prime contractors' field testing for  existing control  techniques,
     0  Field Demonstration of Control Methods—
          Interagency cooperation with ERDA on  field demonstration of
            control systems.
          Prime contractors' field demonstration of control techniques.
     0  In-House Experimental Studies—
          Construction/operation of in-house acid gas cleanup facility.
                                   71

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           Construction/operation of an in-house coal hydrogenation control
             unit.
           Construction/operation of an in-house oil treatment facility
             for denitrification.
 Fossil Fuels—Oil
      OIL COMPOSITION
      As with other fuels, the first important step is  determining  the oil's
 composition, especially regarding potential  pollutants.   A literature sur-
 vey has collected  and analyzed available  data on  domestic and  imported
 crude oils.   These data are supplying  the initial  basis  for an inventory
 of potential pollutants whose fate must  be followed in further oil  proces-
 sing and utilization.
      OIL TREATMENT/PROCESSING
      lERL-RTP's  oil  treatment/processing  program  concerns itself with four
 areas of interest:  demetallization, desulfurization, denitrification, and
 effluent controls.
      Demetallization
      Much of the U.S. oil  available for fuel  is high-sulfur, high-metals
 content residual oil.  Currently,  residual  oil cannot be desulfurized
 economically to meet environmental  requirements because  metals in  the oil
 poison  the desulfurization catalyst.   Since vanadium and nickel are two
 of  the  major poisons, a program is  underway to develop a low-cost method
 for  removing them  prior to conventional desulfurization.   The  program is
 evaluating various scavenger  and catalyst  combinations in  a continuous
 downflow  reactor.  The residual  oils being used in  the investigation  are
 vacuum  bottoms with  3 to 3.5  percent sulfur and 400 to 1000 ppm total
 vanadium  and nickel.   Successful completion of this project will result
 in an economic and clean fuel  for use  in existing  large  installations,
 permitting higher  premium  fuels  to  be  used by smaller area sources.
     Desulfurization
     Reduction of  the  sulfur  content of liquid fuels has traditionally
 involved  the use of fuel desulfurization with hydrogen.   Such  hydrodesul-
furization involves a  large capital investment cost that generally  limits
its use to major refineries.   Technologies for nonhydrogen desulfurization
                                   72

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of liquid fuels, which could apply to all sizes of refineries  as  well  as
to smaller industrial consumers of high-sulfur liquid fuels, would  have
significant potential for development into commercial fuel  desulfurization
availability.  Such a technology, being developed by others, is currently
being evaluated by IERL-RTP to determine its potential for  the control of
sulfur (and other pollutants) in a spectrum of fuels encompassing gasoline,
distillate fuels, shale oil, crude oil, and residual oil.
     Denitrification
     For high-nitrogen content oils, research is underway to  investigate
the kinetics of simultaneous hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrification
of liquid fuels.  These reactions are being studied to determine  the con-
ditions at which they are competitive and those at which they  may be aiding
each other.  Results of this type of work are aimed at long-term  applica-
tions and may be most useful in producing clean fuels from liquids  derived
from coal or oil shale.
     Effluent Controls
     In addition to studying techniques for pretreating oils  for  the control
of pollutant emissions, IERL-RTP is currently studying the types  of control
devices being used to control emissions from all phases of the liquid fuel
industry.  These phases include crude oil production, field treatment,
transportation, refining, and product marketing and distribution.  The
nature of emissions from all of these industrial stages is being  evaluated.
Existing and emerging emission control methods will be evaluated to determine
their potential for meeting industry's control needs.  Gaps in control tech-
nology requiring the development of new methods will be identified.
Fossil Fuels—Gas
     Natural gas is a clean fuel, compared to coal and oil.  Since the
potential gas demand is so much greater than its supply (or total resource
base), it is important for  the long-run to ensure adequate supplies of other
clean fuels in order that the premium gas may be used most effectively.
     An alternative to natural gas is a substitute  natural gas to increase
the supplies of gas.  This  possibility is being  investigated  by  various
                                   73

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 groups; however, a main concern is the environmental  aspects  of the  produc-
 tion process itself, described in more detail  in the  "Fossil  Fuels—Coal"
 portion of this report.
 Fossil Fuels—Other
      IERL-RTP has completed the environmental  test portion  of a demonstra-
 tion to effectively and economically reduce hydrocarbon  emissions  from
 small to medium size gasoline bulk storage/loading terminals.   The figure
 below shows an installation for controlling hydrocarbon  emissions  from a
 gasoline bulk storage/loading terminal.
 Waste as a Fuel
      Using refuse as a fuel can help solve  the municipal waste disposal
 problem, reduce air pollution, and provide  at  least a  partial  response to
 the current energy crisis.   Burning refuse  (instead of high-sulfur fossil
 fuels)  in  utility grade boilers can reduce  sulfur dioxide  (S02)  emissions,
 and selling the generated steam or electric power can  help  lower the costs
 of waste disposal.
      A  demonstration of the feasibility of  burning refuse as  a supplementary
 fuel  in utility boilers is  underway at St.  Louis,  Missouri.   It  is being
 funded  cooperatively by the City  of St. Louis, Union Electric  Company, and
 two EPA organizations,  IERL-RTP and the Resource  Recovery Division.  Refuse
 processing  and  firing facilities  are operational  and testing  is  near com-
 pletion.   It  is  pictured below.
      Refuse is  processed, including the shredding  and  classification of
 municipal waste, at  a 300-ton/day processing plant.  The refuse  is stored
 on-site and is  later  transported  18 miles by truck  to  Union Electric's
 Meramec power plant where it  is burned to generate  electricity.  Facilities
 at  the power plant include  a  receiving building,  surge silo, and pneumatic
 transfer equipment.   At  the power  plant, the shredded  refuse is  pneumatically
 conveyed 600 feet from  the  surge  silo to a  125-MW corner-fired,  pulverized-
 coal-burning boiler where it  is burned to provide about 10 percent of
 the boiler's total heat  input.  Particulate emissions from the boiler are
controlled by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP).
     To date, over 20,000 tons of  refuse have been processed and fired.
                                  74

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LOW-TEMPERATURE
THERMAL OXIDIZER
INSTRUMENTATION      CONTROLS
PROPANE '
STORAGE

                                                                             VAPOR
                                                                             SAVER
       Controlling hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline bulk storage/loading terminal.
                                            75

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en
                               The City of St. Louis municipal incinerator demonstrates recycling of household solid waste.

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Early problems with jamming of the pneumatic feeder  valves  at  the  firing
site have been resolved by the installation of an  air classification  system
at the processing plant to remove heavy material  from the processed solid
waste.  Removal of about 16 percent of the heavier (mostly  nonburnable)
wastes has also reduced the formerly large amount  of boiler residue.   A
ferrous metal recovery system, installed at the same time as the air
classifier, reclaims ferrous scrap which is sold for about  $20/ton.   The
most persistent problem has been pipe erosion in the pneumatic transfer
system at the power plant.  New pipe elbow materials which  promise to re-
duce pipe maintenance are being experimentally evaluated.
     Preliminary pollution testing indicates that refuse firing does
not appreciably affect the emission of gaseous pollutants,  but that  ESP
performance (hence, particulate emissions) is adversely affected.  Ad-
ditional pollution testing has now been completed, and an evaluation  of
the results is underway.
ADVANCED PROCESSES
Fluidized-Bed Combustion
     Within the area of fluidized-bed combustion, lERL-RTP's current efforts
are in two distinct areas:  fluidized-bed combustion of coal and fluidized-
bed gasification/desulfurization of residual fuel oil.
     FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION OF COAL
     lERL-RTP's program goal in the area of fluidized-bed combustion (FBC)
of coal is to develop all necessary environmental data over the full range
of variables for all variations of the FBC process.  It is desired to ob-
tain these data on a suitable experimental scale and on a time schedule
compatible with the development schedule envisioned in the national FBC
development effort.
     During 1975, lERL-RTP's on-going FBC program was expanded toward
the objective of complete environmental characterization of the process.
     Development was initiated of a major contract for complete environ-
mental assessment of the FBC process.  This environmental assessment will
include:  identification of current process/environmental background;
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 comprehensive analysis of emissions from operating  units;  development of
 environmental objectives for the process; assessment  of  control technol-
 ogy for use with the process; analysis  of the environmental  impact of the
 process; and development of a program designed to obtain missing data and
 enable achievement of the environmental  objectives.   This  contract will
 be awarded early in 1976.
      In the meantime, GCA/Technology Division is carrying  out a prelim-
 inary environmental assessment of FBC.   A key task  in this effort is the
 application of theoretical  calculations  and  engineering  considerations
 to project deductively what the emissions may be from FBC  units of poten-
 tial  pollutants which have  received little,  if any, attention in past
 experimental  studies.  This project is to be completed in  1976.
      Several  projects are planned for completion in 1976 involving com-
 prehensive analysis of emissions from FBC units.  Battelle-Columbus Labora-
 tories  will  propose an approach for comprehensive analysis of emissions,
 and will  test this  approach on a 6-inch  i.d.  atmospheric FBC unit.  Com-
 prehensive analyses will  also be conducted on:  a 2-  by  3-foot (cross-
 section)  pressurized FBC  unit at the British  Coal Utilization Research
 Association;  a  7-foot i.d.  pressurized FBC pilot plant operated by Com-
 bustion  Power;  and  the pressurized  bench-scale  equipment and the FBC
 Miniplant  at  Exxon  Research and Engineering.  Comprehensive analyses will
 also  be conducted on other  units as  plans develop and as these other
 units become  available.   Comprehensive analyses will  involve testing not
 only  for the  pollutants which  have  received emphasis  in  the past, such
 as S02 and NO,  but  will include:  S02; S03:  sulfides, sulfites, and sul-
 fates in solid  streams; reduced  sulfur species  in the flue gas, such as
 H2S, COS,  and CS2;  NO; N02:  nitrites  and nitrates; all individual organic
 compounds, such as  polycyclic  organic matter  and polychlorinated bi-
 phenyls; halogens;  all trace elements and trace element  compounds that
might be expected based upon the coal ash and sorbent composition;
particulates  (total mass, size  distribution and morphology); and bio-
logical  testing.
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     Mitre is developing manuals for alternative variations of the FBC
process which will outline available sampling/analytical  technology for
comprehensive analysis on these variations, including recommendation of
tentative sampling/analytical procedures, and identification of sampling/
analysis R&D needs.
     Three experimental and engineering -studies are underway, including:
engineering and primarily small-scale experimental  work,  being conducted
by Westinghouse Research; laboratory-scale and bench-scale studies by
Argonne National Laboratory (including work on a 6-inch i.d. pressurized
combustor and a 4-inch i.d. pressurized sorbent regeneration vessel) in a
project cofunded with the U.S. Energy Research and  Development Administra-
tion (ERDA); and bench-scale and Miniplant studies  by Exxon R&E.   These
three studies involve, in general:   (1) investigation of  SO  control using
                                                           A
limestone/dolomite and alternative  sorbents, and of regeneration  of
these sorbents; (2) NO  formation and control in FBC; (3) particulate
                      X
control requirements and control device testing; (4) emissions and
control of other pollutants, such as trace elements and hydrocarbons; and
(5) minimization of other environmental impacts.
     A major accomplishment during  1975 was the successful  shakedown of
the combustor on the FBC Miniplant  at Exxon.  (See  photo.)   The Miniplant
system, built under IERL-RTP sponsorship, is the largest  existing FBC
facility capable of operating at its full range of  conditions.  The Mini-
plant combustor, which is 12.5 inches i.d., is capable of burning up to
480 pounds of coal per hour (0.63 MW equivalent).  As part of the shake-
down operation, the combustor was operated for a sustained run at steady
conditions lasting over 100 hours.   Interruptions during the 100-hour
period totaled less than 3 hours.  The bed material during the run con-
sisted of limestone particles which reacted with the S02 generated  by
combustion of the coal.  Emissions of NO  were suppressed during the run
                                        /\
to levels well within EPA's current New Source Performance Standard for
coal-fired boilers.  The Miniplant system also includes an 8-inch i.d.
sorbent regenerator, for which shakedown has not yet _been completed.
     A second major accomplishment on the Miniplant was operation of the
                                  79

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              SORBENT
            REGENERATOR
630-KW Exxon miniplant for pressurized (10atm) fluidized-bed combustion of coal.
                                   80

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combustor at controlled conditions for a sustained period lasting 240 hours.
Interruptions during the 10-day operation totaled only 4 hours.   The
240-hour run demonstrated the long-term operability of the Miniplant com-
bustor, and provided environmental data over a range of operating con-
ditions.  S02 removals of greater than 95 percent were achieved  by addition
of dolomite particles at rates such that the ratio of the moles  of calcium
in the sorbent feed to the moles of sulfur in the coal feed was  2.0 to 2.5.
Dolomite feed at a calcium-to-sulfur mole ratio in the range of  0.5 to 1.0
was adequate, with the 2 percent sulfur coal burned during this  run, to
reduce S02 emissions sufficiently to meet EPA's New Source Performance
Standard for coal-fired boilers (1.2 Ib S02/106 Btu heat input,  or 0.51
g/106 J).  NO  emissions during the run averaged 135 ppm, which  corre-
             y\
spends to an emission level of 0.17 lb/106 Btu heat input  (0.074 g/106 J)
expressed as N02.  This level is well below EPA's New Source Performance
Standard for coal-fired boilers of 0.7 lb/106 Btu (0.30 g/106 J).
     A small, flexible, atmospheric-pressure Sampling and Analytical Test
Rig is planned by EPA for comprehensive analysis activities, for testing
of sampling and analytical procedures, and for investigation of  alternative
add-on pollution control devices.
     Two projects are planned aimed specifically at the disposal and/or
utilization of liquid and solid wastes from FBC systems.  One project will
be with a contractor to be selected early in 1976; the second, with the
Tennessee Valley Authority.
     Finally, three paper studies are being conducted.  Dow Chemical is
projecting the effect of experimental scale on emissions from FBC units.
This project should provide an initial indication of the scale on which
environmental data must be generated in order to be scaled up reliably to
commercial-scale FBC systems.  Exxon R&E is conducting an energy, economic,
and environmental analysis of FBC of coal for industrial applications  (in
a study cofunded with the Federal Energy Administration and ERDA).  TVA
is conducting a cost comparison of atmospheric-pressure and pressurized
FBC with conventional boilers involving flue gas desulfurization.   The
results of these projects should be available in 1976.
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      FLUIDIZED-BED GASIFICATION/DESULFURIZATION OF RESIDUAL FUEL  OIL
      The Chemically Active Fluid-Bed (CAFB) process for gasifying and  de-
 sulfurizing heavy fuel oil has been demonstrated in a  0.75 MW continuous
 pilot unit at Esso Research Centre, Abingdon, England  (Esso England).   The
 CAFB process injects heavy fuel oil into a shallow (about 2 feet  deep)
 fluidized bed of lime/limestone particles to partially oxidize, gasify,
 and desulfurize the oil.  The continuous pilot unit is used to fire a
 commercial boiler rated at 10 million Btu/hour; it demonstrated
 a service factor of 95 percent during the latest run of approximately
 400 hours' duration.  In addition to 90 percent sulfur removal at a cal-
 cium-to-sulfur feed ratio of 1.5 to 1, the CAFB has shown complete vanadium
 removal, 75 percent removal of nickel, and 36 percent  removal  of  sodium.
 A reduction in the NO  emissions from 263 ppm (when the boiler was oil-
                      A
 fired)  to 160 ppm (when fired on the CAFB product)  has been demonstrated.
 Economic studies continue to show that the CAFB has the potential  for
 becoming a viable commercial  process.   The effluent from the limestone
 regenerator is 5 to 10 percent S02 which can be reduced to sulfur, using
 existing technology.   A demonstration  of a nominal  10  MW unit is  being
 considered at San Benito, Texas.   A contract has  been  executed between
 Foster  Wheeler Energy Corporation (FWEC) and IERL-RTP  for the engineering
 and  testing portion  of the proposed demonstration.   The private utility
 and  Foster Wheeler are cooperating in  the design  phase with support
 from Esso  England,  developer  of the process.   Arrangements for the con-
 struction  and  fabrication of  the  CAFB  unit at  San  Benito are between the
 utility  and FWEC.
      Contracts  for the multimedia environmental assessment of the  CAFB
 and  other  methods  of  utilization  of residual oil  fuels have been  awarded
 to Westinghouse  Research  and  are  pending to  other contractors.  The objec-
 tive  of  the  program  is  the  environmentally acceptable  use  of residual
 fuels.
Advanced Low-Emission/Energy-Conserving  Systems/Strategies
      IERL-RTF's efforts in  this area are  directed in four  channels:  the
EPA-Van, a heat and emissions  loss  prevention  system (HELPS)  for  area
                                  82

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source furnaces, electrical energy and waste heat as clean energy for area
sources, and fuel distribution patterns as a means of controlling area
source pollution.
     ERA-VAN
     The Laboratory's EPA-Van, a mobile research unit, is part of lERL-RTP's
program to control air pollution from homes, apartments, and small commer-
cial buildings.  The pollution control technique used here is an energy
supply system containing environmentally clean and energy-saving compo-
nents.  The EPA-Van's integrated system includes fuel cells, solar energy
collectors, a specially-designed heat pump, and catalytic burners.  This
equipment is nonpolluting and is designed to optimize the energy-conserv-
ing features of each of the components.  The system provides all the energy
needed for space heating, cooling, and ventilating; cooking; lighting;
food refrigeration; water heating; and appliances.
     Engelhard Industries Division, under contract to IERL-RTP, has
designed and is building the Van.  Delivery is scheduled for early 1976.
The testing program for the Van is scheduled to begin soon after its de-
livery to Research Triangle Park.
     Although the total impact of the EPA-Van power system will not be
known quantitatively until testing is completed, the environmental impact
is felt to be substantial because of the reduced fuel consumption result-
ing from use of the coupled solar-energy/heat-pump system and the in-
herently nonpolluting nature of fuel cells and catalytic burners.  The
unknowns at this point are the environmental and economic impacts of the
industrial equipment required to produce, store, and transport the con-
sumable fuel, and the economic impact of the presently expensive fuel
cells and catalytic combustors.  The EPA-Van is shown in the photo.
     HEAT AND EMISSION LOSS PREVENTION SYSTEM (HELPS)
     An lERL-RTP-funded study was undertaken by Aerotherm to assess the
potential for reducing environmental emissions from residential furnaces
by improving furnace energy efficiency.  Such emission-reduction/efficiency-
improvement might be achieved by retrofitting heat-recovery/cleanup equip-
ment to existing furnaces, or by developing new furnace designs which
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Artist's conception of EPA-Van.

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are inherently more efficient and/or lower in emissions.
     The initial phase of the effort showed that a direct-contact heat
exchanger in an oil-fired furnace could achieve a reduction in emitted
pollutants along with a decrease in fuel consumption.   A  feasibility study
is being carried out to evaluate the overall  balance for  retrofitting
furnaces with these heat exchangers.
     ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND WASTE HEAT
     An IERL-RTP study (by Radian) has been completed  to  assess the degree
to which electricity from coal might be employed in the residential, com-
mercial, and industrial sectors as a supplement or substitute for clean
premium fuels such as natural gas, distillate oil, SN6, or liquefied coal.
The electricity thus employed in these area sources would be completely
nonpolluting at the point of use, but would be generated  in large central
power stations, burning coal and employing high efficiency emission control
technology or low polluting advanced combustion processes.  The energy
usage efficiency and total environmental impacts (with emphasis on urban
ambient air) were evaluated for alternative methods for meeting user needs,
together with projections of changeover costs and rates.   The oil and gas
shortage and the threat of a new embargo provide clear incentives for
further examination of the degree to which substitution of electricity
(from coal-fired power plants) for oil and gas usage in stationary end-
use sectors can be implemented.  Electrical substitution  does offer the
potential for significant future reductions in the amount of natural gas
and distillate fuel oil consumed in the residential, commercial, and
industrial  sectors.
     FUEL DISTRIBUTION PATTERN FLEXIBILITY
     Battelle, funded by  IERL-RTP, has completed a study designed to quanti
fy the amount of clean fuels  (natural gas, distillate fuel oil,  low-sulfur
residential oil, and low-sulfur coal) which should be available  through
the year 2000 for switching  to small sources from larger users as a means
of area source air pollution control.  The report on this study  is
currently being written, with publication anticipated early  in 1976.
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     Under the study, an evaluation was made of factors affecting the
ability to switch fuels between users (e.g., equipment-related factors,
business factors, fuel supply network factors), and the quantities of
fuel affected by each factor.
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                     UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER
     lERL-RTP's work in the area of utilities and  industrial power can
be subdivided into three distinct functional  groupings:  process tech-
nology, emissions and effluent technology,  and particulate  technology.
The following subsections of this report discuss these groupings sepa-
rately.
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
Flue Gas Desulfurization—Regenerable Processes
     MAGNESIUM OXIDE (CHEMICO MAG-OX)  SCRUBBING
     The Mag-Ox scrubbing process, developed  and currently  offered com-
mercially by Chemical Construction Company  (Chemico), is one of the more
promising regenerable flue gas desulfurization approaches.  The process
is based on the reaction of magnesium oxide with sulfur dioxide to form
magnesium sulfite, which is removed from the  scrubber effluent by cen-
trifugation.  The magnesium sulfite is dried  (to remove surface and
bound moisture) before being calcined to regenerate  magnesium oxide for
recycle and sulfur dioxide for conversion to  sulfuric acid  or other
saleable products.
     The chief advantage of the process is  its wide  applicability to
both existing and new power plants:  it removes both sulfur oxides and
particulates very efficiently without interfering  with normal boiler
operation.  The process is also amenable to the centralized processing
concept; i.e., spent sorbent can be regenerated at a central plant ca-
pable of servicing a number of power or industrial plants.  The major
disadvantage of the process is its relatively high regeneration energy
requirements.  Other disadvantages include  those common to  wet  scrubbing
processes; e.g., the apparent requirement for stack  plume  reheat.
     In 1974, IERL-RTP and Boston Edison completed a $9 million cofunded
demonstration program involving the design, construction,  and  operation
of a 155-MW capacity scrubbing/regeneration system (see  photo).   Scrub-
bing, centrifuging, and drying operations were located  at  Boston  Edison's
oil-fired Mystic Station; a regeneration system was  constructed as  Essex
Chemical's sulfuric acid plant in Providence, R.I.  The  system was
                                   87

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                             _ABSORBER
                           V    INLET
                           \ 1 DUCTWORK
'
                                                              MgO STORAGE
                                                                 SILO
ABSORBER
 OUTLET
BREECHING
       DUCTWORK
     FROM BOILER
                              RECYCLE
                               PUMPS
                            (NOT VISIBLE)
                                                                               .
              EPA/Boston Edison demonstrate Mag-Ox process.

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started up in April 1972.  Results obtained during 2 years of operation
indicate that sulfur dioxide removal  efficiencies in excess of 90 per-
cent were obtained consistently, using both virgin and regenerated mag-
nesium oxide.  Additionally, more than 5,000 tons of commercially sale-
able sulfuric acid of high quality was produced from the sulfur recover-
ed from the stack gas.  A number of problems were solved that were pri-
marily equipment (rather than process) related.   Consequently, continu-
ous, long-term, reliable operation was not achieved.  However, from mid-
February until June 1974, the scrubbing system demonstrated an avail-
ability of about 90 percent.  The final report on this work is available
from NTIS.
     Potomac Electric Power Company has installed a 100-MW Mag-Ox scrub-
bing system at its coal-fired Dickerson Station.   Since completion of
the EPA/Boston Edison program in June 1974, EPA has provided the Provi-
dence Mag-Ox regeneration system for Potomac Electric1s use in process-
ing spent scrubber sorbent.  Potomac Electric is  supplying data relative
to overall system operation on coal-fired plants.  Results indicate SO
                                                                     /\
removal efficiencies greater than 90 percent with few discernible dif-
erences between coal- and oil-fired boiler applications.   Work on this
program has been completed, and the final report  is being prepared.
     Two studies in support of Mag-Ox scrubbing are being conducted
currently.  Radian Corporation is evaluating the  feasibility of producing
elemental sulfur directly from magnesium sulfite.  This would expand the
applicability of current Mag-Ox processes.  Another study is concerned
with the mechanism of formation of tri- and hexa-hydrate forms of mag-
nesium sulfite (MgS03 • 3H20, MgS03 • 6H20).  The hexa-hydrate crystals
separate and handle easily; the tri-hydrate crystals require less drying
energy, but are more difficult to separate and handle.  The study will
attempt to generate information on formation mechanisms and operating
conditions that can be used to control the type of crystal formed.
     SODIUM SULFITE/BISULFITE SCRUBBING WITH THERMAL REGENERATION
     (WELLMAN-LORD)
     IERL-RTP and Northern  Indiana Public Service Company  (NIPSCO) are
jointly funding the design and construction of a flue gas cleaning
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 demonstration system utilizing the Wellman-Lord S02 recovery process.
 The Allied Chemical SOa reduction process will be used with the W-L
 process to convert the recovered S02 to elemental sulfur.  The total
 $11 million cost for design, construction, and startup is being borne
 equally by IERL-RTP and NIPSCO.  The operational  costs for the system
 will be borne solely by NIPSCO, and a detailed test and evaluation pro-
 gram will be funded by IERL-RTP.  The demonstration system is being
 retrofitted to the 115 MW, coal-fired Boiler No.  11 at the D.H. Mitchell
 Station in Gary, Indiana.  (See photo.)
      Phase I of the three-phase program, completed in December 1972,
 entailed the development of a process design, major equipment specifi-
 cations, and a detailed cost estimate.   During Phase II, initiated in
 June 1973, the final  design and construction will be completed by Davy
 Powergas,  Inc.  (owner of the W-L process).  Davy  is constructing both
 the W-L and Allied portions of the system.  At the completion of startup
 activities, scheduled for April  1976, the plant will be operated by
 Allied  Chemical  Corporation under contract with NIPSCO.  During the
 demonstration year a  comprehensive test and evaluation program will be
 carried out by  TRW, Inc.  under contract with IERL-RTP.
     The W-L process  utilizes a  sodium  sulfite/sodium bisulfite solu-
 tion to absorb  S02 from gas streams  containing a  wide range of inlet S02
 concentrations.   Spent  absorbent,  rich  in bisulfite, is processed in a
 steam-heated  evaporator/crystallizer, regenerating active sodium sulfite
 and a stream  of  S02 for further  processing.   The  basic chemistry of
 the W-L process  can be  represented  in simple form as:
     Absorption—
               S02  +  Na2S03 + H20	^ 2NaHS03
     Regeneration—
               2NaHS03	^ Na2S03i + S02+ + H20+
                        heat
The process generates inactive sodium sulfate by  three mechanisms:  S03
absorption, disproportionate, and  sulfite  oxidation.   In  order to
maintain adequate levels of active sodium sulfite  and  to  avoid excessive
steam demand, it is necessary to purge  sodium sulfate  from  the absorber/
evaporator loop.  Since the purge results  in  the  need  to  dispose of an
additional system product as  well as  loss  of useful  sodium  ion,  much
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Wellman-Lord process to be demonstrated.

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 emphasis has been placed on purge minimization in development  of  the
 demonstration system.
      The S02 product from the W-L process  is  suitable  for recovery  in
 three forms:  liquid S02, sulfuric acid, and  elemental  sulfur.  For
 purposes of the IERL-RTP/NIPSCO demonstration, the Allied Chemical  S02
 reduction process will  be applied to generate the most saleable and
 environmentally sound product, elemental sulfur.   The  Allied process
 utilizes natural  gas as a reductant in  a novel catalytic  reactor  system.
 The process has been demonstrated on a  large  scale, treating a 12-per-
 cent S02 gas stream from a nickel  ore roaster at  Sudbury, Ontario.
      IERL-RTP has high  confidence for the  success of this first coal-fired
 boiler demonstration system in meeting  guarantees for  pollution control,
 product quality,  and material  and utility  requirements.   This confidence
 is based on the already appreciable quantity  of successful operating
 experience to date for  W-L systems  on various applications including acid
 plants, Glaus plants, and oil-fired boilers.   About 20  systems are  now
 in operation in the United States  and Japan.   The knowledge gained  from
 operating these systems has resulted in a  series  of process improvements
 (reducing costs and purge requirements) which have been incorporated in
 the IERL-RTP/NIPSCO demonstration.
      CATALYTIC OXIDATION (MONSANTO  CAT-OX)
      The catalytic oxidation  (Cat-Ox) process  is  an adaptation of the
 contact sulfuric  acid process.  Monsanto Enviro-Chem Systems, Inc., has
 developed this  adaptation through work on a pilot scale unit, followed
 by a  15-MW prototype.   IERL-RTP and  Illinois  Power Co., sharing the $8
 million total  funding requirement,  have been  attempting to demonstrate
 the process  on  a  103-MW coal-fired  boiler at  Illinois Power's Wood  River
 Station (see photo).  Detailed design, construction, and  shakedown  test-
 ing of  the  system  took  about 3 years; performance guarantee testing was
 carried out  using  gas-firing of the  reheat burners in July 1973.  The
 unit met all  guarantees  and was subsequently accepted.  Because of  the
 shortage  of  natural gas,  however, the burners were modified to allow
either  oil- or gas-firing, as conditions permit.  Design and start-up
                                   92

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                                                    ELECTROSTATIC
                                                    PRECIPITATOR
                 LJUNGSTROM
                    HEAT
                 EXCHANGER
                        i
EPA/Illinois Power demonstrate Cat-Ox process.
                    93

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 problems have precluded successful initial operation and initiation of
 the comprehensive 1-year test program.
      The Cat-Ox system is available in two configurations:   the Reheat
 system for retrofitting existing plants, and the Integrated system for
 incorporation into new power generating facilities.   The Reheat system
 (being demonstrated at Wood River) operates with the flue gases first
 passing through a high efficiency (99.6 percent) electrostatic  precipit-
 ator.  Then, in preparation for the catalytic conversion of the S02 to
 S03, the temperature must be raised to about 850°F.   This heat  is  added
 in three increments:  a primary input from an external  combustor,  a gas
 heat exchanger, and a secondary input from the external  combustor.   After
 being heated, the S02 contained in the flue gases  is converted  to  S03 by
 catalyzed reaction with 02.   Exiting  the converter,  the hot flue gases
 pass through the high-temperature side of the gas  heat  exchanger and on
 to the acid production section.   The  sulfuric acid is formed  by the stand-
 ard S03/H20 absorbing tower  contact process.   The  product acid  is  cooled
 and sent to storage, while  the  flue gases pass through  a  fiber-packed
 mist eliminator (where the residual traces  of sulfuric  acid mist are
 removed),  and then to the stack where the clean  gases exit  to the  atmos-
 phere.   At this point, essentially all  particulate matter,  as well  as
 85 percent of the  S02, has been  removed  from  the stream.
      Trace and  hazardous  element analyses account for an  important  por-
 tion of  the overall  Cat-Ox test  program.  A complete characterization
 of Wood  River Unit No.  4  (prior  to Cat-Ox equipment  tie-in)  included
 analyses  for some  30 trace elements in  the coal, hopper ash, and slag
 as  well  as  in the  fly ash (where elemental analysis  has  been done  for a
 complete  range  of  size fractions).  These tests will  be  repeated during
 a  1-year  test program to determine the  effects of the system on the
 concentration and  distribution of trace  elements.
     Several  studies  are underway on  Cat-Ox system design and operational
changes  (if  necessary), repair/refurbishment  requirements,  cost/schedule
 impacts, and  current  process viability.   A decision  on  the  future  of the
Cat-Ox demonstration  program will  be made following  completion  of  these
studies.
                                   94

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     CITRATE PROCESS
     IERL-RTP and the U.S. Bureau of Mines have entered into a coopera-
tive agreement to pool funds and technical talents in the interest of
demonstrating the Citrate process which has been developed through pilot
scale by the Bureau of Mines.  A concurrent development program, carried
out by an industrial consortium headed by Pfizer Chemical Company, also
led to a successful pilot operation of the process.  Based on the success
of these two pilot programs, IERL-RTP and the Bureau of Mines are initi-
ating the demonstration of this technology on a nominal 100-MW coal-
fired utility boiler (coal to be at least 2.5 percent sulfur).  Negotia-
tions are currently underway with prospective host sites and process
vendors.  Contracts are to be signed in the spring of 1976 for this
project, which will include substantial cost sharing by the host site.
     As shown in the generalized flow sheet, the Citrate process consists
of five steps:  gas cleaning and cooling, S02 absorption, sulfur precipi-
tation and solution regeneration, sulfur separation, and H2S generation.
After gas cleaning and cooling (to remove particulates and to reduce
flue gas temperature), an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite,
sodium bisulfite, sodium thiosulfate, and other sulfur compounds absorbs
S02 from the flue gas stream.  The solution is buffered with citric acid
to maintain pH at an optimum level for high efficiency scrubbing and high
S02 loading capacity.  The S02-rich scrubber liquor is then fed to a
series of reactors where gaseous H2S is added.  Although a number of
reactions take place in these reactors, the net reaction is the combining
of S02 and H2S to form elemental sulfur, which precipitates and is then
separated by flotation.  The recovered sulfur is melted to separate out
the residual scrubbing solution.  A portion of the sulfur is sent to an
H2S generator where it is reacted with reducing gas; the remainder is
sent to product storage for subsequent sale.  The regenerated solution
is returned to the scrubber, and the H2S generator product is sparged
into the regeneration reactors.
     SODIUM HYDROXIDE SCRUBBING WITH ELECTROLYTIC REGENERATION  (STONE &
     WEBSTER/IONICS)
     In July 1972, IERL-RTP and Wisconsin Electric Power Company  (WEPCO)
                                   95

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ID
           GAS CLEANING
              AND
             COOLING
              CLEANED AND
              COOLED GAS
       FLUE
        GAS
        H20-
S02 ABSORPTION
                             TO ATMOSPHERE
 SULFUR PRECIPITATION
         AND
SOLUTION REGENERATION
                                                                                                    H2S GENERATION
                                      S02
                                     LIQUOR
                                                                                                            STEAM
                                                                                                       REDUCTANT
                                                                                                          GAS
                                                  The Citrate process.

-------
initiated a potential 3-1/2 year, three-phase program involving the
Stone & Webster/Ionics (SWI) sodium hydroxide scrubbing process.
     During Phase I, an integrated pilot plant was built (see photo),
operating tests were performed over an approximate 1-year period,  and
a prototype-scale electrolytic cell system was designed, fabricated, and
tested.  Preliminary design of a 75-MW prototype system and development
of detailed test programs and operating schedules for the prototype sys-
tem were also accomplished.  The Phase I final report was published in
May 1975.
     A 16-month Phase II effort had been considered for the detailed
design, procurement, and installation of a 75-MW prototype.  This  would
have been followed by Phase III, a 12-month startup and operational
period for the 75-MW prototype.  Based on an assessment of Phase  I
results, however, work will not continue into Phases II and III.
     The SWI process is a cyclic method of flue gas desulfurization
that was developed by SWI during the 5 years prior to the IERL-RTP/WEPCO
program.  The process consists of four basic steps:
     0  Absorption of SO  from waste stack gas by sodium hydroxide.
                        A
     0  Neutralization of the reacted sodium hydroxide solution (sodium
        sulfite and bisulfite) with electrolytically produced sulfuric
        acid to produce a sodium sulfate solution and to release  and
        recover sulfur dioxide.
     0  Recycle of the sodium sulfate solution to an electrolytic cell
        system.
     0  Electrolytic conversion of the sodium sulfate solution into sul-
        furic acid and sodium hydroxide for recycle.
     Chief advantages of the process (expected to apply to both existing
and new power plants over a broad range of sizes) are:  highly efficient
removal of SO ; production of easily handled nonslurry flow streams; no
             /\
solid waste; and recovery of S02 for subsequent processing into lique-
fied S02, sulfuric acid, or elemental sulfur.
     Disadvantages of the process include:  power requirements for
electrolytic regeneration; unfavorable economic factors; and the need
to remove from the system any sulfates produced by oxidation in the
scrubber.
                                   97

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      CLEAN FLUE GAS-
      ABSORBER TO STACK
FLUEGAS--PRECIPITATOR
  OUTLET TO FD FAN
                                         FLUE GAS-FD FAN
                                          TO ABSORBER

                                            •  l. I
                                         STRIPPER
                                         BOTTOMS
                                          DRUM
                                              j  I
              WEPCO's Valley plant pilots Stone & Webster/Ionics process.
                                   98

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     The Phase I final report presents the pilot plant results and eval-
uates and assesses the process.
     AMMONIA SCRUBBING WITH BISULFATE REGENERATION
     Stack gases have been commercially desulfurized by contact with
solutions of ammonium sulfite and bisulfite since the mid-1930's.  The
early processes recovered S02 in a pure form by acidifying the scrubbing
liquor with sulfuric, nitric, or phosphoric acid.  The resulting ammonium
salt of the acid was further processed for use as a fertilizer.  Because
of the enormous tonnages of S02 involved in desulfurizing power plant
stack gases, fertilizer markets are not expected to support wide-scale
use of fertilizer-producing ammonia processes.  Therefore, IERL-RTP, in
a joint venture with TVA, is developing a completely cyclic ammonia-
scrubbing/bisulfate-regene'ration process which has as its major product
a concentrated stream of S02 which can then be used to produce sulfuric
acid or elemental sulfur.
     The process (shown below) removes S02 from stack gases by absorp-
tion in a solution of ammonium sulfite and bisulfite.  Scrubber product
liquor is acidified with ammonium bisulfate to evolve S02 and form
ammonium sulfate.  This ammonium sulfate solution is partially evapor-
ated and the ammonium sulfate crystallizes.  After separation, the
ammonium sulfate crystals are thermally decomposed into ammonium bisul-
fate and ammonia.  The ammonium bisulfate is returned to the acidifier,
and the ammonia is absorbed into a solution and returned to the scrubber.
Sulfites that are oxidized into sulfates during the process must be
purged from the system.
     This ammonia scrubbing process is being evaluated at a 3000-cfm
pilot plant located at the Colbert Steam Station in northern Alabama.
Initial efforts at the pilot unit site concentrated on the absorber,
and have since included work on all of the subunits ofxthe system
except the decomposer.  S02 removal has generally been 90 percent or
greater, although overall operation has been successful.  However, the
problem of eliminating the fine particulate ammonia-sulfur salts which
form in the scrubber has not been completely solved, and work  is con-
tinuing.  Efforts to solve the problem include improved mist elimination,
                                   99

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        CLEAN
         GAS
         I
  SCRUBBED GAS RATE  = 3,000 scfm

NH3
          S
          C
          R
          U
          B
          B
          E
          R
        I
DIRTY GAS
J r
*"" SOLUTION
TANK
H20





S02


(NH4)2s33



1


ACID
STRIPPER
|
_ NH4 HS04
EVAPORATOR/
CRYSTALLIZER
^


1 	 ' II1U4J/OU4
SOLUTION


•
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(/)
/**
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CONDENSER '


Hifl "" o

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(NH4)2S04


(NH4)?S04 " DECOMPOSER
CRYSTALS 	 -
                      Ammonia scrubbing with bisulfite regeneration.
                                         100

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a prewash stage, scrubber modifications, and changes in operating pro-
cedures.
     During 1976, work will continue on controlling plume formation and
on improving de-entrainment and mist elimination.  If the plume can be
controlled and economic studies indicate that the process may be com-
petitive with existing processes, the system will be operated continuously
to evaluate long-term performance and reliability and to assess process
viability.
     ACTIVATED CARBON
     The use of multistage, dry fluidized beds of recycling activated
carbon appears attractive both for sorption of SO  from flue gases and
                                                 A
for converting the removed SO  to elemental sulfur.  Under an IERL-RTP
                             A
contract, development of the activated-carbon-based flue gas desulfuri-
zation process was advanced to a stage where three major process units—
sorber, sulfur generator, and carbon regenerate)—were integrated for
continuous and cyclic operation.
     In the sorption stage, shown schematically, combustion flue gas is
contacted with the activated carbon, and the contained sulfur dioxide
(in the presence of oxygen and moisture) is first catalytically convert-
ed into sulfur trioxide, and then to sulfuric acid, which is adsorbed by
and contained in the pores of the activated carbon.
     In the sulfur generator, sulfuric acid contained in the activated
carbon is reacted with hydrogen sulfide to produce the elemental sulfur
which remains on the carbon.
     In the carbon regeneration stage, the sulfur-loaded activated car-
bon is reacted with a measured quantity of reducing gas which sweeps
out the deposited sulfur.  About 25 percent of deposited sulfur is re-
covered as a byproduct; the remaining 75 percent is converted into
hydrogen sulfide to decompose sulfuric acid in the sulfur generator unit.
Activated carbon is continuously returned to the sorber.
     Integrated pilot plant operation, as a culminating point in the
effort to determine overall technical feasibility of the process, is
complete.  Cyclic operation of the approximately 300-scfm capacity
pilot plant has yielded encouraging results.  Estimated process economics,
                                   101

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T.flAI flRNATIIRAI
GAS GAS
*• PRODUCER i
/
AC1
CAR
FLUE GAS (S02)
H;
t*-H2 —
IVE
BON
\
	 ^ SULFUR GENERATOR
i
f 1 *
SULFUR STRIPPER
1 ^
1
^ HYDROGEN SULFIDE GENERATO
\
SULFUR DIOXIDE SORBER


/~y SULFUR ^_
>Y^ PRODUCT
-rV
^>
R
_. CLEAN
FLUE GAS

Activated carbon process
      102

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 based on  these results, appear to compare favorably with those of other
 flue gas  desulfurization processes.  Westvaco, under contract to IERL-RTP,
 will provide a detailed final report on this process early in 1976.  The
 report will include results of the test work and cost estimates for a
 hypothetical large-scale commercial application.  There are no current
 plans to  continue this project.
     REDUCTANT GASES
     As part of its program for developing and demonstrating SO  control
                                                               .A
 technology for fossil-fuel-fired steam-generating equipment, IERL-RTP is
 currently supporting (or evaluating for future support) the development
 of several flue gas desulfurization (FGD) processes which recover the
 SO  as elemental sulfur.  Elemental sulfur may be the most desirable form
  J\
 for recovery of SO  because it is the minimum quantity of any FGD waste
                  J\
 or byproduct and because of its saleability, ease of transport, and suit-
 ability for long-term storage.
     Production of sulfur from SO  requires the use of a reductant for
                                 .A
 conversion of the SO  to sulfur:  to date, major emphasis has been on the
                    X
 use of natural  gas for this purpose.  In view of the current and continuing
 shortage  of natural gas, it is imperative that other sources of reductant
 gas be utilized in the future.  IERL-RTP has embarked on a program lead-
 ing to the demonstration of processes and equipment for economical genera-
 tion of reductant gases from more plentiful ultimate sources, such as
 coal, coke, residual oil, and petroleum coke.
     As a first step, IERL-RTP has retained Battelle-Columbus Laboratories
 to conduct process evaluation and cost estimates of gasification processes
which are suited for application to FGD requirements, and to recommend
avenues of continuing development and demonstration.  The draft report on
 this study is being reviewed.  Publication of the final report is antici-
pated in  the spring of 1976.  Current plans call for the use of a reduc-
 tant gas  other than natural gas in the advanced regenerable FGD process
demonstration under consideration.
     NON-UTILITY COMBUSTION SOURCE CONTROL
     Modeling studies have shown that the impact of non-utility combustion
                                   103

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 (NUC) source S02 emissions on ambient air concentrations is higher than
 anticipated from their fraction of the amount of S02 emitted.   For exam-
 ple, in St. Louis, area sources accounted for 15 percent of the S02 mass
 emissions, but contributed 40 percent of the ultimate ambient  concentration.
      The first step in lERL-RTP's approach to reducing NUC  source  sul-
 fur dioxide emissions has been to compile and standardize a data base
 that characterizes fossil fuel combustion NUC sources which are about
 50 MW in capacity (about-500,000 pounds of steam per hour)  or  less, and
 which are categorized as industrial  or commercial/institutional.   The
 base, developed by Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, draws together  all
 pertinent information and contains data on such  factors as  number,  size
 range,  boiler  type,  fuel  usage, and  emission. The end product of  this
 effort  is a set of recommendations of strategies and technologies  for
 implementing an NUC  source control  program.
      Battelle  has also conducted for IERL-RTP a  review of available
 package  sorption processes that can  be applied to the control  of sulfur
 oxide emissions from the  lower size  range of the boiler population de-
 scribed  above,  as well  as from residential  sources.   Initial activity
 is  directed toward extending  the characterization of NUC sources down
 to  small  combustion  sources.   Recommendations of strategies  and  technol-
 ogies for  implementing  control  programs  for  small sources are  also  to be
 included.   Stress is  on existing technology,  but Battelle has  also
 gathered  information  on emerging technology.  Desirable  characteristics
 of  a  package sorption  device would include  small  size,  simple  installa-
 tion, off-the-shelf availability (essentially shop-fabricated), easy
 operation  by nonspecialized personnel,  low capital and  operating costs,
minimum waste products, useful  or marketable  byproducts,  and multipol-
 lutant control  capability.  All  of this work  was  included in the final
report,  "S02 Reduction  in  Non-utility Combustion Sources."
      PEDCO-Environmental,  Inc.,  under contract to IERL-RTP,  is evaluating
the relative impact of  SO  emitted from utility  and  non-utility combus-
                         A
tion  sources on ambient air quality.  Existing air quality and emission
data  from  selected regions will  be gathered,  analyzed, and extrapolated
for more extensive use.  These data will  be correlated with actual
                                   104

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 field  data  from  a major metropolitan area.  The field data, gathered
 during the  summer of  1975, are  based on sampling ambient air resulting
 from tracer-doped emissions from utility and non-utility sources.  The
 large  number of  non-utility combustion sources makes their consideration
 necessary in an  overall SO  control scheme.
                          J\
     In a separate  task, PEDCO  will survey non-utility combustion
 sources that are applying or considering the application of various
 strategies  for control of SO  emissions.  Meetings will be held with
                            .A
 regulatory  agencies and industrial representatives in the selected
 study  areas to determine the various strategies/technologies in use
 and to conduct surveys of selected plants.  The overall applicability
 of each control  technology to each study area will be assessed and
 the results extrapolated to other areas.
     MARKETING ABATEMENT SULFUR/SULFURIC ACID
     Byproducts  of flue gas desulfurization processes fall into two
 categories:  throwaway and saleable.  In the latter category are sul-
 fur, sulfuric acid, and (to a much lesser extent) gypsum.
     Under  interagency agreement with IERL-RTP, TVA has studied the
 economics of marketing sulfuric acid that could theoretically be pro-
 duced  from  its coal-fired plants.  The study assumed that TVA would be
 the only utility producing abatement acid and that the existing produc-
 tion,  distribution, and marketing patterns would be changed only
 slightly by the  introduction of abatement acid.  The objective was the
 creation of a model for estimating the net sales revenue to TVA.  Of
 the total 18,109 MW of TVA's coal-fired capacity, it was assumed that
 9,806 MW would be considered for sulfuric acid production.  The study
made no attempt  to select a process or to estimate production costs:
 it was assumed that the acid would have a zero value at the point of
 production.
     Results indicate that the  net sales revenue of abatement acid would
 range from  $6 to $9 per ton of  98 percent sulfuric acid, and might re-
duce the cost of operating a power plant sulfur oxide control system by
 10 to  20 percent.  The final report of this initial study is available
from NTIS.
                                   105

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      A second phase of the marketing  study  is also underway.  In this
 phase, TVA is considering  all  potential  abatement acid or elemental sul-
 fur from power plants  located  in  States  that are served by the inland
 waterway system in  the Eastern United States.  These include States
 bordering the Mississippi  River and its  navigable tributaries, the Great
 Lakes, and the Eastern seaboard:   they encompass Minnesota, Iowa, Ne-
 braska,  Kansas, Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  all States east of these.  Unlike
 the first phase,  however,  this is  not a  hypothetical model, but is
 based on the  actual  utility and sulfuric acid plant population of the
 region in question.  Moreover,  TVA's  computer program is considering
 compliance with sulfur dioxide emissions standards and is to identify
 optimum  production  and distribution patterns based on freight costs and
 market demand.  As  in  the  first phase, the net sales revenue is to be
 estimated.  The report on  this  work is expected early in 1976.  Results
 are expected  to be  available to utilities and other interested organiza-
 tions  through  a time-sharing computer program.
      ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS/INFORMATION TRANSFER
      The  Process Technology Branch of IERL-RTP has initiated a program
 to more effectively disseminate air pollution control technology data
 and information to meet the needs of  the user community.  In the past
 the Laboratory  has attempted to meet  its technology/information dis-
 semination  responsibility  primarily through periodic symposiums, reports,
 and personal communications.  These activities will  be continued, but
 they will  be augmented by  a comprehensive Engineering Applications/In-
 formation Transfer  (EA/IT)  Program now being designed by IERL-RTP and
 contractor  personnel to assure the efficient and effective dissemination
 of information  on pollution control technology to all concerned sectors
 of the Nation.
     The expanded EA/IT program will   assess the control  technology in-
 formation  needs of industry, utilities, vendors, control/enforcement
agencies, and others; compile information and data from past, current,
and continuing  government/industry development and demonstration efforts;
use the data/information to design EA/IT programs and materials; and
                                   106

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develop and implement effective mechanisms for dissemination of the
programs and materials to the user community.
     One specific facet of the comprehensive EA/IT program is the design,
development, and implementation of a Flue Gas  Cleaning Decision Model
(FGC-DM).  The FGC-DM will provide one-source availability of pertinent
FGC data and information gathered from past and present FGC efforts
within EPA, TVA, EPRI, the utility industry, FGC vendors,  and other
foreign and domestic organizations.  The objective of the  FGC-DM is to
assist potential users in choosing an FGC system for a specific location
with specific requirements/restrictions.  Thus, the FGC-DM will make
available a means of effective, informed FGC decisionmaking which should
result in earlier operational dates, lower costs, and increased operability/
availability.
Flue Gas Treatment/N0x Removal
     CATALYTIC REDUCTION OF N0y WITH AMMONIA
                              /\
     Under contract to IERL-RTP, Environics, Inc., has completed a
program to demonstrate the feasibility of reducing nitrogen oxide (NO )
                                                                     J\
emissions from natural-gas-fired boilers, using ammonia as a reductant
and platinum as a catalyst.  The program involved a pilot  plant opera-
tion, using flue gas (at a 250,000-scfh flow rate) at the  Valley Steam
Plant of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.
     The system involves contacting the flue gas with ammonia and then
passing the gas over a ceramic monolith coated with platinum.  Reduction
efficiencies of between 85 and 90 percent were achieved at 450°F and at
a space velocity of 45,000 reactor volumes per hour.
     Parametric testing was continued in 1974; i.e., varying space
velocity and temperature in conjunction with analysis for possible N20
formation.  Approximately 2,000 hours of intermittent testing were accu-
mulated with no degradation of performance.  Testing with natural gas
firing was suspended because of the shortage of natural gas.  As a re-
sult of the shortage, the boiler was fired with low-sulfur oil distillate.
A flue gas heater was installed to permit raising the flue gas tempera-
ture to the range where the catalyst is most effective for flue gases
                                    107

-------
 containing  some  SO  .   The  pilot  plant was  restarted in late-1974, at
                  A
 which time  the utility plant was firing oil.  The platinum/ammonia sys-
 tem was  evaluated to  determine the  effects of S02 on the performance of
 the catalyst.  Results indicate  that platinum is not a suitable catalyst
 for oil-fired  flue  gas.  The final  report  on this work is being com-
 pleted for  publication in  the spring of 1976.
      CATALYSTS FOR  CONTROLLING NOV  EMISSIONS
                                  A
      Under  contract to IERL-RTP, a  technical and economic assessment of
 catalysts for  controlling  NO  emissions from stationary power plants
                            X
 was performed  by TRW  Systems Group.  The effort began in February 1973,
 and the  final  report  was issued  early in 1975.
      The objectives of Phase I were:  to review and evaluate domestic and
 foreign  developments  in catalytic abatement of NO , to determine the tech-
                                                 A
 nical  and economic  feasibility of abatement schemes, to evaluate the desir-
 ability  of  adapting these  schemes to power generating plants, and to
 identify approaches best suited  to  this source of NO .
                                                    /\
      Approximately  40  catalysts  were screened to determine their poten-
 tial  for:   nonselective reduction with hydrogen and CO; oxidation and
 decomposition  of NO;  and selective  reduction with ammonia, hydrogen,
 and CO.  A  data  bank  of NO  catalysts and catalytic processes was com-
                           A
 pleted.  This  bank, as well as many other sources, was used to estimate
 the cost effectiveness of  various catalysts in reducing NO  emissions
                                                          A
 from stationary  power  plants.  This work is described in detail in the
 final  report.
     As a follow-on to this work, a research grant is underway with the
 University  of  California at Los  Angeles, to further characterize the
 performance of nonnoble metal catalysts, primarily vanadia and iron/
 chromium oxide,  in  the reduction  of NO  with ammonia in the presence
                                      A
 of  oxygen and S02.  This study would extend the catalyst screening
work performed earlier by UCLA,  under contract with TRW, which indicated
 that these  two nonnoble metal catalysts were promising.   The overall
objective of the project is to obtain the necessary data at the bench-
scale level  of operation that will permit scale-up to the next level of
                                    108

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equipment size.  Various concentrations of V205 catalyst on alumina and
other carrier materials will be evaluated.  Different Fe-to-Cr ratios
and different catalyst-carrier concentrations will also be tested to
optimize the iron oxide-chromium oxide catalyst.  Promoters frequently
used to increase catalytic activity for S02 oxidation will be evaluated
for their effect on NO reduction.  Once the optimum catalyst's specifica-
tions are determined, the effects of process variables will be examined
over broad ranges of temperature and residence time.  Extended durability
testing will be performed to determine if slow accumulative catalyst
poisoning exists.  Pre- and post-reactor gas stream analyses will be
performed to monitor the major components and to determine possibly
deleterious secondary effects.  Working rate expressions will be devel-
oped for scale-up use.
     ADVANCED CONCEPTS FOR NOV CONTROL
                             X
     Under a task order to IERL-RTP, the Research Triangle Institute is
evaluating advanced effluent treatment concepts which may have potential  for
NO  control.  Work has concentrated on scrubbing NO  with various
  X                                                x
organic compounds.  The project involves studies and laboratory evalua-
tion of promising concepts.  The technical evaluation considers the
effect of effluent gases, liquids, and solids which may be generated as
a result of the treatment process.  The task was oriented recently to
include an evaluation of technology and economics of the generation of
ozone for use in wet scrubbing of NO  from flue gases.  Ozone is used
                                    A
in nearly all of the well developed wet scrubbing systems now-being
tested in Japan.  This information is necessary for comparison of wet
and dry NO  control techniques for development in the United States.
     NO  CONTROL STRATEGY ASSESSMENT
       J\
     The techniques for controlling NO  emissions from stationary
                                      A
sources are combustion modification and flue gas treatment.  Combustion
modification reduces the amount of NO  formed while flue gas treatment
                                     A
removes the NO  from the stack gases after it has been formed.
              A
     Currently, there are five Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR's) that
are classified Priority I with respect to nitrogen dioxide.  These AQCR's
are Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Baltimore, and Wasatch Front (Salt
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 Lake City,  Utah).   It is possible  that these AQCR's could  be brought
 into compliance by the application of NO   control technology to the
                                        A
 stationary  sources in these regions.
      Radian Corporation, under contract to IERL-RTP, is to determine
 the effect  on  ambient MO  levels of applying NO  control technology to
                         A                     X
 stationary  sources in one of these AQCR's  where NO  problems currently
                                                  A
 exist.   Another related task will  result in a model of one of the five
 Priority I  AQCR's  suitable for use in determining the effects on air
 quality of  various levels of emission reduction for various stationary
 sources in  the region.   NO  emissions reductions and costs will be
                           A
 determined  for combustion modification and for flue gas treatment
 applications.   The ambient air quality that would result from applying
 various mixes  of the  NO  control techniques will be determined.  The
                        X
 results will be assessed to determine if compliance for the selected
 AQCR is achieved;  assessment results  will  be extrapolated  to the other
 four NO  Priority  I Regions.   The  results  will also assist in determine-
        A
 tion of control  efficiency and performance requirements, and will aid
 in  assessment  of research, development, and demonstration  needs.  The
 results of  this  effort  and recommendations for future work will be
 presented in a  final  report in mid-1976.
      NO  FLUE  GAS  TREATMENT PILOT  AND PROTOTYPE PROJECTS
        A
      In Japan,  NO   Flue Gas  Treatment (FGT) is well advanced with a
                 X
 number  of processes at  pilot,  prototype, and commercial levels.  This
 results from more  stringent standards which require the high level of
 NO   control  that can  only be  achieved by flue gas treatment.  Applica-
  X
 tions are on gas-  and oil-fired combustion sources.  IERL-RTP is pro-
 moting  the  adaptation of this  technology to a U.S. coal-fired situation.
 Importation of  the technology  could lead to large savings  in research
 and  development time  and money.
      IERL-RTP personnel  have visited  Japan  to examine those processes
which appear amenable to  coal-fired application, and to discuss U.S.
 development work with the  appropriate  vendors.   It is anticipated that
 the  funding provided  for FGT in 1976  will   be supplemented  by utility
 industry participation  so  as to initiate meaningful "hardware" projects
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 in 1976-77.  The effort in this pilot and prototype development program
 will center on importing the best of the Japanese technologies and
 adapting them to U.S. coal-fired sources.
 EMISSIONS/EFFLUENT TECHNOLOGY
 Flue Gas Desulfurization—Non-regenerable Processes
     LIME/LIMESTONE WET SCRUBBING
     These processes involve the wet scrubbing of fossil-fuel  boiler
 flue gas (from power plant or industrial/commercial sources) with lime-
 stone or lime slurries to remove sulfur oxide and particulate  pollutants.
 Results of many studies, ranging in size from pilot to full scale, in-
 dicate that the processes are capable of high-pollutant removal  rates
with acceptable reliability.
     IERL-RTP is supporting several lime/limestone research, develop-
ment, and demonstration programs.   A test program is being conducted,
 using two parallel multiple-configuration 10-MW prototype units at TVA's
Shawnee power plant.  This program is being supplemented by an IERL-RTP
 in-house pilot plant, located at Research Triangle Park, N.C.   A demon-
stration on a 37-MW unit is being conducted at the City of Key West
 (Florida) Stock Island power plant.  A program involving carbide and
commercial  lime scrubbing tests and an evaluation of scrubber  waste
treatment disposal options (being negotiated with Louisville Gas and
Electric Co.) is discussed later,  under Waste and Water Pollution Con-
trol.  Under an interagency agreement with the U.S. Air Force, IERL-RTP
is funding a comprehensive test program to characterize the Swedish
Bahco lime scrubbing process at a site being built at Rickenbacker Air
Force Base, near Columbus, Ohio.  The Bahco test program is expected to
begin early in 1976.
     Lime/limestone wet scrubbing processes have the inherent  advantages
of low reactant costs, relative simplicity, and final products in the
form of relatively inert disposable materials.  These processes are
widely applicable to both old and new power plants.  Process  disadvan-
tages include:  requirements for plume reheat, potential reliability
problems (e.g., scaling and erosion), and potential solids disposal
problems in some urban locations.   These problems are being investigated
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 in the various IERL-RTP lime/limestone projects.
      TVA's Shawnee Power Plant
      Construction of the prototype facility at TVA's Shawnee power plant
 was completed in March 1972;  testing started the  next month.  The facil-
 ity, consisting of three different (but parallel) scrubber circuits, can
 handle about 90,000 cfm (30-MW equivalent)  of the output of one of the
 10 coal-fired Shawnee boilers.   The versatile facility is being used to
 evaluate the performance and  reliability characteristics of lime/lime-
 stone wet scrubbing systems under  a variety of operating conditions.
      The original  test program included short-term (less than a day)
 factorial  tests,  longer-term  (2  to 3 week)  reliability verification
 tests,  and long-term (2 to 6  month)  reliability demonstration tests—
 with both  lime  and  limestone.  This  phase of the test program was com-
 pleted  in  May 1974  and the results were  reported periodically:  two
 topical  reports (published in  August 1973 and January 1974), a December
 1973 industry briefing,  and a  summary of testing through October 1974
 (published in June  1975).
      The original test program has  been extended for at least 3 more
years to provide additional information and  to improve the reliability
and  process  economics  of  the lime/limestone  systems.   The extended test
program is also expected  to produce:  a design and economics computer
program to assist users  in studying  and selecting a scrubber process for
their particular application; field  evaluation of alternate methods (in-
cluding chemical fixation) for disposal of the sludge produced by the
lime/limestone  systems; and a larger  scale study of some of the advanced
scrubbing  concepts which  have shown  promise during tests at lERL-RTP's
Research Triangle Park pilot plant.
     The results of the continuing work at Shawnee are being reported
periodically  in progress reports, the first of which  was published in
September  1975.
     Recent work at Shawnee has been very encouraging.   The present mist
elimination systems are operating reliably and with high efficiencies.
Successful operation of the venturi/spray tower (lime scrubbing)  was
achieved at greater than design gas velocities.   The  TCA system was
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     MARBLE BED  ,
       SYSTEM
    (FLOODED BED
     OF MARBLES)
                                     VENTURI/SPRAY
                                     TOWER SYSTEM
  TURBULENT
   CONTACT
   ABSORBER
  (TCA) SYSTEM
 (MOBILE BED OF
PLASTIC SPHERES)
Versatile lime/limestone wet scrubbing demonstration at Shawnee plant.

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 operated on limestone at design gas  rates  and without a wash tray.  Vari-
 able load operation of the venturi/spray tower  scrubber has also been
 demonstrated at Shawnee.   For about  2 months, scrubber variables were
 adjusted to follow boiler operation  over a range of 60- to 150-MW with
 1,200 to 4,500 ppm variation  in inlet S02  concentration.  Both ranges
 are much more severe than expected in most commercial applications.  Op-
 eration  of the scrubber was entirely satisfactory throughout the period.
      lERL-RTP's Pilot Plant
      lERL-RTP's two model  scrubbers  (300 cfm each) have been operating at
 IERL-RTP since October 1972,  providing direct experimental support to the
 larger prototype studies  at TVA's Shawnee  test  facility.  One lime- and
 one limestone-fed  scrubber, designed for maximum test flexibility, are
 operated concurrently 24  hours  a day.  Each essential component of the
 complete closed-loop scrubbing  system is included in the layout:  a 3-
 stage TCA scrubber,  scrubber effluent hold tank, lime slaker, fans,
 thickeners,  and rotary vacuum filters.  Their compactness permits mate-
 rial  balances  to be  performed on each component to determine the extent
 of  all reactions occurring within it.  Operating variables are investi-
 gated over  ranges  that cannot be achieved  (or are not practical to
 attempt)  in  the larger units, such as operating without chloride, with-
 out fly  ash, and at  varying inlet oxygen and sulfur dioxide levels in
 the flue gas.
      During  1975,  work at the pilot  unit was concentrated on improving
 limestone utilization  and on forced  oxidation of limestone sludge to
 gypsum.   In  cooperation with the Bureau of Mines and Sanderson-Porter
 Engineers, some work was also done on the scrubbing of S02 with lignite
 fly ash.   This  concept was found to work well when sufficient fly ash
was available.
     The results of the limestone utilization work at the pilot unit have
been very encouraging.  The problem was approached from two directions:
that the utilization was limited by contact efficiency in the scrubbers;
and that utilization was limited by the kinetics of the reactions which
occur in the holding tank.  Both assumptions were true.   The use of
multiple-stirred holding tanks, rather than a single tank, allowed the
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             SCRUBBER
             EFFLUENT
            HOLD TANK
IERL-RTP lime/limestone scrubber pilot plant.

               115

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 reactions to go to a greater degree of completion and led to higher
 utilization.  The use of greater scrubber bed depth also increased lime-
 stone utilization.
      To further improve utilization,  the pilot unit was set up as a two-
 stage scrubber with a primary TCA scrubber at 7 to 8 in. H20 pressure
 drop, and a secondary spray scrubber  at 0.5 in. H20 pressure drop.  This
 two-stage scrubber, with multiple-stirred holding tanks on the primary
 scrubber and using the forced conversion to gypsum described below, was
 able to achieve a 96 percent utilization of limestone and 85 percent S02
 removal.   This can be compared  to a base case (one-stage scrubber at 7.5
 in.  H20 pressure drop, one  stirred holding tank) which yields 83 percent
 limestone utilization and 76 percent  S02 removal.  In larger scale units,
 limestone utilization is normally even  lower--60 or 70 percent.
      The forced oxidation of limestone  sludge to gypsum was achieved at
 the  pilot unit by sparging  air  into the first-stage holding tank.  Com-
 pletely oxidized sludge has  a greatly  improved settling rate and also
 settles to a more compact solid.   This  has been demonstrated before, but
 the  pilot unit was able to  obtain  complete conversion to gypsum with an
 air  stoichiometry of 3 and  at atmospheric pressure.  Previous work had
 required  more air and elevated  pressures, plus the addition of catalysts.
      In combination,  these  improvements make a considerable difference
 in the  amount of limestone which  is consumed by a scrubber.   There is
 also  an attendant reduction  in  the amount of sludge generated.   Compar-
 ing  the recent work  to typical  limestone unit utilization,  there is a
 17 percent  reduction  in  the  amount of sludge produced.   The application
 of these  techniques  to  full-scale  units will  be a significant advance in
 the technology.
      City of  Key  West
      The variation of  the limestone wet scrubbing process being tested
 in Key  West  includes  most of the general concepts of the basic process.
 Because of the  City's  unique location, coral  marl  (a relatively pure
 form  of calcium carbonate) and  seawater compose the sorbent slurry.  An
 unusual scrubber  design allows  both relatively good liquid/gas  contact
and a high liquid/gas ratio at a relatively low pressure drop.   The
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system operates as an open loop; i.e., without recirculation of the
clarified liquor.
     The City of Key West, under an IERL-RTP demonstration grant that
provided partial funding, has installed the process  on a  new 37-MW oil-
fired boiler.  Under an IERL-RTP contract, Engineering Science, Inc.
is continuing a test program to characterize this type of system.   The
program includes primary variable testing and optimization tests.   Op-
eration during 1975 has been limited, due primarily  to mechanical  and
corrosion problems associated with the scrubbing system.
     Banco Process
     In 1971, Research Cottrell was licensed by A. B.  Bahco of Sweden
to test, refine, and offer the Bahco lime scrubber commercially in the
United States.  The process generally consists of a  mechanical particu-
late removal system followed by a unique, two-stage, vertical  scrubbing
tower for sulfur dioxide removal.
     The Bahco system is currently offered in sizes  up to about 40 MW,
which makes it applicable to many industrial-sized boilers throughout
the United States.  Because most of the engineering  on the Bahco scrubber
is complete (it is offered in several standard sizes), installation costs
make the system a reasonable alternative to low-sulfur fuels for indus-
trial boiler applications.
     There are about 20 Bahco scrubbers in operation in Sweden and Japan;
however, the installation at Rickenbacker Air Force  Base will  be the
first in the United States, and the first on a coal-fired boiler any-
where.   The boiler on which the Bahco module is being placed is a 24-MW
unit operated only during the heating season.  The lERL-RTP-sponsored
test program is expected to follow the startup early in 1976.
     DOUBLE-ALKALI
     The double-alkali process, like the lime/limestone wet scrubbing
processes, produces a throwaway product consisting of fly ash and cal-
cium sulfite/sulfate.  The process, in its various forms, was developed
in an effort to avoid the problems associated with the use of absorbent
slurries in the lime/limestone processes.
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      Flue gases are scrubbed,  using  a  soluble alkali (usually sodium-
 based)  solution as  the absorbent.  The spent absorbent solution is treat-
 ed with lime  and/or limestone  in a regeneration system to produce a re-
 generated soluble alkali  for recycle to the scrubber system and a throw-
 away product  for disposal.
      Although less  developed than lime/limestone wet scrubbing processes,
 double-alkali systems  show  potential for attaining high sulfur oxide re-
 moval efficiency and good reliability  at relatively low cost.
      Technology Development
      To more  fully  test and characterize double-alkali systems, IERL-RTP
 contracted with Arthur D. Little, Inc., to conduct laboratory, pilot
 plant,  and prototype studies of attractive double-alkali operating
 schemes.   These studies were initially supplemented by an in-house IERL-
 RTP laboratory program.   The pilot plant testing, at a 2,000-cfm facil-
 ity owned by  A.  D.  Little,  was started in November 1973 and is still in
 progress.
      Prototype testing of the double-alkali process is being conducted at
 a  20-MW facility installed  by the Southern Company at Gulf Power Com-
 pany's  Scholz power station.  The system is being tested under typical
 power plant operating  conditions, and  has averaged 98 percent availability
 during  6  of the  11  months from startup to January 1976.  Overall avail-
 ability during the  period was 69 percent.  The system has been removing
 90  to 98  percent of the inlet S02.   The work at the prototype unit is
 continuing, with emphasis on optimizing process variables while operating
 with a  more typical  coal  sulfur content.
     General  Motors  Industrial Demonstration
     IERL-RTP  and General Motors are participating in a cooperative test
 program on  GM's  32-MW  double-alkali  sulfur dioxide control  system in-
 stalled on  a  coal-fired boiler at the  Chevrolet transmission plant in
 Parma,  Ohio.   GM designed and built  the system, which went into opera-
 tion in March  1974.  IERL-RTP is funding a test program, initiated in
August  1974, to  characterize the system.   The final  report for the test
program is  scheduled for issue in 1976.
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     Full-Scale Utility Demonstration
     A full-scale demonstration of the double-alkali  process  is  planned
for operation and evaluation in the late 1970's, with construction to
start in 1976.  Contract proposals have been received and are being
evaluated by IERL-RTP.  This demonstration unit will  be at a  high-sulfur
coal-fired boiler of at least 100-MW capacity:   boilers in proposals
under consideration have capacities ranging from 150  to 575 MW.   The
project is presently being planned in four phases:   (1) design and cost
estimation; (2) engineering design, construction, and mechanical  testing;
(3) startup and performance testing; and (4) 1  year of operation and
long-term testing.
     SURVEY OF FGD SYSTEMS
     IERL-RTP has contracted with PEDCo-Environmental to survey  flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) systems which are operational,  under construction,
or planned in the United States and Japan.  The survey is being  conducted
using plant visits and a comprehensive questionnaire.  Through December
1975, 12 systems had been visited and detailed  reports issued concerning
their operation.  This survey is to continue, with emphasis on those
systems which have significance with respect to FGD in the United States.
Both new installations and some previously visited ones are to be included
in future work.
     In addition to detailed technical reports, giving results of the
visits, PEDCo is providing bimonthly status reports indicating the number
of each type of sulfur dioxide control system in operation, under con-
struction, or planned in the United States, and the MW capacity  controlled
or to be controlled.  As of November 1975, 115  such systems are  planned
to control over 44,000 MW of electrical generating capacity.
     A survey of Japanese installations and of  their  operating experiences,
problems, and solutions is being conducted, under subcontract, by Dr.
Jumpei Ando of Chuo University in Tokyo.
Flue Gas Desulfurization—Waste and Water Pollution Control
     lERL-RTP's flue gas cleaning (FGC) waste and water pollution con-
trol program is a continuation and expansion of modest efforts initiated
                                   119

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ro
C >
                                    Three 20-MW prototype FGD systems at Gulf Power's Scholz plant.

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by the Laboratory in the late 1960's.  It is aimed at the development,
demonstration, and recommendation of environmentally acceptable,  cost-
effective techniques for disposal/utilization of FGC wastes,  and  for
maximizing power plant water recycle/reuse.  The theme of each of the
12 IERL-RTP program projects, described below, is in one of three
categories:  FGC Waste Disposal Methods, FGC Waste Utilization, and
Power Plant Water Reuse.  (Four FGC Waste Disposal Methods projects--
other than those described below—are being conducted by EPA's Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati; results of the Cincin-
nati projects are being coordinated with those described below.)
     FGC WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
     FGC Waste Characterization, Disposal Evaluation, and Transfer of
     FGC Waste Disposal Technology
     Since late 1972, Aerospace Corporation, under contract to IERL-RTP,
has been conducting a broad-based study to:  (1) identify environmental
problems associated with FGC waste disposal; (2) assess current FGC
waste disposal methods, including feasibility, performance, and costs;
(3) make recommendations regarding alternate disposal approaches; and
(4) assemble, assess, and report all FGC waste-related research and
development activities in EPA, TVA, and private industry.  This project
is the key effort in lERL-RTP's program for waste and water pollution
control.
     Shawnee FGD Waste Disposal Field Evaluation
     Under the current program, initiated in 1974, the Chemfix, Dravo,
and IUCS processes for chemical fixation of scrubber wastes are being
evaluated in three separate disposal ponds.  (See photo of one of the
ponds.)  Untreated lime and limestone wastes are placed in two addition-
al ponds.  Leachate, runoff, and ground water samples (as well as core
samples of the wastes and soil) are being collected and analyzed  to
evaluate environmental effects.  Future plans call for evaluation of
other disposal approaches, including gypsum disposal.
     Louisville Gas and Electric Evaluation of FGD Waste Disposal Options
     As part of a contract currently being negotiated, Louisville Gas
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ro
(X)
                                         Test pond for disposal of Shawnee's chemically treated scrubber waste.

-------
 and Electric Company is to conduct a program of carbide and commercial
 lime scrubbing tests and an extensive evaluation of scrubber waste
 treatment/disposal options.  Laboratory studies of nonchemical and
 chemical .(fixation) processes for stabilization of scrubber sludge will
 be conducted and samples will be mixed with fly ash alone or fly ash
 and one of several additions.  The field studies will consist of small-
 scale impoundment tests and larger scale (about 76-cubic-meter) landfill
 tests in which leachate migration, runoff, and physical stability tests
 of unstabilized and stabilized waste material will be conducted.
     Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Haste Characterization
     This project involves the physical and chemical characterization
 of lime/limestone waste solids as a function of scrubber operating con-
 ditions.  Under these studies, lime/limestone scrubbing waste materials
 from the Shawnee facility (and possibly other facilities) will be
 characterized and the properties will be correlated with the scrubber
 operating conditions.  If feasible, a means of controlling waste char-
 acteristics to improve disposal or utilization economics will be recom-
 mended.
     Characterization of Effluents from Coal-Fired Power Plants
     This project involves TVA efforts to:  (1) characterize and quantify
 the chemical  parameters of coal pile drainage; (2) assess and quantify
 the chemical  and physical  composition of ash pond effluent after adjust-
ment of pH to meet effluent standards, (3) evaluate an ash pond monitor-
 ing program to determine the sampling and analyses necessary to obtain
 representative information; (4) assess, characterize, and quantify the
effects of coal ash leachate on ground water quality, and (5) evaluate
and quantify the chlorinated effluent in the discharge canal from once-
 through cooling systems.
     Information from this project will be supplemented by the fly ash
 characterization efforts described below.
     Ash Characterization and Disposal
     This project involves TVA efforts to:  (1) summarize and evaluate
existing data on the characteristics of coal ash and asTi effluents from
 in-house TVA studies and from studies made by other organizations; (2)
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 perform chemical  and physical  analyses  on  coal,  coal ashes, and ash
 effluents to obtain a complete characterization  of these materials as
 a function of variation in boiler design and operation, as well as coal
 type; (3) evaluate various methods for  disposal  and utilization of fly
 ash; (4) summarize information on methods  of ash sluice water treatment
 for reuse; (5) conduct conceptual design studies of dry and wet ash
 handling systems; and (6)  recommend the most promising systems for ash
 handling and disposal/utilization.
      Alternative  Methods for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Disposal
      This project is one of several  tasks  which  make up the economic
 studies  of major  FGD processes being conducted by IERL-RTP.  Several FGD
 waste disposal  methods and FGD system design and operating premises will
 be  selected for a detailed economic  evaluation of FGD waste disposal.
 Currently available information will be used in  the initial efforts, with
 updating as additional  information becomes available.
      Alternative  FGC Waste Disposal  Sites
      This  project is  being conducted to identify, assess, and demonstrate
 on  a  pilot scale, alternate FGC waste disposal methods (other than local
 ponding  and landfill ing).   The  demonstration is  to be limited to coal
 mine  and ocean  disposal.
      Although environmental effects  and operational  safety will be the
 major initial considerations,  the assessment will also include a study
 of  the economics  of  the alternate disposal  methods,  as well as a study
 of  applicable Federal  and  State regulations.  Recommendations and con-
 ceptual  designs for  the pilot demonstrations will be based on all of the
 initial  efforts.
      FGC WASTES UTILIZATION
      Lime/Limestone  Scrubbing Haste  Conversion Pilot Studies
      In  a cost-shared contract  (currently being negotiated) to conduct
pilot studies of  two key process  steps in M. W. Kellogg Co.'s "Kel-S"
process  for conversion of  lime/limestone scrubbing waste to elemental
sulfur with recovery of the calcium  in the waste as  calcium carbonate,
design data will be generated to allow scale-up to a large (prototype)
test unit for a power plant.
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     Gypsum Byproduct Marketing
     This project is one of several  tasks which make up the  F6D  byproduct
marketing studies being conducted by TVA for IERL-RTP.   A preliminary
study conducted by TVA during early  1974 indicated the  possibility  that
production and sale of abatement gypsum might offer a substantial eco-
nomic advantage over FGD waste disposal.  These new studies  include a
thorough economic evaluation of gypsum producing processes (e.g., Chiyoda,
carbon absorption, CaS03 oxidation)  and a detailed U.S. marketing study
of abatement gypsum for wallboard.  Future plans include studies of
abatement gypsum for use in Portland cement manufacture.
     Fertilizer Production Using Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Wastes
     One of several tasks being conducted by TVA under  an Interagency
Agreement with IERL-RTP involves the use of lime/limestone scrubbing
wastes as a filler material for fertilizer.  This study is a continuation
and expansion of previous bench-scale laboratory production  tests and
small field plot application tests with rye grass.
     POWER PLANT WATER REUSE
     This program area currently consists of a single project—a study  on
minimizing water use and wastewater  discharges from coal-fired steam-
electric power plants.  The study consists of six tasks:  (1) Selection
and characterization of three or four specific plants.   (2)  Preparation
of computer models to simulate makeup, process, and effluent water
streams, as well as chemical equilibria of the processes for each  plant
selected.  (3) Verification of process computer models  by comparing
existing plant chemical and operating data with data predicted by  the
models.  (4) Formulation of several  water recycle/reuse options  to  mini-
mize plant water requirements and discharges for the specific plants
selected for study; and evaluation of at least one option (via process
simulation) for each plant.  (5) Preparation of capital and operating
cost estimates for each viable water recycle/reuse option.  (6)  Detailed
presentation of program results, including recommendations of the  re-
cycle/reuse options to be used at each of the plants studied.  Future
plans call for pilot plant testing of one or more of the recycle/reuse
options.
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 Thermal Pollution Control
      COOLING TECHNOLOGY
      lERL-RTP's programs in thermal  pollution  control technology fall in-
 to two broad areas:   cooling technology and waste heat utilization.
 Cooling technology programs include  studies on cooling system economics,
 advanced heat rejection techniques,  and the development of control tech-
 nology for the treatment and possible  reuse/recycle of cooling system
 effluent streams.  Waste heat utilization  studies at present involve ag-
 ricultural applications, although  aquacultural  and residential/industrial
 uses also merit consideration.
      In the past year,  IERL-RTP  initiated  several studies on cooling
 system performance and  economics.  The objectives of these projects in-
 clude the definition  of costs and  other penalties imposed on power gen-
 eration and the examination of environmental factors (i.e., drift, fog-
 ging, water consumption) associated  with various types of cooling devices.
 In one such study, the  contractor  is developing a methodology and rigor-
 ous computational  techniques  for optimizing the design of large dry cool-
 ing systems.   The design variables for the heat exchanger include tube
 length, bundle width, and  the number of rows and passes.  Other parameters
 which will  be considered are  site-specific factors (e.g., climate) and
 cost factors  (e.g., fuel,  fixed  charges, lost  capacity, auxiliary power).
 The objective is  a user-oriented optimization  procedure to examine the
 effect of each variable  on  cooling system design and performance and its
 relationship  to  the cost of power generation.
      IERL-RTP is  participating with  the Town of Braintree, MA, in a sig-
 nificant  dry  cooling tower  demonstration and performance study.  This
 project,  initiated late  in  1975, involves the application of a direct
 condensing  system  to a combined cycle  (60-MW gas turbine/25-MW steam
 cycle)  power  plant.  Specific objectives include:  (1)  assessment of
 steam  flow  distribution  and temperatures to better define optimal design
 characteristics,  (2) meteorological  effects from the plant and meteoro-
 logical impacts on plant operation and  performance,  (3) noise generation
monitoring  and control,  (4) air quality considerations  on or from the
plant,  and  (5) economic  impact of design and operational factors.
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     Two important considerations in power plant siting and  cooling  sys-
tem selection are consumptive water use and vapor plume emissions.   Both
are inherent in the use of evaporative (wet) cooling towers.   IERL-RTP
has initiated a study of the feasibility of utilizing wet/dry cooling
towers for water conservation and plume abatement.   These towers  use
both evaporative and convective heat exchange surfaces.  Increasing  dry
heat exchanger size reduces both water consumption and vapor plume emis-
sions.  These reductions are obtained, however,  at the expense of in-
creased capital and operating costs.  For this study, the contractor will
conduct 10 site-specific evaluations in two phases.  Five of these studies
will be concerned with minimizing water use:  most of these  sites will be
in the arid coal-rich region of the Western United States.   The other
five plants will be at urban sites, where vapor plume abatement is the
objective.  The technical and economic feasibility of using  wet/dry
cooling at these sites will be evaluated, with due consideration  to  plant
operating characteristics, economic factors, and site-specific constraints.
     IERL-RTP is supporting a TVA research program aimed at  reducing the
effects of once-through cooling intake structures on the aquatic  environ-
ment.   A demonstration study to evaluate fish pumps for preventing the
impingement of fish against the intake screens at TVA's Browns Ferry
Nuclear Plant is nearing completion.
     IERL-RTP is pursuing a program to develop and demonstrate control
technology for wastewater streams generated by evaporative cooling sys-
tems.   In one study, the University of California is developing a system
for renovating cooling tower blowdown for recycle or reuse using new
evaporation technology.  The project will use evaporators requiring  sub-
stantially less capital and operation maintenance costs as compared  to
those of the best present practice.  Objectives are, first,  to obtain
test data on the concentration of the Mohave power plant cooling tower
blowdown with a 5,000 gpd vertical tube evaporator (VTE) pilot plant,
both with and without the addition of a selected surfactant, to the
point of incipient crystallization of solutes.  Test data will provide
an evaluation of heat transfer performance, upflow VTE stability/ foul-
ing tendency, and concentration factor obtainable.  Secondly, the
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 concentrated VTE blowdown will  be foam-fractionated to remove the sur-
 factant for recycle to  the process,  and  to remove suspended particulate
 matter such as dust.  The concentrate  will then be further evaporated in
 a forced-circulation, crystallizing  evaporator.  Test data obtained from
 this operation will  be  used to  evaluate  its  heat transfer performance
 and the chemical  species  and amounts of  crystalline or solid materials
 precipitated.   This  work, nearing completion, will provide a definition
 of the problems inherent  in this  procedure for the renovation of cooling
 tower blowdown, the  best  operating conditions and methods of process con-
 trol, and  an evaluation of the  feasibility and costs.  Future work will
 involve the operation and testing of a mobile unit of 25,000 gpd capa-
 city.   This large mobile  unit will be constructed and then serially lo-
 cated at several  utilities for  an onsite evaluation of performance on
 cooling tower  blowdown streams.   An  evaluation of the benefits of using
 the product water in various  recycle/reuse schemes within the plants
 will  also  be carried out.
      Another alternative   for renovating cooling tower blowdown and other
 power plant wastewater streams  for possible recycle/reuse within the
 plant  is treatment with membrane  processes.   lERL-RTP-supported research
 in  this  area is being conducted by TVA.  This project involves evaluation
 of  reverse  osmosis and ultrafiltration systems supplied by major vendors
 to  determine their capability for treating the major wastewater streams
 found  in most  fossil-fired  power  plants (i.e., ash pond discharge, cool-
 ing tower blowdown, boiler  blowdown, and S02 scrubber slurry waste
 streams).   Effluents will  be  supplied from various power plants through-
 out the United  States.   The wastewater streams sampled will  be chemically
 characterized  by TVA.  The  data will be used to design and then operate
 the experimental treatment  systems in an effort to minimize treatment
 costs.  An economic and  technical  evaluation will  then determine the
 feasibility of the prototype  systems.
     WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION
     Beneficial use of warm condenser water has potential for alleviating
thermal pollution problems, generating secondary profits, and reducing
the fuel and energy demands of the use to which the waste heat is applied.
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During 1975, EPA, Northern States Power Company,  and the University of
Minnesota initiated,a demonstration of the use of waste heat in a green-
house operation.  A halfacre greenhouse was erected at NSPCo.'s Sherburne
County generating plant, which is under construction.   Experiments will
be conducted using soil warming and heating/cooling of the air in the
growth chamber.  In a related program of waste heat utilization, TVA is
cooperating with IERL-RTP in soil warming experiments  to extend the crop
growing season.  TVA is also studying the feasibility of using waste heat
to optimize the recycling of nutrients from livestock wastes into protein
for animal and/or human feed supplement.
PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY
     Fine particulates are a health hazard because, in contrast to coarse
particles, they can bypass the body's respiratory filters and penetrate
deep into the lungs.   Fine particles released into the atmosphere remain
airborne for extended periods of time, obstruct light, and cause limited
visibility typical  of air pollution haze and smog.  They have been iden-
tified as transport vehicles for gaseous pollutants.  The health hazards
of fine particulates are intensified by the tendency of metallic mate-
rials from high-temperature processes, such as pyrometallurgical and com-
bustion processes,  to condense as chemically and  catalytically active
fine particulates.   Many toxic and potentially hazardous compounds are
also emitted as fine particulate.  Particulate matter formed in the at-
mosphere from the reaction and condensation of reactions makes it diffi-
cult to relate atmospheric particulate pollution  levels to specific
sources.  This has  hampered the development of effective control strate-
gies and the establishment of meaningful emission standards.  The control
of these secondary forms of particulate must be through control of their
precursors, and primary particulate does play an  important role in the
formation cycle.
     Many years will  be required to develop a sound data base to quantify
the health effects  problem of fine particulates.   Sufficient information
does exist, however, to conclude that fine particles must be controlled
if public health is to be protected.
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      EPA has established a goal  of setting fine participate  standards.
 To develop these standards, research and development  is necessary to pro-
 vide a minimum data base.   This  data base and  the  necessary  adequate con-
 trol technology do not now exist.
      It is currently lERL-RTP's  responsibility to  develop  and demonstrate,
 on a pilot scale, control  technology which is  generally applicable to
 particulate and fine particulate matter emitted from  all stationary
 sources.   For the past 34  months,  the Laboratory's  Particulate Technology
 Branch (PTB) has been engaged in a program aimed at determining the lim-
 itations  of conventional particulate control devices  and defining an R&D
 program which will  eventually produce the needed technology  for the con-
 trol  of fine particulate matter.
 lERL-RTP's Particulate Program
      In order to pursue the goal of developing  control technology for
 fine particulate emissions, the  basic IERL-RTP  program in  this area has
 been divided into six major areas:
      0  Measurement.
      0  Characterization and  improvement  of conventional control equip-
        ment and  assessment of the  collectability of dusts.
      0  New  particulate control  technology development.
      0  New  idea  evaluation and  identification.
      0  High-pressure  and  high-temperature particulate control.
      0  Accelerated  pilot  demonstrations.
     MEASUREMENT
     The  principal goals of this effort are to:  (1) select, calibrate,
and  standardize measurement equipment and procedures to be used in sup-
port of the  entire particulate control program; and (2) develop instru-
ments capable of  determining efficiencies of control equipment on parti-
cle size  fractions on  a real time basis.
     CHARACTERIZATION  AND  IMPROVEMENT OF CONVENTIONAL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
     AND ASSESSMENT  OF THE  COLLECTABILITY OF DUSTS
     It is the aim of  this  program area to:  (1) ascertain, using the
best available conventional equipment operating on real sources, the
actual control capability  in terms of size fractional  efficiency, (2)
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develop a data base for decisions and judgements with respect to the
capability of commercially available control equipment; (3)  develop im-
provements in conventional control devices which will eliminate deficien-
cies in their potential for fine particle control; and (4)  determine
the ease or difficulty with which any given industrial dust pollutant
may be collected.  With the information collected in this program area,
it should be possible to predict with reasonable accuracy the ease or
difficulty and the system required for control of almost any particulate
problem.
     NEW PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
     The goals for this area are:  (1) assess all potential  collection
mechanisms; (2) initiate exploratory projects to evaluate feasibility of
concepts and/or mechanisms; and (3) develop pilot units for promising
systems.
     NEW IDEA EVALUATION AND IDENTIFICATION
     The goals of this program area are:  (1) evaluate novel devices; (2)
generate a plan to solicit, stimulate, and identify new ideas and concepts
for fine particulate control; and (3) pilot scale demonstration of the
most promising devices.
     HIGH-TEMPERATURE AND HIGH-PRESSURE PARTICULATE CONTROL
     This program area was added in FY 75 as a result of the particulate
removal problems associated with advanced energy processes.  Its goals
are:  (1) for the near term, develop fundamental information on the me-
chanics of aerosols at high temperature and high pressure;  (2) using this
fundamental information, choose the most promising collection mechanisms,
and mount an R&D effort aimed at exploiting these mechanisms; and (3)
develop the devices necessary to ensure the environmental acceptability
of the advanced energy systems.
     ACCELERATED PILOT DEMONSTRATIONS
     Work in this area will be dedicated to the early pilot demonstration
of candidate fine particle control equipment to real world problems.
Current Program Status                               .  _
     MEASUREMENT
     Current devices used for measuring particle size on control equip-
ment include impactors, optical counters, diffusion batteries, and

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 condensation nuclei counters.  These devices require lengthy manual tech-
 niques for operation, and their reliability is  less  than  satisfactory.
 For instance, with current measurement technology, it is  not always pos-
 sible to discern the difference between a device collecting  90  percent  of
 particles less than 0.5 microns in size and one collecting 95 percent or
 sometimes even 99 percent.  In order to maintain the momentum of  control
 technology development, this situation must be  remedied.
      The objective of this effort is to produce a device  which  will mea-
 sure fractional  efficiencies of control devices in real time with a high
 degree of precision and accuracy.
      CHARACTERIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CONVENTIONAL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
      Electrostatic Precipitators
      IERL-RTP has completed the total  characterization of seven ESPs op-
 erating on a number of sources ranging from power plants  to  aluminum
 plants.   Data from these tests clearly show that ESPs can collect parti-
 cles of all  sizes with high efficiency when dust resistivity is not a
 problem.   Data and theoretical  predictions  indicate  that  high dust re-
 sistivity limits  ESP performance.
      IERL-RTP has completed work to  determine the current conduction
 mechanisms  in fly ash  at high  temperatures  (>300°F).   This work is be-
 ing  extended to  low temperatures in  an  FY 75 funded  program.  One outcome
 of this work has  been  the recognition  of sodium as a  potential  condition-
 ing  agent to reduce resistivity.   IERL-RTP  has  evaluated  and published
 reports on  conditioning  agents  such  as  S03  and  NH3.   Conditioning
 appears to  be a  possible solution  to  retrofit types  of problems, but not
 for  new installations.
     Specially designed  charging or  precharging  sections  are  a  possi-
 ble  means of improving the  collection  of fine high resistivity  particles.
A fundamental  study and  limited pilot  plant work  on  fine  particle charg-
 ing were  funded  in  FY  74.
     A mathematical  model for  the  design of ESPs was  completed  in FY 75.
This model is  in  two forms:  a design and selection manual for  the plant
engineer, and  a programmed  computer  version for  the design engineer.  The
model predicts well  the  performance  of  ESPs down  to particle  sizes ap-
proaching 0.01 microns.  Programs currently underway will  improve the
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model by better defining losses due to poor gas distribution or rapping
and reentrainment.  These losses are currently handled in the model  on
an empirical basis.
     Wet ESPs offer a solution to high resistivity and fine particle
collection problems from some sources.  IERL-RTP is completing a systems
study of wet ESPs which was funded in FY 73.  The results of this study
indicate that wet ESPs have performance characteristics similar to dry
ESPs without the letter's resistivity problems.  However, cost and other
factors limit the application of wet ESPs.  Wet ESPs do not appear to be
a solution to the problem of collecting high resistivity fly ash.
     The broad objective of the ESP improvement program is to develop an
ESP of moderate size (specific collection area < 300 ft2/!000 acfm @
300°F) for high (>99 percent) efficiency collection of high resistivity
dusts.  Such ESPs would have a minimum particle collection efficiency of
90 percent at 0.5-micron particle diameter.  This objective is shown in
the chart below.  High resistivity dusts are produced from several
sources:  the largest is combustion of low-sulfur coal.
     As shown below, moderate to small sized ESPs can collect particles
with high efficiency when the dust resistivity is not excessive.  The
figure also shows that very large cold-side ESPs are required for effi-
cient collection of high resistivity dusts.  Hot-side ESPs are somewhat
smaller, based on specific collection area (SCA) for acfm than cold-side
ESPs for high resistivity dusts.  However, theoretically perfect  (e.g.,
no reentrainment, no sneakage) hot-side performance does not approach
the actual performance of the cold-side low-resistivity ESP.  If  the SCAs
are converted to a common temperature, the hot-side ESP is seen to be
much less attractive than the ESP that would result from successful com-
pletion of this effort.  For example a hot-side ESP with good gas flow
distribution and moderate-to-low sneakage and reentrainment has an SCA
of 450 ft2/!000 acfm at 700°F or 690 ft2/!000 cfm at 300°F.  The  object
ESP would require an SCA of only 180 ft2/!000 cfm at 300°F for the same
efficiency.
     Scrubbers
     The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory has tested  approximately
eight scrubbers of conventional design on a variety of particulate sources.

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   2.6
99.9
CAPITAL COST, $10^/1000 acfm

   7.8             10.4
                                                                            15.6
                                                     COMPUTED PERFORMANCE
                                                          AT 40 NA/CM2
                                                     TEMPERATURE ~300°F
                200            300            400
                     SPECIFIC COLLECTING AREA, FT2/ 1000 acfm

                 Capital cost of ESP's vs. computed performance.
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In general, the performance or efficiency of a scrubber drops  off rather
rapidly as the particle size decreases.  Also efficiency is directly re-
lated to the energy consumed by the scrubber.
     The broad objective of the fine particle scrubber program is to de-
velop low pressure drop (30 to 50 cm H20) scrubber systems capable of
collecting at least 90 percent by mass of particles smaller than 3 microns
in diameter.  This objective is shown graphically below.  Except for two
TCA scrubbers, the performance of all conventional and novel scrubbers
tested by IERL-RTP is represented by points along or above line A in the
graph.  The TCA scrubbers are represented by the circle labeled TCA.
     The major thrust of IERL-RTP's scrubber program has been aimed at
developing and demonstrating flux force/condensation (FF/C) scrubbers.
In an FF/C scrubber, water vapor is condensed in the scrubber.  When the
water vapor condenses, additional forces and particle growth contribute
to the particle collection process.  When the water vapor or steam is
"free," FF/C scrubbers are low energy users.  However, when water vapor
or steam has to be purchased, FF/C scrubbers require additional energy
inputs for efficient particle collection.  A rough idea of the energy
consumption/performance relationship for FF/C scrubbers is shown in the
graph.  Note that when steam is free, FF/C scrubbers approach the program
objective.  How much steam is needed and how much is free are major un-
knowns at present.  Since answers to both questions are likely to be
source specific, pilot demonstrations on a variety of sources are neces-
sary to provide required data.  A pilot demonstration is underway and an
additional one is planned for FY 76.
     With two possible exceptions, all the non-FF/C scrubber work con-
firms these data.  The first possible exception resulted from liquid
utilization research at Standford Research Institute:  it indicated that
a series of low-energy, low-efficiency scrubbers might achieve much high-
er total efficiency at a given energy consumption than could a single
high-energy scrubber.  This lead, plus final confirmation of the graph,
will be followed up by research funded in FY 75.
     The other possible exception to the figure is the TCA or mobile bed
scrubber.  The figure shows data from field tests of TCA scrubbers.  Note
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CO
                                0.12
      OPERATING COST, $103/yr/1000 acfm

0.24        0.48                1.44     2.4
                                                        ASSUME: POWER COST 2.54/KWHR 8000 MRS OPERATION
                                                        PER YEAR
3    4    56789
                                                            20     30       50    70   90

                                                      PRESSURE DROP, cm HzO

                                       Scrubber operating cost vs. aerodynamic cut diameter.
                                                      200   300

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that the TCA point is below the venturi and other scrubber lines by a
significant amount.  At present, there is no explanation for the observed
performance of mobile bed scrubbers.  In fact, one scrubber vendor claims
that mobile bed scrubbers (single stage or multistage) are less efficient
than venturi scrubbers.  An FY 75 program will provide the explanation
for the observed performance and design equations and theoretical  models
for mobile bed scrubbers.  FY 76 funds will be used to investigate ef-
fects of slurry scrubbing on mobile bed scrubber performance.
     The overall efficiency of a scrubber system is determined by the
efficiency of both the scrubber and the entrainment separator.  Recent
field data indicate that in some cases inefficient entrainment separator
operation is a major cause of poor fine particle collection by scrubbers.
IERL-RTP has nearly completed a systems study of entrainment separators.
FY 76 funds will be used to develop and demonstrate high-efficiency and
trouble-free entrainment separators in conjunction with SO  scrubbing
R&D.
     Fabric Filters
     The performance of baghouses has been completely characterized on
three sources:  two utility boilers and one industrial boiler.  The data
obtained from these tests show that baghouses are relatively good fine
particle collectors and that their performance is not very sensitive to
particle size down to at least 0.3 microns.  A major advantage of fabric
filters is that they will not require increases in size or energy usage
for efficient collection of fine particles.
     The current purpose in maintaining an R&D program in fabric filtra-
tion is to promote increased capabilities and extend the range of appli-
cability in control of fine particulates.  Of the three conventional de-
vices which can collect fine particles, fabric filters have been in in-
dustrial service longest, but the least information is known about their
operation from a theoretical standpoint.  Although the filter is a simple
device in operation, there are complex problems in describing it mathe-
matically.  These types of analyses used for scrubbers_and electrostatic
precipitators (ESPs) have not been effective when applied to filters.
Perhaps because the filter already has a reputation for efficiency, EPA
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 spending on filtration research over the last few years  has  been at a
 lower level than for ESPs and scrubbers.   However,  a major effort  is
 now underway to produce design equations and  mathematical models for fil-
 tration processes.
      Filtration work performed under lERL-RTP's  Particulate  Technology Branch
 (PTB) has been aimed at acquiring information for a twofold  use:   incor-
 poration into mathematical  models,  and  addition  to  the empirical knowl-
 edge used by designers and  operators for everyday operation.  This work
 has included studies of fiber property  effects and  fabric-type effects;
 evaluation of new fabrics;  development  of mathematical descriptions for
 specific parts of the filtration  process;  characterization of fabric fil-
 ters in the field;  investigation  of electrostatic effects; support of a
 pilot program to apply fabric filtration  to industrial boilers at a sev-
 eral-fold increase  over normal  filtration  velocity; and  studies of clean-
 ing and energy consumption  in bag filters.
      Industry can handle most of  the filtration  problems for sources which
 are already controlled  by fabric  filters.  Help  is needed for sources
 which present new problems  and  which are  of priority interest to EPA.  To
 design  for  new sources,  a better  understanding of the filtration process
 must be acquired.  The  objectives of immediate work in filtration then
 become:
      0   Understanding  the filtration  process.
      0   Applying  it  to  priority sources.
      0   Achieving cost/energy effectiveness.
      0   Developing and  testing  new  filter materials which can extend the
         applicability  of  baghouses  to a broad spectrum of sources.
      In  addition  to  a  comprehensive  contract  R&D program in fabric fil-
 tration,  IERL-RTP also  maintains a  hands-on in-house program.  Its objec-
 tive  is  to  identify  superior  fabric  filter materials and operating condi-
 tions by conducting  screening studies on in-house equipment.  It has pro-
 vided information on the  performance of many  types of filter fabrics.
Much experience has  been  gained with cotton and dacron filter materials
and this baseline data can  be used  to evaluate the properties of novel
 filter fabrics when  tested  on in-house equipment.
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     Laboratory work to complement and support grants, contracts, and
other in-house tasks will continue.  Tests such as studies of fabric
type, cleaning variables, effects of humidity, and process variations
will be conducted as needed.  In addition, with two different baghouse
systems in operation, mechanical-shake cleaning can be compared with
pulse-jet cleaning to determine which cleaning mode can be optimized for
the lowest particle penetration.  To complement the baseline data for
overall efficiency for various bags, instruments are being utilized to
determine the collection efficiency for various size ranges.  Preliminary
tests are being conducted to determine the optimum utilization of a Cli-
met Particle counter, a Thermo-Systems Electrical  Aerosol  Counter, and
a condensation nuclei counter.  The overall objective of using these in-
struments is to determine the collection profile of a complete filter
cycle.
     A new versatile fabric (baghouse) test chamber was ordered in FY 75.
This device will  be capable of testing bags at both high and normal tem-
peratures in environments which will simulate real process conditions.
The chamber is scheduled for operation early in 1977.
     ASSESSMENT OF THE COLLECTABILITY OF DUSTS
     A fleet of mobile conventional collectors which can be easily trans-
ported from source to source and tested is being constructed and will be
used in support of this program.
     A mobile fabric filter and a mobile scrubber unit have been complet-
ed and a mobile ESP unit is scheduled to be completed by early 1976.
These mobile units are highly versatile and will be used to investigate
the applicability of these control methods to the control  of fine parti-
culate emitted from a wide range of industrial sources.  The relative
capabilities and limitations of these control devices will be evaluated
and documented.  This information, supplemented by data from other IERL-
RTP particulate programs, will permit selection by equipment users of
collection systems that are technically and economically optimum for spe-
cific applications.
     NEW PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
     This program area has become known as "New Concepts."  As the
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 requirement to collect finer and finer participate has developed, the
 cost of conventional  control (ESPs,  fabric filters, scrubbers) has risen.
 Since many important  collection  mechanisms become far less effective on
 particles <1  micron in diameter, conventional devices (except for fabric
 filters) have become  larger or require more energy and thus are more ex-
 pensive.  The objective of new concepts R&D is to develop new mechanisms
 or new combinations of well-studied  mechanisms in order to achieve cost
 effective control  of  fine particulate  not easily controlled by conven-
 tional  devices.  New  concepts  include  any new technology which has not
 been reduced  to  practice and may or  may not have been previously studied.
      Mechanisms  utilized by scrubbers  and fabric filters are impaction,
 interception,  and  diffusion; and by  ESPs, are field and diffusion charg-
 ing.   This combination  of mechanisms gives rise to a minimum in efficiency
 at the  0.2 to  0.5  micron range for conventional devices.  Under optimum
 conditions, this minimum may be  greater than 90 percent for scrubbers and
 ESPs  and greater than  99 percent for fabric filters.  However, under con-
 ditions  such as high temperature, high  ash resistivity, sticky particu-
 late, and  corrosive or  explosive  flue  gases, new concepts specific to a
 problem  will have  an advantage.
      Most  work to  date  has been  directed toward combining electrostatic
 removal  mechanisms with  scrubbing or filtration mechanisms.  The first
 area  to  be developed was  charged droplet scrubbing with a feasibility
 study at M.I.T. and a pilot  demonstration at TRW on a Kaiser coke oven.
 Electrostatics and filtration are being studied at both BNW and Carnegie
 Mellon:  the former with  bed filters; the latter with baghouses.  A new
 concept  in the use of electrostatics is under development at the Univer-
 sity of  Illinois,  using a.c. fields.  At least two new concepts—a ceramic
 membrane filter and a magnetic metallic fiber bed—are oriented toward
 cleanup  of high temperature  gases (1000 to 2000°F).   Other new concepts
 being studied include foam scrubbing and pleated cartridge filters of a
 novel material.
     Most new concept work is in the early stages of development so that
no demonstration data is available.   The TRW charged droplet scrubber is
currently  being demonstrated and will provide an indication of possible
technology advances.  IERL-RTP has evaluated nearly 30 new concepts
                                   HO

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to date; of these, nine have been selected for  funding  support.
     NEW IDEA EVALUATION AND IDENTIFICATION
     This program area has become known as "Novel  Devices."   It  includes,
in addition to novel device evaluation and testing,  a program aimed at
soliciting, stimulating, and identifying new ideas for  fine particulate
control.
     As a part of this latter objective, lERL-RTP's  Particulate  Technol-
ogy Branch has planned and sponsored four symposiums and  one  seminar
aimed at fine particle control.   PTB also has funded (FY  75)  a literature
search aimed at identifying new  technology in foreign countries  (Japan,
Australia, Russia, and Canada).
     Devices or systems based on new collection principles or on radical
redesign of conventional collectors are sometimes  offered by  private de-
velopers.  Under this program area, all such novel devices will  be re-
viewed and, if promising for fine particle collection,  will be evaluated
for performance and related cost.  It is intended  that  those  showing
promise of high efficiency fine  particle collection  at  reasonable cost,
if necessary, be further developed or demonstrated.
     More than 30 novel particulate devices have been identified.  About
half of these are of sufficient  interest to justify  evaluation by IERL-
RTP.   So far, the following devices have been tested:
     0  Braxton--Sonic Agglomerator
     0  Lone Star Steel--Steam Hydro Scrubber
     0  R. P. Industries--Dynactor Scrubber
     0  Aronetics--Two-Phase Wet Scrubber
     0  Purity Corporation—Pentapure Impinger
     0  Entoleter—Centrifield Scrubber
     0  Johns-Manville—CHEAF Filter
     0  Rexnord—Granular Bed Filter
     0  Air Pollution Systems—Electrostatic Scrubber
     0  Air Pollution Systems—Electrotube Scrubber
     Of the devices tested, the  Lone Star Steel scrubber  gave the highest
efficiency on fine particulate,  but it is also  a high  energy  user.-   It
can use waste energy, when available.  The Aronetics scrubber is similar
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 to the Lone Star unit,  but (in one  test)  did  not appear to be as efficient.
 In a field test, the CHEAP filter had an  overall mass efficiency of 95
 percent but maintained  the efficiency down  to about 0.3 microns.  Labora-
 tory tests are now underway to determine  if this new phenomenon is real.
 The APS electrostatic scrubber was  equal  in fractional collection efficiency
 to a venturi scrubber using 1-1/2 to  2-1/2  times as much power.  Results
 of the APS electrotube  tests have not been  received.  None of the other
 devices tested had acceptable fine  particulate collection efficiencies.
      The following devices are now  being  considered for testing:
      0  United McGill—MAFCO ESP
      0  Combustion Power—Dry Scrubber
      0  Dart Industries—Hydro-Precipitrol  Wet ESP
      0  Ceilcote Company—Ionizing  Wet Scrubber
      0  Union  Carbide—Petersen Separator
      0  Celesco--Low Energy Wet Scrubber
      0  Du Pont—Du  Pont Scrubber
      A University of Washington Charged Droplet Scrubber is being fabri-
 cated as  a portable  unit for evaluation on  a  power plant.  If this unit
 shows promise,  it will  be  evaluated on other  sources.
      Parallel  to the field testing  effort,  a  small in-house facility for
 testing  novel  devices is being operated.  Currently, a small foam scrub-
 ber  is  being constructed to complement work currently in progress as a
 new  concept.
      HIGH-TEMPERATURE/HIGH-PRESSURE PARTICULATE CONTROL
      This  program area  was  added  in FY 75 as  a  result of the critical
 particulate  and  fine  particulate  cpllection problems associated with
 advanced  energy  processes.   The broad  objective of the high-temperature/
 high-pressure  program is to develop the particulate collection devices
which  are  needed to ensure  the  environmental  acceptability of advanced
energy processes.  However,  because the requirements of such energy pro-
cesses are as yet  unknown,  IERL-RTP has established a near term (18- to
24-month)  objective of  developing the  fundamental information on the
mechanics of aerosols at high  temperatures and pressures necessary to
determine the path of high-temperature/high-pressure particulate
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collection research and development.
     The state-of-the-art of high-temperature/high-pressure  participate
collection is very unclear.  There is no clear specification of the
degree of participate collection needed by advanced energy processes.
Also, there are no reliable data for the performance of the  participate
collection devices proposed by various companies;  e.g., granular bed
filters and high-pressure-drop cyclones.  There are few data, correla-
tions, or verified theories that can  be used to predict the  performance
of particulate collection devices at elevated temperatures and pressures.
     Most, if not all, developers of advanced energy processes are as-
suming that either cyclones or granular bed filters will provide the
degree of particulate collection required by their processes.  However,
there is no real justification for such an assumption.
     IERL-RTP, through FY 75 funded contracts, is  conducting research
to:  determine the feasibility of high-temperature/high-pressure ESPs;
determine the effects of high-temperature/high-pressure on basic particle
collection mechanisms (literature search funded in FY 75; experimental
study funded in FY 76); and determine the estimated particulate clean-up
requirements of proposed energy processes.  These  tasks are  not connected
with specific energy processes.  IERL-RTP, as part of the advanced energy
processes program, is looking at granular bed filters (Exxon miniplant)
and high-pressure-drop cyclones (Consolidation Coal) for use in particular
energy processes.
     IERL-RTP, as part of the Novel Particulate Device Program, is at-
tempting to evaluate either or both the Rexnord or CPC granular bed
filters.  IERL-RTP, as part of the New Concepts in Particulate Collection
Program, is supporting work on the previously mentioned high-temperature/
high-pressure particulate collection.
     ACCELERATED PILOT DEMONSTRATIONS
     This program area is described in more detail in each of the pre-
ceding sections.  In general, IERL-RTP has currently funded  two pilot
scale demonstrations and will fund one additional  demonstration in .FY
76.  Although these projects are demonstrations of technology only and
are "pilot scale," it has been customary, where possible, to put them on
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a small source at full scale and thus accomplish a complete process
control demonstration.
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                           INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

     lERL-RTP's work in the area of industrial processes can be subdivided
into three distinct functional groupings:  chemical  processes,  metallurgi-
cal processes, and process measurements (the last-mentioned applicable to
the entire IERL-RTP program).  The following subsections of this report
discuss these groupings separately.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
     IERL-RTP's Chemical Processes activities are grouped into  four cate-
gories:
     0  Combustion sources.
     0  Inorganic material processing sources.
     0  Organic material processing sources.
     0  Open sources.
     Within these four categories are all chemical process activities not
specifically assigned to other IERL-RTP programs.  The first three categories
are "point" sources; the fourth category, open sources, consists of "area"
sources.  Fugitive emissions from materials handling operations, raw material
and waste storage piles, and agricultural operations are part of this fourth
category.
     In order to define control technology development needs for sources in
the four categories, information relating the characteristics of emissions
to their probable impact on receptors must be assessed.  Presently, much of
the information required is nonexistent, or data reliability is uncertain.
     A contractual effort was initiated in June 1974 to utilize the systems
approach to acquiring the source assessment data needed for decisionmaking,
regarding control technology development needs for specific sources.
     Efforts to determine which pollution sources should be characterized
first are complete.  The sources were organized into the four categories
previously discussed.  A model was then developed to estimate the relative
environmental impact of each source within each category.  Factors included
in the model were the pollutant type, the mass emissions, the atmospheric
reactivity or stability of the emissions, number of the source type, the
growth pattern for the industry, the location of the plants, population
densities at the source locations, the relationship between source emissions
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and ambient levels of the same type of pollutant at the location of the
plant, and toxicity of the emitted pollutants.  Data from a wide variety
of sources were used as input to the model to calculate a relative environ-
mental impact number.  By this means, a priority listing based on relative
potential for adverse environmental impact was developed for the sources
in each of the four categories.
     From these listings of source priorities for each category, sources
were selected for which initial prototype Source Assessment Documents (SADs)
are now being developed.  These SADs will consider the aforementioned fac-
tors in detail and present all information necessary to allow decisions to
be made by IERL-RTP personnel as to control development needs for the
source types under consideration.
     The SADs now under preparation are:
     Combustion Sources
       Coal-fired Utility Boilers
       Coal-fired Industrial Boilers
       Oil-fired Industrial  Boilers
       Agricultural  Open Burning
       Prescribed Burning
       Stationary Turbines
       Stationary Reciprocating Engines
     Inorganic Material  Processing Sources
       Glass  Manufacturing
       Barium Chemicals
       Fertilizer Mixing
       Brink  Kilns
       Lead/Acid Batteries
       Ammonium Nitrate  Production
       Cotton  Gin Operation
       Ammonia Production
    Organic Material  Processing  Sources
       Acrylonitrile
       Asphalt Paving  Hot  Mix
       Surface Coating
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       Degreasing Processes
       Rubber Processing
       Plastic Processing
       Phthalic Anhydride Production
       PVC Production
       Neoprene Production
       Textiles
       Polyvinyl Chloride
       Charcoal Manufacture
     Organic Sources
       Carbon Black
       Maleic Anhydride
       Acrylic Acid
     Open Sources
       Beef Cattle Feedlots
       Defoliation of Cotton
       Harvesting of Grain
       Loading and Transport of Cotton
       Handling, Transport, and Storage of Grain
       Coal Storage Piles
       Transport of Sand and Gravel
       Open Mining of Coal
       Crushed Stone
       Crushed Sandstone and Quartz
       Crushed Granite
       Crushed Limestone
       Coal Refuse Piles
     Effluents from each source will be identified and characterized in
terms of emission rates, potential for adverse health effects, and environ-
mental  stability.  Ambient pollutant levels will be determined for typical
sources by means of accepted dispersion equations.  The source distribution
will  be presented and related to affected population.  Studies of the avail-
ability and performance of viable control technology will be presented.
     While the emphasis of future IERL-RTP control programs for industrial
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chemical processes depends largely on the conclusions of the SADs now being
prepared, a wide variety of control activities in chemical  processes  are
already underway.  The goals and status of these varied activities are
described in the following subsections.
Fabricated Metal Products
     In the course of manufacturing metal products, conventional  procedures
call for the use of large quantities of organic solvents to clean and pre-
pare surfaces for joining and coatings.  These solvents are often highly
volatile and can emit large quantities of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
A methodical study of this problem began in 1975 with the awarding of a
contract to DeBell and Richardson, Inc., for an assessment of the environ-
mental impact of organic emissions from solvent evaporation sources (the
Hydrocarbon Program of EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards).
     Purposes of this program are:
     0  To develop a body of information and data upon which EPA can  make
        decisions regarding the need for and the feasibility of control
        technology to limit emissions of organic compounds from various
        industrial surface coating operations.
     0  To develop various alternative New Source Performance Standards
        limiting emissions of organic compounds and to develop Standards
        Support Documents supporting these standards, for various indus-
        trial  surface coating operations.
     The program is,  therefore, divided into two phases.   Phase I (July
1975 to July 1976)  consists of:
     0   A review of a number of industrial  surface coating operations to
        develop all  information relevant to emission problems such as in-
        dustry statistics, emission sources, quantities of emissions,
        emission control  techniques,  and an initial  estimate of emission
        control  costs.
     0   Identification  of the technological  deficiencies  in air pollution
        control  technology currently in use which restrict further reduc-
        tion  in emissions, and recommendation of R&D programs that would
        produce the greatest improvement in control  technology.
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     0  Recommendation of various surface coating  operations  for  the
        development of Mew Source Performance Standards  and Standard Sup-
        port Documents in Phase II.
     Phase II (July 1976 to July 1977)  will  consist  of:
     0  Identification of various alternative New  Source Performance
        Standards that could be developed for each surface coating  operation.
     0  Analysis of the economic impact associated with  various alternative
        New Source Performance Standards on  both new and modified industri-
        al surface coating operations for which standards are being developed.
     0  Analysis of the environmental impact associated  with  various alterna-
        tive New Source Performance  Standards that could be developed.
     In addition to this general study, a specific process modification  is
now being evaluated on a pilot scale by Battelle and Continental  Can.  This
evaluation measures the hydrocarbon  emissions and  energy consumption of  a
conventional can coating line with those of  a coating line employing an
ultraviolet base coat.  The goal is  to reduce hydrocarbon emissions by 70
percent and energy consumption by 50 percent.  A final  report on  this  par-
ticular process should be available  in the latter  half of 1976.
Petrochemicals
     Petrochemical processing includes all industrial processes that use
petroleum as a feedstock.  Because of the size and importance of  the oil
and petrofuel industries, oil refineries are considered  separately  later.
Considered here are special multimedia pollution problems from nonfuel uses
of petrochemicals.
     ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE (EDC) PROCESSES
     Hydrocarbon emissions are the major pollution problem associated  with
the manufacture of EDC:  the ethylene oxyhydrochlorination absorber vent is
the main source of these hydrocarbon emissions. Current processes  employ
air as the oxygen source and vent the resultant inerts,  along with  about
0.03 tons of hydrocarbon per ton of EDC, to  the atmosphere.   EDC  production
is now about 5 billion pounds per year.
     At present there is no practical way to eliminate the  oxyhydrochlorina-
tion vent from existing processes; the gases are too dilute  for incineration,
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 and the addition of natural  gas to make the gases  combustible is an extrava-
 gance.  Furthermore, incineration would form hydrochloric acid which would
 have to be controlled by scrubbing.
      The objective of a project now underway by Allied Chemical is to demon-
 strate that emissions can be reduced by at  least 90 percent from the levels
 encountered with typical  existing processes.  The  modified process employs
 recycling of reactor exit gas, oxygen feed,  and whatever additional proc-
 essing steps are determined  to be necessary to control build-up of byproducts
 in the recycle stream.   The  modified process is to be economically competitive
 with present day processes.   The process performance is being evaluated on
 a  pilot scale so that a preliminary  study of technical and economic feasi-
 bility can be carried out.
      Successful  completion of the recycling system test (1975) will be fol-
 lowed by a test  program (estimated completion late in 1976) to demonstrate
 an instrumental  control  system that  will  provide on-stream reliability with
 comparable manpower equivalent to typical 1974 operation of EDC plants.
      VINYL CHLORIDE (VC)
      An  activity carried  out during  1975  was a sampling of the interiors
 of eight different models of new U.S.  automobiles  in order to measure VC
 concentrations and detect the presence  of other hazardous organic vapors:
 all  cars  had  less  than  1.2 ppm VC in  the  air, and  no other problem vapors
 were  detected.   The final report of  this  sampling, carried out by
 Monsanto  Research,  should be available  in February 1976.
      POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS  (PCBs)
     This  effort makes use of the  special expertise and equipment available
 at  Envirogenics  Systems Division of  the Chemical Process Plants Company to
 extend the  application of a  metal/metal couple reduction process to the
 treatment  of another  EPA "toxic/hazardous" material, PCB.   The work is ex-
 pected to  proceed  rapidly from  laboratory scale through bench scale opti-
mization  (6-inch diameter, 1   to  3 gallons per minute).   The process will  be
optimized for treatment of PCBs  in:   (1) PCB manufacturing effluent; (2)
PCB user effluent  (e.g., electric transformer and  condenser manufacturer,
industrial HC1 compressors using PCB as sealant, heat exchangers using PCB
coolant); and (3) treatment of accidental discharges and leachates from
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areas where PCB-containing equipment has  been  dumped,  is being stored, or
is being operated.
     In addition to the above PCB work, the reduction  process will be
screened for the first time for its effectiveness  in treating various
light-end chlorocarbons often found industrially with  PCBs; e.g., ethylene
di- and tri-chlorides, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform.
     The feasibility project is scheduled for  completion in January 1977,
after which a demonstration model will  be built, if warranted.
Inorganic Chemicals
     Inorganic chemical processing, as  discussed here,  includes three major
investigations:  control  of tail  gas from nitric and sulfuric acid plants,
and control of mercury emissions  from chlor-alkali  plants.  In each inves-
tigation, the Battelle-Columbus Laboratory is  evaluating the technical and
economic feasibility of using the appropriate  Union Carbide PuraSiv molecu-
lar sieve system to control the specific  air pollutant to  the following
goals:
     0  PuraSiv M--to reduce NO  emissions from nitric acid plants to 50
                               A
        ppm or less.
     0  PuraSiv S—to reduce SCL  emissions from sulfuric acid plants to
        100 ppm or less.
     0  PuraSiv Hg--to reduce Hg  emissions from chlor-alkali plants to
        60 ppb (by volume) or less.
     Conclusions will be drawn after an engineering analysis of data avail-
able from the open literature, from molecular  sieve vendor(s), and from
test data acquired in the field by monitoring  the  three control systems.
     Field testing is being carried out at the following  locations:
     0  Nitric Acid Plants--Holston Army  Ammunition Plant,  Kingston,
        Tennessee (tests by Department  of the  Army, Picatinny Arsenal).
                          --Hercules, Bessemer, Alabama (tests by
        Engineering Science).
     0  Sulfuric Acid Plant--Coulton Chemical, Oregon, Ohio (tests by
        York Research).
     0  Chlor-Alkali Plant--Sobin Chemical, Bangor, Maine  (tests  by
        Commonwealth Laboratories).
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      All tests and demonstrations should have been  completed by  December
 1975 with final  reports available shortly thereafter.
 Agri cultural  Chemi cals
      Pollution problems arising from the production of agricultural chemi-
 cals involve  both air and water pollutants.   They are associated with the
 production of fertilizers as well as with the production of pesticides and
 herbicides.
      FERTILIZER
      lERL-RTP's  chief air pollutant activity  related to fertilizer produc-
 tion is  a study to determine the extent  to which  gypsum ponds are sources
 of atmospheric fluoride emissions from the wet process phosphoric acid and
 to define control  techniques for reducing fluoride  emissions from gypsum
 ponds.   An emission factor for fluoride  from  gypsum ponds will be derived
 from this study  by evaluation of:  previous studies in the literature, gyp-
 sum pond chemistry, and the description  of the process and the identifica-
 tion of  the sources of fluorides to the  pond.  Fluoride concentrations in
 the vicinity  of  a  typical  gypsum pond will be calculated from the emission
 factor developed.
      Effects  of  various  control  strategies are being evaluated with respect
 to reduction  of  gypsum pond fluoride  emissions and  costs.  Techniques con-
 sidered  are control  at the pond,  in-process modifications, and pretreatment
 of the phosphate rock. A final  report on  this  task  will be issued early
 in 1976.
      In  a jointly  funded project  with the State of  Florida's Department of
 Pollution Control,  IERL-RTP  is  developing technology to minimize both the
 production  of  slime  ponds  and fluorine air emission  from the phosphate
manufacturing  industry.  The goal is  to avoid  the proliferation of slime
ponds.
     A dry-mining/beneficiation/calcination/acidification process was pro-
posed.  The dry-mining process  proved not to be technically feasible be-
cause of  aluminum contamination in the product phosphoric acid and because
of filtering problems.
     Studies of effluent cleanup  from fertilizer production were also
assumed by  IERL-RTP during 1975 in another jointly funded (with Farmers
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Chemical Assoc., Inc.) project at the former Athens Field Station.
     The objective of this project is to:  evaluate all  conventional  and
several experimental methods for inorganic nitrogen removal  from water,
determine the optimum process(es), and demonstrate at full  scale on waste-
water from a balanced-N fertilizer production complex; i.e., one contain-
ing ammonia, urea, nitric acid, and ammonium nitrate units.   In the demon-
stration model, high ammonia concentrations are to be reduced by air
stripping.  Oxidation of residual ammonia to nitrate is accomplished  by
trickling filter biological action using sewage as the carbon source.
Denitrification of nitrates is accomplished by anerobic lagoons using
methanol or another waste stream as a carbon source.  The feasibility of
waste stream segregation, recycle of concentrated streams, and internal
use of dilute streams is also to be established.   Advanced physico-chemical
processes (such as ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis,  and
mixed-salt precipitation) were evaluated.  Ion exchange (IX) proved  to be
the only feasible method.  Double loop, continuous IX beds were designed
and installed by Chem-Seps in 1972.  Total water reuse was achieved  for
1 month (July 1974).  Ammonia and nitrate were recovered and recycled as
product.  Economic data analysis and evaluation of the system performance
are still underway.  The complete air/water impact of the system is still
to be determined.
     A third related project is beginning in Yugoslavia.  An air dispersion
and transport model for fluoride-containing particulates from a TVA-type
granulation plant is to be postulated and tested via actual calibration
data at the FMK, Novi Sad plant site and its surroundings.  Stock testing
(source quantification) as a function of production rate and feed stock
will be included.  Use of Autoclave (hydroclave) separation in series with
a phosphoric acid scrubber to reduce these emissions will be tested and
quantified.  Double liming treatment of fluoride washwaters will be in-
vestigated and subsequent water reuse in the scrubbers evaluated.  A final
report is scheduled for mid-1978.
     In a jointly funded program with the Louisiana Chemical Association,
IERL-RTP plans to demonstrate at full scale a steam stripping process for
treatment of ammonia plant condensate.  Ten ammonia manufacturing companies
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 are developing the new technology required  to reduce ammonia in existing
 plant effluents by stripping the  contaminants and reinjecting them into
 the process.   Stripped condensate can  then  be recycled as boiler feed
 water.   When  completely satisfactory,  this  new technology will reduce
 process  effluent to zero discharge from  this source, while avoiding air
 pollution  from stripper overhead  venting.
      Excessive costs,  particularly in  energy, thwarted the initially pro-
 posed solutions; however,  the future of  this research is still open.
      A second resource extraction development in fertilizer production is
 a  program  to  develop and demonstrate at  pilot scale the optimum process
 flow sheet and plant design  for making a high analysis, slow release
 N-P-K-S  granular fertilizer  with  "zero"  pollutant discharge.  Its princi-
 pal  feedstock is industrial  byproduct  ammonium sulfate—itself a major
 pollutant  threat from  any  industrial operations.  In addition to the ob-
 vious environmental  and cost benefits  derived by using a major industrial
 waste (i.e.,  ammonium  sulphate),  the production process design for this
 new  product will  emphasize environmental control at all stages.  Omission
 of the conventional  rock acidulation step will eliminate granulation plant
 fluorine emissions.  Exploitation  of favorable heat and water balance will
 be evaluated  for elimination  of any effluent other than product.  Corrosion
 protection, instrumentation,  and novel process equipment requirements will
 be assessed with  respect to  product economics.  Full-scale process design
 specifications will  be  established for both new units and conversion of
 existing outdated granulation plants.
     PESTICIDES
     In a  project jointly funded with  Velsicol Chemical, IERL-RTP is cur-
 rently developing, demonstrating, and evaluating two processes for nonbrine
 chlorocarbon  pesticide wastewater.  The demonstration tests involve the
 heptachlor and endrin wastewater effluent from Velsicol's Memphis, Tennessee,
 plant.  The processes of choice are resin adsorption removal  and in situ
metal/bimetal  catalytic reduction  (dechlorination).   Rohm and Haas XAD-U
resins are used to remove heavy-end chlorocarbons from the wastewater.
Solvent regeneration of the resin permits reuse of resin, solvent, and
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some product recovery.  Metal reduction focuses on the use of copper-
catalyzed iron powder to dechlorinate/dehydrochlorinate the light and
heavy components alike, reducing waste toxicity and bioaccumulative prop-
erties.  Although either process alone should treat effluent to acceptable
levels, tandem tests, with the resin and catalytic reduction steps in
series, will also be investigated.  The test runs and final report are
scheduled for completion by January 1977.
     Over the past several years the Envirogenics Systems Division of
Chemico Process Plants has been developing processes for treating various
chlorinated pesticide wastewaters.  The compounds tested included DDT
(isomers), heptachlor, endrin, chlordane, and toxaphene.  The candidate
processes investigated included catalytic reduction, solvent extraction/
condensation, UV photolysis, and promoted photolysis.
     Targets for the candidate treatment processes were a 99 percent or
greater conversion of DDT (and major isomers) to products of demonstrably
reduced hazard to the environment, and 95 percent conversion for toxaphene
and chlordane.
     These goals have been met and a demonstration grant will be awarded
to Montrose Chemical so that their DDT plant at El Monte, California, can
be used by Envirogenics to apply this technology to a DDT waste stream.
The waste stream will be contacted with heptane in a high shear pump to
solvent-extract the DDT.  Solvent recovery will be by distillation with
the residues at the bottom of the still being polymerized into an insolu-
ble waste via A1C13 Fried!-Crafts synthesis.  The waste will be removed
and buried in a landfill.
     A third major pesticide program being studied by Repro Chemical is
the conversion of chlorocarbon and pesticide wastes by complete or par-
tial chlorolysis.  The technical feasibility of the process is demonstrated;
the major question now is one of economic feasibility.  Under the present
contract Repro is studying the economic impact of implementing chlorolysis
on a large scale such as a regional chlorocarbon disposal ^facility.
     Assessment of such parameters as the magnitude of the potentially
available U.S. organic wastes suitable for chlorolysis feedstock and the
markets for the chlorolysis conversion products (carbon tetrachloride,
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 carbonyl chloride, and anhydrous hydrochloric acid)  will  determine  the
 most practical  chlorolysis process and a specific  design  will  be  formu-
 lated in conjunction with the herbicide activities of the Hoechst-Uhde
 Corp.
      With partial  IERL-RTP support, Dow Chemical plans to demonstrate at
 full scale (200 gpm) a UV chlorination process to  remove  acetic acid from
 carbon-bed-treated phenol and/or 2,4-D manufacturing waste brines.  Eco-
 nomic and design data are to be catalogued,  including the effects of light
 placement, flow rate (residence time), and chlorine  and chloride  ion con-
 centration.   Also  to be studied are:   material  and energy balances—par-
 ticularly with  respect to byproduct methyl chloride  conversion and  recovery
 from the vent gas; corrosion protection and  full scale instrumentation
 requirements; and  automated operation  potential.   Brine quality and evalu-
 ation as caustic cell  feed will  also be monitored.   Laboratory scale tests
 to  define the kinetics, products,  and  optimum reaction conditions for other
 organic  acids (such as glycolic,  lactic,  chloroacetic, propionic, butyric,
 and  chloropropionic) will  also  be  performed.   Phenol  (chlorophenol) plant
 waste brine from which the solids  and  organic "heavies" have been removed
 by carbon are to be fed to a two-stage UV chlorination reactor.  Adjust-
 ment of  pH and  addition of chlorine will  produce C02  plus  a volatile or-
 ganic chloride  which is vented  from the  reactor.   Excess  chlorine in the
 vent gas  is separated  from the  organo-chloride  and C02  and recirculated
 to the reactor.
      HERBICIDES
      Bench-scale tests  have  demonstrated the  ability  of the chlorolysis
 process  (Hoechst)  to convert Dioxin-contaminated, high-sulfur Herbicide
 Orange (alone and  in blends  with typical U.S. chlorocarbon residues) into
 recoverable product.
      These tests showed that U.S. vinyl chloride, chlorinated solvents,
 and  vinylidene  chloride residues are readily  chlorolyzed to carbon tetra-
 chloride  and  hydrogen  chloride.  Orange chlorolyzes adiabatically but its
 high sulfur content  causes severe, but local   reactor corrosion.  Use of
a segmented reactor  combined with feed blending suggests that a regional
plant (capable of handling industrial residues plus Orange and/or other
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military pesticides) is feasible.  The purpose of the present investiga-
tion is to provide a completely integrated regional  conversion plant de-
sign and economic feasibility study for a 25,000 ton/year chlorocarbon
residue feed rate plant in cooperation with Repro Chemical.   This design
should be ready during the first half of 1977.
Food Products
     The problem addressed by IERL-RTP in the food rendering industry is
control of odors.  In a program jointly funded with the Fats and Protein
Research Foundation, IITRI began the design and evaluation of a scrubber
design condition that will effectively remove rendering odors from plant
ventilating air and process air.  During the first stage of the program,
a horizontal 3-stage spray scrubber which was tested and evaluated removed
92 percent of the initial odor concentrations for a cost of 18<£/l000
cfm-hr.
     The research effort was expanded to include development of a scrub-
ber system to remove odors from high intensity cooker streams (10,000 to
70,000 odor units).  During the initial testing of a packed scrubber for
high intensity odors, sufficient data were obtained for preliminary design.
This design should be verified by January 1976.
Combustion
     Assessment and definition of the problem of emissions from combustion
sources is a major concern to IERL-RTP.  In addition to the Source Assess-
ment Documents (SADs) being prepared for combustion sources by Monsanto
Research, independent environmental and emissions assessments of conven-
tional combustion systems are being prepared for IERL-RTP by GCA.
     The GCA emission assessments will specify the potential air, water,
and solid waste pollutants associated with each conventional combustion
system on a unit operations level (e.g., fuel storage, fuel combustion,
waste disposal).  This includes specifying the physical and chemical state
in which the pollutant is emitted.  The emission rates of the pollutants
will be determined by the most appropriate means, such as field sampling,
material balance calculations, or manipulation of existing data.
     Preliminary environmental assessments will establish an identity
matrix across air, water, and solid waste pollutants that will:  summarize
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 ongoing and planned work in conventional  combustion environmental assess-
 ment;  list the known pollutants  being emitted  from each combustion system
 studied; rank pollutants according to the expected intensity of their im-
 pact on the environment; delineate the established or potential impact in
 the areas of air,  water, and solid waste  pollution; and define the major
 gaps in the pollutant data  base  by combustion  system type and operating
 parameters deemed  relevant  to the  composition  and quantity of pollutant
 emissions.
     The goal  of these detailed  analyses  is  to clearly define the signifi-
 cant emission  sources that  require control,  permitting investment of the
 limited control  technology  funds in those problem areas that will provide
 the greatest return  in terms of  improved  air quality.  Again, the major
 impact  of these  assessments will be reflected  in IERL-RTP programs of
 future  years.
     IERL-RTP1s  presently active programs in emissions from combustion-
 related processes  range from evaporative  cooling devices to industrial
 and utility boilers.
     MECHANICAL  COOLING DEVICES
     Interest  in the  use of cooling towers,  power spray modules, and
 related cooling  devices at  locations  with available brackish or salt water
 has  created a  need for data to quantitatively  evaluate the air pollution
 emissions  from this type source.   In  August  1973, IERL-RTP initiated a
 program at Florida Power and Light's  Turkey  Point facility to characterize
 emissions  from a mechanical  draft  cooling  tower and power spray modules
 circulating salt water.   A  major problem  with  such evaporative cooling
 devices  is the entrainment  of small  particles  having approximately the
 mineral  content of the circulating water  and the transport of these par-
 ticles  by  the  warm, moist,  rising  plume into the ambient atmosphere.
 Deposition  of  these particles onto the surrounding biota may generate
 undesirable  environmental effects.
     At Turkey Point,  IERL-RTP participated  in studies conducted by the
National Thermal Pollution  Research Programs (NTPRP)  and the former
National Ecological Research  Laboratory (NERL) at Con/all is, Oregon.
     The overall problem was  divided  into three segments:   characterizing
the drift  sources,  characterizing the drift  transport, and comparison of
ambient deposition  with ambient-plus-source-drift residue  deposition.
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     Ambient or background salt levels were measured  so  that  salt  drift
contributed by the devices could be determined.   Characteristics (e.g.,
size, number of particles, mass) of the drift from the devices were  deter-
mined.  Meteorological data were collected during the study.  Statistical
analysis of the data is being accomplished by Adapt Corp.,  Reading,  Massa-
chusetts, under the sponsorship of the NTPRP.
     Preliminary analysis of the data indicates  that  the air  particulate
samplers were located such that statistically valid differences in salt
concentrations could be detected near (200 to 300 meters)  the cooling
devices.  As expected, meteorological conditions have an important impact
on the distribution of salt particles.
     HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL AND UTILITY BOILERS
     Boiler flue gas has been identified as a major potential source of
both gaseous and particulate toxic and hazardous emissions.   Under IERL-
RTP sponsorship, the Midwest Research Institute  (MRI) has  developed  a
comprehensive plan for measuring hazardous constituents  in representa-
tive utility boiler exhaust streams.
     This plan has been implemented on a full scale utility boiler,  TVA's
Widow Creek steam-electric power plant.  In addition  to  providing  data on
hazardous pollutants, the study also checked the reliability  and accuracy
of the sampling and analysis methods, as detailed in  the final report now
available.
Refineries
     Petroleum refineries consist of a complex of physical  and chemical
transformation operations.  While most of the individual point sources of
emissions within the refinery have been identified, fugitive  sources may
be the principal emitters of hydrocarbons.  In order to  identify those
refinery operations requiring air, solid, or water effluent control, IERL-
RTP is now carrying out a detailed assessment of the environmental efflu-
ents associated with oil refining.  The study will quantify the  potential
for emissions in each step of the physical and chemical  transformation  of
petroleum.   Particular attention will be given to "fugitive"  or  previously
unaccounted for emissions, to operations expected to utilize  heavier feed-
stocks, and to practiced control technology.  The assessment  includes  a
field sampling program to verify the quantified emissions identified in

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 the study and will  lead to a guideline document for determining the en-
 vironmental  impact  of existing and new petroleum refineries.
      From this assessment and guideline document, the major control program
 emphasis of future  years will be defined.   Ongoing investigations are de-
 scribed in the remainder of this section.
      SULFUR OXIDES  CONTROL
      Petroleum refineries are a major  industrial emitter of sulfur oxides
 (SO ).   In 1969 the estimated SO  emissions from 262 refineries (charging
    X                            X
 12  million barrels  of crude petroleum  per  calendar day) were 2.2 million
 tons.   Moreover,  the petroleum refining industry growth rate is projected
 to  be 3 to 4 percent annually.   As refineries process more higher-sulfur
 crudes, the  need  to control  SO  emissions  from petroleum refineries con-
                               A
 tinues  to grow.   IERL-RTP is therefore  vigorously seeking methods for
 suppressing  SO emissions from petroleum refining operations.
               X
      Four approaches to  SO  control currently exist for petroleum refin-
                           X
 eries:   desulfurization  of flue gases,  desulfurization of in-process feed-
 stocks,  desulfurization  of the whole crude  feedstock, and combinations of
 the  above.
     The  technology required for each approach has been developed to dif-
 ferent  levels.  Since  pollution control  technology has developed rapidly,
 an  up-to-date  analysis of techniques applicable to petroleum refineries,
 the  associated economic  impact  on petroleum products, and areas of inade-
 quate technology need  to  be  reviewed.   IERL-RTP, with the assistance of
 the  American Petroleum Institute,  has initiated a program to quantify the
 impact  of the  alternative  approaches, based on up-to-date technology and
 economics.
     Under this program, Arthur D. Little has developed a linear program
 model for petroleum refining  and  is calibrating it against confidential
 industrial and Bureau  of Mines  data for the year 1974.   A base case and
 two  levels of  SO  control  scenarios have been run for three time periods
                X
 (1977, 1980, 1985).   The model  can choose from among the four basic con-
 trol approaches for  reducing SO   emissions  (feed desulfurization to flue
                                X
 gas scrubbing).  For each specific process  sequence identified, the asso-
 ciated incremental economic impact is calculated.   The project will result
in reports that will show possible petroleum processing configurations
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and costs.  Some of these reports will  be issued in 1976.
     AUTOMOBILE FILLING STATION CONTROL
     The objective of this study, initiated late in 1975 in response to  a
request from EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,  is to
identify and determine the extent of hydrocarbon build-up on the  charcoal
beds used to control gasoline vapors in service stations.   Any decrease
in charcoal bed working capacity because of the build-up of hydrocarbon
"heavy ends" will be identified.  The investigation will be carried out
as a laboratory or small pilot scale project.
Construction
     Two construction-related IERL-RTP projects, recently transferred to
other EPA organizations, are summarized below.
     Previous IERL-RTP studies showed that the major sources of fugitive
asbestos emissions are manufacturing waste piles and processing lines
rather than mining/milling operations.   In a follow-up study, IITRI field
tested various control options for the abatement of asbestos emissions
from material transfer operations and wind erosion of the waste storage
piles created in the manufacture of asbestos cement products.  Both poly-
meric coatings and vegetative stabilization are initially very effective
in reducing wind erosion of asbestos cement wastes.  The long-term stability
and costs of each of these surface treatments are still being assessed.
Follow-on work will be out of EPA, Cincinnati.
     Under a separate contract, IITRI studied the occurrence and properties
of various amphibole minerals in the Silver Bay area of Minnesota:  from
this ore body, IITRI prepared respirable-sized samples of amphibole asbes-
tos to be used in health effects studies.  Veins of very friable asbestos
were found in Reserve Mining's Peter Mitchell Pit:  the conclusion is that
their presence will contribute substantial asbestos emissions to the air
during any subsequent mining operations.
     The health effects samples will be used by EPA's Health Effects Research
Laboratory to develop better asbestos standards.  Follow-up work under this
contract will be managed by HERL.
Textiles
     Textile manufacturing processes generate voluminous wastewaters which
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 are environmental  polluters  if not treated.   If  they can be reused, the
 potential  for lower manufacturing costs  becomes  large.  A number of proj-
 ects,  either totally or partially funded by  IERL-RTP, are now underway
 which  have pollution reduction from textile  processes or wastes as one of
 their  goals or their major goal.
     Owens-Corning Fiberglas  in Toledo is  demonstrating, first in pilot
 scale  and  then in  full  plant  scale, the  complete recirculation and reuse
 of a complex industrial  wastewater from  a  fiberglass textile manufacturing
 plant.   The reclaimed wastewater  will be used for nonprocess uses such as
 washdown,  chain scrubbing, and cooling.  Accomplishing this objective of
 total  reuse requires:   (1) establishing  water quality criteria for in-plant
 water  uses, (2) additional local  water conditioning and recycle facilities
 for cooling,  scrubbing,  and chain washing, and (3) improved wastewater
 treatment  so  that  remaining wastewater may be reused for nonprocess uses.
     LaFrance Industries in LaFrance, South  Carolina, is assessing the
 technical  feasibility of producing a reusable effluent from textile waste-
 waters by  applying hyperfiltration.  The objective of this project is to
 demonstrate pilot  plant  reverse osmosis  treatment of dye house wastewaters
 followed by reuse  of both  the  resulting  retentate and permeate.  Cellulose
 acetate and dynamic  membrane systems will be  evaluated for the separation
 of dissolved  solids  and  color  concentrates.   Engineering and economic
 analyses will  be performed for all  aspects of the project, including reuse
 in  standard dyeing processes.
     The South  Carolina  Textile Manufacturer's Association in Columbia is
 also assessing  the application of hyperfiltration technology to treat the
wastewaters,  for eventual reuse,  from eight textile plants in that state.
The textile plants  represent most of the EPA  dyeing and finishing guide-
 lines categories.  The effects  of system pressure, fluid circulation veloc-
ity, and percent water recovery as well as the major economic parameters
on direct reuse will be  evaluated.  The reuse of the separated parts of
the waste streams will be tested  in the industrial  quality control  labora-
tory at each site.   In addition,  a treatability study will be performed on
the concentrate from the hyperfiltration units to evaluate alternative dis-
posal methods.
     J. P.  Stevens & Co. in Greensboro, North Carolina,  is evaluating treat-
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merit sequences for cleaning textile wastes including biological  treatment,
multimedia filtration, and activated carbon/ion exchange.   A key feature of
the research is the demonstration of reuse of the completely treated  water
in dyeing tests.  The biological and multimedia filtration  units are  full
scale; the activated carbon/ion exchange units are pilot scale;  and the
reuse investigations are on laboratory scale.
     Beaunit Fibers Corporation is biologically treating nylon  6,6 waste-
waters using oxygen enriched off-gases (40 percent available oxygen)  from
the nylon manufacturing process.  The oxygen aerated activated  sludge sys-
tem is monitored to determine raw waste characteristics, process kinetics,
and economic data.  This unique system demonstrates treatment of nylon
wastewater and utilization of byproducts to achieve pollution abatement.
     Clemson University is surveying the textile industry to determine the
quantity of energy that could be made available by recycling hot water in
current dyeing and finishing procedures.  The project includes  the  evalua-
tion of the application of high temperature hyperfiltration membrane  tech-
nology to a variety of high temperature, point source, process  effluents.
Membrane performance will be evaluated in on-site plant scale experiments
for several point sources selected for maximum energy and/or resource
conservation through direct recycle.
     Bennett College, in Greensboro, North Carolina, is evaluating  the
ion exchange process for treating textile dyeing wastewater.  This  pilot
scale demonstration assesses dye reuse and makes cost projections for a
full scale plant.
     Canton Textile Mills in Canton, Georgia, is demonstrating biological
oxidation of textile finishing wastes supplemented by flue gas neutraliza-
tion of the waste stream for control of pH, and fly ash adsorption  for
color removal.  The design parameters for the pretreatment and tertiary
treatment processes were determined by pilot scale operation of the proc-
esses.  The neutralization and color reduction processes are incorporated
into an existing bio-oxidation system at full-scale operation.   The opera-
tion of a bench pilot scale electrochemical system was included'for recovery
of the dyeing chemicals.  A final report of this operation is now available.
     The American Textile Manufacturing Institute  (ATMI) will cooperate
with EPA by participating in a court-ordered study to evaluate the treat-
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 ment efficiency of technological  processes  defined by EPA as BATEA for the
 textile industry and to evaluate  the economic achievability and impact on
 the industry resulting from the application of these technologies.  The work
 will  be performed by a mutually agreed  upon consultant under joint direction
 of ATMI and EPA.   The actual  investigations will be carried out through the
 use of tv/o mobile pilot treatment units.  Approximately 20 plants will be
 investigated.   These 20 plants  will  be  selected from among plants already
 achieving  the  Effluent Guidelines Division's best practical control tech-
 nology currently available  (BPCTCA)  level.   The treatment processes will
 include chemical  treatment  (including carbon adsorption) and multimedia
 filtration.  An economic study  will  be  conducted by a mutually agreed upon
 consultant evaluating the data  collected in the pilot treatment study.
      The Institute for Meteorology and  Water Economy, Krakow, Poland, is
 evaluating the effectiveness  and  economics  of several tertiary treatment
 processes/operations as  applied to biologically treated municipal/textile
 wastewaters.   Seven  unit processes are  being investigated separately and
 in  various  combinations  including reverse osmosis, carbon adsorption, co-
 agulation,  multimedia filtration, ion exchange, catalyzed chlorine oxida-
 tion,  and  ozone treatment.  The information being generated will be useful
 for pollution  abatement  not only  in  the United States but also in the
 international  community.
      Blue  Ridge Winkler  Textiles  in  Bangor,  Pennsylvania, is running a
 full-scale  demonstration  of the operation of a newly constructed 750,000
 gpd wastewater treatment  plant  for textile  dye and finishing wastes.  The
 treatment  system  includes the following processes:  equalization, pH and
 nutrient control,  activated sludge including secondary clarification, also
 coagulation consisting of rapid mixing, flocculation, and clarification,
 chlorination,  and  sludge dewatering.  The systems have been operated for
 the purpose of documenting and  evaluating the wastewater and unit process
 characteristics.  A final report  is now available which contains a detailed
 summary of all  data and engineering studies.
     Hoi listen Mills, Inc. in Kingsport, Tennessee,  is investigating on a
pilot scale the treatment of cotton textile waste by enzymes and a high
rate trickling filter.
     In a novel approach based on  a process modification, Auburn University

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is evaluating the impact of the use of solvent-based  sizing  techniques
on textile plant effluent parameters.  The project includes  economic and
technical evaluations.  Over the next several  years,  Auburn  plans  to:   (1)
analyze and characterize potentially useful solvent warp sizing  polymers,
(2) determine the physical/chemical effects of solvent substitution on
fibers, (3) evaluate their effect on actual weaving performance, (4) evalu-
ate the economic impact and potential of solvent technology  in warp sizing,
(5) evaluate the energy implications of solvent process substitution,  (6)
evaluate the effect of solvent slashing and desizing  on process  water  dis-
charge quality and quantity, and (7) evaluate the effect of  solvent substi-
tution on air pollution and ambient air quality.
Miscellaneous Industries
     This section describes the remaining active projects of lERL's con-
trol program related to industrial chemical processing.  Each project  is
discussed in a separate subsection.
     ASPHALT ROOFING
     The objective of this project (at the Midwest Research  Institute)  is
to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of control methods  that
can achieve 99 percent reduction of particulate, hydrocarbon, and POM  emis-
sions from the blowing stills and saturator operations used  in the asphalt
roofing industry.
     The approach to be used in accomplishing the objective  of this task
consists of three subtasks:
     0  Surveying the asphalt roofing industry, surveying the literature
and published reports, contacting equipment manufacturers to identify  ex-
isting and potential control methods, and compiling information and data
on those methods.
     °  Evaluating the technical and economic feasibility of achieving 99
percent reduction of particulate, HC, and POM emissions from blowing  stills
and saturator operations using the technology identified in  the previous
subtask.
     0  Recommending the most feasible control process(es) and preparing
estimates for conducting a demonstration program or,  where necessary,
preparing a research plan for developing the technology to the point where
a demonstration program is warranted.

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      A final report was expected in December 1975.
      GLASS MANUFACTURE
      Glass-melting furnaces  are considered  a potential source of fine
 particulate, sulfur oxides,  nitrogen oxides, and other gases that are
 generally considered undesirable atmospheric emissions.   In 1971, the
 glass industry ranked ninth  in total fuels  purchased  by manufacturing
 industries.  Two-thirds of the energy utilized  by the glass industry was
 consumed  by the high-temperature melting  furnaces in  which raw materials
 are converted into molten glass.  With most high temperature operations,
 the thermal efficiency is low, usually less than 35 percent.  The product
 of this work will  be the development of technology that reduces air emis-
 sions and improves the energy  utilization of the glass-melting furnace.
      The  purpose of this project, therefore, is to develop control tech-
 nology for the abatement of  air emissions from  glass-melting furnaces.
 A secondary objective is to  improve the thermal efficiency of the furnaces
 and hence to conserve energy.   The ultimate goal of this  program is to
 demonstrate the technical  and  economic benefits of this technology on a
 commercial  glass-melting furnace within the industry.
      The  work  will  be initiated in one of four  phases:
      0  Laboratory/bench scale process development.
      0  Pilot  plant development.
      0  Construction,  startup,  and performance  testing of full-scale unit.
      °  One-year demonstration of full  scale unit on  a commercial glass-
        melting furnace.
 The  contract for this  work is  expected to be signed by April 1976.
      ASBESTOS  MATERIALS  FABRICATION
      Control of asbestos during  manufacturing processes centered on bag-
 house studies  in  1975.   IITRI  conducted a test matrix of  operating con-
 ditions versus  efficiency of asbestos  removal.  The objective of the test
 program was to  define  and document the optimum operating mode,  the highest
 control efficiency possible, and  the incremental cost of  achieving improved
 performance.  Since EPA  has not established a safe exposure level for asbes-
tos, this  program was  slanted at  defining control  benefit as a  function of
cost, as  opposed to achieving a particular targeted control efficiency.  A
draft final report has been completed and should be available early in 1976.
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     FLARE SYSTEMS
     Flaring, while a relatively cheap method for disposing of certain in-
dustrial waste gases, may create significant quantities  of air pollutants.
In a study completed in mid-1975, the number of flares operating  in the
petroleum, chemical, and metallurgical industries was estimated along with
the amount of material flared.   Design parameters for flare systems were
reviewed to provide the background to establish the base on which addition-
al work can be built in order to make flaring an economical and environ-
mentally sound method of waste gas control.
     VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION OF MINERAL WASTE HEAPS
     This project, conducted at the Research Triangle  Institute,  consisted
of an evaluation of the use of vegetation as a method  for controlling  fugi-
tive dust emissions from manmade mineral waste heaps.  Mineral waste piles
exist primarily because of mining and milling operations. They are found
in every State.  In dry windy climates, such as the Great Plains  and Rocky
Mountains of the United States, they constitute a significant source of
fugitive dust emissions.  While on a national scale fugitive  dust emissions
from mineral waste piles are not the dominant source of  fugitive  dust  emissions
(dirt roads, agricultural activities, and construction sites  emit more
fugitive dust), they often dominate the air quality in  their  immediate
vicinity.  In addition, emission of a toxic substance  characteristic of
a specific mineral waste, such as asbestos, can make control  imperative
even though the mass emissions alone are not exceptionally high.
     Much revegetation research has been carried out in  recent years and
the bulk of the study reviewed this work in a pseudo-case history format
from which general guidelines and recommended methodologies  for  carrying
out the revegetation of mineral waste piles were deduced.
     The study concluded that:
     0  Vegetative cover has been very successful in stabilizing  many
        mineral wastes and is preferred, when practical.
     0  Revegetation of mineral wastes is sufficiently complex that no
        surefire procedure can be specified as to optimum procedures  for  •
        any given waste in a specific area.
     0  Virtually any mineral waste pile can be stabilized with  vegetation,
        given enough time and resources; the trick is to know when it  is
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         economically reasonable  to  proceed with a vegetative control meth-
         od and when it is  foolhardy.
      0   Little quantitative  data exist by which to measure the magnitude
         of the fugitive dust emitted by mineral waste piles or to assess
         the improvement in air quality resulting from vegetative stabili-
         zation.
GUIDELINES  FOR  ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
      To  standardize the preparation of environmental assessment documents
 in the general  field of energy systems, GCA Corporation, under IERL-RTP
 contract,  prepared a guideline document containing, in a unit operations
 format:
      0   A  description of process operations involved.
      0   A  definition of the  potential environmental impact areas that need
         to be  addressed.
      0   The methodology for  determining the magnitude of the impact for
         each energy system.
      0   Procedures  for conducting environmental assessments.
      The guideline  document  enumerates:
      0   Specific methods that  can be used when conducting environmental
         assessments.
      0   Criteria to be used  in assessing the magnitude of environmental
         impacts.
      0   The methodology  for  determining potential interactions between
         the unit operations  that  may result in modified environmental
         impacts.
      0   Environmental  impacts of  pollution control  systems associated
        with any unit  operation.
     This guideline document is being field tested by Dow Chemical  and
Lockheed.  Dow  is using it to prepare environmental  assessments of geo-
thermal   and power park energy systems.   Lockheed is using it to prepare
environmental assessments of hydrogen combustion, magnetohydrodynamics,
and coal  liquefaction.  The experiences and problems of both contractors
in using  the guideline document will assist in its  modification and
improvement.
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METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
     During 1975, EPA's Office of Research and Development  underwent
a major reorganization.  The reorganization resulted  in  lERL-RTP's
divesting itself of the non-ferrous metallurgical  air pollution  pro-
gram, but retaining the ferrous metallurgical program.   In  addition,
the ferrous metallurgical program became multimedia.
Ferrous Metallurgical Processes
     The ferrous metals industry converts iron ore and scrap iron  into
useful iron and steel products.  At large integrated  steel  plants,  iron-
bearing material {lump iron ore, sinter, or pellets), limestone, and
coke are charged to a blast furnace where the iron ore is reduced  to
molten metal which is periodically tapped.  The iron  from the blast
furnace is saturated with dissolved carbon which must be removed to
change the iron into steel.  The iron from the blast  furnace, usually
molten, is generally mixed with cold scrap in a steelmaking furnace
(where the mixture is blown with oxygen which burns the carbon)  to
produce steel.  In the basic oxygen steel process, the carbon level is
reduced to the required level, impurities are removed, and alloying
agents are added.  (Other, less important, steelmaking processes are
the open-hearth and electric arc.)  The steel from the furnace is  poured
into ingots that solidify.  The ingots are then adjusted to proper and
uniform temperature and physically squeezed into the  desired shape in
rolling mills.  A newer variation of the process is to cast the steel
from the steelmaking furnace continuously, thereby minimizing the  roll-
ing that is required.
     The process sounds simple, but in reality it is  rather complex.
There are many ancillary processes and operations to  contend with;
e.g., sintering, coke production, scarfing, and galvanizing.
     The iron and steel industry is not limited to large integrated
plants; smaller plants are spread throughout the country.  In these
mi nip!ants, scrap steel is melted in electric arc furnaces with little .
or no refining, then rolled and formed into simple shapes (e.g., con-
create reinforcing rods) to meet local marketing needs.   Other small
iron and steel plants melt scrap in cupolas or electric resistance
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 furnaces.  The molten iron and steel  at  these  foundries is cast into
 desired shapes.
      Studies, started in 1968, have shown  that atmospheric emissions
 in the iron and steel industry are quite large and originate from a
 multiplicity of sources.
      Since these studies clearly showed  that coke production was the
 most serious pollution source in the  industry, IERL-RTP directed its
 initial  efforts toward controlling that  source.  With work underway on
 controlling emissions from coke production, IERL-RTP is now expanding
 its outlook—initiating projects in other  areas of the industry, in
 addition to cokemaking.
      IERL-RTP's major ferrous emission control projects are related to:
 the preparatory area  of mining,  beneficiation, and pelletizing of iron
 ore;  coke ovens;  sinter plant windboxes; basic oxygen process (BOP)
 furnaces;  and iron  foundry cupolas.
      MIMING, BENEFICIATION, AND  PELLETIZING
      Domestic iron  ore production  is  about 90  million tons per year,
 of which about 83 percent  is  from  the Lake Superior region.  Minnesota
 accounts for 65 percent of the total, Michigan, about 16 percent, and
 Wisconsin,  1  percent.   The remaining  production is from 17 other States.
 Production  comes  from over 50 mines,  most  of which are of the open-pit
 type.  Open-pit mines  produce approximately 90 percent of the U.S.
 iron  ore.   Principal  iron  ore minerals are the iron oxides, with the
 carbonates  and sulfides  being of secondary importance.
      Most ores currently recovered  are beneficiated to an iron ore
 concentrate,  using methods that  vary  from  simple to complex.   Most of
 the concentrates  are pelletized  prior to shipment.   A typical, though
 simplified,  flow  pattern for  a taconite plant is shown below.
     A 1-year  contract was  let in July 1975 to Midwest Research Insti-
 tute as  the  first phase of a  program which is intended to demonstrate
 techniques or  systems  for  the  control of emissions  from the iron ore
 mining,  beneficiation, and pelletizing industries.   The purposes of
 this first phase are:   (1) to  identify the emission sources;  (2) to
quantify these emissions;  (3)  to prioritize these emissions based on
their environmental  impact; and  (4) to make recommendations for future

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                                                               CRUSHING  PLANT


                                                                       I COARSE ORE BINS
                                                                       FINE ORE BINS
              BLASTING     LOADING  HAULING
                                                   GYRATORY
                                                 3k CRUSHERS
                                                                             CONE
                                                                             CRUSHERS
                                                                                                                      % i»ROD MILLS
     CONCENTRATE THICKENERS *


DISC  FILTERS
                                                                    VIBRATING
                                                                    SCREENS
          CONCENTRATOR
                   ADDITIVES


                   AGGLOMERATING PLANT


                             BALLING DRUMS
   FINISHER
   MAGNET
SEPARATORS
                                                                                      ROUGHER
                                                                                      MAGNETIC
                                                                                      SEPARATORS
CONCENTRATE
BINS
                                              CLEANER MAGNETIC SEPARATORS
                                                                                                                               I  TO TAILING
                                                                                                                               I  DISPOSAL
                                                                                                                                 AREAS
                         TAILING THICKENERS
                                                      RECOVERED
                                                      WATER
                                                           FURNACES
                                                       ,JT  OR KILNS
                                                                                                      HYDRO SEPARATORS
                                                                                                                                    TO STEEL MILLS
                                              Mining, benefication, and pelletizing operation.

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 research, development,  and/or demonstration  projects  to reduce emis-
 sions from those sources determined  to  be  most critical.
      The contract effort to date has been  to accumulate data by litera-
 ture search, by talking with industry and  government  personnel, and by
 plant visits.   Major effort has  been on source identification and find-
 ing source test data, noting plant-to-plant  similarities and differ-
 ences,  and discussing with  plant personnel the control devices attempted
 on  various process points and their  reasons  for  selection of one device
 over others.
      The effort for these sources may ultimately be expanded to in-
 clude water pollution aspects of the program.
      STEELMAKING
      Steelmaking processes  and material  flow patterns are shown below.
 Pollutant discharges from the various processes  are also shown below.
      Coke Oven  Emission  Control
      Control of emissions in cokemaking is a third major IERL-RTP con-
 tribution  to the iron and steel  industry (see figure below).  It is the
 process  which produces  the  most  air  pollution in the industry, itself
 one  of the  major air-polluting industries.   Top-side coke oven workers
 have  been  shown to  have  a substantially  higher risk of lung cancer
 than  the  average  worker,  probably from  carcinogenic materials associated
 with  the  particulate  fraction.   It is expected that IERL-RTP's present
 prototype  demonstration  will  permit  reduction of these pollutants by
 90 percent.
      Smokeless  Coke  Charging.  IERL-RTP  and  the American Iron and Steel
 Institute  (AISI)  have funded  a demonstration for controlling coke oven
 charging emissions,  results  of which  can apply industrywide.  Construction
 of the demonstration  unit,  completed  in  February 1972, was followed by a
 production operation  and  component-testing/reliability phase that was
completed in December 1973.
     Coal, charged into a coking oven, is usually dropped from a por-
table hopper through openings in the top of the oven.   The charged
coal, upon contacting the heated oven walls,  starts to emit large
                                   172

-------
                                            jl
                                                   -RECOVERED FINES FROM
                                                    PARTICULATE CONTROL EQUIPMENT.
                                                    MILL SCALE
ORE

SINTER
STRAND



SINTER ^
PELLET&7
wnc. ^
PELLETS ^

ORE
YARD
f rtuutii,
\ LUMP ORE./
7'
COAL ^


COAL
YARD
COAL

COKING
FACILITY
1;

y
•x]
CO
           PURCHASED,
             SCRAP
     TO SINTER
     PLANT
                                                                                        B. F. GAS
CONVENTIONAL
INGOT
CASTING UNIT




1
CONTINUOUS
CASTING
BILLET UNIT




CONTINUOUS
CASTING
SLAB UNIT




|l s!4 Si I
I!i3l2 llS
Ul|p ==|UJ p- (0
|!g Ills §'§



TO PRIMARY
BREAKDOWN


TO PRIMARY
BREAKDOWN






     BORINGS
       AND
     TURNINGS
                                                 Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet 1 of 2).

-------
             PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
                  TO BLOOMS
             PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
            TO BILLETS VIA BLOOMS
             PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
                   TO SLABS
->
i
FROM INGOT
CASTING
FROM CONTINUOUS
BILLET CASTING

^
— ^
h
U *
^ HOT S
r MIL
FROM CONTINUOUS
SLAB CASTING
6
                                                               PICKLING
                                                                 AND
                                                                OILING
                                          MILL SCRAP
HEAVY STRUCTURALS
    AND RAILS
                                                                                    BAR AND ROD
                                                                                 SEAMLESS PIPE, TUBE
                                                                                    WELDED PIPE
                                                                                                           DIRECT SHIPMENTS OF INGOTS, SLABS
                                                                                                           BILLETS, BLOOMS
HEAVY STRUCTURALS,
RAILS
                                                                   fc NAILS AND WIRE
                                                                     WIRE , PRODUCTS

                                                                                        I
                                                                     BARS,LIGHT STRUCTURA!
                                                                  -> INCLUDING REBAR,
                                                                     WIRE RODS
                                                                                                                             COLD FINISHED
                                                                                                                             BARS
                                                                                   COLD  REDUCTION
                                                                                   AND  FINISHING
                                                                                     PLATE MILL
                                                                                                           GALVANIZING
                                                   TIN PLATING
                                                   AND OTHER
                                                   PLATED PRODUCTS
                                                                      SEAMLESS  PIPE,
                                                                      TUBE
                                                                                                                              WELDED
                                                                      HOT ROLLED
                                                                      SHEET AND STRIPS
                                                                      GALVANIZED PRODUCTS
                                            TIN AND OTHER
                                            PLATED PRODUCTS
                                            COLD ROLLED SHEET
                                         ».  AND STRIP, BLACK PLATI
                                         *•  PLATE
                                            Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet 2 of 2).

-------
    j  Fugitive ~)
                         Fine Particulates,
                         Hydrocarbons,
                         Carcinogens, CH,
                         NH_,  Smoke
!  Emissions <^     ,,„   T ,. . ,  ,
•— — -t — —-j +	From Individual
                   processes
tn
                                                      Fine Particulates,
                                                      S02, F,  Cl,
                                                      Volatilized  Oil
                                              L.c:^SW SINTER
                                                      PLANT
                                        - Charging
                                        - Leaking door seals
                                          - Pushing
                                            - Quenching
                                              COKING PLANT
                            Excess NH^ Liquor
                            light oil recovery
                            wastes quench water
                            overflow waste water
                            coke wharf
                                                           en
                                                           -P
                                                           c
                                                           ro
                                                           o
                                                           a,
                                                           (0
                                                           U-i
                                                          - O
                                                           QJ
                                                           M
                                                           3
                                                           4-1
                                                           a,
                                                           us
                                                           u
                     Fine Particulates,
                     Fume
                                                                               B.F.  Gas
                                           Fine Particulates,
                                           N-, CO, CO  , H.O,
                                           HCN       ^    i
                                                                 CAST
                                                                HOUSE
                                                                                     Cooling Water
                                                                                     (once through)
                                                                                         Granulation!
                                                                           Fine Particulates
                                                                           C02, S0x, N0x, ZnO,
                                                                           Fluorides
  OPEN
 HEARTH
FURNACE
                                                                    BASIC
                                                                  OXYGEN
                                                                 FURNACE
                                                 Scrubbing Water
                                                 High Dissolve
                                                 Solids
                                                   1
                                                 SLUDGE
                                                                             Fine Particulates
                                                                             Fume, Smoke, CO,
                                                                             C02, N02, ZnO, Oil
                                                                             Vapor
                                                                                                            Scrubber water,
                                                                                                           phenols,  solids,
                                                                                                            fluorides-,  etc.
                                                                                                                      Sludge
                                                                                                           -*• SOLID DISPOSAL
                                                 *• SOLID DISPOSAL
                                                                                Fine Particulates
                                                                                "Kish" Fume, CO,
                                                                        JT-\—| Fugitive Emissionsi m    J
                                                                        /   i	ijr    i
                                                                     ELECTRIC FURNACE
                                                                                                 CONTINUOUS CASTING
                                                                                                 BILLET AND SLAB UNIT
            I Surface runnoff |
            j water           l"
                                         Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet \ of 2).

-------
                 I  Particulates,  Fume
                              Grinding
                              Scarfing
(Tl
          PRIM/
         BREAKDOWN
            MILL
                             'HOT STRIP
                                MILL
  DIRECT SHIPMENTS OF
  INGOTS, SLABS,
  BILLETS AND BLOOMl
                                                 HEAVY STRUCTURALS
                                                       MILL
                                                  BAR AND ROD
                                                                   NAIL AND WIRE
                                                                   PRODUCTS MILL
                                                                                                       Solids
                                                                                                       Oil
                                                                                                       Grease
SEAMLESla PIPE
 AND TUBE
                                                                      COLD FINISHING
                                                                        BAR MILL
              WELDED PIPE
     WELDED PIPE
        MILL
GALVANIZED
 PRODUCTS
                                                                                                       Contact Cooling
                                                                                                         Water
                                                                                                       Precleaning and
                                                                                                       Rinse Waters
                                                                                                       Solids
                                                                                                       Acids
                                                                                                        Oils
                              PLATE MILL
                                                                        TIN
                                                                      PLATING
                                      TIN PLATE AND OTHER
                                       COATED  PRODUCTS
                                          Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet 2 of 2).

-------
quantities of pollutants to the atmosphere.  The demonstration was
aimed at reducing (or eliminating) the smoke emissions.
     In the EPA/AISI system (shown below), oven emissions during charg-
ing are controlled by an ascension pipe steam ejector, which can force
the gases (evolved during charging) through the ascension pipe into
the gas-collecting main.  Free passage of the gas across the oven during
charging is controlled by a pusher machine leveler bar.  Oven ports are
sealed (by mating with the drop sleeves on the hopper) during charging
to prevent air from being drawn into the oven and to prevent signifi-
cant emissions if the oven pressure rises.
     A detailed emission-testing program was conducted to define the
control capabilities of the EPA/AISI coke oven charging demonstration.
The program included an analysis of particulate emissions to determine
amounts of all hazardous compounds that would be expected from coal
charging.  A primary objective of the program was to develop a standard
analytical technique for measuring emissions evolved from coke oven
charging:  simultaneously, such easily used methods as optical techniques
were checked against more rigorous analytical methods.
                                                             ASCENSION
                                                             PIPE AND ELBOW
         FEED HOPPER
         WITH SHUTOFF
         VALVE
                                                           GAS COLLECTION MAIN
LEVELING BAR
 PUSHER MACHINE
                       EPA/AISI coke charging system.

                                    177

-------
      As a result of the progress  to  date on this installation, several
 coke producers  are  installing  charging  systems utilizing the basic
 concepts of the EPA/AISI  smokeless coke charging system.
      Enclosed Coke  Pushing  and Quenching.  IERL-RTP and the National Steel
 Corporation are funding a demonstration of the enclosed coke pushing and
 quenching system on National's new Weirton Steel Division Brown's Island
 coke plant.  The conventional  coke pushing and quenching system, used
 throughout the  industry,  involves pushing the incandescent coke from the
 sealed  coking oven  through  a guide into an open, shallow-bed car for trans-
 port to a batch-type quenching station.  Substantial emissions of smoke
 and  particulate are discharged into  the atmosphere throughout this opera-
 tion.   This situation is  aggravated  if  the push contains incompletely
 carbonized coke.  At the  quench station, large quantities of water are
 poured  into the bed of hot  coke.  The instantaneous formation of steam re-
 sults in  the  discharge of large quantities of entrained particulates to
 the  atmosphere.
      In  the EPA/National  Steel  system (shown below), the coke is complet-
 ely  enclosed  from the moment it leaves  the oven until after it is
 quenched. .  Emissions  evolved during  the push and transfer to the quench
 station are drawn off and removed by means of a high energy scrubber
 on the  gas-cleaning  car.  Emissions evolved from the hot coke in the
 underground track hoppers are  also controlled by a high energy scrubber.
The  relatively  low-volume continuous steam plume generated during the
continuous  quenching  operation  is contained by hoods and controlled by
a vapor suppressor in  the stack.
     Current information indicates that this system will apply to
nearly all  new coke batteries.   This is particularly significant be-
cause half  of the existing coke batteries are at least 20 years old.
Based on an average life of 30 years, nearly half of the 250 existing
batteries will have to be replaced in the next 10 years.  Since contin-
uous  cokemaking processes may not be available until  the end of that
period, most new batteries will be conventional slot ovens with useful
                                   178

-------
         COKE
       HANDLING
 EMERGENCY
COKE QUENCH
 SYSTEM AND
  WHARF
                            COKE
                            GUIDE
                      GAS    HOOD
                    CLEANING    \   DOOR
                      CAR   v    \ MACHINE
HOT COKE
TRANSFER
  CAR
 TRACK HOPPER
 FUME EXHAUST
   AND GAS
CLEANING SYSTEM
                     SPRAY WATER
                     . AND STEAM
                   EXHAUST SYSTEM
                                   TRACK HOPPER
                                   FUME EXHAUST
                                     AND GAS
                                  CLEANING SYSTEM
            COKE
           HANDLING
                                                                   EMERGENCY
                                                                   COKE DUMP
                                                                      PIT
         TRACK
       RECEIVING
        HOPPERS
               EPA/National Steel coke pushing and quenching system.
lives extending well  into the next century.  Demonstration of this
system will provide  proven emission control technology which can be
integrated into the  initial plant design.
     It is estimated that the system being installed  to serve the
single 87-oven Brown's Island battery will cost  $4  million over and
above the cost of  a  standard pushing and quenching  system.  Expansion
to serve a second  battery will cost another 1.8  million (1972 dollars)
     Startup, originally targeted for December 1972,  was delayed 6
months due to an explosion to the battery basement.   Startup actually
occurred in May 1973.
     Excessive wear  in sludge pumps and in quenching  units took some
time to be resolved.   Also, thermal effects on track  hopper gates and
roofs were difficult to obviate.
     Presently the entire system, including instrumentation, is ready
                                    179

-------
 for testing.  Extensive modifications  to the track  hopper gates and
 roofs, to the coke feeders and quench  units, and  to the  hopper fume
 pollution control  system are essentially complete.   The  battery is
 down now due to low steel  demands.   Testing will  begin as soon as the
 battery is up to production, probably  early in  1976.  Ambient air
 measurements are being taken to develop data on background pollution
 levels prior to restart of battery.
      The Phase 2 effort will consist of long-term emission testing and
 a system evaluation program to establish the system's emission control
 potential; system operability, reliability,  and maintainability, and
 the system's operating cost.  This will  be  accomplished  by:
      0  Extensive  tests across the various  control  devices to determine
         both the quantity  of emissions  generated  and the efficiency
         of the control  devices.
      0  Maintaining complete records of coke production, maintenance
         performed,  malfunctions,  and utility requirements.
      0  Continuously monitored ambient  air  concentrations of partic-
         ulate at various locations around the coke  plant.
      0  Extensive  measurements of water quality to  identify water pol-
         lutants  in  the effluents, as well as  the  potential air pol-
         lutants  if  the water were used  to quench  coke.
 Phase  2  test and evaluation  results  will be  contained in a final report,
 due  to be  published in  mid-1976.
     Smokeless Coke Pushing.   IERL-RTP contracted with the Ford Motor
 Company  to  test  and evaluate the pushing emission control system developed
 by  Koppers  Company  and  installed on  the  "A"  battery of Ford's River Rouge
 plant, Dearborn, Michigan.   Principal features  of the system are a fume-
 collecting  hood, a  fume main,  a venturi  scrubber, and a modified quench
 car with a  synchronization system for coordinating the quench car's move-
ment with that of the pusher (see diagram below).
     Since  the control  system  apparently will fit most, if not all, existing
coke batteries, demonstration  of the Ford system will make available to the
industry a  relatively low-cost device capable of significantly reducing coke
oven pushing emissions.  The greatest application of this system will be
                                   180

-------
CO
          DOORS
           A               ,	C
          iy Vi  i   i  i   i   i pP*
     >>   GuDDDDOB
             DOOR
            LEVERS
     .   .  .   A.
                                                            BUTTERFLY VALVE
                                                             'FOR SUCTION
                                                                RELIEF
       FUME MAIN
                   RAIL
           SEAL PLAT
[LOCOMOTIVE [_/•>.
                      ;i BAFFLE!'/
                      ;! PLATES If
                       ^
                                         HOOD & GUIDE  VENTURI
                                         PROPULSION
                                         	UNIT
                                      COKE GUIDE
                                      FUME HOOD
                                                  FLOODED
                                                   ELBOW^
QUENCH CAR
                                           —TRAVEL-i^-

                                             QUENCH TRACK
                                                                              CYCLONE
                                                                            ^-SEPARATOR
                                                                          FAN LOUVERS
                                                                           	\
                                                                                          SILENCER-*
                                               WATER RECIRCULATING
                                                     PUMPS        RECIRCULATING
                                                                  WATER TANK

                               Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission abatement system.

-------
 on existing coke batteries  which it will  serve  as an  interim solution
 until  these batteries can  be replaced  (average  battery  life is 30 years)
 and a  more complete control  system can  be installed.
     The test and evaluation portion of the  study includes examination
 of operating and maintenance records,  long-term system  observation,
 determination of system capture efficiency,  and source  testing for a
 number of pollutants both  before and after the  venturi  scrubber of the
 captured effluent.   Data on  capital and operating costs will be developed
 as well  as data  on  utility  and labor requirements,  system reliability,
 and control  effectiveness.   The final  report is  anticipated early in
 1976.   The design manual was published  in September 1974.
     Guidelines  for Coke Oven Pollution Control  Applicability.  To en-
 courage  industry application of EPA-demonstrated coke oven air pollu-
 tion control  technology, there is  a strong need  for a set of guidelines
 showning specifically how the technology  can be  applied to each type
 of U.S.  coke battery.   Each  of the demonstrated  systems discussed above
 was designed specifically for the  host  coke  battery; two of these—the
 EPA/AISI  Smokeless  Coke Charging and the  Ford Smokeless Coke Pushing—
 were retrofits to existing batteries.   The control  technology demonstra-
 tions were  designed and operated to coexist  with existing features and
 operating  techniques  of the  host battery.  Minor battery modifications
 were required in  some  cases.   Although  basic features must be adhered to
 in applying  the  technology,  there  are a number of design, construction,
 and operating options  available  that can  be  used to meet the requirements
 set by the  battery  features.   Likewise, there are a number of battery
 specifications which must be met,  if only  by battery modification, to
 accommodate  the  control technology.
     In addition  to EPA demonstrated projects, the  sequential  charging
 technique called  "staged charging,"  first disclosed in  1961  by M. R.
 Heades  and G. E.  C. Randall of the  United Kingdom,  has  recently been
 perfected by the  private sector  and  applied  to existing batteries.
This technique involves some physical alterations to the charging com-
 ponents but is mainly dependent  on  the precise manual  execution of
specific procedures for good pollution control.   On the other hand,
                                   182

-------
the EPA/AISI Smokeless Coke Oven Charging System, also a sequential  charg-
ing technique but of a different type, has the demonstrated potential
advantage of a fully automated system in achieving repeatability of  opera-
tion.  A system which adapts the automated methods of the EPA/AISI system
to the requirements of staged charging would be expected to perform, on  a
repeatable basis, better than either of the two basic approaches.  Therefore,
even though staged charging v/as not demonstrated by EPA, its apparent
compatibility with one of the demonstrated EPA systems makes it a worthy
candidate for an applications study.
     Such a study would define both the salient features of demonstrated
control technology and U.S. coke batteries and show how the control
technology can be meshed with the batteries in the most technically
feasible and economical way.
     Accordingly, a 15-month project has been designed to develop guide-
lines for application of demonstrated coke battery air pollution control
technology to existing and new coke batteries.  Specific control tech-
nologies to be examined are the EPA/AISI Smokeless Coke Oven Charging
System, the Enclosed Coke Pushing and Quenching System, the Smokeless
Coke Pushing System, and staged charging (industrial development).  The
guidelines will examine characteristics of the control system that are
important in design, construction, and operation and relate these
characteristics to application of the control systems to U.S. coke
batteries based upon examination of their characteristics and requirements.
The final report will be used by coke producers in planning the applica-
tion of the control technology and by regulatory officials in specifying
air pollution control strategies and enforcement actions.  A contract
for this project is expected by early 1976.
     Characterization of Coke Oven Door Emissions.  Gases, particulates,
and condensible organic materials being emitted from ineffective coke
oven door seals are suspected of containing a number of toxic substances.
Since these emissions have not been sufficiently quantified or analyzed,
it is the purpose of this task to do so.  The results of the-study
will be used to set future program priorities and may be used in the
development of emission standards.  Emission tests were planned to be
                                   183

-------
 completed in October 1975; however, because of a  plant  slow-down  the
 test was postponed until  November.   It now appears  that the  plant which
 was to be tested is being shut down completely; therefore, a new  test-
 ing site is being sought.
      The sampling method  being used was developed under contract  with
 BatteHe-Columbus Laboratories.   The system for capturing emissions
 worked well except that the hood and door temperatures  rose  sufficiently
 high to cause excessive door leakage, making the  test nonrepresenta-
 tive.   Since then, detailed thermal analyses have been  performed  on the
 coke oven door and sampling apparatus; modifications to the  hood  have
 solved the temperature problem.   Samples to be taken will include:
 coke and coal, gaseous, particulate, and condensible organic samples.
 Analyses to be performed  include:   GC-MS, Spark Source  MS, High Resolu-
 tion MS, and toxicology studies.  This study is expected to  be completed
 by February 1976.
      Improved Coke Oven Door Seals.   The leakage  of gases and organic
 volatiles from coke oven  end closures is a major  pollution problem in
 the  iron and steel  industry.   The problem can  be  partially solved by
 good operating practices  and maintenance.   However, completely solving
 the  leakage problem will  require significant advancement in  the state-
 of-the-art  of coke-oven end closure.   To this  end,  a program has  been
 undertaken  by IERL-RTP, co-funded on a 50-50 basis  with the  American
 Iron and Steel  Institute  (AISI).  The first phase of the program,
 started  in  June 1975,  was  recently  completed.   The  study by  Battelle-
 Columbus Laboratories  was  designed  to define the  causes of the leakage,
 identify the  operating conditions which  must be tolerated by the  seal-
 ing  material,  investigate  other work  being  done in  this area, and con-
 ceptualize  improved  methods to eliminate  coke  oven  door leakage.  Of
 the  45 sealing  concepts produced by  Phase  I, two were selected (one an
 alternative)  for further development  and demonstration.  The primary
 concept  is of the metal-to-metal type; the  alternative concept is of
 the  compressible- elastomer type.
     The procurement plan   for Phase  II is currently being prepared.
This phase will develop, fabricate, and  test selected sealing concepts.
This will be accomplished  in eight tasks, including:

                                   184

-------
     0  Mathematical modeling and analysis of coke oven  sealing systems.
     0  Physical modeling and laboratory experimentation.
     0  Field data collection.
     0  Analysis, evaluation, and recommendations.
     0  Full-scale unit design and component testing.
     0  Fabrication and installation.
     0  Planning and completion of field evaluation.
     0  Analysis and preparation of manuals and final  report.
Phase II is expected to begin early in 1976.
     Blast Furnace Cast House Emission Control
     There is a need to develop technology for controlling emissions
from blast furnace cast houses.  The cast house is  the semienclosed
area around the blast furnace base containing the furnace  tapping equip-
ment and molten pig iron (hot metal) and slag distribution systems.
The hot metal, the principal emission source, is saturated with carbon
as its exits from the furnace.  Rejection of the graphite, in the form
of flakes, begins as soon as the hot metal starts to cool.  Thermal  air
currents sweep these flakes into the air.  Additionally, particles of
iron oxide, are formed and carried av/ay simultaneously.
     In September 1975, a contract was awarded to Betz Environmental
Engineers for preliminary designs of cast house emission control
schemes:  first, as tailored to existing cast houses, as defined by
model cast houses which encompass the existing population; and second,
as an integral feature of a new installation.  Each cast house/control
system combination will be analyzed in detail to establish the emission
control potential, capital and operating costs, impact on current
operating practices, potential risks involved, and follow-on develop-
ment needs.
     Sinter Plant Windbox Emission Control
     Sinter, in the iron and steel industry, is an iron-bearing material
suitable for charging into a blast furnace.  The sintering process com-
bines natural ores of fine particle size and iron-bearing wastes re-
covered from various other steelmaking processes (e.g., flue dust, mill
scale, and settling basin solids) with coke breeze and limestone. Lime-
stone is added to provide the required flux for the iron-bearing material

                                   185

-------
 when processed in the blast furnace;  the coke breeze  is used for igni-
 tion purposes.  This raw material  is  then charged onto pallets, which
 retain the material  while permitting  combustion  air to pass through the
 bed, igniting the coke breeze and  fusing the other material into a
 cake.  The cake layer is then broken, cooled, classified, and finally
 charged to the blast furnace to recover the  iron metal.
      The combustion  gases and excess  air handled by the main exhaust
 fans as a result of  the sintering  process force  large volumes of air
 to pass through the  long, moving sinter bed.   This exit stream contains
 particles and gases  of varying chemical  composition.  First generation
 air pollution abatement equipment  in  the form of cyclone separators is
 incapable of achieving desired levels of pollutant control.  These
 cyclones remove the  larger particles  thus prolonging  fan life; but the
 fine particles, hydrocarbons,  and  gaseous pollutants  are not removed.
      Wide experience in the United States indicates that electrostatic
 precipitators are  not effective in controlling emissions to meet no-
 visible-emission standards.  The problem is  due  both  to the hydrocarbon
 content of the gases,  and the  high basicity  of the particulate matter
 which causes  increased resistivity.   Baghouse tests indicate that the
 blinding of bags is  a problem  due  to  the moisture/hydrocarbon/dust
 mixture found in the exhaust gases.   Wet scrubbers, at present, appear
 to  be most likely  to succeed in removing contaminants including hydro-
 carbons  from the exhaust gases;  however,  substantial power is required
 to  get  the necessary pressure  drop across  the scrubber for these volumes
 of  gases.
      A  new  concept in  sintering  practice  (shown below) recycles gas,
 after preliminary cleaning  and  prior  to  final cleaning, back to the
 sinter  bed.   Field testing  information and engineering evaluations indi-
 cate  that  this  recycling  reduces both the emissions of unoxidized hydro-
 carbon  particulates  and  the  final  gas volume being discharged.   Although
 the emission  reduction may be substantial, it is anticipated that a
 low-energy air  pollution  control system must be used along with recycl-
ing to remove remaining contaminants, primarily particulates.
     A project was initiated in mid-1973 covering two phases.   Phase I
consisted of an historical review  and a detailed engineering design.
                                     186

-------
                                                                                                                    RECYCLE HOOD
00
                                                      STACK     IGNITION FURNACE
                                                     RECYCLE GAS
                                                   CONTROL HOUSE
                                                                        WASTE GAS
                                                                     CONTROL HOUSE
                                                Weirton Steel Division sinter plant gas recirculation system.

-------
 This was completed in 1975:   the final  report  included a theoretical
 analysis of recycle application to the  Weirton No. 2 machine showing
 optimum level  of recycle to  be 39 percent.
      The Phase II contract,  for test  and  evaluation, was awarded in
 February 1975; the final report is scheduled for  February 1978.  The
 contractor is  to perform an  optimization  of the recycle system, followed
 by an extensive emission testing and  system evaluation program.  Also
 to be tested is a large-scale gravel  bed  filter on the sinter plant
 exhaust without recycle.
      The recycle system was  installed (at company expense) and placed
 into operation in July 1975,  one month  ahead of schedule.  The opti-
 mization program is now underway.   Tests  to date  have shown that re-
 cycle as high  as 40.7 percent can be  achieved  without adverse effects
 on sinter quality or machine  operation.   Optimization will continue
 with evaluation of the recycle with variations in the sinter mix.
      Basic Oxygen Process  Charging Emission Control
      The rate  of growth of the Basic  Oxygen Process (BOP) for making
 steel  has  been phenomenal.   In a relatively short time, it has become
 the  dominant steelmaking process in the U.S. iron and steel industry.
      The basic operations  involved in producing steel by the BOP proc-
 ess  are  charging scrap, charging hot  metal, oxygen blow, chemical tests,
 and  tapping.
      Presently,  there  is no technology for effectively capturing the
 emissions  during charging.  The emissions evolved during charging of
 the  BOP  furnace  include extremely  fine particles of iron oxide, hydro-
 carbons  present  on  the  cold metal  portion of the charge, graphite par-
 ticles,  and  volatile materials  that may be present on the cold metal.
 These could  include potentially hazardous emissions from elements such
 as cadmium,  which  is often present as plating  on the metal.
      JERL-RTP's  approach to solving this problem was first to con-
 struct the 1-ton  capacity pilot  vessel (shown  below) facility to be
 used as  the  vehicle for evaluating  a wide range of methods to control
 the charging emissions.
     Accordingly, a contract was signed in mid-1973 with the National
Steel Corporation:  to  review past  efforts to  control  BOP charging
                                   188

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Basic oxygen process 1-ton capacity pilot vessel.
                189

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 emissions; to characterize operation, emissions,  and  BOP  vessel  and  shop
 configurations; to project future construction trends;  and  to  define
 charging control concepts and (from them)  to develop  technology  for  con-
 trolling the particulates, gases, and fumes emitted during  charging  of
 BOP steel making vessels.   This development program concentrated  on process
 modifications that will  allow the emissions to be collected.   Considera-
 tion was also given to suppression of the  emissions within  the vessel.
 Specifications and conceptual  designs will be developed for prototype
 emission collection systems.   Additional  specifications will be  developed
 for a gas  cleaning system to  be added to  the prototype  collection sys-
 tem.  The  development  program is structured so that the results  will be
 applicable to the total  industry.  The final  report is  expected  early
 in 1976.
      Iron  Foundry Processes
      The cupola (see iron foundry process  emission sources, below) is
 the device most often  used to  melt gray iron.   However, in  recent years,
 two events have caused significant difficulties in the  cupola's  use:
 first,  enactment of air pollution regulations  restricting cupolas'
 voluminous, gaseous and particulate emissions;  and  second, substantially
 increased  fuel  prices. These  problems, added  to  the  cupola's  energy
 wastefulness, represent the major difficulties  involved in  a successful
 and  economical  cupola  operation.   However,  technology does  exist to
 substantially alleviate all three problems.
      lERL-RTP's  first  effort to  solve  these  problems  was aimed at
 demonstrating the  use  of  a  dry,  solid-media  heat exchanger  for the pro-
 duction  of hot  blast air  for the  cupola as  an  integral  component of
 the  air  pollution  control  system.   Environmental and  economic  advan-
 tages were  expected  in the  form of reductions  in emissions, fuel costs,
 operating  costs, and air  pollution control equipment  costs.  Data on
 the  operation of the cupola and heat exchanger  were to  be analyzed with
 and  used to refine a computer model.  The  refined model was then to  be
 used to extend the results  to other related operations.  This effort
was  terminated when it became apparent that the system  could not be
made operational because of problems in interfacing the operation of
the cupola, heat exchanger, and air pollution control  equipment.  The

                                    190

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METAUICS
                                                                                           FINISHING
                                                                              COOLING AND
                                                                               CLEANING
                             Iron foundry process emission sources.

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 final  report describing this effort is due in  January  1976.
      lERL-RTP's second effort involved program redirection toward an
 in-depth engineering analysis of the various integrated  systems  for
 energy conservation and air pollution control  which  are  or have  been
 in commercial  use,  or which appear to offer potential  for commercial
 development.  The analysis of each system utilized actual operating
 data whenever possible to determine capital and operating costs, emis-
 sion control capability, energy savings,  and operating and maintenance
 procedures  and requirements.
      This second effort shows that many foundries can  achieve substan-
 tial  energy savings just by paying closer attention  to operating and
 maintenance procedures, with  little or no added cost.  Additionally,
 20 to  30 percent coke savings can  be realized  either by  changing to a
 divided  blast  (two  rows of tuyeres, instead of the usual single  row)
 for cold-blast cupolas, or by installing  recuperators  in the exhaust
 to recover  the now-wasted heat, transferring it to the blast air.  The
 divided  blast  option  requires a small  capital  investment.  The recuper-
 ator is  somewhat more expensive; however,  if used to replace a separately
 fired  blast air heater (as is often the case in systems now in operation),
 the fuel  savings will  pay for the  recuperator  in a year or two.  The
 final  report on this  effort is  due in  February 1976.
     Characterization  and  Control  of Ferroalloy Furnace Emissions
     The  ferroalloy industry's  principal  source of emissions is the sub-
 merged arc  electric furnace.   (See ferroalloy  production process diagram,
 following.)  In this  furnace,  ferroalloys  are  usually  smelted by reducing
 the ore  with carbon,  producing  both the desired metallics and substantial
 quantities  of  CO  (in  some  cases, more  CO  is produced than metallics).
 Gases evolved  from  ferroalloy furnaces entrain  large quantities of particu-
 lates which, because of the high temperatures  involved in the reaction
 zone, are primarily in  the  submicron size  range.  Domestic ferroalloy fur-
 nace practice  has been  to  leave the  furnace top open,  thus allowing the
 CO to mix with  large volumes of air  and burn above the furnace.  This mix-
 ture is then collected  and  treated  with conventional particulate control
equipment before being  vented to the atmosphere.
     Some furnaces in Europe and Japan are hooded tightly so that no excess

                                    192

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                  RAW MATERIALS HANDLING, PREPARATION AND CHARGING'
MELTING AND CASTING'
                                                                      FUGITIVE  EMISSIONS^-
                                                                                         FUMES
                                                                                       I!  ihl  II
                                                                                                           PARTICULATES
                                                                                                                JT
                                                                                                                SOLIDS
us
co
                                                    CRUSHING WEIGH-FEEDING
                                                                                PRODUCT SIZING AND HANDLING-
                                                                                 I
                                                                                 I
                                   SURFACE WATER
                                   RUN-OFF
                                                         Ferroalloy production process.

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 air is entrained in the furnace off-gas and combustion  does  not  take  place
 above the furnace.   When such a system (known  as  a  totally enclosed furnace)
 is used, the volume of gas is decreased by 20  to  200 times,  since  excess
 air is not entrained.   This decreased quantity of emissions  can  be cleaned
 to the same level  as emissions from an open furnace;  therefore,  total par-
 ti cul ate emitted is decreased by approximately the  same factor of  20  to
 200.   Additionally  this gas, which  is no longer burned  over  the  furnace,
 can then be used as a  low-Btu fuel  after cleaning.
      United States  ferroalloy producers hesitate  to install  totally en-
 closed furnaces  (diagrammed below), feeling that  they may reduce the
 ability to change from one ferroalloy product  to  another.  (The  standard
 of performance reflects this industry position.)  lERL-RTP's efforts  have
 been  directed toward the solution of this problem.   Specific objectives of
 lERL-RTP's work  within the past year have been:
      0   To compare  the flexibility  of open and totally  enclosed  ferro-
         alloy furnaces and ascertain the true  significance of the
         flexibility problem.
     0   To identify current practices which can be  used to minimize
         any flexibility problem which may arise in  totally enclosed
         furnaces.
     0   To develop  recommendations  for an  additional  program to  be
         undertaken  by  EPA,  and  to develop  or demonstrate techniques
         or systems  to  minimize  the  problem.
     Under contract  to IERL-RTP, Battelle-Columbus  Laboratories  pro-
duced a  report,  "A  Study of  Ferroalloy Product Flexibility," that  ad-
dresses  these areas.   Battelle  concluded  in general:  (1) that totally
enclosed furnaces are  not  as  flexible  as  open  furnaces  of the same size;
(2) that large furnaces are  less flexible  than smaller  ones; (3) that
research should  be  undertaken to investigate approaches  (such as the
substitution of  iron ore pellets for  ferrous scrap)  to  smooth out  fur-
nace operation,  thereby improving the  flexibility problem; and (4) that
EPA should undertake an investigation  of the overall pollution problems
(including air,  water, and solid wastes) associated  with ferroalloy
production.
                                   194

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 INDUCED
   AIR
FEED-
    TAP
   HOLE
                  ELECTRODES
                          "Q
                                        GAS OFFTAKE
                   FURNACE
                                        INDUCED
                                          AIR
        Open-hooded ferroalloy furnace.
                 ELECTRODES
FIXED 	
SEALS
MIX
FEED
rnvpp 1
TAP 	 *
HOLE \
\
\
f
Ml
F
URN
X
^
ACE
"sj
~S
Ml
4
H
/
                                   GAS OFFTAKE
    Enclosed ferroalloy furnace with fixed seals.
                        195

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      A number of ferroalloy furnace particulate  emission  samples were
 obtained from EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning  and Standards for
 detailed analysis.   These samples had been taken in conjunction with the
 development of New  Source Performance Standards  for ferroalloy furnaces.
 However, they were  never analyzed for specific organic constituents or
 trace metals.  Subsequent tests  performed by Battelle-Columbus Labora-
 tories identified extremely high concentrations  of  polycyclic organic
 materials (POM)  in  samples from  totally  enclosed ferromanganese furnaces.
 Since the samples had been in storage over a year before  analysis and the
 exact history of the samples  is  not known,  further  testing and analysis
 is  needed to  confirm these preliminary results.
      Plans  to test  a totally  enclosed silicomanganese and ferromanganese
 furnace  near  Quebec, Canada,  had been made.   Because of an extended labor
 strike and  malfunctioning of  the furnace scrubber system, it became neces-
 sary  to  select an alternate site.   Attempts  are  being made to identify an
 alternate outside the United  States.
      Depending on the outcome  of the  tests  and how  thoroughly the POM's
 are destroyed by  flaring  and  by  conventional  wastewater treatment, a
 decision  will be made  as  to the  priority to  be given this problem in
 future programs.
      Fugitive Emissions
      During the past 3 years  it  has become increasingly obvious that sig-
 nificant  amounts of  particulate  and gaseous  emissions are being emitted
 to the atmosphere from sources other  than the stacks in a number of indus-
 trial operations.  An  investigation performed by The Research Corporation
 (TRC) for EPA indicates that several metallurgical processes are included
 in those  industries  which most characteristically demonstrate a high degree
 of fugitive emissions.  Several  additional EPA investigations have
 similarly suggested  the need for fugitive emission research and the devel-
opment of control techniques for metallurgical processes.   One of these
investigations was performed to determine the probable cause of unusually
high concentrations  of S02 detected by ambient air monitors at a specific
copper and lead primary smelter.   This investigation, concurring with
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plant officials, concluded that the most probable cause of these  high
S02 concentrations was fugitive emissions.   Another EPA investigation
was performed to determine the cause of high ambient air concentrations  of
arsenic and lead in areas surrounding a specific copper smelter.   It was
likewise concluded here that the detected high concentration could not be
attributed to stack effluent but more probably to fugitive emissions.
Officials in the copper industry have strongly indicated that fugitive
emissions should not be neglected in the study of emissions from smelters
since they account for 5 to 8 percent of the S02 emitted.
     The processes being considered in this study are all  pyrometallurgical:
primary copper and lead smelters, integrated iron and steel plants, and
iron foundries.  This study does not include mining or preliminary concen-
tration processes.  Emissions from pushing, quenching, charging,  and door
leakage of coke ovens also will not be included since current ongoing  EPA
efforts are being directed to these sources; however, other potential
fugitive emissions sources associated with coke oven batteries, e.g.,  sizing,
screening, and storage of coke and coal will be included.
     Although each of the subject processes is unique in many ways, a
number of similarities exist to which simultaneous analysis may be econom-
ically applied.  Each of these processes has several raw material streams
typically consisting of a reductant and energy source (usually coke),  metal-
bearing material (ore, scrap), and flux for removing impurities from the
metal.  Each of these materials is stockpiled and often undergoes several
transfer steps before being charged to the reactor vessel.  These stockpiling
and material-hand!ing operations are all potential fugitive emission sources.
Another potentially serious source of fugitive emissions in the subject in-
dustries is the reactor vessel itself.  Gases, fumes, and particulates often
escape from the vessel during charging and discharging of batch or semicon-
tinuous operations and also from incomplete sealing of the vessel during
operation.
     IERL-RTP contracted with Midwest Research Institute (MRI) in June 1975
for the first phase of a program which is intended to define or develop
techniques or systems for the control of fugitive emissions from a number of
metallurgical processes.  The purposes of Phase I are:  (1) to characterize
                                   197

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 fugitive emission sources in integrated iron  and  steel  plants, primary
 copper and lead smelters, and iron foundries;  (2)  to  prioritize these
 emissions; (3) to determine the environmental  impact  of these emissions;
 and (4)  to make recommendations for future  research,  development, and/or
 demonstration projects to aid in the reduction of fugitive emissions from
 those sources determined to be most critical.
      Thus  far, MRI  has identified the specific fugitive emission sources
 within the subject  industries and prepared  generalized  process diagrams
 indicating these sources.   An effort is currently being made to quantify
 each of  the identified emissions.
      CONTROL OF EFFLUENT DISCHARGES
      In  the manufacture of roughly 132  million tons of  steel, about 4.4
 trillion gallons of water are diverted  through the industry's mills, an
 average  of about 36,700 gallons per ton of  steel  shipped.  Most of this
 water becomes heavily  contaminated with solids, acids,  heat, and various
 other pollutants, some of which (like phenols, cadmium,  and cyanide) are
 considered to be hazardous  or toxic.
      Major sources  of  contaminated process  water  are  coking, sintering,
 blast  furnace operation,  steelmaking,  continuous  casting, scale removal
 (pickling),  cold rolling,  and coating operations.
      Coking  produces from  19  to 40 gallons  of  highly  contaminated water
 for  each ton  of coke produced.   The most critical  constituents of the
 wastewaters  are ammonia,  phenols,  and cyanide.  Ammonia  is normally re-
 moved  by distillation  followed  by  absorption in either  sulfuric acid
 (for  sale  as  ammonium  sulfate)  or  phosphoric acid  (from  which it is
 stripped to  be  sold as  anhydrous ammonia while the acid  is reused).  The
 most economically practical proven  system for  control  of phenol  and
 cyanide  is biological  oxidation.   Breakpoint chlorination, ozonation,
 and/or activated filtration have been found useful as  final  polishing
 techniques but  are unsuitable for  treatment of raw wastes.
     In sintering, the  older dry dust collection technology for control
of pollutants in process gases  has  been replaced by wet gas  cleaning methods
to achieve greater air  pollution control.  The wet scrubber effluents then
pose a water contamination problem.  The solution would appear to lie in
                                   198

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the development of nonwater-using methods of gas cleaning,  or  the develop-
ment of a closed-cycle treatment method.
     In blast furnace operations, effluents from the wet  scrubbers  include
suspended solids, phenols, and cyanides.   The scrubber water is  customarily
treated and recycled, but the percentage  of blowdown in nearly all  in-
stances is higher than desirable.
     For the steelmaking process also, the primary source of waterborne
waste is the use of wet fume collectors for air pollution control.   By
use of nonwater-using air pollution control technology or by the applica-
tion of waste treatment methods with complete recycle, a  steelmaking shop
could be operated with no aqueous discharge.
     The continuous casting process, in addition to noncontact cooling
water, uses considerable quantities of contact cooling water.  This water
becomes contaminated primarily with small particles of iron oxide  (sus-
pended solids) and also picks up some small amount of oil and grease from
lubricants used on the equipment.  The contact cooling water is  an  integral
part of this new process, and methods for materially reducing either the
volume or the level of contamination are  not now available.
     Waste pickle liquor (HPL) from pickling of steel contains unreacted
acid plus the ferrous salts of whatever acid or acids were used.  There  are
two separate problems:  batch dumps of concentrated pickle liquor,  and
rinse waters containing the same contaminants but in much greater volume
and much more dilute.  Concentrated dumps of waste hydrochloric  acid
pickle liquor can be thermally regenerated to yield high-purity acid for
recycle and a ferric oxide coproduct; a number of processes are  now com-
merically available.  Concentrated sulfuric acid WPL can  be chilled or
evaporated to crystallize out the ferrous sulfate, and the remaining
unreacted acid can then be made up to full strength with  fresh acid and
reused.  There is still the major problem of what to do with the ferrous
sulfate, for which there is no market, and which is unsuitable for landfill
without further processing.  The best technology available provides for
neutralization of the sulfuric acid with lime.  This yields an effluent
satisfactory for discharge at most locations, but also yields quantities
of iron hydroxide/calcium sulfate sludge.
                                    199

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      For mixed acids, efforts have been  made  to  develop advanced technology,
 such as electromembrane regeneration of  sulfuric acid  EPL and  ion exchange
 treatment,  but neutralization is  the only  technology to date with real-
 world applicability.   For rinse waters,  too,  neutralization is the best
 available technology, with ion exchange  and reverse osmosis showing
 promise.
      In cold reduction mills, a water/oil  emulsion is  sprayed  directly on
 the  material  and  rolls as the material enters the rolls, generating heat
 and  oil  as  pollutants.  While newer plants use a recycle system, there is
 still  the very serious problem of what to  do  with batch dumps  of spent
 emulsion.   For large-scale operations, present established technology
 calls  for chemical  emulsion breaking followed by dissolved air flotation.
 Disadvantages  of  this process are:   (1)  it is costly for small-scale opera-
 tions;  (2)  it  greatly increases the dissolved solids level of  the efflu-
 ent;  (3)  the  resulting oily sludge  is heavily contaminated with dissolved
 solids  and  usually  has an undesirably high water content; and  (4) the
 process requires  a  lot of space.
     Current  studies  are  underway for the  development  and demonstration
 of ultrafi.ltration  as  a means  of  concentrating oil emulsions, and of an
 electrolytic  separation process.   Either or both of these processes promise
 to provide  the means  of overcoming  the primary disadvantages of the chemical
 emulsion-breaking process.
     In coating operations,  concentrated plating  baths and rinse waters are
 effluent  discharge  problems.   In  general,  suitable treatment methods have
 been developed by the  job-shop  electroplating  industry.  What is still
 needed is to adapt  that technology  to the  larger  and steadier volume and to
 the much more constant composition  encountered in this segment of the
 industry.
     To solve problems of discharges from ferrous metallurgical processes,
efforts are primarily directed  to three ongoing projects:   (1) treatment
of coke plant waste liquor;  (2) demonstration and evaluation of counter-
current rinsing for reducing pollution from a halogen tinplating line; and
 (3)  regeneration of hydrochloric acid waste pickle liquor.
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     U.S./USSR TASK FORCE ON ABATEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION  FROM THE  IRON
     AND STEEL INDUSTRY
     To provide for a cross-fertilization of technology  on  the  control of
air pollution from the iron and steel  industry,  an  extensive program
(under the auspices of the U.S./USSR Environmental  Agreement of 1972)  has
been underway between the U.S.  and the USSR for  the exchange of informa-
tion.
     In March 1975, an agreement was undertaken  with Battelle Memorial
Institute for technical and managerial work necessary for the successful
implementation of the U.S./USSR Task Force protocols.  The contract pro-
vides for preparation of materials for transmittal  as Protocol  Reports
to the USSR; the review, analysis, and publication  of Protocol  Reports
received from the USSR; preparation for visits to the U.S.  of USSR dele-
gates; and preparation for visits of U.S. delegates to the USSR.
     Five protocol reports are in various stages of publication.
Non-ferrous Metallurgical Processes
     Late in 1975, as a result of an EPA Office  of Research and Develop-
ment reorganization, lERL-RTP's non-ferrous smelting program was transferred
to lERL-Cincinnati.  The following description of the program  is applicable
to the time of its transfer.
     lERL-RTP's Non-ferrous Smelter Research and Development Program  was
part of a total EPA research effort to ensure development of technology
required to control air pollution and to develop a complete data base of
emissions and control technology so that the Clean Air Act requirements
can be implemented for this industry.  To meet this effort, projects  under-
way in 1975 were concentrated in the four main areas of control of lean S02
streams, control of fugitive emissions, the evaluation of new metal-
winning processes, and the development of an emission and control data
base.
     CONTROL OF LEAN S02 STREAMS
     One of the most serious problems currently facing the U.S. smelting
industry (one preventing attainment of Ambient Air Quality Standards) is
the emission of large amounts of S02 in dilute gas streams.  When S02
concentrations are above approximately 4 percent, it is feasible to pro-
duce sulfuric acid utilizing this strong S02 stream.  However,  at S02
                                   201

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 concentrations below 4 percent autothermal  catalytic conversion cannot be
 maintained.   Therefore, alternate methods  are  being considered for lean
 S02 streams.
      Two alternatives exist  for controlling lean S02 streams:  application
 of flue gas  cleaning technology to existing streams, and modification of
 existing lean streams to increase S02  content  to enable control with a
 sulfuric acid plant.  The application  of these approaches to  specific
 smelters must also  be evaluated,  due to significant differences of the
 various smelters.
      Application of Flue Gas  Desulfurization Technology
      One approach to control  lean S02  streams  in smelters is  to make use
 of SO  control  technology that has already been demonstrated  in steam/
      A
 electric utility applications.  The demonstration of feasibility would
 be most concerned with showing that the process would operate on lean
 smelter streams, which in actuality do not differ greatly from the flue
 gas  streams on  which the processes currently operate.
      An engineering feasibility study  was  completed in 1975,  which:
      0   Determined  the range  of S02 concentrations with which control
         processes could operate.
      0   Determined  the particulate control  capabilities of the S02
         control processes.
      0   Matched the control capabilities with  specific smelter
         emission reduction needs.
 Processes evaluated  included  Well man-Lord,  Limestone Scrubbing, Mag-Ox
 Scrubbing, Citrate  Process, Sulfuric Acid  Plant, Double-Alkali Scrubbing,
 DMA Xylidine, and Ammonium Scrubbing.
     Application of  Gas  Stream  Blending Technology
     A  possible technique for controlling lean smelter S02 streams in
 copper  smelters is  to  blend the lean stream with other, stronger S02 gases
 so that  the combined stream will  still  be able to be autothermally con-
 verted to sulfuric acid.  This  technique came to lERL-RTP's attention as
 a consequence of the PL-480 work  in Yugoslavia.
     In 1975, IERL-RTP contracted  for a study of gas stream blending to
demonstrate (by a series of logical technical steps) how anticipated
                                   202

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blending problems can be solved and the contained  SO   can  be  converted
                                                   y\
to sulfuric acid.  The project focuses upon these  technological  problems
and limitations that may be inherent in the gas streams  from  concentrate
roasters, reverberatory furnaces, and converters as they relate  to  the
application of the vanadium-oxide catalyzed sulfuric  acid  process.   It
will investigate the factors that affect the compatability of the acid  plant
with the smelter gas streams and examine the possibility of modifying these
factors.  The results will be applied in appraising the  technical and economic
feasibility of using gas blending at those U.S. smelters to which it should
apply.  This requires analysis of both the smelter gases as feed to the
acid plant, and the sulfuric acid plant itself, since both the feed gases
and the acid plant are expected to require adaptations.   Additionally,
this technique was studied in conjunction with EPA's  OAQPS as the  basis
for lifting the exemption in the Standard of Performance for  those  smelters
whose concentrates contain large quantities of impurities.
     Application to Specific Smelters
     There are sufficient differences among smelters  to  require that once
feasibility is demonstrated, applicability must then  be  demonstrated on
a smelter-by-smelter basis.  To this end, EPA has developed design  infor-
mation for each U.S. copper smelter.  Design parameters  such  as plant
layout, space availability, and gas analysis will  be  determined in
sufficient detail to permit engineering design of lean stream control
techniques for specific smelters.
     Based on this analysis of individual smelters, the study of flue gas
desulfurization technology, and the study of gas stream blending,  a summary
effort will be undertaken to prepare preliminary designs based on  the best
matches between control scheme and smelter configuration and  technology.
In most cases, alternate control schemes will be analyzed.  With this in-
formation, decisions concerning the reasonableness of smelter lean  S02
streams can be made by others.
     CONTROL OF FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
     Fugitive emissions (i.e., those that do not emanate from a well-
defined source) present possibly the most difficult control problem in
non-ferrous smelting.  There is little available information  concerning

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 the types of pollutants, the amounts,  their effects,  or  their  controls.
      Because of the similarity of fugitive emission  problems in  a  number
 of metallurgical industries, the problem has been  approached from  a  pro-
 gram aimed at several  metallurgical  industries.  The  first  phase of  the
 program has:  (1)  identified fugitive  emission  sources within  integrated
 iron and steel  plants, primary copper  and lead  smelters, and iron  foundries;
 (2) prioritized these  emissions based  on environmental impact; and (3) made
 recommendations for future research, development,  and/or demonstration
 projects to aid in the reduction of  fugitive emissions from those  sources
 determined to be most  critical.  Material  balances developed across  the
 smelter and the individual  unit operations, in  the Yugoslavian PL-480
 non-ferrous smelting projects, are expected to  help  define  the magnitude
 and process site for these fugitive  emissions.
      ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION OF NEW METAL-WINNING PROCESSES
      Increasing emphasis is  being placed on processes other than the
 standard roaster,  reverberatory furnace  converter  system for winning non-
 ferrous metals  from their ores and concentrates.   These  processes, which
 use advanced pyrometallurgical  and hydrometallurgical techniques,  either
 have recently been placed into use commercially, or are  being  readied for
 it.   As these processes  are  brought  to commercial  operation, especially
 for incremental  expansion and replacement  of some  retired current  capacity,
 they may cause  new air pollution problems  of which awareness should  be
 developed.
      To this  end,  EPA  entered into an Interagency  Agreement with the
 Bureau  of  Mines' Salt  Lake City Metallurgy  Research Center  to investigate
 the  environmental  and  energy  considerations of emerging  non-ferrous  copper
 winning  processes.   Processes  such as electric furnace smelting, Noranda
 flash smelting,  Hecla-El  Paso  roasting-hydrometallurgical,  Arbiter,  Sherritt-
 Gordon-Cominco,  Cymet, Duval  "CLEAR," Mitsubishi,  oxygen-enriched  reverbera-
 tory furnace, converter  smelting,  and top blown rotary converter (TBRC)
 processes are being examined.
     DEVELOPMENT OF EMISSION AND CONTROL DATA BASE
     To enable EPA to deal effectively with  the environmental  problems
associated with non-ferrous smelters, there  is a broad program to  develop

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a complete data base of emissions and control  technology.   This  informa-
tion is used to support ongoing EPA activities such as  New Source  Per-
formance Standard development, enforcement activities,  and control  tech-
nology research and development.  Equally important, this  data  base will
ensure that the EPA assessment of existing problems is  accurate  and that
EPA will be in a position to address future potential  smelter environ-
mental problems as more is learned in such related areas as health effects.
     Two separate efforts have been conducted under EPA's  Special  Foreign
Currency Program (PL-480) in Yugoslavia to define emissions from copper,
lead, and zinc smelting.  The projects were conducted by the Bor Copper
Institute and the Trepca Lead and Zinc Institute, respectively.   Objectives
of the two projects are similar:  (1) to determine emissions from the
smelting processes under study, (2) to relate amounts of emissions to
changes in feed and process conditions, and (3) to determine the effect
of SO  control equipment on emission of other pollutants,  particularly
     A
hazardous particulates.  An extensive sampling and analysis program was
conducted to determine both the input materials and their  fate  in out-
going streams for each smelter unit operation.  Mineralogical and elemental
analyses were made on all solid material streams; gaseous  streams were
analyzed for SO , NO , CO, C02, and other gaseous pollutants and for
               A    A
particulate mass and size distribution.  The final reports are  being
readied for publication in early 1976.
Emission Characterization and Control--Transient Operation
     A major concern of air pollution regulatory agencies  is regulation
and control of high emission levels from stationary sources during trans-
ient operations:  process startups, shutdowns, upsets, or  changes.  Such
control is particularly important in industries where New Source Perform-
ance Standards have been set:  industrial plants must submit quarterly
reports notifying EPA when standards are violated because  of an operation-
al upset.
     IERL-RTP has initiated a program to characterize various process
emissions and to measure the performance of the "best" current emissions
control equipment during transient operations.  Data developed will en-
able regulatory agencies to decide if specific industries  should be
                                   205

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 allowed to deviate from air pollution standards during the periods  of
 unsteady-state process operations.  The studies also identify any addition-
 al requirements for R&D effort to improve emission control during these
 operations.
      In August 1975 a report was published giving results  of a review
 of information currently available on the effects of transient operating
 conditions on air emissions from fossil-fuel-fired steam-electric gener-
 ating plants.  Information was obtained from scientific literature,
 personal  visits to utility companies, and correspondence with utility
 companies and manufacturers of generating plant equipment.  Emissions
 of concern were NO ,  SO ,  particulates, and visible emissions.   Particular
                   A    X
 attention was given to older coal-fired generators, used to provide the
 cycling portion of the diurnal variation in electricity generated by
 electric  utilities.  No consideration was given to flue gas desulfuriza-
 tion  processes used to remove SO .   Transient conditions included in
                                 /\
 this  study were startups,  shutdowns, cycling, and upset conditions
 caused  by equipment malfunctions or changes in fuel  characteristics
 or load.
      A  second study in the utility area involved a 4-month continuous
 monitoring study of emissions from a Magnesium Oxide (Mag-Ox)  Scrubbing
 System.   In addition  to determining steady-state emissions, the  tests were
 designed  to monitor both operating parameters and emissions during  start-
 up, shutdown, and  malfunctions to determine system characteristics  during
 these abnormal  conditions.   An engineering report will  be  completed in
 February  1976,  evaluating  test results  and outlining methods  to  reduce
 emissions  during malfunctions.
     A  final  report on  a study of sulfuric acid plant emissions  during
 startup,  shutdown,  and  malfunctions  will  be published in January 1976.
 The report  will  give  results  of  a study  of dual-absorption contact  sul-
 furic acid  plants,  as well  as  single-absorption plants  equipped  with vent
 gas cleaning  systems  for removal  of  S02,  to determine the  relationship
 between process parameters  and air emissions.   Processes studied  were
dual-absorption acid  plants and  single-absorption  acid  plants equipped
with sodium scrubbers,  ammonia scrubbers,  and  molecular  sieve adsorbers.
                                   206

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Emissions considered were S02 and acid mist emissions  and  vent gas
opacity.  Relationships were developed for normal  operations  and compared
to off-normal operations such as shutdown, startup,  malfunction, and
misoperation.
     A followup study on sulfuric acid plants,  to  be published in  February
1976, will examine maintenance procedures of critical  equipment in  both
single- and double-contact acid plants with the aim  of reducing the number
of emission-causing malfunctions in the plants.  Good  maintenance  practice
will be outlined and critical maintenance procedures will  be  suggested.
     This program will continue with the responsibility for gathering
information on transient operation for specific sources and industries
relegated to IERL-RTP divisions and branches having  delegated responsibility
for those sources and industries.
PROCESS MEASUREMENTS
     lERL-RTP's activities relating to process  measurements involve both
the development of sampling and analysis strategies, and staff reviews
of sampling and analysis portions of field test programs.   In fulfillment
of these activities, lERL-RTP's work is categorized  in three  major areas:
sample acquisition, sample analysis, and acquisition of process  stream
parameters (e.g., flow, temperature, pressure).  The Laboratory's  major
activities in these areas include the development of particulate  sizing
techniques, the promulgation of gas volumetric  flow  measurement  and gas
sample extraction methodologies, and the issuance of documentation
defining an environmental assessment sampling and analysis strategy.
     To support all IERL-RTP program areas, the Laboratory's  process
measurements efforts have been concentrated on  the areas of control equip-
ment evaluation and environmental assessment.
Control Equipment Evaluation
     One of two major areas of IERL-RTP process measurements  activities,
control equipment evaluation, consists of two work areas—particle mea-
surement and chemical analysis and sampling.
     PARTICLE MEASUREMENT
     The development of particle sizing techniques continued to receive
considerable attention during 1975.  Based on data from studies conducted
                                   207

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 by Southern Research in 1974, guidelines for the field use of inertial
 impactors were presented at a conference of IERL-RTP contractors.   These
 guidelines have been published.
      Programs were initiated in 1975 for the examination of new techniques
 for the measurement of ultrafine particulate matter, and efforts were con-
 tinued in the development and evaluation of in situ  and real  time  particu-
 late sizing instrumentation.
      The prototype model  of an automatic particle sizing device, developed
 under contract by GCA,  was completed and tested.   Efforts were  also made
 to improve the reliability of the IERL-RTP developed droplet  sizing and
 counting device for the evaluation of demister efficiency.  Other  sizing
 devices studied during  1975 included:  a Pills IV laser light scattering
 unit  (Environmental  Systems), a piezoelectric  cascade impactor  (Celesco),
 a  Brink impactor,  and a series cyclone,  all  pictured below.
      CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  AND SAMPLING
      Techniques for the sampling and analysis  of  trace inorganic materials
 in  gas,  liquid, slurry, and solids process streams were tested  during  1975
 under  an  IERL-RTP  contract with TRW.   Particular  attention  was  paid to
 materials  in  their elemental  and anion forms;  e.g.,  As,  Ba, Mg,  Pb, N03~,
 and P04~3.  In  addition, a  manual  was published,  setting  forth  recommended
 sampling and analytical procedures.
     Another  IERL-RTP contract  with TRW  concerned the  recommendation of
 sampling and analytical procedures  for coal gasification  plants.  During
 1975, a manual  was  published  under  this  contract, reviewing techniques and
 outlining  procedures designed  to have broad applicability in  this field.
     Extensive  work was also  done  to  develop methods for  the  collection
and analysis of organic materials  in  industrial gas  streams.  Particular
attention was paid to a technique,  developed by Battelle, involving the
use of chromatographic  support material.   This technique  is being evaluated
under both field and laboratory  conditions.
     In the area of development  of  new and better sampling techniques, an
important study of volumetric flow measurements was conducted by TRW for
IERL-RTP.  Results of this study have been issued.
                                  208

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                                                      x
IX)
1 >
                           Piezoelectric impactor.                                              Pills IV laser light scattering unit.


                                  Particle sizing instruments evaluated in (ERL-RTP's aerodynamic test facility study.

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 Environmental Assessment Testing Strategies
      lERL-RTP's Process Measurements Branch has extensively  examined  two
 field test options for the performance of an environmental assessment.  The
 analytical goals of both options were identical:   identification  of specific
 inorganic and organic compounds, cytotoxicity testing,  mutagenicity test-
 ing, and carcinogenicity testing.  Both options would acquire  samples of
 each process feed stock stream, product stream, and  waste  stream  in suf-
 ficient quantity to complete the rigorous chemical and  biological  test
 matrix.   The basic differences between the two options  are the mechanism
 used to achieve the goals, and the resultant cost effectiveness of each.
      The first option is a direct approach.   It involves the planning
 and execution of a single comprehensive sampling and analysis  effort.  The
 direct approach is philosophically attractive and has been examined on
 the basis of cost-to-implement at a constant level of information  output.
      The second option is a phased approach.   It  requires two  separate,
 distinct levels of sampling and analysis.   Level  1 sampling  and analysis
 has goals of gross identification of the pollution potential of a  source
 and the  setting of sampling and analysis priorities  for level  2.   Level 2
 sampling and analysis has a goal  of the refined accurate identification
 of specific  pollutants in specific streams  from a given source.
      Assuming a constant level  of information  output, TRW and  Mitre esti-
 mated the performance costs associated with  the environmental  assessment
 of a limestone wet scrubber and a coal  gasifier.  Cost  comparisons, using
 both options,  are  tabulated below.
         Option                Limestone Wet Scrubbing        Coal Gasifier
         Phased approach--
           Level  1                    $  24,380                  $  139,425
           Level  2                      294,550                  1,179.510
             Total                    $318,930                  $1,318,935
         Direct  approach--            $424,300                  $3,077,500
Based on  the above analysis, the  phased  sampling  and analysis  option was
selected  as  the most cost effective for  performing an environmental assess-
ment.  This option required the development of  novel  sampling equipment
and the  formulation of an analysis procedure.
                                     210

-------
     A high-volume, series cyclone sampling system was  developed  for  IERL-
RTP under contract by McCrone and Southern Research.  The  design  was  fab-
ricated and field-tested at 10 industrial  sites by TRW.  The  sampling sys-
tem operated during the field tests without a major failure.  A new version,
shown in simplified form below, has been designed.   Construction  of the
prototype was initiated in 1975.  The complete system,  designated the
Source Assessment Sampling System (SASS),  will be available commercially
by early 1976.
     The analysis procedure which has been developed to support lERL-RTP's
environmental assessment program includes  chemical  analysis,  physical
morphology, and bioassay.  The level 1 samples which will  be  acquired will
be subjected to elemental analysis by spark source spectroscopy,  to organic
class identification by both liquid chromatography and  infrared spectros-
copy, and to bioassay.  Each of these analytical systems has  been tested
on both field-acquired and synthetic samples.  To date, no deficiencies
have been identified in the analytical system.  An interim report, "Evalua-
tion of Selected Methods To Assess the Potential Hazards Associated With
Industrial Particulate Emissions," has been issued.  A  final  report will
be issued in 1976.  Analysis options applicable to level 2 samples will
be issued as a series of technical manuals.  The organic sampling and
analysis technical manuals will be issued early in 1976.
     In summary, environmental assessment was lERL-RTP's major new em-
phasis during 1975 in the area of process  measurements.  Its  goal is  to
develop a conceptual approach to a coherent sampling and analytical  pro-
gram for all types of environmental assessment projects.  A special  effort
is being made to evaluate all possible techniques, and  to  concentrate on
those most likely to give usable results.
                                    211

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                                                                                          CONTROLLED
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                                                                        SECTION
                                                 IMP/COOLER
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                                                COLLECTOR
                         GAS METERING
                           SYSTEM
                                                                               VACOUM
                                                                                GAGE
                                                                               VACUUM
                                                                                PUMP
                                             Source assessment sampling system (SASS).

-------
                            Appendix A
         THE  INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY,
                      RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
     The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park (IERL-RTP) has completed its fifth full year of activity as part
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Formerly titled the Con-
trol Systems Laboratory, it is involved in a variety of technical and
management functions directly related to the research, development, and
demonstration of equipment and systems designed to abate environmental
pollutants from stationary sources to a level that is conducive to in-
creased health and welfare.
     Although the Laboratory officially came into being in 1970, along
with EPA, as a result of Reorganization Plan No. 3, it actually predates
that.  Before its days with the Office of Research and Development, it
was known as the Control Systems Division, part of EPA's Office of Air
Programs.  IERL-RTP traces its history through the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare (HEW) where, as part of the Environmental Health
Service, it was the Division of Process Control Engineering (DPCE), a
division of the National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA).
NAPCA's predecessors were the National Center for Air Pollution Control
(NCAPC) and the Division of Air Pollution.
     Federal involvement with air pollution control actually dates back
to July 1955 when the U.S. Congress authorized a Federal program of re-
search and technical assistance to State and local governments.  At that
time, the still-standing policy was established that:  (1) State and
local governments have a fundamental responsibility for dealing with
community air pollution problems, and (2) the Federal Government has an
obligation to provide leadership and support.
     In December 1963, Congress passed the Clean Air Act when it was
evident that, although progress was being made toward a better under-
standing of pollution problems, comparable progress was not being made
toward controlling the problems.  Basically, the 1963 Clean Air Act:
                                   A-l

-------
           (1)  Authorizes awarding Federal  grants  to  State and  local
                agencies to assist in developing, establishing,  or  im-
                proving pollution control  programs.
           (2)  Authorizes Federal  action  to abate  interstate pollution
                problems beyond  the reach  of individual States and  cities.
           (3)  Expands the Federal  pollution research and development
                program.
           (4)  Emphasizes investigation of  sulfur oxides pollution from
                coal  and oil combustion.
           (5)  Requires  the development of  criteria on effects of air
                pollution  on health  and property.
           (6)   Emphasizes the role  of the Federal Government on control-
                ling  air  pollution  from its  own facilities.
     The next significant step was  Congressional passage of the Air
Quality Acts  of 1967 and  1970, also referred to as the "Clean Air Act,
as amended."  These amendments not  only called for an attack on pollu-
tion on a regional basis, but also  provided a blueprint for action at
all levels of Government  and among  all segments of industry.   Features
of the 1970 law are:
          (1)  The entire Nation is covered by 247 Air Quality Regions.
          (2)  National Air Quality Standards have been established for
               all pollutants covered by the air quality criteria docu-
               ments .
          (3)  EPA may establish emission performance standards on new
               stationary sources which  emit any substantial  amount of
               pollutants so as  to cause or contribute to endangerment
               of health or welfare.
          (4)  EPA is establishing National  Emission Standards for
               Hazardous Pollutants.
          (5)   EPA may  establish  emission  standards for new sources of
               pollutants which  have adverse effects on  health and which
               are not  covered by National Ambient  Air Quality Standards
              or  by  Hazardous Pollutant Standards.
                                  A-2

-------
           (6)   Emission  limits have been established for designated
                pollutants from motor vehicles, and a time frame for
                achieving these standards has been defined.
           (7)   The  Federal standards do not preclude the setting of more
                stringent air quality standards by the States.
     The  same  1970  law outlines a specific six-point research program to
 be  carried out by EPA, emphasizing research into and development of new
 and improved methods  (with industrywide application) for the prevention
 and control of air  pollution resulting from the combustion of fuels by:
     0  Conducting  and accelerating research programs directed toward
        developing  improved low-cost techniques for—
        1.  Control of fuel combustion byproducts.
        2.  Removal of potential air pollutants from fuels prior to
            combustion.
        3.  Control of emissions from fuel evaporation.
        4.  Improving the efficiency of fuel combustion so as to de-
            crease  air pollution.
        5.  Producing synthetic or new fuels which, when used, result
            in decreased air pollution.
     0  Providing Federal air pollution control grants and contracts.
     0  Determining, by laboratory and pilot-scale testing, the results
        of air pollution research and studies in order to develop new
        or improved processes and plant designs to the point where they
        can be demonstrated on a large and practical scale.
     0  Constructing, operating, and maintaining (or assisting in meeting
        the cost of) new or improved demonstration plants or processes
        which  promise to accomplish the purposes of the Clean Air Act.
     0  Studying new or improved methods for recovering and marketing
        commercially valuable byproducts resulting from the removal of
        pollutants.
     On July 9, 1970, the President sent Reorganization Plan Wo. 3 of
1970 to the Senate and the House of Representatives.  This Plan, estab-
lishing EPA, combined certain of the pollution-control-related functions
of six Federal  agencies:

                                  A-3

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      0  The Atomic Energy Conmission.
      0  The Council on Environmental Quality.
      0  The Department of Agriculture.
      0  The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
      0  The Department of the Interior.
      0  The Federal Radiation Council.
 lERL-RTP'S ORGANIZATION
      The position of IERL-RTP in EPA is  shown in Figure A-l.   The
 Laboratory has four main groups.  The Program Operations Office  functions
 as a program monitoring and evaluating group.  The other three groups,
 all programrnatically (rather than functionally) oriented Divisions,  are
 engaged in work ranging from small-scale experimental  work and explora-
 tory research, through pilot-plant-size  experimental work, to  prototype
 evaluations of equipment large  enough to permit confident scale-up to
 full-size  commercial  installations.   The title of each Division  indicates
 its area of concentration.
      lERL-RTP's objective is to  ensure the  development and demonstration
 of cost effective technologies  to prevent,  control, or abate pollution
 from operations with multimedia  environmental  impacts  associated  with
 the extraction, processing,  conversion,  and utilization  of energy and
 mineral  resources and  with  industrial  processing  and manufacturing.  The
 Laboratory  also supports  the identification and evaluation of  environ-
 mental  control  alternatives  of those  operations as well  as the assess-
 ment of associated environmental  and  socioeconomic impacts.  lERL-RTP's
 program, consisting of in-house  activities,  contracts,  grants, and inter-
 agency  agreements, contributes significantly to the protection of the
 national health  and welfare  through the  research  and development  effort
 of  timely and  cost effective pollution control  technology.
      It  is much  easier to state  lERL-RTP's objective than to acquire the
 inputs  (shown  in  Figure A-2) which are required to develop a rational
 program for this  Laboratory.  Fortunately, EPA  "sister"  laboratories
possess all the necessary expertise to carry out  this function.
     As in  most activities, problem definition  is the first key event in
solving the air pollution problem.  EPA's regional offices play a major
                                  A-4

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  ADMINISTRATOR
        EPA
   ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
                  I
                      PIRECTOR
                 OFFICE OF ENERGY,
               MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY


1
UTILITIES AND
INDUSTRIAL POWER
DIVISION
Mi
MB
MM

PROCESS
TECHNOLOGY
(REGENERABLE)
BRANCH

EMISSIONS/EFFLU-
ENT TECHNOLOGY
(NON-REGENERABLE)
BRANCH

PARTICULATE
TECHNOLOGY
BRANCH


DIRECTOR
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH LABORATORY, RTP
1
1 1
ENERGY ASSESS-
MENT AND CON-
TROL DIVISION
mm
mm
mm


COMBUSTION
RESEARCH
BRANCH

ADVANCED
PROCESSES
BRANCH

FUEL
PROCESSES
BRANCH




INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES
DIVISION

CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
BRANCH

METALLURGICAL
PROCESSES
BRANCH

PROCESS
MEASUREMENTS
BRANCH


.

PROGRAM
OPERATIONS
OFFICE


SPECIAL
STUDIES
STAFF

PLANNING,
MANAGEMENT, AND
ADMINISTRATION
STAFF


TECHNICAL
INFORMATION
SERVICE
Figure A-1. Organization of the Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park.

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MANDATED
R&D RESPONSIBILITIES


INDUSTRY AND
POLLUTANT
IDENTIFICATION
                      I
                                        R&D NEEDS FROM REGIONS,
                                           ERC'S, OAWP, AND EPA
                                       ADMINISTRATOR'S DIRECTIVES
                 INDUSTRY STUDY
          t
PRESENT AMBIENT
CONCENTRATION
BY AQCR

SOURCE EMISSION
DATA
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
CONTROL TECHNIQUES

CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
NAAQS, NSPS,
NESHAPS
                     I
    CONTROL STRATEGY (REGIONAL AND NATIONAL)
                     I
      CONCENTRATION OR EMISSION LEVEL WITH
          BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
             (ECONOMICS INCLUDED)
                     JL
          ADDITIONAL CONTROL REQUIRED
                     1
                   IERL-RTP
                  PROGRAM
                     I
      IMPACT NEW AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS
             EMISSIONS, ECONOMICS
   PRIORITIES
  FINANCIAL AND
OTHER CONSTRAINTS
Figure A-2. The basis for IERL-RTP programs.

                    A-6

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role in this activity by determining the research and development needs
of each region.  The other major inputs come from our legally mandated
responsibility and other designated EPA sources.  This information,
along with health effects data, allows priorities to be set for pollut-
ants.  The list of pollutants (by priority) leads to industry studies
which determine the sources and amounts of pollutants emitted and iden-
tify the currently available control technology.
     With the Ambient Air Quality Standards fixed, regions are identi-
fied where the standards are violated.  Next, the complicated problem of
relating emissions to ambient concentrations of pollutants must be
solved.  Following the solution of the problem, IERL-RTP determines what
emission reductions can be attained with best available technology and
how much this reduction will cost:  modeling determines if reductions
will allow Ambient Air Quality Standards to be met.  If additional new
technology is required, IERL-RTP can mount an RD&D program to provide
this technology, in cooperation with the private sector.
                                   A-7

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                            Appendix B
                     METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
     Although EPA's policy is to use metric units for quantitative de-
scriptions, this report uses certain nonmetric units where it is felt
that doing so will facilitate understanding by a majority of the readers
of this report.
     Readers more familiar with metric units may use the following
factors to convert to that system.
                                                   Yields metric
                                                             2
                                                    kg(wt)/cm
                                                    liters
                                                    cal
                                                    °C
                                                    cm
                                                    liters
                                                    9
                                                    cm
                                                    kg
                                                    kg
Nonmetric
atm
bbl
Btu
°F
ft
ft3
gr
in.
Ib
ton (short)
Multiplied
1.03
158.99
252
5/9 (F -
30.48
28.32
0.06
2.54
0.45
907.18
by



32)






                                   B-l

-------