INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY-RTF
II ANNUAL REPORT
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OFFICE OF ENERGY, MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY (RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK)
ANNUAL REPORT
1977
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Established on December 2,1970,
by Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970,
the Environmental Protection Agency
is the Federal Government's lead agency
for pollution control and abatement.
EPA is concerned with the environment
as a single interrelated system
and is directing a coordinated research,
monitoring, standard-setting, and
enforcement effort to restore and
protect the quality of the environment.
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Mention of trade names, firms, or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Additional copies of this report are available from:
Technical Information Service (Mail Drop 64)
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
The Laboratory also publishes reports which give details of the specific
projects and programs. A list of available reports is available from the
Laboratory's Technical Information Service. The reports are available to
the general public from:
The National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22151
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FOREWORD
This annual report presents cumulative highlights of the programs
and accomplishments of EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-
Research Triangle Park (IERL-RTP), with emphasis on the period between
January 1 and December 31, 1977. Its approach is an intentional attempt
to provide both the non-technical overview desired by the layman and
sufficient technical details for the professional.
Basically, IERL-RTP manages programs to develop and demonstrate
cost effective technologies to prevent, control, or abate pollution from
operations with multimedia environmental impacts associated with the
extraction, processing, conversion, and utilization of energy and mineral
resources, as well as with industrial processing and manufacturing. The
Laboratory also supports the identification and evaluation of environ-
mental control alternatives of those operations as well as the assessment
of associated environmental impacts. Our program, consisting of inhouse
activities, contracts, grants, and interagency agreements, contributes
significantly to the protection of National health and welfare through
the research and development of timely and cost effective pollution
control technologies.
Although EPA is primarily a regulatory agency, the vital supportive
role of research and development activities within the overall EPA
mission must not be overlooked. Adequate pollution control technology,
for example, must be available before effective standards for the protec-
tion of public health and welfare can be set and successfully enforced;
the development of ever more efficient and economical environmental
control technology benefits not only the affected industry, but ultimately
everyone. This is particularly true considering the present energy
situation; in the long run, the protection of our environment and the
conservation of our natural resources are integral parts of meeting our
energy requirements in a viable manner.
iii
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This report reflects EPA's concrete support of, and dedication to,
the practical realization of our Nation's energy goals, as well as those
of a purely environmental nature.
January 1, 1978 Dny Jonn K. Burchard
Director
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, RTF
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Illustrations xii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL 7
Combustion Sources 7
Clean Fuels 7
Combustion Modification 3
Post-combustion and Discharge Stream Treatment 10
Industrial Processes Sources 12
Particulate Control Technology 13
ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND TRENDS 13
PROGRAM METHODOLOGY 15
IERL-RTP PROGRAM AREAS 15
Utilities and Industrial Power 16
Environmental Assessment of Conventional
Combustion Processes 16
Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology 17
Waste and Water Pollution Control 19
Flue Gas Treatment for NO Control 19
Thermal Pollution Control 20
Particulate Control Technology 20
Energy Assessment and Control 21
Nitrogen Oxides Control 24
Fluidized-bed Combustion 28
Coal Cleaning 29
Synthetic Fuels 31
Oil Treatment/Processing 32
Industrial Processes 33
Chemical Processes 33
Metallurgical Processes 35
Process Measurements 37
Program Operations 37
Special Studies 37
UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER 41
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY 41
Flue Gas Desulfurization--Regenerable Processes 41
Sodium Sulfite/Bisulfite Scrubbing with Thermal
Regeneration (Wellman-Lord/Allied Chemical) 41
Aqueous Carbonate Process-(Atomics International) 44
Citrate Process • 44
Comparative Economics of S02 Control Processes 47
Marketing Abatement Sulfur/Sulfuric Acid 47
Engineering Applications/Information Transfer 48
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con.)
Page
UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER (con.)
NO Emission Control by Flue Gas Treatment 49
Strategy and Technology Assessment 50
Assessment of Japanese Technology 50
Economic Assessments of NO FGT Processes 50
Assessment of Critical FGT Process Features 51
NO Control Strategy Assessment 51
Experimental Projects 52
Pilot Plant Evaluation of Coal Firing 52
Environmental Assessment of Conventional Combustion Sources 53
EMISSIONS/EFFLUENT TECHNOLOGY 54
Flue Gas Desulfurization—Nonregenerable Processes 54
Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing 54
TVA's Shawnee Power Plant 55
lERL-RTP's Pilot Plant 59
Bahco Process 61
Louisville Gas and Electric Scrubber Test Program 62
Dual-alkali 63
Technology Development 63
Full-scale Utility Demonstration 64
Alkaline Ash Scrubbing 67
Survey of Utility FGD Systems 67
Flue Gas Reheat 68
FGD Reliability 68
Control of Waste and Water Pollution from Combustion Sources 69
FGC Waste Disposal Methods 69
FGC Waste Characterization, Disposal Evaluation, and
Transfer of FGC Waste Disposal Technology 69
Shawnee FGC Waste Disposal Field Evaluation 69
Louisville Gas and Electric Evaluation of FGC
Waste Disposal Options 71
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Characterization 71
Dewatering Principles and Equipment Design
Studies 71
Characterization of Effluents from Coal-fired
Power Plants 72
Ash Characterization and Disposal 72
Alternative Methods for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Waste Disposal 72
Alternative FGC Waste Disposal Sites 73
FGD Waste Utilization 73
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Conversion Pilot
Studies 73
Gypsum By-product Marketing 73
Use of FGD Gypsum in Portland Cement Manufacture 73
Fertilizer Production Using Lime/Limestone
Scrubbing Wastes 74
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con.)
Page
UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER (con.)
Power Plant Water Recycle/Reuse 74
Alternatives for Power Plant Water Recycle/Reuse 74
Treatment of Flue Gas Scrubber Waste Streams with
Vapor Compression Cycle Evaporation 75
TVA Membrane Studies 75
Effluent Guidelines Support Studies 75
Thermal Pollution Control 76
Cooling Technology 76
Waste Heat Utilization 80
PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY 82
lERL-RTP's Particulate Program 83
Characterization and Improvement of Conventional
Control Equipment and Assessment of the Collect-
ability of Dusts 83
Fine Particle Control for Combustion Processes
Utilizing Low-sulfur Coal 83
New Particulate Control Technology Development 85
New Idea Identification, Evaluation, and Technology
Transfer 85
High-temperature/High-pressure Particulate Control 85
Current Program Status 86
Characterization and Improvement of Conventional
Control Equipment 86
Electrostatic Precipitators 86
Scrubbers 87
Fabric Filters 89
Assessment of the Collectability of Dusts 91
New Particulate Control Technology Development 92
New Idea Identification, Evaluation, and
Technology Transfer 93
High-temperature/High-pressure Particulate Control 94
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL 96
COMBUSTION RESEARCH 96
Field Testing and Environmental Assessment 99
Environmental Assessment and Systems Analysis of NO
Combustion .Modification Technology 99
Utility Boiler/Power Generation Equipment Field
Testing 101
Field Testing of Industrial Boilers 103
Field Testing, of Industrial Process Equipment 104
Residential/Commercial Heating Systems Testing 104
CRB Inhouse Combustion Assessment 105
vii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con.)
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL (con.)
Process Research and Development 110
Combustion Modification for Utility Boilers 110
Combustion Modification for Industrial Boilers 111
Combustion Modification for Residential/Commercial
Heating Systems 111
Stationary Engine Combustor Technology 112
Industrial Process Equipment and Afterburners 113
Fluidized-bed Combustion Support 116
Fuels Research and Development 116
Improved Burner/System Design 116
Advanced Combustion Modification Techniques 118
Catalytic Combustion 123
Alternate Fuels 123
Fundamental Combustion Research 125
Combustion Chemistry 125
Combustion Aerodynamics 129
FUEL PROCESSES 130
Coal Cleaning 132
Environmental Assessment 132
Technology Development 134
Physical/Mechanical Coal Cleaning 134
Chemical Coal Cleaning 137
TRW Processes 137
Hydrothermally Treated Coal 138
Flash Desulfurization 140
Microwave Desulfurization 141
Control Technology Development 141
Synthetic Fuels 143
Environmental Assessment 145
High-Btu Gasification 145
Low-Btu Gasification 145
Liquefaction 150
Supporting Research 153
Control Technology Development 158
Products and By-products 158
Converter Output 159
Overview of Control Technology for
Industrial Fuel Gas from Coal 159
Study of NCSU Gasification System 160
Acid Gas Removal Process Prioritization 160
Tar, Particulates, and Dust Removal from
Coal Converter Outputs 161
Pretreatment and Waste Control 161
Other Support 162
Oil Treatment/Processing 164
vm
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con.)
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL (con.)
ADVANCED PROCESSES 165
Fluidized-bed Combustion 165
Environmental Assessment 165
Control Technology Development 166
Advanced Oil Processing 167
Environmental Assessment 167
Control Technology Development 171
CAFB Demonstration 172
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 174
CHEMICAL PROCESSES 174
Source Assessment 174
Combustion Sources 176
Conventional Combustion Systems—Emissions
Assessment 176
Electric Power Generation 178
Industrial Boilers 179
Petrochemicals 180
Technology Development 180
Phthalic Anhydride Plant 180
Storage Tank Emission Control 180
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 181
Chlorolysis 181
Assessment Projects 182
Acrylonitrile 182
Carbon Black 182
Phthalic Anhydride 183
Others 184
Refineries 184
Technology Development 184
Automobile Filling Station Control 184
Assessment Projects 184
Agricultural Chemicals 185
Fertilizers 185
Effluent Cleanup 185
Yugoslav Granular Fertilizer Plants 186
Ammonia Plant Condensate Treatment 187
Pesticides 188
Technology Development 188
Resin Sorption Technology 188
Catalytic Reduction Technology 189
Solvent Extraction 189
Activated Carbon Technology 189
Bi otreatment Technology 190
Assessment Projects . 190
IX
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con.)
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES (con.)
Textiles 191
Technology Development 191
Technologies for Achieving BATEA 191
Use of Enzymes and High-rate Trickling Filter 191
Solvent Slashing 192
Slashing with Thermal Precipitation 192
Industrial Total Water Reuse in the Fiber Glass
Industry 192
Energy Conservation Using High-temperature
Membranes 192
Hyperfiltration Demonstration 193
Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange 193
PL-480 Technology Development for Textile
Wastewater Pollution Control (Poland) 193
Ion Exchange 194
Assessment Projects 194
Textile Wastewater Toxicity 194
At-sea Incineration 194
METALLURGICAL PROCESSES 196
Iron and Steel Industry 198
Mining, Beneficiation, and Pelletizing 204
Sintering 206
Cokemaking and Blast Furnaces 209
Enclosed Coke Pushing and Quenching 209
Koppers/Ford Coke Oven Smoke Emission
Abatement System 212
Coke Quench Tower Emissions 214
Coke Oven Door Leakage and Seals 214
Guidelines for Coke Oven Pollution Control
Applicability 216
By-product Recovery Plant Assessment 217
Blast Furnace Cast House Emission Control 218
Portable Wastewater Treatment System 218
Steelmaking 219
Basic Oxygen Process Charging Emission Control 219
Applicability of Foreign Pollution Control
Technology 221
Forming and Finishing 221
Closed System for Waste Pickle Liquors 221
Countercurrent Halogen Tinplate Rinsing System 222
Miscellaneous 223
Zero Water Discharge 223
Fugitive Discharges 223
Surface Runoff 224
Uses and Fates of Lubricants, Oils, Greases,
and Hydraulic Fluids 224
Abnormal Operating Conditions 224
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con*)
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES (con.)
Small Research Grant Projects 225
Iron and Steel Foundry Processes 225
Ferroalloy Production 226
PROCESS MEASUREMENTS 230
CONTROL EQUIPMENT EVALUATION 230
Particulate Measurement 230
High-temperature/High-pressure Sampling and Measurement 231
Inorganic Sampling and Analysis 232
Organic Measurements 233
Process Control Automation 235
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT TESTING STRATEGIES 235
Phased Sampling and Analytical Strategy 235
Fugitive Emissions 236
Biological Testing 237
QUALITY ASSURANCE 238
SPECIAL STUDIES 239
INTEGRATED AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS 239
Integrated Assessment of Coal-based Energy Technologies 239
Environmental Assessment (EA) of Energy Supply Systems
Using Fuel Cells 240
Environmental Overview of Future Texas Lignite Development 241
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA SYSTEMS 242
TECHNICAL SUPPORT 242
Standard Procedures for Cost Evaluations 243
Regional Support Studies 243
BIBLIOGRAPHY 244
APPENDIX A. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park A-l
APPENDIX B. Metric Conversion Factors B-l
APPENDIX C. Abbreviations and Acronyms C-l
xi
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ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No. Title Page
1 U.S. energy supply and use 4
2 Air pollution trends by source 5
3 Value of Eastern and Central coals meeting new source
performance standards as a function of flue gas
cleaning processes 6
4 Control of NO emissions from coal-fired utility boilers 9
A
5 Environmental assessment diagram 22
6 Control technology development diagram 23
7 IERL-RTP standards development support R&D 25
Wellman-Lord process being demonstrated 42
Aqueous carbonate process 45
The Citrate process 46
Versatile lime/limestone wet scrubbing demonstration at
Shawnee plant 56
IERL-RTP lime/limestone sxrrubber pilot plant 60
Three 20 MW prototype FGD systems at Gulf Power's Scholz
plant 65
Full-scale dual-alkali flue gas desulfurization system
demonstration at Cane Run Plant of the Louisville Gas
and Electric Company 66
Test pond for disposal of Shawnee's chemically treated
scrubber waste 70
Particulate sampling at an electric arc furnace 84
Capital cost of ESPs vs. computed performance 88
Summary of 1974 stationary source NO emissions 97
^\
Packaged Scotch marine boiler (60 hp) with oil/water
emulsion burner 106
Major components of laboratory comprehensive sampling
and analysis system 108
xn
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Illustrations (con.)
Figure No. Title Page
Atmospheric chambers and instrument control trailer for
secondary pollutant studies 109
225 kW gas turbine used for IERL-RTP inhouse studies 114
Precombustion chamber" diesel (300 hp) for stationary
engine controls development 115
Pilot-scale fluidized-bed sampling and analytical
test rig (under construction) 117
Multiburner experimental furnace (3 x 10 Btu/hr) 119
Full-scale burner test facility (125 x 106 Btu/hr) 122
Experimental system for combustion modification and
future fuel studies 124
Hypothetical simplified gasification flow diagram 131
PENELEC coal preparation plant 136
TRW's Meyers process reactor test unit, Capistrano,
California 139
Mobile laboratory for analysis during data acquisition 146
GC-MS to identify organic compounds in effluent streams 147
Holston low-Btu gasification facility, Kingsport,
Tennessee 149
Plant Mitchell power plant (site of SRC test burn) 151
SASS train in operation at Plant Mitchell power plant 152
Schematic of RTI's coal conversion reactor test unit 155
RTI's coal conversion reactor test unit 156
Components of RTI's reactor test unit 157
630 kW Exxon miniplant for pressurized (10 atm)
fluidized-bed combustion of coal 168
Argonne 6 in. pressurized fluidized-bed combustor 169
Argonne 4-1/4 in. pressurized regeneration system 170
Model of CAFB demonstration unit under construction
by CPL at San Bern'to, Texas 173
xiii
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Illustrations (con.)
Figure No. Title Page
M/T Vulcanus used for at-sea incineration tests 197
Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet 1 of 2) 199
Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet 2 of 2) 200
i
Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet 1 of 2) 201
Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet 2 of 2) 202
Mining, beneficiation, and pelletizing 205
Weirton Steel Division sinter plant gas recirculation
system 208
Enclosed coke pushing and quenching system 210
Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission abatement system 213
Basic oxygen process 1 ton capacity pilot vessel 220
Ferroalloy production process 227
Open-hooded ferroalloy furnace 228
Enclosed ferroalloy furnace with fixed seals 228
A-l Organization of the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park A-6
xiv
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Since 1967 the Federal Government, in cooperation with industry,
has made a determined effort to develop technology to control environ-
mental pollution produced by both stationary and mobile sources.
An organization—now the Industrial Environmental Research Labora-
tory, Research Triangle Park (IERL-RTP)*, North Carolina--was designated
to carry out the major part of the Government's share of the effort
relating particularly to stationary sources of air pollutants. Since
the June 30, 1975, reorganization of EPA's Office of Research and Develop-
ment (ORD), however, IERL-RTP1s pollution control efforts have been more
encompassing. Since that date, and with the cooperation and assistance
of EPA sister laboratories, IERL-RTP has effectively accomplished a
major redirection of effort to provide a multimedia approach to pollu-
tion control problems. The Laboratory's multimedia program concerns
itself with air, water, solid waste, thermal discharge, pesticides,
toxic substances, and energy-conserving aspects of environmental pollu-
tion.
Congressional direction for this effort is provided principally by
the Air Quality Acts of 1967 and 1970 (with 1977 Amendments), the Federal
Water Pollution Control (FWPC) Act of 1972 (as amended), the Toxic Sub-
stances Control Act (TOSCA) of 1976, and the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976.
The FWPC Act cites two national policies specifically applicable to
IERL-RTP: the prohibition of "discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic
amounts," and a major research and demonstration effort to "develop
technology necessary to eliminate the discharge of pollutants into the
navigable waters, waters of the contiguous zone, and the oceans." Sec-
tion 105 of the Act authorizes "research and demonstration projects for
prevention of pollution of any waters by industry including, but not
limited to, the prevention, reduction, and elimination of the discharge
of pollutants."
Section 10 of the TOSCA authorizes such research, development, and
monitoring as is necessary to carry out the purposes of the Act. Among
the purposes cited are the regulation of commerce and the protection of
*A glossary of abbreviations and acronyms is contained in Appendix C.
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human health and the environment by requiring testing and necessary use
restrictions on certain chemical substances. Specifically, Section 10
addresses: (1) the development of screening techniques for carcinogenic,
mutagenic, teratogenic, and ecological effects of chemical substances
and mixtures; (2) the development of monitoring techniques and instru-
ments to detect toxic chemical substances and mixtures; and (3) the
establishment of research programs to develop the fundamental scientific
basis of the aforementioned screening and monitoring techniques, the
bounds of their reliability, and the opportunity for their improvement.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (replacing a
1970 act of the same name and its predecessor, the Solid Waste Disposal
Act) provides for Federal financial and technical assistance and leader-
ship in the development, demonstration, and application of new and
improved methods and processes to reduce the amount of waste and unsal-
vageable materials and to provide for proper and economical solid waste
disposal practices. Major provisions of the Act are for:
0 Prohibition of future open dumping.
0 Technical and financial assistance to state and local govern-
ments for the development of solid waste management plans.
0 Regulation of the treatment, storage, transportation and disposal
of hazardous wastes adversely affecting health and the environment.
0 Promulgation of guidelines for solid waste collection, transport,
separation, recovery, and disposal practices and systems.
0 A national research and development program for improved solid
waste management and resource conservation techniques, new and improved
methods of collection, separation, and recovery and recycling of solid
wastes and environmentally safe disposal of nonrecoverable residues.
»
0 Demonstration, construction and application of solid waste
management, resource recovery, and resource conservation systems.
0 Establishment of a cooperative effort to recover valuable ma-
terials and energy from solid waste.
Among the purposes cited in Section 101 of the Air Quality Act are:
"to protect and enhance the quality of the nation's air resources so as
to promote the public health and welfare and the productive capacity of
its population; (and) to initiate and accelerate a national research and
development program to achieve the prevention and control of air pol-
lution. ..."
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Two other sections of the Air Quality Act are also significant,
indicating Congressional support of specific activities of IERL-RTP:
Section 103 (Research, Investigation, Training, and Other Activities)
and Section 104 (Research Relating to Fuels and Vehicles).
In Section 103, EPA's Administrator is authorized to establish a
national research and development program for the prevention and control
of air pollution and, as part of that program, to conduct and promote
the coordination and acceleration of research, investigations, experi-
ments, training, demonstrations, surveys, and studies relating to the
causes, effects, extent, prevention, and control of air pollution.
Section 104 specifically emphasizes research into and development of new
and improved methods, with industry-wide application, of preventing and
controlling air pollution resulting from fuels combustion.
In addition to these legislative mandates, IERL-RTP1s mission is
vitally shaped by the strong energy/environment interaction and our
country's current efforts toward achieving energy independence. Illus-
trating this, Figure 1 shows how U.S. energy needs are supplied and how
this energy is used. Clearly, the principal use of energy in the U.S.
is for combustion to provide electricity generation, space and water
heating, industrial heating and feedstock, and transportation. IERL-
RTP 's energy/environment program is underscored by the fact that combus-
tion is the main cause of air pollution, accounting for over 80 percent
of the mass of recognized air pollutants. This is shown by Figure 2*
which relates air pollution by source.
In line with the U.S. energy policy to increase the Nation's self-
sufficiency in energy resources, a closer look has been taken at our
coal reserves which are relatively abundant in contrast to our limited
oil and gas reserves. Only about 7 percent of our coal resources,
however, are usable under the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS);
standards revisions currently being considered could restrict this
amount even further. Figure 3 shows the need to develop techniques to
permit the use of coals regardless of their sulfur content.
*A1though EPA policy is to use metric units, this report contains
certain nonmetric units for the convenience of the reader. Use the
factors in Appendix B to convert to metric equivalents.
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HOW U.S. ENERGY NEEDS ARE SUPPLIED
,10%
ELECTRICITY
3% TRANSPORTATION -
17% INDUSTRIAL
HEAT. & FEED-
STOCK
20%
SPACE &
WATER
HEAT-
ING
46%
INDUSTRIAL
HEATINGS
FEEDSTOCK
1% NUCLEAR
4% HYDRO
(a) TOTAL ENERGY SUPPLY
(d)COAL
(f) HYDRO
MAJOR USES OF ENERGY IN THE U.S.
1% MISC.
52%
NATURAL GAS
28%
20% \INDUSTRIAL
SPACE\ HEATINGS
& VEEDSTOCK
WATER
HEATING
(b) SPACE &
WATER HEATING
25%
TRANS-
26% \PORTATION
ELECTRICITY
(c) INDUSTRIAL HEATING
& FEEDSTOCK
(a) TOTAL ENERGY USAGE
4% GAS-
NUCLEAR XN
(4%-1973
9%- 1975)
(d) ELECTRICITY
(e) TRANSPORTATION
Figure 1. U.S. energy supply and use.
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PARTICULATE MATTER
71 72 73 74 75
SULFUR OXIDES
40
30
20
10
CARBON MONOXIDE
I "1
rn »
I JTRANSPORTATION pass
70 71 72 73
YEAR
STATIONARY SOURCE FUEL COMBUSTION
74 75
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES P SOLID WASTE & MISCELLANEOUS
40
70
75
75
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
70
71
72 73
YEAR
74
75
Figure 2. Air pollution trends by source.
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9375
7680
I
5625
ESSENTIALLY ALL KNOWN RESERVES MADE
AVAILABLE BY 95% EFFICIENT FLUE GAS
CLEANING PROCESSES (EXAMPLE: WELLMAN-
LORD PROCESS)
C/l
Ul
o
-} 3750
^
o
u
u.
o
Ul
1875
ADDITIONAL RESERVES (TO 2.5%S) MEETING
NSPS MADE AVAILABLE BY 75% EFFICIENT
FLUE GAS SCRUBBING PROCESSES
(EXAMPLE: WET LIMESTONE SCRUBBING)
NATURALLY OCCURRING LOW-SULFUR
COAL «0.7% S) WHICH MEETS NSPS
Figure 3. Value of Eastern and Central coals meeting new
source performance standards as a function of flue gas
cleaning processes.
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL
The development and demonstration of environmental pollution control
technology is one of EPA's largest tasks. Approximately $40 million was
devoted to this effort in FY 77. These funds supported both lERL-RTP's
on-going studies to demonstrate control methods for sulfur and nitrogen
oxides, particulates, and other pollutants, and its expanded programs
addressing the environmental aspects of accelerated energy resource
development in the U.S.
lERL-RTP's goal for stationary source pollution control development
is sevenfold:
0 To describe at least one method for controlling each major source
of pollution.
0 To provide a technical base for the Agency's enforcement activi-
ties.
0 To establish technical and economic data to support New Source
Performance Standards.
0 To provide information required to make environmentally sound
decisions on energy development policy.
0 To develop techniques for multimedia assessment of complex
emissions.
0 To provide a research data base for standards development.
0 To define best multimedia environmental control options for a
given process.
Combustion Sources
lERL-RTP's program for combustion sources is aimed at early defi-
nition of environmental problems and development of control technology.
It is also a program aimed at identifying and/or providing for environ-
mental alternatives as they relate to control approaches. The two key
activities of this program are environmental assessment and control
technology development.
Reflecting the major importance of fuel combustion to total environ-
mental pollution, IERL-RTP has directed much of its effort toward devel-
opment of (1) "clean" fuels, (2) combustion process alternatives, and
(3) post-combustion discharge streams treatment processes.
CLEAN FUELS
The objective of the IERL-RTP clean fuels program is to remove
sulfur and other contaminants from fuels before they are burned. Pre-
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treatment is especially suited-to sources smaller than electric utili-
ties; e.g., industrial boilers and fuel-burning equipment. EPA is
studying (through research, development, and environmental assessment)
several techniques for removing pollutants from fuels. One technique,
coal cleaning, involves physically and/or chemically cleaning moderate-
sulfur-content coal so that it can be burned in conformance with clean
air standards. EPA's objectives in this area are: to develop commer-
cially available processes for removing inorganic sulfur and ash from
medium-sulfur coal, while producing reusable wastes, or wastes which
will not degrade the environment when discarded; to define the environ-
mental problems associated with existing fuel cleaning technologies; and
to derive means of minimizing problems which could hinder application of
fuel cleaning technologies.
EPA is also studying the use of clean synthetic fuels (fuels pro-
duced from high- and low-Btu gasified coal and liquefied coal). Also
underway is a program on residual oil processing and utilization aimed
at defining better means of removing sulfur and other pollutants, toward
an end product of clean synthetic fuel. The major objectives of clean
synthetic fuel studies are to determine the potential environmental
impacts of processing these fuels, and to develop means of minimizing
the adverse environmental effects of synthetic fuel technologies.
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
Combustion modification is the primary existing control technique
for preventing or minimizing NO emissions from fossil-fuel burning in
A
utility and large industrial boilers; in small industrial, commercial,
and residential systems; in industrial process furnaces and afterburners;
in stationary engines; and in advanced processes.
Several combustion modification techniques have been developed or
are under study for application to conventional combustion sources.
EPA-supported and -directed efforts have shown that staged combustion
(often combined with low excess air) is an effective method of control-
ling NO emissions originating from the thermal fixation of nitrogen
A
emissions in combustion air and from the conversion of nitrogen atoms
chemically bound in fuel (heavy oils and coal). Flue gas recirculation
has been shown to be a most effective technique for controlling NOX
emissions originating from thermal fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
during the combustion of clean fuels (natural gas and distillate oils).
8
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FIELD TESTING
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RESULTS FROM FIELD V \ AVERAGE FROM
ADDI If* ATI DM flC ICT ^. * uriMut. rnuivi
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u 1*11 •• ii /^ iiwiv iiiaiiii^i •• —•__ ^^^ * ^^ ^Vl i H LQ^V NO
TECHNOLOGY ~~^O-^ ^N..^ CAPABILITY*
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1
71
72
73 74 75
CALENDAR YEAR
76
77
Figure 4. Control of NO emissions from coal-fired utility boilers.
-------
Additional EPA research and development efforts seek to modify combus-
tion by redesigning burner/combustor systems, to investigate novel
approaches to combustion modification (such as catalytic combustion,
advanced power cycles, and alternative fuels), and to provide, through
basic research, an understanding of the physical and chemical factors
influencing the formation and degradation of pollutants.
EPA's efforts in advanced combustion processes have involved pri-
marily the Fluidized-Bed Combustion (FBC) Process. These efforts have
contributed to the National Fluidized-Bed Combustion Program, an inter-
agency program coordinated by the Energy Research and Development Agency
(ERDA).* EPA's contributions to the interagency program consist of
environmental assessments of FBC systems; optimizing control of SC^,
NO , fine particulates, and other pollutants in the FBC process; and
^
continued testing of its small (0.63 MW) FBC mini-pilot-plant. The
Agency also conducts independent research, from an environmental per-
spective, to determine the implications of alternative designs and uses
of fluidized-bed combustors.
In addition to the major pollutants (SO and NO ), various others
J\ X
are emitted concommitant with the combustion process. For some, National
Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) now exist;
for others, ambient air quality standards have not yet been established.
To assess the emission levels of these pollutants, several tasks
are being funded, by several elements of the Laboratory, for the field
testing of coal-fired utility and industrial boilers, and for limited
source characterization of gas- and oil-fired units. A field testing
program is underway for residential and commercial heating units as well
as industrial process combustion streams.
POST-COMBUSTION AND DISCHARGE STREAM TREATMENT
EPA has directed much of its research and development effort in the
treatment of discharge streams from combustion toward demonstrating flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) technology, in which S02 is removed from the
gas stream emitted after a fuel is burned. The emphasis on FGD has been
dictated by its economic feasibility and by its availability for near-
term application as compared to other control options. EPA has funded,
either totally or partially, a number of major projects over the past
*ERDA is now part of the new Department of Energy (DOE).
10
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several years. Included are the following large-scale, electric-utility-
oriented projects:
0 Pilot work (at Research Triangle Park, N.C.) and prototype systems
(at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Shawnee Steam Plant) for develop-
ment, demonstration, and optimization of lime and limestone scrubbing
technology.
0 Magnesium oxide scrubbing demonstrations at Boston Edison Company
and Potomac Electric Power Company.
0 Sodium sulfite/bisulfite scrubbing (Wellman-Lord Process) at
Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO).
0 Aqueous carbonate process demonstration at Niagara Mohawk.
0 Double-alkali process demonstration at Louisville Gas and Electric
Company (LG&E).
Control techniques suited to smaller industrial and commercial
combustion sources have been examined in full-scale test programs at a
General Motors double-alkali installation and at a U.S. Air Force instal-
lation using the Bahco lime scrubbing process. Additionally, at a St.
Joe Minerals Company installation, the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) and
the EPA are demonstrating the citrate process on a 50 MW industrial
boiler. Supporting and supplementing these major demonstrations are
numerous other projects, such as full-scale testing on commercially
installed systems, engineering studies, and smaller-scale hardware
studies.
The commercial economics of FGD technology, including by-product
marketing and disposal options, and the evaluation of new processes and
of process improvements, are subjects of continuing engineering efforts.
In addition, a major effort underway in technology transfer will promote
use of the best and most reliable techniques and equipment for future
FGD installations.
Another smaller and more recent effort in the discharge streams
treatment area is aimed at developing a technique of NO control that
A
would supplement combustion modification technology. Flue gas treatment
(FGT) is a technique under investigation for its potential as a highly
efficient means of controlling NO emissions from stationary sources.
A
In the U.S. flue gas treatment developmental effort, EPA will draw on
the knowledge gained in Japan's now active development of FGT.
11
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Industrial Processes Sources
lERL-RTP's work in this area is focused on the chemical processing
and the ferrous metallurgical industries. Emphasis is on those "other"
pollutants for which no ambient air quality standards have been estab-
lished and those three pollutants (asbestos, mercury, and beryllium) for
which NESHAPs now exist. Control technology research efforts are under-
way for a number of these pollutants, including trace metals, polycyclic
organic matter (POM), miscellaneous hydrocarbons, fluorides, and odors.
Source assessment is also underway for certain chemical processing
industries. The objective of this program is to assess the environ-
mental impact of sources of toxic and potentially hazardous emissions
from organic materials, inorganic materials, combustion, and open sources,
and to determine the need for control technology development for given
source types. Sources under assessment include petroleum refining,
petrochemicals, nitrogen fertilizers, phosphate fertilizers, pesticides,
and textiles.
EPA has completed control technology development at the pilot-plant
level for ethylene dichloride plants, a zero discharge concept for
fiberglass plants, and odor control for the rendering industry. An
extensive testing program is underway to evaluate at-sea incineration as
a disposal technique for organic chemical wastes. Nearly complete is
the first phase of a test program designed to resolve the uncertainties
In cost estimates for gasoline station hydrocarbon control systems.
Major programs for defining atmospheric emissions from petroleum refin-
eries and the control capabilities of tertiary treatment systems in the
textile industry are well into their second year.
Control technology for ferrous metallurgical industries is under
continuing development. EPA has completed projects directed toward the
control of emissions from cokemaking, blast furnace tapping, and charging
of basic oxygen furnaces. Work is underway to develop full control of
emissions from the sintering of iron ore. Extensive efforts are underway
to assess, and ultimately to bring under control, fugitive and other
discharges from all significant sources in the production of ferrous
metallurgical products. The recent combining into a multimedia program
of the previously separated ferrous metallurgical air and water research
and development programs is expected to result in optimum control of all
discharges from these industries.
12
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Particulate Control Technology
Particulate matter is of concern in pollution control from both
combustion and industrial processes. Control technology for large
particulates is fairly well established. EPA's efforts now are mainly
concerned with development of techniques for the control of fine partic-
ulates (defined as that fraction of particulate emissions smaller than 3
urn). These small particles remain suspended in the atmosphere and are
easily respirable and absorbable by the body. Fine particulates may
contain toxic trace metals and sulfates, both of which have considerable
impact on health. .One current program seeks to better define the physi-
cal and chemical character of fine particulates. The Agency's present
efforts center on developing adequate detection and measurement methods
and on development and field testing of control methods. Additionally,
EPA is working to improve and demonstrate existing collection capability
for fine particulate control and to identify and ultimately to demon-
strate novel techniques which will offer both economic and performance
advantages over current methods.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND TRENDS
Through 1977, IERL-RTP has achieved .the following major accomplish-
ments for environmental assessment and control technology development
for stationary sources:
0 Development of environmental assessment methodology (prototype
approaches to multimedia, multipollutant problem identification and
control effectiveness evaluation for complex emissions).
0 Large-scale demonstration of physical coal cleaning (Homer City).
0 Development of a new approach to chemical coal cleaning (Meyers'
Gravichem).
0 Environmental assessment program for synthetic fuel plants.
0 Effective demonstration of flue gas recirculation and staged
combustion as combustion modifications for utility and industrial boilers.
0 Large-scale commercial application of lime/limestone flue gas
desulfurization (FGD).
0 Successful start-up of the Wellman-Lord FGD system.
0 Demonstrations underway of three advanced FGD processes: double-
alkali, aqueous carbonate, and citrate.
0 Successful pilot-scale demonstration of hydrocarbon reductions
from petrochemical facilities.
13
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0 Successful testing of at-sea incineration of chlorinated hydro-
carbon wastes and Herbicide Orange.
0 Successful demonstration of zero discharge from fiberglass manu-
facture.
0 Elimination of process condensate water pollutants in the manu-
facture of ammonia.
0 Successful application of a phased approach for environmental
measurements.
0 Commercial application of a coke oven charging system.
0 Successful demonstration of a countercurrent rinse system for
halogen tinplating operations.
0 Successful pilot-scale evaluation of a closed loop sulfuric acid
pickle liquor recovery system.
0 Demonstration of the Koppers/Ford coke pushing system.
0 Evaluation of a wide range of technology for controlling blast
furnace cast house emissions.
0 Assessments of: discharges from mining, beneficiation and pellet-
ization of iron ores; fugitive emissions in the iron and steel industry;
and surface runoff in the iron and steel industry.
0 Determination of the uses and fates of lubricants, oils, greases,
and hydraulic fluids in the iron and steel industry.
0 Successful demonstration of fabric filter systems on both utility
and industrial boilers.
0 Demonstration of a new flux force/condensation scrubber for fine
particulate control.
0 Demonstration of environmentally sound FGD sludge disposal tech-
niques.
0 Development of field-verified models for electrostatic precipi-
tators, fabric filters, and scrubbers.
As to program trends for IERL-RTP, the number and depth of multi-
media environmental assessments will increase, some directed primarily
at specific energy and industrial pollution sources, and others for the
definition of research and development needs for currently unregulated
pollutants.
There will be increased emphasis on the collection, assessment, and
transfer of technical information, with its wider availability to and
use by the commercial sector.
14
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The Laboratory will participate more actively in regulatory and
enforcement programs, particularly those arising from new legislation
and court action.
PROGRAM METHODOLOGY
Over the past 10 years, the Federal Government has gained perspec-
tive and experience concerning its most effective involvement in pollu-
tion control activities. The following considerations support a Feder-
ally coordinated environmental pollution control research and develop-
ment effort:
0 In order to achieve cost-effective environmental pollution
control to protect health and welfare, regulations should be based on a
solid information foundation. This may include such detailed knowledge
about the pollutants as health and welfare effects, sources and amounts,
ambient concentrations, available control technology, and opportunities
for research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) of new control
technology.
0 Few economic incentives exist for private industry to develop
new technology to control environmental pollution, because the-people
benefitting from the control are not the ones directly paying for it.
Traditional forces of the market place tend to preclude industrial
expenditures unrelated to profits.
0 Legal regulatory pressure, coupled with RD&D programs funded
jointly by Government and industry, appears to provide an effective
mechanism to ensure the availability of the necessary advanced environ-
mental pollution control technology. Users will not generally apply
control technology unless required to do so by law. Conversely, it
would appear impractical to shut down large segments of industry if
technically and economically feasible control devices are not available.
Thus joint industry/Government technology development is desirable so
that a common understanding of the availability of technology is shared
by industry and Government.
IERL-RTP PROGRAM AREAS
Programs being pursued by IERL-RTP1s Divisions and Branches reflect
the multimedia and energy-related interests of EPA's Office of Research
and Development.
15
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The Laboratory's functions fall into three natural categories:
utilities and industrial power, energy assessment and control, and
industrial processes. Two other functions, related but not identified
with any other single current program, are supportive of all IERL-RTP
components: special studies, relating to program operations, and process
measurements.
Utilities and Industrial Power
IERL-RTP's Utilities and Industrial Power program aims at ensuring
that adequate controls are available to prevent and abate pollution from
utilities and industrial power sources. To achieve this objective, the
program involves multimedia research, development, demonstration, and
environmental assessment. Major elements of this program include:
environmental assessment of conventional combustion processes, flue gas
desulfurization technology, waste and water utilization and control,
flue gas treatment for NO removal, thermal pollution control, and
J\
particulate control technology.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION PROCESSES
The combustion of fossil fuels has a multimedia environmental
impact due to the emission of harmful and potentially harmful pollutants
from conventional combustion processes. Identification and evaluation
of the impact of these pollutants are essential to the continued and
expanded use of these combustion processes for energy production.
IERL-RTP has long been concerned with the environmental, economic,
and energy impacts of conventional combustion processes, but evaluation
of these impacts has usually been conducted as an ancillary activity in
conjunction with control technology development. Such activities have
produced a sizable, but inadequate and incomplete, data base for the
evaluation and comparison of combustion fuels and processes. This
apparent need led to the initiation of a comprehensive environmental
assessment program in early 1977 to assemble and evaluate past informa-
tion, to determine the extent to which this information meets current
needs, to identify additional information needed, and to develop a
program for the comprehensive assessment of the environmental, economic,
and energy impacts of conventional combustion processes.
Significant work has already been initiated in this new, major
program within IERL-RTP, and extensive additional work is planned. The
16
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active programs within the environmental assessment program consist of
the characterization of emissions from conventional combustion processes;
the assessment of emissions from boilers modified for NO emission
A
control; the assessment of residual oil processing and combustion; a
survey of combustion pollutant research activities nationwide; the
development of a comprehensive, coordinated program format for the
integration of all combustion pollutant assessment of well-controlled,
oil-fired and coal-fired industrial and utility boilers; and the prepara-
tion of the first annual report on the environmental assessment of
conventional combustion processes. Examples of work already scheduled
in the program are: the employment of a systems contractor to assume
the primary role in conducting/coordinating environmental assessment
program activities; the production of interim assessment of program
activities; the production of interim assessment reports by combustion
process type, beginning in January 1978; an annual report of current and
planned intra- and inter-agency assessment activities by March 1978; and
expansion.of the sampling analytical, and assessment efforts, within
budget limitations, to fill the gaps identified by the survey and other
evaluative techniques identified above. The outputs of the program will
provide support to health effects research, to control technology develop-
ment, and to standards modification and development.
FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION TECHNOLOGY
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology is the only near-term
approach to utilizing plentiful high-sulfur coal supplies without exces-
sive deleterious SO emissions. FGD technology development and assess-
/\
ment, therefore, are afforded a high priority. Studies indicate that
FGD will be competitive in cost with advanced control methods (e.g.,
chemical coal cleaning, fluidized-bed combustion); therefore, FGD may
play an important role in controlling emissions even in the post-1980's.
FGD technology has progressed rapidly over the past 5 years.
Several commercial FGD installations are achieving high SO removal
^
efficiency with good reliability. It is believed that lime and lime-
stone FGD processes can now be considered demonstrated technology,
capable of being confidently applied to full-scale utility boilers.
However, more work remains to be done in the FGD technology area, in-
cluding: the development of cost-effective, environmentally acceptable
disposal technology for the large quantities of sludge produced from
17
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lime and limestone systems; the development and demonstration of im-
proved lime and limestone process variations which will minimize cost
and energy usage and improve sludge properties; and the development and
demonstration of economically viable regenerable FGD systems producing
sulfur and sulfuric acid instead of sludge.
For the last 9 years, IERL-RTP has been conducting a comprehensive
FGD development and technology transfer program, which has been instru-
mental in accelerating the commercial viability of FGD technology. This
program has aimed at demonstrating reliable and cost-effective FGD
processes, yielding both nonregenerable (throwaway) products and regener-
able (or salable) sulfur products.
IERL-RTP's major program in the nonregenerable area is the lime/
limestone prototype test program operating in cooperation with the
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) at its Shawnee Steam Plant. This
program has been instrumental in identifying reliable, cost-effective
process variations for both lime and limestone scrubbing systems. Work
continues on developing improved process variations offering cost and
operational advantages over present commercial processes. Also in the
nonregenerable FGD area, IEKL-RTP has initiated a comprehensive program
aimed at identifying environmental problems associated with scrubber
sludge disposal, along with development and evaluation of appropriate
control practices. In order to provide a nonregenerable alternative to
lime/limestone systems, IERL-RTP is now undertaking the demonstration
of the dual-alkali (double-alkali) scrubbing process on a full-scale
coal-fired boiler; this process promises significant reliability and
cost advantages.
In the regenerable FGD area, IERL-RTP has pursued an aggressive
RD&D program aimed at identifying cost-effective processes with wide
applicability producing salable sulfur products. EPA is working with
the Department of the Interior in developing sodium citrate scrubbing, a
promising regenerable system. Other regenerable processes which have
proven to be promising at pilot- or prototype-scale are being evaluated
on full-scale coal-fired utility boilers as part of the IERL-RTP FGD
demonstration program: Wei man-Lord (producing sulfur), magnesium oxide
(producing sulfuric acid), and the aqueous carbonate process (producing
sulfur).
18
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WASTE AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
A comprehensive research and development program is being conducted
by IERL-RTP to evaluate, develop, demonstrate, and recommend environ-
mentally acceptable, cost-effective techniques for disposal and utiliza-
tion of wastes from flue gas cleaning systems, with emphasis on FGD
sludge. Efforts are also being conducted to evaluate and demonstrate
systems for maximizing power plant water recycle/reuse. This program is
•
a continuation and expansion of modest efforts initiated in the late
1960's in support of limestone scrubbing projects.
Program projects include laboratory and pilot field studies of
disposal techniques for untreated and chemically treated FGD sludges
(e.g., lined and unlined ponding and landfill, coal mine disposal, and
at-sea disposal); bench- and pilot-scale testing of FGD sludge utiliza-
tion schemes (e.g., sludge conversion to sulfur with regeneration of
calcium carbonate); and pilot/prototype testing of water treatment
schemes for maximizing overall power plant water recycle/reuse. Engi-
neering cost studies of each process/technique being developed are also
being conducted under this program. In addition, several related proj-
ects are being conducted at TVA under IERL-RTP sponsorship (e.g., fly
ash characterization, disposal, and utilization studies; FGD sludge
solids characterization studies; bench/pilot studies of FGD sludge use
in fertilizers; FGD gypsum marketing studies; and studies of coal pile
drainage, ash pond effluents, and other power plant water discharges).
Results from the program are being published in annual summary
reports beginning with one issued in late 1976.
FLUE GAS TREATMENT FOR N0x CONTROL
Another important part of IERL-RTP1s environmental program relating
to coal combustion is the NO flue gas treatment (FGT) program. The FGT
/v
program has two main elements: strategy and technology assessment, and
experimental projects.
The strategy and technology assessment element is designed to
produce: a detailed state-of-the-art technology assessment; an assess-
ment of the extent to which FGT could be used in an optimized control
strategy for stationary sources; and Information concerning the economic,
energy, and environmental aspects of commercial application of FGT
technology. The experimental projects element is designed to provide
for the development and demonstration of FGT technology for removal of
19
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NO with both high and low SO concentrations and for simultaneous
/\ /\
removal of both NO and SO .
THERMAL POLLUTION CONTROL
Power plants waste enormous amounts of heat energy which is no
longer able to perform useful work in the power production cycle.
Current projections indicate that heat energy wasted by central power
stations in the year 2000 will nearly equal the total U.S. energy con-
sumption in 1970. Under the provisions of the FWPC Act Amendments of
1972, EPA is required to regulate thermal effluents. lERL-RTP's re-
search and development program in the thermal control area supports the
Agency's statutory requirements and falls primarily into two broad
areas: combustion source cooling technology and waste heat utilization.
Programs underway in the former area include analysis of first genera-
tion cooling system performance and economics, assessment of advanced
heat rejection techniques, and development of control technology for
treatment and reuse/recycle of cooling system effluent streams. Waste
heat utilization studies presently underway involve primarily agricul-
tural applications. Aquaculture uses may merit future consideration.
PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
lERL-RTP's program for particulate control is designed to establish
engineering design techniques and performance models, and to improve the
collection efficiency and economics of control devices for particulate
matter.
Attainment of the present primary standard for particulates in some
cases will be difficult and expensive with existing technology; attain-
ment of the secondary standard (or a more stringent primary standard)
appears impossible without improved technology. There are two basic
causes for this: particulate control technology has limited control
capability, in many cases even for coarse particulate; and technical and
economic factors often prevent control technology from being feasible in
specific industrial applications.
IERL-RTP is placing increased emphasis on the control of fine
particulates which persist in the atmosphere, comprise a variety of
known toxic substances, and are major contributors to atmospheric haze
and visibility problems. The objective is the development and demon-
stration of control technologies capable of effectively removing large
fractions of the under-3-|jm size particles from emissions. The techni-
20
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cal approach is to identify capabilities of existing equipment (electro-
static precipitators [ESPs], filters, scrubbers, and proprietary de-
vices), to determine deficiencies in present design and operating proce-
dures, and to pursue remedies for the deficiencies through research and
development. New concepts will be applied as discovered, and successful
advancements in removal technology will be demonstrated. Results will
be applicable to improvements in high-temperature/high-pressure (HTP)
particulate removal devices.
Actual source tests have shown that both ESPs and baghouses should
be capable of controlling fine particulate from a limited number of
sources emitting fly ash. It is quite possible that the applicability
of ESPs to fine particulate control over a broad range of sources can be
extended by developing dust conditioning techniques and by modifying the
design of charging sections and collecting electrodes. A completed
mathematical model for the design of ESPs has been greatly improved,
allowing cost-effective design for specific particulate control technol-
ogy applications. Also completed are demonstrations, on actual sources
at a pilot scale (10,000-30,000 cfm), of a charged droplet scrubber, a
high-throughput fabric filter, and a flux force/condensation scrubber.
In addition, a major program thrust is continuing to find solutions to
the particulate emission problems associated with the burning of, or
switching to, low-sulfur coal by a number of eastern utilities.
Energy Assessment and Control
lERL-RTP's activities relating to energy assessment and control are
focused on two primary objectives: utilities and industrial power, and
energy control technology (fuel processing). Within these objectives
are several energy technology areas:
0 Nitrogen oxides/combustion-pollutant control.
0 Fluidized-bed combustion.
0 Coal cleaning.
0 Synthetic fuels.
0 Advanced oil processing.
The major activities of these multimedia programs—environmental
assessment and control technology development—can best be described in
terms of the components and relationships shown in Figures 5 and 6. An
environmental assessment is a continuing iterative study aimed at: (1)
determining the comprehensive multimedia environmental loadings achiev-
21
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ro
ro
CURRENT PROCESS 1
NOLOGY BACKGRO
• ProceM Information
- Schedule!
* Statui
• Prioritieifor further
CURRENT ENVIROf-
BACKGROU
• Potential Pollute
REGULATORY , Impecti in ell M
REQUIREMENTS * Do!e/RetponM C
• Traniport Model
V1RONMENTAL ENGINEERING ENVIRC
FECH-
JND
I
^ ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ACQUISITION
' Emitting Data for Each Proceu
' Identify Sampling and Analytical
Technique* Including Bioaiuyi
Characterization Level! 1, II, III)
* Input-Output Meterial* Characterization
* Control A May*
MENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIVES
ND DEVELOPMENT
nti ft • Eitebliih Permiuible Media
edie _0 Cone, for Control Develop-
ata merit Guidance
Criteria * Define Deciiion Criteria for
I Priorltiiing Source*,
• Define Emiuion Goal*
• Bioaisey Criteria
NMENTAL SCIENCES
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT
Engineering Analy*il
Baiic ft Applied Proceue* Development
Specific Proceu Development ft
Evaluation
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
• Control Syitarn & Diipoial Option
Information & Deiign Principle
1 Control Proceti Pollution & Impact!
• Proceu Engineering Pollutant/Co*!
Seniitivitv Stud let
• Accidental Releaia. Malfunction,
Traniient Operation Studies
• .'ield Teiting in Related Applica
tioni
• Define Beit Control Technique
for Each Goal
• Pollutant Control Syitemi Studiet
• Control Technology RftD Plan* ft
Goal*
Ye*
/ '*
Maybe / Bett
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES R&D
Trantport/Trantformation Hetearch
yjeed
ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERNATIVES ANALYSES
Comolv with Current
1* E minion/Effluent «,
Uncontrolled Pollutant (dent, end I Practice
Apply Control Option* and Define * or Proposed Ambient "
Coit* (a, 0,7- ...) Std*.
*
Controlled Poll. Cone, end 1 Stay Below Toxiclty- _
Emiwion Rate for Each M Bated Ett. of Per- *
Control Ootlon | mlMlble Cone.
(l1a'"l^'tl7'-) * Compere
T"^ WAD°r!lv * • StlV B"IOW Eit- Ptf '
.„, , .,., ¥.._ _._ Apply • m|«lhl«ftnne. fnr ^
Sum Pollutant! from "fMtiVla1 Zero-Threahold
All Source* A Coitt — — »L "'' ) Pollutant*
•r\ No
rol V— t
7]. ,
\ Output*: /
\ /
• Quantified Control
RftD Need*
• Quantified Control
Alternative*
• Quantified Medl* Degradation
Alternative*
• Quantified N on pollutant
Effect* ft Siting Criteria
Alternative*
^ ENVIRONMENTAL ENGRG
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
|
MEDIA DEG
HEALTH/
• Air. Wat
Quality
• Increeaet
Death
• Ecology
Effect.
• Meterial
Effect*
1ADATION AND
ECOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
ir, ft Land r-m,. -,-.••—
V Quantified/
ISickneeift \ Effect* /
•A Alterne- /
Related \ tlvo /
Releted
Figure 5. Environmental assessment diagram.
-------
CONTROL APPROACHES:
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT
r>o
CO
BASIC AND APPLIED R&D
Bench and Pilot Experimental Studies to
Assess Generic Types for Effectiveness
& Secondary Environmental Problems
Fundamental Studies
ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Review Control Technique Alternatives
Based on Physical/Chemical Conditions,
Pollutant Cone., etc.
Assess Potential for Application (New,
Retrofit, Size, etc.)
Preliminary Design & Cost Studies
Systems Comparisons
SPECIFIC CONTROL PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT,EVALUATION
Conceptual Design & Cost Studies
Optimized Integration in Systems
to Be Controlled
Pilot & Demonstration Studies
Field Testing of State-of-the-Art
and Related Systems
Quantified
Effectiveness,
Economics, &
Energy Costs
MULTIMEDIA
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL
ENGINEERING
MANUAL
• Additions
• Revisions
Figure 6. Control technology development diagram.
-------
able and costs, from the application of the existing and best future
definable sets of control/disposal options, to a particular set of
sources, processes, or industries; and (2) comparing the nature of these
loadings with existing standards, estimated multimedia environmental
goals, and bioassay specifications as a basis for prioritization of
problems/control needs and for judgement of environmental effectiveness.
EPA has been given responsibilities for environmental assessment and
control technology development in the energy area to ensure an indepen-
dent and timely environmental consideration of this national priority.
The primary purpose of environmental assessment and control tech-
nology development activities is to provide a research base supporting
standards development for all EPA's Program Offices. Figure 7 provides
a schematic of the relationship between lERL-RTP's environmental assess-
ment and control technology development activities and the general flow
of activities in the Program Offices aimed at standards development.
Three key information transfer documents are generated for the Adminis-
trator and all Program.Offices:
0 A Standards Support Plan for each process, outlining the schedule
for processing reports generated for use by all Program Offices and
taking into consideration mutual schedules.
0 A Standards Development Research Data Base Report for each process,
covering in depth all environmental assessment information relevant to
existing or needed standards development.
0 A Standards of Practice Manual for each process which covers all
present and proposed environmental requirements and best control/disposal
environmental alternatives for all multimedia pollutants and/or complex
effluents of concern.
NITROGEN OXIDES CONTROL
IERL-RTP activities relating to NOX and other combustion pollutant
control include the following objectives:
0 NO Environmental Assessment/Applications Testing— Determination
^
of the environmental emissions of NO and other combustion-related
J\
pollutants from stationary combustion sources. Evaluation of the environ-
mental effectiveness (compared to the uncontrolled state) of combustion
control modifications including alternative operating conditions, retro-
fit control, maximum stationary source technology (MSST) for existing
24
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IERL Develops
Standards Support
Plan (SSP) for Each
Energy Process
ro
01
IERL Industry
Environmental
Assessment
Standards Development
Research Data Base
Reports Developed by
IERL for Each Energy
Process
IERL Develops Standards of
Practice Manual (SPM) for
Criteria Pollutants. Developed
for Each Uniquely Different Basic
Energy Process (at the Commer-
cial or Demonstration Stage)
IERL Conducts
Control Technology RD&D
IERL Develops a Standards
of Practice Manual (SPM)
for All Other Multimedia
Pollutants of Concern and/or
Complex Effluents of Concern
EPA Program Office Prioritization
Studies for Standards Setting
EPA Program Offices Develop Plan
for Detailed Standards Development
for Specific Energy Processes
and Organize Working
Group
EPA Program Offices Conduct
Engineering Study to Develop
Background Document
EPA Program Offices Conduct Detailed
Internal and External Reviews, Propose in
Federal Register, Conduct Further Reviews,
and Promulgate Standard
Figure 7. IERL-RTP standards development support R&D.
-------
units—extensive retrofit, and MSST for new units—and optimized design
or alternate processes. Significant accomplishments included:
00 Identification and characterization of stationary NO source
categories. A final report, "Inventory of Combustion-Related
Emissions from Stationary Sources (First Update)," -has been
published (EPA-600/2-77-066a)*; the second update is under
preparation.
00 Collection of field test data and establishment of state-of-the-
art combustion control for domestic and commercial heating
systems.
00 Source Analysis Model (SAM) completed as part of environmental
assessment methodology development.
00 Work initiated on Standards Support Plan for combustion processes.
00 Inventory of combustion-related emissions complete.
00 Field testing establishes state-of-the-art of combustion control
for small heating systems.
00 Control technology research and development (R&D) goals for NOX
established.
00 Major environmental assessment contract provides preliminary
assessment of combustion modification techniques.
00 Reports available on 2 year field study of industrial boilers
(EPA-600/2-76-086a, EPA-600/2-76-086b, EPA-600/2-77-122, and
EPA-650/2-74-078a).
00 Guideline manuals issued for space heating service technicians
(EPA-600/2-75-069a, and EPA-600/2-76-088).
00 Guidelines prepared for industrial boiler operators and manu-
facturers (EPA-600/8-77-003a).
00 Guidelines planned for utility boiler operators and manufac-
turers.
00 Pamphlet for homeowners issued—"Get the Most from Your Heating
Dollar—Servicing Cuts Cost and Pollution."
00 Joint EPA/DOE/American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
coal stoker testing project initiated.
*See Bibliography for a listing, in EPA Report Number sequence, of
all IERL-RTP reports distributed during 1977 and/or referred to in this
report.
26
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00 Second Symposium on Stationary Source Combustion held.
00 The quarterly report, "NO Control Review," has been a success-
A
ful technology tool.
00 Joint project started with ESRL-RTP aimed at direct controls for
primary/secondary particulates.
00 Cooperative effort underway with HERL-RTP to plan short-term
direct exposure animal tests.
0 Develop Combustion Modification Technology for NO—Deve1opment
and demonstration of practical combustion modification (CM) technology
for controlling NO and related combustion-generated pollutants from
utility and large industrial, small industrial/commercial and residen-
tial system boilers, industrial process furnaces and afterburners, sta-
tionary engines, and advanced processes. Significant accomplishments
include:
00 Report issued on tangential boilers showing 0.5 lb/10 Btu NO
can be met (EPA-650/2-73-005b).
00 CM applications to cyclone boilers discussed in new report (EPA-
600/7-77-006).
00 CM application to coal-fired boiler showed 50 percent NO re-
duction.
00 Tests completed of low-sulfur western coal in small boilers
showing lower pollution from western coals.
00 Project initiated to define best coal stoker controls.
00 Prototype low-emission residual oil burner fabricated.
00 Six EPA prototype low-emission residential oil furnaces being
field tested.
00 Inhouse testing of gas surface combustion reveals low emissions.
00 Environmental assessment contract underway on industrial process
combustion afterburners.
00 Major control development contract initiated on internal com-
bustion stationary engines.
00 Staged combustion concept for gas turbines shows potential for
low emissions.
00 Low-emission coal burner test facility shows NO emissions below
/\
150 ppm.
00 Low-Btu gas combustion reports issued (EPA-600/7-77-094a and an
unnumbered supplement).
27
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00 Coal combustion pilot tests yield NO emissions as low as 79 ppm.
y\
00 Catalytic combustion shows potential of <10 ppm NO .
00 Exxon contract focusing on post-flame NH, injection for NO
O X
control.
00 Major new contract underway consolidating fundamental studies on
pollutant control.
00 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) grant project has
shown importance of intermediates on NO and POM formation.
FLUIDIZEO-BED COMBUSTION
lERL-RTP's fluidized-bed combustion (FBC) program has the following
objectives:
0 Environmental Assessment—Characterization of air, water, solid
waste, and other environmental problems associated with atmospheric and
pressurized FBC processes; development of environmental objectives; pub-
lication of a best-available technology manual; and provision of an
overall preliminary environmental assessment analysis. lERL-RTP's
program for FBC environmental assessment has produced the following
accomplishments:
00 Standards Support Plan for FBC under development.
00 Major environmental assessment contract on FBC near completion.
00 Comprehensive Level 1 sampling and analysis completed at four
units: atmospheric FBC (AFBC) units with Battelle and Morgan-
town Energy Research Center (MERC)XDOE; pressurized FBC (PFBC)
units with Exxon Minipi ant and British Coal Utilization Research
Association (BCURA), England.
00 Level 1 testing planned for five DOE units: 30 MW AFBC, Rives-
ville; 30 MW PFBC at planned International Energy Agency (IEA)
unit; 10 MW AFBC, Georgetown University; 6 MW AFBC, at combined
test and integration unit (CTIU), MERC/DOE; and 3 MW PFBC, CTIU
at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)/DOE.~
00 Study done for EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
(OAQPS) on relationship of FBC to options for revised NSPS for
power plants.
00 Environmental guidance provided for DOE's FBC program.
00 Potential FBC environmental problem identified requiring control
R&D.
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0 Control Technology Development—Development of laboratory- and
bench-scale multimedia control technology for SO , NO , total partic-
^ ^
ulates, HC, CO, and hazardous and other pollutants from FBC; development
of treatment and final disposal techniques for spent sorbent and ash; and
demonstration of techniques at available pilot facilities. Significant
accomplishments include:
00 Bench-scale air and solids emission control studies underway at
ANL.
00 Granular bed filter tested on the Exxon Minipi ant as an HTP par-
ti cul ate control device.
00 Alternative devices for HTP particulate control under study by
lERL-RTP's Particulate Technology Branch (PATB).
00 PATB's mobile particulate control devices to be used on five FBC
units: 30 MW AFBC, Rivesville; 10 MW AFBC, Georgetown University;
6 MW AFBC, CTIU MERC/DOE; 3 MW AFBC, CTIU ANL/DOE; 2.4 MW AFBC,
Babcock & Wilcox.
00 Preparation completed for testing of integrated Miniplant com-
bustor/regenerator.
00 Preparation underway for large field cell to study disposal of
solid residues from AFBC, Rivesville.
00 FBC Sampling and Analytical Test Rig (SATR) completed at IERL-
RTP, equipped with a wide range of control options to define
best control technologies.
COAL CLEANING
lERL-RTP's objectives relating to physical/chemical coal cleaning
are:
0 Environmental Assessment—Complete characterization of the en-
vironmental problems from existing coal cleaning plants and coal handling
methods; definition of environmental goals for coal cleaning plants as a
function of time; assessment of control technology in relation to these
goals; publication of a manual of recommended practice for near-term
goals; and modeling of the applicability of coal cleaning on a national
and regional basis. Significant accomplishments of this program include:
00 Work initiated on Standards Support Plan for coal cleaning.
00 Draft technology overview report completed.
00 Report issued on environmental contamination from trace elements
in coal preparation wastes (EPA-600/7-76-007).
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00 Report issued on trace elements in coal, their occurrence and
distribution (EPA-600/7-77-064).
00 Concept of Coal Environmental Profile System (CEPS) developed to
facilitate national environmental planning.
00 Environmental test plan and criteria for selection of test sites
under development.
00 NSPS support study completed~"An Evaluation of Physical Coal
Cleaning as an SOp Emission Control Technique."
00 Baseline environmental assessment tests completed for Homer
City coal cleaning demonstration.
0 Control Technology Development—Development and demonstration,
where needed, of the best available technology for multimedia pollution
control from coal cleaning plants, coal storage, and coal transportation
systems in coordination with the standards-setting timetables; develop-
ment and demonstration of advanced technologies for cleaning coal of
sulfur, nitrogen, ash, and potentially hazardous trace pollutants; and
promotion of the commercialization of promising processes. Significant
accompli shments i nclude:
00 Coal cleaning initiative study begun.
00 Contractor active on coal cleaning technology evaluation/develop-
ment covering fine coal cleaning, dewatering and drying, chemical
cleaning processes, preparation plant wastewater control, slurry
sampling, and a mobile test laboratory for evaluation of commer-
cial coal cleaning equipment.
00 Homer City coal cleaning demonstration underway.
00 TRW, Inc. Meyers process pilot plant tests begun, and Gravichem
concept developed to combine physical and chemical cleaning.
00 Improvement studies underway on Battelle's Hydrotherm process.
00 Microwave desulfurization test results show laboratory-scale
feasibility.
00 Completed study on flash desulfurization shows only limited
promise.
00 USBM/DOE studies continuing, including additional cleanability
tests, completion of physical coal cleaning test facility design,
preparation for two stage froth-flotation demonstration testing,
study of stabilization agents for coal preparation wastes, and
completion of report on black water control.
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SYNTHETIC FUELS
lERL-RTP's program on synthetic fuels from coal include several
objectives:
0 Environmental Assessment—Characterization of multimedia pol-
lution and other environmental problems from processes for conversion
of coal to synthetic fuels, development of environmental goals, assess-
ment of control technology in relation to these goals, publication of
standards of practice manuals, and provision of an overall preliminary
environmental assessment analysis. This program has produced substan-
tive results:
00 Environmental methodology advanced by compilation of key multi-
media standards, MEGs, control assays, and the Multimedia En-
vironmental Control Engineering Handbook.
00 Work initiated on Standards Support Plan.
00 Several whole coa-ls analyzed for trace elements.
00 Leachates analyzed from coal processing residues.
00 Lurgi background data report developed for assistance on NSPS
(EPA-600/7-77-057).
00 Laboratory-scale project begun to identify pollutants from
gasification.
00 Testing continuing at existing low-Btu coal gasification sites
including Willputte unit (Level 1 test completed) and Glen Gery
and University of Minnesota units (test planned in cooperation
with DOE and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH).
00 Kosovo gasification tests underway, with first series completed.
00 Support provided to DOE low-Btu industrial gasifier program.
00 Review underway of high-Btu gasification test opportunities.
00 Applicability study underway of refinery environmental controls.
00 Environmental measurements provided for solvent refined coal
(SRC) test burn.
00 Planning begun, with DOE, for environmental tests for SRC Fort
Lewis plant.
0 Control Technology Development—Development, evaluation, and
demonstration of environmentally sound control technology for multi-
media pollution and other environmental problems from synthetic fuel
31
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processes in coordination with goals defined by environmental assessment
studies. Significant accomplishments include:
00 Contractor active on control technology development relating to
products/by-products.
00 Control assays under development as a major tool in providing
design guidance.
00 Applicability of coke oven controls under study.
00 Contractor active on pretreatment, water, and wastes.
00 Contractor active on converter output cleanup.
00 Preparations completed for construction start of raw and acid
gas cleanup facility at North Carolina State University (NCSU).
00 Synthetic fuels wastewater treatment studies underway.
00 Report issued on water use and water treatment for synthetic
fuels processes (EPA-600/7-77-065).
OIL TREATMENT/PROCESSING
Oil Treatment/Processing activities in which IERL-RTP is involved
include the following objectives:
0 Environmental Assessment—Characterization of waste from oil
processing methods and evaluation of the applicability of alternative
advanced oil processing methods for utilization of petroleum residuals;
evaluation of the application of available control technology; and
publication of a manual of best available technology (BAT) in coordina-
tion with the standards-setting timetables. Significant accomplishments
include:
00 Residual oil conversion/utilization identified as a national
multimedia environmental problem with diverse potential con-
sequences ranging from atmospheric sulfates to oil spills.
00 Report generated on current process technology background (EPA-
600/7-77-081).
00 Preliminary environmental assessment of chemically active fluid-
bed (CAFB) process completed.
00 Comprehensive characterization begun on hazardous substances in
residual oil.
00 Sampling plans being developed for residual oil processing/
utilization sources.
0 Control Technology Development—Demonstration at small to moderate
commercial-scale of the CAFB process for converting heavy high-sulfur,
32
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high-metals content residual oils to clean, high-temperature gaseous
fuel; development, demonstration, where needed, of technologies for the
removal of sulfur, nitrogen, and potentially hazardous trace materials
from petroleum, petroleum derivatives, and other liquid fuels; develop-
ment and evaluation of the best-practical control technologies for com-
mercial or near-commercial processes. Significant accomplishments in-
clude:
00 Status report issued on CAFB process development (EPA-600/7-77-
012).
00 First trials completed of CAFB process on coal.
00 Construction 50 percent completed of residual oil and coal de-
sulfurizer (CAFB demonstration on natural-gas-fired plant).
00 Studies underway on CAFB spent sorbent disposal.
Industrial Processes
lERL-RTP's Industrial Processes program seeks to identify, develop,
and demonstrate cost-effective technologies for the abatement of multi-
media pollution associated with industrial processing and manufacturing.
The program involves the identification, characterization, and quantifi-
cation of pollutants from assigned industries; the experimental modifi-
cation of process equipment, operations, raw materials, and products;
and the application of control processes, devices, or systems.
It is important to understand the difference between development of
control technology for energy processes and for industrial processes.
The DOE is the major organization in the energy area; however, EPA is
the lead organization in the control of industrial pollution. EPA thus
has primary responsibility for carrying out both the environmental
assessment of industrial pollution and the development of technology to
control industrial pollution.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
lERL-RTP's Chemical Processes Branch is responsible for developing
appropriate pollution control techniques for several different indus-
trial categories: textiles; pesticides; fertilizers; petroleum refining;
petrochemicals; and at-sea incineration of industrial waste. In addi-
tion, the Branch is conducting a major discharge characterization project
for conventional combustion systems. The emphasis of all the projects
is to devise systems capable of reducing to an acceptable level all
pollutants to all media. If the projects are successful, once the
33
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control technology is implemented, discharges from these industrial
sources should not create an unacceptable environmental risk within the
capability to make those judgments at this time.
Models have been established and priority listings generated which
are based on the potential of discharges of any given source type to
create an unacceptable environmental risk. These priorities are used as
a basis for selecting industrial sources to be included in an assessment
for problem definition. The assessment program is necessary because, in
general, the nature of environmental discharges, including estimates of
toxicity and chemical composition, is not known. The assessment program
consists of defining various industry categories and obtaining a quanti-
tative description of the discharges from that industry segment. A
comparison is made of the discharge levels, with estimates of acceptable
levels for pollutants contained in the discharge, to obtain a quantita-
tive determination of the extent of reduction required for the discharge
not to create an unacceptable environmental risk. As a result of the
inadequacy of the data base for decision-making of this type, the majority
of the effort in the Chemical Processes Branch this year has been directed
toward assessment programs. Major activities have included testing of
eight refineries for air pollutant emissions, completion of a first-of-a-
kind bioassay screening and analytical study of textile mill wastewaters,
initiation of a water and air assessment program for the pesticides
industry, and completion of several assessments in the fertilizer and
petrochemical areas. Included are assessments for aerylorn"trile, carbon
black, ammonium nitrate, and synthetic ammonia industries.
Technology development programs are implemented as a result of the
assessment studies. Technologies included in the program for development
are based on their control efficiencies, costs, energy requirements,
long-term and broad-range applicability, reliability, and maintenance
requirements. An example of a technology development project is the
pilot-scale testing of a novel approach to reducing emissions from
liquid hydrocarbon storage facilities. Losses from these facilities are
a major portion of the stationary source hydrocarbon emissions in the
U.S. This particular development, if successful, should result in a
greater than 95 percent reduction of those emissions. Another example
of technology programs of the type felt to be important is the develop-
ment of a proprietary carbon regeneration program. A major deficiency
34
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of carbon sorption techniques for pollution control is the cost associ-
ated with carbon regeneration. The technique being developed promises to
reduce cost by 50 to 75 percent and would greatly improve the probability
of the implementation of carbon sorption systems for water and air
pollution control.
A third major program in the area of control technology is the
testing of state-of-the-art technologies to determine their applicability
and cost in the textile industry. By the end of the year, eight textile
mills will have been tested and data analyzed to determine the applica-
bility of these technologies. In addition, carbon sorption and biologi-
cal system treatability studies are underway to determine their applica-
bility to pesticides manufacturing effluents. Results of these studies
will serve in part as a basis for water pollution control standards for
the textile and pesticides industries.
METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
lERL-RTP's Metallurgical Processes Branch (MPB) has been assigned
multimedia responsibility for the ferrous metallurgical industry. In-
cluded are the production of steel, iron and steel foundries, and the
manufacture of ferroalloys. The program is concerned with both environ-
mental assessment and technology development.
The work in the iron and steel industry involves activities that
impact upon virtually all the processes. Included are: mining, benefi-
ciation, and pelletization of the ores; sintering; cokemaking and blast
furnaces; steelmaking; forming and finishing; and miscellaneous proc-
esses and effects.
For the mining, beneficiation, and pelletization of iron ore, a
study to assess the air pollutant effects is nearing completion. In
sintering, a demonstration project, expected to be completed in July
1978, recycles the windbox gas to minimize the emission of hydrocarbons
resulting from oils and lubricants in the feed material. The recycle
system is working well, and the final report will provide data on the
overall performance of the system including final gas cleanup.
The cokemaking and blast furnace work includes projects on coke
plant pushing control, door seals, quench tower emissions, control of
blast furnace cast house emissions, and design, construction, and op-
eration of a portable waste treatment system for coke plant and blast
furnace wastewaters. Several of these projects, including demonstration
35
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of a retrofittable coke pushing control and a study of techniques for
controlling blast furnace cast house emissions, have been completed.
The projects on an enclosed coke pushing system for new coke batteries
and the quench tower tests are in progress. The portable wastewater
treatment system for coke plant and blast furnace wastewaters will
ultimately assist in achieving best available technology environmentally
acceptable (BATEA), by the industry, for these sources. Finally an
assessment is underway for discharges from the coke by-product recovery
plant.
The steelmaking portion of the program includes a project to develop
technology for controlling fugitive emissions evolved during charging of
basic oxygen process (BOP) vessels. This project, now complete, had its
results developed while operating with a 1 ton pilot vessel. A second,
recently started project is to evaluate control of fugitive emissions
from the BOP by foreign steelmakers.
The forming and finishing of steel included two recently completed
projects. The first, developed at bench scale, is a completely closed
process for treatment of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate recovered from
waste pickle liquor solution. The second was for development and demon-
stration of a countercurrent rinse system for a high-speed, continuous
halogen tinplating line, which discharges a more treatable, low volume,
high concentration waste stream.
A number of miscellaneous assessment projects are nearly complete.
Included is a project on fugitive emissions from iron and steel plants
which, among other results, has developed emission factors for several
open sources at iron and steel plants. Another project is developing
the first hard data on quantities and characteristics of surface runoff
from iron and steel plants. An additional project, assessing the uses
and fates of lubricants, oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids, is pro-
ducing, among other outputs, a material balance for these substances in
the industry. Other projects are assessing foundry processes, increased
discharges resulting from abnormal operating conditions, and emissions
from closed ferroalloy furnaces.
A major project, started during 1977, is an engineering study for
achieving zero-discharge at five typical steelmaking plants. The results
36
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are expected to show how levels of control equivalent to BATEA, or
better, can be economically achieved at most plants.
Process Measurements
The Process Measurements Branch (PMB) is responsible for all IERL-
RTP measurements programs. Major areas of activity are carried out
through a coordinated contract/inhouse effort. Program areas include
methods evaluation and development, review of test programs and proposals,
evaluation of test results, on-site troubleshooting, and special field
studies. Inhouse activities include coordination of measurement programs
with IERL-RTP needs, review of the measurement aspects of all procurement
plans and proposals, and specialized measurements to fill gap areas.
Contract activities include method development, measurement program
reviews, and on-site troubleshooting. Six specific areas of expertise
are available through the contracting program: inorganic sampling and
analysis, organic sampling and analysis, particulate sampling, fugitive
emissions, HTP measurement, and quality assurance.
The current major thrust of PMB's work is in support of IERL-RTP's
environmental assessment program. The major objective is development of
a conceptual approach to a coherent sampling and analytic program suit-
able for application to a wide variety of environmental assessment
programs. Concurrently, work is conducted in the areas of quality
assurance and control equipment evaluation as techniques, methodology,
and instrumentation continue to be improved and expanded. The PMB is
publishing a series of technical and procedural manuals oriented toward
IERL-RTP project requirements.
Details of the PMB program are described later in this report.
Program Operations
A majority of this report concerns details of programs relating to
IERL-RTP line divisions. The fourth IERL-RTP organizational group, the
Office of Program Operations, provides staff technical and program
administrative support to the Office of the Director, IERL-RTP. This
support encompasses program and project analysis, review, planning, and
data analysis and interpretation.
SPECIAL STUDIES
Within the Office of Program Operations, the Special Studies Staff
provides technical analysis and assessment support to the Office of the
37
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Director. This function includes broad technical assistance in program
planning, guidance, and review; recommendations to the Laboratory Director
for program direction; technical assistance to Laboratory components in
data analysis and interpretation; and technical evaluation of projects
or programs as may be requested by the Laboratory Director or other
Laboratory components. Other services provided by the Special Studies
Staff include management of engineering services contracts and consul-
tation on technical aspects of Laboratory computerized data processing
applications.
Technical analyses of several Laboratory programs were conducted or
initiated during the year, including a new flue gas desulfurization
demonstration proposal. In addition to Laboratory projects, a number of
unsolicited grant and contract proposals were reviewed and appropriate
recommendations regarding them were made to the Laboratory Director. In
order to provide IERL-RTP with an awareness of programs and activities in
other laboratories, special liaison is maintained with such laboratories
involving health effects, ambient air quality studies, and standards
development which may have significance upon control technology develop-
ment. In this regard, Special Studies Staff prepared IERL-RTP1s contri-
bution to the criteria document for lead ambient air quality as part of
an inter-laboratory Office of Research and Development (ORD) task force.
During the past year, several major projects were either initiated
or continued in support of particular Laboratory or ORD objectives.
These include the continued development and operation of a computerized
information system on fine particle emissions from stationary sources,
the initiation of an integrated assessment of coal-based energy tech-
nologies, the formulation of standard cost-estimating procedures for use
in control technology demonstration projects, an environmental assess-
ment of energy supply systems using fuel cells, the initiation of a
comprehensive computerized data storage and retrieval system for emis-
sions data from. IERL-RTP's Environmental Assessment projects, and an
overview of the environmental implications of future lignite coal devel-
opment in Texas.
The computerized Fine Particle Emissions Information System (FPEIS)
provides an extensive compilation of data on stationary source testing
and evaluation of control technology. Data which may be found in the
38
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FPEIS include particle size distributions; results of chemical and bio-
logical analysis of the particulate sample; process description of the
source; design and operating parameters of applied control technology;
and description of the measurement equipment and techniques employed
during data collection. By the end of 1977, more than 2000 sampling
measurements taken from over 100 test activities had been stored in the
FPEIS. Requests for data reports and/or FPEIS documentation have
exceeded four per month during the first year of operation.
The Integrated Assessment of Coal-Based Energy Technologies will
identify, describe, compare, and quantify where possible the range and
magnitude of biophysical, socio-economic, and energy impacts of the
development and deployment of such energy technologies, supply systems,
and end uses. From this total assessment, alternative policies will be
recommended that will achieve the best balance of environmental quality,
energy efficiency, economic costs, and social benefits, and strategies
will be proposed for policy implementation. During 1977, a detailed
Work Plan was developed that incorporates these objectives. The actual
assessment work was initiated in July 1977 and will cover a 30-month
period of study.
In order to meet the need for a complete, consistent economic evalu-
ation methodology for pollutant emissions control facilities, a standard
procedure has been developed by Special Studies Staff primarily to assist
Project Officers and Administrators in estimating capital and operating
costs and in assessing economic feasibility. The procedures will also
serve as a specification on costs and economics for contractors or
investigators.
The Environmental Assessment of Energy Supply Systems Using Fuel
Cells examines the potential role of emerging fuel cell technology in
the Nation's future as a localized source of energy for multi-family
residential heating and cooling. Consistent with current energy policy
emphasis, the study focuses upon coal-derived fuels for use in fuel cell
applications. Close cooperation with concurrent Department of Energy
(DOE) programs is maintained to ensure that maximum benefits may be
obtained by both the DOE and IERL-RTP programs. A similar dialogue has
been established and is being maintained with the Electric Power Research
Institute, the Department of Defense, and the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration regarding their fuel cell-related programs.
39
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The Environmental Assessment Data Systems (EADS) concept has been
initiated to provide a consistent, cost-effective mechanism for the
handling and analysis of waste stream data from lERL-RTP's Environmental
Assessment projects. When the EADS becomes operational, the FPEIS will
become a component of the EADS. Data systems presently intended for
inclusion in the EADS are a gaseous emissions data base, a liquid ef-
fluents data base, and a solid waste data base. Other components may be
added as required by the Laboratory's Environmental Assessment programs.
Similar special studies will be conducted in the future as needed
to respond to the evolving mission and interest of IERL-RTP.
40
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UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER
lERL-RTP's work in the area of utilities and industrial power can
be subdivided into three functional groupings: process technology,
emissions and effluent technology, and particulate technology. The
following subsections of this report discuss these groupings separately.
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
Flue Gas Desulfurization—Regenerable Processes
SODIUM SULFITE/BISULFITE SCRUBBING WITH THERMAL REGENERATION
(WELLMAN-LORD/ALLIED CHEMICAL)
IERL-RTP and NIPSCO have jointly funded the design and construction
of a flue gas cleaning demonstration utilizing the Wellman-Lord (W-L)
SOp recovery process. The Allied Chemical SOp reduction process is
being used with the W-L process to convert the recovered SOp to elemental
sulfur. The total $11 million cost for design, construction, and start-
up has been borne equally by IERL-RTP and NIPSCO. Operational costs for
the system will be borne solely by NIPSCO, and a detailed test and
evaluation program is being funded by IERL-RTP. The demonstration
system has been retrofitted to the 115 MW, coal-fired Boiler No. 11 at
the D.H. Mitchell Station in Gary, Indiana. Construction is complete,
and the FGD plant acceptance test was completed successfully. The plant
has begun a 1 year demonstration test during which information will be
collected and reported regarding pollution control performance, secondary
effects, economics, and reliability of the system. (See photo.)
Phase I of the three-phase program, completed in December 1972,
entailed the development of a process design, major equipment specifica-
tions, and a detailed cost estimate. Phase II, the final design and
construction, was completed by Davy Powergas, Inc. (owner of the W-L
process) in August 1976. Davy constructed both the W-L and Allied
Chemical portions of the system. After the completion of start-up
activities, the plant was operated by Allied Chemical under contract
with NIPSCO. During the demonstration year a comprehensive test and
evaluation program will be carried out by TRW, under contract with IERL-
RTP.
The W-L process utilizes a sodium sulfite/sodium bisulfite solution
to .absorb S02 from gas streams containing a wide range of inlet S02
concentrations. Spent absorbent, rich in bisulfite, is processed in a
41
-------
Wellman-Lord process being demonstrated,
-------
steam-heated evaporator/crystalTizer, regenerating active sodium sulfite
and a stream of S02 for further processing. The basic chemistry of the
W-L process, represented simply, is:
Absorption--
S02 + Na2S03 + H20 -» 2NaHS03
Regeneration—
2NaHSO- . a. > Na0S004 + S00t + H00t
3 heat 23 2 2
The process generates inactive sodium sulfate by three mechanisms: SO-
absorption, disproportionate, and sulfite oxidation. In order to
maintain adequate levels of active sodium sulfite and to avoid excessive
steam demand, it is necessary to purge sodium sulfate from the absorber/
evaporator loop. Since the purge results in the need to dispose of or
market an additional system product as well as loss of useful sodium
ions, much emphasis has been placed on purge minimization in development
of the demonstration system.
The S0« product from the W-L process is suitable for recovery in
three forms: liquid S02, sulfuric acid, and elemental sulfur. For
purposes of the IERL-RTP/NIPSCO demonstration, the Allied Chemical S02
reduction process is being applied to generate elemental sulfur. This
process utilizes natural gas as a reductant in a proprietary catalytic
reactor system. The process has been demonstrated on a large scale,
treating a 12 percent S02 gas stream from a nickel ore roaster at Sudbury,
Ontario.
The NIPSCO demonstration has been very successful to date. The
unit met all of the acceptance test criteria, achieving 91 percent S09
6
removal, particulate emissions of 0.04 lb/10 Btu, and a sulfur product
of 99.9 percent purity. Sodium carbonate makeup and utilities costs
were within targets. The demonstration test year began September 16,
1977. The FGD plant will follow normal boiler operation (start-up,
shutdown, load changes, fuel charges, etc.) during the demonstration
test year. The primary concern during the test year will be the collec-
tion and evaluation of performance and economic data. TRW will prepare
a final report which will present the"data collected over the 1 year
period.
43
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AQUEOUS CARBONATE PROCESS (ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL)
IERL-RTP and Empire State Electric Energy Research Corporation
(ESEERCO), a research organization sponsored by New York's eight major
utilities suppliers, have contracted to fund jointly the design and
construction of a demonstration of Atomics International's sulfur-
producing aqueous carbonate process (ACP). In addition to its $8 million
share of the expected $22 million in project cost, IERL-RTP will fund a
detailed test and evaluation program. The demonstration is being retro-
fitted to Niagara Mohawk Power Company's 100 MW coal-fired Huntley
Station in Tonawanda, New York.
The demonstration is being conducted in four phases. Phase I, the
preliminary design and cost estimate, was completed in May 1977; Phase
II, construction, is scheduled to be completed by 1980; Phase III,
acceptance, will follow in 1981; and Phase IV, a 1 year test and evalua-
tion program, will be initiated immediately after Phase III. The Phase
I results are presently being evaluated, and a decision will soon be
made on continuing the program.
In the aqueous carbonate process (see following illustration),
sodium carbonate is contacted with the flue gas in a spray dryer. A
reaction with S02 takes place, forming sodium sulfite as a dry powder
which is collected and regenerated as follows. The dry product is fed,
along with carbon (in the form of either coal or coke), to a molten salt
bath, which is maintained at 900 to 1000°C. The sulfite is reduced to
sulfide, and carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide. The molten sodium
sulfide is solidified, broken up, and dissolved in water, and the solu-
tion is filtered to remove ash. The clarified solution is then contacted
with the carbon dioxide-rich off-gas from the reduction step to regen-
erate sodium carbonate and evolve hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen sulfide
is fed to a Claus plant where elemental sulfur is produced.
CITRATE PROCESS
IERL-RTP and the USBM have entered into a cooperative agreement to
pool funds and technical talents to demonstrate the citrate process
which has been developed through pilot scale by the USBM. A concurrent
development program, carried out by an industrial consortium headed by
Pfizer Chemical Company, also led to successful pilot operation of the
process (see schematic). Based on the success of these two pilot pro-
grams, IERL-RTP and the USBM have initiated the demonstration of this
44
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EXISTING STACK
EXISTING
POWER
PLANT
O
8
f
4
TING
:AN
• •"*
1
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& NEW ID
Q w FAN
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UJ
OC
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t
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ENTRAINED ^
SOLIDS
<
o
z
2
o
PRODUCT
'COLLECTION
REDUCER OFF-GAS
o"
H20
; ,
SULFUR
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SOLUTION
QUENCH AND
I '
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i r 1 1* i nrA i iv/iii
-
is (
REDUCTION
AIR
'COKE
;
H2S-HICH
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ELEMENTAL
SULFUR
ASH AND
COKE
Aqueous carbonate process,
-------
CTi
GAS CLEANING
AND
COOLING
CLEANED AND
COOL Ed GAS
FLUE
GAS
«r*"j.| 1
H20-
S02 ABSORPTION
TO ATMOSPHERE
ski ^* Jf*
S02
LIQUOR
SULFUR PRECIPITATION
AND
SOLUTION REGENERATION
SULFUR SEPARATION
H2S -
H2S GENERATION
RECYCIU.1DUOR
C02
i.
0o
SULFUR
SLURRY
SULFUR\c
POWDER
MOLTEN SULFUR
STEAM
REDUCTANT
GAS
The Citrate process.
-------
technology on a 53 MW coal-fired boiler at St. Joe Minerals Corporation
in Monaca, Pennsylvania (coal to be at least 2.5 percent sulfur). The
contract between the USBM and St. Joe Minerals was signed in June 1976,
and Phase I, initial design and cost estimation, was completed in Novem-
ber 1976. Construction of the system is due to be completed in September
1978. Radian Corporation has been selected as the test contractor.
Start-up and performance testing are expected to be completed by December
1978 to be followed by a 1 year demonstration program.
COMPARATIVE ECONOMICS OF S02 CONTROL PROCESSES
TVA, under an interagency agreement, is being funded by EPA to
prepare cost estimates of the most promising FGD processes. The citrate
and generic dual-alkali processes are presently being evaluated, and
several more processes will soon be added. TVA is also evaluating
alternative methods for disposal of lime/limestone scrubbing waste
(sludge).
MARKETING ABATEMENT SULFUR/SULFURIC ACID
By-products of flue gas desulfurization processes fall into two
categories: throwaway and salable. In the latter category are sulfur,
sulfuric acid, and (to a much lesser extent) gypsum.
Under interagency agreement with IERL-RTP, TVA has studied the
economics of marketing sulfuric acid that could theoretically be produced
from coal-fired plants. In an initial phase of the study TVA assumed
that it would be the only utility producing abatement acid and that the
existing production, distribution, and marketing patterns would be
changed only slightly by the introduction of abatement acid. The objec-
tive was the creation of a model for estimating the net sales revenue to
TVA. Of the total 18,109 MW of TVA's coal-fired capacity, it was assumed
that 9,806 MW would be considered for sulfuric acid production. The
study made no attempt to select a process or to estimate production
costs: it was assumed that the acid would have a zero value at the
point of production.
Results indicate that the net sales revenue of abatement acid would
be $6 to $9 per ton of 98 percent sulfuric acid, and might reduce the
cost of operating a power plant SOp control system by 10 to 20 percent.
The final report of this initial study is available from NTIS (EPA-650/2-
73-051).
47
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A second phase of the marketing study has now been completed. In
this phase, TVA considered all potential abatement acid or elemental
sulfur from power plants located in states that are served by the inland
waterway system in the Eastern U.S. These include states bordering the
Mississippi River and its navigable tributaries, the Great Lakes, and
the Eastern Seaboard: Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Texas, and all states east of these. Furthermore, unlike the model
produced in the first phase, the one produced in this phase is not a
hypothetical model, but is based on the actual utility and sulfuric acid
plant population of the region in question. Moreover, TVA's computer
program considered compliance with sulfur dioxide emissions standards
and identified optimum production and distribution patterns based on
freight costs and market demand. As in the first phase, the net sales
revenue was estimated. A preliminary report of this work was prepared
in March 1976. Based on the favorable results obtained so far, this
second phase had been expanded to include abatement acid or elemental
sulfur from power plants throughout the contiguous 48 states. The
project has also been expanded to include marketing of ammonium sulfate
and calcium sulfate (gypsum) in addition to sulfur and sulfuric acid.
A final report covering the marketing:of abatement sulfur, sulfuric
acid, and calcium sulfate is planned for early 1978. A report on the
use of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and ammonium sulfate in fertilizer produc-
tion and marketing is also planned for 1978.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS/INFORMATION TRANSFER
lERL-RTP's Process Technology Branch initiated a program in 1976 to
disseminate air pollution control technology data and information to
meet the needs of the user community more effectively. In the past the
technology information dissemination responsibility was attempted pri-
marily through periodic symposia, reports, and personal communication.
These activities were continued in 1977, as exemplified by the Fourth
FGD Symposium held in November 1977, but were augmented by the first
outputs of a comprehensive Engineering Applications/Information Transfer
(EA/IT) program.
Three issues of the FGD Quarterly Report—a progress report on
EPA's FGD research, development, and demonstration projects—were dis-
tributed during the year. This report will be continued in 1978. In
addition, two quarterly reports were issued surveying non-utility com-
48
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bustion sources that are applying or considering the application of
various strategies for SO,, control. This report will be updated quar-
terly in 1978 for SO^ control systems on industrial boilers.
Other activities underway in 1977 will produce materials for dis-
tribution in 1978. A series of summary reports will be issued on key
FGD processes: Wellman-Lord, lime/limestone, magnesium oxide, dual-
alkali, citrate, and aqueous carbonate.
Another specific facet of the comprehensive EA/IT program is a flue
gas cleaning decision model. Objectives of this model are to assist
potential users in choosing an S02 compliance strategy, selecting an FGD
process, and evaluating specific process features. The model will
enable informed decision-making which should result in earlier opera-
tional dates, lower costs, and increased operability/availability of FGD
systems.
In a related activity, PEDCO Environmental, Inc. is preparing a
comprehensive set of Data Books on lime and limestone FGD processes to
aid in design, selection, and evaluation of processes and process fea-
tures. Preparation of the Data Books is being co-funded by IERL-RTP and
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
NO Emission Control by Flue Gas Treatment
The objective of IERL-RTP's NO FGT program is to provide highly
/\
efficient NO and simultaneous NO /SO control technology for appli-
X XX
cation to utility and large industrial combustion sources. The program
is oriented toward enhancing the development of the technology and
toward determining if and when the technology will be needed in the U.S.
As a result, the FGT program has evolved into small-scale experimental
projects in parallel with control strategy and technology assessment
studies.
FGT processes attempt to remove NO from the gaseous products of
J\
combustion. In general, the processes can be classified as either dry
or wet processes. The most developed dry process is selective catalytic
reduction of NO using ammonia as the reductant. The wet processes are
/\
generally modifications of flue gas desulfurization scrubber systems.
FGT technology should be able to reduce NO emissions by 90 percent and
J\
has the potential for 90 percent simultaneous control of both NO and
SO emissions.
49
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STRATEGY AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
The control strategy and technology assessment studies are mainly
paper research studies to assess NO and NO /SO processes, to examine
/\ J\ /\
various aspects of FGT control technology, to determine if and when NO
^\
FGT technology will be needed in the U.S., and to aid in determining the
appropriate scale of the hardware experimental projects.
Assessment of Japanese Technology
Since Japanese technology in this field is more advanced than that
of any other country, the Process Technology Branch has sponsored the
publication of periodic reports and papers to facilitate the transfer of
information on NO and NO /SO abatement technology from Japan. These
f\ f\ S\
documents have been prepared mainly by Dr. Jumpei Ando of Chuo University
in Tokyo, Japan. The most recent reports were published in September
1977 and are entitled, "S02 Abatement for Stationary Sources in Japan,"
and "NOX Abatement for Stationary Sources in Japan," EPA-600/7-77-103a
and b, respectively. The reports will be updated in 1978.
Economic Assessments of NO FGT Processes
^""^"™ ~~ —_ir_-—_-_. _ ._ . .— - ' J\~~ —"'"•- '-- -™^^"^™^™»
The TVA, through an interagency agreement with EPA is developing
comparative economics of NO and NO /SO FGT emission control processes.
J\ J^ A
This state-of-the-art review will be conducted in two phases. In Phase
I, the technical feasibility of all candidate NO control processes
A
being offered in the U.S. and Japan was evaluated and summarized. The
Phase I report, "Technical Assessment of NO Removal Processes for
A
Utility Application" includes descriptions of about 45 processes and was
published late in 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-127). Phase II will concentrate on
eight processes selected for further analysis in Phase I and will in-
clude a preliminary economic assessment of each, including development
of material and energy balances. In addition, a direct comparison of
the economic and technical feasibility of the dry and wet processes will
be made to determine the most effective method to remove NO and SO
r\ J\
from combustion flue gas. The Phase II report should be available late
in 1978. The first two phases of the project are co-funded by IERL-RTP
and the EPRI. EPA is planning a third phase of the project to prepare
detailed economic projections of as many as four of the most promising
processes. This activity should be completed early in 1979.
50
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Assessment of Critical FGT Process Features
A series of studies is planned to evaluate critical features of FGT
processes. A 1976 study ("Technology and Economics of Flue Gas NO
J\
Oxidation by Ozone," EPA-600/7-76-033) evaluated the supply, demand,
and energy consumption of ozone, the oxidizing agent used in many wet
processes. A comparable document is being prepared on ammonia, the
reductant used in dry selective catalytic reduction processes. The
study will examine the cost and energy requirements of ammonia utili-
zation by NO control processes for a typical utility application. In
/\
addition, the impact on the supply, demand, and cost of ammonia world-
wide will be analyzed. The ammonia study, performed by TVA through an
interagency agreement with EPA, should be available early in 1978.
NO Control Strategy Assessment
A
Under an IERL-RTP task order, Radian Corporation is seeking to
determine the potential effectiveness of applying NO controls to large
/\
stationary combustion sources. The Chicago Air Quality Control Region
(AQCR) was selected for a modeling study of emissions from point, area,
and mobile sources to determine the relative impact of each category on
ambient NO concentrations. The calibrated dispersion model predictions
^\
of annual average concentrations indicate that the major point sources,
which contributed nearly 40 percent of the total NO emissions in Chi-
/\
cago, accounted for less than 10 percent of the ambient N0« levels in
1974. Preliminary investigation of expected short-term concentrations
of total NO shows that major point sources may contribute as much as 80
/\
percent of measured NO levels. Therefore, it appears that although
y\
stringent NO control for large point sources may be required to meet a
potential short-term NOp standard, it cannot be justified currently on
the basis of the existing annual average N09 standard. However, NO
£ A
emissions from stationary combustion sources are expected to increase
significantly in the next decade. As a result of these findings, the
Chicago AQCR modeling study was expanded to determine more accurately
the short-term ambient N02 levels, to project the annual and short-term
N0? concentrations to 1985, and to assess the use of NO emission control
t. A
on stationary combustion sources to attain or maintain compliance with
possible N02 ambient short-term and annual average standards. The
results of this study should be available by early 1978.
51
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Another Radian Corporation study is seeking to determine key factors
relating to if and when NO FGT technology will be needed in the U.S.
/\
Since research and development of a technology should lead its applica-
tion by several years, it is necessary to monitor factors which could
require implementation of NO FGT technology in the near future. By
J\
these efforts, the decision to emphasize, maintain, or terminate the
research, development, and demonstration of NO FGT technology can be
/\
based on the best available information. Results of this study should
also be available in early 1978.
EXPERIMENTAL PROJECTS
Experimental projects have been directed toward enhancing the
evolution of FGT technology from bench-scale research to full-scale
demonstration on coal-fired sources by the mid-19801s. The technology
must be applicable to utility and large industrial combustion sources
and must achieve highly efficient NO and simultaneous NO /SO control
t\ n /\
in a relatively energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and economical
manner.
Pilot Plant Evaluation of Coal-Firing
The next phase of the experimental program is evaluation of FGT
processes on a coal-fired application. A request for proposal was
issued in September 1976, and best and final offers have been evaluated.
It is contemplated that two contracts will result from this procurement
process: one will be for a pilot plant to evaluate removal of NO
/\
emissions; the other, to evaluate simultaneous removal of NO and SO.
X X
However, budgetary constraints and technical considerations may affect
the final decision.
The pilot plants must treat a flue gas volume equivalent to 0.5 MW
and achieve a NO removal efficiency of 90 percent. For the simultaneous
J\
control of NO and SO , 90 percent removal of both pollutants must be
A J\
achieved. The projects will each consist of a 24 month program which
will be conducted in four phases. Phase I includes preparation of a
detailed process design and an estimation of capital and operating costs
for the plant. Following erection of the plant and mechanical acceptance
testing in Phase II, the contractor will perform system start-up and
debugging, parametric testing, and optimization testing over a wide
range of flue gas conditions during Phase III. Phase IV provides for
testing and evaluation of the plant during 90 days of continuous opera-
52
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tion. It is currently anticipated that final reports will be published
on the results of plant operations in early 1980. A project manual
conveying the total concept of the proposed plant is planned in 1978.
The projects will enable an assessment of the technical, environ-
mental, energy, and economic aspects of applying NO and NO /SO FGT
J\ J\ /\
technology to U.S. coal-firing. This information, in conjunction with
the control strategy and technology assessment studies, will provide
technical and budgetary direction and emphasis for EPA's NO and NO /SO
FGT program.
Environmental Assessment of Conventional Combustion Sources
Over the past decade, billions of dollars and millions of manhours
have been spent by Government agencies and private organizations to
identify, evaluate, and develop technology to control the adverse impacts
of energy development on the Nation's environment. Most of these studies
have had relatively specific objectives; e.g., identifying emissions
from a particular process, evaluating the effects of a known compound,
or developing technology to control a single pollutant. To date, how-
ever, few, if any, studies have approached the environmental issue in a
comprehensive integrated manner. As the number of such studies prolifer-
ates, it becomes necessary to channel these efforts into systematic,
coordinated environmental assessments of the various energy technologies.
The methodology to conduct such integrated environmental assessments
must be carefully developed by a multi-disciplinary group, understood by
all environmentalists, and accepted by those involved in the coordinated
efforts.
IERL-RTP has been active in developing and applying such integrated
methodology through its Combustion Pollutant Assessment (CPA) program.
The CPA is a major program aimed toward determining the environmental,
economic, and energy impacts of multimedia emissions of pollutants from
stationary industrial, utility, residential, and commercial conventional
combustion sources.
Mitre Corporation's Metrek Division is helping to plan the CPA
program. The objective of Mitre's task-is to develop a coordinated plan
for conducting the CPA program. In addition, guidelines will be formu-
lated for procuring services to implement the program.
The concept of the CPA program is that a "system contractor" will
be selected by IERL-RTP, and that management of the desired environmental
53
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assessments will be left to that contractor, who may either do the work
inhouse or subcontract all or portions of it. Communication of the
results of the CPA program will be centered in a series of annual reports
summarizing CPA activities and results during the preceding year. Mitre
is preparing the first such report, scheduled for issue March 31, 1978.
In addition, briefings, seminars, and publications will be used to
disseminate information on the*CPA program.
EMISSIONS/EFFLUENT TECHNOLOGY
Flue Gas Desulfurization—Nonregenerable Processes
LIME/LIMESTONE WET. SCRUBBING
These processes involve the wet scrubbing of fossil-fuel boiler
flue gas (from power plant or industrial commercial sources) with lime-
stone or lime slurries to remove SO and particulate pollutants. Results
s\
of many studies, ranging from pilot- to full-scale, indicate that the
processes are capable of high pollutant removal efficiencies with accept-
able reliability.
IERL-RTP is supporting several lime/limestone research, development,
and demonstration programs. A test program is being conducted, using
two parallel multiple-configuration 10 MW prototype units at TVA's
Shawnee power plant. This program is being supplemented by an IERL-RTP
inhouse pilot plant. A program involving carbide and commercial lime
scrubbing tests and an evaluation of scrubber waste treatment disposal
options is discussed later, under Control of Waste and Water Pollution
from Combustion Sources. Under an interagency agreement with the U.S.
Air Force, IERL-RTP funded a comprehensive test program to characterize
the Swedish Bahco lime scrubbing process installed at Rickenbacker Air
Force Base (AFB), near Columbus, Ohio, to handle up to seven coal-fired
heating boilers. A comprehensive stack gas reheat assessment study was
also initiated to determine the present status of reheat technology,
factors influencing selection of type and degree of reheat applied, and
performance of existing equipment, and to assess the actual need for
reheat under various combinations of factors such as weather, type of
FGD system, and ground level air pollutant concentration.
Lime/limestone wet scrubbing processes have the inherent advantages
of low reactant costs, relative simplicity, and final products in.the
form of relatively inert disposable materials. These processes are
widely applicable to old and new power plants, and to smaller industrial
54
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applications. Process disadvantages include: requirements for plume
reheat, potential reliability problems (e.g., scaling and erosion), and
potential solids disposal problems in some urban locations. These
problems are being investigated in various IERL-RTP lime/limestone
projects.
TVA's Shawnee Power Plant
Construction of the prototype facility at TVA's Shawnee power plant
was completed in March 1972; testing started the next month". The facil-
ity (see photo), consisting of three different (but parallel) scrubber
circuits, can handle about 90,000 cfm (30 MW equivalent) of the output
of one of the ten coal-fired Shawnee boilers. The versatile facility is
being used to evaluate the performance and reliability of lime/limestone
wet scrubbing systems under a variety of operating conditions.
The original test program included short-term (less than a day)
factorial tests, longer-term (2 to 3 week) reliability verification
tests, and long-term (2 to 6 month) reliability demonstration tests,
with both lime and limestone. This phase of the test program was com-
pleted in May 1974, and results were reported periodically: two topical
reports were published in August 1973 and January 1974 (EPA-650/2-73-013
and EPA-650/2-74-010), a December 1973 industry briefing, and a summary
of testing through October 1974 (EPA-650/2-75-047).
The original test program was extended to provide additional infor-
mation and to improve the reliability and process economics of the
lime/limestone system. The extended test program is also expected to
produce: a design and economics computer program to assist in studying
and selecting a scrubber process for particular applications; field
evaluation of alternative methods (including chemical fixation) for the
disposal of sludge produced by lime/limestone systems; and a larger-
scale study of some of the advanced scrubbing concepts which have shown
promise during tests at IERL-RTP1s inhouse pilot plant.
Results of the continuing work at Shawnee are being reported peri-
odically: three progress reports have been published (EPA-600/2-75-050,
EPA-600/7-76-008, and EPA-600/7-77-105);-industry briefings were held in
September 1975 and October 1976; FGD symposia were held in March 1976
and November 1977; and three Technology Transfer Capsule Reports on the
Shawnee program have been published.
55
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WARBLE 8ED *
SYSTEM
(FLOODED
Qf
TUR8ULEST
CONTACT
A8SQR8CR
(TCA) SYSTEM
(MQStif 8£0 OF
PLASTIC SPHERES)
TOMB SYSTEM
Versatile lime/limes tone wet scrubbing demonstrati-
at Shawnee plant.
56
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Major concerns of the utility industry to date regarding lime/lime-
stone scrubbing relate to process reliability, the large quantities of
by-product sludge generated, and the high costs (capital and operating)
of scrubbing. The Shawnee program has been directed toward these areas
of concern.
The Shawnee program has made major contributions toward improvement
of lime and limestone scrubbing technology in the areas of reliability,
variable load operation, system control, sludge disposal techniques, and
process economics. The most significant results to date include:
0 Demonstration has shown that conventional lime/limestone systems
can be operated reliably. Two separate reliability problems have been
identified—scaling and soft, mud-type solids deposits—and methods to
control each have been demonstrated.
0 Soft, mud-type solids deposition was shown to be a strong func-
tion of alkali utilization. At high alkali utilization (greater than
about 85 percent) these solids are much more easily removed, and very
infrequent intermittent fresh-water wash is adequate for their complete
removal in restricted areas, such as the mist eliminator, where accumu-
lation can lead to plugging.
0 Several equipment or process variations were demonstrated to
improve alkali utilization. This is particularly significant for lime-
stone, where alkali utilization is typically about 60-70 percent and can
be increased to 85-95 percent (comparable to that normally obtained with
lime). This not only improves reliability, but also reduces costs by
permitting the use of a much less expensive alkali feed material and by
substantially reducing the quantity of by-product sludge.
0 The ability to operate during widely varying boiler'load and
inlet S02 concentrations for extended periods was demonstrated on the
venturi/spray tower system using lime with no reliability or system
control problems. This has long been a major concern of utilities for
lime/limestone FGD systems.
0 Addition of MgO to lime or limestone systems has shown a substan-
tial increase in SOp removal efficiencyT and also good potential for
forcing operation into the gypsum unsaturated mode. However, further
work is needed to fully understand how to design and control such a
system for problem-free subsaturated operation.
57
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0 Data generated during the factorial testing have been very
useful in developing and checking the accuracy of the design models for
scale-up to full-scale. The models have also been useful in developing
other valuable tools for industry; e.g., the computerized Shawnee data
base and the design/economic study computer program. Furthermore, all
of these will have increased value as they are expanded to include
additional data and other equipment and process variations.
Another major area being studied at Shawnee during the advanced
test program is forced oxidation of sulfite to sulfate (gypsum). This
concept was developed at the IERL-RTP pilot plant and includes both
staged scrubbing and forced oxidation in a single scrubber. Both config-
urations have the potential for obtaining essentially complete oxidation
of the solids to gypsum and an accompanying improvement in solids set-
tling characteristics and dewatering properties. However, each method
has possible advantages and disadvantages compared with the other, and
both will be evaluated further on the larger Shawnee units. Forced
oxidation in a single scrubber is certainly more simplified, requiring
less equipment than staged scrubbing and its operation can probably be
more easily controlled. However, this method applies only to limestone
systems: staged scrubbing can be used with either lime or limestone.
Staged scrubbing has the added advantage of being able to obtain very
high (about 95 percent) alkali utilization simultaneously with the
forced oxidation to gypsum. The benefits and significance of high
alkali utilization, expecially for limestone operation, were pointed out
in the previous paragraph.
It has been estimated that the application of forced oxidation by
staged scrubbing (compared to conventional limestone scrubbing) can
reduce limestone requirements by roughly one-third and can reduce the
volume of by-product sludge by up to 50 percent. An economic sensitivity
analysis made earlier in the program by TVA indicated that sludge dis-
posal costs represent a significant portion of the overall costs for
lime/limestone scrubbing, and the large quantities of waste sludge that
must be disposed of have long been one of the major objections by the
utility industry to these types of FGD processes. Obviously, reductions
of this magnitude in both limestone requirements and waste sludge genera-
tion would have a large impact on the economics of scrubbing and, it is
hoped, on wider acceptance and application by industry of lime/limestone
scrubbing.
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Although substantial progress and significant improvement have been
made over the past several years in lime/limestone scrubbing, to be of
practical use to industry, results of system R&D efforts must be accepted
and applied by the utilities and FGD system vendors. Acceptance and
application of the shawnee results by several of the major FGD system
vendors has recently been more apparent, but this area of technology
transfer to commercial application by utilities has, unfortunately, been
sluggish. Consequently, a positive applications-oriented program in-
volving a high degree of participation and coordination by EPRI, the
utility industry, and FGD system vendors is now being considered as a
means of overcoming the apparent reluctance to accept and apply pilot
plant and prototype results to commercial units. The Shawnee prototype
test facility will in all likelihood play an important role in this
program continuation.
lERL-RTP's Pilot Plant
lERL-RTP's two model scrubbers (300 cfm each) have been operating
at IERL-RTP since October 1972, providing direct experimental support to
the larger prototype studies at TVA's Shawnee test facility. One lime-
and one limestone-fed scrubber, designed for maximum test flexibility,
are operated concurrently 24 hours a day. Each essential component of
the complete closed-loop scrubbing system is included in the layout (see
photo): a three-stage turbulent contact adsorber (TCA) scrubber, scrubber
effluent hold tank, lime slaker, fans, thickeners, and rotary vacuum
filters. Their compactness permits material balances to be performed to
determine the extent of all reactions occurring within each component.
Operating variables are investigated over ranges that cannot be achieved
(or are not practical to attempt) in the larger units, such as operating
without chloride, without fly ash, and at varying inlet oxygen and SOp
levels in the flue gas.
During 1977, the pilot-plant operation continued to be focused on
the problem of sludge and oxidation, which involves the conversion of
calcium sulfite to calcium sulfate (gypsum). The advantages of producing
gypsum as the throwaway product of FGD scrubbers derive from the improved
physical properties of the solid and its chemical "inertness. The phys-
ical properties of gypsum associated with its large crystal structure
led to faster settling, better filterability, and reduced sludge volume.
Theoretically, a total reduction of about 47 percent in total waste
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SCRUBBER
EFFLUEIfT
HOLD TANK
IERL-RTP lime/limestone scrubber pilot plant.
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production is possible as a result of the change in physical properties
brought about by oxidation to gypsum. In addition, the oxidized sludge
is expected to meet the requirements for direct disposal as landfill,
thus avoiding the necessity of chemical fixation.
Results of the pilot-plant investigations over the past 2 years
have demonstrated that conversion to gypsum can be made efficiently and
completely at operating conditions that are realistic for full-scale
application. Excellent results were achieved in both two-stage and
single-stage scrubbers, both of which were shown to be capable of
obtaining high S02 removal efficiency and high limestone utilization
concurrently with complete sludge oxidation. Oxidation in a single-
stage scrubber showed that the process will be applicable to systems now
in operation without extensive modification.
The key to good oxidation was shown to lie in the efficient transfer
of oxygen from the injected air. This transfer was maximized in shallow
tanks, using a jet aspirator/ejector to aerate the holding tank. Alter-
natively, it was shown that the required transfer efficiency can be
obtained with an air-sparged tower. The use of a tall tower, combining
the functions of the holding tank and oxidizer, should provide maximum
overall efficiency with minimum operating power.
These tests further showed that the high limestone utilization (85
percent) required for eliminating demister fouling—which has been the
principal restraint on reliable operation in the past—can be maintained
while forcing oxidation to gypsum, without loss of S02 removal efficiency.
The pilot plant studies of forced oxidation, which have achieved 96
percent utilization with limestone feed and 80 percent solids in the
discharged sludge, using a double-loop venturi/spray tower, have been
confirmed in the Shawnee prototype scrubber. Significant operational
and environmental improvements in the performance of limestone FGD
systems can be expected.
Bahco Process
In 1971, Research-Cottrell, Inc., was licensed by A. B. Bahco of
Sweden to test, refine, and offer the Bahco lime scrubber commercially
in the U.S. The process generally consists of a mechanical particulate
removal system followed by a unique, two-step, vertical scrubbing tower
for S02 removal.
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The Bahco system is currently offered in sizes up to about 40 MW,
which makes it applicable to many industrial-sized boilers throughout
the U.S. Because most of the Bahco scrubber engineering is complete (it
is offered in several standard sizes), installation costs make the
system a reasonable alternative to low-sulfur fuels for industrial
boilers.
There are about 20 Bahco scrubbers in operation in Sweden and
Japan; however, the installation at Rickenbacker AFB, Ohio, is the first
in the U.S. and the first on a coal-fired boiler anywhere. The Bahco
scrubber at Rickenbacker AFB is designed to handle the flue gas from up
to seven coal-fired heating boilers equivalent to about 3 MW each (or a
maximum of 21 MW). The lERL-RTP-sponsored test program, begun early in
1976, was concluded in June 1977. The unit successfully operated using
both lime and limestone feed with no apparent process or reliability
problems and easily met or exceeded design SOp and particulate removal
efficiencies. Some mechanical problems were encountered, especially
with the fan, but these were all corrected by the equipment manufac-
turers. Results will be published in a final report and in a Technology
Transfer Capsule Report, both of which should be available by January
1978. A 3 month test program is also planned to study the feasibility
of using waste sludge (mostly CaCOo) as the alkali feed material from
local lime water softening plants, including the City of Columbis, Ohio,
and on-site at Rickenbacker AFB.
Louisville Gas and Electric Scrubber Test Program
In November 1974, results from IERL-RTP pilot-plant testing showed
that lime and limestone S02 scrubbers can be operated subsaturated with
respect to dissolved CaSO.«2H?0 (gypsum). Subsaturation avoids the
problem of gypsum scaling on scrubber internals. Subsequent investiga-
tion indicated that at least two commercial scrubber systems were oper-
ating subsaturated with respect to gypsum: at Mitsui Aluminum Plant in
Omuta, Japan, and at Paddy's Run Station of LG&E.
Because of'EPA's interest in studying subsaturated operation of a
full-scale system, a program was undertaken at LG&E in the spring of
1976 to evaluate operational and chemical factors (identified by scrubber
testing at IERL-RTP and Shawnee) which appear to have an effect on
subsaturated operation. The carbide lime phase (baseline tests) of the
test program, initiated in October 1976, was concluded in December 1976.
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No major scrubber operational problems occurred during these tests.
Waste sludge from the system was collected for treatment/disposal tests
which were being conducted in conjunction with the scrubber test program.
The commercial lime phase of the test program was initiated in
March 1977; shortly after start-up, scaling occurred in the scrubber.
The scaling was a result of higher oxidation (than with carbide lime)
and a lack of gypsum crystals, causing "locally" excessive gypsum satura-
tion levels. The marble bed scrubber used in the tests is also more
prone to scaling. It has been concluded that the carbide lime contains
trace quantities of an oxidation inhibitor.
Commercial lime testing resumed with the addition of small quanti-
ties of magnesium oxide to prevent scaling. High (>95 percent) SOp
removals, along with no significant operational problems, were the
result of the magnesium oxide addition. The remainder of the test
program, which included tests of reaction tank residence time changes
and chloride addition, was conducted with magnesium oxide addition. A
report on the LG&E scrubber testing will be issued in early 1978.
DUAL-ALKALI
The dual-alkali process, like the lime/limestone wet scrubbing proc-
esses, produces a throwaway product consisting of fly ash and calcium
sulfite/sulfate. The process, in its various forms, was developed to
avoid problems associated with the use of absorbent slurries in the
lime/limestone processes.
Flue gases are scrubbed, using a soluble alkali (usually sodium-
based) solution as the absorbent. The spend absorbent solution is
treated with lime and/or limestone in a regeneration system to produce a
regenerated soluble alkali for recycle to the scrubber system and a
throwaway product for disposal.
Although less developed than lime/limestone wet scrubbing proc-
esses, dual-alkali systems show potential for attaining high S02 removal
efficiency and good reliability at relatively low cost.
Technology Development
The development of dual-alkali technology by IERL-RTP has followed
an orderly progressive pattern. After initial inhouse engineering
feasibility studies and laboratory experiments in 1971 and 1972, IERL-
RTP contracted with Arthur D. Little, Inc. (ADL) in May 1973 to conduct
a laboratory and pilot-plant study of various dual-alkali modes of
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operation. In early 1975 the project was expanded to include a prototype
test at the 20 MW facility, installed by Southern Company and constructed
by Combustion Equipment Associates, at the Scholz plant of Gulf Power
.Company (see photograph below). In late 1976, EPA contracted for a
full-scale utility demonstration of the process.
Work in the laboratory and pilot plant included the study of "dilute"
and "concentrated" systems, lime and limestone regeneration, sulfuric
acid addition for sulfate removal, and solids characterization. Proto-
type testing at the Scholz station lasted from February 1975 to July
1976, with the EPA-sponsored portion of testing beginning in May 1975.
As a whole, the prototype performed well and indicated that a dual-
alkali system would be a viable flue gas desulfurization system for
coal-burning utilities. During the entire program of approximately 17
months, the system showed availability to the boiler of 72 percent;
however, during three specific operating periods of approximately 4
months each, the system showed availability of 90 percent. S02 removal
was generally 90 to 99 percent.
A two volume report on the entire laboratory, pilot-plant, and
prototype development study conduct by ADL for IERL-RTP was issued in
May 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-050b and EPA-600/7-77-050c), and an executive
summary in July 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-050a).
Full-Scale Utility Demonstration
In September 1976, IERL-RTP contracted with LG&E for a cost-shared,
full-scale, coal-fired utility demonstration of the dual-alkali process
at the 280 MW Cane Run No. 6 boiler. EPA's share of the estimated $20
million plus project is $4.5 million.
The demonstration project consists of four phases: (1) design and
cost estimation; (2) engineering design, construction, and mechanical
testing; (3) start-up and performance testing; and (4) 1 year of opera-
tion and long term testing. Bechtel Corporation was chosen to design
and conduct the test program at Cane Run.
Phase 1 is complete; the report is being finalized. Construction
is expected to be complete by the end of 1978, and testing will begin in
early 1979. System performance guarantees have been established and are
backed financially by the system designer/constructor, Combustion
Equipment Associates. Guarantees are in force on S0£ removal, sodium,
calcium, and energy consumption, and system availability. (See illustra-
tion below.)
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CTl
cn
Three 20 MW prototype FGD systems at Gulf Power's Scholz plant.
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CTl
cn
OPERATING FGO SYSTEM
FOR NO. 4 UNIT
FGD SYSTEM FOR NO. 5 UNIT
(UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
GROUND BROKEN FOR NO. 6
DUAL-ALKALI FGD SYSTEM
(EPA DEMONSTRATION)
Full-scale dual-alkali flue gas desulfurization system demonstration at Cane Run Plant of
the Louisville Gas and Electric Company.
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ALKALINE ASH SCRUBBING
An interagency agreement with DOE supported a test program inves-
tigating the use of a Western coal fly ash to scrub S0? from power plant
flue gas. The program included both bench- and pilot-scale work. The
initial work was conducted on a 1300 scfm scrubber at the Grand Forks
(North Dakota) Energy Research Center. This preliminary work was de-
signed to investigate the effects of increased sodium concentration on
S0£ removal and scale formation. The parameters investigated include
liquid-to-gas ratios, stoichiometric relationships, and sodium concentra-
tion. The results indicated increased S0« removal and decreased scaling
as sodium concentration increased.
The experiments conducted on the 5000 acfm pilot scrubber generated
design and operating data for a full-scale 450 MW fly ash alkali scrubber
to be constructed at the Milton R. Young Station, Center, North Dakota.
Results indicate that sufficient S02 can be removed to meet NSPS using
only fly ash alkali when the fuel is 0.75 percent sulfur lignite. An 8
week reliability test was also performed. Test programs using other fly
ashes were also conducted.
A report on this work was issued in July 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-075).
Included is a detailed analysis of capital investment and operating cost
for 100, 500, and 1000 MW scrubbers using the fly ash alkali process.
SURVEY OF UTILITY FGD SYSTEMS
IERL-RTP has contracted with PEDCO to survey utility FGD systems
which are operational, under construction, or planned in the U.S. and
Japan. The survey is based on results from plant visits and a compre-
hensive questionnaire. Through October 1977, 16 systems had been
visited and detailed reports issued concerning the operation at 11 sites
(EPA-650/2-75-057a through -057k). This survey is to continue, with
emphasis on systems which have significance with respect to FGD in the
U.S. Both new installations and some previously visited ones have been
included in site visits made during 1977. Reports on these site visits
are being prepared.
In addition to detailed technical reports, giving results of the
visits, PEDCO is providing bimonthly status reports indicating the
number of each type of SO^ control system in operation, under construc-
tion, or planned in the U.S., and the MW capacity controlled or to be
controlled. Currently, 125 such systems are planned to control over
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53,000 MW of electrical generating capacity. This total includes 29
operating sites, 28 under construction, and 68 in planning stages.
A survey of Japanese installations and of their operating experi-
ences, problems, and solutions is being conducted, under subcontract, by
Dr. Jumpei Ando of Chuo University in Tokyo. A report on Dr. Ando's
work was issued in September 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-103a and -103b).
FLUE GAS REHEAT
The Radian Corporation, under contract with IERL-RTP, began an
assessment of stack gas reheat systems which are used in conjunction
with flue gas desulfurization processes. Scheduled for completion in
July 1978, the study will survey current practices to determine the
advantages and disadvantages of existing reheat systems. Economic and
reliability comparisons of the various FGD reheat methods will be made.
Parameters which influence reheating will be identified and used in
formulating a procedure for calculating the amount of reheat required.
In particular, steam will be studied as a reheating medium to determine
the optimum point in the steam cycle at which steam should be extracted
for reheating.
FGD RELIABILITY
A study was completed on the "Comparison of Availability and Reli-
ability of Equipment Utilized in the Electric Utility Industry." A
major objective of the study was to develop a basis for comparing the
commercial and technical status and feasibility of FGD systems with
respect to conventional equipment (e.g., boilers, generators, turbines,
electrostatic precipitators, and gas turbines) accepted and used by the
electric utility industry. A model was developed, incorporating such
factors as reliability, development status, and repair effort; it can be
used to compare dissimilar types of equipment or systems. Study results
indicate that a statistically meaningful comparison can be made only
after more FGD systems are installed and more complete records on their
performance are available, which is not expected before 1979. However,
the data showed that accepted components of the electric utility industry
generally exhibit 70-90 percent operating availabilities, which compare
favorably with some of the recently installed full-scale operating FGD
systems where availabilities up to 90 percent are not uncommon. In
general, boilers show the lowest average availabilities of those compo-
nents studied: availabilities of some of the newer, large, supercritical
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once-through boilers are even lower than those of some of their earlier
smaller counterparts. A final report on this study is being readied for
publication.
Control of Waste and Water Pollution from Combustion Sources
lERL-RTP's waste and water pollution control program is a continua-
ation and expansion of modest efforts initiated by the Laboratory in the
late 1960's. It is aimed at the development, demonstration, and recom-
mendation of environmentally acceptable, cost-effective techniques for
disposal/utilization of flue gas cleaning (FGC) wastes, and for mini-
mizing power plant water recycle/reuse. The theme of each IERL-RTP
program project, described below, is in one of three categories: FGC
Waste Disposal Methods, FGC Waste Utilization, and Power Plant Water
Treatment Reuse. (Four other FGC Waste Disposal Methods projects are
being conducted by EPA's Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory in
Cincinnati; results of the Cincinnati projects are being coordinated
with IERL-RTP's.)
FGC WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
FGC Waste Characterization, Disposal Evaluation, and Transfer of
FGC Waste Disposal Technology
Since late 1972, IERL-RTP has been conducting a broad-based study
to: (1) identify environmental problems associated with FGC waste
disposal; (2) assess current FGC waste disposal methods, including
feasibility, performance, and costs; (3> make recommendations regarding
alternate disposal approaches; and (4) assemble, assess, and report all
FGC-waste-related research and development activities in EPA, TVA, and
private industry. This project is the key effort in IERL-RTP1s program
for waste and water pollution control.
Shawnee FGC Waste Disposal Field Evaluation
Under this program, initiated by IERL-RTP in 1974, the Chemfix,
Dravo, and IU Conversion Systems, Inc. (IUCS) processes for chemical
fixation of scrubber wastes are being evaluated in three separate impound-
ments. (See photo of one of the impoundments, below.) As an alternative
approach, ash-free lime and limestone wastes have been further dewatered
by the addition of dry fly ash and placed in two additional impoundments
which have underdrainage systems for dewatering and stabilization. In
addition, oxidized sulfite waste (gypsum) disposal is being evaluated in
a similar (underdrained) impoundment. Untreated/unstabilized lime and
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•SI
o
.;:••••-:«<:::•:•«.:.:•• .5x3
Test pond for disposal of Shawnee's chemically treated scrubber waste.
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limestone wastes are placed in two additional impoundments (for a total
of eight). Leachate, runoff, and ground water samples (as well as core
samples of the wastes and soil) are being collected and analyzed to
evaluate environmental effects.
Louisville Gas and Electric Evaluation of FGC Waste Disposal Options
LG&E, under contract with IERL-RTP, is conducting a program of
carbide and commercial lime scrubbing tests and an extensive evaluation
of scrubber waste treatment/disposal options. Laboratory studies of
nonchemical and chemical (fixation) processes for stabilization of
scrubber sludge are being conducted; samples will be mixed with fly ash
alone or fly ash and one of several additives (e.g., lime). The field
studies consist of small-scale impoundment tests and larger-scale
(about 76 cubic meter) landfill tests in which leachate migration,
runoff, and physical stability tests of unstabilized and stabilized
waste material will be conducted. The laboratory tests are complete;
all field impoundment tests have been conducted.
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Characterization
This project involves the physical and chemical characterization of
lime/limestone waste solids as a function of scrubber operating condi-
tions. Lime/limestone scrubbing waste materials from the Shawnee facil-
ity are being characterized and an attempt is being made to correlate
the properties with scrubber operating conditions. If feasible, a means
of controlling waste characteristics to improve disposal or utilization
economics will be recommended. An interim report, to have been issued
late in 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-123), includes a number of significant electron
micrographs of waste solid samples.
Dewatering Principles and Equipment Design Studies
This project consists of the following efforts to improve the
performance of current FGC waste dewatering equipment: (1) an examina-
tion of current dewatering equipment design principles to determine
their applicability to FGC wastes; (2) laboratory settling and other
tests to determine the physical properties and behavior of FGC wastes as
a basis for dewatering equipment design_studies; (3) analytical design
studies to develop dewatering equipment designs based on FGC waste
physical properties and behavior (these efforts will continue and will
be updated based on subsequent bench-scale testing); and (4) laboratory
tests of dewatering equipment design concepts. Major size reduction of
dewatering equipment now appears feasible. These results offer the
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potential for major cost savings in dewatering equipment and down-
stream waste disposal costs (through waste volume reduction).
Characterization of Effluents from Coal-fired Power Plants
This project involves efforts to: (1) characterize and quantify
the chemical parameters of coal pile drainage; (2) assess and quantify
the chemical and physical composition of ash pond effluent after adjust-
ment of pH to meet effluent standards; (3) evaluate an ash pond moni-
toring program to determine the sampling and analyses necessary to
obtain representative information; (4) assess, characterize, and quantify
the effects of coal ash leachate on ground water quality; and (5) eval-
uate and quantify the chlorinated effluent in discharge canals from
once-through cooling systems.
Information from this project will be supplemented by the fly ash
characterization efforts described below.
Ash Characterization and Disposal
This project involves efforts to: (1) summarize and evaluate existing
data on the characteristics of coal ash and ash effluents from inhouse
TVA studies and from studies made by other organizations (this effort is
complete); (2) perform chemical and physical analyses on coal, coal
ashes, and ash effluents to obtain a complete characterization of these
materials as a function of variation in boiler design and operation, as
well as coal type; (3) evaluate various methods for disposal and utiliza-
tion of fly ash; (4) summarize information on methods of ash sluice
water treatment for reuse; (5) conduct conceptual design studies of dry
and wet ash handling systems; and (6) recommend the most promising
systems for ash handling and disposal/utilization. A report1 on existing
ash characterization data was issued in 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-010).
Alternative Methods for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Disposal
This project is one of several which comprise the economic studies
of major FGC processes being conducted by IERL-RTP. Several FGC waste
disposal methods and FGC system design and operating premises have been
selected for a detailed economic evaluation of FGC waste disposal. A
report on Phase I, including ponding of untreated waste and chemical
treatment/landfill via the Chemifix, Dravo, and IUCS processes, has been
issued (EPA-600/2-76-070).
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Alternative FGC Waste Disposal Sites
This lERL-RTP-sponsored project is being conducted to identify,
assess, and demonstrate pilot-scale, alternative FGC waste disposal
methods (other than local ponding and landfilling). The demonstration
is to be limited to coal mine and at-sea disposal.
Although environmental effects and operational safety will be major
initial considerations, the assessment will also include a study of the
economics of the alternative disposal methods, as well as a study of
applicable Federal and state regulations. Recommendations and conceptual
designs for the pilot demonstrations will be based on the initial efforts.
A report on the preliminary assessment was issued in 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-
051); the final assessment effort was completed late in 1977. In addi-
tion, pilot evaluation of at-sea disposal was initiated late in 1977.
Monitoring of a full-scale mine disposal operation was also initiated
late in 1977 at a lignite mine in North Dakota.
FGD WASTE UTILIZATION
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Waste Conversion Pilot Studies
In a cost-shared contract to conduct pilot studies of two key
process steps in M. W. Kellogg Co.'s Kel-S process for conversion of
lime/limestone scrubbing waste to elemental sulfur with recovery of the
calcium in the waste as calcium carbonate, design data are being prepared
to allow scale-up to a large (prototype) test unit for a power plant.
Conversion of the scrubbing waste to calcium sulfide was accomplished
late in 1977. The remaining process steps will be studied in 1978.
Gypsum By-product Marketing
This project is one of several comprising the FGD by-product mar-
keting studies being conducted by IERL-RTP. A preliminary study con-
ducted by TVA early in 1974 indicated that production and sale of abate-
ment gypsum might offer a substantial economic advantage over FGD waste
disposal. The new studies include a thorough economic evaluation of
gypsum-producing processes (e.g., Chiyoda, carbon absorption, CaSO-
oxidation) and a detailed U.S. marketing study of abatement gypsum for
wallboard and portland cement. A report on this effort will be issued
early in 1978.
Use of FGD Gypsum in Portland Cement Manufacture
This project, being negotiated by IERL-RTP with Babcock & Wilcox
(with the Portland Cement Association as a major subcontractor), will
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consist of: (1) preliminary surveys of U.S. industry to determine the
quantity of FGD gypsum which could be used in Portland cement manufac-
ture; (2) collection and identification of waste samples from several
FGD systems; (3) laboratory tests to identify and solve problems associ-
ated with chemical and/or physical characteristics of FGD gypsum in
Portland cement manufacture; and (4) design and estimation of costs of a
pilot demonstration unit at either a power plant or a cement plant,
depending on the results of the laboratory tests.
Fertilizer Production Using Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Wastes
This project involves the use of lime/limestone scrubbing wastes as
a filler material and as a source of sulfur in fertilizer. This study
is a continuation and expansion of previous TVA bench-scale laboratory
production tests and small field pilot application tests with rye grass.
In the proposed process, phosphoric acid and ammonia are the phosphate
and nitrogen sources. Most of the development work has centered around
avoiding losses of sulfur and/or ammonia in the fertilizer reactor. So
far, the greatest success has been achieved with oxidized sulfate (gypsum)
waste.
POWER PLANT WATER RECYCLE/REUSE
Alternatives for Power Plant Water Recycle/Reuse
This project is designed to develop methods for minimizing water
use and wastewater discharges from coal-fired steam-electric power
plants. The initial effort consisted of: (1) selection and characteri-
zation of five specific power plants; (2) preparation of computer models
to simulate makeup, process, and effluent water streams, as well as
chemical equilibria of the processes for each plant; (3) verification of
process computer models by comparing existing plant chemical and opera-
ting data with data predicted by the models; (4) formulation of several
water recycle/reuse options to minimize plant water requirements and
discharges for the plants, and evaluation of at least one option (via
process simulation) for each plant; (5) preparation of capital and
operating cost estimates for each viable water recycle/reuse option; and
(6) detailed presentation of program results, including recommendations
of the recycle/reuse options to be used at each plant.
A generalized test plan was also prepared for pilot- or full-scale
testing of power plant cooling tower ash-sluicing, and SO^/particulate
scrubbing systems. This project was completed in late 1977. The pilot-
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or full-scale demonstration of the optimized recycle, treatment, and
reuse of wastewaters from these systems is expected to begin in 1978.
Treatment of Flue Gas Scrubber Waste Streams with Vapor Compression
Cycle Evaporation
This lERL-RTP-sponsored pilot demonstration, using the Resources
Conservation Co.'s brine concentrator, was conducted at Gulf Power Co.'s
Scholz power station. The brine concentrator is a 6,000 gal./day unit
which has been tested for 60 days on a waste stream from a Chiyoda FGD
system. Results show that the wastewater could be concentrated up to
140 times with recovery of more than 99 percent of the waste stream as
high quality distillate (less than 10 ppm solids).
TVA Membrane Studies
These tests use effluents supplied from various fossil-fueled power
plants, the wastewater consisting of ash pond discharge, cooling tower
blowdown, boiler blowdown, and SO^ scrubber slurry waste streams. For
different membranes, the data will be used to design and operate experi-
mental treatment facilities with the aim of minimizing treatment costs.
Results of tests in these facilities will be evaluated to determine the
economic and technical feasibility of the prototype systems.
Effluent Guidelines Support Studies
Three studies have been initiated to support the establishment or
substantiation of effluent guidelines for the steam-electric power
generating industry. In one study, laboratory studies were made to
determine toxic materials and their probable concentration ranges from
effluent samples prior to field testing. Carbon adsorption, chemical
precipitation, and reverse osmosis were evaluated in field tests at
three different plants as technologies for removing selected toxic
materials from power plant effluent streams. Vapor compression distilla-
tion was also evaluated at a single U.S. site. Data collection was
completed late in 1977: test results will be published early in 1978.
Two other support studies concern closed-cycle cooling systems used
by power plants. Assessments of nonwater quality impacts and water
consumption and cost for the various systems are complete; documentation
of the results is in process. The interaction of power plant stack gas
and cooling tower plumes was also studied to evaluate the effects of
acid formation and subsequent ground-level deposition via acid rains.
The studies involved information gathered from previous experiences with
these phenomena, particularly literature published since 1973.
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Thermal Pollution Control
lERL-RTP's thermal pollution control programs are divided into two
broad areas: cooling technology and waste heat utilization. Cooling
technology programs include studies of cooling system economics, advanced
heat rejection techniques, and development of control technology for the
treatment and possible reuse/recycle of cooling effluent streams. Waste
heat utilization programs involve agricultural and aquacultural applica-
tions, although promising residential/industrial uses of waste heat are
also of interest. The transfer of technology is an objective of programs
in both areas as exemplified by support for a state-of-the-art manual in
thermal pollution control technology and a 1977 conference on waste heat
management and utilization. The following sections describe significant
programs under these two broad areas.
COOLING TECHNOLOGY
During 1977 IERL-RTP supported several studies on cooling system
performance and economics. Objectives of each included the definition
of costs and other penalties for steam-generated electrical power and
the examination of environmental factors (e.g., water consumption,
drift, and fogging) which impact on various types of cooling devices.
In one lERL-RTP-sponsored study, a computer program was developed
for optimizing the design of large, dry cooling systems. Program vari-
ables included: heat exchanger design parameters (tube length, bundle
width, number of tube rows and passes); type of condenser (spray or sur-
face); type of turbine (conventional or modified for high backpressure);
climatic factors; and cost factors (fuel, fixed charges, lost capacity,
auxilliary power). The resultant program optimizes the cost of power
generation for various practical combinations of program variables.
This study is complete; the final report is nearly complete.
Two important factors in power plant siting and cooling system
selection are consumptive water use and vapor plume emissions. The use
of evaporative, or wet, cooling towers may impact adversely on both of
these factors. Hence, an lERL-RTP-supported project is studying the
feasibility of using combined wet/dry cooling towers for conserving
water and abating vapor plume emissions. Increasing the amount of dry
heat exchanger surface area reduces both water consumption and tower
plumes; however, it also results in increases in capital and operating
costs. These studies therefore entailed various wet/dry heat exchanger
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combinations and trade-off studies to minimize cost while simultaneously
balancing water consumption and plume abatement considerations for
cooling towers situated at ten U.S. sites. Six of these studies were
aimed at minimizing water use (at five sites in the arid but coal-rich
western region and one New York site); the remaining studies were directed
toward vapor plume abatement at urban sites. A sensitivity analysis for
Casper, Wyoming—a representative site with limited water but extensive
coal and energy development—is also a program output. Results of this
study were published in 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-137).
To complement the analytical study on wet/dry cooling towers referred
to above, IERL-RTP is participating in performance testing of wet/dry
cooling towers at two sites. As one of ten co-sponsors, IERL-RTP is
funding a large portion of the testing of a parallel-flow wet/dry cooling
tower module at an existing power plant in California. The main objective
of this program is to evaluate water conservation for various operational
modes during the year of testing which began in November 1977. At the
other site (near Charlotte, North Carolina), a site used in the plume
analyses of the analytical wet/dry cooling tower study cited earlier,
the thermal performance and noise generation characteristic of the
cooling tower will be evaluated. The tower under study has the capability
for both parallel and series flow operation: effects of these operating
variables on performance will be monitored. Plume abatement and water
conservation features of this tower will be evaluated during the experi-
mental program which began in November 1977 and will conclude next
summer. Experimental data and results will also be used to check and
refine models for the cooling tower plume and thermal performance.
As noted earlier, IERL-RTP is supporting the preparation of a
state-of-the-art manual on thermal pollution control. The manual will
also discuss the treatment of cooling waters in the steam-electric power
generation industry. Topics addressed in the manual, which will be
published early in 1978, include open- and closed-cycle cooling system
options and costs, cooling water treatment technologies, and environmental
impact considerations relating to power plant cooling systems.
In a 4 year project scheduled for completion in 1980, IERL-RTP is
participating with the Town of Braintree, Massachusetts, in a dry cooling
tower demonstration and performance study. Objectives of this project,
involving a combined cycle plant (60 MW gas turbine/25 MW steam turbine
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with a direct condenser), include the measurement of steam flow distribu-
tion and temperatures for better definition of optimal design conditions,
the assessment of meteorological effects from the plant and of meteoro-
logical factors on plant performance, the monitoring of noise and control,
air quality considerations on or from the plant, and the economic effect
of design and operational factors. The start of data collection was
delayed until late fall of 1977 by difficulties in obtaining and instal-
ling test instrumentation; the plant began commercial operation last
spring.
Work is nearly finished on a literature survey to determine the
potential for various pathogens or toxic substances to be found in
cooling systems. These substances may be transferred to human populations
from cooling tower plumes and drift, as well as from wastewaters dis-
charged as blowdown.
Another project is evaluating monitoring technology for measuring
all known and potentially important toxic substances that may be found
in cooling system effluents. Recommendations for improving monitoring
technology will be an output of this project.
IERL-RTP is continuing control technology development for the
treatment of wastewater streams inherent in evaporative cooling systems.
With IERL-RTP support, the University of California has developed a
system for renovating cooling tower blowdown for recycle or reuse which
requires substantially less capital and operating costs compared to the
best systems currently used. The new system uses vertical tube (VT)
evaporation with interface enhancement to attain higher heat transfer.
In a test facility using a 5,000 gal./day VT evaporator/crystal!izer in
the downflow mode and using a low temperature (125°F) to simulate the
use of waste heat from a conventional power plant cooling cycle: sodium
sulfate was crystallized; cooling tower blowdown from the Mohave plant
was reduced to a 30-fold concentrate; and system feasibility was demon-
strated. The evaporator/crystal!izer was also operated with a vapor
compressor at an evaporation temperature of 215 to 224°F in tests for
concentrating saline agricultural drainage and industrial cooling tower
blowdown. Comparison of results for conventional and interface-enhanced
operation showed that interface enhancement resulted in better heat
transfer of the evaporator/crystal!izer, and that its energy requirements
were simultaneously reduced. Currently, a mobile pilot evaporator/
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crystallizer, with a capacity of 50,000 gal./day for the crystallizer
and 5,000 gal./day for the evaporator, is under construction. It will
be used to demonstrate and evaluate the operability and economics of the
process at several utility power plants. Another application of this
process is being evaluated for the disposal or economic recovery of
salts from a unique ion exchange pretreatment system. This system will
allow hard saline irrigation return waters to be used as cooling tower
makeup.
Field sampling and laboratory studies have been made to obtain
performance data on selected technologies for toxic compound removal
from power plant effluents. Carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, chemical
precipitation, and vapor compression distillation were evaluated for
their effectiveness in controlling toxic effluents. The first three
technologies were tested at three geographically selected sites where
previous studies had indicated the presence of toxic materials in plant
effluents; the fourth was applied at a single western site. Study
results are being assessed.
Since the biofouling of condenser tubes reduces heat transfer,
IERL-RTP is seeking viable alternatives to conventional chlorination of
cooling water to combat biofouling, which may adversely impact the biota.
An lERL-RTP-supported study concluded that: more efficient methods of
chlorine application are available; most alternative chemicals studied
(bromine chloride, ozone, chlorine dioxide) may reduce harmful ecological
effects but are more expensive; mechanical tube cleaning may require
complementary chemical treatment of cooling water, and some techniques
may not be retrofitted; control led-release antifoul ants coat or embed in
heat transfer surfaces and, while promising, require considerable develop-
ment; and radiation techniques are not expected to be cost-effective
unless the use of nuclear waste is feasible.
A full-scale demonstration, comparing bromine chloride with chlorine
at an estuarine site (Potomac River at Morgantown, Maryland), showed
that both can effectively control biofouling in cooling systems at low
application rates. The low application rates also promote the rapid
decay of residual oxidants. Results showed that bromine chloride would
be better for ammonia-polluted fresh waters, and that low-level addition
of chlorine would be better for less polluted estuarine and marine
sites. These conclusions are based on results which show that the decay
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rate of chlorine approaches that of bromine chloride at higher salinities
but decreases linearly with ammonia concentration; they decay equally at
4-5 ppt salinity and zero NHg-N or 13 ppt salinity and 40 uM/1 NH3-N.
Several programs show IERL-RTP and TVA cooperation in thermal
pollution control. With IERL-RTP financial support, TVA is assessing
methods for cooling tower blowdown and wastewater treatment and developing
cooling water intake structures which reduce harmful effects to fish.
The water treatment methodology study involves evaluation of reverse
osmosis and ultrafiltration systems supplied by vendors. Completed
laboratory studies of treating alkaline-phase boiler cleaning wastes by
membrane processes have established the need for waste pretreatment.
Several power plant waste streams have been identified as candidates for
cost studies of this technology.
A review of cooling waste intake structure technology has been
completed and a state-of-the-art manual for this technology has been
published by EPA and TVA (EPA-600/7-76-020). With continued IERL-RTP
support, TVA has designed and completed the first phase of testing of an
intake screen system aimed at reducing fish mortality. Further testing
of this device is scheduled when larval fish become available and after
installing temperature controls to limit high test-flume temperatures,
suspected to have been the major cause for the high mortality of walleye,
striped bass, and largemouth bass during the first phase test.
The cooling tower test program (near Charlotte, North Carolina) is
another example of IERL-RTP/TVA cooperation under the Interagency Energy/
Environmental RD&D Program. With IERL-RTP financial support, TVA is
managing the program; the technical program was developed by Westinghouse.
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION
The beneficial use of warmed condenser coolant can alleviate or
reduce thermal pollution problems, lead to secondary profits, and promote
energy conservation since waste heat will be used constructively. IERL-
RTP continued its support of a Northern States Power Co./University of
Minnesota demonstration of waste heat utilization in greenhouses.
During 1977, roses, shade tree ornamentals, woody ornamentals, potted
flowers, tomatoes, and other vegetables were grown. The warm water
heating system received a severe test (temperatures fell to -42°F last
winter at Sherco), but proved suitable for meeting heating requirements
with the nominally 85°F condenser cooling water.
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As a result of the successful demonstration (involving IERL-RTP,
Northern States Power Co., and the University of Minnesota) of green-
house heating using rejected heat from the Sherbourne County Power
Plant, three commercial ventures were initiated at the site in 1977. A
1 acre greenhouse operation growing roses is expected to save about
50,000 gallons of oil and to generate additional profits annually as a
result of using the warm Sherco condenser cooling water. Other ventures,
involving a 0.2 acre hydroponics facility and a small tree seeding
nursery, will also use warm condenser cooling water for heating at the
site.
In another cooperative effort between IERL-RTP and TVA, soil
warming experiments are being performed by TVA in a program aimed at
extending the growing season. Because of low cooling water temperatures
at the Brown's Ferry plant, growth rates of sample crops using simulated
soil heating were not increased significantly. However, growth rates
using' temperatures corresponding to the Hartsville plant were encour-
aging; further studies are planned using cooling water temperatures for
this site. Generally, corn on the heated plots emerged earlier, main-
tained a significant growth advantage throughout the season, and matured
earlier with higher yields.
A continuing TVA agricultural project supported by IERL-RTP, using
waste heat, concerns recycling of swine manure to grow algae in heated
water. These algae are fed to fish which are then harvested for animal
feed supplements. The test program involves seeking optimum protein
yields through control of water temperature and nutrient feeding rates
to both the algae and fish.
In addition to the projects described above, IERL-RTP supported two
other studies involving waste heat utilization. One study concerned the
greenhouse production of bedding plants, cut flowers, and foliage plants
at a Southeastern U.S. site. During the first year, cultivars were
selected and plans for the test and control greenhouses were completed.
Growth and economic marketing data are to be obtained during the final
year of this project. In the other study, with a 1 year duration, the
economic feasibility of using low temperature (70°F) condenser cooling
water was investigated at a Northeastern U.S. horticulture production
site. Results of this study will be published soon.
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PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY
Fine participates are a health hazard because, in contrast to
coarse particles, they can bypass the body's respiratory filters and
penetrate deep into the lungs. Fine particles released into the atmos-
phere remain airborne for extended periods, obstruct light, and cause
limited visibility typical of air pollution haze and smog. They have
been identified as transport vehicles for gaseous pollutants. Health
hazards of fine particulates are intensified by the tendency of metallic
materials from high-temperature processes, such as pyrometallurgical and
combustion processes, to condense as chemically and catalytically active
fine particulates. Many toxic and potentially hazardous compounds are
also emitted as fine particulate. Particulate matter formed in the
atmosphere from the reaction and condensation of reactions makes it
difficult to relate atmospheric particulate pollution levels to specific
sources. This has hampered the development of effective control strate-
gies and the establishment of meaningful emission standards. The control
of these secondary forms of particulate must be through control of their
precursors, and primary particulate does play an important role in the
formation cycle.
It will take many years to develop a sound data base to quantify
the health effects problem of fine particulates. Sufficient information
exists, however, to conclude that fine particles must be controlled if
public health is to be protected.
EPA has established a goal of setting fine particulate standards.
To develop these standards, research and development is necessary to
provide a minimum data base. This data base and the necessary adequate
control technology do not exist.
It is lERL-RTP's responsibility to develop and demonstrate, on a
pilot scale, control technology which is generally applicable to particu-
late and fine particulate matter emitted from all stationary sources.
For the past 4 years, the Laboratory's Particulate Technology Branch
(PATB) has been engaged in a program aimed at determining the limitations
of conventional particulate control devices and defining a research and
development program which will eventually produce the needed technology
for the control of fine particulate matter.
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lERL-RTP's Partlculate Program
In order to pursue the goal of developing control of technology for
fine particulate emissions, the basic IERL-RTP program in this area has
been divided into six major areas:
0 Characterization and improvement of conventional control equip-
ment and assessment of the collectability of dusts.
0 Fine particulate control for combustion processes utilizing low-
sulfur coal.
0 New particulate control technology development.
0 New idea identification, evaluation, and technology transfer.
0 High-temperature/high-pressure particulate control.
0 Accelerated pilot demonstrations.
CHARACTERIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CONVENTIONAL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
AND ASSESSMENT OF THE COLLECTABILITY OF DUSTS
It is the aim of this program area to: (1) ascertain, using the
best available conventional equipment operating on real sources, the
actual control capability in terms of size fractional efficiency; (2)
develop a data base for decisions and judgments with respect to the
capability of commercially available control equipment; (3) develop
improvements in conventional control devices which will eliminate defi-
ciencies in their potential for fine particle control; and (4) determine
the ease or difficulty with which any given industrial dust pollutant
may be collected. With the information collected in this program area,
it should be possible to predict with reasonable accuracy the ease or
difficulty of and the system required for control of almost any particu-
late problem. (See illustrations below of particulate sampling devices.)
FINE PARTICLE CONTROL FOR COMBUSTION PROCESSES UTILIZING
LOW-SULFUR COAL
This program area was added in FY 76 to provide solutions to prob-
lems associated with the projected increase in the use of low-sulfur
coal. Major increases in the combustion of low-sulfur coal are expected
both as a result of increased power generation in the West and as a
result of a switch frcm high- to low-sulfur coal in the East to meet SOy
emission standards without using scrubbers. In general, combustion of
low-sulfur coal produces a fly ash with high electrical resistivity.
The fly ash is difficult to collect in ESPs, the most common particulate
control device for utility boilers. Thus, use of low-sulfur coal,
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IMPACTOR
PROBES
PRESSURE
MONITORS
THERMOCOUPLE
READOUT
FLUE
GAS
DUCT
TOTAL
MASS
SAMPLING
PROBE
CYCLONE
FILTER
Particulate sampling at an electric arc furnace.
84
CONDEN-
SIBLE
PARTICU-
LATE
IMPINGERS
-------
especially in plants designed for high-sulfur coal, produces serious
problems for achieving adequate particulate and fine particulate control.
Goals of this new program area are to:
0 Determine the effects of flue gas and/or fly ash conditioning
agents on ESP performance and on overall pollutant emissions.
0 Develop and demonstrate an improved ESP which is relatively
insensitive to changes in fly ash physical and chemical properties.
0 Demonstrate the feasibility of using fabric filters to control
particulate emissions from large utility boilers.
0 Determine the impact of coal cleaning on ash collectability.
0 Demonstrate the use of environmentally acceptable conditioning
agents to improve particulate control by ESPs.
NEW PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Goals for this area are to: (1) assess all potential collection
mechanisms; (2) initiate exploratory projects to evaluate feasibility of
concepts and/or mechanisms; and (3) develop pilot units for promising
systems.
NEW IDEA IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION, AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Goals of this program area are to: (1) evaluate novel devJces; (2)
generate a plan to solicit, stimulate, and identify new ideas and con-
cepts for fine particulate control; and (3) demonstrate the most prom-
ising devices on pilot scale.
HIGH-TEMPERATURE/HIGH-PRESSURE PARTICULATE CONTROL
This program area was added in FY 75 as a result of the critical
particulate and fine particulate collection problems associated with the
advanced energy processes. The broad objective of the HTP program is to
develop particulate collection devices which are needed to ensure the
environmental acceptability of advanced energy processes. However,
because the requirements of such energy processes are unknown, EPA has
established a near-term objective of developing fundamental information
on the mechanics of aerosols at high temperatures and pressures necessary
to determine the most logical path for HTP particulate collection research
and development.
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Current Program Status
CHARACTERIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CONVENTIONAL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Electrostatic Preclpitators
The EPA has totally characterized seven ESPs operating on a number
of sources ranging from power plants to aluminum plants. Data from
these tests clearly show that ESPs can collect particles of all sizes
with high efficiency when dust resistivity is not a problem. Data and
theoretical predictions indicate that high dust resistivity limits ESP
performance.
The EPA has completed work to determine the electrical conduction
mechanisms in fly ash at high temperatures (390°C). Work in this area
is being extended to low temperatures. An outcome of this work has been
the demonstration of sodium as a potential conditioning agent to reduce
fly ash resistivity. The EPA has evaluated and published reports on
conditioning agents such as S03 and NH3 (EPA-R2-72-087, EPA-650/2-74-
092, and EPA-650/2-74-114). Conditioning appears to be a possible
solution .to retrofit type problems, but not for new installations.
Conditioning will not be a solution if it causes adverse environmental
effects. IERL-RTP will conduct further tests to assess the total impact
of conditioning. One test has already been completed; preparation for
others is currently in progress.
Specially designed charging or precharging sections are a possible
means of improving the collection of fine high-resistivity particles. A
fundamental study and limited pilot-plant work on particle charging was
begun in FY 74. This work was continued through FY 76 and resulted in a
laboratory demonstration of the feasibility of the concept. A pilot-
scale demonstration was funded in FY 77.
A mathematical model for the design of ESPs was completed in FY 75.
This model is in two forms: a design and selection manual for the plant
engineer and a programmed computer version for the design engineer. The
model predicts well the performance of ESPs down to particle sizes
approaching 0.01 urn. Programs in FY 76 and 77 resulted in improvements
in this model in the areas of defining the effects of gas distribution,
rapping, and reentrainment.
Wet ESPs offer a solution to high-resistivity and fine particle
collection problems from some sources. The EPA is completing a systems
study of wet ESPs which was funded in FY 73. The results of this study
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indicate that wet ESPs have performance characteristics similar to dry
ESPs without resistivity problems. However, cost and other factors
limit the application of wet ESPs. Wet ESPs do not appear to be a
solution to the problem of collecting high-resistivity fly ash.
The broad objective of the ESP improvement program is to develop an
ESP of moderate size (specific collection area < 300 ft /1000 acfm at
300°F) for high-efficiency (>99 percent) collection of high-resistivity
dusts. Such ESPs would have a minimum particle collection efficiency of
90 percent at 0.5 pm particle diameter. This objective is shown in the
chart below. High-resistivity dusts are produced from several sources:
the largest is combustion of low-sulfur coal.
As shown below, moderate- to small-sized ESPs can collect particles
with high efficiency when dust resistivity is not excessive. The figure
also shows that very large cold-side ESPs are required for efficient
collection of high-resistivity dusts. Hot-side ESPs are somewhat smaller,
based on specific collection area (SCA) using acfm, than cold-side ESPs
for high-resistivity dusts. However, theoretically perfect (e.g., no
reentrainment, no sneakage) hot-side ESP performance does not approach
the actual performance of the cold-side low-resistivity ESP. If the
SCAs are converted to a common temperature, the hot-side ESP is much
less attractive than the ESP that would result from successful completion
of this effort. For example, a hot-side ESP with good gas flow distri-
bution and moderate-to-low sneakage and reentrainment has an SCA of 450
ft2/!000 acfm at 700°F, or 690 ft2/!000 cfm at 300°F. The object ESP
would require an SCA of only 180 ft2/!000 cfm at 300°F for the same
efficiency.
A joint U.S./USSR symposium on particu!ate control was sponsored by
the Particulate Technology Branch in September 1977. The papers presented
focused on research on problems related to ESPs.
Scrubbers
The EPA, as part of this R&D program, has tested approximately 10
scrubbers of conventional design on a variety of particulate sources.
In general, the performance efficiency of"a scrubber drops off rather
rapidly as the particle size decreases. Efficiency is also directly
related to the energy consumed by the scrubber.
The broad objective of lERL-RTP's fine particle scrubber program is
to develop a low-pressure-drop (30-50 cm HpO) scrubber system capable of
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2.6
99J
100
CAPITAL COST, $103/1009 aefin
7.8
15.6
COMPUTED PERFORMANCE
ATWiw/em2
TEMPERATURE ~300°F
200 300 400
SPECIFIC COLLECTION AREA, ftZ/IOOOacfm
500
Capital cost of ESPs vs. computed performance.
-------
collecting at least 90 percent by mass of particles smaller than 3 urn
diameter. Except for two TCA scrubbers, the performance of all conven-
tional and novel scrubbers tested by IERL-RTP has been predictable. The
TCA scrubbers appear to perform better at the same pressure drop than
other scrubbers. Additional data taken during FY 76 and 77 indicate
that the superior performance previously measured on TCA scrubbers is
very likely the result of condensation effects within the scrubber system.
The major thrust of EPA's scrubber program has been aimed at devel-
oping and demonstrating flux force/condensation (FF/C) scrubbers. In an
FF/C scrubber, water vapor is condensed in the scrubber. When the water
vapor condenses, additional forces and particle growth contribute to
particle collection. When the water vapor or steam is "free," FF/C
scrubbers are low energy users. However, when water vapor or steam has
to be purchased, FF/C scrubbers require additional energy for efficient
particle collection. Answers to questions of how much steam is needed
and how much is free are major unknowns. Answers to both questions are
likely to be source specific. Thus, pilot demonstrations on a variety
of sources are necessary to provide required data. One pilot demonstra-
tion has been completed; a second is underway.
Overall efficiency of a scrubber system is determined by the effi-
ciency of the scrubber and the efficiency of the entrainment separator.
Recent field data indicate that in some cases inefficient entrainment
separator operation is a major cause of poor fine particle collection by
scrubbers. The EPA has recently completed a systems study of entrainnent
separators. In FY 76 the design of these separators was optimized for
fine particle control. This design is now ready for demonstration.
Fabric Filters
Baghouse performance has been completely characterized on three
sources, two utility boilers and an industrial boiler. The data obtained
from these tests show that baghouses are relatively good fine particle
collectors and their performance is not very sensitive to particle sizes
down to at least 0.3 urn. A major advantage of fabric filters is that
they do not require increases in size or energy usage for efficient
collection of fine particles.
The current purpose in maintaining an R&D program in fabric filtra-
tion is to promote increased capabilities and extend the range of appli-
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cability in their control of fine participates. Of the three conventional
devices which can collect fine particles, fabric filters have been in
industrial service for the longest time; however, the least is known
about the theory of their operation. Although the filter is a simple
device in operation, describing it mathematically is complex. The types
of analyses used for scrubbers and ESPs have not been effective when
applied to filters.
A comprehensive mathematical model of fabric filters has been
completed.
Filtration work performed under lERL-RTP's PATB has been aimed at
acquiring information for a two-fold use: incorporation into mathematical
models; and addition to the empirical knowledge used by designers and
operators for everyday operation. This work has included: studies of
fiber property and fabric-type effects; evaluation of new fabrics;
development of mathematical descriptions for specific parts of the
filtration process; characterization of fabric filters in the field;
investigation of electrostatic effects; support of a pilot (and now a
demonstration) program to apply fabric filtration to industrial boilers
at a several-fold increase over normal filtration velocity; studies of
cleaning and energy consumption in bag filters; and a pilot program for
control of municipal incinerators.
The fabric filter has recently taken on added importance as a
control device for utility boilers burning low-sulfur coal, the fly ash
of which is very difficult and expensive to control with ESPs. The EPA
in FY 77 funded a demonstration test of a baghouse installed on a 350 MW
boiler burning a low-sulfur coal.
Objectives of immediate work by EPA in fabric filtration are:
0 Understanding of the filtration process.
0 Application to and demonstration on priority sources.
0 Achievement of cost/energy effectiveness.
0 Development and testing of new filter materials which can extend
the applicability of baghouses to a broad spectrum of sources.
lERL-RTP's inhouse research program in fabric filtration consists
of two independent concurrent activities: the evaluation of candidate
fabrics and the investigation of basic phenomena. Both activities will
continue using existing test facilities and new, more versatile equipment
scheduled to be operational during 1978.
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Accomplishments of the fabric evaluation program included:
0 Demonstration of superior filtration performance by spunbounded
fabrics, compared to similar weights of woven fabrics of the same fiber.
The laboratory evaluation justifies field evaluation of this fabric.
0 Confirmation of the unique filtering action of one-of the classes
of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) laminate fabrics. The fabric filtered
fly ash very effectively for the filtration of respirable particulates
(0.01 to 3 urn).
0 Identification of polyester as suitable for filtering cotton
dust.
0 Measurement of the performance of uncalendered needled felt
fabrics in the pulse-jet unit, and measurement of the endurance of
variously coated fibrous glass fabrics in the high temperature baghouse.
Specific research topics investigated included:
0 Filtration modeling.
0 Particulate penetration.
0 Fabric aging effects.
0 Particle size effects.
0 High temperature effects.
A new versatile fabric test chamber (baghouse) was fabricated which
is capable of testing bags at both high (1500°F) and normal temperatures
in environments simulating similar real-process conditions.
ASSESSMENT OF THE COLLECTABILITY OF DUSTS
A fleet of mobile conventional collectors which can be easily
transported from source to source and tested has been constructed and
will be used in support of this program.
The fleet includes a mobile fabric filter, a mobile scrubber, and a
mobile ESP unit. These highly versatile mobile units are being used to
investigate the applicability of these control methods to the control of
fine particulate emitted from a wide range of industrial sources.
Relative capabilities and limitations of these control devices are being
evaluated and documented. This information, supplemented by data from
other IERL-RTP particulate programs, will permit selection by equipment
users of collection systems that are technically and economically optimum
for specific applications.
The mobile fabric filter unit has been operated on effluents from a
brass and bronze foundry, a hot-mix asphalt plant, a coal-fired boiler,
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a lime kiln, and a pulp mill recovery boiler. It has also been used to
determine the performance of a fabric filter on air emissions from a
cyclone collector used on the St. Louis Refuse Processing Plant. The
filter unit most recently was operated at a Southwest Public Service Co.
site to obtain preliminary data for an EPA-funded demonstration of a
fabric filter on a 350 MW boiler burning low-sulfur coal. The mobile
wet scrubber unit has been operated on a coal-fired power plant, a lime
kiln in a pulp and paper mill, and on a gray iron foundry. The mobile
ESP is operating in the field for the first time, on an industrial
boiler burning a mixture of coal and pelletized refuse. This unit is
being used at a field site to evaluate the effects of sodium conditioning
on a low-sulfur western coal.
NEW PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
This program area has become known as "New Concepts." As the
requirement to collect finer and finer particulate has developed, the
cost of conventional control (ESPs, fabric filters, scrubbers) has
risen. Since many important collection mechanisms become far less
effective on particles less than 1 urn in diameter, conventional devices
(except for fabric filters) have become larger or require more energy
and thus are more expensive. The objective of new concepts R&D is to
develop new mechanisms or new combinations of well-studied mechanisms in
order to achieve cost-effective control of fine particulate. New con-
cepts include any new technology which has not been reduced to practice;
it may or may not have been previously studied. IERL-RTP has thus far
evaluated about 40 new concepts; of these, 10 have been selected for
funding.
Mechanisms utilized by scrubbers and fabric filters are impaction,
interception, and diffusion; those utilized by ESPs are field and diffu-
sion charging. This combination of mechanisms gives rise to a minimum
in efficiency at the 0.2 to 0.5 urn range for conventional devices.
Under optimum conditions, this minimum may be greater than 90 percent
for scrubbers and ESPs and greater than 99 percent for fabric filters.
However, under other conditions (e.g., high temperature, high ash resis-
tivity, sticky particulate, and corrosive or explosive flue gases), new
concepts specific to a problem will have an advantage.
Most work to date has been directed toward combining electrostatic
removal mechanisms with scrubbing or filtration mechanisms. The first
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area to be developed was changed droplet scrubbing, with a feasibility
study at MIT and a pilot demonstration at TRW on a Kaiser coke oven.
Electrostatics and filtration are being studied at both Battelle-
Northwest and Carnegie-Mellon; the former with bed filters, the latter
with baghouses.
The University of Washington charged droplet scrubber, the Air
Pollution Systems, Inc. (APS) scrubber, and the TRW charged droplet
scrubber were tested by the EPA in the field; all show high collection
efficiencies in removing the 0.5 urn particles. The test with filters
utilizing electrostatics has also shown enhanced performance.
At least two new concepts—a ceramic membrane filter and a magnetic
metallic fiber bed—may be applied to cleanup of high-temperature gases
(1000 to 2000°F). Other new concepts being studied include foam scrub-
bing and pleated cartridge filters of a novel material.
Theoretically, bench- and pilot-scale work on the collection of
fine particles by high gradient magnetic separation (HGMS) has been
completed. The process has been shown to be effective in collecting
redispersed submicron particulate from both basic oxygen and electric
arc steelmaking furnaces. A new project has been funded to design and
construct a mobile HGMS pilot plant for field evaluation on these and
other industrial processes.
NEW IDEA IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION, AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
This area is called for convenience the "Novel Devices" area. It
includes, in addition to novel device evaluation and testing, a program
aimed at soliciting, stimulating, and identifying new ideas for fine
particulate control.
As a part of this last objective, IERL-RTP has planned and sponsored
six symposia and two .seminars aimed at fine particle control. The EPA
also has completed a literature search aimed at identifying new technology
in foreign countries (Japan, Canada, Russia, and Australia).
Devices or systems based on new collection principles or on radical
redesign of conventional collectors are sometimes offered by private
developers. Under this program area all-such novel devices are reviewed
and, if promising, are evaluated for performance and related cost. It
is intended that those showing promise of high-efficiency fine particle
collection at reasonable cost be further developed or demonstrated if
necessary.
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More than 40 novel participate devices have been identified. About
half of these have been of sufficient interest to justify a technical
evaluation. To date 11 devices have been either field- or laboratory-
tested and five of these were found to be good collectors of fine partic-
ulate. The EPA plans to demonstrate one promising novel device at full
scale.
Of the devices tested, the Lone Star Steel scrubber gave the highest
efficiency on fine particulate. Although it is also a high energy user,
it can use waste energy, when available. The Aronetics scrubber is
similar to the Lone Star unit, but (in one test) did not appear to be as
efficient. In a field test, the cleanable high-efficiency air filter
(CHEAP) had an overall mass efficiency of 95 percent and maintained the
efficiency down to about 0.3 pm. Laboratory tests have confirmed that
this phenomenon is real. The APS electrostatic scrubber was equal in
fractional collection efficiency to a venturi scrubber using 1.5 to 2.5
times as much power. The APS electrotube, which is similar to a wet
wall ESP, gave some very high efficiencies on fine particulates—as high
as 98.9 percent on 0.5 urn particles. This performance is similar to
that which can be achieved in small wet ESPs with the same ratio of
plate area to volumetric flow rate. The Century Industrial Products
scrubber performed slightly better than a venturi scrubber with the same
pressure drop on the effluent from a lightweight aggregate drying kiln.
None of the other devices tested had acceptable fine particulate collec-
tion efficiencies.
The following devices are now being considered for testing:
0 United McGill—NAFCO ESP
0 Combustion Power—Dry Scrubber
0 Dart Industries—Hydro-Precipitrol Wet ESP
0 Ceilcote Company—Ionizing Wet Scrubber
0 Du Pont—Du Pont Scrubber
A University of Washington charged droplet scrubber has been fabri-
cated as a portable unit and is being installed on a steel plant electric
arc furnace for evaluation. The unit shows promise and will be evaluated
on other sources.
HIGH-TEMPERATURE/HIGH-PRESSURE PARTICULATE CONTROL
This program area was added in FY 75 as a result of the critical
particulate and fine particulate collection problems associated with
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advanced energy processes. The broad objective of the HTP program is to
develop the participate collection devices which are needed to ensure
the environmental acceptability of advanced energy processes. However,
because the requirements of such energy processes are as yet unknown,
IERL-RTP has established a near-term objective of developing the funda-
mental information on the mechanics of aerosols at HTP necessary to
determine the most logical path for HTP particulate collection R&D.
The state-of-the-art of HTP particulate collection is very unclear.
There is no clear specification of the degree of particulate collection
needed by advanced energy processes. Also, there are no reliable data
for the performance of the particulate collection devices proposed by
various companies; e.g., granular bed filters and high pressure-drop
cyclones. There are few data, correlations, or verified theories that
can be used to predict the performance of particulate collection devices
at elevated temperatures and pressures.
The EPA, through FY 75- and FY 76-funded contracts, is conducting
research to: determine the feasibility of HTP ESPs; determine the
effects of HTP on basic particle collection mechanisms (literature
search funded in FY 75, experimental study funded in FY 76); and'deter-
mine the estimated particulate cleanup requirements of the proposed new
energy processes. The EPA, as part of the advanced energy processes
program, is looking at granular bed filters and high pressure-drop
cyclones. As part of the novel device program previously mentioned,
IERL-RTP is attempting to evaluate two commercially available granular
bed filters. Most of this work is still in progress and no definitive
results are expected before early 1978. However, the basic mechanisms
study has been completed.
Laboratory studies are starting to screen promising mechanisms.
Interface with the activities of IERL-RTP1s Fuel Process Branch and the
HTP fabric filter facility has been initiated. A mechanism for coordin-
ation of HTP control technology at IERL-RTP with DOE was also established,
reflecting the common interests of the two agencies in new energy-
related emissions. A joint symposium on-HTP particulate control was
held in September 1977 in Washington, D.C.
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ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL
lERL-RTP's work in the area of energy assessment and control can be
divided into three functional groupings: combustion research, fuel
processes, and advanced processes. The following sections of this
report discuss these groupings separately.
COMBUSTION RESEARCH
Work of lERL-RTP's Combustion Research Branch (CRB) is directed
toward the characterization, assessment, and control of the environmen-
tal impact of energy conversion technologies. Programs are underway to
identify multimedia pollution problems associated with combustion proc-
esses (i.e., related to residential, commercial, industrial, and utility
boilers, industrial furnaces, and stationary gas turbine and reciprocat-
ing internal combustion [1C] engines) utilizing conventional fossil and
alternate new fuels and to provide solutions to these problems.
Major goals of these efforts are the development and demonstration
of combustion modifications and control techniques or devices to prevent
or minimize pollution problems for these processes in a cost-effective,
energy-conserving, process-efficient, and environmentally acceptable
manner. Although the major emphasis is on investigation of technology
for control of oxides of nitrogen (NO ), efforts are also underway to
J\
reduce or eliminate other pollutants (such as hydrocarbons, carbon
particulate, smoke, carbon monoxide, and various potentially hazardous
species) while simultaneously maximizing system efficiency by optimizing
system design and operating characteristics.
Combustion sources contribute about 98 percent of the total NO
/\
emissions from stationary sources. Some NO is formed in all fossil
x\
fuel combustion processes. Recent estimates of NO emissions from major
J\
source categories in 1974 are shown in the following figure. Control
technology development studies to date indicate that combustion modifi-
cation is the primary near-term method of controlling N0x emissions from
the combustion of fossil fuels.
Until recently, it appeared that existing or a low level of develop-
ment of stationary source control technology would be adequate to achieve
and maintain air Quality in the 1980 to 2000 period. However, since 1973,
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RECIPROCATING
1C ENGINES
15.9S
PACKAGED
BOILERS
20.1%
INCINERATION OJK
FUGITIVE MX
GAS TURBINES 3.7tX
NONCOMBUSTION 1.IX
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
COMBUSTION 3.MX
WARM AIR FURNACES 2.7%
SOURCE
UTILITY BOILERS
PACKAGED BOILERS
RECIPROCATING 1C ENGINES
WARM AIR FURNACES
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS COMBUSTION
NONCOMBUSTION
GAS TURBINES
INCINERATION
FUGITIVE
ESTIMATED N0y EMISSIONS
GIGAGRAMS/YEAR
5,566
2,345
1,857
321
425
193
440
40
_498
11,685
Summary of 1974 stationary source NOX emissions.
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the energy shortage and changes in the national NO abatement strategy
have placed additional demands on stationary source control technology.
Current combustion research activities to address the above needs
are divided into the following elements: field testing and environ-
mental assessment, process R&D, fuels R&D, and fundamental studies.
Field testing is directed toward the determination of the range of NO
control possible in existing equipment, and environmental assessments
identify the multimedia environmental impact of stationary combustion
sources and NO control systems for attainment and maintenance of cur-
J\
rent and projected air quality standards. Process R&D encompasses the
development and demonstration of optimum NO control technology for
/\
existing and new combustion systems. Fuels R&D studies are designed to
develop generalized combustion control technology which is applicable to
the control of NO and other pollutant emissions from the combustion of
y\
conventional fuels, waste fuels, and future fuels. Fundamental studies
provide an understanding of the important phenomena in the formation and
destruction of pollutants during combustion which may then be utilized
in pilot-scale equipment and fuels control technology.
A further element of the program is the efficient dissemination of
technical information from its research activities to control devel-
opers, equipment manufacturers and users, and the authorities involved
in setting and enforcing standards. Symposia and bulletins have been
used to establish an efficient means of technology transfer.
The first symposium on Stationary Source Combustion took place in
Atlanta in September 1975; the second symposium, in New Orleans from
August 29 through September 1, 1977. Sessions were held in the key
program areas of lERL-RTP's Combustion Research Branch. One session
highlighted results from analytical and experimental studies of pollut-
ant formation and reduction. Developments in external combustion con-
trol, burner modifications, combustion of alternate fuels, and alternate
combustion concepts were presented. Another session highlighted develop-
ment of advanced NO control technology through minor hardware changes
n
to existing equipment which will provide guidelines for low-NO new unit
^\
design and for retrofit field implementation of N0x controls. Also,
papers were given on uncontrolled emission characterization and on
control achieved by alteration of operating conditions. The proceedings
are available of both the Atlanta meeting (EPA-600/2-76-152a, -152b, and
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-152c) and the New Orleans meeting (EPA-600/7-77-073a through -073e).
Six issues of a bulletin, entitled "NO Control Review," have been
published. Issued approximately quarterly, the Review presents the
status of stationary source NO control technology and related topics.
j\
Each issue leads off with major recent developments or topics of general
interest; the remainder is divided into the following topical cate-
gories: control R&D, control implementation, alternate processes, flue
gas treatment, regulatory strategies, technical briefs, recent publi-
cations, and a calendar of upcoming meetings. Recent issues have also
included a listing of applications of NO control technology to major
^\
utility and industrial stationary combustion sources.
Field Testing and Environmental Assessment
The field testing element includes studies designed to determine
the potential for control of NO emissions from existing equipment.
J\
This work is generally performed by R&D organizations familiar with the
specific combustion systems being studied, and with the financial and
technical assistance of manufacturers, users, and trade associations.
The field testing and survey studies are the initial efforts in the
development of control technology and are designed to demonstrate the
state-of-the-art in control of NO and combustible emissions. In addi-
tion to developing trends and providing application guidelines for
industry to minimize emissions with present technology, the work also
suggests where R&D efforts should be concentrated by developing emission
factors as a function of equipment type and size, and fuel consumed.
The environmental assessment component of the program element
focuses on identification of the multimedia environmental impact of
stationary combustion sources and NO controls and, for this impact,
identifies the most cost-effective, environmentally sound NO control
systems for attainment and maintenance of current and projected N0_ air
quality standards. This activity provides program guidelines for develop-
ment of NO controls sufficient to assure compliance (to the year 2000)
with air quality standards in critical AQCRs.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF NOX COMBUSTION
MODIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
A major contract has been awarded to the Aerotherm Division of
Acurex Corporation for a multimedia environmental assessment and systems
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analysis of NO combustion modification techniques. This effort is to
J\
determine the technical soundness and environmental acceptability of
these control methods, and to ensure that any deficiencies or potential
problems are identified and corrected in a timely fashion, before the
technologies are adopted commercially.
The general technical approach in this project is based on the need
to provide efficient and timely assessments of near-term control technol-
ogies while maintaining a comprehensive treatment of likely control
needs to the year 2000. Throughout the program, emphasis will be on
synthesis of existing and emerging technology on control systems, trace
emissions, and pollutant transport, transformation, and impact. The
major project effort will be on the compilation and evaluation of data
from past and on-going programs for the EPA and other agencies. Addi-
tionally, the environmental assessment activities will be coordinated
with the IERL-RTP guidelines developed for the numerous on-going source
and environmental assessments. The evaluation of potential air quality
standards and N02 abatement strategies will be coordinated with EPA's
OAQPS as well as the several task forces established to define mobile
source emission control needs. The intent of this evaluation is to
obtain an objective overview of the future needs for combustion modifi-
cation NO controls.
J\
The approach and level of effort allocated to project tasks are
based on prioritization of sources, controls, pollutants, and AQCRs.
The basis of the prioritization is to focus the study on development
needs for environmentally sound control systems. Throughout the program,
emphasis will be on those sources, controls, and multimedia impacts most
likely to be involved in control implementation in critical AQCRs up to
the year 2000. Early use of the systems analysis models has been made
in setting the program priorities. A screening approach was used in the
systems analysis whereby a simple model was used to prioritize the options.
More sophisticated models will be introduced for verification as process
and emission data become available.
The effort will be time-phased on a descending priority basis with
early emphasis on near-term sources and controls. Subsequent updates
will maintain a current assessment of the high-priority areas. This
approach requires parallel initiation of all program elements with early
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emphasis on gathering results from previous efforts and later emphasis
on synthesis or generation of new data.
This EA study has been underway for 1-1/2 years. During this
period, the contractor has accumulated considerable information and data
relative to the effect of CM on the control of combustion-generated
pollutants and on the operation and performance of systems to which it
is applied. A document file of over 950 recent reports, papers, and
other printed material relative to nitrogen oxides and other pollutants
of interest has been compiled. A special report, "Preliminary Environ-
mental Assessment of Combustion Modification Techniques" (EPA-600/7-77-
119a and -119b) has been issued which provides a comprehensive overview
of the potential effectiveness of and problems associated with the
application of CM technology to the broad range of combustion sources.
The contractor is developing several Source Analysis Models to be used
in evaluating the environmental impact of pollutants from various sources.
These will be part of the overall EA methodology being developed for
lERL-RTP's EA program. The models, providing several degrees of complex-
ity, use the MEG values in characterizing the potential degree of hazard
associated with various sources and/or effluent streams. As a means of
providing more comprehensive performance data on the application of CM
and of filling in the data gaps relative to earlier test results, the
contractor has initiated field tests of a series of 10 selected combus-
tion sources; four tests have been completed, and data reduction and
sample analysis are underway.
UTILITY BOILER/POWER GENERATION EQUIPMENT FIELD TESTING
lERL-RTP's NO control program was initiated in 1970 when Exxon
y\
Research and Engineering Company began field testing utility boilers to
define baseline emissions and establish the effect of CM techniques. It
was found that NO emissions from gas- and oil-fired boilers could be
/\
reduced by 50 to 60 percent by using modification techniques such as low
excess air firing, staged combustion, flue gas recirculation, load
reduction, air preheat reduction, change in burner tilt, and change in
primary-to-secondary air ratio. Of these, the first two were found to
be most applicable and cost-effective. Initially combustion modifica-
tion with coal-fired boilers was less successful for NO reduction and
/\
more difficult because of operating problems. Since the Exxon systems
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study identified coal-fired utility boilers as the top ranking source of
NOX emissions from stationary sources, efforts were concentrated on
these units. Further Exxon studies showed that reducing the excess air
level and employing staged combustion, as with gas- and oil-fired boilers,
resulted in significant NO reductions, averaging about 40 to 50 percent
for the boilers tested. The degree of reduction, as well as baseline
NO emission levels, varied with the design and size of coal-fired
boilers tested and with coal type. No extreme differences in flue gas
particulate loadings and in the carbon content of the fly ash were found
during the boiler tests.
A subsequent extension to the Exxon field test program of utility
power generation equipment included trace specie emission measurements
and testing of an additional six units, including a carefully controlled
investigation into the effects of NO controls on the tube wastage in
coal-fired boilers. Emission measurements included sulfates, nitrates,
HCN, HC1, ROMs, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in addition to the
original NO, N02, S02, SO-, CO, C02, 02, HC, particulate loading, and
particle size distribution. The additional test sites extended previous
emission characterizations and control tests to a broader range of
design types and operating conditions. Corrosion tests are being con-
ducted on a 500 MW horizontally-opposed, dry-bottom coal-fired boiler
with an initial 4 month baseline test to establish normal tube wastage
rates followed by a run of at least 6 months in which low N0x conditions
will be accomplished through low excess air firing and staged combustion
via burners out of service. Use is being made of a new utltrasonic tube
thickness sensor (accurate to + 0.0001 inch) to measure tubewall thick-
ness, corrosion coupon probes, and replaceable tube wall panels with
before and after metallographic characterization.
A new program is being negotiated to conduct long-term comprehen-
sive emissions and corrosion tests on coal-fired utility boilers designed
to meet NSPS for NOX of 301 ng N02/J (0.7 Ib N02/106 Btu) heat input.
Each test boiler will exceed 125 MW in capacity and burn high-sulfur
bituminous coal. It is expected that these tests will fully quantify
the effects of NO combustion modification on emissions, corrosion,
^
boiler performance, and reliability for major coal-fired boiler designs.
102
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Future work with utility boilers will continue to concentrate on
coal-fired units, but will also consider firing of mixed fossil fuels
(e.g., coal and oil, coal-oil slurries, and gas and oil) simultaneously,
coal-derived fuels (e.g., low-Btu gas and solvent refined coal), and
waste fuels. Tests are also underway with other power generation equip-
ment such as gas turbines and large 1C engines.
FIELD TESTING OF INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
In 1973, KVB Engineering was awarded a contract to test approximate-
ly 50 industrial gas-, oil-, and coal-fired boilers, ranging in size
from 10,000 to 500,000 Ib steam/hour. Measurements included efficiency
and emissions of NO , SO , HC, CO, smoke, and particulate mass. The
/\ s\
tests were short-term and concentrated on operating variables such as
excess air, load, swirl adjustment, and primary, secondary, and tertiary
air adjustment. During the second year, 18 boilers were tested in more
detail with more extensive modifications, such as overfire air, flue gas
recirculation, and variable air preheat temperature. Also particle size
distribution and (on approximately five oil- and coal-fired boilers)
trace specie emissions were measured. The 2 year study provided the
following range of data on uncontrolled baseline NO emissions: 164-
yv
922, 65-619, and 50-375 ppm for coal, oil, and gas firing, respectively.
Corresponding baseline operation NO emission averages were 475, 120,
y\
293, 269, and 139 ppm, for coal, No. 2 oil, No. 5 oil, No. 6 oil, and
natural gas, respectively. Excess air, burners out of service, and flue
gas recirculation proved to be the most effective techniques for reducing
NO emissions without sacrificing boiler efficiency. Final reports were
issued for both Phase I and Phase II (EPA-650/2-74-078a, EPA-600/2-76-
086a, and EPA-600/2-77-122). The study culminated in the issuance of
instructional guidelines for low-emission operation (EPA-600/8-77-003a)
for use by industrial boiler users and manufacturers.
In a follow-on study the effects on pollutant emission of extensive
combustion modification techniques were determined for two industrial
boilers. Staged combustion, variable excess air, and variable air
preheat were evaluated while firing natural gas or.No. 6 fuel oil in a
watertube boiler rated at 16 MW thermal input (55 x 10 Btu/hr). Reduc-
tions in NO of 31 percent for natural gas and 42 percent for No. 6 fuel
J\
oil were obtained when excess air was optimized and staged air was
103
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introduced through injection ports located in the furnace side as far
downstream from the burner as practical. Combined lowered air preheat
and staged combustion reduced NO by 70 percent while firing natural
c
gas. In a watertube boiler rated at 6.5 MW thermal input (22 x 10
Btu/hr), flue gas recirculation, staged combustion, and variable excess
air were evaluated while firing natural gas, No. 2 fuel oil, or No. 6
fuel oil. The maximum reduction of NO for natural gas was 79 percent
J{
with flue gas recirculation and lowered excess air. A 77 percent reduc-
tion in NO was obtained for No. 2 fuel oil with combined modifications.
Since NO reduction for heavy fuel oil has been very difficult to achieve,
the most significant result in the program was a 55 percent reduction in
N0x «
oil.
NO obtained with a combination of modifications while firing No. 6 fuel
FIELD TESTING OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS EQUIPMENT
KVB conducted a 1 year field test program of industrial process
equipment, gas turbines, and internal combustion engines for IERL-RTP.
Emphasis was on detailed emission characterization of a representative
group of combustion devices in the petroleum refining, minerals, paper,
and metals industries. Measurements were made of NO, NOp, S02, S03, 0«,
CO, C02, HC, particle size and grain loading, opacity, and (where relevant)
trace metal!ics and trace organics (POM, PCBs). Process rates, excess
air reduction, burner adjustments, staged combustion, and fuel type were
the main techniques evaluated. The results indicate that these techniques,
developed primarily on steam boilers, are not as effective in emissions
control on devices tested in this program. A follow-on study is being
performed by KVB to evaluate advanced combustion modification techniques
on equipment which showed promise for emission reduction in the earlier
study.
RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL HEATING SYSTEMS TESTING
In an lERL-RTP-sponsored effort, Battelle has completed work on
guidelines for residential and commercial oil burner adjustments (EPA-600/
2-75-069a and EPA-600/2-76-088, respectively). Intended for use by
service managers for training and by skilled technicians in their oil
burner service work, the adjustment guidelines are important because
they ensure-reliable automatic operation, provide for efficient fuel
utilization, and minimize air pollution. In addition, the guidelines
104
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also include appendixes with background material on pollutants of pri-,
roary concern, field-type instruments and significance of measurements,
fuel oil characteristics, and emission characteristics of residential
and commercial oil burners and boilers.
A pamphlet produced inhouse, entitled "Get the Most From Your Heat-
ing Oil Dollai—Servicing Cuts Cost and Pollution," is being distributed
to homeowners throughout the U.S. It is designed to transfer to the
public information on emissions and fuel conservation technology developed
during field tests of residential equipment.
Similar guidelines are being prepared by Battelle for residential
gas-fired heating equipment. A pamphlet for homeowners will also be
available.
CRB INHOUSE COMBUSTION ASSESSMENT
Inhouse studies closely related to the field testing are being
conducted on emission characterization and design evaluation for commer-
cial combustion systems. The objective of this work is to investigate,
under controlled laboratory conditions, the emission performance of
existing/prototype commercial combustion systems and components and to
evaluate effects of new burner/combustor designs and modifications on
emissions and energy efficiency performance. Two different equipment
systems have been baselined; that is, the best conditions for minimum
emission with unaltered equipmant have been established. These systems
include two major types of firetube package boilers: Scotch marine and
firebox.
The Scotch marine firetube boiler has been utilized for the study
of two fuel-oil/water emulsion devices: The Cottell Ultrasonic Emulsi-
fier and the Total Emulsifier. The Gotten device provided significant
reductions in smoke number and particulate emissions. The Total device
provided significant reductions in particulate when firing distillate-oil/
water emulsions, but smoke increased because the particle distribution
shifted to a smaller size range. Neither emulsifier reduced NO emissions
significantly when firing residual oil (which has a high-fuel-nitrogen
content); however, a significant NO reduction was observed when distil-
J\
late oil was fired. On-going tests on the Elf Union (a French oil
company) emulsion burner with a capability of 10 to 70 gph capacity have
not resulted in data as yet. Some emulsion devices may have a small
105
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< )
,1
Packaged Scotch marine boiler (60 hp) with oil/water emulsion burner.
-------
potential for energy conservation by permitting boiler operation at
lower excess air levels, but this may require trading back the emission
improvements.
In addition to the basic emission characteristics, a number of
design and equipment changes have been studied. A burner redesign
program was successful in reducing CO, HC, and smoke emissions from the
firebox/firetube package boiler without increasing NO emissions. A
fuel injection equipment program has been carried out to determine
emission characteristics from air, high-pressure, and sonic atomization
of No. 6 residual oil.
A comprehensive sampling and analytical system for use with all
IERL-RTP Energy Assessment and Control Division projects has been estab-
lished. System components include a Source Assessment Sampling System
(SASS) train (with a special controlled temperature probe for acquiring
Level 1 EA samples under high-temperature stack conditions) and a labora-
tory for processing these samples. The laboratory is equipped with an
HP-5840A programmable gas chromatograph for hydrocarbon and other gaseous
specie quantification, a stereomicroscope and a polarizing microscope
for particulate morphology study, a Mettler H311 analytical balance for
particulate fraction and organic extract mass determinations, and a
complete glassware system for fractionating and extracting the SASS
train sample. Illustrations of major components of this system are
shown on the following page. Specialized chemical analytical and
bioassay work will be performed by outside laboratories under contract.
This system was developed in cooperation with IERL-RTP1s Process Meas-
urements Branch and their contractors, Aerotherm and Arthur d. Little.
A cooperative program between IERL-RTP and ESRL-RTP was initiated
in the last year. This program is directed toward identification of how
changes in boiler operating conditions will alter ambient pollutant
levels, especially those of acid aerosols. Specifically, an IERL-RTP
inhouse research boiler will provide exhaust gases which are ducted to
two outdoor smog chambers. The illustration below shows these chambers.
By carefully characterizing the boiler exhaust and by monitoring pollut-
ant levels in the smog chambers, it is hoped that information will be
obtained on the direct atmospheric penalties associated with alternative
boiler operating conditions and fuels.
107
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o
co
Particle morphology system
Programmable gas chromatograph
Source assessment sampling system
Major components of laboratory comprehensive sampling and analysis system.
-------
o
UD
Atmospheric chambers and instrument control trailer for secondary pollutant studies,
-------
Process Research and Development
lERL-RTP's process R&D work involves the application of optimum NO
control technology to existing and new combustion systems. Results of
these studies provide the basis for the demonstration of combustion
control technology. During the past year, interest in projects in this
area has continued to develop.
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION FOR UTILITY BOILERS
A recently completed study by Combustion Engineering, Inc., on two
tangentially coal-fired utility boilers with overfire air systems, has
shown that NO emissions of 0.45 to 0.6 Ib NO-/10 Btu can be achieved
s\ £,
at full load under optimum conditions. The units tested were the 400 MW
Huntington Canyon No. 2 unit of Utah Power and Light Co., and the Columbia
No. 1 unit of Wisconsin Power and Light Co. Huntington Canyon No. 2
fired a high volatile "B" bituminous western coal. Columbia No. 1 fired
a subbituminous "C" western coal. The optimized NO levels represented
J\
a 20 to 30 percent reduction from normal baseline conditions. Under
optimized overfire air conditions, there was no adverse impact on unit
efficiency or other pollutants (carbonaceous particulate, CO, and HC).
Thirty day corrosion rates compared to baseline. More detailed, long-
term corrosion studies are recommended to quantify fully the effect of
low-NO operating conditions on waterwall corrosion.
s\
Aerospace Corporation, under IERL-RTP sponsorship, has compiled and
correlated field test data collected by the Los Angeles Department of
Water and Power for some of their gas- and oil-fired utility boilers
(EPA-650/2-75-012). A report on the extension of this effort to include
coal-fired utility boilers is also available (EPA-600/2-76-274). In
addition to correlating emission data with combustion modification
techniques, Aerospace has performed a combustion stability analysis to
determine how a boiler can be redesigned to allow more flexibility in
the use of combustion modifications. Aerospace is also generating a
stationary source emissions inventory to the year 1977 and emissions
projections to the year 1982. A final report (second update) is due in
early 1978.
Monsanto Research Corporation has published a report based on a
study of utility and industrial coal-fired cyclone boilers (EPA-600/7-
77-006). The objective of the study was to assess the need and the
110
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potential for controlling NO emissions from existing coal-fired cyclones.
J\
The final report provides a population and geographic distribution with
NO emission rates from several sources, as well as definition of avail-
yv
able CM techniques. Results include projections of potential NO reduc-
tion through combustion process modifications and estimates of R&D costs
to develop corresponding retrofit controls.
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
KVB Engineering, Inc., under contract to IERL-RTP, has completed
testing of 10 intermediate sized (10,000 to 300,000 Ib steam/hr),
pulverized-coal- and stoker-fired boilers to determine the feasibility
of substituting low-sulfur western subbituminous coal for high-sulfur
eastern bituminous coal primarily as a means of reducing SO emissions.
The resulting impact on NO was also assessed. Major emphasis was
^\
placed on stoker units, as pulverized coal units in this capacity range
are less prevalent. Lower NO emissions were measured on both pulver-
«
ized coal units and stokers as a result of the lower fuel nitrogen
content of the coal and of the lower combustion temperatures due to the
high moisture content of western coals. In general, the conversion of
intermediate boilers to western coals was found to be a feasible alter-
native. Guidelines for conversion of a variety of design types to the
use of western coals are in preparation.
A contract program was initiated in March 1977 to study potential
emission control technology for stoker-coal-fired industrial boilers.
The program will focus on the complete spectrum of emissions from the
sources and will develop technology to improve the environmental accept-
ability of stoker boilers. This contract will expand the prior work on
small stokers to larger-scale spreader stoker boilers and include a more
comprehensive assessment of processed coals. Several processed coals
have been evaluated in the small underfeed stoker system; a model spreader
stoker has been developed to study a wide range of coals and processed
fuels under suspension/bed burning conditions. A large scale (600 hp)
spreader stoker has been emission-characterized in preparation for
processed coal and CM evaluation.
COMBUSTION MODIFICATION FOR RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL HEATING SYSTEMS
Battelle, under contract to IERL-RTP, completed a technical assess-
ment of increased utilization of stoker coal systems for residential and
small commercial space heating applications. The assessment was based
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on: (1) an experimental study evaluating emissions (including carcino-
genic POM) from a 20 hp boiler firing a variety of coals and processed
fuel, (0.25 percent
bound nitrogen are 75 and 125 ppmv, respectively. Further work during
the coming year will concentrate on scaling the hardware from pilot-
scale to that of a 25 MW utility gas turbine.
IERL-RTP has initiated an inhouse investigation of stationary
engine emissions control. Two engines have been installed at IERL-RTP:
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a gas turbine and a precombustion chamber diesel. (See following illus-
trations.) Initial experimental work, to date concentrated on the gas
turbine, established that CO, HC, and fine particulate emissions are
serious problems in the unit. Determination of the baseline emission
characteristics resulted in the N09 fraction of total NO ranging from
£ . *»
45 percent at no load to a negligible amount at rated load. The water/
oil emulsion proved beneficial as a NO reduction technique with a 33
J\
percent reduction in NO and total NO with a 26 percent addition of
/\
water. The water fraction is limited by the characteristics of the
emulsion to about 35 percent. At water injection rates sufficient to
reduce NO levels appreciably, CO levels could increase by as much as 20
percent over the lowest emission rates.
A series of tests on the precombustion chamber diesel engine has
been completed. The NO levels were reduced 60 to 80 percent by use of
an oil/water emulsion fuel, but CO emissions were increased by factors
of 2 to 5. A catalytic muffler reduced CO and hydrocarbons by 90 and 80
percent, respectively. However, the catalyst also increased NO by 20
y\
percent and created a significant sulfate emission.
lERL-RTP's CRB has awarded a contract for a new program in low NO
1C engine development. The purpose of the new program is to investigate
1C engine chamber design parameter effects on air pollutant emissions.
The goal is the development of a design giving substantial reductions in
NO emissions for large bore stationary 1C engines while maintaining or
improving current technology levels for CO, HC, and carbon particulate
emissions and fuel efficiency. Both new design and retrofit to existing
engines will be considered; designs will be developed for gas-fueled
spark ignition and oil-fueled compression-ignition 2- and 4-stroke
engines.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS EQUIPMENT AND AFTERBURNERS
The Institute of Gas Technology (IGT), under contract to IERL-RTP,
has recently completed a survey of industrial process combustion. The
objectives of the study were threefold: to identify the significant
emission sources, to investigate the potential for effective emission
controls, and to compile information on combustion equipment in use and
future trends in process and equipment design. The iron and steel,
cement, glass, aluminum, and petroleum refining industries were identi-
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225 kW gas turbine used for IERL-RTP inhouse studies.
-------
Precombustion chamber diesel (300 hp) for stationary engine controls development.
-------
fied as the major sources of combustion-generated air pollution within
the process combustion field. Recommendations were presented for NO
i • ~ • . ' . - A
control R&D programs for each significant process within each industry.
A program initiated in March 1977 is assessing the pollution con-
trol and energy conservation potential of afterburner combustion systems.
The primary objective of this study is to assess the environmental
status of afterburner combustion systems and to develop guidelines for
their application to minimize environmental problems. The program will
completely analyze the problem of emissions from afterburner combustion
systems and result in a standards-of-practice manual for applying these
systems for emissions control without creating additional environmental
problems.
FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION SUPPORT
A contract was awarded to Aerotherm for the design and construction
of an FBC sampling and analytical test rig (SATR). This small pilot-
scale equipment has been installed and operated in lERL-RTP's inhouse
combustion research laboratory. (See illustration below.) This project
provides for: comprehensive analysis of emissions from FBC, testing of
alternative sampling and analystical procedures for FBC, and investigation
of alternative add-on environmental control devices for FBC. System
installation and shakedown at IERL-RTP were scheduled for late-1977
completion.
Fuels Research and Development
Fuels R&D studies are designed to develop generalized combustion
control technology which is applicable to the control of NOX and other
pollutant emissions from the combustion of conventional fuels, waste
fuels, and alternate new fuels. These studies are conducted on versa-
tile experimental combustion systems to develop combustion control
technology for a specific fuel through single- and multiple-burner
design criteria or other CM techniques.
IMPROVED BURNER/SYSTEM DESIGN
IGT has published a final report on low-Btu gas combustion (EPA-600/
7-77-094a and unnumbered supplement). All work was performed on a 3 x
10 Btu/hr pilot-scale furnace using a boiler burner. Five gases were
investigated representative of the following commercial coal gasification
processes: Wellman Galusha-Air, Winkler-Air, Lurgi-Oxygen, Winkler-Oxygen,
and Kopper Totzek-Oxygen. The program was designed to evaluate potential
116
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Pilot- fluidized-bed sailing and analytica! test rig (under construction).
117
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retrofit problems of these gases to boiler applications, and evaluate
NO and combustion-related emissions. Flame stability was found to be
/\
quite sensitive to fuel jet velocity. An injection velocity of 30.5 m/s
(100 ft/s) was found to be optimum. Flame length decreased with increas-
ing burner swirl; flames of the synthetic gases tested generally were
shorter than those of natural gas. Good agreement was obtained between
measured and calculated flame emissivities. Some boiler modifications
would be required to maintain rating when burning gases of less than 7.5
3 3
MJ/m (200 Btu/ft ) heating value. NO emissions were strongly ordered
y\
by adiabatic flame .temperature. Only the air-blown gases (Wellman
Galusha-Air and Winkler-Air) were projected to be below the NSPS of 0.2
Ib NOp/lO Btu heat input. However, state-of-the-art CM technology
should be capable of bringing the oxygen-blown gases into compliance.
These gases were all "clean" in the sense that there was no NH~, sulfur
species, or tars in the gases. A newly initiated program is evaluating
the emissions aspects of "dirty" low-Btu gases.
ADVANCED COMBUSTION MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Aerotherm Division of Acurex Corporation is conducting a 2 year
lERL-RTP-funded pilot-scale furnace test program to develop advanced
combustion control techniques for NO reduction. The test furnace (see
following illustration), with a capacity of 3.165 x 106 kJ/hr (3 x 106
Btu/hr) is being operated in the wall-fired and corner-fired tangential
modes and is capable of firing coal, oil, gas, mixed fuels, waste fuels,
and synthetic fuels from coal. The furnace was designed to give a
temperature/time profile of the combustion gases representative of
industrial and utility boilers providing for more direct translation of
low NO firing configurations to full-scale equipment. The results of
s\
this program will guide demonstration tests on large-scale prototype
units and provide suggestions for advanced equipment design. Preliminary
baseline, uncontrolled tests showed very good correspondence with full-
scale equipment with both the level of N0x emission and the trend with
excess air and preheat. Emphasis to date in the NO control development
J\
tests has been on optimizing procedures for staging by use of overfire
air ports with the firing of pulverized coal in the wall-fired mode.
Variables considered in the optimization tests include first-stage
stoichiometry and mixing, first- and second-stage stoichiometry, over-
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Multiburner experimental furnace (3 x 106 Btu/hr)
119
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fire air preheat and injection pattern, total excess air, and burner air
preheat. Tests with a high-nitrogen Kentucky bituminous coal have shown
NO reductions in excess of 75 percent when the primary flame zone is
/\
operated with 90 percent or less of stoichiometric air. At a total
excess air level of 15 percent, NO emissions are in the range of 100 to
J\
200 ppm (corrected to zero percent Op) with staged combustion compared
to a level of 850 ppm with normal uncontrolled operation. These optimi-
zation tests are being extended to the firing of other coal types and to
operation in the tangential firing mode. An interim report is in prepara-
tion.
Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell International under IERL-RTP contract
has recently completed a two-part study which resulted in the develop-
ment of an advanced design residential warm air oil furnace which offers
a 65 percent reduction in NO emissions and up to 10 percent increase in
J\
fuel efficiency. The initial effort involved the development of an
optimal oil burner head through evaluation of the effects on NO forma-
^\
tion of combustion air, swirl angle, nozzle spray angle, axial injector
placement, flue gas recirculation, and combustion gas recirculation as a
function of oil flowrate and overall excess air. The optimized burner
was a nonretention gunburner with an optimized choke-diameter and swirl
vanes. Hydrocarbon and CO emissions remained at commercial burner
baseline levels while NO emissions were 1 g NO/kg fuel compared to 2 to
3 g NO/kg fuel at baseline. The second part of the program was directed
toward development of an optimized burner/firebox combination. The
final design utilized the optimized burner firing into the side of a
vertical, cylindrical, fin-cooled firebox. At 10 percent excess air,
NO emissions of 0.6 g NO/kg fuel were measured and the potential for
increases in overall system efficiency of up to 10 percent are estimated.
The system has recently completed a 500 hour laboratory performance
test. In addition to system development, the program has evaluated
techniques for mass production of the optimized head. A final report
has been published (EPA-600/2-77-028). A follow-on contract with Rocket-
dyne has extended the previous study to the investigation of feasible
manufacturing processes for the new oil furnace designs. Six units have
been constructed and installed for use in field tests during the 1977-1978
heating season.
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A contract was recently completed by Honeywell to investigate the
characteristics of fuel oil atomization with a thermal aerosol oil
burner using No. 1 and No. 2 fuel oils with emphasis on combustion
efficiency, soot formation, and design requirements. The effect of oil
temperature and pressure, droplet size, inlet air temperature, air/fuel
ratio, and firing rate on flame luminosity, soot particle concentration
and size distribution, NO emissions, and flue gas temperature were
investigated. Additional measurements were taken of CO, HC, smoke, 02,
CO-, stack temperature, and burner efficiency. The final report was
scheduled for late 1977.
Ultrasystems, Inc. is under contract to IERL-RTP to define low NO
' 6
burner design criteria for scale-up from an experimental 5 x 10 Btu/hr
optimized burner to practical size burners (125 x 10 Btu/hr). The
scaling criteria will assess the burner interactions occurring on full-
scale boilers. The emphasis is on coal burners, although residual oil
and combined coal/low-Btu gas are also to be studied. The burner test
facility (see following illustration) was designed to allow evaluation
of the performance of single burners of capacities up to 125 x 10 Btu/hr
and multiple burners totaling 60 x 10 Btu/hr in combustion chambers
simulating commercial practice. Results from the pulverized coal burner
firing at 60 x 10 Btu/hr have produced NO levels below 150 ppm (correct-
ed to 3 percent Op). A follow-on contract has been signed to extend
the applicability of the low-emission burner concept to the full range
of U.S. coals and to systems having a variety of burner firing configura-
tions.
Ultrasystems is also conducting a study to generate low-emission
burner concepts for residual oil combustion in packaged boilers. The
study consists of an experimental phase (for the development of burner
design concepts applicable to packaged boiler geometry) and an applica-
tion phase (for testing a prototype burner in a field operating boiler).
To date, a variety of burner configurations have been studied and an
optimum has been identified which gives NO reductions in the range of
— A
65 to 75 percent for three fuel oils with nitrogen content between 0.2
and 0.71 percent. The 0.2 percent nitrogen fuel produced the lowest NO
(120 ppm) while maintaining acceptable smoke levels. The results have
also identified oil atomization conditions and fuel properties as important
121
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ro
Full-scale burner test facility (125 x 106 Btu/hr).
-------
variables governing both NO and smoke levels. The burner concepts have
J\
been incorporated into a prototype burner which is being tested in a
packaged boiler. A contract is in progress to investigate these param-
eters as related to combustion air flow patterns.
CATALYTIC COMBUSTION
Aerotherm has recently been contracted by IERL-RTP to investigate
the concept of catalytic combustion in which premixed clean fuels are
reacted in catalytic monoliths. The overall objective of the program is
to provide scale-up criteria to allow application to a wide range of
stationary combustion equipment. The approach has been to screen small-
scale catalysts, perform small-scale system concept tests, and then to
scale up the results to larger catalysts and systems. Results of the
small-scale catalyst screening experiments have identified the graded-
cell catalyst system as acceptable for further testing. The graded-cell
system uses a ceramic monolith with large cells at the combustion inlet;
subsequent monolith sections have progressively smaller cells. The
graded cell has been tested for noble and base metal catalysts formu-
lated by Aerotherm and catalyst manufacturers and has shown excellent
lean performance up to 2700°F. Some successful runs have been made to
3100°F. A radiatively cooled concept has been evaluated. A study of
fuel nitrogen conversion under rich and lean conditions has been initi-
ated. System design studies are in progress.
ALTERNATE FUELS
Past inhouse work has led to significant understanding of the
formation and control of fuel NO produced from chemically bound nitro-
gen. The study has examined burner design, staged combustion, flue gas
recirculation, and other techniques for control of both thermal and fuel
NO from natural gas, propane, distillate and residual oils, and coal.
The current thrust of this program is to define combustion and emission
characteristics of alternate fuels, with emphasis now being placed on
high-nitrogen-coal-derived fuels. The program makes use of a versatile
3 x 10 Btu/hr experimental furnace with provision for precise control
of combustion parameters such as fuel type and injection method, air
rate and introduction method, air preheat, firebox residence time, and
firebox and convective section heat removal rate (see following illus-
tration). In addition, CM techniques can be studied in a variety of
123
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Experimental system for combustion modification and future fuel studies.
-------
applications. The initial class evaluated was alcohol fuels which may
be produced from coal gasification. They appear to have low emissions
of NO and favorable combustion characteristics relative to conventional
clean fossil fuels. The next class of fuels to be studied will be
low-Btu gas. A fuel gas generator has been designed and built by the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory under an interagency agreement. The key
process variables will be CO/Hp/N^ ratios, fuel gas temperature, and
N03 content.
Fundamental Combustion Research
lERL-RTP's fundamental combustion research studies are providing an
understanding of the important phenomena in the formation and destruc-
tion of pollutants during combustion. The basic knowledge is being
translated to pilot-scale or field equipment studies to identify how the
pollutant formation mechanisms can be controlled through combustion
process modifications. The primary purpose of this program element is
the application of fundamental research to practical NO control problems
J\
with emphasis on interpretation of test data, identification of further
test programs, understanding and resolving operational problemsv and
suggestion of new research areas. To that end, a contract was recently
signed with Energy and Environmental Research, Inc., to perform (includ-
ing subcontracting) a highly coordinated fundamental study effort. As
on-going efforts are concluded, any necessary continuations of those
research areas will be consolidated with the Energy and Environmental
Research contract. Fundamental studies being pursued by lERL-RTP's CRB
under this contract fall into two categories: combustion chemistry, and
combustion aerodynamics. Combustion chemistry is a complex process
involving both fuel decomposition reactions and reactions of other flame
species resulting in formation and destruction of pollutant species.
The pollutant species of interest are NO , CO, HC, POM, carbon particu-
^\
late, fuel ash, and SO . The emphasis in this program is on NO, although
J\
the formation and destruction of other oxides and reduced nitrogen
species (e.g., HCN and NH_) are also included.
COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY
Combustion chemistry has to do with pollutant formation relating to
two areas: combustion conditions, and fuel composition. These areas
are reflected in the characterization of NO formed by fixation of
125
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atmospheric nitrogen at high temperature in the combustion process as
thermal NO , and that formed from oxidation of nitrogen chemically bound
in solid and liquid fossil fuels as fuel NO . For most fuels the total
NO is the composite formed by both mechanisms.
Investigation of the combustion chemistry related to pollutant
formation generally requires the extraction and subsequent analysis of
samples taken from within the combusting environment. Numerous techni-
ques to accomplish sampling and analysis are available. However, serious
questions have been raised about the comparative accuracy of the alter-
native techniques. Observation of N0_ and SO- very early in flames has
generated questions as to whether these data are showing actual flame
phenomena or are being influenced by reactions taking place in the
sample extraction probes. Because N0_ and SO- are precursors to primary
nitrate and sulfate emissions, IERL-RTP entered into a contract with
United Technologies Research Center (UTRC) to perform detailed probing
experiments with a variety of sampling techniques (including optical).
It is hoped that results from this contract will not only shed light on
the early N0? and SO- question, but will provide guidance on the ranges
of validity of the several sampling techniques. With IERL-RTP1s increased
emphasis on direct coal combustion an effort is planned under the Energy
and Environmental Research contract to address alternative methods of
extracting solid samples from within flames. This effort will also
address sampling and analysis of certain gas phase species (such as NH3
and HCN) not directly covered in the UTRC contract.
A computer program was developed at Aerotherm to analyze combustion
and pollutant chemistry in premixed flat flames. The Premixed One-
Dimensional Flame (PROF) code is a powerful tool being used to isolate
governing kinetics by comparison to experimental data from past and
on-going flat flame measurements. PROF can handle multicomponent dif-
fusion, heat loss, and wall effects characteristic of real flames. The
systematic comparison of data and suggested kinetics is revealing the
governing mechanisms of pollutant formation and destruction including
those of inorganics and fuel nitrogen. Successful utilization of the
PROF code will demonstrate the close coordination between the experimen-
tal and analytical activities in fundamental studies.
126
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Rockwell International's Rocketdyne Division is working, under an
IERL-RTP contract, to establish the mechanism and chemistry of fuel
nitrogen conversion to NO and other products. An experimental and
analytical study was carried out to investigate the chemical mechanisms
involved in the conversion of fuel nitrogen to NO in combustion as a
XV
means of developing new approaches for minimizing fuel nitrogen conver-
sion. The experimental work was composed of two portions: (1) pyroly-
sis reactions that the volatile fuel nitrogen compounds will undergo
before approaching the flame front, and (2) combustion reactions of fuel
nitrogen compounds and their reaction products. Pyrolysis experiments
were conducted with model fuel nitrogen components, to measure the
kinetic parameters that determine under what conditions typical fuel
nitrogen structures will decompose and to identify the nitrogen-contain-
ing species that are formed. Common fuel nitrogen structures were
represented by the model compounds pyridine, pyrole, quinoline, and
benzonitrile. Fuel oils and coals were subsequently pyrolyzed under
similar conditions, and the nitrogen-containing inorganic products were
measured and compared with those formed by the model compounds. Results
indicate that HCN is a likely important intermediary in the formation of
fuel NO from fuel-bound nitrogen in combustion. Burner studies of fuel
NO reaction paths induced by the addition of HCN and NH- to premixed
X *3
CH.-0?-Ar flames were also conducted to determine the kinetics of NO
formation from these intermediaries. Results indicate that fuel NO
forms relatively slowly above the luminous zone in the same region where
CO is oxidized to COp or after. Results also indicate that NH_ may
yield HCN as an intermediary in the reaction to form NO. High NO yields
were found with lean flames and low NO yields with rich flames. A
one-dimensional mathematical kinetic-diffusion model for the combustion
of oil droplets and coal particles was developed to simulate the thermo-
chemistry controlling the formation of fuel NO . The model is being
s\
used in a continuing effort to define the mechanisms and chemical paths
leading to fuel NO . This contract has been extended to consider the
/\
pyrolysis of additional nitrogen-containing fuels and pure compounds
under oxidation conditions and further to explore the interactions of
thermal and fuel NO formation mechanisms in flames.
y\
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MIT, under IERL-RTP sponsorship, is continuing an investigation
into the formation of soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PCAH)
in combustion systems. The objective of the study is the assessment of
the production of particulate organic matter (soot and organic compounds)
in well defined yet relevant combustion systems. Tests have been complet-
ed on turbulent atmospheric diffusion flames. Further detailed informa-
tion is being obtained from acetylene/oxygen laminar flat flame tests
where data are taken on species concentrations, temperature profiles,
and particle concentration and size distribution as a function of posi-
tion in the flame. A modified molecular beam mass spectrometer sampling
system is being used used to identify the various species present and
their evolutionary process.
Another study being conducted by MIT under an IERL-RTP grant is
continuing an investigation on the fate of coal nitrogen during pyroly-
sis and oxidation. The overall objective of this study is determination
of the distribution of fuel nitrogen between char and volatiles and the
fate of the char and volatiles under simulated combustion conditions.
Tests are being conducted on a controlled atmosphere isothermal furnace
from which pyrolysis residence times are simulated by allowing the coal
particle to free fall through the furnace, and short residence times
require a high preheated gas flowrate. Data indicate that: (1) fuel
nitrogen devolatilization is kinetically controlled, (2) the amount of
nitrogen remaining in the char after devolatilization is a strong func-
tion of temperature, ranging from 70 percent at 1250°K to 10 percent at
2100°K, (3) NO formation decreases with increasing fuel/air equivalence
ratios, and (4), as much as 40 percent of the nitrogen may remain in the
char at fuel/air equivalence ratios greater than 1.5. From these find-
ings, current data indicate that nitrogen in the char may contribute
significantly to NO emissions at temperatures below 1750°K but less at
y\
higher temperatures. During the past year emphasis has been placed on
additional coal types, investigation of the oxidative behavior of pre-
volatilized coal (char), and determination of time-dependent gaseous
species history.
Under an IERL-RTP research grant, the University of Arizona is
conducting an experimental program to study the interaction of sulfur
oxidation with NO formation mechanisms. Recent data have shown a
*\
128
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significant interaction between fuel sulfur level and fuel NO formation
under fuel-rich stoichiometries. The magnitude and even the direction
of the interaction is strongly dependent upon the equivalence ratio,
residence time, temperature, and concentration of sulfur in the flame.
Conditions which have been investigated spanned those expected in typi-
cal diffusion flames as found in industrial and utility boilers. Fur-
ther work to identify the extent of the interaction on reduced nitro-
genous species, such as NH3 and HCN, is planned for the coming year.
COMBUSTION AERODYNAMICS
Although combustion chemistry is responsible for the formation and
destruction of pollutants, the actual conditions that exist in the flame
zone are a strong function of the physical processes of combustion.
Most practical combustors operate with diffusion flames where the fuel
and air are introduced separately and mixing depends on the manner of
introduction.
The flame zone is not of homogeneous composition; therefore, it is
necessary to understand the role of combustion aerodynamics in pollutant
formation.
UTRC has recently completed an IERL-RTP contract to investigate the
interaction of aerodynamics and combustion chemistry (in an idealized
single-burner combustor) as a function of fuel type and various inlet
parameters. During this study, detailed mapping of the local chemical
composition, temperature, velocity, and turbulence profiles was accom-
plished. Initial studies, using in-situ probes, investigated air pre-
heat, stoichiometry, and flame swirl. Further testing utilizing a
laser-doppler-velocimeter (LDV) was recently completed on gas- and
liquid-fuel flames. The LDV allowed for the determination of turbulent
flame structure without probe interference and it measured turbulence
level as well as mean velocity. Tests using the LDV on gas and liquid
flames investigated the effect of swirl, fuel/air velocities, and pres-
sure level on flow and NO formation. Results showed that large-scale
turbulence was dominating both combustion and pollutant formation.
These results indicate a need to identify the interaction of turbulence
reaction kinetics within the flow field. Optical methods were utilized
to measure the liquid spray characteristics from the injection of pro-
pane, iso-octane, and distillate oil. The results yielded good data on
129
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spray pattern, velocity profiles, and droplet particle spacing. Reports
on the UTRC experimental studies are due out soon. Several additional
efforts in the combustion aerodynamics area are planned for inclusion in
the previously mentioned contract with Energy and Environmental Research,
Inc. The exact nature of these upcoming efforts has not yet been deter-
mined.
FUEL PROCESSES
The programs being conducted under the supervision and direction of
lERL-RTP's Fuel Processes Branch are a part of the Energy Assessment and
Control Division's study of multimedia environmental assessment/control
technology development for fossil-fuel-based technologies. These pro-
grams encompass two major areas: physical and chemical coal cleaning,
and synthetic fuels from coal. Contracts supported within these two
major areas have the following purposes:
0 To conduct a multimedia (air, water, and land quality) environ-
mental assessment of specific coal cleaning and synthetic fuels, from
coal processes.
0 To develop control technology for these processes.
0 To develop physical and chemical coal cleaning techniques.
The multimedia EA contracts are studies designed to identify and
quantify pollutants that would be discharged to the environment, and to
determine the level of pollutant control achievable, through the use of
best available control technology and technology likely to be developed
in the near future, for coal cleaning and synthetic fuels from coal
processes. (See following diagram.) The achievable pollutant control
levels will then be compared with existing standards, estimated multi-
media environmental goals (desirable levels to be defined by EPA), and
bioassay specifications to define control technology priorities.
The control technology development contracts are aimed at deter-
mining the applicability of existing control technology, modification of
existing technology, and development of technology after specific con-
trol needs have been defined. This technology development is being
accomplished through basic and applied R&D engineering analysis, and
specific control process development and evaluation.
130
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CO
COAL
PREPARATION
COAL
PRETREATMENT
H
COAL
GASIFICATION
UTILIZATION
PURIFICATION
TARS AND
OILS
I
I
I
JL
METHANATION
i t
i i
CATALYST
* T
1
SEPARATOR -^ CON™N
ALL STREAMS ARE SHOWN.
1
1
1
— • SEPARATOR -,
' i
* !
!]
ATED i WATER 1
R "**" TREATMENT l>
i 1
SLUDGE WATER
i
1 1
CATALYST
\
L SOLUTION
„ REGENERATOR
1
1
SLUDGE
'PIPELINE.
COMPRESSION I $NG
SULFUR
RECOVERY
Hypothetical simplified gasification flow diagram.
-------
Coal Cleaning
The program includes both physical and chemical approaches to coal
cleaning. This program includes the multimedia environmental assessment
of specific processes presently used or being developed, and the develop-
ment and demonstration of new processes for the removal of sulfur and
other contaminants from coal.
The contract technology development portion of the coal cleaning
program includes characterizing coal with respect to polluting constitu-
uents, defining the technical and economic suitability of cleaning
processes to these coals, and then developing advanced cleaning proc-
esses from bench- through pilot-scale to make them commercially avail-
able.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
The overall objectives of the EA activities have been to charac-
terize coal contaminants and identify the fate of these contaminants
during coal processing and use. Initial studies have focused on sulfur
and potentially hazardous accessory elements (minor and trace elements)
contained in coal. On-going studies are also evaluating potentially
hazardous organics which may be leached from coal and coal residues.
The Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS), under EPA grant R804403,
is providing continued support (April 1976 to April 1979) for an investi-
gation concerning the nature, distribution, and origin of minerals in
coal. Major areas of interest being investigated are:
0 The mode of occurrence and distribution of trace elements and
minerals in coal.
0 The mineralogy and genesis of iron and zinc sulfide minerals in
coal seams.
0 The washability of minerals and their constituent chemical
elements by conventional washing techniques.
Analyses have been made to determine the occurrence and distribu-
tion of trace elements alTTTuriction of the vertical segment of the coal
seam and the specific gravity of the crushed samples. Further, an index
of organic affinity was calculated from the specific gravity fractions
of these coalf; This index permits an estimate of the manner in which
various elements will be distributed during coal washing. Work will be
continued to extend the mineralogical and chemical characterization of
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coals, especially as related to the distribution of elements and minerals
during specific gravity separation.
Under completed EPA contract 68-02-1472, ISGS has published a report
with extensive data on the analysis of coals and coal by-products, and
neutron activation analysis (EPA-600/7-77-064).
Under interagency agreement, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is
studying the variability of contaminants within coal seams, with the
objectives of:
0 Determining the geological factors controlling the lateral vari-
ation, vertical variation, crystal form, and size of pyrite in coal.
0 Determining the geologic factors controlling mineral and elemen-
tal variations in coal, especially as related to the possible separation
of the organic and inorganic fractions of coal during physical cleaning.
0 Evaluating various methods of correlating coal cleanability with
its petrologic characteristics.
0 Developing a methodology for determining the cleanability of
coal in the U.S. reserves.
Initial studies are focusing on the Upper Freeport seam near Homer
City, Pa., complementing other EPA studies at the Homer City coal clean-
ing plant.
Under EPA contract 68-02-2130, ISGS has been analyzing a number of
coals, coal by-products, and coal wastes for potential pollutants, to
identify controlling factors by which they are bound or released, and to
determine their toxicity and possible mechanisms for control. Analyses
have been completed on 172 whole coal samples. Of these, 114 samples
were from the Illinois Basin; the remaining samples were from other
coal-producing areas in the U.S.
The overall technical objectives of the program are:
0 To characterize the chemical, physical, and mineral properties
of coals, coal by-products, and coal wastes.
0 To investigate the effects of pyrolysis on the distribution of
trace elements between the volatile components and the residue.
0 To provide data on the solubilities and toxicities of potential
pollutants contained in solid coal wastes.
Results of this work can be used to estimate the mineral solubilities
for coal wastes over a wide range of disposal environment conditions.
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A number of U.S. coals are being analyzed for major, minor, and
trace elements. Several of the coal samples are demineralized with acid
and analyzed again to determine the amount of all organically combined
elements. From a pyrolysis of this mineral-matter-free coal and other
experiments, a material balance will evolve which can be used to predict
a pattern of behavior for minor and trace elements in a coal utilization
system. In addition, the pyrolysis experiments are being used to relate
the coal microstructure, surface area, rank, and petrographic consti-
tuents to volatile emissions.
Solids wastes from a number of coal utilization processes (combus-
tion and conversion) will also be analyzed for potentially hazardous
materials. Standard fish toxicity tests are being used to determine the
biological toxicity of the water soluble constituents obtained from the
solid wastes. Leachates will also be contacted with clay or clay mix-
tures under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions to determine their
effectiveness in the attenuation of hazardous pollutants.
Work is progressing under a 3-year contract (EPA contract 68-02-
2163) awarded to Battelle-Columbus to perform a comprehensive assessment
of environmental pollution resulting from coal transportation, coal
storage, coal cleaning (physical and chemical), and waste disposal.
Major projects under this contract include:
0 The development of a technology overview describing all current
coal cleaning processes and their associated pollution control problems.
0 The development and performance of an environmental test program
to obtain improved data on pollutants from commercial coal cleaning
plants.
0 Studies to determine the environmental impacts of coal cleaning
and the effectiveness of existing technologies.
Progress under the contract has included the completion of a technol-
ogy overview study and the development of a plan for environmental
testing at commercial coal preparation plants in the U.S. Future work
will include environmental testing at four or five representative prepa-
ration plants.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Physical/Mechanical Coal Cleaning
EPA is supporting a number of coal cleaning R&D projects through an
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interagency agreement with the Department of the Interior. Coal clean-
ing technology development activities include research performed by
USBM's Coal Preparation and Analysis Group at Bruceton, Pa. Major
active projects during 1977 included research or demonstration on the
following:
0 Cleanability of selected U.S. coals.
0 Surface phenomena in the dewatering of coal.
0 Control of black water in coal preparation plant recycle and
discharge.
0 High gradient magnetic separation.
0 Absorption/desorption reactions in desulfurization of coal by
pyrite flotation.
0 Computer simulation of coal preparation plants.
0 Engineering and economic analysis of coal preparation for S0«
emission control.
0 Demonstration of the two-stage froth flotation technique for
separation of pyrite.
Much of this work has been completed.
The Pennsylvania Electric Company (PENELEC) is constructing a 1200
tph coal preparation plant at their Homer City power complex. (See
illustration below.) When completed, the plant will provide physically
cleaned coal to one new and two existing 600 MW units. The cleaning
plant is to be used in place of scrubbers to meet Pennsylvania and
Federal S0? emission regulations.
The EPA, General Public Utilities (GPU), PENELEC, EPRI, and the DOE
are cooperatively supporting an evaluation.of the process and the environ-
mental impact of the Homer City complex. The objectives of the demon-
stration program are to:
0 Determine the variability of sulfur and other pollutants in coal
fed to the cleaning plant.
0 Determine the performance of equipment used for the separation
of coal and pyrite (and other contaminants).
0 Determine the capability of plant process controls to maintain
the coal product streams within sulfur, ash, and Btu specifications.
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.
PENELEC coal preparation plant,
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0 Characterize pollutant streams emitted from the preparation and
power plants.
0 Determine if a need exists for the development of improved
pollution control technology.
0 Evaluate the effects of using clean coal in the performance of
the boilers and ESPs at the power plant.
0 Evaluate the effectiveness of planned residue disposal techniques.
0 Determine the fate of potentially hazardous minor and trace
pollutants contained in the coal used at the preparation and power
plants.
0 Determine capital and operating costs of the preparation and
power plants; i.e., the costs of using physical coal cleaning to meet
S02 emission regulations.
0 Evaluate other equipment or coal cleaning circuits as needed to
demonstrate the viability of the Homer City plant for cleaning coal to
meet SO- emission regulations.
The preparation plant acceptance tests have been completed. Pilot-
plant tests are underway at the USBM test facility in Bruceton, Pa.
Several baseline environmental tests have been completed and the develop-
ment of detailed test plans is underway. Cooperative studies with the
USGS to evaluate the variability of sulfur in the Homer City reserves
are in progress (see discussion above).
Chemical Coal Cleaning
The objective of this program area is to develop and demonstrate
advanced chemical coal cleaning techniques that would increase the
availability of lower-sulfur coals that upon combustion would meet
various state and Federal regulations. Chemical coal cleaning techniques
would provide an alternative control option to smaller combustion sources
that, because of cost or physical restrictions, may not be able to use
alternative control techniques.
TRW PROCESSES—In previous years EPA has supported bench- and
laboratory-scale development work on coal desulfurization by aqueous
ferric sulfate leaching. This process (tfie Meyers Process developed by
TRW) can remove from 90 to 95 percent of the pyritic sulfur in a variety
of U.S. coals. Under EPA contract 68-02-2612, TRW designed and construc-
ted a 1/3-ton per hour reactor test unit (RTU) at TRW's Capistrano,
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California, test site, capable of pilot-scale testing; the plant, ded-
icated on April 22, 1977, has been preliminarily operated. See illus-
tration below.
Testing and demonstration work at the RTU is being conducted under
EPA contract 68-02-2121, with the following overall technical objec-
tives:
0 To operate the RTU continuously at a nominal rate of 250 to 750
Ib coal/hr.
0 To demonstrate the operability and economic feasibility of the
Meyers Process for chemical removal of pyritic sulfur from coal.
0 To provide the design data base needed for the commercialization
of this process.
0 To identify and evaluate possible sulfur recovery schemes.
0 To develop acceptable storage methods for the sulfur products
which will be produced.
0 To determine the environmental discharges and control technology
applicability to eliminate adverse effects.
HYDROTHERMALLY TREATED COA!.—Battelle-Columbus Laboratories was
awarded a contract (EPA contract 68-02-2187) to assess the economic and
environmental impact that can be expected from coal desulfurization by
the Hydrothermal Coal Process (HCP) developed by Battelle.
The objective of this effort is to improve the economic viability
of the process by reducing the costs of leachant regeneration and liquid/
solid separation segments of the process, and to evaluate the use of
hydrothermally treated coals in conventional boilers and furnaces.
In leachant regeneration, several candidates have been studied for
regeneration of the spent leachant; i.e., removal of sulfide sulfur. Of
those evaluated, zinc oxide, iron hydroxides, and activated oxides, and
possibly activated carbon are the leading candidates. Complete removal
of the sulfide sulfur has been achieved with zinc oxide; with iron
hydroxides and selected oxides, up to 98 percent of the sulfide sulfur
has been precipitated. Approximately 95 to 98 percent of the sulfide
sulfur has been adsorbed from the spent leachant with activated carbon.
Regeneration of the zinc sulfide for recycle of the zinc values may be
possible by roasting. The iron sulfides might be regenerated for recycle
of the iron values.
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(.)
u .
TRW's Meyers process reactor test unit, Capistrano, California,
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Liquid/solid separation tests, employing a laboratory procedure
which simulates rotary vacuum filtration and a surface active agent,
resulted in an increase in the filtration rate from approximately 0.003
2 2
to 0.8 ton/hr/ft with minus 20 mesh coal, and 0.3 ton/hr/ft with
minus 50 mesh coal. Solids content as high as 55.8 percent has been
achieved. Since earlier economic assessments were based on a filtration
2
rate of 0.12 ton/hr/ft and a solids content of 50 percent, these results
represent an improvement in process economics.
Results of these and other process studies will be integrated into
the overall HCP and an economic analysis conducted to define optimum
operating parameters.
In a later study, selected hydrothermally treated coals will be
fired in a test boiler equipped with a mechanical coal stoker; pulverized
coal and coal slurry will also be used in these hydrothermally treated
coal combustion tests. Both raw and conventionally cleaned coals will
be used for testing of sulfur and trace elements emitted to evaluate the
HCP as a control technology for sulfur emissions and to assess its overall
environmental impact.
Flash Desulfurization
IGT under EPA contract 68-02-2163 has been developing a thermochem-
ical process for coal desulfurization. This process can remove both
organic and pyritic sulfur from coal. Products of the process are a
low-sulfur coal char and a low-Btu gas.
The objective of the present program is to determine the operating
ccnditions for the key steps in the IGT process on both a bench- and
pilot-scale unit. The principal achievement under this program has been
validation of the process concept. Operating conditions were determined
with both laboratory- and bench-scale equipment. Tests showing satisfac-
tory desulfurization of four coals representing abundant high-sulfur,
eastern coal reserves have been completed. In each case, the treated
product could be burned without exceeding present Federal SO emission
J\
standards for coal-fired steam generators.
This achievement was the result of a discovery that mild oxidative
pretreatment of coal renders the organic sulfur more amenable to removal;
until this discovery, sulfur removal had been unsatifactory. It now
appears that the IGT process may be a viable alternative for making a
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low-sulfur solid fossil fuel from high-sulfur U.S. coals which cannot be
adequately desulfurized by physical cleaning.
Microwave Desulfurization
The General Electric Company is studying the basic mechanism of
microwave treatment of coal to better define the technical and economic
merits of the system as an environmentally acceptable control system.
This study (under EPA contract 68-02-2172) involves a comprehensive
experimental program for investigating process parameters to identify
the technical advantages and disadvantages of the process.
Laboratory experiments conducted by General Electric have shown the
technical feasibility of coal desulfurization by microwave energy; both
pyritic and organic sulfur appear to be removed. Pyrite is preferential-
ly excited by the microwave energy, producing volatile or water soluble
sulfur compounds that may be easily removed from the coal.
Coal-NaOH mixtures exposed to microwave energy show a reduction of
organic sulfur after washing. The coal organic structure and NaOH
absorb little microwave energy at the treatment frequency (8.3 GHz).
However, it is postulated that sufficient energy is absorbed by water in
the coal to cause reactions between NaOH and the coal organic sulfur.
Laboratory experiments are continuing to evaluate the mechanisms of
coal desulfurization by microwave energy and to identify process vari-
ables that will increase sulfur removal.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Major projects under the coal cleaning technology development
program include: (1) a detailed assessment of existing equipment and
processes which can be used for coal desulfurization, (2) the develop-
ment of new desulfurization processes, and (3) the demonstration of
physical coal cleaning as an effective method for S02 emission control
for utility boilers.
To assess technology for the physical and chemical desulfurization
of coal, a project was initiated in January 1977 by Versar, Inc. and Joy
Manufacturing Co.
The principal project activity is to develop data on the perfor-
mance of commercial coal cleaning equipment in separating fine coal and
pyrite. The capital and operating costs associated with pyrite removal
will be identified, and similar cost and performance evaluations will be
made on equipment for dewatering and drying fine coal.
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Other project activities will include: an evaluation of chemical
coal cleaning processes; an evaluation of coal preparation requirements
for synthetic fuel conversion processes; an evaluation of pollution
control technology used for coal cleaning; and engineering trade-off
studies to establish the performance and costs of coal preparation
plants designed for improved pyrite removal and Btu recovery.
Progress to date has included the collection of existing data on
coal cleaning for pyrite removal and the construction of a mobile labora-
tory to facilitate equipment testing at commercial coal preparation
plants.
The program being conducted is as follows:
0 Existing data collection and evaluation of physical coal clean-
ing technology for sulfur removal.
0 New data generation and evaluation of physical coal cleaning
technology for sulfur removal.
0 Support of slurry sampling activities at the GPU/PENELEC Homer
City coal preparation plant.
0 Existing data collection and evaluation of fine coal dewatering
and handling.
0 Existing data collection of coal preparation requirements for
synthetic fuel conversion processes.
0 Engineering trade-off studies of coal preparation equipment and
processes.
0 Evaluation of chemical coal cleaning processes.
Existing data for physical coal cleaning and fine coal dewatering
and handling are being collected from a comprehensive literature survey,
equipment manufacturers, and coal preparation plant design and engineer-
ing firms. Generation of new data for physical coal cleaning has been
initiated by the construction of a 30-foot mobile laboratory designed to
evaluate equipment operating in commercial plants. A technical and
economic evaluation has been conducted of 11 major chemical coal clean-
ing processes by analyzing available literature and contacting each
process developer for detailed information. The existing data collec-
tion of coal preparation requirements for synthetic fuel processes is
being accomplished by a review of available technical information from
DOE. A plan has been formulated for conducting engineering trade-off
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studies by the use of a computer model developed by USBM, supplemented
by data gathered in this program.
TVA under an interagency agreement is evaluating the environmental
aspects of coal cleaning equipment and processes and conducting a study
of the potential environmental impacts of coal cleaning wastes.
Already completed is a preliminary compilation of literature refer-
ences and computer data bases, including the identification of promising
coal cleaning processes, characterization of TVA coals, and effluent
characterization of various cleaning methodologies.
Also under an interagency agreement, the Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory (LASL) is studying trace element characterization and removal/
recovery from coal and coal wastes. LASL has already completed a quanti-
tative analysis of mineral composition of refuse samples collected from
coal preparation plant B in the Illinois Basin. These data are being
used (with information on trace element contents of various waste frac-
tions) to help establish structural relationships between trace elements
and major minerals in the refuse. Continuing is the microprobe evalu-
ation of the trace element/mineral associations in selected refuse
samples and studies of refuse weathering and leaching. Trace element
data are now available for the static/equilibrium leachants. Experi-
ments aimed at delineating trace elements of greatest environmental
concern in the Illinois Base refuse materials are nearing completion,
and a series of laboratory experiments is underway to evaluate potential
removal/recovery techniques for these elements. An investigation of
trace elements and organic contaminants released during aqueous leach-
ing is continuing.
Synthetic Fuels
IERL-RTP is very much involved in the emerging industry of coal
conversion or synthetic fuels. There is a great need for on-going
environmental R&D in this area. The synthetic fuel industry will con-
sist of very large and complex plants and will involve: great discharge
quantities; large consumptions of water, air, and fuel; and massive
effects on extraction of resources in relatively small areas. It thus
presents a number of perplexing questions concerning the environmental
impact of commercial technology still in its early stages.
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Characterization and quantification of discharge streams have not
yet been completed, so that their environmental impact and specific
control technology requirements are still unknown. lERL-RTP's programs
for environmental assessment and control development are currently
addressing these problems.
Cameron Engineers, Inc. provides systems analysis and program
support to lERL-RTP's Synthetic Fuels program, primarily in the areas of
coal preparation, coal liquefaction, and coal gasification. This support
provides EPA with a viewpoint independent from that of other EPA contrac-
tors working in the environmental assessment, environmental control
technology development, and process technology development areas.
Technical information is provided through background functions (e.g.,
literature surveys, reviews of technical reports), coordination, communi-
cation, and program planning.
The Energy Assessment and Control Division held its third symposium
on "Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion Technology," September 13-16,
1977, in Hollywood, Florida. The symposium's three sessions addressed
(in part):
0 Data acquisition and analysis—Radian's non-site specific test
plan, Level 1 bioassay/chemical testing and Level 2 testing, data acqui-
sition by ERDA, and NIOSH's occupational safety and health program.
0 Environmental assessment—Low- and high-Btu gasification proc-
esses, Kosovo gasification program, liquefaction processes, fate of
pollutants in industrial gasifiers, environmental testing of liquid
fuels from coal, cross-media effects of gasification, low-Btu gas in
combined cycles, and the relationship between process variables and
effluents production.
0 Control technology assessment—raw/acid gas test facility at
North Carolina State University (NCSU), converter output and selection
of acid gas treating processes, converter products/by-products and
water/wastes, coal residue leachates, treatment of phenolic waters,
water use and treatment, applicability of refinery/coke oven water
treatment technology to gasification, and MERC-Cinn.'s gasification
facility testing.
A report covering full symposium proceedings will be published
early in 1978.
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ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
The coal contaminant characterization studies discussed above under
Coal Cleaning are also applicable to the synthetic fuels area. Discussed
below under Supporting Research are further projects with application
to synthetic fuels environmental assessment studies.
High-Btu Gasification
Individual reports and a summary report have been prepared on all
synthetic fuels technology reviewed to date (EPA-650/2-74-009a through
-009m, EPA-600/2-76-258, EPA-600/2-76-101, and EPA-600/7-77-057).
Included are data on possible or probable trace elements from gasifi-
cation processes and specific listings of probable pollutants from
processes such as the Hygas process. Individual reports prepared by
Exxon Research and Engineering Co. have included the high-Btu processes:
Lurgi, Synthane, Bi-Gas, Hygas, and CO, Acceptor.
Extensive work has begun, under EPA contract 68-02-2635 with TRW,
on an in-depth assessment of specific coal conversion processes for
environmental impacts associated with high-Btu conversion processes.
This will include a complete EA of emissions and effects. Illustrated
below is the mobile laboratory for analysis during data acquisition and
the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) unit for identifying
organic compounds in effluent streams.
Low-Btu Gasification
Considerable effort is being exerted toward a comprehensive EA of
low-Btu gasification processes.
Radian Corp. has been awarded a contract (EPA contract 68-02-2147)
to perform an environmental assessment of low- and intermediate-Btu
gasification and its utilization.
The overall technical objectives of this contract are to:
0 Perform a comprehensive multimedia EA of coal conversion proc-
esses which produce, and end-use options which consume, low- and/or
intermediate-Btu gases.
0 Define control techniques which will have to be applied to
guarantee the environmental acceptability of this technology.
A goal of this study is the development of a model which can be
used to predict impacts and specify control needs for a given facility
based on feedstock properties, process configurations, operating condi-
tions, and regulatory constraints.
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en
Mobile laboratory for analysis during data acquisition.
-------
GC-MS to identify organic compounds in effluent streams,
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The assessment will involve a detailed process engineering analysis
of all feasible options for producing low-Btu gas from coal, and methods
of utilizing the resulting product gases. A unit operations or modular-
type analysis will be used in this assessment to facilitate comparisons
of alternative process configurations.
Factors such as site characteristics and availability, the neces-
sity for the development of new analytical methods, and alternative
approaches will be considered in order to determine the most cost-
effective approaches to be used in obtaining the required basic process
data. Tests are planned at existing commercial and pilot plants in the
U.S. and abroad. Equipment items are illustrated below.
UTRC was awarded a contract (EPA contract 68-02-2179) to perform a
fuel gas environmental impact study. The objective of the study is to
evaluate the technical, economic, and environmental intrusion character-
istics of integrated coal-gasification/sulfur-removal/combined-cycle
power systems utilizing additional gasifier types that were not studied
in the previous contract. The approach to meeting the objective includes
the following study areas:
0 Advanced gasification systems—A comparison of advanced techno-
logy gasifiers: one having integral cleanup of sulfur compounds; the
other requiring external cleanup.
0 Gasifier effluent models~Gasifier performance for different
operating conditions and an evaluation of a two-stage entrained flow
type British Coal Research (BCR) gasifier for air- and oxygen-blown
operations.
0 Comparison of BCR-type gasifiers--An integrated coal-gasification/
advanced-cycle power generating system.
0 Cleanup system identification—Low- and high-temperature cleanup
systems.
0 New integrated systems definition--Combination of the gasifier/
cleanup systems and an integrated combined-cycle power system.
0 Revision of previous systems studied under the contract.
0 Environmental definition.
Results of the previous contract showed the potential for low-cost,
environmentally acceptable electric power from integrated power systems
consisting of coal gasifiers, low- and high-temperature sulfur cleanup
processes, and combined-cycle generating systems.
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Startup of Chapman (Wilputte) gasifier.
Exterior view.
Sass train for sampling barrel valve vent gases
Holston low-Btu gasification facility, Kingsport, Tennessee.
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Liquefaction
EPA contract 68-02-262 has been awarded to Hittman Associates, Inc.
for a multimedia environmental assessment of coal liquefaction. During
1977, the major effort focused on environmental characterization and
preparation of a standards of practice manual. Sampling and analysis
were initiated at Plant Mitchel, and a suggested sampling plan was
t
developed for the SRC,pilot plant. See illustrations below.
A combustion test at Georgia Power Company's Plant Mitchell, located
near Albany, Georgia, was performed to determine whether SRC can be
burned in a pulverized coal-fired boiler. This three-phase test marked
the first time that SRC has been burned in a utility boiler. In addi-
tion to boiler and precipitator efficiency tests, a detailed inventory
of air emissions, including polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, was
performed.
In Phase I of this program, low-sulfur Kentucky coal was burned in
the existing, unmodified 22-1/2 MW pulverized coal boiler. Following
replacement of the original burners with dual register burners and
accompanying modifications, Phase II of the test was conducted. In this
phase, as in Phase I, the boiler was fired with low-sulfur Kentucky
coal. In Phase III, following adjustment of the burners and the pulver-
izers, SRC was burned. In each of the phases, the boiler was operated
at full (21 MW), medium (14 MW), and low (7 MW) load conditions.
Precipitator efficiency tests were run, ash resistivity was deter-
mined, and air emission levels were evaluated using EPA-5 and American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) trains. In addition to particu-
lates, a number of gases, including CCL, CO, NO , 02, and SO-, were
monitored.
During Phases II and III, flue gas sampling was conducted using a
SASS train to collect samples for laboratory analysis, using a modified
EPA Level 1 procedure. Grab samples were obtained for on-site analysis
for C1 - Cg hydrocarbons, S0x, NOX, CO, and 0^-
Using the SASS train, each test run provided a total of nine sam-
ples, all of which included solids fractions, condensate, resin, impinger
liquids, and rinses. After being weighed, several of the initial sam-
ples were combined and analyzed for particle size distribution and
chemical components. Results indicated the presence or absence of
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Plant Mitchell power plant (site of SRC test burn)
151
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I .
SASS train in operation at Plant Mitchell power plant,
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several classes of organic compounds as well as inorganic components and
trace elements. In addition to the abbreviated Level 1 analysis, the
samples were analyzed to determine whether or not selected polynuclear
aromatic compounds, having carcinogenic properties, were present.
Grab samples were collected using a Tedlar bag and a stainless
steel probe. The samples were extracted from the stack by means of
varistaltic pump, which can obtain leak-free samples over a long period
of time. Analysis was performed by injecting gases captured in the
sample bag into a gas chromatograph. Parameters identified included
C1 - Cg hydrocarbons, CO, NOX, S02> 02, N2, and CO-.
Daily composites of the coal used during Phase II and the SRC used
during Phase III were also prepared. Bottom ash samples were collected
as well.
Participants in the SRC combustion tests included:
0 Southern Company Services—co-sponsor and owner.
0 DOE—co-sponsor and supplier of SRC.
0 Southern Research Institute (SRI)—SASS train sampling and
resistivity.
0 TRW—grab sampling and on-site analysis for CO, C02, S02, N0x,
N2, 02, and C - Cg hydrocarbons.
0 York Research—EPA-5 and ASME trains, gaseous emissions, and
precipitator efficiency.
0 Babcock & Wilcox—boiler efficiency.
0 Rust Engineering (subsidiary of Wheelabrator-Frye) with SRI—
resistivity.
0 Wheelabrator-Frye—modeling of precipitator for control of SRC.
0 Hittman Associates, Inc.—development of sampling plan for the
SASS train and grab samples, coordination of these efforts, and responsi-
bility for subsequent sample analysis and interpretation.
Supporting Research
The Research Triangle Institute (RTI), under EPA research grant
R804979, is studying potential pollutant production from synthetic fuels
operations. The program covers both experimental and analytical studies,
and includes documentation of the specific chemical species present in
various effluents from synthetic fuels processes and quantitation of
their concentrations in the various process streams. The pollutants are
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being ranked in the order of their potential environmental hazard consider-
ing such factors as concentration, treatment, disposition, dispersion,
and dilution of the effluent streams, and ultimate pathways to human
exposure.
In addition, a catalog of kinetic data pertaining to the rates of
formation of the significant pollutants will be generated. This catalog
will be useful in suggesting optimum reactor conditions to minimize the
overall expense of emission or effluent control. As part of EPA's
overall clean fuels program, operating conditions which apparently
minimize pollutant formation can then be subjected to experimental
confirmation on a pilot-scale continuous gasifier.
During the first year of this program, which began November 1,
1976, attention was concentrated on construction and operation of a
laboratory-scale gasification reactor with sufficient flexibility to
simulate processes. (See following schematic and illustrations.)
Instrumentation and controls were provided to monitor and control temper-
ature and pressure during gasification as well as the rates and composi-
tion of feed gases to the gasifier. In addition, a sampling train was
designed and applied to the acquisition of char, tars and oils, water,
and gases from the reactor. Analytical techniques were developed for
the determination of synthetic fuels pollutants, utilizing samples from
actual gasification operations.
Efforts during the following years are projected to involve appli-
cation of the methods and techniques to the screening of many coals and
to the investigation of other synthetic fuels technologies.
Water Purification Associates was awarded a contract (EPA contract
68-03-2207) to recommend measures which will minimize water pollution
and consumption by coal conversion plants and to determine the general
environmental impact on water that can be expected from the commercial-
ization of synthetic fuel projects in the western coal-bearing regions.
The program period is June 1975 to October 1978.
Overall technical objectives for the program are to:
0 Assess the general water use and pollution control alternatives
for specific coal gasification and liquefaction processes.
0 Determine, from an analysis of 40 to 50 commercial-scale synthe-
tic fuel plants anticipated for the western U.S., the environmental
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LEGEND
tn
in
A,B PUMPS
D COAL. HOPPER THERMOCOUPLE
E COAL FEEDLINE THERMOCOUPLE
F FURNACE WINDING THERMOCOUPLE
FT FLOW METER
PCV PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
PI PRESSURE GAUGE
PSE RUPTURE DISK
PSV ADJUSTABLE RELIEF VALVE
PT PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
R REACTOR THERMOWELL THERMOCOUPLES
S STEAM LINE THERMOCQUPLES
DRAIN
rn-i
TO HOPPER BALL VALVE ACTUATOR
Schematic of RTI's coal conversion reactor test unit.
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en
en
RTI's coal conversion reactor test unit.
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m
Tenax Cartridge Holders I
'
Front view.
. n
-g
Vacuum Manifold for
Tenax Cartridges
> C Condensation Trap
*
Gas sampling manifold.
Rear view,
Participate and condensation traps
Components of RTI's reactor test unit.
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impacts that can be expected from water-related site and process charac-
teristics.
0 Ascertain the level and mix of synthetic fuel industry that
could be supported by 1990, based on a projection of locally available
fresh and saline surface and ground waters.
The report, "Water Conservation and Pollution Control in Coal
Conversion Processes," was published in June 1977 (EPA-600/7-77-065).
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
In addition to control technology being developed under contracts
discussed as part of the environmental assessment program, several other
control technology development contracts are underway and are discussed
below.
Products and By-products
Catalytic, Inc. has been awarded EPA contract 68-02-2167 to evaluate
and develop control technology for the products and by-products of fuel
conversion/fuel utilization systems based on coal. The contract period
is September 1976 to September 1979. Overall technical objectives of
this contract are to:
0 Establish general processing schemes which will produce accept-
able fuels and marketable by-products from coal.
0 Assess potential emission problems which could be incurred in
each module of the above processes.
0 Develop control technology for the recovery or destruction of
these pollutants. This will include utilization of existing processes,
evaluation of developing processes, and identification of the need for,
and development of, new technologies.
Results from this work will enable the EPA to determine the overall
control technology that is required to restrict pollutants to the desired
levels during the conversion of coal to marketable products and by-products.
The approach that will be used to accomplish the program objectives
consists of six phases:
0 Project overview and compilation of published process information
and control technology to provide initial estimates of potential pollution
problems.
0 Identification of pollutant problems, control needs, and new
data requirements for processes to produce specific marketable products.
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0 Assessment, from information in Phase II, of existing and develop-
mental stage technology and, if necessary, consideration of the develop-
ment of new technologies.
0 Development of the control technology requirements identified in
Phase III on bench scale and testing of those showing promise on a
pilot-plant scale.
0 Preliminary design and economic evaluation of those processes
newly developed.
0 General support studies.
Converter Output
Hydrocarbon Research, Inc. (HRI) has been awarded EPA contract
68-02-2601 to develop, evaluate, and demonstrate environmentally sound
technology for fuel conversion output streams. Thus far, four areas
have been pursued under this contract:
0 Plan and support.
0 Overview of gasification processes.
0 Support for gas cleaning facility
0 Engineering evaluation of control technology for converter
outputs—gasification.
OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY FOR INDUSTRIAL FUEL GAS FROM COAL--
The overview is divided into four main sections. In the first section,
a discussion of coal gasification technology and seven gasification
systems typical of first-generation processes is presented. The next
section, on gas clean-up systems, presents an introduction to control
technology as applied to industrial fuel manufacture, and a description
of clean-up systems used by Koppers-Totzek, Lurgi, Wilputte, and Woodall-
Duckham/Gas Integrale systems. The third division of the overview
examines some old technologies, such as iron oxide processes, and compares
them to modern technology in applications for the manufacture of indus-
trial gas. The last section provides an overall view of control techno-
logy for industrial fuel gas. The six main aspects included are typical
clean-up systems applied to industrial fuel, dependency of clean-up on
end use of the fuel gas, sulfur emission control with an industrial
fuel, effect of nitrogen compounds on chemical clean-up systems, tar and
oil byproducts, and reduction of particulates for industrial fuels.
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STUDY OF N.C. STATE UNIVERSITY GASIFICATION SYSTEM--HRI has com-
pleted a study to support the efforts of the EPA and NCSU in conducting
evaluations of acid gas removal (AGR) systems as applied to gases derived
from coal. To facilitate the operation of the fluid-bed gasifier and
AGR absorption system at the gas cleaning facility, a technical data
manual was prepared and presented. The manual provides a compilation of
background technical data to assist NCSU in their program preparation
and testing. The manual covers the following areas:
0 Introduction
0 Flowsheets and material balances—a concise compilation of the
gas removal systems.
0 Mass transfer coefficient, K~a—a discussion of the development
of an overall mass transfer coefficient and a recommended formulation.
0 Gasifier operational sensitivity—an investigation of gasifier
production when feed rates and fluid-bed heights are changed.
0 Time to steady state—estimated times necessary to establish
steady state conditions in the AGR system based on acid gas concentra-
tion and operating temperature.
0 Coal screw feeder and char extractor rates—effects of solids
handling rates on the gasifier's operation.
0 Flammability limits—estimated limits for the various gas streams.
0 Properties and solubilities of AGR system solvents—physical
properties, acid gas equilibrium, and operational advice concerning
fouling, corrosion, regeneration, etc.
0 Dangerous materials: their properties and toxicology—a compil-
ation of most recent environmental limits and properties for matter
expected to be present in the facility.
A recommendation for a coal pretreating process was developed and
submitted. The recommendation culminates an investigation of various
proven operable pretreatment systems. The proposed scheme permits
flexibility of operation, incorporates proven technology, and is compat-
ible with NCSU's facilities and operating schedule.
ACID GAS REMOVAL PROCESS PRIORITIZATION—A selected group of 16 AGR
processes was prioritized to arrive at appropriate choices for the
following typical end uses:
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0 High-pressure (1000 psig) gasification for the manufacture of
SNG.
0 Intermediate-pressure (400 psig) gasification for the manufac-
ture of turbine fuel.
0 Low-pressure gasification for the manufacture of low-pressure
fuel gas.
0 Low-pressure gasification and compression for the manufacture
of synthetic gas.
For these applications, the prioritization review narrowed the
initial selections to six on which a more detailed engineering evalu-
ation will be performed.
Of the many factors considered in the prioritization review, the
most important was the sulfur content in coal. Generally, the sulfur
content is such that the resulting acid gas contained in converter
output would not quite make a desirable Claus plant feed. Due to the
importance of the Claus process to many AGR systems, selective absorption
processes are then appropriate. Other important factors are purifi-
cation limits, demonstrated application to coal gas, environmental
impact, product separation and form, contaminants, solvent make-up and
cost, utility requirements, operating pressure and temperature, materials
of construction, and miscellaneous aspects.
TAR, PARTICULATES, AND DUST REMOVAL FROM COAL CONVERTER OUTPUTS—
Equipment vendors have been contacted to obtain information for typical-
ly applied tar, particulates, and dust removal equipment. Factors
considered were operating experience with coal gas, system performance,
temperature and pressure limitations, utility requirements, and equipment
costs. A system for the removal of particulates, tar, and dust from
coal gasification gas has been proposed for an indepth engineering
assessment.
The investigation encompasses the use of mechanical devices such as
cyclones, filters, and Venturis. Deposition of solids caused by thermo-
phoretic effects is not included in the study.
Pretreatment and Waste Control
Pullman-Kellogg has been awarded EPA contract 68-02-2198 for the
development of control technology for fuel conversion water utilization
and disposal systems, including the specific areas of coal storage,
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preparation, and feeding, and wastewater treatment. Wastes and effluents
are being categorized as solids, gaseous, or liquids, with types, quanti-
ties, and concentrations.
The program: includes assessment of available and developing control
technology as applied to fuel conversion effluents/emissions/wastes and
the relationship to present and proposed environmental regulations,
continues with theoretical and experimental development of promising
alternative control technologies, and concludes with an overall compar-
ative analysis of all technologies and an engineering design and cost
estimate for those control methods judged to be appropriate for integra-
tion into conversion system flow schemes.
Reasonable working estimates of quantities and compositions of
emission, effluent, and waste streams from coal conversion processes
were assembled from information drawn from many sources. Federal,
state, regional, and international environmental laws, standards, and
regulations were gathered and summarized. Information on existing and
developing control technology for application to the conversion process
streams is being gathered and analyzed. The next step in the program is
to apply the control technology to the conversion process streams to
determine the adequacy of control in meeting environmental standards and
to determine the absence, if any, of control technology.
Other Support
NCSU, supported by design, fabrication, construction, and start-up
capabilities provided by Aerotherm and IGT (EPA contract 68-02-2187),
has been awarded a 3 year grant (R804811) to provide and operate a
facility for studying, primarily, the environmental factors in raw and
acid gas cleanup associated with gasification. Tasks included under
this grant are:
0 Raw and acid gas cleanup facility. Bench-scale at NCSU for
generic type acid gas cleanup system.
0 Design of system (Aerotherm with subcontract to IGT for gasi-
fier). Gasifier: double-walled, fluidized-bed, 100 psig. Synthetic
gas mixtures: bottled. Gas cleanup: modular approach, methanol first.
Data acquisition: sophisticated.
0 Fabrication.
0 Operations. Shakedown: Aerotherm. Test Program: NCSU.
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Installation began late in 1977.
Work under an IERL-RTP 5 year grant (R804917) is being initiated by
the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to assess biological,
chemical, and physical treatment of wastewaters from fuel conversion, to
determine environmental impact and health effects of treated waters, and
to conduct bench-scale studies for developing design criteria. The system
is for generic water treatment approaches. The research will include:
0 Literature review.
0 Modeling of organic compounds biodegradability.
0 Biological treatability in activated sludge system.
0 Alternative physical/chemical treatments.
0 Animal toxicology studies.
0 Treatability of composite waste streams.
0 Design criteria for continuous treatment.
Under EPA contract 68-02-2152, Cameron Engineers is developing a
control approach methodology, designed to ensure the orderly progression
and interfacing of all aspects of the synthetic fuels program.
During September 1977, the Fuel Processes Branch held its third
symposium on "Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion." The main
objective of the symposium was to review and discuss environmentally-
related information on coal conversion technology. The 4 day program
consisted of sessions on program approach, environmental assessment, and
control technology development.
Battene-Columbus Laboratories was awarded a contract (EPA contract
68-02-2112), initially 12 months, to conduct a literature survey and
evaluate past, present, and future control techniques for the removal of
potential pollutant contaminants directly from solid and liquid fuels
prior to combustion.
Results from this work will provide the EPA with a summary of
control techniques which can be used in environmental control strategies
for general fuel utilization processes.
Techniques showing the most promise will be evaluated thermodynam-
ically and kinetically. Feasible methods will be ranked with respect to
their potential removal efficiency for specific'contaminants. In conjunc-
tion with this phase, laboratory tests may be required to fill data gaps
and to remove ambiguities found in the literature survey.
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All phases of the original program are complete, and reports have
been issued on "Chemistry," and "Removal Technology Evaluation" (EPA-600/
2-76-177a and -177b, respectively).
Under a contract extension, Battelle is expanding its investigation
of control techniques for the removal of potential pollutant contami-
nants.
Oil Treatment/Processing
An area, partially funded by EPA, that is closely related to coal
cleaning and liquefaction is liquid fuels cleaning. This includes
demetallization, desulfurization, denitrogenation, and removal of trace
metals and halogens. Funded by lERL-RTP's Fuel Processes Branch, studies
presently being conducted by HRI and MIT are aimed at determining reaction
mechanisms and kinetics, developing catalysts, and evaluating processes
for contaminant removal from liquid fuels.
Under EPA contract 68-02-0293, HRI undertook a project to develop a
low-cost scavenger catalyst to remove contaminant metals from petroleum
resids prior to desulfurization with commercial hydrodesulfurization
(HDS) catalysts. The contract was scheduled for completion in 1977.
The work was divided into five phases:
0 Develop a low-cost demetallization catalyst to remove contaminant
metals from heavy residual oils.
0 Optimize the promoter metal level on the catalyst and explore
commercial capabilities to produce the catalyst.
0 Optimize the demetallization and desulfurization steps in produc-
ing low-sulfur fuel oils in order to obtain more accurate cost figures.
0 Join in a cooperative effort with the USSR to gain knowledge of
the technical status of the demetallization of residual oils in each
country.
0 Evaluate the denitrogenation catalyst on coal liquids.
Phases I, II, and III have been completed and reports issued (EPA-650/
2-73-041 and -041 a, and EPA-600/2-76-165). Phase IV experimental work
has been completed: a report will be issued in 1978. Phase V work was
scheduled for completion in 1977, with a report to be issued in 1978.
Under grant (EPA grant R800897), MIT's Department of Chemical
Engineering is continuing studies on catalytic desulfurization and
denitrogenation. The period for this grant is August 1975 to July 1978.
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Under a previous grant, MIT completed an initial study in July 1975
on catalytic desulfurization and denitrogenation. The purpose of that
study was to determine the implications of thermodynamics for hydrodeni-
trogenation (HDN) and to determine the effect of thermodynamics in
pyridine HDN.
The objective of the present grant is to obtain a clear understand-
ing of the ways in which HDS and HDN reactions interact in the presence
of representative hydrocarbon feedstocks on industrial catalysts and
under practical hydroprocessing conditions. It is hoped that this study
will define optimized conditions for nitrogen removal from liquid fuels
derived from coal.
Procedures for sulfiding the catalyst were designed to produce a
standard state of catalytic activity in the reactor at the beginning of
each run. Experimental investigations of quinoline HDN under industrial
reaction conditions were continued, and further studies will investigate
the ramifications of the test results.
ADVANCED PROCESSES
Fluidized-bed Combustion
A vital element of the National Program on Fluidized-Bed Combustion
of coal for space-heating, steam-generation, and power-generation is the
EPA program on the environmental characterization and control of this
process. The goal of the EPA's FBC program is to obtain all necessary
environmental data over the full range of operating variables for all
variations of the FBC process, and to determine which control methods
will permit operation of FBC process plants with a minimum of environ-
mental degradation subject to economic and energy constraints.
Research sponsored under this program provides support to EPA's
regulatory offices through the preparation of Standards Development
Research Data Base Reports and standards of practice manuals for each
variation of the FBC process. In addition, the program is designed to
make available, through control technology R&D, controls which will be
necessary to support more stringent emission levels that may be required
in the future.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
During the past year, lERL-RTP's program to assess environmentally
both atmospheric and pressurized FBC processes has included:
165
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0 Continuation of efforts to develop EA methodology (e.g., initial
efforts to incorporate, into the MEGs, goals based upon heat, noise,
micro-organisms, radionuclides, complex effluent assays, and nonpollut-
ant factors).
0 Continuation of the broad FBC EA activity by Battelle.
0 Comprehensive analyses of emissions on four units: atmospheric
units at Battelle and at DOE's Morgantown Energy Research Center (MERC),
and pressurized units at Exxon and at Combustion Systems, Ltd, BCURA.
0 Continued coordination with DOE to prepare for comprehensive
analysis of emissions on major DOE FBC facilities: the 30 MW
atmospheric boiler at Georgetown University, the 30 MW pressurized
International Energy Center unit, the 6 MW atmospheric component test
and integration unit (CTIU) at MERC, and the 3 MW pressurized CTIU at
Argonne.
0 Contacts with EPRI to lay the groundwork for conducting compre-
hensive analysis on the 6 foot square (2.4 MW) AFBC built for EPRI by
Babcock & Wilcox.
0 Support to EPA's OAQPS in revising NSPS for large steam genera-
tors. (Support consisted of projecting the emission control performance
potential of FBC.)
0 Environmental support to DOE's FBC program (e.g., recommen-
dations for on-line gaseous pollutants analyzers, laboratory analytical
equipment, and ambient monitoring for the Georgetown University boiler).
0 Identification of potential FBC environmental problems requiring
control R&D.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Development efforts were continued to provide effective control
technology for FBC processes in order to limit emission and effluent
concentration of SO , NO , particulates, hydrocarbons, CO, and hazardous
X ^
pollutants identified in the EA portion of the program. These included
the development of treatment and final disposal techniques for spent
sorbent and ash from FBC processes, and demonstration at available pilot
FBC facilities. Significant activities over the past year included:
0 Continuing laboratory and bench-scale investigation of air and
solids emissions control from FBC units, including sorbent regeneration
(Argonne, Exxon, Westinghouse).
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0 Continuing shakedown of the granular tied filter for HTP particu-
late control on the Mi nip!ant. Plans were made to test alternative
devices after work on the filter is concluded. A photograph of the
Minip!ant follows.
0 Continuing contacts with DOE regarding testing of EPA's mobile
particulate control devices, and/or characterization of permanent
devices, on the 30 MW Rivesville boiler, the 10 MW Georgetown University
boiler, and the MERC and Argonne CTIUs. See illustration below. Con-
tacts were also made with EPRI regarding similar testing on the 2.4 MW
unit at the Babcock & Wilcox plant.
0 Preparations for routine regeneration testing on the integrated
Miniplant corabustor/regenerator system.
0 Continuing preparations for establishing a large field cell near
the Rivesville site to test the environmental impact of disposal of
solid residue from the facility. Procurement action was started to
obtain a contractor to build and test the Rivesville field cell and to
conduct other solid residue testing. In addition, contacts were made
with DOE and EPRI regarding obtaining residue from all of their FBC
facilities for analysis.
Reports published during 1977 as a result of the EPA program in-
clude EPA-600/7-77-009, -Oil, -012, -034, -054, -107, -126, -138, and
-139.
Advanced Oil Processing
Objectives of the Advanced Oil Processing (AOP) program dt IERL-RTP
include the characterization of waste streams from plants using the
various oil processing methods, evaluation of the application of alter-
native AOP methods for using petroleum residuals, and evaluation of
available control technology.
Research sponsored in this program provides support to EPA's regu-
latory offices through preparation of Standards Development Research
Data Base Reports and standards of practice manuals for each process
type.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Significant activity in AOP environmental -assessment included:
0 Identification of residual oil conversion/utilization as a
national multimedia environmental problem with diverse potential conse-
quences, ranging from atmospheric sulfates to hazardous oil spills.
167
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SORBENT
•REGENERATOR
630 kW Exxon Miniplant for pressurized (10 atm) fluidized-bed combustion of coal
168
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Argonne 6 in. pressurized fluidized-bed combustor.
169
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I
'
COM8USTQR UPPEU
SECTION
Argonne 4-1/4 in. pressurized regeneration system.
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0 Completion of an inventory of potential pollutants in crude oils
from specific locations (domestic and foreign).
0 Preparation of a background report, "Residuum and Residual Fuel
Oil Supply and Demand in the United States, 1973-1985" (ERA-600/2-76-
166).
0 Initiation of a major EA contract to provide information on
environmental tradeoffs on all existing and projected processing/utili-
zation options for residual oil. A technology background report has
already been issued.
0 Initiation of a contract for comprehensive categorization and
characterization of residual oils.
0 Issuance of a report, "Environmental Problem Definition for
Petroleum Refineries, Synthetic Natural Gas Plants, and Liquefied Natural
Gas Plants" (EPA-600/2-75-068).
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Objectives of this program include the development and demonstra-
tion, where needed, of technologies for the removal of sulfur, nitrogen,
and potentially hazardous trace materials from petroleum, petroleum
derivatives, and other liquid fuels; and the development and evaluation
of the best practical control technologies for commercial or near-
commercial processes. Significant activities during the year included:
0 Determination of the fundamental characteristics of the reactions
involved in simultaneous hydrodesulfurization and denitrification.
0 Issuance of a report, "Catalytic Desulfurization and Denitro-
genation" (EPA-600/2-75-063), detailing the work done. A subsequent
grant continues this work and extends the experimental conditions to
higher pressures and multi-ring model sulfur and nitrogen compounds.
0 Identification of catalysts that tend to optimize demetalli-
zation of oils, and provision of preliminary estimates of catalytic
demetallization and desulfurization of specific Venezuelan, Canadian,
and Iranian oils. A report, "Demetallization of Heavy Residual Oils,
Phase III" (EPA-600/2-76-165),describes this work.
0 Considerable progress in the preparation of reports on demetal-
lization of Venezuelan and Soviet oils, using U.S. and USSR scavenger
catalysts and denitrogenation catalyst evaluation for residual oils.
These reports are scheduled for release in 1978.
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CAFB DEMONSTRATION
This program has the objective of demonstrating, at small to moderate
commercial-scale, the CAFB process for converting heavy high-sulfur/high-
metals-content residual oils to clean, high-temperature gaseous fuel.
Significant accomplishments during 1977 include:
0 Successful pilot-plant demonstration and start of construction
work on a facility to demonstrate the CAFB process on a utility boiler
as an environmentally sound alternative fuel.
0 Preparation of a paper, "Development of the Chemically Active
Fluid Bed Process, A Status Report and Discussion" (IERL-RTP-P-084), for
presentation to the Royal Dutch Engineers meeting November 22, 1977, at
Utrecht.
0 Continuous operation of the CAFB pilot plant at Esso Petroleum,
Ltd. for periods as long as 412 hours, and up to 212 hours between
decaking or cleaning of the gas duct. This test series yielded 85
percent sulfur removal and 100 percent vanadium retention on the bed
material, based on residual oil inputs.
0 Initiation of pilot testing of coal feedstocks in the continuous
CAFB pilot plant, in support of the planned demonstration.
0 Continuing construction of a 10 MW demonstration plant at Cen-
tral Power and Light (CPL), San Bern"to, Texas, with Foster Wheeler
Corporation as prime contractor. See illustration below.
0 Control technology studies (by lERL-RTP's contractor) showing
that trace metals sequestered by the bed material are bound tightly and
will not leach out into the environment. Spent bed material contained
very little, if any, organic compounds.
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Model of CAFB demonstration unit under construction by CPL at San Benito, Texas,
173
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INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
lERL-RTP's work in the area of industrial processes consists of
chemical and metallurgical processes. Because process measurement
applies to the entire IERL-RTP program, it is treated as a separate
major program. The first two groups are discussed separately.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
IERL-RTP's Chemical Processes activities include:
0 Combustion sources.
0 Petrochemicals.
0 Refineries.
0 Agricultural chemicals.
0 Textiles.
0 At-sea incineration.
Source Assessment
In order to define control technology development needs for sources
in the six chemical processes categories, information must be assessed,
relating the characteristics of emissions to their probable impact on
receptors. Much of the required information is nonexistent, or data
reliability is uncertain.
A contractual effort was initiated in June 1974 with Monsanto Research
Corporation (MRC) to utilize the systems approach in acquiring the source
assessment data needed for decision-making, regarding emission reduction
needs relating to air pollution aspects of specific sources.
The order of performing detailed source characterizations has been
established. The sources were organized into the six categories mentioned
above. A model was then developed to estimate the relative environmental
impact of each source within each category. Included in the model were
the pollutant type, mass emissions, the atmospheric reactivity or stability
of the emissions, number of the source type, the growth pattern for the
industry, the location of the plants, population densities at the source
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locations, the relationship between source emissions and ambient levels
of the same type of pollutant at the location of the plant, and toxicity
of the emitted pollutants. Data from a wide variety of sources were
input to the model to calculate a relative environmental impact number.
By this means, a priority listing was developed based on relative
potential for adverse environmental impact for the sources in each of
the six categories. (While lERL-RTP's Source Assessment Program was
initially structured to address only the air pollution aspects of
industrial sources, a change in orientation was brought about by the
1975 reorganization of ORD. The program is now structured to address
pollution of all media.)
The original program, which addressed only air pollution, did
result in prioritization listings for sources based on the potential for
adverse environmental impact from air pollutants. From these listings
of source priorities for each category, sources were selected for which
prototype Source Assessment Documents (SADs) are now being developed.
These SADs will consider the aforementioned facts in detail and present
all information necessary to allow decisions to be made by IERL-RTP
personnel as to control development needs for the source types under
consideration.
The SADs now under preparation or completed are:
0 Combustion Sources
00 Pulverized Bituminous-Coal-Firing Dry-Bottom Utility Boilers
00 Industrial External Combustion Using Pulverized Bituminous
Coal in Dry-Bottom Boilers, Furnaces, etc.
00 Coal-Fired Residential Furnaces
0 Petrochemicals
00 Acrylonitrile
00 Solvent Evaporation—Surface Coating
00 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
00 Phthalic Anhydride Production
00 Carbon Black
00 Acetone and Phenol from Cumene
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0 Agricultural Chemicals
00 Fertilizer Mixing Plants
00 Ammonium Nitrate
00 Synthetic Ammonia Production
00 Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
00 Urea Manufacture
° Textiles
00 Cotton and Synthetic Textile Finishing Plants
Effluents from each source will be identified and characterized in
terms of individual pollutant emission rates (i.e., source strength),
potential for adverse health effects, and environmental stability of
pollutants. Ambient pollutant levels will be estimated for typical
sources by means of accepted dispersion equations. The source dis-
tribution will be presented and related to affected population. Studies
of the availability and performance of viable control technology will be
presented.
In addition to the assessment program described above, several new
major assessment programs have been initiated: for conventional com-
bustion systems, for petroleum refineries, and for pesticides manufacturing.
They are described below, along with control technology programs which
are underway for the same source categories.
Combustion Sources
CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS—EMISSIONS ASSESSMENT
Assessment and definition of the problem of emissions from combustion
sources are major concerns to IERL-RTP. In addition to the SADs being
prepared for combustion sources by MRC, other approaches to assessment
of conventional combustion sources have been employed. Operation of
conventional combustion systems (i.e., those which currently use common
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, and agricultural, forestry,
or other wastes for electrical power generation or space heating) causes
continuous and intermittent vapor/1iquid/solid discharges to the air,
water, and land from a number of associated processes including: fly-
ash/bottom-ash/bottom-ash-sluicing, water treatment, flash tank, scrubber
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sludge, stack, fuel storage, mud-drum blowdown, and fireside cleaning.
Previous and on-going data collection is directed toward emission assess-
ment related to these discharges.
A preliminary emission assessment of conventional stationary com-
bustion sources (those currently in use and based on common fossil
fuels—coal, oil, natural gas--or solid wastes such as those derived
from agricultural, forestry, or municipal refuse), prepared for IERL-RTP
by GCA Corp., was published in March 1976 (EPA-600/2-76-046a and -046b).
(This was independent of the MRC program discussed earlier.)
The GCA report is an emissions assessment of the air, water, and
solid waste pollutants produced by conventional stationary combustion
systems. It gives results in four principal categories: utilities
(electric generation), commercial/institutional (space heating and
stationary engines), and residential (space heating). For each principal
combustion system category, it defines: process types and operating
efficiencies, fuel consumption, pollutant sources and characteristics,
major R&D trends, fuel consumption trends, and areas where emission data
are incomplete or unreliable. It also gives pollutant emissions from
applicable unit operations for each of 56 source classifications, using
a uniform combustion source classification system, and it identifies
major gaps in available data regarding the population and capacity of
combustion systems, application of control measures, fuel composition,
and other parameters which significantly influence pollutant characteristics
and emission rates.
A supplementary report issued in August 1976 (EPA-600/2-76-046c)
identifies and discusses major recent on-going and proposed programs in the
area of pollutant emissions from combustion sources. The information,
covering the period from December 1975 to June 1976, was obtained through
a review of the literature and contact with government and industry
representatives.
Other work on emission assessment of conventional combustion systems
was initiated by TRW in September 1976. This study is assessing air and
water pollutants, including those generated from solid waste disposal,
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from 54 combustion categories, including: (1) residential, commercial/
institutional, and industrial sources from combustion of coal, oil, gas,
wood, and lignite; and (2) electricity generation sources.
This program will: (1) define criteria for determining adequacy of
existing emissions assessment data, including a quantitative basis for
decision-making relating to items such as error analysis, data reliability,
pollutant levels, pollutants considered, and techniques for criteria
application; (2) identify categories or portions of categories that have
been adequately assessed based on these criteria; (3) identify categories
that will require additional investigation; (4) develop a program to
complete the emissions assessment; and (5) complete the emissions assess-
ment. The assessment will include mass balances for each category and
will include the following air pollutants: trace elements, CO, SO ,
J\
NO , S04, POM, PCB, hydrocarbons, and particulate by size fraction.
/\ *
Characteristics of each category will be included for water pollutants
such as pH, alkalinity, hardness, and conductivity.
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
Earlier discussion has described assessment of the many types of
combustion sources. The following discussion relates to programs which
involve combustion only from the standpoint of electric power generation.
Increasing attention is being directed toward obtaining information
on the contribution of power plants to the atmospheric loading of toxic
trace elements and toward developing better ways to control their emission.
Previous studies have succeeded in providing some knowledge of the dis-
tribution of trace elements in flue gas, and the distribution of these
elements in various fractions contained in the fly ash particles.
Results of earlier work are considered inconclusive and fates of trace
elements are still not known, primarily because of the lack of adequate
sample collection techniques. Less information is available on vapor-
phase trace elements than for particulate-phase. In view of the potential
hazards of toxic trace elements that may be released from fossil-fuel
combustion and the need to improve vapor and fine particulate control
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technology, TVA has initiated a research program to quantify and characterize
such combustion products from its coal-fired power plants. Objectives of
this program are to gather, analyze, and interpret data on combustion
products from coal-fired utility boilers in order to gain a better under-
standing and provide a basis for the improvement of control technology for
fine particulates and vapor-phase trace elements. This is being achieved
by chemically and physically characterizing vapor-phase trace elements and
fine particulates in the flue gas and by relating formation of these com-
pounds and their characteristics to boiler operations and control device
performance.
INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
Trace element and organic emissions from industrial boilers were field-
tested by KVB, Inc., and a report was issued in December 1976 (EPA-600/2-
76-086b). Four coal-fired industrial boilers were sampled to determine
emissions of 19 trace and minor elements and polycyclic organic matter (POM).
Emissions of the trace and minor elements were related to total quantities
of each element present in the fuel by examining the degree of mass balance
and element partitioning based on fuel input and element output in furnace
deposits, fly ash, and flue gas vapor. The tendency of finer particulates
to be enriched in volatile ements was established by chemical analysis of
cascade impactor fractions. Total measured output of elements, classified
as high in volatility, tended to be less than the fuel input. This was
attributed to possibly low collection efficiency of sampling equipment for
vapor-phase elements. These same elements were found to be more highly
concentrated in the fly ash, as opposed to furnace deposits, and to have
higher concentrations in the smaller particle sizes. Elements classed as
medium or low in volatility tended to be more uniformly distributed with
respect to both location in the boiler and particle size. Total mass out-
puts for these elements frequently exceeded coal inputs, indicating possible
sample contamination by boiler or sampling system construction materials.
The presence of four specific POM compounds was indicated in the coal, ashes,
and stack gases, but results were highly variable.
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Petrochemicals
Petrochemical processing includes all industrial processes that use
petroleum as a feedstock. Because of the size and importance of the oil
and petrofuel industries, oil refineries are discussed separately later.
Considered here are special multimedia pollution problems from nonfuel
use of petrochemicals.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Phthalic Anhydride Plant
A report was issued in September 1977 (EPA-600/2-77-188) which
summarizes a technical and economic evaluation of 10 add-on control
systems and process modifications for reducing by 99 percent the emissions
of phthalic and maleic anhydrides from the main process vent gas in
phthalic anhydride manufacturing plants. A survey was made to identify
present control practices and their control efficiencies in the phthalic
anhydride industry. Based on theoretical and practical considerations,
existing control technology alternatives were evaluated to determine
whether they can be improved to obtain the desired control efficiency.
Technical evaluation of these alternatives led to identification of
candidate alternatives, applicable to the manufacturing process, which
can achieve 99 percent overall removal efficiency for phthalic and
maleic anhydrides. Design and operating parameters for achieving the
desired control efficiency were also determined. Cost estimates and an
energy utilization study were performed for the candidate alternatives.
Demonstration programs recommended include:
0 A thermal-incinerator/steam-generation add-on device using an
operating temperature of 860°C or a 55 percent increase in the
combustion volume.
0 A wet scrubber with maleic anhydride and phthalic anhydride
recovery.
0 A carbon-absorber/waste-incineration add-on control system.
Storage Tank Emission Control
Hydrocarbon emissions from storage tanks represent about 9 percent
of the national hydrocarbon emissions from stationary sources. Current
best available control technology for volatile organic emissions from
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tanks storing liquids with a true vapor pressure between 1.5 and 11.1
psia is a floating roof with a primary and secondary seal. Stop-Los
Company has four patents pending describing an improved technology for
controlling emissions of volatile organics from storage tanks. This new
technology claims the use of a device which has the potential for
significant improvement over existing technologies. Emission reductions
exceeding 99 percent are claimed at an installed cost of 80 percent of
the cost for a floating roof with a primary and secondary seal. This
effort will attempt to confirm these claims, which would advance the
state-of-the-art in emission control technology for storage tanks, with
a pilot-scale demonstration project.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
IERL-RTP is involved in a cost-sharing demonstration grant with
General Electric Company to develop control technology for removal of
small quantities of PCBs from plant runoff water from a capacitor
manufacturing plant in New York State. While PCBs are not currently
being used in capacitor manufacture, past practice has resulted in
spillage about the plant property. Initial efforts were directed at the
use of catalytic reduction technology, but it has been shown that this
technology does not provide adequate detoxification. Present plans are
to test the Westgate Research Corporation's ULTROX process which involves
ultraviolet radiation coupled with ozonolysis.
Chlorolysis
A promising new technology has been developed by Hoechst-Uhde,
Frankfurt, Germany, which involves use of HTP chlorination of chemical
manufacturing waste. Assessment of such parameters as the magnitude of
potentially available U.S. organic wastes suitable for chlorolysis
feedstock and markets for chlorolysis conversion products (carbon tetra-
chloride, carbonyl chloride, and anhydrous hydrochloric acid) will
determine the most practical chlorolysis process. Repro Chemical
Corporation has surveyed the availability in the U.S. of pesticide
wastes suitable for chlorolysis conversion.
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Tests have shown that vinyl chloride, chlorinated solvents, •
vinylidene chloride, and other residues are readily chlorolyzed to
carbon tetrachloride and hydrogen chloride; however, these residues must : ;
be relatively free of sulfur and oxygenated organics to avoid reactor -
corrosion. Investigations now underway by Hoechst-Uhde, with a sub- -
contract to Repro Chemical Corporation, will include engineering design
and economic feasibility of a regional, integrated, chlorocarbon disposal-
facility, based on previous EPA-supported bench-scale studies of chlorolysis
of defoliants. The design capacity will be 25,000 metric tons per year
of chlorocarbon wastes. .,,.-• ;
ASSESSMENT PROJECTS
Acrylonitrile
The source assessment report for acrylonitrile has been completed
(EPA-600/2-77-107J). The report gives results of an analysis of atmospheric
emissions from propylene-based acrylonitrile manufacturing plants. Un-
controlled and controlled emission factors are given for each species
emitted to the atmosphere from each source within a typical plant, based
on field sampling data and engineering estimates. Emissions data are
used to calculate several factors designed to quantify the hazard potential
of the emissions. A detailed process description and flow sheet are
presented for the Standard Oil of Ohio (SOHIO) process. Present and
future aspects of pollution control technology in the industry are
discussed. Economic and production trends in the acrylonitrile industry
and in each of the industries that are consumers of acrylonitrile are
analyzed. Existing control technology is capable of achieving 95 percent
reduction in emissions but is not widely used. A more efficient and
less energy intensive control technology is needed.
Carbon Black
A source assessment report has been issued (EPA-600/2-77-107k)
which summarizes the assessment of air emissions from the manufacture of
carbon, black, currently manufactured in the U.S. by two major processes:
thermal and oil furnace. Sources of atmospheric emissions within oil
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furnace plants (about 90 percent of the 30 U.S. carbon black plants)
Include the main process vent, dryer vent, pneumatic system vent, oil
feedstock storage tanks, vacuum cleanup system vent, and fugitive
sources. To assess the severity of emissions from this industry, a
representative plant was defined as using the oil furnace process, with
a mean production rate of 50,000 metric tons/yr. For a representative
plant, calculated source severities were: 0.02 for particulates emitted
from the main process vent; 0.046 and 0.58 for SO and NO , respectively,
rt ^
from the dryer vent; 21 for hydrocarbons emitted from the main process
vent; and 27 for carbon black fugitive emissions. The average number of
persons exposed to high contaminant levels from carbon black manufacture
was estimated and designated as the "affected population." The calculation
was made for each species emitted and for each emission point within a
representative plant for which the source severity exceeds 0.1. The
largest value obtained was 11,000 persons, due to H2S emissions from the
main process vent. Assuming the same control levels in 1974 and 1980,
emissions from the industry will increase by 14 percent by 1980. Further
control technology development and demonstration is planned.
Phthalic Anhydride
The source assessment report has been issued (EPA-600/2-76-032d).
The report gives results of an analysis of atmospheric (air) emissions
from ortho-xylene- and naphthalene-based phthalic anhydride manufacturing
plants. Uncontrolled and controlled emission factors are given for each
species emitted to the atmosphere from each source within a typical
plant, based on the latest data available. Emissions data are used to
calculate three factors designed to quantify the hazard potential of the
emissions: (1) source severity (the ratio of maximum mean groundlevel
concentration of a pollutant to the concentration which constitutes an
incipient health hazard), (2) the industry contribution to total
atmospheric emissions of criteria pollutants, and (3) the population
exposed to high contaminant levels from a representative plant. Detailed
process descriptions>and flow sheets are presented for the BASF fixed-
bed ortho-xylene process and the Badger-Sherwin-Williams fluid-bed
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naphthalene process. Present and future aspects of pollution control
technology in the industry are discussed, including a number of possible
process modifications. Economic and production trends in the phthalic
anhydride industry and in each-industry that is a major consumer of
phthalic anhydride are analyzed. A further study covering control
technology development has also been completed, as discussed earlier.
Others
Sampling at representative plants for acetone and phenol from
cumene and for chlorinated hydrocarbons has been completed. The source
assessment reports for these two sources are scheduled for completion by
March 1978.
Refineries
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Automobile Filling Station Control
This work, being conducted by Scott Environmental Technology, Inc.,
was initiated in 1975 in response to a request from EPA's OAQPS. The
initial study was aimed at determining the variables affecting the
charcoal beds used to control gasoline vapors in service stations.
Major variables were identified and evaluated and activated carbon was
shown to be outstanding in adsorption/desorption properties. These high
performance characteristics were retained through 1000 adsorption/
desorption cycles.
The new contract with Scott calls for broadening the variables
study and for a demonstration of the utility of the high performance
carbon through field tests at gasoline service stations.
ASSESSMENT PROJECTS
Petroleum refineries consist of a complex of physical and chemical
transformation operations. While most of the individual point sources
of emissions within the refinery have been identified, fugitive sources
may be the principal emitters of hydrocarbons. In order to identify
refinery operations requiring pollutant emission control, IERL-RTP is
now carrying out a detailed assessment of the emissions associate^ with
oil refining. The study will quantify the potential for emissions in
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each step of the physical and chemical transformation of petroleum. It
will also contain sufficient data to show most effective types of
equipment to use to minimize fugitive emissions. Operations which are
expected to utilize heavier feedstocks will also be emphasized.
Five refineries have been sampled from a statistical design en-
compassing 16 refineries. The statistical design was based on four
refining areas in the U.S., with the refineries divided according to
size and age. The cutpoint was 50,000 barrels per day for size and 10
years for age. The design is being updated after every fourth refinery.
The data will be of adequate quality to support a guideline document for
determining the environmental impact of existing and new petroleum
refineries. From this assessment and guideline document, the major
control program emphasis of future years will be defined.
Agricultural Chemicals
Pollution problems arising from the production of agricultural
chemicals involve emissions of both air and water pollutants associated
with the production of fertiliziers and pesticides.
FERTILIZERS
Effluent Cleanup
Studies of effluent cleanup from fertilizer production were assumed
by IERL-RTP during 1975. Many of these programs were originated by
EPA's Athens (Ga.) Laboratory. One project is currently in progress
with Farmers Chemical Assoc., Inc. and is jointly funded by them.
The objectives of this project were to: evaluate all conventional
and several experimental methods for inorganic nitrogen removal from
water; determine the optimum process(es); and demonstrate at full scale
on wastewater from a balanced-N fertilizer production complex (i.e., one
containing ammonia, urea, nitric acid, and ammonium nitrate units). In
.the demonstration model, high ammonia concentrations were reduced by air
stripping. Residual ammonia was oxidized to nitrate by bacteria in the
trickling filter. Nitrates were denitrified in anaerobic lagoons using
methanol or another waste stream as a carbon source. The feasibility of
waste stream segregation, recycle of concentrated streams, and internal
use of dilute streams was also to be established. Advanced physicochemical
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processes (e.g., ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and
mixed-salt precipitation) were evaluated. Ion exchange (IX). proved to
be the only feasible method. Double-loop continuous IX beds were designed
and installed by Chem-Seps in 1972. Total water reuse was achieved for
1 month (July 1974). Ammonia and nitrate were recovered and recycled as
product. Economic data analysis and evaluation of the system are still
underway. The complete air/water impact of the system is still to be
determined.
Yugoslav Granular Fertilizer Plants
A related project is being conducted by the Institute for Technology
of Nuclear and Other Mineral Raw Materials, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, at the
FMK, Novi Sad Plant site. Directed toward evaluating air and water
pollution potential and abatement in granular fertilizer plants, this
project will:
0 Characterize air and water waste effluents generated in a typical
N-P-K granular fertilizer plant operating in the non-recycle water mode.
Each major source of air and water discharge will be identified, quantified,
and characterized. Both the quantity and composition of these sources
are to be correlated with plant production rate, product mix, and raw
material variations. Primary pollutants of interest are: (1) air—
particulates, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, and ammonium salt fines (e.g.,
ammonium chloride and sulfate); and (2) water--ammonia, fluoride, and
phosphate.
0 Construct and verify first-generation air transport and dispersion
model(s) specifically for application to granular fertilizer plant emis-
sions—gases (fumes) and particulates. All models tested will be cali-
brated with local meteorological and pollutant concentration profile
data. The basic model development in this task is to create a generalized
plant downwind-operating dispersion model for granulation plants.
0 The quantification and characterization of Task I will be repeated
after installation of more advanced dust emission control equipment.
Using this equipment, performance will be established under a variety of
operating conditions (e.g., products and production rates) and its eco-
nomics delineated.
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0 Models developed will be reverified by comparison of calculated
and measured downwind pollutant profiles at the lower emission rates
expected after equipment installation.
0 Models in combination with plant waste source data will be
used to conduct cost/benefit ratio calculations for various treatment
operations, if additional control is needed. Based on these evalua-
tions, on the plant waste source inventory data, and on the technology
literature, a plan of recommended cost-effective abatement or oper-
ating techniques for minimizing pollutant discharges from each source
will be presented to the plant management as the final task output.
Ammonia Plant Condensate Treatment
A study to develop treatment of ammonia plant process condensate
effluent was conducted by Gulf South Research Institute for IERL-RTP.
The program concentrated on plant sampling and test programs, as well
as on economic evaluations of process schemes to reduce ammonia in
the plant process condensate. These schemes include: atmospheric-
pressure steam-stripping for process condensate with reinjection of
steam-stripped process condensate into flue primary reformers on the
reformer stack; adsorption of ammonia on vanadium pentoxide (a catalyst)
to produce aqueous ammonia (28 percent) and/or anhydrous ammonia by-
product upon regeneration of the catalyst; and addition of phosphates
and potassium magnesium sulfate to the process condensate stream to
produce a marketable by-product of magnesium ammonium phosphate fer-
tilizer.
Field tests were performed and data collected on an in-plant steam
stripping column with vapor injection into the reformer furnace stack.
Bench-scale steam stripping was studied on several different plant
process condensates for comparative purposes. Data for design of a
commercial steam stripper were obtained.
Atmospheric steam-stripping, a process that utilizes live steam as
the driving force to strip out the ammonia in the condensate effluent
via a packed column, has the following advantages:
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0 Least expensive of all processes to operate.
0 Simplest process scheme requiring least supervision.
0 Small amount of process land area needed.
The results indicate that stripping the process condensate and in-
jecting the vapor into the reformer stack offers a viable control
technology for reducing the amount of ammonia and methanol discharged to
the environment.
PESTICIDES
Technology Development
Responsibility for developing needed control technology for the
pesticides manufacturing industry was transferred from the EPA's Athens
(Ga.) Laboratory to IERL-RTP in 1975. Efforts have concentrated primarily
on water pollution problems associated with the manufacture of chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides. Air pollution problems from pesticides manufacture
are rather poorly defined and, to date, have not been dealt with in a
technology development program.
RESIN SORPTION TECHNOLOGY—Velsicol Chemical Company's plant in Memphis,
Tennessee, has been under considerable pressure from EPA Region IV to reduce
effluent concentrations of Endrin, Heptachlor, and other chlorinated
intermediates and feedstocks to wastewaters which ultimately enter the
Mississippi River. IERL-RTP has been involved with Velsicol in a jointly
funded demonstration grant of two control technology processes. The first
process tested was the Envirogenics Systems. Company's catalytic reductive
degradation process. Work on and progress of this technology are described
in the next section.
The second process to be evaluated at Velsicol is the XAD-4 resin
adsorption process. A 100 gallon per minute pilot plant of this process
has been in operation since January 1977; the resin bed solvent has been
regenerated with isopropyl alcohol several times. Performance of this
technology has improved dramatically since start-up, and effluent con-
centrations of pesticides are now averaging 3 parts per billion. There
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is considerable hope that the resin process, with further refinement,
can meet the Section 309 standard (1.5 parts per billion).
CATALYTIC REDUCTION TECHNOLOGY—EPA has been involved in a contract
research study with Envirogenics Systems Company to explore (at the
laboratory level) the applicability of the catalytic reduction technology
to various pesticides wastes and to PCBs. External process testing by
RTI and fish toxicity tests by EB&6 Bionomics have shown that reductive
degradation is far less than quantitative and that treated effluents are
still toxic. The RTI work showed that, contrary to the findings of
Envirogenics, no reduction was obtained for PCB-containing waste.
Further RTI work on Endrin- and Heptachlor-containing waste indicated
that, although both are destroyed, the degradation products are still
very highly chlorinated and, therefore, not environmentally acceptable.
This technology will not be developed further; the current effort is
being phased out.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION—A research grant with Montrose Chemical Company
has been completed. This program involved development of solvent ex-
traction of DDT and its homologs from a highly alkaline slurry of sodium
sulfate waste material which is currently buried in a Class I landfill.
Solvent extraction of the toxic compounds into monochlorobenzene did not
prove to be a viable control technology. Problems included very poor
coalescence of phases and excessive losses of monochlorobenzene solvent
into the aqueous phase. No further work is planned on this technology.
ACTIVATED CARBON TECHNOLOGY—IERL-RTP currently has two programs in-
volving activated carbon technology application to pesticides wastes.
The first is a research grant with ADL directed at developing a
proprietary novel solvent-stripping technology for regeneration of
carbon which has been used to treat pesticides manufacturing wastes.
This process offers a potential 60 percent energy savings over
conventional multihearth furnace regeneration, and also offers greatly
increased carbon life. The capacity recovery per regeneration cycle
with the new technology is 98 percent, as opposed to 90 percent for
conventional regeneration technology. -
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The second program in activated carbon technology involves measure-
ments of isotherms and development of dynamic sorption/desorption data
for six different pesticides manufacturing wastes. This research is
being conducted by RTI under contract.
BIOTREATMENT TECHNOLOGY—IERL-RTP has a research program with RTI
directed at determining the treatability of aqueous waste from six
different pesticides manufacturing processes with activated sludge
treatment. This program will establish needs for development of pre-
treatment for wastes which are refractory or which are toxic to sewage
plant organisms. The program will also document the adequacy of activated
sludge technology to achieve satisfactory effluent quality for cases
where pretreatment is not indicated.
Assessment Projects
IERL-RTP is involved in an interagency cooperative program with NIOSH
to establish adequacy of current air pollution control measures for air
emissions from pesticides manufacturing. This program, cofunded by EPA
and NIOSH, is being conducted by Stanford Research Institute. Twenty
different manufacturing plants will be selected for study and subjected
to comprehensive sampling and analysis of both point and fugitive sources
of emissions. These samples will be subjected to analysis and to bioassay
screening tests to establish the adequacy of present control practices to
remove toxic emissions. This data will be considered from both occupational
and environmental health viewpoints in terms of any future decision to
develop improved control technology.
A cooperative source assessment effort for the organic pesticides
industry has been initiated between IERL-RTP's Chemical Processes Branch
(CPB) and the Organic Chemicals Branch of EPA's EGD. The effort will
concentrate on quantifying the presence of consent-decree pollutants in
process and plant effluents and defining the best available technology
for reducing these discharges. The data obtained from this study will be
used by EGD in reviewing and revising (if necessary) effluent guidelines
for the industry. CPB will use the results to define areas where control
technology development is needed.
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Textiles
Textile manufacturing processes generate much wastewate'r which is
an environmental polluter if not treated. If wastewater can be reused,
there is considerable potential for lower manufacturing costs. A number
of projects, either totally or partially funded by IERL-RTP, are now
underway which have pollution reduction from textile processes or wastes
as one of their goals or their major goal. Energy conservation is also a
prime objective.
..TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Technologies for Achieving BATEA
EPA is aiding ATMI (American Textile Manufacturers Institute) in a
30 month court-ordered study to evaluate the treatment efficiency of BATEA
processes for the tertiary treatment of textile industry wastewater, and
to generate the cost information needed to judge economic achievability
and impact on the industry resulting from the application of these
technologies. The work is performed by technical consultants under the
joint direction of ATMI and EPA. Actual investigations are carried out
using two mobile pilot treatment units. Approximately 24 plants are being
investigated. These 24 plants were selected from among plants already
achieving EGD's Best Practical Control Technology Currently Available
(BPCTCA) level.. The treatment processes being tested include physical/
chemical treatment (chemical coagulation, multimedia filtration, granular
carbon adsorption, powdered activated carbon, dissolved air flotation,
and ozonation). EPA is conducting its own economic survey, and ATMI will
probably issue its own economic report as agreed upon at a meeting between
ATMI and EPA's EGD.
Use of Enzymes and High-rate Trickling Filter
Holliston Mills, Inc., in Kingsport, Tennessee, investigated the
treatment of cotton textile wastewater by enzymes and a high-rate trickling
filter. A report on this project, EPA grant R803455, was published in 1977
(EPA-600/2-77-136).
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Solvent Slashing
In a novel approach based on a process modification, Auburn University
evaluated the impact of the use of solvent-based sizing techniques on
textile plant effluent parameters. The project included economic and
technical evaluations. A final report on this project, EPA grant R803665,
was published in 1977 (EPA-600/2-77-126).
Slashing with Thermal Precipitation
Another project was funded by Auburn University to evaluate the
suitability of water-soluble warp-sizing polymers which precipitate when
the desized wastewater is heated. This work is in progress, and hydroxy-
propyl cellulose is the potential size material of most interest to
date. Economics and comparative energy requirements for the process
will be studied.
Industrial Total Water Reuse in the Fiber Glass Industry
Owens-Corning Fiberglas in Toledo is demonstrating, first in
pilot-scale and then in full-scale plants, the complete recirculation
and reuse of a complex industrial wastewater from a fiber glass textile
manufacturing plant. The reclaimed wastewater will be used for nonprocess
purposes such as washdown, chain scrubbing, and cooling. Accomplishing
total reuse requires: (1) establishing water quality criteria for
inplant water uses; (2) additional local water conditioning and recycle
facilities for cooling, scrubbing, and chain washing; and (3) improved
wastewater treatment so that remaining wastewater may be reused for
nonprocess purposes. The pilot phase of this study is complete (EPA
grant S801173), and a report was published in February 1977 (EPA-600/2-
77-043). Owens-Corning, based on this work, is building a full-scale
plant, the design of which is partially funded by EPA. The plant is
scheduled for initial operation in January 1978.
Energy Conservation Using High-temperature Membranes
Clemson University, under EPA grant R803875, funded in June 1975,
assessed the feasibility of energy conservation in processing textile
wastewater through point source recycle with high-temperature hyper-
filtration. The grant was extended in December 1976, to permit the
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assessment to include combinations of ultra-filtration and hyperfiltration
in cleanup treatment of wastewater, and to extend the exploration to
treatment of effluents from continuous dyeing operations. Field testing
has been completed on the project, and a final report was expected in
December 1977.
Hyperfiltration Demonstration
A project grant became effective October 1, 1977, at Riegel Textile
Corporation's La France Industries plant at La France, South Carolina,
to demonstrate practical economic technology needed for complete rinse
of hot process water and chemicals, employing reverse osmosis. The
project is funded by an interagency agreement between DOE, the Department
of Interior, and the EPA (lERL-Cinn. and IERL-RTP). The project, which
terminates in September 1980, is divided into three phases:
0 System design and costing.
0 Equipment procurement and installation, and development of
operating procedures.
0 Demonstration and reporting.
Phase 1 is being funded by the three agencies. Funding of Phases 2
and 3 will depend on successful conclusion of Phase 1 and the economic
viability of the design.
Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange
J. P. Stevens & Co., in Greensboro, North Carolina, evaluated
treatment sequences for cleaning textile wastes including biological
treatment, multimedia filtration, and activated-carbon/ion exchange. A
draft final report on this project (EPA grant S801211) has just been
received.
PL-480 Technology Development for Textile VJastewater Pollution Control
(Poland)
The Polish Institute of Meteorology and Water Management (PIMWM)
has submitted a draft final report, "Removal of Color, Detergents, and
Other Refractory Substances from Textile Wastewaters," under EPA grant
SFC-055323. The report is being rewritten under contract with Research
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Triangle Institute. Two PIMWM representatives visited Research Triangle
Park early in November to assist with rewriting the report, which will
be published in February 1978.
Ion Exchange
Bennett College, in Greensboro, North Carolina, has evaluated the
ion exchange process for treating textile dyeing wastewater. The pilot-
scale demonstration assessed dye reuse and made cost projections for a
full-scale plant. The project is completed, and a final report is being
published.
ASSESSMENT PROJECTS
Textile Wastewater Toxicity
In connection with the ATMI study discussed above, an investigation
was started to determine toxicity of textile effluents from secondary
treatment plants. The ability of the six treatment technologies to
reduce toxicity is being tested. The toxicity of waste streams is being
established, using bioassay screening techniques. This project involves
cooperation between several EPA organizations: IERL-RTP, the Effluent
Guidelines Division, and two or three "water" laboratories. A draft
report on the pre-engineering survey has been received.
Efforts are being made to characterize the air pollution aspects of
the U.S. textile industry, including emissions from surface finishing
operations such as dyeing and sizing. Monsanto has completed major
portions of the preliminary source assessment document. In conjunction
with this, Monsanto has completed a report (EPA-600/2-77-107h) which
presents impact factors for all major unit operations in textile
manufacturing and provides the basis for making choices for further
source characterization by source sampling and analysis.
At-sea Incineration
The major goal of the at-sea incineration program is to establish
minimum requirements and operating criteria to ensure that this waste
disposal method is conducted in an environmentally acceptable manner.
Monitoring, sampling, and analysis plans were developed for shipboard
incineration of organochlorine wastes. Considered were: (1) a
description of incinerator ships, their incineration operation, and
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interface requirements necessary for obtaining samples; (2) design of
sampling probe and mount, and the sampling procedure; (3) approach for
on-line monitoring of combustion gases; (4) acquisition of combustion
products; (5) testing work areas to ensure safety during tests; and
(6) general analytical plan for all samples taken during waste destruc-
tion tests and of the wastes to be destroyed.
Two at-sea incinerations were observed by an EPA contractor. One
"burn" was monitored by the French Government: its results were re-
viewed with EPA and served as additional input to EPA's data gathering
program.
In March 1977, organochlorine wastes were burned aboard the M/T
Vulcanus in the Gulf of Mexico. A sophisticated sampling and moni-
toring protocol was instituted for operation during part of the burn.
A comprehensive on-line monitoring instrumentation laboratory was
installed on the Vulcanus to measure CO, C02, HC, NO, N02, and 02
concentrations. These parameters were used to evaluate the overall
combustion performance of the starboard incinerator. Simultaneously,
a high-volume sampling train incorporating a solid resin module was
used to acquire and trap organic vapors remaining in the combustion
effluent. This resin trap was effective for compounds with molecular
weights of Cy and above. Species of lower molecular weight (C, - Cg)
were trapped using Tedlar sample bags. The acquired samples were
subsequently analyzed for compounds known to exist in the waste
feedstock.
Results showed conclusively that waste destruction efficiencies
were consistently in excess of 99.92 percent. Waste destruction
efficiencies were determined by four methods, each with a separate
means of sampling, analysis, and calculation. Further substantiating
this conclusion is the fact that the incinerator's overall combus-
tion efficiency was consistently 99.96 percent or more (based upon
CO and C0? measurements from the on-line monitoring instruments).
195
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Early in 1977, the U.S. Air Force petitioned EPA to grant a permit
to incinerate approximately 2.3 million gallons of Herbicide Orange
contaminated with an average of 2 ppm dioxin (tetrachlorodibenzdioxide
[TCDD]). The burn zone was in the Pacific Ocean about 950 miles west of
Hawaii.
Testing was initiated in July and successfully concluded in September
1977 (see photo). The sampling and analysis protocol for the Herbicide
Orange incineration program was similar to that described for the Gulf
of Mexico test. Due to the hazardous nature of the waste, pretest
planning was even more detailed and exhaustive. Redundancy was added to
the instrumentation system and provisions were made to monitor realtime
combustion emission data (CO, (X^, ^2' anc' ^C) by using fixed-position
probes on both the port and the starboard incinerators. Simultaneously,
the traversing sample train probe was again used on the starboard
incinerator.
Preliminary results indicated that: (1) overall combustion efficiency
(both incinerators) was consistently 99.99 percent; and (2) destruction
of the contaminant dioxin was in excess of 99.9 percent. The final
report was to be published in December 1977.
Current results are based on data from one incineration ship, the
M/T Vulcanus, burning only liquid waste materials. Future work will be
directed toward sampling and monitoring on board the new Matthias III
incineration ship. The Matthias1 incinerator, of a different design and
configuration than that on the Vulcanus, can handle and incinerate
drummed solid waste as well as liquid. Planning is now in progress to
evaluate the efficiency of this incinerator to burn both types of waste.
Results from these testing programs will be used in the development of
Federal regulations for the control of at-sea incineration.
METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
The ferrous metallurgical industry consists of the iron and steel,
ferroalloy, and iron and steel foundry segments.
196
-------
UD
M/T Vulcanus used for at-sea incineration tests,
-------
Iron and Steel Industry
The iron and steel industry converts iron ore and scrap iron into
useful iron and steel products. (See following illustrations.) At large
integrated steel plants, iron-bearing material (lump iron ore, sinter, or
pellets), limestone, and coke are charged to a blast furnace where the
iron ore is reduced to molten metal which is periodically tapped. The
iron from the blast furnace is saturated with dissolved carbon which must
be removed to change the iron into steel. The iron from the blast furnace,
usually molten, is generally mixed with cold scrap in a steelmaking furnace,
where the carbon is reduced to the required level, impurities are removed,
and alloying agents are added. In the basic oxygen steel process, the
mixture is blown with oxygen to oxidize the carbon and other impurities.
(Other, less important, steelmaking processes are the open-hearth and
electric arc.) The steel from the furnace is cast and solidified. The
ingots are then adjusted to proper and uniform temperature and physically
squeezed into the desired shape in rolling mills. A newer variation of the
process is to cast the steel from the steelmaking furnace continuously,
thereby minimizing both the rolling that is required and the energy required
for reheat.
The process sounds simple, but in reality it is rather complex. There
are many ancillary processes and operations to contend with; e.g., sintering,
coke production, scarfing, and galvanizing.
The iron and steel industry is not limited to large integrated plants;
smaller plants are spread throughout the country. In these miniplants, scrap
steel is melted in electric arc furnaces with little or no refining, then
rolled and formed into simple shapes (e.g., concrete reinforcing rods) to
meet local marketing needs. Other small iron and steel plants melt scrap
in cupolas or electric resistance furnaces. The molten iron and steel at
these foundries is cast (rather than rolled) into desired shapes.
Studies, started in 1968, have shown that effluents from the iron and
steel industry are quite, large and originate from a multiplicity of sources
(see following illustrations).
198
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r
1
-RECOVERED FINES FROM
PARTICULATE CONTROL EQUIPMENT.
MILL SCALE
FINE
SINTER
STRAND
SINTER
»• B. F. GAS
vmt ^
PELLETS ^
ORE
YARD
fl I-C.l-l.tlJj
1 LUMP OREL7
7'
COAL ^
COAL
YARD
COAL
COKING
FACILITY
4:
//
10
CONVENTIONAL
INGOT
CASTING UNIT
TO PRIMARY
BREAKDOWN
TO SINTER
PLANT
BORINGS
AND
TURNINGS
_*__i__
Iron and steel industry unit operations (sheet 1 of 2).
-------
r\>
8
PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
TO BLOOMS
PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
TO BILLETS VIA BLOOMS
PRIMARY BREAKDOWN
TO SLABS
FROM CONTINUOUS
SLAB CASTING
•
FROM INGOT
CASTING
FROM CONTINUOUS
BILLET CASTING
to '
1
i '
„ HOT
-------
Fine Particulates,
Hydro carb.ons,
Carcinogens, CH,
NH3> Smoke
} Fugitive ~]
«_Em_issionsj4 From Individual
processes
ORE YARD
Fine Particulates,
S02, F, Cl,
Volatilized Oil
Fine Particulates,
N2, CO, CO,, H_0,
HCN £ *
SINTER
- Charging
- Leaking door seals
- Pushing
- Quenching
CRUSHER
COKING PLANT
Excess NNU Liquor
light oil recovery
wastes quench water
overflow waste water
coke wharf
n— — — J—. — — _._
lurface runnoff |
, water I"
SLUDGE
' ELECTRIC FURNACE
CONTINUOUS CASTING
BILLET AND SLAB UNIT
1
Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet 1 of 2).
-------
I Participates, Fume I
Grinding
Scarfing
DIRECT SHIPMENTS OF
INGOTS, SLABS,
BILLETS AND BLOOMS
PRIM/
BREAKDOWN
MILL
o
ro
HEAVY STRUCTURALS
MILL
BAR AND ROD
NAIL AND WIRE
PRODUCTS MILL
SEAMLES^PIPE
AND TUBE
COLD FINISHING
BAR MILL
BLOOM
'HOT STRIP
MILL
WELDED PIPE
WELDED PIPE
MILL
INGOT
CASTING
GALVANIZED
PRODUCTS
Contact Cooling
Water
Freeleaning and
Rinse Waters
Solids
Acids
Oils
PLATE MILL
TIN
PLATING
TIN PLATE AND OTHER
COATED PRODUCTS
Discharges from iron and steel industry (sheet 2 of 2).
-------
Since these studies clearly showed that coke production was the
most serious pollution source in the industry, IERL-RTP directed its
initial efforts toward controlling that source. With work underway on
controlling emissions from coke production, IERL-RTP has now expanded its
outlook—initiating projects in other areas of the industry, in addition
to cokemaking.
Since 1975, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories has been involved in the
characterization of emissions from metallurgical processes. This work has
provided support to IERL-RTP in source testing and emission analysis from
a variety of metallurgical processes.
A contract has been negotiated with RTI to provide environmental
assessment and technology evaluation support for basic iron and steel and
ferroalloy processes.
The uses and fate of lubricants, oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids
in the iron and steel industry have been examined by Pacific Environmental
Services, Inc. All uses of these substances are being identified and their
movement through the processes to the environment has been investigated.
Possible methods of controlling discharges into the environment have been
examined.
Under EPA contract, Hydrotechnic Corp. is examining the achievement of
zero water discharge at steel plants. Economic and technical requirements
are being determined.
Specialized environmental assessments have been initiated in the areas
of mining, beneficiation, and pelletizing; cokemaking; sintering; iron-
making; steelmaking; ferroalloys; hot forming and cold finishing; surface
preparation and finishing; fugitive emissions and runoffs; and abnormal
operating conditions. An iron and steel cooperative program, developed
under a U.S./USSR environmental agreement, is focused on making each
participant aware of the other's technological advances in pollution
control. The program has matured to the point that cooperative efforts
will soon be starting.
203
-------
A new contract will study the applicability of foreign pollution
control technology to the control of secondary emissions from steel-
making processes in the U.S. RTI will gather data on systems in Japan
and Western Europe and, for the most promising, examine the engineering
aspects of transferring this technology to U.S. plants.
MINING, BENEFICIATION, AND PELLETIZING
Domestic iron ore production is about 90 million tons per year, of
which about 83 percent is from the Lake Superior region. Minnesota
accounts for 65 percent of the total; Michigan, about 16 percent; and
Wisconsin, 1 percent. The remaining production is from 17 other states.
Production comes from over 50 mines, most of which are of the open-pit
type. Open-pit mines produce approximately 90 percent of the U.S. iron
ore. Principal iron ore minerals are the iron oxides; carbonates and
sulfides are of secondary importance.
Most ores currently recovered are beneficiated to an iron ore con-
centrate, using methods that vary from simple to complex. Most of the
concentrates are pelletized prior to shipment. A typical* though
simplified, flow pattern for a taconite plant is shown below.
A contract was let in July 1975 to Midwest Research Institute for a
project on emissions from the iron ore mining, beneficiation, and
pelletizing industries. Purposes of this project are: (1) to identify
emission sources; (2) to quantify the emissions; (3) to prioritize the
emissions based on their environmental impact; (4) to assess the technology
for controlling the emissions; and (5) to make recommendations for future
RD&D projects to reduce emissions from the most critical sources.
Sampling and analysis planned under this contract have been completed.
The sources for which emissions data was unavailable and which were
consequently tested included a secondary crusher controlled by a baghouse,
a main waste gas stream, and a shovel loading site in an open-pit mine.
A main waste stream was selected in a plant that used heavy oil for
induration because heavy oil and coal will be replacing natural gas in
many of these facilities. The shovel load site was chosen to give some
data on an apparently significant uncontrolled source in the mine.
204
-------
ro
o
en
CRUSHING PLANT
| COARSE ORE BINS
FINE ORE BINS
BLASTING LOADING HAULING
GYRATORY
CRUSHERS
CONE
CRUSHERS
CONCENTRATE THICKENERS
DISC FILTERS
CONCENTRATOR
ADDITIVES
AGGLOMERATING PLANT
BALLING DRUMS
FINISHERitN
MAGNETO**
ROUGHER
MAGNETIC
SEBVRATORS
CLEANER MAGNETIC SEPARATORS
TAILING THICKENERS
RECOVERED
WATER
TO TAILING
DISPOSAL
* AREAS
FURNACES
OR KILNS
HYDRO SEWRATORS
TO STEEL MILLS
Mining, beneflelation, and palletizing.
-------
A fourth source for field testing, an annular cooler, was also
selected. Annular coolers are used only in plants that use grate kilns.
Particulates are emitted in low concentration, but gas flow rates are
large for these coolers. Also, there was reason to believe that autogenous
grinding of pellets could produce particulate emissions of very small
particle size; therefore, this source would be significant from the stand-
points of dispersion and health.
SINTERING
Sinter, in the iron and steel industry, is an iron-bearing material
suitable for charging into a blast furnace. The sintering process combines
natural ores of fine particle size and iron-bearing wastes recovered from
various other steelmaking processes (e.g., flue dust, mill scale, and
settling basin solids) with coke breeze and limestone. Limestone is
added to provide the required flux for the iron-bearing material when
processed in the blast furnace; the coke breeze is used for ignition. The
steel-bearing wastes often contain quantities of lubricants which cause the
emission of hydrocarbons. This raw material is then charged onto pallets,
which retain the material while permitting combustion air to pass through
the bed, igniting the coke breeze and fusing the other material into a
cake. The cake layer is then broken, cooled, classified, and finally
charged to the blast furnace to recover the iron metal.
The combustion gases and excess air handled by the main exhaust fans
as a result of the sintering process force large volumes of air to pass
through the long, moving sinter bed. This exit stream contains particles
and gases of varying chemical composition. First-generation air pollution
abatement equipment in the form of cyclone separators cannot achieve
desired levels of pollutant control. These cyclones remove the large
particles, thus prolonging fan life, but not the fine particles, hydro-
carbons, and gaseous pollutants.
Wide experience in the U.S. indicates that ESPs are not effective in
controlling emissions to meet no-visible-emission standards. The problem
is due both to the hydrocarbon content of the gases, and the high basicity
of the particulate matter which causes increased resistivity. Baghouse
206
-------
tests Indicate that the blinding of bags is a problem due to the moisture/
hydrocarbon/dust mixture found in the exhaust gases. Wet scrubbers, at
present, appear to be most likely to succeed in removing contaminants
including hydrocarbons from the exhaust gases; however, substantial
power is required to get the necessary pressure drop across the scrubber
for these volumes of gases.
A new concept in sintering practice (see following illustration)
recycles gas, after preliminary cleaning and prior to final cleaning, to
the sinter bed. Field testing information and engineering evaluations
indicate that this recycling reduces both the emissions of unoxidized
hydrocarbon particulates and the final gas volume being discharged.
Although the emission reduction may be substantial, it is anticipated
that a low-energy air pollution control system must be used along with
recycling to.remove remaining contaminants, primarily particulates.
A two-phase project was initiated in mid-1973. Phase I consisted
of preparation of the detailed engineering design. This was completed
in 1975: the final report (EPA-600/2-75-014) indicated that 39 percent
is the maximum recycle that can be achieved.
The Phase II contract, for test and evaluation, was awarded in
February 1975; the final report is scheduled for July 1978. The con-
tractor is to perform an optimization of the recycle system, followed by
an extensive emission testing and system evaluation program. Also to be
tested is a large-scale gravel bed filter on the sinter plant exhaust
both with and without recycle.
The recycle system was installed (at the contractor's expense) and
has been operating for 18 months. Sinter machine operation and sinter
quality have shown an improvement as a result of recycle. The optimization
program will continue to investigate recycle rates greater than the
theoretical optimum. Tests to date have shown that recycle as high as
40.7 percent can be achieved without adverse effects on sinter quality
or machine operation.
207
-------
RECYCLE HOOD
00
RECYCLE GAS
CONTROL HOUSE
WASTE GAS
CONTROL HOUSE
Weirton Steel Division sinter plant gas recirculation system.
-------
The gravel bed filter system was placed in operation in February
1976, 1 month ahead of schedule. A number of problems arose with this
first-of-a-kind installation, delaying the start of the emissions testing
program. Several problems associated with mechanical deficiencies (e.g.,
poorly designed backflush valve guides which resulted in insufficient
cleaning of the filter beds, and inadequate filter media support screens
which led to screen failures and loss of media) have been effectively
resolved. One major problem was the growth in the physical size of the
original filter media (natural garnet) due to accretion of the particulate
in the gas. After this phenomenon became apparent, alternative media
materials were evaluated. It was found that steel grit does not "grow."
All filter beds were changed over to steel grit during the fall of 1976;
the filter system was restored to operation on December 1, 1976, and after
several months of operation, there did not appear to be any increase in media
size. More recent problems are related to plugging of the bed due to
condensation that occurs during start-up. Lime dust carries over to the
bed and cements the media together on exposure to condensation. One
potential solution to this problem, preheating the bed, is being in-
vestigated.
Preliminary tests by the contractor have revealed that the design outlet
concentration is not being met. Recycle of the backflush gases to the bed
has caused buildup of fine particles in the control device. The possibility
of blowdown to a fabric filter during the backflush operations is being
investigated also.
COKEMAKING AND BLAST FURNACES
Control of emissions in cokemaking is a major IERL-RTP contribution to
the iron and steel industry. Cokemaking produces the most air pollution
in the industry, itself one of the major air polluting industries. Topside
coke oven workers have a substantially higher risk of lung cancer than the
average worker, probably from carcinogenic materials associated with the
particulate fraction.
Enclosed Coke Pushing and Quenching
IERL-RTP and the National Steel Corporation are funding a demonstration
of the enclosed coke pushing and quenching system on National's new Weirton
209
-------
Steel Division Brown's Island coke plant. The conventional coke pushing
and quenching system, used throughout the industry, involves pushing the
incandescent coke from the sealed coking oven through a guide into an
open, shallow-bed car for transport to a batch-type quenching station.
Substantial emissions of smoke and particulate are discharged into the
atmosphere throughout this operation. This situation is aggravated if
the push contains incompletely carbonized coke. At the quench station,
large quantities of water are poured into the bed of hot coke. The
instantaneous formation of steam results in the discharge of large
quantities of entrained particulates to the atmosphere.
In the enclosed coke pushing and quenching system (shown below),
the coke is completely enclosed from the moment it leaves the oven until
after it is quenched. Emissions evolved during the push and transfer to
the quench station are drawn off and removed by means of a high-energy
scrubber on the gas cleaning car. Emissions evolved from the hot coke
in the underground track hoppers are also controlled by a high-energy
scrubber. The relatively low-volume continuous steam plume generated
during the continuous quenching operation is contained by hoods and
controlled by a vapor suppressor in the stack.
COKE
HANDLES'
EMERGENCY
COKE QUENCH
SYSTEM AND
WHARF
COKE
GUIDE
GAS HOOD
CLEANING \ DOOR
CAR v \MACHINE
HOT COKE
TRANSFER
CAR
TRACK HOPPER
FU1E EXHAUST
AND,GAS
CLEANING SYSTEM
SPRAY WATER
AND STEAM
EXHAUST SYSTEM
TRACK HOPPER
FUME EXHAUST
AND GAS
CLEANING SYSTEM
COKE
HANDLING
EMERGENCY
COKE DUMP
PIT
TRACK-
RECEIVING
HOPPERS
Enclosed coke pushing and quenching system.
210
-------
Current information indicates that this system will apply to nearly
all new coke batteries. This is particularly significant because at
least half of the existing coke batteries are at least 20 years old.
Based on an average life of 30 years, nearly half of the 250 existing
batteries will have to be replaced in the next 10 years. Since continuous
cokemaking processes may not be available until the end of that period,
most new batteries will be conventional slot ovens with useful lives
extending well into the next century. Demonstration of this system will
provide proven emission control technology which can be integrated into
the initial plant design.
It is estimated that the system being installed to serve the single
87-oven Brown's Island battery will cost $4 million over and above the
cost of a standard pushing and quenching system. Expansion to serve a
second battery will cost another $1.8 million (1972 dollars).
Start-up, originally targeted for December 1972, was delayed 6
months due to an explosion in the battery basement. Start-up actually
occurred in May 1973.
Excessive wear in sludge pumps and in quenching units took some
time to be resolved. Thermal effects on track hopper gates and roofs
were also difficult to obviate.
Extensive modifications to the track hopper gates and roofs, to the
coke feeders and quench units, and to the hopper fume pollution control
system are complete. Ambient air was measured to develop data on back-
ground pollution levels prior to restart of battery.
The Phase 2 effort consists of long-term emission testing and a
system evaluation program to establish: the system's emission control
potential, system operability, reliability, and maintainability; and the
system's operating cost. This is accomplished by:
0 Extensive tests across the various control devices to determine
both the quantity of emissions generated and the efficiency of the control
devices.
Maintaining complete records of coke production, maintenance per-
formed, malfunctions, and utility requirements.
211
-------
0 Continuously monitored ambient air concentrations of particulate
at various locations around the coke plant.
0 Extensive measurements of water quality to identify water
pollutants in the effluents, as well as the potential air pollutants (if
water was used to quench coke).
Phase 2 testing has been delayed due to equipment problems, particularly
in the enclosed quenching system. To obtain data, at least on the pushing
control system, the possibility of an alternate quenching practice is being
examined.
Koppers/Ford Coke Oven Smoke Emission Abatement System
IERL-RTP contracted with the Ford Motor Company to test and evaluate
the pushing emission control system developed by Koppers Company and in-
stalled on the "A" battery of Ford's River Rouge plant, Dearborn, Michigan.
Principal features of the system are a fume-collecting hood, a fume main, a
venturi scrubber, and a modified quench car with a synchronization system
for coordinating the quench car's movement with that of the pusher (see
diagram below).
Since the control system apparently will fit most, if not all, existing
coke batteries, demonstration of the Koppers/Ford system will make available
to the industry a relatively low-cost device capable of significantly
reducing coke oven pushing emissions. The greatest application of this
type of system will be on older existing coke batteries as an interim
solution until the batteries can be replaced (average battery life is 30
years) and a more complete control system can be Installed.
The test and evaluation portion of the study included examination of
operating and maintenance records, long-term observation, determination
of system capture efficiency, and source testing for a number of pollutants
both before and after the venturi scrubbing of the captured effluent. Data
on capital and operating costs were developed, as well as data on utility
and labor requirements, system reliability, and control effectiveness. The
final report has been published (EPA-600/2-77-187a). The design manual was
published in September 1974 (EPA-650/2-74-076).
212
-------
ro
DOORS
DOOR
LEVERS
BUTTERFLY VALVE
'FOR SUCTION
RELIEF
FUME MAIN
RAIL
^~r •*
SEAL PLAT
,HOOD»GUIDE VENTURI
PROPULSION scRUBBE
'UNIT
COKE GUIDE
FUME HOOD
CYCLONE
**SEPARATOR
LOCOMOTIVE
BAFFLE I
QUENCH CAR |
-.TRAVEL-^
QUENCH TRACK
SILENCER-i i
FLOODED
ELBOW
FAN LOUVERS
WATER RECIRCULATING
PUMPS RECIRCULATING
WATER TANK
Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission abatement system.
-------
Coke Quench Tower Emissions
In November 1976, preliminary tests showed that the quench tower is
a source of organic air pollutant emissions. York Research Corp. has
begun work on a follow-on study to verify and quantify organic emissions
from the quench towers at the Uni-ted States Steel plant in Lorain, Ohio.
Measurements will be made in two operating modes. Comparisons of
emissions will be made between quenching with river (service) water and
coke plant wastewater. Effects of quench tower baffling will also be
studied.
Coke Oven Door Leakage and Seals
Gases, particulates, and condensible organic materials being emitted
from ineffective coke oven door seals are suspected of containing a number
of toxic substances. Since these emissions have not been sufficiently
quantified or analyzed, it is the purpose of this task to do so. The
results of the study will be used to set future program priorities.
The sampling method being used was developed under contract with
Battelle-Columbus Laboratories. During early trial runs, the system for
capturing emissions worked well, except that the hood and door temperatures
rose sufficiently to cause excessive door leakage, making the test non-
representative. Detailed thermal analyses were performed on the coke oven
door and sampling apparatus; hood modifications solved the temperature
problem. Samples taken included coke and coal, gaseous, particulate, and
condensible organic samples. Analyses performed included GC-MS, Spark
Source Mass Spectrometry (MS), High Resolution MS, and toxicology
studies.
Significant emissions were found of several organic compounds which
are known carcinogens:
0 Benzopyrenes.
0 Dibenzoanthracene.
0 Benzophenanthrene.
0 Benzoanthracenes.
0 Benzofluoranthenes.
0 Indenopyrene.
214
-------
All the samples were found to be mutagenic. The final report was
published in December 1977 (EPA-600/2-77-213).
The leakage of gases and organic volatiles from coke oven end
closures is a major pollution problem in the iron and steel industry.
The problem can be partially solved by good operating practices and
maintenance. However, completely solving the leakage problem will require
significant advancement in the state-of-the-art of coke oven end closure.
To this end, a program has been undertaken by IERL-RTP, cofunded on a 50-
50 basis with the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The first
phase of the program, started in June 1974, was completed in 1976. The
study by Battelle-Columbus Laboratories was desired to define the causes of
the leakage, identify operating conditions which must be tolerated by the
sealing material, investigate other work being done in this area, and
conceptualize improved methods to eliminate coke oven door leakage. Of
the 45 sealing concepts evaluated during Phase I, two were selected (one
as an alternative) for further development and demonstration. The primary
concept is of the metal-to-metal type; the alternative, the compressible,
elastomer type.
The Phase II contract was signed in August 1976. This phase is
developing, fabricating, and testing selected sealing concepts. This
includes:
0 Mathematical modeling and analysis of coke oven sealing systems.
0 Physical modeling and laboratory experimentation.
0 Field data collection.
0 Analysis, evaluation, and recommendations.
0 Full-scale unit design and component testing.
0 Fabrication and installation.
0 Planning and completion of field evaluation.
0 Analysis and preparation of manuals and final report.
Major data gathering has been completed. Data are providing the input
to the analyses and evaluation leading ultimately to full-scale design
recommendations. . _
215
-------
Guidelines for Coke Oven Pollution Control Applicability
To encourage industry application of EPA-demonstrated coke oven air
pollution control technology, there is a strong need for a set of guide-
lines showing specifically how the technology can be applied to each
type of U.S. coke battery. Each of the demonstrated systems was designed
specifically for the host coke battery; two of these—the EPA/AISI
smokeless coke oven charging and the Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission
abatement—were retrofits to existing batteries. The control technology
demonstrations were designed and operated to co-exist with existing
features and operating techniques of the host battery. Minor battery
modifications were required in some cases. Although basic features must
be adhered to in applying the technology, a number of available design,
construction, and operating options can be used to meet the requirements
set by the battery features. Likewise, a number of battery specifications
must be met, if only by battery modification, to accommodate the control
technology.
In addition to EPA-demonstrated projects, the sequential charging
technique called "staged charging," first disclosed in 1961 by M.R.
Meades and G.E.C. Randall of the United Kingdom, was recently perfected
by the private sector and applied to existing batteries. This technique
involves some physical alterations to the charging components, but
depends mainly on the precise manual execution of specific procedures
for good pollution control. On the other hand, the EPA/AISI smokeless
coke oven charging system, also a sequential charging technique but of a
different type, has the demonstrated potential advantage of a fully
automated system in achieving repeatability of operation. A system
which adapts the automated methods of the EPA/AISI system to the require-
ments of staged charging would be expected to perform, on a repeatable
basis, better than either of the two basic approaches. Therefore, even
though staged charging was not demonstrated by EPA, its apparent compatibility
with one of the demonstrated EPA systems makes it a worthy candidate for
an applications study.
216
-------
Such a study would define both the salient features of demonstrated
control technology and U.S. coke batteries and show how the control
technology can be meshed with the batteries in the most technically
feasible and economical way.
Accordingly, the project, started in July 1976 and completed in
September 1977, developed guidelines for application of demonstrated
coke battery air pollution control technology to existing and new coke
batteries. Specific control technologies examined include the EPA/AISI
smokeless coke oven charging system, the enclosed coke pushing and
quenching system, the Koppers/Ford coke oven smoke emission abatement
system, and staged charging (industrial development). The guidelines
examined characteristics of the control system that are important in
design, construction, and operation, and relate these characteristics to
application of the control systems to U.S. coke batteries based on
examination of their characteristics and requirements. The final report
will be used by coke producers in planning the application of the
control technology and by regulatory officials in specifying air pollution
control strategies and enforcement actions.
By-product Recovery Plant Assessment
This is the first process to be studied under a contract with RTI
for environmental assessment and technology evaluation support in the
basic iron and steel and ferroalloy industries. The purpose of this
program is to develop new and/or missing data on pollutant discharges
from the selected processes. Collection of the above data, when combined
with existing data, will permit a complete assessment of the environmental
acceptability of the process.
Criteria used to select sampling areas include estimated relative
severity of the emission source, whether it has been sampled previously
(i.e., state of knowledge), and whether other current contracts require
sampling in this area. Areas identified for sampling in the by-product
area are:
0 Flushing liquor decanter.
0 Final cooler cooling tower.
0 Ambient air samples.
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0 Fugitive emissions from napthalene sumps, tanks, vents, and
sewer vents.
Blast Furnace Cast House Emission Control
There is a need to develop technology for controlling emissions
from blast furnace cast houses. The cast house is the semi-enclosed
area around the blast furnace base containing the furnace tapping equip-
ment and molten pig iron (hot metal) and slag distribution systems. The
hot metal, the principal emission source, is saturated with carbon as it
exits the furnace. Rejection of the graphite, in the form of flakes,
begins as soon as the hot metal starts to cool. Thermal air currents
sweep the flakes into the air. Additionally, particles of iron oxide
are formed and carried away simultaneously.
In 1977, a study was completed by Betz Environmental Engineers for
preliminary designs of cast house emission control schemes: first,
tailored to existing cast houses, as defined by model cast houses which
encompass the existing population; and second, as an integral feature of
a new installation. Each cast house/control system combination was
analyzed in detail to establish the emission control potential, capital
and operating costs, impact on current operating practices, potential
risks involved, and follow-on development needs (EPA-600/2-77-231).
Existing cast houses were separated into classes defined by the
major factors influencing selection of a control scheme. For cast
houses yet to be designed, suggestions are put forth for optimizing the
integration of cast house emission control. For both retrofit and new
classes, technology gaps are identified and the nature and scope of
suitable development programs to fill these gaps are proposed. The
project report was issued in December 1977 (EPA-600/2-77-231).
Portable Wastewater Treatment System
By 1983, steel companies will be required to meet BATEA effluent
limitation guidelines for coke by-products and blast furnace categories.
The principal objective of this project is to develop engineering and
economic data on wastewater treatment systems to meet the 1983 BATEA
guidelines. Through the use of a movable wastewater treatment system
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(pilot plant) the effectiveness of various combinations of technologies
capable of meeting the BATEA guidelines can be investigated. In order
for the portable test unit to have major value, the work must proceed at
several representative plant sites with different operating parameters.
If the economic and engineering data are taken over a range of important
variables, it will be possible to prepare base line information for the
optimum design of wastewater systems.
STEELMAKING
Basic Oxygen Process Charging Emission Control
The rate of growth of the basic oxygen process for steelmaking has
been phenomenal. In a relatively short time, it has become the dominant
steelmaking process in the U.S. iron and steel industry.
The basic operations involved in producing steel by the BOP are
charging scrap, charging hot metal, oxygen blow, and tapping.
The emissions evolved during charging of the BOP furnace include
extremely fine particles of iron oxide, hydrocarbons present on the
cold metal portion of the charge, graphite particles, and volatile
materials that may be present on the cold metal. These could include
potentially hazardous emissions of elements such as cadmium, which is
often present as metal plating.
lERL-RTP's approach to solving this problem was first to construct
the 1 ton capacity pilot vessel facility (shown below) to be used as the
vehicle for evaluating a wide range of methods to control charging
emissions.
Accordingly, a contract was signed in mid-1973 with the National
Steel Corporation: to review past efforts to control BOP charging
emissions; to characterize operation, emissions, and BOP vessel and shop
configurations; to project future construction trends; to define charging
control concepts; and (from them) to develop technology for controlling
the particulates, gases, and fumes emitted during charging of BOP steel-
making vessels. This development program concentrated on process
modifications that will allow the emissions to be collected. Con-
sideration was also given to suppression of the emissions within the vessel
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Basic oxygen process 1 ton capacity pilot vessel
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Specifications and conceptual designs were developed for prototype
emission collection systems. Additional specifications were developed
for a gas cleaning system to be added to the prototype collection system.
The development program is structured so that the results will be
applicable to the total industry. The final report was completed in
1977 (EPA-600/2-77-218J.
Applicability of Foreign Pollution Control Technology
The primary emission sources in steelmaking have received much
attention and, for the most part, are progressing toward controlled status
with available technology. In contrast, many of the secondary emission
sources in the domestic industry are uncontrolled, and progress toward
controlled status depends on identification and demonstration of adequate
control technology. Specifically, control of emissions from charging,
tapping, and handling of hot and cold metals for the various steelmaking
operations and their ancillary processes within the shop is addressed in
this project. The basic oxygen process is being given most emphasis.
The objectives of the project are to: identify foreign control
technologies, if any, superior to those in use in the domestic industry,
obtain data with respect to their performance and engineering design,
and show through engineering studies that they are adaptable to domestic
plants. It is anticipated that results of such a study will be useful to
regulatory and enforcement activities at all governmental levels, and to
the domestic industry as well, in keeping abreast of development in the
state-of-the-art of pollution control from iron and steel plants. The
contract is being undertaken by RTI.
FORMING AND FINISHING
Closed System for Haste Pickle Liquors
As a result of hot-forming operations, a black oxide scale forms on
the surface of the steel. This scale must be removed before the finishing
steps. Pickling is normally used to remove the scale.
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Steel is pickled by immersing it in acid baths (usually hydrochloric
or sulfuric acid) and then rinsing it with water to remove the excess
acid. The content of metal salts in the bath increases to the extent
that the acid must be replenished. Waste streams from the process include
the acid waste (pickle liquor) and the acidic rinse water. These wastes
can present considerable environmental problems.
In 1974, a 3 year grant was awarded to Crown Chemical for the
development of a bench-scale closed-loop recycle system for waste sulfuric
acid pickle liquor. The process, designed to eliminate all discharges
from the pickling process, uses a continuous countercurrent ion exchange
contactor for iron recovery from a ferrous sulfate feed, nitric acid
stripping, air oxidation, and a hydrolyzer.
The final report for this study has been published (EPA-600/2-77-
127). It describes the equipment used in the system to convert ferrous
sulfate-heptahydrate to ferric oxide and also to recover sulfate as
sulfuric acid in a totally closed loop.
Countercurrent Halogen Tinplate Rinsing System
In February 1973, a study of countercurrent rinsing on a high-speed
halogen tinplating line was funded. The final report was completed in
September 1977 (EPA-600/2-77-191).
Countercurrent rinsing, as applied to high-speed strip plating lines,
involves the use of a compartmentized rinse tank. The objective of using
this rinse method is to reduce the amount of water required so as to
have a volume of liquid more easily handled to recover the chemicals.
.The report covers the first use of this type of rinsing on a high-
speed plating line. The first unknown studied was the operating
performance of the multistage rinse system to determine whether or not
the basic principles of countercurrent rinsing would hold for high-speed
strip plating. Secondly, the best manner for recovering the chemicals in
the concentrated stream from this rinse system had to be determined.
No design problems were encountered mechanically in the four-stage
rinse unit. Equivalent or improved rinsing of the strip resulted from
using the new system. No problems with sludge buildup were encountered.
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Problems resulted due to buildup of chlorides in the main electrolyte
upon recycle of the concentrated rinse stream containing the recovered
dragout. Solutions for this problem are being investigated to enable
recycle of the rinse water back to the main plating system. An alternative
method for recovering the chemical values of the recovered dragout is
also a definite possibility.
MISCELLANEOUS
Zero Water Discharge
EPA's 1985 goal of zero water discharge is particularly applicable
to the steel industry, where additional pollutant sources and pollutants
are being discovered and where an integrated water recycle system would
be the most cost-effective control approach. An engineering study with
Hydrotechnic Corp. is examining the feasibility of a total recycle
system for five operating steel plants and is providing preliminary
information (drawings, cost estimates, schedules) for a possible actual
demonstration of a total recycle system at these plants.
Even if the total water recycle plant is not demonstrated, the
engineering study will provide important information to support EPA in
implementing the BAT guidelines for 1983. The study will provide data
to show where the guidelines could be improved, through increased use of
water recycling systems with little or no additional costs, and will
point out R&D needs to move closer to a zero-discharge steel plant.
Fugitive Discharges
During the past several years, it has become increasingly obvious
that significant amounts of particulate and gaseous emissions are being
emitted to the atmosphere from sources other than the stacks in a number
of industrial operations. An investigation performed by The Research
Corporation (TRC) for EPA developed generalized sampling techniques for
fugitive emissions. A study by Midwest Research Institute, using some
of the developed sampling techniques, evaluated fugitive emissions. The
purposes of the Midwest.Research Institute study are: (1) to characterize
fugitive emission sources in integrated iron and steel plants; (2) to
prioritize these emissions; (3) to determine the impact of these emissions;
and (4) to make recommendations for future research development, and/or
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demonstration projects to aid in reducing fugitive emissions from the
most critical sources. A final report will be published in early 1978.
Surface Runoff
Surface runoff from steel mills has become of increasing concern
due to an awareness that runoff can have a potentially serious environ-
mental effect. A contract with TRC is evaluating sources of surface
runoff in the iron and steel industry, assessing the overall problem of
runoff, determining the contribution of individual sources to the overall
problem, and determining control technology needs. The final report is
in preparation.
Uses and Fates of Lubricants, Oils, Greases, and Hydraulic Fluids
The iron and steel industry uses a variety of lubricants, oils,
greases, and hydraulic fluids in its day-to-day operations. These
materials have been identified and quantified by Pacific Environmental
Service, Inc. The use of each has been identified. The fate of each
has been determined; i.e., how and in what form each leaves the process.
An environmental assessment and material balance for the industry have
been made for all lubricants, oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids used
in the steelmaking. A draft report has been prepared.
Abnormal Operating Conditions
Operational "upsets" are frequent causes of violation of air and
water pollution standards. To supplement and support efforts being made
to minimize the adverse effects of upsets, there is a need for information
concerning malfunctions and their identity, cause, resulting discharges,
prevention, and minimization. A contract was awarded to RTI in 1976 to
study this problem.
Under this contract, abnormal operations in sintering, blast furnace
ironmaking, and in open hearth, basic oxygen, and electric furnace
steelmaking have been studied. Projects will include:
0 A description of abnormal conditions, their cause, their adverse
effect on pollutant discharges, and the total environmental problems
that they represent.
0 An evaluation of the state-of-the-art for preventing and con-
trolling abnormal operations.
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0 Prioritized lists of technology development needs to increase
the capability to control pollutants during periods of abnormal
operations.
0 Manuals of practice to eliminate or reduce discharge from abnormal
operations and conditions. Preparation of the process manuals and a
final report are underway.
Small Research Grant Projects
A number of small research grants have been undertaken to allow the
expertise of several universities to be applied to some of the longer-
term problems of both EPA and the industry. Some of these research
grants are being cofunded with the AISI.
Included among the research grants is a project to develop a con-
tinuous bioreactor for regeneration of activated carbon, which has been
used as a final polishing treatment for iron cyanide complexes, as a
first step toward controlling these pollutants. Currently the concern
is to regulate the discharge of free cyanides, which are more easily
controlled. A last wastewater treatment research grant concerns "the
influence of metallurgical and operating variables on scaling and
corrosion water reuse, recycling, and treatment systems in integrated
steel plants.
The remaining research grants are air-related. Two concern the
control of hydrocarbons from sinter plants and low concentration
discharges from various projects. The final project is to develop
reaction kinetics for the evolution of sulfur-bearing gases from blast
furnace slags.
Iron and Steel Foundry Process
This is the second process to be studied under the contract with
RTI for environmental assessment and technology evaluation support in
the basic iron and steel and ferroalloy industries. The purpose of this
program is to develop new and/or missing data about pollutant remissions
from the selected processes. Collection of the above data, when combined
with existing data, will permit a complete assessment of the environmental
acceptability of the process.
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The criteria used to select sampling areas include estimated
relative severity of the emission source, whether it has been sampled
previously (i.e., state of knowledge), and whether other current
contracts require sampling in this area. Areas identified for sampling
in foundries are pouring and shakeout. Sample analysis techniques used,
in general, will be Level 1.
Decomposition products of mold and core materials are being identified.
The toxicity of the products is also being examined.
Ferroalloy Production
The ferroalloy industry's principal source of emissions is the
submerged arc electric furnace. (See ferroalloy production process
diagram, following.) In this furnace, ferroalloys are usually smelted by
reducing the ore with carbon, producing both the desired metal lies and
substantial quantities of GO (in some cases, more CO is produced than
metal!ics). Gases evolved from ferroalloy furnaces entrain large
quantities of particulates which, because of the high temperatures
involved in the reaction zone, are primarily in the submicron size
range. Domestic ferroalloy furnace practice has been to leave the
furnace top open, thus allowing the CO to mix with large volumes of air
and burn above the furnace. This mixture is then collected and treated
with conventional particulate control equipment before being vented to
the atmosphere.
Some newer furnaces in Europe and Japan are hooded tightly so that
excess air is not entrained in the furnace off-gas and combustion does
not take place above the furance. When such a system (known as a totally
enclosed furnace) is used, the volume of gas is decreased by 20 to 200
times, since excess air is not entrained. This decreased quantity of
emissions can be cleaned to the same level as emissions from an open
furnace; therefore, total particulate emitted is decreased by approximately
the same factor of 20 to 200. Additionally this gas, which is no longer
burned over the furnace, can then be used after cleaning as a low-Btu
fuel.
U.S. ferroalloy producers hesitate to install totally enclosed
furnaces (diagram follows), feeling that they may reduce the ability to
change from one ferroalloy product to another. (The standard of per-
formance reflects this industry position.) Under contract to IERL-RTP,
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-RAW MATERIALS HANDLING, PREPARATION, AND CHARGING
ro
ro
MELTING AND CASTING
FUGITIVE EMISSIONS^
PARTICULATES
— OFF-GASES
n n n
L_JLJ 1
ORE STORAGE
I
CRUSHING WEIGH-FEEDING
SCREENING I
PRODUCT SIZING AND HANDLING
I
I
I
SURFACE WATER
RUNOFF
Ferroalloy production process.
-------
INDUCED . |
AIR S
FEED
TAP ^
HOLE \
ELECTRODES
rci
GAS OFFTAKE
FURNACE
INDUCED
AIR
Open-hooded ferroalloy furnace.
FIXED
SEALS
COVER
TAP
HOLE
ELECTRODES
,<>
MIX
JMIX
GAST)FFTAKE
FURNACE
Enclosed ferroalloy furnace with fixed seals.
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Battelle-Columbus Laboratories published a report, "Study of Ferroalloy
Product Flexibility" (EPA-650/2-75-063) in 1975 that essentially
supported the industry's arguments. Battelle concluded, in general,
that: (1) totally enclosed furnaces are not as flexible as open furnaces
of the same size; (2) large furnaces are less flexible than smaller ones;
(3) research should be undertaken to investigate approaches to smooth
out furnace operation (such as the substitution of iron ore pellets for
ferrous scrap), thereby improving flexibility; and (4) EPA should under-
take an investigation of the overall pollution problems (including air,
water, and solid wastes) associated with ferroalloy production.
A number of ferroalloy furnace particulate emission samples were
obtained from EPA's OAQPS for detailed analysis. These samples had been
taken in conjunction with the development of NSPS for ferroalloy furnaces.
However, they were never analyzed for specific organic constituents or
trace metals. Subsequent tests performed by Battell e-Columbus Laboratories
identified extremely high concentrations of POM in samples from totally
enclosed ferromanganese furnaces. Since the samples had been in storage
over a year before analysis and the exact history of the samples is now
known, they are being tested and analyzed further to confirm the pre-
liminary results.
Depending on the outcome of the tests and how thoroughly the POMs
are destroyed by flaring and by conventional wastewater treatment, a
decision will be made as to the priority to be given to this problem in
future programs.
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PROCESS MEASUREMENTS
The major areas of activity in lERL-RTP's Process Measurements
Branch are directed toward development of methods for control equipment
evaluation, development of procedures for environmental assessment
programs, and quality assurance.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT EVALUATION
Sampling and analytical methods for control equipment evaluation
are characterized by the need for accurate measurement of specific
emissions and operating parameters. Basic measurement technologies are
generally investigated first, followed by a continuing program to adapt
selected techniques to specific program requirements. Major activities
include particulate measurement, and chemical sampling and analysis.
Particulate Measurement
Beginning with efforts that led to the EPA method 5 mass sampling
train in the mid-1960s, the PMB has been involved in developing the
particulate mass measurement techniques required by control equipment
engineers to evaluate particulate abatement systems. High-volume mass
measurement equipment has been developed to obtain accurate samples from
high-efficiency control devices in a reasonable and cost-effective
period. Instrumental methods, including optical transmission, charge
transfer, and beta gauging, have been tested for use as continuous
monitors for specific processes.
PMB initiated activities in 1972 to develop and apply particle
sizing techniques, recognizing that the fractional efficiency of
particulate control devices may be very important from a biological
standpoint. In situ sizing was established as the only reliable technique
due to serious problems with loss of particles in probes and changes in
sample integrity. An intensive method evaluation program was initiated,
and manual sizing based on inertia! fractionation has been developed
into a useful tool.
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Detailed examination of problems identified during extensive
testing and use of cascade impactors has established acceptable materials
for collection substrates, determined the effects of sampling charged
particles, and investigated the theoretical effect of non-ideal behavior
of particles, within these units. A computer program to standardize the
analysis and reporting of results from cascade impactor data has been
developed.
Efforts have continued on the development of cyclones for inertia!
sizing of particulate. The three-stage, 140 £/min cyclones, developed
for obtaining gram quantities of sized material for chemical and bio-
logical testing, have been used successfully by a number of organizations.
A five-stage, 25 £/min analytical cyclone system (with cut points of
0.3, 0.6, 1.4, 2.1, and 5.4 ym) has been constructed and is undergoing
field test.
Work was initiated to design and test a 140 &/min ESP to replace
the conventional filter in the high-volume sampling train. This approach
can potentially solve existing problems with high filter pressure drop
and gas/solid reactions. Collection efficiency of the device has been
established in laboratory tests. Further evaluation of potential sample
recovery problems will be completed during the coming year.
High-temperature/High-pressure Sampling and Measurement
The initial efforts by PMB to develop measurement techniques for
HTP gas streams were in support of the dry limestone S02 control process
in the late 1960s. Specially designed water-cooled, gas-moderated
probes were used to extract samples from the firebox to determine the
reaction chemistry of the process. During the same period, a holo-
graphic system was used on a large operating boiler to determine the
distribution of the limestone cloud in the boiler.
During 1972, projects were initiated on probe sampling of flames
for major chemical species and on holographic interferometry for determining
turbulence and temperature profiles in the flame zone. In 1973, development
of a laser velocimeter for particle velocities in flames was undertaken.
A contract effort was started recently-to develop ill situ techniques for
flame composition.
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A major achievement during the past year has been demonstration of
the capability to make useful measurements in a high-temperature
pressurized process. The capability was demonstrated on the fluidized-
bed miniplant where sampling conditions were 738°C (1360°F) and 9
atmospheres. Particle size distribution was measured using a conventional
cascade impactor with good results. Because of material considerations,
the impactor was operated at 204°C (400°F) and 9 atmospheres which led
to the possibility of condensibles biasing the size data. A second series
of tests, using a cyclone and filter operated at process conditions
followed by a second filter operating at reduced temperature and pressure,
was undertaken to evaluate the condensible fraction of the gases.
Results from these studies indicated that particulate size and mass
can be measured in HTP streams. However, each sampling system requires
custom design, and costs are estimated to be in the range of $50,000 to
$200,000 per system.
Two projects were started this year to develop coherent anti-Stokes
Raman spectroscopy (CARS) as a temperature measuring technique for flames,
and utilization of laser-induced saturation spectroscopy to measure con-
centrations of CH and CN in flames. A computer simulation of the CARS
spectra has shown good agreement with the experimental data. Temperature
resolution on the order of 50°K is expected. Current work involves
measurements in sooting flames and experiments aimed at improving the
spatial resolution.
Inorganic Sampling and Analysis
lERL-RTP's PMB has been involved in the sampling and analysis of in-
organic species since 1967. The early program focused on manual methods
for the analysis of S02> S03, HF, and NO emission from stationary sources.
In 1968, the scope of the inorganic sampling and analytical efforts was
expanded to include process measurements to support the development and
engineering evaluation of limestone injection and wet limestone flue gas
desulfurization programs. Process measurements which were evaluated and
implemented included S02, S03, Ca, Mg, SO^, and SO^ analysis in scrubber
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process liquor streams, effluent gas from the scrubber, and inlet gas to
the scrubber. A program to monitor trace inorganic elements was initiated
to evaluate the effects of selected elements on scrubber chemistry; e.g.,
oxidation of sulfite to sulfate. This program was expanded to develop
and promulgate sampling and analytical systems for a broad range of in-
organic elements in a variety of process streams which include liquids,
slurries, solids, particulate matter, and gases.
In response to the need for more accurate sulfate and sulfuric acid
mist measurements, previous studies of methods were reviewed and the
controlled condensation method of Goksoyr-Ross was further evaluated.
After investigation of the critical parameters, a field package of the
system was constructed and successfully tested.
A method has been developed for measuring total inorganic sulfur in
coal, involving low-temperature plasma ashing of the whole coal sample.
Comparative studies show that the procedure is significantly more precise
than existing procedures. A direct measurement procedure for organic
sulfur, based on collection of the gases evolved during low-temperature
plasma ashing, is being developed to provide a complete analysis scheme
for the sulfur forms in coal.
Ion chromatography analysis techniques for sulfate, sulfite, nitrate,
chloride, and fluoride in scrubber liquors have been developed, and x-ray
fluorescence procedures for sulfur in fuel oil and vanadium on filter mats
have been tested in response to specific program needs.
Organic Measurements
Organic materials emitted to the environment have received increasing
attention, especially in the last several years. Past programs concentrated
on measurements of specific compounds, such as the carcinogenic polycyclic
hydrocarbons. In the past year, the emphasis of development programs has
shifted to less specific, less quantitative, but much more comprehensive
survey techniques. The survey methods have many applications, but are
being developed primarily for application to environmental assessment
programs being carried out by lERL-RTP's engineering branches. Survey
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methods for a wide range of organics have been evaluated, and a cost-
effective system developed.
Most of the organic species in gaseous emission streams from sources
are in the vapor phase, especially when present at low concentrations.
In the last few years, methodology has been developed for collecting
these vapors on macroreticular resins described generally as solid
sorbents. A cartridge.containing this type of resin has been in-
corporated in the new SASS train. The resin currently used is XAD-2, a
cross-linked styrene polymer. Laboratory studies are in progress to
describe quantitatively the collection efficiency of the XAD-2 resin.
The study includes a determination of the dependence of collection
efficiency on such variables as compound (hydrocarbons, phenols, amines,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.), temperature, humidity, and velocity. In
addition, parallel studies are being conducted on Tenax-GC, another
widely used solid sorbent.
Studies have shown that PCB emissions from combustion sources, such
as incinerators, do not retain the same individual isomer abundance as
the original PCB. Since pattern recognition gas chromatography/electron
capture detection (GC/ECD) methods are not applicable for these sources,
a need was indicated for an improved specific analytical method. Such a
method has been developed, based on GC/MS. The method is based on the
unique mass spectroscopic properties due to the chlorine isotope patterns.
Studies of high resolution mass spectrometry have been directed at
improving the utility of the technique for analyzing complex mixtures
prior to separation. If a simple reliable way can be found to describe
the composition of environmental samples early in the analytical scheme,
decisions can be made concerning the need for further, more detailed
analysis and for the specific types of analyses to be conducted. Two
basic approaches are currently being investigated: one involves a
matrix presentation of data; the other, a file search-and-match
method. Outputs from the matrix method are organized in terms of
elemental composition data, and the compound class types are represented
by the rings plus doublebonds (R+DB) values.
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Final draft has been completed of a "Technical Manual for Analysis
of Fuels," for publication early in 1978. This report describes
established methods for routine analysis and incorporates the results of
round-robin testing of several techniques. State-of-the-art methods for
comprehensive characterization of fuels are being evaluated for separate
publication.
Process Control Automation
Automation of process control has reached such a level of develop-
ment that it is being widely used to improve process operations in m?ny
industries. Many environmental emission control processes should also
benefit from on-line process control. As an initial effort in this
area, an inhouse particulate aerodynamic test facility was linked to a
minicomputer to control the velocity, temperature, and humidity of the
circulating gases. It is anticipated that a significant increase in
this area will be undertaken in 1978.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT TESTING STRATEGIES
A major effort has been initiated by the IERL-RTP to provide a
comprehensive data base on emissions from industrial and energy processes.
To implement the field work necessary for these studies, lERL-RTP's PMB
has developed a phased sampling and analytical strategy to provide
comparable data from the many processes to be studied. The phased
approach was selected as the most cost-effective technique for ensuring
that potential problem areas would be identified and resources expended
on the most critical problems. Environmental assessment measurements
are characterized primarily by the comprehensive, qualitative aspects of
the techniques used.
Phased Sampling and Analytical Strategy
The first phase, Level 1, utilizes a series of qualitative, semi-
quantitative (± 2) techniques to provide preliminary prioritization of
future work. Emphasis is on completeness through evaluation of all
potential sources of pollution. Physical, chemical, and biological tests
are performed on all samples collected. A sampling system for survey
work has been developed and tested, and a procedures manual for Level 1
sampling and analysis has been issued (EPA-600/2-76-160a).
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Level 2 efforts are directed toward identifying and quantifying
specific compounds. Emphasis is on refinement of the data base for
sources identified by Level 1 screening as potential problems.
Level 3 is envisioned as an evaluation of the time and process
parameter effect on pollution problems. Based on Level 2 data, cost-
effective measurement technologies are used to monitor specific materials
during continuous process operations.
During 1977, the procedures for Level 1 testing were applied by a
number of organizations involved in environmental assessment of various
processes. As the result of the field experience gained, modifications
to the procedures have been evaluated and proposed revisions have been
tested. Most of the changes are directed toward clarification and
simplification of the original methods. A study to define the precision
of the effluent gas sampling equipment is completed; reproducibility of
the analysis techniques is currently being investigated.
Work was initiated on defining Level 2 sampling and analysis
procedures. The primary objective of Level 2 is to provide compound-
specific data; the analytical procedures will encompass most of the
techniques available to the analytical chemist. Flow charts and logic
networks to integrate data from various procedures are being developed.
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive air emissions are defined as those pollutants which are
not emitted from stationary sources through ducts of regular cross
section. For many industries (e.g., oil refineries, coke plant nonferrous
smelting, and coal gasification/liquefaction), fugitive emissions have
been shown (using emission rate/ambient air dispersion predictive models)
to be a major air problem. A program was developed to identify, validate,
and promulgate sampling and data reduction strategies for these emissions.
Efforts have also been initiated for measuring fugitive water
pollution sources. Studies are underway to develop a sampling strategy
to evaluate and to determine receiving body impacts of storm water
runoff from material storage piles in the iron and steel industry and
from coal storage piles at power generating stations. Field studies were
236
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completed at both types of sources, and the data obtained was used to
evaluate the model developed earlier.
The second symposium of fugitive air and water emissions was held
in May 1977. A report on the proceedings will be available early in
1978.
Biological Testing
Biological testing, within the scope and philosophy of the phased
approach, has achieved increasing importance as a part of the analysis
schemes for the environmental assessment programs. Testing has expanded
from the original cytotoxic and mutagenic tests to a matrix of tests
which covers a broad spectrum of analyses for all types of environmental
impacts. Recommendations by a joint committee—composed of members from
EPA's Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry and Office of Health
Ecological Effects (OHEE) Laboratories—have resulted in the widely
accepted draft protocol, "IERL-RTP Procedures Manual: Level 1 Environ-
mental Assessment Biological Tests for Pilot Studies" (EPA-600/7-77-
043). The tests include: rabbit alveolar macrophage (RAM) cytotoxicity
test, bacterial mutagenesis test (Ames), fathead minnow tests, algae
growth tests, rat range-finding toxicity test, soil litter microcosm,
and plant stress ethylene production test. Both freshwater and marine
tests are included. All of the tests are designed to provide broad
screening analysis commensurate with the Level 1 philosophy.
Three pilot studies are being conducted within IERL-RTP to'evaluate
the biological tests. Initial results are encouraging. Improvement in
sampling and sample handling, and the development of better biological
test protocols are expected as technical reviews of the pilot studies
are received.
A program is now underway to provide biological testing for IERL-
RTP projects. Technical advice will be obtained from six OHEE Laboratories.
The biological testing program will also include a revised procedures
manual-which will incorporate changes obtained as a direct result of the
pilot studies.
237
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QUALITY ASSURANCE
The "Planning Document for Control Systems Laboratory Quality
Assurance Program," prepared for IERL-RTP in December 1974, was the
initial effort in this area. This report identified five categories of
projects with common characteristics (i.e., size, duration, objectives,
and data quality requirements). Projects in a given category can thus
effectively use the same general set of quality control and quality
assurance (QA) practices and procedures. More recently, an IERL-RTP
Data Quality Manual has been developed and issued (EPA-600/2-76-159).
This manual incorporates concepts being developed in a continuing effort
to provide IERL-RTP with an effective data quality program. A sixth
category was recently added; the current list of categories is:
0 Environmental Assessments.
0 Industry System Studies/Pollutant System Studies.
0 Field Studies.
0 Research and Bench-Scale Projects.
0 Development of Pilot Programs.
0 Demonstration Projects.
QA activities have been in two major areas during the past year.
QA audits were performed on three demonstration projects and one environ-
mental assessment project. These audits consisted of site visits and
laboratory analyses to verify the performing organization's data quality.
In addition, support activities under this program improved lERL-RTP's
environmental assessment approach. Specific tasks relating to environ-
mental assessment are a data gathering and analysis task, and a task to
revise the Level 1 Procedures Manual (EPA-600/2-76-160a).
238
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SPECIAL STUDIES
Within the Office of Program Operations, the Special Studies Staff
provides technical analysis and assessment support to the Office of the
Director. This function includes broad technical assistance in program
planning, guidance, and review; recommendations to the Laboratory
Director for program direction; technical assistance to Laboratory
components in data analysis and interpretation; and technical evalua-
tion of projects or programs requested by the Laboratory Director or
other Laboratory components. Other services provided by the Special
Studies Staff include management of engineering services contracts and
consultation on technical aspects of Laboratory computerized data
processing applications.
INTEGRATED AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS
During the past year, several major projects were either initiated
or continued in support of Laboratory and ORD environmental assessment
objectives. These include: Integrated Assessment of Coal-Based Energy
Technologies, Environmental Assessment of Energy Supply Systems Using
Fuel Cells, and Environmental Overview of Future Texas Lignite Develop-
ment.
Integrated Assessment of Coal-Based Energy Technologies
During 1977, lERL-RTP's Special Studies Staff contracted a 6 month
project definition Phase I with three contractors. Each contractor
submitted a detailed Work Plan for Phase II—the actual integrated
assessment (ITA)—in July 1977. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories was
selected to complete Phase II over a 30 month period.
Objectives of the Coal ITA are to:
0 Identify, describe, compare, and quantify, where possible, the
range and magnitude of biophysical, socioeconomic, and energy impacts
of alternative mixes, rates, levels, and timing of the development and
deployment of coal-based energy technologies, supply systems, and end
uses.
0 Identify and comparatively analyze technological and institu-
tional methods of avoiding or mitigating undesirable impacts.
0 Identify and analyze alternative policies that will reflect the
best trade-offs between environmental quality, energy production,
economic costs, and social benefits and disadvantages.
239
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0 Examine the consequences of policy alternatives and propose
strategies for policy implementation.
The ITA will rely on existing and evolving information, and it
will be necessary to review on a continuing basis a number of environ-
mental and policy studies on coal. The ITA will also integrate the
evolving results of the other IERL-RTP ongoing environmental assess-
ments on high- and low-Btu gasification, liquefaction, coal cleaning,
fluidized-bed combustion, and fuel cells.
The Coal ITA includes a program to solicit opinions, ideas, and
criticisms of a wide audience including EPA, other Federal agencies,
state and local agencies, industry, academia, and environmental/consumer
groups. Techniques will include conducting a series of workshops and
establishing an interdisciplinary Technical Advisory Committee. From
this total assessment, alternative policies will be recommended that
will achieve the best balance of environmental quality, energy efficien-
cy, economic costs, and social benefits, and strategies will be proposed
for policy implementation.
Environmental Assessment (EA) of Energy Supply Systems Using Fuel Cells
The Fuel Cell EA addresses environmental impacts, costs, and
energy efficiencies of several complete energy supply systems, including
extraction of energy resources and the end use of the delivered energy.
Goals of this work are to place in perspective the advantages and dis-
advantages of energy supply systems that include fuel cells, and to
guide further fuel cell research. SRI International is the principal
contractor on this project; however, much of the fuel cell expertise is
provided under a subcontract with Exxon Research & Engineering.
To provide a comparative basis for the impact analysis, five
energy supply systems with and without fuel cells are being analyzed:
0 Combined gas/electric homes are supplied by electricity from a
reassigned (intermediate load) coal-fired power plant burning coal
shipped by unit train from the mine, and by substitute natural gas
(SNG) pipelined from a mine-mouth conversion facility.
0 All-electric homes using heat pumps are supplied by a 26 MW
fuel cell power plant fueled by SNG pipelined from a mine-mouth conver-
sion facility.
240
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0 All-electric homes using heat pumps are supplied by a 26 MW
fuel cell power plant fueled by hydrotreated coal-derived naphtha
pipelined from a mine-mouth conversion facility.
0 All-electric homes using heat pumps are supplied by a combined
cycle power plant which burns coal-derived fuel oil pipelined from a
mine-mouth conversion facility.
0 All-electric townhouses using heat pumps are supplied by a
100 kW fuel cell fueled by SNG pipilined from a mine-mouth conversion
facility. Fuel cell waste heat is recovered and used to provide domes-
tic hot water and supplemental space heat.
For each of the five systems, data will be assembled on capital
and operating costs, energy efficiencies, pollutant releases, land use,
water use, noise, and aesthetics. A trade-off analysis will be carried
out to assess and compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of
each system.
Environmental Overview of Future Texas Lignite Development
This study examined the extent and character of Texas lignite
resources to provide an overview of the existing biophysical and socio-
economic environment, to identify potential environmental impacts, and
to identify major issues and problems surrounding Texas lignite develop-
ment.
A possible environmental constraint on lignite development by the
year 2000, or even much sooner, is air quality regulation, since mine-
mouth lignite-fired power plants emit appreciable levels of particulates,
SO , and NO . Since the lignite belt currently meets both state and
J\ ^
Federal standards, and is thus an "attainment area," it could be subject
to regulations on Prevention of Significant Degradation (PSD). In such
a case, it is unlikely that lignite could develop to its full potential
without an industrial reclassification or significant improvements in
available control technology. Other potential environmental impacts
include: disturbance (and hoped-for reclamation) of up to 454,000
acres of land; disruption of vegetation and wildlife habitat; possible
adverse effects on aquatic life; and'localized thermal loading from
power plant cooling .
The study indicates an uncertainty in the existence of required
legal, institutional, and policy mechanisms to deal with these wide-
241
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ranging problems. Study results recommend an in-depth regional technol-
ogy assessment of the entire Gulf Coast lignite area.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA SYSTEMS
The rapidly growing amount of data being produced by IERL-RTP
testing activities has resulted in the need for automated data systems
for effective management of these data. Currently, one data system,
the Fine Particle Emissions Information System (FPEIS) is operational.
Development of more systems (for data on gaseous, liquid, and solid
discharges) is planned in 1978.
The FPEIS is a computerized information system containing data on
primary fine particle emissions to the atmosphere from stationary point
sources and includes data on applied control devices. General categories
of information contained in the FPEIS include source characteristics;
control system descriptions; test characteristics; particulate mass
train results; physical, biological, and chemical properties of the
particulates; particulate size measurement equipment/methods; and par-
ticulate size distribution data. Every category of information includes
a number of related data elements, each of which is a unique variable
essential for the description of the source tested.
The FPEIS currently contains data from over 2000 sampling measure-
ments (or runs), representing tests conducted on over 100 source/collector
combinations. Data acquisition activities are now under way to identify,
encode, and enclose more data on fine particle sampling in the FPEIS.
To date more than 1600 additional test runs have been identified, and
it is expected that the size of the data base will increase by a factor
of at least 2 by the end of 1978. Procedures have been developed to
provide for the gathering of emissions data from ongoing IERL-RTP
testing activities and for the routine updating of such data into the
data base.
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
Technical analyses of several IERL-RTP programs were conducted or
initiated during 1977. In order to provide IERL-RTP with an awareness
of programs and activities elsewhere in EPA, liaison is maintained
involving health effects, ambient air quality studies, effluent guide-
lines, and standards development which may have significance for control
technology development. Recent legislation was reviewed by the Special
242
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Studies Staff to identify its implications for IERL-RTP programs. In
cooperation with Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincin-
nati, Ohio (IERL-Cinn.), the first edition of the Industrial Process
Profiles for Environmental Use (IPPEU) was completed and distributed.
Standard Procedures for Cost Evaluations
To meet the need for a complete, consistent economic evaluation of
pollution abatement facilities, a specification has been devised which
calls for succinct tabulations of descriptive information and a cost
analysis. The latter consists of estimates of capital and operating
costs and appropriate measures of merit. The procedure applies to
retrofit and grass-roots installations and is applicable to a wide
range of technologies.
Background is developed for the essential characteristics of eco-
nomic evaluations: their relationship to the stage of development,
project scope, and degree of accuracy. The principles of technical
economics that apply are reviewed. Methods of capital and operating
cost estimating are outlined. The applicable feasibility criteria are
developed and demonstrated by examples. A separate section is devoted
to uncertainty analysis and sensitivity, two attributes of the degree
of accuracy.
Regional Support Studies
IERL-RTP's Special Studies Staff assisted EPA Regional Offices on
several occasions during 1977. Engineering and technical services con-
tractor assistance was given to Region IV to provide an assessment of
the anthropogenic hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions in the Tampa
Bay area and to Region VI to provide for a control technology study of
the New Mexico potash industry. Region I and the State of Vermont
requested IERL-RTP assistance to evaluate and characterize emissions
from wood-fired boilers in that state. Assistance to Region II was
provided in the form of a grant to the State of New Jersey to study the
industrial use and emissions of carcinogens in that state. The Special
Studies Staff also provided technical expertise to Region X and the
Division of Stationary Source Enforcement in planning a test program to
assess the haze and odor problem in the area of Millersburg, Oregon.
The Staff has also provided data and documentation on the FPEIS to
Regions VII,, IX, and X, and to the States of New York, Maryland, Oregon,
and California.
243
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
EPA No.
* R2-72-087
NTIS No. (PB)
212-607
* 600/2-75-014 249-564/AS
* 600/2-75-050 245-279/AS
* 600/2-75-063 248-101/AS
* 600/2-75-068 252-245/AS
* 600/2-75-069a 248-292/AS
600/2-76-009a 264-871/AS
600/2-76-032d 266-797/AS
* 600/2-76-046a 251-612/AS
* 600/2-76-046b 252-175/AS
* 600/2-76-046c 257-849/AS
Title
A study of resistivity and conditioning of
flyash (156 pp)
Sinter plant windbox recirculation system
demonstration: phase I, engineering and
design (140 pp)
EPA alkali scrubbing test facility: advanced
program (first progress report) (172 pp)
Catalytic desulfurization and denitrogena-
tion (67 pp)
Environmental problem definition for
petroleum refineries, synthetic natural
gas plants, and liquefied natural gas
plants (476 pp)
Guidelines for residential oil-burner
adjustments (27 pp)
Odor control by scrubbing in the rendering
industry—addendum (57 pp)
Source assessment: phthalic anhydride (air
emissions) (160 pp)
Preliminary emissions assessment of conven-
tional stationary combustion systems;
Vol I—executive summary (88 pp)
Preliminary emissions assessment of conven-
tional stationary combustion systems;
Vol II—final report (557 pp)
Preliminary emissions assessment of conven-
tional stationary combustion systems;
Vol Ill-update (51 pp)
*Reports distributed prior to January 1, 1977,
**Reports not yet distributed.
244
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EPA No.
* 600/2-76-070
* 600/2-76-086a
* 600/2-76-0865
* 600/2-76-088
600/2-76-101
600/2-76-138
* 600/2-76-152a
* 600/2-76-152b
* 600/2-76-152C
* 600/2-76-159
* 600/2-76-160a
600/2-76-165
600/2-76-166
600/2-76-168a
600/2-76-168c
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
251-876/AS Dispossl of flue 935 cleaning wastes: EPA
Shawnee field evaluation; initial report
(219 pp)
253-500/AS Field testing: application of combustion
modifications to control pollutant emis-
sions from industrial boilers—Phase II
(270 pp)
261-263/AS Field testing: trace element and organic
emissions from industrial boilers (160 pp)
251-919/AS Guidelines for burner adjustments of com-
mercial oil-fired boilers (31 pp)
255-842/AS Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—final report
(306 pp)
262-716/AS Coal preparation environmental engineering
manual (729 pp)
256-320/AS Proceedings of the stationary source com-
bustion symposium: Vol I, fundamental
research (470 pp)
256-321/AS Proceedings of the stationary source com-
bustion symposium: Vol II, fuels and
process research and development (424 pp)
257-146/AS Proceedings of the stationary source com-
bustion symposium: Vol III, field testing
and surveys (476 pp)
256-697/AS IERL-RTP data quality manual (97 pp)
257-850/AS IERL-RTP procedures manual: level 1
environmental assessment (147 pp)
255-983/AS Demetallization of heavy residual oils,
Phase III (112 pp)
255-625/AS Residuum and residual fuel oil supply and
demand in the United States - 1973-1985
(265 pp)
266-271/AS EPA fabric filtration studies: 1. perfor-
mance of non-woven nylon filter bags
(37 pp)
263-132/AS EPA fabric filtration studies: 3. perfor-
mance of filter bags made from expanded
PTFE laminate (53 pp)
245
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EPA No.
600/2-76-172
600/2-76-173
* 600/2-76-177a
* 600/2-76-1775
600/2-76-200
600/2-76-248
* 600/2-76-258
600/2-76-273a
600/2-76-273b
* 600/2-76-274
600/2-76-278
600/2-76-280
600/2-76-281
600/2-76-282
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
262-720/AS
Title
Fine particle emissions information system
user guide (232 pp)
262-721/AS Fine particle emissions information system
reference manual (82 pp)
256-020/AS Fuel contaminants; Vol 1, chemistry (177 pp)
260-475/AS Fuel contaminants; Vol 2, removal technology
evaluation (318 pp)
262-669/AS Study of horizontal-spray flux force/
condensation scrubber (115 pp)
268-492/AS Chemically active fluid-bed process for
sulphur removal during gasification of
heavy fuel oil (third phase) (607 pp)
270-913/AS Fate of trace and minor constituents of
coal during gasification (46 pp)
264-953/AS Experimental and theoretical studies of
solid solution formation in lime and
limestone S02 scrubbers; Vol I, final
report (75 pp)
264-954/AS Experimental and theoretical studies of
solid solution formation in lime and
limestone S0£ scrubbers; Vol II, appen-
dices (417 pp)
261-066/AS Analysis of test data for NOX control in
coal-fired utility boilers (100 pp)
262-856/AS Foreign air pollution research in fine
particulates (99 pp)
262-849/AS Particulste sizing techniques for control
device evaluation: cascade impactor
calibrations (96 pp)
261-922/AS Desulfurization of steel mill sinter plant
gases (215 pp)
263-617/AS Nations! dust collector model 850 variable
rod venturi scrubber evaluation (63 pp)
246
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EPA No.
600/2-76-283
600/2-76-284
600/2-77-001
600/2-77-004
600/2-77-005
600/2-77-006
600/2-77-007
600/2-77-008a
600/2-77-OOSb
600/2-77-OOSc
600/2-77-011
600/2-77-022
600/2-77-023a
600/2-77-023C
600/2-77-023e
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
264-345/AS Measurement techniques for inorganic trace
materials in control system streams
(146 pp)
263-992/AS Development of procedures for the measure-
ment of fugitive emissions (134 pp)
266-217/AS Design of minimum-weight diffusion
batteries (37 pp)
263-623/AS Procedures for cascade impactor calibration
and operation in process streams (123 pp)
273-788/AS Source assessment; pressed and blown glass
manufacturing plants (141 pp)
263-504/AS Electrostatic precipitator malfunctions in
the electric utility industry (143 pp)
270-514/AS Development of a laser velocimeter system
for flame studies (56 pp)
264-068/AS Combustion additives for pollution control—
a state-of-the-art review (106 pp)
264-065/AS Experimental evaluation of fuel oil addi-
tives for reducing emissions and increasing
efficiency of boilers (124 pp)
264-066/AS NOX formation in CO flames (55 pp)
272-125/AS Particulate collection efficiency measure-
ments on an ESP installed.on a coal-fired
utility boiler (162 pp)
268-550/AS A real-time measuring device for dense
particulate systems (66 pp)
266-274/AS Industrial process profiles for environ-
mental use: Chapter 1, introduction (21 pp)
273-649/AS Industrial process profiles for environ-
mental use: Chapter 3, petroleum refining
industry (153 pp)
266-224/AS Industrial process profiles for environ-
mental use: Chapter 5, basic petrochemicals
industry (155 pp)
247
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EPA No.
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
600/2-77-023h 266-225/AS
600/2-77-023x 266-226/AS
600/2-77-024
600/2-77-025
600/2-77-028
600/2-77-042
600/2-77-043
600/2-77-044
600/2-77-055
600/2-77-056
600/2-77-057
600/2-77-058
600/2-77-059
600/2-77-060
266-842/AS
269-277/AS
264-202/AS
264-067/AS
271-990/AS
264-924/AS
266-094/AS
266-093/AS
268-650/AS
266-214/AS
266-091
266-103/AS
600/2-77-066a 266-109/AS
Industrial process profiles for environ-
mental use: Chapter 8, pesticides
industry (240 pp)
Industrial process profiles for environ-
mental use: Chapter 24, the iron and
steel industry (209 pp)
Technical manual for inorganic sampling
and analysis (334 pp)
Reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions from
field operating package boilers—Phase
III of III (118 pp)
Residential oil furnace system optimization,
phase II (130 pp)
Particulate control mobile test units:
second year's operation (41 pp)
Industrial wastewater recirculation system:
preliminary engineering (177 pp)
Environmental assessment of steel making
furnace dust disposal methods (131 pp)
Electric curtain device for control and
removal of fine particles (31 pp)
Evaluation of ceramic filters for high-
temperature/high-pressure fine particulate
control (55 pp)
Control characteristics of carbon beds for
gasoline vapor emissions (114 pp)
Sealing coke-oven charging lids, chuck
doors, and standpipe elbow covers; survey
of current U.S. state-of-the-art (21 pp)
Evaluation of electron microscopy for
process control in the asbestos industry
(55 pp)
Proceedings: seminar on in-stack particle
sizing for particulate control device
evaluation (346 pp)
Inventory of combustion-related emissions
from stationary sources (178 pp)
248
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EPA No.
600/2-77-067
600/2-77-077
600/2-77-080
600/2-77-084
600/2-77-107
600/2-77-107a
600/2-77-107b
600/2-77-107c
600/2-77-107d
600/2-77-107e
600/2-77-107f
600/2-77-107g
600/2-77-107h
600/2-77-1071
600/2-77-107J
600/2-77-107k
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
266-092/AS Evaluation of molten scrubbing for fine
particulate control (39 pp)
270-084/AS Design, development, and demonstration of
a fine particulate measuring device
(132 pp)
270-111/AS Pilot plant design for chemical desulfuriza-
tion of coal (162 pp)
268-008/AS Recent USSR literature on control of
particulate emissions from stationary
sources (100 pp)
270-282/AS Source assessment: beef cattle feedlots
(114 pp)
270-240/AS Source assessment: agricultural open burn-
ing, state-of-the-art (77 pp)
270-549/AS Source assessment: state-by-state listing
of criteria pollutant emissions (148 pp)
270-100/AS Source assessment: overview matrix for
national criteria pollutant emissions
(73 pp)
271-486/AS Source assessment: mechanical harvesting
of cotton, state-of-the-art (118 pp)
270-550/AS Source assessment: noncriteria pollutant
emissions (116 pp)
271-697/AS Source assessment: harvesting of grain,
state-of-the-art (96 pp)
272-621/AS Source assessment: defoliation of cotton,
state-of-the-art (134 pp)
271-986/AS Source assessment: overview and prioritiza-
tion of emissions from textile manu-
facturing (139 pp)
271-984/AS Source assessment: ammonium nitrate
production (78 pp)
271-969/AS Source assessment: acrylonitrile manufacture
(air emissions) (120 pp)
273-068/AS Source assessment: carbon black manufacture
(244 pp)
249
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EPA No.
600/2-77-107&
600/2-77-110
600/2-77-115
600/2-77-122
600/2-77-126
600/2-77-127
600/2-77-129
600/2-77-132
600/2-77-136
600/2-77-149
600/2-77-165
600/2-77-172
600/2-77-173
600/2-77-187a
600/2-77-188
600/2-77-190
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
274-367/AS
271-020/AS
268-563/AS
270-112/AS
271-023/AS
270-090/AS
274-104/AS
271-989/AS
273-362/AS
272-304/AS
272-952/AS
271-515/AS
271-727/AS
273-812/AS
272-102/AS
273-057/AS
Source assessment: urea manufacture (94 pp)
Application of foam scrubbing to fine
particle control, Phase II (77 pp)
Environmental assessment sampling and
analysis: phased approach and techniques
for level 1 (38 pp)
Field testing: application of combustion
modifications to control pollutant emis-
sions from industrial boilers—Phases I
and II (data supplement) (645 pp)
Use of organic solvents in textile sizing
and desizing (81 pp)
Closed loop system for the treatment of
waste pickle liquor (63 pp)
Operation and maintenance of particulate
control devices on coal-fired utility
boilers (378 pp)
Generation of fumes simulating particulate
air pollutants (100 pp)
Automatic exchange resin pilot plant for
removal of textile dye wastes (66 pp)
Ammonia absorption/ammonium bisulfate
regeneration pilot plant for flue gas
desulfurization (230 pp)
Magnesia FGD process testing on a coal-
fired power plant (256 pp)
Venturi scrubber performance model (212 pp)
Fine particle charging development (240 pp)
Emission testing and evaluation of Ford/
Koppers coke pushing control system: Vol I,
final report (275 pp)
Phthalic anhydride plant air pollution
control (116 pp)
Effects of combustion modifications for NOX
control on utility boiler efficiency and
combustion stability (105 pp)
250
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EPA No.
600/2-77-191
600/2-77-193
600/2-77-196
600/2-77-197
600/2-77-200
600/2-77-201
600/2-77-206
600/2-77-207
600/2-77-208
600/2-77-209a
** 600/2-77-213
** 600/2-77-218
** 600/2-77-231
600/7-76-007
* 600/7-76-008
600/7-76-019
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
272-590/AS Countercurrent rinsing on a high-speed
halogen tinplating line (94 pp)
273-828/AS Second EPA fine particle scrubber symposium--
9/77 (362 pp)
272-110/AS At-sea incineration of organochlorine
wastes onboard the M/T Vulcanus (96 pp)
271-549/AS Evaluation of foam scrubbing as a method
for collecting fine particulate (78 pp)
273-069/AS Treatment of ammonia plant process conden-
sate effluent (95 pp)
273-357/AS Generation and simulation of metallic
particulate air pollutants by electric
arc spraying (336 pp)
274-113/AS Pilot plant study of conversion of coal to
to low sulfur fuel (153 pp)
274-485/AS High-temperature particulate control with
ceramic filters (171 pp)
274-017/AS Proceedings: particulate collection problems
using ESPs in the metallurgical industry
(258 pp)
274-449/AS Gas-atomized spray scrubber evaluation (77 pp)
Sampling and analysis of coke oven door
emissions (178 pp)
Development of technology for controlling
BOP charging emissions
Blast furnace cast house emission control
technology assessment (314 pp)
267-339/AS Environmental contamination from trace
elements in coal preparation wastes
(69 pp)
258-783/AS EPA alkali scrubbing test facility:
advanced program (second progress report)
(379 pp)
ANL/ES-CEN-1016 A development program on pressurized
fluidized-bed combustion (203 pp)
251
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
EPA No.
600/7-76-020
600/7-76-021
600/7-76-022
600/7-76-027
600/7-76-028
600/7-76-029
600/7-76-030
600/7-76-033
600/7-77-001
600/7-77-002
600/7-77-005
600/7-77-006
600/7-77-009
600/7-77-010
600/7-77-011
NTIS No. (PB)
264-874/AS
263-449/AS
263-453/AS
262-602/AS
262-850/AS
263-891/AS
262-857/AS
261-917/AS
263-468/AS
264-203/AS
263-469/AS
263-960/AS
266-564/AS
265-374/AS
264-528/AS
Title
State-of-the-art report on intake technolo-
gies (94 pp)
TVA's 1-MW pilot plant: vertical duct mist
elimination testing (progress report)
(26 pp)
Survey of emissions control and combustion
equipment data in industrial process
heating (134 pp)
Effect of a flyash conditioning agent on
power plant emissions 036 pp)
PCB emissions from stationary sources: a
theoretical study (43 pp)
Emissions from residential and small com-
mercial stoker-coal-fired boilers under
smokeless operation (84 pp)
Feasibility of producing elemental sulfur
from magnesium sulfite (218 pp)
Technology and economics of flue gas NO
oxidation by ozone (74 pp)
Proceedings: fine particle emissions infor-
mation systems user workshop (138 pp)
Effects of temperature and pressure on
particle collection mechanisms; theoret-
ical review (96 pp)
Evaluation of the General Motor's double
alkali S02 control systems (99 pp)
Applicability of NOX combustion modifica-
tions to cyclone boilers (furnaces)
(135 pp)
Procedures manual for environmental
assessment of fluidized-bed combustion
processes (455 pp)
Characterization of ash from coal-fired
power plants (142 pp)
Application of fluidized-bed technology to
industrial boilers (275 pp)
252
-------
EPA No.
600/7-77-012
600/7-77-013
600/7-77-014
600/7-77-018
600/7-77-019
600/7-77-022
600/7-77-023
600/7-77-026
600/7-77-027
600/7-77-029
600/7-77-030
600/7-77-031
600/7-77-034
600/7-77-035
600/7-77-041
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
265-354/AS The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
fluidized-bed combustion program, FY 1976
(66 pp)
266-231/AS EPA and ERDA high-temperature/high-pressure
participate control programs (60 pp)
269-885 Demonstration of Wellman-Lord/Allied
Chemical FGD technology: boiler-operating
characteristics (274 pp)
266-228/AS Magnesia scrubbing applied to a coal-fired
power plant (228 pp)
269-850/AS TVA's 1-MW pilot plant: final report on
high velocity scrubbing and vertical duct
mist elimination (58 pp)
266-233/AS Filter cake redeposition in a pulse-jet
filter (52 pp)
266-912/AS Fractional efficiency of an electric arc
furnace baghouse (187 pp)
266-104/AS Analysis and simulation of recycle S02
lime slurry in TCA scrubber system
(121 pp)
274-947/AS First trials of CAFB pilot plant on coal
(52 pp)
266-827/AS Sorbent selection for the CAFB residual
oil gasification demonstration plant
(29 pp)
266-269/AS Alternatives to chlorination for control
of condenser tube bio-fouling (83 pp)
271-008/AS High-temperature desulfurization of low-
Btu gas (361 pp)
271-514/AS Method for analyzing emissions from atmo-
spheric fluidized-bed combustor (102 pp)
266-218/AS Heat pumps: substitutes for outmoded
fossil-fueled systems (39 pp)
267-558 A survey of sulfate, nitrate, and acid
aerosol emissions and their control
(179 pp)
253
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
EPA No.
600/7-77-042
600/7-77-043
600/7-77-044
600/7-77-045
600/7-77-050a
600/7-77-050b
600/7-77-OSOc
600/7-77-051
600/7-77-052
600/7-77-053
600/7-77-054
600/7-77-057
600/7-77-058
NTIS No. (PB)
267-441/AS
268-484/AS
268-559/AS
268-576/AS
269-904
272-770/AS
272-109/AS
269-270/AS
271-728/AS
271-968/AS
269-556/AS
269-557/AS
269-666/AS
Title
EPA research in fabric filtration: annual
report on IERL-RTP inhouse program
(38 pp)
IERL-RTP procedures manual: level 1
environmental assessment, biological
tests for pilot studies (119 pp)
Selection and evaluation of sorbent resins
for the collection of organic compounds
(67 pp)
In-situ coal gasification: status of
technology and environmental impact
(184 pp)
Final report: dual alkali test and evalua-
tion program; Vol I. executive summary
(45 pp)
Final report: dual alkali test and evalua-
tion program; Vol II. laboratory and
pilot plant programs (342 pp)
Final report: dual alkali test and evalua-
tion program: Vol III. prototype test
program—plant Scholz (163 pp)
An evaluation of the disposal of flue gas
desulfurization wastes in mines and the
ocean: initial assessment (318 pp)
Disposal of by-products from non-regenerable
flue gas desulfurization systems: second
progress report (297 pp)
Bromine chloride—an alternative to
chlorine for fouling control in condenser
cooling systems (171 pp)
Preliminary environmental assessment of
coal-fired fluidized-bed combustion
systems (150 pp)
Evaluation of background data relating to
new source performance standards for
Lurgi gasification (226 pp)
HP-25 programmable pocket calculator
applied to air pollution measurement
studies: stationary sources (129 pp)
254
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
EPA No.
600/7-77-059
600/7-77-061
600/7-77-063
600/7-77-064
600/7-77-065
600/7-77-066
600/7-77-071
600/7-77-073a
NTIS No. (PB)
269-698/AS
268-525/AS
271-022/AS
270-922/AS
269-568/AS
269-653/AS
271-699/AS
270-923/AS
600/7-77-073b 271-756/AS
600/7-77-073c 271-757/AS
600/7-77-073d
274-029/AS
600/2-77-073e 274-897/AS
600/7-77-074
272-HI/AS
Title
Procedures manual for electrostatic
precipitator evaluation (432 pp)
Sludge oxidation in limestone FGD
scrubbers C74 pp)
Renovation of power plant cooling tower
blowdown for recycle by evaporation:
crystallization with interface enhance-
ment (63 pp)
Trace elements in coal: occurrence and
distribution (165 pp)
Water conservation and pollution control
in coal conversion processes (483 pp)
Review of laser raman and fluorescence
techniques for practical combustion
diagnostics (175 pp)
High-temperature and high-pressure particu-
1 ate control requirements (119 pp)
Proceedings of the second stationary source
combustion symposium: Vol I. small indus-
trial, commercial, and residential
systems (243 pp)
Proceedings of the second stationary source
combustion symposium; Vol II. utility and
large industrial boilers (282 pp)
Proceedings of the second stationary source
combustion symposium; Vol III. stationary
engine, industrial process combustion
systems, and advanced processes (264 pp)
Proceedings of the second stationary source
combustion symposium: Vol IV. fundamental
combustion research (336 pp)
Proceedings of the second stationary source
combustion symposium: Vol V. addendum
(223 pp)
Laboratory study of limestone regeneration
in dual alkali systems (36 pp)
255
-------
EPA No.
600/7-77-075
600/7-77-077
600/7-77-081
600/7-77-094a
600/7-77-095a
600/7-77-095b
600/7-77-103a
** 600/7-77-103b
600/7-77-105
600/7-77-107
600/7-77-110
600/7-77-115
** 600/7-77-119a
** 600/7-77-1195
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
270-572/AS Flue gas desulfurization using fly ash
derived from western coals (81 pp)
270-086/AS EPA's stationary source combustion control
technology program—FY1976 (52 pp)
271-962/AS Process technology background for environ-
mental assessment/system analysis utiliz-
ing fuel oil (75 pp)
272-614/AS Burner design criteria for NOX control from
low-Btu gas combustion; Vol I. ambient
fuel temperature (120 pp)
271-966/AS EPA fabric filtration studies: 4. bag aging
effects (46 pp)
274-922/AS EPA fabric filtration studies: 5. bag clean-
ing technology (high temperature tests)
(41 pp)
272-316/AS S02 abatement for stationary sources in
Japan (205 pp)
NOX abatement for stationary sources in
Japan
274-544/AS EPA alkali scrubbing test facility:
advanced program (third progress report)
(708 pp)
272-722/AS Studies of the pressurized fluidized-bed
coal combustion process (214 pp)
272-784/AS Hydrocarbon pollutants from stationary
sources (333 pp)
273-359/AS Nonwoven fabric filters for particulate
removal in respirable dust range (65 pp)
Preliminary environmental assessment of
combustion modification techniques; Vol
I. summary
Preliminary environmental assessment of
combustion modification techniques; Vol
II. technical results
256
-------
EPA No.
** 600/7-77-123
600/7-77-125a
600/7-77-125b
** 600/7-77-126
** 600/7-77-127
** 600/7-77-137
** 600/7-77-138
** 600/7-77-139
600/8-76-002
600/8-77-003a
* 650/2-73-005b
* 650/2-73-013
* 650/2-73-041
* 650/2-73-041 a
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
Lime/limestone scrubbing sludge character! s-
tics—Shawnee test facility
274-844/AS Environmental Assessment data base on low-
and medium-Btu gasification technology;
Vol I. technical discussion (169 pp)
274-843/AS Environmental assessment data base on low-
and medium-Btu gasification technology;
Vol.11, appendices A-F (305 pp)
Utility boiler design/cost comparison:
fluidized-bed combustion versus flue gas
desulfurization
Technical assessment of NO removal
processes for utility application
Wet/dry cooling for fossil fuel power
plants; water conservation and plume
abatement
Supportive studies in fluidized-bed combustion
Environmental assessment of solid residues
from fluidized-bed fuel processing
264-284/AS HP-65 programmable pocket calculator applied
to air pollution measurement studies:
stationary sources (124 pp)
264-543/AS Guidelines for industrial boiler performance
improvement (107 pp)
246-889/AS Program for reduction of NOx from tangential
coal-fired boilers; Phase Ila, NOx control
technology application study (37 pp)
225-041/3AS EPA alkali scrubbing test facility: sodium
carbonate and limestone test results
(247 pp)
227-568 Demetallization of heavy residual oils
(151 pp)
241-901/AS Demetallization of heavy residual oils,
Phase II (96 pp)
257
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
EPA No.
* 650/2-73-051
* 650/2-74-009a
* 650/2-74-009c
* 650/2-74-009e
650/2-74-009f
* 650/2-74-009h
* 650/2-74-0091
* 650/2-74-009J
NTIS No. (PB)
231-671/AS
231-675/As
* 650/2-74-009b 237-113/AS
237-694/AS
* 650/2-74-009d 241-141/AS
240-371/AS
241-792/AS
* 650/2-74-009g 243-694/AS
247-225/AS
247-226/AS
249-846/AS
* 650/2-74-009R 246-311/AS
Title
Marketing H2S04 from S02 abatement sources—
the TVA hypothesis (100 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 1: Koppers-Totzek process (51 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 2: Synthanu process (95 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 3: Lurgi process (72 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 4: (XL acceptor process (69 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—liquefaction;
Section 1: COED process (73 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—liquefaction;
Section 2: SRC process (89 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 5: BI-GAS process (72 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 6: HYGAS process (60 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 7: U-gas process (48 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—gasification;
Section 8: Winkler process (51 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—coal treatment;
Section 1: Meyers process (46 pp)
258
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
EPA No.
* 650/2-74-009*
* 650/2-74-009m
* 650/2-74-010
* 650/2-74-076
* 650/2-74-078a
* 650/2-74-092
* 650/2-74-114
* 650/2-75-012
* 650/2-75-047
* 650/2-75-057a
* 650/2-75-0575
* 650/2-75-057C
NTIS No. (PB)
249-845/AS
249-847/AS
232-359/AS
239-491/AS
238-920/AS
236-922/AS
238-922/AS
241-918/AS
244-901
244-141/AS
244-401/AS
246-285/AS
* 650/2-75-057d 246-136/AS
Title
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—analytical
test plan (186 pp)
Evaluation of pollution control in fossil
fuel conversion processes—liquefaction;
Section 3: H-coal process (69 pp)
EPA alkali scrubbing test facility: lime-
stone wet scrubbing test results (238 pp)
Coke oven smokeless pushing system design
manual (72 pp)
Field testing: application of combustion
modifications to control pollutant emis-
sions from industrial boilers—Phase I
(267 pp)
Sodium conditioning to reduce fly ash
resistivity (15 pp)
Conditioning of fly ash with sulfamic acid,
ammonia sulfate, and ammonium bisulfate
(60 pp)
Analysis of test data for NOx control in
gas- and oil-fired utility boilers (258 pp)
EPA alkali scrubbing test facility: summary
of testing through October 1974 (489 pp)
Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Cholla power generating station, Arizona
Public Service Co. (63 pp)
Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
La Cygne station, Kansas City Power and
Light Co. and Kansas Gas and Electric Co.
(85 pp)
Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Phillips Power Station, Duquesne Light
Co. (79 pp)
Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Paddy's Run Station, Louisville Gas and
Electric (47 pp)
259
-------
EPA No.
* 650/2-75-057e
* 650/2-75-057f
* 650/2-75-057g
* 650/2-75-057h
* 650/2-75-0571
* 650/2-75-057J
* 650/2-75-057k
* 650/2-75-063
BIBLIOGRAPHY (con.)
NTIS No. (PB)
Title
246-849/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Lawrence Power Station, Kansas Power and
Light Co. (73 pp)
247-085/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Eddystone Station, Philadelphia Electric
Co. (42 pp)
246-850/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Dickerson Station, Potomac Electric Power
Co. (50 pp)
246-629/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Hawthorn Station, Kansas City Power and
Light Co. (70 pp)
246-851/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Will County Station, Commonwealth Edison
Co. (71 pp)
246-852/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Reid Gardner Station, Nevada Power Co.
(43 pp)
246-929/AS Survey of flue gas desulfurization systems:
Mohave Station, Southern California Edison
Co. (46 pp)
247-273/AS Study of ferroalloy furnace product flexi-
bility (82 pp)
260
-------
Appendix A
THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY,
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
IERL-RTP has completed its seventh full year of activity as part of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Formerly titled the Control
Systems Laboratory, it is involved in a variety of technical and manage-
ment functions directly related to the RD&D of equipment and systems
designed to abate environmental pollutants from stationary sources to a
level that is conducive to increased health and welfare.
Although the Laboratory officially came into being in 1970, along
with EPA, as a result of Reorganization Plan No. 3, it actually predates
that. Before its days with the Office of Research and Development, it
was known as the Control Systems Division, part of- EPA's Office of Air
Programs. IERL-RTP traces its history through the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare where, as part of the Environmental Health Service,
it was the Division of Process Control Engineering of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA). NAPCA's predecessors were the
National Center for Air Pollution Control and the Division of Air Pollution.
Federal involvement with air pollution control actually dates back
to July 1955 when the U.S. Congress authorized a Federal program of
research and technical assistance to state and local governments. At
that time, the still-standing policy was established that: (1) state
and local governments have a fundamental responsibility for dealing with
community air pollution problems, and (2) the Federal government has an
obligation to provide leadership and support.
In December 1963, Congress passed the Clean Air Act when it was
evident that, although progress was being made toward a better under-
standing of pollution problems, comparable progress was not being made
toward controlling the problems. Basically, the 1963 Clean Air Act:
A-l
-------
0 Authorizes awarding Federal grants to state and local agencies
to assist in developing, establishing, or improving pollution control
programs.
0 Authorizes Federal action to abate interstate pollution problems
beyond the reach of individual states and cities.
0 Expands the Federal pollution R&D program.
0 Emphasizes investigation of sulfur oxides pollution from coal
and oil combustion.
0 Requires the development of criteria on effects of air pollution
on health and property.
0 Emphasizes the role of the Federal government in controlling air
pollution from its own facilities.
The next significant step was Congressional passage of the Air Quality
Acts of 1967 and 1970, also referred to as the "Clean Air Act, as amended."
The amendments not only called for an attack on pollution on a regional
basis, but also provided a blueprint for action at all levels of government
and among all segments of industry. Features of the 1970 law are:
0 The entire Nation is covered by 247 Air Quality Control Regions.
0 National Air Quality Standards have been established for all
pollutants covered by the air quality criteria documents.
0 EPA may establish emission performance standards on new stationary
sources which emit any substantial amount of pollutants so as to cause
or contribute to endangerment of health or welfare.
0 EPA is responsible for establishing National Emission Standards
for Hazardous Pollutants.
0 EPA may establish emission standards for new sources of pollutants
which have adverse effects on health and which are not covered by National
Ambient Air Quality Standards or by Hazardous Pollutant Standards.
0 Emission limits have been established for designated pollutants
from motor vehicles, and a time frame for achieving these standards has
been defined.
0 The Federal standards do not preclude the setting of more stringent
air quality standards by the states.
A-2
-------
The same 1970 law outlines a specific six-point research program to
be carried out by EPA, emphasizing research into and development of new
and improved methods (with industry-wide application) for the prevention
and control of air pollution resulting from the combustion of fuels by:
0 Conducting and accelerating research programs directed toward
developing improved low-cost techniques for--
00 Control of fuel combustion by-products.
00 Removal of potential air pollutants from fuels prior to
combustion.
00 Control of emissions from fuel evaporation.
00 Improving the efficiency of fuel combustion so as to decrease
air pollution.
00 Producing synthetic or new fuels which, when used, results
in decreased air pollution.
0 Providing Federal air pollution control grants and contracts.
0 Determining, by laboratory- and pilot-scale testing, the results
of air pollution research and studies in order to develop new or improved
processes and plant designs to the point where they can be demonstrated on a
large and practical scale.
0 Constructing, operating, and maintaining (or assisting in meeting
the cost of) new or improved demonstration plants or processes which
promise to accomplish the purposes of the Clean Air Act.
0 Studying new or improved methods for recovering and marketing
commercially valuable by-products resulting from the removal of
pollutants.
On July 9, 1970, the President sent Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970
to the Senate and the House of Representatives. This Plan, establishing
EPA, combined certain of the pollution-control-related functions of six
Federal agencies:
0 The Atomic Energy Commission.
0 The Council on Environmental Quality.
0 The Department of Agriculture.
0 The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
A-3
-------
0 The Department of the Interior.
0 The Federal Radiation Council.
Amendments to the Clean Air Act enacted in 1977 carry implications
for IERL-RTP, summarized as follows:
0 Radioactive pollutants, cadmium, arsenic, and POM are subject
to designation by EPA within 1 year as criteria pollutants.
0 Hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, and
nitrogen oxides are subject to EPA regulation, within 2 years, for
clean air areas.
0 EPA is authorized to conduct research related to substances
affecting the stratosphere, especially ozone.
0 The EPA Administrator is required to provide information on air
pollution control techniques, including costs, energy requirements,
emission reduction benefits, and the environmental impact of the
technology.
0 Before approving a waiver from compliance for a new source pro-
posing to use an innovative control system, the EPA is required to give
public notice and is authorized to conduct necessary testing of the system.
0 Before a major emitting facility can be constructed which might
affect the quality of air in a Class I ("pristine") area, EPA could make
public presentations on the air quality impact of the source and its control
technology requirements.
With the 1975 reorganization of EPA's Office of Research and Develop-
ment, lERL-RTP's mission has been expanded to include responsibility for
multimedia pollutants (water, solid waste, thermal discharge, and toxic
substances, as well as air) from industrial sources.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (as amended) prohibits
the discharge into U.S. waters of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts, and
provides for a major R&D effort to develop the necessary technology to
control such discharge. The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 provides
for a development of monitoring techniques and instruments for the detection
A-4
-------
of toxic chemical substances and mixtures in discharge streams of all
media, and for the development of screening techniques for carcinogenic,
mutagenic, teratogenic and ecological effects of such chemical substances
and mixtures. Lastly, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of
1976 provides for the development, demonstration, and application of new
and improved methods and processes to reduce the amount of waste and
unsalvageable materials and to provide for proper and economical solid
waste disposal practices.
In summary, lERL-RTP's present concern is with pollutants in all
discharge streams from industrial sources, with an emphasis on expanded
data as to best continuous emission control technology and an increased
involvement in regulatory matters.
lERL-RTP'S ORGANIZATION
The position of IERL-RTP in EPA is shown in Figure A-l. The
Laboratory has four main groups. The Office of Program Operations
functions as a program monitoring and evaluating group. The other three
groups, all programmatically (rather than functionally) oriented Divisions,
are engaged in work ranging from small-scale experimental work and
exploratory research, through pilot-plant-size experimental work, to
prototype evaluations of equipment large enough to permit confident
scale-up to full-size commercial installations. The title of each
Division indicates its area of concentration.
IERL-RTP1s objective is to ensure the development and demonstration
of cost-effective technologies to prevent, control, or abate pollution
from operations with multimedia environmental impacts associated with
the extraction, processing, conversion, and utilization of energy and
mineral resources and with industrial processing and manufacturing. The
Laboratory also supports the identification and evaluation of environmental
control alternatives of those operations as well as the assessment of
associated environmental and socio-economic impacts. IERL-RTP's program,
consisting of in-house activities, contracts, grants, and interagency
agreements, contributes significantly to the protection of the national
health and welfare through R&D efforfof timely and cost-effective
pollution control technology.
A-5
-------
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA
Director
Dr. John Burchard
541-2821
Deputy Director
Dr. Herbert Jaworski
541-2821
i
Oi
UTILITIES AND INDUSTRIAL POWER
DIVISION
Mr. Everett Plyler
541-2915
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL
DIVISION
Mr. Robert Hangebrauck
541-2825
Emissions/Effluent Technology Branch
Mr. Mike Maxwell
541-2578
Process Technology Branch
Mr. Richard Stern
541-2915
Participate Technology Branch
Mr. James Abbott
541-2925
Combustion Research Branch
Dr. Joshua Bowen
541-2470
Fuel Process Branch
Mr. T. Kelly Janes
541-2851
Advanced Process Branch
Mr. P.P. Turner, Jr.
541-2825
FTS TELEPHONE NO. 429 * EXTENSION
OFFICE OF PROGRAM OPERATIONS
Or, John 0. Smith
541-2921
Special Studies Staff
Dr. W. Gene Tucker
541-2745
Planning, Management, and
Administration Staff
Mr. William Rice
541-2921
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
DIVISION
Mr. Alfred B. Craig
541-2509
Chemical Processes Branch
Dr. Dale Denny
541-2547
Metallurgical Processes Branch
Mr. Norman Plaks
541-2733-
Process Measurements Branch
Mr. James Dorsey
541-2557
Figure 1. Organization of the Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park.
-------
Appendix B
METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
Although EPA's policy is to use metric units for quantitative
descriptions, this report uses certain nonmetrical units where it is
felt that doing so will facilitate understanding by a majority of the
readers of this report.
Readers more familiar with metric units may use the following
factors to convert to that system.
Nonmetric
atm
bbl (42 gal.)
Btu
°F
ft
ft/sec
ft3
ft3/min
gr
in.
Ib
psia
psig
short ton
short ton
tpn/hr/ft2
Multiplied by
9.806 x 104
158.99
252.0
5/9 (F - 32)
30.48
3.048 x 10
28.32
5.08 x 10
0.06
2.54
0.45
6.895 x
6.895 x 1(
907.18
0.90718
2.713
-1
-3
Yields metric
Pa
1i ters
cal
°C
cm
m/s
liters
m3/s
g
cm
kg
Pa (absolute)
Pa (gage)
kg
Mg
kg/s/m2
B-l
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Appendix C
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ABMA American Boiler Manufacturers Association
ACP aqueous carbonate process
AOL Arthur D. Little, Inc.
AFB Air Force Base
AFBC atmospheric fluidized-bed combustor (combustion)
AGR acid gas removal
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ANL Argonne National Laboratory
AOP Advanced Oil Processing
APS Air Pollution Systems, Inc.
AQCR Air Quality Control Region
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ATMI American Textile Manufacturers Institute
BAT best available technology
BATEA best available technology economically achievable
BCR British Coal Research
BCURA British Coal Utilization Research Association
BOP basic oxygen process
BPCTCA best practical control technology currently available
CAFB chemically active fluid bed
CARS coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy
CEPS Coal Environmental Profile System
CHEAF cleanable high efficiency air filter
CM combustion modification
CPA combustion pollutant assessment
CPB Chemical Processes Branch, IERL-RTP
CRB Combustion Research Branch, IERL-RTP
CTIU component test and integration unit
C-l
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS (con.)
DOE Department of Energy
EA environmental assessment
EA/IT engineering applications/information transfer
EGD Effluent Guidelines' Division
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ERDA Energy Research and Development Agency
ESEERCO Empire State Electric Energy Research Corporation
ESP electrostatic precipitator
ESRL-RTP Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N. C.
FBC fluidized-bed combustor (combustion)
FF/C flux force/condensation
FGC flue gas cleaning
FGD flue gas desulfurization
FGT flue gas treatment
FPEIS Fine Particle Emissions Information System
FWPC Act Federal Water Pollution Control Act
GC/ECD gas chromatography/electron capture detection
GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
HCP hydrothermal coal process
HDN hydrodenitrogenation
HDS hydrodesulfurization
HERL-RTP Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
HEW Department of Health, Education and Welfare
HGMS high gradient magnetic separation
HRI Hydrocarbon Research, Inc.
HTP high-temperature/high-pressure
1C internal combustion
lERL-Cinn. Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati:
Ohio
IERL-RTP Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
C-2
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS (con.)
IGT Institute of Gas Technology
IPPEU industrial process profiles for environmental use
ISGS Illinois State Geological Survey
ITA integrated assessment
IUCS IU Conversion Systems, Inc.
IX ion exchange
LASL Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
LDV laser-doppler-velocimeter
LG&E Louisville Gas and Electric Co.
MEG(s) multimedia environmental goal(s)
MERC Morgantown Energy Research Center
MERC-Cinn. Municipal Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MPB Metallurgical Processes Branch, IERL-RTP
MRC Monsanto Research Corporation
MS mass spectrometry
MSST maximum stationary source technology
NAPCA National Air Pollution Control Administration
NCSU North Carolina State University
NESHAPs National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
NIPSCO Northern Indiana Public Service Company
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
NTIS National Technical Information Service
OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
OHEE Office of Health Ecological Effects
ORD Office of Research and Development
PATB Particulate Technology Branch, IERL-RTP
PCAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCB polychlorinated biphenyls
PEDCo PEDCo Environmental Specialists, Inc.
PENELEC Pennsylvania Electric Company
PFBC pressurized fluidized-bed combustor (combustion)
C-3
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS (con.)
PIMWM Polish Institute of Meteorology and Water Management
PMB Process Measurements Branch, IERL-RTP
POM polycyclic organic matter
ppm parts per million
ppt parts per thousand
PROF premixed one-dimensional flame
PSD prevention of significant degradation
PTFE polytetrafluorethylene
QA quality assurance
RAM rabbit alveolar macrophage
R&D research and development
RD&D research, development,and demonstration
RTI Research Triangle Institute
RTU reactor test unit
SAD(s) Source Assessment Document(s)
SAM Source Analysis Model
SASS source assessment sampling system
SATR sampling and analytical test rig
SCA specific collection area
SOHIO Standard Oil of Ohio
SNG synthetic (substitute) natural gas
SRC solvent refined coal
SRI Southern Research Institute
TCA turbulent contact adsorber
TCDD tetrachlorodibenzdioxide (dioxin)
TD Technical Directive
TOSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TRC The Research Corporation of New England
TRW TRW, Inc.
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
UNC-CH University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
USBM United States Bureau of Mines
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
C-4
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS (con.)
UTRC United Technology Research Center
VT vertical tube
W-L Wellman-Lord
C-5
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